Edward III. Women Servants 
 
 from an old MSS. | of the 17th Century. 
 
 Gentleman and Ladies of rank 
 in the 15th Century. 
 
 Norman - I Henry XI. and Becket. | Soldiers of the 14th Century. 
 
Gentleman in time of I Pikeman and Musketeer of the I Officer and Sergeant in the reign 
 William III. 17th Century. of George I. 
 
 Lady Handson. | Queen Anne of Denmark. | Gentleman and Lady in time of Charles !• 
 
Sesostris, or Rameses the Great. See page 657. 
 
Ruins of Houeomont •—• Battle Ground of Warterloo, 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton's Birth-place. 
 
Pompeii Restored. 
 
 Restoration of the Roman Forum. 
 
Battle Monument, Baltimore. 
 
 U. S. Military Academy, West Point. 
 
POPULAR 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 FORMING A 
 
 COPIOUS HISTORICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 CELEBRATED INSTITUTIONS, PERSONS, PLACES, AND THINGS; 
 
 WITH NOTICES OF THE 
 PRESENT STATE OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES, COUNTRIES, AND KINGDOMS 
 
 OF THE KNOWN WORLD: 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW 
 
 OF 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS, 
 
 AS 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, STORMS, CONFLAGRATIONS, DISEASES, 
 FAMINES, INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, BATTLES, TREATIES, SET- 
 TLEMENTS, ORIGINS OF RELIGIOUS SECTS, ETC. 
 
 BY f: a. DURIVAGE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 HARTFORD: A 
 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY CASE, TIFFANY & BURNHAM 
 
 1845. 
 
Kntered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by Case, Tiffanv 4t .C-v,, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Every general reader, has frequent occasion to consult some 
 authority, for historical, and biographical dates and facts. The 
 only works, suitable for such a purpose, are the Encyclopedia of 
 Lieber, Rees, Brewster, and others, of a similar kind. These 
 are costly and extensive works, and are therefore in the hands 
 of comparatively few persons ; beside, they are too cumbrous for 
 easy and frequent reference. The importance then, of a volume 
 like the present, that may lie familiarly upon the table, or the 
 shelf; ready at call to answer the thousand questions that arise on 
 historical points, is too plain to require discussion. Its utility, at 
 all events its convenience, even to those who possess ample libra- 
 ries, and whose minds are stored with historical data, appears to 
 the writer to be great. But it is more especially designed for 
 family use, and for the young. 
 
 The author considers the matter in this point of view. Every 
 reader of a book, a magazine, or newspaper, meets with frequent 
 references to historical subjects, which he knows nothing about, 
 or obscurely remembers, or but partially understands. If he has 
 at hand, a volume which will readily answer any inquiries which 
 arise in his mind, he will turn to it, and thus remove his igno- 
 rance, or clear away the doubt and obscurity which rest upon his 
 
2 PREFACE. 
 
 understanding. If he has no such work at easy command, he 
 will in most cases let the matter pass. 
 
 The present volume, is particularly designed to supply to every 
 general reader, such a book of reference as is here alluded to. 
 It is believed, that if tolerably well executed, it cannot fail of 
 being acceptable. It is particularly commended to the attention 
 of parents, that in the absence of any other suitable work, this 
 may be placed within the reach of their children, and that the 
 habit of consulting it as a dictionary of history, and historical 
 biography, whenever curiosity, doubt, or question may suggest, 
 be inculcated upon them. The store of precise practical know- 
 ledge that will thus be laid up, will be of incalculable value. 
 
 It is not however, as a mere book of reference, that this volume 
 is offered to the public. The materials, are, it is true, extracted 
 to a great extent, from books familiar to the public. The author, 
 however, has gathered many traits, anecdotes and adventures, 
 from less common sources, and interspersing throughout its pages, 
 these and other illustrative sketches, he has sought to enliven the 
 work, and thus render it more amusing, attractive, and readable, 
 than mere books of reference usually are. Many of the articles 
 are more extensive than in the voluminous Encyclopedias, before 
 mentioned. Many interesting topics, not found in them, are also 
 introduced. The history of our own country, will be found fully 
 treated of, under different heads. The lives of eminent political 
 characters in all ages, as well as the lives of those, whose great- 
 ness in science or literature inscribed their names upon the ages in 
 which they flourished, are given ; some of them at considerable 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 length. Many characteristic anecdotes of these persons are intro- 
 duced. Several topics, as Druids, El Dorado, Knighthood, Chiv- 
 alry, Faries, &c. Sec, which are frequently alluded to in books, 
 are treated of with particularity. 
 
 The Chronological View at the end of the volume, will be found 
 to contain a great amount of interesting and valuable knowledge. 
 In some instances, from the nature of the case, facts are repeated 
 here, which have appeared in other parts of the volume. They 
 are, however, given, with the view of rendering this portion of the 
 work as complete in itself, as possible. 
 
 The reader by running his eye over the pages of the Chrono- 
 logical View, will easily see the plan upon which it is arranged. 
 He will find it to contain, beside many other things, the chro- 
 nology of the following topics. 
 
 Abdications, 
 
 Ambassadors, 
 
 Agriculture, 
 
 Alliances, 
 
 Architecture, 
 
 Astronomy from the earliest times, 
 
 Balloons, 
 
 Battles, Sieges, &c, 
 
 Bible, 
 
 Cholera, 
 
 Circumnavigators, 
 
 Commerce, 
 
 Congress, 
 
 Conspiracies, 
 
 Councils, 1# 
 
 Discoveries, geographical, in modern 
 
 times, 
 Founding of Cities, Towns, King 
 
 doms, and States, 
 Earthquakes, 
 Eminent Persons, in all ages ; ancient 
 
 and modern, 
 Engraving, 
 Eras, 
 
 Famines in all parts of the world, 
 Fires in different places, 
 Frosts in various places, 
 Fruits — introduction of, 
 Gardening, 
 Hieroglyphicks, 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 Hurricanes in different countries, Poet Laureats, 
 
 Labor, price of at various times, Popes, 
 
 Laws, Courts of Justices, Oaths, Rain, violent, 
 
 Taxes, &c Rebellions, 
 
 Libraries, Religious Orders, Sects, &c 
 
 Living Characters of eminence, Revolutions, 
 
 Longevity, instances of ancient and Sculpture, 
 
 modern, Sea Fights, 
 
 Manufactures, Ships and Ship Building, 
 
 Massacres in all ages, Silk, manufacture of, 
 
 Meteors and Meteoric Stones, Slave trade, 
 
 Military and Religious Knights and Sovereigns of different countries, 
 
 Titles of Honor, Storms in different countries, 
 
 Mount Auburn, Taxation, 
 
 Painting, Treaties in modern times, 
 
 Pedestrians, Wars. . 
 
 Beside the above topics, there are many others, exhibiting the 
 dates of important inventions, discoveries, and improvements in 
 arts and sciences, and remarkable and interesting events, generally. 
 The work is arranged with a view to compress a great amount of 
 matter into the smallest compass, that the bulk of the volume 
 may not render it inconvenient, and that its expense may not 
 hinder its general circulation. 
 
 In preparing so extensive a publication for the press, the author 
 cannot hope that he has wholly escaped error, or that some omis- 
 sions may not be noticed. But he trusts that the volume may be 
 found sufficiently accurate and complete, to fulfil the proper design 
 of such a work, and that it may prove a valuable accession to the 
 means of diffusing useful knowledge. 
 
A POPULAR 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AAR 
 
 AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, 
 sonof Amram and Jochebed, was the brother of 
 Moses, and three years his elder, being born 
 about 1574 B. C. When God had determined 
 to free the Israelites from the cruel bondage of 
 the Egyptians, he sent Aaron and Moses to the 
 court of Pharaoh to announce his will. The 
 awful annunciation served only to confirm the 
 obduracy of the Egyptian tyrant, and he would 
 not yield his faith, until miracles were shown 
 him. Then, at the command of God, Aaron 
 changed his rod into a serpent, but the magi- 
 cians of the court did likewise, each of their 
 rods becoming a serpent. Aaron's rod swal- 
 lowed up those of the sorcerers, but still the 
 heart of the king was hardened. On the refu- 
 sal of the monarch to permit the departure of 
 the Israelites, and at the command of the Lord, 
 the waters of Egypt, were changed into blood; 
 the plague of frogs, the murrain of beasts, the 
 plague of hail, locusts, and other calamities, 
 bore witness to the power and just indignation 
 of God. The angel of the Lord smote the first- 
 born of the Egyptians, but those of the Israelites 
 were spared. Aaron was gifted with great 
 eloquence which was displayed upon various 
 occasions, when he manifested his zeal in his 
 mission. The departure of the Israelites, and 
 their miraculous preservation, are too well 
 known to require particular notice here. Moses, 
 when he went to receive the laws from God on 
 mount Sinai, was accompanied by Aaron, Na- 
 dab, Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, 
 to whom God showed himself; but Moses alone 
 remained forty days. Giving way to the cla- 
 mors of the people, Aaron made them an idol 
 out of the ornaments and trinkets furnished by 
 the women and children, the image being in 
 the form of a calf, like the ox Apis worshipped 
 by the Egyptians. 
 
 When Moses returned from the mount, he 
 reproached Aaron, whose fault appears to have 
 been want of firmness, for he was terrified at 
 
 AAR 
 
 the threats of the idolaters. The punishment 
 OjT those who rebelled was exemplary, 23,000 
 being slain in one day. Aaron and his four 
 sons became priests of the Lord, and the cere- 
 mony of their assumption of the holy office was 
 as august as the occasion demanded. Aaron 
 never entered the land of promise, a punish- 
 ment for his disbelief in the power of God to 
 produce water from the rock. When the Is- 
 raelites arrived at Mount Hor, Moses, Aaron, 
 and Eleazar, his son. ascended it in obedience 
 to the commands of the Lord. There, in the 
 sight of the people, Moses unrobed the high 
 priest, and clad Eleazar in his garments. Aaron 
 then sank into the arms of his brother, and died, 
 aged one hundred and twenty-three years, forty 
 of which he passed as priest, the office being 
 made hereditary in his family. 
 
 AARON, or Haroun al Raschid, was one of 
 the most celebrated of the Saracenic caliphs, 
 and the territories which he governed extended 
 from Egypt to Khorassan. He was no less 
 distinguished for his taste, and the encourage- 
 ment he afforded to literature and the arts, than 
 for his power He was the second son of the 
 caliph Mahadi, and succeeded his elder brother, 
 Hadi, A. D. 786. He differed, in so many re- 
 spects, from the despots of the east, that he 
 obtained the name of al Raschid, the Just, al- 
 though many of his deeds would seem to destroy 
 his claims to the title. The caliph was fond 
 of personally ascertaining the condition of his 
 people, when, divested of the dazzling attributes 
 of rank, he feared no concealment on their 
 part. Many instances of the wisdom and jus- 
 tice of his decisions have comedown to us, and, 
 among others, the following. A merchant, 
 having lost a purse containing a large sum of 
 money, caused the loss to be proclaimed, with 
 an accurate description of the purse and the 
 value of its contents, offering a large reward to 
 the person who should find and restore it to the 
 owner. After some days had elapsed, a poor 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AAR 
 
 ABB 
 
 laborer presented himself before a magistrate 
 with the purse, and claimed of the merchant 
 (who was summoned) the reward which belong- 
 ed to him. The merchant, rejoiced at finding 
 his money, thought to avoid payment of the 
 reward, by declaring that the purse contained, 
 in addition to the money, an emerald of great 
 value, which the finder must be compelled to 
 restore. The poor laborer was overwhelmed 
 by this assertion, and the magistrate appeared 
 at a loss, but the caliph', who was present 
 in disguise, advanced and decided the case. 
 " Since," said he, " the merchant declares that 
 the purse which he lost, contained a sum of 
 money and an emerald, and since the finder 
 of this purse swears, and the seal upon the 
 purse proves, that he has taken no precious 
 gem, this cannot be the purse which the mer- 
 chant has lost. Let then its present holder 
 endeavor to discover the real owner, and, failing 
 to do so, appropriate the prize ; and let the mer- 
 chant make diligent search for the money and 
 the emerald which he has lost; the present pro- 
 perty being, as he has proved, none of his." 
 
 Haroun was an ardent lover of learning, and 
 caused it to be disseminated throughout his 
 realms. He was a warm admirer of the an- 
 cient classics, and translations of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, with other works of antiquity, made 
 his people acquainted with the beauties of 
 Greek and Roman literature. He invaded the 
 Greek empire no fewer than eight times, con- 
 quering in 802, the emperor Nicephorus, who 
 had refused to pay him the customary tribute. 
 The Greek monarch was compelled to pay a 
 heavier tribute to the caliph, and promise not to 
 rebuild the frontier towns which had been ruin- 
 ed and plundered. The caliph's destruction of 
 the family of the Barmecides displays the stern 
 resolution of a despot. He had experienced 
 the cares of Yahia, the head of the Barmecide 
 family, who had superintended his education, 
 and the eldest of Yahia's sons was a general 
 who had served his country well ; the second 
 was Giaffer, the caliph's prime vizier, and the 
 two other sons were in responsible and digni- 
 fied stations. The Barmecides were in favor 
 with all classes, and Giaffer stood high in the 
 graces of the caliph. Indeed, so warmly at- 
 tached was the latter to his vizier, that, for the 
 sake of enjoying his company with that of his 
 beloved sister Abassa, he united them in mar- 
 riage, but placed capricious restrictions upon 
 their intimacy. On the disobedience of the pair, 
 all the violent passions of the caliph were aroused. 
 He publicly sacrificed Giaffer to his resentment, 
 
 and impoverished the whole family. Haroun, at 
 the height of splendor and fam**, sent an embas- 
 sy to the emperor Charlemagne, bearing, among 
 other presents, a water-clock, an elephant, and 
 the keys of the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. 
 Tne caliph was seized with a mortal illness 
 while preparing to depart upon a military ex- 
 pedition, and died at Tous, in Khorassan, in 
 the 47th year of his age, and the 23d of his 
 reign. None of the caliphs of the Saracens ever 
 attained the height of power and popularity 
 which Haroun al Raschid gained, and, although 
 some of his acts are inexcusable, yet, consid- 
 ering the examples furnished by his age, and 
 the preceding, we cannot withhold from him 
 a large share of praise. Haroun is one of those 
 characters, which are equally the delight of his- 
 tory and romance, and while the graver acts of 
 his reign employ the pen of the rigid annalist, 
 his varied adventures are themes for the gay 
 eloquence of such works as the Arabian Nights 
 Entertainments. 
 
 ABAUZIT, Firmin, a Protestant author of 
 celebrity and learning, was born in Languedoc, 
 1679, and died in 1707, having for a long time 
 filled the office of public librarian at Geneva. 
 His writings are principally upon theological 
 subjects, and he was distinguished for accuracy 
 and penetration. His knowledgp was great and 
 embraced the whole circle of the sciences. 
 Wise and modest, he was pronounced a " great 
 man" by Voltaire, himself as learned as Abauzit, 
 although destitute of that unaffected piety which 
 formed so bright an ornament to the character 
 of the latter. 
 
 ABBAS, Shah, the Great, ascended the 
 throne of Persia in 1589, and distinguished him- 
 self in arms, wresting Ormus from the Portu- 
 guese in 1022, aided, however, by the British. 
 During his reign, Ispahan became the capital of 
 Persia. His death took place in 1029. 
 
 ABBASSIDES. The caliphs, who, during 
 the 8th and 9th centuries, made Bagdad their 
 capital, are distinguished in history as the Mas- 
 sides. Their sway extended over Persia, Arabia, 
 and Syria. The caliph Al-Mansur, in 702, built 
 Bagdad, and raised the Saracenic empire to its 
 highest point of splendor and fame. Al-Modi, 
 to whom the empire was transmitted, did not 
 permit its reputation to wane, and, under Ha- 
 roun al Raschid, the dignity of the Caliphate 
 was preserved and adorned. After Haroun, 
 reigned Al-Amin, and Al-Mamun. Under Al- 
 Motasser the governors of several provinces as- 
 serted their independence, and Bagdad alone 
 was governed by the caliph. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABBEY, or monastery, is a house erected for 
 the dwelling of males or females who have taken 
 the monastic vow, which binds them to relinquish 
 all worldly interests, and devote themselves to 
 the performance of religious duties, living in a 
 state of celibacy. St. Anthony, in the 4th cen- 
 tury, instituted the monastic life, and, in the 
 same century, St. Pachomius founded regular 
 communities of religious professors. A monas- 
 tery receives its title from that of the ecclesi- 
 astic governing it. An abbey is governed by 
 an abbot, or abbess, a priory, by a prior, or prior- 
 ess, &c. The term nunnery, is applied to a re- 
 ligious house inhabited by females. 
 
 The buildings inhabited by different religious 
 communities, were originally of the plainest 
 kind, but increased in extent and splendor with 
 their revenues, until, from the humble dwellings 
 of unpretending ecclesiastics, they became the 
 abodes of luxury, brilliant with costly architec- 
 tural decorations, and hiding, within their lofty 
 walls, the revels' of men whose piety was but a 
 cloak for unlimited indulgence. The buildings 
 constituting an Abbey or monastery, consisted 
 principally of churches, cloisters, refectories, 
 chapters, parlors, dormitories, courts, gardens, 
 &c. The choir and interior buildings of con- 
 vents were, and are still, fenced in by grates, 
 and inaccessible to visiters. The churches 
 consisted of the choir, an altar, a nave, isles, 
 chapels, and a tower. The cloister comprehends 
 the galleries or covered porticoes of a monastery 
 in which the monks take their exercise, and 
 surrounds an open space, which is generally 
 devoted to the cultivation of flowers, neatly 
 distributed in parterres, interspersed with grass- 
 plots, and refreshed by careful irrigation. The 
 cloisters were sometimes adorned with valua- 
 ble paintings, and were generally finished spe- 
 cimens of art. The refectory of an abbey, is 
 the hall in which the fathers eat. The refectory 
 furnished at first frugal fare, and the holy fa- 
 thers did not tarry long in it, but with the 
 declension of ecclesiastical simplicity, the cha- 
 racter of their meals was changed, and they 
 made the walls of their eating- room ring with 
 the merriment created by high living and rich 
 wines. The refectory of the Abbey of Saint 
 Dennis at Paris, has been celebrated for its 
 architectural beauty. 
 
 The chapter is a place of greater or less ex- 
 tent, built for' the reception of assemblies to 
 discuss the private affairs of the house, and 
 provided with seats, and a great table. The 
 chapters are ordinarily ornamented with splen- 
 did pictures. The parlor is a kind of cabinet, 
 
 where visitors converse with the monks or nuns 
 through a kind of grated window. Formerly 
 convents contained parlors, in which novices 
 were allowed the privilege of conversing to- 
 gether, at hours of recreation, but even then 
 they were overheard by their superiors, who 
 were provided with places for eaves-dropping. 
 The dormitories are wings in the building, 
 which contain the cells of its inhabitants. They 
 are generally commodious, and have broad and 
 well -lighted staircases, from regard to the weak- 
 ness of the aged, and are situated in the second 
 story, in order to render them airy and healthy. 
 Here the monks enjoy their brief repose, from 
 which they are awakened to acts of devotion, 
 or to bend in solitude before the crucifix, with 
 its accompanying mementoes of mortality, ap- 
 pearing lost in the reveries of religious enthusi- 
 asm. The gardens of monasteries, generally 
 exhibit neatness, and are not the least favorite 
 appendage to the dwellings of the monks. 
 
 The monks, in the ages of general darkness, 
 that is from 600 to 1500, preserved in their 
 monasteries many valuable volumes, and kept 
 alive the spark of learning, which, but for their 
 exertions, would have been extinguished. Re- 
 ligious houses were, for ages, the sole deposi- 
 tories of literature and science, and their inhab- 
 itants were actively employed in the duties of 
 education. In England, one person or more 
 in each convent, was appointed to instruct 
 pupils, and these were the children of those 
 neighbors who chose to send them. They were 
 instructed in grammar and church music, free 
 of expense. In the nunneries, females were 
 taught to read and work, and the daughters of 
 noblemen and gentlemen, as well as of the 
 poorer people, were indebted to the nuns for a 
 large part of whatever knowledge they possess- 
 ed. Many poor descendants of noble families 
 looked to monasteries for refuge, and having 
 taken the vow, made use of the influence of 
 friends, to gain high ecclesiastical offices. Ma- 
 ny of the monks were men driven to enter reli- 
 gious houses by the pangs of remorse, and who 
 hoped to expiate a career of crimes, by seclu- 
 sion from the world, and the observance of the 
 most austere rites of the church. These as well 
 as some who were unaffectedly pious, lived a 
 blameless life, but there were others whose 
 profligacy was unrepressed, because hidden by 
 that veil of hypocrisy which they closely drew 
 around them. Many monks were skilful paint- 
 ers, as the richly illuminated manuscripts of 
 other days prove, and numerous were the le- 
 gends of saints, gorgeously blazoned upon pages 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 of vellum, that filled the shelves of the holy 
 fathers. Living a life of undisturbed seclusion, 
 those who possessed a literary turn, had ample 
 time to indulge their propensity, though very 
 few literary works of any merit have issued 
 from the monasteries. 
 
 The year 306 is that in which the eailiest 
 monasteries were established in Egypt, under 
 the conduct of St. Anthony, and hence sprang 
 shortly afterwards, many others in various pla- 
 ces. In 36% the earliest, monastery in France, 
 that of Saint Martin, was established. In the 
 beginning monasteries were inhabited by lay- 
 men. For more than six centuries all the 
 eastern monasteries were independent of each 
 other, and governed by abbots who were an- 
 swerable to their bishops only. In the ninth 
 century under Louis the Mild, many monasteries 
 were united under the government of St. Ben- 
 edict, but on the death of this abbot, the houses 
 again separated, and remained independent of 
 each other. In the tenth century St. Odo, 
 bishop of Cluny, united to this abbey many 
 monasteries, placing them under the conduct 
 of the abbot of Cluny. The first monasteries, 
 in times of trouble and darkness, preserved the 
 spirit of religion, and were sanctuaries in which 
 piety and learning sought refuge from the ig- 
 norance, irreligion and persecutions of the world. 
 A mild light, denied to the rest of mankind, 
 was shed upon those who took upon themselves 
 the fulfilment of monastic vows. The con- 
 duct of the monks was regulated by the plain 
 commands of the Scriptures, and antiquity was 
 followed in the celebration of religious ceremo- 
 nies, and the practice of Christian virtues. The 
 monks, as remarked above, were, for many cen- 
 turies, the preservers of literature, many valua- 
 ble works of the present day having been rescued 
 from destruction by monastic libraries. 
 
 Since the revival of letters, and the triumph of 
 the Reformation, monasteries have ceased to be 
 aught but burdensome to the Catholic countries 
 in which they still exist. A comparative glance 
 at a Catholic and a Protestant country, will at 
 once expose the evil effects of these establish- 
 ments at present. The enormous abuses of the 
 monastic system in England, called loudly for 
 reform, when Henry VIII applied himself to 
 the work with an unsparing hand, and in 1534 
 destroyed all the monasteries in England. At 
 this time the hospitality of the monks was un- 
 limited, and a multitude of idle gentry subsisted 
 wholly upon it, passing their lives in going 
 from one religious house to another. The 
 change made by Henry, proved of incalculable 
 
 advantage to the state and the country in gen- 
 eral. The suppression of the greater houses 
 produced the king a yearly income of 100,000^., 
 in addition to an immense treasure in plate and 
 jewels. Before their dissolution, the monks had 
 a greater revenue than that seized by the king, 
 part of which, accruing from pensions, he did 
 not immediately secure. The number of monks 
 at this time in England, in the monasteries, and 
 in chapels and hospitals belonging to them, was 
 computed at 50,000. 
 
 The council of Castile, in the project for re- 
 form, which was presented to Philip III in 
 1619, supplicated the king to obtain from the 
 pope a diminution of the number of religious 
 orders aud monasteries which were daily in- 
 creasing, and producing the most mischievous 
 results. They encouraged idleness, said the 
 council, because the majority sought the monas- 
 teries less as a pious retreat, than as affording 
 opportunity for idleness, and a shelter from 
 want. The strength and preservation of the 
 kingdom depended on the number of useful and 
 industrious men, which was diminished by the 
 monastic institutions. Meanwhile the expenses 
 of state fell wholly upon secular shoulders, while 
 the monks were exempt from taxes, and retain- 
 ed with a firm grasp the immense wealth which 
 they accumulated. The destruction of monas- 
 teries, was felt at the time as a serious evil , but 
 every nation which has converted them to the 
 use of the public, has been a gainer, and at the 
 expense of temporary evil, has enjoyed a lasting 
 good. " It is an undeniable fact," says Vol- 
 taire, " that there is no catholic kingdom in 
 which a proposal has not been often made to 
 restore to the state a portion of those citizens 
 of which monasteries have deprived it, but 
 statesmen are rarely struck with a distant uti- 
 lity, sensible though it may be, particularly 
 when the future advantage is balanced by pre- 
 sent difficulty." At thisenlightened period there 
 is but one opinion with regard to the destruc- 
 tion of monasteries, and that is, that they were 
 unworthy of approbation in the beginning, and 
 that their continuance would have been a very 
 serious obstacle to the improvement and pros- 
 perity of those countries, which have risen to 
 opulence and happiness since their downfall. 
 
 The age for the admission into the monastic 
 state, was fixed at sixteen years, by the Council 
 of Trent, the decrees of which were issued, in 
 successive sessions, from 1545 to 1563. The 
 diminution of the papal power, and the enlight- 
 ened spirit of the age, in the 18th century, exert- 
 ed a strong influence upon the public mind with 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABD 
 
 regard to monasteries in Catholic countries, and 
 they lost many of their privileges and much of 
 the protection previously given them by law. 
 Joseph II. of Austria, in 1781, abolished some 
 orders of monasteries, and limited the number 
 of inmates in others. In France they were 
 all abolished in 1790. During the reign of 
 Napoleon, all the states incorporated with 
 France, as well as other Catholic countries of 
 Europe, abolished them, with the exception of 
 Spain, Portugal, Naples, Austria, Poland, and 
 Russia. Recent events have contributed to 
 improve their condition in Italy, and Pius VII. 
 procured means for the maintenance of old, and 
 the foundation of new ones in France, Bavaria, 
 and Naples, while in Austria they have become 
 extinct. 
 
 ABBOT. The word abbot is derived from 
 the Hebrew ab, father, and signifies the Supe- 
 rior of a monastery erected into an abbey. The 
 abbots were one degree above the laymen. 
 They were originally subject to the bishops, 
 but attempting to obtain independence, were 
 punished by the enactment of some severe laws 
 by the council of Chalcedon. They were not, 
 however, wholly unsuccessful, many of them 
 obtaining the title of lord, the privilege of wear- 
 ing the mitre, and other badges of distinction. 
 The different classes are thus named, — Abbots, 
 mitred and not mitred ; croziered and not 
 croziered ; oecumenical, cardinal, &c. The mi- 
 tred abbots .were ordered by Pope Clement IV. 
 to wear only a mitre adorned with gold, leaving 
 jewels to the bishops. The croziered abbots 
 bear the crozier, or pastoral staff. The oecum- 
 enical, or universal abbots are known only to 
 the Greeks. At present, abbots are distinguish- 
 ed into regular and commendatory, the former 
 of whom are actual monks, while the latter are 
 seculars who have previously undergone the ton- 
 sure, or shaving of the crown of the head, and 
 bind themselves to take orders when they come 
 of age. The monks under his jurisdiction pay 
 unconditional obedience to the abbot, whose 
 office requires him to manage the affairs of the 
 abbey, regulate the conduct of the brotherhood, 
 and see that the rules of the order are not in- 
 fringed. From the 6th century the bishops were 
 priests, and from the year 787, had the power 
 of conferring the lower orders of priesthood. 
 
 ABBOT,George,bornin 156*2, and made arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in 1610. He strenuously 
 opposed some measures of King James, thereby 
 disproving the assertion that he owed his rise 
 to acts more worthy of a courtier than an 
 ecclesiastic. Having the misfortune to kill a 
 
 game-keeper of lord Zouch, he ever afterwards 
 fasted upon Tuesday, the day on which the 
 unhappy event took place. Though deprived 
 of his office by Charles I. in consequence of his 
 opposition to a project of the king, he was re- 
 stored to it by parliament, and died at the age 
 of seventy-one in 1633. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, viscount Colchester, a man 
 of considerable talent as an author and orator, 
 was speaker of the British House of Commons, 
 from 1802 to 1817. He was born in 1775, and 
 died in J 829. 
 
 ABBESS. An abbess is the superior of a 
 convent of nuns, and has the authority of an 
 abbot. The abbesses are incapacitated from 
 performing the spiritual functions of the priest- 
 hood, although some abbesses, in former" times, 
 confessed their nuns, a privilege which they are 
 said to have forfeited b}^ the unwarrantable- 
 curiosity which they displayed. The institution 
 of abbots was prior to that of abbesses, since 
 the first virgins who devoted themselves to the 
 service of God, remained in their paternal 
 dwellings. In the 4th century they assembled 
 in monasteries, but it was not until the time of 
 Pope Gregory that they had buildings appro- 
 priated exclusively to them. The abbess was 
 anciently chosen by the community from among 
 the oldest and most talented nuns : she received 
 the blessing of the bishop, and her authority was 
 perpetual. Some abbesses enjoyed the privilege 
 of selecting a priest to perform the spiritual 
 duties, the exercise of which was denied to 
 themselves. These were the power of ordain- 
 ing, the administration of the sacraments, bap- 
 tism, confirmation, the eucharist or Lord's 
 supper, penance, extreme unction, and matri- 
 mony. Extreme unction in cases of mortal 
 disease, is performed by anointing the head f 
 hands, and feet with consecrated oil, at the 
 same time offering up prayers for the soul of 
 the dying. 
 
 ABBT, Thomas, a German philosophical 
 writer, of great merit, born at Ulm in Suabia, 
 1738. and died in 1766. 
 
 ABDALLEE, Shah, emperor of Eastern 
 Persia, was the determined opponent of the 
 Great Mogul, and victorious at Panniput in 
 1761. 
 
 ABDALONIMUS, a descendant of the Sido- 
 nian kings, but so poor as to be compelled to cul- 
 tivate the soil for subsistence. The excellence 
 of his character and conduct, induced Alexan- 
 der, on taking Sidon, to place him upon the 
 throne, from which Strato was banished, and 
 extend his dominions. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ABE 
 
 10 
 
 ABE 
 
 ABEL, the twin brother of Cain and the se- 
 cond son of Adam. The character and occu- 
 pations of the brothers were different. Abel 
 was keeper of a flock of sheep, while Cain 
 was a husbandman, and tilled the earth for a 
 support. In process of time Abel brought to 
 the Lord an offering of the firstlings of his flock, 
 which proved acceptable in his eyes. Cain's 
 offering of the fruit of the ground was displeas- 
 ing to his Maker, and his anger at "being re- 
 jected, was unrepressed. It was not without 
 cause that the Lord slighted the offering of 
 Cain, for, observing his displeasuie, he said; 
 " Why art thou wroth, and why is thy counte- 
 nance fallen ? If thou doest well, shalt thou 
 not be accepted? and if thou doest not well, sin 
 lieth at the door." From the moment of his 
 rejection, a dark project occupied the mind of 
 Cain, and he regarded his brother with eyes of 
 haired and menace. When they were in the 
 field together, the fierce Cain sprang upon his 
 gentler brother, and slew him. This was the 
 first murder committed on the earth. A mo- 
 ment after the commission of the evil deed, fear 
 fell upon the murderer, and the voice of God, 
 asking for his brother Abel, smote upon his 
 heart, like a tone of thunder. He endeavored 
 to evade the inquiry, but drew down upon his 
 head the jirs>t denunciation of the offended 
 Deity. For the sake of Cain, the earth wak 
 cursed, and forbidden to yield him its fruits 
 without intense labor, and the criminal was 
 made a fugitive and vagabond on the face of the 
 earth. Yet, that his life might be spared, a 
 mark was fixed upon him. and the Lord said, 
 " Whosoever slayeth Cain vengeance shall be 
 taken on him sevenfold.' 
 
 The belief of some of -the fathers of the 
 Christian church that Abel died unmarried, 
 gave rise to the sect of Abelites, Abelians, or 
 Abelonians, who remained smgle, but adopted 
 children and educated them after their own 
 manner and in their own principles. Near 
 Hippo, in Africa, this society flourished in the 
 latter part of the 4th century, and their follow- 
 ers at the present day, are found in the. persons 
 of the Shakers. 
 
 ABEL, son of Valdimir II. king of Den- 
 mark, gained the sceptre by assassinating his 
 brother Eric in 1250. A revolt of the Frisons 
 caused the loss of his life. His appellation was 
 certainly a misnomer. 
 
 A BE LARD, Peter, properly Abailard, a 
 monk who was famous for his learning and his 
 unfortunate love for the beautiful Heloise. He 
 was born in J 079, in the village of Palais, near 
 
 Nantes. He early relinquished his claims to 
 his father's estates, in favor of his brothers, and 
 devoted himself to the study of literature and 
 the sciences. At Paris his fame was great, and 
 here he established a school, lecturing on rhet- 
 oric and other subjects to large and admiring 
 audiences. When his fame was greatest, he 
 forgot his duty and his character in the society 
 of Heloise, the niece of Fulbert, a canon of the 
 city. He atoned for his misconduct by marry 
 ing the object of his affections ; but her removal 
 to the convent of Argenleuil, exasperated Ful- 
 bert and drew down upon Abelard, his fierce 
 vengeance. Heloise finally took the veil at 
 Argenteuil, a ceremony by which a nun renoun- 
 ces the world, and pledges herself to the obser- 
 vance of religious vows. She afterwards be- 
 came abbess of the Paraclete, a religious house 
 founded by Abelard. Abelard was accused by 
 his enemies of promulgating heretical doctrines, 
 but succeeded in vindicating himself. After 
 his refutation of the charges of his adversaries, 
 he lived in strict seclusion, when the pangs 
 of grief, acting upon a constitution broken by 
 injury and the severity of monastic discipline, 
 put an end to his existence. He died at the ab- 
 bey of San Marcel at Chalons-Sur-Saone, at the 
 age of 63, in 1142. His body, at the request of 
 Heloise, was buried in the Paraclete, where she 
 contemplated being laid by his side in death. 
 She survived him many years, and a popular 
 tiadition asserts that when she was removed 
 into the funeral vault the dead monk unclosed 
 his arms, and received her in their gaunt em- 
 brace. The ashes of the unhappy pair repose, 
 at present, in a chapel at Paris, where they 
 were deposited in 1617. 
 
 ABENSBERG, a district and town in Bava- 
 ria, situated on the Abens, 83 miles from Ratis- 
 bon ; population, 1,080. Here Napoleon gained 
 a brilliant victory over the Austrians, in 1809, 
 which led to the affairs of Landshut and Eck 
 mtrhl, and the taking of Ratisbon. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, a British offi- 
 cer of distinction, born in 1738, at Tillibodie in 
 Clackmannanshire. His military talents raised 
 him from a cornetcy, to the rank of General. 
 In the battle of Cateau he led the advanced 
 guard. His masterly retreat from Holland has 
 been highly commended by military men. In 
 1795 he was appointed to the chief command 
 of the forces in the West Indies, and took 
 Demerara, Essequibo, St. Lucia. St. Vincent? 
 and Trinidad. He met his death at Alexan- 
 dria in 18(11, while engaged in repelling the 
 French. In that action, fatal for him, he dis- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ABO 
 
 11 
 
 ABO 
 
 played the chivalric valor of a knight of the 
 olden time. Dismounted and suffering from 
 two mortal wounds, Sir Ralph disarmed his 
 adversary, and gave the sword into the hands 
 of Sir Sydney Smith. He survived about a 
 week. His memory was honored by his coun- 
 trymen, and a costly monument erected in St. 
 Paul's, a public token of the respect of England 
 for as brave and true a soldier as ever fought 
 beneath her banner. 
 
 ABERDEEN, the most important of the 
 northern cities of Scotland. Its latitude is about 
 57 s north. Population is estimated at about 
 40,000 It contains two universities ; the cotton 
 manufacture and salmon fisheries afford sub- 
 sistence and wealth to numbers of its inhabitants. 
 
 ABIPONIANS, a warlike nation of South 
 American Indians on the banks of the Rio de 
 la Plata, frequently engaged in war with the 
 Spaniards. They appear to despise the arts 
 of agriculture, and subsist by hunting and fish- 
 ing. Their arms are iron-headed lances and 
 arrows. They feed on tiger's flesh, imagining 
 that it gives them indomitable courage and fe- 
 rocity. Their women are described as pretty, 
 and having complexions but a shade darker 
 than those of the Spanish ladies. They are 
 governed by Caciques, whose authority is mere- 
 ly nominal, since the tribes renounce it, when- 
 ever the opinions of their rulers are at variance 
 with their own. 
 
 ABO, until ]817, the capital of Finland, 
 the chief place of export from Finland to Swe- 
 den, and containing a population of 12,500 in- 
 habitants. Its sugar-works, and manufactures 
 of leather, linen, sail-cloth, cordage, &c. are 
 successful. As a ship-building place, it pos- 
 sesses considerable importance. The univer- 
 sity was liberally endowed by the Emperor 
 Alexander, but it has since been transferred to 
 Helsingfors. In 1827 the whole city was 
 burnt down, but the Russian government la- 
 bored to repair the loss. In history Abo is not- 
 ed for several treaties concluded within its 
 walls. 
 
 ABOUKIR, formerly called Canopus, is an 
 Arabian village containing but about 100 in- 
 habitants. Its bay is spacious, and has, upon 
 the western side, a castle of considerable 
 strength. It is 10 miles from Alexandria, upon 
 tne coast of Egypt. In modern history, Abou- 
 kir is rendered famous by the important naval 
 battle fought here between the French and 
 English fleets, the latter commanded by Admi- 
 ral Nelson, on the first of August, 1798. Buona- 
 arte's army was conveyed to Egypt by the 
 2 
 
 French fleet which sailed from the harb<r 
 of Toulon, on the 19th of May, 1798. As 
 soon as intelligence of this reached the Eng? 
 lish fleet before Cadiz, admiral St. Vincent 
 despatched rear-admiral Nelson, with 14 ships 
 of the line, to the Mediterranean, with or- 
 ders to find and attack the French fleet. 
 Nelson, burning for fame, and eager to meet 
 the enemy, at length found the fleet in the 
 road of Aboukir, August 1. The signal for 
 battle was immediately given. The French 
 captains, who had been assembled on board the 
 admiral's ship, hastened to their posts, and an 
 English ship instantly commenced the attack. 
 The French fleet was disposed in the form of a 
 crescent, following the curve of the bay, and 
 anchored as close as possible to an island on 
 which was erected a powerful battery of can- 
 non and mortars. Nelson ordered a part of his 
 fleet to break through between the island and 
 the French line of battle, and to coast along 
 until they gained the enemy's rear, while the 
 remainder of the English fleet approached the 
 enemy's front, and anchored within pistol-shot. 
 These orders were executed with skill and dar- 
 ing, and, at half past six in the evening, the 
 battle began, just as the setting sun threw a 
 fiery hue upon the fearful scene. The fire of 
 the English was well directed, and deadly. At 
 the end of one hour, five French ships were 
 disabled and captured. Admiral Brueys was 
 shot as he was directing the fight from his ship 
 L'Orient. After the admiral was shot, Capt. 
 Casabianca and crew, determined to maintain 
 the honor of the flag-ship, fought her with 
 great spirit. The captain was mortally wound- 
 ed and carried below, while his son, a youth 
 of 12 years old, remained at his post, notwith- 
 standing the vessel took fire. Although the hot 
 flames rolled over head, and the powder-maga- 
 zine was momentarily expected to take fire, 
 the gallant boy would not leave his post, but 
 shared the fate of the splendid vessel, which 
 was blown to atoms. The fate of Casabianca 
 has been made the subject of a beautiful poem 
 by one of the most tale:ited poetesses of the 
 present day ; Mrs. Hemans. The concluding 
 lines of ' Casabianca ' are very forcible. 
 
 There came a burst of thundering sound — 
 
 The boy — oh! where was hel 
 Ask of tlie winds that far around 
 
 With fragments strewed the sea. — 
 With mast, and helm, and pennon fair, 
 
 That well had borne their part — 
 But the noblest thing that perished there, 
 
 Was that young and faithful heart 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ABR 
 
 12 
 
 ABR 
 
 L Orient blew up after having been fought for 
 four hours. She was a superb vessel — a 120 
 gun ship, with a crew of 1000 men, out of 
 whom but 80 or 90 were saved from destruc- 
 tion. The scene of the combat must have been 
 awfully sublime, for the cannonading continued 
 all night, and day dawned upon a scene of de- 
 struction and dismay. The French suffered 
 severely, and their naval power was annihilat- 
 ed. Only two ships of the line, and two frig- 
 ates got oif clear. Nine ships of the line were 
 taken, one blown up, and one frigate sunk. 
 The French themselves set fire to and burned 
 a ship of the line and a frigate. The success 
 of the British was a severe blow to Buonaparte, 
 as it cut off his communication with France, 
 and inspired his enemies with fresh hope and 
 resolution, giving spirit to the coalition formed 
 against the power which had so suddenly at- 
 tained a giant strength. 
 
 ABRADATES, a king of Susa. His wife, 
 Panthea, having been taken prisoner by Cyrus, 
 was well treated, in consequence of which her 
 husband joined the troops of the conqueror, 
 but was killed in the very first battle which he 
 fought for him. His wife, in despair at his 
 death, killed herself upon his corpse. They 
 were both honored and lamented by Cyrus. 
 
 ABRAHAM, the Patriarch of the Jews, was 
 born at Ur, in Chaldaea, 2000 years before the 
 birth of Christ. He was descended from Shem, 
 the eldest son of Noah, but was kept from 
 idolatry, and passed the early part of his life in 
 the house of his father Terah. Abraham found 
 favor in the eyes of the Lord who revealed to 
 him the good fortunes for which he was destin- 
 ed, and commanded him, with his wife Sarah, 
 his father, and his nephew, to leave his early 
 abode, and settle in Haran, in Mesopotamia. 
 Following in all things the direct commands of 
 God, Abraham, after the death of his father, 
 led a wandering life, visiting a variety of places. 
 While he remained at Mamre, Lo't, between 
 whom and Abraham there was a rupture, settled 
 at Gomorrah. In spite of this separation, the 
 heart of Abraham was not estranged from his 
 nephew, for when he learned that Gomorrah 
 had been entered by the Arabs, who carried off 
 Lot, his family, and property, he pursued the 
 robbers and succeeded in rescuing his nephew 
 and all that was his. The Lord displayed to 
 Abraham the blessings which he designed for 
 him, and assured him of the birth of a son. 
 This event, however ardently desired, appeared 
 unlikely to take place, on account of the years 
 of Abraham and Sarah. 
 
 The enormous crimes of Sodom and Gomor- 
 rah, having excited the indignation of God, he 
 sent three angels to destroy the rebellious cities. 
 They visited Abraham and his wife, and assured 
 them that the promise made by the Lord would 
 be fulfilled, and that, upon their return, they 
 would be parents. At the time decreed by the 
 Lord, Sarah, then ninety years old, became 
 the mother of a son whom she called Isaac 
 After the birth of Isaac, Abraham drove out to 
 the wilderness Hagar, a bond-woman, who was 
 the mother of one of his sons. Their miracu- 
 lous preservation is one of the most affecting 
 incidents recorded in scripture. When Isaac 
 had reached the age of twenty-five years, and 
 was dearly beloved by his father, God, wishing 
 to make a trial of his faith, commanded Abra- 
 ham to sacrifice his son, saying ; " Take now thy 
 son, thine only son Isaac, whom thou lovest, 
 and get thee into the land of Moriah ; and offer 
 him there for a burnt-offering upon one of the 
 mountains which I will tell thee of." The 
 command of the Lord was listened to with 
 meek obedience ; Abraham made immediate 
 preparations for departure, and arrived at the 
 appointed place with his dearly beloved son. 
 Without faltering, the man of God built the 
 altar of the wood which he had provided, 
 and bound Isaac, and laid him upon the pile. 
 It was a fiery ordeal, but the faith of Abraham 
 was unshaken. " And Abraham stretched 
 forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his 
 son. And the angel of the Lord called to him 
 out of heaven, and said, Abraham, Abraham. 
 And he said, Here am I. And he said, Lay not 
 thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou any- 
 thing unto him, for now I know that thou 
 fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy 
 son, thy only son, from me." 
 
 At the age of one hundred and twenty-seven 
 years, Sarah died at Hebron, in the land of 
 Canaan. Abraham again married, and became, 
 by Keturah, father of six children; viz. Zimran, 
 Jokshan, and Medan ; Midian, Ishbah, and 
 Shuah. The age and death of the patriarch 
 are thus recorded in the Bible. " And these 
 are the days of the years of AbrahanTs life 
 which he lived, a hundred three score and 
 fifteen years. Then Abraham gave up the 
 ghost, and died in a good old age, an old man, 
 and full of years ; and was gathered to his peo- 
 ple." His body was interred near that of his 
 wife Sarah, in a sepulchre wrought in a cave 
 purchased of the sons of Seth. The Arabians 
 as well as the Jews, derive their orijjin from 
 Abraham, and the name of the patriarch is in 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ABR 
 
 13 
 
 ABY 
 
 lerwoven with the legends of the Romish and 
 Greek churches. In the tales of the Arabians, 
 many fabulous adventures are attiibuted to 
 Abraham, and the truth is obscured by the 
 narrators of his history. The Koran makes 
 mention of the patriarch's name, and, according 
 to many Mahometan writers, he went to Mecca 
 and there commenced the building of the tem- 
 ple. The tomb of Abraham is still an object 
 of veneration to many sects. 
 
 ABRAHAM, heights of. See Quebec. 
 
 ABRANTES, a city of Portugal, in the pro- 
 vince of Estremadura, and situated on the right 
 bank of the Tagus, has a population of 3,500. 
 The abruptness of its hills, the strength of its 
 castle, and the state of its river, render it a place 
 of great importance in a military point of view. 
 In 1762 the Portuguese defended it against 
 the Spaniards, and in 1808 it was garrisoned by 
 Junot, one of Napoleon's generals, who from 
 the perseverance with which he marched to 
 this place, in spite of many obstacles, and the 
 gallantry with which he made himself master of 
 Lisbon with 1 ,500 grenadiers, was named duke 
 of Abrantes. When the place was surrender- 
 ed to the English they strengthened it to such 
 a degree, that it was believed to be almost im- 
 pregnable. 
 
 ABRUZZO, a country in the northern part 
 of Italy, is divided into Ulterior, and Citerior, 
 which are the northwestern and southeastern 
 portions. It is the northern extremity of the 
 Neapolitan kingdom, and bounded on the north 
 and west by the territories of the church, on 
 the south by Puglia, and Terra di Lavoro, and 
 on the east by the Adriatic. Its population is 
 estimated at 628,500. The country is crossed 
 by the lofty Apennines, and its climate is severe. 
 The spring rains and thaws often swell the 
 streams to such an extent, that bridges are 
 swept away, and all communication broken up. 
 The inhabitants of the valleys, which are fer- 
 tile, are generally shepherds, and fine herds 
 feed upon the eminences and pasturage spots 
 of the valleys. It has been regarded, from the 
 nature of the ground, and the circumstance of 
 but one military road leading into the king- 
 dom, a place of immense importance in war, 
 and a sure defence to Naples. In the hands of 
 a patriotic and resolute population, it might be 
 all this, but the past has shown how much a 
 resolute enemy can accomplish against indo- 
 lent or dispirited defenders. The Austrians, 
 French and Spaniards, have found it but a 
 frail barrier against the march of conquest. 
 The ravines, the mountain fastnesses, the tan- 
 
 gled woods, localities which might have made 
 it the theatre of a famous struggle, are only 
 infamous and terrible, as the retreat of the 
 lurking bandit, and the midnight murderer. 
 The Neapolitan territories, and those of the 
 church suffer severely from the predatory spirit 
 of the lawless peasants, who are agriculturists 
 and brigands, and support their families by an 
 union of both characters. They frequently 
 exchange shots with the guards of travellers, 
 when these worthies are steady enough to 
 stand to their arms, although not infrequently 
 policy and cowardice induce these gentlemen 
 to make off with all possible speed, leaving the 
 unfortunate strangers to the tender mercies of 
 a rapacious and case-hardened banditti. 
 
 ABSALOM, in Scripture, the rebellious son 
 of King David, noted for the beauty of hisluxu- 
 riant tresses, which caused his death by getting 
 entangled in the boughs of a tree from which 
 he hung suspended until slain, contrary to the 
 orders of his fond father. The grief of King 
 David for his loss is touchingly expressed in 
 the sacred writings, where his history may be 
 perused at length. 
 
 ABSALOM, bishop of Rothschild, archbish- 
 op of Denmark, and counsellor of Waldemar 
 I, a distinguished divine, statesman, general, 
 navigator, and author of celebrity, died A. D 
 1201. 
 
 ABU-BEKR, founder of the empire of the 
 Almoravides, Morocco, in 1050. His conquests 
 in Spain, in 1091, gained him great renown. 
 
 ABUDA, an Italian town, famous for the 
 defeat of Odoacer in 490, by Theodoric, King 
 of the Ostrogoths. 
 
 ABU-OBEDIAH, who died of pestilence 
 A. D. 639, was a companion of Mohammed, and 
 conquered Syria, together with a large portion 
 of Palestine. 
 
 ABULFEDA, or Ishmael, prince of Hamah 
 in Syria, an Arabian, famous for his historical 
 and geographical writings, and surnamed the 
 pillar of religion, and the prince of victory. 
 He was a native of Damascus, and born A. D. 
 1273. Although inheriting the throne of Hamah 
 from his uncle, he was debarred for a long time 
 from the enjoyment of his rights, but when 
 gained, the kingdom remained undisturbed 
 under his sway, until the time of his death, 
 which took place, A. D. 1333. 
 
 ABYDOS, a city on the Asiatic side of the 
 Dardanelles, of Milesian origin, famed for the 
 bridge of boats constructed by order of Xerxes, 
 and familiar to all readers as the residence of 
 Hero, the mistress of Leander, who swam the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ABY 
 
 14 
 
 Hellespont to meet her, until 
 
 *' that night of stormy water, 
 When LoTe — who sent — forgot to save 
 The lone, the beautiful, the brave, 
 The only hope of Sestos' daughter." 
 Lord Byron, whose lines we have just quot- 
 ed, performed Leander's feat in company with 
 Mr. Ekenhead, an Englishman. The turbu- 
 lence of the currents renders the passage a crit- 
 ical undertaking. The inhabitants of Abydos 
 gallantly defended their city against Philip of 
 Macedon. 
 
 Another Mydos in Upper Egypt, was famed 
 for the magnificence of the palace of Memnon 
 and the temple of Osiris. Some splendid ruins, 
 manifesting its former grandeur, are to be 
 found in the village of El-Berbi. 
 
 ABYLA, a mountain of Africa, directly 
 opposite to Calpe, Gibraltar. These two 
 mountains were formerly called the Pillars of 
 Hercules, from a tradition that this gifted mor- 
 tal, the Samson of the Greeks, forced them 
 asunder to form a junction between the waters 
 of the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In this 
 tale we perceive the reminiscence of a great 
 convulsion of nature separating Europe and 
 Africa. 
 
 ABYSSINIA is a country of great extent, 
 of which the ancients possessed very little 
 knowledge. It is sometimes called Abassia, 
 Habesh, and Upper Ethiopia. The name is 
 thought by most authors to be derived from 
 the Arabic Habesh, which signifies the accident- 
 al meeting of a number of persons in one spot. 
 The Portuguese gave this country the name of 
 Prester or Presbyter John's empire, but it ap- 
 pears that there is no foundation for the suppo- 
 sition that any such person ever dwelt or was 
 heard of in Abyssinia. The ancients, who 
 were very little acquainted with the kingdom, 
 represented its extent as far greater than the 
 reality proved. It is at present bounded, on 
 the northeast, by the Red Sea; on the east, 
 and southeast, by the kingdom of Adel ; on the 
 south, by the Gingire ; on the west by the 
 Nile, and on the northwest by Sennaar. Its 
 three grand divisions are Tigre, Amhara, and 
 Shoa and Efat. The most ancient book of 
 Abyssinian history is the Chronicle of Axum, 
 from which it is understood that Abyssinia was 
 the kingdom of Sheba or Seba, the visit of whose 
 queen to King Salomon is spoken of in the Sa- 
 cred Writings. The government of Abyssinia 
 is an absolute monarchy, and the want of writ- 
 ten laws has placed the persons, property, and 
 lives of the subjects, in the hands of the sove- 
 
 ABY 
 
 reign. The queen of Sheba had a son, of whom 
 Solomon was the father. From this prince, 
 whose name was Menileh, the sovereigns of 
 Abyssinia claim to be descended. It is affirm- 
 ed that Abyssinia was the kingdom of that 
 queen Candace, whose minister worshipped at 
 Jerusalem. On his return, he was baptized by 
 Philip the deacon, from whom the Abyssinians, 
 by their own confession, received Christianity. 
 The last act of the queen of Sheba's reign enact- 
 ed, 1. That the crown should thenceforth be 
 hereditary in the descendants of Solomon : 
 
 2. That no females should ascend the throne : 
 
 3. That the heirs-male of the royal family 
 should be sent prisoners to a high mountain, 
 where they were well treated, and allowed a 
 large revenue for their support, but where they 
 were compelled to remain until they died, or 
 the succession was opened to them. This fact 
 forms the groundwork of Dr. Johnson's inte- 
 resting tale, entitled ' Rasselas, or the Happy 
 Valley.' 
 
 The Jewish religion was prevalent in Abys 
 sinia until nearly the middle of the 4th centu- 
 ry. Others imagine, as above stated, that the 
 Abyssinians embraced Christianity with their 
 queen who w T as converted by her prime minis- 
 ter or eunuch. About M50, in the reign of 
 Zara Jacob, an attempt was made to introduce 
 the Romish religion. About J 560 the Portu- 
 guese priests were banished by Menas, and the 
 Catholic religion was suppressed. In 1G00 it 
 revived. In 1632, in consequence of the un- 
 satisfactory conduct of the Catholic clergy, 
 their hierarchy was abolished. Since 1714, 
 when the clergy were executed, Catholics have 
 almost disappeared from the country. The 
 Christian religion has since been prevalent, 
 with a mixture of Judaical observances in pub- 
 lic worship. Yet. we can hardly term that a 
 Christian church which permits polygamy. 
 The saints of the Abyssinians surpass in mira- 
 cles those of the Latin calendar. There is an 
 immense number of churches in Abyssinia 
 The paternal and sole bishop of the country is 
 styled Abuna, which means, our Father. He is 
 said to have been called upon to ordain, at one 
 time 10,000 priests, and 6000 deacons. The 
 attenlion of Missionary and Bible societies 
 have been turned to this country, and the dif- 
 fusion of the sacred writings among the people, 
 is regarded as the greatest benefit which could 
 be conferred upon them. 
 
 The punishments in Abyssinia are severe, 
 and frequently, as well as unfeelingly inflicted. 
 Death on the cross, hanging, stoning to death, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ACH 
 
 15 
 
 ACH 
 
 flaying alive, and plucking out the eyes, stand 
 foremost in the dark catalogue. The bodies of 
 those who suffer death for treason, murder, and 
 the commission of some other crimes, rarely 
 receive the rites of sepulture. Pieces of dead 
 carcasses are frequent in the streets of Gondar, 
 and nightly attract numbers of wild beasts. 
 The hyenas, whose craving for human flesh is 
 well known, rush to their banquet as soon as 
 night settles on the city, howling over the 
 bones for which they have contended fiercely. 
 
 ployed by the early poets to distinguish all 
 Greece. After Greece became a Roman pro- 
 vince, Achaia included all the Grecian states 
 but Macedonia and Thessaly. 80 years after 
 the Trojan war, the descendants of Achaeus, who 
 first dwelt in the country near Argos, being 
 driven out by the Heraclidae, seized upon the 
 12 Ionian cities, and kept them. These were 
 Pellene, iEgira, ^Eges, Bura, Tritcea, ^Egion, 
 Rhypae, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dyme, and 
 Pharas. The inhabitants of the three last cities, 
 
 The manners and customs of the Abyssinians 284 years B. C., formed the famous confederacy 
 prove the shocking cruelty and brutality of 
 this people. Their festivities are disgraced by 
 the most revolting practices. When the guests 
 are assembled, the cooks cut steaks from the 
 cattle at the door while they are yet alive, and 
 roaring with agony. The guests wipe their 
 fingers upon the cakes which they afterwards 
 eat. The people are illiterate and depraved, 
 and their whole country exhibits the appear- 
 ance of hopeless wretchedness and poverty. 
 
 Abyssinia is bounded on the north by Sen- 
 naar, on the west and south by Sennaar, Kor- 
 dofan, and some barbarous tracts of country 
 which are almost unknown, and on the east by 
 the Red Sea. The King lives at Gondar, but 
 is possessed of little more than the name of 
 sovereign. The ranges of mountains which fill 
 up the extent of the country are lofty and re- 
 markable. The products of the country are 
 rich and various, but its commerce is exclu- 
 sively in the hands of Turks, Jews and Arme- 
 nians. 
 
 ACAPULCO, on the south west side of 
 Mexico, is the best harbor in possession of the 
 Mexicans. The city has fine artificial and nat- 
 ural defences, and contains 4,000 inhabitants, 
 mostly colored. It is hot and unhealthy, yellow 
 fever and cholera morbus being prevalent dis- 
 orders. Silver, cochineal, Spanish cloth, and 
 peltry, are the principal articles of export. 
 
 ACARNANIA, now II Camia, a II Despo- 
 tato, Albania, was formerly called Curetis, a 
 country of Epirus, separated from ./Etolia by 
 the Achelous, and long an independent state. 
 After having been conquered, it was permitted 
 to retain its own laws until the destruction of 
 Corinth by Mummius, when it was united to 
 the province of Achaia. 
 
 ACCUM, Frederic, a German chemist, who 
 delivered lectures in London in 1803, and did 
 much towards the introduction of gas-lights 
 
 ACHAIA was a portion of the Peloponnesus, 
 of very limited breadth, and stretching along the 
 bay of Corinth. The name is sometimes em- 
 
 2* 
 
 which, under the name of the Achcean League, 
 subsisted in full force upwards of 140 years. 
 Aratus and Philopaemen, by their splendid tal- 
 ents and virtues, gave honor to this confedera- 
 cy. For three years, assisted by Philip of 
 Macedon, they warred with the iEtolians, and 
 being strengthened by fresh accessions, achiev- 
 ed the liberation of their country from foreign 
 enemies. The Romans, however, proved too 
 powerful for the League, and destroyed it, after 
 a year's hostility, 147 years B. C. 
 
 ACHEEN, Atcheen, Achem, or Achen; a 
 part of Sumatra, of considerable extent, and, in 
 parts fertile. It is inhabited by a race of men 
 of fine appearance, and comparatively liberal 
 and well-informed. They are Mahometans, 
 — bold and enterprising as merchants and ma- 
 riners. Acheen, the capital, contains 36,000 
 inhabitants. The government is vested in the 
 hands of a despot, whose authority is heredita 
 ry. The chief trade is with Hindostan. 
 
 ACHILLAS, a general of Ptolemy, and the 
 murderer of Pompey the Great. 
 
 ACHILLES, as the pOets tell us, was the 
 son of Peleus, a Thessalian king, and Thetis, 
 daughter of Nereus, grandson of iEacus. The- 
 tis, in order to preserve hei beautiful boy from 
 the dangers of war, dipped him in the Styx, (a 
 river of hell) which rendered him invulnerable 
 with the exception of the heel by which she 
 held him. Having been warned that if Achil 
 les went to the Trojan war, he would meei 
 death after a glorious career, while, in remain • 
 ing at home, he would attain a good old age, 
 Thetis disguised her boy in a female dress, and 
 sent him, under the name of Pyrrha to be edu- 
 cated at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scy- 
 ros, who brought him up with his daughters. 
 The Greeks were informed by the prophet 
 Chalcas, that Troy could not be taken without 
 the aid of Achilles, and accordingly, Ulysses, 
 the most wily of the Greeks, went, as a mer- 
 chant, to the court of Lycomedes. Here he 
 was surrounded by the princesses, before whose 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ACH 
 
 16 
 
 ACH 
 
 eager eye3 he spread out his sparkling store, 
 taking care to mingle implements of war with 
 feminine articles. While the daughters of the 
 King seized upon the trinkets, Achilles posses- 
 sed himself of the arms. The gleaming breast- 
 plate, and the burnished spear ill matched the 
 garb he wore, and the fiery hero was soon in- 
 duced to cast it off, and take part with the 
 Greeks in their expedition. Phosnix and the 
 Centaur Chiron had instructed him in mental 
 and bodily accomplishments, and the former 
 accompanied him to Troy. Achilles is one of 
 the bravest and most beautiful of the Homeric 
 heroes, being the subject of some of the finest 
 verses in the Iliad. The following glowing 
 description is from the 19th book of the immor- 
 tal poem. 
 
 The silver cuishes first his thighs infold: 
 Then o'er his breast was braced the hollow gold: 
 The brazen sword a various baldric tied, 
 That, starred with gems, hung glittering at his side; 
 And, like the moon, the broad refulgent shield 
 Blazed with long rays, and gleamed athwart the field. 
 ******* 
 
 Next, nis high head the helmet graced ; behind 
 The sweeping crest hung floating in the wind: 
 Like the red star, that from his flaming hair 
 Shakes down diseases, pestilence and war, 
 So streamed the golden honors from his head, 
 Trembled the sparkling plumes, and the loose glories 
 
 shed. 
 The chief beholds himself with wondering eyes; 
 His arms he poises, and his motions tries; 
 Buoyed by some inward force, he seems to swim, 
 And feels a pinion lifting every limb. 
 And now he shakes his great paternal spear, 
 Ponderous and huge! which not a Greek could rear. 
 From Pelion's cloudy top an ash entire 
 Old Chiron felled, and shaped it for his sire: 
 A spear which stern Achilles only wields, 
 The death of heroes, and the dread of fields. 
 
 Achilles proved himself no wavering or weak 
 partisan. His presence was a host, but he also 
 sailed with 50 ships well manned, and destroyed 
 twelve island cities, and 11 on the main-land. 
 Minerva and Juno aided him. Agamemnon, 
 whom the Greeks had chosen their leader, ha- 
 ving taken prisoner Chryseis, daughter of Chry- 
 ses, priest of Apollo, was forced to restore the 
 maid to avert from the Greeks the plague which 
 Apollo, moved by the prayers of his aged wor- 
 shipper, sent upon them. Agamemnon offended 
 Achilles by taking from him his beautiful cap- 
 tive, Briseis, daughter of Brises, and wife of 
 Mines, king of Lyrnessus. Enraged at his loss, 
 the formidable warrior retired from the field, 
 
 permitting the Trojan Hector to carry terror 
 and slaughter through the ranks of the Greeks. 
 He, however, suffered his friend Patroclus to 
 assume his arms, and take the field at the head 
 of his own warriors ; but this distinguished hero 
 soon fell beneath the arm of Hector. Burning 
 to revenge the death of his friend, Achilles de- 
 termined again to confront the Trojans. His 
 mother brought him the splendid arms which 
 Vulcan had forged for him, and which Ho- 
 mer has so finely described. Again he burned 
 with a warrior's ardor, was reconciled to 
 Agamemnon, and, refreshed by nectar and am- 
 brosia sent by Minerva, plunged into the heat 
 of battle. 
 
 Achilles speedily rolled back the tide of war 
 He pursued the retreating Trojans into the river 
 Xanthus, which became choaked with bodies, 
 and crimson with carnage. The river-god, re- 
 senting this sanguinary pursuit as an insult 
 commanded Achilles to desist, and on the refusal 
 of the impetuous warrior, overflowed his banks, 
 and opposed him, assisted by the waters of 
 Simois. The west and south winds, and the 
 aid of Vulcan, sent by Juno, chastised the pre- 
 sumption of the river-god and reduced him to 
 his original limits. Achilles was only prevent- 
 ed from taking the city by the interference of 
 Apollo, the protector of the Trojans. Hector 
 confronted and fought Achilles, by whom he 
 was slain. His body, after being attached tc 
 the chariot of the victor, and dragged round 
 the city, was ransomed by Priam, the venera- 
 ble father of the slain warrior. Achilles, falling 
 in love with Polyxena, daughter of Priam, pur- 
 chased her hand by a promise to defend Troy ; 
 but while standing at the altar with her, an arrow 
 from the bow of Paris pierced his heel and slew 
 him. His body was a prize for which a fierce 
 contest arose. The Greeks sacrificed his bride 
 upon his tomb, according to his dying request, 
 that he might enjoy her society in the Elysian 
 fields, the paradise of the heathen. Alexander 
 the Great, who venerated and imitated the 
 Homeric heroes, visited the tomb of Achilles, 
 and crowned it, saying " that Achilles was 
 happy in having Patroclus for a friend, and 
 Homer for a poet." 
 
 ACH MET I, emperor of the Turks, began 
 to reign in 1603, and died in 1617. The tran- 
 quillity of this sovereign was disturbed by in- 
 surrections, and the intrigues of a pretender to 
 his throne. 
 
 ACHMET II, was emperor of the Turks 
 from 1691 to 1695. 
 
 ACHMET III, son of Mahomet IV, was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ACH 
 
 17 
 
 ACR 
 
 raised to the throne of the Ottoman empire, in 
 1705, by the revolt of the janisaries, who de- 
 posed his brother, Mustapha II. Achmet, al- 
 though he apprehended and punished the leaders 
 of the revolt, yet availed himself of the fruits 
 of their crime. His reign, however, was by 
 no means passed in tranquillity, and repeated 
 changes of the viziers marked the insecurity 
 felt by the monarch. Achmet placed his prin- 
 cipal reliance on the power of gold, which he 
 sometimes used for good ends. When Charles 
 XII had been defeated at Pultowa, he was hos- 
 pitably received at the Turkish court, where his 
 intrigues soon kindled the flame of war between 
 Russia and Turkey ; but Achmet III was unable 
 to compete with Peter the Great, and the mili- 
 tary views of his vizier, were by no means clear. 
 When the fortunes of the czar were in the 
 hands of the Turks on the borders of the Pruth, 
 the Muscovite purchased of the vizier permission 
 to retreat, but surrendered Azof to the Otto- 
 mans. Against the Venetians, Achmet was 
 more successful, wresting the Morea from their 
 grasp in a single campaign. But the imperi- 
 alists, under the able conduct of Prince Eugene 
 of Savoy, trampled on the laurels of the Turks, 
 and humbled the pride of their sultan. Achmet, 
 by the loss of Peterwaradin, and the taking of 
 Belgrade and Temeswar, was forced to sign the 
 treaty of Passarowitz. In 1718, the sultan lost 
 Temeswar, Orsoa, Belgrade, Servia, and part of 
 Walachia — a loss which was compensated, in 
 the ensuing year, by his Persian successes. A 
 revolt of the janisaries had made Achmet sultan, 
 and a similar rebellion hurled him from the 
 throne in 1730. The celebrated Caliph Patrona 
 headed this revolt. Achmet went in person to 
 seek his nephew, Mahmoud I, and, saluting 
 him as emperor, said ; " Profit by my exam- 
 ple : Had I always adhered to my old policy 
 of permitting my vizier but a short stay in of- 
 fice, I should have ended my reign as triumph- 
 antly as I commenced it. Farewell ! may your 
 career be happier than mine ! I commend to 
 your especial care my son." He then went into 
 the obscurity of that prison from which he had 
 drawn his nephew. He died of apoplexy, on 
 the 23d of June, 1736, 5 years and 8 months 
 after his deposition. Achmet possessed a bril- 
 liant wit, and much shrewdness, with a ready 
 turn for public business. He loved money, and 
 was the first to levy imposts on the Turks, but 
 he was no less attached to science, which he 
 patronized. He established the first printing- 
 press at Constantinople, 1727. He was fond of 
 pleasure, and the Turks yet cherish the recol- 
 
 lection of those splendid festivals at Constanti 
 nople, which sprang from the luxury, and were 
 graced by the presence of the sultan. Achmet 
 gave concerts of nightingales, numbers of those 
 birds being enclosed in cages, delighting the 
 court with their rare and plaintive melody. 
 
 ACHMET, headed a band of Turks and con- 
 quered Egypt in 8G8. 
 
 AQUITAINE, a province of France, more 
 recently called Guienne, and now forming the 
 departments of Gironde, and of Lot and Ga- 
 ronne. Here the Visigoths established a king- 
 dom in the early part of the 5th century. 
 
 ACRE, called also, Mka, St. Jean d 1 Acre, 
 and, in the middle ages, Ptolemais, is a city and 
 harbor situated on the coast of Syria, lately the 
 capital of a Turkish pachalic, and now be- 
 longing to Egypt. The famous mount Car- 
 mel overlooks the city, which contains 16,000 
 inhabitants, and is the emporium of the cotton 
 trade of Syria. Its harbor is good, although 
 containing many sand-banks. During the 
 crusades, the troops engaged in the Holy Wars 
 made it their principal landing-place ; Acre 
 was the seat of the Knights of St. John, till 
 1291, and from this order arose the French 
 name of St. Jean a" Acre. Here the Turks, un- 
 der the command of Djezzar, pacha of the place, 
 assisted by the British fleet under the command 
 of Sir Sydney Smith, sustained a siege, during 
 Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign After hav- 
 ing succeeded in tranquillizing the various 
 places which he had taken and garrisoned, 
 Bonaparte framed a system of government 
 for Egypt upon French models. On the 12th 
 of February, 1799, he marched at the head of 
 18,000 men from Cairo to Syria, took El-Arish, 
 a fort in the desert, and afterwards Jaffa, where 
 he caused tne Turkish prisoners to be shot. 
 The inhabitants of Naplous, were also subdued 
 without much difficulty, and from them he ob- 
 tained provisions which were absolutely necessa- 
 ry to the success of his meditated siege of St. Jean 
 d' Acre. At Safet he again proved himself the 
 child of fortune, being completely victorious. 
 But while indulging the hope of an easy victo- 
 ry, the English fleet under Sir Sydney Smith 
 appeared before Acre, and, besides supplying the 
 Turks with ammunition, reinforced the garrison 
 with several hundred infantry and artillery. 
 The French fought with their usual gallantry. 
 They made many assaults, rushing forward 
 regardless of danger, trusting in their courage 
 and their bayonets, but they were met with 
 equal gallantry and invariably repulsed. The 
 vexation of Bonaparte was boundless ; he con 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ADA 
 
 18 
 
 ADA 
 
 tinually planned new attacks, which were baf- 
 fled, and repulsed with great loss to the 
 French. In vain did the well-directed guns of 
 the besieger's artillerists pour a heavy fire upon 
 the Turks. The batteries were wrapped in 
 constant flame but the garrison held bravely 
 out, until the siege was finally raised. During 
 the siege, Bonaparte was by no means inactive, 
 he met the enemy 40,000 strong, upon the plain 
 of Fiuli, with 25,000 men. On the 16th and 17th 
 of April, in the vicinity of the Jordan, the terri- 
 ble battle of Mount Tabor was fought. On the re- 
 treat of the French from St. Jean a" Acre, it is said 
 that a body of French soldiers, who were sick of 
 the plague, were poisoned by order of Bona- 
 parte ; but this has been frequently denied. Of 
 the kindness of Bonaparte to his sick soldiers we 
 have many proofs. Very recently, Louis Phi- 
 lippe, the present king of the French, having 
 his attention called to an old veteran who had 
 been in the army of Napoleon, rode up and 
 shook hands with him. The old man was not 
 flattered. " When I was sick with the plague 
 at Jaffa," said he, bluntly, " the emperor shook 
 hands with me — but he didn't have gloves on." 
 The siege of St. Jean d'Acre lasted 01 days, and 
 was attended with great loss to both parties. 
 The place was besieged and captured by the 
 Pacha of Egypt in 1832. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory now called Capo di 
 Fi<rolo, or Azio, on the gulf of Arta, on the west- 
 ern coast of Greece, at the extremity of Acarna- 
 nia. Here was fought the most memorable na- 
 val battle of antiquity, since the stake was the 
 empire of the world, B. C. 31. The leaders of 
 the hostile forces were Mark Antony and Oc- 
 tavius. The latter had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 
 cavalry , and 260 ships of war, while Antony 
 had 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 
 ships of war. The battle was hotly contest- 
 ed. The conduct of Cleopatra, the beautiful 
 Egyptian queen, who had captivated Antony, 
 proved disadvantageous to him, for, seized with 
 a panic, she fled from the battle with her sixty 
 galleys, the most brilliant vessels brought into 
 action. Antony, whose energies had been 
 prostrated by a course of dissipation, followed 
 the queen, and a disgraceful rout among the 
 troops on shore completed his ruin, while the 
 sovereignty of the world was the prize of Octa- 
 vius, afterwards Augustus Caesar. 
 
 ADAM, the father of mankind, formed of 
 clay by God, on the sixth day of the creation 
 of the world. His history is related in Genesis. 
 
 ADAMS, John, was born at Braintree, Mas- 
 sachusetts, October 19, 1735. He was the 
 
 descendant of those whom persecution for con- 
 science' sake had driven from their firesides in 
 England. Henry Adams, the great grand-father 
 of John, came to America in 1630. Mr. Adams 
 having evinced an uncommon fondness for 
 learning, was prepared by Mr. Marsh, preceptor 
 of Josiah Quincy, for entrance into Harvard 
 College, where he distinguished himself by 
 strength of mind, application, and spotless mo- 
 rality. He was graduated in 1755, and re- 
 ceived the degree of Master of Arts in 1758. 
 He commenced the study of law at Worcester 
 with Mr. James Putnam, defraying his expenses 
 by his income as instructer in Greek and La- 
 tin. Massachusetts had long been the scene of 
 a continual struggle ; the British agents striving 
 to extend their power and the colonists con- 
 tending for freedom. In 1758 Mr. Adams, 
 leaving the office of Col. Putnam, entered that 
 of Jeremiah Gridley, attorney-general, who 
 had previously directed the law studies of 
 James Otis, and who, in allusion to his two 
 talented pupils, said, " I have trained up two 
 young eagles, who are, one day or other, to 
 pick out my eyes." In 1759 Mr. Adams was 
 admitted to the Suffolk bar, and commenced 
 practice in Quincy. In 1761, he was admitted 
 to the degree of barrister at law, and very soon 
 afterwards his father's decease put him in pos- 
 session of a small landed property. In the 
 February of this year the British cabinet enjoined 
 the Massachusetts custom-house officers to exe- 
 cute their oppressive acts of trade, applying to 
 the Supreme provincial judicature for writs 
 of assistance, a kind of general search-warrants. 
 The applications made in consequence to the 
 court at Salem were resisted on the ground of 
 their unconstitutionality. When it was deter- 
 mined to argue the matter by counsel in Bos- 
 ton, Mr. Otis was engaged to defend the rights 
 of the Salem and Boston merchants, and, that 
 he might do it with the more freedom, he relin- 
 quished his office of advocate-general in the 
 court of admiralty — a lucrative station. Mr. 
 Adams, who took a deep interest in the affair, 
 was present at the discussion, and thus eulo- 
 gizes the orator. " Otis was a flame of fire ! 
 With a promptitude of classical allusion, a 
 depth of research, a rapid summary of historical 
 events and dates, a profusion of legal authori- 
 ties, a prophetic glance of his eyes into futurity, 
 and a rapid torrent of impetuous eloquence, 
 he hurried away all before him. American in- 
 dependence was then and there born." 
 
 In 1764, he married Abigail Smith, daughter 
 of the Rev. William Smith of Wevmouth, a 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ADA 
 
 IS 
 
 ADA 
 
 lady of great beauty and worth, whose pat- 
 riotism and piety rendered her worthy of her 
 husband. Mr. Adams published in the Boston 
 Gazette several articles under the title of " An 
 Essay on Canon and Feudal Law," which were 
 reprinted in England, and gained great com- 
 mendation. The author was then unknown. 
 In the year 1765 he removed to Boston, where 
 his business was highly prosperous. The 
 friends of the crown attempted to purchase his 
 apostasy by the offer of the office of advocate- 
 general in the court of admiralty, but he 
 refused " decidedly and peremptorily, though 
 respectfully." He was appointed, in 1769, 
 chairman of the committee chosen by the town 
 of Boston to draw up instructions to their rep- 
 resentatives to resist the unpardonable and in- 
 creasing encroachments of the crown. At this 
 time the indignation of the friends of liberty 
 was excited by the presence of an armed force 
 in the town, while a band of hirelings surround- 
 ed the state-house, and cannon were directed 
 against its doors. Mr. Adams displayed his 
 sense of honor and firmness by advocating the 
 cause of the soldiers who, when attacked by the 
 mob, in State Street, on the 5th of March, fired 
 upon them and killed several. Such was the 
 excitement of the public mind that a word in 
 defence of the British was almost sure of being 
 punished by the loss of popularity, and yet Mr. 
 A. in company with Josiah Quincy, and Mr. 
 Blowers, scrupled not to defend the soldiers on 
 their trial. In consequence of this, all were 
 acquitted but two, who, being found guilty of 
 man-slaughter, were dismissed with a slight 
 branding. In May, 1770, Mr. Adams received 
 a proof that his popularity was undiminished, 
 by his triumphant election to the legislature of 
 his native state. The active part which he 
 took in resisting despotism in every shape, and 
 espousing the cause of his countrymen in 
 every way, brought him under the displeasure 
 of governor Hutchinson, who negatived the 
 choice of Mr. Adams as counsellor, in 1773. In 
 1774, Gcv. Gage rejected him, and he was soon 
 chosen member of the committee employed to 
 prepare resolutions on the Boston port-bill. In 
 consequence of the dissolution of the Assembly 
 by Gage, Mr. Thomas Gushing, Mr. Samuel 
 Adams, Mr. John Adams and Mr. Robert Treat 
 Paine, were chosen to the first continental 
 congress. Mr. Adams's friend Sewall, who 
 held the post of attorney-general of the prov- 
 ince, and had espoused the ministerial side of 
 the question, told him that the power of Great 
 Britain was immense, that she would abide by 
 
 her measures and carry them through, and that 
 opposition would involve the malcontents in 
 ruin. Mr. Adams's reply was characteristic; 
 " I know," said he, " that Great Britain has 
 determined on her system, and that very de- 
 termination determines me on mine. You 
 know that I have been constant and uniform 
 in my opposition to her designs. The die is 
 now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink 
 or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my 
 country is my fixed, unalterable determina 
 tion." 
 
 Mr. Adams took his seat in Congress the 
 first day of the session, September 5, 1774. 
 The ensuing year, when the news of the af- 
 fairs of Lexington and Concord had reached 
 Congress, when they had determined on war, 
 and were looking for a commander-in-chief, 
 general Ward was proposed, and Mr. Adams 
 was the only one who dissented, and urged 
 the nomination of Washington. The next day 
 Washington was nominated and chosen unan- 
 imously. On May 6, 1776, Mr. Adams moved 
 a resolution, recommending the colonies " to 
 adopt such a government as would, in the 
 opinion of the representatives of the people, 
 best conduce to the happiness and safety of 
 their constituents and of America." It was 
 not without a hard struggle that this passed on 
 the 15th of the same month, and preluded Lee's 
 daring resolution of the 7th of June following, 
 declaring the dissolution of the connexion with 
 Great Britain. On the 4th of July, the Declar- 
 ation of Independence, with but few alterations 
 from the words of Mr. Jefferson, passed. The * 
 committee which had been chosen to prepare it 
 was composed of Thomas Jefferson, John 
 Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, 
 and Robert R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and 
 Mr. Adams were deputed a sub-committee to 
 prepare the instrument, and the former did so 
 at the instigation of the latter. The declaration 
 did not pass without the most strenuous oppo- 
 sition by many members of Congress, includ- 
 ing some leading and able men. Mr. Adams 
 overcame all arguments offered against it, by an 
 overwhelming torrent of splendid eloquence. 
 In the words of Mr. Jefferson, " the great pillar 
 of support to the declaration of independence, 
 and its ablest advocate and champion on the 
 floor of the house, was John Adams." His 
 speech on the subject of independence is said 
 to have been unrivalled. One of the most dis- 
 tinguished orators of the present day, Mr. 
 Webster, has done honor to the style and sen- 
 timents of Mr. Adams, in alluding to his bright 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY}. 
 
 ADA 
 
 20 
 
 ADA 
 
 est effort. He tells us that he spoke right on, 
 and that the torrent of his manly reasoning 
 carried conviction along with it. Mr. Webster 
 gives what we may well suppose to be a portion 
 of Mr. Adams's speech, concluding with this 
 powerful and patriotic language. " Sink or 
 swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for 
 the declaration. Living, it is my living senti- 
 ment, and, by the blessing of God, it shall be 
 my dying sentiment — Independence now and 
 independence forever ! " 
 
 On the recall of Mr. Silas Deane, who, with 
 Dr. Franklin, and Mr. Arthur Lee, was a com- 
 missioner at the court of Versailles, Mr. Adams 
 was appointed to fill his place, Nov. 28, 1777. 
 Mr. Adams, embarking on board the Boston 
 frigate, arrived safely at his place of destina- 
 tion, notwithstanding the efforts of an English 
 fleet to intercept him. On his return, being- 
 chosen member of the convention to form a 
 plan of government for Massachusetts, he was 
 placed upon the sub-committee whose task it 
 was to draught the plan of a constitution. The 
 general project and some particular features of 
 the plan belong to Mr. Adams. He went abroad 
 again upon public business and visited Holland 
 and France. The definitive treaty of peace 
 which he visited Paris to negotiate, in 1782, 
 with Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, Mr. Laurens, and 
 Mr. Jefferson for colleagues, was ratified, Jan. 
 14,1784. The next year Mr. Adams was ap- 
 pointed the first minister to London. Having 
 returned to the United States, he was chosen 
 vice-president, the first elected under the new 
 constitution, and was re-elected in 1793. On 
 the resignation of Washington, Mr. Adams was 
 chosen president, entering upon office, March 
 4, 1797. The administration of Mr. Adams was 
 not popular, and at the expiration of his term 
 of four years, March 4th, 1801, Mr. Jefferson, 
 his adversary, was found to be elected by a 
 majority of one vote. 
 
 After Mr. Adams's retirement from public 
 life, he occupied himself with literary and 
 agricultural pursuits at his seat at Quincy,and, 
 with the exception of a severe affliction, the 
 loss of his wife, his davs glided calmly away 
 until the 4th of July, J 826. On that day he died, 
 with the sentiment upon his lips which he had 
 uttered with such force fifty years before upon 
 the floor of Congress-independence forever ! On 
 the morning of that eventful day, the peals of 
 the bells, and the report of cannon awakened 
 him. He was asked if he knew what day it 
 was. " Oh ! yes'' — replied he — " it is the glori- 
 ous 4th of July — God bless it — God bless you 
 
 all ! " In the course of the day, he said " it is a 
 great and glorious day ! " Before his death, he 
 said " Jefferson survives." He was mistaken. 
 On that very day, an hour after noon, Jefferson 
 breathed his last. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, a distinguished character 
 in our revolution, was born in Boston, Sept. 
 27th, 1722. He was descended from a family 
 which had been among the earliest settlers in 
 New-England. Mr. Adams received his edu- 
 cation at Harvard College, and was graduated 
 with the usual academical honors, in 1740. On 
 taking the degree of A. M. he discussed the 
 following question ; " Whether it be lawful to 
 resist the supreme magistrate, if the common- 
 wealth cannot be otherwise preserved?" and 
 maintained the affirmative with great ability. 
 He commenced the study of divinity but found 
 his attention completely absorbed by politics, 
 which then excited an universal interest. His 
 sentiments soon endeared him to the patriotic 
 party, who placed him in the legislature in 
 1766. From that time forward he distinguished 
 himself as one of the most active, able, and 
 uncompromising advocates of independence. 
 He was on every committee, his hand was em- 
 ployed upon every report, and his voice heard 
 upon every subject, involving opposition to the 
 tyrannical measures of the colonial government. 
 The enemies of America heard that Mr. Adams 
 was poor, and those among them who believed 
 in the omnipotence of British gold, asked why 
 this demagogue was not silenced by a bribe. 
 Governor Hutchinson answered — " Such is the 
 obstinacy and inflexible disposition of the man, 
 that he can never be conciliated by any office 
 or gift whatever." 
 
 In 1774 he was sent to the first Congress of 
 the old confederation. He was one of the 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence in 
 1776. He was active in the convention which 
 formed the constitution of Massachusetts, was 
 placed in the senate of the state, presided for 
 several years over that body, and was elect- 
 ed lieutenant-governor in 1789. In 1794, on 
 the death of Hancock, he was chosen governor, 
 and was yearly re-elected until 1797. His re- 
 tirement from public life took place in that 
 year ; and, on October 2d, 1803, he expired at 
 his house in Winter Street, Boston, in the 82d 
 year of his age. Mr. Adams foresaw the 
 course which the colonies were obliged to take 
 from the beginning. He was aware that, upon 
 the side of the British, there would be no con- 
 cessions — no retractions — that they entertained 
 a contemptuous opinion of the force and spirit 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ADD 
 
 21 
 
 ADD 
 
 of the colonies, and would abide by their own 
 measures. He received warning at Lexington, 
 on the night of the 18th of April, of the intend- 
 ed British expedition, which turned out so dis- 
 astrously for them, and prepared to make his 
 escape at day-dawn across the fields. Turning 
 to the friends who accompanied him, he ex- 
 claimed, " This is a fine day! " His remark was 
 thought to allude to the weather, and one of his 
 companions answered ; " It is really a pleasant 
 day." " I mean," said he, his eye lighting 
 up, as he spoke, " 1 mean this is a glorious day 
 for my country ! " 
 
 There was a certain narrowness and sternness 
 in the political and religious opinions of Samuel 
 Adams. He was a strict Calvinist, and regarded 
 with no favor opinions at all at variance with 
 those of his sect. He was firmly attached to 
 habits and principles in which he had been 
 bred up, and too fond of making important mea- 
 sures conform to a certain code of his own. He 
 undervalued the services of Washington dur- 
 ing the revolutionary war, thinking him too 
 slow and cautious, and being impatient for some 
 decisive stroke, which the commander-in-chief 
 would not have failed to strike whenever the 
 opportunity occurred. After the war was 
 happily concluded, and there could be but one 
 opinion of the services of Washington, Mr. 
 Adams feared for his country, when the man 
 who had led her through the perils of the armed 
 struggle was made her chief magistrate. He 
 feared the popularity of Washington — but his 
 was an error of judgment. No unprejudiced 
 man who had regarded the previous course of 
 the Father of his country, could fear that he 
 would prove either a Csesar or a Cromwell. 
 Mr. Adams possessed those manly virtues which 
 *minently fitted him for a revolutionary epoch, 
 md when the cloud hung darkest over his 
 •country, his character and resources appeared 
 most strikingly. Of an austere and unyielding 
 mind, he was yet dignified and courteous to a 
 high degree. He was never shackled by pecu- 
 niary considerations, and would have died in 
 poverty, had not the death of an only son sup- 
 plied his wants, while it grieved him to the 
 soul. A colleague of Mr. Adams has thus de- 
 scribed him in a tone of good-humored carica- 
 ture : ' Samuel Adams would have the state of 
 Massachusetts govern the Union, the town of 
 Boston govern Massachusetts, and that he 
 should govern the town of Boston, and then the 
 whole would not be intentionally ill-governed.' 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, an author of celebrity, 
 was the son of a clergyman, and was born at 
 
 Milston, Wiltshire, England, in 1672. At the 
 age of 15 he entered at Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford, and distinguished himself by a Latin poem 
 on the inauguration of William and Mary. In 
 1695, he published some English poems, partly 
 translations from Virgil. Having obtained a pen- 
 sion, he set out on his travels, during which he 
 commenced his tragedy of Cato, and wrote his 
 celebrated Dialogue on Medals. Of his Travels, 
 which he published on his return, Dr. Johnson 
 said, that ' they might have been written at 
 home.' In 1704, a poem on the victory of 
 Blenheim procured him the office of commis- 
 sioner of appeals. In 1706 he was chosea 
 under-secretary of state, and in 1709, went 
 to Ireland as lord Wharton's secretary, at the 
 same time deriving an income of 300 pounds 
 per annum, from his appointment of keeper 
 of the records in Bermingham's tower. The 
 Tattler, SpecHtor, and Guardian, periodical 
 papers commenced by Steele, owed their ce- 
 lebrity in a good degree to the contributions 
 of Addison. In the papers which he wrote, 
 and which were read with avidity by all classes, 
 Addison displayed the versatility of his genius, 
 being grave, gay, and critical by turns, and 
 maintaining a pure style in each department 
 which he touched. The harmony of his sen- 
 tences, and the easy flow of his polished lan- 
 guage have made him a model to all who wish 
 to acquire a correct and elegant style. The 
 success of his tragedy of Cato, produced in 
 1713, was owing less to the merit of the piece, 
 which is better adapted to private perusal 
 than public exhibition, than to the state of 
 party feeling ; anything liberal in tone being 
 warmly supported by the Whigs. 
 
 The pen of Addison was devoted to political 
 subjects for a long time, and he was employed 
 a second time as secretary to the viceroy of Ire- 
 land, and afterwards was appointed one of the 
 lords of trade. Having fixed his affections on 
 the Countess of Warwick, he obtained her 
 hand with difficulty, and was married in 1716. 
 The union, however, was anything but happy. 
 The proud countess, feeling the superiority of 
 rank, treated her husband with contempt, and 
 made his fireside so uncomfortable that he often 
 forsook it for a tavern. In 1717 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state, but, finding himself 
 incapable of filling the office with honor, he 
 retired with a pension of £1,500. He publish- 
 ed a work entitled Evidences of Christianity, 
 which was calculated to do much good. 
 Throughout his life he was a sincere Christian. 
 He died in 1719, and on his death-bed he sent 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ADR 
 
 22 
 
 jENE 
 
 for lord Warwick, his pupil, a youth of disso- 
 lute habits, and said to him ; ' I have sent for 
 you, young man, to show you with what calm- 
 ness a Christian can die/ A brother poet in 
 allusion to this scene, says ; 
 ' He taught us how to live, and — oh! too high 
 The price of knowledge — taught us how to die.' 
 The manners of Addison furnished an in- 
 stance of the intimate connection betwen mod- 
 esty and talent. He was timid and reserved 
 in society, speaking little when out of the 
 circle of familiar friends. ' I have never seen 
 a more modest or more awkward man,' was 
 the remark of lord Chesterfield, the best judge 
 'and most accurate observer of manners that 
 ever lived. Button's coffee-house was the fa- 
 vorite resort of Addison and cotemporary wits. 
 ADRIAN, or Hadrian, Publius iElius, the 
 successor of Trajan, and 15th Emperor of 
 Rome. He was born at Rome A. D. 76. His 
 talents are said to have been of a high order, 
 and his memory uncommonly retentive, in proof 
 of which it is alleged that he could repeat a 
 book, from beginning to end, which he had once 
 read with attention. His learning was exten- 
 sive, and his military talents great. His good 
 qualities, however, were not more numerous 
 than his evil propensities, and he never gained 
 the esteem of his predecessor Trajan. It was 
 to Plotina, the wife of Trajan, who forged a will 
 in which Adrian was named her husband's 
 successor, that he owed his elevation to the 
 throne, A. D. 117. In Britain, he built a wall 
 between Carlisle and Newcastle, to guard the 
 Britons from the incursions of the Caledonians. 
 Having quelled a rebellion of the Jews, he built 
 a city called iElia on the ruins of Jerusalem. 
 He has been accused of a too great love of 
 pleasure, and of irresolution and cowardice. He 
 purchased peace of some warlike tribes that had 
 attacked Illyiia. He travelled on foot through 
 the provinces of his kingdom, wishing to in- 
 spect personally the administration of justice. 
 But to gain popularity he scrupled not to de- 
 scend to the mean familiarity of bathing with 
 his subjects. He showed his contempt of 
 Christianity by erecting a statue to Jupiter on 
 the spot where Jesus rose from the dead, and 
 one to Venus on Mount Calvary. At Baiae, 
 he' was seized with dysentery and wished to 
 terminate his agonies by suicide. On being 
 prevented, he exclaimed, that the lives of others 
 were in his hands, but not his own. He died 
 July 10th, 138, in the 63d vear of his age, and 
 the 21st of his reign. — Six Popes have borne the 
 name of Adrian. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, in Turkish, Edrene, is situ- 
 ated on the banks of the Maritza, formerly He- 
 brus, a navigable river of Romelia, anciently 
 Thrace. Its hilly situation renders it a pleasant 
 residence, and its palace, valley, and mosques, 
 a splendid one. Nearly a third of the popula- 
 tion, 100,000, are Greeks. Its most important 
 export is oil of roses, the best of which it fur- 
 nishes. The city was built by Adrian, and in 
 the 4th century successfully resisted the Goths. 
 Amurath took it in 1360, and it became the 
 capital and residence of the Ottoman rulers, for 
 a century, until its fame yielded to that of Con- 
 stantinople. The treaty of Adrianople conclud- 
 ed, Sept. 14, 1829, terminated the war between 
 Russia and the Porte. 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, or Gulf of Venice, washes 
 the shores of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, Albania 
 and Epirus. It is 200 leagues long, and 50 
 broad. The doge of Venice, claiming the ex- 
 clusive sovereignty of this sea, formerly wedded 
 it annually with singular and splendid ceremo- 
 nies, throwing a ring into its waves. This was 
 done upon Ascension day. 
 
 iEGINA, now Eghina an island thirty miles 
 in circumference, in the Saronic gulf, formerly 
 independent, wealthy, and famed for the com- 
 mercial spirit of its inhabitants. Its capital 
 bore the same name. 
 
 iELFRIC, the brave and talented archbishop 
 of Canterbury, who lived in the 10th century. 
 He translated the historical books of the Old 
 Testament, and distinguished himself for his 
 resistance to the Danes. His death took place 
 in 1005. 
 
 iELIANUS, CLAUDIUS; a native of 
 Italy, who flourished A. D. 221. He wrote in 
 Greek and has transmitted to posterity two 
 works, one a natural history, the other a vol- 
 ume of anecdotes and tales. 
 
 ^MILIUS PAULUS, a brave and noble 
 Roman, father of Scipio Africanus the Younger. 
 He defeated Perseus, king of Macedon, and 
 celebrated his success by a triumph, B. C. 168, 
 which was rendered memorable by the death of 
 his two sons, and the heroic fortitude with which 
 he bore their loss, thanking the gods that they 
 were chosen for victims, so that the Roman 
 people might be shielded from calamity. 
 
 iENEAS, a Trojan prince, whose history 
 has been rendered doubtful by the tales of the 
 poets. He is the hero of the iEneid of Virgil, 
 who represents him as the son of Anchises and 
 the goddess Venus. The former he bore in 
 safety, from the flames of Troy, which he had 
 defended until valor was of no avail. He re- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 JESC 
 
 23 
 
 JESO 
 
 tired to Mount Ida, where he built a fleet, and 
 sailed in quest of a settlement. He is said to 
 have been cotemporary with Dido, and, after 
 landing and plighting his faith to the Carthagi- 
 nian queen, to have left her a prey to pangs so 
 poignant as to deprive her of judgment, in which 
 state she threw herself upon a funeral pile and 
 was burned alive. This, however, is a poetical 
 anachronism. JEneas, after various adventures, 
 and great sufferings, landed on the coast of 
 Latium, in Italy, where he was hospitably re- 
 ceived by king Latinus, who bestowed upon the 
 stranger the hand of his daughter Lavinia; this 
 gift involved iEneas in a war with Turnus, a 
 disappointed rival, who was signally defeated 
 by the son of Venus. The history of iEneas is 
 wholly traditional. 
 
 iEOLIANS, a Thessalian tribe, who establish- 
 ed several small states in Greece, while a portion 
 settled JEolis, in Asia Minor, in the ancient 
 Troad. They united themselves in a confedera- 
 cy, and were free while they preserved it. They 
 afterwards became subjected to the Lydians, 
 and then to the Persians, whose yoke they shook 
 off", with assistance from the Athenians. This 
 gave rise to the Persian war, B. C. 500. After 
 many vicissitudes, they were subdued by the 
 Romans in consequence of their hostility to that 
 formidable people in the Mithridatic war. The 
 fertility of the country induced them to engage 
 actively in agricultural avocations. The name 
 JEoWc is applied to a dialect of the Greek lan- 
 guage, very nearly resembling the Doric. 
 
 iEOLUS, a king of the iEolian islands, who, 
 from inventing sails, was called by the poets the 
 God of the winds. He was also a skilful astron- 
 omer and musician, playing upon the harp with 
 singular success. 
 
 jESCHINES, an Athenian orator, the rival 
 of Demosthenes, born 393, died 323, B. C. He 
 at first led a life of wandering poverty, but be- 
 came an actor, a pupil of Plato and Socrates, 
 and attained some distinction. Having lost 
 the favor of the people, he fled to Samos and 
 Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric until his 
 death. Another JEschines, a philosopher, was a 
 poor disciple of Socrates. 
 
 iESCHYLUS, a Greek tragic poet, was born 
 at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B. C. His family 
 was noble, and he was no unworthy member of 
 it. When the storm of war broke over his 
 country, and the troops of Persia poured into 
 Greece, he took up arms in her defence, and 
 beheld the cause of liberty triumphant at 
 Salamis and Marathon. The characters in his 
 dramas are few, but prominent, and their lan- 
 3 
 
 guage and conduct are never beneath the dig- 
 nity of the tragic muse. Influenced by a stern, 
 gloomy, and relentless fate, they trod the stage 
 with all the accompaniments of scenic pomp, 
 music and dancing, which the poet brought to in- 
 hance the effect of his grand conceptions. Sev- 
 en of his best tragedies have descended to us, 
 but more than sixty are lost. Disgust at 
 the success of inferior rivals, induced the poet 
 to abandon his native country for Sicily, where 
 he was hospitably received by the king, Hiero, 
 at whose court he died, 456, B. C, aged 70. 
 
 ^SCULAPIUS, believed to have been the 
 inventor of medicine, and worshipped as a divin- 
 ity in many cities of Greece. He is generally 
 represented with a long beard, and grasping in 
 one hand a staff entwined by a serpent, the em- 
 blem of convalescence, the other hand support- 
 ed by a serpent. Sometimes he was denoted 
 by a serpent only. He was believed to be the 
 son of Apollo, the God of medicine. 
 
 iESOP, whose fables have been so celebrated, 
 was born in Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, 
 about the 52d Olympiad, the first year of 
 which corresponds with the 572d year before 
 Christ. The age in which he lived is noted in 
 Grecian history as that in which Solon, the fa- 
 mous lawgiver, flourished. In his youth iEsop 
 was a slave. Among the Greeks the condition 
 of the slaves was abject and pitiable indeed ; the 
 Spartans, in particular, regarding them in the 
 light of brute beasts, whom it was allowable 
 to kill upon the least provocation, and even 
 without the slightest offence. It does not, 
 however, appear that iEsop experienced any 
 great severity of treatment. His first master 
 was one Dinarchus, who resided at Athens, 
 the most enlightened and celebrated city of all 
 Greece. Here it was that, in the golden age of 
 the country, the arts both of war and peace 
 flourished, and hence Athens was regarded 
 witli veneration by the philosophers of all 
 countries. Yet at the period at which iEsop 
 dwelt in Athens, this city had not attained to 
 any degree of refinement, but was plunged in 
 that darkness which overshadowed the whole 
 of Greece, before Pisistratus seized the reins of 
 power. 
 
 iEsop passed into the hands of Xanthus of 
 Samos, who afterwards sold him to Iadmon of 
 the same place. There were no fewer than 
 three islands to which the ancients gave the 
 name of Samos. That of which we speak was 
 situated off the coast of Ionia. It was suppos- 
 ed to have been the birthplace of the goddess 
 Juno, to whom a magnificent temple was erect- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 JESO 
 
 24 
 
 iESO 
 
 ed, no remains of which, however, have escaped 
 the ravages of time. The fertility of the island 
 and the salubrity of its climate, gained it uni- 
 versal admiration, and made its possession an 
 object of great importance. Its natural produc- 
 tions were numerous ; and various kinds of 
 birds and animals were found in and about it. 
 It was formerly not so much noted for its wine as 
 it is at present, the Samian wine being consider- 
 ed by the moderns as equal to that of Cyprus, 
 while it was very much underrated by the an- 
 cients. 
 
 After he had obtained his freedom, jEsop dis- 
 tinguished himself by his talents, and particu- 
 larly by his peculiar art of inculcating useful 
 truths under the cloak of fiction. This inven- 
 tion is attributed to him, and Phsedrus acknow- 
 ledges this in his own fables. " The words,' - 
 says the latter, " are mine, but the invention 
 belongs to iEsop." It is, however, probable 
 that fables originated with the Oriental nations, 
 from whom iEsop borrowed them. 
 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, whose wealth was so 
 immense as to be his principal distinction, hear- 
 ing of the fame of iEsop, invited him to his 
 court. It has been said that the personal ap- 
 pearance of iEsop was far from being prepos- 
 sessing; that he was of small size and dreadfully 
 deformed ; that Croesus was at first disgusted at 
 beholding a figure so entirely at variance with 
 his preconceived ideas of the man ; and that 
 iEsop speaking of his own deformity, said ; " It 
 is not the exterior of the vase that we should 
 regard, but the quality of the wine which it con- 
 tains." But these accounts have been proved 
 to be without foundation, and are now consid- 
 ered fabulous. The conduct of iEsop and 
 Solon, both of whom were at the same time 
 at the court of Croesus exhibited a marked 
 contrast. The fabulist played well the part 
 of an accomplished courtier, but the stern law- 
 giver rigidly adhered to the truth in all he said. 
 Solon having displeased the monarch by the 
 independent tone which he assumed, iEsop 
 said to him, " You should never speak to kings, 
 or only tell them what will flatter them." 
 u Not so," said Solon ; " we must never speak 
 to kings, or only tell them useful truths." 
 
 iEsop had lived too long in slavery not to 
 have acquired habits of submission and defer- 
 ence towards those whom circumstances had 
 made his superiors. He found no difficulty in 
 winning the entire confidence of Croesus. The 
 latter, wishing to consult the oracle of Delphi 
 with regard to Cyrus, who menaced him with 
 rain, sent thither iEsop with instructions to 
 
 offer up sacrifices to the deity in the name of 
 the king of Lydia, and to present to each inhab- 
 itant of Delphi a considerable sum of money 
 The Delphic oracle of Apollo was one of the 
 most noted of antiquity; and thither went 
 crowds of those who sought to acquire from the 
 priestess a knowledge of futurity. Delphi, 
 now the village of Castri, stood at the foot of 
 Mount Parnassus, which was the haunt of 
 Apollo and the nine Muses. The priestess of 
 the temple pretended to be inspired by the tute- 
 lar deity of the place, and uttered words which 
 were believed to be those of inspiration. Lest 
 the failure of their predictions should lead to 
 enlighten the minds of men on the subject of 
 their impositions, the priests of Apollo framed 
 answers which were capable of being construed 
 in different ways, and thus, by double mean- 
 ings, frequently secured themselves from de- 
 tection. iEsop came to Delphi, . pursuant to 
 the orders of Croesus, and offered up his sacri- 
 fices, but having quarrelled with the Delphians, 
 he sent away the money which the Lydian 
 monarch had intended for them, and declared 
 that they were unworthy of such benefactions. 
 The cause of this quarrel is not exactly known, 
 but it is most probable that the natural shrewd- 
 ness and intelligence of jEsop enabled him to 
 make a discovery of the artifices employed to 
 deceive those who referred to the oracle for in- 
 struction, and that his indignation impelled him 
 to reproach the priests with their imposition. The 
 Delphians, enraged at the conduct of the bold 
 stranger, and fearing that, if permitted to de- 
 part, he might reveal enough to destroy their 
 character and hopes for ever, determined, if pos- 
 sible, to effect his ruin. To accomplish their 
 purposes, they hid a golden cup which had been 
 consecrated to Apollo, among his effects, and 
 then charged him with having stolen it. He 
 indignantly denied the charge, and represented 
 the gross injustice of arresting him. His ene- 
 mies, however, were inexorable ; a search was 
 made, and the golden cup having been fiund 
 in his possession, he was condemned to death, 
 and, pursuant to his unjust sentence, hurled 
 from the summit of a high rock. Soon after 
 this bloody deed, heavy calamities fell upon the 
 Delphians, which they did not fail to attribute 
 to the indignation of the gods, aroused at their 
 inhuman conduct. Various methods were re- 
 sorted to in order to appease the just indigna- 
 tion of their deities. At length they offered to 
 make restitution to the descendants of iEsop, if 
 any such existed. iEsop, however, was a soli- 
 tary being, the last of his race. But a relation 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ^:so 
 
 35 
 
 .ETO 
 
 of Iadmon his last master, came forward, claim- 
 ed, and received, the proffered indemnity. The 
 authorship of the fables attributed to iEsop has 
 been a source of much dispute among different 
 writers. It is thought that most of the fables 
 which have descended to us with his name were 
 not of his invention. The fables of iEsop at- 
 tained a very great celebrity in Greece; — a 
 celebrity which succeeding ages have confirm- 
 ed. Socrates — the great and good Socrates, 
 whose own wisdom and virtue acquired him a 
 deathless reputation, was an early and warm 
 eulogist of iEsop, some of whose fables he ar- 
 ranged in verse, well knowing that in this 
 way they would be most likely to descend to 
 posterity. Many collections of the fables of 
 iEsop have been made, but it is worthy of re- 
 mark that the very worst collection is that 
 which has been oftenest printed. It was by 
 Planudes, a Greek monk of the 14th century, 
 and accompanied by a Life of JEsop ; a work 
 full of puerile conceits and improbable anec- 
 dotes. 
 
 iEsop was peculiarly happy in the applica- 
 tion of his fables. Having visited Athens soon 
 after Pisistratus had usurped the authority, 
 and found the Athenians shrinking beneath 
 the yoke which had been imposed upon them, 
 he related to them the following fable. " Once 
 upon a time, the frogs, thinking it a fine thing 
 to have a ruler, petitioned Jupiter to give 
 them a king. Yielding to their wishes, the 
 God threw down a huge log, from which they 
 at first fled in dismay. But finding it quiet and 
 harmless, they at length ventured to approach, 
 and soon after grew weary of its inaction, and 
 complained bitterly to Jupiter of their stupid 
 ruler, desiring one more active. Indignant at 
 their querulous cries, Jupiter sent down as king 
 a stork, whose activity made up for the long 
 sloth of the log ; in fact, he was never idle, but 
 darting here and there, preyed upon his sub- 
 jects with restless ferocity, until the remnant 
 of the frogs groaned to be restored to their for- 
 mer liberty." The moral of his fable was 
 apparent to the meanest understanding. The 
 Athenians honored the memory of iEsop, by 
 erecting a fine statue, executed by Lysippus, to 
 the man who was once a slave. Its design 
 was to show that the road to fame was open to 
 all, and that, with perseverance and mental 
 power, a man requires few external advantages, 
 to succeed in what he undertakes. The life of 
 jEsop was checkered with light and shade — 
 perhaps the latter predominated, for, in allu- 
 sion to the misfortunes of humanity, he was 
 
 wont to say that " Prometheus formed man of 
 clay, and tempered it with tears." His death 
 took place about the year 561 Before Christ. 
 
 iESOPUS, Clodius, a Roman actor, whose 
 dramatic talents and extravagance combined 
 to make him notorious. Of his habits some 
 estimate may be formed from the fact, that he 
 expended $3,750 upon a dish composed of sing- 
 ing and speaking birds. When upon the stao-e, 
 he forgot his real character in his assumed one. 
 Thus, while performing Atreus, in the scene 
 where he meditates revenge upon his brother, 
 he smote one of the servants, who interrupted 
 him, with a truncheon, and killed him on the 
 spot. He lived in the time of Roscius, and 
 flourished about the 670th year of Rome. 
 
 iETIUS, the brave general of Valentinian 
 III, who repulsed Attila, and was stabbed by 
 his suspicious master in 454. 
 
 iETNA, now Monte Gibcllo, situated on the 
 eastern coast of Sicily, at no great distance from 
 Catania, and famous for its volcano. Its eleva- 
 tion above the surface of the sea has been vari- 
 ously estimated, and is somewhat more than 
 10,800 feet. Seventy-seven towns, cities, and 
 villages, with an aggregate population of one 
 hundred and fifteen thousand inhabitants, are 
 scattered on its sides. It exhibits three dis- 
 tinct climates, — the hot, temperate, and frigid — 
 and three distinct regions — the fertile, woody, 
 and barren. It measures 100 miles round 
 the base, and its crater forms a circle of about 
 3^ miles in circumference. The summit is en- 
 veloped in smoke and snow at the same time, 
 while the sides of the mountain present a rich 
 prospect of cultivated fields, and smiling vine- 
 yards. Pindar is the first writer of antiquity 
 who mentions an eruption of iEtna, an occur- 
 rence supposed to have been unknown in the 
 time of Homer. Nine eruptions took place 
 before the Christian era ; those of modern days 
 being less frequent and less formidable than 
 formerly. The mountain furnishes snow and 
 ice to a large portion of Italy, and thus yields 
 an income of from 3 to 4000 dollars annually 
 to the bishop of Catania, the exclusive proprie- 
 tor of the trade. 
 
 iETOLlA, a country of antiquity, in the 
 middle of Greece, whose boundaries varied 
 greatly from time to time. It was strong, but 
 unfruitful, and the inhabitants illiberal, given 
 to plunder, and avaricious. Divided into small 
 tribes, they were proud of their independence, 
 and ardent lovers of freedom. After the ruin 
 of Athens and Sparta, they attained an emi- 
 nence which they had not before possessed. As 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AFG 
 
 26 
 
 AFG 
 
 allies of the Romans, they rendered themselves 
 formidable, and were no less so when they for- 
 sook the former for the Macedonians. They 
 were conquered by Fulvius. In war, their fine 
 cavalry was famed for the fierce impetus of its 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, or Afghanistan, is the 
 country inhabited by the Afghans, or Cabulists, 
 and has also been called the Kingdom of the 
 Abdallians. The population of Afghanistan is 
 now composed of Afghans, Mountaineers, as 
 the name implies, Hindoos, Tadshicks, Tartars, 
 and Belooches. It is estimated at 14,000,000, 
 of which 4,300,000 are Afghans, and 5,700,000 
 Hindoos. Mahometanism is the professed re- 
 ligion. The Afghans are also called Patans, 
 and are of Median descent. They formerly 
 dwelt in the mountainous regions between Per- 
 sia, Hindostan, and Bactria. Time has not 
 changed the roving disposition of the Afghans, 
 and they are, at the present day, wandering 
 tribes, given, like the Arabs, to predatory ex- 
 cursions. The kingdom of Afghanistan, or 
 Caubul has subsisted but little more than a 
 century. In 1747, when the revolution in 
 Persia took place, after the death of Nadir- 
 shah, Ahmed Abdullah, the brave and popular 
 chief of the Afghans, then in the Persian 
 service, resolved to throw off his allegiance to 
 Persia. Finding his followers disposed to sub- 
 mit to his guidance, he possessed himself of 
 the provinces of Candahar and Khorassan, and 
 founded the kingdom of Afghanistan. The 
 kingdom is extensive and wealthy, and the 
 climate salubrious. In the northern portions', 
 the Hindoo-Koh, a continuation of the Himal- 
 aya mountains, rise to a great elevation, and 
 are covered with snow. The variety of temper- 
 ature is not the least remarkable feature of the 
 kingdom. The inhabitants experience the ex- 
 tremes of heat and cold. The city of Ghizni 
 is said to have been twice completely destroyed, 
 together with all its inhabitants, by tremendous 
 falls of snow. 
 
 The Afghan country is of considerable com- 
 mercial importance. It yields silver, iron, lead, 
 lapis lazuli, sulphur, and cotton ; its horses, 
 asses, dromedaries, camels, sheep, and oxen, are 
 famous. Wild animals of different kinds are 
 numerous. 
 
 The government of Afghanistan is monar- 
 chical ; the king being of the house of Sad- 
 dosei. Although the throne is hereditary, the 
 royal power is greatly restricted by the au- 
 thority of the chiefs of the different tribes, 
 some of whom are almost independent. The 
 
 government, however, upon the whole, appears 
 to be established upon an unshaken basis, and 
 there is no lack of patriotic feeling among 
 the people. The British East India Company 
 possesses great influence over the Afghans, 
 and likewise over the Persian Court, acting as 
 protector of the former, and mediator between 
 both. This influence has been beneficially ex- 
 ercised, and the two nations are, for the most 
 part, upon good terms with each other, although 
 a private quarrel occasionally breaks out be- 
 tween the Persian governors and Afghan 
 chiefs. If unrestrained by European media- 
 tion, the nations of the East, jealous of each 
 other, would weaken themselves by continual 
 wars, which would be highly disadvantageous 
 to the commerce of the English, and would 
 enable the Russian government, already so pow- 
 erful, to make great additions to its Asiatic 
 possessions, and establish a formidable rivalry 
 with the British. Still, success has not always 
 crowned the politic efforts of the British, in 
 spite of whom the rajah of Lahore, Rungeet 
 Singh, usurped the throne of Caubul. in Af- 
 ghanistan ; and to increase the displeasure and 
 chagrin of the English, admitted into his ser- 
 vice a number of Russians. 
 
 Cabul, or Caubul, the capital of the Af- 
 ghan empire, is famed for its beauty, and, 
 although of inconsiderable extent, contains 
 80,000 inhabitants. Its situation is romantic, 
 being upon the river Cabul, at the foot of the 
 Indian Caucasus. Candahar, is a place of great 
 military and commercial importance, contain- 
 ing a population estimated at 100,000; the 
 inhabitants of Peshawer are also estimated at 
 100,000 souls. Balkh, in the ancient Bactria, 
 is one of the most celebrated cities of the 
 eastern world ; inhabited at present by the 
 Usbecks. Anciently it was famed for its splen- 
 dor, extent and magnificence. Alexander the 
 Great, in his eastern campaign, in 327, B. 
 C, married the daughter of a Bactrian chief. 
 This chief, who defended himself bravely 
 against the Macedonians, while his family was 
 placed upon a precipitous rock, was named 
 Oxyartes. The garrison of the rocky fortress, 
 when summoned to surrender, answered Alex- 
 ander contemptuously that if his men were 
 winged, he might intimidate them, but as it 
 was, their position was impregnable. Alexan- 
 der offeied rewards to those who would attempt 
 to ascend the rock, and three hundred of the 
 most expert that volunteered were selected. 
 In the interstices of the rock, and in the ice 
 upon its face, the climbers stuck iron pegs, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 AFG 
 
 27 
 
 AFR 
 
 «*eended the most precipitous part in the night 
 ••..me. Some of the first who ventured, fell 
 aeadlong, but the summit was gained by a 
 determined band. By order of Alexander, the 
 Macedonians shook before the eyes of the bar- 
 barians long strips of linen, intimating that 
 they had found wings. The garrison immedi- 
 ately surrendered, tacitly proving the correct- 
 ness of Alexander's favorite maxim, " that no 
 place was impregnable to the brave, nor secure 
 to the timorous.' 
 
 The Bactrians were a race holding a middle 
 station between the Persians and Scythians, 
 with much of the polish of the former, and 
 little of the ferocity of the latter. Their de- 
 scendants still retain many of the characterist- 
 ics of the Bactrians of former days. Their 
 women were famed for the brilliancy of their 
 dark, shining eyes, the delicate and correct for- 
 mation of their features, and the richness and 
 transparency of their complexions. Roxana, 
 the daughter of Oxyartes, was not only distin- 
 guished above those of her nation in beauty , but, 
 with the single exception of the wife of Da- 
 rius, was the loveliest of Asiatic women. The 
 conduct of Alexander towards his dazzling cap- 
 tive was highly honorable ; having conceived 
 a warm attachment to her, he married her, 
 pursuant to the wishes of his friend Hephses- 
 tion, but contrary to the advice of Craterus. 
 The fears of Oxyartes were banished by Alex- 
 ander's avowal of his attachment to his child. 
 He came into the Macedonian camp, and was 
 received with every mark of attention and 
 respect. Thus ties of friendship bound the 
 Bactrians and Macedonians together. Alex- 
 ander, according to Strabo, founded no fewer 
 than eight cities in Scgdiana and Bactria. The 
 city of Anderab retains still a part of Alexan- 
 der's name. The Alexandria which the Ma- 
 cedonian monarch is said to have founded, was 
 probably either Cabul, or else at no great dis- 
 tance from it. To return to Balk. In 1221 it 
 was taken by the famous Genghis Khan, who 
 put to the sword nearly all its inhabitants. 
 
 The Afghans have many curious customs. 
 Among them, women are generally well treated, 
 not being permitted to engage promiscuously 
 in the labors of the men, but being employed 
 m domestic avocations. Wives are, however, 
 regarded as property, being invariably pur- 
 chased, and those of the upper classes living in 
 total seclusion, though their privacy is luxuri- 
 ous, and their style of life magnificent. Want 
 of feeling is not in general a fault of the Af- 
 ghans, and females are frequently regarded 
 3* 
 
 with a tenderness, and devotion, which recal 
 the ages of chivalry, of which these feelings are 
 worthy. Many a young Afghan, in conse- 
 quence of a passionate attachment to some 
 young woman to whom his plighted faith be- 
 longs, resolutely bids a farewell to home, and 
 labors for a long time in a distant place, until 
 he procures a sufficient sum of money to buy 
 her from her father. Instances of cruelty to 
 women are of infrequent occurrence. The 
 Afghans are not insensible to the advantages 
 of education, and are rather liberal in their 
 allotments of land for the support of public 
 teachers, who are invariably ministers of reli- 
 gion. They are an imaginative people, and 
 take delight in those wild narratives which it 
 is the sport and province of Oriental imagina- 
 tions to create. 
 
 Afghanistan is bounded on the north by Mount 
 HindooKoh, or Paropamisus ; on the east by 
 the Indus and Mount Soliman ; on the south, 
 by the valley of Bolahn, and on the west by 
 the great desert of Persia. 
 
 AFRICA formed a third part of the world, 
 which was known to the ancients, by whom it 
 was regarded in its true light, as a country of 
 vast importance. They gave it the name of 
 Libya and divided it into two parts, viz : Africa 
 Propria, and Africa Interior. The former of 
 these, or the territory of Carthage, included 
 several countries inhabited by twenty-six dif- 
 ferent nations, comprehending two provinces, 
 the Regio Zeugitana and Byzacium, corres- 
 ponding with the kingdom of Tunis. Ham 
 and his descendants are thought to have first 
 peopled Africa. Egypt was peopled by Miz- 
 riam. Africa Interior included those distant 
 and southerly portions of Africa which seem 
 to have been little known to the ancients; 
 their knowledge did not extend much beyond 
 the tropic of Cancer, which seemed the limit 
 both of their victories and researches. Those 
 parts of Africa which they did not visit, their 
 fertile imaginations peopled with various races 
 of men endowed with strange attributes, and 
 singular tales, thus originating, have been 
 handed down even to our own times. Thus 
 we hear of nations of curious dwarfs, of men 
 who dwelt in trees like monkeys, of races 
 forming a connecting link between man anG 
 the brutes, and of tribes whose history has 
 been invented by wild imaginations in their 
 wildest flights. Of these, as stories belonging 
 more to the annals of fiction than those of fact* 
 no further notice will be taken. 
 
 Herodotus says that a Phoenician fleet cir 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 Af: 
 
 28 
 
 AFR 
 
 cumnavigated Africa, taking its departure from 
 a port in the Red Sea, 004 years B..C, and 
 terminating its voyage in three years. Many 
 of the nations and states of Africa at a very 
 early period, had made great advancement in 
 the liberal arts. The northern part of Africa 
 was inhabited by several enterprising nations, 
 whose extensive commerce rolled abundant 
 wealth into the land. With their riches the 
 power of these states increased — Egypt and 
 Ethiopia became famous, and Carthage, send- 
 ing forth her fleets to every part of the then 
 known world, acquired a reputation and a 
 power which excited the jealousy of the Ro- 
 mans. The latter, proud and powerful, deter- 
 mined on the conquest and ruin of their wealthy 
 rivals. 
 
 The Carthaginian or Punic wars, as they 
 were called, brought forth all the energies of 
 the hostile parties. The Carthaginians con- 
 fided in their inexhaustible wealth, and the 
 superiority of their navy, the Romans in their 
 superior hardihood and energy. This is not 
 the place to describe in detail the events of the 
 Punic wars. The Romans were ultimately 
 victorious, and, above all others of their leaders, 
 Scipio acquired the greatest renown. For his 
 successes and his struggles in Africa, he ob- 
 tained the name of Africanus. It must not be 
 supposed that the Carthaginians tamely sub- 
 mitted to the Roman arms ; on the contrary, 
 even to the last, they defended their city 
 against the invaders, with unequalled bravery. 
 Gold and silver vessels were surrendered by 
 the luxurious Africans to procure the means of 
 carrying on the war, and the women, with 
 patriotic devotion, cut off" their fine long hair, 
 and twisted it into bow-strings. All their exer- 
 tions were unavailing. The skill and bravery 
 of the Romans, who fought under the eye and 
 example of Scipio, prevailed. As the Roman 
 troops drove the Carthaginians before them in 
 every quarter, a few firm friends of Carthage, 
 among whom were the wife of Asdrubal, the 
 Carthaginian general, and her children, en- 
 deavored to maintain their position in the tem- 
 ple in which they had sought refuge. Finding 
 it impossible to defend this, the wife of Asdru- 
 bal determined to set fire to it and perish in the 
 flames. She dressed herself accordingly in a 
 splendid garb, and, having fired the building, 
 first stabbed her children, and then plunged 
 into the flames. The Romans were not satisfied 
 until they had completely destroyed the city. 
 Thus fell, in the 146th year B. C, one of the most 
 renowned of ancient cities, after its proud inha- 
 
 bitants had enjoyed the sovereignty of the seas 
 for more than six hundred years. The period 
 of the foundation of the kingdom of Carthage 
 has not been clearly established, but the fame 
 of founding it has been generally ascribed to 
 Dido, a Tyrian princess, who fled to Africa to 
 avoid the persecutions of her brother Pygma- 
 lion. She outwitted the natives in making pur- 
 chase of a piece of land whereon to build her 
 citadel. They agreed for a certain sum to give 
 her as much land as she could encompass with 
 a bull's hide (byrsa). When the money was 
 paid, the artful princess cut the hide into nar- 
 row thongs, with which she found herself able 
 to enclose a very large space. The citadel, 
 which she subsequently erected on this spot, 
 was called, in memory of the transaction, 
 Byrsa. 
 
 The most celebrated kingdom of Africa was 
 undoubtedly Egypt. The Egyptians were early 
 proficients in the sciences and the liberal arts, 
 and to them men came from all civilized coun- 
 tries for the purpose of acquiring informa- 
 tion. Some of the most celebrated men among 
 the Greeks, acquired a great portion of their 
 learning in Egypt. Ancient Egypt was divi- 
 ded into three parts, viz : Upper Egypt, or 
 Thebais, now Said; Middle Egypt, or Hep- 
 tanomis, now Vostani ; and Lower Egypt, 
 the most valuable portion of which was the 
 Delta, now called Bahari or Rif. The most 
 accurate general description of Egypt that we 
 have, has been given by Volney, in a single 
 sentence. " To describe Egypt in two words, 7 ' 
 says he, " let the reader imagine, on one side, a 
 narrow sea and rocks ; on the other, immense 
 plains of sand; and in the middle, a river 
 flowing through a valley of 150 leagues in 
 length, and from three to seven wide, which, at 
 the distance of eighty leagues from the sea, sep- 
 arates into two arms, the branches of which 
 wander over a country, where they meet with 
 no obstacles, and which is almost without de- 
 clivity." 
 
 The Ancient Egyptians paid great attention 
 to agriculture, and availed themselves of their 
 arts to redeem vast tracts of land from the wa- 
 ters, rendering them fertile, and adapting them 
 to tillage. In former times the region which 
 eventually received the name of Lower Egypt 
 and the Delta, was covered with water, and 
 consequently Egypt was but a limited tract of 
 land. The accounts which ancient writers give 
 of the early history of Egypt are so contradic- 
 tory and improbable, that it is needless to allude 
 to them in a work which professes to deal wiin 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 AFR 
 
 29 
 
 AFR 
 
 matters of fact. Menes,the first king of Egypt, 
 is said to have conferred great benefits upon his 
 subjects. He redeemed a vast extent of land 
 from the waters, was the spiritual instructer of 
 the Egyptians, introduced splendor, and founded 
 solemn and magnificent feasts. After many 
 years of uninterrupted prosperity, Egypt fell 
 under the sway of some rude adventurers who 
 founded the dynasty of the Hycsos or shepherd 
 kings, which commenced about 2048 years B. 
 C, and lasted until the year 1825 B. C, when 
 the shepherd kings were expelled. 
 
 Jacob settled in the land of Goshen, 1706 B. 
 C. The departure of the Israelites happened, 
 according to some writers, during the reign of 
 Amenophis, the Pharaoh who pursued them 
 into the Red Sea, and was overwhelmed by its 
 returning waters. It must be remembered that 
 Pharaoh was a title borne by all the kings of 
 Egypt in common. Egypt was divided into 
 twelve kingdoms after the death of Sethon, 
 675 years B. C. Psammetichus made himself 
 master of the whole country in 660 B. C. After 
 a prosperous reign he was succeeded by Pha- 
 raoh-Necho, his son, 616 B. C. This monarch 
 was defeated by the famous Nebuchadnezzar, 
 king of Babylon. 525 years B. C, Egypt was 
 made tributary to Persia by Cambyses, the son 
 of Cyrus. The Egyptians revolted, but were 
 again subjugated. Another revolt was success- 
 ful, and for a short time the Egyptians enjoyed 
 their independence, but 350 years B. C, Ar- 
 taxerxes Ochus restored the Persian dominion. 
 331 B. C. Alexander the Great compelled the 
 Egyptians to submit to his arms. On the death 
 of this great conqueror, Ptolemy, one of his 
 generals, took possession of the kingdom, 323 
 years B. C. and founded the dynasty of the 
 Ptolemies, which lasted until the defeat of An- 
 tony and the death of Antony and Cleopatra, 
 when Egypt became a Roman province in the 
 year B. C. 30, and the 2d of the reign of Augus- 
 tus. In the year 640, Egypt was conquered by 
 Amron, general of Omar, caliph of the Saracens. 
 The library of Alexandria, which had been 
 collected with care, and contained manuscripts 
 of immense value, was consumed by the orders 
 of Omar. Egypt was in the hands of the 
 Saracens until A. D. 1174, when Saladin es- 
 tablished the Turkish empire in Africa. The 
 Mamelukes obtained the supremacy in 1250. 
 In 1517, Egypt passed from the hands of the 
 Mamelukes, being joined to the Turkish do- 
 minions by the Sultan Selim. It is now gov- 
 erned by an independent prince. 
 
 Egypt was the theatre of a determined strug- 
 
 gle between the French and English, when the 
 star of Napoleon first began to shed its ligh 
 upon the destinies of Europe. In the contest 
 some memorable battles were fought. In tha 
 of the Pyramids, the Mameluke cavalry wa 
 almost wholly annihilated by the prowess ot 
 the French infantry. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians, notwithstanding thei 
 character for wisdom and learning, were grossly 
 idolatrous, worshipping animals, and regarding 
 as sacred, oxen, cats, crocodiles, sheep, &c 
 The advantage taken of this superstitious char- 
 acter by Cambyses is well known. Placing in 
 front of his army the animals worshipped by the 
 Egyptians, he advanced against them boldly, be- 
 ing well aware that they would not strike a blow 
 for fear of injuring the creatures they adored. 
 
 The ancient government of Egypt was the 
 subject of eulogy among all nations, and legis- 
 lators from various countries came to Egypt to 
 examine its institutions in order thence to 
 gather hints for the improvement of their own. 
 
 The fertility of the land, the variety of the 
 fruits, and the thousand natural advantages 
 which it possesses, might, by judicious manage- 
 ment, make Egypt one of the most wealthy and 
 flourishing countries in the world. A liberal 
 government and enterprising public officers, 
 would soon restore it to the rank which it once 
 held. As a commercial country, it possesses 
 inestimable facilities. Bees are now carefully 
 reared ; honey forming an important article of 
 trade. The verdure of Upper Egypt generally 
 withers at the end of four or five months, and 
 commences earlier than in Lower Egypt. In 
 consequence of this, the Lower Egyptians col- 
 lect the bees of several villages, in large boats; 
 each hive having a mark by which the owner can 
 recognise it. The men having charge of them 
 then commence the gradual ascent of the Nile, 
 stopping whenever they come to a region of 
 herbage and flowers. At break of day the bees 
 issue from their cells in thousands, and busily 
 collect the sweets of the flowers which are spread 
 in luxuriant profusion around them, returning to 
 their hives laden with honey, and issuing forth 
 again in quest of more, several times in the 
 course of the day Thus for three or four 
 months, they travel in a land of flowers, and 
 are brought back to the place whence they 
 started, with the delicious product of the sweet 
 orange-flowers which perfume the Said, the 
 roses of Faioum, and the jessamines of Arabia. 
 The sugar-cane is an Egyptian production, and 
 one of great value ; olive and fig-trees, produc- 
 ing the most delicious fruit, and palm-trees are 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AFR 
 
 30 
 
 AFR 
 
 also found in abundance. The palm is one of 
 the most useful of the Egyptian trees. The 
 fruit is agreeable, and the bark, as well as the 
 leaves and rind of the fruit, yield materials for 
 cordage and the sails of the boats. The Mam- 
 eluke javelins are made of the ribs of the 
 branches of this tree. 
 
 The condition of the poor people of Egypt is 
 deplorable. The tyranny of their rulers wrests 
 from them the fruit of their hard labors, and 
 leaves them but a miserable sustenance which 
 they can hardly be supposed to enjoy. Rice 
 and corn they cannot eat, for all that they raise 
 must be carried to their masters, who leave 
 them for food dourra, or Indian millet, of which 
 they form a very unpalatable and coarse kind 
 of bread without any leaven. With the addi- 
 tion of water and raw onions, this is their food 
 throughout the year. They know no luxury 
 oeyond a meal of the above articles improved 
 oy a little honey, cheese, sour milk, and dates. 
 A shirt of coarse linen dyed blue, and a black 
 cloak, a cloth bonnet, with a long red woollen 
 handkerchief rolled around it, form their cos- 
 tume. 
 
 It will not be expected that we shall attempt 
 any history of the various other states and 
 nations of Africa, in an article which must 
 necessarily be little more than a brief general 
 view of the country. The Barbary States pre- 
 sent but little to interest us. The Turks did 
 not displace the Saracens in Africa until the 
 beginning of the 16th century, when the latter 
 began to be fearful that, without the assistance 
 of the Turks, they should be enslaved by the 
 Spaniards. At first, the Turks stretched over 
 the Saracens the protecting arm of power, but 
 when the danger was averted, the power was 
 employed in enslaving them. The Mohamme- 
 dan nations upon the shore of the Mediterra- 
 nean have, at various times, rendered them- 
 selves formidable by their piracies. The Alge- 
 rines were most notorious for their sea-robberies. 
 The United States, indignant at the presump- 
 tion of the dey of Algiers, who levied tribute 
 from Americans, resolved to compel, instead 
 of purchasing, forbearance from the Algerines, 
 who soon found that they were wholly unable 
 to cope with our naval power. The French 
 expedition fitted out against Algiers, just before 
 Charles X. was compelled to quit his throne 
 and country, was completely triumphant, and 
 the dey, permitted to retire with his private 
 treasure, went to Italy to pass the remainder 
 of his life. The French still retain possession 
 of Algiers. 
 
 Of the numerous kingdoms and tribes inhab- 
 iting the interior of Africa, we have ample 
 descriptions in the works of the enterprising 
 travellers who have recently made so many 
 discoveries in a country hitherto comparatively 
 unknown. A mere enumeration of the names 
 of these would be tedious, and more, it would 
 be vain to attempt. The celebrated Mungo 
 Park, who fell a victim to the ardor of scien- 
 tific research, describes the inhabitants of the 
 interior of Africa as being of three races, viz : 
 the Mandingoes or proper negroes, native child- 
 ren of Nigritia ; the Foulahs, or white iEthiopi- 
 ans of Ptolemy and Pliny ; and the Moors. 
 These last are Mohammedans, bigoted, intoler- 
 ant, treacherous, and bloody. Agriculture forms 
 the principal occupation of the negroes, while 
 the Moors, true to their ancestral character, 
 are either wandering shepherds or roving mer- 
 chants, with no fixed habitation. 
 
 In writing or in reading the history of Africa, 
 what painful reflections are suggested by the 
 contemplation of that infamous traffic which 
 has brought so much misery upon the natives 
 of this country ! Africans have been regarded 
 as degraded and worthless beings, who have no 
 claim upon the kindness of the inhabitants of 
 other countries, and whom it was even meritori- 
 ous to enslave. It has been asserted in general 
 terms, that " all the inhabitants of the globe have 
 some good as w r ell as ill qualities, except the Af- 
 ricans." Their want of proper education, the 
 tyranny of their rulers, and the innumerable 
 defects of their governments, have contributed 
 to keep thern in a state of degradation, for 
 which they were not originally intended. Alas ! 
 how many of their crimes may we not trace 
 to European agency ! The joyous disposition 
 even of an African slave manifests itself after 
 the first pangs of captivity and sad recollection 
 have passed away. If, then, amidst the worst 
 evils, the gaiety of the African is not wholly 
 banished, may we not imagine that he would 
 enjoy enviable happiness if placed under a just 
 and enterprising government, and permitted to 
 display his native energies and powers? Much 
 has been done to alleviate the condition of the 
 blacks, and England, together with a large 
 portion of America, has abolished that slavery 
 which the worldly interests of men induced 
 them so long to continue. The American Col- 
 onization Society have established a colony on 
 the western coast of Africa, on which they have 
 bestowed the name of Liberia. Thither are 
 sent manumitted slaves, and, after having strug- 
 gled against manifold obstacles, the colony is 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AFR 
 
 31 
 
 AGA 
 
 now in a very flourishing condition, enjoying 
 the fruits of useful knowledge and religion. 
 
 The trade in gold and ivory is carried on upon 
 the western coast, in barter for woollen and 
 linen manufactures, hardware, and spirituous 
 liquors, which are the articles of exchange. 
 The Dutch, French, and Portuguese have their 
 various settlements for the purposes of trade. 
 The possession of the Cape of Good Hope, being 
 a matter of the utmost importance, was for a 
 long time a source of contest between the Dutch 
 and English. It was taken by the English in 
 1797, and after having been surrendered to the 
 Dutch, in 1802, was again occupied by the former 
 in 1806, and has since remained in their posses- 
 sion. Cape Town is resorted to by ships bound 
 to the Indian ocean, for supplies of water and 
 provision. The Hottentots, or Bushmen, as they 
 are called, are undoubtedly a degraded race, but 
 instead of endeavoring to better their condition, 
 the Europeans have contributed to prolong, and 
 m fact consolidate their evil habits, furnishing 
 them with spirituous liquors, the agency of 
 which ensures their destruction, or reduces 
 them to an abject state which is far worse than 
 death itself. The cruelty practised on the 
 natives by the Dutch — and that too with the 
 sanction of government — almost exceeds belief. 
 
 When a party of Dutch wished to settle in 
 any spot, they proceeded to clear it by the death 
 of the natives, with as much coolness as an 
 American squatter would exhibit, in hewing 
 down the forest-trees to open a place for the 
 erection of his log-house, or in picking off with 
 his rifle a few of the wild animals which threat- 
 ened to be troublesome. The Dutch manner of 
 proceeding was summary. Having selected 
 the hut of some poor wretch as an object of 
 destruction, they first set fire to it. Let us 
 imagine the dismay and horror of a poor family 
 at finding flames breaking forth around, above 
 them, in every direction. Rushing forth, the 
 wretched owners of the miserable dwellino- 
 would implore pity from their cruel enemies'. 
 The Dutchmen, or boors, would be too much 
 engaged in loading their pieces and discharging 
 them upon the males, to heed the cries of the 
 females who, with their children, were gener- 
 ally saved. The indifference with which the 
 boors regard the death of the bushmen, is stri- 
 kingly illustrated in the following anecdote. A 
 boor, presenting himself at the secretary's office 
 at Cape Town, after having traversed a lonely 
 tract, was asked if he had not found the Bush- 
 men troublesome? " Not very," replied he, 
 with great coolness, " I only shot four." 
 
 Africa is a country, the history and geogra- 
 phy of which may be studied with great interest 
 and advantage. To the intelligent traveller 
 it is replete with wonders. He lingers among 
 the gigantic remains of ancient art and splen- 
 dor, which abound in Egypt, with a feeling of 
 veneration; recalling, as he dwells upon the 
 spot, the busy scenes of the past, the actors of 
 which sleep beneath the dust of centuries, their 
 perishable remains contrasting with the vast 
 monuments of their enterprise and wealth, 
 which, not the less surely, because at a later 
 period, will be crumbled into atoms by the stern 
 hand of time. Then, too, the presence of these 
 antique relics recalls ideas of the troubled times 
 of Israel, when the yoke of the Egyptian Pha- 
 raoh pressed heavily upon her children, till they 
 were rescued from the land of bondage by the 
 power of the Omnipotent, who rolled back the 
 strong tides of the sea, to let them pass. The 
 contemplation of these early scenes awakens in 
 the well-trained mind a thought of Him, of 
 whom we know that whatever be the chance 
 or change of time, though kingdoms may pas3 
 away, and cities be crumbled into dust, " His 
 word endureth for ever." 
 
 The peninsula of Africa forms a vast trian- 
 gle, containing 11,500,000 square miles. It is 
 bounded on the north by the Mediterranean ; 
 on the east by Asia, the Red Sea, and the 
 Indian Ocean ; and on the south and west by the 
 Southern and Atlantic Oceans. It contains 
 vast ranges of mountains, immense deserts, and 
 regions inhabited by great numbers of animals. 
 How little was known of this vast country by 
 the ancients, and how wide a field it affords, 
 for the investigation of modern men of science ! 
 
 AGAMEMNON, leader of the Greeks in the 
 Trojan war, was king of Mycene and Argos, 
 son of Plisthenes, and brother of Menelaus, 
 the seduction of whose wife lighted the flames 
 of war. Returning, after the destruction of the 
 city, he was murdered by his wife, Clytemnes- 
 tra, either from jealousy, or on account of her 
 love for another. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, an adventurer, who, 
 although of ignoble birth, from being a private 
 in the Sicilian army, made himself master of 
 Sicily, B. C. 317. This he accomplished by the 
 death of thousands of the Sicilians. Although 
 defeated by the Carthaginians in Sicily, he 
 carried the war into Africa, where he was suc- 
 cessful. After having lost his sons and army, 
 by a mutiny in Africa, he succeeded in estab- 
 lishing tranquillity, B. C. 306. In Italy he 
 conquered the Brutii, and took and sacked 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY!. 
 
 AGI 
 
 32 
 
 AGR 
 
 Crotona. He was poisoned by his favorite, 
 Msenon, who poisoned the feather with which 
 the king usually cleansed his teeth after dinner. 
 The effect of the poison was instantaneous and 
 frightful — the mouth and body of the monarch 
 decaying in a few minutes. Life had not 
 forsaken his limbs when he was thrown upon 
 the funeral pile. He was an able ruler in the 
 court and the battle-field, but cruel, fond of 
 pleasure, and ambitious. 
 
 AGESILAUS, a king of Sparta, and a dis- 
 tinguished leader in the Peloponnesian war. He 
 signalized himself by his valorous resistance to 
 the Persians, and successfully opposed the arms 
 of the Thebans under Epaminondas. Agesi- 
 laus was lame and of small stature, but brave, 
 and almost idolized by his troops. He was 84 
 years old at the time of his death, B. C. 360. 
 
 AGHRIM, or Aughrim, a village in the 
 county of Galway, Ireland, where the troops of 
 William III. defeated those of James II. in a 
 battle fought July 12, 1691. 
 
 AGINCOURT, or Azincourt, a village in 
 the department of Pas de Calais, France, where 
 Henry V. of England, with an army of little 
 more than 15,000 men, defeated the flower of 
 the French troops, amounting to 70 or 100,000 
 men, well officered and equipped. Henry en- 
 trenched his troops strongly, within fences of 
 pointed stakes, then first used, and in modern 
 times, known under the name of Chevaux de 
 Frise. The rashness and disordered impetu- 
 osity of the French, and the coolness and or- 
 derly intrepidity of the English produced the 
 same effects at Azincourt as at Poictiers. The 
 French leader, the constable d'Albret, the count 
 de Nevers, and the duke of Brabant, the dukes 
 of Alencon and Bar, the counts of Vaudemont 
 and Marie, scorning to survive defeat, rushed 
 into the thickest of the fight, and died, with up- 
 wards of 10,000 of their followers. The number 
 of captives taken by the English was 14,000, a 
 number about equal to that of the conquerors. 
 The loss of the English was comparatively small, 
 and the duke of York, the only person of con- 
 sequence who fell. This nobleman was Hen- 
 ry's uncle, and was slain in defending the king 
 against the duke of Alencon, who rode furi- 
 ously upon him. Alencon dashed Henry's 
 crown from his head, with a blow of his battle- 
 axe, and was preparing to despatch him, when 
 the king's attendants closed around him in a 
 steely circle, and he fell, covered with wounds, 
 the blood pouring from every joint of his armor. 
 This great battle was fought, Oct. 25th, 1415. 
 
 AGIS IV, king of Sparta, the son of Euda- 
 
 midas, and lineal descendant of Agesilaus. 
 He endeavored to reform the manners and con- 
 stitution of Sparta, but was opposed by the 
 mass from interest, and condemned to be stran- 
 gled. The executioner refused to perform his 
 dreadful office, until forced to it. Agis met his 
 fate with firmness, B. C. 241. 
 
 AGNES, St. was put to death during the 
 reign of Diocletian, emperor of Rome. The 
 Catholics celebrate her 1'estival on the 21st of 
 January. At Rome, they bring cattle to the 
 church of St. Agnes on this day to be blessed 
 by the priest, a ceremony which is thought to 
 preserve them from sickness till the next year. 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, a talented and 
 learned lady, born at Milan, in 1718. In a 
 Latin oration, delivered in her ninth year, she 
 advocated the study of the ancient languages 
 by females. At the age of eleven, she was 
 conversant with Greek, which she spoke with 
 great fluency, and she afterwards mastered the 
 Oriental languages. Geometry and philosophy 
 next engaged her attention. She was the cen- 
 tral ornament of the most brilliant and talented 
 circles, and her surpassing loveliness of face 
 and figure gave additional effect to the magic 
 of her words. In mathematics she was no less 
 successful than in other branches of learning, 
 and at thirty published a treatise on the rudi- 
 ments of analysis, thought to be the best intro- 
 duction to Euler's works extant. She acquired 
 such fame by this performance, that she was 
 appointed, in her 32d year, professor of mathe- 
 matics in the university of Bologna. Incessant 
 application seems finally to have rendered her 
 melancholy ; she renounced society, and joining 
 the order of blue nuns, died in her 81st }*ear, 
 17W>. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, a brave and 
 virtuous Roman commander, and a distin- 
 guished statesman. He subjected a great part 
 of Britain. A. D. 70. Domitian recalled him, 
 and he died in retirement, A. D. 93. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM,nowGirgentiorAgrigenti. 
 a town in Sicily about three miles from the 
 coast, and forty-seven miles south of Palermo, 
 with a population of 15,000, According to 
 Diodorus. in its brighter days, it contained no 
 fewer than 200,000 inhabitants. It was anciently 
 famed for its hospitality and luxury. Its horses 
 were celebrated. It contained many fine build 
 ino-s, the most splendid of which was a temple 
 to Jupiter Olympius Its democratic govern 
 ment was overthrown by Phalaris. B. C. 571, 
 but was again restored after his death. After- 
 wards it was possessed by the Carthaginians. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AIX 
 
 33 
 
 ALA 
 
 Its antique remains attract the attention of 
 modern travellers. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, a native of 
 Cologne, born in 1486, and noted for his acquire- 
 ments, talents, and eccentricity. For his military 
 services, he was knighted. He was acquainted 
 with eight languages, and made pretensions 
 to magic, which procured him invitations from 
 various personages of celebrity, who sought to 
 acquire a knowledge of futurity. After a life 
 full of change and incident, he died at Greno- 
 ble, in 1535. 
 
 AGRIPPA I, grandson of Herod, tetrarch of 
 Trachonites, and king of Judea. St. James 
 perished in a persecution commenced by him. 
 The occasion and manner of his death are rela- 
 ted, Acts xii. 20 — 23, under his patronymic 
 name of Herod. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, the son-in- 
 law and friend of Augustus, whose fleet he 
 commanded in the battle of Actium. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the elder, wife of Germanicus 
 Caesar, whom she accompanied in his German 
 expeditions. She was banished A. D. 33, by 
 the cruel Tiberius, who hated her for her vir- 
 tues and popularity, to the island of Pandataria, 
 where she starved herself to death. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the younger, daughter of the 
 above, was born at Cologne. She was pos- 
 sessed of talents, but intriguing, dissolute, and 
 ambitious. She was married to her uncle 
 Claudius, the emperor, whom she poisoned to 
 clear the throne for her wicked son Nero, who 
 assassinated her, when she became troublesome 
 after his elevation. 
 
 AHASUERUS, the king of Persia, whose 
 marriage with Esther, and protection of the 
 Jews, are described in the Scriptures. He is 
 probably the Artaxerxes Longimanus of the 
 Greeks, whose reign began B. C. 465. 
 
 AHAZ, son of Jotham, and king of Judah, 
 reigned from 743 to 728 B. C, and was con- 
 temporary with the prophets Isaiah, Hosea, and 
 Micah. 
 
 AIGUILLON, duke d' ; a peer of France, 
 and minister of Foreign affairs under Louis 
 
 XV. He was witty, but little acquainted with 
 political science. On the accession of Louis 
 
 XVI, he was removed, and, having been soon 
 after banished, he died in exile in 1780. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, in German Aachen, 
 a German city on the borders of Belgium, 
 lying between the Rhine and the Meuse, in a 
 rich valley encompassed by hills. The city, in 
 1828, contained a population of 36,800. It was 
 the birth-place of Charlemagne according to 
 
 some authors, and contains many buildings and 
 monuments of historical interest. It was the 
 northern capital of Charlemagne, who held a 
 splendid court here, and was buried in its cathe- 
 dral. Succeeding emperors conferred so many 
 privileges on the city, that it was remarked that 
 " the air of Aix-la-Chapelle gave freedom even 
 to the outlaws." In diplomacy, it is famous 
 for more than one Congress of powers, and par- 
 ticularly for that of 1748, in which peace was 
 concluded between England, France, Holland, 
 and several German powers. 
 
 AJACCIO, or Ajazzo, the capital and finest 
 city of Corsica, containing 6,570 inhabitants. 
 It is famous for being the birth-place of Napo- 
 leon. Its coral and anchovy fisheries make it a 
 place of some commercial importance. 
 
 AJAX. The name of two of the Homeric 
 heroes (Telamon and Oileus), formidable in the 
 Trojan war, whose history, however, is purely 
 mythological. 
 
 AKBAH, a Saracen conqueror, who over- 
 ran Africa from Cairo to the Atlantic, was kill- 
 ed in a revolt of the Greeks and Africans. He 
 lived in the first century of the Hegira. 
 
 AKBAR, or x\kber, Mohammed, sultan of 
 the Moguls, in 1556. He regained Delhi from 
 the Patans, quelled several revolts, conquering 
 the whole country of Bengal, and taking Cash- 
 mere and Sind. He pardoned his son Selim, 
 who had made an unsuccessful attempt to de- 
 throne him. Akbar died in 1605, of grief for 
 the loss of one his sons. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark; an English poet and 
 physician, the son of a butcher, born at New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne, in 1721. He was intended 
 for the ministry, but preferred the study of 
 medicine. He never had much success in the 
 practice of his profession, but as a poet ac- 
 quired great renown. His " Pleasures of the 
 Imagination," will be read as long as the Eng- 
 lish language exists. ■ He was a scholar, and a 
 man of strict morality. He died of a fever in 
 1770, in the 49th year of his age. 
 
 ALABAMA, a state of great importance, 
 was very recently detached from Mississippi. 
 In 1817, it was erected into a territorial gov- 
 ernment, and became a state in 1820. The 
 rapidity with which the population of Alabama 
 has increased, has been surprising even to 
 those who are accustomed to behold the rapid 
 rise of the new states of this country. It is 
 asserted, and with truth, that no portion of the 
 western country has exhibited so speedy an 
 increase of population. In 1800, the inhabi- 
 tants of that part of Mississippi which now 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ALA 
 
 34 
 
 ALA 
 
 forms the state of Alabama, amounted to only 
 2,000, while ten years later, the same region con- 
 tained 10,000. In 1820, the number oV inhabi- 
 tants was found to amount to 127,000; and, in 
 1840, it reached 590,756. The length of the 
 state is 280 miles; its breadth. 160; and it con- 
 tains 52,000 square miles. It may be well, 
 before entering into any historical detail, to 
 give a brief general description of the physical 
 appearance of the country. The land is divided 
 into several regular terraces, or belts, as it 
 were, which rise above each other from the 
 gulf of Mexico. Of these the southern belt or 
 terrace, is flat and swampy, containing several 
 savannahs. Pine is the prevalent timber. 
 Pleasing and varying undulations distinguish 
 the northern belt. 
 
 The greater part of Alabama is separated 
 from Tennessee valley by abrupt and precipi- 
 tous hills, or rather mountains, which, in some 
 places, rise to an elevation of 2,000 feet above 
 the gulf level. The swamps in the vicinity of 
 Florida are numerous, and covered with cy- 
 press, gum, and loblolly pine-trees, while the 
 uplands are timbered with the long-leaved pine. 
 What are termed the hummock lands, the fer- 
 tility of which is lasting, form a belt between 
 the pine ridges and the bottoms, and, as the 
 French imagine that they are well adapted to 
 the rearing of grape vines, it may not be long 
 before these slopes will be clustered with smi- 
 ling vineyards, and echo the joyous song of the 
 vine-dresser, and the merriment of the autum- 
 nal vintage. Yet corn, cotton, tobacco, beef, 
 and pork, at present constitute the main products 
 of the state. It is said that the culture of the 
 sugar-cane would not be difficult in Alabama, 
 and in it, groves of orange-trees, undoubtedly 
 of Spanish origin, are not infrequent. The 
 Creek Indians possess some of the most fertile 
 portions of the country. 
 
 We cannot attempt a minute history of this 
 state, so much are its annals involved with 
 those of other portions of the western country. 
 The various contests between Spanish, French, 
 and English colonists in the great valley of the 
 Mississippi, while they prove interesting and 
 instructive when treated of at that length 
 which would be requisite to do them justice, 
 involved in a general view, would prove unsa- 
 tisfactory and destitute of all interest to the 
 reader. Some facts relative to the early dis- 
 coveries in the southern portion of North Amer- 
 ica, will not be judged misplaced, if they are 
 introduced here. Sebastian Cabot coasted the 
 tountry, which subsequently obtained the name 
 
 of Florida, a very few years after the discovery 
 of America by Columbus. The Spanish claim 
 for Juan Ponce de Leon the merit of discove- 
 ring Florida, in 1512, at a time when he was 
 engaged in the pursuit of that immortal foun- 
 tain, whose waters were to restore to age the 
 vanished bloom and strength of youth. It was 
 on Easter Day that land appeared. As this fes- 
 tival is called by the Spaniards Pascua deflores, 
 the festival of flowers, Leon gave the name of 
 Florida to the new discovered counUy. Her- 
 rera assigns a different reason for the appella- 
 tion in the blooming appearance of the country, 
 which presented an astonishing variety and 
 quantity of blossoms. The Indians whom Leon 
 encountered, far from being effeminate and 
 soft, like the inhabitants of the West India 
 Islands, were stern and warlike, exhibiting so 
 decided a hostility to the Spaniards, that they 
 were glad to effect a retreat. 
 
 The French who settled on the borders of the 
 Mississippi at an early period, did not meet with 
 much success at first, and for along time the 
 French settlements were insignificant and unno- 
 ticed. Instead of drawing their support from the 
 fertile bosom of the earth beneath their feet, they 
 are said to have subsisted on provisions obtain- 
 ed from France and the Spanish colonies. So 
 slow were they in appreciating the richness of 
 the soil, and so tenacious of established opi- 
 nions and prejudices, that on a superficial exami- 
 nation of facts, we are surprised to find that, in 
 the northern and more sterile parts of North 
 America, where a thousand obstacles presented 
 themselves in the path of the adventurer, the 
 work of colonization went on with the greatest 
 rapidity. This appears to have been a wise ordi- 
 nation of Providence. The French settlers, 
 while they wanted the perseverance of the 
 English, and the colonial experience of the 
 Spaniards, had a singular facility in winning 
 the friendship and esteem of the savages. Yet, 
 in spite of this advantage, few of the colonies 
 they founded at the south, went on without 
 many interruptions, while the Spanish settle- 
 ments were generally permanent. 
 
 Mobile, now an important and flourishing 
 town, in the lower part of Alabama, while 
 alternately in the possession of the French 
 and Spaniards, was little more than a mere 
 military post. The cause of this is, perhaps, 
 partly to be found in the character of the 
 country around it, which abounds in dreary, 
 swampy lands, and stagnant waters, while a 
 barren region of pine woods is contiguous. 
 Mobile lies on the west side of Mobile Bay, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ALA 
 
 35 
 
 ALA 
 
 is situated on a plain of considerable elevation. 
 A swampy island opposite the city, makes it 
 difficult of access, but when gained, vessels 
 remain in perfect security. No sooner did it 
 come into the hands of the United States, than 
 its importance was vastly increased, and its 
 appearance changed for the better. It is now 
 considered to be, next to New Orleans and 
 Charleston, the largest cotton market in the 
 country. The former monotony of its waters is 
 banished by the continual arrival and departure 
 of numerous steamboats, which ply upon the 
 river above. 
 
 After the Englislrhad obtained possession of 
 the whole country east of the Mississippi, which 
 was ceded to them by the French, in the treaty 
 of peace concluded between France and Great 
 Britain, Feb. 10th, 1763, they encountered the 
 hostility of the Spanish, who were in posses- 
 sion of Louisiana, and were inflamed against 
 the English by motives of hostility and jeal- 
 ousy. The war of the American revolution 
 placed the British colonists in Florida in a 
 peculiarly embarrassing and dangerous situa- 
 tion. On the one hand they were threatened 
 by the Spanish colonists of Louisiana, while, 
 on the other, they feared the hostility of the 
 new states. The Spanish colonists in turn, 
 although fearful of the consequences of the 
 spread of liberal principles which the success of 
 the Americans would ensure, and aware that the 
 discomfiture of the British in Florida would be 
 a source of congratulation to the Americans, yet 
 so ardently desired the conquest, that they laid 
 aside all minor considerations, and determined 
 on attempting it. At this time, Galvez, a gal- 
 lant and enterprising officer, was the Spanish 
 commander of Louisiana. He took the field 
 against the British with 2,300 men. Natchez 
 and Pensacola capitulated, and Galvez, in 1780, 
 sailed against Mobile with a powerful arma- 
 ment. A storm overtook him in the gulf, and 
 the wreck of one of his armed vessels, with 
 the wetting of his provision and ammunition, 
 gave no good omen of ultimate success. Any 
 other commander, so circumstanced, would 
 have despaired, but Galvez, keeping up a toler- 
 able appearance, landed near Mobile, and halted 
 in the momentary expectation of an attack 
 from the British. He saw that such an attack 
 would be ruinous, and, entertaining no doubt 
 that the British would commence hostilities, 
 made preparations for relinquishing his artillery 
 and military stores, and falling back, in what 
 order he might, upon New Orleans. Whether 
 from want of foresight, or from cowardice, the 
 English did not attempt to disturb him. 
 4 
 
 Finding himself, much to his surprise, un- 
 molested, Galvez took heart again, and having 
 carefully dried his stores and ammunition, 
 which, upon examination, were found not to 
 have been spoiled, though badly wet, he 
 marched upon Mobile, which was garrisoned 
 and defended by regulars and militia. Six 
 Spanish batteries, playing, with well-directed 
 aim upon the place, opened a breach, and the 
 garrison immediately capitulated ! In this af- 
 fair, the English behaved with a hesitation and 
 timidity, which it is but justice to say, is 
 unusual in them. At Pensacola, only sixty 
 miles off, General Campbell was stationed with 
 an overwhelming force ; yet he marched not to 
 the relief of Mobile, until it was in the hands 
 of Galvez. The capture of Mobile by the 
 Spanish, fills a conspicuous page in the history 
 of Alabama. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1811, the troops 
 of the United States were employed against the 
 Indians, who formed powerful hostile combina- 
 tions in the western country. During the war 
 with Great Britain, many bloody engagements 
 were fought with the Indians. After the surren- 
 der of Detroit, an event which produced such an 
 universal feeling of shame and degradation in 
 the west, the Indians sent news of their triumph 
 even to the most southerly extremity of the 
 union, and invited the neutral tribes of the 
 south to assume the hatchet on the side of their 
 red brethren. The Creeks and Seminoles, 
 with many other tribes, were not slow in 
 responding to the summons, and became in- 
 volved in the war, which was felt, in hostile 
 incursions, by the entire frontier, from Ten- 
 nessee to the bay of Mobile. Tecumseh or 
 Tecumthe, the famous Indian chief, arming 
 himself with the persuasive predictions of his 
 brother, the prophet, arrived among the Creek 
 Indians in 1812, and urged them forward to 
 deeds of blood. The most dreadful outrages 
 were consequently perpetrated by the Creeks 
 along the Alabama frontier, which suffered 
 extremely during this war. 
 
 In 1814, Mobile was attacked by the British, 
 and defended by Major Lawrence, with a gal- 
 lantry which has gained him no inconsiderable 
 renown. His Spartan band of 130 men were 
 resolved to suffer no stain to dim the brilliancy 
 of their starred banner, and to uphold it while 
 the life-blood ran warm in their veins. On the 
 12th of September, a memorable day to the 
 garrison, intelligence was received at the fort 
 of the landing of a pretty large force of Indi- 
 ana and Spaniards in its vicinity. In the course 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ALA 
 
 36 
 
 ALA 
 
 of that day two British brigs and sloops hove in 
 sight, and anchored at an inconsiderable dis- 
 tance. At half after four in the evening of the 
 15th, the Hermes, Charon, Sophia and Ana- 
 conda, with ninety guns, anchored at such a 
 distance from the fort, as to admit of firing 
 upon it conveniently. A simultaneous land 
 attack was begun by Captains Nicholls and 
 Woodbine. Their fortifications were made 
 of sand, and they brought a howitzer to bear 
 upon the fort at point blank distance ; but they 
 were soon compelled to abandon their position. 
 Still a severe firing was maintained by the 
 ships and fort. The Hermes, receiving a ra- 
 king fire, ran ashore, was abandoned, and blew 
 up. The Charon was almost wholly disabled. 
 When the flag-staff of the fort was shot away, 
 Woodbine and Nicholls, thinking the foe van- 
 quished, rushed forward to the fort, but were 
 awakened to a sense of their error by a mur- 
 derous fire which sent them to the right about 
 with enviable facility. What praise is too 
 warm for the conduct of the few Americans 
 who composed the garrison, when we consider 
 the numbers and ' advantages of the enemy ? 
 The 600 men who attacked the fort by sea, 
 were supported by 90 heavy guns. Four hun- 
 dred Indians and others made an attack in the 
 rear. Captain Lawrence had but about a seventh 
 of the enemy's numerical force, and 20 guns, 
 all badly mounted, and some of them quite 
 ineffective. Yet, while he lost but ten men, he 
 compelled the enemy to retire with a loss of 
 their very best ship, and 230 men. 
 
 The political metropolis of Alabama is Tus- 
 caloosa, a rapidly increasing and improving 
 village, at the falls of the Black Warrior. The 
 spot on which it stands, was but a short time 
 since a wild forest, and to a person who had 
 visited this unsettled woodland, the village 
 must appear like that palace in the Arabian 
 Nights, which was erected in a single night. 
 The inhabitants of Alabama are justly proud of 
 their state — proud of its political and commer- 
 cial importance, of its rapidity, growth, and 
 character for industry. It is a slave-holding 
 state, and contains many opulent planters, who 
 have all the lavish hospitality which distin- 
 guishes them wherever they may dwell. Ala- 
 bama can boast of very few institutions, lit- 
 erary or religious; but in the character of the 
 people, there is a regard for literature and reli- 
 gion, which will supply the want before long. 
 The laws of this State exhibit no very marked 
 difference from those of other states. The 
 senators serve for a term of three, and the rep- 
 
 resentatives for one year. There is a supreme 
 and a circuit court, with subordinate courts, 
 appointed by the legislature, who choose the 
 judges, the latter holding their offices during 
 good behavior. 
 
 The boundaries of Alabama are as follows : 
 north by Tennessee ; east by Georgia ; south 
 by Florida and the gulf of Mexico, and west 
 by Mississippi. 
 
 ALAMANNI,Luigi, a celebrated Italian poet 
 a native of Florence, born in 1495. Being at 
 variance with Clement VII. he fled to France 
 to avoid the power of thef>ope, but returned to 
 Florence when it became independent. When 
 it was subjected to the Medici, he sought the 
 protection of Francis 1. of France, and was 
 esteemed by that monarch, and by Henry II, 
 who employed him in several affairs of conse- 
 quence. He died of dysentery, at Amboise. 
 His writings embraced almost every depart- 
 ment of poetry. 
 
 ALAND, a cluster of islands in the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, belonging to Russia. The ground is 
 stony and the soil thin. Eighty of the islands 
 are inhabited, and the aggregate population is 
 more than thirteen thousand. The principal 
 island is forty miles long. 
 
 ALANI or Alans, a warlike tribe that left 
 their abodes near Mount Caucasus, in Asia, 
 when the Roman empire was declining. After 
 412, they became lost among the Vandals. 
 
 ALARIC, king of the Visigoths, who plun- 
 dered the Peloponnesus in o ( Jb. He appears 
 first as an ally of the Romans, whose weakness 
 he discovered and profited by. When he first 
 threatened Rome, his forbearance was pur- 
 chased by a ransom of 5000 pounds of gold, 
 30,000 pounds of silver, 4000 garments of silk, 
 3000 pieces of fine scarlet cloth, and 3000 
 pounds of pepper. In 410, the Goths returned, 
 penetrated the city, and sacked it. The trea- 
 sures which had been accumulated during a 
 thousand years, vanished in three days beneath 
 the hands of the rapacious conquerors. The 
 flames destroyed works of art which the barba- 
 rians were unable to carry off, but Alaric spared 
 the churches and those who had sought refuge 
 in them. Alaric died at a Calabrian town 
 (Cosenza), A. D. 410, when he was preparing to 
 lay waste Sicily and Africa. In order to con- 
 ceal his remains from the Romans, slaves were 
 employed to divert the waters of the Busento, 
 and hollow his last resting-place in the channel 
 of the stream ; when the earth had received the 
 body of the conqueror, the waves were permit- 
 ted to rush in above it, and the slaves were 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ALB 
 
 37 
 
 ALB 
 
 murdered, that Alaric's secret might be in the 
 keeping of the waters and the voiceless dead. 
 
 ALBA, a city of Latium, built, according to 
 tradition, by Ascanius, the son of yEneas. Being 
 the rival of Rome, it was destroyed by the Ro- 
 mans, C65 B. C. and the inhabitants were carried 
 to Rome. 
 
 ALBANI, Francesco, a painter, born at Bo- 
 logna, in 1578, whose female forms have been 
 highly extolled. From the effeminate charac- 
 ter of his subjects, he was called the Anacreon 
 of painters. He died in 1C60, in his 82d 
 year, having lived long enough to survive his 
 fame. 
 
 ALBANIA, a province on the coast of the 
 Adriatic and Ionian seas, called in Turkish 
 Arnaout, in Albanian, Skiperi, anciently Epirus 
 and Illyria. It was the kingdom of Pyrrhus, 
 and a few years back was governed by Ali Pacha. 
 It is fertile and rich, and the inhabitants of the 
 mountains are famous for courage. The wo- 
 men in the absence of male protectors, have 
 been frequently known to defend their homes 
 with spirit and success. The population is 
 about 3^0,000. 
 
 ALBANY, or Albani, countess of, princess 
 Louisa Maria Caroline, or Aloysia, born in 1753, 
 in 1772, married Charles Stuart, the English 
 pretender, whose barbarity and habitual intoxi- 
 cation, drove her to a cloister in 1780, and 
 received an annuity from the French court, 
 after the death of her husband, in 1788. She 
 died at Florence, in 1 824, in her 72d year. She 
 was buried beside Alfieri, in the church of 
 Santa Croce, at Florence. Alfieri was tenderly 
 attached to her, and attributed to her his inspi- 
 ration. (See Alfieri.) 
 
 ALBANY, the seat of government of the 
 State of New-York, situated on the west bank 
 of the Hudson or North River, 144 miles north 
 of New-York city. Population 33,721. The 
 river is navigable to Albany, for sloops of 80 
 tons, and trade with New-York is carried on by 
 means of these. The Erie and Champlain ca- 
 nals unite above the city, and are connected 
 with a basin at Albany. The facility of com- 
 munication which it possesses, renders it a great 
 thoroughfare. Its exports are wheat, and other 
 articles of produce. The Dutch settled Albany 
 in 1614. It was built up with the disregard to 
 elegance so common among the Dutch, but its 
 modern buildings, both private and public, are 
 beautiful and tasteful. 
 
 ALBEMARLE SOUND, an arm of the sea, 
 extending sixty miles into the eastern coast of 
 North Carolina, connected with the Atlantic 
 
 and Pamlico Sound by small inlets, and with 
 Chesapeake Bay by a canal which passes through 
 the Dismal Swamp. 
 
 ALBERT I, emperor and duke of Austria, 
 crowned in 1298, after defeating and slaying 
 Adolphus of Nassau, his competitor. The rivai 
 leaders engaged in single combat, and Adol- 
 phus exclaimed, " Your crown and life are 
 lost !" " Heaven will decide," was the answer 
 of Albert, as he forced his lance into the face 
 of his adversary and unhorsed him. Albert 
 was assassinated in 1308, by his nephew John, 
 son of the duke of Suabia, whose paternal 
 estates he had seized. John had often asserted 
 his claims, and urged them upon Albert when 
 he was departing for Switzerland, on account 
 of the revolt of the Swiss. The emperor con- 
 temptuously offered his nephew a garland of 
 flowers. " Take this,'" said he, " amuse your- 
 self with botanical investigations, but leave the 
 cares of government to those who are old and 
 wise enough to understand them." Albert 
 breathed his last in the arms of a poor woman, 
 who was sitting by the road-side at the time of 
 his assassination. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, the Protestants of Savoy 
 and Piedmont; in the Middle Ages, the objects 
 of cruel persecution and of several crusades. 
 
 ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, ascended 
 the throne in 5G1 . When an ally of the Ro- 
 mans, he slew Cunimund, king of the Gepidas, 
 whose daughter Rosamond he afterwards mar- 
 ried. He undertook the conquest, of Italy, and 
 had made great progress, when he was killed 
 by an assassin, at the instigation of his wife 
 Rosamond. The cause of her anger was bin 
 sending her, during one of his fits of intoxica- 
 tion, a drinking-cup made of her father's skull, 
 filled with wine, and compelling her, to use his 
 words, to drink with her father. 
 
 ALBRET, Jane d', daughter of Margaret, 
 queen of Navarre, was married at the age of 
 eleven to the duke of Cleves, but the marriage 
 was annulled in 1548, when she espoused An- 
 thony de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, by whom 
 she became mother of Henry IV. In ]555,her 
 father dying, she became queen of Navarre, 
 and in 1562, the death of her husband left her 
 independent. She then set herself to establish 
 the Reformation in her kingdom, although 
 opposed by France and Spain. She expired 
 suddenly, at Versailles, in 1572, and her death 
 was attributed to poison. 
 
 ALBUHERA, a village in Estremadura, si- 
 tuated on the Albuhera, 12 miles S. S. E. of 
 Badajoz. Here the English marshal, Beres- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALC 
 
 38 
 
 ALE 
 
 ford, gained a victory over the French, under 
 Soult, May 16th, 1811. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, the name of two Portu- 
 guese brothers, distinguished for bravery, who 
 took Cochin, in India, in 1505. Francis was 
 lost on his passage home. When Alphonso 
 captured Ormus, an island at the entrance of 
 the Persian Gulf, the king of Persia demanded 
 the tribute which he had been accustomed to 
 receive from the princes of the island. Upon 
 this, Albuquerque laid before the ambassadors 
 a sword and a bullet, saying haughtily, "this 
 is the coin in which Portugal pays her tribute." 
 After a rash and unsuccessful attempt upon 
 Calicut, he took Goa and Malacca. The envy 
 of courtiers, and the suspicions of king Emman- 
 uel, did not spare even the distinguished merit 
 of Albuquerque, who died at Goa, in 1515, after 
 his ungrateful master had deprived him of his 
 place, and appointed his personal enemy, Lopez 
 Soarez, to fill it. 
 
 ALCjEUS, a Greek lyric poet, born at Mity- 
 lene in Lesbos, and contemporary with Sappho. 
 He engaged in war with ardor, and his lays 
 breathe the divine enthusiasm of liberty. 
 
 ALCALA DE HENAREZ, a city of Spain, 
 in New Castile, situated on the river Henarez, 
 15 miles E. N. E. of Madrid. It was called by 
 the ancients Complutum. Here was printed the 
 first Polyglot Bible, called the Complutensian 
 Polyglot, which cost Cardinal Ximenes 250,000 
 ducats. A copy of it sold at Paris, in 1817, for 
 £676 sterling. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general, famous 
 for his enterprise, gallantry, versatility, and 
 natural foibles. He was the son of Clinias and 
 Dinomache, and was born at Athens, about 450 
 B. C. He was educated in the house of Peri- 
 cles, who was too much occupied with state 
 affairs to pay much attention to t«he youth. 
 The impetuosity of Alcibiades displayed itself 
 early, as the following anecdote shows. While 
 he was playing dice in the street with some 
 juvenile companions, a waggon came up. Alci- 
 biades requested the driver to stop, but he refu- 
 sed. The daring youth then threw himself 
 before the wheel, and exclaimed ; " Drive on, 
 if thou darest !" The instructions of the phi- 
 losopher Socrates, for a time restrained his evil 
 propensities. Socrates fought by his side in his 
 first battle, and, when he was wounded, de- 
 fended him, and bore him off safe. The 
 dissipation and extravagance of Alcibiades were 
 unbounded. One night, being at a banquet, he 
 laid a wager that he would box the ears of the 
 rich Hipponicus, and did so. This excited 
 
 general indignation, but Alcibiades went to the 
 injured party, threw off his garment, and, pla- 
 cing a rod in his hand, bade him strike and 
 revenge himself. Hipponicus not only par- 
 doned him freely, but gave him his daughter in 
 marriage, with a portion equivalent to about 
 10,500 dollars of our money. At the Olympic 
 games, Alcibiades would enter seven chariots, 
 and at one time won three prizes. 
 
 In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the 
 Athenians to engage in an expedition against 
 Syracuse. He was chosen general in that war, 
 and in his absence, his enemies, having found 
 all the statues of Mercury broken, charged him 
 with being concerned in the deed and confiscated 
 all his property. He then fled to Sparta, where 
 he attempted to gain popularity by adopting the 
 temperate habits of the Spartans, whom he wish- 
 ed to rouse against the Athenians. Finding this 
 of no avail, he went to Tissaphernes,the Persian 
 general. He was afterwards recalled by the 
 Athenians, and having compelled the Spartans 
 to sue for peace, and been successful in Asia, 
 was welcomed to Athens with high honors. The 
 failure of an expedition, with the command of 
 which he was entrusted, again roused the resent- 
 ment of the people, and Alcibiades fled to Phar- 
 nabazes. Lysander, the Spartan general, indu- 
 ced Pharnabazes to assassinate him. The atten- 
 dants sent for that purpose, found him in a castle 
 in Phrygia, in company with his favourite Ti- 
 mandra. They set the building on fire, and the 
 warrior rushed out to escape the conflagration. 
 Dreading his valour, the cowardly assassins 
 retreated to a safe distance, and shot him with 
 their arrows. Thus perished Alcibiades, in the 
 45th year of his age, about 404, B. C. Thucy- 
 dides, Timaeus, and Theopompus, with Plu 
 tarch and Cornelius Nepos, among the ancients, 
 have written of this hero, who, if he wanted 
 firm moral principles, was generous, brave, per- 
 severing, and gifted with distinguished quali- 
 ties. His eloquence was of that kind which 
 wins the hearts of men imperceptibly and unos- 
 tentatiously ; although it is said that he stut- 
 tered, and was unable to pronounce the letter 
 R. 
 
 ALCIPHRON, a distinguished epistolary 
 writer among the Greeks. 
 
 ALCMAN, the son of aslave,born at Sardis, 
 in Lydia, 670 years B. C. He was a fine poet, 
 and honored bv his countrymen. 
 
 ALDENHOVEN, a town between Juliers 
 and Aix-la-Chapelle, where the French were 
 defeated, March 1, 1793. 
 
 ALEMANNI, that is. all men, the ancient 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ALE 
 
 39 
 
 ALE 
 
 inhabitants of Suabia and Switzerland, united 
 in a league, from whence Germany derives its 
 French name of Allemagne. They were the 
 determined opponents of the Romans. 
 
 ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d', a distin- 
 guished mathematician, and literary character, 
 born at Paris, in 1717, died in 1783. He was 
 the son of Madame de Tencin, and the poet 
 Destouches, who exposed him while an infant. 
 At ten years of age, the principal of the school 
 in which he received his early education, de- 
 clared that his pupil had learned all that he could 
 teach him. He undertook to write the mathe- 
 matical part of the French Encyclopedia, and 
 contributed many admirable articles to it, which 
 however, involved him in the attacks made upon 
 the work. He refused the brilliant offers of 
 Frederic II. of Prussia, and Catherine of Rus- 
 sia, to settle in their respective capitals, and 
 lived in his country till his death, which took 
 place in the 6oth year of his age. 
 
 ALEPPO is the capital, not only of a pacha- 
 lic, but of all Syria, and has justly been ranked 
 as the third city of the Ottoman empire. Its 
 Arabic name is Haleb. In former times it pos- 
 sessed great commercial advantages which it 
 has lost in later times. It is supposed by many 
 to be the Zobah of scripture, which is spoken 
 of, 2 Sam. viii. 12. At present little doubt is 
 entertained of its being the Beraea of the 
 Greeks. The river Kowich, on reaching Alep- 
 po, diminishes in size, although at times it 
 increases to a formidable stream. When Aleppo 
 was besieged by a Christian army, in 1123, this 
 stream, swelling with augmented waters, unex- 
 pectedly overflowed its banks, and swept away 
 the tents and baggage of the besiegers. Many 
 men perished in the rushing inundation, and 
 the siege was raised in consequence of this 
 disaster. 
 
 Seen from a distance, this city presents a 
 picturesque appearance ; its gay terraces, grace- 
 ful mosques, airy arches, and shadowing trees, 
 afford a combination which is grateful to the 
 senses ; but a nearer approach, like daylight on 
 a phantasmagoria, dispels the illusion. Walk- 
 ing through the streets, the eye wanders over 
 high stone walls which flank the way, or turns 
 baffled, from the lattices with which the infre- 
 quent windows of the houses are churlishly 
 guarded. The inhabitants of Aleppo differ but 
 little from those of other Mohammedan cities and 
 countries. They have the same love for indo- 
 lent pleasures, the same fondness for the luxu- 
 ries of the bath, but less intolerance than the 
 other Turks. Thus the Armenians and Greeks 
 
 have churches and a bishop in the city, and the 
 Syrians and Maronites have likewise places of 
 public worship. The Jews of Aleppo, have in 
 their Synagogue a MS. of the Old Testament 
 which they consider to be of great antiquity 
 The disease which is called the JYeal d'Meppo, 
 to which both natives and foreigners are sub- 
 ject, is an eruption which leaves an indelible 
 scar, and is thought to originate in the quality 
 of the water. As a commercial place, Aleppo 
 has degenerated in modern times, but still re- 
 mains the emporium of Armenia and Diarbekir. 
 The English, in the reign of Elizabeth, estab- 
 lished a factory here, and consuls of various 
 nations reside in the place at present. The 
 city, including the suburbs, is 7 or 8 miles in 
 circumference, containing 200,000 inhabitants, 
 about one fourth of whom are Christians, the 
 remainder being Mohammedans and Jews. 
 Eight thousand inhabitants, together with two 
 thirds of the city, were destroyed by earth 
 quakes in 1822, and 1823. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS; a group, belong- 
 ing to Russia, about 100 in number, forming a 
 connecting link between Asia and America, 
 and separating the sea of Kamschatka from 
 the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Some 
 of them are volcanic ; they are destitute of 
 vegetation, but afford abundance of fur and 
 fish. The harmless inhabitants are cruelly trea- 
 ted by the Russians. The English names for 
 the islands, are the Fox, Bchrings, or Copper 
 Islands. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT, son of Philip 
 of Macedon, was born in Pella, B. C. 356. The 
 kingdom of Macedon was raised to celebrity by 
 the exploits of Philip, and was destined to attain 
 a yet higher rank among nations from the fame 
 of his son. Olympias, daughter of Neoptole- 
 mus of Epirus, was his mother. At an early 
 age, he showed a veneration for great deeds 
 and a determination to achieve them. Hear- 
 ing of the victories of Philip, he exclaimed, 
 "my father will leave nothing for me to do." 
 Aristotle, the celebrated philosopher, consented 
 to take charge of Alexander's education. His 
 preceptor instructed him in the most elegant as 
 well as the most profound branches of know- 
 ledge, and never for a moment forgot that it was 
 his duty to fit him for governing a great king- 
 dom. That he might become acquainted with 
 military virtues and ambition, Aristotle put the 
 Iliad into the hands of his noble pupil. Alexan- 
 der was so fond of this, that he never lay down 
 without having read some pages in it. His 
 exclusive ambition is well illustrated by the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALE 
 
 40 
 
 ALE 
 
 letter, which he wrote his preceptor on the pub- 
 lication of his Metaphysics. " You did wrong 
 in publishing those branches of science hitheito 
 not to be acquired but from oral instruction. 
 In what snail I excel others, if the more pro- 
 found knowledge I gained from you be com- 
 municated to all ? For my part, I had rather 
 surpass the majority of mankind in the sublimer 
 branches of learning, than in the extent of 
 power and dominion." 
 
 It was no part of the ancient Grecian plan 
 of education, to permit the culture of the mind 
 to supersede that of the body, but, on the con- 
 trary, the instructors of the young, knowing 
 that they are indivisible, trained the intellect- 
 ual and corporeal powers at the same time. 
 Alexander was early accustomed to gymnastic 
 exercises, and, at a tender age, displayed his 
 strength and skill in an extraordinary manner. 
 His father had been presented with a superb 
 charger (Bucephalus), which no one dared to 
 mount. Alexander sprang upon his back and 
 succeeded in completely taming him, after 
 which the steed would permit none but the 
 noble youth to mount him. He bore him 
 through some of the most perilous scenes of his 
 career, and, when he died, was honored by a 
 splendid memorial — the erection of a city called 
 Bucephalia. At the age of sixteen years, Alex- 
 ander was appointed by his father, Regent of 
 Macedon, when the latter departed on his expe- 
 dition to Byzantium. In 338, at the battle of 
 Chaeronea, he conquered the sacred band of 
 Thebans, and so distinguished himself, that Phi- 
 lip, embracing him, exclaimed ; "My son, seek 
 another empire, for that you will inherit is un- 
 worthy of you." 
 
 When Philip married Cleopatra, and divorced, 
 or, at least, disgraced Olympias, Alexander, 
 having taken the part of his mother, incurred 
 the displeasure of his father, and was forced to 
 fly to Epirus, whence, however, he was soon 
 recalled. Soon after this he saved his father's 
 life in an expedition against the Triballi. Phi- 
 lip was assassinated, B. C. 336, when preparing 
 to make war upon Persia, at the head of all the 
 Grecian forces. Alexander, then twenty years 
 of age, ascended the throne, and soon gave 
 proof of talents to govern and to conquer. 
 From the Greeks he received the chief com- 
 mand in the war against Persia. Finding, 
 upon his return, that the Illyrii and Triballi 
 were in arms, he conquered them and forced a 
 triumphant passage through Thrace. Urged 
 by the eloquence of Demosthenes, the Atheni- 
 ans were about to join the Thebans, who had 
 
 already taken up arms. Alexander promptly 
 repaired to Thebes, and on the refusal of the 
 citizens to surrender, took it and destroyed it, 
 with the exception of the poet Pindar's house. 
 Six thousand individuals were put to the sword, 
 and 30,000 reduced to captivity. The Athenians, 
 although punished, were not so severely hand- 
 led, and the fate of Thebes had the intended 
 effect of striking terror into all Greece. The 
 general assembly of the Greeks confirmed Alex- 
 ander in the chief command of the forces, 
 and he determined to leave Antipater, who had 
 been a minister of his father, at the head of the 
 government. The confidence, which was re- 
 posed in this man, was great, as appears from 
 the following anecdote. Philip was fond of 
 wine, and occasionally indulged himself to ex- 
 cess. One night, observing one of his compan- 
 ions unwilling to drink deeply, " Drink, 
 drink," said he, " all 's safe, for Antipater is 
 awake." 
 
 In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed into 
 Asia with 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse. In the 
 plains of Ilium, he offered sacrifices to Minerva, 
 and crowned the tomb of Achilles. Approach- 
 ing the Granicus, he learned that some Persian 
 satraps, with 20,000 foot and as many horse, 
 were prepared to oppose his progress to the 
 other side. The passage of the river was ef- 
 fected in the teeth of this force, and Alexander 
 was completely triumphant. During the heat of 
 battle, the Macedonian monarch was a mark for 
 the weapons of the enemy, by the splendor of 
 his equipments, and the conspicuous beauty of 
 his superb charger. The cities of Asia Minor, 
 with few exceptions, now opened their gates to 
 the youthful conqueror. In passing through 
 Gordium, Alexander cut the Gordian knot. 
 Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappa- 
 docia, were successively conquered. The con- 
 queror was seized with a severe illness in 
 consequence of imprudently bathing in the 
 Cydnus, which proved a check to his career. 
 While in a dangerous state, he received a let- 
 ter from Parmenio, his general, warning him 
 against his physician Philip, whom Parmenio 
 accused of the design of poisoning his master. 
 Philip was at that time preparing a potion for the 
 king ; and Alexander, handing him the letter, 
 looked steadily in his face while he drank off 
 the draught. He recovered. 
 
 Darius, instead of waiting for Alexander on 
 the plains of Assyria, had advanced with an im- 
 mense army to the defiles of Cilicia, whither 
 the Macedonian followed, defeating the Persi- 
 ans in the battle of Issus, which placed the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ALE 
 
 41 
 
 ALE 
 
 treasures and family of Darius in the hands of 
 the conqueror. His generous treatment of the 
 iatter conferred as much honor upon Alexan- 
 der, as the victory which preceded it. He 
 turned towards Ccelosyria and Phoenicia for the 
 purpose of cutting off Darius who had fled to- 
 wards the Euphrates. The Persian monarch 
 sent a letter to Alexander suing for peace, and 
 the latter answered him, that if he would come 
 to him, he should receive his mother, his wife, 
 his children, and his empire ; hut no notice was 
 taken of this liberal proposal. Damascus, and 
 all the towns along the Mediterranean, were 
 entered and taken possession of by Alexander. 
 The resistance of Tyre was severely punished ; 
 after a siege of seven months, it was taken with 
 great difficulty. In Palestine, Gaza, which re- 
 sisted the conqueror like Tyre, shared the fate 
 of that city. Gaza was the emporium for the 
 productions of Arabia, and a place of considerable 
 wealth and importance. Among the plunder, 
 the conqueror gained great quantities of frank- 
 incense, myrrh, and other aromatics, the sight 
 of which recalled a long-forgotten anecdote of 
 his juvenile days. His governor, Leonnatus, 
 observing him one day at a sacrifice, throw in- 
 cense into the flame by handfuls, remonstrated, 
 and said, " Alexander, when you have con- 
 quered the spice countries, you may be thus 
 lavish of your incense ; in the meantime use 
 what you have more sparingly." Alexander now 
 sent his governor several large bales of spices, 
 accompanied with the following note : " Leon- 
 natus, I have sent you frankincense and myrrh 
 in abundance; so be no longer a churl to the 
 gods." 
 
 The Egyptians, to whom the Persian yoke 
 had been a galling burden, were well pleased 
 with the arrival of Alexander, whom they grate- 
 fully regarded as a deliverer. His next expe- 
 dition was a visit to the temple of Jupiter Am- 
 nion, in the deserts of Libya, where, having 
 consulted the oracle, the god is said to have 
 acknowledged him as his son. In the ensuing 
 spring, learning that Darius had gathered an 
 immense force in Assyria, and was determined 
 to fight to the last, rejecting all proposals for 
 peace, Alexander marched in that direction. 
 In 331, a furious battle was fought at Gauga- 
 mela, not far from Arbela, in which the army of 
 Darius was not less than 500,000 strong. Not- 
 withstanding this overwhelming force, victory 
 from the cpening of the combat, smiled upon 
 the banners of the Macedonian. The thunder- 
 ing charge of his cavalry, led by himself, was 
 irresistible, and scattered the thronged Persians 
 
 like leaves before the tempest. Having routed 
 them by the charge of his horse, Alexander 
 hastened to the support of his left wing, finding 
 that they had been hard pressed and stood in 
 need of his assistance. Alexander's principal 
 object was to capture the Persian monarch or 
 prevent his flight by death. In the midst of 
 the crowd and crush of battle, Darius was no 
 inconsiderable figure, for he was mounted on a 
 chariot of great height, and surrounded by 
 guards who were splendidly armed and equip- 
 ped. The Persian life-guards, however, no 
 sooner perceived the extraordinary success of 
 Alexander, than, forgetful of their duty, they 
 took to flight. Darius was saved by the speed 
 of a horse upon which he hastily threw him- 
 self after the flight of his guards. 
 
 The immense wealth of the East was depo- 
 sited in Babylon and Susa, both of which 
 opened their gates without hesitation to the 
 mighty victor, who continued his march to- 
 wards Persepolis, then the capital of Persia. 
 Ariobarzanes, with 40,000 men, had thrown 
 himself into the only passage which opened on 
 Persepolis, determined to defend it as long as 
 he was able. He did not, however, hold out 
 long, for the troops of Alexander, flushed with 
 success, and impatient of opposition, swept 
 away all obstacles. Attacking the Persians in 
 the rear, they were completely successful, and 
 Persepolis, with all its wealth and luxury, was 
 won. In Persepolis, Alexander forgot his duty 
 and his interest, in scenes of unexampled riot and 
 dissipation. He was intoxicated with success, 
 and inclined to believe himself the god which 
 his flatterers would have made him. It is said 
 that on entering the royal palace, he beheld 
 the colossal statue of Xerxes which his soldiers 
 had thrown down, and deliberating whether to 
 elevate it or suffer it to lie neglected, he thus 
 apostrophized it ; " Shall we leave you in this 
 condition on account of the war you made upon 
 Greece, or raise you again for the sake of your 
 magnanimity and other virtues?" In a mo- 
 ment of intoxication and unbridled pleasure, 
 Alexander, yielding to the persuasions of an 
 abandoned woman, Thais, the Athenian, fired 
 the capital of Persia, which was soon reduced 
 to ruins. On the right bank of the Medus and 
 Araxes, near Istakar, the ruins of the royal 
 palace of Persepolis are still visible ; tall col- 
 umns yet attesting its former magnificence, 
 before the vengeance of the Greek was wreaked 
 upon the pride of art. 
 
 The burning of Persepolis filled Alexan- 
 der with remorse, and, in order to retrieve 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALE 
 
 42 
 
 ALE 
 
 his character, he set forth in pursuit of Darius 
 with his fine cavalry. He soon learned that 
 Bessus, the perfidious satrap of Bactria, kept 
 his master in custody, but, before he could 
 save Darius, Bessus had the unfortunate mon- 
 arch assassinated , B. C. 330. He was found lying 
 in his chariot covered with wounds. The per- 
 fidy of Bessus was subsequently punished with 
 death. Darius was interred with great solem- 
 nity, and Alexander caused himself to be pro- 
 claimed king of Asia. While occupied in the 
 formation of plans of vast importance, a con- 
 spiracy broke out in the camp of Alexander, 
 in which Philotas, the son of Parmenion, was 
 found to be concerned. Philotas, though brave 
 and hardy, was addicted to pleasure, to expen- 
 sive amusements, and given to boasting. He 
 frequently spoke slightingly of Alexander to 
 the companions of his pleasures — calling him 
 the boy, and saying that his victories were rather 
 the result of his own exertions and those of his 
 father, than of the bravery and skill of Alexan- 
 der. Parmenion endeavoured to check his son, 
 saying, "Make yourself less conspicuous, "but 
 his counsel was of no avail. Alexander heard 
 of the boastings of Philotas with indignation; 
 and when the conspiracy broke forth his anger 
 knew no bounds. Philotas was executed, and, 
 by the orders of Alexander, the veteran Parme- 
 nion was secretly put to death — a criminal act 
 which excited the displeasure of the whole 
 army. 
 
 Meanwhile Agis, king of Sparta, threatened 
 the destruction of the power of Alexander in 
 Greece, and raised a powerful army to obtain 
 independence, but he was defeated by Antipa- 
 ter, and the dissolution of the Grecian league 
 ensued. Neither the severity of the winter, 
 nor the want of local knowledge prevented 
 Alexander from marching into the north of 
 Asia and reaching the Caspian Sea. He at- 
 tacked the Scythians, urged on by an insatiable 
 thirst for distinction. On his return to Bac- 
 tria, he assumed the dress of the Persians, 
 which disgusted the Macedonians, who thought 
 the flowing robes of the Orientals too effemi- 
 nate. The Persians were displeased at be- 
 holding the Macedonian officers entering the 
 royal presence without those tokens of respect, 
 which the kings of their nation invariably ex- 
 acted from their subjects. The low inclina- 
 tions of reverence could only be claimed from 
 the Greeks on the plea that Alexander, as a 
 god, was entitled to them. A blunt Spartan 
 once satisfied the master of ceremonies and his 
 own scruples, by first dropping a ring and then 
 
 stooping to pick it up in the presence of the 
 king. Offended with the independence and 
 freedom of Clitus, Alexander slew him with 
 his own hand at a banquet. As soon as he saw 
 the lifeless body of his most faithful friend and 
 bravest general stretched before him, he was 
 seized with all the agonies of remorse. 
 
 The next year Alexander subdued Sogdiana, 
 and married the Bactrian Roxana, the loveliest 
 of Asiatic women. The Asiatic women, but 
 particularly the ladies of Persia, were famous 
 for the richness of their attire, arid the art with 
 which they heightened their native beauty. 
 " The Persian ladies," says an elegant writer, 
 " wore the tiara or turban, richly adorned with 
 jewels. They wore their hair long, and both 
 plaited and curled it ; nor, if the natural failed, 
 did they scruple to use false locks. They 
 pencilled the eye-brows, and tinged the eye-lid, 
 with a dye that was supposed to add a peculiar 
 brilliancy to the eyes. They were fond of per- 
 fumes, and their delightful ottar was the prin- 
 cipal favorite. Their tunic and drawers were 
 of fine linen, the robe or gown of silk — the 
 train of this was long, and on state occasions 
 required a supporter. Round the waist they 
 wore a broad zone or cincture, flounced on both 
 edges, and embroidered and jewelled in the 
 centre. They also wore stockings and gloves, 
 but history does not record their materials. 
 They used no sandals ; a light and ornamental 
 shoe was worn in the house ; and for walking 
 they had a kind of coarse half boot. They used 
 shawls and wrappers for the person, and veils 
 for the head ; the veil was large and square, 
 and when thrown over the head, descended low 
 on all sides. They were fond of glowing col- 
 ors, especially of purple, scarlet, and light-blue 
 dresses. Their favorite ornaments were pearls ; 
 they wreathed these in their hair, wore them 
 as necklaces, ear-drops, armlets, bracelets, ank- 
 lets, and worked them into conspicuous parts 
 of their dresses. Of the precious stones they 
 preferred emeralds, rubies, and turquoises, which 
 were set in gold and worn like the pearls." 
 No fewer than 10,000 Greeks, captivated with 
 their charms, married Asiatic brides, and each 
 couple received a present from Alexander. 
 
 Soon after the marriage of Alexander with 
 Roxana, a conspiracy was discovered among 
 his troops, headed by Hermolaus. All were 
 condemned to death but Callisthenes, who was 
 mutilated and carried about with the army in 
 an iron cage, until his tortures became insuffera- 
 ble, and he killed himself by poison. Alexander 
 penetrated into India and was highly success- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ALE 
 
 43 
 
 ALE 
 
 ful. His most determined enemy was Poms, 
 an Indian king, whom he effectually subdued. 
 When this warlike monarch was asked how he 
 should be treated, he answered Alexander, 
 " Like a king," and was consequently restored 
 to his kingdom. 
 
 Alexander established Greek colonies in In- 
 dia, and is said to have built no fewer than 
 seventy towns, one of which was erected in 
 honor of his horse Bucephalus, killed on the 
 banks of the Hydaspes. He would have pene- 
 trated as far as the Ganges but for the murmurs 
 of his army. He returned to the Hydaspes, 
 and built a fleet upon its banks, despatching 
 part of his army by water, while the remainder 
 marched down its banks. His march through 
 the country was not unopposed, and he him- 
 self received a severe wound, from which, how- 
 ever, he recovered, and sailing down the Indus, 
 reached the sea. Nearchus, the admiral of 
 Alexander, sailed to the Persian gulf, while the 
 conqueror reached Babylon by land after en- 
 countering incredible fatigues, which cost him 
 the loss of many men. At Susa, he was mar- 
 ried to two Persian princesses. At Opis, on 
 the Tigris, he sent home the invalids with 
 presents, and quelled a mutiny of his troops. 
 Not long after this, his friend and favorite, 
 Hephaestion, died. It is asserted that the fever 
 of Hephaestion was brought on by hard drink- 
 ing. Alexander's grief at the loss of his fa- 
 vorite was excessive, and even endangered 
 his reason ; for three days he tasted no food, 
 and lay, stretched upon the ground, either in 
 silent sorrow or loud lamentation. The money 
 expended on the funeral pile might have erec- 
 ted a palace ; and all the barbarian subjects of 
 Alexander, were ordered to go into mourning. 
 
 When Alexander went from Ecbatana to 
 Babylon, he is said to have been warned by the 
 astrologers, that the latter place would prove 
 fatal to him. Despising these warnings, he 
 went to Babylon and gave audience to the seve- 
 ral foreign ambassadors, who awaited his arri- 
 val. His mind was engaged in forming vast 
 plans for the future, when he was seized with 
 sickness, after a banquet, and died, 323 B. C. 
 Alexander had reigned twelve years and eight 
 months, and was thirty-two years old at the 
 time of his death. The vast possessions which 
 he had acquired by force, were deluged by con- 
 tinual bloodshed when he was no more. When 
 asked to whom he left his kingdom — he an- 
 swered, " to the worthiest." The body of Al- 
 exander was interred with all the pomp and 
 circumstance of regal burial at Alexandria, 
 
 where Ptolemy enclosed his remains m a gold- 
 en coffin. The Egyptians and other nations 
 paid divine honors to him after his deaih. After 
 summing up the good qualities of Alexander, 
 Adrian adds, " If then he erred from quickness 
 of temper and the influence of anger, and if he 
 loved the display of barbarian pride and splen- 
 dor, I regard not these as serious offences ; for, 
 in candor, we ought to take into consideration 
 his youth, his perpetual success, and the influ- 
 ence of those men who court the society of 
 kings, not for virtuous purposes, but to minis- 
 ter to their pleasures and to corrupt their prin- 
 ciples. On the other hand, Alexander is the 
 only ancient king, who, from the native good- 
 ness of his heart, showed a deep repentance 
 for his misdeeds." 
 
 ALEXANDER JANNiEUS, ascended the 
 throne of Judea in 106, B. C. He made war on 
 the Arabians, quelled the tumults of his own 
 subjects, and after conquering Syria, Idumaea, 
 and Phoenicia, delivered himself up to the most 
 revolting excesses, and died at Jerusalem, B. 
 C. 79. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Phoenician by 
 birth, was related to the emperor Heliogabalus, 
 who, however, attempted his life, in conse- 
 quence of which the Praetorian guards slew 
 the monster, and made Alexander emperor in 
 his 17th year. He proved himself worthy of 
 the sceptre, and having gained a great victory 
 over the Persians, on his return to Rome, was 
 honoured by a triumph. When he marched 
 into Gaul, where an irruption of the Germans 
 required his presence, he fell, by a mutiny of 
 his troops, in the year 235, after a reign of 
 twelve years. He was pious, temperate, fru- 
 gal, humane, and so favorably disposed to 
 Christianity, that he placed the statue of Jesus 
 in his private chapel. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the name of seven Popes, 
 the first of whom introduced the use of holy 
 water. The sixth was remarkable for his cru- 
 elty and the infamy of his son, Caesar Borgia. 
 He died in 1503, having greatly extended the 
 Papal dominions in Italy. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEWSKOI, grand duke of 
 Russia, a hero and saint of the Russian Church, 
 was born in 1218. Having become viceroy of 
 Novogorod, he successfully opposed Vlademir 
 II. king of Denmark, and the Teutonic knights. 
 In 1240, he gained his splendid victory over 
 the Swedes, on the Neva, and two years after- 
 wards, overcame the Knights of the Sword, on 
 the frozen surface of lake Peipus. His death 
 took place in 1263. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 ALE 
 
 44 
 
 ALE 
 
 ALEXANDER I, PAULOWITSCH (the 
 son of Paul), Emperor and Autocrat of all the 
 Russias, and king of Poland, was born in 1777, 
 and crowned the 27th of September, 1801. His 
 mother, Maria, was the daughter of duke Eu- 
 gene of Wirtemberg, and, throughout his life, 
 exerted a great influence over Alexander, by 
 whom she was tenderly beloved. The educa- 
 tion of Alexander was committed to the em- 
 press Catharine II. and Colonel Laharpe, his 
 father renouncing all care of it. In 1793, he 
 married Elizabeth, daughter of the hereditary 
 prince of Baden. He took part in the conspi- 
 racy against his father Paul, although it is 
 impossible to believe that he entertained any 
 design against his life, but saw safety to him- 
 self and others only in the removal of the 
 emperor, from a throne which he disgraced by 
 the reckless spirit of persecution. Alexander 
 sought to promote the welfare of Russia — he 
 removed the shackles from her commerce and 
 internal industry ; he regulated the interior 
 administration of his kingdom ; he established 
 schools and universities ; he bettered the con- 
 dition of the peasantry; he raised the military 
 character of his subjects ; he modified laws with 
 a liberal spirit ; he provided for the construction 
 of roads and canals ; he encouraged merit wher- 
 ever he found it, and finally sought to inspire all 
 classes with a spirit of union, patriotism, enter- 
 prise, and courage. The extent of his success va- 
 rious events contributed to prove. When Na- 
 poleon threatened the government with subver- 
 sion, and the Russians looked to their monarch 
 as their guide, they saw no timidity — no irresolu- 
 tion in Alexander. " I will not negociate with 
 Napoleon," was his resolve, " while one armed 
 enemy remains within my kingdom." Yet he 
 was an admirer of the brilliant qualities of Na- 
 poleon, and this sincere admiration of the 
 French emperor, led to their celebrated meet- 
 ing at Erfurt, in September, 1808. Alexander 
 then thought that, in connexion with Napoleon, 
 he might fix the destinies of Europe. But Na- 
 poleon could brook no equal, and Alexander no 
 superior. When the former displayed a desire 
 to legislate for a country of which he knew lit- 
 tle, and that too in defiance of the wishes and 
 welfare of its emperor, the friendship between 
 them was at an end. In 1814, the conduct of 
 Alexander to the Parisians, when the allies en- 
 tered their capital — the deference he paid to 
 their wishes and opinions — and his favourable 
 tendency towards liberal principles — gained 
 him their enthusiastic admiration. In all the 
 important transactions of Europe from this pe- 
 
 riod, to the time of his death, Alexander par- 
 took, and exerted an immense influence in the 
 different European courts. He was the prin- 
 cipal contriver of the " Holy Alliance," but 
 probably from principle as much as from inter- 
 est. He was the main stay of this unhal- 
 lowed confederacy, and Europe rejoiced ac- 
 cordingly at his death, which took place at 
 Taganrock, of a bilious fever, 1st of Decem- 
 ber, 1825. In his last illness, the emperor re- 
 fused medicine, calling continually for "iced 
 water," the only thing which he would drink. 
 His illness lasted eleven days. Three days after 
 his death, the body w r as exposed to permit the 
 people to kiss the hands of their dead monarch. 
 It was then placed in a coffin, and borne in 
 procession to the church where it remained 
 forty days, and was thence carried to St. Pe- 
 tersburg. A favourite servant of the emperor 
 drove the funeral car which carried his remains 
 to the capital. The emperor's aids-de-camp, 
 followed the cortege, three of them being seated 
 in the funeral car. A squadron of Cossacks of the 
 guard, attendants, and officers, attached to the 
 imperial suite, completed the train. It took its 
 departure from Taganrock, in the most severe 
 weather of December, 1825. The empress, 
 who was tenderly attached to her husband, 
 soothed his last moments, and received his last 
 sigh. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, Lord Stirling, was 
 a Major-general in the army of the United 
 States during the revolution, and distinguished 
 himself throughout the whole of the eventful 
 struggle, but particularly in the battles of Long 
 Island, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died 
 at Albany, 1783, with the reputation of a learn- 
 ed, brave, honest, and patriotic man. The title 
 of Lord Stirling, was given him by courtesy, as 
 he claimed to be the rightful heir to an earldom 
 in Scotland, although his claims w 7 ere not sus- 
 tained bv legal tribunals. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (called Scandcria by the 
 Turks), was the capital of Lower Egypt, and 
 under the Ptolemies, whose favourite residence 
 it. was, was celebrated for its wealth, splen- 
 dor, and arts. It was founded in 332, B. C. by 
 Alexander, who employed the celebrated archi- 
 tect, Dinociates, in beautifying and embellish- 
 ing it. There was something singularly strik- 
 ing in the birth of this great city. Under the 
 patronage of Alexander, it sprang up at once 
 into beauty and importance, without encoun- 
 tering any of those evils and obstacles, which 
 generally obstruct the rise of a newly-founded 
 place. The situation of Alexandria, and the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ALE 
 
 45 
 
 ALE 
 
 excellence of its fine harbours, appeared to 
 adapt it to the rank which its founder hoped 
 that it would hold among the cities of the 
 world. Ptolemy Soter, or the Savior, and 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, conferred great benefits 
 upon the city, which became the seat of litera- 
 ture and the resort of the learned of all coun- 
 tries. Its earliest inhabitants were Creeks and 
 Egyptians. The population was augmented 
 by colonies of Jews transported thither for that 
 purpose. These people made themselves fa- 
 miliar with Grecian lore, and translated into 
 the Greek language the whole of the Old Tes- 
 tament, a version called the Septuagint. Four 
 hundred thousand volumes of the royal library 
 were contained in a magnificent edifice belong- 
 ing to the Academy and Museum ; 300,000 
 more were deposited in the temple of Jupiter 
 Serapis. As all these works were in manu- 
 script, their value was consequently immense. 
 The Ptolemies spared no pains to enrich their 
 library, which became the finest in the world. 
 When Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, the 
 library was injured by fire, but the loss was re- 
 paired by the library of Pergainus which Anto- 
 ny presented to Queen Cleopatra. It is now 
 ascertained that the library of the Serapion, or 
 temple of Serapis, remained entire until the 
 time of Theodosius the Great, when the Chris- 
 tians, inspired by fanaticism, stormed and de- 
 stroyed the Temple, effecting the destruction 
 of that library which was the wonder of the 
 world, and the loss of which must ever be a 
 subject of painful regret. Towards the close 
 of the fourth century, the only memorials of the 
 existence of the library , were the empty shelves 
 which once contained those invaluable manu- 
 scripts, which the elegance and care of kings 
 had brought together. When the division of 
 the Roman empire was effected, Alexandria, 
 together with the country of which it was the 
 capital, was included in the Eastern empire. 
 Alexandria came into the hands of the Arabs, 
 in C40. It received the attention of the Caliph 
 Motawakel, who, mindful of its former state, 
 restored both the library and academy, in 845. 
 In 8G8, it was taken by the Turks, and under 
 their sway, very rapidly declined. Still its 
 commerce was in a flourishing state, and con- 
 tinued so until the close of the 15th century, 
 when the Portuguese, by the discovery of the 
 passage to the Indies by the Cape of Cood 
 Hope, altered the commercial channel, and 
 enriched themselves at the expense of the 
 Egyptians. The modern city of Alexandria, 
 does not stand upon the spot occupied by the 
 
 ancient city. The remains of ancient Alexan- 
 dria are unimportant, Cfeopatra's needle, and 
 Pompey's pillar, being the most conspicuous. 
 The latter was erected by Pompey , a governor 
 of Egypt, in honor of the emperor Diocletian ; 
 but the equestrian statue which formeily sur- 
 mounted it, is gone. Some years past, a party 
 of English sailors resolved to amuse themselves, 
 and astonish the natives, by mounting to the 
 top, and refreshing themselves at an elevation 
 which should put them above the cares and 
 turmoils of humanity. How to accomplish 
 their purpose was the next question. This was 
 soon settled. They raised a line by means of a 
 kite, and dropped it over the pillar, and by this 
 means drew up a rope, by which they gained 
 the top, whence, looking down upon the spec- 
 tators from a giddy elevation of 88 feet, they 
 congratulated themselves on their success. The 
 island of Pnaros yet bears the ruins of the 
 light-house erected by Ptolemy. This cele- 
 brated building was of white marble. Ptolemy 
 directed his name to be inscribed upon the tow- 
 er, but the cunning architect carved the name 
 of his employer upon a tablet of plaster, which, 
 decaying in time, displayed the name of the 
 builder, with a dedication to the gods, claim- 
 ing for himself all the honors due to his sove- 
 refgn. The Turks have but little sympathy 
 with the lovers of antiquity. They deface the 
 most venerated remains, placing little value 
 upon any, probably espousing the oriental max 
 im ; " a living dog is better than a dead lion." 
 A few years ago, the Pacha of Egypt employed 
 a renegado to collect all the moveable antiques 
 of every kind, that they might be exposed for 
 sale to the Europeans, in a bazaar built for the 
 purpose. Cleopatra's needle was presented to 
 the king of England by the Pacha, but its 
 weight, 400,000 pounds, is a serious bar to its 
 transportation. The ancient Alexandria, had a 
 population of 000,000; the modern contains 
 but 25,000. It is the seat of a patriarch. The 
 canal from Cairo to Alexandria, has- improv- 
 ed the commerce of the place. It has two 
 harbors, of which the Western, or Old Har- 
 bor has the deepest water, and the best an- 
 chorage ; the New Port is more shallow and 
 exposed. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, (U. S. A.) a city in the 
 District of Columbia, county of Alexandria, 
 situated on the right bank of the Potomac, six 
 miles south of Washington. Population in 
 1800, 4,196 ; in 1840, 8462 ; blacks, 2,581. It 
 contains several public buildings. Its situa- 
 tion is rather elevated, and some of its streets 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ALF 
 
 46 
 
 ALF 
 
 are well paved. Its trade, which is principally 
 in flour, is facilitated^by its favorable situation 
 on the Potomac. 
 
 ALEXIS, or ALEXIUS PETROVITSCH, 
 son of Peter the Great of Russia, was born in 
 3690. His father, suspecting him of treason, 
 disinherited him in 1718. Not content with 
 this he had Alexis condemned to death, and 
 his sentence read to him, which created such 
 terror in his mind, that he died in consequence, 
 although pardoned, in four days. The account 
 of his assassination in prison is wholly a fabri- 
 cation. He had a son who was afterwards 
 Peter II. 
 
 ALEXIS I (Comnenus) Greek emperor, 
 defeated by Robert Guiscard at Dyrrachium,and 
 by the Turks in Asia Minor. In conjunction 
 with the crusaders, he regained Nicaea, in 
 1097, but afterwards quarrelled with them. He 
 flourished from 1031, to 1118. 
 
 ALEXIS II (Comnenus) in consequence 
 of the misconduct of his mother, was compelled 
 to admit Andronicus Comnenus as his col- 
 league in 1183. This miscreant strangled him 
 in the year after. 
 
 ALEXIS HI (Angelus) having deposed 
 his brother Isaac, emperor of the east, and put 
 out his eyes, thought his usurped sovereignty 
 secure. But he was besieged in Constantino- 
 ple by the French and Venetians, who reinsta- 
 ted Isaac. In Thrace, whither he had fled for 
 safety, Alexis fell into the hands of Theodore 
 Lascaris, who put his eyes out, and imprisoned 
 him in a monastery, where he died. 
 
 ALFIERI, Victor, Count, was born at Asti 
 in Piedmont, in 1749. His family was rich 
 and distinguished, but his education was ne- 
 glected, like that of most of the young Italian 
 nobles of his age and rank. Thus he quitted 
 the academy of Turin, with an undisciplined 
 and unformed mind, and joined a regiment in 
 the hope of finding something exciting in mili- 
 tary pursuits. But here he was disappointed, 
 the regiment was mustered only on a few days 
 in the year, and he was compelled to seek some 
 other mode of killing time. He travelled over 
 Italy, France, England, and Holland, but want- 
 ed the information to render his wanderings 
 profitable. On his return, he commenced the 
 study of history, but, disgusted with its details, 
 again set forth on his travels, from which he 
 did not return for three years. He brought 
 back the same restless and dissatisfied spirit. 
 He threw up his commission in the army, and 
 wrote a tragedy. The success of this first at- 
 tempt, induced him to persevere ; but, aware 
 
 of his deficiencies, he resolved, in the first 
 place, to become acquainted with Latin and 
 Tuscan. On his journey to Tuscany, where 
 he proposed studying, he became acquainted 
 with the Countess of Albany, to whom he owed 
 much of his inspiration. Settling his fortune 
 on his sister, he resided alternately at Florence 
 and Rome, until the death of Charles Stuart, 
 put an end to the woes of the Countess of Al- 
 bany, and enabled her to marry him. They 
 lived together in Alsace and at Paris, until the 
 revolution in France drove Alfierifrom a coun- 
 try he loved, to his native land, where he resi- 
 ded at Florence till his death, in 1803. He 
 was an ardent lover of freedom, but he mourned 
 over the crimes perpetrated in her name. Alfie- 
 ri's talents were great, but misapplied, and his 
 tragedies are rather valuable as indicating his 
 powers, than as establishing his fame. 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT, king of England, 
 was born 849, and died 900. He was the young- 
 est son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, 
 and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He 
 went to Rome at the age of five years, and was 
 anointed by the Pope, although he then had an 
 elder brother. However, in 872, he ascended 
 the throne. This was an unpropitious time, 
 for the power of the Danes was then great and 
 employed in harassing the Saxons, whose coun- 
 try they ravaged in various directions. Alfred 
 concluded some treaties with them, but they 
 were not kept, and, unable to make head 
 against the invaders, he was compelled to fly, 
 and in concealment to await a moment when 
 his re-appearance would be advantageous for 
 his country. In the disguise of a harper, he 
 penetrated the Danish camp to gain informa- 
 tion of the strength and hopes of his foes, and 
 having satisfied himself of both, directed his 
 nobles and their vassals to assemble at Selwood. 
 Here he headed the troops, and, attacking the 
 Danes at Eddington, gained a signal victory. 
 He permitted those Danes, who were willing to 
 embrace the Christian religion, to remain in the 
 kingdom of East Anglia, which he surrendered 
 to them. Pie built forts to secure his subjects, 
 augmented and strengthened his navy, and 
 established the prosperity of London on a firm 
 basis. He defeated the Danes who still per- 
 sisted in attempting to obtain footing in Eng- 
 land, and made his name a terror to the pirates. 
 He had fought fifty -six battles by sea and land, 
 in every one of which he was personally enga- 
 ged. His zeal for the reformation of laws and 
 manners is as honorable to him as his military 
 prowess. He composed a code of laws,institu- 
 
! 
 
 HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ALG 
 
 47 
 
 ALG 
 
 ted the trial by jury, and divided England into 
 shires and tithings. So successful were his 
 regulations that it is said the crime of robbery 
 was unknown, and the most valuable goods 
 might be exposed upon the highway, without 
 any dread of thieves. Alfred formed a parlia- 
 ment which met at London semi-annually. 
 
 He was an ardent lover of learning, and was 
 himself a distinguished scholar. To promote it, 
 he invited learned men from all parts, and 
 established schools throughout his kingdom. 
 He is said to have been the founder of the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford, or, at least, to have exalted 
 it to a height which it had never before attained. 
 University-college sprang from his liberality. 
 He composed several works, and translated 
 others for the benefit of his subjects. Among 
 his translations may be mentioned Boetius's 
 Consolations of Philosophy. He was industri- 
 ous and fond of order, dividing the twenty-four 
 hours into three equal portions; one devoted 
 to religious duties, another to public affairs, 
 and the third to rest. Alfred laid the foun- 
 dation of the navy of England, by build- 
 ing galleys of a size superior to that of any 
 of the age. In private life, he was distinguished 
 by piety, affability, and cheerfulness. His 
 person was commanding and stately. 
 
 ALGIERS, Regency of, was founded about 
 1518, by two brothers, Horuc and Hagradin, 
 or Khair Eddin, both of whom were surna- 
 med Barbarossa or Red-Beard. The Christian 
 knights, having warred against the states of 
 northern Africa, and almost annihilated the 
 Moorish commerce, Selim and Soliman exhort- 
 ed their subjects to make reprisals, and to annoy 
 their Christian foes by committing extensive 
 piracies. The call was obeyed without reluc- 
 tance, and the Mohammedans, crowded beneath 
 the crescent, prepared to extend the terror 
 of their name upon the seas. The piratical 
 republic founded by the fierce chieftains above- 
 named, was the strong hold of religious fanati- 
 cism and authorised piracy. The barks of the 
 Corsairs swept the seas in triumph, and the 
 Algerines distinguished themselves above the 
 inhabitants of the other Barbary states, by the 
 fierce perseverance with which they pursued 
 their career of crime. A foreign soldiery elected 
 their chief in Algiers, and the Dey, chosen as 
 a general, was the first among his equals and 
 the ruler of the native races. The soldiers were 
 not permitted to marry, and had no participa- 
 tion in the government. The city of Algiers 
 (Al Jezira) was built by Zeiri, an Arab of distinc- 
 tion, in 944, and the family of this able man 
 
 was endowed with hereditary power by one of 
 the Fatimite Caliphs. The Zeirites, as they 
 were called, ruled until 1148, when Roger, king 
 of Sicily, and the Moravites, possessed them- 
 selves, at different times, of the whole of the 
 territory of Hassan Ben Ali. Algiers was an 
 independent sovereignty after 1270. Ferdi- 
 nand, who fitted out an expedition against the 
 Barbary powers, in 1509, subdued Algiers, and 
 erected a strong castle on an island which com- 
 manded the entrance of the city. Horuc and 
 Hagradin, after the death of Ferdinand, were 
 summoned by the Algerines, and, appearing 
 with a strong squadron, were received with 
 every demonstration of joy. But Horuc caused 
 the emir Selim Entani to be strangled, and 
 himself to be proclaimed king, in 1518, by the 
 Turks, whose intolerance and cruelty drove the 
 natives to seek for assistance from the Span- 
 iards, but the fleet of the latter was destroyed 
 by storm. Horuc Barbarossa was killed before 
 Oran, where the Spanish governor defeated his 
 troops, and killed 1500 Turks. 
 
 Hagradin, his successor, being satisfied of his 
 inability to defend himself against the Chris- 
 tians, in 1519 sought the protection of the Sultan 
 Soliman, who accepted his proposals, made him 
 Pacha, and gave him 10,000 Janisaries. The 
 Spaniards found their position on an island 
 untenable, and, in 1519, it was connected with 
 the main land by a mole. Charles V under- 
 took the siege of Algiers, in the latter part of 
 1541. It was defended by Hassan, who had 
 been honored with the office of Pacha, after the 
 death of Hagradin, and who heard with some 
 alarm that Charles meditated an attack with 
 200 sail, and 30,000 men. The ships and camp 
 of the Christians were destroyed by storms 
 of uncommon violence, the destructive effects 
 of which were followed by the ravages of earth- 
 quakes. Charles lost his cannon, military stores, 
 and baggage, and was compelled to abandon 
 some of his scattered troops, while 15 ships of 
 war, 140 transports, and 8000 men perished in 
 the storm. This success inspired the Moors 
 with the liveliest joy, but they attributed it en- 
 tirely to the pious exertions of ' Sid-Atica, a 
 Maraboot, who employed himself diligently in 
 beating the sea with his stick, until the waves 
 lost all patience, and rising in a body, destroyed 
 the Christian fleet. The worthy old gentleman 
 was buried with great solemnity, and his bones 
 rest beneath a monument erected by his coun- 
 trymen. They are said to be gifted with the 
 magic power of his stick, and, employed upon 
 the waves with proper emphasis, capable of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALG 
 
 43 
 
 ALH 
 
 ,-aising the wind to an incredible extent. Anti- 
 quity furnishes a belief in the efficacy of chas- 
 tising the waters, for Xerxes, enraged at the 
 turbulence of the Grecian waves, caused them 
 to be whipped with rods. 
 
 In 1703, the Spaniards unsuccessfully renew- 
 ed the war with Algiers. The Algerines 
 easily repelled the English, French, and Dutch, 
 the first of whom made a treaty with Algiers, 
 whose pride they humbled in 1816. The year 
 before, two United States' frigates had captured 
 a piratical frigate and brig of war, belonging to 
 the Algerines, and compelled them not only to 
 renounce their claim to all tribute, but to make 
 indemnification for the losses which we had 
 experienced from their piracies. In 1S17, the 
 Algerines penetrated the North Sea, and there, 
 with surprising audacity, captured ships which 
 did not belong to tributary powers, or to those 
 who were exempted from their depredations by 
 treaty. Prisoners taken by these Corsairs were 
 treated with the greatest severity, and only 
 permitted to be ransomed at enormous prices. 
 Towards the latter part of their career, the 
 pirates professed to consider captives not in the 
 light of slaves, but as prisoners of war. Their 
 treatment, however, instead of being ameliora- 
 ted was more harsh than ever, and the corsairs, 
 although they respected the flags of America 
 and other strong powers, in violation of their 
 treaties, warred with the ships of weaker states, 
 and enforced the superiority of might over 
 right. The jealousy of the European States 
 for a long time favored the encroachments of 
 the Algerines, until the French prepared for 
 conflict with stern decision. One of the last 
 events in the reign of Charles X, was the entire 
 prostration of the power of Algiers. The Dey, 
 with his personal treasures, and women, was 
 permitted to retire, and selected Italy as a retreat. 
 The French secured their conquest and estab- 
 lished a government upon their own principles. 
 
 During the prosperity of Algiers, a struggle 
 was kept up with the Sublime Porte about the 
 appointment of the deys,and the Sultan finally 
 relinquished the claim of choosing them, and 
 retained but a nominal authority over Algiers. 
 The deys, whenever they displeased the fero- 
 cious soldiery they affected to rule, were deposed 
 and put to death. The lives of these men were 
 proverbially short, but we admit an exception 
 in the person of Mohammed III who died in 
 1701, after a reign of 23 years, at the age of 03. 
 Omar Pacha, the opponent of Lord Exmouth, 
 was murdered in 1817. Accordingly, Ali Ho- 
 dya, his successor, shut himself up in the castle 
 
 of Casaba, where, by means of his fifty -six can- 
 non, and a garrison on which he could rely, 
 he maintained the ascendancy over the city 
 and the cruel Turkish troops, who had mur- 
 dered Omar. Hussein, successor of Hodya, 
 rendered cautious by experience, likewise occu- 
 pied this strong castle. The government of 
 Algiers was despotic, the dey possessing un- 
 limited power, but being assisted by a Divan 
 composed of his chief officers of state, and first 
 ministers. The common soldiers elected the 
 Dey, but no election was permitted without 
 unanimity in the electors. Therefore, when 
 there was a difference, the majority compelled 
 the weaker party to concur with them. The 
 new Dey espoused the principle of proscription, 
 and frequently put to death incumbents, for the 
 sake of making State offices open to his parti- 
 zans. He held a court of justice on four days 
 in the week, where proceedings were summary, 
 and condemnation was followed by punishment 
 at no long interval. 
 
 The State of Algiers lies between Tunis and 
 Fez. The city, which is strongly fortified, is 
 on the sea-coast. Algiers contains 80,300 
 square miles. 
 
 ALH AM A, anciently Artigis Julia, a. town 
 of Granada, in Spain, situated on the Motril, 
 15 miles from Granada. Population, 6,000. 
 The medicinal baths and romantic scenery of 
 this place have rendered it noted, but its fame 
 rests upon its historical remembrances. This 
 " Key of Granada," was taken by the Span- 
 iards, in 1481, after a most spirited resistance 
 on the part of the valiant Moors. 
 
 ALHAMBRA. The Alhambra was the for- 
 tified palace of the Moorish kings of Gra- 
 nada — a possession to which they clung with 
 their latest grasp, and which was the best 
 beloved spot in their terrestrial paradise. The 
 meaning of the Moorish name is the red city, 
 and it was so called in consequence of the color 
 of the materials employed in building. The 
 Spanish term it the Sierra del Sol, because, from 
 its situation on an eminence, it catches and re- 
 flects the first beams of the rising sun. The 
 palace composes but a small portion of the for- 
 tress, whose walls encompass the crest of a lofty 
 hill rising from the Sierra Nevada, or Snowj r 
 Mountain. The fortress was at one time capa- 
 ble of containing forty thousand men. Above 
 the palace is the house of the Generalif, a 
 Moorish building, while a church dedicated to 
 St. Helena, crowns the ascent. There are two 
 palaces, the old Moorish palace, and that com- 
 menced by Charles V. The former exhibits 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ALH 
 
 49 
 
 ALI 
 
 remains of the splendor of the arts among the 
 infidels. A striking portion of the palace is the 
 Court of Lions which is an hundred feet in 
 length, and fifteen in breadth, surrounded by a 
 beautiful colonnade seven feet broad at the 
 sides, and ten at the ends. Two splendid por- 
 ticoes, fifteen feet square, project into this 
 court. The square is paved with tiles — the 
 colonnade with white marble. The walls are 
 covered with tiles placed checker-wise, which 
 gives them a highly fanciful appearance. The 
 columns, upon which the roof and gallery rest, 
 are grotesquely ornamented and irregularly 
 distributed. The capitals abound with curious 
 devices, among which, however, there is no 
 representation of animal life. The fountain, 
 consists of twelve ill-shaped lions, bearing on 
 their backs a large basin, out of which rises a 
 smaller one. Here, when the pipes were in 
 order, water gushed from the inner basin, and, 
 passing through the lions, communicated by 
 channels with other apartments. The fountain 
 is of white marble and inscribed with Arabian 
 distiches, like the following, " Sees't thou how 
 the water flows copiously like the Nile?" — 
 " The fair princess that walks by this garden, 
 covered with pearls, ornaments its beauty so 
 much, that thou mayest doubt whether it be a 
 fountain that flows or tears of her admirers.'' 
 The hall beyond the colonnade on the south 
 side was the place chosen by Abouabdoulah for 
 the execution of the Abencerrages, and their 
 bleeding heads fell, as fast as they were decapi- 
 tated, into the limpid waters of the fountain. 
 The hall of the Two Sisters, {Torre de las dos 
 Hermanas), was named from two beautiful slabs 
 of white marble, inserted in the pavement. El 
 Tocador, or the Tiring Tower, was appropria- 
 ted to the toilette of the Sultana, who, in one 
 part, had a marble slab in the floor perforated 
 with holes, to admit vapor and perfumes, for 
 the purification of her person. The king's bed- 
 chamber was furnished with fountains to cool 
 the atmosphere, and the royal baths were com- 
 modious and superb. Beneath were vaults 
 used as a cemetery by the Moorish monarch. 
 The regret of the Moors at leaving this place, 
 which wealth, art, and taste, had brought to a 
 degree of splendor which satisfied the imagina- 
 tion, can easily be conceived. They never 
 ceased to offer up prayers in their mosques for 
 their restoration to Granada. After it fell into 
 the hands of the believers, Alhambra continued 
 to be a royal demesne. Charles V abandoned 
 it as a residence in consequence of earthquakes ; 
 and Philip V, with his beautiful queen Eliza- 
 
 beth of Parma, was the last royal tenant of 
 this princely abode. Subsequently it became 
 infested by a lawless population which was ex- 
 pelled, but, owing to the culpable negligence 
 of officers, the palace was permitted to fall into 
 decay from which the Moorish portion was 
 partially rescued by the exertions of the French 
 troops garrisoned in it. The French, on their 
 departure, blew up part of the walls and de- 
 stroyed its importance as a military post. To 
 the historian, the poet, the antiquary, and the 
 artist, this relic of Moorish splendor possesses 
 an indisputable interest. 
 
 ALI, the cousin, and son-in-law of Moham- 
 med. When Mohammed assembling his kins- 
 men, and making known to them his pretended 
 mission, asked, who would be his vizier ; Ali, 
 then only 14 years of age, started up and ex- 
 claimed : " I will ! Let but a man advance 
 against thee, I will pluck out his eyes, dash in 
 his jaws, break his legs, and tear up his belly. 
 O prophet, I am thy vizier." So well did he 
 keep his word, that he was called the Lion 
 of the Lord, the ev er -victor imis. He should have 
 succeeded Mohammed, but being opposed suc- 
 cessfully by Omar and Othman, he formed a 
 sect of his own, and gained many followers 
 On the death of Othman, he was declared Ca 
 liph, but was assassinated in a mosque, at Cufa, 
 in the 03d year of his age, 669. 
 
 ALI, pacha of Yanina, commonly called Ali 
 Pacha, was born of a noble family in Tepeleni, 
 in 1744, and at the age of sixteen, when distin- 
 guished for beauty and daring, headed the 
 troops wmorn the death of his father left with 
 no other leader. Being defeated, he commen- 
 ced robber, but was so unsuccessful, that he 
 was forced to pawn his sabre to keep himself 
 from starving. As he was sitting, ruminating 
 upon the hardness of his destiny, and carelessly 
 turning up the ground with his staff*, he struck 
 upon something hard. Curiosity induced him to 
 search further, and he dug up a chest of gold ! 
 He now equipped a band of followers whose 
 cruelty and rapacity made them formidable. 
 Having rendered some service to the Porte, he 
 was made governor of some provinces in 
 Greece, but maintained himself in almost inde- 
 pendent sovereignty. Indeed he boasted that 
 he never had a master, and 
 
 " Laughed to scorn the death firman, 
 Which others tremble but to scan." 
 
 He became a formidable military potentate 
 between 1790 and 1821. In 1822, his capital, 
 Yanina, being taken, he was put to death by 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALL 
 
 50 
 
 ALP 
 
 order of the Sultan. He was brave and able, 
 but cruel, rapacious, false, ambitious and 
 suspicious. Pouqueville says that he had a 
 Greek lady, Euphrosyne, and fifteen oth^r wo- 
 men thrown into the sea, because he suspected 
 that they exerted an undue influence over his 
 son. If he wished to possess himself of a beau- 
 tiful Greek girl, he sent his executioner to her 
 parents, with this message : " Your daughter 
 has found favor in the eyes of Ali." They 
 were then forced to surrender her, or fly. 
 
 ALICANT, (anciently Lucentum) a city and 
 port of Spain, on the Mediterranean sea, Ion. 
 29 w.,lat. 38^21 n. Population 25,300. Its 
 harbor is good, and it is the centre of commerce 
 between Spain and Italy. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, brigadier-general in our 
 revolutionary army, born at Salisbury, Con- 
 necticut. His parents removed to Vermont, 
 when he was quite young, and here he received 
 the greater part of his education. Prior to the 
 commencement of hostilities he had given 
 proofs of daring and enterprise. Soon after the 
 battle of Lexington, (1775), incompliance with 
 the request of the legislature of Connecticut, he 
 headed two hundred and thirty Green Moun- 
 tain boys, and marched against the fortresses 
 of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. At Castle- 
 ton he was to have been joined by a reinforce- 
 ment under Arnold, but the latter, unable to 
 raise the proposed force, set forward with the 
 Spartan band of Allen. On the night of the 
 9th of May, Allen landed eighty-three men 
 near the fort, having with difficulty procured 
 boats for the purpose. Day surprised him be- 
 fore his rear guard was brought over, and he 
 found himselt compelled to attack the place. 
 He concluded an animated speech by saying, 
 " I am going to lead you forward — but the at- 
 tempt is desperate — and I wish to urge n6 man 
 onward against his will. Those who will fol- 
 low me, poise firelocks !" Every firelock was 
 immediately poised. On then, my boys !" said 
 Allen, and led the central file to the wicket 
 gate. He was opposed by a sentry, but brought 
 his men through the covered way, and formed 
 them on the parade. 
 
 The commanding officer, Captain de la Place, 
 was undressed. Allen, holding his sword over 
 him, demanding the surrender of the fortress. 
 "In whose name?" asked the commander. 
 " In the name of the Great Jehovah, and the 
 continental Congress." On the same day by 
 the capture of Crown Point, and the only armed 
 vessel on Lake Champlain, that important lake 
 was placed in his power. In conjunction with 
 
 Brown, he attempted the reduction of Montreal, 
 but being attacked by the British before Colo- 
 nel Brown's troops came up, he was defeated 
 and made prisoner. He was treated with great 
 barbarity in his captivity — carried to England, 
 and then to Halifax — thence to New York, 
 where he remained a year and a half, before he 
 was exchanged for Col. Campbell. His health 
 having been greatly impaired, he returned to 
 Vermont where he was appointed to command 
 the militia. His patriotism was firm, and he 
 indignantly rejected the bribes offered by the 
 British. He died suddenly, at his estate at 
 Colchester, February 13th, 1789. He published 
 some pamphlets, one of which contained an 
 open declaration of infidelity. He adopted the 
 most absurd ideas of the ancients, with regard 
 to the transmigration of souls ; but if we may 
 be permitted to believe the following anecdote, 
 his avowal of atheism was insincere. When 
 his daughter was dying, she sent for him, and 
 said ; " Father, I am about to die : shall I be 
 lieve in what you have taught me, or in the 
 Christian principles my mother teaches ?" Af- 
 ter a moment of convulsive agitation, he replied : 
 " Believe in what your mother has taught you." 
 
 ALMAZEZ, a town of Spain, carried by 
 assault by the British, under General Sir Row- 
 land Hill, 1812. 
 
 ALMEIDA, a strong fortress in Portugal, in 
 the province of Beira, on the Coa, near the 
 Spanish borders, containing 2,750 inhabitants. 
 It is famous for the defeat of the French, under 
 Massena, by the British under Lord Welling- 
 ton, 1811. 
 
 ALOADDIN, the old man of the mountains, 
 was prince of the Arsacides, or Assassins. He 
 resided in a castle between Antioch and Da- 
 mascus, and his followers professed a blind 
 devotion to his will. 
 
 ALP ARSLAN, the lion's whelp, second 
 Sultan of the Seljukian dynasty, succeeded to 
 the throne in 1068. He defeated the Greeks 
 under Romanus Diogenes, their emperor. He 
 was stabbed in 1072, by a desperate prisoner 
 whom he had sentenced to death. 
 
 ALPHONSO. Ten kings of Castile bore 
 this name. The tenth was an astronomer of 
 great repute. 
 
 ALPHONSO III, the Great, king of Leon and 
 Asturias, succeeded his father in S6G, at the 
 age of eighteen. He was successful against 
 the Moors, but the decline of his life was ren- 
 dered unhappy by civil disturbances. His sons, 
 instigated by the queen, waged war against 
 him, and were only quelled with a vast loss on 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ALP 
 
 51 
 
 ALT 
 
 both sides. Alphonso abdicated in favor of his 
 son Don Garcia, but did not resign his paternal 
 care of the kingdom, for when the Moors 
 threatened it, he headed the Spanish troops, 
 gained a decisive victory and died at Zamora, 
 912, sixty-four years old.' 
 
 ALPS, the loftiest ridge of mountains in Eu- 
 rope, whose branches connect with nearly all the 
 European mountains. Mount Blanc, the highest 
 mountain in Europe, is 15,304 feet (English) 
 high ; the great St. Bernard, 10,780. Separating 
 Italy from Spain, France and Germany, it would 
 seem as if they opposed an insurmountable bar- 
 rier to the march of conquest ; but they have 
 been several times crossed by large armies, the 
 expeditions of Hannibal and Bonaparte being 
 the most celebrated. Bonaparte, when first 
 consul of the French republic, passed the great 
 St. Bernard, in the year 1800. 
 
 Before the allies even knew of his departure, 
 he was in Valais, at the house of convalescence 
 belonging to the monks of St. Bernard ; there 
 he remained three days, acquiring a knowledge 
 of the local obstacles which he had to surmount. 
 From mount St. Bernard, the army began to 
 meet with obstacles which only genuine enthu- 
 siasm enabled them to contend against. They 
 had to draw their artillery along narrow paths, 
 in many places almost perpendicular ; and over 
 mountains of snow. A very small force would 
 have arrested their progress, but they met no 
 opposition. They reached St. Peter, near the 
 great mountain St. Bernard, on the 15th of 
 May, General Berthier acting as Bonaparte's 
 lieutenant. Here the whole park of artillery 
 was collected. The mountain they had to pass 
 over was all wild and barren, with a vast extent 
 of snow and ice, mingled with terrific silence. 
 Over this frightful mountain the mind of Bona- 
 parte conceived the possibility of passing his 
 army with all its artillery, baggage, &c. The 
 cannon, caissons, forges, &c. were immedi- 
 ately dismounted piece by piece ; a number of 
 trees were hollowed like troughs, in which the 
 pieces of cannon might safely slide, and five or 
 six hundred men drew them up these tremen- 
 dous heights ; the wheels were carried on 
 poles ; sledges conveyed the axle-trees ; and 
 empty caissons and mules were loaded with the 
 ammunition-boxes made of fir. 
 
 The consul took no more baggage than was 
 absolutely necessary. Five hours were con- 
 sumed in climbing as high as the monastery of 
 the Bernadines, where the good fathers gave 
 each individual a glass of wine ; this, though 
 frozen, was to them delicious, and not one 
 5* 
 
 would have exchanged it for all the gold of 
 Peru. There were still six leagues to go, and 
 the rapidity of the descent made that distance 
 truly terrible ; men and horses constantly fall- 
 ing, and often recovering with the greatest dif- 
 ficulty. The march commenced at midnight, 
 and did not finish till about nine o'clock the 
 next evening. For nearly fourteen leagues the 
 army had scarcely had a meal, or any repose, 
 yet, at the end of the journey, sleep hung so 
 heavily even upon the most robust of them, that 
 they resigned themselves to it without a strug- 
 gle, or a thought of their evening repast. Bona- 
 parte traversed a portion of the way attended 
 only by a peasant. He was dressed in the little 
 grey surtout and cocked hat, in which artists 
 delight to represent him. He conversed with 
 his companion, and learning that his wishes 
 centered in the possession of a little farm, in- 
 ternally resolved to gratify them. The farm 
 was presented to the peasant, whose delight and 
 surprise may be readily imagined. 
 
 ALSACE, previously to the revolution, was 
 a province of France. On the east, it was 
 bounded by the Rhine, separating it from Swa- 
 bia, on the south by Switzerland and part of 
 Franche Comte ; on the west, by Lorraine, and 
 on the north by the Palatinate of the Rhine. 
 The fertility of this province is surprising, it 
 being the land of corn, oil, wine, flax, tobacco, 
 fruits of various descriptions, a country of 
 woodland and pasturage. Among its mineral 
 productions are silver, copper, iron, and lead. 
 The " arrowy Rhine," is the principal river of 
 Alsace, but it has several lakes. The common 
 language of the country people is German, 
 though French is understood and occasionally 
 spoken. The ancient inhabitants of this pro- 
 vince were the Rauraci Sequani,and Medioma- 
 trici. The Celts lost it to the Romans, from 
 whom it passed to the Germans, and was won 
 by Clovis, in 496. In 869, it became a pro- 
 vince of Germany, and was governed by Ger- 
 man dukes, and under them, by Counts, who, 
 a century before the extinction of dukes, as- 
 sumed the name of landgraves. By the peace 
 of Paris, Nov. 20th, 1815, Landau, a part of 
 Alsace, was separated from France, to which it 
 had been annexed by the treaty of Ryswick, 
 and now again forms part of Germany. The 
 chief city is Strasburg, and the principal pro- 
 ductions wine, copper, iron, tobacco, flax, mad- 
 der, &c. &c. 
 
 ALTON A, after Copenhagen, the largest city 
 of Denmark. It is situated on the Elbe, in the 
 dutchy of Holstein, two miles from Hamburg 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AMB 52 
 
 ALVA, Ferdinand Alvarez, duke of, descen- 
 ded from a noble family, born in 1508, distin- 
 guished himself in the career of arms at the 
 age of seventeen, and was at the siege of Pavia. 
 Charles V made him a general, and he was 
 commander at the siege of Mentz, where he 
 fought with desperate but unavailing valor, for 
 the siege was raised. He was noted for exces- 
 sive cruelty and superstition. In the campaign 
 against the pope, Alva compelled the pontiff to 
 sue for peace, and then went to Rome to sup- 
 plicate pardon for the offence. In 1567, he 
 was sent to the Low Countries by Philip II to 
 reduce them to the Spanish yoke. The cru- 
 elty of The Bloody Tribunal, a council which he 
 established, deluged the United Provinces in 
 their best blood. At first the arms of Alva 
 were successful, but the malcontents afterwards 
 gaining head, he relinquished the government 
 where he was afterwards employed. In Por- 
 tugal, he acquired renown by his success in 
 driving Don Antonio from the throne. He 
 died in 1582. 
 
 AMADEUS, the name of several of the 
 counts of Savoy, of whom Amadeus VI was 
 the most famous. He lent his powerful aid 
 to John, king of France, against Edward of 
 England ; and was the ally of John Paleologus, 
 (emperor of Greece), in 1365. His reign of forty 
 years was glorious, and his death in 1383, 
 deeply lamented. 
 
 AMAZONS. Ancient writers give this name 
 to tribes of armed and warlike women of which 
 they enumerate three nations, the African, 
 Asiatic, and Scythian. Their arms were bows 
 and arrows, and they admitted no men into 
 their community. The accounts of them are 
 entirely fabulous. Amazonia, in South Ameri- 
 ca, derived its name from the supposition of 
 early travellers that it was peopled by armed 
 women. 
 
 AMBOYNA, the largest and most productive 
 of the Molucca or Spice Islands, the centre of 
 the nutmeg and clove trade, in the Indian 
 ocean. It is 30 or 40 miles in length. The in- 
 habitants are wild and rude, much given to 
 drinking. The population of Amboyna, when 
 taken by the English, in 1796, was about 45,- 
 252; 17,813 being Protestants. In 1624, the 
 merchants of the English factory were tortured 
 and put to death by the Dutch. The United 
 Provinces refused satisfaction to James I and 
 Charles I, but pa*d to Cromwell 300,000 pounds 
 as a small imdemnity. 
 
 AMBROSE, St. a noted father of the church, 
 born in Gaul, 340. His future greatness was au- 
 
 AME 
 
 gured from the circumstance of bees swarming 
 about the lips of the infant in his cradle, as they 
 did about the mouth of Plato. 
 
 AMERICA, including a vast extent of terri- 
 tory, embracing every variety of climate, and 
 bearing within it, besides its precious ore and 
 gems, the germs of immense wealth, remained 
 undiscovered until the 11th of October, 1492, 
 when Christopher Columbus, a native of Ge- 
 noa, who had sailed from Spain with three 
 small vessels under the patronage of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, the Castilian monarch, first beheld 
 a light on the shore of the new Continent, two 
 hours before midnight. On the ensuing day 
 he set foot in the New World. Columbus felt 
 the importance of the discovery, as, erecting the 
 cross, and surrounded by his crew and the wild 
 and wonder-stricken natives, he took possession 
 of the new country in the name of the sove- 
 reigns of Spain. The Christian adventurers 
 did not fail to kneel upon the sand, and 
 offer up their thanks for having been preserved 
 through the perils of a long voyage, and favored 
 with the most brilliant success to compensate 
 for all their perils. This island was called 
 Guanahani, by the natives, a name which Co- 
 lumbus altered to St. Salvador, and was one of 
 the Bahama islands. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that the vast conti- 
 nent which Columbus discovered was not call- 
 ed by his name, but derived its appellation from 
 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, 
 who made some subsequent discoveries, in 
 company with Alonzo de Ojeda, in 1499. Co 
 lumbus did not rest satisfied with his first suc- 
 cessful voyage or the fame which he acquired 
 by it, but he undertook others. He was, how- 
 ever, in the end, the victim of jealousy and in- 
 gratitude. The Spanish colonists at Hispaniola, 
 became discontented and preferred complaints 
 against him, sending home accusations and 
 remonstrances by every ship that sailed to 
 Spain. In consequence of this, Don Francisco 
 de Bobadilla, was sent out by the court, and 
 invested temporarily with the chief power, be- 
 ing permitted to use his own judgment in quel- 
 ling the disturbances of the colonies. This 
 person scrupled not to arrest Columbus and put 
 him in irons, from which he would not suffer 
 himself to be freed, when he was carried on 
 board the vessel, which was to bear him to 
 Spain. " No," said he, when the attendants 
 offered to remove them ; " the truth must be 
 apparent, and my patrons are too noble, too gen- 
 erous to overlook me. Then, if fortune again 
 smiles upon me, these will serve as affecting 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AME 
 
 53 
 
 AME 
 
 memorials of sorrow past : I will not part with 
 them, and I even wish that, when I am no more, 
 they may be suspended over my sepulchre." 
 When he again set foot in Spain, he might 
 have exclaimed, in the language of the poet ; 
 
 <c Are these the wreaths of triumph you bestow 
 On those who bring you conquest home and honorl" 
 
 Columbus was liberated immediately by royal 
 order, and received at court with great respect. 
 But though Bobadilla was recalled, Columbus 
 in vain supplicated to be restored to his go- 
 vernment ; he was put off by vague promises, 
 and the post finally given to Don Nicholas 
 Ovando, a practical as well as accomplished 
 man.. Thus, after three momentous voyages, 
 and' the acquisition of much fame, he found 
 himself displaced and thwarted in a point in 
 which he conceived his honor concerned, and 
 his hard-earned authority torn from his posses- 
 sion. But it was not the nature of Columbus 
 to sink under his misfortunes ; on the contrary 
 with four small caravels, the largest being but 
 of seventy tons burthen, he set out on his fourth 
 voyage of discovery with the intention of com- 
 pleting the circumnavigation of the globe, vis- 
 iting the Indies, of which Vasco da Gama had 
 given so inspiriting an account. Leaving Ca- 
 diz on the 9th of May, 1502, he reached Mar- 
 tinique, one of the windward islands, June 15th. 
 Having touched at Cuba, he pursued a south- 
 westerly course, until he reached Guanaja, an 
 island on the coast of Honduras, whose inhabi- 
 tants had attained a pretty high degree of civi- 
 lization . Their persons were covered with cotton 
 garments dyed with a variety of bright and 
 pleasing colors. He mentions a curious occur- 
 rence as taking place here. He had been pre- 
 sented, among other animals, with a peccary, 
 or American pig, and one of those monkeys 
 with prehensile tails, indigenous to America. 
 The peccary being thrown in the way of the 
 monkey, the latter, by a dexterous use of its 
 tail, confined the jaws of the pig in such a man- 
 ner as to expose it helplessly to the action of 
 the monkey's claws. " This appeared to me so 
 strange," Columbus writes to his patrons, " that 
 I thought fit to write it down for the informa- 
 tion of your majesties." 
 
 The admiral, in his endeavors to discover a 
 strait leading to the Pacific Ocean, encountered 
 great hardships and fatigues, which had a bane- 
 ful influence upon his health, and was finally 
 shipwrecked. Ovando was himself averse to 
 succoring Columbus, after a messenger had 
 acquainted him with the peril of his situation ; 
 
 but the people of Hispaniola were so well-dis- 
 posed towards the admiral, that, for the sake of 
 maintaining his own reputation, he was forced 
 to send him relief. Columbus, arrived at St. 
 Domingo, met with a reception such as to 
 banish for a brief space, the remembrance of 
 his sufferings, but his bodily weakness could 
 not be disguised. When sufficiently recovered, 
 he set sail for Spain, arriving there on the 7th 
 day of November, 1504. 
 
 The services of this distinguished man were 
 indeed important. In his third voyage he had 
 discovered the continent of America; in his 
 last, had received intelligence of the immense 
 wealth of Mexico, which was destined to in- 
 crease to an enormous extent, the revenue of 
 Spain. Columbus vainly looked for the reward 
 of his services; he had stipulated that certain 
 dignities and an income should be his, but he 
 found himself in hopeless indigence. His kind 
 patroness, the queen, was no more, and her 
 husband, stern and selfish, disregarded the 
 claims of the enterprising navigator. He evaded 
 the request of Columbus to be restored to the 
 vice-royalty of which he had been deprived, 
 and repeated disappointments, in connexion 
 with his bodily infirmities, hastened the death 
 of the latter, which took place at Valladolid, 
 on the 20th of May, 1506. The claims to the 
 first discovery of the New World, advanced by 
 Amerigo Vespucci, appear to be without foun- 
 dation. He made, however, four voyages, and 
 was the first to publish an account of the new 
 countries. The work which he issued became 
 very popular and was soon translated into sev- 
 eral different languages. Hence, for convey- 
 ing a vast sum of information to mankind, 
 Amerigo Vespucci, attained a greater degree of 
 celebrity than he merited, and, by the concur- 
 rence of all classes, gave his name to that ex- 
 tensive and important country which another 
 had discovered. 
 
 Various navigators, fired by the accounts of 
 the new world, and by the fame which Colum- 
 bus had acquired, entered the lists of honor, 
 determined to make themselves celebrated. 
 Vincent Yanez Pinzon, one of the companions 
 of Columbus, discovered Brazil, although Pe- 
 dro Alvarez Cabral is generally thought to have 
 been its discoverer. Rodrigo de Bastidas, and 
 the pilot Juan de la Cosa, sailed from Cadiz in 
 1500, made a profitable voyage in spite of 
 some adverse occurrences, and added to the 
 stock of information upon the appearance and 
 affairs of the New World. An English expe- 
 dition was fitted out in 1497, under Sebastian 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AME 
 
 54 
 
 AME 
 
 Cabot, who examined Newfoundland and the 
 continent in the vicinity of the river St. Law- 
 rence. Nunez de Balboa discovered the South- 
 ern Ocean, in 1513. He was transported with 
 delight as he beheld its waves sparkling in the 
 light of the sun, and appearing to glitter with 
 that gold which the natives told him abounded 
 in the country which extended to the south. 
 He then imagined that he had reached the In- 
 dies, a country which it was then the greatest 
 ambition of European adventurers to reach. 
 He acquainted the Spanish court with his dis- 
 covery, and solicited an appointment propor- 
 tionate to the extent of his services He was, 
 however, grievously disappointed; the govern- 
 ment of Darien was obtained by Davila, and 
 this rival, finding a pretext for wreaking his 
 vengeance upon Balboa, had him executed pub- 
 licly in 1517. There were many other voyages 
 undertaken by the Spaniards, which, did our 
 limits allow, we would gladly dwell upon. The 
 enterprise and success of Magellan, among oth- 
 ers, will not permit his name to be forgotten. 
 
 The Spaniards entertained the most exag- 
 gerated ideas of the wonders of the New World. 
 To most of them, it appeared a realm of magic, 
 a fairy-land, in which supernatural occurrences 
 were by no means infrequent. Thus Juan 
 Ponce de Leon, in 1512, fitted out three ships 
 from Porto Rico, of which he was governor, 
 and set forth in search of an Indian fountain 
 which was fabled to restore all who bathed in 
 it, even if they were tormented by the infirmi- 
 ties of extreme old age, to the freshness, vigor, 
 and beauty of youth. Although he failed to 
 find the fountain, he made the discovery of 
 Florida. 
 
 We have alluded to the immense extent of 
 America, which, including its islands, extends 
 over about one hundred and forty degrees of 
 latitude. The external appearance of the New 
 World, has much which presents a very marked 
 contrast to the superficial features of the old. 
 A stupendous chain of elevated mountains 
 traverses the whole continent, running from 
 north to south, and even under the equator, 
 where, upon the tow lands the most intense heat 
 is felt, these tall mountains elevate their heads 
 into the region of intense cold. Every thing in 
 the New World appears to be of greater magni- 
 tude than the corresponding objects in the old. 
 The lakes are vast inland oceans, exhibiting in 
 storms, all the striking and sublime aspects of 
 the great deep, rolling as mighty waves, and 
 shaken by an equal convulsion. The rivers 
 are of prodigious size, and the plains of extra- 
 
 ordinary extent. Over those of South and 
 North America, countless herds of wild cattle 
 roam at will. 
 
 The New World was inhabited by a race of 
 men differing, in many respects, from the na- 
 tives of the Eastern Hemisphere. The Indi- 
 ans of North America varied, in many particu- 
 lars, from those of the southern portion of this 
 vast continent, and the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Mexico, at the time when they were first 
 visited by the Spaniards, had attained a greater 
 degree of refinement than was found by the 
 Europeans in any other quarter of the New 
 World. It is notour intention to enter into the 
 long agitated and unsettled question of the ori- 
 gin of the aborigines of America ; whether the 
 ancestors of the American Indians emigrated 
 from the Asiatic continent, or the inhabitants 
 of the eastern hemisphere swarmed from this, 
 it is at present impossible for us to decide^ 
 Malte Brun has described their general per- 
 sonal appearance with his usual ability and 
 force in the following words: — " The natives 
 of this part of the globe are in general large, of 
 a robust frame, well proportioned, and without 
 defects of conformation. They have a bronzed 
 or coppery red complexion, as it were ferru- 
 ginous, and very like cinnamon or tannin ; the 
 hair black, long, coarse, shining and scanty; 
 the beard thin, growing in tufts; the forehead 
 short, the eyes elongated, and having the corn- 
 ers pointing upwards to the temples ; the eye- 
 brows high, the cheek bones projecting, the 
 nose a little flattened, but marked ; the lips 
 wide, the teeth serrated and sharp ; in the 
 mouth an expression of mildness, which is con- 
 trasted with a sombre, and severe, and even 
 hard expression ; the head rather square, the 
 face large without being flat, but diminishing 
 towards the chin ; the features taken in profile, 
 projecting and strongly marked ; the belly high, 
 the thighs large, the legs bowed, the foot large, 
 and the whole body squat." 
 
 The North American Indians are distinguished 
 for a quick understanding, a retentive memory, 
 and a stoicism which would have excited the 
 envy of the ancient Grecian philosophers. War, 
 hunting, and fishing, are the employments of the 
 men, who devote but little care to the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil, which from its fertility, exacts 
 but little. The desire of revenge is one of the 
 most powerful excitements of the Indian. He 
 knows not of the principle by which a Chris- 
 tian returns good for evil. An Indian rarely, 
 if ever, forgets an injury, and the exceptions 
 are so few that they have been noted with some 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 A ME 
 
 55 
 
 AME 
 
 care. One anecdote, in particular, appears wor- 
 thy to be related. 
 
 An Indian, having wandered far from his 
 friends, found himself foot- worn and thirsty, in 
 the vicinity of a white man's dwelling. The 
 owner of the house was standing at the door. 
 The Indian approached and begged him for a 
 morsel of food and a cup of water to sustain his 
 sinking frame. " Begone ! dog of an Indian!"' 
 was the surly reply of the European. Some 
 years after this, the Englishman, being on a 
 hunting excursion, lost himself in the forests. 
 At the moment when he had relinquished al- 
 most all hope, he perceived an Indian wigwam, 
 and having applied for shelter, was welcomed 
 with ready hospitality. The Indian hunter to 
 whom the cabin belonged, busied himself in 
 making every arrangement for the comfort of 
 his guest. His horse was fed and cared for, a 
 supper was provided him, and, when the hour 
 of rest arrived, a bed of soft skins invited him 
 to repose his weary limbs. In the morning, 
 when the white man signified his desire to de- 
 part, the Indian offered to be his guide. Hav- 
 ing conducted him to the outskirts of the for- 
 est, the Indian pointed out his path. The 
 European thanked him, and prepared to take 
 his leave. " Stay yet a moment," said the In- 
 dian : " I clearly perceive that you do not 
 know me, but I know you well. Do you not 
 recollect that some ten years since, a poor In- 
 dian presented himself at your door and entreat- 
 ed you to give him a morsel of bread and a cup 
 of water ? You refused him. I am that red 
 man. I swore to be revenged. Am I not ? 
 Now go thy ways, and forget not to tell thy 
 white brethren, that there is at least one Indian 
 who can practice what they preach?" 
 
 We are unable to give a minute description 
 of the Indians; — the horrors of their wars, the 
 fortitude of the captives, tortured at the stake, 
 the adoration they pay to the Great Spirit, their 
 superstitions and their sufferings, must be pnur- 
 trayed by other pens. From the time of the 
 first European settlements in this part of Amer- 
 ica, the number of the Indians has dimi- 
 nished rapidly, and they are now reduced to a 
 mere handful, whom the wave of emigration is 
 fast rolling to the shores of the Western Ocean. 
 They have seen their hunting-grounds dimi- 
 nished, their forests swept away by their white 
 foes, and the smoke of the Christian village, ri- 
 sing where once their council-fires blazed. But 
 in Mexico and many parts of South America, 
 where the natives had made some progress in 
 civilization at the time of the discovery of the 
 
 continent, the Indians have become fellow-cit- 
 izens with the whites, and the native or mixed 
 breeds compose the mass of the population. 
 
 The discovery of America awakened the en- 
 terprise of various nations of the Old World, and 
 they fitted out numerous expeditions to conquer 
 and colonize. North America, which is of vast 
 extent, its surface containing about eight mil- 
 lions of square miles, fell into the hands of the 
 English, French, and Spanish. Mexico, so 
 valuable for its mines of gold and silver, inhabi- 
 ted at the period of its discovery by intelligent 
 and peaceable nations, was conquered by Fer- 
 nando Cortez, a Spanish general, who scrupled 
 not to make use of the basest treachery, and to 
 shed the blood of the natives like water, to ac- 
 complish his purposes. Mexico was for a long 
 time attached to Spain, to which it furnished 
 immense wealth, but at present has a republi- 
 can government which it can hardly be said to 
 enjoy, the country is in such an unsettled state. 
 The eastern shores of North America, were 
 settled principally by the English. In spite of 
 the hostility of the Indians, the ravages of dis- 
 ease and hardship, the colonies increased rap- 
 idly. The population of the middle portion of 
 North America, now called the United States, 
 was estimated, in 1775, at about 3,000,000. 
 The number of the colonies was thirteen. Pov- 
 erty and oppression had first driven them from 
 their native land. 
 
 New-England was peopled by Puritans, as 
 they were called — men, who, being refused the 
 liberty of worshipping God in the form which 
 their consciences dictated, in their own land, 
 resolutely severed the ties which bound them 
 to a beloved, though oppressed country, and, 
 traversing a vast ocean, entered a land inhabi- 
 ted by savages, and encountering every peril 
 laid the foundation of a mighty empire in the 
 west. The mother country afforded them no 
 assistance, but, when, by their unaided efforts, 
 they had established their prosperity, she sent 
 forth magistrates to govern, or rather to oppress 
 them, and, by heavy taxes, endeavored to wring 
 from them the means of propping up the rotten 
 institutions of the parent island. In 1775, the 
 colonies took up arms in defence of their rights, 
 declaring their independence. The colonial 
 forces, inspired by the bravery, and directed by 
 the wisdom of George Washington, after a con- 
 test of eight years, vanquished the chosen troops 
 of Great Britain, and became independent. 
 The present form of government was determin- 
 ed upon in the year 1789. The United States 
 are twenty-four in number, each State having 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 AME 
 
 56 
 
 AME 
 
 a legislature, executive and judiciary, of its 
 own. All the States, however, are united un- 
 der a General Government ; the legislative 
 power being in the hands of a Congress which 
 consists of a Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives, the members of which are chosen by the 
 different States which they represent. The 
 executive power is vested in the hands of the 
 President, assisted by subordinate officers. The 
 President and Vice-President, are chosen by the 
 State electors, and hold their offices for a term 
 of four years. The United States Judiciary 
 consists of seven Judges. 
 
 The British possess an immense territory in 
 North America, containing a white population 
 of about a million, and a great number of In- 
 dian tribes. The Canadas, New Brunswick, 
 Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and New Britain, 
 are the principal divisions of this territory. 
 The king of Great Britain appoints a Gover- 
 nor-General who rules over the provinces, and 
 in each province there is a Lieutenant-Gover- 
 nor, and a provincial legislature. The French 
 were the chief settlers in these countries, and 
 retained possession of them until 1759, when 
 they were taken by the British. The contest 
 for the possession of the Canadas is memorable 
 for many gallant exploits, which are blazoned 
 on the page of English history. 
 
 The early history of the West Indies abounds 
 with details of the horrible cruelties of the Span- 
 iards, who scrupled not to adopt the most in- 
 human measures to complete the ruin of the 
 unhappy natives. They forced them to labor 
 in their mines, they wore out their frames by 
 the infliction of the most dreadful fatigues, and 
 changed the luxurious, peaceful, and happy life 
 of the islanders, into an existence of painful 
 toil, uncheered by a single ray of hope, or a sin- 
 gle scene of pleasure. They caused a large 
 number of the poor wretches to be torn to pieces 
 by blood hounds, whose sole occupation was 
 hunting the natives. The West Indies, with 
 the exception of Hayti, which is inhabited by 
 independent blacks, belong to European go- 
 vernments. 
 
 The riches of South America awakened all 
 the cupidity of the Spaniards, when they first 
 began to penetrate into that portion of the con- 
 tinent, and they treated its natives witlx the 
 greatest barbarity. At the time of its conquest 
 by Pizarro, an ambitious but unlettered Span- 
 ish adventurer, Peru contained a numerous 
 and civilized population. Cuzco was the seat 
 of empire, the residence of the Peruvian Incas, 
 or Kings. They worshipped the sun and had 
 
 a magnificent temple, gorgeous with gold from 
 floor to roof. With some exceptions, these 
 people were inoffensive and intelligent. With 
 a force of one hundred and seventy foot sol- 
 diers, Almagro and Pizarro entered Peru about 
 1513. By artifice Pizarro gained the confidence 
 of the Peruvians, by treachery repaid it. When 
 the poor natives were finally roused to resis- 
 tance, the superior arms of trie Europeans, ena- 
 bled them to obtain an easy victory. The 
 kings of Spain were envied by other European 
 monarchs, for the possession of the richest por- 
 tions of America ; but, as if in punishment for 
 the crimes of conquest, Spain has been forced 
 to behold those territories, obtained by guilt and 
 cruelty, glide, one by one, from her grasp, till, 
 poor and degraded, she retains but the bitter 
 recollections of the rank she once maintained 
 among the nations of the earth. But while Pe- 
 ru, Bolivia, New Grenada, Chili, and other 
 portions of South America, enjoy a republican 
 government, Brazil is still an empire. The 
 governments of South America are by no 
 means firmly established, and the fluctuations 
 of national policy, together with the prevalence 
 of bigotry, superstition and licentiousness, and 
 the want of education, prevent the South Ame- 
 rican from attaining that height of prosperity 
 and happiness to which a liberal and enlight- 
 ened government, a wise toleration in religion, 
 a firm tone of morality, and an excellent system 
 of public instruction, have raised the more fa- 
 vored inhabitants of the United States. 
 
 America is upwards of 9,000 miles in length, 
 and its average breadth is 1500 to 1800 miles. 
 It lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
 extending from 56* S. latitude, to an unknown 
 northern latitude. The lowest estimate of the 
 number of square miles it contains, places them 
 at 14,323,000. North America contains Green- 
 land, belonging to Denmark ; British America, 
 (including New Britain, Upper Canada, Low- 
 er Canada, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, 
 Prince Edward's Island, and Nova Scotia); the 
 Russian possessions in the northwest; the 
 United States ; Mexico, and Guatimala. South- 
 America contains New Grenada, Venezuela, 
 the Equator, Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, 
 Chili, Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces 
 of La Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Patago- 
 nia. Between North and South America, lie 
 the West India Islands. Some of the principal 
 rivers are the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Mis- 
 souri, Columbia. Mackenzie, Amazon, La Plata, 
 and Orinoco. Long chains of mountains run 
 through North and South America."' In the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AMI 
 
 57 
 
 AMS 
 
 former are some of the largest fresh- water lakes 
 in the world — Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, 
 and Ontario. Newfoundland, Cape Breton, 
 Prince Edward's, the Bermudas, Rhode Island, 
 and Long Island are some of the most impor- 
 tant islands belonging to North America. 
 
 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS, (Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci), a Florentine navigator of an ancient 
 family, born 1451. His first voyage to Ameri- 
 ca was made under Ojeda, a year after its dis- 
 covery by Columbus, and yet the vast continent 
 bears his name, while that of the actual discov- 
 erer is applied to it only by poetical courtesy. 
 Vespucci died at Seville in 1512. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, an eloquent American states- 
 man and writer, born in Dedham, Mass. April 
 !Jth, 1758. His parents were respectable. He 
 was educated at Harvard College, which he 
 left with a high character for industry, regular- 
 ity and talent. After instructing a school for 
 some years, in 1781 he commenced the practice 
 of law, and becoming distinguished for his orato- 
 rical powers, and his success as a political essay 
 writer, was chosen member of the House of 
 Representatives in the state legislature. He 
 was next chosen Representative of Suffolk 
 county in the Congress of the United States, 
 in which he remained during Washington's ad- 
 ministration. On the retirement of Washing- 
 ton, Mr. Ames, whose health had been impair- 
 ed, occupied himself in farming at Dedham, 
 and practising law. But although his voice 
 was unheard in public, his pen was not inactive, 
 and the publication of various essays proved the 
 interest which he continued to take in politics 
 until the time of his death, July 4, 1808. Fisher 
 Ames had fine features, and a commanding per- 
 son, and his manner in speaking was expres- 
 sive, although not characterized by studied 
 grace. His conversational abilities are said to 
 have been of the highest order. 
 
 AMHERST, a nourishing post town of Mas- 
 sachusetts, in Hampshire county, 90 miles W. 
 of Boston. Its literary institutions are Am- 
 herst college, an academy, and a female semi- 
 nary. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffery, lord, a British general 
 officer, born in 1717. He commenced his mili- 
 tary career in 1731 , and regularly rose to the 
 rank of field marshal. He was at Dettingen, 
 Fountenoy, Rocoux, and commanded at the 
 siege of Louisburg, and reduced the Canadas. 
 He was successively Governor of Virginia, and 
 of the isle of Jersey, and Commander in Chief 
 of the British army. He died in 1798. 
 
 AMIENS, a celebrated city in Picardy, with 
 
 45,000 inhabitants. Here peace was concluded 
 between France and England in 1801. 
 
 AMPHITRYON, a fabulous prince of 
 Thebes, said to have been the grandfather of 
 Hercules. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, the capital of Holland, at 
 the commencement of the 13th century, was 
 nothing more than an insignificant fishing vil- 
 lage, composed exclusively of the huts of fish- 
 ermen. Its growth was not very rapid, although 
 in time it became a place of great importance. 
 It was formerly called Amstelerdam. the dam 
 or dyke of the Amstel. It derives its name 
 from the river Amstel, and is situated at its in- 
 flux into the arm of the sea, called the Y or 
 Wye, forming a capacious port, two leagues 
 from the Zuyder Zea. The city stands upon a 
 marshy soil, in consequence of which the buil- 
 dings are raised on oaken piles ; whence the jest 
 of Erasmus, who said, " that in his country the 
 people lived on the tops of trees." In 1490 
 Mary of Burgundy encompassed the city with 
 a brick wall, to protect it from the incursions of 
 the inhabitants of Utrecht, who were frequent- 
 ly involved in quarrels with the Hollanders. 
 Soon after the erection of this wall, the city was 
 burnt to the ground. In 1512 it was besieged 
 by the people of Guelderland, who, finding them- 
 selves baffled in their attempt to take the city, 
 fired the vessels in the harbor. The scene pre 
 sented by the burning ships was awfully grand ; 
 — the waters appeared like a sea of molten gold, 
 over which a thousand volcanoes poured their 
 volumes of fire, while the roaring of the confla- 
 gration was like the voice of a tempest. The 
 Anabaptists, in 1512 and 1525, filled the city with 
 commotion and bloodshed. An insurgent chief, 
 Van Geelen, headed a conspiracy which had 
 for its object the subversion of the magistracy of 
 Amsterdam, and the assumption of power by the 
 rebels. Van Geelen fixed his head quarters in 
 the town house, where his fanatical troops dis- 
 played their banners, and gave every evidence 
 that they considered their victory certain. But 
 the burghers attacked them with great spirit 
 and resolution, and the fanatics being surroun- 
 ded, were put to death to a man. 
 
 In 1578, Amsterdam, after a siege of ten 
 months, capitulated to the Hollanders, stipula- 
 ting that the Roman Catholics should be allow- 
 ed the free observance of their religious rites. 
 The Protestants, however, did not maintain the 
 agreement, but drove the Catholics from the 
 city, destroying the altars and the images. 
 From that time, persons of all sects and nations 
 came to the city, and the united exertions of all 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AMS 
 
 5S 
 
 ANA 
 
 succeeded in raising it to a high rank, and ren- 
 dering it famous for its opulence and industry. 
 Amsterdam is intersected by numerous canals, 
 which divide the city into islands, between 
 which are built numerous bridges, of stone, and 
 wood. Of vast commercial importance, these 
 canals give the streets through which they pass 
 a highly picturesque and pleasant appearance, 
 filling the air with freshness, and reflecting the 
 long rows of trees and houses which line their 
 banks. Complaints, however, are made of the 
 effluvia arising from them in calm and warm 
 weather. The Ammarach, a canal formed by 
 the waters of the Amstel, is the principal, and 
 flows beneath a number of bridges of which the 
 Pont Neuf is the most elegant. This bridge is 
 600 feet long and has 36 arches. 
 
 A singular feature in the scenery of Amster- 
 dam is the enclosure of the city on the side of 
 the haven or Wye, by means of piles, which 
 are driven into the ground, and connected with 
 immense horizontal beams, affording openings 
 sufficiently ample for the ingress and egress of 
 ships. These are closed every evening. The 
 port is a mile and a half long, and crowded with 
 vessels whose towering masts attract the eye, 
 and give a lively appearance to the scene. 
 
 The streets of Amsterdam, although narrow, 
 f are well-paved, and exhibit that charming neat- 
 ness, which is peculiar to the Dutch, and which 
 is equally conspicuous in their walks and in 
 their smart brick or stone buildings. The pop- 
 ulation of Amsterdam is estimated at more than 
 200,000 persons. The government is exclusive- 
 ly in the hands of Protestants, although there is 
 no want of toleration to those who differ from 
 the established tenets. The New Church, dedi- 
 cated to St. Catharine, is said to have been be- 
 gun in 1408, or 1414, and to have occupied a 
 century in its erection. The interior is adorn- 
 ed with sculpture, and the paintings on the 
 glass windows are of the richest description. 
 The superb organ has been celebrated through- 
 out the world. The church contains a marble 
 monument, erected to the memory of Admiral 
 Ruyter. 
 
 The stadthouse is a beautiful building, erect- 
 ed on 13,659 piles. It was founded in 1648. Its 
 breadth is 282 feet, its depth 2:55, height 116. 
 The whole of this fine building exhibits proofs 
 of the characteristic neatness and industry of 
 the Dutch. Beneath the stadthouse are the 
 vaults of the Bank of Amsterdam, the prisons 
 for debtors, criminals, &c. At the top of the 
 building are six large cisterns of water, to be 
 used in case of fire, against which, however, 
 
 the greatest precaution is taken. The exchange 
 which is built of freestone, stands upon 2000 
 wooden piles, is 250 feet in length, and 140 in 
 breadth. The interior galleries rest upon 26 
 marble columns. The arsenal is a place of im- 
 portance, and there are also schools, academies, 
 hospitals and other public buildings. The prin- 
 cipal houses of correction are the rasp-house, 
 and the spin-house. In the former offenders 
 are employed sawing and rasping Brazil-wood. 
 Those who obstinately refuse to work are car- 
 ried into the cellar into which water is flowing, 
 and, unless they work briskly at the pump, they 
 are in danger of drowning. In the spin-house 
 women are compelled to spin wool, flax, and 
 hemp. 
 
 The senate or council of Amsterdam was 
 composed of 36 persons representing the whole 
 body of the people. It was called the Voeds- 
 chap. Their office was for life, and in case of 
 the death of one, the survivors elected a succes- 
 sor. The burgomasters or echcvins whose of- 
 fice resembled that of aldermen, were appoint- 
 ed by the senate, and were 12 in number. Out 
 of these, four were chosen annually, to execute 
 the office, and were styled burgomaster's re- 
 gent. Three were discharged annually and their 
 place supplied. In criminal cases, there was 
 no appeal from the college of new burgomasters, 
 who were judges; but in civil actions, the 
 council of the province constitutes a court of 
 appeal. 
 
 In early times Amsterdam was strongly forti- 
 fied, but, in consequence of various alterations, 
 it can now be defended only by inundating the 
 surrounding country. The new canal from 
 Amsterdam to Niewe Diep is an immense work. 
 The canal is 50 miles and a half long, and so 
 broad as to admit of one frigate passing another. 
 This canal will greatly improve the commerce 
 of the city, as it removes the necessity of un- 
 loading large vessels, which must be done be- 
 fore they can pass through the harbor. 
 
 AMURATH II, in 1422, succeeded his father 
 Mohammed I. Numerous pretenders contested 
 his claim to the crown, which, after he had 
 quelled opposition, he relinquished to his son, 
 Mahomet, but emerged from his retirement 
 when the latter was found inadequate to the 
 imperial station. Whenever he encountered 
 the Hungarians and Janizaries, he defeated 
 them. He died in 1451 aged 47. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, a religious sect, whose 
 name was given them from their disbelief in 
 the efficacy of infant baptism. They claim his- 
 torical notice on account of their insurrec- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 AND 
 
 59 
 
 AND 
 
 tion against the civil authority of Minister, and 
 ither German provinces. Their fanatical leader, 
 John of Leyden, a tailor, defended himself in 
 Munster for a whole year. After this, the pun- 
 ishment of the leaders quelled the insurrection. 
 Munster was taken, June 24, 1535. 
 
 AN ACREON, a Greek lyric poet of Teos, in 
 Ionia, who flourished 500 years B.C. Polycrates, 
 king of Samos, was his patron until his death. 
 At Athens he was encouraged by Hipparchus, 
 but the fall of the latter drove him from Athens, 
 and he passed an old age of gaiety at Abdera, 
 where he was choked by a grape-stone in his 
 85th year. He was the poet of love and wine, 
 and much honored by the Greeks. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, one of the Ionic philoso- 
 phers, born at Clazomene, in Ionia, 500 B. C. 
 died at Lampsacus at the age of 72. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, a disciple of Thales, 
 whose chief study was mathematics, born at 
 Miletus, 610 B. C, died 546 B. C. He made 
 some scientific discoveries. 
 
 ANCUS M ARTIUS, succeeded Tullus Hos- 
 tilius, the 3d king of Rome, 640 B. C. and died 
 618 B. C. He was a conqueror, improved the 
 navigation of the Tiber, and established good 
 laws. 
 
 ANDALUSIA, the richest province of Spain, 
 bounded north by Estremadura and La Mancha ; 
 east, by Murcia ; south by the straits of Gibral- 
 tar, and west by Portugal. It is divided into Up- 
 per and Lower, the former of which compre- 
 hends Granada, and the latter Jaen, Cordova, 
 and Seville. 
 
 ANDOVER, a township of Massachusetts, 
 in Essex county, 20 miles N. of Boston, on the 
 right bank of the Merrimack River, and water- 
 ed by the Shawsheen. It is a pleasant and 
 flourishing town, and contains 5,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Its theological seminary is noted. 
 
 ANDRE, Major. Among the various events 
 which contributed to give a distinctive char- 
 acter to the war of our Revolution, the fate of 
 Major Andre, a young English officer, can 
 never be forgotten, nor the sad story of the 
 close of his life ever read without a deep and 
 painful interest. This young man was hand- 
 some, talented, brave, enthusiastic, generous, 
 and accomplished, beloved by all his acquaint- 
 ance, without distinction of country. He en- 
 tered the royal army with high hopes, and was 
 well fitted to adorn an elevated station. His 
 history is connected with that of the worst 
 traitor who ever disgraced the name of Amer- 
 ica. This man was General Arnold. His 
 unrepressed extravagance had led him to incur 
 6 
 
 heavy debts which he saw no means of dis- 
 charging, but by accepting the gold of the 
 British, as the price of treason to his country. 
 In September, 1780, Arnold was in command 
 of West Point, a military post on the North, or 
 Hudson river, New York, which was of vast 
 importance to the Americans. To give noto- 
 riety to his apostacy, Arnold had selected this 
 fortress, which was almost impregnable from 
 natural defences, and from fortifications, on 
 which no care or expense had been spared. 
 Arnold had opened a correspondence with Sir 
 Henry Clinton, under fictitious names, and the 
 pretence of mercantile business, through Major 
 Andre, then holding the rank of Adjutant-Gen- 
 eral. The young officer was conveyed up the 
 river in the Vulture sloop of war, and, under a 
 pass for John Anderson, came on shore in the 
 night, and had an interview with Arnold. 
 Morning surprised them before their business 
 was transacted, and, as it was impossible for 
 Andre to get on board the Vulture by daylight, 
 he consented to remain hidden till the next 
 night. In the course of the day, the Vulture 
 altered her position, in consequence of a gun 
 being brought to bear upon her, and, for this 
 reason, the boatmen, at night, refused to take 
 Andre on board. 
 
 The young officer now found himself com- 
 pelled to attempt to get to New York by land. 
 Arnold gave him a pass, granting permission to 
 John Anderson, " to go to the lines of White 
 Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being 
 on public business." Changing his uniform, 
 which he had previously worn under a surtout, 
 for a plain coat, he mounted a horse, passed the 
 American guards in safety, and was congratu- 
 lating himself on his escape, when three militia 
 men, suddenly appearing, seized his bridle- 
 rein, and demanded his business. Surprised, 
 and off his guard, he did not produce his pass, 
 but hastily asked the men where they belong- 
 ed. " Down below," was the answer, meaning 
 New York. "So do I j" replied Andre, re- 
 joiced to find them friends. But he was mis- 
 taken, and being pressed, he finally declared 
 that he was a British officer. He begged 
 them to suffer him to pursue his way, offer- 
 ing them gold, and a watch of great value. 
 John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac 
 Van Wert, were poor men — their dress bespoke 
 it — but they loved their country, and despised 
 a bribe. They might have answered Andre, in 
 the words of another American, on another 
 occasion : " your king has not gold enough 
 to buy us." They carried Andre before Lieut. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AND 
 
 60 
 
 AND 
 
 Col. Jameson, who commanded the troops on 
 the lines. The captors of Andre were rewarded 
 by Congress with an annual pension of two 
 hundred dollars each, and a silver medal bear- 
 ing on one side a shield inscribed " Fidelity ;" 
 and on the other the motto " Amor Patriae ;" 
 love of country. 
 
 Andre still passed as John Anderson. He 
 generously wished to save Arnold, and asked 
 permission to write to him. This the com- 
 manding officer incautiously permitted, al- 
 though in Andre's boots there had been found, 
 in the hand writing of Arnold, returns of the 
 state of the forces, and the condition of West 
 Point, with other important papers. Immedi- 
 ately on the receipt of the letter, Arnold escaped. 
 He was at dinner when the letter arrived. Ab- 
 ruptly leaving the table, he ran down a steep 
 bank, threw himself into a boat, and was rowed 
 to the Vulture, which immediately got under 
 sail, and carried the traitor to New York. Gen. 
 Washington was soon apprized of the circum- 
 stances, and the same express which conveyed 
 the intelligence, carried a letter from the pris- 
 oner, frankly avowing his name and the cir- 
 cumstances under which he had been forced to 
 appear as an impostor. All the American offi- 
 cers who saw Andre, were struck with his 
 candor and manliness, and there was not one 
 who did not feel for his situation. 
 
 The consideration of his case was referred by 
 General Washington to a board of fourteen 
 general officers, of which General Green was 
 President, and Generals Steuben and La Fay- 
 ette were members. It was decided that he 
 ought to be regarded as a spy, and the stern 
 rules of war, and the necessity of an example, 
 required that he should die upon the gibbet. 
 He begged of Washington to be allowed to die 
 as a soldier, but the patriotism of the General 
 refused, what his feelings would have granted. 
 Led to the place of execution, Andre, survey- 
 ing the instrument of his fate, asked with 
 concern, " Must I die by this ? I am reconciled 
 to my death, but oh! not to the mode." Re- 
 covering his composure, he added : " It will be 
 but a momentary pang." His countenance 
 was unruffled, and calm, to the very last mo- 
 ment of his life ; — the instant before he was 
 launched into eternity, it exhibited a sunny 
 serenity and high magnanimity which touched 
 the hearts of all ! At the last moment he was 
 asked if he wished to say any thing. " But 
 this," he replied: "You will witness to the 
 world, that I die like a brave man." 
 
 The kindest attentions were bestowed on 
 
 Andre by the American officers, particularly 
 by General Hamilton, who did all in his power 
 to soothe him, and has described his character 
 with his usual happy felicity. Far different 
 was the treatment of the pious and patriotic 
 Captain Hale, a young American officer, who 
 was taken as a spy, and ordered to be executed 
 the next morning. He begged the use of a 
 bible ; which was refused ; to be allowed to write 
 a letter to his mother ; which poor privilege was 
 also denied him. " The Americans," said the 
 British commander, " shall not know that they 
 have a rebel in their army who can die with so 
 much firmness." On the occasion of the capture 
 of some young American officers upon Long Isl- 
 and, they were brought before Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton, who thus addressed them. Gentlemen, do 
 you know that I can hang every man of you as 
 rebels, taken in arms against the king." " Hang 
 and be hanged ! " bluntly exclaimed Lieut. 
 Dunscomb, with the energy of a rough soldier; 
 " I have lived for my country, and I am not 
 afraid to die for her." 
 
 Andre's ashes were secured by the British, 
 and conveyed to England, where a monument 
 is erected to him in St. Paul's, London. He 
 possessed some literary abilities, and wrote a 
 poem called the Cow Chase. 
 
 ANDREWS, St., a city of Scotland, on the 
 Firth of Tay, 39 miles from Edinburgh. Pop- 
 ulation 5621. It has two universities, and for- 
 merly had a greater extent than it has at present. 
 In 1559, the reformers, with mistaken zeal, de- 
 stroyed its splendid cathedral. 
 
 ANDROCLUS, or Androdus, a Dacian slave, 
 who was exposed in the arena of a Roman cir- 
 cus, to fight a lion ; but the animal forbore to 
 injure him, because he had formerly extracted 
 a thorn from his foot while in the Dacian wilds. 
 Androclus was released, and used to lead the 
 friendly lion about the city. 
 
 ANDROMACHE, the faithful and affection- 
 ate wife of Hector, prince of Troy , of whom she 
 was so fond, as to feed his horses with her own 
 hands. After his death, she was married to 
 Neoptolemus, to whose share the lovely captive 
 fell, and afterwards to Helenus, son of" Priam. 
 
 ANDROMEDA, daughter of Cepheus, king 
 of Ethiopia, by Cassiopeia. She is fabled to 
 have been exposed by Neptune to a sea mon- 
 ster, from which she was delivered by Perseus. 
 An explanation of the fable is offered in the 
 supposition that she was courted by the captain 
 of a ship, who attempted to carry her away, but 
 was baffled by the enterprise and activity of a 
 more faithful lover. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ANG 
 
 61 
 
 ANl 
 
 ANGELO, Buonarotti, Michael, was of a 
 noble and ancient family, and born at Caprese, 
 or Chiusi, 1474. Any one of his high quali- 
 ties would have made tbe fortune of an ordi- 
 nary man. He was a distinguished painter, 
 sculptor, architect, and poet, and " cunning 
 of fence." The beauty of tbe Sistine Chapel 
 consists principally in the perfection of his 
 paintings. At 50 years old, he commenced 
 painting the Last Judgment in the Sistine 
 Chapel, in which the grand and gigantic char- 
 acter of his mind is shadowed forth. Embrac- 
 ing a multitude of figures in various attitudes, 
 and with different expressions, it is an unwea- 
 rying object of contemplation for the artist and 
 lover of the fine arts. Between Michael An- 
 gelo and Raphael, there was a warm rivalry, 
 the former never forgetting that Raphael had 
 perfected his style, only after having diligently 
 studied the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. 
 
 The Farnesian family had built a house upon 
 the bank of the Tiber, in the street della Lon- 
 gera. Cardinal Farnese, wished to have the 
 halls adorned by the pencil of Raphael, to give 
 additional beauty to this charming place. The 
 artist accepted the proposals of his eminence, 
 but stipulated that no one should inspect his 
 work until it was finished. But the friends of 
 Raphael spread abroad highly-colored reports 
 of the triumphs which the painter had achieved, 
 praising in especial, the Banquet of the Gods, 
 the Nuptials of Cupid and Psyche, and Tlie 
 Triumph of Galatea. These reports inflamed 
 the curiosity of Buonarotti, and he swore by 
 the Inferno of Dante, that he would gain admis- 
 sion into the Farnesian villa, examine the 
 works of Raphael, and prevent their completion. 
 
 Michael Angelo, having discovered that Ra- 
 phael went late to his work, disguised himself 
 as an acquavitaro, vender of brandy, and taking 
 with him a huge basket filled with biscuits and 
 brandy, directed his steps at an early hour to 
 the gate of the Farnesian palace. His cries of 
 "brandy! brandy!" roused the masons — the 
 gate was opened, and the acquavitaro admitted 
 in a twinkling. Behold, Michael Angelo in 
 the interior of the Farnesina ! The workmen 
 were soon busily employed upon the biscuits 
 and the brandy, and he passed through the cor- 
 ridors, and was soon before the frescoes of 
 Raphael. The fine picture of Galatea attracted 
 his attention, and, noticing a scaffold and a wall 
 in readiness f jr the painter, he ascended and 
 drew with a piece of charcoal, a gigantic head 
 of Jupiter, after which he left the villa precipi- 
 tately, without stopping for his basket. When 
 
 P^aphael arrived at noon, on beholding the 
 splendid head, he exclaimed, " Michael An- 
 gelo ! " From that day he painted no more in 
 the Farnesina, and his works remained unfin- 
 ished. The head which Michael Angelo de- 
 signed, remains still upon the wall, and covered 
 with a glass, attracts the admiration of artists 
 and connoisseurs. 
 
 ANGLES, a tribe which occupied the coun- 
 try between the Weser and the Elbe, now a 
 part of Prussia. Their piraces made them 
 notorious at an early period, and in the fifth 
 century, uniting with the Saxons, their power- 
 ful neighbors of the north, under the name of 
 Anglo-Saxons, they effected the conquest of 
 England. A small tract of land near the Da- 
 nish peninsula, where some of them remained, 
 is called at the present day, Angeln. 
 
 ANGLESEA, or Anglesey, the Monaof the 
 ancients, an island and county of North Wales, 
 situated in the Irish Sea. It has a population 
 of 48,325. Its length is 24 miles, and its breadth 
 17. The fertility of the soil adapts it for graz- 
 ing, and grain and cattle are its principal pro- 
 ducts. Over the strait of Menai which separates 
 it from Wales, a fine suspension bridge has 
 been erected. 
 
 ANGOLA, a country of Western Africa, 
 including the range of coast from 1 to 12 deg. 
 S., from which 40,000 slaves are obtained an- 
 nually. The Portuguese settled there in the 
 middle ages. 
 
 ANGORA, Ancyra, or Angoura; a city of 
 Natolia, or Asia Minor, 212 miles from Con- 
 stantinople, and containing, perhaps, 50,000 
 souls. Its hilly environs are thickly studded 
 with delicious gardens, but the once strong 
 fortifications of this delightful city, are decayed. 
 The Angora shawls rival those of Cashmere ; 
 the hair of the native goat furnishing the mate- 
 rials. A considerable manufacture of these is 
 carried on, although the trade of the place is 
 no longer what it was. It is built on the site 
 of the ancient Ancyra. Here Bajazet, the 
 famed sultan of the Ottomans, was taken pris- 
 oner by Tamerlane, in 1402. 
 
 ANICH, Peter, a poor peasant of the Tyrol, 
 whose aptness for the study of astronomy and 
 geography was not developed until he was 28 
 years old. He was born in 1723, at Oberpor- 
 fess, near Inspruck, and died in 1766. He 
 was encouraged by the Jesuits, and made a 
 celestial and terrestial globe, with several math- 
 ematical instruments, remarkable for neatness. 
 Under the patronage of the empress Maria 
 Theresa, he drew a map of the Tyrol. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ANN 
 
 62 
 
 ANS 
 
 ANJOU, anciently a fertile, well -watered, 
 and productive province of France, now form- 
 ing the department of Maine and Loire. Be- 
 fore the revolution, it was estimated to con- 
 tain upwards of 90,000 families. Angers is the 
 chief town. The province has alternately be- 
 longed to the crown, and been bestowed upon 
 princes of the blood. Louis XV conferred it 
 on his grandson, Stanislaus, count of Provence, 
 afterward Louis XVIII. 
 
 ANKERSTRCEM, John Jacob, the murderer 
 of Gustavus III. Originally a page at the 
 Swedish court, he was at length raised to the 
 rank of ensign of the royal guards. He joined 
 a conspiracy the members of which thirsted for 
 the blood of their monarch. Ankerstroem wish- 
 ed to make the deed of blood his own, but the 
 Counts Horn and Ribbing contended for it; 
 .ots were drawn, and Ankerstroem obtained the 
 post of murderer. At a masquerade at Stock- 
 holm, he accomplished his purpose by dischar- 
 ging a pistol at the king. Having been disco- 
 vered and condemned, he was scourged in prison 
 for several successive days, dragged on a cart to 
 the scaffold, and executed April 20, 1792, glo- 
 rying in the deed, and bearing all his sufferings 
 with singular fortitude. He died at the age of 
 31 years. 
 
 ANNA, a heathen goddess, in whose honor 
 the Romans instituted festivals. Several fabu- 
 lous explanations of the origin of these celebra- 
 tions have been given, but the most probable is 
 the least remarkable ; viz. that Anna was an 
 industrious old lady of BovillaB, and her apoth- 
 eosis the reward of her kindness in daily 
 supplying the Romans at Mount Sacer with 
 cakes. 
 
 ANNA, Ivanowna, empress of Russia, daugh- 
 ter of Ivan, and niece of Peter the Great. She 
 succeeded Peter II, son of the unfortunate 
 Alexis, in 1730. Anna displayed great boldness 
 in the very commencement of her reign, refused 
 to renounce a single privilege enjoyed by the 
 czars, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the 
 Russias. She waged war against the Persians, 
 Poles, and Turks. She was born in 1693, and 
 died 1740. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, a city and port of entry in 
 Ann Arundel county, Maryland. It is situa- 
 ted on the S. W. side of the Severn . two miles 
 from its mouth, forty miles E. N. E. of Wash- 
 ington. Population 270~. It is the seat of 
 the state government and contains several fine 
 public buildings. Annapolis Royal, is a city of 
 Nova Scotia with a good harbor. 
 
 ANNE, queen of England, second daughter 
 
 of James II, previously duke of York, born 1664. 
 In 1683, she married prince George, brother of 
 Christian V of Denmark. In 1668, she joined 
 the party which invited the prince of Orange to 
 aid in dethroning his father-in-law. She as- 
 cended the throne, on the death of her sister 
 Mary, and of William III, in 1699. During her 
 reign Gibraltar was taken by the English. Her 
 brother James (the pretender), vainly attempted 
 to set foot in Scotland, and Anne, with great 
 reluctance, set a price upon his head. She 
 seems privately to have entertained for a long 
 time the hope of securing the succession to her 
 brother, and was much grieved when convinced 
 of the futility of such expectations. Anne died 
 July 20th, 1714, her dying words being, " O, 
 my dear brother, how I pity thee !" She pos- 
 sessed moderate abilities, but was amiable as a 
 wife, mother, and sovereign, and distinguished 
 by the grateful title of good Queen Anne. Her 
 reign was made brilliant by the successes of the 
 English arms, and the writings of the authors of 
 the day, among whom, were Pope and Addison. 
 
 ANNE of Austria, queen of France, was 
 daughter of Philip III, of Spain. She became 
 the wife of Louis XIII, in 1615, but lived upon 
 bad terms with him. On the death of Louis, 
 she became sole regent during the minority of 
 her son, Louis XIV, but made herself unpopu- 
 lar among her subjects by reposing unbounded 
 confidence in Cardinal Mazarin. Affairs as 
 sumed so threatening an aspect, that she was 
 compelled to leave Paris. Tranquility was re- 
 stored at length, and when her son assumed 
 the reins of power, in 1661 , she went into retire- 
 ment in which she lived till her death, in 1666. 
 
 ANNE, daughter of John III, duke of Cleves, 
 was married to Henry VIII of England, who 
 fell in love with her picture. He was soon, 
 however, disgusted with the Flanders marc, as 
 he contemptuously termed her, and she quietly 
 returned to her native land, where she died in 
 1557, happy in escaping the death which the 
 sanguinary tyrant inflicted upon Anne Boleyn. 
 
 ANSELM, a distinguished archbishop of 
 Canterbury, (England,) who, in the early part 
 of the 12th century, maintained the powers of 
 the church, in opposition to those of the crown. 
 
 ANSGAR, or Anshgar, a saint of the Ro- 
 mish church, born in Picardy, in 800, died in 
 865. He was called the Apostle of the North, 
 from his zeal and success in introducing Chris 
 tianity into Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 ANSON, George, lord, was born in 1697, at 
 Shugborough manor, in Staffordshire, England, 
 and entered the navy at an early age. In his 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ANS 
 
 63 
 
 ANT 
 
 27th year he obtained the rank of post-captain, 
 and when, in 1739, a war with Spain appeared 
 inevitable, he was made commander of a fleet in 
 the South Sea. He sailed Sept. 18th, 1740, but 
 encountering a violent storm, was prevented, for 
 three months, from doubling Cape Horn, and 
 was rejoined at Juan Fernandez, by only three of 
 his vessels in a wretched condition. The ori- 
 ginal number was eight, five men of war, and 
 three smaller vessels. He sailed for the coast of 
 Peru, made some prizes, and burned the town of 
 Paita, but, failing to intercept the annual Ma- 
 nilla galleon, found himself compelled to burn 
 his booty, and destroy all of his vessels but one. 
 Having equipped this one (the Centurion), he 
 retreated to Tinian, one of the Ladrone islands. 
 After having met with some disasters, he 
 finally sailed for Macao, which he reached in 
 safety, and there formed the plan of taking 
 Acapulco. To accomplish this bold purpose, 
 he gave out that he had returned to England, 
 and this deceptive report circulated with great 
 rapidity. Meanwhile, he directed his course to 
 the Philippines, cruising in the vicinity of 
 Cape Espiritu Santo. After about a month, 
 the long expected galleon appeared, and, con- 
 fident in her superior strength, eagerly com- 
 menced the fight. The British fought with 
 that cool, dauntless valor, for which they are 
 distinguished, and succeeded in making a prize 
 of the galleon, which was worth £400,000. 
 The whole amount of the booty previously ta- 
 ken was £600,000. Anson then returned to 
 Macao, where he disposed of his prize. The 
 Chinese were inclined to insult his flag, but he 
 maintained his rights with his characteristic 
 pertinacity. From Macao, he sailed for Eng- 
 land, which he reached June 15th, 1744, hav- 
 ing escaped the French fleet which lay in the 
 channel. Anson's perilous voyage threw new 
 light upon geography and navigation, and con- 
 ferred lasting benefits upon the cause of science. 
 He was liberally rewarded for his bravery and 
 perseverance, being made, soon after his return, 
 rear-admiral of the blue, and at no great distance 
 from that period, rear-admiral of the white. In 
 1747,he gained a brilliant victory over the French 
 admiral, Jonquiere, off Cape Finisterre, and 
 was consequently raised to the peerage with the 
 title of Lord Jlnson, baron of Sober ton. JJ Invinci- 
 ble and La Gloire, two French vessels, were ta- 
 ken by Anson on this occasion, and the captain 
 of the former, on surrendering his sword, said, 
 " Monsieur, vous avez vaincu V Invincible, et la 
 Gloire vous suit." " Sir, you have conquered 
 the Invincible, and Glory follows you." 
 6* 
 
 Lord Anson was made first lord of the admi- 
 ralty, four years after his elevation to the peer- 
 age. In 1758, he commanded the fleet before 
 Brest, protecting the landing of the English, 
 and receiving them after their repulse. He 
 died in 1762. 
 
 ANSTEY, Christopher, a poet of the 18th 
 century, born in 1724, died in 1805. His New 
 Bath Guide, published in 1766, became imme- 
 diately popular from its humor, wit, and origi- 
 nality. 
 
 ANTAEUS, the fabulous son of Neptune and 
 Terra (the Earth), of gigantic stature. He re- 
 sided in Libya, where he challenged every 
 stranger to single combat. What made him 
 peculiarly formidable, was the circumstance of 
 the renewal of his strength by his mother, eve- 
 ry time he was thrown to the earth. Hercules, 
 having found out the secret of his prowess, 
 overcame him by lifting him in the air, and 
 crushing him in his iron grasp. The dwelling 
 of this monster was adorned with the skulls of 
 his vanquished adversaries. 
 
 ANTENOR, a noble Trojan, who makes a 
 conspicuous figure in the Iliad of Homer. He 
 escaped, like ./Eneas, and is said to have found- 
 ed Patavium, the modern Padua. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., the Great, first institutor 
 of the monastic life. His native place was 
 Coma, a town of Upper Egypt, where he was 
 born, A. D. 251. In 285, he retired into soli- 
 tude from a devotional spirit, and in 305, estab- 
 lished the first community of monks. Being 
 disappointed in his attempts to gain the honor 
 of martyrdom at Alexandria, he left the cotta- 
 ges of his monks to the care of his pupil Pacho- 
 mius, and, in company with two of the brethren, 
 retired to a very remote desert, where he died, 
 
 A. D. 356. The disease, called from him St. 
 Anthony's fire, is a malady of peculiar violence 
 with frightful accompaniments, in which every 
 limb attacked, becomes withered, shrunk, and 
 blackened, as if under the influence of flame. 
 The life of St. Anthony in the wilderness, is 
 said to have been fearfully eventful, being 
 passed in combats with devils. The exploits 
 of the saint are frequently made the subject of 
 paintings, by Catholic artists. The order of 
 Anthony was established, which, even in the 
 18th century, numbered thirty convents, not 
 one of which is extant at present. 
 
 ANTIBES, an old town of Provence, on the 
 Mediterranean, with a safe and commodious 
 harbor. Population, 5570. It was founded 340 
 
 B. C. by the Massilians, who gave it the name 
 of Antipolis. In 1747, it successfully resisted 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ANT 
 
 64 
 
 ANT 
 
 the Austrians and English. In modern history 
 it is noted as being the only place where the 
 French troops refused to join Napoleon on his 
 landing in 1815, after his escape from Elba. 
 
 ANTIGONE, a daughter of CEdipus, king 
 of Thebes, by his incestuous connexion with 
 Jocasta. Antigone was the faithful guide of 
 CEdipus, after his loss of sight ; having buried 
 the corpse of her brother Polynices, against the 
 express commands of Creon, the tyrant ordered 
 her to be buried alive, but she killed herself before 
 the execution of the sentence. (See CEdipus.) 
 
 ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, son of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, a prince of a peaceable disposition, 
 but compelled to enter into war, first with the 
 Gauls, then with Pyrrhus of Epirus. When 
 his son brought him the head of the latter, he 
 expressed great indignation, and interred the 
 body with all the respect due to a great warrior. 
 He died at the age of eighty, B. C. 213. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, general of Alexander the 
 Great, after whose death he attempted to gain 
 the sovereignty of Asia, but was defeated and 
 fell at Ipsus, 301 B. C. 
 
 ANTINOUS, a Bithynian youth, of whom 
 the emperor Adrian was excessively fond. 
 When the latter was on his travels, Antinous 
 threw himself into the Nile and was drowned, 
 but whether the act was committed with the 
 intention of saving the life of the emperor, or 
 from weariness of existence, has not yet been 
 decided. The grief of Adrian was intense, and 
 the honors of divinity were, by his command, 
 paid to his young and unfortunate favorite. He 
 named a newly-discovered star Antinous, and 
 gave this name to cities, while various images 
 of the lost youth emanated from the hands of 
 different artists. Those which have come down 
 to us bearing the name of Antinous, are distin- 
 guished for a languid loveliness, and a round- 
 ness of contour, which resembles the traits of 
 female rather than manly beauty. 
 
 ANTIOCH, or Antakia. This city anciently 
 bore a variety of names — viz. Antiochia, Antigo- 
 nia, Theopolis, Sdeucis, Epiphane, and Reblata. 
 It is in Syria, fifty miles west of Aleppo, on the 
 Orontes, twenty-one miles from the sea. The 
 population is less than 20.000, the houses low, 
 and the land neglected. The appearance of the 
 city is melancholy, and no remains recall the 
 splendors of the day when it was the third city 
 in the world, for beauty, greatness, and popu- 
 lation. It was built by Antiochus and Selencus 
 Nicanor, partly on a hill, and partly in a plain. 
 It was for a great length of time the residence 
 of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and the Ro- 
 
 man governors, when Syria became a province 
 of the empire. In the crusades it was famous 
 for the defeat of the Turks, in 1098, by Godfrey 
 and the crusaders. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. Several distinguished kings 
 of Syria bore this name. The first was the ge- 
 neral of king Philip, a Macedonian by birth, 
 whose fame was eclipsed by that of his son Se- 
 leucus. — Antiochus Soter, the son of Seleucus, 
 was unsuccessful in war, but is chiefly distin- 
 guished by his passion for his step-mother, the 
 beautiful Stratonice. His struggles to quell his 
 misplaced affection, threw him into a lingering 
 disorder, the cause of which he was unwilling 
 to divulge. Erasistratus, the king's physician, 
 penetrated his secret in the following manner. 
 As he was holding the hand of his patient, he 
 perceived by the accelerated motion of his pulse 
 on the entrance of Stratonice, that love for her 
 was the cause of his disorder. The king, to 
 save the life of his son, relinquished to him his 
 young and lovely bride. — Antiochus the Great 
 succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, 244 
 years B. C. Molo, governor of Media, felt the 
 power of his arms, and Ptolemy Philopater was 
 by him compelled to give up the whole of Syria. 
 Over the Parthians, also, he was completely 
 triumphant, and, favoring the cause of Hannibal, 
 he made war upon the Romans. He was, how- 
 ever, dispirited by ill-success in the commence- 
 ment of this contest, and not fully comprehen- 
 ding or seconding the views of the Carthaginian 
 general, was several times defeated, but signally 
 at Magnesia, the consequence of which was the 
 conclusion of a peace disgraceful to the Syrian 
 monarch. He was killed in an attempt to plun- 
 der a temple of Jupiter. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES, second son of 
 the preceding, oppressed the Jews cruelly and 
 laid siege to Alexandria. He was compelled to 
 desist by the interference of the Romans in be- 
 half of their ally Ptolemy. Nothing can show 
 in a more striking light the terror of the Roman 
 name, than the following anecdote. When 
 Antiochus was on the point of marching against 
 Ptolemy, Popilius Lasnas arrived at his court as 
 ambassador from the Roman Senate. He was 
 instructed to command Antiochus to relinquish 
 his hostile project. Any other but a Roman citi- 
 zen would have been awed at the presence of 
 the courtiers and army of the king, sitting as 
 he was, surrounded by all the imposing splen- 
 dors of a regal camp. But Popilius sternly de- 
 livered the message of the senate, and with such 
 an air of haughty authority, that Antiochus was 
 embarrassed. He endeavoured, however, to sa- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ANT 
 
 65 
 
 ANT 
 
 tisfy the ambassador with an evasive answer ; 
 but Popilius, with his staff, drew a circle around 
 the king's seat ; and said sternly : " Pass not 
 that boundary, I command you, O King, until 
 you have given a plain answer to the senate's 
 demand." The king, overawed by this boldness, 
 promised to sacrifice his project to the wishes 
 of the Romans. The last Syrian king of this 
 name was Antiochus Asiaticus. On his expul- 
 sion by Pompey, Syria became a Roman pro- 
 vince, ruled by governors. 
 
 ANTIPATER, a Macedonian, the faithful 
 minister of Philip and Alexander, and pupil of 
 Aristotle. He obtained the European provinces 
 on the death of Alexander. His war with the 
 states of Greece terminated successfully. He 
 died, B. C. 317. 
 
 ANTISTHENES, founder of the sect of the 
 Cynics, was born at Athens, between 424 and 
 421, B. C. From Socrates he imbibed an en- 
 thusiastic love of virtue. He thought that vir- 
 tue consisted in independence of circumstances, 
 and to maintain this, he thought it requisite that 
 our wants should be reduced to the smallest 
 number. He affected a contempt for wealth, 
 honor, the delights of the senses, and know- 
 ledge, and sturdily walked the streets, in the 
 ragged garb of a beggar. Plato was one of the 
 first to penetrate his whims, and guess at their 
 design, and his brilliant remark to the Cynic, 
 has not escaped oblivion : " I see your vanity," 
 said the sage, " through the holes of your 
 coat." Antisthenes, however, was a virtuous 
 man, whose conversation was agreeable, and is 
 worthy of high praise, if it be true that he at- 
 tacked the accusers of Socrates, and by his per- 
 severance obtained the banishment of one, and 
 the death of another. 
 
 ANTIUM, a city of the Volsci on the Tuscan 
 Sea, traces of which are still visible in Capo a" 
 Anzo, or Antio. Camillus took it, and carrying 
 the beaks of their vessels to Rome employed 
 -them in ornamenting a tribunal in the forum, 
 thence called the Rostra (beaks). The city was 
 dedicated to the goddess of Fortune, whose 
 statue nodded answers, when consulted as an or- 
 acle, being probably formed upon some simple 
 mechanical principle. 
 
 ANTOINETTE (Marie Antoinette Josephe 
 Jeanne), of Lorraine, arch-duchess of Austria, 
 the accomplished, beautiful, and unfortunate 
 queen of Louis XVI, whom she married while 
 he was dauphin. She was the daughter of 
 Francis I and Maria Theresa, and was born 
 at Vienna, in 1755. Her accomplishments, 
 talents, grace, virtue, and uncommon loveli- 
 
 ness, fitted her for the queen of a gallant nation, 
 and as such she would have been honored in 
 France, had she lived before oppression had 
 roused the people to madness. Her mother, in 
 a letter to her future husband, after alluding to 
 the care with which she had formed her mind, 
 says, "Above all things, I have recommended to 
 her humility before God, because I am convinc- 
 ed that it is impossible for us to secure the hap- 
 piness of the subjects confided to us, without 
 love to Him, who destroys the sceptres and the 
 thrones of kings according to his will." The 
 marriage took place at Versailles, May 16, 1770, 
 and was celebrated with uncommon splendor, 
 but immediately after the ceremony, a thunder- 
 storm of unparalleled violence broke over the 
 palace of Versailles, darkened the surrounding 
 scenery, and struck terror into the hearts of the 
 people for miles around. On May 30th, the 
 festivities at Paris were saddened by a most 
 terrible accident ; a number of citizens being 
 crushed to death in the Rue Royale, by some 
 mismanagement on the part of the proper au- 
 thorities. 53 persons were found dead, and 300 
 more were dangerously injured. 
 
 The magnanimity of Marie Antoinette dis- 
 played itself soon after her elevation to the 
 throne, on the death of Louis XV. An officer of 
 the gardes du corps (body-guard), who had given 
 offence on some former occasion, expressed his 
 intention of resigning his commission, but the 
 queen forbade him. " Remain," said she, " for- 
 get the past. Far be it from the queen of 
 France to avenge the injuries of the dauphi- 
 ness." She devoted herself to the interests of her 
 people with an assiduity unparalleled in a sove- 
 reign of her age, yet, becoming obnoxious to 
 the court party, her character was assailed in 
 every shape and quarter. She was accused of 
 setting on foot conspiracies which never existed, 
 and of entertaining views which never entered 
 her mind. She was termed the Austrian, and it 
 was openly asserted as well as privately insinu- 
 ated, that her heart was estranged from the 
 country of her husband, and her mind solely 
 occupied with the interests of her native land. 
 In her conduct there was matter for gentle re- 
 proof, but none for malevolent accusation. A 
 gayety, which sometimes degenerated into le- 
 vity, a passion for fashionable novelties, and an 
 unwary contempt for court formalities, instead 
 of being regarded as the foibles and impru- 
 dences of a young and innocent mind, were 
 construed into evidences of the existence of 
 loose principles, unbridled extravagance, and 
 hatred for the nation. She was likewise charged 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 with pettishness under reproof, and we can 
 readily conceive how a female of so high a rank, 
 conscious of the purity of her intentions, and 
 perpetually assailed by reckless cavillers, as- 
 sumed in reply to the unworthy insinuations of 
 her enemies, the tone which her virtue and 
 her birth appeared to warrant. The affair of 
 the diamond necklace created an extraordinary 
 sensation. A jeweller at Paris demanded pay- 
 ment for a necklace so costly that the finances 
 of a queen would hardly warrant its purchase. 
 The result of an examination was the proof of 
 the queen's integrity. A lady of the stature and 
 complexion of the queen had succeeded in dis- 
 guising herself, and passing herself off as 
 Antoinette, upon a cardinal in a midnight meet- 
 ing in the park of Versailles. On the 6th of 
 October (1789) the mob broke into the palace 
 of Versailles, murdered some of the body-guards, 
 and threatened the queen in the most frightful 
 language. At midnight she received a letter 
 from a friendly clergyman, advising her to seek 
 safety in flight, as her life would be sacrificed 
 early the next morning. She resolved to remain 
 and destroyed the warning letter. She heard 
 the footsteps of the ruffian rabble — she thought 
 her time had come— but her life was saved. 
 The progress of the ruffians was arrested at 
 the very door of her bed-chamber, where her 
 faithful guardsmen laid down their lives to 
 secure for their queen a retreat to the chamber 
 of the king. The king and queen showed them- 
 selves with their children in the balcony. The 
 mass of heads beneath for a moment ceased to 
 be agitated — but it was only for a moment. Si- 
 lence was broken by a thousand tongues : " No 
 children — no children ! The queen ! the queen 
 alone !" This was a trying moment ; but Antoi- 
 nette had firmness for the crisis. Putting her 
 son and daughter into her husband's arms, she 
 advanced alone into the balcony. A spectacle 
 like this filled the fierce people with admiration, 
 and thundering shouts of Vive la reine ! {Long 
 live the queen !) succeeded to the imprecations 
 of the preceding moment. Such is the fickle- 
 ness of a mob ! The march to Paris was a suc- 
 cession of terrors. The heads of two faithful 
 guardsmen, elevated on pikes, met the eyes of 
 the poor queen as she looked from her carriage 
 windows. 
 
 The fate of Antoinette darkened rapidly. With 
 the king she fled to Varennes, — with him was 
 brought back to Paris. Her courage did not fail 
 in the scene of the Legislative Assembly, before 
 which body she was present with her husband, 
 heard his deposition pronounced, and then went 
 
 into the Temple, where he was imprisoned. 
 Here, where the light of heaven faintly fell 
 through grated windows, surrounded by her fa- 
 mily, she appeared to feel entire resignation to the 
 will of Him, on whom the happiness of the hum- 
 blest individual depends. When she heard the 
 condemnation of the king from the lips of the 
 royal victim, she had the firmness to congratu- 
 late him on the speedy delivery from trouble 
 which awaited him. The eternal separation 
 from her son did not shake her firmness, and, 
 with a heart apparently unbroken, she was con- 
 signed to the loathsome depths of a dungeon, 
 August 5th, 1793. The accusations brought 
 against the unhappy queen on her trial, were 
 all unfounded, and merely advanced because 
 her enemies had still respect enough for justice, 
 to mimic its forms in their guilty court. She 
 was charged with having squandered the public 
 money, and with leaguing in secret with the 
 foreign enemies of France. The clearness of 
 her innocence, the falsehood and frivolity of 
 witnesses, the eloquence of defenders were of 
 no avail — Marie Antoinette was doomed to die 
 upon the scaffold. 
 
 The expression of her countenance as she 
 passed to the place of execution awed the 
 bloodthirsty populace — but the once matchless 
 beauty of that noble countenance was gone 
 forever. One unacquainted with the ravages 
 of grief, could not believe that the haggard and 
 forsaken being whom they led to sacrifice, was 
 the same young queen who a short time before, 
 held in thrall the chivalry of France, by her 
 exquisite loveliness, her winning grace and 
 sportive gayety. Antoinette cast back a long 
 last look at the Tuilleries. A look which told 
 of sorrowful remembrance, and of agonizing 
 emotion — then with an air of dignified resigna- 
 tion, she ascended the scaffold. " My God !" 
 cried she, as she kneeled on that fatal plat- 
 form, " enlighten and affect my executioner ! 
 Adieu, my children — my beloved ones— for- 
 ever ! I am going to your father !" This noble 
 woman perished in her 38th year, October 16, 
 1793. 
 
 ANTONINUS (Annius Verus), best known 
 by the name of Marcus Aurelius, born A. D. 
 121, assumed the imperial dignity, A. D. 161, on 
 the death of Antoninus Pius. He chose for his 
 colleague, Lucius Verus, but the latter, dying a 
 few years after, left the government solely in 
 the hands of Antoninus. In the prosecution of 
 the war against the Quadi, his army was on the 
 point of perishing of thirst, when there fell an 
 abundant shower of rain, which was attributed 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ANT 
 
 (37 
 
 APE 
 
 to the prayers of the 10th, (a Christian) legion, 
 and they were thenceforth termed the thunder- 
 ing legion. Though justly celebrated for be- 
 neficence and equity, Antoninus was not free 
 from religious fanaticism, and authorized a per- 
 secution of the Christians in Gaul. His want 
 of foresight in introducing the profligate Corn- 
 modus, his son, into the government, was pro- 
 ductive of most unhappy consequences. After 
 his death, which took place in the 59th year of 
 his age, and 19th of his reign, he was deified by 
 the Romans, who appreciated his merit. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvi- 
 us, originally of a Gaulish family, was born near 
 Rome, A. D. 86. He succeeded to the consu- 
 late in A. D. 120, and was adopted by, and suc- 
 ceeded Adrian in 138. He was tolerant to the 
 Christians, humane, dignified, and just, and his 
 reign was one of undisturbed tranquillity. He 
 was wont to say, with Scipio, " I had rather 
 save the life of a single citizen, than destroy a 
 thousand of my enemies." He died at the age 
 of 74, A. D. 161. 
 
 ANTONY, Mark, (Marcus Antonius), the 
 triumvir, was born 86 years B. C. He attract- 
 ed notice at an early age by his bravery and 
 dissipation. His first exploit was the establish- 
 ment of Ptolemy Auletes on the throne. He 
 attached himself to the party of Caesar, whose 
 favor he gained by the employment of all the 
 arts of which he was master, and was appoint- 
 ed by Cassar his colleague in the consulship, B. 
 C. 44. After the fall of Ccesar, Antony obtain- 
 ed from the senate a confirmation of the acts of 
 his colleague, and a public funeral, at which 
 he delivered an harangue so eloquent and spirit- 
 stirring that he roused the indignation of the 
 people, and forced Brutus and Cassius to fly. 
 Octavius, the heir of Ccesar, was supported by 
 the enemies of Antony, who wished to curtail 
 the authority of this ambitious man, but in the 
 course of the civil war, Antony, uniting with 
 Lepidus and Octavius, formed the triumvirate 
 which, in Rome, speedily manifested the most 
 sanguinary designs. Each of the triumvirs 
 agreed to sacrifice his friends, and their alli- 
 ance was cemented by the blood of Rome's 
 bravest and best citizens. Antony affixed the 
 head and hand of Cicero to the rostrum, which 
 he had dignified by his eloquence. Brutus, and 
 Cassius being defeated, Antony went to the East, 
 and surrounded by Asiatic luxuries, forgot what- 
 ever of manliness he had once possessed. Cap- 
 tivated by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, his am- 
 bition was lost in the indulgence of his pas- 
 sions. Fulvia, his wife, having taken up arms 
 
 against Octavius, the latter quarrelled with An 
 ton}'-, but a reconciliation was effected, and An- 
 tony, on the death of his wife, married Octavia. 
 the sister of his colleague, to strengthen the 
 bonds which united them. His renewal of the 
 infamous connexion with Cleopatra, however, 
 drew down upon him the vengeance of Octavius, 
 and war was declared against Egypt by the Ro- 
 mans. How Antony fought and fled at Actium 
 has been described. (See Actium.) Finding him- 
 self deserted on all sides, and hearing of the 
 death of Cleopatra, Antony desired his slave 
 Eros to slay him. This humble friend, affect- 
 ing to consent, requested his master to turn 
 away his face, and then falling on Antony's 
 sword, died at his feet. Antony, touched at 
 this heroism, snatched the weapon, and gave 
 himself a mortal wound, but had strength 
 enough left to be carried into the presence 
 of Cleopatra in whose arms he died, B. C. 30. 
 
 ANTWERP, in French, Anvers, a city of 
 the Netherlands, strongly fortified, containing 
 several beautiful public buildings, and 65,000 
 inhabitants. Its manufactures are important, 
 and recently its commerce has been flourishing. 
 Before the war between Spain and the Nether- 
 lands, Antwerp was a place of more importance 
 than Amsterdam. In the beginning of the 16th 
 century, the Scheldt, on which it is situated, 
 was crowded with vessels ; but its harbor was 
 closed by the peace of Westphalia. This com- 
 pleted the ruin which the siege, under the prince 
 of Parma, commenced. When Napoleon declar- 
 ed the Austrian Netherlands free, he prevented 
 the revival of its commerce by making Antwerp 
 a military depot. In 1814, Carnot gallantly de- 
 fended the city against the English and Saxons 
 In 1833, General Chasse, held out for a long 
 time against the French under Marechal Ge- 
 rard, but the latter was victorious. 
 
 ANUBIS, an Egyptian deity, son of Osiris, 
 worshipped at first under the form of a dog, and 
 afterwards under that of a man with a dog's 
 head. 
 
 APELLES, a painter of antiquity, who re- 
 ceived the right of citizenship at Ephesus. He 
 was contemporary with Alexander the Great, 
 and the most masterly of his performances was 
 a picture called " Alexander holding the light- 
 ning." Many anecdotes are related of him, 
 among others, the following. Pie had painted 
 a horse, which was severely criticised by a per- 
 son who examined it, and in such a mannei 
 that the pride of the artist was wounded. Re- 
 solved to put his performance to the test, he 
 had a horse led into his painting-room, where 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 ARA 
 
 63 
 
 ARA 
 
 the animal;, on beholding the picture, neighed, 
 and thus secured the triumph of Apelles. 
 
 APIS, a bull worshipped by the ancient 
 Egyptians. He dwelt in chapels, and was fed 
 with care. His birth-day was celebrated with 
 singular ceremonies, and his funeral conducted 
 on the most expensive scale. The color of the 
 bull was required to be black, he had a triangu- 
 lar white spot on the forehead, a white crescent 
 on his right side, and a knot under his tongue. 
 He was drowned in the Nile when he attained 
 the age of 25. 
 
 APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona, twin- 
 brother of Diana, born on the island of Delos. 
 He was the god of music, poetry, and prophecy, 
 and considered by physicians, shepherds, and 
 founders of cities, as their patron. A few 
 days after his birth, he killed the serpent Py- 
 thon with an arrow, and *s generally represent- 
 ed with a bow and quiver. He fought bravely 
 against the Titans, under Jupiter. When his 
 son iEsculapius (which see) , was killed by Jove's 
 thunder-bolt, Apollo slew the Cyclops, who 
 forged the thunderer's weapons. Having con- 
 quered the satyr Marsyas, in a musical dispute, 
 Apollo flayed him alive. Pan having disputed 
 the superiority of Apollo in music, a day was 
 appointed for deciding their merits, and Timolus 
 and Midas were judges. The latter, denying 
 the merit of Apollo, was punished by havina- a 
 pair of ass's ears affixed to his head. When 
 he built the walls of Megara, he laid his lute 
 upon a stone which ever afterwards sent forth a 
 strain of music upon being touched. The Ro- 
 mans celebrated games in his honor which 
 were called Jipollinaria, and consisted of bull- 
 fights, contests of athletes, and theatrical shows. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSINUS, the 
 profligate decemvir, who attempted to destroy 
 the virtue of Virginia. (See Virginia.) His con- 
 duct produced a revolution, and he killed him- 
 self in prison, according to Livy. He was at 
 the height of his power about 400 B. C. 
 
 AQUILEIA, or AGLAR, formerly a flour- 
 ishing place situated on the Adriatic Sea, and 
 the Timavus, in Upper Italy, now an inconsi- 
 derable fishing town in Illyria. It was anciently 
 called, from its splendor, the " Second Rome." 
 The Romans built it chiefly to oppose the incur- 
 sions of the Barbarians. It was destroyed by 
 Attila in 452. 
 
 ARiVBIA is a country of great extent, and 
 of much historical interest. Its boundaries 
 have varied greatly at different times, but taken 
 in its widest extent, it may be said to be one 
 of the very largest peninsulas in the world. On 
 
 the east, it is bounded by the Euphrates, the 
 Persian Gulf, and the bay of Ormus ; on the 
 west by Palestine, part of Syria, the Isthmus 
 of Suez, and the Red Sea , on the south by the 
 Straits of Babehnandel and the Indian Ocean ; 
 and on the north, by part of Syria, Diarbekir, 
 Irak, and Khuzestan. The greater portion of 
 this vast territory is occupied by long, dreary 
 deserts of sand ; while, in some parts, as on the 
 western side of the Arabian desert, the soil is 
 rendered fertile by the irrigation of rivulets, 
 and various flowers, both indigenous, and trans- 
 planted from India, spring up, bud, and blos- 
 som, filling the air with their ravishing perfume. 
 Some precious stones are found in Arabia, but 
 its principle riches are flocks and herds. Of the 
 natural history of Arabia we can say but little. 
 Ferocious animals pursue their prey in the de- 
 serts, which they render terrific by their pre- 
 sence and ferocity, while the mountains produce 
 animals yielding many and great advantages to 
 commerce. Of these we may mention the civet- 
 cat, the bezoar goat, the musk-rat, and others 
 of domestic habits and importance. 
 
 Concerning the old Arabians who are now 
 destroyed, or merged and lost in other tribes, 
 there is no distinct history or memoir extant. 
 Kahtan or Joktan, son of Eber, and Adnan, the 
 direct descendant of Ishmael, were the ances- 
 tors of the present races of Arabians. The pos- 
 terity of Joktan are termed genuine or pure 
 Arabs, that of Ishmael, naturalized Arabs, or Mos- 
 tarabi. More than 3600 years ago, Yarab, Jok- 
 tan's eldest son, is said to have succeeded his 
 father in the kingdom of Yemen, while Jorham, 
 the younger, founded the kingdom of Hejaz, 
 which his posterity possessed until the time of 
 Ishmael. In the time of Alexander the Great, 
 the inundation of Arem overwhelmed with mis- 
 ery the tribes settled in Yemen, eight of which 
 were forced to fly their dwellings and migrate 
 to other lands. Ishmael, marrying the daughter 
 of Modab, one of the princes of Hejaz, had 12 
 sons. The descendants of Ishmael, driving out 
 the Jorhamites, took possession of their country. 
 The government appears to have been in the 
 hands not of one ruler, but of the leaders of the 
 different tribes. An aristocracy prevailed at 
 Mecca until the time of Mahomet. Sescstris, 
 of whom the Jewish historian, Josephus, speaks 
 under the name of Sesac, conquered Arabia. 
 Yet this conquest was but in name, for the 
 Arabs were too proud and independent to bow 
 their necks beneath the tread of the conqueror, 
 and subsequent events show, that even during 
 his reign, they made themselves formidable to 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ARA 
 
 69 
 
 ARA 
 
 the Egyptians, and Sesostris himself was forced 
 to draw a line between Heliopolis and Pelusi- 
 ura, to guard his native subjects against the at- 
 tacks of the Arabs. Furthermore we have evi- 
 dence, that, although he had a powerful fleet 
 upon the Red Sea, he did no more than skirt 
 the shores of Arabia Felix, or at most, take pos- 
 session of some of its maritime provinces. It 
 may safely be asserted that the whole peninsula 
 of Arabia never was, or, at least, never was for 
 any length of time, subjected to the Egyptians. 
 The Hycsos or Shepherd Kings, who inva- 
 ded Egypt, and for a long time held undisputed 
 sway in that country, were Arabians. Neither 
 the Assyrians, the Medes, nor the Persians, 
 ever obtained firm footing in Arabia. The Per- 
 sian monarchs were regarded by the Arab 
 chiefs in the light of friends, and received an- 
 nually a voluntary present of frankincense 
 as a tribute of respect, but other ties than 
 those of the heart never bound the free dwel- 
 lers of Arabia to the proud potentates of 
 Persia. Cambyses, when flushed with ambi- 
 tious pride, and rushing forward to the conquest 
 of Egypt, paused in his impetuous career, and 
 respectfully asked of the Arabians permission to 
 pass through their country. The Spartans, war- 
 like and daring as they were, had reason to re- 
 pent of an incursion which they made upon the 
 Arabs. Alexander the Great, when inflated 
 with the success of his arms, was surprised to 
 find that the Arabs so little dreaded his tremen- 
 dous power, as to neglect sending ambassadors 
 to him. This gave the Macedonian a high opin- 
 ion of them as 
 
 " Warriors worthy of his steel ;" 
 
 but death put an end to his hostile projects. His 
 successors attempted the conquest of Arabia, but 
 were completely defeated. The Romans made 
 different incursions into Arabia with but partial 
 successes to compensate for heavy losses, until 
 CElius Gallus, in the reign of Augustus, pene- 
 trated into the interior of the country, and gain- 
 ed some victories, which the deadly heats the 
 army encountered rendered unavailing. The 
 Arabs were not again disturbed by the Romans 
 until the reign of Trajan. 
 
 This emperor, confident of success, besieged 
 the capital of the Hangarenes, but was forced, 
 much to his chagrin, to raise the siege. The 
 emperor Severus met with a similar disap- 
 pointment. The Saracens joined the Persians 
 against Julian the Apostate. This prince refus- 
 ed to pay the tribute which, under the name 
 of subsidy, the barbarians had exacted from 
 
 his predecessors. On their complaining, Julian 
 sternly replied : 4; Iron and not gold is the metal 
 that I deal in." This answer caused their revolt. 
 Under the reign of Theodosius, the Arabs ceas- 
 ed to be the stay, and became the terror of the 
 empire. Disunion had hen tofore weakened 
 their forces, but now, uniting, they showed their 
 power was indeed formidable. If they had no 
 knowledge of those military arts by which alone 
 the strongholds of power are prostrated, they pos- 
 sessed that wild and desperate valor which car- 
 ried them triumphantly through their predatory 
 expeditions. Mohammed, and after him, the Ca- 
 liphs, called forth the energies of the Arabs and 
 the display of every quality which fitted them 
 to bear arms, but that of implicit obedience. 
 The Arabs were too proud of their hereditary in- 
 dependence to subrm blindly to the yoke of any 
 man or combination of men, and they accord- 
 ingly, for the most part, acknowledged only the 
 spiritual authority of the Caliphate. When the 
 power of the Turks gained the ascendant, the 
 Arabs shook themselves free from fetters, re- 
 joicing in the chainless spirit of liberty. It is 
 not difficult to conceive the wild delight of 
 roaming the desert mounted on a fleet horse, 
 and beholding all around a plain which seems 
 interminable, and presents to the Arab horse- 
 man the idea of a solitary existence in a world 
 of his own. A French renegado once confessed 
 that his emotions when so situated, were almost 
 painfully exalted. 
 
 In the 16th century, during the war between 
 the Turks and Portuguese, Solomon Pacha 
 seized upon all the towns on the Arabian Gulf. 
 His successors also were victorious, and al- 
 most all Arabia became subject to the Otto- 
 man empire. These events occurred between 
 the years A. D. 1538 and 1568. Still all the 
 sheiks and princes were not subdued, but many 
 of them, remaining independent, continued to 
 harass the Turks, until, about the middle of 
 the 17th century, the latter were forced to relin- 
 quish all the conquered places on the coast of 
 Arabia. The independent spirit of the Arabs has 
 gained them great celebrity. 
 
 Arabia is celebrated as being the scene of some 
 of those wonderful events which are commemo- 
 rated in the Holy Scriptures. It was for a long 
 time the dwelling-place of Moses, who married 
 the daughter of Jethro and fed his flocks upon 
 Mount Horeb. The children of Israel, under the 
 guidance of the Lord, passed into Arabia, when 
 they went from the grinding bondage of the 
 Egyptians. In the desert of Sinai, rises that 
 mount which was clad in thunder and 
 
 *gyi 
 
 lofty 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 ARA 
 
 70 
 
 ARA 
 
 lightning, when God gave his commandments 
 to the people. Mount Sinai commands a view 
 of" Mount Horeb, where again the Lord ap- 
 peared in the burning bush, to Moses. There 
 is still to be seen that rock, which, when the 
 people thirsted for water, Moses smote ; where, 
 from twelve mouths, the living waters gushed 
 profusely. Again, when they were in want of 
 water, in the wilderness of Paran, Moses smote 
 a rock twice before the water flowed. That rock 
 also remains at the present day, an impressive 
 memorial of the miracle, exhibiting the various 
 fissures whence the clear element gushed forth, 
 cheering, by its presence, the many hearts of 
 those who had panted for the succour. 
 
 The Bedouin Arabs, although possessed of 
 not a few good qualities, are, like other Arabian 
 tribes, inveterate robbers. When a Bedouin 
 descries a traveller at a distance, he puts his 
 horse to his speed, and rides furiously up, ex- 
 claiming loudly : " Undress thyself, thy aunt 
 (my wife) is without a garment." There is no 
 way to avoid death in this case but submis- 
 sion, as the possession of the meanest article of 
 wearing apparel is an object important enough 
 to warrant the shedding of human blood, in the 
 eyes of the Arabs. There are many singular 
 contradictions in the character of these wild 
 people. A stranger who confides his safety to 
 their honor will be treated with the utmost kind- 
 ness, and share the wealth or poverty of his 
 entertainer, who bids him welcome to what is 
 his. The patriarchal form of government has 
 ever subsisted among the Arabs. The dignity 
 of Grand Sheik (Prince) is hereditary in cer- 
 tain families, but the inferior Sheiks choose a 
 successor out of his family, on the death of a 
 Grand Sheik. Although Arabia is a rich coun- 
 try, the greater portion of the inhabitants are 
 ill-fed and clad, simply because they prefer a 
 wandering life of freedom, to one of confine- 
 ment and restraint, even if it bring the great- 
 est luxuries. These they profess to despise. 
 The Arabs, after fluctuating between a variety 
 of religions, have generally embraced Moham- 
 medanism, of which there are several sects. One 
 trait in their character is highly praiseworthy ; 
 their extreme kindness to the domestic animals 
 to which they owe so much, and which, in- 
 deed, constitute, as before remarked, their prin- 
 cipal support. They free these creatures from 
 work in their old age, and permit them to die a 
 natural death. The Arab horses are the most 
 splendid and valuable in the world, and are 
 reared with extreme care ; spirited, docile, fleet, 
 handsome, and hardy, they always command 
 
 the highest prices. The Arabs, proud of the 
 antiquity of their own origin, are no less care- 
 ful of the fame of their horses, of which they 
 preserve authenticated pedigrees. For charg- 
 ers, the Arab horses are positively unrivalled. 
 A war-horse of this country appears delighted 
 with the din of battle. His spirit rises with the 
 ardor of the conflict, and he dashes into the 
 " current of a heady fight," reckless of the vol- 
 leys of musketry and cannon pealing around 
 him, even when struck with shot, 
 
 " Staggering, yet stemming all, his lord, unharmed 
 he bears." 
 
 He will watch his master if he falls from his 
 saddle in the fight, and not only shield him, 
 but neigh for assistance. The price in Eng. 
 for an Arabian horse is 1000, 2000, or even 3000 
 pounds sterling. Sometimes even the poorest 
 Arabs will not part with their faithful chargers, 
 even though the most tempting offers be held 
 out. " No, my jewel," was the affectionate ex- 
 clamation addressed to his mare by that Arab 
 whose story is so celebrated — who, after he had 
 agreed to relinquish the beautiful creature to 
 grace the stud of the King of France, at an 
 enormous price, could not find it in his heart to 
 tear himself from his faithful servant : " No — 
 my jewel! they shall never part us! we have 
 lived and we die together." Saying this with 
 tears in his eyes, he sprang upon her back, and 
 rushed back to the desert, happy in having es- 
 caped the temptation and the sacrifice. 
 
 Arabia is divided into five provinces : — Ye- 
 men — containing three million inhabitants, go- 
 verned by an imam : Oman — under the imam 
 of Muscat : Lassa or Hassa : Nedshed and Te- 
 mama : and Heijaz, the Holy Land of the Mo- 
 hammedans. 
 
 ARAM, Eugene, whose erudition and fate 
 have rendered him remarkable, was born at 
 Ramsgill, a village in Yorkshire, England, in 
 the year 1704. His father was, by profession, 
 a gardener, and forced to contend with depres- 
 sing poverty. At an early age, Eugene was 
 removed, with his mother, to Skelton, and sub- 
 sequently to Bondgate, near Rippon, where his 
 father had made a small purchase. He was 
 here sent to school and learned to read the New 
 Testament in English; but from that period, 
 with the exception of a month's tuition from a 
 clergyman, Aram owed nothing to teachers, all 
 his learning being self-acquired. His father 
 was gardener to Sir Edward Blackett, at New- 
 by ; and, when about thirteen or fourteen years 
 of age, Aram joined him. In the house of the 
 
Chinese Lady of Rank. 
 
Arabia— View of Palmyra, or Tadmor in the Desert. 
 
 Arabia— View of Mount Ararat. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 ARA 
 
 71 
 
 ARA 
 
 baronet, Eugene first displayed his love of lite- 
 rature and science. Apart from the bustle and 
 turmoil of the world, he passed his solitary hours 
 in incessant study. Mathematics early engaged 
 his attention, and he became a proficient in the 
 exact sciences ; indeed, his fondness for mathe- 
 matics recommended him to Mr. Christopher 
 Blackett, of London, whom he served for some 
 time in the capacity of book-keeper, commenc- 
 ing his London lik at sixteen years of age. 
 After residing with Mr. Blackett for a year and 
 a half, he was taken with the small-pox, and 
 suffered greatly from the terrible disorder. 
 
 He afterwards complied with the wishes of 
 his father, and returned to Yorkshire, where he 
 pursued his studies with increasing avidity, but 
 with altered views, having discovered that po- 
 lite literature possessed greater charms for him 
 than mathematics. He now made himself ac- 
 quainted with the works of the most celebrated 
 poets, and went through a course of historical 
 reading. He went to Netherdale for the pur- 
 pose of engaging in teaching, and here, consid- 
 ering himself satisfactorily settled, he married. 
 His marriage proved unhappy, and to his mat- 
 rimonial connection he afterwards attributed 
 the evils which befel him, and the crime which 
 he committed. Finding himself deficient in 
 classical learning, he resolved to master the 
 learned languages and applied himself to the 
 study of the Latin and Greek grammars with 
 great spirit. He soon acquired the elements, 
 and proceeded to their application, perusing 
 with ease and pleasure the Latin classics, poets, 
 and historians. He next read the Greek Testa- 
 ment, and finished his course with Hesiod, Ho- 
 mer, Theocritus, Herodotus, and Thucydides, 
 with the Greek tragic poets. 
 
 At the seat of his friend, William Norton, 
 Esq. of Knaresborough.he learned the Hebrew 
 language, and read the Pentateuch, in 1734. In 
 1744, he was engaged in London, as usher in 
 the school of a Mr. Painblanc, and gave instruc- 
 tion in Latin and writing. Here he became ac- 
 quainted with the French language. After- 
 wards, he was employed as usher and tutor in 
 various seminaries in England, and never suf- 
 fered a single opportunity of making new ac- 
 quisitions to escape. He was acquainted with 
 the voluminous and quaint details of heraldry, 
 and with the gentle lore of flowers. He ac- 
 quired the Chaldee and Arabic languages, and 
 investigated the Celtic dialects. Having dis- 
 covered an affinity between the Celtic, English, 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew tongues, he was 
 employed upon a comparative lexicon of these 
 7 
 
 languages, when a frightful event arrested his 
 literary progress. Aram was accused of hav- 
 ing murdered Daniel Clark, a shoemaker. The 
 murder had been concealed for nearly fourteen 
 years, when the discovery of a skeleton, at first 
 supposed to be that of Clark, set on foot inves 
 tigations which resulted in the arrest of Aram. 
 At the time of his being taken into custody, he 
 was usher of a school at Lynn, in Norfolk. 
 The murder was committed on the 8th of De- 
 cember, 1744-5. Its object was a little paltry 
 gain, although the murderer assigned jealousy 
 as the motive. Remorse had preyed upon the 
 spirits of Aram from the time of the commis- 
 sion of the deed, and he is said to have con- 
 versed with the boys at Lynn on the subject of 
 murder, and related to them tales of murders, 
 commencing with the crime of Cain. 
 
 Upon his trial at York assizes, on the 3d of 
 August, 1759, he displayed great calmness and 
 self-possession. The principal evidence against 
 him was his wife, from whom he had been a long 
 time separated. Circumstantial evidence, in 
 addition to that of Richard Houseman, helped 
 to convict him. His defence displayed a talent 
 and consummate address which was acknow 
 ledged by the judges, whose admission of its in- 
 genuity destroyed the hopes of Aram. He was 
 found guilty. He subsequently confessed his 
 crime, and acknowledged the justice of his sen- 
 tence. While in prison, he attempted to com- 
 mit suicide by opening his arm in two places 
 with a knife which he had concealed for the 
 purpose. He almost succeeded, and was in a 
 state of excessive weakness, when conducted 
 to the scaffold. Standing beneath the fatal 
 tree, he was asked if he had any thing to say, 
 but he silently shook his head. He was in- 
 stantly executed, and his body hung in chains 
 in Knaresborough forest. 
 
 ARANJUEZ, a village and palace thirty 
 miles from Madrid (Spain), usually the eourt 
 residence from Easter till the close of June. 
 The palace and grounds are superb. 
 
 ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia, rising to 
 the height of 17,100 feet. Here it is supposed 
 that Noah's ark settled. 
 
 ARATUS, the hero who freed Sicyon from 
 the tyrant Nicocles, in his twentieth year ; he 
 afterwards became chief of Sicyon, and gene- 
 ral of the Achaean league. His life was event- 
 ful ; and he died 216 B. C. 
 
 ARAUCANIANS, a South American nation 
 of Indians, resident in Chili. Their number is 
 about 400,000. They have maintained their 
 independence through many contests with the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 ARG 72 
 
 Spaniards. They subsist by cultivating the 
 land and raising cattle. A Toqui (hereditary 
 nooie) is at the head of government, and he 
 strictly maintained the neutrality of his people 
 during the South American struggle for" inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 ARCADIA, a mountain country in the cen- 
 tral part of the Peloponnessus. On the north it 
 was bounded by Achaia and Sicyon, on the 
 east by Argolis, on the south by Messenia, and 
 on the west by Elis. Originally called Pelasgia, 
 from the Pelasgi, its first inhabitants, it received 
 its name of Arcadia, from Areas, grandson of 
 Lycaon. The shepherds inhabiting the country 
 were for a long time rude and uncivilized, but 
 when they cultivated the arts of agriculture, 
 and sweetened their labors by occasional inter- 
 vals of relaxation, in which they occupied 
 themselves with music and dancing, they be- 
 came famous in song, and Arcadian felicity was 
 a phrase expressive of unalloyed enjoyment. 
 Rut Arcadia was far from being a paradise, and 
 its inhabitants were not so devoted to pastoral 
 pursuits, that they forgot the excitements of 
 war. On the contrary, when no quarrels of 
 their own occupied them, they engaged in the 
 service of other states. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, a Russian City, with 20,000 
 inhabitants, on the White Sea, thirty miles from 
 the mouth of the Dwina. It receives its name 
 from the monastery of Michael the archangel, 
 founded there in 1584. It is a place of great 
 trade, and its harbor is good, though the en- 
 trance is obstructed by a sand-bank. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated geome- 
 trician of antiquity, born at Syracuse, 287 B. 
 C. He was famed for the mechanical contri- 
 vances which he employed to defend his native 
 city, when besieged by the Romans, whose fleet, 
 Lucian says, he set on fire with burning-glas- 
 ses. Metellus, who took the city, wished to 
 spare the life of Archimedes, but he lost it in 
 the following manner. When the Romans en- 
 tered the city, Archimedes was found by a sol- 
 dier, poring over some figures which he had 
 drawn in the sand. He begged the Roman to 
 spare his circle, but the man heedless of his 
 request, rushed forward and killed him with a 
 blow. He was then seventy-five years old, and 
 his death took place 212 Ef. C. He is said to 
 have declared that he could move the globe, if 
 he only had a place to stand upon. 
 
 ARCHONS. (See Athens.) 
 
 AREOPAGUS. (See Athens.) 
 
 ARGOLIS, in the eastern part of the Pelo- 
 ponnessus, bounded on the north by Achaia and 
 
 ARG 
 
 Corinth ; on the northeast by the Saromcgulf; 
 on tne west by Arcadia, and on the south by 
 Laconia. The Argolic gulf lies upon the south- 
 west. Fertile plains and swelling hills vary the 
 surface of this region. It was colonised by 
 Egyptians in 1800, and 1500 B. C. Danaus 
 led the earliest colony, and Inachus the next 
 after him. Pelops, who reigned over Argos, 
 gave his name to the peninsula. It was the 
 kingdom of Atreus and Agamemnon, Adras- 
 tus, Eurystheus, and Diomedes, the birth-place 
 of Hercules, and the scene of his victory over 
 the Lernaean Hydra. The fine arts and music 
 in particular, were successfully cultivated by 
 the Argives. The modern Argos is but a 
 shadow of the ancient city. A monitorial 
 and high school were established here in 1825. 
 Argolis was anciently divided into small, but 
 independent states. These were Argos, Myce- 
 nae, Tirynthus, Troezene (now Damala), Her- 
 mione (now Castri), and Epidaurus. 
 
 ARGONAUTS. The story of the expedi- 
 tion of Jason and his adventurous companions, 
 to procure the golden fleece of Colchis, is chief- 
 ly fabulous, and has probably little connection 
 with any known facts. Jason was not permit- 
 ted to ascend the throne of his father by Pelias, 
 who filled it, except on condition of bringing 
 from Colchis the golden fleece of the ram, which 
 bore Phryxus and Helle away from their cruel 
 step-mother, Ino. Most of the heroes of Greece 
 embarked with Jason in the Argo, a splendid 
 vessel built for the adventure, and superior to 
 any which had previously floated on the waves. 
 After encountering many vicissitudes, they 
 came to the country of iEetes. This monarch, 
 whose life depended on the preservation of the 
 golden fleece, without refusing to surrender it, 
 first imposed upon Jason three labors which he 
 hoped would destroy him. He was to yoke the 
 bulls of Vulcan to a plough of adamant, and 
 turn up a field consecrated to Mars, which had 
 never been opened ; in the furrows thus form- 
 ed, he was to sow the serpent's teeth of Cad- 
 mus, which would instantly start forth as armed 
 men, whom he was to slay ; and finally, to kill 
 the dragon that was the watchful guardian 
 of the golden fleece. The magical arts of Me- 
 dea, who had fallen in love with the young 
 hero, assisted him to achieve these enterprises 
 with success, and finally, when the king deter- 
 mined on the murder of the Argonauts, enabled 
 him to possess himself of the fleece, and escape 
 with the enamored lady, and all his compan- 
 ions. The king soon missing the fleece and 
 the fleet, pursued and came in sight of them ; 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ARI 
 
 73 
 
 ARK 
 
 Medea then murdered her brother Absyrtus, 
 whose limbs she strewed in her father's path. 
 The afflicted old man, by staying to collect 
 them, gave the fugitives time to escape. After 
 many adventures, the Argo returned safely. 
 The time of the undertaking is placed in the 
 middle of the 13th century B. C. 
 
 ARGUS, the fabled son of Arestor, whose 
 hundred eyes caused him to be selected by Ju- 
 no as the keeper of Io. Having been slain by 
 Mercury, he was changed into a peacock, and 
 his eyes were placed in his tail. 
 
 ARION, a musician and poet, born at Me- 
 thymna, in Lesbos, and flourished B. C. 625. 
 His fabulous fate has been often celebrated. 
 When at sea with all his treasures, the mariners 
 sought his life ; but he leaped overboard, and it is 
 related that a dolphin, charmed with his music, 
 carried him safe to land. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Ludovico, the celebrated author 
 of the Orlando Furloso, was born at Reggio, 
 Sept. 8th, 1474, and died at Ferrara, in 1533. 
 Having lost the favor of Cardinal Ippolito d' 
 Este, he was received by duke Alfonso, whose 
 rewards, however, were but trifling. He ex- 
 perienced many vicissitudes, and at one time, 
 lived with great splendor. His productions 
 are various. 
 
 ARISTIDES, son of Lysimachus, a noble 
 Athenian, surnamed, from his high integrity, 
 the Just. He was instrumental in gaining the 
 battle of Marathon. There were ten generals, 
 of whom he was one, each having the command 
 of the army for one day. Thinking this arrange- 
 ment injurious to the troops, Aristides prevailed 
 on the other generals to give up their days of 
 command to Miltiades, and this measure secured 
 the triumph of the Greeks. Becoming obnoxious 
 to the party of Themistocles, he was banished by 
 ostracism. Each person wrote the name of the 
 man he wished banished, on a shell (ostrakon); 
 these were then counted, and the person whose 
 name- occurred most frequently was banished. 
 An ignorant fellow, in the public assembly, not 
 knowing him, turned to Aristides, and asked him 
 to write Aristides. " What reason have you for 
 disliking him ? " asked Aristides. " Oh," replied 
 the fellow, " I am tired of hearing him called 
 the Just." When the Athenians were alarmed by 
 the approach of Xerxes, they recalled Aristides, 
 who, casting away the remembrance of former 
 wrongs, assisted Themistocles in the public 
 cause. Aristides also refused to countenance 
 the banishment of Themistocles, when he 
 incurred the displeasure of his countrymen. 
 Nothing displays more clearly the reputation of 
 
 Aristides, than his being appointed to apportion 
 the contributions to be paid by the several states 
 of Greece, towards the expenses of the war. 
 This delicate duty he discharged to the satisfac- 
 tion of all. He died poor about 4G7 B. C. His 
 countrymen bestowed a magnificent funeral 
 upon him, pensioned his son, and portioned his 
 two daughters. 
 
 ARISTOGITON, and Harmodius, two of the 
 most famous patriots of Athens ; finding their 
 country oppressed by Hipparchus and Hippias, 
 sons of Pisistratus, they formed a conspiracy 
 against them. Hipparchus was slain 514 B. 
 C, but owing to the backwardness of the peo- 
 ple, Harmodius was killed by the guards, and 
 Aristogiton seized. Being tortured to make 
 him disclose the names ofnis accomplices, he 
 named the friends of the tyrant, and they were 
 put to death in rapid succession. " Now," said 
 Aristogiton to Hippias, " there only remains 
 yourself worthy of death." Hippias was ex- 
 pelled three years afterwards, and the Athe- 
 nians paid the greatest honors to the memory 
 of the two friends. Praxiteles executed their 
 statues, which were erected in the forum, their 
 praise was sung in hymns, and it was forbidden 
 to give the name of either to a slave. 
 
 ARISTOMENES, a brave general of Mes- 
 senia, who in vain endeavored to free his coun- 
 trymen from the Lacedemonian yoke. 
 
 ARISTOTLE, the most famous philoso- 
 pher of Greece, founder of the Peripatetic sect, 
 was born at Stagira 384 B. C. He died 322 
 B. C, having taken poison to avoid the perse- 
 cution of his enemies. He was the preceptor 
 of Alexander, and has left many important 
 works. 
 
 ARKANSAS, one of the United States. It is 
 bounded on the north by the State of Missouri, 
 east by the river Mississippi, south by Louisiana, 
 and west by Texas and Missouri Territory. It 
 is 240 miles long from north to south, and from 
 200 to 250 in breadth from east to west, with an 
 area of 54,000 square miles. The land on the 
 Mississippi river and from 40 to 50 miles back 
 from it, is low, interspersed with lakes and 
 swamps, and, with few exceptions, annually 
 overflowed by that river, and its tributaries. — 
 West of this tract, the ground rises, and near the 
 centre of the State, becomes hilly, and farther 
 west, mountainous. Its rivers are the Arkansas, 
 which traverses the whole State, the Mississippi 
 which washes its eastern side, the Red River 
 which furnishes steamboat transportation to the 
 southern section of the State, the St. Francis, the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ARK 
 
 74 
 
 ARM 
 
 White river, and the Washita. The State is 
 divided into 34 counties, but contains no very 
 considerable towns, the population being distri- 
 buted in scattered settlements. Pointe°Chicot, 
 or Villimont, Napoleon, at the mouths of the Ar- 
 kansas, Helena, and Greenock, are hamlets. 
 Little Rock, situated on the Arkansas, in the 
 centre of the State, is the capital. It stands on a 
 high bluff of land on the north bank of the river, 
 and contains about 1500 inhabitants. Pine Bluff, 
 below, and Louisville above, are convenient land- 
 ing places. Batesville, on White river, Fabre 
 Bluff, on the Washita, and Fulton on the Red 
 river, will become important places as the country- 
 is settled. 
 
 The Ozark mountains run through the State 
 from east to south west. The sod on the rivers 
 is fertile, the other parts generally are barren. 
 Cotton, and Indian corn are the staple produc- 
 tions. Wild fowls, and animals, are abundant. 
 A variety of minerals are found in the State. A 
 national road from Memphis to Little Rock, is in 
 progress, which will be a great convenience. 
 The Spaniards and French formed settlements 
 on the Arkansas, more than a hundred years 
 ago. After this tract was purchased by the 
 United States, it constituted a part of Louisiana, 
 and afterwards was attached to Missouri Ter- 
 ritory under its present name. Its limits on the 
 west were the Rocky Mountains, until they were 
 curtailed by treaties with the Cherokees. In 
 1836, it was admitted into the Union as a State. 
 The constitution provides that when slaves are 
 tried for crimes; they shall have an impartial jury, 
 and suffer the same punishment, if convicted, as 
 free whites would have done, and no other. It 
 also provides that no lotteries shall be established; 
 and the sale of lottery tickets in the State is 
 prohibited. Population in 1840, 97,574. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, at first an hum- 
 ble barber, is celebrated as the inventor of the 
 spinning jenny. In 1767, he quitted his bar- 
 ber's shop, and in the village of Warrington, 
 commenced with a kind of perpetual motion, 
 which attracted the notice of a watch-maker 
 named Kay, who gave him encouragement, and 
 advised him to direct his attention to machinery 
 for spinning wool. Finding their means inade- 
 quate, they received assistance from Mr. Ather- 
 ton, of Liverpool. Arkwright completed a 
 machine which was patented in 1769, but the 
 patent was set aside in 1785. After meeting with 
 »ome disappointments, he successfully estab- 
 
 lished himself at Nottingham, where he was con- 
 nected with a Scotchman by the name of Dale. 
 Being attacked by other manufacturers of Eng- 
 land, he used to say, " that he would put a 
 razor into the hands of a Scotchman that should 
 shave them all." After separating from Dale 
 Arkwright carried on his works alone with ex- 
 traordinary success. On his death, in 1792, his 
 property was found to amount to £500,000. 
 Thus, by his extraordinary inventive powers, 
 did this man rise from poverty, to affluence and 
 honor. The excellence of his invention is suf- 
 ficiently proved by the fact, that, since his 
 time, no material improvement has been made 
 in the mode of spinning cotton by water ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 ARMADA, (Spanish) ; a fleet of ships of 
 war; but particularly applied to the vast arma- 
 ment fitted out against England in the time of 
 Elizabeth (1588), by Philip II. It consisted of 
 150 large ships, with 20,000 soldiers, 8,250 sea- 
 men, and 2,000 volunteers. The number of 
 guns was 2650, some of them of extraordinary 
 calibre. The English navy at that time con- 
 sisted of but 30 ships of war. It was reinforced, 
 however, by voluntary exertions. Providence 
 gave the first blow to this mighty enterprise ; 
 the fleet was dispersed by tempests, some ships 
 sunk, and others dashed against the rocks. 
 The size, too, of the Spanish vessels, prevented 
 them from acting with advantage on the seas in 
 which they were engaged. Lord Admiral How- 
 ard, ably seconded by the officers under him, 
 attacked and beat the fleet for several days, and 
 very few of the Spanish vessels entered port 
 again. Sir Francis Drake, Captain Hawkins, 
 and others, greatly distinguished themselves at 
 this time. The preparations on land, superin- 
 tended by the queen herself, were fully commen- 
 surate to those at sea. 
 
 ARMENIA, a country of Asia, containing 
 106,000 square miles, lies south of Mount Cau- 
 casus. It was anciently divided into Major and 
 Minor, but is now divided into several provinces. 
 The Euphrates and Tigris, are the principal riv- 
 ers. The soil is better adapted for grazing than 
 agriculture, although the fruits of the south are 
 very fine. The inhabitants are Armenians, wan- 
 dering Turcomans, Turks, Greeks, and Jews. 
 The Armenians are Christians, sober and tem- 
 perate, and occupied in commercial pursuits. 
 The early history of Armenia is not well known. 
 The Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedo- 
 nians, by turns possessed it. After the death 
 of Alexander, it was united to Syria, of which 
 it formed a part until it revolted from Antiochus 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ARN 
 
 75 
 
 ARR 
 
 the Great, when it was possessed by two differ- 
 ent rulers and divided into Armenia Major and 
 Minor. Tigranes, king of the former, in 95 B. 
 C. , reduced Armenia Minor, and other provinces, 
 and united the two countries. Under him it 
 became tributary to Rome, in 63 B. C, and 
 Trajan made it a Roman province in 106. After 
 Sapor, king of Persia, vainly attempted its con- 
 quest from the Romans, it was governed by 
 native princes, until the Arabians conquered it in 
 about 650. It was conquered by the Seljukian 
 Turks about 1046, after which it suffered many 
 changes, till it was reduced by the prince of 
 Kharasm in 1201, who was driven out of it by 
 Genghis Khan in 1218. In 1335, the Ilkanian 
 dynasty began here, and continued till 1385, 
 when Armenia was conquered by Tamerlane, 
 from whom it was soon after recovered by the 
 Ilkanian princes. On the death of Ahmed 
 Jalayr, the last of the line, in 1405, Kara Yusef, 
 the chief of the Turcomans, got possession of 
 it. This dynasty had the name of the Black 
 Sheep, and in 1488, it fell by conquest to the 
 family of the White Sheep. In 1500, it was 
 conquered by Ishmael Sosi, and reduced by 
 Selim I in 1514, since which time the Turks 
 have had possession of all, except the eastern 
 part, which belongs to Persia, and the northern 
 part, belonging to Russia. 
 
 ARMINIUS, in German, Hermann, the de- 
 liverer of Germany from the Roman yoke, was 
 born 18 B. C. He was educated at Rome, and 
 honored by Augustus with the knighthood, and 
 the rights of citizenship. But from attachment 
 to the land of his birth, he instigated the Ger- 
 mans to revolt. After various fortunes, he was 
 assassinated in the 37th year of his age. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, a distinguished char- 
 acter in the American revolution, was a native 
 of Connecticut, and early engaged in the strug- 
 gle between the colonies and the mother coun- 
 try, espousing the cause of the former. He 
 distinguished himself in the early actions of 
 the war, by a reckless bravery which gained 
 him general applause. He was at the taking 
 of Ticonderoga, and his expedition to Canada 
 has been celebrated as a great military enter- 
 prise. The troops marched to Canada by the 
 way of Maine, encountering the severity of 
 mid-winter, threading tangled forests, and suf- 
 fering every hardship. In 1777, Arnold dis- 
 played great gallantry, and bore a conspicuous 
 part in those efforts which led to the capitula- 
 tion of Burgoyne. When possessed of authority 
 in Philadelphia, in 1778, a marked change mani- 
 fested itself in his conduct. He plunged into 
 7* 
 
 expensive pleasures, soon became involved in 
 debt, and saw no means of escaping from his 
 embarrassments, but by flying into the arms of 
 the British, and earning their gold, by treason 
 to his country. Having been reprimanded by 
 Washington for misbehaviour, he shook off all 
 allegiance to his struggling country, and solici- 
 ted and obtained the command of West Point, 
 for the basest of purposes. (See Andre). After 
 joining the enemy, he published two manifes- 
 toes, in which he attributed the change in his 
 opinions to the declaration of independence, 
 and the alliance of America with France, al- 
 though long after the adoption of these meas- 
 ures, he had fought beneath the Colonial co 
 lors, had been wounded at Quebec, and was 
 pledged to support the cause of his country. A 
 large sum of money, and the rank of brigadier- 
 general in the British army, were the rewards 
 of his apostacy. After his treason, he made 
 war upon his former friends more after the 
 manner of a bandit chieftain, than that of a 
 high-souled warrior. Upon the recognition of 
 the independence of the United States, Arnold 
 retired to England, where he died, towards the 
 close of the 18th century, an object of universal 
 contempt. In the country for which he had 
 
 given up his own, his reception was any thing 
 ut flattering. The British monarch did all in 
 his power to make him acceptable — but failed. 
 On one occasion, he desired to make Arnold 
 known to the high-minded earl of Balcarras, 
 and personally led them together. After go- 
 ing through the usual form of introduction, 
 Arnold extended his hand to the earl. " What, 
 sir!" said the latter to the king, at the same 
 time drawing himself up to his proudest height ; 
 " is this the traitor Arnold ?" He then walked 
 haughtily away — 
 
 " The hand of Douglas was his own." 
 
 Arnold challenged the Earl — they met, and 
 Arnold, who fired first, missed his antagonist. 
 The proud nobleman, instead of discharging his 
 pistol, dashed it to the ground. " Stay, my 
 lord," exclaimed Arnold, "you have not had 
 your shot !" " No," replied the earl indignant- 
 ly, " I leave you to the hangman." 
 
 ARRAGON, the realm of^ retains to the pre- 
 sent day the name of kingdom. It is bounded 
 north by the Pyrenees, northwest by Navarre, 
 west by Castile, south by Valencia, and east by 
 Catalonia. Population (in 1800) 685,630. A 
 part of the country is mountainous, stony, and 
 sandy, but some portions are fertile and pro- 
 ductive. The inhabitants are hardy, industrious, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ART 
 
 76 
 
 AS I 
 
 active, and patriotic. The kingdom was founded 
 about 1035, by Ramiro. Ferdinand, the last king, 
 united Arragon and Castile, in 1474, and thereby 
 laid the foundation of the present Spanish mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 ARRIA, the heroic wife of Pcetus, the Ro- 
 man consul, who, being sentenced to kill him- 
 self, by Claudius, hesitated to commit the fatal 
 act. Arria, perceiving his reluctance, plunged 
 a dagger into her own heart, then, drawing it 
 forth, and presenting it to her husband, said, 
 " My Po3tus, it is not painful !" 
 
 ARTAXERXES I, surnamed Longimanus, 
 from the length of his arms, ascended the throne 
 of Persia, B. C. 465. During his reign peace 
 was restored between Persia and Athens, after 
 a war of fifty-one years. He is generally sup- 
 posed to have been the Ahasuerus of Scripture. 
 He died, B. C. 425. 
 
 ARTAXERXES II, surnamed Mncmon, from 
 the retentiveness of his memory, began his reign 
 B. C. 405. Cyrus, his brother, assembled a 
 powerful army and marched to Babylon to op- 
 pose him, but he was met, defeated, and slain, 
 by Artaxerxes. The latter defeated the Spar- 
 tans and compelled them to relinquish their 
 possessions in Asia. He was killed by his son 
 in 361. 
 
 ARTAXERXES III (Ochus), waded to the 
 throne through the blood of his kindred. He 
 quelled the various revolts raised against him. 
 in Egypt he was guilty of great cruelty and 
 extravagance. He slew Apis, and, together 
 with some of his soldiers, fed upon its flesh. 
 He was poisoned by his general, Bagoas, who 
 threw his flesh to the cats, and caused sword 
 handles to be made from his bones. 
 
 ARTEMISIA I, queen of Caria, personally 
 assisted Xerxes against the Greeks. Her me- 
 mory was honored by a monument erected by 
 the Spartans. 
 
 ARTEMISIA II, queen of Caria, wife of 
 Mausolus, to whom she erected after his death, 
 the celebrated Mausoleum — a funeral monu- 
 ment. It was an oblong square, 411 feet in 
 compass, 130 feet high, and adorned with 36 
 columns. Artemisia did not long survive her 
 husband, by whose side she was interred, 351 
 B. C. 
 
 ARTHUR, a prince of ancient Britain, whose 
 story Hume thinks has some foundation in fact. 
 He was born about 501, and died 542. The 
 institution of an order of chivalry, called the 
 knights of the round table, is attributed to him, 
 and also the establishment of Christianity at 
 York. 
 
 ARUSPICES or Haruspices, priests among 
 the Romans who foretold future events by ob- 
 serving the entrails of the animals sacrificed, 
 and the manner in which the victim behaved. 
 They existed from the time of Romulus to 
 that of Constantine (337 A. D.), when all 
 soothsaying was prohibited on pain of death. 
 Their number at this time was 70. 
 
 ASHANTEE, a nation of negroes, on and 
 near the Gold Coast of Guinea. They are in the 
 vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, the British set- 
 tlement at Sierra Leone. Warlike and unyield- 
 ing they carried on a bloody war with the Eng- 
 lish in 1824, in which General McCarthy lost 
 his life. The kingdom of the Ashantees has 
 been in existence one hundred years. The 
 king has a band of devoted attendants, one hun- 
 dred in number, who are slain upon his tomb, 
 that he may be properly accompanied on his 
 arrival in the infernal regions. His 3333 wives 
 are regarded with reverence , and on that mystical 
 number the safety of the state depends. The em- 
 pire of Ashantee, consisting of several conquered 
 states, has a population of 3,000,000 souls. The 
 Ashantees display some ingenuity and taste in 
 their architecture, and manufacture cloths which 
 are skilfully dyed in brilliant colors. Comassie, 
 the residence of the king, has been forcibly de- 
 scribed by an intelligent traveller. " A pros- 
 pect of the capital, (if such it may be called,) 
 at last opened in front of us ; it was a partial 
 glimpse, at the distance of twenty or thirty 
 paces, of a few mud-built hovels, surrounded 
 in part by plantations, and some straggling 
 walls of the same material, covering a contract- 
 ed space gained from the surrounding waste." 
 
 ASIA. To Asia we may trace the origin of 
 all the arts, and from this country sprang the 
 first human couple, designed for a happy immor- 
 tality, which was forfeited by their disobedience. 
 Thence originated the various tribes and na- 
 tions, which have since spread over the whole 
 face of the globe, and peopled it with inhabit- 
 ants. The extent of this vast region has been 
 estimated at 16,000,000 square miles, and its 
 population at 400,000,000. The principal parts 
 into which it is divided, are Arabia, Asiatic 
 Turkey, Persia, India, Tartary, Asiatic Russia, 
 China, Japan, Burman Empire, Siam, Annam; 
 the Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Philippines, Mal- 
 dives, &c. In Arabia the early events of Jew- 
 ish history occurred, and in this country, in 
 particular, the Christian reader feels a peculiar 
 interest, and a curiosity which is not disap- 
 pointed by the story of the wild scenes which 
 have been, from time to time, exhibited in this 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ASI 
 
 77 
 
 AS] 
 
 historical region. Lying between the Red Sea 
 and the Persian Gulf, being about 1400 miles in 
 length, from north to south, and somewhat less 
 in breadth; it contains an extensive territory 
 of varied fertility, now sterile, and now pro- 
 ductive, inhabited by a numerous population. 
 The capital of Arabia is Mecca, whose wild and 
 circumscribed valley is more celebrated than 
 many regions of the most luxuriant fertility : 
 it is the birth-place of Mohammed. This re- 
 markable man, destined to exert so great an in- 
 fluence upon the fortunes of his fellow-beings, 
 and the condition of the world, was born in 
 571. It was not until he had attained the prime 
 of life that he ventnred to reveal his divine 
 commission, having, probably, desired to bring 
 his plans to perfection before he attempted an 
 imposture, on the success of which the fate of 
 millions depended. He pretended to have re- 
 ceived a commission directly from God. He 
 declared that he was the prophet of God, and 
 acted under the immediate instructions of the 
 Almighty. His doctrines were written in a 
 book called the Koran, a copy of which, splen- 
 didly bound, and decorated, he declared that, he 
 had received from the angel Gabriel. The suc- 
 cess of his attempt was at first doubtful — but 
 Mohammed enlisted mankind in his cause by 
 every motive which could mislead poor weak 
 humanity, ever ready to be led astray. After 
 having been compelled to seek safety in flight, he 
 obtained a small army which gradually increas- 
 ed, and enabled him to take the field, with irre- 
 sistible force, against his enemies. To those who 
 fell in battle he promised a voluptuous immor-' 
 tality — a sensual paradise, where cooling foun- 
 tains tempered the warm air, and where the 
 exertions of the faithful were rewarded by the 
 charms of the divine Houris. He inculcated 
 the doctrine of an irresistible destiny — declar- 
 ing that ages before his birth, the time of each 
 man's death was fixed ; and by impressing on 
 his followers a belief in this absurd idea, he 
 enabled them to perform deeds of unequalled 
 bravery, rushing to the charge with an impetu- 
 osity almost supernatural, and courting death 
 as the passport to those transports which were 
 to have no transitory existence, but a blessed 
 immortality. Backed by followers whom his 
 instructions inspired with unequalled bravery, 
 the daring impostor beheld his arms completely 
 triumphant. His death took place at the age 
 of 62, and his sceptre passed into the hands of 
 Abu-bekr, his father-in-law. The caliphs, who 
 filled the throne after the death of Abu-bekr, 
 being men of consummate skill, and great tal- 
 
 ents, contributed to confirm the opinions origin- 
 ated by Mahomet, and to ensure the endurance 
 of his religion. The Arabians of the present day 
 still profess Mohammedanism. In the early ages 
 of this belief, they contributed to its extension, 
 making converts by threats instead of argu- 
 ments. They offered to the wavering, the Koran 
 or the sabre — their religion or the grave. The 
 Saracens, as they were called, thus made them- 
 selves feared, and attained a wonderful degree 
 of power, which was destined to decline as the 
 star of Turkish empire arose over the nations 
 of the east. The Mohammedans do not deny the 
 truth of the sacred writings, but they pervert 
 them in an abominable manner. At Mecca 
 they pretend to show the very well, which re- 
 stored the child of Hagar in the wilderness. 
 Mecca is thronged with the Mohammedan pil- 
 grims, as the Koran requires every Mohamme- 
 dan to make a pilgrimage to this city once in 
 his life. Mohammed was buried at Medina. 
 
 Asiatic Turkey is divided at present, into 
 several parts. Syria includes Palestine, or the 
 Holy Land, a country which, as being the thea- 
 tre of so many wonderful and appalling events, 
 is still visited with intense interest, and holds a 
 conspicuous place in the history of the world. 
 In the southeast portion of Asiatic Turkey, lies 
 the ancient and famous Mesopotamia. Assyria 
 was one of the earliest and most noted monar- 
 chies of Asia. The splendor of the Assyrians 
 has been celebrated by all historical writers. 
 To trace the fortunes and varied events of this 
 kingdom alone, would require a much greater 
 space than we can devote to the general view 
 of Asia. The mighty kingdom of Babylon 
 gave lustre to Asia in its early days. During 
 the reign of the queen Semiramis its fame was 
 at the highest. This sovereign possessed fewer 
 feminine than masculine attributes, and yet 
 shone no less conspicuosly in the court than the 
 camp. She did much to beautify her city, and 
 to extend the fame and power of her kingdom. 
 The hanging gardens of Babylon, in which 
 trees of great size were supported on terraces 
 at an elevation far above the earth, constituted 
 one of the wonders of the ancient world. Semi- 
 ramis penetrated far into India, and was wound- 
 ed in a desperate combat with one of the In- 
 dian kings. Bagdad, the once celebrated seat 
 of the Saracenic caliphs, to the splendor of 
 which Haroun al R,aschid greatly contribut- 
 ed has lost most of its former magnificence. 
 Here, when the star of the Saracenic empire 
 was at its zenith, literature and the arts flour- 
 ished under the protection of the caliphs. Poet- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ASI 
 
 78 
 
 ASI 
 
 ry and romance shed a charm over every day 
 existence, and music, with other arts, received 
 the most assiduous cultivation and encourage- 
 ment. We can but briefly allude to the reigns and 
 events which have distinguished Asiatic Tur- 
 key — the fate of the celebrated queen Zenobia, 
 who was compelled to grace the triumph of the 
 emperor Aurelian, after victory had smiled upon 
 the Roman banners as they waved over the Asiat- 
 ic plains— the siege of Jerusalem by Titus — 
 the destruction of ihe sacred temple, with all its 
 magnificence — the wild enthusiasm of the cru- 
 saders who made Jerusalem the rallying point 
 for the chivalry of Europe in the holy wars — 
 the siege and fall of that Troy, of which now 
 not the slightest trace remains. Changed, in- 
 deed, is the face of all that was formerly glo- 
 rious in these ancient countries ! The footsteps 
 of Time are deep, and his ravages lasting. A 
 wretched village, inhabited by a handful of 
 Turks, usurps the spot where once rose in 
 splendor, Ephesus ; that Ephesus which was 
 the pride of Asia Minor — that Ephesus which 
 St. Paul has celebrated by his epistle — which 
 contained the superb temple of Diana, fired by 
 Erostratus, that he might immortalize his name. 
 " Great is Diana of the Ephesians !" was the 
 cry of the proud inhabitants. Ages have past — 
 and the idol and the idolators have passed away. 
 Persia has ever been a country of great in- 
 terest, and its early history is crowded with 
 events of importance. Chance and change 
 were not unfelt by its inhabitants of former 
 days. The early Persians were hardy, tempe- 
 rate, and well educated. Education received 
 early and strict attention among them, and their 
 Magi, or wise men, are famous in the history of 
 learning. A more detailed history of Persia 
 will be found in another portion of this volume. 
 The present condition of the Persians is hap- 
 pier than it has been for a long time past, for 
 until very lately, it was a battle-ground for rival 
 chieftains and contending factions. The khans 
 or chiefs attained their elevation to the throne 
 by a wanton expenditure of blood and life. At 
 a more distantperiod (1386), when Ispahan was 
 the capital of Persia, and famous for its com- 
 merce and splendor, it was taken by Tamerlane, 
 and 70,000 persons slain by the cruel Tartars. 
 The modern Persians exhibit a very marked 
 difference from those of the early ages, from 
 whom they are descended. The latter, stern, 
 temperate, and warlike, disregarded both the 
 luxuries and elegancies of life. Inured to toil, 
 living upon the plainest food, and taught to face 
 death and danger without quailing, they be- 
 
 came formidable to their neighbors, -and acquir 
 ed for themselves a military reputation, which 
 only their subsequent degeneracy could destroy. 
 At the time of" the invasion of Greece by 
 Xerxes, the Persian monarch relied more upon 
 the immense numbers of his army and their 
 splendid equipments, than upon their valor. 
 The event proved the superiority of the Greeks, 
 sternly brave, and proudly patriotic. In later 
 times, the Persians have shown themselves de- 
 voted to luxury, refinement, and the more ele- 
 gant arts of peace. Gay, polished, and affable, 
 they unite much that is pleasing, with much 
 that is unprepossessing in their character and 
 manners. While distinguished for their volu- 
 bility and wit, their habitual disregard of truth, 
 and practice of flattery, detract much from their 
 many amiable qualities. Persia abounds with 
 the hallowed remains of antiquity. Among the 
 most celebrated ruins which occur are those of 
 the ancient Persepolis, a city formerly of im- 
 mense extent, and conspicuous in the history 
 of Alexander of Macedon. It was the royal 
 palace of this city that the Grecian conqueror, 
 inflamed with wine, and urged by the wild per- 
 suasion of an abandoned woman, destroyed by 
 fire, aided by his companion. She beheld the 
 flames rolling around the most beautiful edifi- 
 ces, consuming splendid palaces, and hurling 
 to the ground long-venerated columns, with the 
 mad delight which the unprincipled seem to 
 take in the works of destruction. 
 
 The ancient Medes, celebrated in sacred and 
 general history, have left descendants and rep- 
 resentatives in the Afghans, the present inhab- 
 itants of Afghanistan, a country now occupying 
 what was formerly a part of Persia and Hin- 
 dostan. The country suffered from the ravages 
 of Genghis Khan in 1221. This wild and war- 
 like prince took the splendid city of Balk, put- 
 ting almost all its inhabitants to the sword, and 
 committed other atrocities which the name of 
 conquest is generally thought to sanction. 
 
 India, although of vast extent and impor 
 tance, was very little known to the ancients. 
 They had some vague idea of its extent and 
 wealth, but possessed little knowledge of its in- 
 terior. It appears, however, at various periods, 
 to have engaged the attention of great conquer 
 ors, who made attempts to subject it. But the 
 ancient inhabitants of India resisted their in- 
 vaders with great bravery, and the want of lo- 
 cal knowledge, sensibly felt by the Europeans 
 and other adventurers, contributed to their de- 
 feat. Whatever successes they obtained ap- 
 peared not to result to their advantage. Alex 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ASI 
 
 79 
 
 ASI 
 
 ander the Great carried his victorious arms into 
 the interior of the country ; — Semiramis push- 
 ed her forces against the Indians, and other 
 adventurers attempted their subversion. It re- 
 mained for modern times to acquire knowledge 
 of this vast country. India Within the Gan- 
 ges is generally termed Hindostan, and for veg- 
 etable and mineral wealth, is unsurpassed by 
 any country on the face of the globe. It is, 
 indeed, a region of romance, in which the 
 oriental tales of enchantment appear to be real- 
 ized. The antiquity of the Hindoos is undoubt- 
 edly great, and their history is authentic from 
 the time of Moses. No change has taken place 
 in their religion, manners, or customs, for more 
 than two thousand years. The same division 
 of the people which was known in the time of 
 Alexander the Great, subsists at present. The 
 principal castes or classes into which the peo- 
 ple are divided, is four. The first and most 
 important is that of the Bramins, who are men 
 of letters, and priests, besides having the care 
 of the laws. The second caste is composed of 
 soldiers, or descendants of the Ptajahs, (princes), 
 whence they are termed Rajah-poots. The third 
 class, called Vaisgas, includes merchants, farm- 
 ers, and shepherds : the fourth, Sudras, con- 
 sists of laborers. 
 
 The rules, by which the conduct of the Bra- 
 mins is, or shall be, governed, are exceedingly 
 strict. They impose upon these priests a total 
 abstinence from fermented liquors and animal 
 food, and the observance of the numerous sin- 
 gular rites and ceremonies of the Hindoo reli- 
 gion. Yet these men, far from being distin- 
 guished for their temperance, piety, and learn- 
 ing, sometimes render themselves detestable by 
 voluptuousness, vice, irreligion, and ignorance. 
 The other castes, which are beneath them, are 
 trodden to the dust, by these proud priests, and 
 suffer severely from their extortion and avarice. 
 A Bramin was not unfrequently to be seen with 
 his foot upon the neck of some poor Hindoo, 
 prostrated before him in blind adoration. The 
 Sudras are delighted when they can get a Bra- 
 min to dip his toe in a cup of water, valuing 
 this ' holy water' very highly, and thinking it 
 the ' sov'reign'st thing on earth for an inward 
 bruise.' The Rajah-poots are noted for their 
 lion-like courage, and their indomitable feroci- 
 ty. Those in the British service, termed Sea- 
 poys, are very efficient, as their wild ambition 
 and avarice fit them to hunt down their breth- 
 ren, without hesitation or remorse. But the 
 most singularly instituted caste is the fourth. 
 The condition of the beasts of the field appears 
 
 preferable to that of these poor people. They are 
 literally the slaves of the Bramins, compelled to 
 drag out their lives in the most fatiguing ef 
 forts for the support and aggrandizement of 
 their tyrants. Even the wretched relief which 
 the Hindoo religion might afford is denied to 
 them, and the pains of eternal punishment de- 
 nounced to any who would give them religious 
 instruction. The castes are separated effectual- 
 ly by a prohibition which prevents them from 
 intermarrying. 
 
 The idolatry of the Hindoos cannot be con- 
 templated without pain. They imagine that 
 they are delighting their strange divinities 
 when, carried away by a torrent of fanaticism, 
 they fling themselves or their children before 
 the huge cars of their misshapen idols, to be 
 crushed to death as they revolve ; or when 
 writhing, suspended upon iron hooks, which 
 only give them death after prolonging the most 
 cruel tortures. They believe that there is one 
 God, endowed with supreme power, who, iso- 
 lated from all sublunary concerns, exists in a 
 state of indolent enjoyment, having committed 
 the care of the world to three divinities. A life 
 of extraordinary piety will entitle the soul of a 
 devotee to an amalgamation with the spirit of 
 the supreme God, while the doctrine of the 
 transmigration of souls is held out to those 
 whose piety is less striking and distinguished. 
 
 The conquest of a large portion of India 
 by the British was not effected without much 
 bloodshed, and it is painful to trace the details 
 of the eventful struggle. The British, urged 
 by a rapacity unworthy of professed Christians, 
 committed atrocities, the bare recital of which 
 inspires the listener with horror.- On the other 
 hand, the native rajahs, or sovereigns, were not 
 backward in the infliction of revolting cruelties 
 When Suraja Dowla took the fort at Calcutta, 
 in 1756, he confined the garrison which consist- 
 ed of 14G persons in a horrible dungeon, aptly 
 termed the Black Hole, in which 123 perished 
 in one night from suffocation. Within less than 
 a century the British East India Company have 
 obtained possession of their vast territory, of 
 which some portions are professedly under their 
 sway, and others, although nominally ruled by 
 native sovereigns, are tributary to the Company, 
 and completely influenced by them. The gov- 
 ernment is in the hands of a governor, having a 
 royal commission and appointment. The seat 
 of government is Bombay, which contains a 
 population estimated at 200,000. Farther India, 
 or Chin India, is a country of vast extent and 
 importance. It contains the Birman empire, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORYj. 
 
 ASI 
 
 80 
 
 ASS 
 
 Annam, Siam, &c. In 1826 a treaty concluded 
 the war between the Binnan empire and the 
 East India Company, by which the emperor 
 ceded part of the western coast of the country 
 to the British. 
 
 The Russians possess a vast and important 
 territory in Asia, which is called Asiatic Russia, 
 or Siberia. In the middle of the J 5th century, 
 the Russians gained possession of a part of this 
 extensive country of which, before this time, 
 they had no share. The complete subjugation 
 of the whole took place in the reign of Peter 
 the Great, and the Czarina Catherine II, the 
 Semiramis of the North. The mines and furs 
 of Siberia render it valuable to the Russians, but 
 it is noted as the place of banishment for those 
 who have fallen under the displeasure of the 
 Russian government. Many an unhappy exile 
 has here dragged out a miserable existence, 
 to which death would have been preferable. 
 These wretched victims of state intrigues and 
 ruthless despotism, have contributed greatly to- 
 wards the civilization and improvement of por- 
 tions of this country. The number of exiles has 
 been augmented recently by the banishment to 
 this dreary region of hundreds of the unhappy 
 Poles, whose greatest crime was a firm attach- 
 ment to an oppressed country. The exile of 
 great officers of state has frequently been at- 
 tended with all the mystery which characteris- 
 ed the seizures of the inquisition. Often some 
 deserving man, unconscious of having commit- 
 ted any crime worthy of so severe a punish- 
 ment, finds himself suddenly in the hands of 
 the officers of justice. If he asks the cause of 
 his seizure, he is commanded to be silent : if he 
 begs to take leave of his family, his request is 
 refused. He sinks into the stupor of despair, 
 and awakens again to a sense of hope forever 
 lost, as he finds himself upon the fatal sledge 
 which pursues its rapid path to the hated place 
 of exile. 
 
 The empire of China is extensive and of 
 great antiquity. Its history, manners, and cus- 
 toms, are singular. At a very early period the 
 Chinese made discoveries in the arts, which, 
 however, have not generally attained that de- 
 gree of improvement among them, which we 
 might be led to expect from the antiquity of 
 their origin. Their history is interesting and 
 authentic, embracing a recorded period of many 
 ages. This will be treated of separately and 
 with some detail. On taking a general survey 
 of Asia, we cannot fail to be struck with sur- 
 prise and admiration at the immensity of its ex- 
 tent, the number of its historical recollections, 
 
 and the vastness of its monumental remains. 
 It has been the theatre of some of the most im- 
 portant events which history records, the clime 
 of wonders and of wealth, and the chosen re- 
 gion of romance. If we search the pages of his- 
 tory for the fate of proud monarchies, and the 
 tale of powerful dynasties, and splendid cities, 
 we shall find the name of Asia constantly recur- 
 ring, and the fame of Asia the theme of unfail- 
 ino- wonder and of praise. 
 
 ASPINWALL, William, M. D., born in 
 Brookline, Mass., May 23d, 1743. He was 
 educated at Harvard College, and served as a 
 surgeon in the revolution, but fought in per- 
 son, as a volunteer, in the battle of Lexington. 
 After the death of Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, the 
 first physician who inoculated for the small pox 
 in America, he prosecuted the system, and ac- 
 quired great celebrity by his treatment of this 
 disorder. His practice was very extensive, and 
 during 45 years, he frequently rode 40 miles a 
 day on horseback, and seldom retired to rest un- 
 til after midnight. He died, April 16th, 1823, 
 in his 80th year. 
 
 ASRAEL, the angel of death in Mohamme- 
 dan mytholoo-y. 
 
 ASSASSINS or HASSASSINS, the follow- 
 ers of an Arab chief in the time of the Crusades, 
 who were devoted to his service, and cheerfully 
 laid down their fives at. his bidding. When 
 Henry, Count of Champaigne, was passing 
 through the dominions of their Sheik, the " Ola 
 Man of the Mountains," he boasted of his 
 power at home. " Are any of your vassals as 
 devoted as my followers ?" asked the chieftain. 
 On this he gave a signal to ten young men, clad 
 in white, standing on the top of a tall tower, 
 and they instantly threw themselves from it and 
 were dashed to pieces ! 
 
 ASSIENTO is a Spanish word for treaty, 
 and signifies the permission granted by the 
 Spanish government to a foreign nation to im- 
 port negro slaves into the Spanish American 
 colonies, upon certain conditions. By the assi- 
 ento of 1713, a company of English merchants 
 undertook to supply the Spanish colonies with 
 negroes for 30 years, but quarrels ensued, and 
 the treaty was finally relinquished before the 
 expiration of the time. 
 
 ASSYRIA, a kingdom of Asia, said to have 
 been founded by Ashur, whose boundaries va- 
 ried greatly at different times. It was anciently 
 bounded as follows ; north by Mount Niphates. 
 and Armenia Major, east by Media, south by 
 Susiana, and west by Mesopotamia. Ninus, 
 its celebrated sovereign, subdued the Babylo- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ATH 
 
 81 
 
 ATH 
 
 mans and Medes, and Semiramis, his wife and 
 successor, increased the fame of the kingdom. 
 About 900 years B. O, Arbaces, governor of 
 Media, conquered Assyria. It was then divided 
 into the Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian king- 
 doms. But Assyria once more gained the as- 
 cendency over Media and Babylon, and Nin- 
 eveh became its capital. After the revolt of 
 Media (700 B. C), Cyaxares, its king, uniting 
 with Nabopalassar, governor of Babylon, they 
 destroyed Nineveh, (506 B. C. Assyria becom- 
 ing now a Median province, Babylon was form- 
 ed into a powerful kingdom by Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, B. C. 600. The three kingdoms were unit- 
 ed by Cyrus, the victorious monarch of Persia, 
 550 B.C. 
 
 ASTRACHAN or ASTRAKHAN, a Rus- 
 sian vice-royalty, divided into three govern- 
 ments. It contains 3,000,000 inhabitants. It is 
 bounded north by the country of the Bulgarians 
 and Bashkeers, east by a chain of mountains 
 which part it from Tartary, south by the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and west by the Wolga, separating it 
 from the Nogay Tartars, and Don Cossacks. 
 The land is fertile but uncultivated by the Tar- 
 tars. The winter is brief but severe, the sum- 
 mer long and hot. Astrakhan, the capital, situ- 
 ated on an island in the Wolga, 34 miles from 
 its entrance into the Caspian Sea, has 50,000 
 inhabitants, and is a place of considerable im- 
 portance. 20,000 persons, engaged in the fishe- 
 ries, reside here for a part of the year. 
 
 ASTURIA or the ASTURIAS, a Spanish 
 principality, bounded by Biscay on the east, on 
 the west by Galicia, on the south by Castile and 
 Old Leon, and on the north by the sea. It con- 
 tains 365,000 inhabitants. The Moors could 
 never master this country. It abounds with 
 fruit and game. The crown prince of Spain 
 bears the title of Prince of the Asturias, as 
 the principality was formerly divided into two 
 parts. 
 
 ATABALIPA, or ATAHUALPA, the last 
 of the Incas of Peru. He commenced his 
 career in 1529. Pizarro and his followers were 
 hospitably entertained by him, in return for 
 which kindness the Spaniards held him in cap- 
 tivity. They promised to ransom him on the 
 payment of an immense sum of money ; when 
 the loyalty of the people had produced the 
 treasure, Pizarro accepted it, but refused to re- 
 lease his prisoner, who was burned at the stake, 
 1533. 
 
 ATHENS. This celebrated city, the capital 
 of Attica, which exerted such an influence 
 upon the character of mankind, and shot forth 
 
 those brilliant fires of intellect which called into 
 warmth and light the genius of the world, was 
 founded by Cecrops, 1550 years B. C. Origin- 
 ally it was called, from its founder, Cecropia, 
 but in time his name was only retained by the 
 citadel — the Acropolis, while the Greek name 
 of Minerva (Athena), was applied to the city. 
 The Turks call it Jlthimah and Setines. The 
 position of Athens is peculiar, and the sur- 
 rounding scenery luxuriant and mteresting. 
 The blue Saronic gulf, so often swept by victo- 
 rious navies, the opposite shore of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, the rocky steep of the Acropolis, and 
 the beauty of the surrounding plains, are pro- 
 minent features in a landscape which antiquity 
 has made interesting, and fame immortal. Nor 
 were the natural beauties of the scene its chief 
 recommendation. Art here successfully vied 
 with nature, and the erection of the most noble 
 edifices bore witness to the taste, industry, skill, 
 and public spirit of the Athenians. Cecrops, the 
 founder of Athens was an Egyptian, skilled in 
 the arts of his countrymen, and possessing more 
 than their customary enterprise ; he founded the 
 kingdom of Athens, dividing the country into 
 twelve districts, over which he ruled for a long 
 time with the title of king. He instituted the 
 senate called the Areopagus, which met upon a 
 hill in the vicinity of the citadel, dedicated to 
 Mars. This court aquired an active influence 
 in the affairs of government. To it the examin- 
 ation of the laws and state of public morals was 
 committed, while crimes against religion and the 
 state, required its peculiar attention. In 1497 
 B. C, king Amphictyon, one of the successors 
 of Cecrops, established the court of the Am- 
 phictyons, an assembly which ultimately at- 
 tained a high degree of celebrity. This assem- 
 bly formed a point of union for the different 
 states of Greece. At first they assembled at 
 Delphi, where was the oracle of Apollo, but 
 finally at Anthela, a village in the vicinity of 
 the famous Thermopylae. Two members from 
 each of the twelve Grecian states, were deput- 
 ed to the court of Amphictyons. They were 
 empowered to compose popular tumults, to re- 
 concile contending cities, to take cognizance of 
 civil and criminal offences, of violations of na- 
 tional law, and particularly of sacrilege com- 
 mitted in the temple of Delphi. If a state re- 
 fused to submit to the decisions of the court, 
 the remaining states composing the confederacy 
 could take up arms, to enforce submission, and 
 had the right of excluding the recusant party 
 from participating in the deliberations of the 
 Amphictyons. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ATH 
 
 82 
 
 ATH 
 
 To both of these monarchs the Athenians 
 owed much. If Cecrops softened the manners 
 of the inhabitants of Attica, taught them how 
 to clothe their lands with the verdure of the 
 olive and the vine, and instructed them in the 
 love of order, the worship of the gods, the rites 
 of Hymen, and those of sepulture, Amphic- 
 tyon strengthened and secured the advantages 
 which his subjects had begun to reap. No 
 longer they feared the incursions of predatory 
 neighbors, but sat in the shade of their vine- 
 yards, enjoying the happiness which security 
 and peace bestow. Codrus was the last king of 
 Athens. On his death, B. C. 1068, the govern- 
 ment assumed a republican form, after the mo- 
 narchical had subsisted for 487 years from the 
 time of Cecrops. The change however was 
 but in name, for the archon had nearly all the 
 power of the king, whose place in the state he 
 filled. The archons were originally chosen for 
 life. After a lapse of little more than three 
 centuries, the term of office was curtailed to 
 ten years, and less than a century afterwards, 
 the number of archons was increased to nine, 
 and they served for a term of one year only. 
 
 Originally all the Grecian states had a regal 
 government, which was abolished in conse- 
 quence of the tyranny of the various princes, 
 and supplanted by republican forms. Recover- 
 ing their liberty at an early period, the Greeks 
 acquired that love of freedom, which characteris- 
 ed them throughout their long career, and it was 
 only when luxury and wealth had banished the 
 temperate and unostentatious life of their an- 
 cestors, that the Greeks found themselves una- 
 ble to contend against the encroachments of hos- 
 tile power, and fell beneath the arms of more 
 enterprising rivals. The rivalry of Athens and 
 Sparta produced, together with much good, an in- 
 finity of evil. The Spartans were of a sterner cast 
 than the Athenians, and even more distinguish- 
 ed for their love of freedom, and their invincible 
 courage. They despised those triumphs of the 
 arts which the Athenians made their glory, and 
 relied for fame on the stern contempt of the ele- 
 gances and the common comforts of life. What 
 their Lycurgus was to them, Solon was to the 
 Athenians. 
 
 Solon was one of those great characters, whom 
 their countrymen regard with veneration for 
 ages, and whose memory they recall even in the 
 midst of oppression, and the darkness of dis- 
 grace. He was one of those rare spirits, whose 
 virtues and self-possession are most conspicu- 
 ous when most needed, and whose knowledge, 
 like the lamp of the glow-worm, shines bright- 
 
 est, when the darkness is most heavy. At a 
 time (B. C. 643) when the turbulence and am- 
 bition of the archons threatened the Athenians 
 with a multitude of evils, all eyes were turned 
 upon Solon, as the pilot who alone could guide 
 the vessel of state through the rocks and surges 
 that surrounded it. He was at once created 
 archon extraordinary with unlimited power, for 
 his high character and calm demeanor inspired 
 confidence among the people he was destined to 
 assist. Solon introduced a mild code of laws, in 
 opposition to that of Draco, whose appalling se- 
 verity had raised him many enemies. The gov- 
 ernment was placed in the hands of a senate of 
 four hundred members chosen by the people. 
 After an acquittal of their debts, the people were 
 divided into four classes. The members of the 
 three first classes were eligible to office, while 
 those of the fourth, whose poverty was thought 
 to incapacitate them from serving, were yet al- 
 lowed the privilege of voting in the popular as- 
 semblies. The power of the commonwealth was 
 vested in these assemblies, but there was a 
 restrictive influence in the senate. Solon, al- 
 though mild, was just, and a great lover of 
 truth. When Thespis was exhibiting theatrical 
 entertainments on his cart at Athens, Solon 
 asked him if he were not ashamed of giving 
 utterance to so many untruths? "Nay," re- 
 plied the actor, " they were but in jest." " In 
 jest !" exclaimed Solon, indignantly ; " you lit- 
 tle know the danger and the guilt of jesting 
 with so sacred a thing as truth !" 
 
 Whatever merit we may be disposed to allow 
 the constitution of Solon, framed as it was at 
 a very early period, it was much too artificial 
 to be permanently successful. Solon lived to 
 see this. During his retirement from Athens, 
 factions disturbed the peace of the people, and 
 Solon, after having vainly endeavored to stem 
 the current, retired to the isle of Cyprus, where 
 he died, B. C. 560. The change of government 
 was effected by Pisistratus, a popular but ambi- 
 tious man, who headed the poorer class of peo- 
 ple — a class who considered themselves pecu- 
 liarly oppressed by the constitution of Solon— 
 and gained possession of the supreme power. 
 The plans of the usurper possessed a plausi- 
 bility and brilliancy which were calculated to 
 produce no insignificant effect upon the minds 
 of men. His benevolence was undoubted. 
 At his death, Pisistratus bequeathed his power 
 to his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, who, 
 for a long time, by a liberal patronage of the 
 arts, and of learned men, gave a brilliancy to 
 their administration which was unhappily not 
 

HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ATH 
 
 83 
 
 ATH 
 
 destined to endure. Among the most brilliant 
 ornaments of the court was Anacreon, the ele- 
 gant, though effeminate poet of love and wine. 
 The cruelty of Hippias at length roused the 
 spirit of the Athenians, who broke forth into an 
 open revolt, in which Hipparchus was slain, 
 and Hippias banished. Hippias finally sought 
 refuge at the court of Darius ; the king of Per- 
 sia endeavored to procure his recall from the 
 Athenians, Avhose refusal was the commence- 
 ment of the war between Greece and Persia. 
 
 When the tyrants ceased to trouble the tran- 
 quillity of Athens, it became necessary to guard 
 against future abuses. Calisthenes accordingly 
 effected some changes in the laws of Solon, in- 
 creasing the number of the divisions of the 
 people to 10, and of the members of the senate 
 to 500. The smiling appearance of the Athe- 
 nian vineyards and olive plantations gave strik- 
 ing proof of the industry and prosperity of the 
 people. In the midst of happiness and success, 
 the hostility of the Persians threatened them 
 with ruin. But the bravery of the Athenians 
 was not wasted in words, and they joined 
 against the invaders with heart and hand. 
 When the heralds of Darius came with the in- 
 solent demand of earth and water, they were 
 seized and thrown, the one into a ditch and the 
 other into a well, whence they were contempt- 
 uously told to satisfy their wants. The troops 
 of Darius entered Attica, encamping at Mara- 
 thon, a small town upon the sea-coast. Against 
 an army of one hundred and ten thousand horse 
 and foot, the brave Militiades led forth a band 
 often thousand Athenians, who were victorious 
 in the most sacred of causes. Afterwards when 
 Xerxes poured his forces into Greece, the Athe- 
 nians, under Themistocles, were triumphant, 
 and the victory of Salamis bore witness to the 
 terrible energy and roused spirit of freemen. Yet 
 it is painful to mark the fickleness and ingrati- 
 tude of the Athenians. One would think that 
 while Marathon was remembered^ the services 
 of Militiades could not be forgotten. Yet so it 
 was — and the noble Athenian, in consequence 
 of misfortune, was thrown into a prison where 
 he perished. Aristides, whose virtue procured 
 him the surname of " the just," was banished 
 by ostracism, without any adequate cause. The 
 practice of ostracism was so called, because the 
 citizens wrote upon a tile or shell (ostrakon) the 
 names of those who were obnoxious to them. 
 The shells being counted, the person whose 
 name occurred most frequently, was banished. 
 Themistocles was also persecuted and forced to 
 seek refuge at the Persian court ; yet, so fond 
 
 was he of his ungrateful country, that rather 
 than serve against her, he killed himself. It 
 was men like these who reflected a lustre on 
 the Athenian name. When the Persians no 
 longer had the audacity to threaten Greece, but 
 had been humbled to the dust, the glory of the 
 Athenians brightened, day by day. The peo- 
 ple saw with delight the extension of their pri- 
 vileges and the respect with which their claims 
 were received. All classes, feeling the benefit 
 of equal institutions, labored in common for the 
 aggrandisement of their country. Members of 
 all classes were now made eligible to office, and 
 the poor felt that they stood upon an equal foot- 
 ing with the rich, and might, by exertion, rise 
 superior to them. The period from the Persian 
 war, B. C. 500, to the time of Alexander, B. C 
 336, includes days of uncommon splendor in the 
 history of Athens. Cimon and Pericles intro- 
 duced elegance into Athens, and the age of 
 Pericles is commonly quoted as the golden era 
 of the country. The arts under the liberal 
 patronage of Pericles, flourished to a great de- 
 gree, and under the fostering care of those in 
 power, magnificent temples sprang up in every 
 direction, the marble breathed, the pencil glow- 
 ed, and the lips of the orator and poet were 
 gifted with a kindling eloquence. Yet, in the 
 midst of much apparent prosperity, the founda- 
 tion of misfortune was laid. The abundance 
 of wealth was not without a deteriorating influ- 
 ence, and the Athenians became so enamored 
 of the elegancies of life, that they began to pre 
 fer them to manliness and independence. Pe- 
 ricles was at the zenith of his greatness B.C. 
 444. He engaged in the Peloponnesian war, 
 the end of which was, that the Lacedaemonians, 
 ever more hardy if not more brave than the ele- 
 gant Athenians, made themselves masters of 
 Athens, and granted peace to the vanquished 
 on the most humiliating conditions. For eight 
 months the Athenians groaned under the yoke 
 of the thirty magistrates, or as they were called 
 the Thirty Tyrants, whom the Lacedaemonians 
 imposed upon them, and kept under the protec- 
 tion of their garrison. The man who led to 
 the overthrow of this oppression, was Thrasy- 
 bulus. Again the star of Athens rose to the 
 zenith, bright as if no cloud had ever covered 
 it and hid its silvery brilliancy beneath a veil. 
 The Athenians joined the Thebans against 
 Sparta, and were successful. They were yet 
 to feel, however, the importance of a power 
 hitherto unacknowledged or despised. Philip 
 of Macedon descended from the north. In vain 
 did Demosthenes urge the Athenians to die in 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ATH 
 
 84 
 
 ATH 
 
 defence of their liberty. In vain did this ex- 
 traordinary man hurl his tremendous anathe- 
 mas against Philip — he was doomed to see the 
 subjugation of his countrymen. Demosthenes 
 was one of the most renowned of the Grecian 
 orators, and rendered famous by the persever- 
 ance with which he overcame all obstacles. He 
 early had an impediment in his speech, which he 
 overcame by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. 
 The weakness of his voice he conquered by de- 
 claiming upon the sea-shore, where the dashing 
 of the waters resembled the tumultuous noises 
 of a popular assembly. Demosthenes was a 
 warm patriot, proud of the independence of his 
 country, and determined to use all his powers in 
 support of it. Philip was neither daunted by 
 eloquence, nor repulsed by bravery. The battle 
 of Cheronsea, B. C. 338, struck a death blow to 
 Grecian liberty. From that time, Athens re- 
 mained, with the other states of Greece, depend- 
 ant upon the Macedonian power for existence. 
 She did not sink without a struggle, but all her 
 struggles were of no avail against the giant 
 power which had prostrated her, and fettered 
 her with bonds of adamant. 
 
 When Athens was taken by Cassander, the 
 oligarchy was restored, and Demetrius Pbale- 
 reus enjoyed the office of Governor of the state 
 for 10 years. Being obnoxious to the Atheni- 
 ans, they entreated the assistance of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, who, having taken the city, restored 
 the ancient constitution, and received from the 
 Athenians all the honors and marks of affection 
 which gratitude could devise or bestow. Yet, 
 with their characteristic fickleness, when he 
 had gone to war, they closed the city against 
 his return. He took the city, but forgave its 
 inhabitants, contenting himself by leaving a 
 garrison in the havens of Munychia and the 
 Pirosus. The Athenians recovered their free- 
 dom, but were again subdued by Gonatas. 
 They joined the Achsean league, disuniting 
 themselves from the Macedonians. The Ro- 
 mans gladly availed themselves of the co-opera- 
 tion of the Athenians against Philip, and con- 
 firmed the freedom which they were so anxious 
 to maintain. The Romans, disposed to be friend- 
 ly towards them, were changed into enemies by 
 their espousal of the cause of Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, who waged war against the Italian 
 power. After having drawn down upon them- 
 selves the vengeance of Rome, the Atheni- 
 ans trembled for the consequences of their con- 
 duct. Sylla took their city, and the show of 
 liberty which it afterwards retained, was but a 
 bitter mockery. Vespasian made Athens a 
 
 Roman Province, and it was included in the 
 empire of the east, after the division of the 
 Roman empire into eastern and western. But 
 it. was destined to feel the terror of that power, 
 beneath which the queen of cities was pros- 
 trated to the dust. Alaric, the Goth, A. D. 
 396, conquered and devastated the country. 
 From this period, the liberty of Athens existed 
 but in the recollection of the past. In 420 A. 
 D., paganism was abolished in Athens, and 
 the Parthenon converted into a church of the 
 Virgin Mary. In 1456, the Caliph Omar gained 
 possession of it. A black eunuch held the 
 place which Pericles once adorned, and the 
 Parthenon, no longer a Christian church, was 
 forced to answer as a mosque. In 1687, the 
 Venetians besieged Athens, and some of the 
 works of the immortal Phidias, the sculptor, 
 were destroyed by the explosion of a magazine, 
 fired by a bomb thrown into the Parthenon by 
 the besiegers. On the 29th of September, 
 Athens came into the hands of the Venetians, 
 after its inhabitants had suffered severely from 
 the siege, but was again relinquished to the 
 Turks in 1688. From the erection of many 
 barbaric structures, some of the most valuable 
 remains of antiquity have been covered and 
 concealed, to be brought to light by the re 
 searches of the curious of later days. From the 
 Turks, the Greeks of Athens experienced a 
 milder treatment than many of their brethren, 
 and were permitted to retain many of their 
 ancient observances. In 1822, the Acropolis 
 sustained a long siege, which was terminated 
 by its falling into the hands of the patriots. 
 News of this was heard with delight by all the 
 Greeks, who loved their country, and rejoiced 
 to behold, 
 
 " The flag of freedom wave once more 
 Above the lofty Parthenon." 
 
 The present condition of Greece is too well 
 known to require many words upon the subject. 
 After a hard struggle — a struggle which called 
 for the exertion of great fortitude, and the dis- 
 play of uncommon bravery — the interference 
 of Christian powers, compelled the Turks to 
 retire from their prey. The government of 
 Greece was finally established as a limited 
 monarchy. The modern Athenians have lost 
 neither the intelligence, nor gayety, which dis- 
 tinguished their ancestors, but they have less 
 love of glory, and fewer peculiarities of char- 
 acter. The Athenians have few memorials of 
 the triumphs of their countrymen in the arts, 
 since the various nations which have, at differ- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ATL 85 
 
 ent times, possessed themselves of Athens, 
 have not scrupled to tear from it its most valu- 
 able monuments. Robberies have been per- 
 petrated with impunity, although the people 
 have regarded the removal of almost every 
 ornament, with great indignation. The ruins 
 of the Parthenon yet repay the curiosity of 
 travellers. This was a temple dedicated to 
 Minerva, and was the pride of Athens in for- 
 mer days. It was 217 feet long, 98 broad, and 
 65 feet high. When the Persians entered 
 Athens, they marked their rude triumph by the 
 destruction of this temple, which Pericles re- 
 built, 444 years B. C. It contained the famous 
 statue of the goddess Minerva, which was 
 sculptured by Phidias ; was formed of ivory 
 and gold, and 46 feet high. This magnificent 
 figure cost about 576,004 dollars. Hence we 
 may estimate the wealth of the ancient Greeks. 
 The Athenians, like the Romans, fell, only 
 when wealth had corrupted them, and simple 
 and temperate manners had given way at the 
 approach of luxury and extravagance. When, 
 poor and proud of honest indigence, their pro- 
 perty was merely adequate to the supply of 
 their wants, they were independent; but when 
 this happy simplicity was banished, they found 
 themselves a degraded people, and sunk be- 
 neath the weight of their fetters. 
 
 ATHOS, a mountain of Macedonia, now 
 Aglon Oros, or Monte Santo, in the Turkish 
 province of Salonica. On its sides, are many 
 hermitages, and twenty monasteries, with 6000 
 monks, chiefly Russians, of the order of St. 
 Basil. Some of the ' monasteries are said to 
 contain very ancient and valuable manuscripts. 
 Not long since, a manuscript of the eighth 
 century, a translation of the Bible into the 
 Georgian language by St. Euphemius, was dis- 
 covered here. The summit of this mountain 
 is about 6,900 feet above the level of the sea. 
 At the foot of it, Xerxes caused a trench a mile 
 and a half long, to be cut and filled with sea- 
 water. This was for the passage of his fleet, 
 and of such width that two ships could sail 
 abreast. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN. There is not in the 
 multitude of natural wonders, a more sublime 
 spectacle, than that afforded by the world of 
 waters, under whatever view it is contem- 
 plated. Impressive and beautiful it is, when 
 stretched out in the tranquil and golden repose 
 of an unbroken calm, reflecting the still splen- 
 dor of the heavens by day, or their diamond 
 brilliancy by night. Far as the eye can reach, 
 there is no ripple on the wave, and at the hori- 
 
 ATL 
 
 zon, the azure of the air, and that of the ocean 
 appear blended • — ■ 
 
 The bridal of the sea and sky. 
 
 Yet more impressive is the aspect of the deep 
 sea in a tempest; when the elements are 
 awakened from their slumber, and abroad in 
 their terrible strength, and the wild winds of 
 heaven sport with gigantic mountains of water, 
 heaving them to and fro, witli the ease of zeph 
 yrs sporting with dew-drops. The saltness of 
 the vast extent of waters (the surface of the 
 whole ocean being computed to amount to 
 147,000,000 square miles, and the quantity of 
 the whole being 21,372,626^ cubic miles,) pre- 
 serves it perpetually fresh, and contributes to 
 invigorate the health of all who dwell upon 
 its borders, or its waves. 
 
 The formation of the bed of the Atlantic, 
 from latitude 200 south, up to the north pole, 
 has been ascribed to the concussion of immense 
 masses of water, produced by the deluge, when, 
 it is conceived, the waters of the great Southern 
 Ocean below the equator, rushed upon the 
 northern hemisphere. Mr. Kir wan says thai 
 the inspection of a map is sufficient to convince 
 any one, that this vast space was formed hy the 
 force and pressure of the waters. From Cape 
 Frio to the river of the Amazons, in South 
 America, there is a vast protuberance answer- 
 ing to the incurvation of the African shore 
 from the river of Congo to Cape Palmas ; while, 
 from the Straits of Gibraltar to Cape PalmaB, 
 there is an immense protuberance, correspond- 
 ing to the incurvation between New York and 
 Cape St. Roque. This conjecture is thought 
 probable, since the depression caused by such 
 an immense body of water could not be other- 
 wise than enormous, considering the shock and 
 weight of the opposing body. 
 
 Until the successful issue of the voyages of 
 Columbus, it was imagined that there was one 
 unbroken extent of water between the western 
 shores of Europe and Africa, and the East 
 Indies ; and the great navigator himself ima- 
 gined that he had reached the Indian realms, 
 by a shorter route than that pursued by the 
 Portuguese. The name of the Atlantic Ocean 
 is connected with a tradition, which is lost in 
 the night of antiquity, and which, reaching 
 the Greeks from the Egyptians, has been 
 commemorated by Plato. It was said that 
 there originally existed an isle called Atlantis, 
 which rose from the bosom of the ocean, and 
 surpassed in extent Asia, and Libya together. 
 The circumstance of Plato's testimony has 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 ATL 
 
 86 
 
 AUG 
 
 caused a controversy among modern authors 
 respecting the situation and nature of Atlan- 
 tis. Of course, it is impossible to determine 
 the situation of an isle which existed before 
 the ages of history, but still we cannot disre- 
 gard the truth of the tale. What interest had 
 the Greeks in imagining a fable, which bore 
 no relation to their history, and which was 
 not calculated to affect their religious belief? 
 Why should the Greeks have adopted it? 
 "The islanders," says Plato, " subdued Libya, 
 Egypt, and Europe, as far as Asia Minor ; at 
 last, Atlantis was sicallowed by the waters, and 
 for a long time afterwards, the sea was full of 
 earth and sand-banks, in the vicinity of the place 
 which the island had occupied." This last pas- 
 sage proves the existence of a tradition of a 
 terrible outbreak of the waters of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, which overwhelmed Atlantis. 
 
 The equinoctial current, in the Atlantic, is 
 a westwardly motion of the waters in the tropi- 
 cal seas. Between the tropics, and particularly 
 from the coast of Senegal to the Caribbean Sea, 
 the general current flows from east to west. 
 This current was known to the navigators of a 
 very early age. The mean rapidity of the equi- 
 noctial current is 9 or 10 miles in 24 hours. At 
 28° north latitude, and nearly as far south, 
 this western equinoctial current is felt, although 
 feebly. The current which rushes through the 
 Cuba and Bahama, or Florida channels, and 
 coasts the United States and Nova Scotia to 
 about 45 degrees north latitude, is called the 
 Gulf Stream. The whole course of this ocean 
 river, is about 15,000 miles in extent. The 
 rapidity of its motion is variable ; but greatest 
 in the Bahama channel. 
 
 The depth of the Atlantic is various, being, 
 in some parts unfathomable. Its saltness and 
 specific gravity diminish gradually from the 
 equator to the poles. Near the British islands, 
 the salt is said to be one thirty-eighth of the 
 weight of the water. The temperature of the 
 Atlantic is influenced, considerably, by the 
 masses of ice which float from the northward 
 towards the equator, reaching frequently the 
 40th degree of latitude. Dangerous as are 
 these icebergs to the mariner, they yet pre- 
 sent a splendid appearance as they float onwards 
 to southern latitudes, gleaming in the sunbeams, 
 which, while they impart a dazzling brilliancy, 
 hasten the dissolution of the floating masses. 
 The continual melting of portions, gives a very 
 fanciful appearance to the icebergs, which is 
 heightened by the rivulets pouring from point 
 to point, like the streams trickling down a 
 
 cavern of stalactites. Passages between North 
 America and Europe in the month of June 
 and July, are sometimes rendered perilous by 
 the frequency of icebergs from the north- 
 ward. 
 
 ATTICA, a country of ancient Greece, is a 
 peninsula, united with Bceotia towards the 
 north, and partially with Megaris on the west. 
 At Cape Sunium, now Colonna, it projects far 
 into the iEgean Sea. The earliest inhabitants 
 lived in a savage state, until the arrival of Ce- 
 crops, with an Egyptian colony, B. C. 1550. 
 Athens, the capital of Attica, and, for a long 
 time the most refined city of the ancient world, 
 gave the name of Athenians to residents in At- 
 tica. (See Athens.) Attica was famous for its 
 gold and silver mines, which constituted the 
 best part of the public revenues, and were 
 worked by 20,000 men. The inhabitants were 
 numbered, in the 16th Olympiad, at 31,000 
 citizens, and 400,000 slaves, in 174 villages, 
 some of which were considerable towns. 
 
 ATTILA, king of the Huns, flourished be- 
 tween 434 and 453. He rendered the Greek 
 empire tributary, and invaded France, but was 
 defeated on the Maine. He threatened Rome, 
 but was induced to retire. Attila was given to 
 excess, and died 453. His body was put in 
 three coffins — the outer of iron, the next of 
 silver, and the inner one of gold. His personal 
 appearance has been described by Jornandes. 
 He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoul- 
 ders, and a short, misshapen body. 
 
 AUGEAS, in fable, a king of Elis, whose 
 stable contained 3,000 oxen, and had not been 
 cleansed for thirty years. Hercules was re- 
 quired to clean it, which he did by turning the 
 river Alpheus into it. 
 
 A UGEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, duke 
 of Castiglione, marshal of France, was one of 
 those men who emerged from obscurity, and 
 obtained a high rank among the officers that 
 surrounded Napoleon, giving such unrivalled 
 brilliancy to his court and camp. Augereau was 
 the son of a fruit merchant, and was born at 
 Paris, 1757 ; serving, as soon as he was able, as 
 a carbineer in the French army. Having sub- 
 sequently entered the Neapolitan service, he 
 was banished from Naples, in 1792. He then 
 served as a volunteer in the army of Italy, and 
 attracted the attention of all by his bravery, and 
 military talent. In 1794, we find him a general 
 of brigade, and, in 1796, general of division. 
 He distinguished himself, at the pass of Mille- 
 simo, and at Lodi, and took part in some of 
 the most brilliant achievements of the French. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AUG 
 
 87 
 
 AUG 
 
 In the battle of Arcoli, finding the French 
 columns wavering, Augereau seized a standard, 
 rushed into the thickest of the battle, and gained 
 the victory. In 1799, he was chosen member 
 of the council of five hundred. He was en- 
 trusted by Bonaparte with the command of the 
 army in Holland, joined Moreau, and fought 
 with varying fortune, until the campaign was 
 ended by the battle of Hohenlinden. In 1803, 
 he was appointed to head the expedition against 
 Portugal, which enterprise failed. Returning 
 to Paris, he was named, in 1804, marshal of the 
 empire, and grand officer of the legion of 
 honor. In 1805, he was in Germany, Contribu- 
 ting to the successes of the French. Wounded 
 in the battle of Eylau, he was forced to return 
 to France. In 1811, he had a command in 
 Spain. In 1813, he was engaged in the battle of 
 Leipsic. After the success of the allies, Louis 
 XVIII named him a peer; in consequence of his 
 speaking disrespectfully of Napoleon after his 
 fall, the latter, on his return from Elba, declared 
 him a traitor. Augereau took no active part in 
 affairs until the return of the king, when he 
 resumed his seat in the chamber of peers. He 
 died of the dropsy, June 11th, 1816. 
 
 AUGSBURG, 35 miles northwest of Munich, 
 capital of the Bavarian circle of the Upper 
 Danube. It is a place of some commercial im- 
 portance, and has 34,000 inhabitants. It is 
 famous as the place where the Lutherans, in 
 1530, protested against the persecutions of 
 Charles V, and were hence called Protestants. 
 
 AUGUSTA, a pleasant town in Maine, the 
 seat of the state government. It is situated on 
 the Kennebeck river, 56 miles N. N. E. of Port- 
 land. Population, in 1830, 3,980. — Augusta 
 (Georgia), a city opposite to, and connected 
 with Hamburg, S. C. It has a flourishing com- 
 merce. Situated on an elevated plain, it has an 
 air of great neatness. Population, in 1830, 
 6696. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, or Austin, Saint, has been 
 surnamed the "Apostle of the English." The 
 time at which he flourished, was the reign of 
 Ethelbert, towards the close of the sixth cen- 
 tury. Pope Gregory was induced to send Au- 
 gustin into England with 40 monks, to intro- 
 duce Christianity into the Saxon kingdoms. 
 Ethelbert was then seated on the throne of 
 Kent, to which he had succeeded on the death 
 of his father Hermandie, about 560. After a 
 short, determined struggle, he had rendered all 
 of the states, with the sole exception of North- 
 umberland, dependant. Ethelbert formed a 
 matrimonial alliance with France, claiming in 
 
 marriage the hand of Bertha, a Christian prin- 
 cess, from her father, Caribert, king of Paris. 
 The princess, distinguished for her piety and 
 virtue, exacted a promise from her husband 
 that she should not be molested in the enjoy- 
 ment of her religion, and that, on the con- 
 trary, she should be permitted to bring over 
 to England with her a French bishop. Ethel- 
 bert, who was tenderly attached to her, made 
 no objections, and the French bishop was re- 
 ceived with every mark of respect. The con- 
 duct of the queen was such as to reflect honor 
 on herself and the court of her husband, and 
 excited the admiration of Ethelbert and his 
 subjects. The king could not but perceive the 
 salutary influence of Christianity, and was 
 strongly prepossessed in its favor. Pope Greg- 
 ory, the Great, received the intelligence of the 
 favourable disposition of the king with un- 
 feigned gladness, and immediately dispatched 
 a mission of forty monks, headed by the cele- 
 brated Augustin. 
 
 Augustin found the king ready to lend a 
 willing ear to all his arguments, and displayed, 
 in a striking and happy light, the truth and 
 beauty of the gospel. The king was not long 
 in avowing his entire belief in the doctrine 
 of Christianity. With his subjects, Augustin 
 was no less successful; they embraced the 
 true relio-ion with readiness, and crowded to 
 baptism. 3 It is said that Augustin baptized 
 no fewer than ten thousand in one day. His 
 reputation for miraculous power (for he was 
 said to have the ability of curing the blind and 
 deaf), had doubtless no little influence with the 
 multitude, but still it was clear that there was 
 a happy spirit abroad. In regarding his efforts 
 for the extension of gospel truth, we should 
 never overlook the circumstance that he per- 
 mitted no force to be used. There were none 
 of those threats held out to the wavering, 
 which have disgraced the Romish church in 
 many ages — the fagot and the scourge were 
 never once alluded to by Saint Augustin. Yet 
 with many of his disinterested motives, there 
 mingled some ambitious views. He desired to 
 be made archbishop of Canterbury, with su- 
 preme authority over all the churches in Eng- 
 land. The pope was by no means disposed to 
 refuse any of his requests, considering that he 
 had fairly earned any distinction which it was 
 in his power to bestow. The archiepiscopal pall 
 was granted him with permission to establish 
 12 sees in the province. The British bishops in 
 Wales refused to acknowledge the authority of 
 the church of Rome, under whose jurisdiction 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AUG 
 
 88 
 
 AUR 
 
 they had never placed themselves. They were 
 descendants of the British converts of the second 
 century, and sternly resolved to maintain their 
 independence. Augustin urged — threatened. 
 The bishops were neither pliant nor timid, and 
 adhered to their original determination. A 
 dreadful tragedy was now acted ; 1200 Welsh 
 monks being ruthlessly put to the sword. ' Au- 
 gustin was suspected not only of having sanc- 
 tioned, but of having instigated the massa- 
 cre. He had been irritated by the refusal of 
 the Welsh ecclesiastics to unite with the Eng- 
 lish church, and he thought their contumacy 
 deserving of the severest punishment. He 
 died in 604 or 614, and his relics were deposited 
 with care in the cathedral of Canterbury. The 
 good effects of the introduction of Christianity 
 into England were immediately perceived. 
 The adoption of a pure religion, was immedi- 
 ately followed by the spread of knowledge and 
 civilization ; those laws which were enacted, 
 were generally observed, and a spirit of union 
 manifested itself throughout the kino-dom. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius, 
 son of Caius Octavius and Accia, niece of Juli- 
 us Caesar. He was born during the consulate 
 of Cicero, 65 years B. C. His education was 
 carefully attended to, and he was adopted by 
 Julius Caesar. He was studying eloquence at 
 Apollonia in Epirus, when his uncle was assas- 
 sinated, and at nineteen years of age, placing 
 himself at the head of the veterans, he marched 
 to Rome, which he found distracted by the 
 republicans and the followers of Antony and 
 Lepidus. Here he announced publicly his 
 adoption, and took his uncle's name, to which 
 he added that of Octavianus. Antony treated 
 him with a contempt, which the magistrates 
 and leading men were far from feeling, and 
 Octavius joined the army that was sent against 
 Antony after his proscription. Thinking it 
 politic, however, to conciliate him, he joined 
 Antony, and, with Lepidus, formed the trium- 
 virate which was to last for five years, each 
 enjoying an equal share of authority. Octavius 
 sacrificed Cicero to the malice of his associates, 
 and Rome became the theatre of the most san- 
 guinary tragedies. Brutus and Cassius having 
 been defeated, a new partition of spoils took 
 place, Octavius and Antony obtaining the Ro- 
 man empire, while Lepidus was forced to con- 
 tent himself with the African provinces, and 
 was finally deposed. Octavius gave his sister 
 Octavia in marriage to Antony. The conduct 
 and fate of Antony have been related. (See An- 
 tony.) Octavius was soon firmly established in 
 
 the empire. The senate gave him the title of 
 Augustus, and, finding his power confirmed, he 
 seems to have endeavored strenuously to ren 
 der his conduct worthy of his dignity. He 
 made excellent regulations for the safe conduct 
 of the government ; reducing the number of 
 senators from 1000 to 600, and raising the degree 
 of wealth, which was to qualify them for a seat. 
 He set about the reform of the public manners 
 and morals, and carried his arms successfully 
 into Gaul, Germany, and the east. In the lat- 
 ter part of his reign, however, he met with 
 severe losses in Germany, when Arminius rous- 
 ed his enthralled countrymen to arms. The 
 emperor displayed great sensibility when he 
 heard that three of his legions under Varus, had 
 been cut to pieces by the Germans, A. D. 9, 
 and often exclaimed, in tones of agony, a O 
 Varus, give me back my legions !" 
 
 He died at Rome, A. D. 14, in the 76th year 
 of his age, and 14th of his reign. On the ap- 
 proach of death, he called for a mirror, and ar 
 ranged his hair. He then asked those about 
 him, if he had played his part well? On their 
 answering in the affirmative, he said, after the 
 manner of the actors, " Then farewell — and 
 applaud !" He greatly improved the appear- 
 ance of the capital, and it was trdly said, that 
 " he had found Rome brick, and left it marble." 
 He liberally patronized men of letters, and 
 Augustan age is a phrase applied to any era 
 distinguished for literature and the arts. Vir- 
 gil and Horace were among the brightest orna- 
 ments of his reign. Two conspiracies formed 
 against him miscarried, the leader of one, 
 Cinna, being generously pardoned by his mas- 
 ter. The emperor's private griefs were heavy, 
 and he suffered great misery from the debauch- 
 eries of his daughter Julia. 
 
 AURELIAN, emperor of Rome, distinguish- 
 ed for his military talents and severity, was the 
 son of a peasant of Illyricum, and having served 
 with distinction under Valerian II, and Claudi- 
 us II, was recommended as his successor by the 
 latter. He was raised to the throne to the sat- 
 isfaction of all. He subdued Zenobia, queen 
 of Palmyra, and erected a new wall round 
 Rome, but was assassinated, A. D. 275. 
 
 AURENG-ZEBE {ornament of the throne) 
 was born October 20, 1619. His father, Shah 
 Jehan, succeeded to the throne when Aureng- 
 zebe was in his ninth year. In youth, he was 
 distinguished by his great sanctity of appear- 
 ance, and he used all the arts of hypocrisy to 
 cloak his designs. He looked forward to the pos- 
 session of the throne of Hindostan, in the life- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AUS 
 
 AUS 
 
 time of his father. In 1658, he seized Agra, and 
 imprisoned his father. Having murdered his rel- 
 atives in succession, he ascended the throne in 
 1659, and took the name of Aalem Guyr. Not- 
 withstanding his crimes in gaining the throne, 
 he governed with ability and success. He 
 greatly enlarged his dominions, and became so 
 formidable, that all the eastern princes sent him 
 ambassadors. He died at the age of 89, bequeath- 
 ing his possessions to his sons. Wars broke 
 out immediately after his decease, and many of 
 the conquered provinces sought their former 
 independence. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, or Slawkow, a town of 
 Moravia, in the circle of Brunn, is situated 12 
 miles E. S. E. of Brunn, and 112 E. S. E. of 
 Prague. This town has been rendered famous 
 by the battle fought in its neighborhood, on the 
 2d day of December, 1805, in which the troops 
 of France, under the command of the emperor 
 Napoleon, defeated the combined forces of Rus- 
 sia and Austria, headed by their respective 
 emperors. The combined troops amounted to 
 100,000 men, of whom one fourth were Austri- 
 ans; while Napoleon had but 80,000, twenty 
 battalions of which, with forty pieces of artil- 
 lery, he kept back as a reserve. At sunrise the 
 battle began, and, shortly afterwards, a most 
 furious cannonade wrapped the combatants in 
 fire and smoke. The repeated discharge of 
 two hundred pieces of cannon created an uproar 
 which appalled all but those engaged in the 
 work of death. At one o'clock in the afternoon, 
 the French were victorious, and the Russians 
 and Austrians retreated. The French Yound 
 themselves in possession of forty stands of col- 
 ors, and 120 pieces of cannon, while twenty 
 generals, and upwards of 30,000 prisoners were 
 taken. 
 
 An artillery officer of the Russian Imperial 
 guard, having just lost his guns, met the 
 emperor Napoleon : " Sire," said he, " order 
 me to be shot, for I have lost my pieces." 
 " Young man," replied the emperor, " I appre- 
 ciate your tears ; but you may have been de- 
 feated by my army and yet have indisputable 
 claims to glory." The French artillery caused 
 a heavy loss to the enemy, and Napoleon, in 
 noticing their exploits, said : " Your success 
 has given me great pleasure, for I do not forget 
 that in your ranks I commenced my military 
 career." The soldiers called this battle the 
 day of the three Emperors, while Napoleon 
 named it the day of Austerlitz. The commence- 
 ment of the action was striking. The emperor, 
 surrounded by his marshals, in brilliant uni- 
 
 forms, refrained from giving his orders until 
 the first rays of the sun shot a splendor on 
 the scene, and the horizon became illumina- 
 ted. He then issued his orders distinctly but 
 rapidly, and the marshals parted at full gallop, 
 each to his corps. The emperor, passing in 
 front of several regiments, thus addressed them : 
 " Soldiers ! we must finish this campaign by a 
 thunder-clap, which will astound our enemies 
 and crush their pride !" Thousands of hats 
 waved on bayonets, and cries of vive I'cmpe- 
 reur .' (long live the emperor !) were the signals 
 of attack. "Never," says Napoleon, "was 
 field of battle more dreadful." 
 
 On the 4th of December, Napoleon had an 
 interview with the emperor of Germany, in 
 which an armistice, and the principal conditions 
 of peace were agreed upon. Meanwhile, the 
 French troops having nearly surrounded the 
 retreating Russians, Savary, Napoleon's aid-de 
 camp, was dispatched to the emperor of Russia, 
 to inform him. that he could retire in safety if 
 he adhered to the capitulation, retreating by 
 stages regulated by the emperor, and would 
 evacuate Germany and Poland. " On this con- 
 dition," added Savary, " I am commanded by 
 the emperor to repair to our advanced posts, 
 which have already turned you, and give them 
 his orders to protect your retreat, the emperor 
 wishing to respect the friend of the first con- 
 sul." — " What guarantee must I give you ?" — 
 " Sire, your word." — " I give it." — Orders were 
 accordingly given, and the retreat of the Rus- 
 sians protected. 
 
 AUSTRALIA is the fifth division of the 
 world, including New Holland, Van Diemen's 
 Land, New Guinea, the Admiralty islands, New 
 Britain, Solomon isles, Queen Charlotte's isl- 
 and, New Hebrides or Terra del Santo Espi- 
 ritu, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Pelew, 
 Caroline or New Philippine islands, Marian 
 or Ladrone, Monteverdos, Mulgrave, Fisher, 
 Friendly, Bligh's, Navigators, Society, Mar- 
 quesas, Washington, and Sandwich islands. 
 These are sometimes divided into Australasia 
 and Polynesia. Magellan discovered the Lad- 
 rone or Marian islands, March 6, 1521, and the 
 Spanish navigators continued the discoveries 
 which the Portuguese had commenced. The 
 Dutch in the 17th century, took up the task, 
 but Cook, the English navigator, contributed 
 the largest quota of information with regard to 
 Australia. This division of the globe is inhabit- 
 ed by an infinity of tribes, of various disposi- 
 tions and habits. In many islands reformation 
 of manners has been effected through the exer- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AUS 
 
 90 
 
 AUS 
 
 tions of European and American missionaries, 
 while in others the condition of the natives is 
 deplorable. The Sandwich islanders have made 
 the greatest progress. 
 
 AUSTRIA. The Austrian dominions have 
 not always been of their present extent, which 
 is very great. The empire of A ustria, now con- 
 tains, in addition to the Archdutchy, Bohemia, 
 Moravia, Austrian Silesia, Galicia, with the 
 Bukowine ; Hungary, including Transylvania, 
 Sclavonia, and Austrian Croatia ; Austrian Ita- 
 ly, and Dalmatia, with Cattaro, Ragusa, and 
 their islands. Over this extensive territory the 
 house of Austria now holds proud and undispu- 
 ted sway. 
 
 The house of Austria was indebted for its 
 rise to power, to the good fortune of successive 
 marriages — the beauty of its daughters ; whence 
 it came to be a common saying, that " Venus 
 was more favorable to it than Mars." The 
 fortunes of the house of Austria began first to 
 brighten in the fifteenth century, and origina- 
 ted with the poor and undistinguished counts 
 of Hapsburg, who were possessed of a circum- 
 scribed territory of little value in the canton of 
 Berne, Switzerland. The powerful house of 
 Zaerlingen and Kyburg, becoming extinct, Ro- 
 dolph of Hapsburg, lord of the greater part of 
 Switzerland, was summoned to assume the im- 
 perial diadem and purple in 1273. In A. D. 
 1298, the imperial throne was filled by another 
 member of the house of Austria, the emperor 
 Albert. This monarch deputed harsh and ty- 
 rannical governors to rule the Swiss, and, in 
 consequence of continued oppression, that brave 
 people revolted in 1307, headed by the famous 
 Tell. Frederick, son of Albert, found himself 
 forced to relinquish the empire into the hands 
 of Louis of Bavaria. The crowns of Germany, 
 Hungary, and Bohemia, were united in the per- 
 son of Albert II, duke of Austria, who ascended 
 the throne on the death of his fa, her, A. D. 1438. 
 Hungary and Bohemia were his by inheritance, 
 and the empire by universal suffrage. 
 
 The emperor Maximilian, grandfather of 
 Charles V, married the heiress of Burgundy, 
 in consequence of which alliance, the Nether- 
 lands were subjected to Austria in 1477. In 
 1496, the marriage of his son Philip to the heir- 
 ess of Castile and Arragon, led to the junction 
 of the broad domains of Spain with the already 
 ample territories of Austria. Charles V, desir- 
 ous of retiring from public life and passing his 
 days in gloomy seclusion, resigned the crown 
 in 1556, and Philip II, his son, gained posses- 
 sion of Spain and the Netherlands. Ferdinand, 
 
 the brother of Charles V, received Austria, Bo- 
 hemia, and Hungary. He also had been cho- 
 sen emperor of Germany. The house of Aus- 
 tria was noted for its bigotry and cruel in- 
 tolerance. In 1570, Maximilian granted lib- 
 erty of conscience (a great grant in a monarch !) 
 to the Protestants of Austria, but those in other 
 portions of his dominions, particularly in Bohe- 
 mia, were most cruelly persecuted. In their 
 distress the Protestant German princes sought 
 the assistance of the famous Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, king of Sweden. This famous warrior, 
 the ' Lion of the North,' as he was called, broke 
 upon the empire like a whirlwind, and its very 
 foundations tottered beneath the shock. France, 
 espousing the cause of the Protestants, hoped 
 
 . thus to weaken the power of Austria, and the 
 country experienced no release from the tumults 
 and horrors of war, until the treaty of West- 
 phalia was signed in 1648. 
 
 The sword was idle for a time, but the war 
 with France broke out afresh during the reign 
 of Leopold I, and was continued under his suc- 
 cessor. The Turks, emboldened by success, in 
 1688, pushed their arms into the heart of the 
 empire, and the walls of Vienna echoed back 
 the clangour of the oriental cymbals. The siege 
 of Vienna by the Turks, is a memorable and 
 impressive event. In the war of the allies with 
 France, Joseph I, son of Leopold, joined with 
 heart and hand, and acquired a share of their 
 good fortune. His queen was a daughter of 
 John Frederick, duke of Hanover. Charles VI 
 
 ' dying without issue, on the 20th of October, 
 1740, the extinction of the male line of the 
 house of Austria was the signal for the move- 
 ment of the elector of Bavaria. He seized the 
 kingdom of Bohemia, was elected emperor in 
 1742, and died in 1745. Francis of Lorraine, 
 son of Leopold duke of Lorraine, succeeded to 
 the Austrian dominions in right of his queen, 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. The 
 throne is still occupied by his descendants. He 
 was elected emperor in 1745, and the crown, 
 though nominally elective, descended to his 
 successors with the regularity of an hereditary 
 sovereignty. 
 
 The emperor Joseph II, made his reign con- 
 spicuous by his designs for the good of his 
 subjects. He aimed at the most extensive 
 and important reformations, but was not aware 
 of the strength of those prejudices and evils, 
 which presented themselves in his path at the 
 very outset, and conti nued to obstruct it through- 
 out the whole of his career. The education of 
 Joseph had been carefully attended to, and at 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 AUS 
 
 91 
 
 AUS 
 
 the age of nineteen, he was married to Isabella, 
 infanta of Parma. In 1764, he was crowned 
 king of the Romans. The death of his first wife 
 whom he loved with a more than usual fond- 
 ness, was a severe blow to him, but in 1765, he 
 married the sister of the elector of Bavaria. It 
 was in this year that he ascended the throne, 
 without encountering the slightest opposition. 
 Having always displayed a military ambition, 
 he was now happy in re-modelling his armies 
 and perfecting their discipline, not restricting 
 his reformation to the army but making it felt 
 in all the departments of government. After 
 having returned from a tour through his 
 own dominions, and through Prussia, Italy, 
 France, and Russia, he set apart, one day in 
 each week for hearing the complaints and peti- 
 tions of all, even the meanest of his subjects. 
 " It behoves me," said he, " to do justice : and 
 it is my invariable intention to render it to all the 
 world, without respect of persons." It is a pity 
 that he forgot this maxim when he accepted the 
 invitation of the royal anatomists, and assisted 
 in the dismemberment of Poland, in 1771. Jo- 
 seph encouraged the liberty of the press, and 
 even permitted strictures to be made on his own 
 conduct and measures, provided they were not 
 couched in the language of coarse pasquinade. 
 " If," said he, " they be founded in justice, we 
 shall profit by them ; if not, we shall disregard 
 them." 
 
 Many curious adventures are said to have 
 occurred to the emperor, when, as was his cus- 
 tom, he drove about his one horse cabriolet in 
 the garb of a private citizen. One day, as he 
 was riding thus alone, he was accosted famil- 
 iarly by a soldier who mistook him for a man 
 of the middle class, and asked the emperor to 
 give him a ride. " Willingly," exclaimed Jo- 
 seph, " jump in comrade, for I am in something 
 of a hurry." The soldier sprang into the cab- 
 riolet, and sovereign and subject sat side by 
 side on the same seat. The soldier was loqua- 
 cious. " Come, comrade !" said he, slapping 
 the emperor familiarly on the back ; " Are you 
 good at guessing?" " Perhaps I am," replied 
 Joseph ; " try me." " Well, then, my boy, 
 conjure up your wits, and guess what I had 
 for breakfast this morning." " Sour krout." 
 "Come, none of that ! try again, comrade." 
 " Perhaps a Westpbalia ham," said the empe- 
 ror, willing to humour his companion. " Bet- 
 ter than that !" exclaimed the soldier. " Sau- 
 sages from Bologna, and Hockheimer from the 
 Rhine ?" " Better than that— d'ye give it 
 
 up: 
 
 " I do." " Open your eyes and ears 
 
 then," said the soldier bluntly, " I had a phea- 
 sant, by Jove ! shot in emperor Joe's park, ha ' 
 ha !" When the exultation of the soldier had 
 subsided, Joseph said quietly : " I want to try 
 your skill in guessing, comrade. See if yon 
 can name the rank I hold." " You're a — no — 
 hang it ! j'ou're not smart enough for a cornet." 
 "Better than that," said the emperor. "A 
 lieutenant?" — "Better than that." — "A cap- 
 tain?" — "Better than that." — "A major?" — 
 " Better than that." — " General ?" — " Better 
 than that." The soldier was now fearfully agi- 
 tated — he had doffed his hat, and sat bare- 
 headed — he could hardly articulate. " Pardon 
 me, your excellency, — you are Field Marshal." 
 " Better than that," replied Joseph. " Lord 
 help me !" cried the soldier, " you're the em- 
 peror !" He threw himself out of the cabriolet 
 and kneeled for pardon in the mud. The cir- 
 cumstances were not forgotten by either, for 
 the emperor often laughed over it heartily, and 
 the soldier received a mark of favor which he 
 could not forget. 
 
 On another occasion, Joseph, turning a corner 
 shortly, ran the wheel of his vehicle against an 
 old woman's fruit-stall, and upset it, scattering 
 the good things in every direction. The rag- 
 ged urchins in the immediate vicinity fell upon 
 the tempting fruit, and hastily gathering it, eat 
 it, mud and all. As soon as the old woman 
 gained her feet, she gave utterance to a volley 
 of abuse, and the emperor was glad to escape 
 and permit the predatory youths of the suburbs 
 to take their share of the vituperative epithets 
 of the enraged fruit-seller. As soon as he had 
 reached his palace, Joseph despatched some of 
 his officers to make reparation to the old wo- 
 man. Surrounded by a group of men in splen 
 did uniforms, the old lady was terrified when 
 they informed her that the driver of the cabrio- 
 let was her emperor. Indistinct ideas of halters 
 and executioners were flitting across her mind, 
 when she was awakened to the reality, by the 
 sight of a purse full of gold pieces, which the 
 officers threw upon her table. She opened her 
 lips to bless the emperor, but his messengers 
 had put spurs to their horses, and were seen 
 galloping off in the distance. " I think," said 
 the emperor, " she has no reason to complain, 
 for she has been amply paid, and has had the 
 pleasure of abusing me unmercifully, while I 
 heard her with the patience of a saint." Va- 
 rious events occurred to disturb the tranquillity 
 of Joseph during his reign, and he died on the 
 20th of February, 1790. His good qualities far 
 exceeded his defects, and the glorious actions 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 AUS 
 
 92 
 
 AZO 
 
 he performed, have given him a high rank 
 among the great and good rulers of mankind. 
 Francis II was crowned emperor in 1792. In 
 1795, when the second division of Poland took 
 place, Austria received an immense accession 
 of territory. In 1797, she relinquished to France 
 her possessions in the Netherlands as well as 
 the dutchies of Milan and Mantua. To com- 
 pensate for this, the greater part of the Vene- 
 tian states were transferred to Austria. The 
 military power of France was so formidable, that 
 even the strongest sovereignties of Europe fear- 
 ed they should be unable to resist its encroach- 
 ments. The French threatened to attain the em- 
 pire of the world by rapid strides. Involved in 
 the wars of 1799 and 1805, Austria met with 
 repeated defeats and continued discomfiture. 
 After she had lost the great battles of Marengo 
 and Hohenlinden, Ulm and Austerlitz, her 
 Venetian possessions, the Tyrol, and other ter- 
 ritories were wrested from her grasp. In 1894, 
 Francis II, assumed the name of Francis I, 
 as hereditary emperor of Austria, and subse- 
 quently relinquished all claims to the empire 
 of Germany? In 1809, Austria took the field 
 against Napoleon, but having to contend, not 
 only against the French, but against Russia, 
 and the confederation of the Rhine, found her- 
 self defeated, and when Bonaparte entered 
 the capital, was compelled to relinquish again 
 immense territories. After a hopeless inaction 
 of some years, the failure of Napoleon's Rus- 
 sian expedition roused the Austrians to arms, 
 and the subsequent success of the allied pow- 
 ers restored the power and splendor of the Aus- 
 trian empire, which gained the addition of some 
 Italian terr tories. Of the subject kingdoms 
 and states of Austria, a detailed account will 
 not be looked for. Hungary comes first in 
 rank. Thf Romans conquered Dacia and ren- 
 dered it tr^utary ; and, after them, the Huns, 
 Avars, anr other Sclavonic tribes, successively 
 conquered it. Since 1563 it has continued an ap- 
 panage o ( the house of Austria. Transylvania 
 came 'nto possession of the Austrians in 1699. 
 Croatia, tnciently a part of Illyricum, was an- 
 nexed to Austria in 1540. Sclavonia, also an- 
 ciently a part of Illyricum, fell into the hands 
 of the Austrians in 1687. The crown of Bo- 
 hemia passed to the house of Austria in 1526. 
 The history of Venice is highly interesting, 
 and perhaps even a sketch of it may not prove 
 otherwise. The Veneti of the opposite shore, 
 flying from the barbarians, founded Venice in 
 the fifth century. The first doge was elected 
 in 697. Each island, previous to that date, 
 
 having been governed by a tribune. Towards 
 the close of the 12th century the Venetian aris- 
 tocracy seized the reigns of government. In 
 1204, the Venetians, having extended their 
 commerce, and become masters of many Gre- 
 cian provinces, were celebrated for their im- 
 mense wealth, and allowed to be the first 
 commercial people of the world. This pre- 
 eminence was destroyed by the success of the 
 Portuguese, to whom the commerce of the 
 East Indies was opened, and the power of Ve- 
 nice declined with great rapidity, and there now 
 remains but the tradition of what it was. 
 
 AVATAR, in Hindoo mythology, the in 
 carnation of the deity. The Hindoos believe 
 that numerous incarnations have taken place ; 
 ten of which, the incarnations of Vishnu, the 
 Supreme Deity, are celebrated in sacred poems. 
 
 AVERNUS, a lake in the kingdom of Naples, 
 anciently believed to be the entrance to hell. 
 
 AVIGNON, a city of the department of Vau- 
 cluse, France, on the Rhine, containing 30,000 
 inhabitants, and some silk manufactories and 
 other works. The country is fruitful and pleas- 
 ant. The city and district once belonged to 
 the Popes, but in 1790 was annexed to the 
 French Republic. 
 
 AYESHA, the favorite of Mohammed. Af- 
 ter his death, opposing the succession of Ali, 
 she was taken prisoner, but dismissed. She 
 died in 677. 
 
 AZOPH. or Azof, a town and fortress belong- 
 ing to the Russians, on an island at the junc- 
 tion of the river Don with the sea of Azof. 
 It contains about 1000 inhabitants. The sea of 
 Azof is a bay of the Black Sea. The sea is 210 
 miles long. 
 
 AZORES, or Western Islands, a group of 
 islands lying between Europe and America. 
 The principal island is Terceira. Present pop- 
 ulation more than 200,000. They were dis- 
 covered by, and have ever since belonged to 
 the Portuguese, by whom, however, they are 
 not properly appreciated. It is difficult to de- 
 termine the exact time of their discovery, as 
 several dates are given, concerning which a 
 warm controversy has been waged. It is, how- 
 ever, certain that they were discovered prior to 
 1449. The name Azores, i. e. Haick Islands, 
 was given from the abundance of falcons 
 (azores) found here by the Portuguese. In 1466 
 these islands were presented to the dutchess of 
 Burgundy, by her brother, the prince of Portu 
 gal. They were colonized afterwards by Ger- 
 mans and Flemings, who appear, however, al- 
 ways to have acknowledged the sovereignty of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAB 
 
 93 
 
 BAC 
 
 the king of Portugal. The Azores are recog- 
 nised at sea from a great distance, by Pico, a 
 tall mountain, which, like the Peak of Tene- 
 rirfe, towers far above the deep, and stands a 
 lasting landmark to mariners. The islands are 
 subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, 
 and, in 1574, St. George's, Pico, Fayal, and 
 Terceira, although detached and distant from 
 each other, were violently convulsed. The 
 ocean overflowed from the shock, which pro- 
 duced eighteen little islands. A similar con- 
 vulsion of nature occurred in July, 1638, and 
 after a commotion of six weeks, an island of 
 nearly six miles in circumference, arose near 
 St. Michaels, but was subsequently absorbed. 
 In 1720, the most horrible and tumultuous 
 scenes occurred, and, amidst an almost unequal- 
 led combination of horrors — causing the death 
 of many persons from fright — an island nearly 
 as large as that of 1638, emerged from its sub- 
 marine birth-place. The islands are supposed 
 to rest on volcanic foundations, which extend to 
 the western shores of Portugal, though the com- 
 munication maybe in many parts obstructed. 
 
 BAAL, Bel ; a Babylonian or Phoenician god, 
 concerning whom there is such a variety of 
 opinions, that there is no small difficulty in de- 
 termining his character. Some consider him as 
 a mortal, the founder of Babylon, and deified for 
 his exertions in the establishment of that mon- 
 archy. Besides the Babylonians and Assyrians, 
 the Persians, Tyrians, and others, worshipped 
 him 
 
 BABER, or Babour, sultan ; he was a de- 
 scendant of Tamerlane, sovereign of Cabul, and 
 founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindostan, 
 in 1525. He took Behar, and died in 1530. 
 
 BABYLONIA, now Irak Jlrabi, an Asiatic 
 empire of antiquity, bounded north by Media, 
 Armenia, and Mesopotamia; east by Susiana; 
 south by the Persian Gulf, and Chaldea, and 
 west by Arabia Deserta. The Euphrates or 
 Frat, and Tigris, two great rivers, irrigate this 
 fertile and level region. The old capital, Bab- 
 ylon, was of prodigious extent. The walls, 
 350 feet high, and 87 feet thick, were cemented 
 with bitumen, and were more than 60 miles in 
 circuit. They had an hundred brazen gates, and 
 two hundred and fifty towers. Its ruins, which 
 are cumbrous and tasteless, exist in the pacha- 
 lic of Bagdad, near Hella, a village on the east- 
 ern bank of the Euphrates, with 6 or 7000 in- 
 habitants. The hanging gardens of Babylon 
 were famous in ancient times. The Babylo- 
 
 nians formed a distinct nation, and had attained 
 a high degree of refinement as early as 2000 B. C. 
 Nimrod was the founder of the empire, accord- 
 ing to the Mosaic record. Belus, Ninas, and 
 Semiramis were famous conquerors, and the 
 latter caused the capital to be embellished and 
 improved. The learning of the Babylonians 
 was celebrated at an early age. Under Nabo- 
 n'das, the empire lost much of its strength and 
 splendor, and Cyrus destroj'ed its capital, and 
 annexed it to Persia, in 536. In A. D. 640 it 
 was conquered by the followers of Mohammed, 
 who built Bagdad on the Tigris, and made it 
 the capital. Holagou, a prince of the Tar- 
 tars, expelled the caliphs in 1258, and in 1534 
 Bagdad was taken by the Turks. Shah Abbas 
 won it from them, but in 1639, the whole of Bab- 
 ylon fell into the hands of the Turks, who yet 
 possess it. 
 
 BACCHUS, the heathen God of wine, son 
 of Jupiter and Semele. His festivals in Greece 
 and Rome were celebrated by both sexes, and 
 disgraced by intoxication and excesses of va- 
 rious kinds. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Frangois le Coigneux de, 
 born at Paris, 1624, died in the same city, 1702. 
 He was counsellor of Parliament, and opposed 
 to the court party in the disturbances of 1648. 
 He said that the members of the parliament put 
 him in mind of the little boys that played with 
 slings in the street, who dispersed on the ap- 
 pearance of a police officer, but collected as 
 soon as he was out of sight. Pleased with this 
 comparison, the enemies of Mazarin adopted 
 hat-bands in the form of a sling (fronde), 
 and hence were denominated Frondeurs. Ba- 
 chaumont was distinguished for his talent for 
 writing epigrams and lively songs, many of 
 which are extant. 
 
 BACON, Francis, baron of Verulam, a dis 
 tinguished philosopher, born at London, 1561, 
 and "died in 1626. He was entered in the 
 university of Cambridge, in his 13th year, and 
 distinguished himself for his early proficiency 
 in the sciences. At 16 he wrote against the 
 Aristotelian philosophy, and at 19 his work 
 Of the State of Europe, attracted general at- 
 tention from the clearness of perception and 
 maturity of judgment which it displayed. At 
 the age of 28 his legal reputation was such 
 that he was appointed counsel extraordinary to 
 the queen — a post of more honor than profit. 
 The Earl of Essex befriended Bacon, and pre- 
 sented him with an estate in land, but the lat- 
 ter abandoned his benefactor when he had fallen 
 into disgrace. In parliament, towards the close 
 of Elizabeth's reign, he forsook the independent 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 BAC 
 
 94 
 
 BAD 
 
 course which he had previously pursued, and be- 
 came a follower of the court. He stood high in 
 the good graces of James I, and was knighted by 
 him in 1603. His marriage was fortunate, and he 
 at length saw himself free from those pecuniary 
 embarrassments by which he had been so long 
 shackled. 
 
 In 1617 he was made lord keeper of the Seals ; 
 in 1619, lord high chancellor of England, and ba- 
 ron Verulam, and not long afterwards, viscount 
 of St. Albans. He had not now the plea of neces- 
 sity for making offices and privileges venal, but 
 he was charged with receiving money for them. 
 Rather than submit to a trial which would stamp 
 his name with indelible disgrace, he confessed 
 his guilt, supplicated the lenity of his peers, 
 and begged to be dismissed with the loss of his 
 office. His sentence was severe but just. He 
 was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, to be 
 imprisoned in the Tower as long as the king 
 should choose, declared incapable of office, for- 
 bidden to take his seat in parliament, or to show 
 himself within the verge of the court. He was 
 soon released from the Tower, but did not long 
 survive his fall. His errors sprang more from 
 weakness, than from avarice or want of princi- 
 ple, for he displayed through life a strong sym- 
 pathy for virtue, if he did not have firmness 
 enough to be faithful to her cause. He exam- 
 ined the whole circle of the sciences, and en- 
 deavored to free them from the academical sub- 
 tilties which had impeded their progress. " My 
 name and memory," he says in his will, " I be- 
 queath to foreign nations, and to my own coun- 
 trymen, after some time be passed over." 
 
 BACON, Nathaniel, an Englishman of good 
 understanding and education, who came to Vir- 
 ginia in 1675, and excited a rebellion against 
 the royal government, which cost the colony 
 £100,000. 
 
 BACON, Roger, an English monk, born at 
 Ilchester in 1214, and gifted with great talents. 
 He made many discoveries in the sciences, 
 which caused him to be regarded as a sorcerer 
 by the common people, whose prejudices were 
 espoused by the clergy, against whom Bacon 
 had openly spoken. He was imprisoned in con- 
 sequence of their denunciations, and, at one 
 time, kept in confinement for ten years. He died 
 in 1292. He was probably the inventor of the 
 telescope, and had an idea of gunpowder, for he 
 distinctly says in one of his works that thunder 
 and lightning could be imitated by means of char- 
 coal, sulphur, and saltpetre. He was well vers- 
 ed in the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages, 
 the last of which he wrote with facility and 
 elegance, and, although not free from many of 
 
 the prejudices of his age, was altogether a very 
 extraordinary man. Many of the old English 
 ballads and romances contain accounts of the 
 wonderful exploits of Friar Bacon, who is giited 
 with magical arts of the most tremendous na- 
 ture. The " Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon," 
 towards the conclusion, informs us that Friar 
 Bacon broke his magic glass, burned his books 
 of the ' Black Art, ; devoted himself to theologi- 
 cal studies, and lived in a cell which he had 
 excavated in a church wall. " Thus lived he 
 two yeeres space in that cell, never coming forth : 
 his meat and drink he received in at a window, 
 and at that window he did discourse with those 
 that came to him ; his grave he digged with Iris 
 own nayles, and was laid there when he died." 
 " He lived most part of his life a magician, and 
 died a true Penitent Sinner, and an Ancho- 
 rite." 
 
 BACTRIANA,or Bactria, now Khorassan, 
 before the time of Cyrus was a powerful king 
 dom, and gave to the Persians their mythology 
 and architecture. It lay between the Oxus, 
 Scythia, Mount Paropamisus, and Margiana; 
 but little is now known concerning this region 
 After the destruction of the Persian monarchy, 
 it was held by the Parthians and Scythians, until 
 they were expelled by the Huns. 
 
 BADAJOZ, or Badajox, the Pax Augusta of 
 the Romans, is on the left bank of the Guadi- 
 ana, and contains 14,000 inhabitants. It is the 
 capital of Estremadura, a Spanish province, and 
 is 82 miles N. N. W. of Seville. It is celebrat- 
 ed for the defeat of the Spaniards in 1109, by 
 Joseph, king of Morocco ; and for its capture by 
 the British, after a bloody conflict, on the 6th of 
 April, 1812. 
 
 BADEN, a grand-duchy, of Germany, con- 
 taining 1,150,000 inhabitants, on an area of 5,800 
 square miles. Baden was erected into a grand- 
 duchy, with large accessions of territory, in 1806, 
 and now forms one of the states of the Germa- 
 nic confederation. 
 
 BADIA, Domingo, a Spaniard, and political 
 agent of Godoy and Napoleon, who from 1803 
 to 1808, travelled in the Mohammedan coun- 
 tries bordering on the Mediterranean. He pro- 
 fessed Mohammedanism, and assumed the name 
 of Ali Bey el Abassi, under which his travels were 
 piiblished. Burckhardt, the oriental traveller, 
 gives the following account of him : " He called 
 himself Ali Bey, and pretended to have been born 
 of Tunisian parents, in Spain, and to have re- 
 ceived his education in that country. Spanish 
 appears to have been his native language, besides 
 which he spoke French, a little Italian, and the 
 Mograbeyan dialect of Arabic, but badlv. He 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BAG 
 
 95 
 
 BAH 
 
 came to Aleppo by the way of Cairo, Jaffa, and 
 Damascus, with the strongest letters of recom- 
 mendation from the Spanish government to all 
 its agents, and an open credit upon them. He 
 seemed to be a particular friend of the Prince of 
 Peace, for whom he was collecting antiques ; 
 and from the manner in which it was known 
 that he was afterwards received by the Spanish 
 ambassador, he must have been a man of dis- 
 tinction. The description of his figure, and 
 what is related of his travels, called to my recol- 
 lection the Spaniard Badia, and his miniature 
 in your library. He was a man of middling 
 size, long, thin head, black eyes, large nose, 
 long black beard, and feet that indicated his 
 having formerly worn tight shoes. He professed 
 to have travelled in Barbary,to have crossed the 
 Lybian desert between Barbary and Egypt, 
 and, from Cairo, to have gone to Mecca and 
 back. He travelled with Eastern magnificence, 
 but here (Aleppo) he was rather shy of showing 
 himself out of doors : he never walked out but 
 on Friday, to the noon prayers, in the great 
 mosque. One of the before-mentioned dervi- 
 shes told me that there had been a great deal 
 of talk about this Ali Bey, at Damascus, and 
 Hamar : they suspected him of being a Chris- 
 tian; but his great liberality, and the pressing 
 letters which he brought to all people of conse- 
 quence, stopped all further inquiry. He was 
 busily employed in arranging and putting in 
 order his journal during the two months of his 
 stay at Aleppo." Badia died in his native 
 country. 
 
 BAERT, John ; also Barth ; born at Dunkirk, 
 1651. He was the son of a poor fisherman, but 
 his bravery and talents raised him to the rank 
 of commodore in the reign of Louis XIV, whose 
 navy he greatly improved. The Dutch, English, 
 and Spanish, called him the French devil. " I 
 have made you a commodore," was the king's 
 annunciation of his promotion to Jean Baert, 
 at Versailles. " Your majesty has done well," 
 replied the sturdy seaman. The courtiers tit- 
 tered. " It is the reply," said Louis, " of a man 
 who knows his own worth." He received a 
 patent of nobility for one of his naval exploits, 
 and died in 1702. 
 
 BAGDAD ; the capital of a Turkish pacha- 
 lic of the same name, in the southern part of 
 Mesopotamia, now Irak-Arabi — contains about 
 100,000 inhabitants. It lies on the east bank of 
 the Tigris, over which a bridge is thrown. The 
 city is surrounded by a brick wall ; the houses 
 are of brick, and but one story high, and the 
 unpaved streets so narrow, as to admit of two 
 
 horsemen abreast with difficulty. The palace 
 of the pacha forms a contrast to the other 
 buildings of the city, being spacious and splen- 
 did. European manufactures, as well as the 
 productions of India, Arabia, and Persia, hnd a 
 sale here, and the thronged bazaars present a 
 brilliant and animated appearance. Bagdad has 
 a cannon foundery. From Bagdad, East Indian 
 goods are supplied to Asia Minor, Syria, and 
 part of Europe. The population consists of 
 Turks, Persians, Armenians, and a small num- 
 ber of Christians and Jews. The ancient city, 
 founded in 672, by the Caliph Abu Giafar Alman- 
 zor, once the residence of the Caliphs, and con- 
 taining 2,000,000 inhabitants, is now in ruins. 
 The prosperity of this city completed the ruin 
 of the neighboring city of Babylon. It was 
 twice taken by the Turks and Tartars, and near- 
 ly destroyed. In 1638, it was taken by Amu- 
 rath IV, after a memorable siege, and the great- 
 er part of the inhabitants were butchered in cold 
 blood. In the 18th century, Nadir Shah was 
 defeated in an attempt to take it. 
 
 BAHAMAS, or Lucaya Islands, 600 in num- 
 ber, are near the coast of North America, in the 
 Atlantic ocean, Ion. 70° to 80° W. ; lat. 21° to 
 28° N. They contain a population of 16,500, 
 including 9,270 slaves, and 2,990 free blacks. The 
 soil of the islands is rich, but thin, and soon ex- 
 hausted. Cotton is the chief production. The 
 residents are principally loyalists, who emigra- 
 ted from Carolina and Georgia, when the royal 
 cause was lost in America. The wreckers, a 
 large portion of the population, are hardy mari- 
 ners, employed in assisting shipwrecked vessels. 
 They display admirable skill and courage in the 
 working of their small flat-bottomed sloops, in 
 which they frequent the most dangerous places, 
 receiving salvage on all rescued property. They 
 are licensed by the governor. These islands 
 were discovered by Columbus, Oct. 12, 1492, 
 Guanahani being the first land he saw. In 
 1667, Charles II of England granted the Ba- 
 hamas to the Duke of Albermarle and others. 
 The first settlement was made on New Provi- 
 dence, one of the largest of the group. The 
 settlers suffered severely from the ravages of 
 pirates, and the inroads of the Spaniards. Black 
 Beard, the noted leader of the Buccaneers, was 
 killed off here in 1718. The town of Nassau 
 on New Providence was fortified in 1740. Nas- 
 sau was taken by the Americans during the rev- 
 olution, but was abandoned, and afterwards by 
 the Spaniards, but regained by the English. Ba- 
 haina, the chief island of the group, is 63 miles 
 long. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 BAL 
 
 96 
 
 BAL 
 
 BAHAR, a province of British India ; pop- 
 ulation, 5,800,000. It is bounded north by 
 Nepal and Morung, east by Bengal, south by 
 Orissa, and west by Oude and Allahabad. The- 
 soil is very fertile. It was anciently a kingdom 
 of Hindostan, but became part of the British 
 empire in 1765. 
 
 BAIvE, a town of Campania, a favorite resort of 
 the ancient Romans, many of whom had coun- 
 try-seats here. Its sheltered bay, breezy hills, 
 and baths gave it a high reputation, but the dis- 
 soluteness practised here by visiters, was so 
 notorious and infamous, that Cicero, in his 
 defence of M. Ccelius, thought it necessary to 
 apologise for defending a young man who had 
 lived at Baiae. 
 
 BAJAZET I, sultan of the Turks, son of 
 Amurath, whom he succeeded in 1389. By 
 strangling his brother and rival, Jacob, he es- 
 tablished a precedent, which has since been fre- 
 quently followed by the Turkish court. The 
 rapidity of his conquests gained him the name 
 of Ilderim, Lightning. He carried his con- 
 quering arms far into Europe and Asia, and on 
 the 28th Sept., 1395, defeated the Christian 
 army of Hungarians, Poles and French, who 
 were headed by Sigismund, king of Hunga- 
 ry. In 1402, he was defeated near Ancyra, in 
 Galatia, by Tamerlane, and was himself taken 
 prisoner, and treated with great courtesy by the 
 conqueror. The story of his being confined and 
 carried about in an iron cage, is unworthy of be- 
 lief. He died in the camp of Tamerlane in 1403. 
 
 BAJAZET II, son of Mohammed II, sul- 
 tan of the Turks, succeeded his father in 1481. 
 He extended his empire, gained some Grecian 
 towns from the Venetians, and by ravaging 
 Christian states, sought to avenge the expulsion 
 of the Moors by the Spaniards. He finally re- 
 signed his throne to his rebellious son Selim, by 
 whose order, it is supposed, he was murdered in 
 1512. 
 
 BALBEC, or Baalbec ; anciently Heliopolis, 
 or the city of the sun, is in the pachalic of Acre, 
 Syria, 40 miles from Damascus. It is small and 
 ill-built, with 5000 inhabitants, among whom 
 some Jews and Christians are to be met with. 
 The city is governed by an aga, who enjoys the 
 title of emir. Heliopolis was a Roman military 
 station in the time of Augustus. Its splendid 
 temple of the sun, of the 54 columns of which 
 there are but six standing, was built either by 
 Antoninus Pius, or Septimius Severus. The pil- 
 lars remaining, including pedestal and capital, 
 are 74 feet high, and 22 in circumference. Im- 
 mense stones were employed in the construc- 
 
 tion of the temple. During the reign of Constan- 
 tine, the temple was changed into a Christian 
 church. It fell into decay when the Arabians 
 held the city. Balbec was taken by a general 
 of Omar, and, in 1401, by Tamerlane. An 
 earthquake nearly destroyed it, 1759. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, was born in 
 1475. He was one of the numerous adventur- 
 ers, who sought to retrieve their fortunes by 
 following up in the New World, the discoveries 
 which Columbus had commenced. He formed 
 a colony on the isthmus of Darien. An Indian, 
 who was the scornful witness of a dispute 
 between two of Balboa's companions about 
 some gold, agreed to show him a country where 
 the precious metals might be obtained in abund- 
 ance. He led Balboa to the shores of the Pacific, 
 and pointed the path to Peru. Considering his 
 force of 150 men too feeble to attempt the con- 
 quest, Balboa took possession of the vast ocean 
 that rolled before him in the name of the king 
 of Spain, and after an absence of four months, 
 led back his followers to the colony, enriched 
 with gold and pearls. IJere he was required to 
 obey a new governor, Pedrarias, who held a 
 royal commission. He was appointed, the en- 
 suing year, viceroy of the South Sea, but seized 
 by Pedrarias, on pretext of neglect of duty, 
 tried, condemned, and beheaded in 1516, at the 
 age of 42. 
 
 BALDWIN III, king of Jerusalem from 1143 
 to 1162, was one of the bravest and most hon- 
 orable of the crusaders. The Christians pos- 
 sessed territories of vast extent, but the vassals 
 of Baldwin were divided by dissensions among 
 themselves ; this was also the case with their 
 adversaries, although the latter warred with 
 more success. The reign of Baldwin was un- 
 happy, and convinced the Christians of the 
 impossibility of establishing Christian chivalry 
 in the east. When Noureddin, his valiant and 
 proud opponent, was counselled to fall upon the 
 Christians during the funeral of their leader, he 
 answered : " No ! Let us respect their grief, 
 for they have lost a king whose like is rarely 
 to be met with." 
 
 BALIOL, John, king of Scotland, a claimant 
 for the crown on the death of queen Margaret. 
 Edward III, being made arbiter, awarded it to 
 Baliol against Robert Bruce. Baliol took up 
 arms in consequence of the interference of the 
 English king in his government, but was de- 
 feated at the battle of Dunbar, and consigned 
 to the tower, whence he was liberated by the 
 intercession of the pope. He died on his estate 
 in France, 1314. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAN 
 
 97 
 
 BAR 
 
 BALK, or Balkan, anciently Hoemus, a chain 
 of rugged mountains, extending from the Black 
 Sea, in European Turkey, to the Adriatic. 
 The summit of Scardus, the highest peak, is 
 10,000 feet above the surface of the sea. 
 
 BALLSTON SPA, a village of New York, 
 noted for its mineral springs, 7 miles S. W. of 
 Saratoga. 
 
 BALTIC SEA, a large gulf connected with 
 the North Sea, and washing the shores of Den- 
 mark, Germany and Prussia, Courland, Livo- 
 nia, and other parts of Russia. The Sound, 
 the Great and the Little Belt, are the names of 
 the three passages leading from the Cattegat 
 into the Baltic, at each of which a toll is paid 
 to Denmark, which, as 6000 ships annually 
 enter the Baltic Sea, is no inconsiderable source 
 of revenue. 
 
 BALTIMORE, a city and port of entry in 
 Baltimore county, Maryland, is situated on 
 the north side of the Patapsco, 14 miles from 
 its entrance into Chesapeake bay. The popu- 
 lation, in 1840, was 102,313. It is the third 
 city in the United States, and the centre of 
 most of the trade of Maryland, and a portion 
 of that of the Western States and Pennsylva- 
 nia. It is built around a basin which affords 
 a safe harbor, the narrow entrance of which, 
 being guarded by fort M'Henry, secures the 
 city against a naval enemy. Several. of the 
 public building's are elegant, and imposing in 
 appearance. The Washington monument is a 
 chaste and conspicuous structure of stone. St. 
 Mary's college is a Catholic institution of great 
 repute. The medical college received, with its 
 charter, in 1812, the title of university. Dur- 
 ing the last war, the city of Baltimore was 
 attacked by the British, and on the 13th of 
 September, the battle at North Point was fought. 
 On the next day, fort M'Henry was bombarded, 
 the enemy beaten off, and general Ross, the 
 English commander, slain. The bravery man- 
 ifested in defence of Baltimore, will prevent the 
 event from falling into oblivion, but, to comme- 
 morate it, an elegant marble monument, 35 feet 
 high, called the Battle Monument, has been 
 erected. 
 
 BANGOR, a city, the capital of Penobscot 
 county, Maine, situated at the head of tide- 
 water on the Penobscot river. Population, in 
 1840, 8,627. It is a flourishing and pleasant 
 town, and contains a theological seminary, and 
 some public buildings. 
 
 BANK, of England, was established in 1691, 
 and is of historical importance, as the machine 
 by which the British funding system has been 
 
 carried on, and those immense sums raised, 
 during the late wars, to subsidize all Europe. 
 The Bank of Venice was established in 1171. 
 for the purpose of rendering assistance to the 
 crusades. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, a village in Stirling- 
 shire, Scotland, celebrated by the Scots, for the 
 signal defeat of the English army, in 1314, by 
 Robert Bruce. The army of Edward II, was 
 superior in every thing but valor, and the 
 battle decided the independence of Scotland. 
 James III, in 1488, lost his life in a battle 
 fought here against his subjects. 
 
 BANQ.UO, or Bancho, thane of Lochaber r 
 from whom the royal house of Stuart was 
 descended. In the reign of Donald VII, he 
 gained some military reputation, but he tar- 
 nished his fame by joining Macbeth, by whom 
 he was murdered about 1046. 
 
 BAOUR LORMIAN, Louis Pierre Marie 
 Francois, born at Toulouse, in 1771, was a mem- 
 ber of the French academy. His translation 
 of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, laid the foun- 
 dation of his poetical fame. In 1814, in con- 
 junction with Etienne, he wrote a drama called 
 the Orfflanune, to inspire the French with enthu- 
 siasm. In 1824, he published a translation of 
 Dante's Divina Commedia. In the early part 
 of his career, attention was excited by his quar- 
 rels with the poet Lebrun, the warfare produc- 
 ing the exchange of several epigrams. One of 
 Baour's, was the following: 
 
 Lebrun, 'tis said, subsists on fame— 
 And hence the spareness of his frame. 
 The reply was equally witty and severe. 
 That folly fattens one is sure, 
 And hence thy embonpoint, Baour. 
 BARATARIA, a bay and island of Louis- 
 iana, on the north side of the gulf of Mexico. 
 The bay is 18 miles in length. The island was 
 fortified by the famous pirate Lafitte, whose 
 resort it was in 1811. 
 
 BARBADOES, one of the Caribbean isl- 
 ands. It was discovered by the Portuguese, 
 but belongs to the English, who settled it in 
 1605. Longitude 59° 50' W. lat. 13° 10' N. It 
 is 21 miles long, and 14 broad, containing an 
 area of 1 06,500 acres. Population, 102,000, in- 
 cluding 14,960 whites, 5,150 free colored per- 
 sons and 81,900 slaves. The island contains 
 4 towns, viz. Bridgetown, the capital, Speight's 
 T , Austin's T., and Jamestown. The cli- 
 mate is hot, but the air uncommonly salubri- 
 ous ; though hurricanes are unhappily not un- 
 frequent. The soil is various and- fertile, and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BAR 
 
 98 
 
 BAR 
 
 .he gently undulating country is studded with 
 planters' nouses, which, amidst the picturesque 
 productions of the soil, add to the beauty of 
 the landscape. Annual value of the exports is 
 £400,000; of imports £500,000. The free 
 people of color are happy, and many of them 
 prosperous. They entertain high-flown notions 
 of their valor, which, however, cannot be de- 
 nied, since no trial of it has taken place. " A 
 man may have a deal of courage in him without 
 knowing it," but the Barbadians appear to feel 
 the extent of theirs, and to lament it. That 
 the " Badians are almost too brave," is said to be 
 no uncommon declaration among these spirited 
 islanders. 
 
 BARBAROSSA. This name was borne by 
 two brothers, noted pirates, Horuc, and Hay- 
 raddin. (See Algiers.) 
 
 BARBARY STATES, are Tripoli, Tunis, 
 Algiers, Fez, and Morocco, and lie on the 
 northern coast of Africa, extending westerly 
 from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. A chain 
 of snow-capped mountains, the Atlas range, 
 intersects them almost from east to west, be- 
 tween which and the sea lies a fertile tract of 
 land. The tract south of the mountains ex- 
 tending to the great desert, is sandy and unpro- 
 ductive of any fruit but dates. The climate 
 is salubrious, the sea air tempering the heat, 
 which is, however, of a degree to permit the 
 growth of vegetation in April and May. Bar- 
 ley, wheat, figs, grapes, olives, oranges, pom- 
 egranates, melons, Cyprus, cedar, and almond 
 trees, spring from the luxuriant soil. The 
 sugar-cane, palm-tree, and lotus are abundant; 
 and, in the early part of the spring, the country 
 is bright and fragrant with roses, from which 
 the purest ottar is obtained. The domestic 
 animals are of the most valuable kind, and wild 
 ones are found in abundance. Among the 
 minerals of the mountains, are silver, copper, 
 iron, lead, and antimony. Salt is abundant. 
 The commerce between these and the European 
 states on the borders of the Mediterranean, is 
 by no means inconsiderable. In antiquity, the 
 countries now composing the Barbary States, 
 were distinguished for the activity of the in- 
 habitants in commercial pursuits. The Car- 
 thaginians were the most wealthy and en- 
 terprising of the possessors of these places, 
 but the Romans, Vandals, and Arabians, did 
 not permit commerce to be prostrated. Now, 
 a country capable of sixty millions of inhabi- 
 tants, contains barely ten millions and a half. 
 The patriotism of tbe Carthaginians induced 
 them to labor for the promotion of the best 
 
 interests of their country, but their power could 
 not stand against that of a nation of victorious 
 and hardy warriors. The Romans endeavored 
 to make the most of their conquered provinces, 
 and the vast influx of wealth, which conquest 
 poured in upon them, subdued that stern spirit 
 of temperance which had carried their banners 
 in triumph through the troubled tide of war. 
 Then came the Vandals and Arabians, who 
 endeavored to render the possessions they 
 wrested from the Romans as available as possi- 
 ble. 
 
 The present population of the Barbary States, 
 is composed of Moors, Jews, who carry on the 
 greater part of the business done here, Turks, 
 and Bedouin Arabs. The last, the descend- 
 ants of the Saracenic conquerors of the country, 
 have a fine, manly appearance. Their habits 
 are migratory, and they dwell in tents, 10 or 
 100 families gathering together, each family 
 being under the government of a sheik. They 
 are generally at war with the Berbers, the 
 descendants of the original inhabitants of the 
 country, who are represented as predatory, 
 treacherous, and cruel. On these, and on the 
 collectors of tribute, the Arabs wage war, and, 
 when their hands are not full of personal quar- 
 rels, enter the service of any chieftain who may 
 require them. The Moors are Moslems, indo- 
 lent, unsociable, luxurious, superstitious, and 
 uncultivated. They treat the Jews, whom they 
 despise and hate, with great harshness. In 
 addition to the races above enumerated, there 
 are many negroes in Barbary. 
 
 BARCA, a desert, with a few fertile spots, 
 on the northern coast of Africa, between Tri- 
 poli and Egypt ; containing 300,000 inhabi- 
 tants. It is subject to Tripoli. 
 
 BARCELONA, capital of Catalonia, and 
 one of the largest cities in Spain, contains 
 120,000 inhabitants. It is built in the form of 
 a crescent, and stands on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, long. 2° W E. ; and lat. 41° 
 27' N. Linens and laces, guns, pistols, and 
 swords are among its manufactured articles. 
 The harbor is commodious, but rather difficult 
 of access. Wine and brandy are exported in 
 large quantities. The amount of imports and 
 exports is probably 7,000,000 dollars. Its cit- 
 adel, built in 1714, has a secret connection 
 with the fort of San Carlos ; and it may be 
 considered as a strongly-fortified place. Until 
 the twelfth century, Barcelona was under the 
 government of its own counts, and afterwards 
 united with the kingdom of Arragon, but with- 
 drew and united to the French crown in 1640 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAR 
 
 99 
 
 BAR 
 
 In 1652, it again submitted to the Spanish gov- 
 ernment, but was taken by the French in 1697. 
 Its restoration was made at the peace of Rys- 
 wick. It is famous for the resolute, but una- 
 vailing defence it made against the troops of 
 Philip V, under the command of the duke of 
 Berwick, in 1714, when the sufferings of the 
 inhabitants were unparalleled. In 1809, it was 
 taken by the French, and remained in their 
 power until 1814. In 1821, the yellow fever 
 •committed great ravages in it. The candor of 
 a Barcelona galley-slave, is always brought to 
 remembrance on seeing the name of this city. 
 The duke of Ossuna, as he passed by Barcelo- 
 na, having obtained leave from the king of 
 Spain to release some slaves, went on board the 
 galley, and, passing through the benches of 
 slaves at the oar, asked several of them what 
 their offences were. Every one excused him- 
 self; one saying he was put there out of malice ; 
 another by the bribery of the judge ; but all of 
 them unjustly. Among the rest was a little 
 sturdy fellow ; and the duke asked him what he 
 was there for? " Sir," said he, " I cannot deny 
 that I am justly sent here ; for I wanted money, 
 and so I took a purse from the high-way, to 
 keep me from starving." Upon this, the duke 
 struck him gently with a little stick he had in 
 his hand, saying, " You rogue, what do you do 
 among so many honest men ? Get you gone 
 out of their company." 
 
 BARDS. The Bards, among Celtic nations, 
 in battle, raised the war-cry of their people, and 
 in peace, sang the exploits of their warriors. 
 They appear to have acted, as the heralds, 
 legislators, and priests of the free Celtic tribes 
 of Europe, until the gradual progress of south- 
 ern despotism and civilization, drove them 
 into the strongholds of the Welsh, Irish, and 
 Scotch mountains, which echoed to the w/d 
 notes of their harps, and the patriotic songs of 
 the inspired poets. Their music and poetry 
 kept alive the spark of national patriotism and 
 enthusiasm, and inspired a stern resistance to 
 the attacks of despotism. Hence Edward I, 
 of England, caused the Welsh bards to be slain, 
 as the instigators of sedition. The poems of 
 Ossian, a Highland bard, have been preserved, 
 and translated by Macpherson, who was sus- 
 pected of being their author, but an investiga- 
 tion of the subject by a literary committee, has 
 clearly proved their authenticity. Of these 
 poems, Bonaparte was passionately fond, and 
 the influence they exerted upon his style, may 
 be traced in many of his declamatory harangues. 
 
 3ARFLEUR, a sea-port in France, 12 miles 
 9* 
 
 east of Cherburg, which, in 1346, was taken 
 and pillaged by Edward III, of England, who 
 ruined its importance as a sea-port, by destroy- 
 ing its harbor. Here William the conqueror 
 embarked for England. 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, an American poet and 
 diplomatist, was born at Reading, Connecticut, 
 about 1755. He was educated at Dartmouth 
 and Yale colleges, where he distinguished him- 
 self by his poetical talent. In the college 
 vacations, he served as a volunteer, and was 
 present at the battle of White Plains. His first 
 publication was a collection of minor pieces 
 called American Poems. After leaving college, 
 he was licensed to preach as a Congregational 
 minister, and became a chaplain in the Ameri- 
 can army. His patriotic lays are said to have 
 exerted a happy influence upon his country- 
 men. His Vision of Columbus, which was 
 afterwards expanded into the Columbiad, met 
 with a flattering reception, both in America 
 and England. The first edition was printed in 
 1787. His version of the Psalms was highly 
 successful. To further the sale of his poem, 
 and the psalms, he became a bookseller, at 
 Hartford, but quitted the business as soon as he 
 had effected his object. In Europe, whither 
 he went to effect the sale of some land in Ohio, 
 he made himself conspicuous by the publica- 
 tion of some prose and poetical works of a 
 political nature. He also found time to write 
 a mock heroic poem, in three cantos, called 
 Hasty Pudding, and this was doubtless the hap- 
 piest of his efforts. The commercial specula- 
 tions in which he engaged, proved highly suc- 
 cessful. In 1795, he was appointed American 
 consul at Algiers, concluded a treaty of peace 
 with the dey, and procured the liberation of all 
 the American citizens, who were held as slaves 
 within that territory. By the conclusion of 
 a similar treaty at Tripoli, he was enabled to 
 redeem and send home all the American pris- 
 oners found there. In 1797, he returned to 
 Paris, where, by commercial speculations, he 
 amassed a very considerable fortune. In Paris, 
 he lived in sumptuous style, and lost no oppor- 
 tunity of serving his countrymen. When the 
 rupture between America and France took 
 place, on account of the maritime spoliations 
 of the latter, he endeavored to adjust the differ- 
 ences between them. After an absence of 
 nearly 17 years, he returned to his country 
 early in the year 1805. In 1808, appeared his 
 Columbiad, a splendid volume, ornamented with 
 engravings, executed by London artists. It 
 was so expensive a work, that but few copies 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BAR 
 
 100 
 
 BAR 
 
 were sold. In 1811, Barlow was appointed min- 
 ister plenipotentiary to the French government. 
 In 1812, while repairing to Wilna, in order to 
 have a conference with the emperor Napoleon, 
 he died of an inflammation of the lungs, Oct. 
 2, at Zarnawica, an obscure Polish village. 
 
 BARNEY, Joshua, whose name stands high 
 in the list of our naval heroes, was born at 
 Baltimore, Maryland, July 6th, 1759. He was 
 put into a retail shop at an early age, but man- 
 ifesting a dislike for that employment, went to 
 sea. At 16 years of age, the illness of the 
 captain and discharge of the mate of a vessel, 
 on board of which he was, put him in command 
 of her, — a station which he retained for eight 
 months. At the commencement of the revo- 
 lutionary war, he espoused the cause of the 
 colonies, and was made master's-mate on board 
 the Hornet sloop-of-war, Capt. William Stone. 
 In 1775, the Hornet was concerned with Hop- 
 kins's fleet, in the capture of New Providence, 
 one of the Bahama Islands. In 1776, in con- 
 sequence of his conduct in the engagement 
 between the American schooner Wasp and the 
 English brig Tender, which was captured un- 
 der the guns of two hostile vessels, he was 
 presented with a lieutenant's commission, being 
 then not 17 years of age. Soon afterwards, he 
 became lieutenant of the Sachem, and assisted 
 in the capture of an English brig, after a severe 
 engagement. Being placed on board of a 
 captured vessel as prize-master, Barney was 
 taken, on his return from the West Indies, by 
 the Perseus of 20 guns, but prisoners were ex- 
 changed in Charleston, S. C. In 1777, Barney 
 was on board the Andrew Doria, and assisted 
 in the defence of the Delaware. Having been 
 ordered to Baltimore, to join the Virginia frigate, 
 Capt. Nicholson, his vessel was run ashore by 
 the pilot, and taken by the British. Barney was 
 exchanged in 1778, but while commanding a 
 small schooner, was again taken, in Chesapeake 
 bay. In November, 1778, he sailed with Capt. 
 Robinson in a ship from Alexandria, with a 
 letter of marque. They arrived at Bordeaux, 
 after a warm action with the Rosebud, shipped 
 18 guns and 70 men, and took on board a ca'-go 
 of brandy. On their return, they captured a 
 valuable prize. Barney reached Philadelphia 
 in October, 1779. In the following year, he 
 married Miss Bedford, and, a month after- 
 wards, was robbed of his whole fortune, on 
 the road to Baltimore. Saying nothing of his 
 misfortune, he returned to Philadelphia, and 
 served on board the U. S. ship Saratoga, 16 
 guns, Capt Young. He was taken prisoner 
 
 and' sent to England, escaped, was retaken, 
 again escaped, and reached Philadelphia, March. 
 1782. 
 
 Soon after, he received from the state of 
 Pennsylvania the command of the Hyder Aly, 
 a ship of 16 guns. With a loss of 4 killed and 
 11 wounded, the Hyder Aly captured the ship 
 General Monk, 20 guns, after an action of 26 
 minutes. On board the captured vessel were 30 
 killed and 53 wounded, 15 out of 16 officers 
 being either killed or wounded. For this ex-C\j 
 ploit he was presented with a sword by the legis-'gr 
 lature of Pennsylvania. The General Monk 
 having been purchased by the United States. 
 Barney was put in command of her, and sailed 
 for France with sealed despatches for Doctor 
 Franklin, in November, 1782. He returned to 
 America, after having been favorably received 
 at the French court, with a large loan from the 
 French King, a passport from the King of Eng- 
 land, and assurances that the preliminaries of 
 peace were signed. Barney then served in the 
 French navy from 1795 till 1800, when, resign- 
 ing the command of a French squadron, he 
 returned to America. In 1812, on the breaking 
 out of the war between England and the United 
 States, he commanded the flotilla designed for 
 the defence of the Chesapeake. He set out for 
 Bladensburg, with a small force of marines and 
 five pieces of artillery, in July, but found the 
 Americans in full retreat. Notwithstanding he 
 made a most gallant opposition to the enemy, 
 he was wounded in the thigh and taken pris- 
 oner. He received a sword from the corpora- 
 tion of Washington, and a vote of thanks from 
 the legislature of Georgia for his gallant con- 
 duct. In May he was entrusted with a mission 
 to Europe, and returned to Baltimore in Octo- 
 ber Commodore Barney died at Pittsburg, in 
 1 ^18, while on his way to Kentucky, whither 
 he had resolved to emigrate. His personal ap- 
 pearance was prepossessing, and his talents as 
 a naval commander great. 
 
 BARRY, John, another distinguished naval 
 officer in the service of the United States, 
 was born in the county of Wexford, Ireland, in 
 1745. His father was a respectable farmer, and 
 made no opposition to his son's wish to lead 
 a seafaring fife. Previous to his coming to 
 America, Barry acquired a good practical edu- 
 cation, and was between 14 and 15 years of age, 
 when he reached the country of his adoption. 
 The experience which he had gained in the 
 merchant service, and the naval skill which he 
 displayed, procured for him a commission in the 
 continental navy, on the breaking out of hos- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAR 
 
 101 
 
 BAS 
 
 tilities with Great Britain. He was appointed 
 commander of the brig Lexington, 16 guns, in 
 February, 1776. After cruising with success 
 he was transferred in the same year, to the frig- 
 ate Effingham, at Philadelphia, but the ice in 
 the Delaware preventing immediate operations, 
 Barry served on shore as Aid-de-Camp to Gen- 
 eral Cadwalader, and was present at the oc- 
 currences near Trenton. When the American 
 vessels were lying near Whitehill, he conceiv- 
 ed the daring plan of descending the river in 
 .boats and capturing the supplies sent to the en- 
 emy. He succeeded in taking not only a valu- 
 able stock of provisions, but military stores, for 
 which exploit he received the thanks of Wash- 
 ington. After the loss of his frigate, he was ap- 
 pointed to command the Raleigh of 32 guns, 
 but ran her on shore on being chased by a 
 large squadron. In February, 1781, he was in 
 command of the Alliance, a frigate of 36 guns, 
 and sailed from Boston for L'Orient with Col- 
 onel Laurens and suite, on an embassy of im- 
 portance to the court of Paris. After having 
 taken several prizes, he was severely wounded 
 in the action with the Atalanta ship of war, 
 and her consort the brig Trepasa, which were 
 taken after an engagement of several hours. 
 Throughout the war, Commodore Barry behav- 
 ed with gallantry, and on the termination of 
 hostilities was appointed to superintend the 
 building of the frigate United States, which he 
 was to command. In the short naval war with 
 France, Barry was of great service to this coun- 
 try, and remained in command of the United 
 States till she was laid up in ordinary. He 
 died Sept. 13, 1803, with the reputation of a 
 virtuous, brave, and talented man. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, (St.) a feast of 
 the church, celebrated August 24th. The horrid 
 massacre of Bartholomew's day was perpetrat- 
 ed on the Huguenots, or Protestants of Paris, 
 by the Catholic faction, during the reign of 
 Charles IX, in 1572. The massacre extended 
 throughout the kingdom, and the victims were 
 not fewer than 30,000. At Rome the news was 
 received with every demonstration of joy, sa- 
 lutes of cannon were fired, a procession went 
 by order of the Pope to the church of St. Louis, 
 and the Te Deum was chanted. 
 
 B A R.TLETT, Josiah, M. D. Governor of New 
 Hampshire, was born in Amesbury, Mass. in 
 1729. He commenced the study of medicine at 
 the age of 16, and at the age of 21, the practice 
 of it, in which he was highly successful. In 
 1754, he was a representative of the town of 
 Kingston in the provincial legislature, where 
 
 he took the side of the minority, firmly oppos- 
 ing all violations of right. In 1775 he was de- 
 prived by the Governor of his commission in 
 the army, and of that of justice of peace. From 
 the provincial congress, however, he received a 
 regiment, and, as a delegate to the continental 
 congress, was the second signer of the declara- 
 tion of independence. In 1780 he was appoint- 
 ed judge of the superior court of New Hamp- 
 shire, and chief justice in 1790. In the same 
 year he became president of New Hampshire, 
 and its governor in 1793. He retired from office 
 in 1794, and died in 1795. 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, a country-girl of Ad- 
 dington, in Kent, commonly called the Holy 
 Maid of Kent. She was an impostor, who ap- 
 peared in the reign of Henry VIII, with pre- 
 tensions to miraculous powers ; she was execut- 
 ed at Tyburn, April 30, 1534, after a full con- 
 fession of her imposture. It was at the time 
 that the king was about to be divorced from his 
 first wife, and the English Church separated 
 from Rome, and this girl was employed by 
 priests to warn Henry of the vengeance of 
 heaven if he persisted. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, an American natural- 
 ist, born at the botanic garden, Kingsessing, 
 Penn., 1739. He accompanied his father on an 
 expedition to explore the natural productions of 
 East Florida, and in 1773 commenced an exam- 
 ination of the natural productions of the Flor- 
 idas, and the western parts of Carolina and 
 Georgia, at the request of Dr. Fothergill of 
 London. This employment lasted nearly five 
 years. In 1790 he published an account of his 
 travels and discoveries in 1 vol, 8vo. In 1782 
 he was elected professor of botany in the uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania, and in 1786, member 
 of the American Philosophical Society. He be- 
 longed to many other learned societies in Eu- 
 rope and America. He assisted Wilson in the 
 commencement of his American Ornithology. 
 On the 22d of July, 1823, being then in his 85th 
 year, a few minutes after writing an article on 
 the natural history of a flower, he ruptured a 
 blood-vessel and died. 
 
 BASHKIRS, or BASHKEERS, a tribe of 
 Turkish origin, whose country is part of the 
 ancient Bulgaria. In 1770 they consisted of 
 27,000 families. They are Mohammedans, but 
 little civilized, and live by hunting, raising 
 cattle, and keeping bees. They intoxicate 
 themselves on a beverage made from ferment- 
 ed mare's and camel's milk. 
 
 BASIL, St., an Eastern patriarch, called the 
 Great, and made bishop of Caesarea, in Cappa- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BAS 
 
 102 
 
 BAS 
 
 docia, in 370. Here he died in 379. The rules 
 for the regulation of the monastic life, which he 
 prepared, are still followed by all the orders in 
 Christendom. 
 
 BASLE, BALE, or BASIL, a city of Swit- 
 zerland, capital of a canton of the same name. 
 The inhabitants of the greater and lesser towns 
 have, from time immemorial, been on bad terms 
 with each other, and their animosity is not yet 
 extinct. The university founded here in 1459 
 has an excellent library. The clocks of Basle in 
 former times were an hour in advance of those 
 of other places. The administration of the city 
 is in the hands of the councils, the smaller of 
 which, consisting of 60 members, is chosen 
 from the large council of 260 members. The 
 principal trade of Basle is in silk ribbons. The 
 treaty of peace concluded here August 28th, 
 1795, between the French and Spanish, procur- 
 ed for Don Emanuel Godoy, the Spanish prime 
 minister, the title of Prince of Peace. The chief 
 object of the ecclesiastical council of Basle, 
 which was convened by Pope Martin V, and 
 Eugenius IV, commencing its sittings, Dec. 14, 
 1431, was the conversion of the papal monar- 
 chy into a hierarchical aristocracy. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, Francois de, Marshal of 
 France, who enjoyed the favor of Henry IV 
 and Louis XIII, and was one of the most amia- 
 ble and accomplished men of their courts. He 
 was born in 1579 and died in 1646. He served 
 in a military and civil capacity. Having be- 
 come enamored of the charms of the daughter 
 of the Constable de Montmorency, he relin- 
 quished his hopes when he discovered that he 
 was the rival of Henry IV. 
 
 BASSORA,or BASRAH, a city of Irak, sit- 
 uated half way between the junction of the Ti- 
 gris with the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, 
 210 miles S. W. of Ispahan. Its commerce is 
 extensive. It was built by the Caliph Omar, 
 and has been alternately occupied by Turks 
 and Persians. 
 
 BA STILE, anciently a castle in Paris, where 
 prisoners were confined by the authority of 
 Lettres de Cachets, that is, letters of arrest, 
 written in the king's name, with blanks for the 
 names of individuals, which were to be filled up 
 by the ministers who possessed these letters. 
 Heads of families among the nobility, who 
 wished to confine any unworthy member of the 
 family, claimed the privilege of confinement by 
 a leltre de cachet, and this privilege was next 
 claimed by the ministers of government, to be 
 used for the punishment of lefractory servants 
 and others. It will easily be conjectured that 
 
 it was not long before unprincipled ministers 
 abused this right by imprisoning worthy per- 
 sons, who, in the actual discharge of their du- 
 ties, had incurred the displeasure of men of 
 power by thwarting their interests. In fact the 
 use of the lettres de cachet was the main- stay of 
 despotism, and used not merely by the throne, 
 but by many of its satellites. Men were im- 
 prisoned for offences too trifling to be register- 
 ed, and remained 30 or 40 years in the Bastile, 
 or even till death, without any examination be- 
 ing instituted into the charges on which they 
 were imprisoned. (See Iron Mask). At the com- 
 mencement of the French Revolution, the at- 
 tention of the people was called to this enor- 
 mity. In July, 1789, they assembled in force 
 and attacked the Bastile, which surrendered 
 after a few hours. The Governor was murdered. 
 The prisoners were feasted in Paris, and the 
 building was finally completely demolished. 
 Its building was commenced in 1369 by Charles 
 V, and finished in 1383 by his successor. M. 
 Mercier has given an interesting account of a 
 prisoner who was confined for some expressions 
 of disrespect towards Louis XV. He was set 
 at liberty by the ministers of Louis XVI. He 
 had been in confinment for 47 years, and had 
 borne up against the horrors of his prison- 
 house with a manly spirit. His thin, white, 
 and scattered hairs, had acquired an almost 
 iron rigidity, and his body was firm and com- 
 pact as the stone which environed him. The 
 day of his liberation, his door was flung wide 
 open, and a strange voice announced to him 
 his freedom. Hardly comprehending the mean- 
 ing of the words, he rose and tottered through 
 the courts and halls of the prison, which ap- 
 peared to him interminable. His eyes by de- 
 grees became accustomed to the light of day, 
 but the motion of the carriage which was to 
 convey him to his former abode appeared unen- 
 durable. At length, supported by a friendly 
 arm, he reached the street in which he had 
 once resided, but on the spot formerly occupied 
 by his house, stood a public building, and no- 
 thing remained in that quarter that he re- 
 cognized. None of the living beings of the vast 
 city knew him ; his liberty was a worthless gift, 
 and he wept for the solitude of his dungeon. 
 
 Accident brought in his way an old domestic, a 
 superannuated porter, who had barely strength 
 sufficient to discharge the duties of his office. 
 He did not recognize his master, but told him 
 that his wife had died of grief thirty years be- 
 fore, that his children had gone abroad, and that 
 not one of his relations remained. Overcome 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAT 
 
 103 
 
 EAV 
 
 by this intelligence, the captive supplicated the 
 minister to take him back to the dungeon from 
 which he had been liberated, and the man of of- 
 fice was moved to tears by his misery. The old 
 porter became his companion, as he was the 
 only person who could converse to him of the 
 friends he had lost, but so wretched was the iso- 
 lated condition of the victim of the Bastile,that 
 he died not long after his liberation. 
 
 BATAVIA, a city and seaport of the island 
 of Java, on tbe north coast of which it is situ- 
 ated, near the western end. It is the capital of 
 all the Dutch East Indies : Ion. 106° 54 / E. ; 
 lat. 6° 12 7 S. Pop. in 1824, when it was con- 
 siderably reduced, 53,861. The inhabitants are 
 Chinese, Balinese, natives of Celebes, Javanese, 
 Malays, Europeans, and slaves. The Dutch 
 founded the city in 1619, and after being taken 
 by the British in 1811, it was again restored to 
 the Dutch in 1816. The bay would be good if 
 it were easily accessible. The town is built on 
 a low marshy foundation, at the junction of 
 small rivers, and some of the canals in the 
 streets contain stagnant water. Hence origin- 
 ates the intermittent fever, which is so fre- 
 quently fatal to strangers. Batavia has an im- 
 mense trade, and its architectural beauty pro- 
 cured it the name of Queen of the East, but recent 
 alterations have much defaced it. The quarter 
 of the native population is exceedingly mean, 
 while the European houses are neat rather than 
 elegant. The stadt-house, and places of public 
 worship are not particularly distinguished by 
 grandeur or beauty. 
 
 BAT AVIANS, a German tribe, the aborig- 
 inal inhabitants of Holland, particularly of the 
 island in the Rhine called Batavia, which was 
 conquered by the Sahan Franks towards the 
 end of the third century. The Batavian repub- 
 lic was formed in 1798, by a change in the con- 
 stitution of the United Provinces, effected by 
 the French. It continued in existence till Louis 
 Bonaparte ascended the throne of Holland, 
 1806. 
 
 BATH. This city of England was anciently 
 called by the Romans Aqua Solis, Fontes Calidi, 
 Thermal, Bodonia, and Bathonia. The Britons 
 gave it the name of Caer Badun, or Bladon ; 
 the Saxons, Hat Bathun, and Achamannum. It 
 is in Somersetshire, 107 miles W. of London, 
 and is situated on the river Avon, in a narrow 
 valley. Its hilly environs are pleasant, and it 
 opens on the north-west into beautiful and wide 
 meadow-lands. The population, in 1831, was 
 50,800. Its baths were highly esteemed by the 
 Romans, and are so at the present day. The 
 
 splendid cathedral, which is of Gothic architec- 
 ture, is the finest specimen of the sort in Eng- 
 land. The places for public worship are numer- 
 ous, and few cities are more prolific in sources 
 of amusement. 
 
 BATH, a post-town and port of entry in 
 Lincoln county, Maine. It is situated on the 
 W. side of the Kennebeck, 12 miles from the 
 sea, has great commercial advantages and is 
 engaged in ship-building. The population, in 
 1840, was 5,141. 
 
 BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an English 
 militaiy order, the origin of which is uncertain. 
 By the statutes prepared when it was revived 
 by George I, in 1725, the number of knights 
 was fixed at 38 — viz. the sovereign and 37 
 knights-companions. 
 
 BAUTZEN, or BUDESSIN, capital of Up- 
 per Lusatia, situated on a height washed by the 
 Spree. It contains 11,500 inhabitants. The 
 Catholics and Lutherans w r orship together in 
 the large cathedral, the former possessing the 
 altar and the latter the nave. On the 20th and 
 21st of May, 1813, Napoleon here defeated the 
 army of Prussians and Russians, whose master- 
 ly retreat left him little advantage. In the eve- 
 ning of the 21st the field of battle presented a 
 grand but terrible spectacle, more than 16,000 
 men being stretched in their last sleep, and the 
 scene illuminated by the red glare of 30 burning 
 villages. 
 
 BAVARIA, a kingdom of Germany, a waste 
 in the time of Caesar, and a Roman province 
 (Vindelicia and Noricum) under Augustus. At 
 the end of the fifth century, a confederacy was 
 formed by several German tribes, under the 
 name of Boiaorians, Ratisbon being their chief 
 seat. Their country was called Noricum, and 
 was never subject to the Ostrogoths. They be- 
 came subject however to the Franks, when the 
 latter gained possession of Rhsetia. Otho the 
 Great, who, after the death of Charlemagne, 
 and the occurrence of convulsions incidental to 
 the division of the empire, gained possession of 
 Bavaria, died in 1183. Louis I. his successor, 
 enlarged his territories, and -added the Palatin- 
 ate of the Rhine. Bavaria was divided into 
 Upper and Lower, in 1255 ; Maximilian I, a dis- 
 tinguished leader of the league against the Pro- 
 testants, gained the upper palatinate in 1623. 
 He died in 1651. After the battle of Blenheim, 
 the emperor treated Bavaria as a conquered 
 country. Charles VII, elected Emperor rf Ger- 
 many in 1742, received homage as King of Ba- 
 varia, but in 1743 the states of Bavaria were 
 constrained to swear homage to Maria Theresa. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY}. 
 
 BAY 
 
 104 
 
 BAY 
 
 In the war of 1743, Charles' fortunes sank rapid- 
 ly, and he was forced to abandon Bavaria. His 
 son and successor, Maximilian Joseph III as- 
 sumed, like his father, the title of archduke of 
 Austria, but making peace with Austria, in 
 1745, received from Francis all the Bavarian 
 territories which had been conquered by that 
 power. Maximilian Joseph devoted himself to 
 the promotion of the interests of his people, and 
 favored their industry by every means in his 
 power ; the foundation of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences at Munich proves his liberality, and the 
 extension of bis views. 
 
 By the treaties of the house of Wittelsbach, 
 and the terms of the peace of Westphalia, the 
 right of succession reverted to the palatinate, 
 on the extinction of the WitteJsbach Bavarian 
 line in the person of Maximilian Joseph, who 
 died 30th of December, 1777, but the claims of 
 Austria to Lower Bavaria were enforced by 
 arms, and Charles Theodore, in 1778, was per- 
 suaded formally to renounce the Bavarian suc- 
 cession. The Duke of Deux-Ponts, however, 
 the presumptive heir, relying on the encour- 
 agement afforded by Frederick II, refused to ac- 
 knowledge the surrender of the succession. This 
 was the cause of the Bavarian war of succes- 
 sion which was terminated by a treaty of peace, 
 
 but a few fragments of her fine army survived 
 the expedition to Moscow. In 1813 the king 
 of Bavaria abandoned the confederation of the 
 Rhine and turned his arms against Napoleon. 
 The kingdom of Bavaria is at present one of 
 the principal of the secondary continental pow- 
 ers. Bavaria, exclusively of the part west of 
 the Rhine, is bounded north by Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt, Hesse-Cassel, the Saxon principalities 
 of Meiningen, Hildburghausen, and Coburg, 
 Reuss, and the kingdom of Saxony ; east and 
 south by Austria, and west by Wurtemberg, Ba- 
 den, and Hesse-Darmstadt. The kingdom con- 
 tains 4,238,000 inhabitants. The people are in- 
 dustrious and education has made much pro- 
 gress. Agriculture is the chief branch of indus- 
 try. The government is administered to general 
 satisfaction. 
 
 BAYARD, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de. 
 called Le Chevalier sans peur etsans reproche, (the 
 knight without fear and without reproach). He 
 was born in castle Bayard, near Grenoble, J 476, 
 of one of the most ancient families in Dau- 
 phiny. Educated under the eye of his uncle, the 
 bishop of Grenoble, he early displayed those 
 traits for which he was afterwards so much be 
 loved and celebrated. Modest, pious, affection- 
 ate, tender, brave, and honorable, all who be- 
 
 signed May 13th, 1779, in consequence of war held him augured well of his future career 
 
 being declared against Austria by Russia, when 
 Bavaria was secured to the elector palatine of 
 Bavaria. The Austrians yet coveted the coun- 
 try, and, in 1784, Joseph II proposed to ex- 
 change the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, 
 with the sum of 3,000,000 florins for the Elector 
 and the Duke of Deux-Ponts, and the title of 
 king of Burgundy. This, however, was formal- 
 ly refused by the duke of Deux-Ponts, who de- 
 clared he w T ould never barter away the inher- 
 itance of his ancestors. Charles Theodore re- 
 vived the order of Jesuits, and restrained the 
 freedom of the press, and on the breaking 
 out of the French revolution, the elector sent 
 troops to aid the empire. In 1796 Bavaria be- 
 came the theatre of war. Maximilian Joseph, 
 duke of Deux-Ponts, now came into possession 
 of Bavaria. At the beginning of the war of 
 1805, the elector joined the French with 30,000 
 troops, and at the peace of Presburg received a 
 vast addition of territory, and the title of king. 
 A matrimonial alliance connected the inter 
 
 Charles VIII, who saw him at Lyons, manag- 
 ing a stately steed with ease and grace, begged 
 him of the duke of Savoy, whose page he then 
 was, and committed him to the care of Paul of 
 Luxemburg, count de Ligny. He won his ear- 
 liest laurels in tournaments, but he was destined 
 to shine upon redder fields of glory, and at the 
 age of 18 accompanied Charles VIII to Italy , and 
 took a standard in the battle of Verona. When, 
 in the reign of Louis XII, he was taken pris- 
 oner by following some flying adversaries into 
 Milan, Ludovico Sforza generously returned 
 him his horse and arms, and dismissed him 
 without ransom. His exploit at the bridge over 
 the Garigliano was worthy of a Roman in 
 Rome's best days, for like Horatius Codes he 
 gallantly defended the bridge against the victori- 
 ous Spaniards, until the French army were safe. 
 On account of this action, he had for his coat of 
 arms a porcupine, with the following motto : 
 Vires agminis unvs habet. — alone he has an 
 army's strength. When Julius II declared him- 
 
 ests of Bavaria still more closely with those of self against France, Bayard hastened to the as- 
 France. The king of Bavaria took part against sistance of the duke of Ferrara. Defeated in his 
 the Prussians and Austrians, in 1806 and 1809. attempt to take the Pope prisoner, he yet stem- 
 In the war of 1812 between France and Russia, ly refused to listen to an offer to betray him. 
 Bavaria brought 30,000 men into the field, and He was wounded in the assault on Brescia, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAY 
 
 105 
 
 BEA 
 
 carried into the house of a nobleman, who had 
 fled leaving his wife and two daughters expos- 
 ed to the brutal insults of a licentious soldiery. 
 Bayard protected them faithfully, refusing their 
 offers of reward, and returning, as^oon as he 
 was cured, to the French camp, whose stay and 
 hope, Gaston de Foix, had been killed in conse- 
 quence of neglecting the advice of Bayard. The 
 latter received a second wound in the retreat 
 from Pavia, which it was thought would prove 
 mortal. On learning this, the gallant Chevalier 
 said, in the true spirit of a warrior, " 1 rrrieve 
 not to die, but to die in my bed like a woman." 
 The military misfortunes of the latter part of 
 the reign of Louis XII did not cast a shadow 
 on the glory of Bayard, but his personal bra- 
 very was conspicuous even in reverse. He was 
 ever the foremost in the charge, and the last in 
 the retreat. Francis I had no sooner ascended 
 the throne, than he gave proof of the confi- 
 dence he reposed in Bayard, by sending him 
 into Dauphiny to open a passage for his army 
 over the Alps, and through Piedmont. Bay- 
 ard captured Prosper Colonna, who lay in wait 
 for him, hoping to surprise him. Elated with 
 this success, in the battle of Marignano to which 
 it was a prelude, he performed prodigies of val- 
 or by the side of the king, who emulated the 
 bravery of the gallant chevalier. After this 
 day of glory Francis received knighthood from 
 the sword of Bayard. Bayard defended the 
 town of Meziere, when Charles V invaded 
 Champagne, with such spirit and resolution, 
 that at Paris he was called the Savior of his 
 Country. He received from the hands of the 
 king the order of St. Michael, and a company 
 of 100 men to command in his own name, 
 an honor never before conferred but on princes 
 of the blood. Bayard reduced to obedience the 
 revolted Genoa, but the fortunes of the French 
 changed, and they were obliged to retreat. 
 Bonnivet, the commander, his rear-guard beat- 
 en, and himself severely wounded, committed 
 the care of the army to the gallant Bayard. 
 Compelled to pass Sesia in the presence of a 
 superior force, Bayard, the last man in the re- 
 treat, was combating the Spaniards, when a 
 stone from a blunderbuss shattered his back- 
 bone, and he exclaimed, " Jesus Christ, my 
 God, I am a dead man !" He was removed at 
 his request under the shadow of a tree ; " from 
 this spot," said he, " I can behold the enemy." 
 He confessed his sins to his squire, and,' in 
 default of a crucifix, kissed the hilt of his 
 sword. Bidding a farewell to his friends, his 
 king, and his country, he died, surrounded by 
 
 admiring and weeping friends and enemies, 
 April 30th, 1524. His enemies, who retained 
 possession of the body, embalmed it, and re- 
 stored it to his countrymen, by whom it was 
 consigned to a tomb in a church of the Minor- 
 ites, near Grenoble. A simple bust, and a Latin 
 inscription, mark the place of his repose. 
 
 BAYARD, James A., an eminent American 
 lawyer and politician, born at Philadelphia, in 
 1767. He was educated at Princeton College. 
 As a representative in Congress, he distin- 
 guished himself by his patriotism and ability in 
 debate. He was sent to Europe as one of the 
 commissioners to treat for peace in 1813, but 
 after the treaty of Ghent, the state of his health 
 induced him to return home with all possible 
 speed. He accordingly embarked at Havre, in 
 May, 1815, arrived in the United States, and 
 died in the bosom of his family. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, a French writer, born at 
 Carlat, in Languedoc, in 1647. He died in 
 1706, at the age of 59. His Historical and Crit- 
 ical Dictionary (Dictionnaire historique et cri- 
 tique), is his most important work. This was 
 originally published in 2 vols, fol., and displays 
 the logic and learning for which the author 
 is so celebrated. He modestly called it, " an 
 ill-digested compilation of passages tacked to- 
 gether by the ends." Voltaire calls him " the 
 first of logicians and sceptics," but adds, that his 
 warmest apologists cannot deny , that there is not 
 a page in his controversial writings, which does 
 not lead the reader to doubt, and often to scep- 
 ticism. He himself says, " my talent consists 
 in raising doubts ; but they are only doubts." 
 
 BAYONNE, a large city about two miles 
 from the bay of Biscay, at the confluence of the 
 Nive and Adour. It is in the French depart- 
 ment of the Lower Pyrenees, and was formerly 
 the capital of a district of Gascony . Population, 
 14,600. Bayonne has considerable commerce 
 with Spain, and is much engaged in the cod and 
 whale fishery. Its hams, wines, and chocolate, 
 are famous. Here in 1808, Napoleon met the 
 king of Spain, Charles IV, and the prince of 
 the Asturias, when the two last were induced 
 to sign an agreement, by which they and tic- 
 king's children renounced their rights in the 
 European and Indian territories of Spain, in 
 favor of Bonaparte. 
 
 BEATON, David, archbishop of St. Andrew's, 
 and cardinal, born in 1494. On the corona- 
 tion of the young queen Mary, he renewed his 
 cruel persecutions of the heretics, and, among 
 others, brought George Wisbari, the famous 
 Protestant preacher, to the stake. Seated at his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BEA 
 
 106 
 
 BED 
 
 window, he beheld with fiendish joy the cruel 
 sufferings of this estimable man. He was openly 
 licentious, and, although endowed with some 
 good qualities, was disgraced by flagrant vices. 
 He was murdered in his chamber, May 29, 1546. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, a miscellaneous wri- 
 ter, and pleasing poet, born at Lawrence- 
 kirk, in Kincardine county, in J 735, died in 
 August, 1803. The poem by which he vj&ill be 
 remembered as a follower of the Muses, is the 
 Minstrel, the first book of which was published 
 in 1770. He wrote a work on the Evidences of 
 Christianity, and some controversial works, in 
 which, however, he did not shine so much as in 
 his poems. 
 
 BEAUFORT, a pleasant sea-port, and post- 
 town of South Carolina, in a district of the 
 same name, situated on Port Royal island, at 
 the mouth of the Coosawhatchie, sixty miles N. 
 E. of Savannah; population about 1000. It 
 contains 3 churches, and a respectable seminary. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry, cardinal, brother of 
 Henry IV king of England, bishop of Lincoln, 
 afterwards of Winchester, and chancellor of the 
 kingdom. In 1431, he crowned Henry VI, in 
 the great church of Paris. He is strongly sus- 
 pected of having directed the assassination of 
 Humphrey duke of Gloucester. He died in 
 1447. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Caron 
 de ; artist, politician, projector, painter, mer- 
 chant, and dramatist. He was son of a watch- 
 maker, and born at Paris, in 1732. He was 
 teacher of the harp to the daughters of Louis 
 XV, and by a wealthy marriage, laid the foun- 
 dation of his immense fortune. His Eugene, 
 Mire Coupable, Mariage de Figaro, and Bar- 
 bier de Seville, keep possession of the stage in 
 several languages. His Memoirs exhibit Beau- 
 marchais in his true character. He increased 
 his fortune by his contract to supply the United 
 States with military stores, during the revolu- 
 tionary war. He died in 1799. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, and FLETCHER, 
 John, two English dramatic, writers of great 
 power, who united their interests and wrote 
 conjointly. Beaumont, born in 1585, died in 
 1616; Fletcher, born in 1576, died in 1625, of 
 the plague, in London. They used to frequent 
 ale-houses, as Shakspeare is said to have done, 
 for the sake of studying human nature, and 
 were once arrested in a very dramatic manner. 
 They were disputing in an ale-house about the 
 fate of a king in one of their plays, one insist- 
 ing upon his assassination, the other on his 
 preservation. Some of their uninitiated audi- 
 
 tors procured their arrest, imagining that a 
 conspiracy against the reigning sovereign was 
 on foot. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas, a celebrated Roman 
 Catholic prelate, was born in London, in 1119 
 He was the* son of a merchant by the name of 
 Gilbert, who, while a prisoner in the East, is 
 said to have engaged the affections of a Sara- 
 cen lady ; she followed the merchant to Lon- 
 don, where he married her. Becket's advance- 
 ment was rapid — he was a favorite with Henry 
 II, who made him tutor to his son in 115S, and 
 heaped spiritual and temporal honors upon him. 
 He rivalled royalty in the splendor of his liv- 
 ing. On his election to the see of Canterbury, 
 in 1162, he resigned the office of chancellor, and 
 assuming all the arrogance of sovereign pontiff, 
 lent himself to oppose the reformation intended 
 by the king among the clergy. Their enormi- 
 ties had disgusted the whole kingdom ; and the 
 archbishop screened the most abandoned, under 
 the pretext that they were not amenable to the 
 civil power. After a series of hostilities between 
 the king and himself, many references to the 
 pope, excommunications and anathemas, recon- 
 ciliations and fresh quarrels, on the archbish- 
 op's refusal to withdraw his excommunication 
 of* some bishops, which was felt to lie very hard 
 upon them, the king, in a fit of passion, re- 
 proached his courtiers for permitting him to be 
 so long and so ignobly tormented. On this, 
 four knights went down to Canterbury, and 
 killed Becket before the altar as he was at the 
 vesper-service, December 29th, 1170. The per- 
 petrators of this deed were finally admitted to 
 penance, but the king was compelled to expiate 
 his guilt at the tomb of the archbishop, who 
 was canonized two years after his death. He 
 became a popular saint, and miracles were 
 abundant at his tomb, which was much visited 
 by pilgrims till the reformation. 
 
 BEDE, or Beda, commonly called the Vener- 
 able Bede, an English ecclesiastic of the 8th 
 century, was born in the neighborhood of Wear- 
 mouth, in the year 672, or 673, and pursued his 
 studies in the monastery of St. Peter, Wear- 
 mouth. He died in May, A. D. 735. His En- 
 glish Ecclesiastical History, his greatest and 
 most popular work, w T as translated by Alfred 
 the Great of England. He was modest and 
 moderate, and, although a monk, wished to have 
 the number of monasteries lessened. Bede led 
 a life of pious and studious retirement, and on 
 the day of his death, he was dictating a transla- 
 tion of the gospel of St. John, to his amanuensis. 
 " Master," said the young man, as he raised his 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BEL 
 
 107 
 
 BEL 
 
 eyes, " there is but one more sentence want- 
 ing." Bede bade him write rapidly, and when 
 the scribe said, " it is done," replied, " It is in- 
 deed done," and expired a few minutes after- 
 wards in the act of prayer. 
 
 BEDFORD, John, duke of, the third son of 
 Henry IV of England. In 1422, he commanded 
 the English army in France, and the same year 
 was named regent of that kingdom for Henry 
 VI, whom he caused to be crowned at Paris. 
 He defeated the French fleet near Southampton, 
 entered Paris, beat the duke of Alencon, and 
 made himself master of France. The greatest 
 stain upon his character, is his cruelty to the 
 Maid of Orleans, whom he caused to be burnt in 
 the market place of Rouen. He died at Rouen, 
 in 1435. 
 
 BEEJAPOOR, (the city of victory) a large 
 province of Deccan, between 15 and 18 degrees 
 of north latitude. The soil is fertile and it is 
 well watered. Four fifths of the country be- 
 long to the Mahrattas. Population 7,000,000. 
 
 BEERING, Vitus, a captain in the Russian 
 navy, who in the year 1728, explored the coasts 
 of Kamtschatka, and proved that Asia was dis- 
 joined from America. He died on a desolate 
 island, during a voyage of discovery, December 
 8, 1741. The strait between Asia and Amer- 
 ica, has received the name of Beering's straits 
 from him. The uninhabited island on which 
 he died, is called Beering's Island. 
 
 BEGUINES, females who bound themselves 
 to obey the rules of an ecclesiastical order, 
 forming societies for purposes of devotion and 
 charity, living together in beguinages, without 
 taking the monastic vows. They originated in 
 Germany and the Netherlands, towards the end 
 of the 11th century. They flourished most in 
 the 12th century, and some of their societies 
 still exist in the Netherlands. 
 
 BEIRA, a well-watered and fertile province 
 of Portugal, bounded on the north chiefly by 
 the river Douro, on the east by Spain, on the 
 south by the Tagus, and the Portuguese Estre- 
 madura, and by the Atlantic on the west. Pop- 
 ulation 900.000. 
 
 BELEM (properly Bethlehem), a quarter of 
 Lisbon, formerly a market-town, commanding 
 a fine view of the harbor and sea. It was long 
 the residence of the royal family. The torre dc 
 Belem, a tall tower, rises out of the river Tago ; 
 and no ships are permitted to pass by it unvisi- 
 ted. 
 
 BELGIANS, were a collection of German 
 and Celtic tribes. They inhabited the country 
 extending from the Atlantic ocean to the Rhine, 
 10 
 
 and from the Marne and Seine, to the southern 
 mouth of the Rhine, which is united with the 
 Meuse. Caesar has borne witness to the bravery 
 of the Belgians, particularly of those who resided 
 on the northern frontiers of Germany, declaring 
 that they were the most valiant of the Gauls. 
 
 BELGIUM ; the name of that part of the 
 Netherlands which formerly belonged to Aus- 
 tria, and recently made a part of the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands. It is now an independent 
 kingdom, the revolution of the Parisians in 
 1830, having inspired the Belgians with a similar 
 spirit. The present monarch is Leopold I. 
 
 BELGRADE, an important commercial city 
 of Servia, with 30,000 inhabitants, situated at 
 the confluence of the Save with the Danube. 
 It is well fortified, commanding the Danube, 
 and is at present occupied by a Turkish garri- 
 son. It has been an object, for the attain- 
 ment of which the hostile nations have strug- 
 gled during the various wars between Austria 
 and Turkey. At different times, it has been 
 possessed by Creeks, Hungarians, Bulgarians, 
 Bosnians, Servians, and Austrians. The siege 
 of Belgrade by the Turks, in 1442 and 1456, are 
 noted events in military annals. In 1809, it 
 was taken by the revolutionary Servians, and 
 it is the largest and most important city of the 
 Servian state. 
 
 BELGRANO, Manuel, a native of Buenos 
 Ayres, who took an active part in the events 
 which secured the independence of South 
 America. He died, deeply deplored, in 1820. 
 
 BELISARIUS, general of the armies of the 
 emperor Justinian. He defeated a superior 
 force of Persians, in the year 530, and in the 
 the year after he took Carthage, and made 
 prisoner Gelimer, king of the Vandals. Beli- 
 sarius entered Constantinople in triumph. He 
 was next sent against the Goths in Italy, 
 and arriving on the coasts of Sicily, took Cata- 
 nia, Syracuse, Palermo, and other places. He 
 then proceeded to Naples, which he took, and 
 marched to Rome. After this he conquered 
 Vitiges, king of the Goths, sent him to Con- 
 stantinople, and refused the crown which was 
 offered him. For his exploits he was regarded 
 as the saviour of the empire, and medals are 
 extant with this inscription, Belisarius Gloria 
 Romanorum, (Belisarius, the glory of the Ro- 
 mans). Having fallen under suspicion of Jus- 
 tinian, he was deprived of his property and 
 honors, but there is reason to believe that he 
 was subsequently restored to them. Marmon- 
 tel, in his romance (Belisarius), adopts a story 
 which is related by no cotemporary historian 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BEL 
 
 108 
 
 BEM 
 
 that he was deprived of his eyes by his cruel 
 master, and forced to beg his bread in the streets 
 of Constantinople. Others say that he was im- 
 prisoned in a tower, whence he used to let 
 down a bag by a rope, addressing the passen- 
 gers in the following words : — Date Belisario 
 obolum, quern virtus evexit, invidia deprcssit. 
 (Give an obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue ex- 
 alted, but envy crushed.) He died in 565. 
 
 BELKNAP, Jeremy, an American clergy- 
 man, born in June 1744, educated at Harvard 
 college, and ordained pastor of the church in 
 Dover, New Hampshire, 1767. For some years 
 previous to his death, which took place in 1798, 
 he officiated in a church in Boston. He was an 
 easy and correct writer, and his reputation rests 
 on his History of New Hampshire, and two vol- 
 umes of his unfinished American Biography. 
 He was one of the founders of the Massachu- 
 setts Historical Society. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, or Belle-Tsle-en-Mer, ancient- 
 ly Vindilis. an island in the bay of Biscay, about 
 nine miles long, 115 miles from the western 
 coast of France. The soil is various. It con- 
 tains three towns, and several small villages. 
 Palais is the capital. It is famous for a sea- 
 fight fought in 1759, between the English un- 
 der Hawke, and the French under Conflans, in 
 which the former gained a decisive victory. 
 The island was afterwards taken, but restored 
 at the peace of 1763. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, an island N. E. of the gulf 
 
 'St. Lawrence, w 
 21 miles in circuit. 
 
 of St. Lawrence, with two small harbors. It is 
 
 JJUJ 
 
 It 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, marshal, a celebrated general 
 in the war to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 who rendered himself famous by a fine retreat 
 from Prague. 
 
 BELLONA, the goddess of war. She was 
 also called Duellonia, and was the sister of 
 Mars, whose chariot she drove through bat- 
 tles with a bloody scourge, her hair hanging in 
 wild disorder. AtComana she had 300 priests. 
 The priests used their own blood in their sacri- 
 fices to this fierce deity. 
 
 BELL-ROCK, or Inch Cape, a dangerous 
 rock of Scotland, nearly opposite the river Tay, 
 the light-house upon which, finished in 1811, is 
 of admirable construction. In former ages, the 
 monks of Aberbrothock, suspended a bell upon 
 this rock, which, being rung by the waves, 
 warned mariners of the danger. 
 
 BELUJ1STAN, Beluchistan, or Beloochis- 
 tan ; a country of Asia, formerly belonging to 
 Persia, on the northwest of the peninsula of 
 Hindostan; now forming an independent state. 
 
 It contains five divisions: 1. Jhalawan and 
 Sarawan, with the district of Kelat; 2. Macran 
 and Lus ; 3. Kohistan ; 4. the Desert; and 
 5. Cutch Gundava, and the district of Herrend 
 Dajel. It is a rough region, and some of the 
 mountains are of great height. The heat of 
 summer is intense, and water scarce. The 
 desert is 300 miles long, and 200 broad. Among 
 the minerals of this country, are gold, silver, 
 lead, iron, copper, tin, alum, saltpetre, sulphur, 
 rock salt, &c. Cotton, indigo, grain, assafoe- 
 tida, and madder, are productions of the soil. 
 The natives are divided into three tribes — the 
 Beluches, the Dehwars, and Brahuis. They 
 are Mohammedans, warlike, half-civilized, and 
 pastoral in their habits. 
 
 BELZONI, Giambattista, or John Baptist, 
 was born at Padua, and educated at Rome, be- 
 ing destined for a monastic life. Having a 
 taste, however, for an active life, he served in 
 the French armies, and went to England in 
 1803. Here his finances were probably at 
 a low ebb, for he was engaged to exhibit pos- 
 tures at Astley's amphitheatre, London, at a 
 salary of £2 per week. From London he 
 afterwards went, with his wife, to Egypt, 
 passing through Portugal, Spain, and Malta. 
 Here, from 1815 to 1819, he lived as a dancer 
 until he had attracted the notice of the pacha, 
 who employed him. He succeeded in opening 
 the pyramid of Cheops, which had defied the in 
 genuity and efforts of the French, that of Ce 
 phrenes, and several catacombs near Thebes, 
 one of which is believed to have been the bu 
 rial place of Psammis, who died 400, B. C. He 
 exhibited great accuracy and skill in the draw 
 ings which he took. In 1816, he accomplished 
 an undertaking of great difficulty — the removal 
 of the bust of Jupiter Memnon, and a sarcopha- 
 gus of alabaster, from Thebes to Alexandria, 
 whence they were shipped for England. On 
 the 1st of August, 1817, he opened the temple 
 of Ipsambul, near the second cataract of the 
 Nile, discovering a subterranean chapel in its 
 ruins. He discovered the ruins of the ancient 
 Berenice, four days journey from the spot 
 where Cailliaud asserted that he had found it. 
 Belzoni died on his way to Benin, whence he in- 
 tended to pass to Timbuctoo, December 3, 1823. 
 In person he was tall and well-proportioned, 
 and his gigantic stature protected him from at- 
 tack, even when alone amidst ferocious barba- 
 rians. His wife, who accompanied him to 
 Egypt, displayed great intrepidity amidst the 
 dangers which they encountered. 
 
 BEMBO, Pietro ; one of the most famous 
 Italian scholars of the 16th century. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BEN 
 
 109 
 
 BEN 
 
 BENARES, a town and district of Allaha- 
 bad, in Bengal, with a population exceeding 
 3,000,000. In 1813. the gross revenue was 
 £570,338. Mr. Hastings expelled the rajah 
 Chet Singh, in 1781. The town of Benares 
 rises, like an amphitheatre on the high bank of 
 the Ganges, on its northern side. It contains 
 more than 600,000 inhabitants, and the dense 
 population at the great Hindoo festivals, pre- 
 sents an extraordinary scene. The natives call 
 Benares Casi, or Cashi, the splendid, and, as it 
 contains 8000 Bramins, it is regarded with pe- 
 culiar reverence. A college for the instruction 
 of Hindoos, in their own literature was estab- 
 lished here by the British government, in 1801. 
 Benares is the grand mart for diamonds and 
 other gems, which are brought principally from 
 the Bundelcund. With the exception of the 
 government officers, there are few English resi- 
 dents here. In 1775, Casi was ceded to the 
 East India Company, by the nabob of Oude. 
 The Sanscrit name for Benares, is Vara Nashi, 
 from two streams, Vara and Nashi. A Hindoo 
 imagines that if he dies in Benares, his eternal 
 felicity is certain. 
 
 BENAVIDES, an outlaw and pirate, whose 
 singular perseverance and ferocity rendered him 
 for many years the terror of the southern parts 
 of Chili. Under pretext of establishing a navy, 
 he seized upon English and American vessels, 
 that stopped for refreshment near the town of 
 Arauco, the centre of his operations. In 1821, 
 the Chilians fitted out an expedition, and suc- 
 ceeded in breaking up his strong hold, and cap- 
 turing him. He was condemned and executed, 
 , February 23, 1822. 
 
 In the early part of his career, he espoused 
 the cause of the Chilians, but soon deserted 
 them, and having been taken prisoner in the bat- 
 tle of Maypu, 1818, he was sentenced to be shot, 
 and actually sustained the fire of a file of soldiery . 
 He was covered with wounds and believed to be 
 dead, but had his senses left when he was drag- 
 ged to the field where the bodies of criminals 
 were exposed. Here a man who had owed him 
 a grudge, smote the supposed corpse with a 
 sword, and such were the powers of endurance 
 possessed by Benavides, that he did not flinch 
 in the least, or give the slightest sign of vitality, 
 or of the agony he suffered. As soon as it was 
 dark, he crawled away to the house of a friend, 
 and had his wounds dressed. His bravery and 
 fortitude would have honored a better cause. 
 
 BENBOW, John, an English admiral, born 
 in 1650. His gallantry in repelling the attack 
 of a corsair, when in the merchant service, pro- 
 
 cured him the command of a ship of war, from 
 James II. Being sent, by king William, to the 
 West Indies, he relieved the colonies, and in a 
 subsequent engagement with the enemy's fleet, 
 a chain-shot carried off one of his legs. He 
 was carried below, but, as soon as his wound was 
 dressed, brought on deck again, and persisted 
 in continuing the action. He was abandoned 
 at this moment, through the cowardice of seve- 
 ral captains under his command, who signed a 
 paper expressing their opinion that nothing 
 more could be done, and the whole fleet of the 
 enemy w r as suffered to escape. The officers 
 were tried, and two of them sentenced to be 
 shot. Benbow died of his wounds and chagrin, 
 Nov. 4, 1702. 
 
 BENDER, in the Moldau language, Tigino, 
 chief city of a district in the Russian province of 
 Bessarabia, situated on the Dniester. It contains 
 10,000 inhabitants, who are engaged in com- 
 merce. The city is well fortified, but the streets 
 are narrow and dark. Here Charles XII resided 
 after the battle of Pultowa. In 1771, the Russians 
 took the place by storm, and butchered the inhabi- 
 tants and troops, to the number of 30,000. It was 
 subsequently restored to Turkey, but again ta- 
 ken by the Russians, and again restored. Since 
 the peace of Bucharest, in 1812, it has remained 
 in the hands of the Russians. 
 
 BENEDICT, the name of several Popes. 
 Of these, Benedict XIV (Prosper Lambertini), 
 was the most noted. When, on the death of 
 Clement XII, in 1740, the conclave was di- 
 vided, and the cardinals could not agree, Lam- 
 bertini said, in his good-natured way, " If you 
 want a saint, take Gotti; if a politician, Aldobran- 
 di ; if a good old man, take me." The humo- 
 rous manner in which this quaint speech was 
 delivered, operated like magic, and Lambertini 
 became sovereign pontiff. He reformed abuses, 
 introduced good regulations, cultivated letters, 
 encouraged men of learning, and was a patron 
 of the fine arts. He died May 3, 1758. 
 
 BENEDICT, St., founded the first religious 
 order of the west. He was born at Norcia, 480. 
 The monastery on Monte Cassino was founded 
 by him. Besides performing religious duties, the 
 monks of his order gave instruction to youth, in 
 reading, writing, cyphering, religion, and manual 
 labors, including all the mechanic arts. Bene- 
 dict caused the aged monks to copy manuscripts, 
 and thus many literary works of great import- 
 ance were preserved from ruin. From the 6th 
 to the 10th century, almost all the monks in the 
 west were Benedictines. The rules of the or- 
 der were severe. At an early period the dress 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BEN 
 
 110 
 
 BEN 
 
 of the brethren of the different monasteries va- 
 ried, but after the Gth century, when union was 
 enjoined, the monks of this order all wore black. 
 The Cluniacs were a branch of the Benedic- 
 tines, proceeding from the convent of Clugny 
 in Burgundy, founded in 910. Their regula- 
 tions were at first strict, but in the 12th century, 
 when the order had 2000 monasteries, they de- 
 clined from the excess of their luxury. In Italy 
 and Sicily they still exist, and in Spain, are 
 among the wealthiest orders. In Sicily, their 
 discipline is lax, the monks being generally the 
 vounger sons of distinguished families. 
 
 BENEVENTO, a dukedom in the Neapoli- 
 tan province of Principato Oltra, including a city 
 and eight villages, belonging to the papal see. 
 Napoleon presented it, in 1806, to his minister 
 Talleyrand, who thence received the title of 
 prince of Benevento. It was restored to the pope 
 in 1815. In 1820, the inhabitants rebelled. 
 The city of Benevento, situated on a hill be- 
 tween the Sabato and Calore, has 13,000 inhab- 
 itants. In remote antiquity this region belonged 
 to the Samnites, and came, of course, into the 
 hands of their conquerors, the Romans. In 114, 
 Trajan built in the city a magnificent triumphal 
 arch, which now forms the golden gate of the 
 city. Benevento was made a dukedom by the 
 Lombards, in 571. It afterwards fell into the 
 hands of the Saracens and Normans, the latter 
 of whom spared the city, because it had been 
 presented to pope Leo IV by Henry HI. 
 
 BENEZET, Anthony, a philanthropist, was 
 born at St. Quentin, in France, January, 1713. 
 His parents were opulent, and his descent noble. 
 The confiscation of his father's estates, in con- 
 sequence of his having joined the Protestants, 
 in 1715, drove the family to England, where 
 Anthony was educated. Of his early life little 
 is known, but he was 14 years of age when he 
 joined the Society of Friends. In 1731 he came 
 to Philadelphia in company with his parents. 
 His first employment was that of instructor in 
 a school at Germantown, in which capacity he 
 was induced to prepare and publish some ele- 
 mentary school books. About 1750, being struck 
 with the enormities of the slave-trade, he de- 
 termined to employ all his energies in bettering 
 the condition of the blacks. He established an 
 evening school for them in Philadelphia, and 
 taught them gratuitously. On the subject of 
 Negro slavery he published numerous short 
 essays in almanacs and newspapers, which he 
 circulated with unwearied assiduity. He print- 
 ed and distributed at his own expense, many 
 valuable tracts, among which we may name his 
 
 " Historical Account of Guinea, its Situation, 
 Produce, and the general Disposition of its In- 
 habitants ; with an Inquiry into the Rise and 
 Progress of the Slave-trade, its Nature and Ca- 
 lamitous Effects." The circulation of these was 
 not confined to America, but in Europe procur- 
 ed Benezet the notice and correspondence of 
 many eminent men. He undoubtedly gave the 
 first impulse to the measures which resulted in 
 the abolition of the slave-trade in the United 
 States. His philanthropy was unbounded, the 
 whole human race being regarded as his breth- 
 ren. The wrongs inflicted on the aborigines 
 of North America, excited his strong sympathy 
 about the year 1703, and his efforts in their be- 
 half excited the warmest admiration in all high- 
 minded observers of his course. In 1780 he 
 wrote and published a short account of the Re- 
 ligious Society of Friends, commonly called 
 Quakers ; and in 1782, " A Dissertation on 
 the Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the 
 Christian Religion." He also published and 
 circulated several tracts against the use of 
 ardent spirits. In the spring of 1784, he was 
 taken ill, and after his case Avas pronounced 
 hopeless, conversed intelligently with hundreds 
 who came to see him. He died on the fifth day 
 of May, at Philadelphia, extensively known and 
 beloved. His personal appearance was prepos- 
 sessing, although he was not handsome. His 
 naturally strong understanding was improved 
 by extensive reading. His private habits en- 
 deared him to his friends, and his small estate 
 was devoted to the furtherance of his benevo- 
 lent purposes. 
 
 BENGAL, an extensive and rich province 
 of Hindostan, situated between the 21st and • 
 27th degrees of north latitude, and the 80th and 
 92d degrees of east longitude. Its length is 400 
 miles, its breadth 300. Its northern and east- 
 ern extremities, are guarded by lofty and rough 
 mountains, and the sole harbor on its dangerous 
 and inhospitable southern coast, is beset by 
 a vast number of shoals. So fertile is this coun- 
 try that the crops of one year are amply suffi- 
 cient to supply the wants of the inhabitants for 
 two. Justly has it been termed the richest jew- 
 el in the British crown, since the revenue ac- 
 cruing to the government from the rent of lands, 
 and the monopolies of salt and opium, amounted, 
 in a single year, to £2.790,000. Rice, cotton, 
 silk, indigo, sugar, saltpetre, ivory, and tobac- 
 co, are among its exports. The elephants of 
 Bengal are in high repute, a good one command- 
 ing £1 000. The largest portion of the inhabitants 
 are Hindoos, many of whom are extremely in- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BEN 
 
 111 
 
 BEN 
 
 digent. The climate of Bengal is injurious to 
 Europeans. The seasons are three, the hot, rainy, 
 and cool. The early history of Bengal is ex- 
 tremely uncertain. In A. D. 1203, it was con- 
 quered by the Afghan Mohammedans, and 
 remained in the power of the emperor of Delhi, 
 until Faker Addeen, confidential servant of 
 the emperor, murdered his master, and took the 
 title of Sultan Sekunder, in 1340. In 1538 it 
 was reconquered by Shere Shah, and afterwards 
 was attached to the Mogul empire till 1757, 
 when, by conquest and treaty, it was occupied 
 by the English, and now constitutes the nu- 
 cleus of their Indian empire. The cities of 
 Gour, Tonda, Rajemahil, Dacca, and Moorshe- 
 dabad, have by turns been the capital, but Cal- 
 cutta has now become the seat of government. 
 
 BENIN, the name of a kingdom of Africa, 
 extending from the eastern limit of the Slave 
 Coast, to the Formosa, a distance of 180 miles. 
 The interior of the country is but little known. 
 The government is despotic. The inhabitants 
 are mild and friendly. The women perform 
 almost all kinds of labor. Benin, the cap- 
 ital, is situated on the Formosa, and is a place 
 of considerable extent, carrying on a brisk trade. 
 The houses, which are large, have a picturesque 
 appearance from the reeds and leaves with which 
 they are covered. 
 
 BENJOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, count 
 of, was born in 1741, at Werbowa, in Hungary. 
 His father was a general, and he himself enter- 
 ed the Austrian service, and served as a lieu- 
 tenant in the seven years' war till 1758. Having 
 joined the Polish confederation against Russia, 
 and served with the rank of colonel, commander 
 of cavalry, and quarter-master general, he was 
 taken by the Russians in 1769, and sent to 
 Kamtschatka. On his voyage thither, he saved 
 the vessel during a storm, and thus, on his arri- 
 val, secured a favorable reception from the gov- 
 ernor, Niloff, whose family he instructed in the 
 French and German languages. In May, 1771, 
 he left Kamtschatka, accompanied by Aphanasia, 
 the governor's daughter, and ninety-six other 
 persons, sailing for Formosa, whence he departed 
 for Macao. Here he lost many of his compan- 
 ions, and the faithful and unfortunate Aphana- 
 sia. Arrived in France, he was commissioned 
 to found a colony in Madagascar, where he ar- 
 rived in June, 1774. He was not long in gain- 
 ing the good will of the natives, who appointed 
 him their ampansacabe, or king ; while the 
 women acknowledged the sovereignty of his 
 wife. He went to Europe to seek a powerful 
 ally, but was forced by the persecution of the 
 10* 
 
 French ministry, to enter the Austrian service. 
 In the battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778, he com- 
 manded against the Prussians. In 1784, receiv- 
 ing assistance from private persons in London 
 and America, and leaving his wife in the latter 
 country, he set out for Madagascar, and arrived 
 in 1785. Here he commenced hostilities against 
 the French, and the authorities of the Isle of 
 France sent a force against him ; in contending 
 against which he was wounded mortally, May 
 23, 1786. The fate of Benjowsky's only son 
 was singular — he is said to have been devoured 
 by the rats of Madagascar. 
 
 BENNINGTON, a post-town in a county of 
 the same name, Vermont, is 37 miles N. E. of 
 Albany. It is a place of considerable trade, and 
 of some manufacturing importance. Popula- 
 tion (1840), 2,671. Here two celebrated battles 
 were fought, Aug. 16, 1777, in which 1600 Ame- 
 rican militia-men, under general Stark, defeated 
 the British troops. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English lawyer, 
 whose political and philosophical writings have 
 acquired a great deal of celebrity, particularly 
 in France ; born in 1749, died in 1832. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, a celebrated English di- 
 vine and classical scholar, was born in 1662. His 
 father was a blacksmith, and he received his ear- 
 liest instruction from his mother, a woman of 
 much talent. He entered St. John's college, 
 Cambridge, at the age of 14. Having preached 
 with success, he was appointed keeper of 
 the royal library, at St. James's, in 1693. He 
 was victorious in a controversy with the Hon. 
 Charles Boyle, afterwards the earl of Orrery, 
 relating to the genuineness of the Epistles of 
 Phalaris. Bentley was opposed by the whole 
 host of wits, Pope, Swift, Garth, Atterbury, 
 Conyers Middleton, &c, but he satisfactorily 
 proved that the Epistles were not the production 
 of the tyrant of Agrigentum, who lived more 
 than five centuries B. C. ; but of some late so- 
 phist, who borrowed the name of Phalaris. The 
 tyrant Phalaris had a hollow brazen bull, in which, 
 when hot, he used to place those who were un- 
 fortunate enough to displease him, and whose 
 cries were thus made to resemble the roarings 
 of the animal. Conyers Middleton, whose enmi- 
 ty to Bentley arose from the epithet of fiddling 
 Conyers, applied to him while an university stu- 
 dent, was suspected of being the author of a pun- 
 ning caricature representing Bentley on the 
 point of being thrust into the brazen bull of Pha- 
 laris, and exclaiming, " I had rather be roasted 
 than Boyled." Bentley was presented by the 
 crown to the mastership of Trinity college, Cam 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BER 
 
 112 
 
 EER 
 
 bridge, worth nearly £1000 a year ; and, in 1701, 
 he was called to the arch-deaconry of Ely. 
 Among the accusations brought against him, as 
 head of the college, he was accused of embez- 
 zling monev, a charge which occasioned a law- 
 suit that was terminated in the doctor's favor near 
 twenty years afterwards. He was appointed 
 Regius professor of divinity, in 1716. In 1726, 
 he published his edition of Terence and Phoe- 
 drus, his notes to which brought on a dispute 
 with bishop Hare, on the metres of Terence, 
 when Sir Isaac Newton observed that, " two 
 dignified clergymen, instead of minding their 
 duty, had fallen out about a play-book." Bent- 
 ley's edition of Paradise Lost, with conjectural 
 emendations, his last work, was considered a 
 failure. He died, July 14, 1742, with the repu- 
 tation of a distinguished scholar and critic. 
 
 BERANGER, Pierre Jean de, a lyric poet, 
 of the class which the French call chanson- 
 nier — song- writer. He was born Aug. 10, 1780. 
 His grandfather, a poor tailor, intended that he 
 should learn the printing business, but he was 
 patronized by Lucien Bonaparte, and proved 
 highly successful as a follower of the muses. 
 A temporary imprisonment served but to in- 
 crease his reputation. In his least ambitious 
 compositions there are startling flashes of the 
 highest kind of poetry, which appear more bril- 
 liant, from the suddenness of their appearance. 
 " Beranger," said Benjamin Constant, " writes 
 sublime odes when he imagines he is only com- 
 posing simple songs." December 11, 1828, he 
 was sentenced by the court of correctional po- 
 lice, to pay a sum equivalent to about 1800 dol- 
 lars, and to suffer nine months' imprisonment, for 
 satirising the king and the church in his poems. 
 
 BERCHTOLp, Leopold, count, born in 1758. 
 He was a distinguished philanthropist, and spent 
 thirteen years in travelling through Europe, and 
 four in Asia and Africa, to relieve the distresses 
 of humanity. The result of his benevolent in- 
 quiries has been given to the public in different 
 works. He died July 2G, 1809, on his estate at 
 Buchlan, in Moravia, where he had fitted up an 
 hospital for sick and wounded Austrian soldiers. 
 
 BERESFORD, William, baron, duke of El- 
 vas, and Marquis of Campo Mayor, a distinguish- 
 ed British general. In 1810 he defeated Soult 
 at Albufera. In 1812, having a command under 
 Wellington, he shared in the dangers and glory 
 of the battles of Vittoria, Bayonne, and Tou- 
 louse. May 13, 1814, he entered Bordeaux with 
 the duke of Angouleme. Having returned from 
 Brazil, whither he was sent in 1815, he was en- 
 trusted with an important mission to Rio Ja- 
 
 neiro. Being in Portugal, in 1817, he incurred 
 the hatred of the Portuguese military, on ac- 
 count of his rigor in punishing a conspiracy 
 against the British army and the regency. In 
 lb20 he was dismissed by the Cortes. He went 
 to Brazil, and to England, and afterwards again 
 appeared in Lisbon, in 1826, where he was em- 
 ployed to quell a rebellion. 
 
 BEREZINA, a river in the Russian province 
 of Minsk, famous for the passage of the French 
 army under Napoleon, Nov'. 26 and 27, 1812. The 
 ice with which the morasses on both sides of the 
 river were covered, was not strong enough to 
 bear. The Russian army were threatening the 
 fugitives, whose discipline was lost, and who, 
 despairing of escaping b}^ means of the two 
 crowded bridges, trusted themselves to floating 
 masses of ice, and were lost. 7500 men and 
 five generals, according to the Russian account, 
 were taken. 
 
 BERG, a duchy of Germany, containing 
 983,000 inhabitants, formerly belonging to the 
 elector of Bavaria, but given to the king of 
 Prussia, by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. 
 
 BERGHEM, Nicholas, a famous painter born 
 at Harlem, in 1624, died in 1683. His land- 
 scapes and representations of animals, are much 
 valued. His name originated in the following 
 manner. Once, when pursued by his father, he 
 fled for safety to the workshop of Van Goyen, 
 who shouted to his pupils, " Berg hem" (hide 
 him) ; and this expression was adopted as his 
 name. 
 
 BERKELEY, doctor George, bishop of 
 Cloyne in Ireland, famous for his ideal theory. 
 He maintains that there is nothing material, 
 and that objects which are called sensible mate- 
 rial objects, are not external but only impres- 
 sions made upon the mind by an act of God, 
 according to certain laics of nature, which are 
 invariable. Lord Byron says : 
 
 "When Bishop Berkeley said there was no matter, 
 And proved it, 'twas no matter what he said." 
 
 He was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, 1684, and died 
 in 1753. In furtherance of his project for con- 
 verting the American savages to Christianity, 
 by the establishment of a college in the Bermu- 
 da Islands, he considerably impaired his large 
 fortune, and spent seven years in his efforts to 
 that end. He remained some time in Rhode 
 Island. Berkeley was acquainted with almost 
 every branch of knowledge. His character was 
 much respected, and Pope who was much attach- 
 ed to him, says that he had " every virtue under 
 Heaven." His Treatise on the Principles of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BER 
 
 113 
 
 BER 
 
 Human Knowledge is the most celebrated of his 
 philosophical works. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, Gotz, or Godfrey von, 
 with the iron hand, a brave and honorable Ger- 
 man knight of the middle ages, who headed the 
 rebellious peasants (in the Peasant War), against 
 their oppressors. Before this time, having lost 
 his right hand, he had substituted one made of 
 iron. He died July 23, 1562. His autobiogra- 
 phy has been published at Nuremberg. 
 
 BERLIN, this fine city and royal residence, 
 the capital of the Prussian dominions, is situa- 
 ted in the province of Brandenburg, on the 
 Spree, 127 feet above the level of the sea. It 
 is 12 miles in circuit, including 5 towns, and 5 
 suburbs. In 1832, it contained 258,000 inhab- 
 itants, among whom were 5,000 Jews, 4,000 
 Catholics, and more than 15,000 Calvinists. 
 Berlin Proper, was built in 1 163, by the mar- 
 grave Albert the Bear. Koln or Cologne, on the 
 Spree, was so called from the Kollnen (piles), on 
 which the Vandals had built their huts. Fried- 
 richswerder was founded by the elector Fred- 
 eric William the Great. Neu or Dorotheenstadt 
 was built by the same elector and named in 
 honor of his wife. Friedrichsstadt, founded, in 
 1688, by the elector Frederic III, is the most 
 extensive division of this vast city. The num- 
 ber of its public establishments of various kinds, 
 makes Berlin very interesting. The Univer- 
 sity of Berlin, founded in 1809, when Prussia 
 was groaning beneath the yoke of the French, 
 is at present one of the first literary institutions 
 of the European continent. Berlin has 22 
 squares and market-places, 15 gates (that of 
 Brandenburg, modelled on the Propylreum at 
 Athens, but larger, being the most beautiful), 27 
 parish churches, 37 bridges, *fcc. In 1817, the 
 public buildings were 174 in number ; the manu- 
 factories 61. In the great hospital of La Charit6, 
 there were, in 1816, 5114 patients. The royal 
 hospital admits upwards of 1000 inmates. On 
 the top of the Mountain of the Cross, before the 
 Halle gate, a monument of iron was erected in 
 1820, in commemoration of the wars against 
 France. Berlin has 100 public, and 50 private 
 elementary schools. In 1831, there were 1937 
 students in the university of Berlin. 
 
 BERMUDAS or Somers' Islands, a clus- 
 ter of about 400 small islands in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, for the most part barren and insignifi- 
 cant. They were discovered by Juan Bermudas, 
 a Spaniard, in 1522. In 1609, Sir George 
 Somers, an Englishman, who was wrecked 
 here, founded the first settlement. Many are 
 so unimportant as to have no name, but the 
 
 principal islands are St. George, containing 
 Georgetown, St. David, Cooper, Ireland, Som- 
 erset, Long Island, Bird Island, and None- 
 such. The air is healthy and invigorating to 
 invalids, the winter being hardly apparent. 
 The islands, however, are subject to frequent 
 storms. The soil is generally rich and fertile, 
 yielding two harvests of corn annually. Ship- 
 building is the principal occupation of the isl- 
 anders. The whole shore is surrounded by 
 rocks, dry at low water, but covered at high 
 tide. The Bermudas extend about 45 miles 
 from north to south. They are 230 leagues S. 
 E. of Cape Fear, in North Carolina. Popula- 
 tion, 3,900 whites, and 4,600 slaves. ' 
 
 BERN, the largest canton of Switzerland, 
 contains 350,000 inhabitants, with a capital of 
 the same name. The town was founded in the 
 12th century , by Cuno von Bubenberg. A great 
 increase of population was manifest in the 13th 
 cenrurj'. It was, in 1218, declared a free city 
 of the empire by Frederic II, and the charter, 
 confirming its privileges, is still preserved. In 
 1291, the ciiizens of Bern, under Ulrich von 
 Bubenberg, made war against their own nobil- 
 ity. The nobles of Austria, finding that the 
 city formed an asylum for those who were suf' 
 fering from their oppression, entered into a 
 league to destroy it, but their splendid and 
 powerful army was defeated by the citizens, 
 under the conduct of the gallant Rodolph von 
 Erlach, June 21, 1339. In 1353, Bern entered 
 into the Helvetic league. In 1405, part of the 
 town was destroyed by fire, but afterwards re- 
 built. In 1528, the inhabitants espoused the 
 cause of the reformation, and, in the war with 
 Savoy, conquered the Pays de Vaud. The pros- 
 perity of Bern was proverbial, but, on March 5, 
 1798, 30,000 French troops defeated the army of 
 the Bernese and their confederates, and the gates 
 of Bern, for the first time, opened to an enemy. 
 It was then shorn of half its possessions. At 
 present, the sovereign power is vested in the 
 hands of a bailiff, and the greater and lesser coun 
 cils of the city and republic of Bern, which con- 
 sist of 200 members, chosen from the city, 
 and 99 from the towns and country. The 
 northern part of this canton is hilly ; the plains 
 and valleys are beautiful, and the whole is in a 
 high state of cultivation. The canton furnishes 
 5,824 men to the army of the Swiss confederacy. 
 The city has 17,620 inhabitants, and the eleva- 
 tion on which it stands, is washed by the Aar. 
 Some of its public buildings are very elegant. 
 Its university, economical, and historical soci- 
 eties are important, and the public library con- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BER 
 
 114 
 
 BER 
 
 tains a valuable collection of books, both prin- 
 ted and in manuscript. Trade and commerce 
 are flourishing. Among the manufactures, 
 are woollen cloths, printed linen, silk-stuffs, 
 &c. 
 
 BERNARD, of Clairvaux; an influential 
 ecclesiastic, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 
 1091. He was of noble family, and became a 
 monk in 1113, and in 1115, the first abbot of 
 Clairvaux. He was austere, eloquent, and bold, 
 and had the reputation of being a prophet. He 
 was called a honeyed teacher. Bernard was the 
 principal promoter of the crusade of 1146. Lu- 
 ther says of him, " if there ever has been a 
 pious monk who feared God, it was St. Bernard ; 
 whom I hold in much higher esteem, than I do 
 all other monks and priests throughout the 
 globe." Bernard died in 1153, and was canon- 
 ized in 1174. 
 
 BERNARD, Great St.; a mountain, 11,006 
 feet high, between the Valais and the valley of 
 Aosta. The two hospitia on the Great and 
 Little St. Bernard, were built by Bernard de 
 Menthon, a Savoyard nobleman, in 962. They 
 are under the care of the canons of the Augus- 
 tine order, who are indefatigable in the discharge 
 of their duties. Upwards of 9000 persons annu- 
 ally pass over the mountain, all of whom re- 
 ceive refreshments in the hospitia. The monks 
 are assisted in their search for travellers, by 
 their great dogs, whose lives are shortened by 
 their painful labors. Owing to the severity of 
 the weather, the dead bodies in the vault decay 
 so slowly, that their features are frequently re- 
 cognized by friends, after the lapse of years. 
 In the church of the Great St. Bernard, is the 
 monument of General Desaix, who fell at 
 Marengo. He was embalmed by order of the 
 first consul. The sculptor has represented this 
 warrior wounded, and sinking from his horse 
 into the arms of his aid. On the stairs of the 
 convent stands the statue of Desaix in marble. 
 
 BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, born at Na- 
 ples, in 1598. He has been called the Michael 
 Angelo of modern times, on account of his suc- 
 cess as a painter, statuary, and architect. He 
 was patronized by several popes, and, although 
 he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis 
 XIV, he returned to Rome, and died, exhausted 
 by his labors, November 28, 1680, at the age of 
 82. He left a fortune of about 3,300,000 francs 
 to his children. So early did his talents shine 
 forth, that at the age of 8 years, he executed the 
 head of a child in marble, which was thought 
 a fine production. He was not 18 years old 
 when he completed his Jlpollo and Daphne, a 
 
 work which he examined at the close of life, and 
 declared that he had made little progress since 
 that time. So true it is that genuine enthu- 
 siasm often supplies the place of experience. 
 Among his numerous works, are the palace 
 Barberini ; the belfry of St. Peter, and the mon- 
 ument of Urban VIII. The tomb of Alexander 
 VII, one of his most masterly works, he execu- 
 ted in his 70th year. 
 
 BERR1, or Berry, Charles Ferdinand, duke 
 of, second son of the count d'Artois, late 
 Charles X, of France, born at Versailles, Jan. 
 24th, 1778. He fled from the revolutionary 
 tempest, but was actively engaged in the scenes 
 at Paris, in 1814, on the return of the Bourbons, 
 and vainly endeavored to secure the fidelity of 
 the troops in and about Paris, when Napoleon 
 returned from Elba. He was assassinated in 
 1820, by Louvel, who had long sought to extir- 
 pate the house of Bourbon, and met his death 
 with great firmness. The opera house, near 
 which the crime was committed, was pulled 
 down, and a column erected on the spot. 
 
 BERSERKER, in Scandinavian mythology, 
 a descendant of the eight-handed Starkader, 
 and the beautiful Alfhilde. Disdaining the 
 protection of mail in battle, he obtained his 
 name, which signifies, the armorlcss. In battle, 
 his rage was ungovernable. He married the 
 daughter of king Swafurlam, whom he had 
 slain, and had 12 sons who equalled him in 
 fierceness. 
 
 BERTH1ER, Alexander, prince of Neuf- 
 chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-constable 
 of France, &c, born at Paris, 1753. At an 
 early age, he served under La Fayette, in 
 America. He was a great favorite of Napo- 
 leon, under whom he acted as chief of his 
 staff, assisting in those great victories which 
 made France master of Italy, Germany, and 
 Prussia. On the return of the Bourbons, he 
 retired to Germany, where he put an end to 
 his existence, by throwing himself from a 
 window. 
 
 BERTRAND, Henri Gratien, count, gene- 
 ral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon, grand 
 marshal of the palace, &c. He early distin- 
 guished himself in the engineer corps, and in 
 1804, gave Napoleon evidence of his ability. 
 From that time he served near the person of 
 Napoleon, particularly at Austerlitz, where he 
 was the emperor's aid-de-camp. He. and his 
 family shared the last residence of Napoleon, 
 after his fall. 
 
 BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, 
 was born in 1670. He distinguished himself 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BEZ 
 
 115 
 
 BIR 
 
 as a general in the Bourbon cause in Spain, 
 where he won the battle of Almansa, and cap- 
 tured Barcelona, after a resistance, by the citi- 
 zens, of fifteen months. 
 
 BESSARABIA, a Russian province, situated 
 on the Black Sea, between the northern arm 
 of the Danube, the Pruth, and the Dniester, 
 fertile and extensive. It contains 800,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 BETHANIA, or Bethany, a village at the 
 foot of Mount Olivet, about 2 miles east of Je- 
 rusalem, where Lazarus was raised from the 
 dead, and where the ascension of Jesus Christ 
 took place. The house and grave of Lazarus, 
 as well as the dwelling of Mary Magdalene, 
 are. pointed out to travellers. 
 
 BEfHESDA, a pool in Judea, in the vicinity 
 of which the sick lay, waiting to be cured on 
 the moving of the waters. The Jews had an 
 idea that an angel descended at times into it, 
 and stirred up the waves, after which the first 
 who entered was cured. The name signifies 
 house of mercy. There were porticoes or halls 
 on its borders. The pool appears to have been 
 composed of red-colored mineral water, which 
 received its healing properties from the red 
 earth at the bottom. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, a village of Palestine, a part 
 of Syria, in the pachalic of Damascus, five 
 miles from Jerusalem, where our Savior was 
 born. Here also David first saw light. It is 
 at the foot of a hill covered with olive trees and 
 vines. The church of the empress Helena, a 
 splendid edifice, is built over the spot where 
 Christ is said to have been born. The manger 
 is shown under the choir of a convent church. 
 
 BEZA, or de Beze, Theodore, after Calvin, 
 the most distinguished among the Calvinistic 
 preachers of the lGth century, born 1519. At 
 the age of 20, he published his Latin poems, 
 collected under the title of Juvenilia, a work 
 of which he was afterwards ashamed. At an 
 early age he was dissipated, but reformed by 
 marriage, and a dangerous illness. He distin- 
 guished himself in the service of the reformed 
 church, and, in 1564, became Calvin's succes- 
 sor. Vain were the efforts of his adversaries 
 to gain an advantage over him. His truth and 
 wit were a splendid defence, and at the age of 
 78 years, his intellectual faculties appeared as 
 clear as ever. The pope made him brilliant 
 offers, but he nobly rejected them. He died Oct. 
 13, 1605, of old age. He was the author of many 
 works, among which his History of Calvinism 
 in France, from 1521 to 1563, is still read with 
 satisfaction. 
 
 BID ASSOA , a boundary river between Spain 
 and France, containing the isle of Pheasants, 
 where the peace of the Pyrenees was concluded 
 in 1659. 
 
 BIEVRE, Marquis de, marshal, born in 1747, 
 died in 1789. He served in the life-guard of 
 the king of France, and was much celebrated 
 for his wit, which he displayed in ready re- 
 partees and puns. When presented to Louis 
 XV, the following dialogue took place. Louis. 
 Give me a specimen of your wit. B. Give me 
 a subject, sire. Louis. Take me. B. Sire, the 
 kino- is no subject. 
 
 BILLINGTON, Elizabeth, Mrs. a celebrated 
 English singer, born in 1770, died in 1817. She 
 appeared in public at the age of 14, and was 
 received with great applause. 
 
 BINGEN ; a town on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, opposite Rudesheim ; population 3,300. 
 In its vicinity is the famous Mouse Tower, 
 connected with which is the following tale. 
 In a time of great famine, bishop Hatto played 
 the usurer, to the distress and ruin of many 
 poor people. For this he is s"aid to have met 
 a most dreadful punishment. Thousands on 
 thousands of mice pouring into his dwelling, 
 compelled him to seek refuge in his tower on 
 the Rhine. But here he enjoyed but a brief 
 interval of rest. The army of mice swam the 
 river, scaled the rocky precipice, and leaped 
 into the tower, at every cranny, grate, and 
 loop-hole. Trie bishop attempted to pray, but 
 his utterance failed — he listened to the noise of 
 the mice as the) swiftly approached his turret- 
 chamber. At length they gained an entrance, 
 and devoured the prelate, tearing the flesh from 
 his bones, and leaving him a mere skeleton. 
 
 BIRCH, Thomas, a historian and biographer 
 of the 18th century, born in London, in 1705. 
 His father, a quaker, designed his son for his 
 own profession, that of a coffee-mill maker. 
 Young Birch, however, preferring a literary 
 life, adopted it, took orders in 1730, and ob- 
 tained a living in Essex, in 1732. He was 
 assisted by some coadjutors in preparing the 
 General Historical and Critical Dictionary, 
 completed in 10 vols, folio, in 1741. His life 
 was laborious, and in the course of it, he pub- 
 lished many historical and biographical works. 
 He was killed by a fall from his horse, in 1765. 
 
 BIREN, Ernst John von, duke of Courland, 
 born 1687, died 1772. He is said to have been 
 the son of Buhren, a peasant of Courland. He 
 gained the favor of Anna, duchess of Courland, 
 afterwards empress of Russia, by his beauty 
 and accomplishments, and when his mistress 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 BIR 
 
 116 
 
 BLA 
 
 was raised to the throne, was not forgotten by 
 her. While in power, he w*^ s fierce, resentful, 
 and ambitious, and caused the death of 11,000 
 persons. After the death of Anna, a conspi- 
 racy was formed against him, and he was ban- 
 ished to Siberia. But he was recalled on the 
 accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the 
 Great, to the throne. After another exile, of 22 
 years, he was again recalled by Peter III, and, 
 during the reign of Catherine II, continued to 
 enjoy the royal favor until his death. 
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE. The Birman Empire 
 is a powerful state of Further India, having an 
 area of 200,000 square miles, with a popu- 
 lation of about 4,000,000. It contains many 
 conquered provinces, and includes the king- 
 doms of Ava, Pegu, part of Laos, and some 
 other adjacent states in the north. On the 
 north it is bounded by Thibet, Assam, and 
 China ; on the west a chain of lofty moun- 
 tains separates it from the British possessions. 
 The Birmans of Ava, made themselves inde- 
 pendent of Pegu, in the lGth century, but were 
 reconquered in the 18th. The spirit of inde- 
 pendence, however, was abroad, and Alompra, 
 one of the leaders of the Birmans, kindled 
 anew the flame of revolt in 1753, and conquered 
 the city of Ava. Various fortunes followed, 
 till Alompra finally made himself master of 
 the city of Pegu. This monarch, whose abili- 
 ties were all devoted to the good of his subjects, 
 died in 1760, at the age of 50 years, leaving his 
 throne to his son Namdogee, who inherited his 
 father's spirit and talent, and died in 1764. 
 Shainbuan, the regent, usurped the throne in 
 1771, and was victorious in a war with China, 
 during which Siam, which he had previously 
 conquered, regained its independence. In 1776, 
 this prince left his empire, greatly extended, to 
 his son Chengenza, who, in consequence of 
 excessive debauchery, was dethroned and put to 
 death in 1782. Shembuan Menderagan, the 4th 
 son of Alompra, was placed by the revolution on 
 the throne. In 1783, he subdued Arracan. A 
 war with Siam, in which he next engaged, re- 
 sulted, in 1793, in the submission of that king- 
 dom upon certain terms. The refusal on the 
 East India Company to deliver up some Bir- 
 man refugees, who were robbers, brought on a 
 war with Shembuan, which was soon amicably 
 concluded. Shembuan's grandson ascended 
 the throne in 1816. In 1826, a war which had 
 broken out between the Birmese and English, 
 ended in a treaty, by which the king of the 
 white elephant and the golden feet (titles of 
 the monarch of Birmah), ceded to the British 
 
 East India Company large tracts on the west 
 em coast of his empire, including Arracan, 
 Merguy, Tavay, and Yea. Assam became 
 independent, and Rangoon was declared a free 
 port. The latter has a population of 30,000. 
 The Birmans are gay, irritable, active, and 
 fond of show. No man is permitted to have 
 more than one wife, and capital punishment is 
 extended to confirmed opium eaters, and drunk- 
 ards in general. The bodies of the dead are 
 burned. The commerce of the Birmese is ex- 
 tensive, and the merchants make use of bars 
 of silver and lead in the place of coin. The 
 people are fond of amusements, particularly 
 dramatic spectacles. Education is not wholly 
 neglected among them, every one learning 
 arithmetic, reading, and writing. Thetcjergy 
 are literary men, famous for temperance, and 
 the renunciation of all indulgences. The civil 
 and criminal code is very judicious. The 
 standing army is small. The empire is divided 
 into 7 provinces. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, a great manufacturing 
 town of Warwickshire, England, on the river 
 Rea, 109 miles N. N. W. of London. Popula- 
 tion in 1831 , 146,986. The upper part of the 
 town is well built, and pleasant, while the lower 
 is crowded with workshops, warehouses, and 
 old buildings. 
 
 BIRON, Charles de Gontaut, duke of; an 
 intriguing nobleman in the reign of Henry IV, 
 of France, tried on a charge of treason, and 
 beheaded July 31st, 1602. 
 
 BITHYNIA, an ancient country of Asia Mi- 
 nor, also called Bebrycia. It lay on the Pontus 
 Euxinus,the Thracian Bosphorus, and the Pro- 
 pontis, and was bounded on the south by Phry- 
 gia. Afte the death of Prusias I, it was in- 
 vaded by Croesus, subjugated by the Persians, 
 and conquered by Alexander the Great, 334 
 years B.C. It afforded for some time an asylum 
 to Hannibal, who was at last delivered up. Ni- 
 comedes,the last king, bequeathed the kingdom 
 to the Romans, B. C. 75. In 1298, the Otto- 
 man Turks founded an empire here ; previous 
 to which, the Seljuks had conquered it in the 
 11th century. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, Thomas, a poet and clergy- 
 man, born at Annan, in Dumfries county, in 
 1721. Although deprived of sight, he became 
 famous for his acquirements, and took a high 
 station among the literati of Scotland. He died 
 July 1791, at the age of 70. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Sir William, knight, and 
 L. L. D., an English lawyer of great celebrity, 
 and a writer on the British constitution, was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BLA 
 
 117 
 
 BLA 
 
 born in London, in 1723. He was the son of 
 Mr. Charles Blackstone, a silk-mercer, but 
 being left an orphan, was brought up and 
 educated by Mr. Thomas Bigg, his uncle, a 
 surgeon. He left Pembroke college, Oxford, 
 with a high reputation, and, in 1746, after faith- 
 ful preparatory study, was admitted to the bar, 
 and commenced practice. His progress was 
 slow, owing to his deficiency in elocution; and 
 he accordingly determined to forsake the prac- 
 tice of the law, and retire to his fellowship at 
 Oxford. His lectures, in which he called 
 attention to the want of provision for instruc- 
 tion in the laws and constitution of the coun- 
 try, were delivered with effect, and continued 
 for a series of years. In 1759, when several of 
 his legal works had attracted the attention of 
 the public, he resumed the practice of the law, 
 and found that honors and emoluments poured 
 in upon him. In 1761, he was chosen member 
 of parliament from Hindon, made king's coun- 
 sel, and solicitor-general to the queen ; about 
 this time, also, he married. In 1765, the first 
 volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of 
 England appeared, and was pronounced supe- 
 rior to any work upon the same subject which 
 had before been published. In 1770 he was made 
 one of the justices of common pleas, and he died 
 in his 57th year, 1780. In private life this dis- 
 tinguished lawyer was affable and benevolent, 
 greatly devoted to business, in which he dis- 
 played activity and intelligence. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, an eloquent divine and suc- 
 cessful author, was born at Edinburgh in 1718, 
 and made preacher of the high church in that 
 city in 1758. Having acquired a high reputa- 
 tion by his lectures on composition, he was 
 made professor of rhetoric and belles-letters in 
 1762. In private life, he was a kind father, 
 friend, and husband, and, living temperately, 
 enjoyed happiness till his death which took 
 place in 1800. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch clergyman, author 
 of " The Grave.''' Born at Edinburgh in 1699 ; 
 he died in 1746. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, an English admiral in the 
 time of the Commonwealth, born at Bridgewa- 
 ter in 1599, died in 1657. He defended Taun- 
 ton against Goring, blocked up Prince Rupert 
 in Kinsale harbor, pursued him to Lisbon, en- 
 gaged him at Malaga, and destroyed nearly his 
 whole fleet. He afterwards reduced the Scilly 
 isles and Guernsey, defeated Van Tromp in 
 two engagements, demolished the castle of Tu- 
 nis, and burned the Spanish fleet in the harbor 
 of Santa Cruz. The terror of his name was so 
 
 great, that it was used by the Dutch and Span- 
 iards to quell their children. 
 
 BLAKELEY, Johnston, born in Ireland in 
 1781, was a distinguished naval officer in the 
 service of the United States. His father came 
 to America, and settled in Wilmington, North 
 Carolina. Blakeley entered the university of 
 North Carolina, but, the death of his father hav- 
 ing deprived him of support, was forced to 
 leave it before he had completed his course. In 
 1800 he received a midshipman's warrant, and 
 in 1813 was appointed to the command of the 
 Wasp. In an action with His Britannic Ma- 
 jesty's ship Reindeer, he took her in 19 minutes, 
 but was forced to abandon her, as she was so 
 completely cut up. The loss of the Americans 
 in killed and wounded was 21; that of the enemy, 
 67. After an engagement with the brig Avon, 
 which was forced to strike, although three other 
 English vessels were in sight, the Wasp was 
 spoken by a vessel off the Western Isles, since 
 which time she has not been heard of. Blake- 
 ley left an only daughter, who was educated by 
 the state of North Carolina. 
 
 BLANCHAR.D, Francois, one of the earliest 
 aeronauts, born at Andelys, France, in 1738. 
 He showed an early fondness for mechanics, 
 and in his 16th year, invented a self-moving 
 carriage, which carried him J 8 miles. In his 
 19th year he invented a hydraulic machine, and 
 soon afterwards, a sort of fiying-ship. When 
 the Montgolfiers made their discoveries, Blan- 
 chard eagerly made use of them. In 1785 he 
 crossed the channel from Dover to Calais, with 
 doctor Jeffries, a gentleman of Boston in the 
 United States. At one time the balloon sank 
 so rapidly, that although the Aeronauts had 
 lightened the car by throwing over all superflu- 
 ous articles, even their clothes, they were in 
 danger of losing their lives. However, the 
 voyage was finally accomplished in safety, and 
 Blanchard was presented by the king of France 
 with 12,000 francs, and a pension of 1200. In the 
 same year he made use of a parachute in Lon- 
 don. His 46th ascent was made in the city of 
 New York, ]796. In 1798, he went up from 
 Rouen in a large balloon with 16 persons. He 
 died in 1809, after having made more than 66 
 aeronautic voyages. Madame Blanchard, after 
 his death, continued to make voyages in 
 the air. In June, 1819, she ascended from 
 Paris, and was thought to be in safety, when 
 her balloon took fire from some fireworks 
 which she carried with her ; she fell from an 
 immense height, and was dashed to pieces in 
 the Rue de Provence. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BLO 
 
 118 
 
 BOE 
 
 BLENHEIM or Blindheim, a village in the 
 circle of Upper Danube, in Bavaria, on the 
 Danube. It is celebrated for the important 
 victory obtained there by the allies under the 
 duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, over 
 the French, commanded by marshals Tallard 
 and Marsin, and the elector of Bavaria. 
 
 In the war of the Spanish succession, Louis 
 XIV, with the elector of Bavaria for his only 
 ally, was forced to contend against the strength 
 of Holland, England, Austria, Savoy, Portugal, 
 and the German empire. At the battle of Blen- 
 heim, which was fought August 13, 1704, the 
 allied forces amounted to about 52,000, and 
 the French to 56,000, with great advantage of 
 situation ; the latter, however, were completely 
 beaten, and 11,000 corpses left upon the field of 
 battle. Among other ensigns of victory were 
 100 pieces of cannon, 24 mortars, 129 colors, 171 
 standards, 17 pair of kettle-drums, 3G00 tents, 
 34 coaches, 300 mules laden with the rich equi- 
 page and plate, the military chest, the dispensa- 
 tory, &c. ; 25 brass pontoons, and a number of 
 carriages laden with provisions and ammuni- 
 tion. 
 
 BLONDE L, the servant, friend, and musical 
 instructor of the lion-hearted Richard I, of 
 England. Richard having been confined in the 
 castle of Lowenstein, bj' the duke of Austria, 
 Blondel wandered through Palestine and Ger- 
 many in search nf his royal master. He finally 
 discovered the place of his confinement, by 
 placing himself beneath the grated window of" 
 his tower, and singing one of the lays which he 
 had formerly taught the king. He had complet- 
 ed the first stanza, when, to his great delight, be 
 heard the voice of Richard, replying in the same 
 strain. He delivered the king from bondage, 
 and received the title of the faithful Blondel. 
 
 BLOOD, Thomas, commonly called colonel 
 Blood, a disbanded officer of Oliver Cromwell ; 
 notorious for his attempt to steal the crown and 
 regalia from the tower. He was almost success- 
 ful. Charles II pardoned him. and even bestow- 
 ed an estate of £500 per annum on him, while 
 poor Edwards, keeper of the regalia, who was 
 severely wounded in defending them, was pass- 
 ed by unnoticed. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an English poet, 
 born at Honington, in 1766. He was the son of 
 a tailor, and, in 1781, he was sent to London, 
 with his brother, to learn the shoe-making trade ; 
 he visited various places of public worship, the 
 theatre, and a debating society, and found his 
 faculties developed in a striking manner. His 
 brother, hearing him one day repeat a song 
 
 which he had composed, induced him to offer it 
 to the editor of the London Magazine, by whom 
 it was accepted and published. His poem of 
 the " Farmer's Boy," composed during a brief 
 residence in the country, was published by Ca- 
 pel Loftl, to whom it was first shown. The ver- 
 sification in this, as well as in the other poems 
 of Bloomfield, is easy and correct. He was 
 made, by the duke of Grafton, under-sealer for 
 the Seal Office, but ill-health compelled him to 
 relinquish this situation. He afterwards work- 
 ed at his trade, and engaged in the book-trade, 
 but became bankrupt. He died in Aug. 1823. 
 
 BLUCHER, Marshal, a celebrated Prussian 
 general, who distinguished himself in the wars 
 with France, particularly in 1813, 1814, and 
 1815, and who by his timely arrival on the field 
 of Waterloo, with a large body of cavalry, 
 decided the victory. The Russians, in allu- 
 sion to his promptitude in attack, called him gen- 
 eral Fortcard, a name which is always applied 
 to him by his admirers. He died Sept. 12, 1819. 
 
 BOADICEA, or Bonduca, a British heroine, 
 queen of the Iceni. Her husband, for the secu- 
 rity of his family, had made the Roman emperor 
 co-heir with his daughters. But the Roman of- 
 ficers took possession of her palace, exposed the 
 princesses to the brutality of the soldiers, and 
 scourged the queen in public. Boadicea, urged 
 to revenge by this usage, assembled her country- 
 men, and, in a masculine harangue, roused them 
 to madness, by describing her own. her daugh- 
 ters' and her country's injuries, stormed London, 
 and put to the sword 70,000 strangers. Sueto- 
 nius Paulinus defeated the Britons, and Boa- 
 dicea poisoned herself in despair, A. D. 60. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, a famous Italian 
 author, born at Paris, 1313. His Decameron 
 fixed his reputation, and the name of Boccaccio, 
 according to Mazzuchelli, is equivalent to a 
 thousand encomiums. The death of his friend 
 and instructor, Petrarch, was a severe shock to 
 him, and he died not more than a year after, at 
 Certaldo, Dec. 21,1375. 
 
 BOCHICA, founder of the Indian empire of 
 Cundinamarca, the Manco Capac of the Muisca 
 Indians. He introduced the worship of the sun, 
 and persuaded the inhabitants of the Valley of 
 Bogota to cultivate the soil. 
 
 BODLEY, Sir Thomas ; founder of the Bod- 
 leian library at Oxford, born at Exeter in 1544, 
 died in 1612. at London. 
 
 BOERHAVE, Hermann, one of the most 
 famous physicians of the 18th century, born at 
 Woorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 1668, died in 
 1738. People came to him from all parts of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BOH 
 
 119 
 
 BOH 
 
 Europe tor advice, and a Chinese mandarin 
 wrote to him with the address, '■ to Boerhave, 
 the celebrated physician of Europe." His pro- 
 perty amounted, at his death, to 2,000,000 florins. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Se- 
 verinus, a man whose services, rewards, vir- 
 tues, and unhappy end have made him famous, 
 was born at Rome or Milan, about 470, A. D. 
 Having received an admirable education and im- 
 proved himself by travel, he was taken into favor 
 by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and ra- 
 pidly raised to the highest offices of the empire. 
 His strict justice and uncompromising integrity 
 having acquired for him the hatred of the rapa- 
 cious and unprincipled Goths, the king became 
 prejudiced against him, and had him arrested, im- 
 prisoned, and executed, A. D. 526 or 527. His 
 most celebrated work on the Consolations of Phi- 
 losophy, consisting of prose and verse, was com- 
 posed by him in prison. Alfred the Great, of 
 England, translated it for the benefit of his peo- 
 ple. 
 
 BOGOTA, at the time the Spaniards con- 
 quered South America, was one of the most 
 civilized states of the country, and inhabited by 
 the Muisca Indians. The valley of Bogota, 
 famous for its fertility, was filled with Indians, 
 who rivalled in civilization the inhabitants 
 of Cuzco. They traced their prosperity to the 
 instructions of Bochica. Gonzalo Ximenes di 
 Quesada effected their conquest. 
 
 BOGOTA, or Santa Fe de Bogota ; a city of 
 South America, formerly capital of the vice- 
 royalty of New Grenada, but now capital of the 
 republic of that name. Long. 74° 15' W. ; lat. 
 4° 36' N. The population has been variously 
 estimated from 30 to 60,000. It lies on an ele- 
 vated plain to the east of the Andes, and con- 
 tains, besides a superb cathedral, many fine 
 buildings. The lands in the environs of Bo- 
 gota yield two harvests annually. 
 
 BOHEMIA, Boeheim, Bojenheim, a kingdom 
 of Europe, bounded on the north by JLusatia and 
 Misnia, on the east by Moravia and Silesia, on 
 the south by Austria and Bavaria, and on the 
 west by Bavaria. It contains above 3,880,000 
 inhabitants, of whom a large portion are Jews. 
 Bohemia is surrounded by mountains and co- 
 vered with forests. All kinds of grain and fruits 
 are exported. The mines yield silver, copper, 
 tin, garnets, and other precious stones, iron, 
 arsenic, alum, antimony, sulphur, &c. Manu- 
 factories are established in various parts of the 
 country. Bohemia contains 16 circles, besides 
 the city of Prague, governed by officers who are 
 appointed yearly. In 1826 a rail-road was laid 
 11 
 
 between the Danube and the Moldau. The Bo- 
 hemians are highly patriotic and public spirited. 
 In lb22 they had 2906 public establishments for 
 instruction. The kingdom derives its name 
 from the Boii, a Celtic nation, who settled there 
 about 600 B. C. About the middle of the 4th 
 century it was inhabited by Germans, who were 
 governed by their own dukes. Charlemagne 
 made Bohemia tributary, but it did not long re- 
 main so. The first king received his title from 
 the emperor Henry IV, and in 1310 the house of 
 Luxemburg succeeded to the throne. In 1526, 
 Bohemia reverted to the house of Austria, by 
 whom it has been ever since held. Bohemia 
 produced the first reformers, among whom were 
 John Huss, and Jerome of Prague. 
 BOHEMIA, dynasties of. 
 
 DUKES. A.D. 
 
 Czechus or Zecko (a Sclavonian conqueror), 550 
 
 Cracus 1 565 
 
 Cracus II 618 
 
 Libussa (princess), ) p„ Q 
 
 Premislaus (her husband, a peasant), ) 0,1 ~ 
 
 Nezamistus 676 
 
 Wnislaus 689 
 
 Cizezomislaus 715 
 
 JNecklan 757 
 
 Hostwit or Milchost 809 
 
 Borziwoi 1 890 
 
 Stugmir 901 
 
 Spitigneus 1 902 
 
 Wratislaus 1 920 
 
 Wenceslaus 1 926 
 
 Boleslaus 1 938 
 
 Boleslaus II 967 
 
 Boleslaus III 999 
 
 Jaromir 1002 
 
 Udalric 1012 
 
 Bretislaus 1 1037 
 
 Spitigneus II 1055 
 
 Wratislaus II 1061 
 
 Conrad 1 1092 
 
 Bretislaus II 1093 
 
 Wladislaus 1 1 100 
 
 Borziwoi II 1101 
 
 Suatopluc 1107 
 
 Borziwoi II (restored), 1109 
 
 Wladislaus II 1124 
 
 Sobieslaus 1 1125 
 
 Wladislaus III 1 140 
 
 Sobieslaus II 1174 
 
 Frederick 1 178 
 
 Conrad II 1190 
 
 Wenceslaus II 1 191 
 
 Henry Bretislaus 1 1 93 
 
 Wladislaus IV 1196 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 Premislaus Ottocar 1 1197 
 
 Wenceslaus III 1230 
 
 Premislaus Ottocar II 1253 
 
 Interregnum , 1278 
 
 Wenceslaus IV 1284 
 
 Wenceslaus V 1305 
 
 Henry of Carinthia 1306 
 
 John of Luxemburg 1310 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BOL 
 
 120 
 
 BOL 
 
 Charles TV, Emperor of Germany a. d. 1346 
 
 Wenceslaus VI 1378 
 
 Sigismund 1419 
 
 Albert of Austria 1437 
 
 Wladislaus V 1446 
 
 George Podiebrad 1458 
 
 Wladislaus VI 1471 
 
 Louis 1516 
 
 Ferdinand I of Austria, emperor 1526 
 
 BOILEAU, Despreaux Nicholas, born at 
 Crosne, near Paris, in 1636. After having studi- 
 ed at the colleges of Harcourt and Beauvais,he 
 entered upon the career of law which he soon 
 relinquished for the more congenial pursuit of 
 belles-lettres. His satire, Les Adieux a Paris, 
 first displayed his talents. He published many 
 works, his Art Poitique, being the most popular. 
 He was opposed by many writers, to confound 
 whom he wrote his unrivalled mock-heroic 
 poem, the Lutrin. He died of the dropsy in 
 1711. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC, the French name for the 
 Dutch Hertogenbosh, a fortified city of the Ne- 
 therlands, with 17,300 inhabitants, at the con- 
 fluence of the Dommel and the Aa. It has 
 many manufactories, a lyceum, and 15 churches. 
 It was founded in 1184. In the religious wars 
 of the 16th century it suffered much. The 
 Dutch gained possession of it in 1629. Near 
 Bois-le-Duc, in 1794, the British army was de- 
 feated by the French. In the same year it sur- 
 rendered to Pichegru,and was taken by Bulow, 
 the Prussian General, in January, 1814. 
 
 BOJACA, BATTLE OF, was fought near 
 the bridge of Bojaca, a South American town 
 not far from the city of Tunja. The Spaniards 
 under Barreyro were defeated by the united 
 forces of Venezuela and New Granada, com- 
 manded by Bolivar. It took place Aug. 7th, 
 1819, and decided the independence of New 
 Granada. 
 
 BOLEYN, or BOLEN, Anne, second wife 
 of Henry VIII of England. She was probably 
 born about 1500. She was the daughter of Sir 
 Thomas Boleyn. Her early years were spent in 
 attendance on the wife of Louis XII of France, 
 on whose death she became maid of honor to 
 queen Catherine. Henry, having procured a 
 divorce from his wife, married her privately, 
 and when she became a mother publicly ac- 
 knowledged her as queen. Her child was the 
 famous Elizabeth. The tyrant conceiving a 
 passion for Jane Seymour, caused Anne to be 
 tried for high treason and infidelity. She suf- 
 fered on the scaffold, May 19th, 1536, Henry 
 considering it an act of great clemency to save 
 her from the stake. She was beautiful, gay, and 
 
 witty, and in her last moments, self-possessed. 
 " She sent her last message to the king," says 
 Hume, " and acknowledged the obligations 
 which she owed him in uniformly continuing 
 her advancement. From a private gentle- 
 woman, you have made me, first, a marchion- 
 ess, then a queen ; and, as you can raise me no 
 higher in this world, you are now sending me 
 to be a saint in heaven." 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, viscount, 
 born at Battersea, in 1672, of an ancient and 
 distinguished family. His brilliant talents, ele- 
 gant manners, and personal attractions, secured 
 him a warm welcome in society ; but, unhap- 
 pily, until his 23d year his career was stained 
 with those vices which spring from the impetu- 
 ous temper of youth. His marriage with a 
 beautiful heiress did not produce the happiness 
 which his parents had looked for, and the young 
 couple separated forever after a short connexion. 
 The moment he obtained a seat in the house of 
 commons he distinguished himself by industry, 
 activity, eloquence, and strong judgment. In 
 1704 he was made secretary at war, but when 
 the whigs came into place, he sent in his resig- 
 nation. The whig party being prostrated, Bo- 
 lingbroke received the department of foreign 
 affairs, and concluded the peace of Utrecht. 
 During the height of party contention between 
 the whigs and tories, immediately after the con- 
 clusion of peace, a quarrel occurred between 
 Bolingbroke and the Eail of Oxford, then lord 
 high treasurer, and Queen Anne, provoked 
 with the latter, dismissed him, four days before 
 her death, and made Bolingbroke prime minis- 
 ter. The scene was speedily reversed by the 
 death of Anne. — George I ascended the throne, 
 the whigs triumphed, and Bolingbroke, learn- 
 ing that his enemies intended to bring him to 
 the scaffold, fled to France. Bolingbroke went 
 to Lorraine, and was made Secretary of State 
 by the Pretender (James III), who, however, 
 becoming displeased with him, deprived him of 
 his dignity and conferred it on the duke of Or- 
 mond. 
 
 He returned to England in 1723, opposed 
 the ministry for eight years, and again went to 
 France. In France, in 1735, he published his 
 Letters upon History, which, however admira- 
 ble, were blamed for attacking revealed reli- 
 gion. In 1738, he returned to his country, 
 where he died of a lingering and painful dis- 
 ease in 1751, in his 80th year. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Simon, the most prominent actor 
 in the events which produced the independence 
 of a large portion of South America. He was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BOL 
 
 121 
 
 BOL 
 
 born in the city of Caraccas, July 24th, 1783, of 
 a distinguished and noble Venezuelan family. 
 After acquiring the elements of a liberal educa- 
 tion in South America, he visited Spain, and 
 spent some time in travelling in Europe, chief- 
 ly in the south of France. Returning for a 
 while to Madrid, he married, and carried his 
 wife to his native land, where he thought to 
 enjoy in peace the comforts of domestic life. 
 The death of his wife put an end to his blissful 
 visions, and he again went to Europe, partly to 
 dissipate his grief On his return, he travelled 
 through the United States, where his love of 
 liberty settled into an indelible passion, and we 
 find him actively engaged in promoting the 
 early movement in Caraccas (April, 1810) and 
 receiving a colonel's commission from the su- 
 preme junta then established. He sided with 
 the patriots of Venezuela, and, after the declar- 
 ation of independence, July 5, 1811, served 
 under General Miranda, against a party in Va- 
 lencia, who declared against the principles and 
 measures of the revolutionists. 
 
 After some ill success in Venezuela, which 
 is attributable to treachery rather than want of 
 talent on his part, Bolivar obtained a passport 
 and escaped to Curagoa. He could not, however, 
 content himself with being a calm, cold, and in- 
 vulnerable spectator of events in which the 
 lives and fortunes of his countrymen were risk- 
 ed, and accordingly he came to Carthagena in 
 1812, and entered into the service of the pat- 
 riots of New Grenada. His expedition against 
 Teneriffe, on the river Magdalena, was suc- 
 cessful, he drove the Spaniards before him in 
 his triumphant advance, and entered the city 
 of Ocana in triumph, thus inspiring general 
 confidence in the patriot cause, and attracting 
 the attention of all to it and to himself. He 
 next expelled the Spanish forces from Cucu- 
 ta, and conceived the plan of freeing Vene- 
 zuela from the Spaniards, a task which he ac- 
 complished by the 4th of August, 1813. At the 
 assembly of Caraccas, Jan. 2, 1814, the power, 
 which was vested in the hands of Bolivar as 
 commander of the liberating army, was confirm- 
 ed. If we carefully trace the military career of 
 Bolivar, we shall find him alternately meeting 
 with success, and struggling with reverse ; dis- 
 playing, both in triumph and defeat, the noble 
 daring of a gallant warrior, the rare talents of 
 a military chieftain, and the unyielding perse- 
 verance of a true patriot. At length he had the 
 satisfaction of beholding the arms of the patri- 
 ots triumphant in every quarter, their banners 
 moving onward in pride and splendor, and the 
 
 phalanx of opposition becoming daily more and 
 more feeble. 
 
 In May, 1826, Bolivar presented to the con- 
 gress of Upper Peru, which had formed the 
 independent state of Bolivia, the constitution 
 which, at their request, he had prepared. Mean- 
 while a rebellion had broken out in Venezuela, 
 headed by Paez, who considered himself aggriev- 
 ed, and the fair fruits of liberty, won with many 
 a day of bloody toil, appeared in danger of 
 being lost. It was Bolivar alone who could and 
 did quell this insurrection. The Bolivian code, 
 which, among its prominent features, provided 
 that the executive authority should be vested in 
 the hands of the president for life, was adopted 
 as the constitution of Bolivia, Dec. 9, 1826, and 
 Bolivar, then absent, was declared its presi- 
 dent. If the provisions of the Bolivian code 
 had alarmed the friends of liberty, what was 
 their terror when they beheld Bolivar, whom 
 they' suspected of ambitious designs, placed 
 for life at the head of the government. The 
 Colombian auxiliary army, then in Peru, rapid- 
 ly revolutionized the government, and induced 
 the Peruvians to renounce the Bolivian code. 
 Strenuous opposition to Bolivar Was made in 
 Colombia by the republicans who imagined that 
 he was ready to emulate the career of Napoleon, 
 although he had repeatedly expressed a wish to 
 retire from the presidency. However, in 1828, 
 a decree, dated Bogota, Aug. 27, gave him the 
 supreme power in Colombia. The authority 
 reposed in him gave the republicans no little 
 alarm, but Bolivar did not live long to exercise 
 it. Looking back upon his career, we can now 
 dispassionately estimate his character, and, if 
 there appear occasionally a desire to exalt him- 
 self above his fellows, we must grant him that 
 rare union of civil and military abilities, that 
 courage in adversity and moderation in pros- 
 perity, which was alone capable of achieving 
 the regeneration of his country. 
 
 BOLIVIA, a country of South America, 
 bounded northwest by Peru, east by Brazil, 
 south by Buenos Ayres or the United Prov- 
 inces of South America, and west by the Pa- 
 cific ocean and Peru. It is mountainous, and 
 contains rich silver mines. Chuquisaca, or La 
 Plata, is the capital. The population is about 
 1,200,000. The battle of Ayacucho, fought 
 Dec. 9th, 1824, in which the Viceroy La Serna 
 was defeated by General Antonio Jose de Sucre, 
 achieved the independence of Bolivia. The 
 powers of government are distributed into four 
 sections— the electoral, legislative, executive, 
 and judicial. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BON 
 
 122 
 
 BON 
 
 BOLOGNA is one of the largest, oldest, and 
 richest cities in Italy. It was anciently called 
 Bononia Felsinia, and is surnamed la Grassa (the 
 fat). It is situated at the foot of the Apennines 
 between the Reno and Savena, containing about 
 71,300 inhabitants and many manufactories. It 
 is the capital of a delegation of the same name, 
 and the secular concerns are administered by 
 a cardinal legate, while the spiritual are in the 
 care of an archbishop. A gonfalonicre chosen 
 every two months, with a council of fifty sen- 
 ators and eight citizens, forming a republican 
 government, manages the city affairs. The in- 
 habitants of Bologna submitted to the Pope in 
 1538, being worn and harassed by the incessant 
 contentions of the nobility. A Bolognese am- 
 bassador resides at Rome, for the purpose of 
 preventing the sovereign pontiff from pass- 
 ing beyond the limits which the constitution 
 permits. The Pope can impose no tax on the 
 inhabitants of Bologna, and is only entitled to 
 the excise on wine. At the same time the Bo- 
 lognese elect a judge to the high court of ap- 
 peals at Rome. On the whole, the city can 
 boast with truth of the proud word Libertas, 
 which encircles her armorial bearings. The 
 renowned university of Bologna, which once 
 contained 10,000 students, has at present but 
 300. Among the buildings which ornament 
 the chief place of the city is the senate hall, 
 which contains a number of works of art, and 
 200 folio -volumes in manuscript written by 
 Ulysses Aldovrandus, as materials for future 
 works. Its market is famous for the sculpture 
 of its fountain, and the flavor of its sausages, 
 presenting equal attractions to the artist and 
 the epicure. Besides the cathedral of St. Pe- 
 tronio, there are 73 other churches. 
 
 BOMBAY, a presidency, island, and city in 
 British India on the western coast of Hindos- 
 tan. The population of the city is 161,550. The 
 city is surrounded with fortifications, and stands 
 upon a narrow neck of land, a mile in length. 
 The trade of this place is very considerable. 
 The American Board of Commissioners for For- 
 eign Missions, had, in 1628, four missionaries 
 and a printing press here, with 16 schools for 
 boys, and 10 for girls, containing in all 2626 
 pupils. Bombay was obtained by the Portu- 
 guese in 1530, and ceded to the Enolish in 
 1661, under whom it has become a strong and 
 flourishing place. 
 
 BONAPARTE. (See Napoleon.) 
 
 BONIFACE, the name of several popes. 
 Boniface I succeeded Zozimus in 418, and was 
 maintained in the pontifical chair by the emperor 
 
 Honorius against his rival Eulaiius. He died in 
 422. Boniface II succeeded Felix IV in 530. 
 He was born at R&me, but his father was a 
 Goth. He compelled the bishops in a council to 
 allow him to nominate his successor, and ac- 
 cordingly he selected Vigil ; but a second council 
 disavowed the proceedings cf the first. Boni- 
 face VI came to the chair 896, and died of the 
 gout a fortnight after. Boniface VII assumed 
 the chair after having murdered Benedict VI 
 and John XIV. He was acknowledged sove- 
 reign pontiff in 984, and died a few months 
 after. Boniface VIII, after the resignation of 
 Celestine, was elected 1294. He commenced 
 his pontificate by imprisoning his predecessor, 
 and laying Denmark under an interdict. He 
 also excommunicated the Colonnas as heretics, 
 and preached a Crusade against them. He ex- 
 cited the princes of Germany to revolt against 
 Albert, and laid France under an interdict. 
 Philip appealed to a general council, and sent 
 his army into Italy, and took the Pope prisoner. 
 He died at Rome a few months afterwards. 
 
 BONIFACE, St., first spread Christianity 
 and civilization among the Germans. His ori- 
 ginal name was Winifred, and he was born in 
 England in 680. In 732 he was made arch- 
 bishop and primate of all Germany. He was 
 killed by barbarians at Dockum,in West Fries- 
 land, in 755, in his 75th year. 
 
 BONN, the capital of the Prussian govern- 
 ment of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine. 
 The university , in 1629, contained 1000 students. 
 
 BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate, who 
 received several clerical preferments from Car- 
 dinal Wolsey. Henry VIII made him one of 
 his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to obtain 
 from the Pope a divorce from queen Catharine. 
 There he was so insolent that the pontiff* 
 threatened to throw him into a cauldron of boil- 
 ing lead, and thus compelled him to quit Rome. 
 He persecuted the Protestants with great cru- 
 elty, and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Mar- 
 shalsea. where he died in 1569. 
 
 BONNEVAL, Claude Alexander, count de, 
 known also by the name of Ackmet Pasha, was 
 born in 1672. He was descended from an illus- 
 trious family in France, and married the daugh- 
 ter of the Marshal de Biron. He was disgraced, 
 however, by his incessant pursuit of sensual 
 pleasure. He quitted the French army to serve 
 under Prince Eugene ; but, having quarrelled 
 with that general, he entered the service of 
 the Turks, among whom he obtained a military 
 command, with a high salary, and the rank of 
 pacha with three tails. Pie won a great victory 
 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BOO 
 
 123 
 
 BOR 
 
 over the imperial army on the banks of the 
 Danube. He died in 1747. 
 
 BONPLAND, Aime, a French naturalist, who 
 accompanied Humboldt to America in 1799, and 
 discovered 6000 new species of plants. He re- 
 turned to France, and thence went again to 
 South America in 1818. In 1820, he founded 
 a colony of Indians, at Santa Anna, on the east 
 bank of the Parana, and succeeded in planting 
 the Paraguay tea, which drew upon him the 
 notice of doctor Francia, dictator of Paraguay, 
 200 of whose soldiers surprised and seized the 
 naturalist. He was held captive, and made to 
 serve as physician to the garrison of a fort ; but 
 was released in 1831. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, a native of Virginia, was 
 one of the first to penetrate the savage wilds of 
 Kentucky, on an expedition to explore which, 
 he departed with five companions, May 1, 1769. 
 Boone, with John Stewart, was captured by the 
 Indians, not long after their arrival in Kentucky, 
 but soon managed to escape. Their compan- 
 ions had returned home, whither they would 
 have followed them, but for the timely arrival 
 of Squire Boone, Daniel's brother, with refresh- 
 ments. Stewart being soon after slain, the two 
 Boones remained, the only white men in the 
 wilderness. In 1773, Boone with his own, and 
 five other families, and a body of 40 men, took 
 up the march of emigration from Virginia to 
 Kentucky ; but in consequence of the hostility 
 of the Indians, they returned to the settlements 
 on Clinch River. In 1775 Boone built a fort at 
 Salt Spring, on the southern bank of the Ken- 
 tucky, on the site of Boonesborough. After 
 sustaining several sieges, he was taken by the 
 savages, Feb. 7, 1778, while hunting with some 
 of his men. The Indians soon learned to re- 
 spect and value Boone, who was adopted by one 
 of the chiefs of Chillicothe, but the thoughts 
 of his wife and children induced our adven- 
 turer to attempt an escape. After travelling for 
 four days, taking but one meal, he arrived at 
 Boonesborough, which was 160 miles distant 
 from the place of his captivity. On the 8th of 
 August an attack on the fort was commenced 
 by a body of Indians and Canadian French, 
 which continued till the 20th, when the siege 
 was abandoned. This was the last attempt 
 made upon Boonesborough. 
 
 From 1782 till 1798, Boone lived alternately 
 in Kentucky and Virginia. In 1798, having 
 obtained from the Spanish government a grant 
 of land in Upper Louisiana, he removed thither 
 with his children and friends, who were also 
 presented with land. He settled on the Mis- 
 11* 
 
 souri, beyond the limits of other settlements, 
 and employed himself in the wild life of the 
 forest, hunting and trapping, until Sept. 1822, 
 when he expired, in his 85th year. He had for 
 a long time been sensible of the approach of 
 death, and had a coffin made out of a favorite 
 cherry-tree, which he brought to a high de- 
 gree of polish by continual rubbing. 
 
 BORA, Catherine von, a nun, who married 
 Luther about 1524, when he had laid aside the 
 cowl, and she the veil. 
 
 BORDENTOWN, a pleasant town of New 
 Jersey, on the east side of the Delaware, 26 
 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, the residence of 
 Joseph Bonaparte, Count de Survilliers. 
 
 BORGHESE, princess, originally Marie Pau- 
 line Bonaparte, the favorite sister of Napoleon, 
 born at Ajacio, Oct. 20, 1782. After becom- 
 ing the widow of General Leclerc, she married 
 prince Camillo Borghese, with whom she did 
 not live on good terms. She died 1825. Her 
 whole property amounted to 2.000,000 francs. 
 She was uncommonly beautiful, and Canova re- 
 presented her as the goddess of beauty, a Venus 
 which almost rivalled the antique. 
 
 BORGIA, CsBsar, son of pope Alexander VI, 
 an infamous character. On his father's acces- 
 sion to the papacy in 1492, he was invested with 
 the purple. Being jealous of his brother Fran- 
 cis, he contrived to have him drowned. Hav- 
 ing renounced the cardinalship, he was made 
 duke of Romagna in 1501, and leagued with 
 Louis XII of France. On the death of his 
 father, he was sent prisoner to Spain, but made 
 his escape, and died fighting under the walls 
 of Biano, in 1507. 
 
 BORNEO, next to New Holland, the largest 
 island in the world, is about 800 miles long, and 
 700 broad. The population has been estimated at 
 from 3 to 5 millions. Lon. 109° to 119° E. ; lat. 
 7° N. to 4° 20' S. The insalubrity of the cli- 
 mate has restrained Europeans from exploring 
 it, and consequently not much information has 
 been collected with regard to it. The chain 
 of mountains contains numerous crystals, and 
 is thence called Crystal Mountain. Earthquakes 
 a,nd volcanoes are frequent in the island. The 
 mountain breezes and the rains moderate the 
 heat, which is by no means excessive. Gold, di- 
 amonds, pearl, iron, copper, tin, and other min- 
 erals are found here. The fruits are fine and 
 abundant. The inhabitants are Malays, Javan- 
 ese, Bujis or natives of Celebes, and descend- 
 ants of Arabs, governed by despotic chiefs 
 called Sultans. They are said to be intelligent, 
 but treacherous. The Dutch have succeeded 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BOS 
 
 124 
 
 BOS 
 
 in forming permanent establishments on the 
 island, and derive their chief profit from pep- 
 per and diamonds. The town of Borneo, on 
 the northwest part of the island, 10 miles from 
 the sea, contains 3000 houses, and is the resi- 
 dence of a Sultan, formerly the sovereign of 
 the entire island. 
 
 BORNOU, a kingdom of Central Africa, 
 bounded N. by Kanein and the desert, east by 
 lake Tchad, south by Mandara, and west by 
 Soudan. The seasons are divided into dry and 
 rainy. The heat is occasionally excessive. The 
 country contains 13 large and well-built towns. 
 The Shouaas are Arabians, arrogant, and de- 
 ceitful ; the Bornou people have negro features, 
 and are timorous and addicted to pilfering. The 
 government is in the hands of the powerful 
 sheikh of the Koran. The domestic and wild 
 animals are numerous. The minerals are un- 
 important. Strips of cotton pass current in the 
 country instead of coin. 
 
 BORROMEI ISLANDS (hole dei Conigli 
 or Rabbit Isles) are four small islands in Lake 
 Maggiore in Upper Italy. The lake is 30 miles 
 long, and 7 or 8 broad. The islands are loaded 
 with artificial ornaments, and luxurious groves. 
 In 1671 Viteliano Borromeo caused garden-soil 
 to be spread over the naked rocks, and terraces 
 to be walled up. Isola Bella is near the shore, 
 and contains a splendid palace, the occasional 
 dwelling-place of Count Borromei. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, Edward, a British admiral. 
 He particularly distinguished himself, at the 
 taking of Porto Bello, and the siege of Car- 
 thagena. He also signalized himself under 
 Anson, off Cape Finisterre ; and at the taking 
 of Madras, Cape Breton, and Louisburg. He 
 died in 1761, having received in succession all 
 the honors of his profession. 
 
 BOSNIA, a Turkish province, with the title 
 of kingdom, which is bounded north by Sclavo- 
 nia, east by Servia, south by Dalmatia and the 
 Adriatic Sea, and west by Croatia. It contains 
 85,000 inhabitants, two thirds Christians, and 
 one third Turks, besides Jews and Gipsies. 
 The soil is fertile, the cattle fine, and the iron 
 of the mountains extensively used in the man- 
 ufacture of guns and sword-blades. In the 12th* 
 and 13th centuries, Bosnia belonged to Hungary. 
 In 1339, Stephen, king of Servia, took it! It 
 gained its independence, but in 1401, became 
 tributary to the Turks, and in 1463, was con- 
 quered by Mohammed V, who caused its last 
 king, Stephen I, to be flayed alive. It has since 
 remained part of the Turkish dominions. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, an ancient kingdom, called 
 
 from the straits on both sides of which it was 
 situated. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, bishop of 
 Meaux, born at Dijon. 1627, became one of the 
 most celebrated ecclesiastics of the 18th cen- 
 tury. He was pious, severe in doctrine and 
 practice, eloquent, and learned. He died in 
 1704. 
 
 BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, and 
 largest city of the New-England States. It is 
 situated at the bottom of Massachusetts bay, at 
 the mouth of Charles river; Ion. 71° 4' W. ; 
 lat. 42° 22' N. Population (in 1840) 93,383. 
 Its extent, inclusive of the peninsula of South 
 Boston, is nearly three square miles. The 
 harbor is capacious and gemmed with many 
 islands, some of which are fortified. The bridg- 
 es, with a single exception, are of wood ; the 
 dam leading from the western part of the city 
 to Roxbury. being of stone and earth. Two 
 of the bridges are free, and the rest are sup- 
 ported by tolls. The streets are quite narrow 
 and irregular, although improvements are rapid- 
 ly making in their condition wherever prac- 
 ticable. Many of the houses are built of brick, 
 some wholly of hammered granite, and some of 
 both these materials. Few recent buildings are 
 of wood. The state-house, on a hill which com- 
 mands a view of the city and its environs, is a 
 large building of brick, and contains a fine mar- 
 ble statue of Washington, executed by Chantry. 
 Other public buildings are the county Court- 
 House built of stone, Faneuil Hall, called " the 
 Cradle of Liberty," from the public meetings 
 held there previous to the revolution ; the Mas- 
 sachusetts General Hospital, the Faneuil Hall 
 Market, various churches and school-houses, a 
 house of industry, a house of correction, a 
 county jail, and three theatres. Tremont Ho- 
 tel is one of the finest specimens of architec- 
 ture in the city. 
 
 The city is divided into twelve wards; the 
 municipal government is vested in a mayor, 
 eight aldermen, and a common council of for- 
 ty-eight members. Measures of a legislative 
 character are adopted by a concurrent act of 
 the board of aldermen and common council, 
 while the executive functions are exercised 
 by the mayor and aldermen. These officers 
 are chosen annually by the citizens voting in 
 their wards. The city charter is of recent 
 origin, bearing the date of 1821. There is a po- 
 lice court of three justices, before whom minor 
 offences are tried, while a single judge holdp 
 the municipal court, which has jurisdiction over 
 all criminal cases, tried by jury, which are not 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BOS 
 
 125 
 
 BOS 
 
 capital. The annual expenses amount to about 
 300,000 dollars. The public schools are under 
 the care of a school committee, consisting of 
 the mayor and aldermen and twelve members, 
 annually chosen by the citizens. The library 
 of the Boston Athenasum contains about 30,000 
 volumes. Boston contains numerous literary, 
 scientific, and charitable societies. It is the 
 second commercial city of the United States. 
 The goods imported annually amount to about 
 $ 13,000,000. and the exports to about $9,000,- 
 000. The common is the principal public 
 square. It is surrounded by the mall, a hand- 
 some gravelled walk, fenced in, and shaded with 
 fine elm trees, and contains about fifty acres. 
 The periodicals of Boston have attained a high 
 reputation, and are worthy of the literary char- 
 acter of the city. The North American Re- 
 view, a quarterly publication, is distinguished 
 for the candor and talent of its criticisms, and 
 the ability with which it defends our institu- 
 tions and country, against the assaults which 
 are occasionally made by prejudiced foreigners. 
 Boston was founded in 1630. William Black- 
 stone was the first settler. It was called by the 
 Indians Shawmut, and by the early colonists 
 Tri-mountain, from its three prominent hills. 
 The first church was built in 1632. The Mid- 
 dlesex canal, leading from Charles river to the 
 Merrimack, and thus forming a navigable chan- 
 nel to Concord in New Hampshire, was, until 
 recently, the only means of transportation to 
 and from the interior, with the exception of the 
 common roads. There have now been com- 
 menced and partly finished, a rail-road from 
 Boston to Lowell, one to Worcester, and one to 
 Providence, in the state of Rhode Island. From 
 the year 1783, the population has doubled once 
 in about 23 years. In the reign of Charles II, 
 the charter of Massachusetts was declared for- 
 feited by a decree of the Court of Chancery, and 
 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed the first 
 royal governor. In April, 168'.), the Bostonians 
 seized upon the governor and imprisoned him, 
 having first taken possession of the fort, and 
 castle in the harbour. In a little more than a 
 month afterwards, the news of the revolution in 
 England, was welcomed in Boston with general 
 exultation. In 1 765, when the obnoxious stamp 
 act passed, the person appointed to distribute the 
 stamps, was compelled to decline the office, and 
 the house of the lieutenant-governor was de- 
 stroyed by the mob. On the breaking out of these 
 tumults, which appeared to threaten the down- 
 lal of authority, Boston was forced to receive 
 a large military and naval force, which it was 
 
 thought would quell the spirit of insubordina- 
 tion. 
 
 The citizens regarded the soldiers with little 
 favor, and they only wanted a pretext to show 
 their hostility openly. March 5th, 1770, a ser- 
 geant's guard in King (now State) street, being 
 pressed upon and pelted by the mob, fired and 
 killed five men. After the tax had been im- 
 posed on tea, the Americans resolved, if pos- 
 sible, to prevent the landing and sale of it. 
 When three of the tea ships arrived, December 
 16, 1773, a party of men disguised as Indians, 
 went on board and threw all the tea overboard. 
 In the following spring, the port of Boston was 
 closed by act of Parliament, and the impor- 
 tation and exportation of goods prohibited. The 
 general court held its sittings in Salem, and 
 more troops together with a military governor, 
 were sent to Boston. In 1775, after the battles 
 of Lexington and Bunker Hill, British troops, 
 to the number of 10,000 men, were besieged in 
 Boston, until the March following. During 
 this siege the inhabitants suffered greatly, for 
 many who wished to leave the town were not 
 permitted to do so, but forced to stay against 
 their will, and treated as lories by the Ameri- 
 can army on their entrance. The British offi- 
 cers amused themselves by acting plays in 
 Faneuil Hall, the " cradle of liberty," being 
 fitted up tastefully on the occasion. General 
 Burgoyne wrote a farce called the Boston Block- 
 ade, in which the yankees were severely satiri- 
 zed, and a happy triumph of the royal arms 
 predicted. The sarcasms on the weakness of 
 the Americans with which this piece was inter- 
 spersed, received a curious commentary in the 
 frequent explosions of the shells which were 
 thrown into the town by the besiegers. A can- 
 non ball entered the tower of Brattle street 
 church, where it is still preserved. Boston was 
 distinguished for its early adherence to the 
 cause of liberty, and was the birth-place of sev- 
 eral of the most talented and uncompromising 
 enemies of despotism. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, the friend and biogra- 
 pher of Johnson, was a native of Scotland, and 
 studied at the universities of Glasgow and 
 Utrecht. He was born at Edinburgh, in 1740, 
 and died in 1795. He was acquainted with 
 many eminent literary men, and his introduc- 
 tion to Johnson he calls the most important 
 event, of his life. His life of Johnson is accu- 
 rate and minute, abounding with literary anec- 
 dote and personal detail, it was first published 
 in 1790, and has since been repeatedly re-print- 
 ed. The late edition, edited by Croker, is the 
 most valuable. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BOU 
 
 126 
 
 BOU 
 
 BOSWORTH, a small town of Leicester 
 county, England, in the vicinity of which is 
 Bosworth field, memorable for the battle fought 
 here in 1458, between Richard III and the earl 
 of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII, in which 
 the latter was victorious, and Richard, after hav- 
 ing performed prodigies of valour, and cloven 
 from helm to heel two of Richmond's standard- 
 bearers, thus disproving the tale of his withered 
 arm. was finally slain. The brows of Rich- 
 mond were encircled on the field of battle with 
 the diadem which was stricken from the casque 
 of Richard. This battle ended the bloody con- 
 tentions of the rival roses, the red and white 
 badges of York and Lancaster. 
 
 BOTHNIA, East and West, provinces be- 
 longing, the former to Russia, and the latter to 
 Sweden. East Bothnia contains 70,000 in- 
 habitants, and previous to 1809, belonged to 
 Sweden. West Bothnia contains 56,000 in- 
 habitants, is tolerably fertile, but subject to sud- 
 den frosts. 
 
 BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, earl of, re- 
 markable in the history of Scotland, for his 
 connexion with queen Mary, and his supposed 
 share, at least, in the murder of Henry Darn- 
 ley, her husband. When that unfortunate 
 prince was blown up in the house where he 
 slept, suspicion fell strongly on Bothwell and 
 the queen. Bothwell was tried, but nothing 
 could be fixed on him, and he was acquitted. 
 After this he seized Mary near Edinburgh, and 
 carried her prisoner to Dunbar castle, where 
 they were married. During these iniquitous 
 proceedings, Bothwell procured a divorce from 
 his wife. Mary soon after created him earl of 
 Orkney. But a confederacy among the lords 
 being formed against him, he retired to the Ork- 
 neys, and from thence to Denmark, where he 
 died in 1577, confessing it is said his own guilt, 
 and the queen s innocence of Darnley's murder. 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, was born at Philadel- 
 phia, May 2d, 1740. He became eminent at 
 the bar, was chosen member of Congress in 
 1777, and its president in 1782. For six years 
 he was in the house of representatives, and for 
 a few years director of the U. S. mint. He 
 made munificent donations to the American 
 Bible Society, of which he became president. 
 He died at the age of eightr-two, in 1821. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, Marshal ee, was born in 1644, 
 and died in 1711. His defence of Namur, in 
 1695, cost the allies 20,000 men. Louis XIV 
 sent him an order commanding him to surren- 
 der, but he concealed it till he had no longer 
 the means of defence. 
 
 BOUILLE, Francois Claude Amour, Mar- 
 quis de, a French loyalist general, who, among 
 other services, suppressed a dangerous insur- 
 rection at Metz, and assisted Louis XVI in his 
 attempt to escape from France. For his avowal 
 of this transaction, a price was set upon his 
 head, whereupon he took a commission in the 
 Swedish service. He died in 1800. 
 
 BOURBON, the royal house of the kings of 
 France, who obtained the throne in the person 
 of Henry IV, in 1590. The kings of this house 
 were Henry IV, Louis XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, 
 XVII, XVIII, and Charles X. The Bourbon 
 family obtained the kingdom of Spain, in the 
 person of Philip V (of Anjou), and maintained 
 themselves in possession after a long and bloody 
 war, called the war for the Spanish succession. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, duke of, or Constable 
 of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, count of Montpen- 
 sier, and Clara of Gonzaga, born in 1489. At 
 the age of twenty-six. he received the sword of 
 Constable from Francis I, and distinguished 
 himself at Marignano, but soon after fell into 
 disgrace. On this, he associated with Charles V, 
 and the king of England, against his sovereign. 
 The plot being discovered, he fled into Italy, 
 and was beyond the territories of France, when 
 Francis sent to demand the swoid which he wore 
 as constable, and the badge of his order. In 
 the words of his reply, we may trace the deep 
 anguish of his heart — " The king deprived me 
 of my sword at Valenciennes when he gave the 
 command of the vanguard to d'Alencon : the 
 badge of my order I left under my pillow at 
 Chantelles." He became commander-in-chief 
 of the imperial troops in Italy, but was killed in 
 the successful assault on Rome, May 2d, 1527. 
 He fell, it is said, by a shot fired by Benvenuto 
 Cellini. He died excommunicated, in the 38th 
 year of his age. 
 
 BOURBON, isle of, an island in the Indian 
 ocean, about 400 miles east of Madagascar. It 
 contains 17,000 whites, 6,000 free negroes, and 
 60,000 slaves. It is productive, but suffers from 
 the want of good harbours. Its origin is sup- 
 posed to be volcanic. Le Fiton de jYeige, or the 
 Snowy Spike, is a mountain which rises to the 
 height of about 10,000 feet above the level of 
 the sea. The isle of Bourbon, which is 48 
 miles long, and 36 broad, was discovered by 
 Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1545, and called 
 after his name ; but the French, who gained 
 possession of it in 1649, gave it its present name. 
 After remaining for a time in the hands of the 
 English, it was restored to the French in 1815. 
 
 BOURBONNA1S, a former province of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 BOY 
 
 127 
 
 ROY 
 
 France, lying between the Nivernais, Berry, 
 and Burgundy, forming the present department 
 of Allier. 
 
 BOURDEAUX, the chief city in the French 
 department of the Gironde, lying on the left 
 bank of the Garonne, and containing 100,000 
 inhabitants. It is a city of great antiquity, and 
 distinguished for its gloomy splendor. It has 
 nineteen gates, and some magnificent cathe- 
 drals. It annually exports 100,000 hogsheads 
 of wine, and 20,000 of French brandy. With 
 the exception of Nantes, it has the greatest 
 share in the American and French trade of any 
 other city. Its academy of sciences has a lib- 
 rary of 55,000 volumes. The Romans called 
 this place Burdigala. In the 5th century it 
 was in the hands of the Goths, and pillaged and 
 burned by the Normans. When Louis VII mar- 
 ried Eleanora, daughter of the last duke of Gui- 
 enne, it fell into the hands of the French. When 
 the princess was repudiated, it came into the 
 hands of the duke of Normandy , afterwards king 
 of England, her second husband. It was restor- 
 ed to France under Charles VII, in 1451. Dur- 
 ing the revolution it was devastated by the ter- 
 rorists, as being the seat of the Girondists. Bo- 
 naparte's continental system bore heavily upon 
 the trade of the inhabitants of Bourdeaux, and 
 accordingly they willingly declared themselves 
 in favor of the Bourbons, March 12th, 1814. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, governor of Massachu- 
 setts, was born at Boston, in 1727, graduated at 
 Cambridge, 1745, elected member of the gen- 
 eral court in 1753, and a member of the coun- 
 cil in 1756. In 1778, he was chosen president 
 of the convention which framed the Massachu- 
 setts constitution. In 1785, being chosen gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts, he quelled an insurrec- 
 tion without a blow. He died at Boston, in 
 1790. Such was his reputation for learning, 
 that he was honored with the degree of L. L. 
 D. by the university of Edinburgh, and admitted 
 member of the royal societies of Dublin, Lon- 
 don, and other places. 
 
 BOYER, Jean Pierre, a mulatto, president 
 of the island of Hayti, was born in Port an 
 Prince, about 1780. After the death of Le- 
 clerc, he joined the party of Petion, and was 
 finally named by him his successor in the presi- 
 dency. When the revolution broke out in 1820, 
 in the northern part of the island, he was invi- 
 ted to command the insurgents, and upon the 
 union of the northern and southern parts of the 
 island on the death of Christophe, and the rev- 
 olution in the eastern part, he became master of 
 the whole island. 
 
 BOYLE, Robert, a celebrated natural philos- 
 opher, born at Lismore, in Ireland, 1627, was 
 seventh son of Richard, the great earl of Cork. 
 He was one of the first members of a learned 
 society, formed in 1645, under the name of the 
 Philosophical College, and afterwards continued 
 under the name of the Royal Society. He made 
 numerous chemical experiments, which led to 
 some important results. But it is chiefly as a 
 pious and benevolent man that he is interesting 
 to us. Having conceived doubts of the authen- 
 ticity of revealed religion, he devoted himself 
 to a severe course of study, until he was fully 
 convinced of its truth. He instituted public 
 lectures for the defence of Christianity, sup- 
 ported the cause of the mission in India, and, 
 at his own expense, printed Irish and Gaelic 
 translations of the Bible. He died in London, 
 in 1691. 
 
 BOYNE, battle of the, was fought on the 1st 
 of July, 1690, between William III, at the head 
 of a Protestant army, and James II at the head 
 of a Catholic and French force. The latter 
 were totally defeated ; marshal Schomberg was 
 killed. After this battle' James re-embarked 
 for Fiance, and William completed the reduc- 
 tion of Ireland, by the capture of Limerick, after 
 a protracted siege. The impetuous imbecility 
 of the unfortunate bigot James II, served only 
 to hasten the ruin, which public opinion had so 
 deservedly prepared for himself and his family 
 It was the Irish, who, during the dark fortunes 
 of this last of the Stuarts, clung to him, when all 
 else deserted him. They "manned his navy, 
 recruited his army, replenished his coffers, and 
 took their stand around his person on their na- 
 tive soil ; and when they saw him the first to 
 fly, they still erected his torn standard, and 
 rallied in his cause, paying the penalty of 
 their generous but misapplied devotion to a 
 bigot and a tyrant, by utter ruin, and eternal 
 exile. 
 
 When James, after his flight from the battle 
 of the Boyne, arrived in Dublin, he had the in- 
 gratitude and ungraciousness to reflect upon 
 the cowardice of the Irish. He reached the 
 castle late at night, and was met at its gates by 
 the lady lieutenant, the beautiful duchess of 
 Tirconnel, " La Belle Jennings," of Gram- 
 mont's Memoirs. In return for the sympathiz- 
 ing respects which marked her reception, the 
 king is said to have sarcastically complimented 
 her upon the " alertness of her husband's coun- 
 trymen." The high-spirited beauty replied, 
 "In that, however, your majesty has had the 
 advantage of them all." The king, in fact, was 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY! 
 
 BRA 
 
 128 
 
 BRA 
 
 among the first to arrive in the capital with the 
 news of his own defeat. 
 
 BRABANT, provinces of; North Brabant, 
 in the kingdom of the Netherlands, contains 352, 
 000 inhabitants, and South Brabant, in Belgium, 
 500,000. Brabant formed a duchy in the 7th 
 century For some ages it belonged to the 
 Frankish monarchy, and then was a German 
 fief. In 1005, the last duke dying, the duchy de- 
 volved on his brother-in-law, Lambert I, count of 
 Louvain. From him it came to Philip II, duke 
 of Burgundy, and afterwards to the emperor 
 Charles V. In the 17th century, the republic of 
 Holland took possession of the northern part 
 which was thence called Dutch Brabant. The 
 other part, belonging to Austria, was seized 
 upon by France in 1746. The peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle restored it, but, after falling again into 
 the hands of the French, it was ceded to France 
 by the treaties of Campo Formio and Lune- 
 ville, in 1701 and 1801. 
 
 BRADDOCK. Edward, major-general and 
 eommander in the British army, who, in 1755 
 marched against Fort du Quesne on the Ohio, 
 fell into an Indian ambuscade, was defeated and 
 slain. Washington, who had cautioned him in 
 vain, conducted the retreat in a masterly man- 
 ner. 
 
 BRAGANZA, a town of Portugal, made a 
 duchy in 1442. It gives its name to the royal 
 house of Portugal, of whom the first was John 
 IV, who conspired, as duke of Braganza, with 
 the Portuguese people in rendering them inde- 
 pendent of Spain, in 1640. 
 
 BRAMA, the first person in the Trinity, 
 or Trimurti, cf the Hindoos. Brama is the cre- 
 ator, Vishnu, the preserver, or redeemer, and 
 Siva, the destroyer. In the figures of this divin- 
 ity, he is represented with four heads and four 
 arms. He is gifted with great power, but is 
 himself created by the Eternal One. Some 
 believe that he dies annually, and rises again. 
 He is considered as the lawgiver and teacher 
 of India. 
 
 BRANDENBURGH, mark, or marquisate 
 of, one of the most extensive districts of Upper 
 Saxony. The sandy soil is best adapted to 
 grain. It is rich in many natural productions. 
 It includes Berlin (the capital), Potsdam, and 
 Frankfort, containing 15.800 square miles, 1,- 
 535,160 inhabitants, and 150 towns. The 
 Suevi, first, and then the Sclavonians inhabited 
 it. The latter were barbarians, but, in the 
 10th century, were conquered by Henry I, and 
 converted to Christianity. The margraves of 
 Brandenburgh raised themselves to be dukes of 
 
 Prussia. The mark passed through various* 
 hands, till in the fifteenth century it came into 
 those of the ancestors of the present royal fam- 
 ily of Prussia. The elector, Frederick Wil- 
 liam, enlarged it by the annexation of several 
 towns and districts. The old Mark, having 
 been ceded to Napoleon, in 1807, formed a 
 part of the kingdom of Westphalia, until 1814, 
 when it was restored to Prussia. Potsdam, 
 the capital of the province, contains 30,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 BRANDY WINE, a small river, taking its 
 rise in Pennsylvania, which, after a course of 
 forty-five miles, flowing through the state of 
 Delaware, joins the Christiana, two miles be- 
 low Wilmington. The Brandywine mills are 
 noted. But the river is known in history, 
 for a battle fought in its vicinity, September 
 11, 1777, between the British and Americans, 
 in which the latter sustained a defeat with a 
 loss of 000 in killed and wounded. 
 
 BRATTLEBOROUGH, a flourishing post- 
 town in Windham county, Vermont, on the 
 Connecticut, 41 miles north of Northampton. 
 Population, in 1840, 2,624. It contains tw T o 
 parishes, each having a pleasant village. There 
 are here an academy, a large printing establish- 
 ment, various manufactories, and a flourishing 
 trade. Here the Americans established fort 
 Dummer, in 1724, which w r as the first settle 
 ment made by them in Vermont. 
 
 BRAZIL, an extensive and rich country of 
 South America, bounded on the north by Ven- 
 ezuela, Guiana, and the Atlantic Ocean; east 
 and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and west 
 by Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces of 
 La Plata, Bolivia, and Peru. Its extent, from 
 north to south, is about 2,300 miles, and from 
 east to west, nearly 2,000 miles. With a terri- 
 tory somewhat larger than the whole of the 
 United States, possessing extraordinary wealth 
 and fertility, it is inhabited by but five millions 
 of people, exclusive of the Indians, concerning 
 whom little information has been acquired. 
 The different provinces are thus named : Per- 
 nambuco, Bahia, Minas Geraes, Rio Janeiro, 
 St. Paul, Rio Grande, Maranham, Para, Matto 
 Grosso, and Goyas. 
 
 Such was the division of Brazil in 1817 and 
 1818, but, in 1826, it was divided into eighteen 
 different provinces. Brazil contains some of 
 the largest rivers in the world ; the Amazon, To- 
 cantin, and San Francisco being the most promi- 
 nent. There is much variety of climate, but 
 generally it is healthy; and the salubrity of 
 the vast elevated plains is unequalled by that 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BRA 
 
 129 
 
 BRE 
 
 of any other region on the face of the globe. 
 The richness of its wood and water, the profu- 
 sion of its diamonds and gold, and its general 
 healthiness, make it the El Dorado of the ima- 
 gination. In the beds of the rivers are found to- 
 pazes, chrysoberyls, other precious stones, and 
 gold. The trees are of every description, 
 adapted to cabinet-work, ship-building, and 
 dyeing ; while coffee, oranges, sugar, tobacco, 
 indigo, and rice, are raised in abundance. 
 
 Brazil was discovered, April 24, 1500, by 
 Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who at first named it 
 Santa Cruz (the Holy Cross), but king Eman- 
 uel, the Portuguese sovereign, called it Bra- 
 zil, from the quantity of red wood which it 
 produced. The Portuguese at first undervalued 
 this country, and sent thither only criminals, 
 and the refuse of their population, but the Jews, 
 who had been banished to Brazil in 1548, hav- 
 ing successfully introduced the culture of the 
 sugar-cane, Thomas de Souza was sent over by 
 the court of Lisbon, and began to find some 
 good points about the country, although it had 
 not yielded the desired gold. After temporary 
 misfortunes, the colonists prospered, but the 
 Portuguese had to contend against nations 
 (France, Spain, and the United Provinces), 
 whose jealousy was aroused by the accounts 
 they heard of the richness and fertility of the 
 Portuguese possessions. The Dutch met with 
 great success in Brazil, but became the friends 
 of the Portuguese, when the latter shook off the 
 Spanish yoke and gained their independence. 
 They still retained the seven provinces they 
 had conquered, and hence arose the division of 
 the country into the Brazils; but a pecuniary 
 compensation induced them to resign their 
 claims to the Portuguese. The diamond mines 
 were not discovered till 1782. The prosperity 
 of Brazil has not been what it might be made 
 under an enlightened government. The con- 
 flicting interests of various bodies of its inhabi- 
 tants ; the unequal pressure of state burthens, 
 and other causes, have tended to weaken and 
 distract it. In J 806, the court of Portugal re- 
 moved here, but in 1821, the king returned to 
 Lisbon. Don Pedro, son of the king of Por- 
 tugal, then governed Brazil under the title of 
 emperor. But having abdicated in favor of his 
 infant son, Pedro II, he is now in Europe, and 
 the Brazilian government is conducted, durino- 
 the minority of the prince, by a council o? 
 regency. The army of Brazil was composed, 
 in 1824, of 30,000 regular troops, and 50,000 
 militia, in addition to a regiment of negroes. 
 The navy, two years later, consisted of 90 ships. 
 
 The revenue has been recently estimated at 
 $1 6,000,000. A large part of the population— 
 2,000,000 — are negro slaves, and many slaves 
 are yet constantly imported into this country. 
 The most cultivated part of the population are 
 the merchants of the maritime ports, the Euro- 
 peans and Creoles, forming the true aristocracy 
 of the country. The inhabitants are Roman 
 Catholics, with the exception of the independ- 
 ent native tribes, in the vast regions of the 
 interior. 
 
 BREDA, a fortress in Dutch Brabant, for- 
 merly of immense importance. It has sus- 
 tained several memorable sieges. In 1590, it 
 was taken by Maurice, prince of Orange, and 
 retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, in 
 1625, after a siege of 10 months. The French, 
 during the revolution, gained possession of it, 
 but it was abandoned by them in 1813. 
 
 BREMEN, a free city on the Weser, conspic- 
 uous in the Hanseatic league. The inhabitants 
 embraced Calvinism in 1562. It is pleasant and 
 prosperous, with a population of 38,000. 
 
 BRENNER, a high mountain of the Tyrol, 
 over which runs the road to Italy. In 1809, 
 the Tyrolese gallantly defended their rough 
 precipices against the French, and severely 
 harassed their march. 
 
 BRENNUS. Several chieftains of ancient 
 Gaul bore this name, which is said to have been 
 a title of dignity and honor. One, having 
 ravaged Lombardy and Tuscany, marched to 
 Rome, which he surrendered to plunder. The 
 garrison held out in the citadel, which would 
 have been taken at midnight by the foe, but for 
 the noise made by the sacred geese of Juno, that 
 were watchful even while the dogs slept. Bren- 
 nus was then offered a thousand pounds weight 
 of gold to spare the capital, and quit the territo- 
 ries of the republic. He threw into the scale 
 which held the weights, his sword and helmet, 
 haughtily exclaiming, " Wo to the vanquished." 
 The treaty was ended by the timely arrival of 
 the exiled Camillus, who refused the payment 
 of even a pound of gold as ransom. " Rome," 
 said he proudly, " is to liberate herself with 
 iron and not with gold." He gave battle to the 
 Gauls, and routed them, about 390 B. C. 
 
 BRESCIA, a city of Lombardy, containing 
 31,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures are, and 
 have long been extensive, and its soil is remark- 
 able for fertility. From the hands of the Vene- 
 tians, it fell into those of the French, and finally 
 the Austrians. Under the sway of the Venetian 
 republic, the inhabitants were unruly, although 
 particularly favored by government. In 1796, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BRI 
 
 130 
 
 BRI 
 
 as Bonaparte was quitting Brescia, the muni- 
 cipal officers, who accompanied him to the gate 
 of the city, said that the Brescians loved liberty 
 more than the rest of the Italians. " Yes," 
 said the general, sarcastically, " they love to 
 talk of it to their women." 
 
 BRESLAU, capital of Silesia, is situated on 
 the Ohlaw ; population, 83,860. More than 
 four thousand Jews reside here. The architec- 
 tural beauty of the city has been celebrated. 
 It contains 20 catholic churches, and 84 literary 
 institutions. Its commerce is considerable. 
 Here the Prussians were defeated by the Aus- 
 trians in 1757. 
 
 BREST, anciently Privates Portus, and Gc- 
 sobrivate, a French seaport in the department 
 of Finisterre, with a fine harbor constructed 
 by Cardinal Richelieu, in 1631. It is well for- 
 tified, and its dock-yards and magazines com- 
 mand admiration. It contains 25,865 inhabi- 
 tants. It was attacked in 1694 by a British 
 fleet and army, which were repulsed with a 
 loss of 1300 men and their commander. 
 
 BRIAREUS, a fabled giant, son of Uranus 
 and Terra, with 100 arms and 50 heads. 
 
 BRIENNE, a town in the department of 
 the Aube, at the academy of which Napoleon 
 learned the first principles of the military art. 
 Here it was that his power was maintained the 
 longest, and only fell with a convulsive struggle. 
 
 BRIGALIER, Abbe, lived during the reign 
 of Louis XIII. The superstitions of his time 
 are displayed by some passages in his life. He 
 was almoner to Mademoiselle de Montauban, 
 and spent 30,000 crowns to become an adept in 
 the magic art, without accomplishing his end. 
 Being with the court at Compiegne, a lady 
 who had purchased a piece of red silk, instead 
 of green, begged the Abbe to change it to the 
 color she wished. Rather than lose his repu- 
 tation as a magician, Brigalier bought a piece 
 of green silk and gave it to the lady, who was 
 astonished at his success, and forthwith circu- 
 lated the tale. By various tricks of legerde- 
 main, he maintained his credit as a sorcerer, so 
 that the archbishop of Paris gravely commanded 
 him to desist from his unhallowed occupations. 
 
 BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, Jean Pierre, a 
 prominent character in the history of the French 
 revolution, whose writings tended greatly to 
 bring monarchical power into disrepute. He 
 was the son of a pastry-cook, and was born in 
 1754. At the age of 30, he was imprisoned in the 
 Bastile, for a work which treated of prohibited 
 subjects. After numerous changes of action and 
 residence, which the nature of his works, and 
 
 the fluctuating state of his popularity rendered 
 necessary, having been engaged some time in 
 England, some time with the duke of Orleans, 
 and some time in America, he was at last guil- 
 lotined with his friends, by the faction of Rob- 
 espierre, in 1793. 
 
 BRISTOL, an important commercial city of 
 England, on the river Avon, with (in 1831) 
 103,889 inhabitants. Its distance west from 
 London is 117 miles. It is of great antiquity, 
 and was called by the ancient Britons Caer 
 Brito. The cathedral is part of a monastery, 
 founded by Stephen, in 1146. 
 
 BRISTOL, R,. I., is a pleasant and flourishing 
 sea-port town, capital of a county of the same 
 name, 15 miles south of Providence. It is a 
 place of considerable trade, with a population, 
 in 1830, of 3,054. It contains an academy, 
 public library, and 4 houses of public worship. 
 The Indians called it Pocanocket and Soicam. 
 
 BRITAIN (so called because the inhabitants 
 adorned their bodies with fait, paint), was little 
 known until the invasion of Julius Caesar, who 
 conducted his army into this country , on the pre- 
 text of punishing the Britons for the aid which 
 they had given to the Gauls, in 55 B. C. The 
 inhabitants were then ferocious and warlike, 
 clad in skins, and armed with clubs, and even 
 the iron-breasted Roman legions quailed at 
 first before the horrid front which the infu- 
 riated natives presented to their invaders. 
 The Romans kept possession of Britain 500 
 years, during which many improvements were 
 introduced, and the manners of the people be- 
 came assimilated to those of their conquerors. 
 This, however, was not effected without much 
 bloodshed. The Romans having, in the fifth 
 century, quitted Britain, to defend their other 
 territories, invaded by the Goths and Vandals, 
 the Britons were attacked by the Scots, and 
 sought the assistance of the Saxons and An- 
 gles. These defeated the Scots, but made 
 themselves masters also of the kingdom, and 
 gave it the name of Anglia, or England. Eng- 
 land was divided, by the Saxons, into seven dis- 
 tinct kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, 
 some of which were established in the fifth, and 
 others in the sixth century ; most of thern con- 
 tinued till 800, when Egbert reigned alone. 
 
 The states generally acknowledged the supe- 
 riority of one monarch, called the king of Brit- 
 ain. The kingdom of Kent contained only that 
 county : it began in 455, and ended in 827. 
 South Saxony contained Sussex and Surrey : be- 
 gan 491, ended about 600. West Saxony con- 
 tained Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Wilt- 
 
Briton Romanized 
 
Richard III. 
 
 A Soldier of 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Lady and Gentleman 
 in time of Henry VI. 
 
 Lady and Gentleman in dress 
 of Queen Mary's Reign. 
 
 Sea Captain in time I Lady during the | A Cavaliev. 
 of Charles I. Commonwealth. 
 
 Charles I. and his Queen. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BRI 
 
 131 
 
 BRI 
 
 shire, Hampshire, and Berkshire : began 519, 
 ended 1060. East Saxony contained Essex, 
 Middlesex, and part of Hertfordshire : began 
 527, ended 747. Northumberland contained Lan- 
 cashire, Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, 
 Northumberland, and part of Scotland, as far as 
 Edinburgh Frith : began 547, ended about 729. 
 East Anglia, contained Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
 Cambridgeshire : began 575, ended 973. Mercia, 
 or, the Middle kingdom, contained Gloucester- 
 shire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Warwick- 
 shire, Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, Northamp- 
 tonshire, Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Bed- 
 fordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Staf- 
 fordshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Ches- 
 hire, and part of Hertfordshire : began 582, 
 ended 827. These several kingdoms, at the 
 dates specified, were merged in those of their 
 more powerful neighbors. 
 
 England, from 653, suffered many invasions 
 from the Danes, who several times made them- 
 selves masters of it. They were finally expell- 
 ed (1041), and the Saxon government restored 
 in the person of Edward the Confessor. Dur- 
 ing this time flourished Canute, Harold, and 
 Hardicanute. in 1066, the Normans, under 
 William the Conqueror, obtained possession of 
 the kingdom, having defeated the English under 
 Harold, in the battle of Hastings. By this cir- 
 cumstance, the whole moral and political con- 
 stitution of England underwent an important 
 change. The Norman principle of lordship and 
 vassalage was introduced and enforced, and it 
 was not until after some generations, that the 
 barons themselves, feeling the chain of passive 
 submission too galling, gave the first impulse to 
 that spirit, which burst the fetters of feudal- 
 ism. To the time of king John, the history of 
 England is little else than an account of the 
 acts of the kings done with a direct view to 
 acquire and sustain this unnatural authority. 
 The first William did almost nothing else. 
 His brother perished while hunting in the New 
 Forest, which his father had depopulated for 
 that amusement. Henry relaxed a little, as 
 well as Stephen, to support his usurpation. 
 Henry II employed his power advantageously 
 in his conquest of Ireland. King John, after 
 many feeble attempts at continued despotism, 
 was compelled, by the exasperated barons, to 
 sign what was afterwards called the Magna 
 Charta (Great Charter) ; which renounced some 
 of the most odious prerogatives of royalty , and 
 extended a moderate share of liberty to the 
 barons of the realm. John, however, involved 
 the nation, with himself, in odious submissions 
 12 
 
 to the pope, the influence of which it cost 
 England and her succeeding kings many strug- 
 gles to counteract. Civil liberty increased un- 
 der his successor, a weak and contemptible 
 prince, and the first traces of a house of com- 
 mons may be perceived in this reign. 
 
 By the military ardor of Robert, duke of 
 Normandy, the crown had been given up to the 
 second brother, in consideration of money ad- 
 vanced on his expedition to Palestine. On 
 Robert's attempt to recover it in the succeeding 
 reign, he was taken and confined for the re- 
 mainder of his life in Cardiff Castle. With 
 this exception, the history of England presents 
 little of importance in connection with its for- 
 eign policy, till Henry II provoked a war with 
 Scotland, in which their king, William, was 
 taken prisoner, and only re-obtained his crown 
 by doing homage for it as a vassal. This 
 reign was also distinguished by two great acqui- 
 sitions of territory ; Ireland by arbitrary con- 
 quest, and Guienne and Poitou by marriage. 
 During this period, however, the power of the 
 church of Rome had so increased as to over- 
 shadow the crown ; Thomas a Becket, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, evincing its arrogance 
 and determination to dictate in matters tem- 
 poral as well as spiritual. Some of the finest 
 counties in the north of England, were actu- 
 ally held by the Scotch, by the empty cere- 
 mony of vassalage. By the treachery of John, 
 Normandy was lost to the English crown, the 
 pope was constituted the virtual lord of his 
 dominions, and Lewis, prince of France, was 
 actually encouraged to assume the title. 
 
 The reign of Henry III was occupied in the 
 monarch's disputes with his barons, and extor- 
 tions from the Jews. The dependency of Scot- 
 land was confirmed by the violent imposition 
 of Baliol upon the throne, his subsequent con- 
 finement, and the decided overthrow of the 
 Scotch forces that opposed the English. All, 
 however, was recovered by the gallantry of 
 Robert Bruce. Edward III, by his successes 
 at Cressy and Poictiers, and that at Durham, 
 obtained for England much glory at much 
 expense, and two royal captives, but little solid 
 advantage, while the campaign in Spain occa- 
 sioned the death of the. Black Prince, and ulti- 
 mately that of his father in \ 377. In this reign, 
 and in one private individual, we find the 
 first dawn of the reformation. Wickliff, under 
 the protection of John of Gaunt, the king's 
 brother, began those denunciations of the papal 
 abuses, which, in the end, overthrew that cor- 
 rupt and foreign dominion in England. It was 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 BRI 
 
 132 
 
 BRI 
 
 during the absence of Richard II, in quelling 
 a disturbance in Ireland, that the people, vexed 
 with continual exaction, and offended at the 
 injustice of the king to his cousin, the duke of 
 Lancaster, invited the latter from banishment, 
 to control the operations of the king and his 
 advisers. He landed, usurped the crown, mur- 
 dered the king, quelled the insurrections conse- 
 quent, and captured the heir to the Scottish 
 throne. 
 
 The feats of his successor, Henry V, in gain- 
 ing the crown of France, and the reverses of 
 his son, who lost it, form the principal features 
 of their respective reigns ; except that to the 
 latter are to be added the civil contentions with 
 the deposed line for the possession of the throne, 
 their success, and the old king's murder. Rich- 
 ard III, who followed Edward IV and Edward 
 V of the house of York, was himself succeeded 
 by Henry VII, of the other line, who, by marry- 
 ing the daughter of Edward IV, united the two 
 houses. Henry VIII, though perhaps the great- 
 est tyrant that ever filled the English throne, 
 made a new era in the history of the country, 
 in its total emancipation from papal authority. 
 The power, however, of which he had deprived 
 the pope, he seized for himself, and was, at 
 least, as vigorous in its exercise. The next 
 reign ratified and enlarged his acts in favor of 
 the protestant religion ; and, although the bigot 
 Mary for a time rebound the chains, and rekin- 
 dled the fires of persecution, the reformation 
 was too firmly established to be overthrown, 
 and her successor, Elizabeth, settled it upon 
 a foundation, which will endure as long as the 
 conviction of its necessity exists. 
 
 During all this time, from the death of Ed- 
 ward III, the foreign relations of England, 
 though continually fluctuating, were never con- 
 siderably changed. Henry VIII, in league with 
 the pope and the emperor, made some con- 
 quests in France, and his generals defeated and 
 slew James IV, of Scotland, at Flodden-field ; 
 and, in his successor's reign, an expedition into 
 that country was executed at the desire of the 
 late king, on a fruitless expedition to induce 
 the Scots to marry the princess Mary to Ed- 
 ward V. In the reign of Mary, Calais was lost 
 by treachery. Elizabeth intrigued with Scot- 
 land, but fought with Spain. Her defence of 
 her kingdom against the celebrated Armada, in 
 1588, would of itself, stamp her reign with 
 glory. The attack on Cadiz by the earl of 
 Essex, was eminently successful, and the other 
 enterprises of her admirals were very conside- 
 rable. She also supported the protestants of 
 
 Germany against Austria, and the Dutch against 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 On Elizabeth's death, the English and Scottish 
 crowns became united in the person of James I, a 
 vain and pedantic prince. The imprudence of 
 his son and successor, Charles I, brought him to 
 the scaffold in 1648, and a republican form of 
 government was established under the protector, 
 Oliver Cromwell. During this period, however, 
 England maintained a high rank in the scale of 
 nations, and Cromwell showed himself as well 
 qualified to govern as to gain. The usurpation 
 was perhaps a harsh medicine to the constitu- 
 tion, but its operation was short, and its effects 
 even salutary. Charles II was restored in 1GG0. 
 The people of England by this time understood 
 the rights of the subject, as well as the duties 
 of the monarch, and when James II attempted 
 to rule absolutely, and to overthrow the religion 
 of the country, a bloodless revolution forced 
 him to abdicate the throne, and set upon it his 
 son-in-law, William, an avowed Protestant. 
 The liberties of the people took deeper root by 
 his confirmation of their bill of rights. In this 
 reign an expedition, headed by the king, was 
 sent out to reduce Ireland, and a war waged 
 with France, not generally successful, but in 
 which there appeared some brilliant sparks of 
 enterprise, and one or two fair incidents of good 
 fortune. It was in the reign of his successor, 
 Anne, that the age of English chivalry seem- 
 ed to revive, and the military mania of the two 
 rival nations to be renewed. The valor and skill 
 of Marlborough triumphed over the most splen- 
 did arrays of military might under Louis XIV. 
 Germany was saved, Gibraltar taken, and Dun- 
 kirk ceded, in a course of victories as brilliant 
 as any which the pen of the historian records. 
 It was also in this memorable reign that the 
 union of Scotland with England took place. 
 
 The succession of the house of Hanover now 
 took place. The short reign of George I was 
 principally noted for its domestic and foreign 
 inquietude. The reign of George II was dis- 
 tinguished by the battle of Dettingen, fought by 
 the king in person ; the defeat of the pretender ; 
 the military contests with France ; the naval 
 triumphs over that kingdom and Spain; the cap- 
 ture of Goree in Africa, and the conquest of 
 French America. The most important feature 
 of the reign of George III, was the loss of 
 America, produced by the odious tyranny of 
 England. After a struggle of eight years, in 
 which she saw her vast armies and fleets de- 
 feated by the bravery of a nation of patriots, 
 Great Britain was compelled to relinquish her 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BRI 
 
 133 
 
 BRI 
 
 colonies, and acknowledge their independence. 
 The peace of Europe, which had been settled at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, was now broken by the diffe- 
 rent powers siding with the combatants, and thus 
 England was at once involved in war with 
 France, Spain, and Holland, while the dissen- 
 sions of party at home increased to an alarming 
 height. The war was, however, concluded by a 
 treaty with those powers in 1783. The war 
 of the French revolution forms actually a sec- 
 ond period of this reign. The first direct in- 
 terference on the part of the British, was in two 
 unsuccessful expeditions under the duke of York 
 and Sir S. Hood, and in the capture of some 
 French West India islands, and of Pondicherry 
 in India. In the latter country very great ad- 
 vantages were acquired over the natives ; Tip- 
 poo Sultan was entirely defeated and killed, and 
 Seringapatam captured. 
 
 France, having disposed of her continental 
 enemies, began to act on the offensive, and un- 
 dertook an invasion of Ireland, seven ships 
 of the line having, with that intent, anchored in 
 Bantry Bay. The war in the mean time had di- 
 vided the sentiments of the people, and strong 
 dissatisfaction was manifested by the revolution- 
 ary party. The ministers were firm in their 
 measures, and the king's life was put in danger 
 on his going to parliament. Two attempts at 
 negotiation failed, and the internal difficulties 
 were increased by the stoppage of the bank, the 
 mutiny of the fleet, and the menace of rebellion 
 in Ireland. The first evil was palliated, but the 
 two last were not suppressed without much 
 bloodshed. The intentions of the French were, 
 however, defeated ; 1800 men who had landed 
 in Ireland, surrendered, and the English fleet re- 
 covered its reputation by a victory over the Span- 
 iards, and by the celebrated battle of the Nile, in 
 1798. These events having raised the spirits of 
 the continental powers, Austria, Russia, and 
 'Turkey joined England against France, while 
 Ireland was pacified by a show of much promise 
 which was to be effected by an union. The 
 allies were defeated at Marengo, with great 
 slaughter, and the English, at the request of the 
 grand Signior, agreed to evacuate Egypt, and 
 made an unsuccessful attempt upon the Boulogne 
 flotilla. Such was the state of things, when, in 
 1801, both countries found it convenient to con- 
 clude peace. 
 
 The war recommenced in 1803, by the loss on 
 the English side of Hanover, and the sei- 
 zure of the British in France, which was re- 
 taliated by the seizure of French vessels and 
 seamen. To oppose the increasing power of 
 
 the new French emperor, Mr. Pitt was chosen 
 minister. In the mean time the most advanta- 
 geous treaties had been concluded with the na- 
 tive states of India, and the French defeated by 
 lord Nelson in the great and decisive naval en- 
 gagement of Trafalgar, in 1805. Nelson, who 
 fell in the engagement, was honored with a 
 magnificent public funeral. This was the last 
 trophy of those great preparations, which Mr. 
 Pitt had made to support his system by the 
 overthrow of that of the French, an object which 
 in the sequel, they certainly accomplished. 
 Pitt died in 1800, and Mr. Fox, his great poli- 
 tical opponent and successor, in the same year. 
 During this period, the successes in other parts 
 had been partial ; but, at home, a triumph over 
 injustice and inhumanity was obtained in the ab- 
 olition of the slave-trade. The new ministry per- 
 sisting in pressing the Catholic claims, received 
 his majesty's intimation to resign. It was at 
 this juncture, in 1808, that Britain made herself 
 a party to reinstate the imbecile Bourbon of 
 Spain. The campaign was commenced by Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley (now lord Wellington), with 
 the repulse of Junot atVimeira; but the de- 
 feat and death of Sir John Moore, at Corunna, 
 followed. Though the English under Sir Ar- 
 thur Wellesley were still in force in Portugal, 
 and had obtained some advantages, they had to 
 contend equally with the weakness of the Span- 
 iards and the power of the French. They 
 therefore entrenched themselves behind their 
 lines at Torres Vedras. 
 
 Two expeditions of different fortune took 
 place at this time ; one to the south of Italy, and 
 the other to the island of Walcheren. Several 
 valuable captures in other parts were made. At 
 this period (1810), the insanity of the king in- 
 capacitated him from governing, and his son, 
 the dissipated prince of Wales, was appointed 
 regent. The war in Spain was still carried 
 on with determination, but with partial success. 
 The reorganization of the Spanish and Portu- 
 guese armies, and the reviving spirit of the 
 Cortes, changed the aspect of affairs. Meanwhile, 
 Russia. Prussia, and Sweden had entered into 
 alliance with England, who supplied them with 
 vast subsidies to support their armies. Holland, 
 also, by the assistance of England, had risen on 
 its masters, and Napoleon, pressed by the allies, 
 and having suffered immense losses in Rus- 
 sia, was obliged to give way, and armies en- 
 tered France on two sides. Lord Wellington, 
 proceeding through Spain, passed the Pyrenees 
 through almost unremitted conflict, invested 
 Bayonne, occupied Bourdeaux, defeated Soult 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BRI 
 
 134 
 
 BRI 
 
 before Toulouse, and there received the news of 
 the capture of Paris, and the cessation of hostil- 
 ities. Meanwhile England had been also en- 
 gaged in a war with America, which was prose- 
 cuted on the plea of her assumed right to search 
 our vessels for deserters. The treaty of peace 
 was signed at Ghent in 1814. 
 
 The next year Great Britain was again called 
 into active co-operation with the other confede- 
 rates, to depose Napoleon, who had returned in 
 triumph from Elba, and resumed the throne of 
 France without opposition. After the victory 
 at Waterloo, the allies entered Paris, and rein- 
 stated Louis XVIII on the throne, while Napo- 
 leon surrendered himself to an English ship, 
 and was sent to St. Helena, where he was de- 
 tained until his death, in 1820. The accession 
 of George IV, January 29, 1820, the trial and 
 death of queen Caroline, and the disturban- 
 ces at her funeral ; the scarcity and distress in 
 Ireland and England, are facts of equal interest 
 and notoriety. George IV died in 1830, and was 
 succeeded by his brother, William IV. who, as 
 duke of Clarence, had served for a long time in 
 the navy. The accession of the " sailor-king," 
 as he is popularly termed, was hailed with joy by 
 the friends of liberal principles, and the pro- 
 gress of parliamentary and popular reform, 
 is rapid. " The American mind," says an 
 intelligent writer, " appears to have already 
 achieved an entire victory over that of England, 
 even on English ground. The whole British 
 community, — the living, thinking, feeling, mov- 
 ing, acting mass denominated the Public, is 
 thoroughly penetrated, imbued, saturated, — if 
 we may use the expression, — with American 
 principles. They have already swept down the 
 Test and Corporation acts ; — the restraints on 
 the Catholics ; the bloodstained criminal code ; 
 colonial slavery ; the Chinese monopoly, and 
 above all, the old constitution of the House of 
 Commons. They are now fast undermining the 
 bank ;— the national debt ; — the church ; — the 
 peerage and the throne. They already carry 
 all before them in the House of Commons, the 
 real seat of the government, — occupy the minis- 
 terial benches, and thence issue their decrees, in 
 the name of the king. The great modern en- 
 gine for maintaining political influence, which 
 has been well described as a Fourth Estate, more 
 important and powerful than the other three 
 put together, — the press, — is almost wholly 
 with them. The adversar}^ still presents a feeble 
 show of resistance in the House of Lords, and 
 a few journals hang out here and there the grand 
 hailing sign of distress. It is even rumored 
 
 that the conqueror of Waterloo is buckling on 
 his rusty armor, and dreaming of a new ca- 
 reer of domestic conquest. But what can a few 
 gouty old gentlemen effect against the will of the 
 people ? Eyen Wellington, though backed by 
 the redoubtable Christopher North, would find 
 himself as powerless, in such a contest, as the 
 renowned knight of La Mancha and his squire, 
 in their encounter with the windmills." 
 
 England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with 
 the adjacent islands, form the United Kingdom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. The colonial de- 
 pendencies of Great Britain are of immense 
 importance, and found in every quarter of the 
 globe. The government is a limited monarchy, 
 the king being an hereditary sovereign. The 
 parliament, the legislative branch of govern- 
 ment, consists of the House of Lords, compos- 
 ed of hereditary peers, and a House of Com- 
 mons, which is elective. The navy of England 
 consists of nearly six hundred ships. The fleet ' 
 furnished by British ports with which Ed- 
 ward III besieged Calais, was composed of 748 
 vessels, manned by 14,056 sailors. The fleet 
 of Henry V, designed to invade France (1415), 
 consisted of 1500 vessels. The national debt 
 of England amounts to 780 millions sterling. 
 The climate of England is moist, but the soil 
 generally fertile, and the agricultural and min- 
 eral productions of the greatest importance. 
 Among the last are coal, copper, tin, and iron. 
 
 BRITAIN, dynasties of. 
 
 The following is the succession of sovereigns 
 under the Heptarchy and United Kingdom. 
 
 The kingdom of Kent contained only the 
 county of Kent; its kings were — 
 
 1 . Hengist, who began a. d. 454 
 
 2. Eske 488 
 
 3. Octa 512 
 
 4. Ymbrick 534 
 
 5. Kthelbert 568 
 
 6. Edbald 616 
 
 7. Ercornbert 64a 
 
 8. Egbert 664 
 
 9. Lothaire 673 
 
 10. Edrick 684 
 
 1 1 . With dred 685 
 
 10 I Kodbeit and ) 72 = 
 
 12 - j Ethelbert | t2 ° 
 
 J3. Ethelbert alone 743 
 
 14. Aldric 760 
 
 15. Elkebert Pren 794 
 
 16. Cudred 799 
 
 17. Baldred 805 
 
 Tt ended in 823, and its first Christian king was 
 Ethelbert. 
 
 The kingdom of South Saxony contained 
 the counties of Sussex and Surrey. 
 1. Ella began to reign a. d. 49' 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BRI 
 
 135 
 
 BRI 
 
 2. Cissa a.d. 514 
 
 3. Chevelin 590 
 
 4. Ceolwic 592 
 
 5. Ceoluph 597 
 
 6 IS 1 "' 63 , 11 I 611 
 
 °- I Quicelm \ 
 
 7. Canowalch 643 
 
 8. Adel wach 648 
 
 It ended in 685, and its first Christian king was 
 Adelwach. 
 
 The kingdom of East Saxony contained the 
 counties of Essex and Middlesex. 
 
 1. Erchenwin began to reign a. d. 527 
 
 2. Sledda 587 
 
 3. Sebert 598 
 
 ( Lexred ) 
 
 4. \ Seward > 616 
 
 ( Sigebert ) 
 
 5. Sigebert the Little 623 
 
 6. Sigebert the Good 653 
 
 7. Swithelme 655 
 
 8. Sighere and Sebbi 665 
 
 9. Sebbi 683 
 
 10-|Kr[d and | 694 
 
 11. Offa 700 
 
 12. Ceolfred 709 
 
 13. Suithred 746 
 
 14. Sigered 799 
 
 It ended in 827, and its first Christian king was 
 Sebert. 
 
 The kingdom of Northumberland contain- 
 ed Yorkshire, Durham, Lancashire, Westmore- 
 land, Cumberland, and IN orth umber land ; its 
 kings were — 
 
 1. Ella, or Ida, whose reign commenced a. d.547 
 
 2. Adda 559 
 
 3. Clappea 566 
 
 4. Theod wald 572 
 
 5. Fridulph 573 
 
 6. Theodorick 579 
 
 7. At helrick 586 
 
 8. Athelfrid 593 
 
 9. Edwin 617 
 
 10. Osric 633 
 
 11. Oswald 634 
 
 12. Oswy 643 
 
 13. Ethelward 653 
 
 14. Egfrid 670 
 
 15. Alkfrid 685 
 
 16. Osred 1 705 
 
 17. Cewred 716 
 
 18. Osrick 718 
 
 19. Ceoluphe 730 
 
 20. Egbert 737 
 
 21. Osswulph 758 
 
 22. Edilwald 759 
 
 23. Alured 765 
 
 24. Ethelred 774 
 
 25. Alswald I 779 
 
 26. Osred II 789 
 
 27. Ethelred restored 790 
 
 28. Osbald 796 
 
 29. Ardulph 797 
 
 30. Alfwald II 807 
 
 31. Andred 810 
 
 12* 
 
 It ended in 827, and its first Christian king was 
 Edwin. 
 
 The kingdom of Mercia contained the coun- 
 ties of Huntingdon, Rutland, Lincoln, North- 
 ampton, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Oxford, 
 Chester, Salop, Gloucester, Worcester, Staf- 
 ford, Warwick, Buckingham, Bedford, and 
 Hertford. 
 
 1. Creda began to reign a. d. 585 
 
 2. Wibba 595 
 
 3. Cheorlas 616 
 
 4. Peuda 625 
 
 5. Peada 656 
 
 6. Wolfhere 659 
 
 7. Ethelred 675 
 
 8. Keured 694 
 
 9. Ceolred 709 
 
 10. Ethelbald 716 
 
 11. Offa 757 
 
 12. Egfryd , 794 
 
 13. Cenolf 795 
 
 14. Rerelme 819 
 
 15. Ceol wolf 819 
 
 16. Burnulf 821 
 
 17. Ludecan 823 
 
 18. Whiglafe 825 
 
 It ended in 827, and its first Christian king was 
 Peada. 
 
 The kingdom of East Anglia contained the 
 counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and 
 the isle of Ely : its kings were — 
 
 1. Uffa who began to reign a.d. 575 
 
 2. Titillus 578 
 
 3. Red wald 599 
 
 4. Erpenwald 624 
 
 5. Sigebert 636 
 
 "•iSCj 644 
 
 7. Ethelhere 654 
 
 8. Ethwald 656 
 
 9. Adwulf 664 
 
 10. Alswald 683 
 
 11. Beorna and Ethelbert 749 
 
 12. Beorna alone 758 
 
 13. Ethelred 761 
 
 14. Ethelbert 790 
 
 It ended in 792, and its first Christian king was 
 Redwald. 
 
 The kingdom of West Saxony contained the 
 counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somer- 
 set, Wilts, Hants, and Berks. 
 
 1. Cedric began to reign a. d. 519 
 
 2. Kenrick 534 
 
 3. Cheroline 560 
 
 4. Ceolric 592 
 
 5. Ceoluph 598 
 
 6. Kingills and Q,uinthelin 611 
 
 7. Ceonowalch 643 
 
 8. Adelwalch 648 
 
 9. Sexburga 672 
 
 10. Censua, Esewin, and Centwin 674 
 
 11. Ceadwald 686 
 
 12. Ina 688 
 
 13. Adelard 726 
 
 14. Cudred 740 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BRI 
 
 136 
 
 BRO 
 
 15. Sigebert and Cenulph a. d. 754 the emperor Claudius, from Britain, Britanm- 
 
 17* Egbert k 800 cus ' *** s motner was t,je infamous Messalina. 
 
 t7 j j •" 000' ' * * 77 " 7 ' 1 7.7 '•* '.'""! *•" ' By the intrigues of Agrippina, the second wife 
 
 It ended in 828, and its first Christian king was J Claudius * he was po ^ so ^ dj ker having been 
 
 in => 1 s ' excluded from the succession. 
 
 the heptarchy united. BROOKLYN, a city of the state of New 
 
 Etherwolf" 7.7. '. *.t °. ' 837 York, in King's county, Long Island, separated 
 
 Ethelbald.7.777. ........ 777.7.77.77. 77. 7.7.857 from the city of New York by the East River. 
 
 Ethelbert II 860 The population of Brooklyn is rapidly increas- 
 
 Aif el rf Gd R79 * n £ w * tn i ts manufactures and trade. In 1840 
 
 Edw&rd'the Elder '//////////////.'.'.'.'. '.!'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.901 ** contained 36,221 inhabitants. At the com- 
 Athelstan 7777777! 7777.7.7*929 mencement of the present year Brooklyn re- 
 Edmund 940 ceived a city charter. The houses of recent 
 
 5-j red 947 date are spacious and elegant, and the heights 
 
 Edgar...... "" ".".".".*.'. 7.7. 7.7. 7.7. V.*. 7.7. V.". 7.7.7 972 which overhang the river and command a view 
 
 Edward the Martyr. .............. ".'.". .7.7.7.". .'. .7.975 of New York, are studded with neat and pretty 
 
 Ethelred II 979 dwellings, embowered in shrubbery and flowers. 
 
 q^H \ JJjJ The healthiness of Brooklyn, and its contiguity 
 
 BdmundfroMide.".*.7.*.*.*.*.".7.7. , .".7.7.7.7.".".7.V.".7lQ16 to New York, have tended to increase its popu-' 
 
 Harold 1036 lation largely within a few years. Between this 
 
 Hardicanute 1041 place and Flatbush, the Americans sustained a 
 
 Harofd II!^ disastrous defeatduring the war of the revolution. 
 
 BROOKS. John, a revolutionary officer and 
 
 since the conquest. eminent physician, born in Medford, Mass. 1752. 
 
 William the Conqueror 1066 His father was a farmer. After completing his 
 
 William Rufus ]087 r 1 . j- l '■ ■ j " '-iL j b iL 
 
 Henry j jjqq prolessional studies, he joined with ardor the 
 
 Stephen................ ............... ....... ...1135 army, and was among the first to fight for 
 
 Henry JI U54 the freedom of America. On the retreat of the 
 
 John 3 " 1 l 1J99 Britisn from Lexington, the company which he 
 
 Henry VlV...... ....... 7. 7. ......... .7.7.7. 7. 7. 7.1216 commanded had no small share in contributing 
 
 Edward 1 1272 to the annoyances of that humiliating flight. 
 
 Edward II , 1307 Brooks enjoyed the confidence and esteem of 
 
 R?chard Vi 1 .";;:.'::::;;;;:;;;;;;:;;.'''.*"";;;::;.'*!^ G ? neral Washington, and had a coioners com- 
 
 Henry IV. 7.7.7.7.7.7.7.7.7.7. .7.7.7. 7.7.7.7. ...1399 mission, when the army was disbanded, and he 
 
 Henry V 1413 retired to the practice of his profession. The 
 
 PH° ry Av 1422 ran k of major-general of militia was conferred 
 
 Edward V......7. 1483 u P on him, and he showed, in the insurrection 
 
 Richard III.. ............................ . .... .7.1483 °f 1786, that he had forgotten none of his for 
 
 Henry VII .1485 mer vigor and address. He was chosen to suc- 
 
 Sj nry 7\}} 1509 ceed Governor Strong, and died, highly respect- 
 Edward VI 1547 J A * J • 1 1, r-oj ' 6 /,. r 
 
 Mary I 1553 ed and esteemed, in the /3d year of his age, 
 
 Elizabeth.". .7.7.7.7. .7.7.7.7. .7.7. ...7.77. ... 7.7.1558 March, 1825. 
 
 James 1 1603 BROWN, Charles Brockden, a distinguished 
 
 cKin 1649 novelist 5 born in Philadelphia, in 1771 He was 
 
 James II.. ................ .... 7. 7. 7. ...... 7. 7.7l685 or igmally destined for the law, but the delicacy 
 
 Mary II '. . ................... '*1689 of his constitution and his natural timidity pre- 
 
 William III 1689 vented his pursuing a legal career. He was 
 
 George' I iru tne autnor °f several ni >vels, which possess a 
 
 George \i.. .........................'...I.'.'.'... ...iim fascinating power, although their scenes are 
 
 George III 1760 generally painful and unnatural. Arthur Mer- 
 
 Snr geI Yv 182 ° vyn and Ed £ ar H untl y are, perhaps, the best. 
 
 Victoria 1 ifW ^ rown edited several periodicals, and his literary 
 
 labors greatly impaired his health, and hasten- 
 ed the progress of the consumption of which he 
 
 BRITANNICUS Caesar, Tiberius Claudius died in 1809, at the age of 38. 
 
 Germanicus, called after the return of his father, BROWN, William, a native of Ireland, who 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BRU 
 
 137 
 
 BRU 
 
 came to the United States at the age of 14, in 
 J 793, and was for a long time engaged at sea 
 in the merchant service. After being captured 
 by the English, he found himself, in 1814, at 
 Buenos Ayres, in the command of a British 
 merchant ship. He immediately joined the re- 
 publican navy, and gained great fame by his 
 various daring exploits. 
 
 BROWNE, Maximilian Ulysses, count, a 
 soldier of the imperial army, finally field-mar- 
 shal of Austria. Between 1745 and 1757 he 
 ran a career of glory. He died of wounds re- 
 ceived at the battle of Prague, 1757. 
 
 BRUCE, James, a native of Scotland, born 
 1730, distinguished himself by his travels in 
 Africa. He died in 1794. He claims the hon- 
 or of having been the first European who be- 
 held the sources of the Nile. His veracity has 
 been often doubted, but his accounts have been 
 confirmed by more recent travellers. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, the competitor of Baliol for 
 the crown of Scotland. He regarded Wallace, 
 the celebrated Scottish warrior and patriot, as 
 an ambitious man, whose acts were only dic- 
 tated by self-interest. He accordingly fought 
 beneath the banners of England, on the field 
 of Falkirk. After that eventful battle, Wal- 
 lace had a meeting with him on the banks of 
 Carron, and convinced him of the elevation of 
 his views. Bruce, softened even to weeping, 
 swore to espouse the cause of his country. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, son of the preceding, was 
 one of the Scotch nobles in the train of Edward 
 I, when he returned to London in 1305, exult- 
 ing in his successes over the Scotch. A con- 
 spiracy was formed to place Bruce on the 
 throne, and, through imminent danger, he es- 
 caped to Scotland, and raised the standard of 
 his country. Defeated, his wife a prisoner, his 
 three brothers hanged, it was thought that he 
 himself had yielded up his life. But he had 
 only retired for a season, and, reappearing, he 
 put himself at the head of a brave army, and 
 was completely victorious at Bannockburn, 
 June 24, 1314. This victory decided the inde- 
 pendence of his country. After his claim had 
 been again disputed by the English, Edward 
 III confirmed the independence of the Scottish 
 crown, by renouncing all claims to it in 1329. 
 The haughty spirit of the Scottish nobles is well 
 illustrated in the following anecdote. When, 
 in consequence of their encroachments on the 
 lands of the king and commons, they were re- 
 quired by Bruce to show their titles to their 
 possessions, they'drew their swords, and cried ; 
 " We purchased them, not with gold, but iron ; 
 
 and these are the instruments by which we 
 hold them." 
 
 BRUNN, capital of Moravia, and of the 
 circle of Brunn, a manufacturing place, with a 
 population of 33,000. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Frederick William, duke 
 of, born in 1771. He joined the war against 
 France in 1806, and continued, throughout his 
 life, the determined enemy of Napoleon. His 
 black Brunswickers, so called from their dress 
 and equipments being entirely black, held out 
 upon the continent as long as resistance was of 
 any avail, and finally their duke retired to Eng- 
 land. In 1815, he again appeared in arms, and 
 fell at Quatre-bras, on the 16th of June. His 
 death was atoned for by the bravery of his 
 black huzzars. 
 
 BRUSSELS, the capital of the kingdom of 
 Belgium, with a population of 106,000. It is a 
 pleasant city, and was held by the French from 
 1794 to 1814. It is distinguished for its build- 
 ings, its canals, its fountains, and its manufac- 
 tories The carpets made here are highly val- 
 ued. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, a celebrated Ro- 
 man. He was the son of Marcus Junius by a 
 daughter of Tarquin the Elder. When his father 
 and brothers were beheaded by Tarquin, Bru- 
 tus saved himself by feigning idiocy, whence 
 his surname, signifying the Brute, was given 
 him. He continued this appearance until Lu- 
 cretia killed herself in consequence of the vio- 
 lence of Sextus Tarquin. This was the time for 
 Brutus to rouse the Roman people to action, 
 and display the energy of his mind. By his 
 exertions the Tarquins were expelled and the 
 monarchy changed for a republic. The con- 
 sulship was then instituted, and Brutus and 
 Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, were 
 chosen the first to hold that dignity. When his 
 sons joined in the conspiracy to restore the Tar- 
 quins, Brutus, convinced of their guilt, ordered 
 their execution, that this example might confirm 
 the liberty of Rome. The same year he was 
 slain at the head of his troops, fighting against 
 Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who also fell in 
 the encounter. This took place, B. C. 509. Bru- 
 tus was mourned by the whole Roman people. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, lineally descend- 
 ed from the above, whose republican princi- 
 ples he seemed to inherit. In the civil wars 
 he joined Pompey, although the latter was his 
 father's murderer, only because he looked upon 
 him as just and patriotic in his claims. After 
 the battle of Pharsalia, Cajsar not only spared 
 Brutus, but made him one of his friends. He 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BUC 
 
 133 
 
 BUC 
 
 however, forgot the favor when Caesar dis- 
 played his ambition and tyranny, and con- 
 spired with many of the citizens of Rome, to 
 stab Cassar in the senafe-house. Brutus was 
 forced to retire into Greece by the excite- 
 ment created by Antony. Here he gained many 
 friends, but was soon pursued by Antony, ac- 
 companied by the young Octavius. A battle 
 was fought at Philippi. Brutus, who command- 
 ed the right wing of the republican army, de- 
 feated the enemy ; but Cassius, on the left, was 
 overpowered, and Brutus found himself sur- 
 rounded by the soldiers of Antony. He, how- 
 ever, made his escape, and soon after fell upon 
 his sword, B. C. 42. It is said that, previous 
 to this battle, a spectral figure twice the size of 
 life, appeared to Brutus, and warned him of his 
 fate. 
 
 BUCCANEERS. The French and English 
 freebooters of America acquired so great no- 
 toriety, that an historical work would be in- 
 complete without a mention of them. After 
 the assassination of Henry IV of France, many 
 Frenchmen settled in St. Christopher, an island 
 of the group of Antilles. Being driven from this 
 place in 1630, they sought refuge on the west- 
 ern coast of St. Domingo, and the neighboring 
 island of Tortugas. Their wild and solitary 
 life possessed a certain charm, which induced 
 many Englishmen to join them, and their num- 
 bers at length became considerable. They were 
 hardy and enterprising, and, deprived of the 
 softening influence of female society, nourish- 
 ed a spirit of reckless feroeity. They did not, 
 however, display at first those stern features 
 which afterwards characterized them, but were 
 comparatively peaceful and industrious. Those 
 who were settled at St. Domingo, used to hunt 
 the wild cattle of the island, whose hides they 
 sold to the crews that landed on their coast. 
 They were accustomed to boucaner, that is, to 
 roast the flesh of these animals before large 
 fires, and thence received the name of bouca- 
 neers, or buccaneers. Increasing in strength 
 and spirit, they defied the attempts of the Span- 
 iards to subdue them, and soon made themselves 
 formidable by their predatory excursions. 
 
 The Spaniards resolved to extirpate the wild 
 cattle, and thus induce the buccaneers to be- 
 come farmers for support, or else to join their 
 more lawless comrades on the island of Tortu- 
 gas. The buccaneers nourished a deep-seated 
 hatred of the Spaniards, and it was their ves- 
 sels which were most frequently attacked by the 
 pirates. Sailing from the American ports, laden 
 with the most precious productions of the New 
 
 World, the size and strength of the galleons 
 formed no adequate protection against the num- 
 bers and intrepidity of the buccaneers, who at- 
 tacked them in boats, ill equipped, it is true, but 
 manned by crews of iron nerve, and unquail- 
 ing resolution. The spirits of the Spaniards 
 became crushed by the repeated successes of 
 the buccanners, and before long they did not 
 even attempt to defend themselves. Thus when 
 Laurent, a famous buccaneer, found himself in 
 a small vessel, with a few guns, and two Span- 
 ish 60 gun -ships along-side, the desperation and 
 fury of his resistance so overawed the Spanish 
 officers, that they permitted him to escape, al- 
 though they had him completely in their power. 
 
 The leaders of the buccaneers were chosen 
 for superior daring, but enjoyed but few privi- 
 leges save that of being foremost in danger. In 
 dividing their spoils, all had an equal share, or, 
 if any exception was made, it was in favor of 
 those who had received very severe wounds in 
 combat. The captain had no larger share than 
 any of his followers, unless he happened to 
 have displayed extraordinary skill and valor. 
 Previous to dividing the booty, each was oblig- 
 ed to swear that he had kept back no part of 
 the prize, and a perjury, which was of rare oc- 
 currence, was punished by the exile of the of- 
 fender to a desert island. The share of those 
 who had fallen was appropriated to relieve the 
 necessities of their relations, or as gifts to the 
 church, in case there were no surviving friends 
 or relatives. The buccaneers were scrupulous 
 in observing the outward rites of religion, and 
 offered up prayers for the success of each enter- 
 prise before embarking in it. So formidable w T ere 
 the operations of the buccaneers, that they 
 greatly diminished the trade between Spain and 
 America. The baleful effects of the climate, 
 and the nature of their occupation gradually di- 
 minished their numbers, and they were at length 
 extirpated by the French and English govern- 
 ments. From them originated the French set- 
 tlements on the western part of St. Domingo, 
 although their piracies were ended in the com- 
 mencement of the 18th century. 
 
 Several of their leaders acquired a reputation 
 for daring and enterprise, which has preserved 
 their names from oblivion. One of the most 
 noted of these was Montbar, the son of a gen- 
 tleman of Languedoc, who early imbibed a 
 hatred for the Spaniards. While at school, 
 performing the part of a Frenchman in a drama, 
 in his combat with a fellow student, who re- 
 presented a Spaniard, he so far forgot the real- 
 ity of his situation, in the illusion of the mo- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 BUC 
 
 139 
 
 BUE 
 
 ment, that he would have slain his antagonist 
 but for the intervention of the more cool-head- 
 ed spectators. At an early age Montbar em- 
 barked for America, and was highly delighted 
 when, one day, a Spanish galleon hove in 
 sight. Long before the vessels met, Montbar 
 had completed his preparations for the combat, 
 and, with an unsheathed sword beneath his 
 arm, was pacing the deck, in all the hot hurry 
 of untried valor. The moment the vessels 
 closed, calling to the boarders, he sprang on the 
 deck of the galleon, and carried all before him 
 by the impetuosity of his attack. While his 
 comrades were busy in estimating and dividing 
 the booty, he was sternly gazing on the stif- 
 fened bodies of the first victims of his hatred, 
 like an eagle hovering over the slain. Arrived 
 at St. Domingo, the buccaneers who came on 
 board to trade, complained that the Spaniards, 
 during their absence in the chase, destroyed 
 their settlements. " Make me your leader," 
 cried Montbar, " and I will teach these spoilers 
 that there exists a power greater than theirs. 
 I seek for no emoluments, the joys of battle are 
 enough for me." Struck with his appearance 
 and impetuosity, they chose him their leader, 
 and had no reason to repent having done so, 
 for he unweariedly pursued the Spaniards with 
 invariable success, and succeeded in inducing 
 the Indians to forsake the Spaniards and league 
 against them with the buccaneers. 
 
 BUCHAREST, the chief city of Walachia, 
 with 80,000 inhabitants, has a considerable trade 
 in wine, and other productions. Peace was 
 concluded here between Russia and Turkey, 
 May 23, 1812. 
 
 BUCHAR1A, Great; a country in the inte- 
 rior of Asia, including Bucharia Proper, Sa- 
 marcand, and Balkh, the Sogdiana and Bactri- 
 ana of antiquity. It is the southeastern part of 
 Independent Tartary . The Buchanans, original 
 inhabitants, of Persian descent, are frugal and 
 industrious. The natural productions of the 
 country are various and valuable. The city 
 of Bucharia contains a population of about 100, 
 000 souls. The province of Balkh now forms 
 an independent state. The government is 
 despotic, and the religion Mohammedan. The 
 trade is important. 
 
 BUCHARIA, Little, lying to the east of the 
 preceding, is not well known. Its situation is 
 elevated, and the climate accordingly very se- 
 vere. In 1683, this country was conquered by 
 the Calmucks, who were in turn subdued by 
 the Chinese, in 1759. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, 
 
 born in 1592, was the favourite of James I, 
 and Charles I, of England. He abused his 
 power in the most shameless manner, and dis- 
 graced the high dignities which were conferred 
 upon him, displaying in all his acts, ambition, 
 avarice, and caprice. In the reign of Charles 
 I, he fermented discords between the king and 
 people, and was hated by all those who had 
 acquired an insight into his character. He was 
 killed at Portsmouth, August, 1628, by a subal- 
 tern officer. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, 
 son of the preceding, was born January 30, 
 1627. After completing his course at the uni- 
 versity, and travelling for some time on the 
 continent, he returned, and, on the breaking 
 out of the civil war, served in the royal army. 
 In 1648, after an absence of some time he fought 
 under the banners of Charles II, and fled with 
 him to Flanders. After the restoration he was 
 high in favor with the king, and became one of 
 his ministers. The treason of which he was af- 
 terwards guilty, was pardoned, but he continued 
 his plots, and died, despised by all, at Kirkby 
 Moorside, in Yorkshire, April 16, 1688. His 
 private life was profligate. His talents were 
 brilliant, and he did much to improve the lite- 
 rary taste of his acre. 
 
 BUENOS AYRTES, a country of South Ame- 
 rica, is bounded north by Bolivia, east by Bra- 
 zil, southeast by the Atlantic ocean, south by 
 Patagonia, and west by Chili and the Pacific 
 ocean. In 1816, it declared its independence, 
 previous to which, it was a Spanish vice-royalt}', 
 called the " Vice-royalty of Rio de la Plata," or 
 simply, " la Plata." The western and north- 
 ern parts of the country are rough, but large 
 portions are extremely level ; in the south, for 
 instance, the pampas (immense plains) are more 
 than 1200 miles long, and 500 broad, filled with 
 wild cattle, and the abode of Indians hardly less 
 wild. The fertility of a large proportion of 
 the soil is surprising, although agriculture is 
 strangely neglected. Among the mineral pro- 
 ductions are gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. 
 Hides, tallow, beef, and the precious metals, are 
 exported in great quantities. The capital city, 
 called Buenos Ayres, or Nuestra Senora de 
 Buenos Ayres, was built in 1535, and con- 
 tains a population which has been variously 
 stated at from 50,000, to 100.000, composed of 
 whites, negroes, indians, and mixed races. A 
 few of the public buildings may well be called 
 magnificent, but, generally, architecture is in a 
 low state in Buenos Ayres, chiefly from the 
 scarcity of a good building material, — chalk 
 
BUN 
 
 and brick, forming but a very inferior substitute. 
 In 1826, it was made the seat of government of 
 the linked Provinces of la Plata. In 1806, it 
 was captured by the English, who were shortly 
 afterwards attacked by surprise, and suffered 
 great loss. The reinforcements which came 
 over the following year, were received into the 
 city with apparent submission, but then at- 
 tacked with vigor, and compelled to conclude a 
 truce, after suffering immense loss. The trade 
 of the city is very considerable. 
 
 BUFFALO j a town of New-York, at the 
 east end of lake Erie, 296 miles west of Albany. 
 Its population, in 1830, was 12,000. Its trade is 
 very extensive and lucrative. In 1813, when 
 it contained but one hundred houses, it was 
 burned by the British. 
 
 BUFFOIN, George Louis Leclerc, count de,a 
 famous French naturalist, born at Montbard,in 
 Burgundy, in 1707, and died at Paris, April 16, 
 1788, at the age of eighty-one. His natural his- 
 tory continues to be read with pleasure, and at 
 the time of its appearance, differed from all pre- 
 vious works, which were merely masses of 
 technical description, with no interesting gen- 
 eral views and details. His History of Quadru- 
 peds is regarded as his best work. 
 
 BULGARIA, European or Little, a Turkish 
 province, which before its conquest by the Bul- 
 garians, was the Maisia Inferior of antiquity. It 
 fell into the hands of the Turks in 1392, and 
 forms part of the pachalic of Romelia. It is 
 bounded north by the Danube, east by the Black 
 Sea, and south and west by the Balkan. It con- 
 tains 1,800.000 inhabitants, who are industrious, 
 and, for the most part, Christians. The Bulga- 
 rians, or Voulgarians, were an ancient Tartar 
 nation, whose kingdom included no small por- 
 tion of the ancient Sarmatia. They spread their 
 ravages far and wide, and penetrated into Thrace, 
 Macedonia, and Thessaly. In 1010, their sway 
 in Macedonia, Servia, and Albania, was de- 
 stroyed by the emperor Basil II, and they sought 
 refuge in Turkey, where their new kingdom 
 was finally destroyed by the Ottomans in the 
 14th century. 
 
 BUN Y AN, John, the son of a tinker, born at 
 Elston, in 1628. At an early age he was dissi- 
 pated, and served as a soldier in the parliamen- 
 tary army. Reflection and reformation, how- 
 ever, brought out the bright points of his char- 
 acter. He became a member of a society of 
 anabaptists, and finally their teacher. As a dis- 
 senter he was imprisoned twelve years, and the 
 occupation of his mind during his long confine- 
 ment, was the composition of his unrivalled Pil- 
 
 6YCL0PEDIA OF HISTORY]. 
 140 
 
 
 BUR 
 
 grirns Progress, a religious allegory, bearing 
 the impress of a strong mind, and an ardent 
 imagination. Bunyan died in 1688. 
 
 BURCKHARD, John Louis, famous for his 
 travels in Africa, born in Bale in 1784. His coun- 
 try being oppressed by France, he went to London 
 in 1806, and was engaged by the African Associa- 
 tion to explore Africa from the north. To fa- 
 cilitate his progress in Nubia and other parts of 
 the country, he assumed the character of a Sy- 
 rian Turk, and so thoroughly acquainted with 
 the manners and religion of the East was he. 
 that he underwent an examination by two learn- 
 ed Jurists, and was pronounced by them a 
 learned and true Mussulman. He died at Cairo, 
 April 15, 1817, and was buried with great splen- 
 dor. He was the first modern traveller who 
 reached Shendy in Soudan, the Meroe of the 
 ancients. His travels were published in 1819. 
 
 BURGOS, in Spain, the capital city of Old 
 Castile, and once a royal residence, on the bank 
 of the Arlanzon, containing 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Its superb Gothic cathedral is of so great size, 
 that service can be performed in its eight cha- 
 pels, at the same time. It was captured by 
 the British troops in the campaign of 1813. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, the natural son of lord 
 Bingly, a general in the English army, and an 
 agreeable dramatist. He entered the army at 
 an early age, and, in 1762, had the command of 
 a body of troops sent to Portugal for the defence 
 of that kingdom against the Spaniards. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in the American war by the 
 taking of Ticonderoga, but after two severe 
 engagements, was forced to surrender, with his 
 whole army, to General Gates, in 1777. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS, a tribe of Germans, a 
 branch of the Vandals, who occupied a part of 
 France, in the 5th century, which has since 
 been called Burgundy. It was long an inde- 
 pendent state, but was attached to France in 
 the latter part of the 15th century, on the death 
 of Charles the Bold. The independent dukes 
 of Burgundy rendered their name illustrious, 
 and many of them were distinguished for the 
 possession of bravery and other high qualities. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, a statesman and great 
 political writer, was born at Dublin, January 1, 
 1730. He was contemporary with Pitt and Fox, 
 whose political principles be alternately avowed. 
 After finishing his education at Trinity college, 
 he entered his name at the Temple as a law stu- 
 dent, but devoted himself to literature. His 
 political career commenced by his accompa- 
 nying Hamilton secretary of the lord-lieutenant 
 of Ireland, to Dublin, and on his return he was 
 
Birth-place of Robert Burns, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BUR 
 
 141 BYL 
 
 made private secretary to the Marquis of 
 Rockingham. On the fall of the Rockingham 
 ministry, he wrote a pamphlet on the subject, 
 and became an active member of the opposition, 
 being chosen for Bristol, in 1774, without ex- 
 pense. His speeches in the senate had now 
 eclipsed even the reputation of his writings, and 
 were delivered with a vehemence which it was 
 difficult to resist. On the return of the Rock- 
 ingham administration, Mr. Burke for a short 
 time filled the office of paymaster-general, but 
 he resigned the post, upon the succession of lord 
 Shelburne to the premiership. The leading 
 features of.his subsequent political life, in which 
 he held no office, are his impeachment of War- 
 ren Hastings ; his opposition to the limited re- 
 gency in 1788 ; his prediction of the effects of 
 the French revolution : and his separation from 
 Mr. Fox upon those sentiments. This was his 
 last great political act, all his subsequent ones 
 being to establish and defend it. On this sub- 
 ject he published several pamphlets, the merit 
 of which obtained him a pension, and many se- 
 vere reflections from his opponents, to which he 
 replied in '* a letter to a Noble Lord," replete 
 with sarcastic irony. He died July 8th, 1797, 
 having previously vacated his seat for Mai ton. 
 Mr. Burke had a most commanding oratory, to 
 enhance which, he spared no incidental act of 
 gesticulation and manner. On one occasion, he 
 is said to have drawn forth and brandished a 
 dagger, to give a greater effect to his words. 
 
 BURLINGTON, a town in Vermont, situa- 
 ted on Burlington bay, at the entrance of Onion 
 river into lake Champlain. In 1840, it con- 
 tained4,271 inhabitants. Its commerce is very 
 extensive. It is a pleasant place, has several 
 public buildings, and a university, the reputa- 
 tion of which is established. It is the capital 
 of Chittenden county. 
 
 BURNS, Robert, one of the most popular of 
 Scottish bards. He was the son of a gardener, 
 and was born near the town of Ayr, January 
 25, 1759. He had some instruction and was 
 fond of reading. His poetical talent was first 
 displayed in some amatory verses, and his con- 
 versational talents caused him to be sought for 
 by convivial parties, which tended to fix his 
 habits of dissipation. The publication of his 
 poems procured him a sum of money larger than 
 he anticipated, and a high literary reputation. 
 He was enabled to take a farm near Dumfries, 
 and at the same time procured the office of ex- 
 ciseman. He married the early object of his 
 affections, the " bonnie Jean," of whom he has 
 written so tenderly in the most musical of his 
 
 verses. She survived the poet who immortali- 
 zed her name, and died within the year 1834. 
 Burns might have prospered and enjoyed along 
 life, had he but listened to the advice and remon- 
 strances of his friends, and forsaken those ruin- 
 ous indulgences which produced, or at least 
 hastened his death, which took place July 21, 
 179G. His fate was that which usually awaits 
 the intemperate. Burns was emphatically the 
 poet of truth and of nature. It was a court 
 bard (Cowley), who declared to Charles II that 
 poets succeed best in fiction, and however 
 true the assertion might be with regard to his 
 own writings, it is disproved by those of Burns. 
 His most beautiful poems were composed in the 
 spirit of truth, and glow with the fire of real 
 feeling and passion. Full of affectionate and 
 sad remembrances, he composed the verses " to 
 Mary in Heaven," commencing; 
 
 " My Mary, dear, departed shade, 
 Where is thy blissful place of rest 1 
 
 Sees't thou thy lover lowly laid, 
 
 Hear'st thou the groans that rend his breast 1" 
 
 In this he celebrates their last meeting. The 
 Mary of Burns was a peasant-girl, whose ac- 
 quirements merely enabled her to read her Bible 
 and psalm-book, and who walked bare-footed 
 to their try sting-place, and yet she inspired the 
 most enthusiastic attachment in a man whose 
 intellect cast a glory upon the hills, and woods, 
 and streams of his native land, and a halo round 
 the objects of his love, which will endure as 
 long as the human breast is warmed with the 
 glow of social and patriotic feeling. 
 
 BUSACO, a convent in Portugal, celebrated 
 for the repulse of the French under Massena, 
 by the English under Lord Wellington, in 
 1810. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, an English poet, the son 
 of a farmer, born in Strenzham, Worcestershire, 
 in 1612. His poem of Hudibras, in which the 
 weak points of the Puritans are happily expos- 
 ed brought the author into notice, but did not 
 better his circumstances, and he died poor in 
 1680. 
 
 BYLES, doctor Mather, a clergyman of Bos- 
 ton, born in 1706. He was for sometime pastor 
 of Hollis street church, but was removed from 
 his pulpit, in consequence of his Tory principles. 
 His political opinions subjected him to a tem- 
 porary imprisonment on board a guardship. He 
 was however released, but a guard put over 
 him in his own house. The guard was remo- 
 ved, and then replaced in consequence of further 
 complaint against him. Finally, the presence 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 BYR 
 
 142 
 
 BYR 
 
 of the sentinel was dispensed with. It was on 
 this occasion, that the doctor happily remarked 
 that he had been "guarded, regarded, and dis- 
 regarded." When two selectmen stuck fast in 
 the slough opposite his house, he said to them ; 
 " Gentlemen, I have several times complained 
 of this nuisance, and am therefore pleased to 
 see you stirring in the matter." Byles corres- 
 ponded with Pope, Lansdowne, and Watts, 
 and possessed some poetical talents. His essays 
 and poems were collected, and published in a 
 volume. He died July 5, 1788. 
 
 BYNG, George, an English admiral, born in 
 16G3. He became rear-admiral in 1703. In 
 1706, he relieved Barcelona, besieged by the 
 auke of Anjou ; and in 1708, frustrated the 
 efforts of the French to assist the Pretender by 
 an invasion. In 1718, he defeated the Spanish 
 fleet off Sicily. For these, and other services, 
 he received many offices and honors, and was 
 made Viscount Torrington. He died in 1733. 
 
 BYNG, John, an English admiral, son of the 
 preceding, served under his father in many ex- 
 peditions, and, although esteemed an able sea- 
 man and a brave man, was ruined by popular 
 animosity. Failing in his attempts to relieve 
 Minorca, in 1755, he was tried by a court-mar- 
 tial, and, although recommended to mercy, 
 shot in 1757. After party fury had subsided, 
 and his conduct had been dispassionately ex- 
 amined, his intentions were allowed to have 
 been good, his courage indisputable, and his 
 death the consequence of rancorous misrepre- 
 sentation from personal dislike. His conduct 
 in his last moments confirmed no part of the evi- 
 dence against him ; it was cool, determined, 
 dignified, and resigned. Immediate posterity 
 honored him as a British admiral, his connex- 
 ions, as a man of honor, and it was obtained 
 from among the secrets of ministerial intrigue, 
 that he was the victim of ministerial coward- 
 ice, undeserving of the disgrace of an execu- 
 tion, and obedient to orders which the men in 
 office had not the courage to avow. Byng 
 showed, in his last moments, the fearlessness 
 of his disposition, and the elevation of a mind 
 that dreaded only disgrace. 
 
 BYRON, George Gordon, lord, one of the 
 most celebrated English poets of modern days, 
 was born in London, January 22, 1788. His 
 mother was a Scotch heiress, only daughter of 
 George Gordon, Esq. of Gight, and his father 
 was Captain Byron, or, as he was popularly 
 termed, for his reckless profligacy, Mad Jack 
 Byron of the Guards. The parents of the poet 
 lived unhappily together, and the heartless liber- 
 
 tine who transmitted so many failings to his son, 
 squandered the property of the woman he had 
 married for her wealth, and reduced her to com- 
 parative poverty. Economy induced Mrs. By- 
 ron to take up her residence at Aberdeen in 
 17U0, where her son was placed at school. Her 
 management of young Byron was any thing but 
 judicious, and in her fits of passion, she even 
 reproached him with the lameness of one of 
 his fegt, a deformity , which, although trifling, was 
 severely felt by the sensitive poet, and even en- 
 gendered many of his misanthropic views. It 
 was rarely that he alluded to it in a jesting way. 
 In his youth, however, he was acquainted with 
 a child who had a similar defect, and used to 
 say to his nurse, in the Scotch dialect which he 
 had acquired : " see the twa laddies wi' the twa 
 club feet ganging up the high street." His 
 rambles among the Highlands of Scotland had 
 a strong effect upon his imagination, and proba^ 
 bly kindled the spark, which afterwards bright- 
 ened to a flame. In one of his poems, he says : 
 
 " Long have I roamed through lands which are not 
 
 Adored the Alps, and loved the Appenine, [mine, 
 
 Revered Parnassus, and beheld the steep 
 
 Jove's Ida and Olympus crown the deep; 
 
 But 't was not all long ages' lore, nor all 
 
 Their nature held me in their thrilling thrall ; 
 
 The infant rapture still survived the boy, 
 
 And Loch-na-gar with Ida looked o'er Troy, 
 
 Mixed Celtic memories with the Phrygian mount, 
 
 And Highland linns with Castalie's clear fount. 
 
 Forgive me, Homer's universal shade ! 
 
 Forgive me, Phoebus ! that my fancy strayed ; 
 
 The North and nature taught me to adore 
 
 Your scenes sublime, from those beloved before." 
 
 To this passage the following note is appended 
 by the author : " When very young, about eight 
 years of age, after an attack of the scarlet fever 
 at Aberdeen, 1 was removed by medical advice, 
 into the Highlands. Here I passed occasionally 
 some summers, and from this period I date my 
 love of mountainous countries. I can never 
 forget the effect, a few years afterwards in Eng- 
 land, of the only thing I had long seen, even in 
 miniature, of a mountain, in the Malvern Hills. 
 After I returned to Cheltenham, I used to watch 
 them every afternoon at sunset, with a sensation 
 which I cannot describe. This was boyish 
 enough ; but I was then only thirteen years of 
 age, and it was in the holidays." 
 
 In the year 1798, on the death of his grand 
 uncle, he became a chancery ward under the 
 guardianship of the earl of Carlisle, against 
 whom he soon conceived a dislike. Placed at 
 Harrow, he had to encounter all the temptations 
 and annoyances inseparable from public educa- 
 tion. School-boys are not famous for feeling, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BYK 
 
 143 
 
 BYR 
 
 and the lameness of Byron was perpetually 
 called to mind by the rudest practical sarcasms. 
 He would often wake, and find his lame foot 
 plunged in a pail of water. Through Harrow, 
 he fairly " fought his way." " I had," said he, 
 in one of his conversations with captain Med- 
 win, " a spirit that ill brooked the restraints of 
 school discipline ; for I had been encouraged by 
 servants in all my violence of temper, and was 
 used to command. Every thing like a task was 
 repugnant to my nature, and I came away a 
 very indifferent classic, and read in nothing that 
 was useful. That subordination, which is the 
 soul of all discipline, 1 submitted to with diffi- 
 culty ; yet I did submit to it ; and I have al- 
 ways retained a sense of Drury's kindness, 
 which enabled me to bear it and fagging too. 
 The duke of Dorset was my fag. I was not 
 a very hard task-master. There were times 
 at which, if I had not considered it as a school, 
 I should have been happy at Harrow. There 
 is one spot I should like to see again : I was 
 particularly delighted with the view from the 
 churchyard, and used to sit for hours on the 
 stile leading into the fields ; — even then I form- 
 ed a wish to be buried there." " There were 
 two things that strike me at this moment, that 
 I did at Harrow. I fought lord Calthorpe for 
 writing Atheist ! under my name ; and pre- 
 vented the school-room from being burnt dur- 
 ing a rebellion, by pointing out to the boys 
 the names of their fathers and grand-fathers on 
 the walls." 
 
 In October, 1805, the young lord entered 
 Cambridge university, where he was little dis- 
 tinguished for application, and showed no great 
 respect for academic honors. He even evinced 
 his contempt for them by keeping a young bear 
 in his room, which he said he was training for a 
 fellowship. In his 20th year he took up his 
 abode at Newstead Abbey, a fine old building 
 which he proceeded immediately to repair. His 
 " Hours of Idleness," now appeared, a collection 
 of poems written during his minority, which 
 was attacked by the Edinburgh Review, with a 
 degree of malignity and violence, that provoked 
 the youthful bard to vindicate his reputation in 
 a satire entitled " English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers."* This severe and sweeping philip- 
 pic appeared a few days after he had taken his 
 seat in the House of Lords, and gained the fa- 
 vor of the public in a short time. He soon after 
 went abroad, travelling through Portugal, Spain, 
 and Greece. The scenes through which he 
 
 ?assed are finely described in " Childe Harold's 
 'ilgrimage." In the east he swam from Sestcs 
 13 
 
 to Abydos, and prided himself greatly on this 
 daring feat. He returned to England in 1811, 
 afler an absence of two years. 
 
 He hastened to Newstead, but arrived too late 
 to close the eyes of his mother. About this 
 period, the acquaintance between himself and 
 the poet Thomas Moore commenced — an ac- 
 quaintance which afterwards ripened into the 
 warmest friendship. On the 29th of February, 
 1812, appeared the two first cantos of " Childe 
 Harold," and the success and sale of the work 
 was instantaneous. The hero, a proud but mel- 
 ancholy wanderer, satiated with sensual pleas- 
 ure, was at once recognised as a delineation of 
 the noble author, notwithstanding his decisive 
 denial. The Giaour, the Bride of Abydos, and 
 the ^Corsair, poems, in all of which the author 
 displayed his unrivalled talents, and accurate 
 knowledge of eastern customs and manners, 
 followed at short intervals. Of one of these 
 20,000 copies were sold in one day. On the 2d 
 of January, 1815, Byron married Miss Mil- 
 banke, daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke. The 
 marriage was unhappy, and afler various quar- 
 rels, and much distress, the parties separated. 
 Ada, the daughter of unhappy parents, was 
 taken from Byron, who, in 18J6, left England 
 forever. He gave in conversation the follow- 
 ing melancholy account of his situation imme- 
 diately before leaving England : " In addition 
 to all my other mortifications, my affairs were 
 irretrievably involved, and almost so as to make 
 me what they wished. I was compelled to part 
 with Newstead, which I never could have ven- 
 tured to sell in my mother's lifetime. As it is, 
 I shall never forgive myself for having done so; 
 though I am told that the estate would not now 
 bring half so much as I got for it. This does 
 not at all reconcile me to having parted from 
 the old Abbey. I did not make up my mind to 
 this step but from the last necessity. I had my 
 wife 's portion to repay , and was determined to add 
 £10,000 more of my own to it, which I did. I 
 always hated being in debt, and do not owe a 
 guinea. The moment I put my affairs in train, 
 and in little more than eighteen months after 
 my marriage, I left England, an involuntary 
 exile, intending it should be forever." 
 
 After a residence in Italy, where his dramas, 
 and many poems were written, and where he 
 was alternately dissolute and temperate, the re- 
 volution in Greece engaged his attention, and 
 he determined to embark his person and fortune 
 in the cause of liberty. He was received in 
 Greece with enthusiasm, and proceeded to Mis- 
 solonghi, where his reception was most gratify 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 BYR 
 
 144 
 
 BYZ 
 
 mg to his feelings. He immediately formed a 
 brigade of 500 Suliotes. He was aware of the 
 dissensions existing among the Greeks, but was 
 confident of their ultimate success. He was 
 urged to go to Zante, on account of the un- 
 healthiness of Missolonghi. " I cannot quit 
 Greece," he wrote to a friend, " while there is 
 a chance of my being even of (supposed) utili- 
 ty. There is a stake worth millions such as 
 I am, and while I can stand at all, I must stand 
 by the cause. While I say this, I am aware of 
 the difficulties, dissensions, and defects of the 
 Greeks themselves ; but allowance must be 
 made for them by all reasonable people." 
 
 On the 9th of April, while riding on horse- 
 back, he was overtaken by a rainstorm, and the 
 feverish cold he took was the precursor of a fa- 
 tal malady. He died April 19th, 1824 ; his last 
 thoughts, as his words indicated, were with his 
 wife and child. His funeral was solemnized in 
 Missolonghi, and his death publicly mourned in 
 Greece. His body was conveyed to England, 
 and interred at Hucknall church, near New- 
 stead Abbey. The exterior of the coffin bore 
 the following inscription : 
 
 George Gordon Noel Byron, 
 
 Lord Byron 
 
 of Rochdale ; 
 
 born in London, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1783. 
 
 died at Missolonghi, 
 
 in Western Greece, 
 
 April 19, 1824. 
 
 Most of Lord Byron's vices sprang from his 
 freedom from all control at an age, when he most 
 stood in need of friendly advice and friendly 
 restraint, to guard him from those evils which 
 beset young men, and particularly, young men 
 of rank, in the outset of their career. Yet his 
 reckless gallantry, and laxity of morals, did not 
 efface fine traits of feeling, benevolence, and a 
 respect for virtue. His° attachment to his 
 daughter Ada was sincere and lasting ; and he 
 often spoke of his wife with affection and re- 
 spect. Medwin says that his absent daughter oc- 
 cupied much of his thoughts. " He opened his 
 writing desk, and showed me some hair, which 
 he told me was his child's. During our ride 
 and drive this evening, he declined' our usual 
 amusement of pistol-firing, without assigning a 
 cause. He hardly spoke a word during the 
 first half-hour, and it was evident that some- 
 thing weighed heavily on his mind. There was 
 a sacredness in his melancholy that I dared not 
 
 interrupt. At length he said : " This is Ada's- 
 birth-day, and might have been the happiest day 
 of my life ; as it is !" He stopped, seem- 
 ingly ashamed of having betrayed his feelings. 
 He tried in vain to rally his spirits by turning 
 the conversation; but he created a laugh in 
 which he could not join, and soon relapsed into 
 his former reverie. It lasted till we came with- 
 in a mile of the Argive gate. There our si- 
 lence was all at once interrupted by shrieks 
 that seemed to proceed from a cottage by the 
 side of the road. We pulled up our horses, to 
 inquire of a contadino standing at the little gar- 
 den-wicket. He told us that a widow had just 
 lost her only child, and that the sounds pro- 
 ceeded from the wailings of some women over 
 the corpse. Lord Byron was much affected, 
 and his superstition, acted upon by a sadness 
 that seemed to be presentiment, led him to au- 
 gur some disaster. " I shall not be happy," 
 said he, " till I hear that my daughter is well. 
 I have a great horror of anniversaries ; people 
 only laugh at it, who have never kept a register 
 of them. I always write to my sister on Ada's 
 birth-day. I did so last year ; and, what was 
 very remarkable, my letter reached her on my 
 wedding-day, and her answer reached me at 
 Ravenna on my birth-day. Several extraordi- 
 nary things have happened to me on my birth- 
 day ; so they did to Napoleon ; and a more won- 
 derful circumstance still occurred to Marie 
 Antoinette." That Lord Byron should have 
 joined to his religious scepticism some supersti- 
 tious weaknesses, will surprise many ; yet it 
 should seem no incompatibility. There is little 
 or no connection between reason and sentiment, 
 and all imaginative persons are liable to this dis- 
 ease : for superstition is the malady of man 
 himself, only as he is an imaginative animal. 
 Byron once consulted a conjuror, more out of 
 sport than curiosity. He was told that two years 
 would be fatal to him, his twenty -seventh, and 
 his thirty-seventh. In the first he married, in 
 the second he died. 
 
 BYZANTIUM, named from Byzas, its 
 founder, was situated on the Thracian Bospho- 
 rus, near the small bay of Keras, with three 
 harbors, on the site of the present city of Constan- 
 tinople. The Thracians,Bithynians, and Gauls, 
 attacked this flourishing place, but, after its suf- 
 ferings in the Peloponnesian war, its prospects 
 brightened, and during the reign of Constan- 
 tine the Great, it was made the capital of the 
 empire of Rome. The Byzantine empire is a 
 name given to the Eastern Roman empire. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CAD 
 
 145 
 
 CJES 
 
 CABOT, George, a native of Massachusetts, 
 born at Salem in 1752, whose patriotism and 
 perseverance have gained him a high rank in 
 the list of Americans, who have distinguished 
 themselves in the legislative halls of our eman- 
 cipated states. His views of political economy 
 were clear and enlightened. He died at Bos- 
 ton, highly respected, April 18th, 1823. 
 
 CABOT, or Gabotto, Sebastian, a celebrated 
 navigator, son of John Cabot, was born at Bris- 
 tol, in 1467. He was the discoverer of Florida. 
 He visited the eastern side of the island of New- 
 foundland. John Cabot and his son, Sebas- 
 tian, discovered, on the 24th of June, 1497, the 
 shores of Newfoundland. The neighboring 
 island received the name of St. John, because 
 it was discovered upon the festival of that saint. 
 After having sailed in the English service, Se- 
 bastian went to. Spain in 1526, where he was 
 furnished with vessels with which he ascended 
 the river la Plata. He made other voyages 
 also in Spanish vessels. He returned to Eng- 
 land, however, and was graced with various 
 dignities, and entrusted with the direction of 
 the merchant's company formed for the pur- 
 pose of making discoveries. He superintended 
 Willoughby's expedition in 1553, and an act of 
 Edward VI, dated 1549, grants him a pension 
 of £166, a considerable sum if we consider the 
 value of money, at that period. He is supposed 
 to have died in 1557. 
 
 CABUL, capital of Afghanistan, a city of 
 great antiquity, but meanly built. The inhab- 
 itants are Usbecks, Afghans, and Hindoos. The 
 surrounding country is rich in fruits and flow- 
 ers. In 1739 it was taken by Nadir Shah, and 
 plundered by his troops. In 1774 it fell into 
 the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdally, whose son 
 Timour Shah made it the capital of Afghanis- 
 tan. Population 80,000. 
 CABULISTAN. (See Afghanistan.) 
 CACHET, Lettres de. (See Bastile.) 
 CADE, John, a native of Ireland, who, hav- 
 ing been compelled to fly to France, return- 
 ed to England in 1450, assumed the popular 
 name of John Mortimer, and raised a formida- 
 ble force at the head of which he placed him- 
 self. He promised to lay down his arms, if 
 the grievances of which he complained were re- 
 dressed ; but losing his authority over his fol- 
 lowers they committed various outrages which 
 were resented by the well-disposed part of the 
 community. The rebels were defeated, a price 
 was set on Cade's head, and he was killed by 
 
 one Iden, a gentleman of Sussex. Many of his 
 followers were brought to punishment. 
 
 CADMUS. This name belongs to several 
 characters of Mythology and history. One, a 
 Phoenician, brought a colony of his country- 
 men to Greece, and introduced letters there, 
 B. C. 1550. 
 
 CADWALADER, John, a distinguished mil 
 itary officer born in Philadelphia. He command- 
 ed the Pennsylvania troops in the winter of 1777, 
 and enjoyed the confidence of General Wash- 
 ington. At the battles of Princeton, Brandy- 
 wine, Germantown, and Monmouth, he served 
 as a volunteer or acted in his command, and 
 died in 1786.' 
 
 CAEN, a French city with 39,140 inhabit- 
 ants, important as the centre of considerable 
 trade and manufactures, and containing several 
 literary, scientific and charitable institutions. 
 It is 132 miles N. W. of Paris. Caen was an- 
 ciently the capital of Lower Normandy, and 
 the favorite residence of William the Con- 
 queror, who was buried in the Mbaye-aux-hom- 
 mes, which he built. Caen was taken by Ed- 
 ward III of England, who met with a desperate 
 resistance. In 1448 it passed from the hands 
 of the English into those of Charles VII of 
 France. In 1562 Admiral de Coligni took it 
 for the Protestants, and in 1715 it was occupied 
 by the Prussians for a brief space. 
 
 CiESAR, Caius Julius, descended from the 
 illustrious family of Julia, which traced its ori- 
 gin to iEneas and Venus, was born 100 B. C. 
 In his infancy he witnessed the civil wars of 
 Sylla and his maternal uncle, Marius. When 
 Caesar had arrived at man's estate, Sylla, then 
 at the height of power, could not excuse his 
 crime in being the nephew of Marius, and the 
 relation of Cinna. He was proscribed and his 
 sentence revoked only by means of the earnest 
 solicitations of the vestals, and the credit of 
 his family. Sylla is said to have declared, in 
 yielding to their urgency, that they would one 
 day repent having saved the life of a young 
 man, in whom he beheld the spirit of more than 
 one Marius. Young Caesar commenced his 
 military career in Asia. Returning to Rome 
 after the death of Sylla, he gained applause 
 and popularity by his eloquence, an art in 
 which Appollonius of Rhodes was his instruc- 
 tor. While absent from Rome, pursuing his 
 studies, he learned that Mithridates had attack- 
 ed the provinces of the allies of Rome, and ac- 
 cordingly, leaving Rhodes for the continent, he 
 assembled troops and led them against the king 
 of Pontus, whom he vanquished. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CiES 
 
 146 
 
 c^:s 
 
 On his return to Rome, finding Pompey at 
 the head of the senate and the republic, and 
 fearing that his connexion with the partisans 
 of Marius might prove disadvantageous to him, 
 he joined the Pompeian party. The office 
 of military tribune, and afterwards that of 
 questor, were conferred upon Caesar. Upon 
 pronouncing the funeral eulogium on his aunt 
 Julia, while enjoying the latter dignity, he pro- 
 duced the images of Marius, which had not 
 seen the light since the dictatorship of Sylla. 
 When promoted to the dignity of edile, he 
 caused the statues and trophies of Marius to 
 be replaced. At this period he was accused of 
 aiming at the supreme power, but the people, 
 whose tastes he flattered, vaunted his devotion 
 and courage, and the zeal with which he had 
 discharged his official duties, and the multitude 
 did not forget the magnificent spectacles for 
 which they were indebted to him, and the am- 
 ple arrangements which he had made for the 
 accommodation of the spectators at the public 
 shows. When the conspiracy of Cataline was 
 discovered, Caesar had the hardihood to recom- 
 mend the conspirators to mercy, and sustained 
 his opinion with a warmth which gave rise to a 
 suspicion that he was not altogether a stranger 
 to the plot. So strongly did the tide of indig- 
 nation set against him, that the knights who 
 composed the guard on that day, waited only 
 for a sign from Cicero to kill him ; but the lat- 
 ter, fearing that it would be impossible to sub- 
 stantiate his guilt, saved him from their fury. 
 Caesar, while engaged in ambitious schemes, 
 mingled in the dissipation of the day, and con- 
 cealed under the exterior of a man of pleasure 
 the traits of a determined foe to liberty. 
 
 On the death of Metellus, Caesar obtained 
 the office of high priest, although two power- 
 ful men were his competitors. On the day of 
 the election, seeing his mother in tears, he em- 
 braced her, and said ; " Today you will see me 
 a high priest, or an exile." Shortly after this, 
 Clodius having been accused of attempting to 
 corrupt the fidelity of Caesar's wife, he divorc- 
 ed her, and said, " The wife of Caesar must not 
 even be suspected." He was then pretor, after- 
 wards the government of Spain fell to his lot. 
 A saying of his at this time proved that he 
 then entertained the most ambitious ideas. At 
 a poor village in the Alps, some of his friends 
 asked if, in that miserable place, power and 
 rank occasioned discussion. '* I had rather," 
 said he to them, "be the first even in t: •■'■? 
 place, than the second in Rome." He was by 
 no means idle in his government, but made 
 
 many conquests while he did not neglect his 
 private interests, for he extorted money enough 
 to pay his enormous debts, and enable him to 
 purchase a vast number of creatures. 
 
 To obtain the consulate, he reconciled Cras- 
 sus and Pompey, and made use of both. Al- 
 though he had a colleague, he governed with 
 absolute authority. Bibulus who was associated 
 with him, and vainly opposed his wishes, wittily 
 declared " that the Romans were not under the 
 consulate of Caesar and Bibulus, but under the 
 consulate of Julius and Caesar." Caesar gained 
 popularity by procuring the distribution of the 
 lands of Campania. 
 
 Shortly after the union of Pompey with 
 Julia, the daughter of Caesar, the latter obtained 
 the government of the Gauls and Illyria, with 
 the command of four legions. He triumphed 
 over the Gauls, the Helvetians, the brave Bel- 
 gians, and others, carried his arms beyond the 
 Rhine, and raised the Roman eagles in the 
 hitherto unconquered Britain. During the ten 
 years of the Gallic war, Caesar is said to have 
 possessed himself of 800 towns, and to have tri 
 umphed in arms over 3,000,000 men. 
 
 In the midst of his victories, he was ever 
 mindful of his own interests, and robbed even 
 altars and temples to increase his wealth. He 
 is said to have quoted with approbation this 
 sentence of Euripides ; " violate justice only 
 for the sake of ruling." The soldiers were 
 gained by the most liberal presents, and it 
 seemed as if the army was the depositary of the 
 immense wealth which Caesar was accumula- 
 ting. Thus the troops were the soldiers of 
 Caesar, and not of the republic. Rome had 
 become venal — every thing was for sale, and 
 Caesar was the purchaser of every thing. He 
 had come to Ravenna with a legion, when the 
 senate sent him a decree, the purport of which 
 was, that if, in a limited time, Caesar did not 
 relinquish his command, he should be treated 
 as the enemy of the commonwealth. Three 
 tribunes of Caesar's party, among them Marc 
 Antony, having been expelled from the senate 
 for opposing this decree, fled to the camp of 
 Caesar in the garb of slaves. 
 
 War was now declared. The senate com- 
 manded the consuls to look to the safety of the 
 republic, and Caesar ordered his troops to ad- 
 vance to the Rubicon, a small river, separating 
 Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. The republic, 
 which both parties invoked, was no more than 
 a name ; Caesar and Pompey were both heads 
 of factions, who sought to elevate themselves 
 above the laws. Learning the decree of the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CMS 
 
 147 
 
 CiES 
 
 senate, Caesar marched directly to the Rubicon. 
 There, the risks he was about to incur, and the 
 evils he was about to bring upon his country, 
 held his mind in suspense for a long time ; but, 
 after having reflected upon the hate and ani- 
 mosity of his enemies, and upon his own 
 strength, he dashed forward, exclaiming ; " the 
 die is cast." His soldiers followed him. Arrived 
 at Rimini, the terror of his arms spread to Rome, 
 where disorder prevailed. Conflicting opin- 
 ions distracted the city, and all energy seemed 
 sunk in the consideration of the greatness of 
 the danger, and the insufficiency of the means 
 of defence. 
 
 Pompey left Rome, with the consuls, princi- 
 pal senators, &c, and, from Capua, went to 
 Dyrrachium, to which last place he escaped, 
 under cover of night, leaving the whole of Italy 
 in the power of Caesar. The latter, sending 
 his lieutenants to take possession of Sardinia 
 and Sicily, advanced to Rome. The only act 
 of violence which he committed, was the sei- 
 zure of the public treasure, deposited in the 
 temple of Saturn. Pompey's party had idly 
 imagined that the removal of the key was a 
 sufficient safeguard. The tribune Metellus 
 opposed the passage of Caesar, who threatened 
 him with death, sternly adding, " this is an act 
 easier for me to execute, than to name." The 
 tribune retired, and Caesar found in the money 
 the means of subjugating a victorious people. 
 Having subdued Pompey's lieutenants in Spain, 
 Caesar was named dictator. He then went to 
 Greece for the purpose of crushing Pompey. 
 Crossing the sea in a mere fishing boat, he was 
 exposed to great danger, and animated the pilot 
 by the memorable exclamation ; " fear nothing ! 
 you carry Caesar and his fortunes !" The fate 
 of Pompey and of the republic was decided by 
 the battle of Pharsalia, fought 48 B. C, in 
 which Caesar was completely victorious. He 
 pursued Pompey to Egypt, but was indignant 
 when the head of his unfortunate rival was 
 brought him by his assassins. 
 
 While he was in Alexandria, detained by the 
 charms of Cleopatra, and the differences existing 
 between the members of the family of Ptolemy, 
 he witnessed the breaking out of a sedition which 
 shortly became an open war, and called for the 
 exertion of all his energy. After remaining 
 some months in Egypt, he marched against 
 Pharnaces, king of Pontus, whom he defeated 
 with a celerity well expressed in his own words ; 
 "veni, vidi, vici ;" / came, 1 saw, I conquered. 
 There still remained to be conquered some for- 
 midable enemies ; Scipio, Labienus, Cato, and 
 13* 
 
 Juba, the king of Mauritania, had powerful 
 armies in Africa. After a campaign in which 
 Caesar displayed all his skill, Africa no longer 
 sheltered a Roman opposed to him, except 
 Cato, who shut himself up in Utica, and pre- 
 ferred death to submission. (See Cato.) Caesar, 
 who admired elevation of soul, envied Cato 
 the glory of his death, and wept for his fate, as 
 he had shed tears at that of Pompey. The 
 conqueror, after having subjected Africa, and 
 ordered the rebuilding of Carthage, returned to 
 Italy, where he was received with the acclama- 
 tions of the senate and Roman people. Four 
 triumphs were decreed to him. 
 
 His liberality was felt by the people for 
 whose amusements he prepared festivals and 
 shows. Notwithstanding the two sons of Pom- 
 pey mustered a strong force in Spain, but 
 were attacked in the plains of Munda, by Cae- 
 sar, and signally defeated, so obstinate was 
 the battle, that Caesar himself declared that he 
 fought less for victory than life, but from the 
 moment that both were secure, every thing was 
 in his power. He re-entered Rome, the mas- 
 ter of the world. The triumph which he then 
 obtained for having vanquished Romans excited 
 secret murmurs among the people and senators, 
 but no one dared to utter a complaint in public. 
 The senate decreed him extraordinary honors 
 and unlimited authority. He was declared 
 consul for 10 years, and perpetual dictator; 
 they gave him the titles of emperor, and father 
 of his country. His person was declared sacred 
 and inviolable. He had the privilege of being 
 present at spectacles in a gilded chair, with a 
 crown of gold upon his head. The decree of 
 the senate provided that, even after his death, 
 this chair and the crown of gold should be con- 
 spicuously placed at all spectacles in honor of 
 his memory. There was now but one thing 
 wanting — the title of king. He is said to have 
 deliberated whether he should take it. 
 
 He preserved the republican forms in the 
 midst of an absolute government, and showed 
 himself as able to maintain power, as to gain 
 it. " His clemency," says Montesquieu, " was 
 insulting. It was considered that he did not 
 pardon, but disdained to punish." Having by 
 victory obtained the highest power, he wished 
 to enjoy it as if it had been transmitted to him, 
 and sought too soon to banish the inquietudes 
 which almost invariably trouble a power of 
 recent growth. " I had rather," said he, '• die 
 at once, than live always in fear." He sent 
 away his Spanish guard, contrary to the ad\Kice 
 of his best friends, and trusting too readily the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 c^:s 
 
 148 
 
 CAL 
 
 assertions of his flatterers, who declared. " that 
 after having put an end to the civil wars, the 
 republic was more interested than he was, in 
 his safety." His death was caused by this 
 want of caution. 
 
 He had formed a plan for conquering the 
 Parthians, and was on the eve of departing for 
 Asia. His partisans, to reconcile the Romans 
 to his assumption of the title of king, circulated 
 a report that the books of the Sibyls declared, 
 that the Parthians could only be subjugated by 
 the Romans, when their leader was a king. 
 The rumor gave the enemies of Caesar a pre- 
 text for seeking his death. A conspiracy was 
 formed against him, at the head of which 
 were Brutus and Cassius, whom he had made 
 pretors. The assassination was to take place 
 on the ides of March, the day on which Caesar, 
 according to report, was to assume the royal 
 title. The conspiracy was not so secret as to pre- 
 vent the circulation of some reports with regard 
 to it, but Caesar refused to take any precaution. 
 Moved, however, by the tears and entreaties 
 of his wife Calphurnia, he had made up his 
 mind to remain at home, when Decimus Bru- 
 tus, by representing to him the importance of 
 presenting himself at the senate-house, changed 
 his resolution. As he was leaving his house, 
 a certain Artemidorus placed in his hand a 
 paper containing an exposure of the whole 
 plot. Being unable to read this and other let- 
 ters from the pressure of the crowd about him, 
 Caesar gave them to his secretaries. He had 
 no sooner entered the senate-house, than he 
 was surrounded by the conspirators. Cimber, 
 under pretext of respect, siezed the skirt of his 
 robe, a signal which Casca responded to by 
 stabbing Caesar in the shoulder. The weapon 
 was caught by the intrepid victim, who ex- 
 claimed; "Wretch! what art thou doing?" 
 Caesar, though repeatedly wounded, defended 
 himself against his assassins, until Brutus 
 struck him, w T hen, fixing his eyes upon him, 
 he mournfully exclaimed ; " and thou, too, Bru- 
 tus ?■" Then, folding his head in his mantle, 
 he fell, pierced with thirty-three wounds, at the 
 base of Pompey's statue, March 15, 43 years 
 B. C. He was then 56 years old. The body 
 of Caesar, abandoned by all, was carried home 
 by three slaves. When his will was read from 
 the tribune, the people made the air ring with 
 their cries of grief and anger. The funeral 
 ceremonies were distinguished by uncommon 
 magnificence. The senate, who dared not de- 
 fend him in his hour of need, placed him among 
 the gods, and ordered that his laws should be 
 
 immutable. The results of this assassination 
 were deplorable, for jealousy, ambition, and 
 personal anger armed the greater part of the 
 murderers, and but few among them were ani- 
 mated by a love of liberty. Caesar, with many 
 faults and foibles, possessed many fine traits, 
 and was fitted by nature to command. His 
 erudition was considerable, and his commen- 
 taries are models of good writing. 
 
 CAFF A, a port of the Crimea, formerly a 
 considerable place, but now of little importance. 
 It was captured by the Turks in 1475. In 1775, 
 the Russians took it by storm. In 1783, it was 
 annexed to the Russian empire, and is now 
 called by the Russians, Feodosia, from its an- 
 cient name, Theodosia. 
 
 CAFFRARIA, a region of Africa, little 
 known, which includes a tract of country lying 
 in the north-east of the territories of the Cape 
 Colony. 
 
 CAIPHAS, the high priest of the Jews when 
 Christ was crucified. 
 
 CAILLIE, Rene, a native of France, cele- 
 brated for his travels in Africa. He won the 
 prize offered by the Geographical Society of 
 Paris to the man who should first reach Tim- 
 buctoo; and, besides other rewards, was pre- 
 sented with the cross of the legion of honor. 
 
 CAIN, the first murderer, the eldest born of 
 Adam and Eve. For the particulars of his his- 
 tory, see Genesis. 
 
 CAIRO or Kahira, the capital of Egypt. It 
 contains a population of 350,000, including 
 Arabs or Mohammedans, Copts, Mamelukes, 
 Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Jews, &c. It is 
 said to have been founded in 973. The Sara- 
 cens having neglected Alexandria, Cairo be- 
 came the capital of Egypt, and is the seat of an 
 extensive commerce. 
 
 CALABRIA, a mountainous but fertile 
 country, the inhabitants of which are sunk in 
 barbarism. It forms the southern part of Italy, 
 and contains 890,000 inhabitants. It anciently 
 formed a part of Magna Grcecia, and was cele- 
 brated for the refined luxury of its inhabitants. 
 At the city of Pizzo,Murat was seized, October 
 13th, 1815. 
 
 CALAIS, a sea-port town of France, in the 
 British channel, opposite to Dover. It is 
 strongly fortified, and contains 10,450 inhabi- 
 tants. In the 12th century it was a village 
 belonging to the counts of Boulogne. In 1346, 
 Edward III, of England, after his great victory 
 of Cressy, laid siege to it, and concerted his 
 measures so well, that his adversaries could not 
 throw succors into the place. Nearly 2,000 of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 CAL 
 
 149 
 
 CAL 
 
 the wretched inhabitants, who had been sent 
 out of the place to lessen the consumption of 
 provisions, came to the camp of the besiegers. 
 Edward gave each of them a hearty meal, and 
 two shillings, and provided for their future 
 safety. Calais was obliged to surrender to the 
 English, remained in their possession until 
 1558, when it was invested and attacked by 
 the duke of Guise, and, after a siege of eight 
 days, was obliged to capitulate. During the 
 operations of Francis I, and the duke of Bour- 
 bon, against the emperor Charles V, of Ger- 
 many, a congress was held at Calais, under the 
 mediation of Henry VIII, of England, which 
 proved unsuccessful. 
 
 CALCUTTA, the capital of the British India, 
 situated on the west branch of the Hoogly, an 
 arm of the Ganges, which is navigable to the 
 city for vessels of any size. The first settle- 
 ment of the English was made here in 1690 ; 
 the climate was at first very unhealthy, but it 
 has since improved. The population is very 
 great. The Black Hole (which see), is con- 
 verted into a warehouse. The commerce is 
 very extensive. 
 
 CALDERON (Don Pedro Calderon de la 
 Barca Henao y Riano), a Spanish poet and 
 dramatist, born at Madrid, 1601, and died 1687. 
 He served in a military capacity, but afterwards 
 embraced the clerical profession. He was the 
 author of 300 plays. 
 
 CALEDONIA, New ; a country of North 
 America, west of the Rocky mountains, inhab- 
 ited by the Td-cullies, or, as the whites call 
 them, Carriers, whose number is five thousand. 
 
 CALEDONIA, New, a large island in the 
 Pacific Ocean, the access to which is difficult 
 and dangerous; discovered by Cook in 1774. 
 The inhabitants are represented as mercenary 
 and treacherous, resembling in appearance the 
 negroes of Africa. They eat, among other 
 articles of food, the nokee spider. The longi- 
 tude of the island is 163° to 167° east; lat. 20° 
 to 22° 26' S. It is from 220 to 250 miles long, 
 and 50 broad. 
 
 CALICUT, a city of Hindostan, formerly 
 capital of a kingdom of the same name. It was 
 taken and destroyed by Tippoo Saib, but rebuilt 
 by the English. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Old or Lower; a territory 
 of Mexico, comprising a peninsula which is 
 separated from the main land by the Gulf of 
 California. In some places, the soil is covered 
 with a luxuriant vegetation, while in others, 
 barren rocks, and sterile tracts of land present 
 no object upon which the eye can rest with 
 
 pleasure. The population of the territory is 
 about 14,000, on an area of nearly 40,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, New or Upper, likewise a 
 territory of Mexico, lies upon the north Pacific 
 Ocean, north of Old California. It has an area 
 of 375,000 square miles, containing a population 
 of 25,000. The soil is fertile, and the woods 
 and waters never fail to yield hunters an abund- 
 ance of game and fish. • 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius Caesar Augustus Ger- 
 manicus, a Roman emperor, was the son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina, and born A. D. 12. 
 He received its surname from the Caligce (half 
 boots) which he wore. His life, with a single 
 exception, presented only a series of acts of 
 horrible cruelty, disgusting absurdity, and dar- 
 ing impiety. The reputation of his father at 
 first disposed the Romans to think favorably of 
 the son, but after a few hollow displays of clem- 
 ency and liberality, he showed himself in his 
 true light, and, even while a boy, committed 
 incest. He married and repudiated several 
 wives, the last of whom, Csssonia, retained a 
 firm hold upon his affections. His murders 
 were numerous, and rendered memorable by 
 the rank of the victims and the relation 
 which they bore to him. It was Caligula, who 
 wished that the " people of Rome had but one 
 head, that he might sever it at a blow." 
 
 If the cruelties of the tyrant call forth our 
 indignation, his unmanly follies excite our con- 
 tempt. His treatment of his horse Incitatus 
 exhibited the ridiculous part of his character. 
 This animal had a gorgeous stable, a house to 
 entertain visitors, and frequently dined at the 
 emperor's table, when he was presented with 
 wine and gilded oats. His master even med- 
 itated elevating him to the consulship. Cali- 
 gula appeared in public in the attributes of 
 various divinities, male as well as female, and 
 claimed homage as a Venus and a Mars. 
 Among his absurdities may be reckoned the 
 bridge of boats built from Baioe to Puteoli ; his 
 expedition against Britain, when the soldiers 
 gathered cockle-shells for spoils, and lastly, his 
 design of decimating the German army for a 
 revolt. To this last act the world owed its 
 deliverence from the monster who was mur- 
 dered by Choerea and Cornelius Sabinus, mili- 
 tary tribunes, A. D. 41. 
 
 CALIPH. The successors of Mohammed, 
 uniting secular and spiritual functions in their 
 persons, assumed the title of Caliph or vice- 
 gerent Many of them were distinguished by 
 brilliant qualities of mind and person, by the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CAL 
 
 150 
 
 CAL 
 
 patronage of the arts and literature, and by ex- 
 tensive conquests. The most noted among 
 them will be noticed under separate heads, as 
 Haroun al Raschid. 
 CALIPHS, list of— 
 
 THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS. 
 
 Abubeker— i ( Abdallah Ebm Abu Koafas, ) 632 
 
 ADUDeKer j or Father ofthe Virgin , j a. d. oj<! 
 
 Omar 634 
 
 Othman » 644 
 
 Ali 655 
 
 CALIPH OF THE FAMILY OF MOHAMMED. 
 
 Hassan or Al -Hassan — {Son of Mi and Fatima) 660 
 
 CALIPHS OF THE HOUSE OF OMMLTAH. 
 
 Moawiyah 1 661 
 
 Jezid 1 680 
 
 Moawiyah II 684 
 
 Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, not ofthe house of Ommi- 
 
 yah, is saluted Caliph of Meca 684 
 
 Merwan 1 684 
 
 Abdal Malec ". 1 684 
 
 Al Walid 1 705 
 
 Soliman 715 
 
 Omar II 718 
 
 Jezid II 720 
 
 Hesham 724 
 
 AlWalid II 743 
 
 Jezid III 744 
 
 Ibrahim 744 
 
 Merwan II 744 
 
 CALIPHS OF THE FAMILY OF AL ABBAS. 
 
 Abul Abbas el Saffah (the bloody) 749 
 
 Abul Giafer al Mansor (the victorious) 754 
 
 Al Mahadi 775 
 
 Musa al Hadi 785 
 
 Haroun al Raschid (the just) 786 
 
 Al Amin 809 
 
 Al Mamun 813 
 
 Al Motasem 833 
 
 Al Vathek Billah (by the grace of God) 842 
 
 Al Motawakkel Alallah 847 
 
 Al Montassar Billah 861 
 
 Al Mostain Billah 862 
 
 Al Motaz 866 
 
 Al Mohadi Billah 869 
 
 Al Motamed Alallah 870 
 
 Al Mothadad Billah 892 
 
 Al Molltaphi Billah 902 
 
 Al Moctader Billah 908 
 
 Al Kaher Billah 932- 
 
 Al Rhadi Billah 934 
 
 Al Mottaki Billah 941 
 
 Al Mostakphi Billah 944 
 
 Al Moti Lillah 946 
 
 Al Tay Lillah 974 
 
 Al Rader Billah 991 
 
 Al Rayer Beamrillah 1031 
 
 Al Moktadi Beamrillah 1075 
 
 Al Mostader Billah 1094 
 
 Al Mostarshed Billah 1118 
 
 Al Raschid Billah 1135 
 
 Al Moktafi Beamrilla 1136 
 
 Al Mostanjed Billah 1160 
 
 Al Mostadi Beamrillah... 1170 
 
 Al Nafer Ledinillah 1180 
 
 Al Daher Billah 1225 
 
 Al Mostansed Billah 1226 
 
 Al Mostasem Billah 1242 
 
 CALMUCS, a branch ofthe Mongol race of 
 great antiquity. Their tribes are scattered ; in 
 1759, a part of them, consisting of 1800 families, 
 settled on the Wolga, and placed themselves 
 under the protection of the Russian govern- 
 ment, to whom they paid voluntary allegiance. 
 Others are settled in different parts ; many of 
 them are Mohammedans. Their personal ap- 
 pearance is far from pleasing, and their habits 
 are extremely rude. 
 
 CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, an emi- 
 nent French statesman, born at Douai in 1734, 
 succeeded to the management of an empty 
 treasury in 1783, and skilfully met the claims 
 upon it, without adding to the burthens ofthe 
 people. He advised the abolition of the pecu- 
 niary exemptions enjoyed by the nobility, cler- 
 gy, and magistracy. He was, however, obliged 
 to retire from the vengeance of those bodies. 
 He died in 1802. 
 
 CALVARY, in Hebrew, Golgotha, the place 
 ofthe skull, a mountain in the vicinity of Jeru- 
 salem, on which our Savior Jesus Christ was 
 crucified. 
 
 CALVIN, John, second leader ofthe Reform- 
 ation in the 16th century, was born at Noyon, 
 July 15, 1509, and was destined for the church 
 at an early age, being presented with a bene- 
 fice in the cathedral of his native place, when 
 he was but twelve years old. His progress was 
 rapid, but it was not long before he received 
 the seeds of the new doctrines. In 1533, he was 
 involved in a persecution with his friend Mi- 
 chael Cop, who had defended the reformed doc- 
 trines in a public discourse. Obliged to quit 
 France, he repaired to Bale, in 1534, where he 
 composed his famous Institution of Christianity. 
 He was induced to write this by the persecu- 
 tions of Protestants, which disgraced the reign 
 of Francis I, of France. Although received in 
 different places with marks of respect, Calvin 
 found the warmest welcome and the safest asy- 
 lum in Geneva. After some agitation, the new 
 doctrine was generally received at Geneva. On 
 the refusal of Calvin and Farel, to comply with 
 the decrees of the council of Lausanne, the 
 magistrates compelled them to leave the city in 
 1538. At Strasbourg, Calvin's reception was 
 favorable, but he turned a longing look upon 
 Geneva. He was finally invited to return, and 
 he gained a great ascendancy over the Genevi- 
 ans. The rigor of Calvin was excessive. Thus, 
 a magistrate was deprived of his office and im- 
 prisoned for two months, because " his habits 
 were irregular, and he had leagued with the 
 enemies of Calvin." James Gruet was behead- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CAM 
 
 151 
 
 CAM 
 
 ed, for having written, " impious letters, and 
 libertine verses," and for having " labored to 
 destroy ecclesiastical regulations." Geneva, in 
 becoming the metropolis of the reformed wor- 
 ship, became the centre of a prodigious book- 
 trade, and the city of all Europe, in which the 
 arts and sciences were cultivated with the 
 greatest success. 
 
 Calvin died in Geneva, May 27th, 1564, in 
 the 55th year of his age. His constitution was 
 weak, and throughout life, he had suffered 
 much from disease. In 1539, he married a 
 widow, by whom he had one son, who died 
 young. She died in 1549, and he never mar- 
 ried again. He was sombre and austere in his 
 manners, of a melancholy disposition. He nev- 
 er knew the sweets of friendship, and his sole 
 joy, if joy it was, was in ruling and beholding 
 the triumph of his opinions. Calvin never had 
 any other title, in the church of Geneva, than 
 that of pastor. His temper, according to his 
 own confession, was impatient and opposed to 
 all contradiction. Thus the tone of his polemi- 
 cal writings is almost always harsh and insult- 
 ing. As a theologian, Calvin gained the highest 
 rank among the men of his century, by his pro- 
 found knowledge, by his tact, and, as he him- 
 self boasted, by his art in pressing an argument. 
 As a writer, he merits high praise. His mode 
 of worship, bare and stern, appeared, in the 
 eyes of many, to have elevated religion above 
 all sublunary things, by stripping it of every 
 object which had an attraction for the senses. 
 
 CALYDON, a city of iEtoba, noted in fabu- 
 lous history as the spot where Meleager slew 
 the wild boar, which the revengeful Diana had 
 sent to punish the inhabitants for neglecting 
 her worship. 
 
 CALYPSO, a daughter of Atlas, who dwelt 
 upon the island of Ogygia, where Ulysses was 
 shipwrecked. He refused to marry the god- 
 dess, although immortality was the promised 
 reward, preferring to revisit Ithaca, and again 
 behold his wife. He remained seven years on 
 the island, and grief at his departure destroyed 
 the enamored goddess. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, was 
 duke of Parma, prince and arch-chancellor of 
 the French empire, dignities which he enjoyed 
 during the ascendency of Napoleon, of whom 
 he was a colleague in the consulate in 1799. 
 His Plan of a Civil Code, drawn up in 1796, 
 was the basis of the celebrated Code Napoleon. 
 He left France on the downfal of the emperor, 
 and died in Paris, March 8, 1824. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or Camboge, or Camboya, a 
 
 fertile and wealthy country province of the em- 
 pire of Annam, in Asia, with a population of 
 100,000. Laos lies upon the north, Cochin 
 China and Chiampa on the east, the sea on the 
 south, and Siam on the west. 
 
 CAMBRAY, or Camerich, a strongly forti- 
 fied town of the French department of the 
 North, containing 17,650 inhabitants, celebrated 
 in diplomatic history for several important trea- 
 ties negociated there. Its manufactures are ex- 
 tensive, one of the principal articles being Cam- 
 bric. The town was taken by Charles V, in 
 1544; by the Spaniards in 1596; and by Louis 
 XIV in person, in 1677. In August, 1793, it 
 w r as unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians, 
 and in the campaign of 1815, it was taken by 
 the British, and made the head-quarters of the 
 allied armies. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a town in Middlesex coun- 
 ty, Massachusetts, on Charles river, 3 miles N. 
 W. of Boston, with a population of 8,127. It is 
 a neat and thriving place, distinguished as the 
 seat of Harvard University, the oldest and best 
 endowed institution in the United States, and 
 having the largest library in America. The 
 medical, divinity, and law departments, enjoy a 
 high reputation. The course of education is 
 completed in four years. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques, Etienne, 
 baron, general, commander of the legion of hon- 
 or, and distinguished for his personal bravery, 
 was born December 26, 1770. . He commanded 
 the small band, which Napoleon led from Elba. 
 At Waterloo, he was severely wounded, and 
 taken prisoner. When he heard the British 
 proposal of. capitulation, he answered nobly, 
 "La garde meurt,,elle ne se rend pas." The 
 guard dies, but does not surrender. 
 
 CAMBYSES, a king of Persia, and son of 
 Cyrus the Great, ascended the throne, B. C. 
 530. He conquered Egypt ; offended at the su- 
 perstitions of the Egyptians, he killed their god 
 Apis, whose flesh was eaten by his soldiers, and 
 plundered their temples. On mounting his 
 horse at a subsequent period, his sword gave 
 him a fatal wound in the thigh, the place where 
 he had injured the bull, and the Egyptians 
 looked upon this event as the retributive ven- 
 geance of the gods. He was dissolute and des- 
 titute of moral principles. In his fits of intoxi- 
 cation, his brutality was feared even by those 
 who had the greatest claims upon his forbear- 
 ance. In a fit of drunken rage he gave his 
 wife a kick which killed her. His throne was 
 usurped by one of the Magi, who assumed the 
 name of Smerdis, a brother of the king, who 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY). 
 
 CAM 
 
 152 
 
 CAM 
 
 had been secretly murdered on account of a 
 dream, which prognosticated to the tyrant fu- 
 ture troubles, and warned him to save himself 
 by the death of his brother. 
 
 CAMDEN, in South Carolina, 130 miles N. 
 W. of Charleston, with a population of 1000. 
 Here Gates was defeated by lord Cornwallis, 
 in 1780, and another battle was fought between 
 general Greene and lord Rawdon, in the ensu- 
 ing year. 
 
 CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, an illustrious 
 Roman, who obtained four triumphs, and five 
 times filled the office of dictator, but being pro- 
 secuted on a charge of peculation, went into 
 voluntary banishment. While he was absent, 
 Brennus, at the head of an arm}' of Gauls, took 
 Rome, and besieged the senate in the capital. 
 Camillus, forgetting his wrongs, hastened to 
 the relief of his country, defeated the barbarians, 
 and was created dictator. He died B. C. 365, 
 of the plague. He was generally honored and 
 respected, although party and personal prejudi- 
 ces more than once involved him in persecution. 
 
 In the siege of Falerii, the schoolmaster of 
 the town, who had the children of the senators 
 under his care, led them out of the city under 
 pretext of recreation, carried them to the Ro- 
 man camp, and surrendered them to the Roman 
 general, telling him, that he might now propose 
 to the besieged what terms he chose, since the 
 treasures they valued most were in his hands. 
 Camillus, indignant at this unparalleled treach- 
 ery, answered that the Romans warred with 
 men, and not with boys, and that, in the con- 
 duct of hostilities, integrity as well as courage 
 should be prized. He then ordered the school- 
 master to be stripped, and with his hands bound 
 behind his back, to be delivered to the boys to 
 be lashed back to the town. The Falerians, be- 
 fore obstinate in their resistance, struck with 
 this noble act, delivered themselves up to the 
 Romans, convinced that it would be better to 
 have such men for friends than foes. 
 
 CAMOENS, Louis, the most celebrated of 
 Portuguese poets, was born in Lisbon, in 1517. 
 His father was of a noble family, and his mother 
 of the illustrious house of Sa. Camoens studied 
 at Coimbra, where his instructors valued no 
 literature, but that which was written in imita- 
 tion of the ancients. But the genius of Ca- 
 moens was animated by the history of his coun- 
 try and the manners of his age ; and his lyric 
 poems belong, like the works of Dante, of Pe- 
 trarch, Ariosto and Tasso, to that literature 
 which was renewed by Christianity, and to the 
 spirit of chivalry, rather than to a purely classi- 
 
 cal style of writing. For this reason, the nu- 
 merous partisans of the classic school did not 
 applaud the performances of Camoens in the 
 early part of his career. On the completion of 
 his studies, he returned to Lisbon, where he 
 became warmly attached to Catharine d'Attayde, 
 a lady of the court. Ardent passions are often 
 united to great genius, and the life of Camoens 
 was alternately consumed by his feelings and 
 his genius. 
 
 He was exiled to Santarem on account of the 
 quarrels which his attachment to Catharine 
 brought upon him. There, in his seclusion, he 
 composed detached poems, which distinctly 
 pourtray the state of his feelings at the time of 
 their composition. The hopelessness of his sit- 
 uation led him to embark, as a soldier, in the 
 Portuguese fleet sent against the inhabitants of 
 Morocco. In the midst of battles he composed 
 poems, the glories and the dangers of war kin- 
 dling his poetic spirit, and his poetic imagina- 
 tion, in turn, urging him onward to the perform- 
 ance of military exploits. He lost his right eye 
 by an arrow before Ceuta. On his return to 
 Lisbon, he hoped, at least, that his wounds 
 would entitle him to some favor, even if his 
 talents were despised ; but although he had a 
 double claim upon the notice of government, he 
 encountered unexpected obstacles. Justly in- 
 dignant at this neglect, he embarked for the 
 Indies in 1553, and like Scipio, bade farewell to 
 his country, declaring that even his ashes should 
 not repose there. 
 
 He landed at Goa, the principal Portuguese 
 establishment in India ; here his imagination 
 was excited by the exploits of his countrymen 
 in this part of the world, and, great as were his 
 inducements to complain of them, he thought 
 to consecrate their glory in an epic. But indig- 
 nant at the abuses which were committed by 
 the government, he composed so severe a satire 
 upon the subject, that the enraged viceroy of 
 Goa banished him to Macao, where he lived 
 many years, surrounded by the most glorious 
 scenes, which the fairy regions of the east can 
 boast. Here he composed his Lusiad. The ex- 
 pedition of Vasco da Gama to the Indies, is the 
 subject of this work, which is sustained by the 
 skill of Camoens in mingling successfully, de- 
 tails of Portuguese history with the splendors 
 of poetry, and christian piety with pagan fable. 
 
 Camoens, on being recalled from his banish- 
 ment, was shipwrecked at the mouth of the 
 river Mecon, in Cochin China, and saved him- 
 self by swimming with one hand, while in the 
 other, he held the leaves of his immortal poem, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CAM 
 
 153 
 
 CAN 
 
 the only treasure that he saved, above the reach 
 of the greedy waves. Camoens was persecuted 
 by a new viceroy at Goa, and imprisoned for 
 debt, but some of his friends becoming security 
 for him, he embarked for Lisbon, in 1569, six- 
 teen years after having quitted Europe. The 
 young king Sebastian, took an interest in Ca- 
 moens, accepted the dedication of his epic poem, 
 and, on the eve of departing on his unfortunate 
 expedition against the Moors, in Africa, felt 
 more than any one else, the genius of the poet, 
 who, like himself, gloried in dangers, when 
 they led the way to fame. But Sebastian was 
 killed in the battle of Alcazar, in 1578 ; the roy- 
 al line became extinct, and Portugal lost her 
 independence. The unfortunate Camoens was 
 reduced by this event to such extremes, that, 
 during the night, a slave whom he had brought 
 from India, begged in the streets, to obtain food 
 for his master. In this wretched state, he still 
 composed lyric poems, and the finest of his de- 
 tached pieces are those which contain com- 
 plaints of his misfortunes. How brilliant was 
 that genius which could extort inspiration from 
 the very calamities which finally extinguished 
 it. This hero of Portuguese literature, the only 
 one whose glory belongs alike to his nation, and 
 to Europe, died in an hospital, in 1579, aged 62 
 years. After his death, a monument was erect- 
 ed to his memory, and thousands, who would 
 have denied succor while he was living, 
 crowded to do homage to his inanimate re- 
 mains. 
 
 CAMPANIA, the ancient name of a province 
 of Italy, now called Terra di Lavoro, included 
 in the modern kingdom of Naples. Its soil is 
 extremely fertile. The classical associations 
 heighten the interest and charm of its naturally 
 fine scenery, of which Vesuvius is far from 
 being the least prominent feature. 
 
 CAMPEACHY, or Campeche, a seaport sit- 
 uated on the western part of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan, on a bay of the same name in Mexi- 
 co. The Indians who occupied it at the time 
 of the Spanish invasion, had made great pro- 
 gress in the arts, and were extremely numerous. 
 Population 3,000. 
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO, a castle of Udine in Fri- 
 uli, a province of Venice, belonging to the Aus- 
 trians, famous for the treaty signed here, Oct. 
 17, 1797, by which the emperor of Austria ced- 
 ed to the French republic the whole of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, and consented to their 
 remaining in possession of the islands of Corfu, 
 Zante, Cephalonia, and all the islands in the 
 Adriatic, together with the Venetian territories 
 
 in Albania. He also acknowledged the Cisal- 
 pine republic as an independent state ; ceded to 
 it the countries in Lombardy, which had former- 
 ly belonged to Austria, and consented that it 
 should possess Bergamo, Brescia, and other Ve- 
 netian territories, together with the duchies of 
 Mantua and Modena, the principalities of Car- 
 rara and Massa, and the cities of Romagna, Fer- 
 rara, and Bologna, belonging to the Pope. 
 France yielded up to Austria, Istria, Dalmatia, 
 the city of Venice, with a large portion of the 
 dominions of that republic, and the Venetian 
 islands in the x\driatic, lying to the northeast 
 of the gulf of Lodrino. These were the prin- 
 cipal articles of the treaty. 
 
 CANAAN, a country situated between the 
 Mediterranean and the mountains of Arabia, 
 and extending from Egypt to Phoenicia. The 
 first inhabitants were descended from Ca- 
 naan, who settled colonies in almost all the 
 islands, &c. in the Mediterranean. They were 
 subdued by the Israelites under Joshua, who 
 destroyed many of them, and obliged the rest 
 to flee the country. The colonies which Cad- 
 mus conducted to Thebes in Bceotia, and his 
 brother Cilix into Cilicia, were from Canaan ; 
 and Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Majorca 
 and Minorca, are said to have been peopled by 
 Canaanites. 
 
 CANADA, a country in North America, be- 
 longing to the British, and divided into Upper 
 and Lower Canada, since the year 1791. 
 
 Lower Canada is thus bounded : — north by 
 New Britain, east by New Britain and the gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, south and south east by New 
 Brunswick, and Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont and New York ; west by Upper Canada. 
 Nearly five-sixths of the inhabitants, (of whom 
 there are 600,000), are French Canadians, the 
 remainder being English, Scotch, Irish, and 
 Americans. It is divided into five districts, 
 which are subdivided in 40 counties. Seigniories, 
 or grants of the French government, and town- 
 ships, or grants of the English, are the minor 
 subdivisions. A governor-general, whose resi- 
 dence is at Quebec, is at the head of the British 
 American government. Besides the governor, 
 there is a council of 10, appointed by the king, 
 who also appoints the three members of the 
 council of the legislature, the otherbranch of 
 which is an elective house of assembly. 
 
 The principal towns are Montreal, Quebec, 
 Three Rivers, and Sorelle, Chambly, St. John's, 
 and La Chine. The houses of the Canadians are 
 generally low, and built of stone, with little 
 finish. Education is generally at a low ebb 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CAN 
 
 154 
 
 CAN 
 
 among them, although Quebec and Montreal 
 sustain some highly reputable seminaries. The 
 commerce of the province has gradually in- 
 creased under the fostering spirit of the British 
 government. The fur trade, of which Mon- 
 treal is the depot, is considerable, and timber, 
 pot and pearl ashes, grain, &c. are exported in 
 great quantities. Grass, wheat, barley, rye, 
 &c. are the principal productions of the soil. 
 The majestic St. Lawrence is the main river of 
 the Canadas, but there are also others of great 
 importance. 
 
 The French Canadians possess all the charac- 
 teristics which distinguish the volatile inhabit- 
 ants of France. The same passionate vivacity, 
 the same eagerness in the pursuit of pleasure, 
 the same levity, and, it must be added, laxity 
 of principle, exhibits the connection between 
 the parent stock and the transplanted race. 
 Their amusements in winter consist of sleigh- 
 ing expeditions, in which the spirited little 
 Canadian horses prove their worth, varied by 
 dancing, and social gayeties. Where the females 
 are distinguished for their temperance, the men 
 are unfortunately addicted to the use of spiritu- 
 ous liquors, and can scarcely be persuaded to 
 abandon them in winter, alleging the severity 
 of the weather, which frequently depresses the 
 mercury in the thermometer to 40 degrees be- 
 low Zero, as an excuse. 
 
 The eastern and southeastern boundary of 
 Upper Canada, is Lower Canada, while the 
 United States lie upon the south, separated by 
 the great lakes, and New Britain on the north 
 and west. It contains 1 1 districts, 23 counties, 
 divided into numerous townships, and has an 
 aggregate population of more than 231 ,778. A 
 large proportion of emigrants to Canada, now 
 settle in this province. They have been in- 
 duced to settle here from the very great fertility 
 of the soil, and the value and abundance of the 
 timber. The forests increase in extent as they 
 spread to the regions of the north, of which few 
 but the Indians, possess any knowledge. In 
 these wooded districts, vast sheets of water ex- 
 pand in solitary splendor, haunted only by the 
 beasts of prey, or Indians hardly less wild. To- 
 ronto, lately York, the seat of government, 
 which is finely situated on lake Ontario, has 
 an admirable harbor. The established religion 
 of the Canadas, is that of the Church of Eng- 
 land, but a large portion of the inhabitants are 
 Catholics. The British constitution forms the 
 basis of that of British America, and the vicin- 
 ity of the British possessions to the United 
 States has not been without effect in exciting 
 
 discontents among the people, who have an 
 opportunity of comparing their political condi- 
 tion with our own, much to the disadvantage of 
 the government under which they live. 
 
 The French, at a very early period, seemed 
 to be aware of the importance of the discovery 
 of Canada by Cabot, and the cod-fishery began 
 to employ their men as early as the commence- 
 ment of the 16th century. In the early part of 
 that century a Frenchman is said to have made 
 a chart of the entrance of the St. Lawrence. In 
 1524, Francis I, of France, sent four ships, un- 
 der Verazzani, a Florentine, to prosecute dis- 
 coveries in this country. In 1535 James Car- 
 tier, of St. Maloes, sailed up the river St. 
 Lawrence, formed alliances with the natives, 
 took possession of the territory, built a fort, and 
 wintered in the country. Henry IV appointed 
 the marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general of 
 Canada, and the neighboring countries. In 1608 
 the city of Quebec was founded, and from that 
 period the establishment of a permanent French 
 colony commenced. In 1629 an English expe- 
 dition took possession of Quebec, but it was sur- 
 rendered again to the French by the treaty of 
 St. Germains. This expedition was headed by 
 Sir David Keith. In 1690, a bold attempt was 
 made, but without success, to subject Canada to 
 the English crown. The attempt was renewed 
 in 1711, but equally in vain. Canada continu- 
 ed in the occupation of the French till the 
 breaking out of the war between France and 
 England in 1756. In 1759 the British govern 
 ment formed the project of attempting its con- 
 quest, and the English took possession of Que- 
 bec after a gallant resistance on the part of the 
 French ; in which the English general Wolfe, 
 and Montcalm, the French commander, both 
 perished. The latter, on being told that his 
 wound was mortal, nobly exclaimed : " Then I 
 shall not live to see the city surrendered to the 
 British I" The whole province of Canada was 
 soon after subdued by the English, and was con- 
 firmed to Great Britain by the treaty of 1763. 
 In 1775 Canada was invaded by a body of pro- 
 vincial troops, led by Montgomery ; Montreal 
 was taken, but the gallant general perished in 
 the unsuccessful attempt upon Quebec. During 
 the last war with Great Britain, Upper Canada 
 became the theatre of a sanguinary struggle. 
 The province has since remained subject to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 CANDI, a city and kingdom of Ceylon, which 
 long resisted all attacks, but was finally annex- 
 ed to the British dominions in 1816. 
 
 CANDI A, anciently Idaa, and Crete, called 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 CAN 
 
 155 
 
 CAN 
 
 by the Turks, Kirid, a large island in the Medi- 
 terranean, lying about 80 miles south of the 
 Morea. The climate is mild and the soil pro- 
 ductive, capable, as was proved in ancient 
 times, of supporting 1,200,000 inhabitants, a 
 population which Turkish tyranny and indo- 
 lence have diminished to 300,000. It was, in 
 mythological accounts, the kingdom of Saturn. 
 After becoming a republic, and a pirate isle, it 
 was conquered by the Romans, and then by the 
 Saracens in 823. In 962 the Greeks regained 
 possession of it. It was sold to the Venetians 
 in 1204, and was fiercely contended for by the 
 troops of the Porte and the republic. Hither 
 the Christian chivalry of Europe rushed to dis- 
 play their valor against the infidels, and the capi- 
 tal was only surrendered after a war of 25 years, 
 Sept. 27, 1669. The siege which immediately 
 preceded it lasted for more than two years. 
 Candia continued in the hands of the Turks, 
 until its recent cession to the viceroy of Egypt. 
 CANNiE, a city on the Adriatic, at the mouth 
 of the Aufidus, where the Romans were defeat- 
 ed by the Carthaginians, under Hannibal. 216 
 B. C. Hannibal had 10,000 horse and 40,000 
 foot, while the Roman troops, headed by iEmi- 
 lius Paulus, and Terentius Varro, amounted to 
 87,000 men. The opponents of Hannibal had 
 two to one against him in infantry, while Han- 
 nibal had five to one against them in cavalry . 
 The light-horse and slingers began to skirmish, 
 after whom Hasdrubal charged the troops of 
 horse that were led by JEmilius, and broke their 
 ranks. The last blow that ended all resistance 
 was given by the same hand that aimed the first. 
 Hasdrubal, having cut in pieces all the Roman 
 horse that opposed him, fell back upon the rear, 
 and came up to the Numidians, with whom he 
 joined, and made a charge upon Varro. The 
 Romans, whom they charged, appeared incapa- 
 ble of resistance, and were completely routed. 
 Livy says that 40,000 foot, and above 2,700 
 horse were slain ; Polybius accounts the loss 
 much greater. The prisoners taken amounted 
 to 3,000 foot, and 300 horse, according to Livy, 
 according to others, to 8000. Hannibal collect- 
 ed the rings, the badges of the fallen Roman 
 knights, and sent many bushels of them to Car- 
 thage, as tokens of his triumph. He lost 4000 
 Gauls, 1500 Spaniards and Africans, and 200 
 horse. Had he pursued his victory and march- 
 ed forthwith to Rome, instead of quartering his 
 troops in the seductive Capua, he might proba- 
 bly have ended the war— but he did not trust 
 his own good fortune to such a length. Varro, 
 the consul, whose imprudence brought on the de- 
 
 feat, saved himself by flight, while his brave 
 colleague, iEmilius, perished on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 CANOVA, Antonio, the most celebrated and 
 successful sculptor of the 19th century. He 
 was born in the Venetian territory, at. Possagno, 
 Nov. 1, 1757, and from his twelfth year devoted 
 himself to the art in which he became so cele- 
 brated. When quite young, he modelled the 
 figure of a lion in butter, with exquisite skill. 
 This was placed upon the table of the seigneur 
 of the place, Falieri, whose attention it attract- 
 ed. The ingenious artist was sought for, found, 
 and placed with a statuary. At 17 his statue of 
 Eurydice was sculptured, and highly praised. 
 In 1779 he went to Rome under the patronage 
 of the Venetian Senate. His works are nu- 
 merous, and his subjects various; the female 
 figures being the most perfect and beautiful. 
 His graces, his Venus, his dancing figures, Cu- 
 pid and Psyche, tfcc. surpass all of the recent 
 productions of Italian art. Canova had a me- 
 thod of finishing his statues, by applying to 
 the marble a peculiar preparation, which de- 
 stroyed the glare and glitter of the stone, and 
 imparted to it the soft and mellow lustre of wax. 
 Modest, moral, and amiable, Canova was free 
 from all professional jealousy, and liberally pa- 
 tronized young artists of merit, removing many 
 of the obstacles which oppose the early steps 
 of devotees to the fine arts. He was created 
 marquis of Ischia, with a large pension, by pope 
 Pius VII, who was by no means backward in 
 acknowledging his merit. The amiable artist 
 died at Venice, Oct. 13, 1822, leaving behind 
 him many monuments of his talents, industry, 
 goodness, and liberality. A late writer, in 
 speaking of the comparative merits of the Me- 
 cficean and Canova Venus, says, " I am by no 
 means convinced of the great superiority of the 
 ancient over the modern work. It is certain 
 the general attitude and aspect are copied in 
 the latter, which deprives the artist of a great 
 share of the merit of originality ; but if we 
 were to regard the works alone, without any 
 reference to their formation, I am not sure that 
 the palm would not be given to Canova. As a 
 friend of mine, no mean judge, said to me, ' If 
 they were both dug out of the earth now, and 
 nobody knew any thing about either, the Ca- 
 nova statue would be preferred.' " 
 
 CANTON, principal city of the Chinese pro- 
 vince of Quan-tong, on the banks of the Taho, 
 and a place of immense commercial importance, 
 being the only Chinese sea-port open to Amer- 
 ican and European vessels. According to the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 CAP 
 
 156 
 
 CAP 
 
 missionaries it has a million of inhabitants. The 
 surrounding scenery is charming-, and the east- 
 ern hills present a most noble prospect. The 
 houses, with the exception of those of the man- 
 darins and wealthy merchants, are low, the 
 streets long, narrow and well-paved, spanned, 
 here and there, by triumphal arches, and shad- 
 ed at the sides by continuous ranges of piaz- 
 zas. But the main charm of the city consists 
 in its beautiful pleasure gardens, which are 
 studded with fish-pools. 
 
 The exports are tea, India ink, varnish, por- 
 celain, rhubard, silk, nankeen, &c. The cli- 
 mate of Canton is considered healthy, although 
 the heat of summer, and the warmth of win- 
 ter are great. 
 
 CANUTE, the Great, king of Denmark and 
 England, succeeded his father Sweyn in the 
 former kingdom, about the year 1015. He com- 
 menced his reign by an expedition against 
 England, but hearing that the king of Norway 
 had invaded Denmark, he was obliged to make 
 a precipitate return. Having repulsed the in- 
 vader, he resumed his enterprise, and landing 
 on the southern coast, committed dreadful rava- 
 ges; but Edmund Ironsides opposed him with 
 such bravery, that Canute agreed to divide the 
 kingdom with him On the murder of Edmund 
 by Edric in 1017, Canute obtained the whole 
 kingdom in an assembly of the states, and put to 
 death Edric, and several of the English nobili- 
 ty, who had basely deserted their sovereign. 
 He likewise levied heavy taxes on the people, 
 and particularly on the inhabitants of London. 
 The king of Sweden having attacked Denmark, 
 he went thither and slew the Swedish monarch 
 in battle. Canute built churches, made a pil- 
 grimage to Rome, cherished the interests of 
 learning, and distinguished himself by his un- 
 affected piety. 
 
 Canute's reproofs of his courtiers is well 
 known. These flatterers having assured him he 
 had power over all things, he seated himself upon 
 the sea-shore, and commanded the waves not 
 to approach his feet. The element advanced 
 with its usual rapidity, and Canute, rising, said 
 to his courtiers in a tone of great solemnity : 
 " He alone can rule the waves, who has said to 
 them, — Thus far shall ye go, and no farther." 
 Canute died at Shaftesbury, 1036. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Some notice of 
 the settlements in this part of Africa has been 
 given already. (See Africa.) The Cape, near- 
 ly at the southern extremity of Africa, long in 
 the hands of the Dutch, was found, on the con- 
 quest by the English, in the year 1795, to be 550 
 
 English miles in length, and 233 in breadth. 
 The soil is various, but generally fertile ; ani- 
 mals are numerous, and fish abound along the 
 coast. The average annual amount of exports 
 is about 1,000,000. This flourishing colony was 
 originally founded by the Dutch. Van Riebeck, 
 surgeon of one of the Dutch company's ships, 
 having touched at the Cape, was struck with 
 the extent of the bay, capable of containing 
 more than one hundred vessels ; its situation, 
 halfway between Europe and India; and the 
 nature of the soil, which seemed proper for 
 every kind of cultivation. On his return, he 
 communicated his ideas to the company, who 
 approved of his plan, and gave him full powers 
 to carry it into execution. Van Riebeck ac- 
 cordingly embarked with four vessels, and, after 
 arriving at the Cape, purchased from the inhab- 
 itants land for an establishment, for which he 
 gave them merchandize, to be selected at their 
 own choice, to the value of 50,000 florins. In 
 the year 1805, the Cape was taken, for the 
 second time, by the English, in whose hands it 
 still remains. 
 
 CAPE VERDE ISLANDS, a group of Af- 
 rican islands, in the Atlantic, opposite to, and 
 390 miles from Cape Verde, belonging to Por- 
 tugal. Their number has been variously stated 
 from 10 to 14. The air is unwholesome, but 
 some portions of the soil is fertile. Rain is 
 unfrequent, and the drought has been so severe, 
 that numbers of the inhabitants have perished 
 from the consequent famine, an instance of which 
 occurred recently. On that occasion, provis- 
 ions were liberally supplied by voluntary con- 
 tributions from the citizens of the United States. 
 The salt manufactured at Mayo, a small island, 
 is exchanged for flour, and this trade is chiefly- 
 earned on by means of American vessels. 
 
 CAPERNAUM, a town of Palestine, on the 
 sea of Tiberias, for some time the residence of 
 our Savior, and in the vicinity of which he 
 delivered his sermon on the mount. It was on 
 the coast of Galilee. 
 
 CAPET. The family name of a royal race, 
 36 members of which have reigned in France, 
 and 82 in other European states. The word 
 signifies broad-head, or perhaps, broad-hat, and 
 was first given to Hugh, son of Hugh the Great, 
 duke of France, and count of Paris, by his 
 adherents, in the 10th century. 
 
 CAPITOL, (Capitolium) now Campidoglio, 
 the citadel of ancient Rome, situated on the 
 Capitoline hill, or Tarpeian rock. It was plan- 
 ned by Tarquinius Prisons, who commenced it 
 B. C. 614. It was built upon four acres of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CAP 
 
 157 
 
 CAR 
 
 ground ; the front was adorned with three rows 
 of pillars, and the sides with two. The ascent 
 to it from the ground was by an hundred steps. 
 The magnificence and richness of this temple 
 are almost incredible. It was several times 
 destroyed by fire, and as frequently rebuilt ; 
 Domitian raised the last and most splendid 
 temple of all, in which the gilding alone amount- 
 ed to nearly 4,000Z. sterling. The capitol was 
 in the form of a square, extending nearly 200 
 feet on each side ; it was the highest part of the 
 city, and strongly fortified. The gates were of 
 brass, and the tiles gilt. The prodigious gifts 
 and ornaments with which it was occasionally 
 endowed, almost exceed belief. Augustus pre- 
 sented to it at one time, 2,000 pounds weight 
 of gold, and jewels to the value of 2,000,000/. 
 sterling. A few vestiges of this building still 
 remain ; the Campidoglio is a modern edifice. 
 
 CAPO D'lSTRIA^John, count of, a native 
 of Greece, was born at Corfu, in 1780. He 
 entered the diplomatic service of Russia, and 
 was entrusted with several important missions. 
 Having displeased the Russian government by 
 taking the part of the Greeks when their strug- 
 gle for liberty commenced, he retired from 
 public service in 1822, and was living at Geneva 
 in 1827, when he was elected president of the 
 Greek republic. In this responsible station, his 
 measures appear to have been directed by pure 
 patriotism, and his talents to have been of a 
 high order, although the weakness of the state, 
 and the disorders which reigned throughout 
 Greece, rendered it impossible to form an accu- 
 rate estimate of his abilities. His assassination 
 is too recent an event to require description. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, a province of Asia, once of 
 great importance as an independent kingdom, 
 at times, although nominally dependent upon 
 Persia, whose satraps governed it. The Pontus 
 Euxinus lay upon the north, Armenia on the 
 east, Cilicia and Syria on the south, and Lyca- 
 onia on the west. It was divided into Cappadociu 
 Magna, and Cappadocia, Minor, afterwards Cap- 
 padocia Proper, and Pontus. These divisions 
 were not, however, inflexibly adhered to. 
 
 CAPRI, anciently Caprea or Caprea?, a fer- 
 tile island in the gulf of Naples, whose inhabi- 
 tants are 3000 in number. Besides being valu- 
 able on account of its oil and wine, it is en- 
 riched by quails, which come hither in great 
 numbers from Africa, and are caught wHh ease. 
 The charms of this island induced Tiberius to 
 select it for his retreat when he chose to retire 
 from the active administration of goverment, 
 and give himself up to the most revolting de- 
 
 bauchery, occasionally reminding his subjects 
 of his existence by ordering the executior of 
 Rome's best citizens. 
 
 CAPUA, a fortified city on the Volturno, in 
 the Terra di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 which contains 8,000 inhabitants. The ruins 
 of the ancient city of Capua are at a little dis- 
 tance from the modern one. The ancient Ca- 
 pua was famous for its luxuries, which were 
 more fatal to the Carthaginian troops of Hanni- 
 bal than the arms of his adversaries, the Ro- 
 mans. January 31th, 1790, Capua was taken 
 by the French, and, in 1820, occupied by the 
 Austrians. 
 
 CARABOBO, a province of Venezuela, in 
 South America. The famous battle of Cara- 
 bobo, which decided the independence of Ve- 
 nezuela, was fought between Bolivar and La 
 Torre, the Spanish general, June 24, 1821. 
 
 CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, the 
 eldest son of the emperor Severus, born A. D. 
 188, and associated with his father in the gov- 
 ernment at the age of 13 years. After his fa- 
 ther's death, he assassinated his brother Geta, 
 who shared the throne with him in 212. Cara- 
 calla received the surname of Alemannicus, for 
 basely murdering a tribe of the Germans, whom 
 he pretended to assist. He visited Egypt, and 
 displayed every where the greatest cruelty. 
 He was finally assassinated at Edessa, A. D. 
 217, by Macrinus, the praetorian prefect. 
 
 CAR A CC AS, a province of Venezuela,which, 
 with Caraboba, forms the department of Vene- 
 zuela. By the earthquake of 1812, and the 
 political convulsions, the number of inhabitants 
 of the city of Caraccas has been reduced from 
 50,000 to 25,000. The productions of the pro- 
 vince are numerous, and the climate mild and 
 agreeable. The inhabitants, male and female, 
 are handsome, sprightly, and intelligent, but 
 proud and uncultivated. 
 
 CARACTACUS, king of the Silures, a 
 British tribe of Wales, who, being taken pris- 
 oner by the Romans, was led before the empe- 
 ror Claudius, A. D. 52. He was unawed by 
 the power and splendor which surrounded him, 
 but was surprised, as he told the emperor, that 
 the possessors of so much wealth and grandeur 
 could envy him his humble cottage. The mag- 
 nanimity of his bearing, and the candor and 
 moderation of his remarks, so moved the empe- 
 ror, that he jrave orders to have the captive 
 monarch set at liberty. This was the only good 
 action that Claudius performed. 
 
 CARBONARI, Colliers, the name of a secret 
 political society of Italy which has existed for 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CAR 
 
 153 
 
 CAR 
 
 many years, but the origin of which is doubtful. 
 The carbonari are the sworn foes of oppression 
 — "hatred to tyrants!" — being the initiatory 
 oath. The places where they meet are called 
 huts ; the interior the colliery, and the exterior 
 the wood. Tolerance in religious matters is 
 secured by their principles. Whole cities and 
 towns have joined the society, and, in 1820, 
 when Italy was disturbed by plots, 050,000 new 
 members were admitted, in the month of March. 
 ^ CARIBBEE ISLANDS, are the islands which 
 form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. 
 They are divided into Leeward and Windward 
 Islands. St. Christopher's, Guadaloupe, Dom- 
 inica, Martinico, Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, 
 are some of the principal. The Caribbees, or 
 original inhabitants of the Caribbee Islands, 
 were found by the Spaniards to be fierce, war- 
 like, and confirmed cannibals. 
 
 CARLISLE, anciently Luguvallium, and 
 Lugubalum, capital of Cumberland, England, 
 and a large manufacturing place. It was one 
 of the most important stations at the time of the 
 Romans. The castle was burned by the Scots 
 in the time of Henry II, and twice accidentally 
 in that of Edward I. It was besieged by an 
 army of 8,000 men in the reign of Henry VIII, 
 and in 1644, surrendered to General Leslie. 
 In 1745, it was taken by the partisans of Charles 
 Edward, but retaken by the duke of Cumber- 
 land. Population 20,000. 
 
 CARLISLE, capital of Cumberland county 
 (Penn.), 114 miles west of Philadelphia, con- 
 taining 3,700 inhabitants. Its trade is very 
 considerable, and its appearance agreeable ; the 
 streets being regular, and the houses neatly 
 built. Its court house and churches are fine 
 buildings. Dickinson college is a flourishing 
 institution. 
 
 CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II. and Mary, 
 of Portugal, was born at Valladolid, Jan. 8, 1544. 
 Four days after, his mother died in the midst of 
 preparations for the celebration of the birth of 
 the prince. Carlos was naturally infirm, and 
 had one leg shorter than the other. The exces- 
 sive indulgence with which he was treated, 
 fostered his strong passions, and rendered him 
 vindictive and obstinate. His preceptor, Bos- 
 sulus, a learned, but dissolute Frenchman, ex- 
 erted an unhappy influence over the mind of 
 his pupil, and prevented him from treating his 
 father with proper respect. It is said that Bos- 
 sulus, being reproached by the prince with 
 being the son of a monk, replied with warmth 
 and insolence ; " I know I am : but my father 
 is a better one than yours." 
 
 In 15G0, Philip caused the states, assembled 
 at Toledo, solemnly to recognise Don Carlos 
 as heir to the crown. A fall down the staircase 
 of the palace of the Cardinal Ximenes, nearly 
 deprived the young prince of life, and his mind 
 was ever afterwards impaired. Contemporary 
 historians vary greatly m the portraits which 
 they draw of Don Carlos. According to some, 
 he was born with all those qualities which adorn 
 a hero ; with a love of glory joined to high 
 courage ; a proud disdain of opposition, and a 
 desire of extended power. According to others, 
 he was fond of extraordinary adventures, of 
 every thing eccentric and odd, and his actions 
 were those of a madman, whom accident and 
 opposition irritate, but address or submission 
 calms. Ferreras relates some curious anecdotes 
 of him. 
 
 One night, as he was traversing the streets 
 of Madrid, some one accidentally threw a little 
 water on his head. Instantly stopping, Don 
 Carlos ordered his attendant gentlemen to set 
 fire to the house, and cut the throats of its in- 
 mates. They parted, as if to execute his com- 
 mands, but returning immediately, assured him 
 that it was impossible to obey him, because the 
 holy sacrament was on the point of being ad- 
 ministered to a sick person in the offensive 
 dwelling. This reply pacified the prince. 
 
 One of the obnoxious courtiers of his father, 
 the president Spmola, having banished Cisne- 
 ros, a comedian, whose performances Don 
 Carlos had a great desire to behold, the prince 
 met the president in the royal palace. Carlos, 
 seizing him by the hat, anil handling his dag- 
 ger-hilt, exclaimed : " How dare you cross me 
 by preventing Cisneros from contributing to 
 my amusement ? By the life of my father ! I 
 will kill thee !" The terrified president fell at 
 the prince's feet, and changed his resolution 
 by his abject supplications. 
 
 A shoemaker having made a pair of boots 
 much too tight for the prince, the latter ordered 
 them to be cut to pieces. " Villain !" exclaimed 
 he, to the terrified tradesman, " thou must eat 
 these or die !" In vain the unfortunate man 
 represented the cruelty of the sentence, and the 
 trivial nature of his offence. He was not per- 
 mitted to depart until he had eaten up his 
 boots. 
 
 Don Alonzo de Cordova, brother of the mar- 
 quis of Las Nevas, having failed to repair in- 
 stantly to the prince's chamber, at the sum- 
 mons of his bell, the furious prince seized him 
 by the waist, and, but for the cries of the suf- 
 ferer, which procured the assistance of servants. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CAR 
 
 159 
 
 CAR 
 
 would have dashed him through the window 
 into the moat. 
 
 In 1559, a marriage having been proposed, 
 between Don Carlos and Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Henry II, Philip judged proper to substitute 
 himself for his son. It is said that Carlos loved 
 Elizabeth ; that their passion was mutual, and 
 that he never forgave his father for having 
 deprived him of his bride. He was led, in 
 1565, to hope for a union with archduchess 
 Anne, his cousin, and daughter of the emperor 
 Maximilian, but Philip shortly afterwards op- 
 posed the match, and, on the death of Don 
 Carlos, married the lady himself. Thus he 
 successively deprived his son of two females, 
 whose attractions might have bound him to 
 domestic life, and softened all the wilder and 
 more obdurate portions of his character. 
 
 In 1563, Philip, who had no heir but Don 
 Carlos, whom he doubtless judged incapable of 
 governing, sent for his nephews, the archdukes 
 Rodolphus and Ernest, whom he received in 
 person, for the purpose of securing the succes- 
 sion to them. The following year, Don Car- 
 los, who was discontented, and at variance with 
 his father, projected his escape from Spain under 
 the pretext of going to the relief of Malta, then 
 besieged by the troops of Soliinan. He col- 
 lected 50,000 ducats, and was on the eve of 
 departing, when a forged letter of the viceroy 
 of Naples, urging his stay in Spain, induced 
 him to change his resolution. It is unnecessary 
 to dwell upon the various projects of Don Car- 
 los for securing fame and distinction in other 
 countries, all of which were crossed by his 
 stern parent, who regarded him with a jealous 
 eye, and punished several of his confidants and 
 friends. 
 
 Philip appeared to repose implicit confidence 
 in the duke of Alva, Ruy Gomez de Sylva, 
 Don John of Austria, and Spinola. Don Car- 
 los had an invincible repugnance to these men, 
 either from jealousy of the confidence they 
 enjoyed, or from considering them as authorised 
 and privileged spies upon his conduct. He 
 could not bear to dwell upon the thought that 
 the duke of Alva had obtained the government 
 of Flanders, which he had solicited for himself. 
 Resolved on revenge, he attacked the duke 
 with a poignard, when he came to take leave 
 of him, and would have killed him outright, 
 but for the agility and strength of his foe. 
 Philip appeared to believe that Don Carlos had 
 a design upon his own life, for he always wore 
 two curiously constructed pistols. 
 
 Louis de Foix, a French engineer, the cele- 
 14* 
 
 bratcd architect, who built the Escurial, a royal 
 palace in the form of a gridiron, is said to have 
 been commanded by Don Carlos to make him 
 a book heavy enough to kill a man at one blow. 
 De Thou, the historian who relates this, says, 
 " This prince desired the book, after having 
 read in the annals of Spain, that an imprisoned 
 archbishop had made a leather cover to a brick 
 of the size of his breviary, and used it to kill his 
 jailer, whom he struck dead." De Foix told 
 the historian that he made the prince a book, 
 composed often tablets of a blue stone, covered 
 with plates of steel, concealed under plates of 
 gilt, and this book, six inches by four, weighed 
 more than fourteen pounds. He said also that 
 Don Carlos, wishing to be alone in his chamber, 
 employed him to make him a machine, with 
 which, by means of pulleys, he could open and 
 shut his door without rising from his bed. The 
 prince had always under his pillow two drawn 
 swords, a brace of loaded pistols, and, at the 
 bedside, half a dozen harquebusses, and an arm- 
 chest. These precautions and preparations 
 alarmed Philip. Don Carlos was often heard 
 complaining, in bursts of indignation, of the 
 conduct of his father. He avowed to his con- 
 fessor that there was one man whom he had 
 resolved to kill. The confession being betrayed 
 to Philip, he exclaimed ; " I am the man whose 
 life he seeks ! but I will take care to prevent 
 the execution of his designs." 
 
 Philip did nothing without consulting the 
 Holy office. De Foix was ordered to arrest the 
 action of the pulleys, which closed the door of 
 the prince's chamber. This he did privately, 
 and with so much skill, that the prince never 
 perceived it. He slept soundly on the night 
 of the 18th of January, 1568, when the count 
 of Lerma first entered his apartment, silently 
 removed all separate weapons, and sat down 
 upon the chest which contained the remainder. 
 The king then entered, preceded by Ruy Go- 
 mez de Silva, the duke of Feria, and several 
 other noblemen, Don Carlos being still buried 
 in sleep. Being awaked, and seeing the king, 
 his father, he exclaimed; "I am lost;" and 
 prayed for death. Philip coldly replied that his 
 life was not in danger ; ordered him to rise ; 
 removed his attendants, seized a casket filled 
 with papers, which was under the bed, charged 
 those whom he entrusted with the care of the 
 prince not to lose sight of him, and to prevent 
 his writing or communicating with any one, 
 and withdrew. 
 
 The guards of Don Carlos dressed him in 
 black. They removed the bed itself, leaving 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CAR 
 
 160 
 
 CAR 
 
 only a small trundle-bed in its place. Don 
 Carlos, hurried by despair to madness, caused a 
 large fire to be built, under pretence of cold, 
 and threw himself into it, hoping to perish in 
 the flames. It required the utmost exertions 
 of his guards to save him. He attempted to 
 destroy himself by hunger, thirst, and excess in 
 eating. He endeavored also to choke himself 
 by swallowing a large diamond which be wore 
 about him. Philip is said to have discovered in 
 the casket, which was found concealed under 
 the bed of Don Carlos, communications with 
 the rebels of the Netherlands, and a secret cor- 
 respondence with the queen, which left no 
 doubt of his attachment to the princess, and of 
 the existence of a reciprocal passion. The ex- 
 cessive precautions which Philip took to justify 
 his conduct, have disposed posterity to judge 
 favorably of Don Carlos. It is certain that 
 many of the most influential grandees of Spain 
 vainl}' petitioned for his liberation. 
 
 Some historians are of opinion that Carlos 
 was condemned to death by the inquisition, 
 that the sentence was secretly executed, that 
 the prince partook of some poisoned broth, and 
 died a few hours afterwards. Some believe 
 that his veins were opened in the bath, others 
 that he was strangled ; while Ferreras and the 
 Spanish historians in general, pretend that he 
 died of a malignant fever, occasioned by an 
 improper regimen, and by violent fits of pas- 
 sion ; that he received the last sacraments with 
 piety, and wished to have the blessing of his 
 father. It is difficult to determine the manner 
 or date of the prince's death, but we incline to 
 refer it to the 24th of July, 1568. The same 
 year Elizabeth died, aged 23, but her death was 
 natural and had no connexion with the fate of 
 Don Carlos. We do not know how much faith 
 to repose in the Spanish historians, who defend 
 the memory of Philip, as the protector of reli- 
 gion, and represent his son as a languid mem- 
 ber of the church, a partisan of the revolted 
 calvinists of the Netherlands, and, above all, a 
 determined opponent of the inquisition. 
 
 CARNOT, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite; 
 born in Burgundy, 1753. He was distinguished 
 for his mathematical abilities, and in the revo- 
 lution, commenced his career as captain of a 
 corps of engineers. He voted for the death of 
 the king. Carnot distinguished himself in a 
 military and civil capacity, but was obliged to 
 leave Paris, June 18th, 1799; being soon after 
 recalled, he was made, in April, 1800, minister 
 of war. He was a firm republican, opposed the 
 ambitious views of Napoleon, and equally so 
 
 the attempts of the royalists. He died at Mag- 
 deburg, August 3, 1823. Carnot was a man of 
 integrity and talents, brave, learned, and patri- 
 otic, and honored by all parties. 
 
 CAROLINA, North, is bounded on the north 
 by Virginia, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, 
 on the south by South Carolina, and on the 
 west by Tennessee. It is of considerable ex- 
 tent, comprising 50,000 square miles, with a 
 population, in 1840, of 753,419 souls, of whom 
 245,000 are slaves, and 22,732 free blacks. The 
 state is divided into 64 counties, and Raleigh is 
 the seat of government. This place is pleas- 
 antly situated. A Senate and House of Com- 
 mons, are the legislative branches of govern- 
 ment. Education is by no means neglected in 
 North Carolina, there being several respectable 
 academies at various places, and, at Chapel 
 Hill, an institution styled the University of 
 North Carolina, which is well endowed and in 
 high repute. The face of the country is ex- 
 tremely diversified, — a wide belt, skirting the 
 sea, is perfectly level, while, in other parts, the 
 surface is broken and rough, presenting, in some 
 places, considerable elevations. One of these 
 is Pilot Mountain, or Ararat, which is of a py- 
 ramidal form, and almost a mile in height, ter- 
 minating in a wide and level area, commanding 
 a most imposing view of the surrounding coun- 
 try. 
 
 The coast of North Carolina is well defended 
 by capes and shoals, which are, however, for- 
 midable to friend as well as foe. The names 
 of some of these indicate the terror they excite. 
 This state contains a portion of that swamp 
 which is justly called the Great Dismal Swamp, 
 a marshy tract whose low brush- w T ood, in many 
 parts impenetrable, covers a space of nearly 
 thirty miles in extent. Parts of the soil are ex- 
 tremely productive, and the earth has been late- 
 ly found to possess a treasure in gold mines of 
 considerable extent and value. The commerce 
 of this state is not extensive, but many of the 
 planters are very wealthy. 
 
 The earliest attempt to colonize North Caro- 
 lina was made by the English in 1587, but the 
 feeble colony which was left on the Roanoke, 
 perished either from want, or from the incur- 
 sions of hostile Indians, as they were never af- 
 terwards heard of. The first permanent set- 
 tlement was made near Albemarle Sound by 
 some planters from Virginia, in 1650. The 
 name of Carolina was given to the country by 
 the French, in honor of Charles IX, in whose 
 reign they unsuccessfully attempted the coloni 
 zation of the North American coast. In 1661 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CAR 
 
 161 
 
 CAR 
 
 a colony from Massachusetts arrived here. It 
 was not without many struggles that the colony 
 obtained a representative government, nor until 
 it had undergone many fluctuations, that the 
 constitution was firmly established. Besides 
 the agitation produced by conflicting political 
 schemes, the hostility of the Indians caused the 
 colonists no little suffering and loss. In 1717 
 Carolina, by purchase, became a royal govern- 
 ment, and continued so until 1775, when it 
 warmly espoused the cause of liberty, but suf- 
 fered less than other states, on account of the 
 forbidding aspect of its guarded coast. Decem- 
 ber 18, 1776, the present constitution was adopt- 
 ed. The Carolinas had been separated in 1720. 
 
 CAROLINA, South; bounded north by 
 North Carolina, east by the Atlantic, southwest 
 and west by Georgia, containing (in 1840), 
 594,398 inhabitants, of whom 327,038 are slaves, 
 and 8,276 free colored people. This state is of 
 less extent than North Carolina, having an area 
 of 30,000 square miles. The legislative pow- 
 er is vested in a Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives. Columbia, 120 miles northwest of 
 Charleston, is the seat of government, but 
 the latter is the largest town in the state. 
 The inhabitants differ but little from those of 
 other southern states. The rich planters are 
 fond of ease and pleasure, but generous, hos- 
 pitable, frank and brave. The soil in many parts 
 is rich, producing cotton and rice, which are 
 the staple commodities, but adapted to various 
 kinds of agriculture. A tract of great breadth, 
 bounded on the east by the sea, is perfectly 
 level, but proceeding inland, we observe the 
 land to become more elevated, and gradually to 
 present an undulating and broken appearance. 
 The low lands are an unhealthy residence, but 
 in the upper regions the inhabitants enjoy a sa- 
 lubrious climate. 
 
 South Carolina was granted to lord Claren- 
 don and others, in 1663, but no permanent 
 establishment was made until 1680. It was 
 formed into a separate government in 1729, and 
 the present constitution was adopted in 1790. 
 During the revolutionary war, this state was 
 distinguished for its exertions in the good cause, 
 which owed much to the bravery of Marion, 
 the celebrated partisan leader, Sumpter and 
 Lee, all of whom were worthy of the military 
 reputation they enjoyed. With few exceptions, 
 the state has enjoyed tranquillity from the pe- 
 riod of the revolution, and the course of go- 
 vernment has been impeded by few obstacles. 
 The legislative appropriations for the support of 
 education are extremely liberal, and do honor 
 
 to the slate. More than 30,000 dollars are ex- 
 pended annually for the support of free schools, 
 and South Carolina College (Columbia) is libe- 
 rally patronised. 
 
 CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of 
 George IV of England, was born in May, 1768. 
 She was the daughter of the duke of Bruns- 
 wick, and in 17^5 became the bride of the 
 prince of Wales. Her daughter, the princess 
 Charlotte, died at an early age, regretted by all. 
 The prince abandoned Caroline, and, in order 
 to procure her ruin, accused her of infidelity. 
 The trial of the unhappy queen reflects disgrace 
 upon the profligate prince. She refused the of- 
 fers which were made to induce her to quit 
 England with the empty name of queen, but she 
 asserted her rights with dignity and firmness. 
 She finally succumbed under the persecution 
 of her enemies, and died, Aug. 1821. 
 
 CARRIER, John Baptist, originally an ob- 
 scure attorney, rose to infamous notoriety in the 
 French revolution. Under his direction, the 
 greatest cruelties were perpetrated, and 15,000 
 individuals perished in little more than a month. 
 He was finally apprehended and condemned to 
 death by the revolutionary tribunal, Dec. 16, 
 1794. 
 
 CARROL, Charles, one of the signers of 
 the declaration of Independence, who died at an 
 advanced age, at Carrolton, Md. in 1832. He 
 was possessed of considerable wealth, at the 
 breaking out of the American revolution, and 
 as he advanced to sign the immortal document, 
 a member sportively remarked : — " There goes 
 half a million at the dash of a pen." But his 
 wealth vanished from his view, when he looked 
 upon the interests of his country. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, an English literary 
 lady, daughter of a clergyman of Kent, born in 
 1717. She was versed in languages, being ac- 
 quainted with Latin, Greek, French, German, 
 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and Ara- 
 bic. Her early poems, published in periodicals 
 before her 17th year, gained great applause. In 
 1749, her translation of Epictetus was commenc- 
 ed. She died in 1806, having enjoyed a high lite- 
 rary reputation, and the esteem of all who knew 
 her. The following tribute to her worth and 
 talents will not be thought unmerited. Among 
 the unmarried ladies of the last century, Miss 
 Carter, by seniority and learning, is justly enti- 
 tled to precedence ; and were we to decide on 
 the comparative happiness of married or single 
 authoresses, from the individual examples of 
 this lady, and her excellent friend Catharine 
 Talbot, we should have no hesitation in pro- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CAR 
 
 162 
 
 CAR 
 
 nouncing for the spinster's choice. Without 
 rank and affluence, the translatress of Epicte- 
 tus appears to have constantly revolved in the 
 orbit of peace and equanimity ; alternately the 
 pupil of her father, and the preceptress of her 
 brothers, she enjoyed the privileges of home 
 without its restrictions, tasted all the sweets of 
 friendship, unimbittered by jealousy, and, what 
 is more extraordinary, attracted the homage of 
 the great, without submitting to humiliation or 
 incurring reproach. Among the causes of this 
 rare felicity, something may be ascribed to a 
 philosophic temperament, and still more to strict 
 moral discipline, eminently distinguished by 
 directness and steadiness of purpose. To the 
 latest period of her existence (she died in her 
 89th year), she retained her aptitude to study, 
 and even persevered in the laudable habit of 
 yielding a portion of every day to classical lite- 
 rature. 
 
 Nor did she ever cease to cherish that spirit 
 of independence that taught her to value the 
 privileges of home. In her annual visits to the 
 metropolis, she resisted every solicitation to do- 
 mesticate herself in the mansions of the great, 
 choosing rather to return to her plain lodging, 
 where she enjoyed in its full extent, the pri- 
 vileges of her own fireside. It would not be 
 easy to find a female character exactly corres- 
 ponding with that of Miss Carter ; perhaps the 
 portrait of the princess Palatine, the friend of 
 Penn and Descartes, offers the closest resem- 
 blance ; and, like madame Dacier, her prevail- 
 ing quality was modesty. To her learning, An- 
 cient Greece, would, perhaps, have raised a 
 votive statue; in Rome her accomplishments 
 would have been eulogized in a funeral oration ; 
 in modern Italy her rare attainments might have 
 secured her progress to academic honors. In 
 England not even a funeral tribute was offered 
 to her memory, no enthusiasm being there in- 
 spired by a female scholar. The purity of her 
 character, her moral worth, her benevolence and 
 dignity, are justly valued. 
 
 As the translatress of Epictetus, she is cer- 
 tainly less popularly admired, than as the cor- 
 respondent of Miss Talbot and Mrs. Montague ; 
 and the charm of this epistolary collection con- 
 sists in the living sketches which it offers of those 
 who have gone before us, and who, in many 
 respects, are essentially different from the pre- 
 sent age. Curiosity is at once stimulated and 
 gratified by the careless, yet faithful portraiture 
 which these volumes present to us, of bishops 
 and generals and scholars ; fine gentlemen and 
 elegant ladies, strikingly different from those 
 
 we are now accustomed to meet in parallel lines 
 of society. 
 
 CARTHAGE, a celebrated city of Africa, 
 the rival of Rome, and long the mistress of 
 Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia. The precise time 
 of its foundation is unknown, yet most writers 
 agree that it was built by Dido about 869 years 
 before the Christian era, or, according to others, 
 72 or 93 years before the foundation of Rome. 
 This city and republic flourished for several 
 centuries, and attained the zenith of its glory 
 under Hannibal and Hamilcar. 
 
 During the first Punic war it contained no 
 fewer than 700,000 inhabitants. It maintained 
 three famous wars against Rome, called the 
 Punic wars, in the third of which it was totally 
 destroyed by Scipio, the second Africanus, B. C. 
 146, and only 5000 inhabitants were found with- 
 in the walls. It was 23 miles in circumference, 
 and when it was set on fire by the Romans, it 
 burned incessantly for 17 days. After the de- 
 struction of Carthage, Utica became powerful, 
 and the Romans thought themselves secure ; 
 and as they had no rival to dispute with them 
 in the field, they fell into indolence and inacti- 
 vity. Caesar planted a small colony on the ruins 
 of Carthage, and Augustus sent thither 3000 
 men. Adrian, after the example of his impe- 
 rial predecessors, rebuilt a portion of it, and 
 gave it the name of Adrianopolis. 
 
 Carthage was conquered from the Romans by 
 the arms of Genseric, A. D. 439, and it was for 
 more than a century the seat of the Vandal em- 
 pire in Africa, and fell into the hands of the Sa- 
 racens, in the 7th century. Carthage was gov- 
 erned as a republic, and had two persons chosen 
 annually, with supreme authority. The Car- 
 thagenians were very superstitious, and offered 
 human victims to their gods ; an unnatural cus- 
 tom, which their allies vainly endeavored to 
 induce them to abolish. Their riches and com- 
 merce were immense, and their naval power, 
 at one time, supreme. They bore the character 
 of a faithless and treacherous people, and the 
 proverb Punka fides (Carthagenian faith), is 
 well known. 
 
 CAR! HA GEN A, a sea- port of Spain, and 
 one of the finest ports in the Mediterranean. It 
 is on the east of Murcia, and contains 37,000 
 inhabitants. It was taken by the Romans un- 
 der Scipio, notwithstanding the defence of the 
 Carthagenians, A. D. 554. The commerce of 
 Carthagena suffered greatly during the domina- 
 tion of the Moors, but it was partially restored 
 by the exertions of Philip II of Spain. 
 
 CARTHAGENA, a sea-port of New Grena- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CAS 
 
 163 
 
 CAS 
 
 da, South America, and capital of the province 
 of Carthagena. It is situated on an island, with 
 a fine harbor, some handsome edifices, and 
 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Connecti- 
 cut, in 1732. He served in the expedition 
 against Canada, and, on the conclusion of peace 
 in 1763, set forth with the intent of exploring 
 the territory acquired by Great Britain, beyond 
 the Mississippi. He did not accomplish his 
 object, but made himself acquainted with re- 
 gions then and still comparatively unknown. 
 He went to England, but was obliged to deliver 
 up his maps and papers to the plantation-office. 
 Having kept copies, however, he published them 
 at Boston, where he died in want, 1780, aged 
 48 years. 
 
 CAREY, Lucius, Viscount Falkland, a young 
 English nobleman, who was born in 1610. His 
 juvenile irregularities were terminated by an 
 early marriage with a young lady to whom he 
 was sincerely attached. In parliament he dis- 
 tinguished himself by an independent course, 
 although he ultimately espoused the royal cause, 
 and perished at the battle of Newbury, at the 
 age of 34. His private character endeared him 
 to all. He was fond of study, and once observ- 
 ed : "I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy 
 day." His literary remains add to his general 
 reputation. 
 
 CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman empe- 
 ror, was born at Narbonne, about the year 230. 
 He rose to a military command by his virtues, 
 and was elected emperor on the death of Pro- 
 bus, in 283. He defeated the Sarmatians and 
 Persians, and was killed the same year, by light- 
 ning, according to some ; but according to oth- 
 ers, he perished in the flames of his tent, which 
 was consumed by the work of an incendiary. 
 
 CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish pre- 
 late, the apostle of the Indians, came to Ameri- 
 ca with Columbus, but returned, and having 
 distinguished himself in his theological studies, 
 was rewarded with preferment. His life was 
 passed in laboring to protect and improve the 
 natives of the New World, and he received the 
 grateful title of -protector of the Indians. 
 
 CASHMERE, a province of the Seik con- 
 federacy, in Asia, containing 2,000,000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is surrounded by the Himmalaya and 
 Hindoo Koh mountains, and abounds with the 
 most striking and romantic views. The air is 
 temperate, and, from the profusion of its flow- 
 ers, the fertility of its soil, and the variety of its 
 productions, it is most justly called the paradise 
 of India. The religion is that of Brama, the 
 
 inhabitants being Hindoos, although their mas- 
 ters, the Afghans, are professed Mohammedans. 
 Cashmere, the capital, on the Behat, contains 
 200,000 inhabitants. The shawls of Cashmere 
 are the most splendid and costly. 
 
 CAS1MIR. The name of several kings of 
 Poland. Casimir the Great, succeeded Ladis- 
 laus in 1333. He took several places from John, 
 king of Bohemia, successfully opposed the Teu- 
 tonic knights, and made himself master of Lit- 
 tle Russia. He united to his warlike qualities, 
 many of the virtues of a great monarch, and, 
 from his devotion to their interests, was called 
 Peasants' 1 King. He died in 1370. 
 
 CASSANDRA, also, Alexandria, daughter 
 of Hecuba and Priam, king of Troy. She re- 
 ceived the gift of prophecy from Apollo, who 
 loved her, but as she refused to fulfil the condi- 
 tions upon which the knowledge was imparted, 
 the offended deity deprived her predictions of the 
 power of commanding belief. Thus, when she 
 foretold the fall of Troy, her words were discre- 
 dited. Troy was taken, Cassandra dishonored 
 at the altar by Ajax, and afterwards dragged 
 away as the slave and companion of Agamemnon, 
 with whom she was slain by Clytemnestra, but 
 not until she had become the mother of the twins 
 Teledamus and Pelops. 
 
 CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, was the friend 
 of Brutus, and opposed to the interests of 
 Caesar, to whom, however, he surrendered after 
 the battle -of Pharsalia. When he perceived 
 that Caesar aimed at supreme power, he joined 
 the conspiracy. " The lean and hungry Cas- 
 sis,' ' as Shakspeare calls him, was among the 
 first to strike the master of the world with his 
 dagger. He married the sister of Brutus, and 
 in the distribution of the provinces, obtained 
 Africa as his share. He was defeated with 
 Brutus at Philippi, and killed himself, B. C. 42. 
 
 CASTILE, a province of Spain, which is 
 subdivided into the intendancies of Madrid, 
 Guadalaxara, Cuenca, Toledo, and La Mancha, 
 whose capitals have the same name with the ex- 
 ception of the last, of which Ciudad Rodrigo 
 is the capital. The climate of this province is 
 temperate, and the soil is naturally productive, 
 although the scattered inhabitants pay but little 
 attention to agriculture. Old Castile, another 
 province of Spain, is of the same length as New 
 Castile, 220 miles, but only 120 broad, while the 
 latter is 160 miles in breadth. It is subdivided 
 into the intendancies of Avila, Segovia, Soria, 
 and Burgos. The united population of Old and 
 New Castile is 2,177,800. 
 
 CASTINE, a sea-port town of Maine, and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY!. 
 
 CAT 
 
 164 
 
 CAT 
 
 capital of Hancock county. In 1840 it had 
 1,188 inhabitants. Its trade is flourishing. 
 
 CATAL1NE, Lucius Sergius, a celebrated 
 Roman, descended from a noble family. When 
 he had squandered away his fortune by his de- 
 baucheries and extravagance, and been refused 
 the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin of 
 his countrj', and conspired with many high- 
 born Romans, as dissolute as himself, to murder 
 the Senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome 
 on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered 
 by the consul Cicero, whose eloquence at this 
 crisis will never be forgotten. Cataline, after 
 he had declared his intentions in the full senate, 
 and attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing 
 five of his accomplices arrested, fled to Gaul, 
 where his friends were raising a powerful army 
 to support him. The remaining conspirators 
 were punished. Petreius, at the head of the 
 consular troops, defeated the rebels in Etruria, 
 Jan. 5, B. C. 62, in a hotly contested battle 
 which cost Cataline his life. The crimes of 
 this man were of the blackest dye, murder 
 and licentiousness marking every stage of his 
 career. 
 
 CATALONIA, anciently Tarraco?iensis, a 
 fertile province of Spain, bounded north by 
 France, east and southeast by the Mediterra- 
 nean, southwest by Valencia, and west by Ar- 
 ragon. Its form is that of a triangle. Some 
 idea of its extent may be formed from the 
 amount of its population, which has been esti- 
 mated at 858,618. 
 
 CATANIA, anciently Catana, a city of 
 Sicily, 47 miles southwest of Messina, with a 
 population of 50,000. It is situated at the foot 
 of mount jEtna, and is subject to earthquakes, 
 one of which, occurring in 1693 destroyed 
 18,000 people, and by overwhelming the old city 
 in lava, laid the foundation for the present city, 
 which contains several large public buildings. 
 The principal exports are grain, oil. wine. &c. 
 
 CATHARINE, the daughter of Charles VI 
 of France, was claimed by the victorious Hen- 
 ry V of England, whose hand she accepted. 
 After the death of Henry, she became the wife 
 of Owen Tudor, and had a son named Edmund, 
 who became the father of Henry VII. She 
 died in 1431. 
 
 CATHARINE of An agon, youngest daugh- 
 ter of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of 
 Arragon and Castile, was born in 1483. fn 1501 
 she was married to Arthur, son of Henry VII, 
 and on his death, five months after, to Henry, 
 prince of Wales, afterwards Henry VIII. By 
 him she had several children, who died young, 
 
 with the exception of Mary, afterwards queen 
 of England. Henry repudiated her on pretence 
 of religious scruples grounded on her former 
 marriage. She maintained her rights with dig- 
 nity, and died at Kimbolton castle, in 1536. 
 
 CATHARINE De Medici, the only daughter 
 of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino, and wife 
 of Henry, duke of Orleans, son of Francis I. 
 She was the mother of three successive kings 
 of France, and one Queen of Navarre. In 
 1559 she became a widow, and her son Francis 
 succeeded to the throne, during whose reign, her 
 influence was supplanted by the Guises. On 
 the accession of her other son, Charles IX, in 
 his eleventh year, she acquired the chief au- 
 thority, and brought eternal infamy on her name 
 by her horrible treachery to the Huguenots, and 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day. She 
 died in 1589. She was very extravagant, seem- 
 ingly incapable of setting bounds to her expen- 
 ditures. When upbraided with her prodigality 
 she would exclaim : " One must live !" She 
 was stained with many and most odious vices. 
 
 CATHARINE I, empress of Russia, the most 
 noted female sovereign of modern days. Her 
 early history is involved in great obscurity. It 
 is said that she was a peasant-girl of Livonia, 
 born about 1686, and that having lost her pa- 
 rents at an early age, she was taken under the 
 protection of a respectable clergyman who super- 
 intended her education till his death. She then 
 travelled to Marienburg to seek her fortune, 
 and there married a Swedish dragoon, who was 
 killed on the very day of their nuptials, at the 
 siege of that place in 1702. From the hands of 
 one of the Russian officers, she passed into those 
 of prince Meazikoff, who found it useful to his 
 political designs to introduce her to the Czar 
 Peter. She first became his mistress, and after- 
 wards his wife, and although she was suspected 
 of infidelity, she was left, at his death, possessor 
 of the throne, and was declared empress in 1725. 
 She carried into execution the great designs 
 which had been left unfinished by her husband, 
 and died in 1727, being then but forty-two 
 years old : intemperance, however, is supposed 
 to have shortened her days. 
 
 CATHARINE II, empress of Russia, born 
 in 1729, was the daughter of the prince of An- 
 halt-Zerbst, and originally named Sophia Au- 
 
 fusta. Her talents were of the highest order, 
 oon after her marriage with the grand duke of 
 Russia, in 1745, that prince suspecting her of 
 infidelity, formed an attachment to the daugh- 
 ter of Count Woronzoff, and, on his accession 
 to the throne in 1761, discovered his intention 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CAT 
 
 165 
 
 CAT 
 
 of divorcing Catharine, and marrying the ob- 
 ject of his illicit passion. At this juncture a 
 conspiracy was formed between Catharine and 
 the army ; Peter was surprised, compelled to 
 sign a renunciation of the throne, kept as a 
 prisoner, and soon after strangled. History 
 evidently clears Catharine of a direct participa- 
 tion in this crime, though the impunity of the 
 murderers proves that she did not regret its 
 commission. She, however, countenanced the 
 friends of Peter, and pardoned the countess of 
 Woronzoff. 
 
 At the commencement of her reign she con- 
 ciliated the affections of her subjects, and cul- 
 tivated the arts of peace; in 1764, her favorite, 
 Poniatowski, was crowned king of Poland, and 
 Ivan, who had been 18 years in a state of mental 
 imbecility, died in prison. In 1763, she enter- 
 ed into war with the Porte, which she termin- 
 ated with reputation and advantage in 1 774 ; 
 and having quelled a revolt under the cossack 
 Pugatscheff, devoted herself to the improve- 
 ment and prosperity of her kingdom. In 1780 
 she engaged in the armed neutrality to protect 
 the trade in the Baltic. In 1783 she seized on the 
 Crimea, and having formed a league with Ger- 
 many, intimidated the Porte from making re- 
 prisals. At length, however, war was declared, 
 Oczakow was stormed, Ismael taken after a 
 sanguinary struggle, the Turkish force in the 
 Black Sea destroyed, and a peace concluded 
 which guaranteed Oczakow to the empress. 
 Her last great measure was the reducing and 
 dismemberment of Poland, in consequence of 
 a revolt. She was a woman the brilliancy of 
 whose talents was obscured by the indulgence 
 of many gross propensities. She died of apo- 
 plexy, Nov., 1796. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Portius, commonly called the 
 Censor, was born at Tusculum, 232 B. C. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in the army at the age of 17, 
 and was remarkable for his temperance and 
 abstinence. In Sicily and Africa, as military 
 tribune and quosstor, he was noted for the fidel- 
 ity with which he discharged his duties. Being 
 chosen censor, he- opposed Valerius Flaccus, his 
 colleague, in his attempt to repeal the Oppian 
 law, which was once passed for the suppres- 
 sion of luxury. He conducted the war in fur- 
 ther Spain with great success, and took no part 
 of the spoils to his own share. On his ar- 
 rival at Rome he was honored with a triumph. 
 
 As consul he manifested his dislike to luxury, 
 in whatever shape it was presented. He also 
 distinguished himself by his hatred to Car- 
 thage, always concluding his speeches in the 
 
 senate with the expression. " Preterea censeo 
 Carthaginem esse delendmn." (Besides I think 
 it necessary to destroy Carthage.) He died B. 
 C. 147. In his old age he gave himself up to 
 social enjoyments. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Portius, surnamed of Utica 
 (Uticensis) from the place of his death, was the 
 great-grandson of the preceding, and born 
 about 93 B.C. The virtues he displayed in his 
 earl;/ childhood seemed to prognosticate his 
 future greatness. At the age of fourteen, he 
 earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword to stab 
 the tyrant Sylla. He served in the army against 
 the insurgent gladiator Spartacus, and though 
 his services entitled him to the office of tribune, 
 he never applied for it, till he saw it in danger 
 of being filled unworthily. He was very jealous 
 of the safety and liberty of the republic, and 
 watched carefully over the conduct of Pompey, 
 whose power and influence were great. In the 
 conspiracy of Cataline he supported Cicero, and 
 was instrumental in procuring the capital pun 
 ishment of the conspirators. 
 
 When the provinces of Gaul were decreed for 
 five years to Cassar, Cato observed to the sen- 
 ators, that they had introduced a tyrant into the 
 capital. Being sent to Cyprus against Ptolemy, 
 by the influence of his enemies, who hoped to 
 injure his reputation, his prudence extricated 
 him from every danger. That prince submitted 
 to him, and, after a successful campaign, Cato 
 was received at Rome with the most distin- 
 guished honors, which he, however, modestly 
 declined. He strenuously opposed the first tri- 
 umvirate between Cassar, Pompey, and Cras- 
 sus, and foretold to the Roman people all the 
 misfortunes that soon after followed. After re- 
 peated applications he was made pretor, but un- 
 successfully applied for the office of consul. 
 
 When Caesar had passed the Rubicon, Cato 
 advised the Roman senate to deliver the care 
 of the republic into the hands of Pompey, and 
 when his advice had been complied with, fol- 
 lowed him with his son to Dyrrachium, where, 
 after some inconsiderable success there, he was 
 entrusted with'the care of the ammunition, and 
 the command of 15 cohorts. After the battle 
 of Pharsalia, Cato took command of the fleet, 
 and when he heard of Pompey 's death on the 
 coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of 
 Libya, to join himself to Scipio. He, however, 
 refused to take the command in Africa, but 
 when he heard of Scipio's defeat, fortified him- 
 self in Utica. Cassar approached the city, but 
 Cato disdained to fly, and strengthening his 
 resolution by reading Plato's treatise on the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CEC 
 
 166 
 
 CEL 
 
 immortality of the soul, gave himself the fatal 
 wound, B. C. 44. Ccesar, on hearing of his fate, 
 exclaimed : " I envy thee thy death, since thou 
 couldst begrudge me the pleasure of saving thy 
 life." Lucan mentions this virtuous Roman in 
 the following line : 
 
 Victrix causa displacuit, sed victa Catoni: 
 which is thus literally rendered in prose — 
 The successful cause pleased die gods, but the un- 
 successful Cato. 
 
 A statue was erected to his memory in Utica. 
 
 CAUCASUS, a vast chain of mountains in 
 Western Asia, inhabited by a great variety of 
 tribes. It is of immense extent, lying between 
 the Black and Caspian seas, and covering 127,140 
 square miles, being 644 miles long, and, at the 
 widest, 184 miles broad. 
 
 CAVENDISH, William, the first duke of De- 
 vonshire, was born in 1840. He distinguished 
 himself in the house of commons against the 
 court, and was a witness in favor of Lord Rus- 
 sell, with whom he offered to exchange clothes 
 to enable him to effect his escape. In 1664 he 
 succeeded to the title of earl of Devonshire, 
 and about the same time was fined £30,000 and 
 imprisoned in the kind's bench for assaulting 
 Col. Culpepper, who had insulted him, and 
 whom he dragged by the nose from the pres- 
 ence chamber. He gave bond for the payment 
 of the fine, which, however, he saved by the 
 arrival of the prince of Orange. In 16b9 he 
 was made a privy-counsellor, and at the coro- 
 nation of William he served as lord-high-stew- 
 ard. He was rewarded with the title of duke 
 of Devonshire, and during the king's absence, 
 after the death of the queen, was appointed one 
 of the regency. He died in 1707. 
 
 CAXTON, William, an Englishman who 
 introduced the art of printing into his native 
 country in 1474. He died in 1492. 
 
 CAYENNE, or French Guiana, a French 
 colony in South America. It is bounded as 
 follows ; north and northeast by the Atlantic 
 ocean, east and south by Brazil, and west by 
 Dutch Guiana. Population 18,400. Beside the 
 main production, Cayenne pepper , this province 
 yields sugar, cotton, coffee, cocoa, indigo, maize, 
 cassia, and vanilla. The French colonized Cay- 
 enne in 1635. 
 
 After having fallen into the hands of the Eng- 
 lish and the Dutch, it revolted to its original 
 possessors in 1677. 
 
 CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, a celebrat- 
 ed statesman, born in 1521. He was dismissed 
 from the office which he held under Henry 
 
 VIII, upon the accession of Mary, but held 
 several appointments under Elizabeth. After 
 being privy-counsellor, secretary of state, and 
 master of the court of wards, he was chosen 
 chancellor of Cambridge, and raised to the peer- 
 age. He died in 1598 
 
 CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, son of the 
 preceding, on account of his deformity, and 
 weak constitution, received the rudiments of 
 his education at home. In 1588 he served in 
 the fleet against the Spanish Armada, and in 
 1591 was knighted, and sworn of the privy- 
 council. In 1596 he was appointed secretary 
 of state, to the great disgust of the earl of 
 Essex. The year following he was ambassador 
 in France, and in 1599 succeeded his father in 
 the court of wards. He kept up a secret cor- 
 respondence with king James, whom he pro- 
 claimed on the death of Elizabeth, in conse- 
 quence of which he became the favorite of thai 
 monarch. On the death of earl Dorset, in 1608, 
 he became lord high treasurer, discharging the 
 duties of the office with fidelity, and dying from 
 excessive exertion in 1612. 
 
 CECILIA. One of the Romish saints of this 
 name is considered the inventor of the organ, 
 and is said to have suffered martyrdom AD. 
 220. 
 
 CECROPS,a native of Sais, in Egypt, came 
 to Attica 1550 B. C. founded the city of Athens, 
 instructed the uncivilized Greeks, introduced 
 the worship of Minerva ., and laid the foundation 
 of the future prosperity of Greece. He died 
 after a reign of 50 years. 
 
 CELEBES, an island in the East Indian 
 Ocean, 500 miles long, and 200 broad, contain- 
 ing several separate states. The fruits and 
 flowers of this island are abundant, and num- 
 bers of wild animals are found here. The 
 Dutch who possess a part of the island, obtain 
 here gold, ivory, sandal wood, rice, cotton, 
 camphor, ginger, long pepper, and pearls. 
 
 CELLINI, Benvenuto, united the talents and 
 skill of a sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith. He 
 was born in Florence in 1500, and enriched his 
 native city with his works. Wild, fiery, and 
 impetuous, although honest, he was frequently 
 involved in quarrels in which he entirely dis- 
 regarded the rank and strength of his oppo- 
 nents. At the siege of Rome, according to his 
 own account, he killed the constable of Bour- 
 bon. Although he behaved with gallantry dur- 
 ing the siege, he was accused of secreting the 
 Roman crown jewels, and imprisoned. Francis 
 1, having procured his release, invited him to the 
 French court, but Florence was not to be 'brgot- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CER 
 
 167 
 
 CER 
 
 ten by the sculptor, and thither he returned, 
 and died in 1570. 
 
 CELSUS, a Roman medical writer and prac- 
 titioner, who flourished in the Augustan age. 
 
 CELTiE, one of the ancient nations of Gal- 
 lia, whose country extended from Brittany to 
 the Alps and Rhine. Their government was 
 aristocratical, and their aptitude for warlike 
 pursuits great. 
 
 CELT1BERIA, an ancient country in the N. 
 E. part of Spain along the Iberus. The Celti- 
 berians were completely subdued by the Ro- 
 mans in the Sertorian war. 
 
 CENTAURS, an ancient people of Thessaly 
 on Mount Pelion. As little was known with re- 
 gard to their actual history, they formed the 
 favorite theme of writers of fable, and tradition- 
 ary tales, being represented as half horse and 
 half man, and being, according to some, the 
 offspring of an intermixture of the human and 
 brute races, or, according to others, the child- 
 ren of Ixion and the Cloud. They were prob- 
 ably young men who, having learned to break 
 and ride horses, hunted the wild bulls that rav- 
 aged the neighborhood of Mt. Pelion, during 
 the reign of Ixion. Hence they were called 
 Centaurs. In fables, Hercules, Theseus, and 
 Pirithous, are said to have contended against 
 them. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, formerly the king- 
 dom of Guatimala, is bounded N. by Mexico 
 and the bay of Honduras, E. by the Carribbean 
 sea, and the province of Veragna, and S. W. by 
 the Atlantic ocean, and has a population of 
 2.000,000. The country is mountainous, con- 
 taining numerous volcanic summits, the soil 
 fertile, and the products various. The republic 
 is a confederacy consisting of the states of Gua- 
 timala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and 
 Costa Rica, and declared itself independent in 
 1821, after some sanguinary struggles. The 
 original inhabitants were the Toltecas Indians 
 from Mexico, whom it was found no easy task 
 by the Spaniards to expel. These people, like 
 the Mexicans, had made considerable advances 
 in the arts, as their buildings of various des- 
 criptions proved. 
 
 CERBERUS, a three-headed dog, with snaky 
 hair, the offspring of Echidna, and the giant 
 Typhon, and the untamed guardian of the gate 
 of hell. Hercules subdued him, although the 
 furies could not. 
 
 CERIGO, a small island in the Mediterra- 
 nean, near the Morea, and belonging to the 
 Ionian republic, it was anciently called Cythera, 
 and was sacred to Venus. 
 15 
 
 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Michael, was 
 born of a noble family, at Alcala de Henares, 
 in New Castile, in 1547. He early cultivated 
 poetry, and preserved, throughout his life, a 
 strong inclination for the muses. In 1569, 
 Cervantes, in the flower of his age, went to 
 seek in Italy, glory or fortune. He first enter- 
 ed the service of Cardinal Acquaviva, in the 
 capacity of page. The war between the grand 
 seignior and the Venetians, offered him a field 
 more worthy of his birth and courage. He was 
 enrolled beneath the banners of the duke of 
 Paliano, Mark Antony Colonna, general of the 
 naval force sent to succor the island of Cyprus. 
 This expedition was unfortunate; but, in the 
 following year, the victory of Lepanto reestab- 
 lished the naval honor of Christendom, and 
 Cervantes lost his left hand in this engagement 
 whose glory he shared. In 1575 he was taken 
 by a corsair and carried to Algiers, where he 
 suffered the evils of slavery for six years. The 
 tale of The Captive, inserted in his novel of Don 
 Quixotte describes vividly the scenes through 
 which he passed. His marriage followed close 
 upon the publication of Galatea, in 1584. This 
 novel celebrates his mistress Catharine Salazer 
 y Palacios. His pen then became the only sup- 
 port of Cervantes. The gloomy reign of Philip 
 II, and that of his successor Philip III, were 
 unfavorable to the efforts of genius, but while 
 the latter of these monarchs filled the throne, 
 the inimitable novel of Don Quixotte made its 
 appearance. The first part appeared at Madrid, 
 in 1605, and the second in 1615. The other 
 works of Cervantes are forgotten in the contem- 
 plation of this. 
 
 The history of the knight of La Mancha still 
 excites the interest of people of all countries, 
 of all ranks, and of all ages. Who delights 
 not to recall his principal adventures — the at- 
 tack on the windmills — the affair of the puppets 
 — -the affray with the wine-skins — the vigil of 
 arms — the scene of his studies ? This celebrat- 
 ed work was written in prison, Cervantes hav- 
 ing become obnoxious to the authorities of La 
 Mancha, who procured his imprisonment by 
 the employment of one of the thousand arts 
 known to the civil functionaries of Spain. He 
 revenged himself by making his hero a towns- 
 man of his judges, and in choosing their coun- 
 try for the theatre of his exploits. Cervantes 
 died at Madrid, on the '23d of April, 1616, in 
 his 69th year. He was interred pursuant to his 
 own directions, in the church of the fraternity 
 of the trinity in that city. His intimate friends 
 mourned for the virtuous citizen, and the man 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHA 
 
 168 
 
 CHA 
 
 of worth. The wits of his day, who had decri- 
 ed his talents, did not consider his loss an irre- 
 parable one, and were far enough from believ- 
 ing that Spain would one day have only the 
 romance of Don Quixotte to oppose to the mas- 
 ter-works of other nations. 
 
 CEUTA, anciently Septa, a town of Fez, on 
 the African coast of the Mediterranean, with 
 8,000 inhabitants. It is opposite to Gibraltar, 
 and belongs to Spain, although gained by the 
 Portuguese in 1415. 
 
 CEVENNES, or Sevennes.achain of moun- 
 tains in the south of France, forming a branch 
 of the Alps ; the highest summits are somewhat 
 more than 6,200 feet high. 
 
 CEYLON, or Seilan, an island on the Coro- 
 mandel coast. The climate is generally healthy, 
 the soil fertile, and the variety of its productions 
 surprising. In the bosom of the earth are found 
 precious metals, the rocks are enriched with 
 valuable gems, and the tropical fruits grow 
 wild here. About 340,000 pounds of cinnamon 
 are annually exported to England. In the re- 
 cesses of the forests are found elephants, leop- 
 ards, jackalls, monkeys, &c. The number of 
 inhabitants exceeds 1,000,000. The Cinga- 
 lese, who form a portion, are divided into castes 
 like the Hindoos, and profess the religion of 
 Buddha. " Ceylon/' says bishop Heber " might 
 be one of the happiest, as it is one of the loveli- 
 est, spots in the universe, if some of the old 
 Dutch laws were done away, among which, in 
 my judgment, the most obnoxious are the mo- 
 nopoly of Cinnamon, and the compulsory labor 
 of the peasants on the high roads, and other 
 species of corvdes." 
 
 The Portuguese, who early settled here, so 
 exasperated the natives, that the Cingalese 
 took part with the Dutch, who succeeded in 
 expelling them in 1650. The Dutch, being 
 regarded in the light of benefactors, were re- 
 warded with lavish grants of territory, but 
 repaid kindness by ingratitude, and bloody wars 
 arose, in which the Europeans were invariably 
 victorious. In 1795, the English took posses- 
 sion of this island, which was formerly ceded 
 to them in 1802, and completely subjected in 
 
 CHALDjEA, an ancient country of Asia, 
 near the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates; 
 it was the southerly part of Babylonia, and was 
 extremely fertile. The Chaldeans were an 
 Asiatic tribe originally, and possessed great 
 astronomical knowledge. It was they who 
 founded the mighty empires of Babylon and 
 Asyria. The knowledge, of which they boasted, 
 
 was eventually confined to the priests, who 
 added to their sciences the arts of prophecy, 
 magic, &c. 
 
 CHALONS. The name of two considerable 
 cities in France, Chalons-sur-Saone, and Cha- 
 lons-sur-Marne, situated on the Saone and 
 Marne. The last mentioned and most import- 
 ant, contains 12,413 inhabitants, and was an- 
 ciently called Catalaunum. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, formerly a province of 
 France, now forming several departments. It 
 is highly fertile and produces fine wines; it 
 contains 1,200,000 inhabitants, and is 195 miles 
 long, and 135 broad. 
 
 CHAMPE, John, a native of Loudon county 
 (Va.). At the age of 24, in the year 1776, he 
 entered the revolutionary army with the rank 
 of sergeant-major, in Lee's cavalry. His repu- 
 tation for resolution and address was such, that 
 he was selected to attempt the seizure of Ar- 
 nold, that the execution of the traitor might 
 save the life of Andre. His orders were given 
 him, he left the American camp as a deserter, 
 arrived at New York after a perilous journey, 
 and, after being closely examined by Sir Henry 
 Clinton, was admitted to serve under him. He 
 failed in the attempt to accomplish his object, 
 and went to Virginia with the royal troops. 
 Escaping, he rejoined his friends, after many 
 hardships. When Washington took command 
 of the army, during the administration of Pre- 
 sident Adams, it was his intention to bring 
 Champe into the field at the head of a company, 
 but he learned to his grief, that the gallant fel- 
 low had died in Kentucky. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Samuel de ; a French naval 
 officer, who founded Quebec and Montreal in 
 Canada, of which he was governor-general. 
 He died in 1634. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, a lake of the United States, 
 lying between New York and Vermont, 130 
 miles long, and from 1 to 15 miles broad. The 
 Richelieu or Sorelle forms the outlet by which 
 its waters are discharged into the St. Lawrence. 
 Here, on the 11th of September, 1814, Com. 
 Macdonough, the commander of an American 
 fleet, gained a complete victory over the British. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION (the younger), a French- 
 man, who has done more than any olher man 
 of science towards explaining hieroglyphics of 
 Egypt. His death, in 1832, in the midst of his 
 triumphant researches, was regretted as an 
 almost irreparable loss. 
 
 CHANTREY, Francis, a distinguished Eng- 
 lish sculptor, whose peculiar talent was devel- 
 oped at an early age. His works are numerous ; 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CHA 
 
 169 
 
 CHA 
 
 one of them, a statue of Washington, is placed 
 in the State-house at Boston. 
 
 CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, 
 North Carolina, the seat of the university of 
 North Carolina, a well-endowed and respecta- 
 ble institution. 
 
 CHARLEROI, or Charles sur Sambre, a 
 town in the Belgian province of Hainau, for- 
 merly Charnoy ; contains 3,744 inhabitants. It 
 was founded by Charles, king of Spain, in 1666. 
 After passing successively from Spain to France, 
 and Austria, it remained in the hands of France, 
 after the battle of Fleurus, until 1814. In 1815, 
 Bonaparte chose this place as the first point of 
 attack on the Prussians, who were driven from 
 it, June 15, and compelled to retreat to Fleu- 
 rus. 
 
 CHARLES I, called Charlemagne, a com- 
 pound word, signifying Charles the Great, king 
 of France, emperor of the East, was born in 
 742, at the chateau of Saltzburg, in Upper Ba- 
 varia. He was the son of queen Bertrade and 
 Pepin the Short, on the death of whom, in 768, 
 he was crowned king, sharing France with 
 Carloman, his younger brother; but the condi- 
 tions of the partition were frequently changed 
 without ever giving mutual satisfaction, and 
 the nobles, who had long sought to weaken the 
 royal authority, would, without doubt, have 
 profited by the animosity which existed between 
 these two princes, if the death of Carloman, 
 which took place in 771, had not given Charle- 
 magne an opportunity of becoming sole king 
 of France, by preventing the succession of his 
 nephews. Their mother fled with them to 
 Italy, and found a protector in Desiderius, 
 king of the Lombards. They fell into the 
 hands of Charlemagne, on the taking of Verona, 
 and of their future fate, history says nothing. 
 If Pepin had need of courage, activity and 
 extreme prudence to found a new dominion, 
 Charlemagne found it necessary to enchain the 
 minds of men by fear and admiration, for the 
 means employed to effect usurpation, had en- 
 feebled the sovereign power. 
 
 The people of Aquitania were the first who 
 tried to aim at independence. Charlemagne 
 marched against them with a small force, but 
 he relied upon Carloman, his brother, to whom 
 a part of Aquitania belonged, and who, in con- 
 sequence, was compelled to unite with him. 
 Carloman found him at the appointed spot, at 
 the head of his troops, but fearing to fall before 
 the power of his brother, Carloman hastily 
 retraced his steps. Abandoned thus, unexpect- 
 edly, in a manner which could not fail to en- 
 
 courage the rebels, Charlemagne did not hesi- 
 tate for a moment : without considering the 
 number of his followers, nor that of his enemies, 
 he pursued his way, grained a brilliant victorj 
 (770), arranged the affairs of Aquitania with a 
 promptitude and foresight which displayed the 
 energy of a great man, and the skill of a politi- 
 cian, and disconcerted the tributary princes of 
 France, who thought to profit by the youth of 
 the monarch. When Charlemagne found him- 
 self sole master of France, he formed the pro- 
 ject of subjugating the Saxons. These people, 
 who were still pagans, occupied a large portion 
 of Germany ; like all barbarous nations, they 
 preferred plunder to fixed establishments, and 
 they were divided into many tribes, whom it 
 was difficult to unite in the same interest. 
 Charlemagne began to wage war upon them in 
 772, and did not complete their subjugation 
 until 804 ; so obstinately did they resist, for 32 
 years, the conqueror who, sometimes indulgent 
 to imprudence, and often severe to cruelty, as 
 eager to convert as to conquer them, was in re- 
 ality master of their country only, when he had 
 reduced it to a desert. The two most cele- 
 brated chiefs of the Saxons were Witikind and 
 Alboin, who finally embraced Christianity in 
 783. The cruelties of Charlemagne to the 
 Saxons, resembles despair ; and his indulgence 
 to them proves that, pressed by other affairs, 
 he was willing to make any concession which 
 could bring him off with honor. 
 
 While he was fighting on the banks of the 
 Weser, pope Adrian implored his succors 
 against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who 
 sought to possess himself of Ravenna, and urged 
 the pope to crown the sons of Carloman, in 
 order to display Charlemagne in the light of an 
 usurper of the throne of his nephews, and thus 
 stir up a large portion of France against him. 
 Flying to the scene of action with the rapidity 
 which the danger rendered necessary, Charle- 
 magne seized the person of Desiderius, sent 
 him to end his days in a monastery, and caused 
 himself to be crowned king of Lombardy, in 
 774. Thus ended that kingdom which shortly 
 afterwards took its ancient name of Italy, but 
 which preserved the laws it had received from 
 the Lombards. 
 
 Charlemagne passed into Spain in 778, be- 
 sieged and took Pampeluna, and made himself 
 master of the country of Barcelona ; but his 
 troops, on their return, were defeated in the 
 pass of Roncesvalles, by a part of the Saracens, 
 and the mountain Gascons, the unruly tributa- 
 ries of Charlemagne, who were so intractable, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHA 
 
 170 
 
 CHA 
 
 that more than thirty years afterwards, strong 
 forces were required to oppose them. At this 
 battle, fell the famous Roland, whose fate 
 has been celebrated by romance writers and 
 poets. The disaffection of the inhabitants of 
 Aquitania having induced Charlemagne to give 
 them a separate monarch, he chose the youngest 
 of his sons, Louis, well known as Louis the 
 Mild, 778. At the same time the continual 
 efforts of the Lombards and Greeks to recon- 
 quer Italy, and the want of fidelity in his nobles, 
 made him feel the necessity of rallying them 
 about the throne, and he gave them for a king, 
 Pepin, the second of his sons ; the eldest, who 
 bore the name of Charles, remained with him 
 to assist him in his expeditions. He had 
 another son, Pepin, whose mother he had repu- 
 diated. This son, having been convicted of 
 taking part in a conspiracy against him, was 
 devoted to the monastic life. 
 
 On his return from Spain, Charlemagne 
 found himself obliged to march against the 
 Saxons, and each year renewed the necessity 
 of a warlike expedition. He caused 4,500 of 
 them to be put to death ; a ferocious revenge 
 which only served to prolong and invigorate 
 their resistance. Thence he went to Rome to 
 have his two sons, Pepin and Louis, crowned 
 by the pope, thus confirming the people in the 
 belief that the head of religion could alone ren- 
 der the royal power legitimate and sacred. 
 The year 790, the 27th of his reign, was the 
 first which he passed without taking up arms, 
 and this peace lasted only until the spring of 
 the following year. Charlemagne had formed 
 the project of re-establishing the empire of the 
 west. The empress Irene, who reigned at 
 Constantinople, in order to prevent the dis- 
 memberment of the empire, proposed to Charle- 
 magne to unite their children, which would 
 have placed Europe under one government. 
 Her proposal was accepted, but ambition im- 
 pelled Irene to dethrone her own son in order 
 to seize the power herself, and she offered her 
 hand to Charlemagne. This singular union, 
 which ambition alone could suggest and carry 
 into effect, would have presented a new spec- 
 tacle to the world, had not the empress been 
 herself hurled from her throne. Charlemagne 
 was crowned emperor of the west, by pope 
 Leo III, in the year 800 ; and, although his 
 journey to Rome had no other object, he af- 
 fected to be much surprised at the honors which 
 were heaped upon him. He was declared Cae- 
 sar and Augustus; the ornaments of the ancient 
 Roman emperors were decreed to him ; all the 
 
 consecrated forms were followed ; nothing was 
 forgotten but the fact that it was impossible that 
 an empire should subsist, the power of which 
 was shared by the children of the deceased 
 monarch. Charlemagne, after having made 
 one of his sons a monk, had the misfortune to 
 lose, in 810, Pepin, whom he had created king 
 of Italy ; the year following, Charles, the eld- 
 est followed his brother to the grave ; there 
 only remained, of his legitimate children, Louis, 
 king of Aquitania, whom he associated with 
 him in the empire in 813, his great age and 
 his infirmities making him feel that he was 
 approaching the termination of his career. He 
 died the 28th of January, 814, in the 71st year 
 of his age, and the 47th of his reign. By his 
 will, made in 806, confirmed by the French 
 lords, assembled at Thionville, and signed by 
 Pope Leo, Charlemagne divided his estates 
 among his three sons. He left his subjects the 
 power of choosing a successor, after the death 
 of the princes, provided he was of the blood 
 royal. He provided that they should not have 
 recourse to the trial by battle, in the case of 
 dispute, but to that of the cross. This judg- 
 ment consisted, in doubtful circumstances, in 
 conducting to -church two men, who stood 
 upright with their elevated arms orossed, during 
 the celebration of divine service, and the vic- 
 tory was gained by the party whose champion 
 remained motionless in this attitude the long- 
 est. This is still called the judgment of God. 
 
 Charlemagne was buried at Aix-3a-Chapelle. 
 His body is said to have been disposed in the 
 following manner. He was seated upon a throne 
 of gold, clad in bis imperial habits. He had a 
 crown upon his head, and was girt with his 
 sword. He held a chalice in his hand, the book 
 of the Evangelists upon his knees, his sceptre 
 and gold buckler at his feet. The sepulchre 
 was filled with pieces of gold, perfumed and 
 sealed, and above a superb triumphal arch was 
 raised, with this epitaph : *' ; Here rests the body 
 of Charles, the great and orthodox emperor, 
 who gloriously enlarged the kingdom of the 
 French, and governed it happily for forty-seven 
 years." Charlemagne was a friend of letters, 
 and of learned men. 
 
 CHARLES I, king of England, an unfor- 
 tunate monarch, whose disasters were prepared 
 for him by his predecessors, and by the increas- 
 ing spirit of liberty, precipitated and increased 
 by the alternate obstinacy and fickleness of his 
 disposition. He ascended the throne in 1G25, 
 and found that his reign was likely to be troub- 
 led by a strong opposition ; but he could not 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CHA 
 
 171 
 
 CHA 
 
 find courage to make those concessions which 
 the people were disposed to demand of royalty. 
 The friends of liberty, and the puritans, were 
 disposed to view with a stern eye, the stand 
 which the king took. They had already im- 
 peached his favorite minister, and his unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to relieve Rochelle in 1627, 
 increased their enmity. Charles, blinded by 
 the monarchial doctrines of his father James, 
 although he saw that his popularity was daily 
 declining, took no steps to gain the affections 
 and confidence of his people. The parliament 
 refused to sanction the wishes of the monarch, 
 and passed the famous bill of rights, which he 
 was obliged to confirm. 
 
 Having made peace with France and Spain, 
 Charles determined to rely on his own resour- 
 ces, but resorted to the desperate expedient of 
 levying ship money. This, and the king's 
 attempt to force the liturgy on the Scotch, 
 brought upon him the opposition of Hampden 
 and the covenanters, to both of whom he was 
 forced to submit. After several parliaments 
 had been called and dissolved, Charles called 
 the long parliament of 1640. The earl of 
 Strafford and archbishop Laud were impeached, 
 and the fury of the puritans was excited against 
 the church and the bishops. The signal for 
 insurrection was given by the king going him- 
 self to the house and demanding the persons of 
 five members whom he accused of treason. 
 Civil war broke out; many engagements took 
 place, with various success, but on the king's 
 defeat at Naseby, he retired to Oxford, and on 
 the approach of Fairfax, the parliamentary gen- 
 eral, threw himself on the protection of the 
 Scots, who sold him to the parliament. The 
 army, now divided from the parliament, con- 
 veyed him to Hampton court, whence he es- 
 caped with the intention of quitting the king- 
 dom, but was retaken and brought back. 
 Charles now professed himself ready to grant 
 all the terms demanded for his release, except 
 the abolition of episcopacy. He was in conse- 
 quence arraigned for high treason, tried, and 
 condemned. His conduct during his trial was 
 a noble pattern of Christian meekness and firm- 
 ness, and this he retained to his death. He was 
 beheaded at Whitehall, on the 30th of January, 
 1648. 
 
 CHARLES II. king of England, son of 
 Charles I, and Henrietta Maria of France, was 
 born in 1630, and was at the Hague when his 
 father was executed. The Scots, who had 
 betrayed the father, sent an invitation to the 
 son, which he accepted, and was crowned at 
 15* 
 
 Scone, in 1651, when he was obliged to take 
 the covenant. But he had no mean opponent 
 in Cromwell, who defeated the Scotch at Dun- 
 bar, and Charles at Worcester. The appear- 
 ance of the two armies was strikingly con- 
 trasted. The parliamentarians were remarkable 
 for the plainness of their dress and equipments, 
 their hair being cropped close (whence their 
 appellation of round heads), and nothing merely 
 ornamental appearing on their persons. The 
 cavaliers, on the contrary, despising the aus- 
 terity of their antagonists, were distinguished 
 by their long curling locks, the finish of their 
 equipments, and the reckless gayety of their 
 bearing. From the battle of Worcester, Charles 
 made his escape, and lay hidden in the thick 
 branches of an oak in Boscobel wood, while his 
 pursuers actually seated themselves under the 
 tree. After many journeyings, in various dis- 
 guises, he escaped to France. 
 
 In 1660, by the management of general Monk, 
 he was restored ; and with him licentiousness 
 and infidelity returned in a full tide. In 1662, 
 he married the princess of Portugal, by whom 
 he had no children, although his illegitimate 
 offspring were numerous. With the exception 
 of the sale of Dunkirk to supply his extrava- 
 gances, the acts of Charles's reign can scarcely 
 be considered as his own, and belong rather to 
 the history of his country. He lived in the 
 unbridled indulgence of his appetites, interfer- 
 ing little in matters of state policy. The few 
 he meddled with were of an odious nature. 
 Charles died of an apoplectic fit, February 6. 
 1685, and by receiving, in his last moments, the 
 sacrament from a popish priest, proved that he 
 lived a hypocrite as well as a libertine. 
 
 By affability and wit, by going abroad without 
 ostentation, and mixing with the lowest of his 
 subjects, Charles obtained a certain degree of 
 popularity, and the name of the Merry Monarch 
 distinguished him during his life. His wit was 
 ready and pleasant, as Rochester, whose dispo- 
 sition much resembled the monarch's, happily 
 expressed in the epigram, in which he speaks 
 of Charles as one 
 
 " Who never said a foolish thing, 
 And never did a wise one." 
 
 Charles and his courtiers being one day 
 present at the exhibition of a man who daringly 
 climbed to the point of Salisbury cathedral, 
 and planted a flag there, the king said to his 
 favorite, " Faith ! Rochester, this man shall 
 have a patent, that no one may do this but 
 himself!" 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 CHA 
 
 172 
 
 CHA 
 
 CHARLES, Edward, of the Stuart family, 
 commonly called The Pretender, was the grand- 
 son of James II, and was born at Rome in 1720. 
 In 1745, he landed in Scotland, and published 
 a manifesto, exhibiting the claims of his father 
 to the English throne. He was joined by seve- 
 ral Highland chiefs, and entering Edinburgh, 
 caused his father to be proclaimed. Charles 
 Edward was passing the night in the village of 
 Stateford, and had thrown himself upon his 
 couch in a state of agitation, which prevented his 
 sleeping for more than two hours. As soon as 
 he learned that Edinburgh was occupied by the 
 Highlanders of Lochiel, Keppoch, Arlshied, and 
 O'Sullivan, he mounted his horse, and on the 
 given signal, the army was in readiness to enter 
 the city. The Castle still held out for the house 
 of Hanover. To avoid the balls of the enemy 
 who commanded the most direct road, the prince 
 and his followers, diverging from the main 
 route, came by the way of Duddingston to the 
 royal park which they entered through a breach 
 in the wall. The royal park, the favorite pro- 
 menade of James VII, when he was at Edin- 
 burgh, being then duke of York, comprises 
 Arthur's Seat, which seems to shelter Holy- 
 rood-House at its feet, the basaltic rocks of 
 Salisbury crags, the hermitage of St. Anthony, 
 and the valley of St. Leonard, spots to which 
 poetry and romance have given an interest that 
 history has failed to confer. 
 
 From an eminence near the hermitage, 
 Charles could contemplate, for the first time, 
 the palace of his ancestors, with its quadrangu- 
 lar court, and the round towers of the principal 
 facade. No alteration had taken place since 
 the time of James VII. The entire building 
 was standing, and the standard of the Stuarts 
 waved proudly in the wind that swept over the 
 majestic pile. The Gothic Chapel only was in 
 ruins, as if to remind the prince that, in the 
 revolution of 1688, the war was particularly 
 directed against the faith of his grandfather, 
 who decorated this place with such pomp. 
 Charles dismounted. Already the park and the 
 surrounding gardens were filled with a dense 
 crowd of all ranks, ages, and parties. They 
 were many merely curious spectators, but more 
 mere Jacobites, and the latter hastened to con- 
 gratulate the prince, who received them with 
 ease, and that smiling look of pleasure, which 
 is so seductive to all. The historian Hume 
 confessed, that the presence of Charles moved 
 more than one whig. 
 
 His youth, his fine form, his light locks, his 
 delicate complexion, so different from the bil- 
 
 ious hue that characterized the countenances 
 of his ancestry, the perfect oval of his face, his 
 intelligent blue eyes, the correct arch of hia 
 eyebrows, his regular nose and mouth of aris- 
 tocratic diminutiveness, were all curiously an- 
 alyzed by the spectators. Some troubled whigs 
 declared that there was in the countenance of 
 the prince an air of melancholy, which was a 
 presage of disaster in the midst of his triumph; 
 but the Jacobites, and particularly the ladies of 
 Edinburgh and Perth, were in raptures at the 
 graces of their Charlie, as he was familiarly 
 and popularly termed. They delighted to dwell 
 upon his picturesque costume. Upon his vest 
 of tartan plaid, glittered the national star of the 
 order of St. Andrew ; a scarf of gold and azure 
 served him as a baldrick, and to his neat blue 
 velvet cap was attached the white cockade, 
 which called to mind the rose of Lancaster. 
 
 When he mounted the splendid bay charger 
 which had been presented to him by the duke 
 of Perth, the acclamations of the spectators 
 redoubled, for the prince was, in fact, a most 
 accomplished cavalier. " Our hero looks like 
 Robert Bruce," cried the Jacobites, and they 
 were not deceiving themselves, for the portrait 
 of Bruce at Holyrood served to verify the 
 resemblance. 
 
 In the midst of an enthusiasm, which might 
 almost be called general, Charles could well 
 forget, in this concourse of his father's subjects, 
 the hostile terms of whig and tory, and saw 
 around him only Scotchmen, interested, like 
 himself, in severing the bonds imposed upon 
 Scotland, under the specious name of the Union. 
 In all the manifestoes of the Stuart family, 
 since 1715, they appealed as frequently to the 
 memory of national independence, as to the 
 claims of their house. Thus, when Charles 
 Edward was approaching the gate of the palace, 
 he was suddenly met by a hoary-headed gentle- 
 man, James Hepburn of Keith, who was known 
 to be opposed from principle to the " right divine 
 of kings," and who had more than once haugh- 
 tily blamed the government of James VII. 
 This gentleman, who was esteemed by all par- 
 ties, was the first to show himself the partisan 
 of Charles Edward, whom he regarded as the 
 champion of the deliverance of Scotland. Hep- 
 burn wished to be, in a manner, his herald into 
 the palace of his fathers, and drawing his sword, 
 he marshaled the prince with dignity to the 
 apartment destined for his reception. 
 
 Still, at intervals, the hostile cannon of the 
 castle, growled upon the city, as if to still the 
 exulting shouts of the people. A ball, directed 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHA 
 
 173 
 
 CHA 
 
 at the palace shattered a tower, to the indigna- 
 tion of the populace who knew that the Eng- 
 lish soldiery would dishonor, without remorse, 
 the most precious monument of their ancient 
 city. 
 
 With what emotions must Charles Edward 
 have explored the royal halls of Holyrood, con- 
 demned for 60 years, to a kind of solitary wid- 
 owhood, by the exile of his family. In the 
 first gallery he beheld that long range of royal 
 portraits, which the pride of Edinburgh holds 
 so dear. In adjacent apartments he found the 
 first traces of that beautiful queen, whose tragic 
 fate alone occupies the mind, even among the 
 multitude of historical and fabulous images. 
 Here were her bed and curtains, the chairs 
 where she was seated, those which she herself 
 embroidered — and alas ! was there not the im- 
 perishable stain of Rizzio's blood ? 
 
 The shouts of the people, eager to behold 
 their prince, more than once banished the re- 
 flections in which Charles Edward was indulg- 
 ing, and forced him to appear at the windows 
 and show himself to the citizens of Edinburgh. 
 A part of the crowd was called off to assist at 
 the ceremony at the Cross of the High-street, 
 now destroyed — a place where the proclama- 
 tion of public acts had taken place from time 
 immemorial. The gallery in which the heralds 
 and pursuivant at arms, clad in their official 
 costume, appeared, was decorated with tapes- 
 try. A troop of Highlanders were formed in lines 
 two deep on each side of the street, the trumpets 
 sounded a flourish, the bagpipes played their 
 pibrochs, and when the crowd was silenced, 
 James VIII was proclaimed, the commission 
 appointing Charles Edward regent read, as well 
 as the manifesto of the prince, dated Paris, May 
 16, 1745. The innumerable windows of the 
 houses in the High-street, some of which were 
 more than ten stories high, were filled with la- 
 dies, who waved their white handkerchiefs, to 
 excite the shouts of the people ; the attach- 
 ment to the legitimate monarch appeared univer- 
 sal, as if the faults of the dynasty had been ex- 
 piated by its misfortunes. While the heralds 
 were proclaiming James and his son, at the foot 
 of the gallery, the lady Broughton of Murray, a 
 woman of uncommon beauty, appeared upon a 
 splendid horse, with a drawn sword in her 
 hand, like a heroine of Ariosto or Tasso, while 
 other ladies distributed white ribbons to their 
 brothers and admirers. 
 
 Charles Edward was at first successful — de- 
 feating general Cope at Preston Pans, but he 
 returned to Edinburgh and wasted his time in 
 
 idle parades. Being, however, joined by seve- 
 ral discontented chiefs, he marched as far as 
 Manchester, but hearing that the king was 
 about to take the field, he returned to Scotland, 
 and defeated the English forces under Hawley, 
 at Falkirk. In the mean time the duke of Cum- 
 berland advanced to Edinburgh, and thence to 
 Aberdeen, the pretender retreating before him. 
 At length the two armies met at Culloden, when, 
 after an obstinate conflict, in which the High- 
 landers displayed signal courage, the royal army 
 was successful, and the rebels fled, leaving 
 3,000 of their number dead upon the field. 
 
 A well-authenticated anecdote of this battle 
 strikingly displays the simplicity and ferocity 
 of the Highlanders. An English officer, hav- 
 ing fallen into the hands of a muscular adver- 
 sary, who had thrown away his musket, and 
 was brandishing a broadsword, supplicated for 
 quarter. '-Quarter! quarter!" cried the irri- 
 tated Highlander, " I hae nae the time to quar- 
 ter ye, sae ye must een be contentit to be cuttit 
 in twa", — suiting the action to the word. 
 
 Charles Edward wandered for a long time in 
 disguise, chiefly among the Hebrides, and final- 
 ly effected his escape to France. Nothing 
 throws a clearer light on the fidelity and honor 
 of the Scotch, than the fact, that, although 
 Charles was frequently at the mercy of some of 
 the poorest mountaineers, the high price which 
 was set upon his head, could not tempt them to 
 betray him. One time, after having been with- 
 out food for days, his dress torn to tatters, by 
 his briery hiding-places, Charles, finding him- 
 self near the house of a whig gentleman, sought 
 shelter in it. " I am your political opponent," 
 said the high-minded whig ; " but I am also 
 your fellow man. I scorn to take advantage of 
 your distress, and will protect you as long as 
 you choose to remain beneath my roof." He 
 kept his word, and even furnished the unhappy 
 prince with a disguise which facilitated his es- 
 cape. This feeling of forbearance to Charles, 
 after his defeat, was manifested in a higher 
 quarter. King George being at a ball, a lady, 
 who did not know him, asked him to drink to 
 the health of the pretender. " Willingly," re- 
 plied the king ; " I cannot refuse to drink to 
 the health of every unfortunate prince." 
 
 With the defeat of the pretender ended all 
 the hopes of the unfortunate Stuart family. 
 Charles Edward died at Florence, in 1788. 
 
 CHARLES X, Gustavus, king of Sweden, 
 ascended the throne on the abdication of Chris- 
 tiana, in 1654. He obtained over the Poles the 
 famous victory of Warsaw, besides taking a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 CHA 
 
 174 
 
 CHA 
 
 number of important places. The Poles, call- 
 ing to their assistance Muscovy, England, and 
 Denmark, obliged the king of Sweden to con- 
 clude a peace ; but the war breaking out again, 
 Charles took Cronenburgh, and laid siege to 
 Copenhagen; his navy having been defeated, 
 he was obliged to return home, and died in 
 1660. 
 
 CHARLES XI, of Sweden, was born in 
 1665. On his accession a peace was concluded 
 with Denmark, but in 1674, in the war with 
 that power, he lost several places, which were 
 restored at the peace of Nimeguen. He mar- 
 ried the sister of the king of Denmark, and died 
 in 1697. 
 
 CHARLES XII, of Sweden, son and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, was born in 1682. He 
 came to the throne at the age of 15, and, at his 
 coronation, snatched the crown from the hands 
 of the archbishop of Upsal, and placed it on his 
 own head. He was well educated, and very 
 fond of bodily exercises. The commencement 
 of his reign, however, gave no splendid proof 
 of genius or talent. But, on the formation of a 
 confederacy against him by Russia, Denmark, 
 and Holland, he seemed to arouse from his 
 slumber. He himself gave the casting voice in 
 the council for the most vigorous measures, and 
 immediately prepared to carry them into effect. 
 He renounced at once even limited enjoyments, 
 and bent all his energies to support the charac- 
 ter he had marked out for himself. Of the con- 
 federated powers, he attacked each in turn, 
 beginning with Denmark, which produced a 
 peace with that power. 
 
 In 1700 he obtained a brilliant victory over 
 the Russians at Narva ; although his force con- 
 sisted of only 8,000 men, he attacked them in 
 their intrenchments, slew 30,000 and took 
 20,000 prisoners. His next enterprise was against 
 Poland, and after several battles, he dethroned 
 Augustus, and placed Stanislaus upon the 
 throne. He obtained some signal advantages 
 over Peter the Great, but at length experienced 
 a terrible defeat at Pultowa, in 1709. Almost 
 all his troops were either slain or taken prison- 
 ers ; he himself was wounded in the leg, and 
 carried off in a litter. 
 
 Charles sought an asylum in Turkey, where 
 he was hospitably received by the grand seign- 
 ior, who provided for him a residence at Ben- 
 der. He availed himself of his asylum to per- 
 suade the grand seignior to enter into a war 
 with Russia, and employed much money, much 
 time, and many menaces to induce it. His con- 
 duct was, at length, so violent, that he was or- 
 
 dered to leave the Turkish territories. This he 
 refused to obey. The sultan then directed that 
 he should be forced away ; but Charles, with 
 his retinue, resisted the attack of the Janizaries, 
 till superiority of numbers obliged him to take 
 shelter in his house, which he defended with 
 great spiiit, and did not yield till the premises 
 were in flames. He then sallied out, sword in 
 hand, but being entangled by his long spurs, he 
 fell and was taken prisoner. After having been 
 confined as a prisoner six months, he finally set 
 out on his return to his own dominions. 
 
 In 1716 he invaded Norway, but after pene- 
 trating to Christiana, was obliged to return to 
 Sweden. He resumed the attack in the winter 
 of 1718, but was killed by a cannon-shot at the 
 siege of Frederick shall, December 11, aged 36 
 years, having reigned 21. 
 
 Charles was liberal, active and firm, but rash, 
 obstinate, and cruel. At the battle of Narva, he 
 had several horses shot under him, and as he 
 was mounting upon a fresh one, he said, " These 
 people find me exercise." 
 
 When he was besieged at Stralsund, a bomb 
 fell into the house while he was dictating to his 
 secretary, who immediately dropped his pen, 
 and started up in a fright. " What is the mat- 
 ter?" said the king, calmly. " The bomb ! the 
 bomb ! sire," said the agitated secretary. " Well, 
 sir," resumed Charles, " what has the bomb to 
 do with what I was dictating to you? Goon." 
 When struck by the ball that caused his death ; 
 he instinctively grasped his sword-hilt as if 
 seeking for revenge. Charles was exceeding 
 temperate, abjuring wine, and living frequently 
 upon the coarsest bread. No woman ever ex- 
 erted any influence over him. His dress con- 
 sisted of an old cloak, a blue coat with brass 
 buttons, a plain waistcoat and breeches of leath- 
 er, high boots with spurs, and long leather 
 gloves. 
 
 CHARLES XIV, of Sweden, originally Jean 
 Baptlste Jules Bcrnadotte, served with distinction 
 in the armies of Napoleon, and was chosen to 
 fill the throne of Sweden. But from the mo- 
 ment of his elevation by the Swedes, he ceased 
 to live for any thing but the good of the nation, 
 which had adopted him. 
 
 CHARLES I, king of Sicily and Naples, 
 born in 1220, was the son of Louis VIII, of 
 France. Having married the daughter of the 
 count of Provence, he thereby became his suc- 
 cessor, and added to his dominions the coun- 
 ties of Anjou and Maine. He was taken pris- 
 oner, with his brother Louis, in Egypt, in 1248. 
 On his return he defeated Manfred, the usurp- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CHA 
 
 175 
 
 CHA 
 
 er of the Sicilian crown, and assumed the title 
 of king of Naples. He also defeated his rival, 
 Conradin, duke of Suabia, and took him and 
 the duke of Austria prisoners. Charles, on this 
 occasion, brought infamy on his name, by caus- 
 ing his royal captives to be put to death, at 
 Naples, on a public scaffold. After this he laid 
 the prince of Tunis under tribute, and quelled 
 the Ghibellines. In 1276, he gained the title of 
 king of Jerusalem, and meditated an expedition 
 against Constantinople. But his arbitrary con- 
 duct occasioned a general insurrection in Sicily, 
 where 8,000 of the French were massacred on 
 Easter-Monday, 1282. This massacre is known 
 by the name of the " Sicilian vespers," the bell 
 for evening prayers being the signal of revolt. 
 The Sicilians then chose Peter of Arragon for 
 their kino-. Charles died in 1285. 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL, son of Pepin Heris- 
 tel, and mayor of the palace under Chilperic 
 and Thierry IV, kings of France. He gained 
 many victories, the principal of which was over 
 the Saracen general, Abdalrahman, in 732. On 
 the death of Thierry, in 737, no successor was 
 appointed, and Charles conducted the govern- 
 ment as duke of the Franks. He died in 741, 
 and left his dominions between his sons Carlo- 
 man and Pepin ; the latter of whom became 
 the first king of France of the Carlovingian 
 race, which name was taken from the founder, 
 Charles Martel. 
 
 CHARLES IV, emperor of Germany, was 
 the son of John of Luxemburg, and grandson 
 of the emperor Henry VII. He ascended the 
 throne in 1347. In his reign the golden bull 
 was given at the diet of Nuremburg, in 1356, 
 which established the Germanic constitution. 
 Charles died in 1378. He was a learned man 
 and a great patron of letters. 
 
 CHARLES V, emperor of Germany, and 
 king of Spain (in the latter capacity, Charles 
 I), was born at Ghent, in 1500. He succeeded 
 to the kingdom of Spain in 1516, and to the 
 empire on the death of Maximilian, in 1519. 
 Francis I, of France, disputed with him the 
 latter title, and their rivalry occasioned a vio- 
 lent war in 1521. Charles was joined by Henry 
 VIII of England, and after several important 
 actions, took Francis prisoner at the battle of 
 Pavia. A peace having been concluded in 
 1529, Charles turned his arms against Africa, 
 where he defeated Barbarossa, entered Tunis, 
 and re-established Muley-Hassan on the throne. 
 Soon after this he renewed hostilities against 
 France, ravaging Champagne and Picardy, till 
 he was at length obliged to retire, and peace 
 
 was restored in 1538. In 1541 he attempted 
 the conquest of Algiers, but his fleet was dis- 
 persed by a storm, and the emperor was obliged 
 to return in disgrace. He again leagued with 
 England against France, but fortune was not so 
 favorable to him as she had formerly been, and 
 he was glad to enter into a treaty in 1545. The 
 protestant princes of Germany confederated 
 against him, and obtained liberty of conscience 
 for those of their religion. In 1556 he resigned 
 the crown to his son Philip, and retired into a 
 monastery in Estremadura, where he passed 
 the remainder of his days in religious exercises, 
 mechanical pursuits, and gardening. He died in 
 1558. He encouraged artists, and once picked 
 up a pencil which Titian had diopped, and pre- 
 sented it to him, saying : " That Titian was 
 worthy of being served by an emperor." As a 
 pious penance, he caused himself to be wrapped 
 in a shroud, and placed in a coffin, and thus 
 celebrated his own obsequies. This ceremony 
 hastened his death. 
 
 CHARLES THE BOLD, duke of Burgun- 
 dy, the son of Philip the Good, was born in 
 1433. There were constant wars between him 
 and Louis XI, king of France, who instigated 
 Charles's subjects, the Liegois, to revolt against 
 him. Charles seized on Guelderland and Zut- 
 phen, and afterwards invaded Switzerland, but 
 his army was put to the rout and his baggage 
 taken by the Swiss. He collected another army, 
 but was'again defeated, and slain while besieging 
 Nancy, in 1477. As he was that day putting on his 
 helmet, the golden lion which formed the crest, 
 fell to the ground, and he exclaimed, " Ecce 
 magnum signmn Dei!" Behold the sign of 
 God ! 
 
 CHARLES IX, of France, son of Henry II 
 and Catharine of Medici, was born in 1550, and 
 succeeded to the throne in 1560 ; his mother 
 conducted the government ; but she so abused 
 her trust that the protestants revolted, and a 
 civil war ensued, in which the insurgents were 
 unsuccessful. The massacre, of St. Bartholo- 
 mew's ensued. It is said that Charles repented 
 of this horrid crime on his death-bed, in 1574. 
 
 CHARLES X, Philip, king of France and 
 Navarre, ascended the throne, which had been 
 filled by his brothers, the unfortunate Louis 
 XVI and Louis XVIII, in September, 1824. 
 He bore for some time the title of count ofArtois, 
 and afterwards that of monsieur. He was fond 
 of expensive pleasures, and distinguished for 
 the mildness of his manners. Charles was 
 crowned at Rheims, being anointed with the 
 holy oil, which it was absurdly pretended had 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY]. 
 
 CHA 
 
 176 
 
 CHA 
 
 been brought from heaven by a dove. He swore 
 to maintain the charter, but he had not been long 
 seated on the throne, before he began to play 
 those " fantastic tricks," which seems to belong 
 peculiarly to the province of legitimacy. The 
 press, that vast moral engine at which tyrants 
 tremble, became obnoxious to the monarch, and 
 a censorship was established in 1827. The king, 
 however, showed himself rather favorably dis- 
 posed to the Greeks, which produced him a 
 temporary popularity. The ministry of prince 
 Polignac, however, caused great indignation, on 
 account of the arbitrary tone of the measures 
 adopted ; and the unwarrantable prosecution of 
 the liberal press, hastened the revolution of 
 1830, when the Parisians overcame the royal 
 troops, and the French legislature exiled Charles 
 X, imprisoned the ministers for life, and seated 
 Louis Philippe on the throne. 
 
 CHARLES EMANUEL I, duke of Savoy, 
 surnamed the Great, was born in 1562. Though 
 of a week constitution, he was of an enterpris- 
 ing spirit, and, taking advantage of the internal 
 commotions of France, in the reign of Henry 
 III, he seized part of Dauphiny and Provence ; 
 on the death of that monarch, he aspired to the 
 crown, but was disappointed. A war broke out, 
 and the French troops took possession of part 
 of Savoy. By the mediation of the pope, how- 
 ever, peace was concluded. The duke made a 
 treacherous attempt to seize Geneva, but his 
 troops were repulsed, and the prisoners that 
 were taken, were hung up by the Genevans as 
 robbers. On the death of Francis, duke of 
 Mantua, in 1G13, this restless prince laid claim 
 to the succession, but was obliged to relinquish 
 it. The French persuaded him to turn his arms 
 against Genoa, and he gained some advantages, 
 but the interference of Spain effected a peace. 
 He aspired to the imperial crown, and made an 
 attempt on the duchy of Montserrat, which in- 
 volved him in a war with France and Spain. 
 He died in 1630, it is supposed of grief for the 
 loss of Pignerol. 
 
 CHARLESTON, a city and sea-port of South 
 Carolina, with 29,261 inhabitants, a large pro- 
 portion of whom are slaves. It is the largest 
 town in South Carolina, and the emporium, not 
 only of that state, but of a considerable part of 
 North Carolina. It is situated on a tongue of 
 land formed by the confluence of Cooper and 
 Ashley rivers, at a distance of about seven miles 
 from the ocean. Much taste is evinced in its 
 public buildings, and an idea of elegance and 
 comfort is conveyed by the appearance of its 
 private houses, which are mostly of biick, and 
 
 generally furnished with piazzas. It is a place 
 of much wealth and commerce. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, a town of Middlesex 
 county, Massachusetts, with 10,872 inhabitants, 
 is separated by Charles River from Boston, from 
 the centre of which it is one mile distant. The 
 Navy Yard is one of the largest in the United 
 States. On Bunker Hill, in this town, was 
 fought a memorable battle, June 17, 1775. On 
 the evening of June 16th, Col. Prescott re- 
 ceived orders to fortify Bunker Hill, but Gen. 
 Putnam, who had the command of the expedi- 
 tion, finding Breed's Hill more suitable, the 
 requisite fortifications were rapidly thrown up 
 on that height. We must now give a glance at 
 the respective forces of the contending parties. 
 The British troops were well equipped and offi- 
 cered, possessed all the advantages of strict dis- 
 cipline, and were by no means distrustful of the 
 issue of the contest. The American army, on 
 the other hand, had been hastily called togeth- 
 er, was composed of men, who had few ideas 
 of military combinations, and whose weapons 
 were generally fowling-pieces without bayonets, 
 but who were all animated by one spirit. Their 
 leaders were beloved and respected by them, and 
 were men of tried truth and nerve — Putnam, 
 Stark, Pomeroy, Warren, and Prescott — men 
 whose names yet call a glow into the bosom of 
 every patriot. 
 
 The British were not aware of the existence 
 of the redoubts until the morning of the 17th', 
 when their ships-of-war, floating batteries, and 
 the guns of Copps Hill, opened a severe fire on 
 the Americans. At one o'clock, the troops un- 
 der Howe landed in Charlest'own, and were 
 soon after reinforced, which swelled their num- 
 ber to about 5,000 men, with six field-pieces. 
 The provincial troops amounted to perhaps 2,000 
 men with two field-pieces. " Don't fire," said 
 Putnam to his men, " till you can see the whites 
 of their eyes." The British approached unmolest- 
 ed till they* came within close gun-shot, when 
 the tremendous fire of the provincials drove 
 them back with great slaughter. In the second 
 attack, Charlestown was set on fire and burned 
 to the ground, adding its raging flames to the 
 other horrors of the battle scene. As the ammu- 
 nition of the Americans was nearly exhausted, 
 the third attack carried the redoubt, although 
 the provincials resisted the British with the 
 butt-ends of their muskets, and slowly retreat- 
 ed from the hill. The Americans lost 115 killed, 
 (among them general Warren), 305 wounded, 
 and 30 made prisoners. The British lost 1054 
 in killed and w r ounded. On the 17th of June, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHA 
 
 177 
 
 CHA 
 
 1825, the corner-stone of a monument was laid 
 with great ceremony, and the work bids fair to 
 be speedily completed, in a style worthy of the 
 great event which it commemorates. 
 
 CHARLOTTE, Augustus, daughter of queen 
 Caroline and George IV, a beautiful, amiable, 
 and accomplished lady, became, at the age of 
 20, the wife of prince Leopold of Coburg, May 
 2, 1816. They were tenderly attached to each 
 other. November 5, 1817, the unfortunate prin- 
 cess, in becoming the mother of a child that did 
 not survive her, lost her life. The physician 
 who had attended her, shot himself. The prin- 
 cess was beloved by the English nation, and her 
 death deeply lamented. 
 
 CHARON, in mythology, the son of Erebus 
 and Nox. He was the ferryman of hell, being 
 supposed to carry the dead across the waves of 
 Acheron, Cocytus, and the Styx, receiving an 
 obolus in pay. This coin was placed in the 
 mouth of the dead, as, without it. it was thought 
 that the deceased would be condemned to long 
 and restless wanderings on the dreary banks of 
 Acheron. Charon was represented as an old 
 man, of a forbidding aspect, dressed in rags. 
 
 CHARYBDIS, the rapacious daughter of 
 Neptune and Terra, whom Jupiter changed into 
 a whirlpool. The whirlpool in the Sicilian Sea, 
 whose origin was thus related in mythology, is 
 no longer dreaded by mariners, who formerly 
 were frequently wrecked upon the opposite 
 rock, Scylla, in attempting to escape from Cha- 
 rybdis ; the latter is now called Calqfaro and 
 1m Rema. 
 
 CHASE, Samuel, a distinguished American, 
 who was born in Maryland, April 17, 1741, and 
 was one of the signers of the declaration of in- 
 dependence. In 1796, he was made by Wash- 
 ington an associate judge of the Supreme Court 
 of the United States. Having been impeached 
 by the House of Representatives, he was ac- 
 quitted by the Senate. He died June 9, 1811, 
 with a high reputation. 
 
 CHATHAM", William Pitt, earl of, was the 
 son of Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconock, in Corn- 
 wall, and born November 15. 1708. On quit- 
 ting the university, he went into the army as 
 cornet, but soon left the military life, and, in 
 1735, obtained a seat in parliament for Old Sa- 
 rum. His eloquence was first displayed on the 
 Spanish convention, in 1738, and, in a short 
 time, Sir Robert Walpole found him the most 
 powerful opponent he had ever encountered. 
 The dowager duchess of Marlborough, left Mr. 
 Pitt a legacy of 10,OOOL for his conduct at this 
 period. In 1746, he was made vice-treasurer 
 
 of Ireland, and the same year paymaster gen- 
 eral of the army. In 1755, he resigned his 
 places ; but the year following, he was appointed 
 secretary of state for the southern department. 
 In this post, however, he did not remain long, 
 on account of some difference with the king ; 
 but such was his popularity, that his majesty 
 found it necessary to recall him. In 1757, he 
 became prime minister, in which situation he 
 gave a new turn to affairs, and by the vigor of 
 his measures, subverted the power of France in 
 Europe, Asia, and America. 
 
 In the midst of his glory, George II died, and 
 Mr. Pitt resigned the helm to lord Bute ; when 
 his lady was created a peeress, and he himself 
 rewarded with a pension. In 1766, he was 
 created a peer, by the title of earl of Chatham, 
 and at the same time was made lord-privy-seal, 
 which place he resigned two years afterwards. 
 During the war of our revolution, he opposed 
 the ministers, and in a speech on the subject of 
 the independence of the colonies, April 7, 1778, 
 exerted himself so energetically, as to fall ex- 
 hausted into the arms of those around him. He 
 died on the 11th of the following month. A 
 public funeral and monument were voted by 
 parliament ; an annuity of 4000Z. was annexed 
 to the earldom of Chatham, and his debts were 
 discharged. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, a youth whose 
 early talents and fate have excited great inter- 
 est, was born at Bristol, in 1752, of poor parents. 
 In his twelfth year he wrote a poem of some 
 merit, and at the age of sixteen, successfully 
 imitated the style of antique English writers, 
 and introduced to the world as works of great 
 antiquity, the fruits of his own mind. The 
 reception he met with in London, led him to 
 form the most extravagant hopes, which were, 
 however, never realized, for the wretchedness 
 of his situation induced him to commit suicide 
 by poison at the age of 18, in 1770. The poems 
 which he wrote at 15, he published under the 
 name of Rowley. His works form a collection 
 in three volumes, and have gone through many 
 editions. 
 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey a celebrated English 
 poet, was the son of a merchant, and was born 
 in London , in 1328. At the age of 18, his Court 
 of Love gained him celebrity. He was high in 
 favor with Edward III, and married the sister 
 of lady Catharine Swynford, afterwards the wife 
 of the duke of Lancaster. He filled several 
 responsible offices, and was sent abroad as am- 
 bassador. His fortunes varied with those of 
 the party to which he was attached, but he 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHA 
 
 178 
 
 CHE 
 
 finally lived in the pleasant retirement of Don- 
 nington castle, where he died in 1400. His 
 Canterbury Tales are his most celebrated pro- 
 duction. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Charles, a minister of Boston, 
 Massachusetts, was the son of the erudite and 
 excellent president Chauncy, of Harvard Uni- 
 versity, where he was educated. He was born 
 Jan. 1, 1705, and was ordained pastor of the 
 first church in Boston, in 1727. He died in his 
 83d year, Feb. 10th, 1787. His learning, inde- 
 pendence, and patriotism were constantly and 
 clearly displayed. The works which he has 
 left behind, bear incontrovertible proofs of his 
 talents. He was the particular friend of Doctor 
 Cooper, of Boston, and an anecdote which re- 
 gards the two gentlemen, is worthy of preserva- 
 tion. It must be kept in mind that Doctor 
 Chauncy was habitually absent like many liter- 
 ary men, and that Dr. Cooper was famous for 
 inviting brother clergymen to officiate for him ; 
 so much so, that it was currently reported that 
 he used to w T alk out upon Boston neck every 
 Saturday afternoon, and invite the first gentle- 
 man with a black coat whom he saw coming into 
 town, to preach for him. Knowing these facts, 
 a negro servant of Dr. Chauncy determined to 
 turn them to his own account. This fellow 
 was in want of a coat, but as he had high ideas 
 of his own importance, he wished, if possible, 
 to obtain a new garment, instead of being habit- 
 ed in the dark, discarded vestments of his wor- 
 thy master. After having, one morning, brought 
 the usual supply of wood into Dr. Chauncy's 
 study, he remained standing, and the doctor, 
 although rather busy, was not long noticing 
 him. The following conversation then took 
 place. 
 
 " Well, Sambo, what do you want ?" 
 
 " Want a coat, sar. De old one so patched 
 to pieces, I 'fraid to go nowheres." 
 
 "Very well, Sambo, go to Mrs. Chauncy, 
 and tell her to give you one of mine." 
 
 The doctor resumed his studies, but Sambo 
 retained his position. His master observing 
 him a second time, but forgetting what had just 
 passed between them, again asked ; 
 
 " What do you want, Sambo?" 
 
 " O ! just a coat, sar. Old coat full of holes." 
 
 " Very well ; go to Mrs. Chauncy, and she 
 will give you one of mine." 
 
 A second time the doctor resumed his book, 
 but finding the black still stationary, he began 
 to recall what had passed, and exclaimed, with 
 some asperity ; " Well sir, why don 't you 
 go?" 
 
 " 'Cause I 'fraid, Massa Chauncy." 
 
 " Afraid ? of what ?" 
 
 " Why, sar, I 'fraid to wear a black coat, 
 'cause — no — no — it won 't do — I can 't tell you, 
 sar." 
 
 " I insist upon it." 
 
 " Well then, if I must — sir, 'fraid, 'cause — 
 oh no ! massa, you '11 be so angry." 
 
 " I wish I had my cane here !" exclaimed the 
 doctor. 
 
 Sambo, finding, from his impatient glance at 
 the tongs, that there was a possibility of his 
 finding a substitute, cried out; " Oh ! sar! 
 nebber mind de cane, I '11 tell you why I 'fraid 
 to wear one of your coats — / 'fraid if I had 
 annoder black coat — that doctor Cooper will ask 
 me to preach for him." 
 
 The doctor burst into laughter. " Go, go, 
 Sambo, and ask Mrs. Chauncy to buy a coat 
 of whatever color you fancy !" 
 
 Sambo hastened off, grinning with delight, 
 to get a scarlet coat, and Dr. Chauncy ran to 
 Dr. Cooper to tell him of the whole affair. 
 
 CHERBOURG, or Cherburg, a French sea- 
 port, on the Channel, containing 18,443 inhab- 
 itants. In 1418, it was taken by Henry V, and 
 near it took place the famous naval battle of La 
 Hogue, between the French and English in 
 1692. Cherburg is remarkable for its vast 
 breakwater, and its extensive basin and docks, 
 constructed by the French government. 
 
 CHERSON, a Russian city, capital of the 
 government of Chesson, on the Dnieper, 60 
 miles from its mouth. It was founded in 1778. 
 and contains 12.000 inhabitants. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE BAY is from 7 to 20 miles 
 broad, and 190 miles long, extending northerly 
 through Virginia and Maryland, two of the 
 United States. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- 
 hope, earl of. a distinguished statesman, orator, 
 and author, born in London, 1694, died in 1773. 
 In private life he was distinguished by his 
 grace and wit, and also notorious for his irregu- 
 larities. In parliament and in the house of 
 lords, as ambassador to Holland, and lord-lieu 
 tenant to Ireland, he was successful and popu- 
 lar. His letters to his son have been censured 
 for their immoral tone, although celebrated for 
 their elegance. Johnson called Chesterfield a 
 wit among lords, and a lord among wits. Of 
 the conduct of the earl as lord-lieutenant, we 
 have favorable accounts. 
 
 When the advocates of intolerance preached 
 persecution, he answered their counsels by an 
 apothegm and a bon mot — he quoted Cicero, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHI 
 
 179 
 
 CHI 
 
 when they quoted Nassau — he gave them par- 
 ties for their politics — suppers for their sophis- 
 try — he forced them to swallow his measures 
 with his claret — and he stopped the mouths of 
 many with good dinners, on whom good argu- 
 ments would have been thrown away. 
 
 When Lord Chesterfield arrived in Ireland, 
 all the Catholic places of worship were closed. 
 A Mr. Fitzgerald saying mass in the obscure 
 garret of a condemned house, an immense 
 crowd had assembled, and the floor giving 
 way, the officiating priest, with many of his 
 flock, were buried in the ruins, and the greater 
 number were maimed and wounded. Lord 
 Chesterfield, horror-struck at the event, ordered 
 that all the chapels in the capital should be 
 opened on St. Patrick's day, and they have 
 never since been closed. 
 
 A zealous protestant, thinking to pay his 
 court to the lord-lieutenant, came to inform him 
 that one of his coachmen was a Roman Catho- 
 lic, and went privately to mass. " Does he, 
 indeed?" said his lordship, "then I shall take 
 care that he never drives me there !'" 
 
 The bishop of Waterford relates that the 
 vice-treasurer, Mr. Gardiner, a man of good 
 character, and considerable fortune, waited 
 upon lord Chesterfield one morning, and in a 
 great fright told him that he was assured upon 
 good authority that the people in the province 
 of Connaught were actually rising ; upon which 
 the viceroy looked at his watch, and with great 
 composure answered him, " It is nine o'clock 
 and time for them to rise ; I believe, therefore, 
 that your news is true." Lord Chesterfield 
 preserved a Catholic population in the most 
 perfect peace and obedience, during the whole 
 of that rebellion, which in Protestant England 
 and Presbyterian Scotland, had nearly restored 
 the Stuarts to the throne they had forfeited by 
 their blind and bigoted attachment to papal 
 institutions. 
 
 CHILI, a republic of South America, which 
 is divided into eight provinces. The eastern 
 part of Chili is mountainous, and 14 volcanic 
 summits here elevate themselves from the 
 lofty chain of the Andes. Innumerable small 
 and rapid rivers irrigate the rich soil, and the 
 serene climate is remarkable for its healthiness. 
 The mineral and vegetable productions are 
 valuable and abundant. Exclusive of the in- 
 dependent Indians, the population has been 
 estimated at 1,200,000. The Roman Catholic 
 is the established religion. 
 
 Pedro de Valdivia, who was sent thither by 
 Pizarro, overcame the opposition of the abori- 
 16 
 
 ginees, and founded several cities in the north 
 and south, but the Araucanians defeated the 
 Spaniards, and having taken their leader pris- 
 oner, put him to death. It was many years 
 before the Spaniards were permitted by the 
 Indians and Dutch to enjoy quiet possession of 
 Chili. In 1809, a revolutionary movement took 
 place, and the party which espoused the cause 
 of independence was, at first, successful ; but 
 in 1814, nearly the whole country was subdued 
 by a royalist army from Peru. Chili remained 
 under the control of the royalists until 1817, 
 when General San Martin, with a body of 
 troops from Buenos Ayres, entered the country, 
 and being joined by the people generally, de- 
 feated the royalists in several engagements. 
 The independence of the country was finally 
 achieved at the battle of Maypu, April 5, 1817. 
 The government has since experienced many 
 changes, and even now remains in an unsettled 
 state. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, William, a celebrated 
 protestant divine and controversial writer. He 
 was born at Oxford, 1602, and died in 1644, 
 having been appointed chancellor of Salisbury, 
 in July, 1638. 
 
 CHIMBORAZO, a mountain in the republic 
 of the Equator, one of the highest summits of 
 the Andes, its elevation being 21,440 feet above 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 CHIMERA, a monster said to have ravaged 
 Lycia, and to have been killed by Bellerophon. 
 Pier form was a mixture of incongruous parts. 
 
 CHINA is a vast country of Asia, bounded 
 on the north by Chinese Tartary, from which 
 the famous Chinese wall separates it; on the 
 east, by the Eastern Sea ; on the south by the 
 Chinese Sea, and Further India ; and on the 
 west by an extensive and sandy desert, and 
 long ridges of mountains, which divide it from 
 Western Tartary and Thibet. 
 
 Inclusive of the tributary countries, and those 
 states which have voluntarily placed themselves 
 under the protection of China, the population 
 amounts to nearly 200 million inhabitants, 
 which are scattered over a surface of about 
 5,250,000 square miles. The subjected coun- 
 tries are Mantchouria, Mongolia, and Tourfan ; 
 the protected ones, Thibet, Bootan, Corea, and 
 Loo-choo. China Proper is divided into 18 
 provinces. The Kiau-Ku, or Yang-tse, and the 
 Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River, are the two prin- 
 cipal rivers of China. The former is more than 
 2,500 miles long. The face of the country is 
 greatly diversified ; the northern and western 
 parts being the most broken. The climate, in 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHI 
 
 180 
 
 CHI 
 
 general, is healthy, although the northern part 
 is cold, and the southern hot. 
 
 The soil is fertile, and the prevalent crop, at 
 least in the south, is rice. Besides this, tea, 
 barley, and other grain, are abundantly raised. 
 The commerce is very extensive ; the principal 
 articles of export being tea, silk, nankins, porce- 
 lain, and the valuable vegetable productions of 
 the east. The imperial canal, and the Chinese 
 wall, are monuments of Chinese skill and in- 
 dustry. The religion of China is Buddhism, or 
 the religion of Fo. The language of the Chi- 
 nese is peculiar, the number of characters being 
 40,000. The Chinese are, to a certain degree, 
 well educated, but revengeful, timid, vain, and 
 artful. Polygamy is permitted, and the condi- 
 tion of females wretched in the extreme. Poor 
 parents are permitted to drown their female 
 children, and this is done without remorse. 
 
 The Chinese is, on the whole, by far the 
 best Asiatic government of Asia. It is better, 
 far, than any of the Mohammedan despotisms ; 
 it is better than an}' government that the Hin- 
 doos ever possessed, and it is far preferable to 
 the Theocracies of the Birmans, Siamese, and 
 other Chinese nations. The absence of a pow- 
 erful and influential priesthood, and of an hered- 
 itary and privileged aristocracy, as well as of 
 petty principalities with delegated and heredi- 
 tary authority, may be stated as among the 
 leading causes of the prosperity of the Chinese 
 empire. 
 
 The government of China is patriarchal ; the 
 emperor has the title of" Holy Son of Heaven, 
 sole Governor of the earth, and Great Father 
 of his people." But it is patriarchal on the 
 largest scale of which there is any record, for the 
 family consists of nearly two hundred million 
 members. China may be considered as a huge 
 school-house, the master having the birch con- 
 stantly in his hand, frequently using it, and 
 delegating his authority to thousands of ushers, 
 who are equally liberal in its application. But 
 the rod, although the chief, is not the only 
 instrument of government. There is the canque, 
 or wooden ruff, a kind of portable stocks or 
 pillory, very convenient to the executors of the 
 law, but exceedingly inconvenient to the wear- 
 er, who can neither sleep nor lie down for it. 
 Then there is imprisonment in cages ; further- 
 more decapitation, not however very frequent ; 
 and in extreme cases their crucifixion, or as it 
 is technically called, the death by painful and 
 slow means. 
 
 The grand panacea, however, after all, is the 
 rod. The general application of this vigorous 
 
 instrument of administration, is by no means 
 confined to China, but embraces the other coun- 
 tries of the east, from Japan to Bengal, includ- 
 ing about 300,000,000 of people, or nearly one 
 half the human race. There the rod, under its 
 various appellations of bamboo, cane, cudgel, or 
 birch, is actively at work from morning till 
 night, and afterwards, from night till morning. 
 The Grand Patriarch canes his first ministers ; 
 the prime minister canes his secretary of state ; 
 the secretaries of state admonish the lords of 
 the treasury, by belaboring their backs ; these 
 enforce their orders to the first lord of the 
 admiralty by applying what is equal to the cat 
 o ; nine tails. Generals cane field officers, and 
 field officers the captains and subalterns. Of 
 course the common soldiers of the celestial em- 
 pire are caned by every body. The husbands 
 cane their wives, and the wives cane their 
 children. Of course the Chinese and their 
 neighbors may be truly described as well-flogged 
 nations. 
 
 Without going back to that remote antiquity, 
 to which the Chinese historians pretend, it will 
 be sufficient to credit records of this empire 
 from 2,000 years B. C. Prior to that period, 
 five dynasties are computed, at the head of the 
 first of which was Yu-Ta. Ching-tang was the 
 founder of the second dynasty, named Chang, 
 B. C. 1767, and was celebrated for his wisdom, 
 moderation, and singular merit. This dynasty, 
 after the reign of 28 emperors, was terminated, 
 like the former, by the vices of him who last 
 filled the throne. The third dynasty, named 
 Chew, or Cheva, B. C. 1122, consisted of 35 
 emperors, some of whom exhibited virtues de- 
 serving of high applause, while the faults and 
 vices of others excited the vengeance of the 
 people. 
 
 During the reign of Ching, the second em 
 peror of the 4th dynasty, called Tsin, B. C. 
 256, the great wall was built. Elated with his 
 own exploits, he formed the design of making 
 posterity believe that he was the first emperor 
 that filled the Chinese throne ; and for this 
 purpose, ordered all the historical books, which 
 contained the fundamental records and laws of 
 the ancient governments, to be burned, and 400 
 of the learned to be put to death, for having at- 
 tempted to save some of the proscribed vol- 
 umes. 
 
 The chieftian of banditti, Lieu-pang, des- 
 troyed the last emperor of the fourth dynasty, 
 and founded the fifth, called Hang, in his 
 own person, B. C. 207. He proved himself 
 worthy of the throne by his moderation and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CHI 
 
 181 
 
 CHI 
 
 clemency, and was one of the few emperors 
 who governed for themselves. Under the rest, 
 factions were formed, one of which, known by 
 the appellation of the yellow-caps, made itself 
 master of the empire, which ended in its dismem- 
 berment. The sixth dynasty was begun by a 
 prince descended from Lieu-pang, A. D. 220, 
 and ended with his grandson, who, ardent and 
 courageous, sustained for sometime his father's 
 tottering throne, which was attacked from every 
 quarter. At length, seeing affairs tend to a most 
 fatal crisis, the emperor, deficient in courage, 
 still refused to fight ; and the young prince, af- 
 flicted at his cowardice, retired to the hall of 
 his ancestors, slew his wife, and then himself. 
 The emperor tamely surrendered to Song-chau, 
 his rival, who granted him a petty sovereignty. 
 
 Shi-tsu-vu-ti, the son of the rebel Song-chau, 
 was the founder of the seventh dynasty, and 
 preserved by his arms the empire they had ac- 
 quired for him. After a series of fifteen empe- 
 rors, during whose reign Nankin became the 
 capital of the empire, this dynasty terminated 
 in Nagan-Ti, an indolent prince, unworthy of a 
 crown. In his reign, a man named Lyen-Hu, 
 whose employment was that of selling shoes, 
 enlisted as a soldier, became a general, and at 
 last usurped the throne. His race consisted of 
 eight emperors. Kanti, the founder of the ninth 
 dynasty, obtained the throne by the murder of 
 two princes, A. D. 479, but did not long enjoy 
 the fruits of his wickedness. He was more 
 remarkable for his learning than his military 
 exploits. His son enacted the famous law 
 which prohibited the mandarins remaining more 
 than three years in the same place. This dy- 
 nasty did not produce more than five emperors. 
 
 The tenth dynasty comprehends only four 
 sovereigns beginning with Syau-gwen, the 
 prime minister and assassin of the last prince, 
 A. D. 502. He was active, industrious, and 
 vigilant. The last emperor but one attached 
 himself to the religion of Fo, and while his at- 
 tention was absorbed in the mysteries taught by 
 the disciples, his prime minister attacked him in 
 his capital. At length the sovereign awoke 
 from his religious reveries, took up arms, march- 
 ed round the ramparts, examined the position 
 of the enemy, and exclaimed, " All is lost, it is 
 all over with the sciences !" He then set fire 
 to his library, which consisted of 140.000 vol- 
 umes, and surrendered to the conqueror, who 
 put to death both him and his son. Like his 
 predecessor, the founder of the 11th dynasty, 
 A. D. 557, was extremely attached to the bon- 
 ses. His race produced only five emperors, the 
 
 last of whom was dethroned by the prime min- 
 ister of the western empire. 
 
 The three emperors who composed the 12th 
 dynasty, commencing A. D. 589, performed 
 great actions, and are renowned in history. The 
 first, who had no pretensions to learning, was 
 endowed with a solid and penetrating mind. 
 He loved his people, and built public granaries, 
 which were annually filled with rice and corn 
 by the opulent, to be distributed to the poor in 
 times of scarcity. Kong-ti was dethroned by 
 Si-gwen, A. D. 617, the same year in which he 
 was crowned. The son of this man, on arriv- 
 ing at the emperor's palace was astonished at 
 its magnificence, and said, " No : such a stately 
 edifice must not be suffered to stand any longer, 
 as it is good for nothing but to corrupt the heart 
 of a prince, and render him effeminate." After 
 this reflection, he ordered the whole build- 
 ing to be set on fire and reduced to ashes. 
 
 Tai-tsong, his son, was one of the greatest 
 and wisest princes that ever graced the Chinese 
 throne. Tai-tfu, the assassin and successor of 
 the 20th sovereign of this race, established the 
 14th dynasty, A. D. 907, but did not live long 
 to enjoy the fruit of his crime. He was slain 
 by his eldest son, who was himself killed by 
 his brother Moti. Anarchy raging in the em- 
 pire, an able general, supported by a powerful 
 party, attacked Moti, who, being vanquished, 
 committed suicide, and his family became ex- 
 tinct. Chwang-tsong, the victorious general, 
 assumed the character of emperor, and founded 
 the 15th dynasty, A. D. 923. During his reign, 
 block-printing was invented among the Chi- 
 nese. This dynasty produced four emperors, 
 the last of whom, being pursued by the mur- 
 derers of his father, burned himself, together 
 with his family. Of the emperors of the two 
 succeeding dynasties, commencing A. D. 936, 
 nothing of importance is recorded by historians, 
 who narrate little more than the accession to 
 the throne, and death of the several sovereigns. 
 Tai-tou was the founder of the 18th dynasty, 
 A. D. 951, and had a profound veneration for 
 Confucius, to whose tomb he paid a visit. His 
 son, Chi-tsong, imitated all his virtues, and, 
 when at the very summit of human grandeur, 
 still retained a modest deportment. Tay-tou, 
 the founder of the 19th dynasty, A. D. 960, 
 was worthy of his exaltation, and possessed all 
 the qualities to render a state happy and flourish- 
 ing. Under Ching-tsong, the third emperor of 
 the dynasty, the number of persons employed 
 in cultivating the land was computed to be 
 about 22,000,000 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHI 
 
 182 
 
 CHI 
 
 Under Li-tsou, the 14th emperor, who was 
 himself by no means warlike, his generals ex- 
 pelled the eastern Tartars, who retreated nearly 
 into their own territories, but returned and con- 
 quered Ch'na, which they still possess. Shi- 
 tsu, the founder of the 20th dynasty, A. D. 
 1279, though a Tartar, and the first foreign 
 prince that reigned over the Chinese, effectual- 
 ly reconciled them to his government, and even 
 endeared himself to them, by observing their 
 ancient laws and customs, by his equity and 
 justice. His successors, till the ninth, in whom 
 terminated the race, established the religion of 
 Fo in China. One of them invited the grand 
 lama from Thibet, whom he received with the 
 most extraordinary ceremonies : and with the 
 lamas entered also magic, dancing girls, and de- 
 bauchery, which in the end perverted the wise 
 government. A servant of the bonses, named 
 Chu, headed a revolt, and compelled the emperor 
 Shunti to flee, with whom ended the Tartar 
 dynasty of Ywen, which was succeded by that 
 of Ming, founded by Chu, who, ascending the 
 throne, took the name of Tay-tsu, A. D. 1368. 
 The piety of the new emperor equaled his wis- 
 dom and penetration. The catastrophe of this 
 race, which ended with the 13th emperor, was 
 announced and preceded by continual commo- 
 tions during several reigns. The nobles of the 
 empire called in against the insurgents the Man- 
 chew or eastern Tartars, who again possessed 
 themselves of the Chinese throne. This memo- 
 rable revolution happened in the year 1644. 
 The nobility had imagined that they should find 
 ihe Tartars merely auxiliaries, who would assist 
 them in placing a Chinese emperor on the 
 throne; but when these allies had compelled 
 the rebels to lay down their arms, they consid- 
 ered the empire as a fair reward for their labor. 
 However, the Chinese princes of the blood did 
 not tamely submit to this usurpation. Several 
 competitors arose against Shun-chi, the first 
 Manchew emperor ; but, though hostilities were 
 carried on with great obstinacy by sea and land, 
 the vigor of the Tartars completely prevailed 
 over every adversary. 
 
 Shun-chi was succeeded by his son Kang-hi, 
 A. D. 1661. This prince was not only endow- 
 ed with all the qualifications requisite to render 
 him worthy of the imperial diadem, but was 
 also very happy in the choice that his father 
 had made of four noble guardians, who studied 
 to preserve the empire in a flourishing and 
 peaceable condition. Kang-hi was succeeded 
 by his son Yong-shing, A. D. 1722, who as- 
 cended the throne at the age of forty-five, and 
 
 who reigned with absolute power, and was 
 greatly dreaded by his subjects. The death of 
 this emperor took place, A. D. 1735. This 
 prince was succeeded by Kieu-hong, who, after 
 a happy, peaceable, and long reign of sixty- 
 three years, died on the 11th of February, 1799. 
 On his death, Kia-king, the fifth of the Tartan 
 dynasty, ascended the throne. He died in 1820, 
 and was succeeded by the present emperor, his 
 second son, Taia-Kwang. 
 CHINA, Dynasties of. 
 
 The Hia Dynasty, 2207 to 1767, B. C. 
 
 The Shang Dynasty, 1767 to 1122. 
 
 The Tchuen Dynasty, H22 to 256. 
 
 The Tasin Dynasty, 256 to 257, B. C. 
 
 The Hang Dynasty, 207, B. C. to 220, A. D. 
 
 From 220 to 280, China was divided into 
 three kingdoms, the Shohang dynasty, 220 to 
 263 ; that of the Goei in the north, 220 to 265, 
 and that of the El in the south, 220 to 280. 
 
 The Tsin Dynasty, 265 to 420. 
 
 The U-ta Dynasties, 420 to 589. 
 
 The Sui Dynasty, 589 to 617. 
 
 The Tang Dynasty, 617 to 907. 
 
 The Hehu-u-ta Dynasty, 907 to 960. 
 
 The Song Dynasty, 960 to 1279. 
 
 The Mogul Khans, 1279 to 1368. 
 
 The Ming Dynasty, 1368 to 1644. 
 
 The Tsing Dynasty, 
 
 Shiin-tchi, J 644 to 1661. 
 Kang-hi, 1661 to 1722. 
 Yong- tch.ing, 1722 to 1735. 
 Kien-long, 1735 to 1799. 
 Kia-king, 1799 to 1820. 
 Tara-kwang, 1820. 
 
 CHIPPEWAY ; a town in Upper Canada, 
 on a river of the same name, two miles north- 
 west of Niagara Falls, where the British troops 
 were signally defeated by the Americans. July 
 5, 1814. 
 
 CHIVALRY. The institution and spirit of 
 chivalry, forming a prominent and important 
 feature of history, has been regarded by writers 
 and men of erudition, in various points of view, 
 and, while some have condemned it as alto- 
 gether injurious and absurd, others have digni- 
 fied it with the title of sublime. There have 
 been found men of modern days, and those the 
 fortunate possessors of more than common abili- 
 ties, who could sigh over the degeneracy of the 
 times, and lament that the age of chivalry is 
 gone. But if the material and least worthy 
 part of it has passed away, its spirit still re- 
 mains, still invites men to high and honorable 
 deeds, and is indeed imperishable and immor- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHI 
 
 183 
 
 CHI 
 
 tal. The vows of knighthood, the ceremonials 
 of installations, the pomp and ceremony of 
 knightly feats have gone, but the devotion of the 
 patriot, the ardor of the warrior, the warmth 
 of the lover, the fidelity of the friend, the loy- 
 alty and truth of the man of honor, do not 
 sleep in the graves of Chailemagne, Roland, 
 and Bayard. 
 
 In seeking for the origin of Chivalry , we are led 
 back to the feudal ages, and the consideration of 
 the condition of the Geomanic tribes, when its 
 peculiar spirit first began to display itself. The 
 tribes were composed not of superiors and infe- 
 riors, but of masters and slaves ; of men whose 
 birthright was ease and honor, and of others, 
 who inherited the bond of ceaseless toil. By 
 the noble-born labor of any kind was consider- 
 ed degrading, and the profession of arms alone 
 worthy of being followed, so that the lords of 
 the soil were a race of independent warriors, 
 whose thirst for fame was a continual excite- 
 ment. The different feudal sovereigns were 
 nominally subject to a legitimate prince, and 
 were bound to follow his banner into battle, at 
 the head of their vassals, and to respond to his 
 call by bringing, at a moment's warning, an 
 armed force to his support. Still, when re- 
 moved from the presence of his sovereign, the 
 feudal lord was a petty despot, whose vassals 
 felt that he possessed absolute power of life and 
 death over them. 
 
 Unlimited authority gave rise to various 
 abuses, and it was well that chivalry, with its 
 high tone of honor and morality, sprang up in 
 ages of general darkness, fraud, and oppression. 
 Great enterprises contributed to bind numbers 
 of knights together, and led to the formation 
 of various societies and orders, and when these 
 military adventurers were not leagued together 
 in any of the Holy Wars, a reciprocity of prin- 
 ciple, and an identity of religion, held them in 
 a common chain. Animated by a love of jus- 
 tice, a veneration for the fair-sex, a high-mind- 
 ed regard for truth, a thirst for military glory, 
 and a contempt for danger, the knights went 
 forth to brave peril, to rescue the unfortunate, 
 and to crush the oppressor. Numerous indi- 
 viduals set forth with no fixed purpose but that 
 of discovering some wrong and righting it, and 
 these wandering champions were called Knights 
 Errant, and their exploits sang in camp and 
 court by the minstrels whose lays immortalized 
 the sons of chivalry. Chivalry degenerated, 
 but not rapidly. After the lapse of many years 
 from its foundation, the number of its ceremo- 
 nials increased, its pageantry was disgraced by 
 16* 
 
 frippery and folly, its vows were unobserved ; 
 a devotion to the sex was succeeded by bound- 
 less licentiousness, and the wandering spirit of 
 knight-errantry was displaced by an affectation 
 of eccentricity. 
 
 In the 14th century the honors of knighthood? 
 were restricted to the nubility, and then arose 
 the various forms and ceremonies, which at 
 length concealed the original design of chival- 
 ry, and brought on a premature decline. The 
 knightly education of a youth generally com- 
 menced with his 12th year, when he was sent 
 to the court of some noble pattern of chivalry, 
 to learn dancing, riding, the use of his weapon, 
 &c, and where his chief duty was assiduous 
 attention to the ladies in the quality of page. 
 According to his progress in years and accom- 
 plishments, he became squire to some knight, 
 and when he fairly merited the distinction, he 
 was himself knighted. This honor was not 
 conferred upon a youth before his 21st year, 
 unless high birth, or extraordinary valor and 
 address seemed to warrant the setting aside of 
 the usual regulation. Sometimes the honor was 
 won by many a field of bloody toil, with many 
 drops of sweat and gore, and not unfrequently, 
 one daring achievement, artfully planned, and 
 gallantly carried into execution, procured the 
 wished -for spurs, and the anticipated accolade. 
 The ceremony of conferring knighthood was 
 often performed on the field of battle where the 
 honor had been earned ; often it required and 
 received the most imposing preparations and 
 ceremonies. The young candidate guarded his 
 arms for a night, and this was called the vigil 
 of arms. In the morning he bathed in water, 
 which was the emblem of the truth and purity 
 which he swore to preserve sacred. Clad in 
 spotless garments, he kneeled before the altar 
 of the nearest church, and, having presented 
 his sword to the officiating priest, received it 
 again with the benediction of the reverend 
 man. After taking the oaths of allegiance, he 
 knelt before his sovereign, who gave him the 
 accolade, or blow upon the neck, with the flat of 
 his sword, saluted the young warrior, and said : 
 " In the name of God and St. Michael, (or, in the 
 name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost), I dub 
 thee a knight. Be loyal, brave and fortunate." 
 It was customary for two knights of the same 
 age and congenial tempers to form a friendship, 
 and this brotherhood in arms lasted generally 
 until one of the two was laid in the grave. The 
 courtesy of chivalry softened the asperity of 
 war, gave charms to victory, and assuaged to 
 the vanquished, the pain of a defeat. All that 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 CHI 
 
 184 
 
 CHR 
 
 ingenuity could plan, and wealth produce, to 
 give splendor to knighthood was displayed in 
 the age of chivalry. Magnificent tournaments 
 were held, where even kings entered the lists 
 and contended for the prize of valor before the 
 eyes of thousands of spectators, among whom 
 beautiful ladies appeared the most deeply inter- 
 ested. In fact the knights often contended about 
 the charms of their lady-loves, and wore their 
 favors in their helmets. If the ladies of Rome 
 attended gladiatorial shows in throngs, we can- 
 not wonder that the beauties of the age of chiv- 
 alry looked forward to a tournament with great 
 impatience, and eagerly strove for the honor of 
 filling the post of temporary queen and distribu- 
 ter of the prizes. 
 
 Chivaly exerted a powerful influence on poet- 
 ry, and formed the subjects of the poems of the 
 troubadours of the south of France, as well as 
 supplied themes for the poetical controversies 
 of the jtnignts, which were decided at the 
 Cours 'd Amour (courts of love), first establish- 
 ed in Provence. Even after chivalry had died 
 away, its influence was not unfelt by poetry, 
 which retained the tone it had imparted for 
 many centuries. The songs of the troubadours 
 were divided into amatory songs, duets, pasto- 
 rals, serenades, ballads, poetical colloquies, &c. 
 In the romances of chivalry we behold paladins 
 and peers, sorcerers, fairies, winged and intelli- 
 gent horses, invisible or invulnerable men, magi- 
 cians who are interested in the birth and educa- 
 tion of knights, enchanted palaces ; in a word 
 the creation of a new woild which leaves our 
 vulgar planet far beneath it. Paladins never 
 without arms, in a country bristling with for- 
 tresses, find their delight and honor in punish- 
 ing injustice and defending weakness. The 
 chivalric romances may be divided into three 
 classes, those of the Round Table. Those 
 of Charlemagne, and lastly those of Amadis, 
 which belong to a later century. It will suf- 
 fice to speak of the former. The romances 
 of the Round Table recount tales of the 
 cup from which Jesus Christ drank with Jo- 
 seph of Arithmathia. This cup had performed 
 such prodigies, that we are not astonished that 
 those valorous knights of the Round Table, 
 Lancelot, Perceval, and Perceforest, are united 
 with the determination to recover it. These 
 preux chevaliers are the perpetual heroes of 
 these romances. Lancelot is attached to Gen- 
 icore, the wife of king Arthur, and his marvel- 
 lous exploits excited the admiration of contempo- 
 raries. Three centuries after, lords and ladies 
 were still delighted at the recital of lt the very 
 
 elegant, delicious, mellifluous, and very pleasant 
 historie of the very noble and very victorious 
 Perceforest."' Amidst many pages of weari- 
 some insipidity, we find some happy descriptions 
 and situations, detailed, and graphic portraits 
 of feudal men and manners. 
 
 The absurdities of chivalry afforded scope for 
 the satirical and comic powers of Cervantes, 
 and the adventures of the unfortunate Don 
 Quixote are read with an interest which few 
 works of similar character inspire. Every feature 
 of chivalry is happily burlesqued, and the Don 
 goes through all the ceremonials with a ludicrous 
 gravity which is perfectly irresistible. The 
 pertinacity with which the knights maintained 
 the pre-eminence of the ladies of their affec- 
 tions is finely satirised in the election which 
 Don Quixote makes of a hideous country 
 wench, whose charms he celebrates after the 
 most approved fashion and with unceasing de- 
 votion. Few ladies of chivalric romance have 
 attained a degree of reputation comparable to 
 that of the immortal Dulcinea del Toboso. 
 
 CHRIST. (See Jesus.) 
 
 CHRISTIANA, queen of Sweden, daughter 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, was born in 1626, and 
 died April 19, 1689. She was remarkable for 
 acts and habits foreign to her sex, viz. learning, 
 murder, and apostasy. Her conduct was so 
 flagrant, that she found it difficult to procure an 
 asylum in any state, after having been exclud- 
 ed from her own. She died at Rome. 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, Henri, king of Hayti, was 
 born October 6, 1767. In early life he was a 
 slave and passed from the hands of one master 
 to another, being successively a cook, and an 
 overseer. The French were conquered by the 
 exertions of Dessalines and Christophe, the 
 latter of whom was general-in-chief of the ar- 
 my during the short-lived imperial government 
 of the former. In 1806, an insurrection broke 
 out in Hayti, in which Dessalines, the emperor, 
 was killed by the negroes whom he had provok- 
 ed by his cruelty and oppression. His succes- 
 sor, Christophe, assumed the humbler title of 
 chief of the government, and in that capacity 
 opened the commerce of his dominions to neu- 
 tral nations, by a proclamation distinguished for 
 its liberal spirit and enlightened views. 
 
 In 1811 Christophe changed the republic into 
 a monarchy, and proclaimed himself king of 
 Hayti. A short time before his coronation he 
 created a nobility consisting of princes, dukes, 
 counts, and barons, to give greater splendor to 
 the ceremony. He created a legion of honor, 
 called the order of St. Henri, and altered the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CIC 
 
 185 
 
 C1D 
 
 name of his capital from Cape Francois to Cape 
 Henri. His troops, at this time, amounted to 
 about 10,000 men, all negroes, and his fleet con- 
 sisted of one forty -four-gun frigate, nine sloops 
 of war, and a number of schooners. On the 12th 
 December, 1820, Christophe, hearing that his 
 troops had abandoned him, shot himself through 
 the head, and the opposite party immediately 
 proclaimed a republican government. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, ST., commonly called St. 
 Kitts, a West India island, discovered by Co- 
 lumbus in 1493. Its length is 15 miles. It is a 
 valuable possession of Great Britain, and con- 
 tains 23,900 inhabitants. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, ST., one of the fathers of 
 the church, an eloquent and pious man, who 
 died 407. 
 
 CHURCH, States of the, the dominions of 
 the Pope, are situated in the centre of Italy, 
 between Naples, and Lombardy, and Tuscany, 
 and the Tuscan and Adriatic Seas, and con- 
 tains 17,185 square miles, occupied by 2,400,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 CHURCH, Benjamin, a native of Duxbury, 
 Massachusetts, was born in 1639, and distin- 
 guished himself by his address and daring in 
 the Indian wars. His services during king 
 Philip's war were great, and he commanded the 
 party that killed the sachem of Mount Hope, 
 in August, 1676. He died in his 78th year, 
 Jan. \f, 1718. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Charles, a famous English 
 poet, born 1731, died in 1764. His political sa- 
 tires were received with great applause, and his 
 Prophecy of Famine, a Scotch pastoral, contain- 
 ing a severe satire upon the Scots, was read 
 with eagerness, and procured notoriety for its 
 author. 
 
 CIBBER, Colley, an English actor and dra- 
 matist, was born in London in 1671, and died 
 in 1757, seven years after he quitted the theatre. 
 His comedy of the Careless Husband received 
 even the approbation of the bitter Pope. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated 
 orator, born at Arpinum 106 B. C. was the son 
 of a Roman knight. In Sicily he exercised 
 the quaestorship with equity and moderation, and 
 freed the Sicilians from the tyranny and avarice 
 of Verres. He discharged the offices of edile 
 and praetor, and stood for the consulship, at a 
 time when Catiline was making the most vigor- 
 ous efforts to oppose him. Catiline, with many 
 dissolute and desperate Romans, had conspired 
 against his country, and planned the murder of 
 Cicero himself. The plot being discovered chiefly 
 by the efforts of Cicero, he commanded Catiline 
 
 to leave the city, and the desperate traitor march- 
 ed forth to meet the 20,000 men that were assem 
 bled to support his cause. The rebels were de- 
 feated, and the conspirators capitally punished. 
 After this memorable deliverance, Cicero receiv- 
 ed the thanks of the people, and the title offathci 
 of his country and second founder of Rome. 
 
 The vehemence with which he attacked Clo- 
 dius, proved injurious to him; and when his 
 enemy was made tribune, Cicero was banished 
 from Rome, though 20,000 young men were 
 ready to attest his innocence. After an absence 
 of 16 months, during which he had been favor- 
 ably received wherever he presented himself, 
 he was recalled, and entered Rome to the uni- 
 versal satisfaction. When he was sent, with the 
 power of proconsul to Cilicia, his integrity and 
 prudence made him successful against the 
 enemy, and on his return he was honored with 
 a triumph, which, however, the factions pre 
 vented him from enjoying. 
 
 During the civil wars between Caesar and 
 Pompey, he joined the latter, and followed him 
 to Greece. When victory had declared in fa 
 vor of Caesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, Cicero 
 went to Brundusium, and was reconciled to the 
 conqueror, who treated him with great humani- 
 ty. From this time Cicero retired into the 
 country, and seldom visited Rome. After the 
 assassination of Caesar, Cicero recommended a 
 general amnesty, and was strongly in favor of 
 having the provinces decreed to Brutus and 
 Cassius, but finding the interest of the republi- 
 cans decrease, and Antony come into power, he 
 retired to Athens. He soon after returned, 
 but lived in perpetual fear of assassination. 
 The enmity of Antony finally proved fatal to 
 him; and Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus, to 
 destroy all causes of quarrel, and each to des- 
 patch his enemies, produced their lists of pro- 
 scription. Cicero was among the proscribed. 
 He fled but was pursued, and put to death in 
 his 64th year, B. C. 43. Cicero was a sincere 
 patriot, and was unquestionably one of the 
 brightest ornaments of the age in which he 
 lived. His eloquence was winning, and his pen 
 possessed the power of his tongue. His ora- 
 tions and philosophical works are models of 
 style. Cicero possessed a sparkling wit, and 
 many of his hon-mots have descended to pos- 
 terity. 
 
 CID, Don Rodrigo Dias, count of Bivar, sur- 
 named the Cid (a Moorish word, signifying 
 lord), one of the most renowned knights of 
 Spain, was born in 1026 and signalized himself 
 against the Moors, winning the esteem of his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CIN 
 
 186 
 
 CLA 
 
 countrymen who bestowed upon him the title 
 of Campcador (incomparable). On the acces- 
 sion of Sancho to the throne of Castile, the 
 knight of Bivar accompanied him to the siege 
 of Zamora, whence he brought back the troops 
 and the dead body of the warrior monarch, 
 who fell by treachery. Alfonso, the brother 
 of Sancho, was then placed on the throne, after 
 swearing that he had no participation in the 
 murder of Sancho. His last exploit was the 
 capture of Saguntum, and he died at Valencia, 
 1099. He was buried at Castile, and near him 
 lies interred his beloved and faithful charger, 
 Babieca. 
 
 CILICIA, a country of antiquity, south of 
 Mount Taurus, between Pamphylia and Syria, 
 the coast of which was inhabited by a piratical 
 race. The Macedonians, Syrians, and Romans 
 successively possessed it, and it was a province 
 of the Roman empire from the time of Vespa- 
 sian till the fall of Rome. 
 
 CIMBRI,or Cimmerians, an ancient tribe of 
 the Germans, the first of that people with whom 
 the Greeks became acquainted. Their origin is 
 doubtful ; they were warlike, and made them- 
 selves formidable to other nations. 
 
 CIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades and 
 Hegesipul, famous for his debaucheries in his 
 youth, and the reformation of his morals when 
 he arrived at years of discretion. He behaved 
 with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and 
 rendered himself popular, by his munificence 
 and valor. He defeated the Persian fleet, took 
 200 ships, and totally routed their land-army, 
 on the same day. Cimon afterward lost his 
 popularity, and was banished by the Athenians, 
 who declared war against the Lacedaemonians ; 
 but having been recalled from his exile, recon- 
 ciled Lacedannon and his country. He was 
 afterwards appointed to carry on the war against 
 Persia; gave battle to the enemy on the coast 
 of Asia, and totally destroyed their fleet. He 
 died as he was besieging the town of Citium, 
 in Cyprus, B. C. 449, in the 51st year of his 
 age. 
 
 CINCINNATI, a flourishing city in the state 
 of Ohio, on the north bank of the Ohio, con- 
 taining, in 1840, 46,382 inhabitants. It was 
 founded in 1789, and its growth has been aston- 
 ishingly rapid. It contains very extensive 
 manufacturing establishments. Its population 
 at present exceeds 30,000. 
 
 CINC1NNATUS, Lucius Quintus, a cele- 
 brated Roman. Having been informed, as he 
 ploughed his field, that the senate had chosen 
 him dictator, he left his farm with regret, and 
 
 repaired to the assistance of his countrymen, 
 whom he found hard pressed by the Volsci and 
 ^qui. He conquered the enemy and returned 
 to Rome in triumph ; and, sixteen days after 
 his appointment, laid down his office, and re- 
 turned to his agricultural employments. In his 
 80th year he was again summoned against 
 Praeneste, as dictator, and after a successful 
 campaign, resigned the unlimited power, which 
 had been reposed in him. He flourished about 
 460 years B. C. 
 
 CINN A, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman consul 
 who leagued with Marius to deluge Rome with 
 blood. He was stoned to death. 
 
 CIRCASSIA, a country of Asia, lying be- 
 tween the Black and the Caspian Sea. The 
 Circassians are Mohammedans, and are under 
 the protection of Russia. They are a warlike 
 race. The females are celebrated for their beau- 
 ty, and are esteemed the brightest ornaments 
 of an eastern seraglio. Circassia contains 
 about 550,0(10 inhabitants. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. This name was 
 given by Bonaparte to a republic which receiv- 
 ed its constitution in 1797, and which finally 
 included a territory of more than 16,337 square 
 miles, inhabited by three and a half millions of 
 inhabitants. It included, among other districts, 
 Austrian Lombardy, the Mantua and Vene- 
 tian provinces, Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, Ve- 
 rona, and Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the 
 principality of Massa and Carrara, Bologna, 
 Ferrara, Messola. and Romagna. 
 
 CLAPPERTON, Captain Hugh, an officer 
 in the English navy, born at Annan, in Scot- 
 land, in 1788. Having served with distinction, 
 he was anxious to join doctor Oudney, and Den- 
 ham, in their expedition to Africa. After ac- 
 quiring a vast fund of information in regard to 
 the interior of Africa, he returned to England, 
 but died in the vicinity of Soccatoo, while on a 
 second expedition of discovery, April 13th, 1827. 
 Richard Lander was his servant. 
 
 CLARE, John, a peasant of Northampton- 
 shire, England, was born at Helpstone, July 
 13th, 1793. His talents displayed themselves 
 as early as his 13th year. A collection of his 
 poems was published in 1819, and their recep- 
 tion by the public was highly flattering. Rais- 
 ed by his pen from abject poverty, Clare soon 
 saw himself in possession of a comfortable 
 property. 
 
 CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, earl of, lord 
 high chancellor of England, was born 1608, and 
 educated at Oxford. He became chancellor of 
 exchequer and member of the privy council 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CLA 
 
 187 
 
 CLE 
 
 under Charles I, and was loaded with honors 
 by Charles II. Having, however, lost the royal 
 favor, he was deprived of his offices ; threatened 
 with impeachment, and compelled to fly to 
 France, where he died, at Rouen, in 1G74. 
 
 CLARKE, George Rogers, an American 
 officer, who was engaged against the Indians,, 
 throughout the revolutionary war, on the fron- 
 tiers of Virginia. In 1778, he was appointed to 
 command a force for the protection of Illinois. 
 He built fort Jefferson on the eastern bank of 
 the Mississippi, and in 1781, received a gener- 
 ral's commission. He died in 1817, near Louis- 
 ville, Kentucky. The following anecdote is 
 related of him in an authentic work. 
 
 The Indians came in to. the treaty of fort 
 Washington in the most friendly manner, ex- 
 cept the Shawahanees, the most conceited and 
 warlike of the aborigines, the first in at a battle, 
 the last at a treaty. Three hundred of their 
 finest warriors set off in all their paint and 
 feathers, and filled the council-house. Their 
 number and demeanor, so unusual at an occa- 
 sion of this sort, was altogether unexpected and 
 suspicious. The United States' stockade mus- 
 tered 70 men. In the centre of the hall, at a 
 little table, sat the commissary-general, Clarke, 
 the indefatigable scourge of these very wander- 
 ers, General Richard Butler, and Mr. Parsons. 
 There was also present a Captain Denny, who, 
 I believe, is still alive, and can attest this story. 
 On the part of the Indians, an old council- 
 sachem and a war-chief took the lead. The 
 latter, a tall, raw-boned fellow, with an impu- 
 dent and villanous look, made a boisterous 
 and threatening speech, which operated effectu- 
 ally on the passions of the Indians, who set 
 up a prodigious whoop at every pause. He 
 concluded by presenting a black and white 
 wampum, to signify they were prepared for 
 either events, peace or war. Clarke exhibited 
 the same unaltered and careless countenance 
 he had shown during the whole scene, his head 
 leaning on his left hand, and his elbow resting 
 on the table. He raised his little cane, and 
 pushed the sacred wampum off the table, with 
 very little ceremony. Every Indian, at the 
 same time, started from his seat with one of 
 those sudden, simultaneous, and peculiarly sav- 
 age sounds, which startle and disconcert the 
 stoutest heart, and can neither be described nor 
 forgotten. At this juncture, Clarke arose. 
 The scrutinizing eye cowered at his glance. 
 He stamped his foot on the prostrate and in- 
 sulted symbol, and ordered them to leave the 
 hall. They did so apparently involuntarily. 
 
 They were heard all that night, debating in the 
 bushes near the fort. The raw-boned chief was 
 for war, the old sachem for peace. The latter 
 prevailed, and the next morning they came 
 back and sued for peace. 
 
 CLAUDIUS I, emperor of Rome, the son of 
 Drusus, and the successor of the infamous Ca- 
 ligula. He made some conquests in Britain, 
 and built several noble structures in Rome. He 
 was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who wish- 
 ed to place her son, Nero, on the throne, A. D. 
 54. He was then 63 years of age. 
 
 CLEMENT. This name has been borne by 
 several popes. Clement XIV, suppressed the 
 order of the Jesuits, and gave many proofs of 
 great liberality in religious matters. He is best 
 known by his real name, Gauganelli. He died 
 in 1775. 
 
 CLEMENT, Jacques, a weak-headed enthu- 
 siast, who assassinated king Henry III, of 
 France. 
 
 CLEOMBROTUS, king of Sparta, killed in 
 a battle fought w r ith Epaminondas at Leuctra, 
 B.C. 371. 
 
 CLEOMENES. This name was borne by 
 three kings of Sparta. The first delivered 
 Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidoe, 
 but killed himself in a fit of insanity, B. C. 491. 
 
 The reign of the second was distinguished 
 for nothing but an uninterrupted tranquillity. 
 
 Cleomenes III, was the son and successor of 
 Leonidas, and began to reign, B. C 230. En- 
 gaging in a war with the Achaans, he was 
 defeated, and obliged to fly into Egypt, where 
 he destroyed himself in prison, B. C. 219. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt, and one of 
 the most famous and fascinating female sove- 
 reigns of antiquity, was the daughter of Ptole- 
 my Auletes, and the sister and wife of Ptolemy 
 Dionysius, who deprived her of her share in 
 the kingdom, and drove her to seek protection 
 of the Romans. She exerted all the influence 
 of her beauty to win the heart and gain the 
 favor of Caesar, and she was successful. Ptole- 
 my was defeated and drowned. He left the 
 throne to his sister, who removed her younger 
 brother by poison. Cleopatra visited Rome 
 during the lifetime of Caesar, but was forced to 
 quit it by the clamors of the populace. After 
 the battle of Philippi, she was summoned by 
 Antony to appear before him to answer to the 
 charge brought against her of having assisted 
 Brutus. When she made her appearance be- 
 fore Antony, the charms of her person and 
 mind ensnared him, and made him forget the 
 attractions of his wife. At the battle of Acti- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY! 
 
 CLI 
 
 188 
 
 CLI 
 
 um she fled, and her paramour was defeated. 
 He afterwards committed suicide, and died in 
 her arms. Cleopatra, to avoid gracing the tri- 
 umph of the conqueror, applied an asp to her 
 breast, and died of the wound, B. C. 30. She 
 was a woman of great talents, but of a most 
 ambitious and extravagant spirit. In a convi- 
 vial contest with Antony, to see which of them 
 could expend the most money on an entertain- 
 ment, she snatched one of her pearl ornaments, 
 valued at 10,000/. and dissolving it in a cup of 
 vinegar, swallowed the contents. Few scenes 
 of antiquity can have surpassed the splendor of 
 her appointments, when she floated over the 
 waves of the river Cydnus, to meet Antony. 
 She came to judgment, but, she came in the 
 pride of beauty, and anticipated triumph. Her 
 galley glowed with gold ; odors filled its silken 
 sails, and the loveliest girls of Egypt, performed 
 the part of mariners. Beneath an awning on 
 the deck, lay the queen, in the slight drapery 
 with which painters and sculptors sometimes 
 invest the goddess of beauty. Silver oars 
 struck the water to the dulcet sound of music, 
 and beneath and about them sported the fair 
 representatives of marine deities. 
 
 CLERFAYT, Francis Sebastian Charles Jo- 
 seph de Croix, count of, an Austrian general. 
 In 1792, he commanded the Austrian troops 
 against France, and after taking Longwy and 
 Stenay, retired into the Low Countries. Here 
 he lost the famous battle of Jemappes ; but his 
 retreat across the Rhine was a masterpiece 
 of skill. Under the command of the prince 
 of Coburg, he gained considerable advantages 
 at Altenhaven, Quievrain, Hausen, and Far- 
 mars, and decided the victory of Nerwinden. 
 With General Richegru, he disputed every foot 
 of ground, till the inferiority of his forces 
 obliged him to abandon the country. In 1795, 
 he took the command of the army of Mayence, 
 forced the French camp, and took a number of 
 prisoners. He was following the victory with 
 ardor, when he received at Manheim, an order 
 to desist. On this he gave in his resignation, 
 and retired to Vienna, where he died in 1798. 
 
 CLIFFORD, George, the third earl of Cum- 
 berland, a nobleman distinguished by his naval 
 enterprises in the reign of queen Elizabeth. 
 He did great damage to the Spanish settle- 
 ments and trade. He died in 1605. 
 
 CLIFTON, William, a young poet of great 
 promise, who died early. He was born in 
 Philadelphia, in 1772, and died in 1799. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, an English general, 
 who came to America in 1775. He was en- 
 
 gaged, during the revolutionary war, both in 
 the northern and southern states. Being super- 
 seded, he returned to England in 1782, and 
 died in 1795. 
 
 CLINTON, James, the fourth son of Charles 
 Clinton, was born in Ulster county, New York, 
 Aug. 9, 1736. His education was excellent, 
 and he served with distinction in the English 
 and French war of 1756, and in the revolution- 
 ary war. After the close of the war, he became 
 a senator of the United States. He died in 
 1812. 
 
 CLINTON, George, youngest brother of the 
 preceding, was born July 15, 1739. In the 
 old French war, and the war of independence 
 he displayed great gallantry. Having studied 
 law, he was admitted to practice in due time, 
 and was chosen governor of New York, in 1777, 
 and he continued in office 18 years, and could 
 have served a much longer time, but declined 
 re-election. He was chosen vice president of 
 the United States, and held the office till the 
 time of his death in 1812. 
 
 CLINTON, De Witt, was born at Little 
 Britain, Orange county, New York, in 1769. 
 He studied law, was elected, successively , mem- 
 ber of the state legislature, of the senate of the 
 union, and mayor of New York, being obliged 
 to retire from the office, after filling it many 
 years, by the violence of party spirit. In 1817, 
 he was chosen governor of New York, on which 
 occasion his previous opponents gave him their 
 votes, from a sense of his merit; he was re- 
 elected in 1820. Clinton was one of the prime 
 movers of the canal scheme, and having satis- 
 fied himself that there was no danger of that 
 being defeated, in 1822, he declined again en 
 tering the elective lists. Having been deprived 
 of his seat in the board of canal commissioners, 
 by the animosity of his political opponents, a 
 revolution in public feeling took place which 
 enabled his friends to elect him governor over 
 Colonel Young, by an overwhelming majority. 
 In 1826, he was again elected, but died in 
 1828.' 
 
 CLIVE, Robert, lord, was born in 1725, in 
 Shropshire. Lord Clive became eminent for 
 his successes in India, but was originally merely 
 a writer in the company's service. He assisted 
 in the Tanjore war, in 1747, and in 1751, took 
 Arcot by a coup de main, and relieved Tritch- 
 inopoly. He afterwards took Fort William in 
 Bengal, defeated Surajah Dowlah, and placed 
 Jaffier Ali Cawn upon the throne. Honors 
 were heaped upon him in consequence of these 
 achievements, and he was made president of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 COB 
 
 189 
 
 COL 
 
 Bengal. After defending himself with spirit 
 against the charge of abusing his power, he 
 gave way to depression, and destroyed himself, 
 in 1774. 
 
 CLOTILDE DE VALLON CHALIS, Mar- 
 guerite Elenore, a talented poetess and amiable 
 woman, who lived in the early part of the 15th 
 century. In 1421 she married Berenger de 
 Surville, a young knight in the service of 
 Charles VII, who was killed before Orleans, 10 
 years after. The date of her death is uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 CLOUD, St. a village six miles east of Paris, 
 and a royal residence, the palace having been 
 improved and embellished by Napoleon. 
 
 CLOVTS, king of the Franks, born 465, suc- 
 ceeded his father Childeric in 481. He em- 
 braced Christianity and was publicly baptized. 
 He defeated the Goths, subdued several provin- 
 ces, and fixed the royal residence at Paris. He 
 died in 511, after a reign of 30 years. 
 
 CLYMER, George, a patriotic and talented 
 American gentleman, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence, was born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1739. Mr< Clymer was one of the 
 projectors of the bank established for the sole 
 purpose of conveying rations to the arrny. Per- 
 ceiving the good effects of a national bank, in 
 1780, when elected a second time to Congress, 
 he strenuously advocated its establishment. In 
 1784 he filled a seat in the legislature of Penn- 
 sylvania, and as a member of the convention, 
 he assisted in framing the present federal consti- 
 tution. When, in 1701, the famous bill imposing 
 a duty on spirits distilled within the United 
 States, was passed, Clymer was placed at the 
 head of the Pennsylvania excise. He was en- 
 gaged, with others, to negotiate a treaty with 
 the Indians in 1796. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed president of the academy of arts, and 
 of the Philadelphia bank. He died in 1813. 
 
 CLYTEMNESTRA, a daughter of Tynda- 
 rus, king of Sparta, by Heda, and twin-sister 
 of Helen. In the absence of her husband, 
 Agamemnon, at the siege of Troy, vEgisthus 
 made his court to her, and publicly lived with 
 her. Her infidelity reached the ears of Aga- 
 memnon, but he was prevented from carrying 
 his schemes of vengeance into execution, being 
 murdered by the traitress and her paramour on 
 his return home. After this crime, Clytemnes- 
 tra publicly married iEgisthus, who ascended 
 the throne of Argos. She was killed by her 
 son Orestes. 
 
 COBURG, a Saxon principality in central 
 Germany. 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA, composed of the king- 
 doms of Cambodia, Cochin-China Proper, and 
 Tonquin, is 1000 miles long, and from 70 to 220 
 miles broad. It is governed by a king. The 
 inhabitants are hardy, but treacherous, and the 
 country is fertile. Little attention is paid to re- 
 ligion, although that of Fo is professed by the 
 lower orders. The commerce of the country is 
 great and increasing. A portion of the country 
 was conquered and colonized by the Chinese 
 B. C. 214. After the Chinese yoke had been 
 thrown off, and various commotions had taken 
 place, three brothers of low rank, (the Tay- 
 sons), having defeated and killed the king of 
 the country, found a powerful opponent in his 
 son Gialong, who eventually re-conquered the 
 country after a prolonged struggle, and left it 
 in its present state, to Meng-mencr. 
 
 CODRUS, the son of Melanthus, and last 
 king of Athens, who, learning that the Oracle 
 had assured the HeraclidEe that their good for- 
 tune depended on sparing his life, rushed into 
 the midst of the hostile array ip disguise, and 
 was slain. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, a famous English law- 
 yer who flourished in the 16th century. 
 
 COLBERG, a fortress and sea-port of Prus- 
 sian Pomerania, frequently besieged, and mem- 
 orable for its gallant defence against the French 
 in 1807. 
 
 COLCHESTER, a town of England, in Es- 
 sex, on the river Colne, the CoJonia of the an- 
 cients, containing 16,000 inhabitants. It is said 
 to have been the birth-place of Helena, the 
 mother of Constantine. In the reign of Mary, 
 many persons were put to death here on account 
 of their religious principles ; and, in 1648, the 
 town was besieged by the forces of the parlia- 
 ment, and so reduced, that 730 horses were de- 
 livered up for provisions, and dogs and cats 
 were sold at an enormous price. The town at 
 length surrendered. 
 
 COLIGNY, Gaspard de, admiral of France, 
 born in 1516. He served with distinction un- 
 der the gallant Francis I and Henry II, by both 
 of whom he was honored and rewarded. He 
 was chief of the Calvinists against the Guises, 
 to whom he continued formidable even after re- 
 peated defeats. Coligny was the first who 
 fell in the atrocious massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew's day, in 1572. His head was sent by 
 Catharine of Medicis to the pope. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbert, baron, an Eng- 
 lish admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
 in 1748. In 1761, he entered the naval service, 
 in which he passed through all the regular steps 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 COL 
 
 190 
 
 COL 
 
 of promotion, till he was made post captain, and 
 commanded the Prince, admiral Boyer's flag- 
 ship, on the 1st of June, 1794. After this he bore 
 a part with Nelson, in the action off Cape St. 
 Vincent, February 14th, 1797. Jn 1804 he was 
 made vice-admiral of the blue, and served with 
 Cornwallis in the tedious but important block- 
 ade of Brest. At length, after many and va- 
 rious services, Collingwood became second to 
 Nelson, in the battle of Trafalgar. On this oc- 
 casion, his ship, the Royal Sovereign, com- 
 menced the fight in such a manner as to draw 
 from the commander these expressions : " Look 
 at that noble fellow ! observe the style in which 
 he carries his ship into action !" 
 
 After the loss of Nelson, the command de- 
 volved upon Collingwood at a critical period, 
 and how well he secured by his prudence what 
 had been so gloriously won, needs not here be 
 related. He was now advanced to be vice-ad- 
 miral of the red. confirmed in the command of 
 the Mediterranean fleet, and created a peer of 
 Great Britain, by the title of baron Collingwood. 
 He died off Minorca, on board the Ville de Paris, 
 March 7, 1610; and his body was carried to 
 England, and interred in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 COLLINS, William, an English poet, was 
 the son of a hatter of Chichester, where he was 
 born about 1720. After completing his college 
 course, he published his Oriental Eclogues, and 
 went to London in 1744. His fortunes having 
 driven him to the bottle, he died in 1756. 
 
 COL LOT D' HERBOIS, Jean Marie, an 
 actor who was hissed from the stage, made him- 
 self infamous during the French revolution by 
 conducting the massacres at Lyons. He was 
 banished to Guinea after the fall of Robespierre, 
 and died in 1796. 
 
 COLMAN, GEORGE, a dramatic writer, 
 was born at Florence, where his father was an 
 English envoy, in 1733. He was a fine scholar 
 and writer. His death took place in 1794. 
 
 COLOGNE, an ancient city, capitol of the 
 Prussian government of Cologne, contains 
 64,000 inhabitants. It possesses many attrac- 
 tions for the antiquarian, and is of great com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 COLOMBIA, late a republic of S America, 
 comprising a surface of 1,100,000 square miles, 
 embraced all the countries lormerly known 
 by the names of New Grenada, and Venezuela, 
 or Caraccas, and Quito. The republic of Co- 
 lombia was subdivided into the departments of 
 the Isthmus, Magdalena, Zulia, Venezuela, Ori- 
 noco, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Boyaca, Apure, 
 The Equator, Guayaquil, Assuay. Population 
 
 is about 2,700,000. The Orinoco and Magdale- 
 na, the latter of which is 1,000 miles long, are 
 the principal rivers. The face of the country 
 is greatly diversified, the elevated portions of it 
 being healthy, while in the low parts, the climate 
 is hot and noxious. The soil of the low valleys 
 is rich, and produces abundantly, cotton, tobac- 
 co, corn, coffee, and tropical fruits. The precious 
 metals and stones are found in the mountains. 
 The Andes, in some parts, reach an elevation 
 of 21,000 feet. After a fierce contest the royal 
 party was subdued, and a junction of the three 
 provinces abovementioned, effected under a 
 federal constitution. But in 1S29, the confede- 
 ration fell to pieces, and three new states, an- 
 swering to the old Spanish colonial divisions, 
 have been formed of the fragments, viz. : New 
 Grenada, comprising the five departments of 
 The Isthmus, Magdalena, Cauca, Cundinamar- 
 ca, and Boyaca ; The Equator, composed of the 
 three departments of The Equator, Guayaquil, 
 and Assuay ; and Venezuela, including the other 
 four departments. 
 
 COLOSSUS of Rhodes. There are many 
 contradictory accounts of this gigantic bronze 
 statue of Apollo, which was of such extraordi- 
 nary height, that the ancients assure us that 
 vessels, with all their sails set went between its 
 legs. It was about 100 feet high, and is said to 
 have been modelled by Chares of Lindus, a dis- 
 ciple of the famous Lysippus, who was occupied 
 12 years upon the work. B.C. 223 it was over- 
 thrown by an earthquake, which committed 
 great ravages, particularly in Caria, and the 
 isle of Rhodes. 
 
 COLUMBIA, the seat of Government of 
 South Carolina, situated on the Congaree, con- 
 taining 4,295 inhabitants. Many of its public 
 edifices are very handsome. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District of, 10 miles square, is 
 situated on both sides of the Potomac. Whole 
 population, in 1840, 43,712. It contains Alex- 
 andria, Washington, and Georgetown, and be- 
 came the seat of government of the Union, in 
 1800. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher. Some account 
 of this celebrated navigator will be found in 
 another portion of this work. (See America). 
 
 He was a native of Genoa, born about 1435, 
 of poor parents, who educated him with care. 
 At the age of 14 he went to sea, having evinc- 
 ed an early attachment to a sailor's life. Against 
 the Mohammedans and Venetians he fought 
 with great bravery and skill. Having conceiv- 
 ed the design of a western passage to India, he 
 for a long time sought for patronage without. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 COM 
 
 191 
 
 CON 
 
 avail ; but after struggling 18 years, was at 
 length aided by Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
 sailed with three small vessels, the Pinta, Nina, 
 and Pinzon, August 3, 14! 12. Land was discov- 
 ered on the 11th of October, which proved to 
 be the island of Guanahani, named by Colum- 
 bus, St. Salvador. Cuba was discovered on the 
 28th of October. Columbus was the first to 
 announce his own discovery, and was received 
 in Spain with signal favor. He was created a 
 grandee of the realm and loaded with other 
 honors. September 25, 1493, he sailed from 
 Cadiz, on his second voyage, with a fleet of 17 
 sail. He built a town called Isabella at Hispa- 
 niola, but encountered many obstacles and diffi- 
 culties in his new voyage of discovery. Mean- 
 while that envy, which never fails to pursue 
 true merit, stirred up clamors against Columbus, 
 which were stifled, however, by his return to 
 Spain in 1496, with valuable treasures. In 1498 
 he departed on his third voyage. Arrived in 
 the new world, he found his enemies still exas- 
 perated against him, and they scrupled not to 
 represent him to his sovereigns as endeavoring 
 to make himself independent. Their stories 
 were believed, Francis de Bobadilla was sent 
 to'Hispaniola, and the admiral and his brothers 
 put in irons, and sent to Spain. There the 
 honor and fidelity of Columbus became appa- 
 rent, and he was nominally reinstated in his 
 dignities. But the disposition of the sovereigns 
 towards him was altered. Nicolo de Ovando y 
 Lares, was sent to Hispaniola as governor, and 
 Columbus, now sought only to obtain the fulfil- 
 ment of the royal promises with regard to the 
 furtherance of his expedition, imagining that 
 the continent he had discovered was Asia, and 
 hoping to find a way to the East Indies by the 
 'isthmus of Darien. His fourth voyage, com- 
 menced March 9, 1502, with few facilities, 
 proved, on the whole, disastrous, and Columbus, 
 after being wrecked, and surrounded by dangers, 
 returned to Spain. Neglected by his former 
 patrons, his spirits sank, and he died at Vallado- 
 lid, May 20th, 1506, in the 70th year of his age. 
 He was buried in the city of St. Domingo, but 
 his remains were afterward removed to the ca- 
 thedral of Havana, in Cuba. Columbus had a 
 noble and pleasing countenance and form, and 
 was eloquent, amiable, and pious. 
 
 COMMODUS ANTON1US, Lucius iElius 
 Aurelius, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Au- 
 relius, was born A. D. 161. At 16 years of age 
 he was associated with his father in the govern- 
 ment, and in A. D. 180, ascended the throne. 
 He surpassed in profligacy and cruelty all his 
 
 wicked predecessors. He maimed and disem- 
 bowelled his subjects for pleasure. From his 
 great strength he bore a striking resemblance to 
 the statues of Hercules, in the dress of whom 
 he appeared. He debauched his own sisters, 
 and mixed with the vilest and most degraded 
 of the human race. Having exhausted the 
 treasury by his extravagance, he replenished i 
 by imposing enormous taxes on the people 
 Habited like a slave, he drove his own ohariot 
 and fought as a gladiator, 735 times. He was 
 strangled by his favorite gladiator, Narcissus, in 
 
 CONCORD, the seat of government of New 
 Hampshire, situated on both sides of the river 
 Merrimack, 63 miles northwest from Boston, 
 containing 4,898 inhabitants. 
 
 CONCORD, a village of Middlesex county, 
 Massachusetts, 18 miles north of Boston. At 
 Concord and Lexington the first armed resist- 
 ance was made to the troops of Great Britain, 
 April 19lh, 1775. 
 
 CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, prince of, was 
 the son of Charles of Bourbon, duke of Ven- 
 dome, and was born in 1530. He signalized 
 himself at the battle of St. Quintin, and became 
 leader of the discontented Huguenots. He was 
 wounded at the battle of Dreux, in 1562, and 
 slain in that of Iarnac, in 1569. 
 
 CONDE, Louis, prince of, commonly called 
 tne great, was born at Paris in 1621. At the 
 age of 22 he gained the battle of Rocroi against 
 the Spaniards, and captured Thionville and 
 other places. He next entered Germany where 
 he gained innumerable laurels. Being recalled 
 thence, he was sent into Catalonia, but failed in 
 his attempt to take Lerida. In 1648, he defeated 
 the Imperialists in Flanders with prodigious 
 slaughter. In the civil war Conde at first ad- 
 hered to the court, but afterwards opposed it 
 without success. He refused to accede to the 
 peace, and entered into the service of the Span- 
 iards in the Low Countries, where his military 
 exploits were uncommonly splendid. At the 
 peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, he obtained his 
 pardon, and served his country with his wonted 
 activity and success. He contended with the 
 prince of Orange in the Netherlands, and was 
 wounded in the memorable passage of the 
 Rhine. The conquest of Franche Compte was 
 also chiefly owing to him. After the death of 
 Turenne, he carried on the war against Germany 
 with advantage. He died in 1687 at Fontaine- 
 bleau. 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE. 
 In 1806, the emperor Napoleon, having deter- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CON 
 
 192 
 
 CON 
 
 mined that there should not exist, on the conti- 
 nent, any power capable of opposing his designs, 
 contrived to dismember the German empire, 
 and induce the emperor to abandon his title of 
 emperor of Germany. In pursuance of these 
 views, a new union was formed by several of 
 the German princes, under the name of the 
 Confederation of the Rhine. The kings of Ba- 
 varia and Wirtemburg, the arch-chancellor, the 
 elector of Baden, the Duke of Berg, the land- 
 grave of Hesse Darmstadt, the princes of 
 Nassau- Weilbourg, of Nassau-Usingen, of Ho- 
 henzollern, Heckingen, Siegmaringen, Salm- 
 Salm, Salm-Kysburg, Isenburg, Birstein, and 
 Lichtenstein, the duke of Aremberg, and the 
 count of Leyen, published at Ratisbon, a decla- 
 ration, purporting, that as the Germanic con- 
 stitution then existing, could afford no guaran- 
 tee for the public tranquillity, the contracting 
 parties had agreed, that their states should be 
 for ever separated from the Germanic body, and 
 united by a particular confederation, under the 
 title of " The Confederate States," of which the 
 emperor of the French was constituted the head 
 and protector. 
 
 The treaty of confederation was projected and 
 drawn up at Paris, and ratified at Munich, on 
 the 25th of July, 1806 : it contained 40 articles 
 relative to the territories, which each of the 
 contracting parties was to possess, and other 
 important particulars. Every continental war, 
 in which either France or any of the confede- 
 rate states should be engaged, was to be com- 
 mon to all ; the contingent to be furnished by 
 each of the members, was determined in the 
 following proportion ; France, 200,000 men, 
 Bavaria 30,000, Wirtemburg 12,000. Baden 
 8,000, Berg 5,000, Darmstadt 4,000, Nassau and 
 the other states 4,000. 
 
 By this confederation, the Germanic body 
 was completely dissolved, and a very consider- 
 able part of its members ranged themselves un- 
 der the banners of France. The emperor, 1 ran- 
 cis II, in consequence of this organization, 
 resigned his title of Emperor of Germany, and 
 to»k that of Emperor of Austria. Thus was 
 dissolved, the German, or as it was styled in 
 diplomatic language, the Holy Roman Empire ; 
 1006 years after Charlemagne received the im- 
 perial, title and crown, from the hands of the 
 pope of Rome. 
 
 CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, in Lower 
 Guinea, which is under the sway of the Portu- 
 guese. It is rich and fertile. It was discover- 
 ed in 1487 by Diego Cam, a Portuguese. The 
 native government is despotic. 
 
 CONGREVE, William, a celebrated English 
 dramatist and poet, born in 1670 and died in 
 1729. His plays are replete with wit and hu- 
 mor. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, one of the United States; 
 bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode 
 Island, south by Long Island Sound and west 
 by New York, and containing 309,948 inhabit- 
 ants. Among the manufactures of Connecti- 
 cut, may be mentioned tin ware, cotton goods, 
 clocks, nails, glass, hats, buttons, and firearms. 
 The seat of government is alternately at Hart- 
 ford and New Haven. Yale College in New 
 Haven is one of the most flourishing institu- 
 tions in the United States. Connecticut colony 
 and New Haven colony, originally under sepa- 
 rate governments, were united in 1665. The 
 present state constitution was formed in 1818. 
 
 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, (Caius 
 Flavius Valerius Aurelius Claudius Constan- 
 tine), son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, 
 by Helena, was born about the year 274. On 
 the death of his father, in 306, he was proclaim- 
 ed emperor by the army. He defeated the 
 Franks, after which he crossed the Rhine, and 
 committed great ravages in Belgium. Constan- 
 tine married Fausta. the daughter of Maximian, 
 in 306. His father-in-law, taking advantage of 
 his absence from Aries, where he held his court, 
 seized the treasury, and assumed the imperial 
 title, but being taken prisoner by Constantine, 
 strangled himself. A war now broke out be- 
 tween Constantine and Maxentius, the son of 
 Maximian, the former reduced Italy, and de- 
 feated Maxentius, who was drowned in the 
 Tiber. At this period the era of Constantine's 
 conversion to Christianity is fixed. As he was 
 riding at the head of his troops, an immense 
 cross of exceeding brightness is said to have 
 appeared above the horizon, bearing this inscrip- 
 tion : "In this conquer." Constantine was 
 no longer an infidel. 
 
 He now entered Rome in triumph, and re- 
 ceived from the senate the title of Augustus, in 
 conjuction with Licinius and Maximin, the for- 
 mer of whom married his sister, Constantia. 
 A civil war shortly after broke out between Li 
 cinius and Maximin, in which the latter was 
 slain. Licinius then formed a conspiracy against 
 Constantine, which being discovered, war en- 
 sued between them, in which Constantine was 
 successful, and peace was concluded. A second 
 war broke out in 323, and terminated in the de- 
 feat of Licinius, and his resignation of the im- 
 perial dignity. Not long afterwards he was 
 strangled. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CON 
 
 193 
 
 CON 
 
 Constantine now began to show his regard 
 for the religion he had adopted, by building nu- 
 merous churches, and journeying to Jerusalem 
 to visit the Holy Land, where he erected a mag- 
 nificent church at Bethlehem. With this zeal 
 for religion he blended courage and justice. He 
 conquered the Goths, founded Constantinople, 
 and performed many actions that entitle him to 
 the name of Great. But he sullied his charac- 
 ter by putting to death his son Crispus. He 
 died in 337. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, called, by the Turks, 
 Istambol, and by other Oriental nations, Con- 
 stantino,, the capital of the Turkish empire, is 
 situated on the European side of the Bosphorus. 
 Its circuit, including the suburbs, is about 35 
 miles, and the number of inhabitants, by the most 
 moderate computation, 630,000 Greeks, Arme- 
 nians, Jews, and Turks. It was built upon the 
 ruins of the ancient Byzantium by Constantine 
 the Great. It became afterwards the capital of 
 the Greek empire ; and, having escaped the de- 
 structive rage of the barbarous nations, it was 
 the greatest as well as the most beautiful city in 
 Europe, and the only one, during the Gothic 
 ages, in which there remained any image of the 
 ancient elegance in manners and arts. It de- 
 rived great advantages from its being the ren- 
 dezvous of the Crusaders ; and, being then in 
 the zenith of its glory, the European writers, in 
 that age, speak of it with astonishment. Dur- 
 ing the third crusade, a revolution happened at 
 Constantinople, which divided the eastern em- 
 pire for 58 years. Alexius Angelus, surnamed 
 the tyrant, having dethroned Isaac II, placed 
 himself upon the throne of Constantinople, in 
 1195; and Alexius, son of Isaac, applied to the 
 French and Venetians, who passed that way to 
 the Holy Wars, to assist him in the recovery of his 
 father's empire. They accordingly, in 1203, re- 
 duced Constantinople, after a siege of eight 
 days, and replaced Isaac on the throne. The 
 next year, Alexius Dacus Murzoufle assassinat- 
 ed the emperor, whom the Crusaders had re- 
 established, and seized the crown. On hearing 
 this, the French returned, attacked the city, re- 
 duced it in three days, deposed Murzoufle, and 
 chose Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor. 
 
 He had four successors, the last of whom, 
 Baldwin II, was deposed in 1262, by Michael 
 Paleologus. In the mean time Theodore Las- 
 caris, who had been charged by the clergy to 
 take arms against the tyrant Murzoufle, finding 
 Constantinople in the power of the French, re- 
 tired with his wife and family to Nice, where, 
 in 1204, he was crowned emperor, and formed a 
 
 small empire out of that of Constantinople. He 
 had but three successors, the last of whom, John 
 Ducas, was deprived of his sight in 1255, by 
 order of Michael Paleologus, his preceptor, who 
 usurped the throne in 1259, and in 1262 made 
 himself master of Constantinople, so that the 
 empire was re-united. He continued till 1453, 
 when Constantinople was taken by Mohammed 
 II, sultan of the Ottoman Turks ; since which 
 it has remained the seat of their empire. 
 
 Constantinople is at this day one of the finest, 
 cities in the world, from its situation and port. 
 It is frequently called the Porte by way of emi- 
 nence. The city has met with many disasters 
 from convulsions, earthquakes, and the plague. 
 
 CONSTITUTION, the English, which owes 
 its foundation to the era of the conquest, has 
 been made the model of most of the constitu- 
 tions enjoyed by republican states. The Bill of 
 Rights, which was the basis of the English con- 
 stitution, was passed in the time of their revo- 
 lution, and contained the following provisions : 
 
 1 . The pretended power of suspending laws, 
 or the execution of laws by regal authority, 
 without the consent of Parliament, is illegal : — 
 2. That the pretended power of dispensing 
 with laws, or the execution of laws by regal au- 
 thority, as it hath been assumed and exercised 
 of late, is illegal : — 3. That the commission for 
 erecting the late court of commissioners for 
 ecclesiastical causes, and all other commissions 
 and courts of like nature, are illegal and perni- 
 cious : — 4. That levying money for, or to the 
 use of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, 
 without grant of Parliament, for longer time, or 
 in all other manner than the same is, and shall 
 be granted, is illegal :— 5. That it is the right 
 of the subjects to petition the king, and that all 
 commitments and prosecutions for such peti- 
 tioning, are illegal : — 6. That the raising or 
 keeping a standing army within the kingdom 
 . in time of peace, unless it be with consent of 
 parliament, is against law :— 7. That the sub- 
 jects which are Protestants, may have arms for 
 their defence, suitable for their conditions, and 
 as allowed by law : — 8. That election of mem- 
 bers of Parliament ought to be free : — 9. That 
 the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed- 
 ings in Parliament, ought not to be impeached 
 or questioned in any court or place out of par- 
 liament : — 10. That excessive bail ought not to 
 be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted : — 11. 
 That jurors ought to be duly empannelled and 
 returned ; and that jurors which pass upon men 
 in trials for high treason, ought to be free-hold- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CON 
 
 194 
 
 CON 
 
 crs — 12. That all grants and promises of fines 
 and forfeitures of particular persons, before 
 conviction, are illegal and void : — 13. And that 
 for the redress of all grievances, and for the 
 amending, strengthening, and preserving of 
 laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently. 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
 STATES, as proposed to the Convention **?& at 
 Philadelphia, \7th September, 1787, and since 
 ratified by the several States tcith amendments. 
 
 Article I. Section 1. All legislative powers 
 herein granted, shall be vested in a Congress of 
 the United States, which shall consist of a Sen- 
 ate and House* of Representatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be 
 composed of members chosen every second year 
 by the people of the several States ; and the 
 electors in each State shall have the qualifica- 
 tions requisite for electors of the most numer- 
 ous branch of the State Legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who shall 
 not have attained to the age of twenty-five 
 years, and been seven years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
 be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall 
 be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall - be ap- 
 portioned among the several States which may 
 be included within this Union, according to their 
 respective numbers, which shall be determined 
 by adding to the whole number of free persons, 
 including those bound to service for a term of 
 years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
 fifths of all other persons. The actual enume- 
 ration shall be made within three years after 
 the first meeting of the Congress of the United 
 States, and within every subsequent term often 
 years, in such a manner as they shall by law 
 direct. The number of Representatives shall 
 not exceed one for every 30,000, but each State 
 shall have at least one representative. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representa- 
 tion from any State, the Executive Authority 
 thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 The House of Representatives shall choose 
 their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have 
 the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall 
 be composed of two Senators from each State, 
 chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; 
 and each Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in 
 consequence of the first election, they shall be 
 divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
 The seats of the Senators of the first class shall 
 
 be vacated at the expiration of the second year,, 
 of the second class at the expiration of the 
 fourth year, and of the third class at the expi- 
 ration of the sixth year, so that one third may 
 be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
 happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the 
 recess of the Legislature of any state, the Exec- 
 utive thereof may make temporary appoint- 
 ments until the next meeting of the Legisla- 
 ture, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a Senator who shall not 
 have attained to the age of thirty years, and 
 been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
 and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabi- 
 tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The Vice-President of the United States shall 
 be President of the Senate, but shall have no 
 vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The Senate shall choose their other officers, 
 and also a President pro tempore, in the absence 
 of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
 the office of President of the United States. 
 
 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all 
 impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, 
 they shall be on oath or affirmation. When 
 the President of the United States is tried, the 
 chief justice shall preside : And no person shall 
 be convicted without the concurrence of two- 
 thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall 
 not extend further than to removal from office, 
 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
 of honor, trust or profit under the United States; 
 but the party convicted shall nevertheless be 
 liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment 
 and punishment according to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of 
 holding elections for Senators and Representa- 
 tives, shall be prescribed in each state by the 
 Legislature thereof: But the Congress may at 
 an\^ time by law make or alter such regula- 
 tions, except as to the places of choosing Sen- 
 ators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
 every year, and such meeting shall be on the 
 first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
 law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. 5. Each House shall be the judge of the 
 elections, returns and qualifications of its own 
 members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
 tute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller 
 number may adjourn from day to day, and may 
 be authorised to compel the attendance of ab- 
 sent members, in such manner, and under such 
 penalties as each House may provide. 
 
 Each House may determine the rules of its 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 CON 
 
 195 
 
 CON 
 
 proceedings, punish its members for disorderly 
 behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
 thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each House shall keep a journal of its pro- 
 ceedings, and from time to time publish the 
 same, excepting such parts as may, in their 
 judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and 
 nays of the members of either House on any 
 question, shall, at the dosire of one-fifth of those 
 present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of Congress, 
 shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn 
 for more than three days, nor to any other place 
 than that in which the two houses shall be 
 sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall 
 receive a compensation for their services, to be 
 ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury 
 of the United States. They shall, in all cases, 
 except treason, felony and breach of the peace, 
 be privileged from arrest during their attend- 
 ance at the session of their respective Houses, 
 and in going to or returning from the same ; 
 and for any speech or debate in either House, 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 No Senator or Representative shall, during 
 the time for which he was elected, be appointed 
 to any civil office under the authority of the 
 United States, which shall have been created, 
 or the emoluments whereof shall have been 
 increased during such time ; and no person 
 holding any office under the United States, 
 shall be a member of either House during his 
 continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall 
 originate in the House of Representatives; but 
 the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
 ments as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the House 
 of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before 
 it become a law, be presented to the President 
 of the United States : if he approve, he shall 
 sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his 
 objections, to that House in which it shall have 
 originated, who shall enter the objections at 
 large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider 
 it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of 
 that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall 
 be sent, together with the objections, to the 
 other House, by which it shall likewise be re- 
 considered, and if approved by two-thirds of 
 that House, it shall become a law. But in all 
 such cases, the votes of both Houses shall be 
 determined by yeas and nays ; and the names 
 of the persons voting for and against the bill, 
 shall be entered on the journal of each House 
 17* 
 
 respectively. If any bill shall not be returned 
 by the President within ten days (Sundays ex- 
 cepted) after it shall have been presented to 
 him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as 
 if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their 
 adjournment prevent its return, in which case 
 it shall not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution or vote to which the 
 concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
 tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
 President of the United States ; and before the 
 same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
 or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed 
 by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives, according to the rules and limita- 
 tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power — To 
 lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and ex- 
 cises, to pay the debts and provide for the com- 
 mon defence and general welfare of the United 
 States ; but all duties, imposts and excises 
 shall be uniform throughout the United States: 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United 
 States : 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations P 
 and among the several States, and with the 
 Indian tribes : 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, 
 and uniform laws on the subject of bankrupt- 
 cies throughout the United States : 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
 and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of 
 weights and measures : 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counter- 
 feiting the securities and current coin of the 
 United States : 
 
 To establish post-offices and post-roads : 
 
 To promote the progress of science and useful 
 arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors 
 and inventers, the exclusive right to their re- 
 spective writings and discoveries: 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme 
 court : 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies 
 committed on the high seas, and offences against 
 the law of nations : 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and 
 reprisal, and make rules concerning captures oa 
 land and water : 
 
 To raise and support armies ; but no appro- 
 priation of money to that use shall be for a 
 longer term than two years : 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy : 
 
 To make rules for the government and regu 
 lation of the land and naval forces • 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 CON 
 
 196 
 
 CON 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to 
 execute the laws of the Union, suppress insur- 
 rections, and repel invasions : 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming and disci- 
 plining the militia, and for governing such part 
 of them as may be employed in the service of 
 the United States, reserving to the States re- 
 spectively the appointment of the officers, and 
 the authority of training the militia according to 
 the discipline prescribed by Congress : 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases 
 whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 
 ten miles square) as may, by cession of partic- 
 ular States, and the acceptance of Congress, 
 become the seat of the government of the United 
 States, and to exercise like authority over all 
 places purchased by the consent of the legisla- 
 ture of the State in which the same shall be, 
 for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, 
 dock-yards, and other needful buildincs : — 
 And 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary 
 and proper for carrying into execution the 
 foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
 by this Constitution in the government of the 
 United States, or in any department or officer 
 thereof 
 
 Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such 
 persons as any of the Stales now existing shall 
 think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
 by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may 
 be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
 ten dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
 shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of 
 rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
 quire it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall 
 be passed. 
 
 No capitation, or other direct tax shall be 
 laid, unless in proportion to the census or enu- 
 meration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles export- 
 ed from any State. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any regula- 
 tion of commerce or revenue to the ports of one 
 State over those of another : Nor shall vessels, 
 bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, 
 clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, 
 but in consequence of appropriations made by 
 law ; and a regular statement and account of 
 the receipts and expenditures of all public 
 money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the 
 
 United States : And no person holding any 
 office of profit or trust under them, shall, with- 
 out the consent of the Congress, accept of any 
 present, emolument, office, or title of any kind 
 whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign 
 state. 
 
 Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
 alliance or confederation ; grant letters of marque 
 and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; 
 make any thing but gold and silver coin a ten- 
 der in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attain- 
 der, ex post facto law, or law impairing th(; 
 obligation of contracts, or grant any title of 
 nobility. 
 
 No State shall, without the consent of the 
 Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports, 
 or exports, except what may be absolutely ne- 
 cessary for executing its inspection laws ; and 
 the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by 
 any State on imports or exports, shall be for the 
 use of the treasury of the United States ; and all 
 such laws shall be subject to the revision and con- 
 trol of the Congress. No State shall, without 
 the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
 nage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of 
 peace, enter into any agreement or compact 
 with another State, or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in 
 such imminent danger as will not admit of 
 delay. 
 
 Article II. Sec. 1. The Executive power 
 shall be vested in the President of the United 
 States of America. He shall hold his office 
 during the term of four years, and, together 
 with the Vice-President, chosen for the same 
 term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each state shall appoint, in such manner as 
 the legislature thereof may direct, a number of 
 Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators 
 and Representatives to which the State may be 
 entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or 
 Representative, or person holding an office of 
 trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
 appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet 
 in their respective States, and vote by ballot for 
 two persons, of whom one at least shall not be 
 an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. 
 And they shall make a list of all the persons 
 voted for, and of the number of votes for each; 
 which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
 mit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the President of the 
 Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in 
 the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes 
 shall then be counted. The person having the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CON 
 
 197 
 
 CON 
 
 greatest number of votes shall be the President, 
 if such number be a majority of the whole num- 
 ber of Electors appointed; and if there be more 
 than one who have such majority and have an 
 equal number of votes, then the House of Repre- 
 sentatives shall immediately choose by ballot 
 one of them for President ; and if no person 
 have a majority, then from the five highest on the 
 list, the said House shall in like manner choose 
 the President. But in choosing the President, 
 the votes shall be taken by States, the represen- 
 tation from each State having one vote : a quo- 
 rum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
 or members from two-thirds of the States ; and 
 a majority of all the States shall be necessary to 
 a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 
 President, the person having the greatest num- 
 ber of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- 
 President. But if there should remain two or 
 more who have equal votes, the Senate shall 
 choose from them by ballot the Vice-President. 
 (See 12th Amendment.) 
 
 The Congress may determine the time of 
 choosing the Electors, and the day on which 
 they shall give their votes ; which day shall be 
 the same throughout the United States. 
 
 No person, except a natural born citizen, or a 
 citizen of the United States, at the time of the 
 adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
 to the office of President ; neither shall any per- 
 son be eligible to that office who shall not have 
 attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been 
 fourteen years a resident within the United 
 States. 
 
 In the case of the removal of the President 
 from office, or of his death, resignation, or ina- 
 bility to discharge the powers and duties of the 
 said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- 
 President ; and the Congress may by law pro- 
 vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, 
 or inability, both of the President and Vice- 
 President, declaring what officer shall then act 
 as President ; and such officer shall act accord- 
 ingly, until the disability be removed, or a Pre- 
 sident shall be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated times, receive 
 for his services, a compensation, which shall 
 neither be increased nor diminished during the 
 period for which he shall have been elected ; 
 and he shall not receive, within that period, any 
 other emolument from the United States, or any 
 of them. 
 
 Before he enter on the execution of his office, 
 he shall take the following oath or affirmation : 
 
 " I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will 
 faithfully execute the office of President of the 
 
 United States ; and will, to the best of my abil- 
 ity, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States." 
 
 Sec. 2. The President shall be commander 
 in chief of the army and navy of the United 
 States, and of the militia of the several States, 
 when called into the actual service of the United 
 States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, 
 of the principal officer in each of the executive 
 departments, upon any subject relating to the 
 duties of their respective offices ; and he shall 
 have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
 offences against the United States, except in 
 cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have pow r er, by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, pro- 
 vided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; 
 and he shall nominate, and by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
 ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
 suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
 officers of the United States, whose appoint- 
 ments are not herein otherwise provided for, 
 and which shall be established by law. But the 
 Congress may by law vest the appointment of 
 such inferior officers as they shall think pro- 
 per in the President alone, in the courts of law, 
 or in the heads of departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill up all 
 vacancies that may happen during the recess 
 of the Senate by granting commissions which 
 shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the 
 Congress information of the state of the Union, 
 and recommend to their consideration such 
 measures as he shall judge necessary and expe- 
 dient : He may, on extraordinary occasions, 
 convene both Houses, or either of them ; and in 
 case of disagreement between them, with re- 
 spect to the time of adjournment, he may ad- 
 journ them to such time as he shall think proper : 
 He shall receive Ambassadors and other public 
 Ministers : He shall take care that the laws be 
 faithfully executed, and shall commission all 
 the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all 
 civil officers of the United States, shall be re- 
 moved from office on impeachment for, and 
 conviction of, treason, bribery or other high 
 crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 Article III. Section I. The Judicial power 
 of the United States shall be vested in one Su- 
 preme Court, and in such Inferior Courts as the 
 Congress may from time to time ordain and es- 
 tablish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and 
 Inferior Court, shall hold their offices during 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CON 
 
 198 
 
 CON 
 
 good behavior ; and shall, at stated times, re- 
 ceive for their services a compensation, which 
 shall not be diminished during their continu- 
 ance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all 
 cases, in law and equity, arising under this Con- 
 stitution, the laws of the United States and 
 treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
 their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, 
 other public ministers and consuls ; to all cases 
 of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to con- 
 troversies to which the United States shall be 
 party ; to controversies between two or more 
 States, between a State and citizens of another 
 State, between citizens of different States, be- 
 tween citizens of the same State, claiming lands 
 under grants of different States, and beiween a 
 State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
 citizens or subjects. 
 
 In all cases, affecting ambassadors, other pub- 
 lic ministers and consuls, and those in which a 
 State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall 
 have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases 
 beforementioned, the Supreme Court shall have 
 appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, 
 with such exceptions, and under such regula- 
 tions, as the Congress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of im- 
 peachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial 
 shall be held in the State where the said crimes 
 shall have been committed ; but when not com- 
 mitted within any State, the trial shall be at such 
 place or places as the Congress may by law have 
 directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. Treason against the United States 
 shall consist only in levying war against them, 
 or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
 and comfort. No person shall be convicted of 
 treason unless on the testimony of two witness- 
 es to the same overt act, or on confession in 
 open court. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to declare 
 the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of 
 treason shall work corruption of blood, or for- 
 feiture, excepting during the life of the person 
 attainted. 
 
 Article IV. Section 1. Full faith and cred- 
 it shall be given, in each State, to the public 
 acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every 
 other State. And the Congress may, by general 
 laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
 records and proceedings shall be proved, and 
 the effect thereof 
 
 Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be en- 
 titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens 
 in the several States. 
 
 A person charged in any State with treason, 
 felony, or other crime, who shall flee from jus- 
 tice, and be found in another State, shall, on 
 demand of the executive authority of the State 
 from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re- 
 moved to the State having jurisdiction of the 
 crime. 
 
 No person, held to service or labor in one 
 State , under the laws thereof, escaping into anoth- 
 er, shall, in consequence of any law or regula- 
 tion therein, be discharged from such service or 
 labor ; but shall be delivered up on claim of the 
 party to whom such service or labor may be 
 due. 
 
 Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the 
 Congress into this Union ; but no new State 
 shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
 tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed 
 by the junction of two or more States or parts 
 of States, without the consent of the Legislature 
 of the States concerned, as well as of the Con- 
 gress. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to dispose of, 
 and make all needful rules and regulations re- 
 specting the territory or other property belong- 
 ing to the United States : And nothing in this 
 Constitution shall be so construed, as to preju- 
 dice any claims of the United States, or of any 
 particular State. 
 
 Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to 
 every State in this Union, a republican form of 
 government ; and shall protect each of them 
 against invasion; and on application of the Le- 
 gislature, or of the Executive (when the Legis- 
 lature cannot be convened) against domestic 
 violence. 
 
 Article V. The Congress, whenever two- 
 thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, 
 shall propose amendments to this Constitution, 
 or, on the application of the Legislatures of 
 two-thirds of the several States, shall call a con- 
 vention for proposing amendments, which, in 
 either case, shall be valid, to all intents and 
 purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of 
 the several States, or by conventions in three- 
 fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; 
 provided, that no amendment, which may be 
 made prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and eight, shall in any manner affect the 
 first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of 
 the first article ; and that no State, without its 
 consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
 in the Senate. 
 
 Article VI. All debts contracted, and en 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CON 
 
 199 
 
 CON 
 
 tered into, before the adoption of this Constitu- 
 tion, shall be as valid against the United States, 
 under this Constitution, as under the Confede- 
 ration. 
 
 This Constitution, and the laws of the United 
 States which shall be made in pursuance there- 
 of, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under the authority of the United States, shall 
 be the supreme law of the land ; and the judg- 
 es, in every state, shall be bound thereby, any 
 thing in the Constitution or laws of any State 
 to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives before men- 
 tioned, and the members of the several State Le- 
 gislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
 both of the United States and of the several 
 States, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to 
 support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
 shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
 office or public trust under the United States. 
 
 Article VII. The ratification of the Con- 
 ventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for 
 the establishment of this Constitution between 
 the States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Amendments. Article the first. Congress 
 shall make no law respecting an establishment 
 of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
 thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or 
 of the press ; or the right of the people peace- 
 ably to assemble, and to petition the govern- 
 ment for a redress of grievances. 
 
 Article the second. A well-regulated militia 
 being necessary to the security of a free State, 
 the right of the people to keep and bear arms 
 shall not be infringed. 
 
 Article the third. No soldier shall in time of 
 peace be quartered in any house without the 
 consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but 
 in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 Article the fourth. The right of the people 
 to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
 and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
 seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants 
 shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported 
 by oath or affirmation, and particularly describ- 
 ing the place to be searched, and the persons or 
 things to be seized. 
 
 Article the fifth. No person shall be held to 
 answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
 by a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
 land or naval forces, or in the militia when in 
 actual service in time of war or public danger; 
 nor shall any person be subject for the same 
 offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
 limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case 
 
 to be a witness against himself, nor be depriv- 
 ed of life, liberty, or property, without due pro- 
 cess of law ; nor shall private property be taken 
 for public use, without just compensation. 
 
 Article the sixth. In all criminal prosecutions, 
 the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
 and public trial, by an impartial jury of the 
 State or district wherein the crime shall have 
 been committed, which district shall have been 
 previously ascertained by law, and to be in- 
 formed of the nature and cause of the accusa- 
 tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
 against him ; to have compulsory process for 
 obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have 
 the assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 Article the seventh. In suits at common law, 
 where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be 
 preserved, and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be 
 otherwise re-examined in any court of the Unit- 
 ed States, than according to the rules of com- 
 mon law. 
 
 Article the eighth. Excessive bail shall not be 
 required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel 
 and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 Article the ninth. The enumeration in the 
 Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- 
 strued to deny or disparage others retained by 
 the people. 
 
 Article the tenth. The powers not delegated 
 to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
 prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to 
 the States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 Article the eleventh. The judicial power of 
 the United States shall not be construed to ex- 
 tend to aiij suit in law or equity, commenced 
 or prosecuted against one of the United States 
 by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
 subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 Article the twelfth. The Electors shall meet 
 in their respective States, and vote by ballot for 
 President and Vice-President, one of whom, at 
 least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
 State with themselves ; they shall name in their 
 ballots the person voted for as President, and in 
 distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- 
 President ; and they shall make distinct lists of 
 all persons voted for as President, and of all 
 persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 
 number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
 of the government of the United States, directed 
 to the President of the Senate ; the President of 
 the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, open all the cer- 
 tificates, and the votes shall then be counted : the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORYj. 
 
 COO 
 
 200 
 
 COR 
 
 person having the greatest number of votes for 
 President, shall be the President, if such num- 
 ber be a majority of the whole number of Elec- 
 tors appointed ; and if no person have such ma- 
 jority, then from the persons having the high- 
 est numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of 
 those voted for as President, the House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
 the President. But in choosing the President, 
 the votes shall be taken by States, the Repre- 
 sentation from each state having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem- 
 ber or members from two-thirds of the States, 
 and a majority of all the States shall be necessa- 
 ry to a choice. And if the House of Represent- 
 atives shall not choose a President whenever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
 before the -fourth day of March next following, 
 then the Vice-President shall act as President, as 
 in the case of the death or other constitutional 
 disability of the President. 
 
 The person having the greatest number of 
 votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Pres- 
 ident, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no 
 person have a majority, then from the two high- 
 est numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose 
 the Vice-President : a quorum for the purpose 
 shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number 
 of Senators, and a majority of the whole num- 
 ber shall be necessary to a choice. 
 
 But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
 the office of President, shall be eligible to that 
 of Vice-President of the United States. 
 
 CONTI, Armand de Bourbon, first an eccle- 
 siastic, then a soldier, opposed his brother the 
 great Conde. After being successively govern- 
 or of Guienne, general of the armies in Catalo- 
 nia, and governor of Languedoc. he died, in 
 1666. 
 
 COOK, James, a famous English navigator, 
 born in a village of Yorkshire, in 1728, early 
 went to sea. In the Mercury, of which he was 
 master, he was present at the taking of Quebec. 
 He was employed in several important services, 
 and explored the South Sea Islands in 1769. 
 From New Zealand, he sailed to New Holland, 
 New Guinea, and Batavia, returning home in 
 1771. His next voyage to the southern hemis- 
 phere was commenced in 1772, in two ships, 
 the Resolution and Adventure, the latter being 
 commanded by Captain Furneaux. On this 
 voyage Cook discovered the island of New 
 Georgia, and returning, July 30, 1775, was well 
 received and rewarded for his services. 
 
 In July, 1776, he sailed to determine the long 
 
 agitated question of a northern passage to the 
 Pacific ocean, but the attempt was abandoned 
 as impracticable, and the Resolution and Dis- 
 covery anchored at the Sandwich islands, on 
 their return, November 26, 1778. Their recep- 
 tion was at first favorable, but when Cook went 
 on shore to seize the king of Owyhee, with the 
 intention of keeping him as a hostage, till one 
 of the English boats, stolen by the savages was 
 restored, he was attacked by the natives, one 
 of whom felled him by a club, and then des- 
 patched him with a dagger. This event occur- 
 red on the 14th of February, 1779. 
 
 COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of 
 Shaftesbury, and an eminent statesman, was 
 born 1621. Although a royalist he accepted a 
 commission from parliament, but contributed to 
 the restoration of the king, and was according- 
 ly rewarded. Having been acquitted on his 
 trial for high treason in 1681, he died in Hol- 
 land in 1688. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, a clergyman of Boston, 
 who died in 1783 in the 59th year of his age. 
 He was patriotic and talented. (See Chauncey.) 
 
 COPENHAGEN, the capital of Denmark, 
 on the east coast of the island of Zealand, one 
 of the finest cities in Europe, has a good har- 
 bor, an extensive commerce, and 110,000 in- 
 habitants, although formerly but a poor fishing 
 village. It was threatened by Charles XII, who, 
 however, gave up the idea of besieging it. The 
 city has suffered severely from several confla- 
 grations. In 1801 it was bombarded by the 
 British under Lord Nelson. A flag of truce 
 alone saved it from destruction. It was again 
 attacked in 1807 by the English under admiral 
 Gambier. After severe firing, which commenc- 
 ed on the 2d of September, a capitulation was 
 settled on the 8th, and the citadel, dock-yards, 
 batteries, vessels, and naval stores, taken pos- 
 session of by the British. 
 
 COPLEY, John Singleton, a self-taught paint- 
 er, a native of Boston, where he was born in 
 1738. He went to England in J 776, where he 
 met with great encouragement, and died in 
 London in 1815. The death of Lord Chatham 
 in the House of Lords, after his immortal speech 
 in favor of America, is one of his best perform- 
 ances. 
 
 COPLEY, John Singleton, was born in Bos- 
 ton. Mass., May 21, 1772, went to England in 
 1775, and became Lord Lyndhurst, and Lord 
 Hicdi Chancellor of England. 
 
 CORD AY D' ARMANS, Marie Anne Char- 
 lotte, a beautiful and courageous young lady, 
 belonging to an ancient and respectable family 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 COR 
 
 201 
 
 COR 
 
 of Caen in Normandy, who assassinated the in- 
 famous Marat on the 11th of July, 1793. She 
 gained admittance to him in the bath, and while 
 he was listening to the pretended details of a 
 conspiracy, she stabbed him to the heart. When 
 she was guillotined a few days afterwards, a 
 voice from the crowd exclaimed : " She is great- 
 er than Brutus !" 
 
 CORDOVA, the name of a province and 
 town of Buenos Ayres. The latter contains 
 about 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CORE A, a kingdom of China, 500 miles long, 
 and 150 broad. The government is royal but 
 the king pays a tribute to China. The religion 
 is that of Fo. Population from six to eight 
 millions 
 
 CORFU, anciently called Drepanum, and 
 Corcyra, an island near the coast of Albania, in 
 the Mediterranean, 45 miles long, containing 
 60,000 inhabitants. It is fruitful and healthy. 
 It is one of the islands of the Ionian republic. 
 
 CORINNA, a famous poetess of Tanagra, in 
 Boetia, contemporary with Pindar. 
 
 CORINTH, a famous city of Achaia, situated 
 on the isthmus of the same name. The popu- 
 lation is at present about 2,000. It was founded 
 by Sisyphus, son of iEolus, B. C. 2616. Co- 
 rinthus, son of Pelops, gave his name to the 
 city. The inhabitants were once famed for 
 their power, wealth and intelligence, and found- 
 ed Syracuse in Sicily, which they afterward de- 
 livered from oppression. Corinth was destroyed 
 by the Roman consul, Mummius, 146 B. C. 
 The consul, who was no judge of the fine arts, 
 assured the soldiers, who had charge of the in- 
 comparable paintings sent from Corinth, to 
 Rome, that if they injured them, he should 
 make them furnish new ones. Julius Cssar 
 vainly attempted to restore the city to its for- 
 mer importance. The government, at first 
 monarchical, was changed 779 B. C, and it be- 
 came the head of the Achaean league. In 1453 
 it fell into the hands of the Turks. 
 
 CORIOLANUS, the surname of Caius Mar- 
 cius, given him for his victory over Corioli. Af- 
 ter having served his couutry faithfully, and 
 received many wounds in her service, he was 
 refused the consulship, and, indignant at the 
 ingratitude of his countrymen, who afterwards 
 banished him, he joined the Volsci, a warlike 
 nation, hostile to the Romans. Coriolanus ter- 
 rified the Romans by approaching their capital 
 at the head of a powerful army of Volscians. 
 The offended Roman refused to listen to pro- 
 posals made in the hope of inducing; him to 
 withdraw, and pitched his camp within five 
 
 miles of the city. His enmity against his 
 country would have been fatal, had not his wife, 
 Volumnia, and his mother, Veturia. aided by the 
 presence of his children, prevailed upon him to 
 withdraw his army. Coriolanus, in yielding to 
 his mother, and raising her from her suppliant 
 posture, pronounced a sentence which was pro- 
 phetic of his fate : " Oh ! my mother, you have 
 saved Rome, but you have destroyed your son." 
 The Volscians, indignant at the treachery of 
 Coriolanus, put him to death in the place ap- 
 pointed for his trial, B. C. 488. 
 
 CORK, a city of Ireland, capital of Cork 
 county, situated on the Lee, with a population 
 of 107,058. It is a large and flourishing place, 
 and was built by the Danes in the 6th century. 
 After the revolution of 1688, it was occupied by 
 James II, but taken by the earl of Marlborough, 
 in 1690. 
 
 CORNEILLE Peter, a French author who 
 flourished in the time of Louis XIV, and was 
 the founder of French tragedv. 
 
 CORNELIA, mother of the Gracchi, a Ro- 
 man matron who lived about 130 years B. C. A 
 lady of Campania having shown her jewels to 
 Cornelia, in paying a visit to the latter request- 
 ed to see her jewels in return. At that mo- 
 ment her boys entered the room, and the noble 
 Cornelia, pointing them out to her visiters, ex- 
 claimed : " these are my jewels !" At her death 
 the Romans, mindful of her worth, erected a 
 monument to her memory. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles, marquis of, born 
 in 1738, entered the English army at an early 
 age, and rose rapidly. Although not unfavora- 
 bly disposed to America, he accepted a com- 
 mand in the royal army, and distinguished him- 
 self by his bravery. On his return, being 
 appointed governor-general of Bengal he fought 
 with success and defeated Tippoo Saib. He 
 was again made governor of India, but died in 
 1805, at Ghazepore, soon after his arrival. ' 
 
 CORSICA, the third Italian island in point 
 of size, lies north of Sardinia, about 50 miles 
 north from Tuscany, and contains 195,000 in- 
 habitants. It is generally mountainous, but the 
 numerous valleys are extremely fertile. The 
 Corsicans know not how to*develope the various 
 resources of their island. They are in an almost 
 barbarous state, recklessly brave, revengeful, 
 fond of freedom, and indolent. Corsica has 
 been successively occupied by the Carthage- 
 nians,the Romans, the Goths, the Saracens, the 
 Franks, the Pope, the Pisanese, the Genoese, 
 the French, and the English, falling into the 
 hands of the last in 1794. The English, how 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 COT 
 
 202 
 
 CRA 
 
 ever, did not long retain possession of the island, 
 and it was again restored to France. 
 
 CORTEZ, Fernando, the conqueror of Mex- 
 ico, was born in 1485, in Estremadura. He 
 came to the West Indies in high hopes, and Ve- 
 lasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him the com- 
 mand of an expedition designed for the reduc- 
 tion of Mexico, which consisted of 10 ships, 
 . 600 men, 10 small field-pieces, and 18 horses. 
 With this small armament he accomplished his 
 enterprise, in 1519, and added the empire of 
 Mexico to that of Spain. He took Montezuma 
 prisoner, although received with hospitality, and 
 the unfortunate king was killed by his own sub- 
 jects in an attack on the Spaniards. The con- 
 duct of the conquerors so exasperated the In- 
 dians that they compelled Cortez to quit the 
 city with great loss, but he regained it after some 
 hard fighting. On the capture of Guatimozin, 
 son of Montezuma, the city surrendered, and 
 the empire of Mexico was at an end. At this 
 juncture another commission arrived to deprive 
 Cortez of his command, and he, having return- 
 ed to Spain to procure redress, died in obscurny, 
 in 1554. 
 
 CORUNNA, a seaport of Spain, in the pro- 
 vince of Galicia, with two fine harbors, and a 
 population of 4,000. Here the British, on the 
 eve of embarking, were attacked by the French 
 under Soult, and general Sir John Moore was 
 killed.^ 
 
 COSSACKS, the name of several warlike 
 tribes that inhabit the southern provinces of 
 Russia, and form an effective portion of the 
 Russian cavalry. Their horses are small but 
 hardy, and will travel for a whole campaign 
 from 50 to 70 miles a day. They fight in little 
 bands, and their arms are long lances, bows and 
 arrows, sabres, and pistols or guns. The regi- 
 ments or pidks are from 500 to 3,000 strong. 
 The chief is called a hettman. A large body of 
 them who had previously been in the service of 
 the czar, joined Charles XII, in 1708. 
 
 COTOPAXI,a famous volcanic mountain of 
 the Andes, in Quito, the height of which is 
 18,898 feet above the level of the sea. " At the 
 port of Guayaquil, 52 leagues distant, in a 
 straight line, from the crater, we heard, day and 
 night, the noise of this volcano, like continued 
 discharges of a battery ; and we distinguished 
 these tremendous sounds even on the Pacific 
 ocean." — Humboldt. 
 
 COTTIN, Sophia, whose maiden name was 
 Ristand, was born in France, in 1773, and mar- 
 ried at the age of 17, soon after which her hus- 
 band died, and she devoted herself to literature 
 
 to soften her grief. Among her works Elizabeth, 
 or the Exiles of Siberia, is the most popular and 
 pleasing. The talented author died in 1807. 
 COURLA.ND, formerly an independent 
 duchy, now belonging to Russia. It is situated 
 on the Baltic, and contains 581,300 inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 COURTRAY or Cortrijk. anciently Corto- 
 riacvm, a town of Belgium, 22 miles southwest 
 of Ghent, famous for the battle fought in its 
 vincinity, in 1302, between the Flemings and 
 French. The latter were defeated with great 
 loss, and. from the fact that 4000 gilt spurs were 
 found upon the field, the engagement was call- 
 ed the Battle of the Spurs. 
 
 COWLEY, Abraham, an English poet, the 
 son of a grocer, born in 1618, died in 1667. He 
 was an easy writer, and patronized by royalty. 
 
 COW PER, William, the poet, son of the 
 Rev. John Cowper, was born at Berkhamstead, 
 Herts, November 26, 1731. His education was 
 acquired at a public school, where the girlish 
 timidity and delicacy of the poet subjected him 
 to constant aorony from the tyranny and rough- 
 ness of his school-fellows. He studied law, and 
 obtained the place of clerk of the House of 
 Lords, but when the time approached for him 
 to enter upon the duties of his office, his terror 
 at presenting himself before the peerage, not 
 only induced him to relinquish the place, but 
 produced a fit of sickness. About this time his 
 religious fears brought on a temporary derange- 
 ment. He published several volumes of poems 
 with various success. His death took place in 
 April. 1800. Of all his poems the humorous 
 ballad of John Gilpin, and the Task, are the 
 best. 
 
 CRABBE, George, a popular British poet, 
 was born Dec. 21, 1754, at Aldborough in Suf- 
 folk. He was intended for a surgeon and actu- 
 ally opened a shop to which he confined him- 
 self for some time, although barely making his 
 expenses. In 1778, he went to London as a 
 literary adventurer, but was for a long time 
 unsuccessful. When a prison was in near view, 
 and ruin appeared to threaten him, he conceived 
 the idea of writing to Edmund Burke, for assist- 
 ance and advice. That great man at once be- 
 came his friend and patron, urged him to per- 
 severe, and induced him to study divinity and 
 take orders. Thenceforth his circumstances 
 were comfortable. He married the object of his 
 early affections, devoted himself to literature, 
 received the applause due to a genius of the 
 highest order, and continued to use his pen till 
 his death in 1833. His Borough and Tales of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CRI 
 
 203 
 
 CRO 
 
 the Hall are justly celebrated. Another poet 
 has truly called Crabbe 
 
 " Nature's sternest painter, but her best." 
 
 CRANMER, Thomas, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, who aided the progress of the reformation 
 in England. But he was the slave of the king, 
 and never permitted conscience to interfere 
 with the wishes of the crowned tyrant. He 
 joined the partisans of lady Jane Grey, and 
 was accordingly sent to the Tower on the ac- 
 cession of Mary. Having been accused of 
 blasphemy, perjury, incontinence, and heresy, 
 he was executed March 21, 1556. 
 
 CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius, a Roman con- 
 sul, distinguished for some gallant actions, and 
 active in crushing the gladiatorial revolt which 
 was headed by Sparticus. He was slain by the 
 Parthians, B. C. 53. 
 
 CRECY, or Cressy en Ponthieu, a town of 
 France, 10 miles north of Abbeville, where was 
 faught a famous battle between the French and 
 English, in which the latter, led by Edward III, 
 and his son, the brave Black Prince, were com- 
 pletely victorious, August 26, 1346. 
 
 CREEKS, or Muskogees, a tribe of Indians 
 who lately inhabited the eastern part of Alaba- 
 ma, but have now mostly removed beyond the 
 Mississippi. They have made some progress in 
 agriculture, and the arts of civilization. 
 
 CRICHTON, James, a Scotch gentleman, 
 born in 1550, of a good family, who, from his pro- 
 ficiency in the arts and sciences, particularly 
 music and manly exercises, was stiled the Ad- 
 mirable. He travelled in France and Italy, 
 and in Mantua, having pleased the duke, 
 was appointed preceptor to his son. During 
 the carnival of 1583, Crichton, while playing 
 upon his guitar, was attacked in the streets by 
 i masked band, against which he defended 
 himself with his customary spirit, until he re- 
 cognised his pupil in the leader. Throwing 
 aimself upon his knees, he presented his sword 
 to the young nobleman, who stabbed his pre- 
 ceptor to the heart. The motives which im- 
 pelled him are unknown. 
 
 CRILLON, Louis de Balbe, surnamed the 
 Fearless, a celebrated French commander, born 
 of a noble family, in Provence, in 1541. He 
 was the friend of Henry IV. He distinguished 
 himself at the siege of Calais, and against the 
 Huguenots, and the Turks. " Pends-toi, brave 
 Crillon nous avons combattu a Argues, et tu ny 
 itais pas;" "Hang thyself, brave Crillon, 
 we have fought at Arques, and thou wast ab- 
 sent," was Henry's laconic announcement of 
 18 
 
 one of his most brilliant victories to his favored 
 friend. 
 
 In 1592, he successfully defended Villebceuf, 
 with an inferior force against Marshal Villars, 
 and when called upon to surrender, gallantly 
 answered ; " Crillon is within, and Villars with- 
 out." The assailants were unsuccessful. One 
 day, hearing a sermon in which the sufferings 
 of Christ were forcibly described, he seized the 
 handle of his sword and cried, " Where werft 
 thou, Crillon ?" He died in 1616. 
 
 CROATIA, an Austrian kingdom, contain- 
 ing 9,000 square miles, and 850,000 inhabitants. 
 The Croats have made but little progress in the 
 arts. Their country is fruitful and productive. 
 
 CRCESUS, king of Lydia, famed for his 
 immense wealth. Being defeated by Cyrus, 
 king of Persia, B. C. 548, he was conducted to 
 the stake, but saved his life by repeating, in 
 the hearing of Cyrus, the words of Solon, that 
 " no man could be pronounced happy till his 
 death." 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, a distinguished char- 
 acter in English history, was born of a good 
 family at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, and re- 
 ceived a careful education. He met with sev- 
 eral narrow escapes when a child. Among 
 other occurrences, a huge ape seized the infant 
 and carried it to the house-top, refusing, for a 
 long time, to relinquish his prey. He always 
 retained a vivid recollection of a gigantic female 
 figure which appeared at his bedside and foretold 
 Ins future greatness. The excesses in which 
 Cromwell indulged on quitting the university, 
 were ended by his marriage with Elizabeth 
 Bouchier, daughter of a baronet of Essex, at 
 the age of twenty-one. 
 
 In 1625, he was chosen to a seat in parlia- 
 ment, and then, as well as in 1628, gained dis- 
 tinction by the energy with which he opposed 
 the measures of the royalists and the bishops. 
 In 1640, after a temporary retirement, he was re- 
 turned from Cambridge, and became a frequent 
 speaker, always opposing the court, and attack- 
 ing the church. In 1642, when hostilities 
 were determined upon, Cromwell raised a troop 
 of horse, and seized the plate of the university 
 at Cambridge to defray the expenses of the 
 war. He soon acquired the rank of Colonel, 
 and the superior courage of his troops, procured 
 for them at Marston Moor the name of Iron- 
 sides. He also distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Newbury (1643) . He had now gained 
 so great an influence, that, when the famous 
 self-denying ordinance was passed, by which all 
 members of either house, were excluded from 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CRO 
 
 204 
 
 CRU 
 
 command in the army, Cromwell was particu- 
 larly excepted. He was constituted lieutenant- 
 general, and by his skill and courage the battle 
 of Naseby was won in 1645, and decided the 
 fate of the royalists. This victory was followed 
 by a series of successes for which he was voted 
 a pension of 2,5001. per annum, and the thanks 
 of the house. Charles I was betrayed by the 
 Scotch to the parliament. Cromwell contrived 
 to get him into bis power ; he then turned out 
 of the house those members who were not likely 
 to be gained over to his purpose, so that no ob- 
 stacle remained to the trial of the king. He acted 
 in this with great address, was present at the 
 trial and execution, and concluded the tragic 
 scene by gazing sternly at the body of Charles 
 in his coffin. 
 
 After suppressing a mutiny in the army, 
 Cromwell, in 1649, went to Ireland, which he 
 subdued, and leaving Ireton as deputy, returned 
 to England in 1650. Being appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief against the Scots, who had 
 arrived to restore Charles II, he gained the 
 battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, 1650, and that day, 
 twelvemonth, defeated the royal forces at Wor- 
 cester. He now began to carry into execution 
 his favorite project, by moulding the army to 
 his will ; and then, at one stroke, entering with 
 300 soldiers, he dismissed the parliament, and 
 dissolved the Council of State ; afterwards he 
 called one composed of his own officers. He 
 next convened a mock representation of the 
 nation, composed of 123 persons, who, being 
 his own creatures, agreed to resign their au- 
 thority. On this, the council of officers declared 
 him Lord Protector of the commonwealth of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. The follow- 
 ing year he called a parliament, but finding the 
 members refractory, he made each member take 
 an oath of allegiance to him, and dissolved them 
 after a session of five months. In 1656, another 
 parliament confirmed his title, and sanctioned 
 his proceedings. He was inaugurated with 
 great pomp. In 1658, he convened the two 
 houses, and addressed them in the form ordina- 
 rily employed by the kings of England. He 
 dissolved this assembly, and in the August of 
 the same year, his favorite daughter, Mrs. 
 Claypole, bitterly reproached him for his con- 
 duct. He now experienced all the dread which 
 tyrants feel, went constantly armed, and was 
 horror-struck at the publication of a pamphlet 
 by Colonel Titus, entitled Killing JYo Murder, 
 m which the author endeavored to prove his 
 assassination a public duty. 
 
 These circumstances are supposed to have 
 
 produced a slow fever, of which he died Sep- 
 tember 3, 1658, in the 59th year of his age. 
 His body was interred in Westminister abbey, 
 from which it was taken at the Restoration, 
 and hanged on the gibbet and afterwards buried 
 beneath it. 
 
 CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Essex, son 
 of a blacksmith at Putney, in Surrey, was born 
 about the year 1490. Early in life he became 
 clerk to the English factory at Antvvep, which 
 he left to serve in Italy, where he fought be- 
 neath the banners of the constable of Bourbon. 
 Returning home, he was taken into the service 
 of Cardinal Wolsey, who procured him a seat 
 in the House of Commons. When Wolsey fell, 
 Cromwell became a servant of the king, was 
 raised to the office of Chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, and, in 1534, made secretary of state, and 
 master of the rolls. About this time he was 
 also elected Chancellor of Cambridge. The 
 next year he was appointed visitor-general of 
 the monasteries. In 1536, he was made lord 
 keeper of the privy-seal, and the same year 
 advanced to the peerage by the title of Lord 
 Cromwell ; and the papal supremacy being 
 abolished, he was nominated the king's vicar- 
 general in the convocation. In 1537, he was 
 appointed chief-justice itinerant of all the for- 
 ests beyond Trent, elected knight of the gartar, 
 and made dean of W^ells. To these honors was 
 added the grant of many manors after the disso- 
 lution of the monasteries, and, in 1539, he was 
 created earl of Essex. Soon after, his fortune 
 declined as fast as it had risen. His ruin was 
 hastened by the marriage which he projected 
 between Henry and Anne of Cleves, and he 
 was sent to the Tower, where he was deserted 
 by all his friends except Cranmer, who, how- 
 ever, could not save him from the scaffold, and 
 he suffered death with fortitude, July 28th, 
 1540. 
 
 CRONSTADT, a Russian seaport and for- 
 tress on an island in the gulf of Finland, 
 founded by Peter II, in 1710. It is a naval depot, 
 and contains 40,000 inhabitants, one-fourth of 
 whom are sailors. 
 
 CROTONA, a Greek republic in Magna 
 Grecia, the birthplace of Milo, the famous wrest- 
 ler, and noted for producing the best combat- 
 tants for the circus. Its ruins are visible near 
 Cape Colonna. 
 
 CRUSADES, or Croisades, the name given 
 to the expeditions fitted out by the Christian 
 warriors of Europe, for the recovery of the Holy 
 Land, from the end of the 11th to the end of 
 the 13th century. The Crusades derived their 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CRU 
 
 205 
 
 CRU 
 
 name from the badge of the cross which was 
 wrought upon their mantles, and appeared in 
 various parts of their equipments. The age 
 was one in which the people were peculiarly 
 adapted to the reception of enthusiastic reli- 
 gious impulses. The Christians could not bear 
 to think that the places which they held so dear, 
 and which the history of their religion hallowed, 
 should be desecrated by the presence of infidels, 
 and rendered dangerous to those pilgrims whom 
 a sincere feeling of reverence called to Pales- 
 tine. The church called upon the chivalry of 
 Europe, and the knights responded to the sum- 
 mons. 
 
 The rise of the Crusades is immediately at- 
 tributable to the enthusiasm of a wandering 
 pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, who, having 
 experienced the tyrannical exactions imposed on 
 the visiters of the Holy Sepulchre, represented 
 them to pope Urban II, in such lively colors, 
 that the prelate selected him as the instrument 
 of a grand design which he had formed to over- 
 throw the Mohammedan power, and Peter, 
 armed with the Holy Commission, went from 
 province to province, to kindle up that enthu- 
 siasm by which he was himself consuming. 
 
 When the feelings of the people and the po- 
 tentates appeared ripe for some wild project, 
 Urban held a council in the open fields at Pia- 
 cenza, and proposed his scheme, which was 
 warmly applauded, but not as warmly embraced. 
 Another council was therefore held at Clermont, 
 graced by the presence of ambassadors from all 
 nations, and the result was as favorable as he 
 could have anticipated. The pope held out to 
 the Crusaders the promise of spiritual pardon, 
 and imposed on them only the penance of plun- 
 der for their sins. Thus excited, the enthusi- 
 asm became general ; noblemen sold their estates 
 for outfits ; the meanest lords of the manors set 
 forth at their own expense ; the poor gentle- 
 men followed them as esquires; and above 
 80,000 collected under the banners of the cross. 
 Godfrey of Boulogne was at the head of 70,000 
 foot, and 10,000 horse, splendidly armed, were 
 under the command of many lords who were 
 joined by Hugh, brother to Philip I, of France, 
 Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, king of 
 Sicily, and others of equal and less note. A 
 proposal was made to the pope to put himself 
 at their head, but he refused. This refusal, 
 however, did not damp their ardor. 
 
 Confiding in their cause, their numbers, and 
 their equipments, they traversed Germany and 
 Hungary, took Nice, Antioch, and Edessa,and 
 arrived at Jerusalem, in July 1099. The city 
 
 was taken after five weeks siege. All but the 
 Christians were massacred, and the army of 
 crusaders after the perpetration of unparal- 
 leled atrocities, went to shed their tears at the 
 sepulchre of Christ. Godfrey, of Boulogne, 
 (not without opposition from the priests), was 
 elected king of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. 
 In 1102, an immense army which departed for 
 the Holy Land, was defeated, and no fewer 
 than 200,000 men lost to Europe by the enter- 
 prise. The capture of Baldwin and the loss of 
 Edessa, occasioned a new crusade. 
 
 France again gave the impulse to their reli- 
 gious excitement. Pope Eugenius III, induced 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux, to act the part of 
 Peter the Hermit, and the consequence was 
 that Louis the Young, accompanied by his 
 wife, Eleanor of Guienne, departed for the 
 Holy Land, and Conrad III, in whose hands 
 the red cross was placed, led a large army into 
 Asia. Both of them, however, were unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 The unfortunate issue of the second crusade 
 was precipitated by the dissensions of the Christ- 
 ians, and the uncommon abilities of the Sultan 
 Saladin, who, advancing at the head of an army 
 that placed implicit confidence in the courage 
 and skill of their leader, animated by a religious 
 fury, no less absorbing than that which filled 
 the* breast of the Crusaders, threw himself upon 
 Jerusalem, which, unable to hold out against 
 him, once more echoed to the shouts of Sara- 
 cen conquerors, as they again erected their 
 crescent on the ramparts of the city. The 
 Christians lost all their possessions but Antioch, 
 Tripoli, Joppa, and Tyre. 
 
 The leaders of the third crusade (1 189) were 
 Frederick I, of Germany, surnamed Barbarossa, 
 the chivalric Philip-Augustus of France, and 
 the lion-hearted Richard I, of England. Bar- 
 barossa was ultimately unsuccessful, but the 
 monarchs of France and England took posses- 
 sion of Ptolemais or Acre. Philip-Augustus, 
 from motives of jealousy , left the field to Rich- 
 ard, who proved himself a worthy rival of Sal- 
 adin, and the two commanders performed won- 
 derful feats of arms which were the admiration 
 of both armies. The fourth crusade was con- 
 ducted by Andrew II, king of Hungary, and 
 the fifth by Frederick II of Germany. The 
 results of these ought to have shown that the 
 Christians could not hope to gain permanent 
 possession of the country. It was this time 
 that St. Louis, king of France, undertook the 
 sixth and last crusade, which, though well con- 
 ceived, and vigorously carried on, was unsuc- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 CUM 
 
 206 
 
 CUR 
 
 cessful. In the last crusade no fewer than 
 150,000 persons perished : add to this the num- 
 bers that died in former expeditions, and it 
 will be seen that the east was the tomb of 
 above two millions of Europeans ; and several 
 countries were depopulated and impoverished 
 by the crusades. Yet the Holy Wars were not 
 without good. They created an intimate con- 
 nection and a constant intercourse between the 
 nations of Europe, which, as it was favorable to 
 commercial enterprise, increased the wealth, 
 improved the arts, and contributed to establish 
 the civilization of the Christian world. 
 
 CUBA is subject to the king of Spain, and 
 is the largest of the West India Islands. It is 
 257 leagues long, and 38 broad. The island is 
 rich and fertile. Its whole revenue has been 
 estimated at $7,500,000, and the government 
 expenses at $6,500,000. The population, ac- 
 cording to the census of 1827, was 704.467; 
 311 ,051 whites ; 57,504 free mulattoes ; 48,980 
 free negroes ; 286,942 mulatto and negro slaves. 
 Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492. 
 In 1511 it was conquered by the Spaniards, and 
 as little gain was anticipated from the mines, 
 the natives were cruelly exterminated. 
 
 In 1762 a powerful expedition for the con- 
 quest of the island was fitted out by the British, 
 and Havana capitulated in August. The plun- 
 der obtained by the British was immense. By 
 the treaty of 1763, Cuba was restored to the 
 Spaniards in exchange for the Floridas. 
 
 CULLODEN MUIR; a heath in Scotland, 
 where the Duke of Cumberland defeated the 
 Pretender, after an obstinate resistance, on the 
 27th of April, 1746. 
 
 CULM ; a Bohemian village where the 
 French under Vandamme were beaten by the 
 allied Russian and Prussians, Aug. 30th. 1813. 
 CUMA or Cyme, the largest city of Eolis 
 in Asia Minor, the birth-place of the Cumasan 
 sibyl. 
 
 CUM-l-E ; a city of Campania, founded by 
 Chalcis about 1030 B. C, taken by the Cam- 
 panians420 B. C, by the Romans 345 B. C, 
 and eventually destroyed A. D. 1207. 
 
 CUMANA, the name of a province and city. 
 ofVenezuela. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, William, Duke of, second 
 son of George II, was born in 1721. He was 
 wounded at the battle of Dettingen,but refused 
 the assistance of a surgeon until the latter had 
 finished dressing the wound of a poor soldier, 
 who had been shot at the same time with him- 
 self. He commanded the British army at the 
 battles of Fontenov and Val, which were lost 
 
 through the cowardice of the Dutch troops. 
 In 1746 he defeated the Pretender at Culloden, 
 but disgraced his character by his cruel treat- 
 ment of the vanquished. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, Richard, an English dra- 
 matist and miscellaneous author, son of the 
 bishop of Cloufert, was born in 1732, and edu- 
 cated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He be- 
 came private secretary of the earl of Halifax, 
 and died in London, May 7, 1811. His fame 
 rests altogether on his comic dramas. He was 
 extremely sensitive, self-conceited and jealous, 
 and Sheridan, considering him as fair game, 
 held him up to ridicule as Sir Fretful Plagiary. 
 He was much annoyed at the success of the 
 School for Scandal, and it was only for fear of 
 exciting ridicule by refusing to witness it, that 
 he carried two of his children to see the play. 
 Cumberland sat behind them, the picture of 
 jealousy and envy. When they laughed at 
 any criticisms, in common with the audience, 
 Cumberland would gravely extend a finger and 
 thumb, inflict a severe pinch, and say : " What 
 are you laughing at, my dears? I don't see any- 
 thing to laugh at." This anecdote, however, 
 is related on the authority of Kelly, the com- 
 poser, the founder of whose family " must have 
 drawn a long bow at the battle of Hastings." 
 
 CUNERSDORF, a village on the Oder, at 
 no great distance from Frankfort, where Fred 
 eric the Great was defeated by the Russians in 
 1759. 
 
 CUPID, the god of love among the ancients, 
 the son of Mars and Venus. 
 
 CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean Sea, 
 belonging to the Netherlands. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 CURDS, wandering tribes whose country lies 
 partly in Persia, and partly in the Ottoman em- 
 pire, bordering on the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 They are in part Mohammedans, and in part 
 Christians, and mostly predatory in their habits. 
 CURIUS DENTATUS, Marcus Annius, a 
 Roman consul, famous for his fortitude and 
 frugality. He gained several victories, and de- 
 feated Pyrrhus, B. C. 272. The Samnite am- 
 bassadors found him cooking some vegetables 
 for his dinner in an earthen pot, yet he indig- 
 nantly refused the vessels of gold with which 
 they attempted to bribe him. 
 
 CURTIUS, Marcus, a noble Roman youth ; 
 it is related, that when a pestilential chasm 
 opened in the Roman forum, 362 B. C. and 
 the oracle declared that it could only be closed 
 when the most precious thing in Rome was 
 thrown into it, Curtius, saying that arms and 
 courage were invaluable, assumed his military 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CYR 
 
 207 
 
 CYR 
 
 dress, and mounting an armed horse, sprang into 
 the abyss, which closed over him for ever. 
 
 CUSCO, the ancient capital of the Peruvian 
 empire, said to have been founded by Manco 
 Capac. It contains 20 or 30,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CUSHING, Thomas, a patriotic American, 
 born in 1725. He early obtained a seat in the 
 General Court of Massachusetts, and was 
 chosen speaker of the house of representatives. 
 The supposed extent of his influence induced 
 Doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet, " Taxation 
 no Tyranny," to remark — " One object of the 
 Americans is said to be, to adorn the brows 
 of Mr. Cushing with a diadem." Mr. C. was a 
 member of the two first continental congresses, 
 and of the council of Massachusetts, and was 
 created judge of the court of common pleas, 
 and of probate in the county of Suffolk. Hav- 
 ing been honored with the post of lieutenant- 
 governor of his native state, he died 1788. 
 
 CUTLER, Timothy, a talented American 
 divine, sometime president of Yale College. He 
 became rector of Christ Church, in Boston, and 
 died in his 82d year, Aug. 17, 1765. 
 
 CUVIER, George Lel^old Christian Fred- 
 eric Dagobert, baron of, a celebrated naturalist, 
 born at'Montbeliard, Aug. 25, 1709. His re- 
 searches are well known to the generality of 
 readers. He died 1832. 
 
 CYCLADES, in ancient geography, a name 
 given to certain islands in the Mgea.n Sea, par- 
 ticularly those that surround Delos as with a 
 circle. They were subjected by Miltiades, but 
 revolted during the Persian invasion. 
 
 CYCLOPS, one-eyed giants, who were em- 
 ployed in forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. 
 The name usually designates the three assist- 
 ants of Vulcan, but it was believed that there 
 was a nation of them. 
 
 CYPRUS, an island in the Mediterranean 
 Sea, famed among the ancients for its uncom- 
 mon fertility and the mildness of its climate. 
 It contains 120,000 inhabitants. Venus was 
 worshipped here. Its original colonists are un- 
 known. The Egyptians took it in 550 B. C. 
 and the Romans, 58 B. C. It was occupied for 
 some time by the Arabs on the decline of the 
 Roman empire. They were, however, driven 
 from it during the crusades, and the title of 
 king of Cyprus was for some time held by 
 Richard I of England. In 1480 it fell into 
 the hands of the Venetians, from whom it was 
 wrested, in ..1750, by the Turks. 
 
 CYRENAICA, now called in Arabic Djebel 
 Akhdar, or the Green Highlands, was ancient- 
 ly a Greek colony, in the north of Africa. At 
 
 present it contains about 40,000 inhabitants, and 
 exhibits traits of former cultivation. 
 
 CYRUS : Concerning this monarch there are 
 two distinct and irreconcilable accounts, those 
 of Herodotus and Xenophon. The latter in 
 his Cyrapedia, has rather given us the picture 
 of what a monarch should be, than of what a 
 monarch was, and the account of Herodotus is 
 generally adhered to in historical narratives. 
 Cyrus, king of Persia, was the son of Camby- 
 ses and Maudane, the daughter of A sty ages. 
 From a belief that he was fated to dethrone his 
 grandfather, he was exposed as soon as born ; 
 but was preserved by a shepherdess who edu- 
 cated him as her own son. As he was play- 
 ing with his equals in years, he was elected a 
 king in one of their sports, and he exercised his 
 power with such an independent spirit, that he 
 ordered one of his companions to be whipped 
 severely for disobedience. The father of the 
 boy, who was a nobleman, complained to the 
 king of the ill-treatment which his son had re- 
 ceived from a shepherd's boy. Astyages order- 
 ed Cyrus before him, and discovered that he 
 was Maudane's son, from whom he had so 
 much to apprehend. He therefore treat- 
 ed him with suspicious coldness ; and Cyrus, 
 unable to bear his tyranny, escaped from his 
 confinement and began to levy troops to de- 
 throne his grandfather. He was assisted and 
 encouraged by the ministers of Astyages, who 
 were displeased with his oppression. Cyrus 
 marched against and defeated Astyages in a 
 battle fought B. C. 560. From this victory the 
 empire of Media became tributary to the Per- 
 sians. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, 
 and made war against Croesus, king of Lydia, 
 whom he conquered B. C. 548. He invaded 
 the kingdom of Assyria, and took the citj 
 of Babylon by drying the channels of the Eu- 
 phrates, and marching his troops through the 
 bed of the river while the people were cele- 
 brating a grand festival. He afterwards led 
 his troops against Tomyris, the queen of the 
 Massagetae, a Scythian nation, but was defeat- 
 ed in a bloody battle, B. C. 529. The victorious 
 queen, who had lost her son in a previous en- 
 counter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that 
 she cut off his head, and threw it into a vessel 
 filled with human blood ; crying, " Satisfy thy- 
 self with the blood for which thou hast thirsted." 
 
 CYRUS, the Younger, was the son of Darius 
 Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes. On the 
 death of his father, he attempted the life of his 
 brother, to obtain the throne, but was pardon- 
 ed through the intercession of his mother Pary- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 DAL 
 
 208 
 
 DAN 
 
 satis. He then obtained the governorship of 
 Lydia, whence he marched against his brother. 
 The war ended with the death of Cyrus, B. C. 
 400. 
 
 CYTHERA, the ancient name of an island 
 in the Ionian sea, now Ccrigo, containing a 
 population of 8,000. Venus was worshipped 
 here, and here was one of her most splendid 
 temples ; hence she was called Cytherea. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACIER, Anna Lefevre ; the wife of Andre 
 Dacier, a literary lady of high reputation, born 
 in France in 1651. She edited and translated 
 several of the ancient classics, and distinguished 
 herself by her defence of Homer in answer to 
 Lamotte. She died in 1720. 
 
 DCEDALUS, an artist and machinist who 
 lived three generations before the Trojan war. 
 He was the builder of the Cretan Labyrinth. 
 Being imprisoned with his son, Icarus, he is 
 said to have invented wings cemented with 
 wax, by which they soared high in the air. 
 Icarus, neglecting the instructions of his father, 
 fell into the sea, which was named from him 
 Icarian. His father reached Sicily, and founded 
 a town there. 
 
 DAHOMY, a fertile kingdom of western 
 Africa, the monarch and people of which are 
 ferocious in the extreme. The king's sleeping- 
 chamber is paved with the skulls and orna- 
 mented with the jaw-bones of his vanquished 
 enemies. 
 
 DALE, Richard, a captain in the American 
 navy, was born in Virginia in 1756, and com- 
 manded a merchant vessel in 1775. He served 
 on board the Bonne Homme Richard under 
 Paul Jones, and was the first to spring to the 
 deck of the Serapis in the bloody engagement 
 which resulted in her capture. He died Feb. 
 24, 1826. 
 
 DALLAS, Alexander James, a native of Ja- 
 maica, an able lawyer, who came to this coun- 
 try, in 1783, and held various responsible offices 
 under our government, being made secretary 
 of the United States treasury in 1801, when he 
 resigned the office of attorney-general. In 1815 
 he assumed the duties of secretary at war, and 
 on him devolved the task of reducing the army. 
 He had the satisfaction to see the currency of 
 the country saved by means of the United 
 States bank, which it had long been his object 
 to establish. He died Jan 16, 1817. 
 
 DALMATIA, a kingdom belonging to Aus- 
 tria, lying on the Adriatic sea, and containing 
 
 320,000 inhabitants. It was conquered by the 
 Venetians in the 15th century. 
 
 DAMASCUS, a city of Syria in the fertile 
 pachalic of Damascus, well-built and of great 
 commercial importance. The population ac- 
 cording to Burckhardt, is 250,000. Napoloan 
 threatened the city, but being foiled in the siege 
 of Acre, relinquished his design. 
 
 D AMIENS, Robert Francois, a crazy fanatic, 
 who stabbed Louis XV, at Versailles, on the 
 5th of January 1757. He had long meditated 
 the deed, and took opium to prepare himself. 
 According to the provisions of his sentence, 
 after the most cruel tortures, he was torn in 
 pieces by horses on the Place de Greve at Paris, 
 March 28, 1757. 
 
 DAMIETTA, a spacious city of Lower 
 Egypt, with 30,000 inhabitants, anciently called 
 Thanilatis. It exhibits all the striking beauties 
 of a fine oriental city, and is a place of great 
 commerce. It was taken by the crusaders, but 
 surrendered again to the Saracens. 
 
 DAMON and PYTHIAS, two Syracusans, 
 who were devotedly attached to each other. 
 Dionysius, the tyran^ condemned Pythias to 
 death, but allowed him to absent himself in 
 order to arrange his affairs, on condition that 
 Damon should remain as hostage. The ap- 
 pointed time having expired, Damon was led 
 to the scaffold, and the executioner was about 
 to raise his axe, when Pythias arrived, breath- 
 less with haste, threw himself into the arms of 
 his friend, and embraced him tenderly. Diony- 
 sius moved by the scene, in common with the 
 people, restored both of the friends to the enjoy- 
 ment of life and liberty. 
 
 DAMPIER, William, an English navigator, 
 born in 1652, known for his adventures in both 
 hemispheres. His journals of his voyages have 
 been printed in three volumes. 
 
 DANDOLO, Henry, a doge of Venice, filled 
 the highest office in the gift of the republic in 
 1192, being then 84 years old. Neither his age 
 nor his defective vision prevented him from 
 discharging his duties with honor. Joining the 
 fourth crusade, he was the first to spring on 
 shore with the standard of St. Mark, at the 
 storming of Constantinople. He died at the 
 age of {(7. 
 
 DANIEL, a Hebrew prophet, a man of strict 
 virtue, and supernatural powers, for whose his- 
 tory the reader is referred to the old Testament. 
 
 DANTE or Durante Alighieri, was born in 
 Florence in 1265. As a scholar and a soldier 
 he was early celebrated, and as the lover of Be- 
 atrice Portinari (who died in 1290), no less fa- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DAN 
 
 209 
 
 DAR 
 
 mous. He was married the year after the death 
 of Beatrice, but he never forgot her. At the 
 time of the troubles between the Bianchi and 
 Neri in Florence, Dante espoused the cause of 
 the former, and his property was confiscated. 
 He went from place to place restless, and un- 
 happy, loathing a state of dependence, yet un- 
 able to retrieve his fortune. He died at Raven- 
 na, Sept. 14, 1321. The fame of his Divina 
 Commedia is imperishable, and the Florentines, 
 who had persecuted him during his life-time, 
 paid him the highest honors at his death. " His 
 characters were those of his own period, with 
 whose history the public were acquainted, and 
 whose families and descendants were alive, and 
 frequently in the enjoyment of wealth and pow- 
 er. But the position in which he placed them, 
 threw an interest round their story, stronger 
 than could have been produced by the adven- 
 tures of any individual, however illustrious, of 
 a more remote date. The terror and pity, and 
 in some cases the vengeance of the Italians was 
 awakened, when the shadowy forms of their 
 contemporaries were made to pass in review 
 before them, stripped of those external advan- 
 tages which while living had rendered them 
 respected, and had cast a veil over their crimes. 
 The cruel husband shrunk from the picture of 
 his murdered wife, herself condemned to perdi- 
 tion, yet prophecy ing that for him was destined 
 the lowest pit in hell. The son beheld his fa- 
 ther plunged in eternal wo, yet continuing to 
 feel a tender interest in his welfare. The 
 treacherous assassin, who still occupied his 
 place among the nobles of the land, trembled 
 atrseeing himself represented as in hell, while, 
 according to the bold supposition of the poet, 
 a demon animated his body. The ' mighty 
 mantle' itself was no protection to the wearer. 
 Pope Nicholas III, plunged head foremost in 
 the flames, was represented as waiting there 
 for the arrival of his guilty successors. The 
 effect was indescribable. Some, unable to en- 
 dure the contempt of their countrymen, con- 
 demned themselves to voluntary exile; some, 
 struck with terror and despair, died broken- 
 hearted ; and others fell victims to the private 
 vengeance of the poet's friends." 
 
 DANTON, a French revolutionary leader, 
 who on the fall of Robespierre, was condemned 
 to the scaffold. His character was a singular 
 mixture. Although talented, brave, and mag- 
 nanimous, he was also weak, cruel, and parsi- 
 monious. 
 
 DANTZIC, a city of West Prussia, on the 
 Vistula, containing 54,000 inhabitants. It was 
 
 founded in the 12th century. In 1709 it was 
 ravaged by the plague, and in 1734 taken by 
 the Russians and Saxons. May 1807 the French 
 captured it after a long siege. It was occupied 
 by a French garrison until Napoleon's disas- 
 trous campaign in Russia, after which it was 
 blockaded, and bravely defended by general 
 Rapp. It surrendered, however, and in 1814, 
 reverted to Prussia. 
 
 DARDANELLES, the four castles on the 
 European and Asiatic sides of the Hellespont, 
 which is called the " Strait of the Dardanelles." 
 
 DARFUR or DARFOOR, the name of a 
 large kingdom between Abyssinia and Bornou, 
 in central Africa. The inhabitants are Moham- 
 medans, half barbarous, extensively engaged in 
 commerce, and living under a despotic govern- 
 ment. 
 
 DARIEN, a town of Georgia, which con- 
 tained in 1830, about 500 inhabitants. 
 
 DARIUS. The name of several sovereigns 
 of Persia, of whom the first is the most celebra- 
 ted. Darius I, a noble satrap of Persia, was 
 the son of Hystaspes, and conspired with six 
 other noblemen, to destroy Smerdis, the usurp- 
 er of the Persian crown. After the death of 
 the usurper, it was agreed among the conspira- 
 tors that he whose horse first neighed, should 
 be appointed king. In consequence of this 
 singular resolution, the groom of Darius led his 
 master's horse with a mare to the place near 
 which the seven noblemen were to pass. On 
 the morrow before sunrise, when they proceed- 
 ed all together, the horse of Darius neighed, 
 and he was saluted by his companions king. 
 He soon showed himself fitted to grace a throne. 
 He took Babylon, and conquered Thrace ; was 
 defeated by the Scythians, but favored by for- 
 tune in his campaign against the Indians. The 
 burning of Sardis, which was a Grecian colony, 
 incensed the Athenians and a war was kindled 
 between them and the Persians, in which the 
 latter were unsuccessful. Undismayed at the 
 disaster at Marathon and his immense losses, 
 Darius resolved to lead his troops to Greece in 
 person, but died in the midst of his warlike pre- 
 parations. B. C. 485. 
 
 DARIUS III, surnamed Codomanus, the son 
 of Arsanes and Sysigambis, was descended 
 from Darius Nothus. He was no sooner seated 
 on the throne than Alexander of Maced on inva- 
 ded his kingdom. The Persians were defeated 
 in the battles of the Granicus and Issus, in the 
 last of which, Darius, leaving his wife, children, 
 and mother, fled in disguise on the horse of his 
 armour-bearer, and was saved by the darkness 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 DAV 
 
 210 
 
 DEA 
 
 of the night. Being again defeated in the bat- 
 tle of Arbela, Dirius in despair fled to Media, 
 where he was killed by Bessus, the perfidious 
 governor of Bactria, and was found by the 
 Macedonians in his chariot, expiring of his 
 wounds, B. C. 331. 
 
 DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician 
 and poet, barn in 1721, at Elton, was the au- 
 thor of the Botanic Garden, and other celebrated 
 works. He died in 1802. 
 
 DAVENAiNT, Sir William, an English poet 
 of the 17th century, the author of Gondibert, a 
 heroic poem, and a theatrical writer and man- 
 ager under Charles II. 
 
 DAVID, king of Israel, one of the most re- 
 markable characters in Jewish History. The 
 occurrences of his life are detailed in scripture. 
 DAVID, Jacques Louis, a French painter, born 
 at Paris in 1750, died at Brussels in 1625. Da- 
 vid, though an uncornpromisingdemocrat, voting 
 for the death of Louis XVI, was the first painter 
 of the Emperor Napoleon, and was exiled on his 
 fall. Among his finest works are Paris and 
 Helen, the Rape of the Sabine women, and 
 Napoleon crossing the Alps. His best perform- 
 ances in portrait painting are the numerous 
 likenesses of his imperial patron. The original 
 sketch for one of these, which indeed was never 
 afterwards finished, was taken during the last 
 few hours of unlimited power possessed by Napo- 
 leon in Paris. The greater part of the preced- 
 ing day and night had been spent in arrang- 
 ing the final operations of the campaign which 
 terminated in the battle of Waterloo. When 
 now past midnight, instead of retiring to repose, 
 the emperor sent for David, to whom he had 
 promised to sit, and who was in waiting in an 
 apartment of the Tuileries. " My friend," said 
 Napoleon, to the artist; "there are yet some 
 hours till four, when we are finally to review 
 the defences of the capital ; in the mean time, 
 faitts votre possible (do your utmost), while I 
 read these despatches." But exhausted nature 
 could hold out no longer ; the paper dropped 
 from the nerveless hand, and Napoleon sank to 
 sleep. In this attitude the painter has represent- 
 ed him : — the pale and lofty forehead, the care- 
 worn features, the relaxed expression, the very 
 accompaniments bear an impress inexpressibly 
 tender and melancholy. With the dawn Na- 
 poleon awoke, and springing to his feet, was 
 about to address David, when a taper just expir- 
 ing in its socket, arrested his eye. Folding his 
 arms on his breast, an usual posture of thought, 
 he contemplated its dying struggles, when, 
 with the last gleam, the rays of the morning 
 
 sun penetrated through the half-closed window- 
 curtains. " Were I superstitious," said Napo- 
 leon, a faint smile playing about his beautiful 
 mouth, " the first object on which my sight has 
 rested this day, might be deemed ominous; 
 but," pointing" to the rising sun, " the augury 
 is doubtful — at least the prayer of the Grecian 
 hero will be recorded — we shall perish in 
 light." 
 
 "DAVIDSON, Lucretia Maria, a young Amer- 
 ican girl, who displayed great talents for com- 
 position at the age of 4 years. She died of 
 incessant application, August 27, 1825. She 
 was born at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, 
 September 27th, 1808. Her Amir Khan and 
 other poems, were published in a volume. 
 
 DA VIE, William Richardson, a distinguished 
 character in the American revolution. He held 
 the rank of general, and was afterwards gov- 
 ernor of North Carolina, and envoy to France. 
 He was born in England, 1756, and died at 
 Camden (S. C), in 1820. 
 
 DAVIES, Samuel, a distinguished American 
 divine, president of Nassau Hall, born in Dela- 
 ware, Nov. 3, 1724, died in 1762. 
 
 DAVIS, John, an English navigator, who 
 gave his name to the Straits which lie between 
 Greenland and New Britain, which he entered 
 in endeavoring to discover the northwest pas 
 sage. He was killed by the Japanese in 1605. 
 
 DAVOUST, Louis Nicholas; duke of Aner- 
 stadt and prince of Eckmuhl, marshal and peer 
 of France, born in 1770, died in 1823. He 
 studied with Bonaparte, and served under him 
 in his most brilliant campaigns. He only sub- 
 mitted to Louis XVII, when the hopes of Na- 
 poleon were destroyed. 
 
 DAVY, Sir Humphrey, a distinguished Eng- 
 lish chemist, born in 1779, at Penzance, Corn- 
 wall, died at Geneva, 1819. His experiments on 
 the nature of explosive gas, to which his atten- 
 tion was directed by the frequent accidents oc- 
 curing to mines from fire damps, resulted in the 
 invention of the safety -lamp. Other important 
 discoveries were made by this distinguished 
 man. 
 
 DEAD SEA, or Asphaltites (the lake of 
 Bitumen), a piece of water in Palestine, 180 
 miles in circuit, which occupies the space 
 whereon the condemned cities of the vale of 
 Siddim stood. The following account of it is 
 from the pen of a late traveller. " After the pil- 
 grims had bathed in the Jordan, we left them 
 and turned down to the south, in company with 
 three or four other English travellers, and a 
 guard from the governor, to visit the Dead Sea 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DEC 
 
 211 
 
 DEL 
 
 We rode across plains of barren sand for an 
 hour and a half, when we stood upon the banks 
 of this memorable lake. Without any refer- 
 ence to what others have said, I can testify to 
 the following facts. The water is perfectly 
 clear and transparent. The taste is bitter, and 
 salt far beyond that of the ocean. It acts upon 
 the tongue and mouth like alum, and smarts in 
 the eye like camphor, and produces a burning 
 pricking sensation over the whole body. It 
 stiffened the hair of the head much like poma- 
 tum. The water has a much greater specific 
 gravity than the human body, and hence, no 
 efforts cause us to sink below the surface ; and 
 standing perpendicularly, you would not de- 
 scend lower than the arms. Although there 
 was evidence in the sands thrown upon the 
 beach, that in great storms there were waves, 
 yet there appeared to be some foundation for 
 the reports of its immobility. Notwithstanding 
 there was a considerable breeze, the water lay 
 perfectly lifeless. Historians say that large 
 quantities of bitumen were gathered from the 
 surface of this lake ; and is it not quite possi- 
 ble, to say the least, that it formerly existed in 
 such quantities as to spread over the whole face 
 of the sea, and thus effectually prevent the 
 wind from interrupting its death-like quietude ? 
 Modern travellers state that there is very little 
 of this substance now to be found, and certainly 
 we saw nothing like it. We saw no fish or liv- 
 ing animals in the water, though birds were 
 flying over it in various directions unharmed. 
 We all noticed an unnatural gloom hanging, 
 not merely over the sea, but also over the whole 
 plain below Jericho. This is mentioned also 
 by ancient historians. It had the appearance 
 of the Indian summer of the valley. Like a 
 vast funeral pall let down from heaven, it com- 
 pletely shuts out all prospect, at a short dis- 
 tance down the sea. 
 
 DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval 
 commander, born in Maryland, January 5th, 
 1779. Soon after his entrance into the navy 
 (1798), he received a first lieutenancy, and for 
 his gallant conduct in recovering the frigate 
 Philadelphia, in the harbor of Tripoli, was pro- 
 moted to the rank of Captain. He successively 
 commanded the Constitution, the Congress, 
 the Chesapeake, and the United States. With 
 the latter he captured the Macedonian, October 
 25th, 1812. In the war with Algiers (1815), 
 Decatur terrified the regency into submission 
 in 48 hours ; was equally successful at Tripoli ; 
 and procured the renunciation of tribute, and 
 an agreement on the part of the Barbary pow- 
 
 ers, to regard captives as prisoners of war and 
 not slaves. Decatur was killed in a duel by 
 Commodore Barron, March 22, 1820. 
 
 DECIUS, the name of a Roman Consul who 
 devoted himself to death in battle, to save his 
 country, B.C. 340. Also a Roman emperor, 
 who reigned from A. D. 249, till Dec. 251. He 
 persecuted the Christians. 
 . DEFOE, Daniel, an English author of great 
 celebrity, born at London in 1663. His politi- 
 cal and commercial speculations having prov- 
 ed unfortunate, he turned his entire attention 
 to literature. It is unnecessary to enumerate 
 here the various works which he produced — it 
 will be sufficient to mention his most popular 
 production, the Life and Surprising Adventures 
 of Robinson Crusoe, which he is falsely said to 
 have stolen from the papers of Alexander Sel- 
 kirk, a Scottish mariner, long the solitary in- 
 habitant of the island of Juan Fernandez. He 
 died in April, 1731. 
 
 DEJANIRA, daughter of jEneus, king of 
 Calydon, an jEtolian city ; the wife of Hercules, 
 and the innocent cause of his death. The 
 Centaur, Nessus, whom Hercules killed for 
 insulting Dejanira, in dying, gave her a tunic 
 dipped in his blood, which he said would restore 
 to her the affections of her husband if he put it 
 on. When she considered herself in danger 
 from his inconstancy, she sent Hercules the 
 garment, which he no sooner put on than a mor- 
 tal poison penetrated to his vitals, and he died 
 in agony. 
 
 DELAWARE ; one of the United States, 
 bounded north by Pennsylvania ; east by Dela- 
 ware bay, and river; south and west by Mary- 
 land. Its three counties are subdivided into 25 
 hundreds. The Legislature consists of a Senate 
 and House of Representatives. The surface 
 is, with few exceptions, level. Articles of pro- 
 duce, wheat, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, flax, 
 buckwheat, and potatoes Its first settlers were 
 the Swedes and Fins, in 1627. The Dutch 
 gained possession of it, but the English in 1664 
 became the masters of it. It was granted to 
 William Penn, and remained a separate estab- 
 lishment until the revolution. Its constitution 
 was adopted in 1792, and amended in 1831, 
 Population 78,085 including 2,605 slaves. 
 
 DELHI, a province and city of Hindoston, 
 containing about 5,000,000 inhabitants, Hin- 
 doos, Mohammedans, and Seiks. It is very fer- 
 tile, and a large and valuable portion of it 
 belongs to the British. The city contains many 
 splendid edifices. It was taken by the Moham- 
 medans in 1193, and sacked by Nadir Shah, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY}. 
 
 DFM 
 
 212 
 
 DEM 
 
 in 1739, since which the inhabitants have been 
 the victims of rapine and slaughter, among the 
 contending parties. 
 
 DELOS, the central island of the Cyclades, 
 famed in ancient times for the number and 
 skill of its artists, and for the splendid temple 
 and oracle of Apollo. It was the birth-place of 
 Apollo, and his sister Diana, and according to 
 fable, raised as an asylum to the mother, Lato- 
 na, when she was pursued from place to place 
 by the implacable Juno. 
 
 DELPHI, the seat of the oracle of Apollo, 
 situated in Phocis, on the southern side of Par- 
 nassus. The fount of inspiration was said to 
 be a chasm from which issued an intoxicating 
 vapor. This was discovered by a shepherd. 
 A temple was built over the cave, and the tri- 
 pod of the goddess (sometimes called Pythoness 
 from Pythius the surname of Apollo) was 
 placed where she could breathe the ascending 
 vapor. She was agitated with extreme fury ; 
 she howled and vowed, her eyes sparkled, and 
 she gave every evidence of being inspired by 
 divinity. The Pythian games were celebrated 
 in the vicinity of Delphi, which is now the 
 village of Castri. Under the head of iEsop 
 (which see), some remarks have been made 
 upon the nature of the responses of the oracles. 
 
 DELUGE, the flood, or inundation of waters 
 by which God destroyed mankind and animals 
 in the time of Noah, and in which, as St. Peter 
 says, only eight persons were saved. Accord- 
 ing to M. Basuage, this took place in 1656th 
 year of the world ; the rain commenced on the 
 17th of November, and the waters reached their 
 height on the 27th of March. Almost all savage 
 nations, even those sunk the deepest in barba- 
 rism, have a tradition of an universal deluge. 
 A traveller among the Indians of the northwest 
 coast of America learned this from one of the 
 savages, and asked him how long ago it occur- 
 red ? The savage scooped up from the floor of 
 his cabin a handful of sand, and promptly re- 
 plied ; " as many moons ago as there are grains 
 of sand in this heap." 
 
 DEMETRIUS, surnamed Soter, son of Sel- 
 eucus Philopater, the son of Antiochus the 
 Great, king of Syria. His father gave him as 
 a hostage to the Romans. After the death of 
 Seleucus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the deceased 
 monarch's brother, usurped the kingdom of 
 Syria, and was succeeded by his son Antiochus 
 Eupater. This usurpation displeased Deme- 
 trius, who was detained at Rome ; he therefore 
 procured his liberty on pretence of going to 
 hunt, and fled to Syria, where the troops re- 
 
 ceived him as their lawful sovereign, B. C. 
 162. He put to death Eupater, and Lysias, 
 and established himself on his throne by cruelty 
 and oppression. Alexander Balas, the son of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, laid claim to the crown 
 of Syria, and defeated Demetrius in battle in 
 the 12th year of his reign. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, a Macedonian, son of Antigo- 
 nus and Stratonica, surnamed from his suc- 
 cesses, Poliorcetes, or the destroyer of towns. 
 At the age of 22, he was sent by his father 
 against Ptolemy, who had invaded Syria. He 
 was defeated near Gaza, but soon repaired his 
 loss by a victory over one of the generals of the 
 enemy. He afterwards sailed with a fleet of 
 250 ships to Athens, and restored the Athenians 
 to liberty, by freeing them from the power of 
 Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelled the gar- 
 rison, which was stationed there under Deme- 
 trius Phalereus. After this successful expedi- 
 tion, he besieged and took Munychia, and 
 defeated Cassander at Thermopylae. This un- 
 common success raised the jealousy of the suc- 
 cessors of Alexander ; and Seleucus, Cassander, 
 and Lysimachus, united to destroy Antigonus 
 and his son. Their hostile armies met at lpsus, 
 B. C. 391 . Antigonus was killed in the battle ; 
 and Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to 
 Ephesus. His ill success raised him many 
 enemies ; and the Athenians, who lately adored 
 him as a god, refused to admit him into their 
 city. He soon after ravaged the territories of 
 Lysimachus, and reconciled himself to Seleu- 
 cus to whom he gave his daughter, Stratonice, 
 in marriage. Athens now labored under tyran- 
 ny ; and Demetrius relieved it and pardoned its 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The loss of his Asiatic possessions recalled 
 him from Greece, and he established himself 
 on the throne of Macedonia, 294 B. C. Here 
 he was continually at war with the neighboring 
 states ; and the superior power of his adversa- 
 ries obliged him to leave Macedonia, after he 
 had filled the throne seven years. He passed 
 into Asia and attacked some of the provinces 
 of Lysimachus with various success ; but fam- 
 ine and pestilence destroyed the greatest part 
 of his army, and he retired to the court of 
 Seleucus for support and assistance. He met 
 with a kind reception, but hostilities between 
 them soon began ; and after he had gained 
 some advantages over his son-in-law, Deme- 
 trius was totally forsaken by his troops in battle, 
 and became an easy prey to the enemy. Though 
 he was kept in confinement by his son-in-law, 
 yet he lived like a prince, and passed his time 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DEN 
 
 213 
 
 DES 
 
 in hunting, and in every laborious exercise. 
 His son Antigonus offered Seleucus all his pos- 
 sessions, and even his person, to procure his 
 father's liberty ; but all proved unavailing, and 
 Demetrius died in the 54th year of his age, B. 
 C. 284. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, a philosopher of Abdera, 
 who was born about 494, B. C. He is com- 
 monly called the laughing philosopher, because 
 he was said to have been in the habit of amus- 
 ing himself with the follies of mankind, while 
 Heraclitus (the weeping philosopher) wept at 
 them. He placed the chief good in a tranquil 
 mind. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, an Athenian orator, son 
 of a sword cutler, born about 381, B. O, famous 
 to have risen to the highest reputation by per- 
 severance in overcoming the apparently insur- 
 mountable obstacles which opposed him. (See 
 Athens.) He was the determined opponent of 
 Philip of Macedon, continually urging the Athe- 
 nians to resist him. The orations which he 
 delivered on these occasions were termed Phi- 
 lippics, a name since applied to all satirical 
 orations. Finding the cause of liberty prostra- 
 ted, he took poison and died 319, B. C., at the 
 age of 60 years. 
 
 DENHAM, Dixon, lieutenant-colonel in the 
 British army, associated with Captain Clapper- 
 ton, and Doctor Oudney, for the purpose of 
 exploring Central Africa. Soon after being 
 appointed lieutenant-governor of Sierra Leone, 
 he died, in 1828. 
 
 DENMARK, the larger part of which is a 
 peninsula, is generally level and fertile. The 
 climate is temperate. Among the vegetable 
 productions are oats, barley, beans, pease, and 
 potatoes. The commercial exports are princi- 
 pally grain, horses, cattle, beef, pork, butter, 
 and cheese. The population of the kingdom 
 is about 2,000,000. The Danes are a brave peo- 
 ple, but addicted to self-indulgence. The early 
 history is obscure and uninteresting, contain- 
 ing merely the adventures of predatory war- 
 riors, whose pre-eminence consisted in ferocity 
 and courage. They invaded England, and 
 established two kingdoms there. Margaret, 
 the daughter of Waldemar, often called the 
 Semiramis of the north, in 1387, united in her 
 own person, the crowns of Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Norway. This union, however, did not 
 continue longer than the beginning of the 16th 
 century, when Christian II, was obliged to 
 renounce all claims to Sweden. Christian VII 
 was unequal to the labors of government; and 
 placed the whole burden of government on his 
 
 ministers. The situation of Denmark, when 
 the affairs of Bonaparte began to assume an 
 unfavorable appearance, was critical, but Den- 
 mark concluded a treaty of peace with Sweden 
 and Great Britain in 1814. All the conquests 
 were restored with the exception of Heligoland, 
 and Swedish Pomerania and the isle of Rugen 
 were added, in consideration of the stipulated 
 annexation of Norway to Sweden, in 1815, 
 the king joined the German confederacy. The 
 government is an absolute monarchy. 
 
 DANNIES, Joseph, born in Boston 1768, and 
 educated at Harvard College, possessed a bril- 
 liant genius which he evinced in several papers 
 which he edited. He wanted industry and dis- 
 cretion, and died in 1812, of disease produced 
 by irregularity and anxiety. 
 
 DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, Louis Charles 
 Antoine, a French general, was born of a noble 
 family at St. Hilare de Agat, in Bretagne, in 
 1768. He served under Pichegru and Moreau, 
 and commanded under Bonaparte in Upper 
 Egypt, a division of troops destined to pursue 
 and keep in awe the Mamelukes, whom he 
 attacked and put to flight near the pyramids of 
 Saccara, in Upper Egypt. At the battle of 
 Marengo, the success of which was the result 
 of his opportune arrival on the field, he was 
 killed, June 14, 1800. 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene, born at La Haye, in 
 Touraine, in 1596, and died at Stockholm in 
 1650. As a soldier, mathematician, and ori- 
 ginal philosopher, he greatly distinguished him- 
 self. 
 
 DESEADA, Desirada, or Desiderada, one of 
 the small Caribbee islands, discovered by Co- 
 lumbus in 1494. 
 
 DESEZE, Raymond, the talented advocate 
 who defended the unfortunate Louis XVI. On 
 the restoration of the Bourbons, he was loaded 
 with honors. 
 
 DESHOULIERES, Antoinette; a French 
 literary ladv of great acquirements, who lived 
 in Paris from 1638, till 1694. 
 
 DESMONLINS, Benoit Camille, a French 
 revolutionist, who was condemned to death by 
 the revolutionary tribunal in June, 1794. 
 
 DESPARD, Edward Marcus, a colonel in 
 the English army, who served in America and 
 elsewhere, but who was refused payment for 
 his services when he applied for it in England. 
 This induced him to form a conspiracy against 
 the government, which was discovered in the 
 November of 1802, and punished. 
 
 DESSAIX, Joseph-Marie, Count, a native 
 of Savoy, where he was born in 1764, and dis- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 DEV 
 
 214 
 
 DID 
 
 tinguished for his military services in the French 
 army. At the siege of Toulon he bore a part. 
 He was appointed by Napoleon general of di- 
 vision, and grand officer of the legion of honor. 
 DESSALINES, Jean-Jacques, emperor of 
 Hayti, was originally a slave. After the French 
 had been expelled from the island in 1803, Des- 
 salines was appointed governor general, but as- 
 sumed the title and state of emperor ; but hav- 
 ing been guilty of many attrocities, he was 
 killed by a soldier, Oct. 17, 1806. 
 
 DETROIT, a city, port of entry, and capital 
 of Michigan. It is situated between lakes Erie 
 and St. Clair, on the west side of the river De- 
 troit. Pop. 9,102. It is well built, and defend- 
 ed by fort Shelby. It was settled by Canadian 
 French in 1683, and in 1812, was taken by the 
 British, but remained only a short time in their 
 power. 
 
 DEUX-PONTS, in German, Zweibrttcken, 
 anciently Bissons, a Bavarian city, the capital 
 of a dutchy containing 70,000 inhabitants. 
 
 DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Essex, born 
 in 1567, was educated at Cambridge, and intro- 
 duced at Court at an early age. He soon won 
 the regard of Queen Elizabeth, and on his re- 
 turn from a campaign in the Low Countries, 
 he was made master of horse. The last of his 
 two expeditions against Cadiz failed from a 
 misunderstanding between him and Raleigh. 
 Returning, Essex was made earl-marshal of 
 England, and master-general of the ordnance. 
 Essex was impetuous and indiscreet. At the 
 zenith of royal favor, he took no care of his 
 actions. At the council-board, he contradicted 
 the queen, who gave him a smart box on the 
 ear; when he rose in extreme wrath, clapped 
 his hand upon his sword, and swore that he 
 would not have taken such an affront even 
 from Henry VIII. 
 
 In Ireland, he made a composition with the 
 rebels, and quitted his government, without 
 leave for either proceeding. On his return to 
 London he was taken, tried, and beheaded, Feb- 
 ruary 25, 1601. While in prison he is said to 
 have entrusted to the countess of Nottingham a 
 ring which he had received from the queen, 
 when high in favor, with the promise to pardon 
 any offence on its presentation. Contrary to 
 her pledge, the countess retained the ring, but 
 confessed her guilt upon her death-bed, on 
 which Elizabeth is said to have exclaimed, 
 " God may forgive you, but I never will !" His 
 son, after having served Charles I, joined the 
 parliamentary party, but did not enjoy a high 
 degree of favor, and died suddenly in 1646. 
 
 DE WITT, John, grand pensioner of Hol- 
 land, a famous statesman, was born in 1625. He 
 imbibed from his father a hatred for the house 
 of Orange. Accordingly in the war between 
 England and Holland, he attempted to abolish 
 the statholdership, and succeeded in separating 
 that office from that of captain general. He 
 was forced, however, to make some conces- 
 sions, and beheld, with mortification, William 
 procure the post of commander-in-chief. De 
 Witt resigned his employments when William 
 was chosen stadtholder, to the joy of all, and 
 being thrown into prison, was murdered by the 
 populace, who broke in upon him, Aug. 20, 1672. 
 DEXTER, Samuel, a distinguished orator, 
 lawyer, and statesman, was born at Boston, 
 Mass., in 1761, and was educated at Harvard 
 College. He studied law, but was soon chosen 
 to the state legislature, and thence transferred 
 to congress, where his abilities and patriotism 
 were properly appreciated. Under President 
 Adams he was at first secretary at war, and 
 then of the treasury. Declining the public 
 offices which were afterwards offered him, he 
 employed himself in the lucrative and honora- 
 ble profession of the law, being entrusted with 
 cases of the utmost importance. He died at 
 Athens, N. Y. 1816, aged 55. 
 
 DIANA, the daughter of Latona, and twin 
 sister of Apollo, born at Delos. She was the 
 goddess of hunting and remained unmarried. 
 She was called Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Pronu- 
 ba, and Trivia ; Trifornis, because Luna or the 
 moon in heaven, Diana on earth, and Prosper- 
 pine or Hecate in hell. Her other names were 
 Argroteta, Orthia, Taurica, Delia, Cynthia, Ari- 
 cia, and she is supposed to have been the his 
 of the Egyptians. 
 
 DIDO, the founder of the city of Carthage, 
 also called Elisa, was a daughter of Belus, King 
 of Tyre, and married Sichaeus, or Sicharbas, 
 her uncle, a priest of Hercules. Pygmalion, 
 the successor of Belus, murdered the husband 
 of Dido, for the sake of his wealth, and with 
 a number of Tyrians, the unhappy queen set 
 sail to found a colony in some distant land. A 
 storm drove them upon the African shore and 
 there Dido built her citadel, and soon had the 
 satisfaction of finding the colony in a thriving 
 condition. The persecutions of Jarbas, king 
 of Mauritania, who wished to marry her, prov- 
 ed fatal to her, for having vowed to her hus- 
 band, never to wed a second time, she ascend- 
 ed a funeral pile, and perished in the flames. 
 For this action she was called Dido, or Valiant 
 Woman. Her connection with iEneas was a 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 DIO 
 
 215 
 
 DIO 
 
 fable, since they were not even contemporaries. 
 (See Carthage and Africa.) 
 
 DIEMEN, Anthony Van, governor-general 
 of the Dutch East India settlements, born in 
 1593. He went to the Indies as a clerk, but 
 rose with great rapidity. His administration 
 was judicious and successful. He died in 1645. 
 
 DIEMEN'S (VAN) LAND, an island in 
 the South Ocean, which Tasman, the Dutch 
 navigator, who discovered it in 1633, named 
 after the governor of Batavia. It contains 
 50,000 inhabitants. It is separated from New 
 Holland by Bass's Straits, the width of which 
 is about 90 miles. Its productions and inhabit- 
 ants differ little from those of New Holland. 
 
 DIGBY, Sir Kenelm, son of Sir Everard 
 Digby, who was condemned and executed for 
 his participation in the gunpowder plot, was 
 born at Gothurst,in Buckinghamshire, in 1603. 
 He was educated at Oxford, and was originally 
 a protestant, but was converted to the Romish 
 religion in 1636. He was one of the gentlemen 
 of the bed-chamber to Charles I, commissioner 
 of the navy, and governor of the Trinity- 
 house. He fought against the Venetians at 
 Scuderoon. 
 
 DIJON, the capital city of the former duchy 
 of Burgundy and now of the department of 
 Cote-de'Or. It is situated at the confluence of 
 Ouche and Suzon. Pop. 25,350. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, a famous Roman emperor, 
 born of an obscure family of Dalmatia, first a 
 common soldier, then general, and proclaimed 
 emperor 284 A. D. He made Maximan, a com- 
 rade, his colleague, and created two subordinate 
 emperors, Galerius and Constantitius, with the 
 title of Ctesars. Some of the acts of his reign 
 are meritorious, but he disgraced himself by a 
 persecution of the Christians. After a reign of 
 21 years, he voluntarily and publicly abdicated 
 the throne at Nicomedia, May 1, A. D. 305, and 
 his colleague shortly after followed his example. 
 He found sufficient pleasure in the cultivation 
 of his little garden, and died in 313. 
 
 DIODATI, John, a protestant divine, profes- 
 sor of theology at Geneva, where he died in 
 1649. 
 
 DIODORUS, Siculus (the Sicilian), a Greek 
 historian of the time of Julius Csesar and Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 DIOGENES, of Sinope, who flourished in 
 the fourth century, B. C. was a famous Cynic 
 philosopher, one of that sect that sternly op- 
 posed luxury and immorality, discarding all 
 superfluities. Diogenes humorously ridiculed 
 the follies of his countrymen ; and made even 
 19 
 
 the objects of his satire laugh at his practical 
 jests and lessons. He perambulated the streets 
 of Athens in the garb and manner of a sturdy 
 beggar, and slept in a tub. He was rigidly tem- 
 perate, and despised the forms of polite society. 
 While at Corinth Alexander the Great paid 
 him a visit, but was astonished at the indiffer- 
 ent air of the philosopher. He made an offer of 
 service, but Diogenes replied, " I only want 
 you to stand out of my sunshine." His inde- 
 pendence made such an impression on the Ma- 
 cedonian that he cried, " if I were not Alexan- 
 der, 1 should wish to be Diogenes." He once 
 carried a lantern about Athens at mid-day, and 
 being asked why he was doing so, answered, 
 " I am looking for a man." Being asked what 
 was the most dangerous animal ? he answer- 
 ed, " Among wild ones, the slanderer; among 
 tame, the flatterer." Plato having described 
 man as a two-legged animal without feathers, 
 and received applause for the definition, Dio- 
 genes plucked a live fowl, and carrying it to the 
 academy, exclaimed : "here is Plato's man! 
 He died at a great age, 324 years B. C. Had 
 this itinerant philosopher lived in these degen- 
 erate days, he would have become obnoxious to 
 the police as a vagrant, and found it extremely 
 difficult to avoid the stocks, the work-house, or 
 the tread-mill. 
 
 DIOMEDES. 1. A king of Bistones, who is 
 fabled to have fed his horses upon human flesh, 
 and to have therefore been killed by Hercules. 
 2. A Grecian hero, king of Argos, who led his 
 subjects to the siege of Troy. After the war 
 he went to Italy where he is said to have lived 
 to a good old age. 
 
 DION of Syracuse, was related to Dionysius, 
 and often gave him advice. The tyrant ban- 
 ished him to Greece, where he raised troops, 
 and entering the harbor of Syracuse with only 
 two ships, reduced it in three days. The tyrant 
 fled, and Dion retained the power in his own 
 hands, but was murdered by a false friend, 
 Calippus of Athens, B. C. 354. 
 
 DIONYSIUS I, or the Elder : from the rank 
 of a common soldier raised himself to the throne 
 of Syracuse. He was inimical to the Cartha- 
 ginians and fought against them with various 
 success. His tyranny and cruelty rendered him 
 so odious to his subjects, that he lived in con- 
 stant dread of assassination, and never permit- 
 ted even his wife and children to enter his 
 presence until their garments had been search- 
 ed for concealed weapons. He is said to have 
 built a subterraneous cave, called the ear of 
 Dionysius, because it was built in the form of* 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 DJE 
 
 216 
 
 DOD 
 
 human ear, concentrated the sound of voices 
 within it, and conveyed them distinctly to the 
 ear of Dionysius. The artists employed upon 
 the work were killed for fear of their disclosing 
 the secrets of its construction, and the use to 
 which it was applied. 
 
 Dionysius was constantly betraying his un- 
 happiness. When one of his flatterers, Dam- 
 ocles, was discoursing on his magnificence, 
 riches, and power, Dionysius said to him, 
 " These things seem to delight you ; make 
 a trial of my place, by way of experiment." 
 Damocles was instantly arrayed in the imperial 
 purple, and surrounded by the king's guards, 
 while every knee was bent to do him homage. 
 In the midst of this show, Dyonysius ordered 
 a naked sword to be hung from the ceiling by 
 a horse-hair, directly over the royal throne, 
 where Damocles was sitting at a feast. From 
 that moment the courtier-king lost his appetite, 
 his joy vanished, and he begged to be restored 
 to the security of his former condition. Diony- 
 sius thus tacitly acknowledged that his happi- 
 ness was poisoned by a dread of the punish- 
 ment which was due his iniquity and cruelty. 
 He died of poison administered at the instiga- 
 tion of his son, B. C. 368. He was very vain, 
 and imagined that he possessed literary talents 
 of a high order, although his poetical effusions 
 were lamentable failures. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, the Younger, was the son of 
 Dionysius I. By the advice of Dion, Plato was 
 invited to court, and the philosopher endea- 
 voured to instil into the tyrant's mind some 
 of those precepts which were his own guide 
 through life. The king neglected his advice, 
 and after suffering for his frankness, Plato 
 quitted him in disgust. Driven from the 
 throne he had disgraced, B. C. 357, he again re- 
 turned to it after an absence of ten years, but 
 lost it a second time, and finally went to Co- 
 rinth, where to support himself, he kept a 
 school, that, as Cicero observes, he might still 
 be a tyrant. We can readily imagine the suffer 
 ings of the wretched urchins upon the interior 
 and exterior of whose heads the ex-king labor- 
 ed. His pupils, we are told, were few, nor can 
 we wonder that the pedagogue was so poorly 
 patronised. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, one of the judges of the Are- 
 opagus at Athens, was converted to Christian- 
 ity by the apostle Paul, and was first bishop of 
 Athens. He was the author of some polemical 
 writings, and suffered martyrdom. 
 
 DJEZZAR, {butcher) Achmet, pacha of 
 Acre, originally a slave ; aided by the English, 
 
 he checked the career of Napoleon, in Syria, 
 and died in 1804. 
 
 DODD, William, an English clergyman, 
 born in 1729 ; he was popular as a preacher, 
 and as an author, and was appointed one of the 
 king's chaplains, which place he lost by being 
 convicted of offering a bribe to obtain prefer- 
 ment. He would have succeeded well in the 
 world, had it not been for his extravagant ex 
 cesses, which led him into continual embarrass- 
 ments. In 1777 he was convicted of forging 
 the name of his patron, Lord Chesterfield, and 
 was hanged at Tyburn, evincing, in prison, sin- 
 cere contrition for his crime ; forgery is no 
 longer a capital crime in England. 
 
 DODINGTON, George TBubb, (lord Mal- 
 combe Regis,) was the son of a gentleman of 
 fortune, and was born in 1691. He enjoyed 
 many posts of honor and emolument under dif- 
 ferent parties, and he did not scruple to avow 
 openly his political tergiversations. He was 
 advanced to the peerage in 1761, and died in 
 the following year. Bubb Dodington was ec- 
 centric, generous, convivial, and magnificent 
 in private life. Many anecdotes are related of 
 him. For the amusement of the young prince 
 of Wales he used to suffer himself to be rolled 
 up in blankets, and trundled down the stairs 
 Before he took the name of Dodington, he was 
 one day lamenting to Lord Chesterfield the 
 shortness of his patronymic, Bubb. " You can 
 easily remedy it, "said his lordship, "call your- 
 self Sillybub, and that will do very well." He 
 winced under the whimsical satire, which an 
 opponent issued under the title of A Grub upon 
 Bubb. When his fortune increased, he built 
 himself a splendid villa, which, if cost consti- 
 tuted elegance, would have been a model. But 
 Bubb had no taste, and his villa was a failure. 
 The second story appeared much too heavy for 
 the first ; for, while the latter was ornamented 
 in the lightest style, the suite of rooms above 
 was adorned with marble fire-places, marble 
 slabs, and massy wainscotting. The proprietor, 
 in showing this to a friend one day, said, 
 " They tell me, sir, that this is out of place, 
 and ought to be dowm stairs." Make yourself 
 perfectly easy," was the consolatory answer : 
 " it will soon be there /" 
 
 DODSLEY, Robert, an English poet and 
 dramatist, born at Mansfield, Notts, in 1703. 
 He was at first a stocking-weaver, then a foot- 
 man, and his first volume was a collection en- 
 titled the Muse in Livery. He acquired a very 
 handsome fortune, by his efforts as author and 
 bookseller, and retired to Durham, where he 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DOR 
 
 217 
 
 DRA 
 
 died in 1764. His Economy of Human Life is 
 well known. 
 
 DOMINGO St., now Hayti, an island of the 
 West Indies, 390 by 60 to 150 miles ; area 30,000 
 square miles. Principal towns, Cape Haytien, 
 the Mole, Port Republican (Port au Prince) and 
 St. Domingo. Population about 1,000,000. It 
 was discovered by Columbus 1492, and here the 
 first European settlement was made. It bore 
 the name of Hayti, among the natives, and was 
 afterwards called Hispaniola. It formerly be- 
 longed to France and Spain. Since 1822, it has 
 formed an independent republic, the slaves hav- 
 ing risen in 1791 , and driven out their white mas- 
 ters with dreadful slaughter. It has a fine cli- 
 mate, good harbors, and is on the whole advanc- 
 ing in wealth and the improvement of society. 
 
 DOMINIC DE GUZMAN, St. was born in 
 Spain in 1170, and died at Bologna in 1221. 
 He was the founder of the order of Dominicans, 
 and converted 100,000 souls to the true faith. 
 
 DOMINICA, one of the Caribbee islands, 
 belonging to Great Britain. Population 19,800, 
 of whon 15,400 are slaves. It was discovered 
 by Columbus on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493. 
 
 DOMITIAN, Titus Flavius Sabinus, son 
 of Vespasian, and brother of Titus, whom, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, he destroyed by 
 poison, was born A. D. 51, and ascended the 
 throne A. D. 81. The beginning of his reign 
 promised tranquillity to his people, but their 
 hopes were soon found to be without founda- 
 tion. He perished by the hands of an assassin, 
 the 18th of September, A. D. 96, in the 45th 
 year of his age, and the 15th of his reign. He 
 was the last of the twelve Caesars. 
 
 DONNE, John, an English poet and divine 
 of some celebrity, was the son of a merchant, 
 and was born in London in 1573. His educa- 
 tion was obtained at Oxford and Cambridge. 
 Originally a Catholic, in his 19th year he ab- 
 jured the Romish religion, and was made secre- 
 tary to the lord chancellor Ellesmere, whose favor 
 he lost by a clandestine marriage with his niece. 
 The juvenile pair appear to have foreseen all the 
 consequences of their union, for the doctor en- 
 dorsed a paper in the following manner : — John 
 Donne, Anne Donne, undone. His prospects, 
 however, brightened ; he took orders and became 
 one of James's chaplains, and died in March, 
 1631. His Latin verses are elegant, but his prose 
 compositions are pedantic though profound, and 
 his English versification far from melodious 
 
 DORIA, Andrew, a Genoese commander, 
 born at 1468. After having been employed by 
 several princes, he received a command in 
 
 Corsica, which island he completely reduced. 
 He gained wealth and honor in his attacks upon 
 the Barbary States. On the breaking out of 
 the revolution in Genoa, he went into the ser- 
 vice of France, and next into that of the pope ; 
 but on the capture of Rome he returned to 
 Francis I, who made him the general of his gal- 
 leys, and admiral of the Levant. The French 
 having become masters of Genoa, in 1528, Do- 
 ria succeeded in delivering the republic from a 
 foreign yoke, received the office of doge for life, 
 and was rewarded with the title of " Father of 
 his country." He next carried his arms through 
 the Mediterranean in the service of Charles V, 
 and died in 1560, full of years and honors. 
 
 DORT, a commercial town of Soreth Hol- 
 land, with 18,000 inhabitants, built upon an isl- 
 and on the Meowe and Biesbosch, formed by 
 an inundation. The resolutions of the synod 
 of Dort, held here by the Protestants in 1618 and 
 1619, form the present code of the Dutch Re- 
 formed Church. 
 
 DOVER, a town of New Hampshire, capital of 
 Strafford county, 40 miles E. of Concord. Pop. 
 5,458. The Piscataqua and Cochecho supply 
 water for the manufactories. Dover is the oldest 
 town in the state, having been settled in 1623. 
 
 DOVER, a post-town of Delaware, and seat 
 of the state government. Population 3,790. 
 
 DOVER, a strongly fortified town of Eng- 
 land, opposite to Calais. Pop. 11,924. Dover 
 is one of the Cinque ports. 
 
 DRACO, archon and lawgiver of Athens, 
 flourished about 600 years B. C. The extreme 
 severity of his laws prevented their observance 
 He was very popular, and fell a victim to the 
 favor of his countrymen, for, being in the thea- 
 tre at iFgina, the people gave him the cus- 
 tomary token of approbation by throwing their 
 caps and garments upon him, and such was the 
 number of these that he was smothered under 
 their weight. He was buried under the theatre. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, an English navigator, 
 born near Tavistock, in Devonshire in 1545. 
 After having served under his relation, Sir 
 John Hawkins, he obtained the command of 
 two ships, with which he sailed to the West 
 Indies in 1570. He made another expedition in 
 1572, and gained considerable advantages oyer 
 the Spaniards. Having served with distinction 
 in Ireland, he was introduced to Queen Eliza- 
 beth. In 1577 he made another voyage to the 
 Spanish settlements in America, on the Pacific, 
 and sailed as far as 48° north latitude, discover- 
 ing the country called New Albion. He then 
 went to the East Indies, and having doubled the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 DRU 
 
 218 
 
 DRU 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, returned to Plymouth in 
 1580, after an absence of three years, and was 
 knighted by the queen. In 1585 he sailed 
 again for the West Indies, where he took sev- 
 eral places from the Spaniards, and returned 
 laden with wealth. In 1587 he made an attack 
 on Cadiz, and destroyed a quantity of shipping. 
 The year following, as vice-admiral under lord 
 Howard, he contributed to the destruction of the 
 armada. After this he went to the West Indies 
 with Sir John Hawkins, but the two command- 
 ers disagreeing in their plans, little was done, 
 in consequence of which Drake became melan- 
 choly and died of a slow fever, Dec. 30, 1596. 
 
 DRAYTON, William Henry, a native of 
 South Carolina, was born in 1742. In 1771 , when 
 counsellor for the province, he defended the 
 rights of his country. In 1775 he was chosen 
 president by the provincial congress, and the 
 next year chief justice of the colony. In 1777 
 he was made president of South Carolina, and 
 the next year was chosen member of Congress. 
 His death took place in September, 1779. His 
 private virtues, powerful political writings, and 
 unshaken patriotism, entitled him to the esteem 
 and respect of his countrymen. 
 
 DRESDEN, in Germany, on the Elbe, con- 
 tains 70,000 inhabitants. Here, on the 28th 
 of August, 1813, Napoleon defeated the allies 
 and forced them to retire to the Bohemian fron- 
 tier. On the 6th of November, Marshal St. 
 Cyr was blockaded in Dresden, and after an 
 ineffectual negotiation with Schwartzenburg, 
 surrendered his whole force, amounting to 
 30,000 men. 
 
 DRUIDS, The. Among the ancient inhabit- 
 ants of England and of France, formerly called 
 Gaul, as well as among some other nations of 
 antiquity, the Druids were priests or ministers 
 of religion. They were also the instructers of 
 the young and were the only learned men of 
 the nations to which they belonged. Although 
 these men flourished long after civilization had 
 made great progress among neighboring nations, 
 yet they did not make use of writing, but their 
 scholars were obliged to get by heart all their 
 lessons from hearing them repeated by their 
 masters the Druids. This was a very tedious 
 way of getting forward, and we are not at all 
 surprised that it took twenty years of a man's 
 life to acquire a very limited stock of learning. 
 
 In general, little was known about very an- 
 cient tribes and nations, until the Romans in- 
 vaded their countries, and conquered them. So 
 it is from the Romans that we have derived our 
 knowledge of the habits, character and religion 
 
 of the Druids. The Druids of Britain were 
 very celebrated. 
 
 There has been much dispute about the de- 
 rivation of the word Druid, but it is most proba- 
 ble that it comes from an old British word, dru, 
 meaning oak, because the Druids held the oak- 
 tree almost sacred ; it was their favorite tree, 
 and their groves contained no other. 
 
 Little is known concerning them before the 
 age of Julius Ca?sar, the Roman who invaded 
 Britain after having subdued Gaul, about 54 
 years B. C. Caesar says that they were divid- 
 ed into several classes ; the priests, the sooth- 
 sayers, the poets, and the judges, and instruct- 
 ors of youth. 
 
 The priests, those Druids who were called 
 so by way of distinction, had the charge of the 
 religious ceremonies. They worshipped their 
 gods, and offered sacrifices to them upon altars. 
 Their temples or places of worship, were very 
 singular. They were generally circles of vast 
 standing pillars, over which they sometimes 
 laid huge stones making a circle in the air. In 
 the middle stood the altar-stone. 
 
 Of this kind was the celebrated Stone-henge, 
 at Salisbury, in England, of which our readers 
 have doubtless seen pictures, and read descrip- 
 tions. In the island of Anglesea, near the 
 northern extremity of Wales, there are Druid- 
 ical pillars yet remaining. This island is sup- 
 posed to have been the residence of the chief, 
 or arch-Druid of Britain. 
 
 The Druids had a very wrong idea about reli- 
 gion. They thought that the common people 
 could not understand the simple and rational 
 principles of religion, and so they invented fool- 
 ish fables and superstitions, and deluded the 
 people to worship the sun, and be idolaters. 
 They had fires sacred to the sun, like the 
 priests of Baal, of whom we read in the Holy 
 Bible. 
 
 The Druids were criminal enough to sacrifice 
 human beings to their gods, and this cruelty, 
 which they persisted in, notwithstanding all 
 remonstrance, was the cause of their destruc- 
 tion. The poets, or bards, according to some, 
 did not properly belong to the class of Druids, 
 because they did not mix religion with their 
 songs. They inspired the people to warlike 
 actions and sang the praise of patriotism and 
 bravery. The Druids studied astronomy, and 
 made great proficiency in the science. 
 
 We all know what terror and astonishment 
 an eclipse, or any singular appearance in the 
 sky, creates among an ignorant people who do 
 not know the causes of these things, or the 
 
El 
 3i 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 DKU 
 
 219 
 
 DRV 
 
 means of finding out beforehand, at what time 
 they will happen. Persons among such peo- 
 ple who can foretell any occurrence, even a 
 change of the seasons, are looked upon as in- 
 spired with a knowledge more than human. 
 
 By such arts, the Druids extended and 
 strengthened their influence over the people. 
 The soothsayers even pretended to be acquaint- 
 ed with the intentions of Divine Providence. 
 The Roman soothsayers, or fortune-tellers, pre- 
 tended to foretell events by the appearance of the 
 entrails of beasts, that were sacrificed on their 
 altars. In the same way, but with much greater 
 cruelty, the Druidical soothsayers, examined 
 the bleeding bodies of human victims. 
 
 When the Roman Suetonius determined to 
 put an end not only to the ceremonies of the 
 Druids, but to the priests themselves, they took 
 refuge in the island of Anglesey. Here they 
 were determined to make a bold resistance. 
 Having some hopes of gaining a victory over 
 the Romans, they kindled large fires, in which 
 they intended to consume the Roman prison- 
 ers, should they take any. Suetonius landed 
 near Parthamel. 
 
 The Druids, in great numbers, encircled the 
 army of their countrymen, urging them to be 
 brave and praying for the vengeance of Heaven 
 upon the invaders. The scene was rendered 
 more terrific to the Romans, by the appearance 
 of the British women who were dressed in 
 black, and ran yelling to and fro, brandishing 
 torches. However, the Romans were brave 
 men, and they conquered. They cut down the 
 sacred groves of oak; they demolished the 
 temples of the Druids, and cruelly threw them 
 into their own fires. 
 
 The Druids, who were the judges in all cases 
 which required a recourse to law, settled these 
 matters by their opinion, from which there was 
 no appeal except to the arch-druid. As the 
 Druids were thought to receive knowledge and 
 instruction directly from the gods, they had 
 the power of making, altering and executing 
 laws. Any person, who desired to possess the 
 great power of the order, could become Druids, 
 but only by a long course of very strict study, 
 and a life of privation which not many had 
 patience to go through. 
 
 The schools of the Druids in Britain were 
 very famous, before the invasion of the Romans. 
 Even youth from Gaul came thither to be in- 
 structed in the branches which they taught. 
 Scholars took an oath not to betray the secrets 
 and learning which they were taught, and thus 
 we may see how selfish was the system of the 
 19* 
 
 Druids, and how much opposed it was to the 
 extension of knowledge. 
 
 Students always resided with their teachers 
 and school-fellows, and were forbidden to con- 
 verse with any others. Academies were numer- 
 ous, one being attached to almost every temple 
 of note. Instruction was conveyed in verse. 
 The whole circle of the sciences with which 
 the Druids were acquainted was taught in 
 20,000 verses, which pupils were 20 years in 
 committing to memory. 
 
 Besides an acquaintance with arithmetic, 
 geometry, astrology, astronomy, geography, na- 
 tural philosophy, and politics, they professed a 
 knowledge of the arts of magic, and whosoever 
 refused obedience was declared accursed. 
 
 The Druidesses or female priests were divided 
 into classes. The first class was composed of 
 females, who never married, and who pretended 
 to have the power of foretelling events, and 
 performing miracles. These were held in great 
 regard. 
 
 Then there was a second class of married wo- 
 men, who spent the greater part of their lives 
 in the performances of religious ceremonies, 
 among the Druids. The third class of Druid 
 esses consisted of those who did the meanest 
 work about the temples. The Druids measured 
 time, not by the days but the nights, guided by 
 the changes of the moon. They had so great a 
 veneration for the oak, that they never per- 
 formed any ceremony without being adorned 
 with garlands woven of its leaves. Those who 
 professed a knowledge of medicine would never 
 betray the secrets by which they cured the sick. 
 They were, without doubt, only acquainted 
 with the healing powers of a few herbs. They 
 placed great faith in the virtues of the plant 
 misletoe, probably from its growing on the oak 
 tree. They called it by a British name, mean- 
 ing " all-heal." The efficacy of this plant they 
 thought depended on certain ceremonies to be 
 observed in gathering it. Among the annual 
 festivals of the Gauls and Britons, was that in 
 which the arch-druid cut the misletoe from the 
 oak. This ceremony was conducted with great 
 pomp. When they found an oak, which had 
 the rare plant upon it, they made preparations 
 for a banquet beneath. Two milk-white bulls 
 were tied to it by the horns, and then the arch- 
 druid, dressed in a snowy robe, ascended the 
 oak, and detached the misletoe with a golden 
 knife. Sacrifice and feasting followed. On 
 every May-day a festival, in honor of the sun, 
 was held. The sun was called Bel, Belinus, 
 and some other names. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 DRU 
 
 220 
 
 DUD 
 
 The existence of a law, forbidding the in- 
 structions of the Druids to be written, shows 
 that they were acquainted with the art of writ- 
 ing. We are told that in writing, they made 
 use of the characters of the Greek alphabet, 
 with which they were acquainted, before the 
 invasion of the Romans, getting their know- 
 ledge from the Greek merchants of Mar- 
 seilles. The Gauls and Britons never went 
 upon any warlike expedition without first pray- 
 ing to some god for assistance. When a victory 
 was gained, a certain portion of the spoils was 
 set apart for that god who had, as the people 
 thought, enabled them to be successful. The 
 priests were, of course, to direct to what use 
 these spoils should be put, and a large share of 
 them were, without doubt, reserved for them- 
 selves. The Druids too often possessed them- 
 selves of the offerings made in the temples of 
 the gods. Besides the money there received 
 for giving instruction in the sciences, for curing 
 diseases, and for giving judgment in law-suits, 
 the priests of each temple claimed every year, 
 certain dues from all the families in their dis- 
 trict. They hit upon a very cunning method 
 to secure the payment of these taxes. Every 
 family on the last evening of October was 
 obliged by law to put out all its fires, and to pay 
 its yearly dues at the temple. On the first of 
 November, those who had payed punctually, 
 received some of the sacred fire from the altar 
 to kindle theirs at home. Delinquents were 
 not allowed to take any fire, and if any one lent 
 it to them, or even conversed with them, that 
 person was punished in the same manner, and 
 not allowed to enjoy the protection of justice 
 or the pleasures of society. The Druids were 
 greatly restricted in their privileges when Brit- 
 ain was a province in the hands of the Romans, 
 and they resented with great warmth, the order 
 which the emperors of Rome issued, that no 
 more human victims should be slain at the 
 altars. After the loss they experienced in the 
 isle of Anglesey, 61 years A. O, they made no 
 figure in Britain. The few priests, who were 
 determined still to persevere in the rites of their 
 order, fled to Scotland, Ireland, and the smaller 
 British Islands, in which they kept up their 
 authority some time. Even after the Druids 
 ceased to exist, the superstitions they had spread 
 gave trouble to those who wished to make the 
 people believe in the Gospel. In the reign of 
 Canute the Great, during the eleventh century, 
 it was found necessary to provide by law against 
 these wretched superstitions. " We strictly 
 forbid all our subjects," says the king, " to wor- 
 
 ship the gods of the Gentiles; that is to say, 
 the sun, moon, fires, rivers, fountains, hills, 01 
 trees or woods of any kind." 
 
 DRUSES, a warlike geople of Syria, 160,000 
 in number, inhabiting mountains, Libanus and 
 Anti-Libanus. Their origin is traced to abcut 
 the commencement of the 12th century. They 
 are in fact a religious sect, professing Moham- 
 medanism. They reached the summit of their 
 power under Fakardin, who, being taken pris- 
 oner by the Turks, was strangled in 1631. 
 Thenceforth they were the vassals of the Turks 
 
 DRYDEN, John, a voluminous author, born 
 in the parish of Aldwinkle-All-Saints, in 1631, 
 and died May 1, 1700. Although many of his 
 productions are exceedingly licentious, a fault 
 of the age in which he lived, in private life, he 
 bore an unblemished character. He w 7 as the 
 court poet to Charles II, and produced a great 
 number of dramas. 
 
 DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situ- 
 ated on both sides of the Liffey, about a mile 
 from Dublin Bay. It is a beautiful city, reck- 
 oned the second in the British dominions. The 
 public buildings are of stone, and few cities 
 contain an equal number of magnificent edifi- 
 ces. The University of Dublin, or Trinity 
 College is a well-endowed institution. Popula- 
 tion of Dublin 265,316. 
 
 DUBOIS, Cardinal, the son of an apothecary, 
 was born at a smalltown in Limousin, in 1656. 
 He became prime minister to the duke of Or- 
 leans, regent of France, by the basest of means, 
 flattering the vices of his master. His negotia- 
 tions were generally advantageous. He died 
 August 10, 1723. 
 
 DUDLEY, Edmund, an English statesman, 
 born in 1462. He became an eminent lawyer, 
 and received various employments from Henry 
 VII, but for various acts of oppression, on the 
 accession of Henry VIII, he was sent to the 
 tower with his associate, Sir Richard Emson, 
 tried, and beheaded in 1510. 
 
 DUDLEY, John, duke of Northumberland, 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1502, and 
 restored in blood in 1511. He became the 
 favorite of Henry VIII, and he married his son 
 Lord Guilford, to Lady Jane Grey, when he 
 found that Edward VI was dying. Lady Jane 
 Grey was prevailed upon to accept the fatal 
 crown, but Mary's adherents proved too pow- 
 erful for her party, and the duke of Northum- 
 berland died upon the scaffold, August 22d, 
 1553. 
 
 DUDLEY, Robert, earl of Leicester, son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1532. He was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 DUM 
 
 221 
 
 DUN 
 
 condemned with his father, but pardoned, and 
 afterwards restored in blood by queen Mary. 
 In the reign of her successor, he was made 
 master of the horse, knight of the garter, and a 
 member of the privy council. In 1560, his lady 
 died not without suspicion of violence, it being 
 generally believed that Dudley aspired to the 
 hand of his sovereign. The story of the un- 
 happy countess is beautifully told in the well- 
 known ballad of Curanor Hall. The following 
 are the concluding verses j 
 
 The death-bell thrice was heard to ring, 
 An serial voice was heard to call, 
 
 And thrice the raven flapped his wing 
 Around the towers of Cumnor Hall. 
 
 The mastiff howled at village door, 
 The oaks were shattered on the green ; 
 
 Woe was that hour — for never more 
 That hapless countess e'er was seen. 
 
 And in that manor now no more 
 Is cheerful feast and sprightly ball, 
 
 For ever since that dreary hour 
 
 Have spirits haunted Cumnor Hall. 
 
 The village maids, with fearful glance, 
 Avoid the ancient moss-grown wall ; 
 
 Nor ever lead the merry dance 
 
 Among the groves of Cumnor Hall. 
 
 Full many a traveller oft hath sighed, 
 And pensive wept the countess' fall, 
 
 As wandering onwards they 've espied 
 The haunted towers of Cumnor Hall ! 
 
 Elizabeth proposed to Dudley, Mary queen of 
 Scots, as a wife, but that unfortunate princess 
 indignantly rejected him. In 1564, he was 
 created earl of Leicester ; soon after which, he 
 was elected chancellor at Oxford. About 1572, 
 he privately married lady Douglas Howard, 
 but he never acknowledged her, and even 
 forced her to marry another. In 1575, the earl 
 entertained the queen magnificently at his 
 castle of Kenilworth in Warwickshire, but of- 
 fended her very much by marrying the countess 
 of Essex. In 1585, he was appointed governor 
 of the Protestant Low Countries, but returned 
 the same year by the queen's command. In 
 1588, he was appointed to the chief command 
 of the forces at Tilbury, and died September 
 4th, of the same year. 
 
 DUMMER, Jeremy, a powerful political 
 writer, was born at Boston, and graduated at 
 Harvard College in 1699. He then went 
 
 abroad, studied at Utrecht, distinguished him- 
 self in England, and was appointed agent for 
 the Colony of Massachusetts. His pamphlet 
 in defence of the New England charters, is 
 admirable. He died in 1739. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois, was born 
 of a noble family at Cambray, in 1739. Be- 
 coming general in the French army, he gained 
 the battle of Jemappe over the Austrians, Nov. 
 6, 1792. He soon after appeared before Brus- 
 sels, which opened its gates. On the 15th of 
 March, 1793, in a general engagement with the 
 Austrians at Nerwinden, he was totally defeat- 
 ed, and meeting with other disasters, incurred 
 the displeasure of the convention, which des- 
 patched four commissioners empowered to arrest 
 him. These he caused to be delivered up to 
 the Austrians, and he himself fled to the allies 
 for protection. He received a pension from the 
 British government, and died at Turville park, 
 England, March 14, 1823. He published nu- 
 merous political pamphlets in addition to his 
 memoirs. 
 
 DUNCAN, Adam, viscount, a British naval 
 officer, distinguished for his courage, was born 
 in Scotland in 1731. He entered the navy at 
 an early age, and obtained a lieutenant's com- 
 mission in 1755. In 1759, he was made master 
 and commander ; and, in 1761 , appointed post 
 captain, in which station he shared in the hon 
 ors of the reduction of the Havannah. In 1779, 
 he commanded the Monarch in Rodney's vic- 
 tory over the Spaniards. In 1789, he was made 
 rear-admiral of the blue ; and in 1794 being made 
 vice-admiral of the white, he took the command 
 of the North Sea fleet. After watching the 
 Dutch fleet in the Texel for two years, a mutiny 
 in the fleet, compelled him to return to England, 
 and enabled the enemy to put to sea. This 
 news restored Duncan's men to a sense of their 
 duty, they engaged the enemy on the 11th of 
 October, off Camperdown, and completely de- 
 feated them, taking the Dutch admiral, De Win- 
 ter, and eight ships. For this achievement he 
 was made a viscount, and received a grant of 
 2000Z. a year. He died August 4, 1804. 
 
 DUNDAS, Henry, viscount Melville, son of 
 Lord Arniston, was born in 1740, and educated 
 at the university of Edinburgh. In 1763, he 
 was admitted a member of the faculty of advo- 
 cates ; in 1773, was appointed solicitor general, 
 and in 1777, joint-keeper of the signet for 
 Scotland. He had various other appointments, 
 but resigned his places in 1801, when he was 
 created viscount Melville. When Mr. Pitt 
 came into power a second time, he was made 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 DWI 
 
 222 
 
 EAS 
 
 first lord of the admiralty^ but was impeached 
 in 1805, for crimes and misdemeanors in his 
 former situation as treasurer of the navy. He 
 was, however, acquitted, and died in Scotland, 
 May 27, 1811. 
 
 DUNKIRK, a commercial city in French 
 Flanders, with 24,900 inhabitants, about 27 
 miles from Calais. It was taken from the Span- 
 iards by Marshal Turenne, 4th of June, and 
 transferred to the English on the J 7th, in 1658. 
 In 1662, it was sold by Charles II to Louis 
 XIV, for 400,000?. In 1666, an engagement, 
 which lasted four days, took place between 
 the English and French fleets off Dunkirk. 
 At the peace of Utrecht, William III exacted 
 from the French an engagement to block up 
 the harbor, which was but partially complied 
 with. Since the peace of 1783, Dunkirk has, 
 however, been the unmolested resort of armed 
 ships of war, and smuggling vessels at all times. 
 In 1793, the duke of York was defeated by 
 Houchard near Dunkirk. 
 
 DUQUESNE, a French admiral under Louis 
 XIV, born at Dieppe, in 1610. He was heroic, 
 pious, and mild, and died at Paris in 1688. 
 
 DUROC, Michael, a friend and favorite offi- 
 cer of Napoleon, duke of Friuli, grand-marshal 
 of the palace, senator, general of division, grand 
 cordon of the legion of honor, and other orders, 
 was born in 1772. Under Napoleon, in Italy, 
 in Egypt, and in Germany, he distinguished 
 himself, being, the greater part of the time, 
 aide-de-camp to the emperor. He was killed in 
 entering the village of Merkersdorf, after the 
 battle of Bautren, May 23, 1813. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, an eminent divine, 
 born at Northampton, in Massachusetts, in 1752, 
 and was graduated at Yale College, in which 
 institution he was afterwards tutor. He serv- 
 ed in the army as chaplain, and about the 
 close of the revolutionary war was elected a 
 member of the state legislature. Mr. D wight 
 then kept a school in Greenfield, Connecticut, 
 where he was ordained minister in 1783. In 
 1794, he published the poems of Greenfield Hill, 
 and the Conquest of Canaan, both of which 
 were republished in England. In 1795, he suc- 
 ceeded the Reverend Doctor Styles as Presi- 
 dent of Yale College, filling also the office of 
 Professor of Theology. He died January 11th, 
 1817. His System of Theology is a learned 
 and valuable work 
 
 E. 
 
 EAST INDIES. The east was visited at an 
 early period by the Phcenecians, and Alexander 
 the Great made extensive conquests there in 
 327 B. C. In modern times the Portuguese 
 made discoveries in 1497, and conquests and 
 settlements in 1506. In the reign of queen 
 Elizabeth, 1591, an English vessel arrived at 
 the East Indies after a long voyage in which 
 two consorts perished. The commander, Capt. 
 Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, 
 his sailors having mutinied and seized his own. 
 The information which he gave produced a 
 mercantile voyage, and the first East India 
 company's charter, on Dec. 31, 1600, their stock 
 consisting of 72,000?. They fitted out four ships, 
 and meeting w T ith success, they have continued 
 ever since. A new company was established 
 1698; the old one re-established, 1700; agreed 
 to give government 400,000/ a year, for five 
 years, to continue unmolested, Feb. 1769; India 
 bill passed, 1773; sent judges from England 
 thither, 1774. — Dutch East India Company es- 
 tablished 1594. — East India Company at Copen- 
 hagen established, 1612; another at Embden, 
 1750; in Sweden, 1731; charter of the English 
 East India Company renewed 1813 and 1833. 
 
 The British possessions in India are immense 
 and have been acquired in defiance of justice 
 and humanity. Edmund Burke accuses the 
 Britons " of having sold every monarch, prince, 
 and state in India, broken every contract, and 
 ruined every prince and every state who had 
 trusted them." There are three presidencies, 
 those of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, contain- 
 ing an aggregate population of 130,000,000. In 
 taking a survey of the modern history of India, 
 it is impossible to guard against a feeling of 
 surprise. This vast country presents to the ob- 
 server a spectacle which is entirely new in the 
 annals of the world. Two thousand strangers, 
 belonging to a small isle of the Atlantic ocean, 
 are distributed among a people differing in 
 every thing from them. These strangers draw 
 from the country a revenue of 22 millions ster- 
 ling ; they fill the highest offices of state ; they 
 have power over 90 millions of inhabitants, and 
 exercise an indirect authority over 40 millions, 
 who are governed by native princes. Their 
 300,000 soldiers are distributed over a space 
 which is almost as large as all Europe. The 
 chiefs of this vast empire have neither crown 
 nor sceptre. Subjected in their own country 
 to the same laws as other citizens, placed under 
 the same power, their rise is as silent as their 
 
Nelson's Pillar — Dublin. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EDI 
 
 223 
 
 EDW 
 
 fall ; they reign or die unknown to their sub- 
 jects. These masters — these kings — are mer- 
 chants ! they compose the English East India 
 Company . 
 
 EASTON, a post-town of Pennsylvania, 73 
 miles W. of New York. Population, 3,530. 
 
 EASTPORT, a seaport and post-town of 
 Maine, on Moose Island on Pasamaquoddy bay. 
 Population, 2,450. It is a flourishing place, 
 and its exports consist of lumber and provisions. 
 
 EATON, William, was born at Woodstock, 
 Connecticut, Feb. 23, 1764. After serving in 
 the army at an early age, he prepared himself 
 for entrance into Dartmouth college. In 1792 
 he received a captain's commission in the army, 
 and in 1797 was appointed consul for the king- 
 dom of Tunis. He engaged in the war with Tri- 
 poli, hoping to re-instate Hamet Bashaw on the 
 throne, which had been usurped by his brother. 
 With a force of 400 men of" different nations, 
 Eaton crossed from Alexandria to Derne, over- 
 coming serious obstacles. Derne was taken, 
 the Tripolitan army repulsed, but, in the midst 
 of triumph Eaton learned that peace had been 
 concluded between the United States and Trip- 
 oli. On his return to the United States, he was 
 received with great favor. Aaron Burr in vain 
 endeavored to obtain his aid in his conspiracy, 
 and on his trial Eaton testified fully against him. 
 In 181 1 he fell a victim to habits of intemperance. 
 
 ECBATANA, the magnificent metropolis of 
 Media, was built by Leleucus. 
 
 ECKMUHL; a Bavarian village on the La- 
 ber, where Napoleon defeated the Austrians, 
 April 22, 1809. 
 
 EDGAR, a Saxon, king of England, son 
 of Edmund, and brother of Edwin, his immedi- 
 ate successor. He ascended the throne at the 
 age of 16 years in 959. He governed with 
 vigor and success, and secured the proper ad- 
 ministration of justice by giving it his personal 
 attention. 
 
 EDINBURGH, the metrop6lis of Scotland, 
 was a town of some note in 854. It is a mile 
 and a half from the Frith of Forth. Its environs 
 are hilly. The houses of the old town, in some 
 instances, rise to the height of 14 stories. It is 
 famous as a seat of learning, containing a uni- 
 versity and several courts of justice. In 1437 
 it became the royal residence of the Scottish 
 kings. The strong castle was probably built 
 by king Edwin. Leith, though two miles dis- 
 tant may be properly called the harbor of Ed- 
 inburgh. Population of the city and suburbs 
 138,235. 
 
 EDMUND II, surnamed Ironside, king of 
 
 England, succeeded Ethebred his father, in 1016. 
 He was defeated by Canute, who became king 
 of England on his death, which is supposed to 
 have been caused by poison. 
 
 EDRED, son of Edward the Elder, succeed- 
 ed to the throne of England on the murder of 
 his brother, Edmund I, in 947. He quelled the 
 Danes and Northumbrians, and compelled Mal- 
 colm to do homage for the crown of Scotland. 
 Yet he was priest-ridden, and a slave to Dun- 
 stan, abbot of Glastonbury. He died after a 
 reign of nine years. 
 
 EDWARD, the Elder, king of England, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Alfred the Great, in 901 . He 
 was successful against the Danes and Welsh, 
 and died in 925. 
 
 EDWARD, THE MARTYR, king of Eng- 
 land, son of Edgar, whom he succeeded in 975. 
 He was stabbed, while hunting, by a servant of 
 Elfrida, his step-mother, who wished to raise 
 her own son, Ethelred, to the throne. He 
 reigned only four years. 
 
 EDWARD I, (of the Norman line), king of 
 England, son of Henry III, after signalizing 
 himself in the civil wars, and in Palestine, sub- 
 dued Wales in 1284. In the dispute for the 
 Scotish throne in 1291, he decided for Baliol. 
 France and Scotland having threatened to in- 
 vade his territories, he adopted vigorous meas- 
 ures to oppose them, and in 1297, marched into 
 Scotland where he obtained great success ; but 
 tarnished his fame by condemning to death Sir 
 William Wallace, for his heroic devotion to his 
 country. He died July 7, 1307, as he entered 
 Scotland to punish the inhabitants for their re- 
 volt. He was then in 69th year of his age and 
 the 35th of his reign. 
 
 EDWARD II, king of England, succeeded 
 his father Edward I, in 1307, but was governed 
 by unworthy favorites. His queen, Isabella of 
 France, raised a rebellion, took him prisoner, 
 and had him murdered in Berkley Castle, Sept. 
 21 , 1327. 
 
 EDWARD III, son of the preceding, was 
 proclaimed king in 1327, being then only 14 
 years of age. He joined the party against Mor- 
 timer, his mother's paramour, who was execu- 
 ted, while the guilty queen was confined to her 
 own house. He invaded France, and won the 
 famous battle of Crecy, while his son, the Black 
 Prince, crowned, his fame by the victory at 
 Poictiers. The death of Edward III happened 
 on the 21st of June, 1377, about a year after that 
 of his illustrious son. 
 
 EDWARD IV was proclaimed king of Eng- 
 land in 1461. He was the son of Richard, duke 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EDW 
 
 224 
 
 EGY 
 
 of York. In the year of his accession, on the 
 29th of March, was fought the decisive battle of 
 Tow ton, in which the forces of Edward, termed 
 the Yorkists, were victorious over the Lancas- 
 trians. Margaret again took the field against 
 him unsuccessfully, but her husband, the im- 
 becile Henry VI. remained a prisoner in the 
 tower of London. In 1470 Edward was com- 
 pelled to fly to the continent, and was declared 
 to be an usurper and traitor by the parliament. 
 He soon afterwards returned, landed at Raven- 
 spur, and marched without molestation, to Lon- 
 don. He was readily admitted, and his rival 
 Henry again fell into his hands. On the 14th 
 of April, 1471, he defeated the earl of War- 
 wick at Barnet ; and, on the 4th of May, gain- 
 ed a decisive victory over the forces of queen 
 Margaret at Tewksbury ; in consequence of 
 which he was firmly established on the throne. 
 
 When the captive queen and her son were led 
 into the royal presence, Edward asked the young 
 prince, how he dared to invade his dominions. 
 On receiving a spirited answer he struck the 
 prince in the face, and the royal youth was im- 
 mediately massacred by the attendant nobles. 
 Margaret and her husband ended their days in 
 prison. After opposing France without much 
 advantage, Edward died April 9, 1483, having 
 reigned 23 years, in the 42d year of his age. 
 
 EDWARD V, son of the preceding, suc- 
 ceeded him in his 14th year, in 1483. His un- 
 cle, the duke of Gloucester, regent, caused the 
 young king and his brother to be smothered in 
 the Tower. 
 
 EDWARD VI, king of England, the son of 
 Henry VIII by lady Jane Seymour, was born 
 in 1538. He imbibed a zeal for the reformation 
 from his maternal uncle, the great duke of Som- 
 erset, and he furthered its cause with firmness 
 during his reign, which, however, was too short 
 to be of much benefit to the nation. He died 
 of a consumption at Greenwich, July 6, 1553, 
 having settled the crown upon lady Jane Grey. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, an American cler- 
 gyman, and distinguished metaphysician, was 
 born in East Windsor, Connecticut, Oct. 5, 
 1703, and was educated at Yale College. In 
 1751 he was chosen president of the college at 
 Princeton, New Jersey, where he died ; in Jan- 
 uary, 1758. He had previously preached at 
 New York, and Northampton, and filled the 
 office of missionary among the Indians at Stock- 
 bridge, Massachusetts. His Treatise on Reli- 
 gious Affections, and his works On Free Will, 
 and Original Sin, have gained him a permanent 
 reputation. 
 
 EGBERT, the last king of the Saxon Hep- 
 tarchy, and the first monarch of England, was 
 the eighteenth king of the West Saxons. He 
 was harassed by repeated invasions of the 
 Danes, and died in 838. 
 
 EGEDE, John, a celebrated missionary, born 
 in Denmark in 1686 and died in 1758, having 
 devoted himself to the sacred task of spreading 
 the light of revealed religion among the Green- 
 landers. The dictates of duty frequently led 
 him to peril his life, but the consciousness of 
 rectitude, and the triumphs of success, sweet- 
 ened his toil, and shed joy upon his earthly pil- 
 grimage. 
 
 EGYPT. This country is called by the 
 Arabs Mezr, by the Turks El Kabit, and by the 
 Copts Khemi. It was formerly one of the 
 mightiest empires on the face of the globe, and 
 the birth-place of learning and many of the arts. 
 A large portion of the article on Africa (ichich 
 see) is devoted to a sketch of the ancient history 
 of Egypt. 
 
 Egypt is now a Turkish viceroyalty, and its 
 ruler bears the title of pacha or viceroy, but is 
 in fact, entirely independent of the Sultan. A 
 large portion of the country which he governs 
 is unpeopled, and derives its interest from the 
 past alone. Yet Egypt with the surprising fer 
 tility of some portions and vast natural re 
 sources, might, under a liberal, enlightened, and 
 enterprising government, attain a high degree 
 of wealth and prosperity. An iron despotism 
 now prostrates the energy of the people, and 
 the possessors of a country which is capable of 
 every improvement, sit down contented with a 
 beggar's lot. 
 
 Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, 
 E. by the Red Sea and Arabia, S. by Nubia, 
 and W. by Barca and the desert. It comprises 
 200,000 square miles which are peopled by about 
 3,000,000 of inhabitants. It is divided into 
 three parts, Upper Egypt (Said), Middle Egypt 
 (Vostani), and Lower Egypt (Bahari) including 
 the Delta. The only valuable portion of the 
 land is that which is watered by the Nile and 
 its branches. The cultivated part of Upper 
 Egypt is a narrow strip inclosed by ridges of 
 mountains. The Nile annually overflows its 
 banks, leaving a fertilizing mud or slime. The 
 inundation commences about the middle of 
 June, and increases until the latter part of 
 August. The productions of the country are 
 maize, rice, wheat, barley, sugar ->ane, indigo, 
 cotton, flax, dates, &c. The inhabitants are 
 Copts, descendants of the original nice, Arabs, 
 Turks and Jews. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EGY 
 
 225 
 
 EGY 
 
 Egypt is one of the oldest kingdoms in the 
 world. Here the children of Israel were held 
 in slavery from the death of Joseph in 1635 B. 
 C, to 1491 B. C. In 1445 Lower Egypt was 
 conquered by the Canaanites, who Bed from 
 Joshua when he dispossessed them of their own 
 country. Upper Egypt was divided at this time 
 into a great number of kingdoms which were 
 united about 1157; and the shepherd kings 
 were driven out of Egypt by Anosis in 1070. 
 About 1000, Lesac or Sesostris, king of Egypt, 
 made rapid and extensive conquests. The 
 Ethiopians conquered Egypt, and retained pos- 
 session of it for 40 years. The Assyrians also 
 conquered it, but the whole of it was regained 
 by Psaumetichus. 
 
 It again became the prey of a foreign con- 
 queror, when Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 
 entored it. The dynasty of the Ptolemies held 
 it for a long time, Cleopatra gave her kingdom 
 brilliancy, but the Romans mastered it 30 B. C. 
 When the hold of Rome was relinquished, the 
 Saracens, under Omar, seized it, 640. The 
 Fatimites gave place to the Mamelukes in 1250. 
 These last were foreign soldiers, employed by 
 the Fatimite princes, and they held the kingdom 
 until it was wrested from them by Selim I, 
 emperor of the Turks, in 1517. In 1708, the 
 French, having resolved to attack the British 
 possessions in India, it was determined to seize 
 upon Egypt that, by carrying on the commerce 
 of the East through the Red Sea, the new 
 French Colony should become the grand mart 
 where all Europe might be supplied with Indian 
 articles, cheaper than they could be rendered by 
 the British, while, as a military post, it could, 
 at all times, transport auxiliaries to the coast of 
 Coromandel. On the 20th of May, 1798, Bona- 
 parte put to sea on board the l'Orient of 120 
 guns, bearing the flag of admiral Brueys, who 
 was to take command of the fleet then assemb- 
 ling from the different ports of France, and 
 which was to consist often 74's, 2 ships of 80 
 guns, 2 Venetian vessels of 64 guns, 14 frigates, 
 72 Corvettes, &c, and 400 transports from Tou- 
 lon, Genoa, Ajaccio, Civita Vecchia — an arma- 
 ment containing 40,000 soldiers, and 10,000 
 sailors. 
 
 On the evening of the 1st of July, Bonaparte 
 made arrangements for landing at Marabout. 
 They were at a distance of about three leagues 
 from the shore ; the wind was northerly, and 
 blew with violence, and the debarkation peril- 
 ous and difficult ; the sea was covered with boats 
 which stemmed the impetuous waves and cur- 
 rents. Early in the morning (July 2), the gen- 
 
 eral-in-chief landed at the head of the foremost 
 troops, who formed, with the greatest prompti- 
 tude in the desert, about three leagues from 
 Alexandria. After some slight skirmishes, he 
 advanced and invested Alexandria, where he 
 established himself on the 5th, by a capitulation 
 of the city and fortress. Having garrisoned 
 Alexandria, which was left in the command of 
 general Kleber, the army marched to Gizeh, 
 Rosetta and other places, having been garrisoned 
 by the French. Near the pyramids Bonaparte 
 found that Murad Bey had assembled all his 
 forces to oppose the further progress of the 
 French. The Mamelukes, amounting to 10,000, 
 fought with desperate but unavailing courage. 
 Part of them were put to the sword or drowned 
 in the Nile, while the remnant, under the con- 
 duct of Murad Bey, retreated to Upper Egypt. 
 The Battle of the Pyramids was a hard-fought 
 conflict. Bonaparte entered Cairo in triumph, 
 and was waited upon by the magistrates and 
 chief men. The French troops w T ere now 
 formed into 3 divisions, one of which, under 
 General Dessaix, was sent to pursue the fugi- 
 tive Mamelukes ; the second was left at Cairo, 
 and the third followed Ibrahim Bey, who had 
 fled, and so precipitately, that he could not be 
 overtaken. Returning to Cairo, Bonaparte em- 
 ployed himself in arranging the details of the 
 government of Lower Egypt, sending garri- 
 sons, establishing lazarettos, &c. 
 
 Soon after the battle of the Nile, an insurrec 
 tion broke out in Cairo which Bonaparte has- 
 tened to quell. When the French gained their 
 victory at Aboukir, and took the fort from the 
 enemy, their power in Egypt appeared to be 
 firmly established. Soon after this, the losses 
 of the French in Italy, and the dangers which 
 appeared to threaten France, induced Bona- 
 parte to return home, a privilege which was 
 granted him in the commencement, and the 
 chief command was committed to Kleber in 
 a general order, dated Aug. 22, 1799. One day 
 Massena, having asked what sort of a man gen- 
 eral Kleber, of whom such various accounts had 
 been given, in reality was. the first consul re- 
 plied : " Picture to yourself a man of lofty stat- 
 ure, of an imposing figure — the finest military 
 man you ever saw; talented, well-instructed, 
 and capable of forming a correct judgment of 
 any thing at a glance ; a man who, like you, 
 has commenced his career in a good school — the 
 infantry— and who is a good manoeuverer, al- 
 though educated in Austria ; but indolent, ex- 
 cessively proud, and sarcastic. He is a man, 
 who, in time of war, by trifling and joking, and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 EGY 
 
 226 
 
 EGY 
 
 heaping ridicule on all with whom he deals, 
 suffers himself to go to the very edge of the 
 ditch; when, generally, his self-love comes to 
 the rescue, his talent rallies, and he sometimes 
 does very fine things, as you have been told." 
 
 The condition of the French troops becoming 
 every moment more critical, after various con- 
 ferences with Sir Sidney Smith, it was agreed 
 that after a truce of three months, the French 
 should evacuate Egypt, and accordingly the 
 treaty was signed at El-Arish, Jan. 24, 1800. 
 Kleber wrote a letter to the French directory, 
 stating the miserable condition of the French 
 army, and urging the ratification of the treaty 
 of El-Arish. This letter, however, fell into the 
 hands of the English admiral Keith, and having 
 been transmitted to the British government, 
 they refused to allow the French any means of 
 saving themselves, except by surrendering as 
 prisoners of war. Sir Sidney Smith hastened 
 to inform the French of the views of his gov- 
 ernment. A few days after, the lieutenant of 
 the Tiger (an English vessel), sent general 
 Kleber a letter, written by admiral Keith, un- 
 der date of Minorca, Jan. 8, notifying to him 
 the only conditions on which the British gov- 
 ernment would recognise the capitulation. 
 
 General Kleber, shortly before this, enslaved 
 by a secret spirit of jealousy, which perhaps, 
 he dared not confess to himself, had been fol- 
 lowing blindly a fatal path, in which his fame 
 was threatened. A better day arose ; the hon- 
 or of his nation was menaced, and the French 
 troops were perfidiously commanded to lay 
 down their arms. The discontented Kleber — 
 Kleber, the humorist — instantly became another 
 man. The patriotic Frenchman, the able and 
 heroic leader, re-appeared. The order of the 
 day was conveyed by the letter of admiral 
 Keith, and Kleber contented himself with add- 
 ing these words : " Soldiers ! the only reply to 
 insolence like this is victory ! Prepare to fight." 
 And never were soldiers better prepared. In- 
 dignation ran through every rank. The Turks 
 should pay dearly for the bad faith of their al- 
 lies. Kleber declared that he should regard the 
 least advance on the part of the Turks as a hos- 
 tile movement. Disregarding this warning, 
 Youssef-Pacha, the grand vizier, repaired to El- 
 Hancka with his whole army. His van-guard 
 was within two leagues of Cairo. Firmans cir- 
 culated in the provinces and even in Cairo it- 
 self, excited the people to insurrection. Civil 
 and religious influences increased the danger of 
 the French. Time pressed, the troops sum- 
 moned by Kleber, appeared in small detach- 
 
 ments, but still they were animated by one 
 spirit. 10,000 men did not hesitate to attack 
 an army which the Turks and English them- 
 selves have estimated at from 40 to 60,000. At 
 the ancient Heliopolis, Kleber prepared for 
 combat. How well he was seconded may be 
 inferred from the names of the officers next in 
 command to him, viz. Regnier, Friant, Le- 
 clerc, Belliard, Donzelot, and La Grange. 
 With a trifling loss on their part, the French 
 routed the enemy, and killed and wounded 
 6,000. The French were again in firm posses- 
 sion of a reconquered country, and Murad Bey 
 became their faithful ally. 
 
 Writers who think to honor Kleber, by rep- 
 resenting him as the enemy of Bonaparte, affect 
 to say, that he conceived the resolution of keep- 
 ing Egypt, " out of hatred to the man who had 
 usurped the sovereignty in France." To ob- 
 scure the glory of him whom they accuse, they 
 darken the character of the man they would 
 eulogize. They say also, with very little truth, 
 that " the talents of Kleber had excited the jeal- 
 ousy of Bonaparte." But what points of com- 
 parison could be established between them? 
 What victories had Kleber gained to rank them 
 with the two campaigns of Italy, or the single 
 one of Egypt ? Kleber had never commanded 
 in chief. Often had the chief command been 
 offered him, and as often had he refused — a sin- 
 gular trait of that pride which disdains to com- 
 mand, and yet will not bend to obedience. Em- 
 ployed in a secondary rank by preference, he 
 revenged himself for this voluntary inferiority 
 by epigrams upon the officer above him, whe- 
 ther Beurnonville, Jourdan, or Moreau himself. 
 In Egypt his powers of sarcasm were employed 
 in vain against a man who feared them not. If, 
 at a later period, he denounced Bonaparte to the 
 executive Directory, he had before, in a frank 
 and bold letter, denounced, if we may use the 
 expression, the Directory to general Bonaparte, 
 and this was the political confidence of a clear- 
 sighted man, who, beholding in the General, 
 the future fortunate leader of a party, predicted 
 the fate which awaited him. On his part, the 
 General, appreciating Kleber, made use of him 
 without fear, and pardoned his faults in consid- 
 eration of his good qualities. He feared not to 
 debase himself in making advances. Some re- 
 proaches, addressed to Kleber on the subject of 
 his administration in Egypt having wounded his 
 feelings to such a degree that he was about to 
 leave the army, Bonaparte wrote; " On the soil 
 of Egypt, the clouds pass away in six hours : 
 were they on my side, they should dissipate in 
 

Interior of the Palace at Dresden. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EGY 
 
 227 
 
 EHR 
 
 three." This was the conduct of Bonaparte 
 towards the man whose rivalry he was accused 
 of fearing. 
 
 Kleber made many wise regulations to 
 strengthen his administration. Meanwhile 
 Europe had heard the news of the battle of 
 Heliopolis and its results. The violation of 
 national rights had yielded to the British gov- 
 ernment but unsavory and bloody fruits, and 
 they could not but regard with regret the de- 
 struction of a fine Ottoman army 40,000 strong. 
 General Kleber, having gained, by chance, mi- 
 nute information of the views of the English, 
 was taking a course which gave general satis- 
 faction, when the dagger of a Mussulman assas- 
 sin deprived the army of a leader, and France 
 of the possession of Egypt. The fatal news 
 circulated with rapidity ; grief and indignation 
 were general, and at the end of some hours the 
 criminal was seized, and it was proved that the 
 murderer, Suliman El-Alepi, who was sent from 
 Gazah to Cairo, was only a fanatic subaltern, 
 who, intoxicated with temporal and spiritual 
 promises, and maddened by the incendiary fir- 
 mans of the Turkish government, pretended to 
 punish, in the person of Kleber, the enemy of 
 the prophet, and the conqueror of the grand 
 vizier. 
 
 After the revolt of Cairo in 1798, the Scheiks 
 having come to implore the pardon of Bonaparte, 
 the latter treated with peculiar respect an old 
 man of the party, the Scheik Sada. He raised 
 him, kissed, and embraced him. When they 
 had retired, he said to Kleber; " Do you know 
 that old fellow whom I honored so?" "No," 
 — answered Kleber. " He is the ring-leader of 
 the insurrection." " The deuce ! I would have 
 shot him." When, in 1800, Kleber, having re- 
 taken Cairo with an armed force, exacted as a 
 punishment an extraordinary contribution of 
 4,000,000 francs, this same Sheick refused to pay 
 the sum which was assessed upon him. In the 
 first movement of anger, Kleber gave orders to 
 have him bastinadoed, but, soon after, recollect- 
 ing the conduct of Bonaparte, recalled them too 
 late. When General Bonaparte heard of Kle- 
 ber's death, his first words were : " This comes 
 of the bastinado administered to the Scheik 
 Sada." And in reality the assassin had been 
 concealed in the mosque forty days. Similar 
 fanatics had been previously sent to stab Bona- 
 parte, but the Scheiks had prevented them. 
 
 The command of the French army devolved 
 
 on general Abdallah Menon. In 1801 the 
 
 English, determined to drive the French from 
 
 Egypt, fitted out an expedition of which the 
 
 20 
 
 army was commanded by Sir Ralph Abercrom- 
 bie, and the fleet by Lord Keith. On the 23d 
 of February, 1801, the fleet weighed anchor, 
 and on March 1 was anchored in Aboukir bay. 
 On the 8th they landed, and on the 18th gained 
 possession of the fort. On the 21st, general 
 Menon attacked the English, but was complete- 
 ly defeated by them after a well-contested en- 
 gagement. During the charge of cavalry, Sir 
 Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded ; 
 after having despatched his aides-de-camp he 
 was alone, and some French dragoons attacked 
 him, threw him from his horse, and attempted 
 to cut him down. The gallant general, how- 
 ever, sprang up and wrested the sword from'Tiis 
 antagonist, who was bayoneted by a soldier of 
 the 42d. He died on the 28th, on board lord 
 Keith's ship. 
 
 General Hutchinson succeeded to the com- 
 mand and resolved to reduce Lower Egypt. By 
 the 19th of April, fort Sulien and Rosetta were 
 captured, and the British proceeded to Rhama- 
 nich, where the French made a stand, but were 
 vanquished, and retreated towards Cairo. On 
 the 11th of May the army continued its march, 
 and, on the 15th, intelligence being received 
 that Belliard was in full march from Cairo, 
 Hutchinson resolved to anticipate the attack ; 
 and, on the 16th, the Turks commenced the 
 onset, the French took post in a wood of date 
 trees near Elmenayer, but were compelled to 
 retreat. The British were now joined by great 
 numbers of Arabs. The camp was placed at 
 Gizeh, and dispositions were made for invading 
 Cairo ; but the French garrison offered to ca- 
 pitulate. A convention was accordingly con- 
 cluded on the 28th of June, with certain stipu- 
 lations, but Menon not acceding to the surrender 
 of Alexandria, Hutchinson invested that city 
 with the co-operation of lord Keith and Coote, 
 which enabled him to surround it, and Menon 
 capitulated. Four weeks after the evacuation 
 of Egypt by the French, the preliminaries of a 
 treaty of peace were signed at London. The 
 Egyptians were much attached to the French, 
 and regretted them extremely , for both Bona- 
 parte and Kleber, did all in their power, during 
 their brief term of possession, to ameliorate the 
 condition of the country. 
 
 EHRENSTRCEM, a Swedish officer who 
 was concerned in the conspiracy against the 
 regency in 1793, for the purpose of raising the 
 young king to the throne prematurely, and was 
 conducted to the scaffold, where he was about 
 to bend to the fatal stroke, when it was an- 
 nounced that his sentence was changed to per- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ELD 
 
 228 
 
 ELD 
 
 petual imprisonment. He was released by 
 Gustavus IV. 
 
 ELBA (the ancient Ilva), a small island in 
 the Mediterranean, near the coast of Tuscany, 
 to which it now belongs. It is 60 miles in cir- 
 cumference, and contains iron, silver, load- 
 stone, and marble. The climate is mild. This 
 island was allotted to Napoleon in 1814, on his 
 abdication of the crown of France. He quitted 
 it February 26, 1815. 
 
 EL DORADO. When the zeal for travels, 
 conquests, and discoveries in America, first be- 
 gan to develop itself among the Spaniards and 
 other nations of Europe, those who thirsted for 
 adventure and aggrandizement were not con- 
 tent with the actual wonders of the New World, 
 but they taxed their imaginations for the cre- 
 ation of realms in which the splendors of fairy- 
 land were surpassed. Various circumstances 
 contributed to add authority and influence to 
 these fables. The tale that is oftentimes repeat- 
 ed, is generally regarded as true, particularly 
 when the narrators are skilful, and have weighty 
 reasons for disguising the truth. These were not 
 wanting with regard to the fable of El Dorado, 
 or the Golden Region. It was believed, current- 
 ly, that somewhere in Guiana, there existed a 
 kingdom the wealth of which surpassed that of 
 any known region on the face of the globe. 
 Along the whole coast of the Spanish Main, it 
 was believed that, in the interior of the country, 
 there existed a land whose importance and 
 riches it was impossible to exaggerate. These 
 rumors are said to have had reference to the 
 kingdom of Bogota and Tunja, now New Gre- 
 nada. What was rather singular with regard 
 to El Dorado, was, that the nearer adventurers 
 approached to it, the farther off it appeared to 
 be. The Peruvians had accounts of its exist- 
 ence in the JVuevo Reyno ; the adventurers of 
 that country believed that it existed in Peru. 
 In fact it appeared like the blessed isle of Indian 
 song, which actually fled from the footsteps of 
 pursuers. 
 
 Imagination, however, soon supplied the pro- 
 per data. Tired of profitless wanderings, the 
 gold hunters fixed upon a certain region (in 
 Guiana,) as the locality of the kingdom of El 
 Dorado. Nor was it a very difficult matter to 
 make maps of the country, to crowd it with 
 lakes and rivers, to refine its inhabitants, to 
 perfect its arts, and to heighten its splendor. 
 The story ran thus. After the fall of the Incas, 
 a younger brother of Atabalipa, collecting what 
 treasures he could lay hands upon, fled to an 
 inland country, and founded a magnificent em- 
 
 pire. This potentate was indifferently styled 
 the Great Paytiti, the Great Moxo, the Enim or 
 Great Paru. From interested motives, men 
 of intelligence and reputation scrupled not to 
 confirm the tales of this empire, and lend the 
 sanction of their names to the most absurd and 
 puerile fictions. Thus Sir Walter Raleigh, 
 aware of the important results of colonizing 
 Guiana, lured adventurers onward by display- 
 ing before then! the most enticing pictures of the 
 Gilded Monarch and his realm. He even did 
 not hesitate to attempt to pass upon Queen 
 Elizabeth as facts, the monstrous fables, which 
 his heated mind was alone capable of receiving. 
 An unblushing impostor asserted that he 
 had himself been in Manoa, the capital of the 
 imaginary kingdom, and that in the street of 
 silversmiths, no fewer than three thousand 
 workmen were employed. This traveller was 
 very minute in his details, and produoed a map 
 which he had projected, and which was marked 
 with the situation of a hill of gold, one of silver, 
 and one of salt. The gorgeous palace of the 
 emperor was held on high by magnificent and 
 symmetrical pillars of porphyry and alabaster, 
 and encircled by galleries which were formed 
 of ebony and cedar, curiously wrought. At 
 about the period of Raleigh's first expedition, it 
 was believed at Paraguay that the court of the 
 Great Moxo had been actually discovered and 
 visited. At this time the description of the 
 interior varied a little from that which we have 
 just given above. A vast lake of exquisite 
 transparency and softness reflected the palace, 
 which was built upon an island in its centre. 
 The material of the edifice was snow-white 
 marble of a peculiar brilliancy. Two towers 
 guarded the entrance, standing on each side of 
 a superb column, which shot up to the height 
 twenty-five feet, and bore upon its capital an 
 immense silver moon, while two living lions 
 were attached by massy chains of solid gold to 
 its pedestal. These animals, like the dragons 
 of a fairy-tale, defended the entrance to a place 
 which outshone the realms of fairy. We know 
 not whether an acquaintance with magic was 
 necessary to quiet the vigilance of these wild 
 guards, or whether they were well-bred crea- 
 tures, disposed to make allowances for the curi- 
 osity of visiters, and permit them an easy en- 
 trance into the palace of El Dorado. Be that as 
 it may — having passed those guards, you entered 
 a quadrangle, where you could not fail to be de- 
 lighted with the freshness and shade of the green 
 trees, and the fragrant coolness and musical 
 murmur of a silver fountain, which gushed and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ELD 
 
 229 
 
 ELD 
 
 gleamed through four golden pipes. A small 
 copper gate, the bolt of which shot into a massy 
 rock, hid the interior of the palace. This pass- 
 ed, the splendor of the internal arrangements 
 dazzled and delighted. A vast altar, formed of 
 solid silver, supported an immense golden sun, 
 before which, four lamps were kept perpetually 
 burning. 
 
 The lord of this magnificence was called El 
 Dorado, literally, The Gilded, from the savage 
 splendor of his costume, his naked body being 
 daily anointed with costly gum, and then heap- 
 ed with gold dust, until he presented the appear- 
 ance of a golden statue. " But," Oviedo sagely 
 remarks, " as this kind of garment would be 
 uneasy to him while he slept, the prince washes 
 himself every evening, and is gilded anew in 
 the morning, which proves that the empire of 
 El Dorado is infinitely rich in mines." This 
 fable had its origin in the peculiar rites intro- 
 duced by the worship of Bochica, as the high 
 priest of this sect was accustomed, every morn- 
 ing, to anoint his hands and face with grease, 
 and then heap them with gold dust. Another 
 custom, spoken of by Humboldt, may have 
 given rise to the fable of the gilt man. This 
 distinguished traveller says, that in the wilder 
 parts of Guiana, where painting the body is 
 used instead of the practice of tatooing, the 
 Indians smear their bodies with the fat of tur- 
 tles, and then cover them with pieces of mica 
 of a metallic lustre, brilliantly white as silver, 
 and red as copper, so that they appear robed 
 in a garment covered with gold and silver 
 embroidery, when seen from a little distance. 
 
 Although productive of much mischief, the 
 expeditions undertaken in the hope of discover- 
 ing El Dorado did considerable service to the 
 cause of science ; and thus, by the agency of 
 fiction, many important truths were brought to 
 light. We shall speak of the different expedi- 
 tions fitted out in search of El Dorado, the last 
 of which, incredible as it may seem, was set on 
 foot as lately as the year 1775. From this we 
 may judge how firm was the belief in the exist- 
 ence of this fairy-land. The earliest enter- 
 prises of this nature attempted to reach the 
 realm of the Great Moxo, somewhere in the 
 direction of the eastern back of the Andes of 
 New Granada. The captains Anasco and Am- 
 pudia, were despatched by Sebastian de Belal- 
 cazar, in 1535, to discover the valley of Dorado, 
 in consequence of the flaming descriptions 
 which an Indian of Tacumga had given of the 
 riches and splendor of the Zaque, or the king 
 of Cundinamarca. Diaz de Pineda (in 1536) 
 gave rise to the idea that there were, to the 
 
 eastward of the Nevados of Tunguragua, Cay- 
 ambe and Popayan, immense plains where the 
 precious metals were found in abundance, and 
 where gold, in particular, was so plentiful, that 
 the inhabitants converted massy plates of it into 
 armor. 
 
 In 1539, Gonzalo Pizarro, inflamed by the 
 account of these treasures, set forth in search 
 of them, and by chance, made the discovery of 
 the American cinnamon trees. Francisco de 
 Orellana set forth to reach the river of Ama- 
 zons by the Napo. Expeditions were fitted out 
 simultaneously from Venezuela, New Granada, 
 Quito, Peru, Brazil, and the Rio de la Plata, 
 having, for their sole object, the conquest of 
 Dorado. The incursions to the south of Gua- 
 viare, the Rio Fragua, and the Caqueta, were 
 declared to have procured proof not only of the 
 existence of the city of El Dorado, but of the 
 immense riches of the Manoas, the Omaguas, 
 and the Guaypos. We discover proofs of ac- 
 curate knowledge and careful research in the 
 narratives of the voyages of Orellana, George 
 von Specier, Hernan Perez de Quesada, and 
 Philip von Huten, undertaken in 1536, 1542, 
 and 1545, although there is no lack of exagger- 
 ation and fable likewise. Those who sought 
 the town of the Gilded Monarch, directed their 
 steps to two points situated on the northeast and 
 southwest of the Rio Negro ; viz. to Parima, the 
 early abode of the Manoas, who dwelt upon the 
 banks of the Jurubesh. There exists now very 
 little doubt that the whole of the country lying 
 between the Amazon and Orinoco, was compre- 
 hended under the general name of the Provin- 
 ces of the Gilded King. 
 
 The first voyage of Sir Walter Raleigh was 
 undertaken in 1595. That enterprising and 
 romantic man, who was in high favor with 
 Queen Elizabeth of England, was tired of the 
 dull realities of the Old World, and thirsted 
 for adventure. He embraced the idea of El 
 Dorado with ardor, as holding out something 
 worthy of his attention. It is true that he had 
 no definite ideas about the situation of the fabled 
 kingdom, but he rushed into the adventure with 
 the enthusiasm and ardor which distinguished 
 him. He was, of course, disappointed, and pro- 
 bably found the affair, Gilded king, lake, city, 
 palace, lions, gold mountains, and all, what we, 
 in these commonplace, and degenerate days, 
 should term a bubble or a hoax. Sir Wal- 
 ler Raleigh was a courtier, well versed in the 
 ways of the world, and he cared not to endure 
 the mortification of being ridiculed or pitied, 
 on his return, for the failure of the expedition. 
 He was determined to sacrifice truth to what he 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ELD 
 
 230 
 
 ELD 
 
 considered expediency. Besides, he had formed 
 the project of colonizing Guiana, which he saw 
 would produce the happiest results, and he 
 thought, that by holding out the golden purse 
 of El Dorado, he should induce many to patron- 
 ise his scheme. 
 
 We shall briefly trace the course of Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh, when, after having collected from 
 Antonio de Berrio, whom he took prisoner in 
 his incursion on the island of Trinidad, in 1595, 
 and others, the sum of the knowledge possessed 
 at that time upon the subject of Guiana and 
 the adjacent countries, he set forth upon his 
 celebrated expedition. He then entertained no 
 doubts of the existence of the two great lakes, 
 and the kingdom of the famous Inca, which was 
 supposed to have been founded near the sources 
 of the river Essequibo. Passing the river Gua- 
 vapo, and the plains of Chaymas, Raleigh stop- 
 ped at Morequito, where he was informed by 
 an old man that there was no doubt that foreign 
 nations had entered Guiana. The cataracts 
 of Carony, a river which was supposed to be 
 the shortest way to Macureguari and Manoa, 
 towns situated on the banks of lakes Cassipa 
 and Rupunuwini or Dorado, terminated this 
 expedition. 
 
 We must be permitted to doubt almost every 
 assertion made by Raleigh with regard to the 
 results of this voyage. He was determined that 
 his cause should lose nothing from excessive 
 modesty, and consequently the style in which he 
 speaks of Manoa is highly inflated. He heard of 
 inland seas which he compares to the Caspian, 
 and of " the imperial and golden city of Ma- 
 noa.'' He styles the ruler of the magnificent 
 country, " the emperor Inga of Guyana" and 
 says that he had erected palaces of the most daz- 
 zling magnificence, said to surpass by far the 
 superb palaces of his Peruvian ancestors. Ra- 
 leigh, in his endeavors to influence the queen, 
 neglected neither the arts of flattery, nor the 
 embellishments of fiction. He says that to the 
 barbarous nations he encountered, he showed 
 the picture of the Queen, at which they exhib- 
 ited "transports of joy." He asserts that he 
 was informed that at the time of the conquest 
 of Peru, there were prophecies " in their chief- 
 est temples," which foretold the loss of the 
 empire and the restoration of the Ingas (Incas) 
 by Englishmen. He tells her Majesty that the 
 Inca would probably pay yearly to England the 
 sum of three hundred thousand pounds ster- 
 ling, if she would place in his towns garrisons 
 of three or four thousand English, under pre- 
 tence of defending him against all enemies. 
 
 " It seemeth to me," he adds, " that this empire 
 of Guiana is reserved for the English nation.' 
 From 1595 to 1617, Raleigh made four succes- 
 sive voyages to the Lower Orinoco. These at- 
 tempts, which, however they were represented 
 in England, were well understood in South 
 America to have been fruitless, damped the 
 ardor of adventurers who had formed projects 
 for entering and conquering El Dorado. From 
 this time there appeared none of those great 
 combinations, and important expeditions which 
 at first owed their origin to warm chimerical 
 ideas ; but at the same time, the golden hopes 
 which had been awakened did not entirely dis- 
 appear, and solitary enterprises were occasion- 
 ally undertaken, under the sanction of various 
 provincial governors. 
 
 In 1637, and 1638, father Acana, and father 
 Fritz, severally undertook journeys to the lands 
 of the Manoas, which were thought to be rife 
 with gold, and by the magnificent accounts 
 which they put in circulation, contrived to in- 
 flame anew the imaginations of adventurers. 
 Very recently it was believed that the plains of 
 Macas, to the east of the Cordilleras, contained 
 the ruins of Logrono, a town situated in a gold 
 region of prodigious value. In 1740, an idea 
 was current that by going up the river Esse- 
 quibo, Dorado might be reached from Dutch 
 Guiana. The imagination of Don Manuel Cen- 
 turion, governor of Santo Thome del Angostura, 
 having been wanned by the current fables of the 
 splendid lake of Manoa, the very existence of 
 which was apochryphal, determined to set on 
 foot some serious investigations. He used all 
 his powers to awaken in the minds of the colo- 
 nists an ardor equal to his own. An Ipurucoto 
 Indian, by name Arimuicaipi, descended, the 
 Rio Carony, and, for reasons of his own, by the 
 most bare-faced impositions, induced the Span- 
 iards to believe that the tales of El Dorado 
 hardly did justice to the splendor of the coun- 
 try of the Great Moxo. He declared that the 
 whitish light in the clouds of Magellan, in the 
 southern sky, was the reflection of the silvery 
 rocks around which the waves of the Lake Pa- 
 rima swept. " This was describing in a very 
 poetical manner," says Humboldt, " the splendor 
 of the micaceous and talcky states of his coun- 
 try." 
 
 A well-meaning Indian chief, popularly term- 
 ed Captain Jurado, endeavored to check the 
 progress of the delusion, and tried to undeceive 
 Governor Centurion. The adventurers em- 
 barked upon the Caura and Rio Paragua, but 
 not only were disappointed in their expecta- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 ELD 
 
 231 
 
 ELD 
 
 tions, but encountered the most dreadful suffer- 
 ings which occasioned the death of several 
 hundred persons. Notwithstanding the disad- 
 vantageous effects of these expeditions, they 
 brought to light many important geographical 
 facts. In 1775-1780, Nicholas Rodriguez and 
 Antonio Santos, two men noted for their en- 
 terprise, were employed by the Spanish gov- 
 ernor, and reached the Uraricuera and Rio 
 Branco, after encountering many perils ; but, 
 of course, did not attain their objects. 
 
 The frequent occurrence of mica in Guiana 
 contributed to confirm the opinions of those who 
 believed it to be a region rich with gold, and 
 thus, as in many other cases, want of scientific 
 knowledge led to the most absurd ideas, and 
 the most deplorable results. The peak of Mount 
 Calitamini at sunset gleams as if it were in- 
 crusted with precious metal, or ornamented 
 with a coronet of diamonds. The islets of mica- 
 slate in the Lake Amucu, are fabled by the na- 
 tives, to increase the silver gleams of the clouds 
 in the southern sky by their powerful reflection. 
 Raleigh says that every mountain, and every 
 stone in the forests of Orinoco, had all the spark- 
 ling brilliancy of the precious metals. Those 
 travellers who gave the most glowing descrip- 
 tions of the riches of Guiana and El Dorado, 
 were those who, on other subjects, made no 
 scruple of violating truth for the sake of enhanc- 
 ing the effects of their narrations. Diego de 
 Ordaz, the famous Conquistador of Mexico, in 
 1531, undertook a voyage of discovery along 
 the banks of the Orinoco. This gentleman boast- 
 ingly declared that he had taken sulphur out of 
 the Peak of Popocatepetl, and was allowed by the 
 emperor, Charles V, to carry a flaming volcano 
 in his coat of arms. He obtained a commission to 
 rule over all the country which he could subdue 
 by his arms between Brazil and the coast of 
 Venezuela, and began his voyage by the mouth 
 of the river Maranon. Here the natives dis- 
 played to his admiring eyes, " emeralds as big 
 as a man's fist." These were doubtless no other 
 than pieces of compact feldspar, a mineral found 
 in great profusion at the mouth of the river 
 Topayas. The Indians informed Ordaz that in 
 travelling to the westward he would find a 
 mountain of emerald, but a shipwreck destroyed 
 the hopes of the party. 
 
 The Spanish adventurers firmly believed in 
 the existence of mountains composed, princi- 
 pally, if not wholly, of gold, silver, emerald, 
 &c. Sometimes, natural appearances, easily 
 explained, gave rise to these illusions, but fre- 
 quently, there was no foundation whatever for 
 20* 
 
 the belief. Acunha says that north of the junc- 
 tion of the Curuputuba and Amazon, the im- 
 mense mountain of Paraguaxo, when the rays 
 of the sun fell upon it, displayed the most beau- 
 tiful colors, emitting from time to time, tre- 
 mendous bellowings. The Indians, who were 
 accustomed to fasten upon their skins gold 
 spangles and powder, informed the Spaniards, 
 that they obtained it by tearing up the grass 
 and earth in a certain plain, and washing it. 
 But it is possible that what was imagined to be 
 gold, was no other than mica, which the natives 
 of Rio Caura are said still to use by way of orna- 
 menting their bodies, and heightening the effect 
 of their painting. 
 
 In tracing the progress of the famous delusion 
 of El Dorado, we cannot fail to be surprised at 
 the credulity of some adventurers, and the au- 
 dacity of others. The expedition of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh was without doubt, the most important 
 undertaken ; and the influence which it exerted 
 was beneficial in deterring men from making 
 those combined efforts which could not have 
 failed in terminating ruinously. We cannot 
 doubt, that Raleigh was himself grossly deceiv- 
 ed, nor that he endeavored to practice upon 
 others the imposition from which he had him- 
 self suffered. It is no excuse to say that he 
 misrepresented things for a good end, and the^ 
 delinquency of this celebrated man in this re- 
 spect weakens considerably the interest which 
 the concluding events of his life are calculated 
 to awaken. 
 
 The following is briefly his own description 
 of Guiana. The empire of Guiana is directly 
 east from Peru towards the sea, and lieth under 
 the equinoctial line, and it hath more abund- 
 ance of gold than any part of Peru, and as many, 
 or more great cities than ever Peru had when it 
 flourished most. It is governed by the same 
 laws, and the emperor and people observe the 
 same religion, and the same form and policies 
 in government as was used in Peru, not differ- 
 ing in any part ; and as I have been assured by 
 such of the Spaniards as have seen Manoa, the 
 imperial city of Guiana, which the Spaniards 
 call El Dorado, that for the greatness, the riches, 
 and for the excellent seat, it far exceedeth any 
 of the world, at least of so much of the world 
 as is known to the Spanish nation. It is found- 
 ed upon a lake of salt water of two hundred 
 leagues long, like unto Mare Caspium {the Cas- 
 pian Sea) ; and if we compare it to that of Peru, 
 and but read the report of Francisco Lopez, and 
 others, it will seem more than credible. Ra- 
 leigh repeats the wonderful stories told of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 ELI 
 
 232 
 
 ELI 
 
 Manoa by Martinez, a Spaniard who informed 
 him that he had spent seven months in the 
 empire and who first gave it the name of El 
 Dorado. Martinez gave by no means a flatter- 
 ing charac^r to the inhabitants of Guiana, who, 
 he said were a set of inveterate drunkards. 
 According to him, at times of solemn festival, 
 the higher officers of the empire caroused with 
 the king. All who pledged him were stripped, 
 and having their bodies anointed with a costly- 
 balsam, the servants of the emperor blew gold 
 dust upon them, making use, for this purpose of 
 certain hollow canes or reeds. Then glitter- 
 ing from head to foot, they sat down by twen- 
 ties and hundreds, and drank sometimes for six 
 or seven days. Martinez said that he named 
 the empire El Dorado on account of the quan- 
 tity of gold which he found in the temples, and 
 throughout the city ; plates, armor, and shields, 
 being formed of the precious metal. 
 
 Raleigh speaks of a race whose heads did not 
 appear above their shoulders, and adds, " though 
 it may be thought a mere fable, yet for mine 
 own part I am resolved it is true." " They are 
 called Ewaipanoma. They are reported to have 
 eyes in their shoulders, and their mouths in the 
 middle of their breasts, and that a long train of 
 hair groweth backward between their should- 
 ers." These people, however, were not pre- 
 tended to be the inhabitants of the empire of the 
 Gilded King. 
 
 Though we cannot fail to regret the waste 
 of labor and life which the fable of El Dorado 
 caused. Yet it must be confessed that it led to 
 many scientific discoveries : But while many 
 facts were brought forward, they were so mixed 
 up with fables, defying almost all attempts to 
 separate the evil from the good, that we cannot 
 be much surprised at the erroneous ideas which 
 prevailed up to a very late period. The pene- 
 tration and knowledge of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury have dissipated the golden clouds which 
 overhung the haunted region of Guiana, and 
 the Great Moxo, by common consent, is for 
 ever banished to the dreamed realms of fiction. 
 
 ELEUSIS (now Lepsina), was anciently, 
 next to Athens, the principal city of Attica. It 
 was here that the festivals of Ceres, the goddess 
 of Nature, termed the Eleusinlan Mysteries, were 
 secretly celebrated in her temple which was sur- 
 rounded by high walls. The manner of their 
 celebration is unknown. 
 
 ELIJAH, the prophet, who rebuked the idol- 
 atries of Ahab, king of Israel, and Jehosaphat, 
 king of Judah. He did not experience the 
 pangs of death, but was taken up to heaven in 
 
 a fiery chariot. For his history see the 1st and 
 2d Books of Kings. 
 
 ELIO. Francisco Xavier, a Spaniard who 
 opposed Napoleon in Spain, and the revolution- 
 ists in South America. On the restoration of 
 Ferdinand VII, of Spain, he declared himself 
 in favor of absolute monarchy, and committed 
 many atrocities in putting down liberal princi- 
 ples. The revival of the constitution of Cadiz 
 put an end to his career. He was tried for excit- 
 ing a movement in favor of absolute monarchy, 
 and put to death, Sept 3d, 1832. 
 
 ELIOT, John, a native of England, was born 
 in 1604, and was educated at Cambridge. He 
 came to America in 1631, and was settled as 
 minister of the church in Roxbury, Massachu- 
 setts. He mastered the Indian language, and 
 published an Indian Bible and grammar, and 
 was indefatigable in preaching the gospel to the 
 savages. The great apostle and friend of the 
 Indians died May 20, 1690. His works were 
 voluminous. 
 
 ELIOTT, George Augustus, lord Heathfield, 
 was born at Stubbs, in Scotland, in 1718, and 
 educated at Leyden, after which he entered 
 into the Prussian service. Having returned to 
 Scotland, he joined, in 1733, the corps of engi- 
 neers, and afterward became adjutant to a corps 
 of horse-grenadiers, in which capacity he dis 
 tinguished himself at Dettingen where he was 
 wounded. In this regiment he rose to the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel ; and, in 1757, was ap- 
 pointed to the command of a regiment of light- 
 horse, which he had himself raised. On his 
 return from Germany, he was sent to Havana, 
 and, at the peaces the king conferred on his 
 regiment the title of " royal." In 1775, he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, and 
 was soon after made governor of Gibraltar, 
 which fortress he bravely defended against the 
 combined forces of France and Spain. He 
 died at Aix-la-Chapelle, July 6th, 1790. He 
 never indulged in the pleasures of the table, his 
 food consisting of vegetables and water. Ever 
 vigilant and active, he never slept more than 
 four hours at a time. 
 
 ELIS, a district in the western part of the 
 Peloponnesus, bounded east by Arcadia, south 
 by Messenia. 
 
 ELIZABETH, queen of England, one of the 
 most distinguished of female sovereigns, the 
 daughter of Henry VIII, by Anne Boleyn, was 
 born in 1533. She was educated in the protes- 
 tant religion, and, by the last will of her father, 
 was nominated third in the succession. Dur- 
 ing the reign of Mary, she was treated with 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 ELI 
 
 233 
 
 ELL 
 
 great severity, and attempts were made to draw 
 her into a snare on the subject of religion, so as 
 to prosecute her for heresy ; but by uncommon 
 prudence she escaped these designs. She had 
 received an admirable education, and was well 
 versed in classical literature for which she had 
 an unaffected fondness. In 1558, on the death 
 of Mary, she succeeded to the throne. She re- 
 fused all matrimonial overtures, yet was sup- 
 posed to be pleased with such addresses. By the 
 vigilance of her government she preserved her 
 dominions in peace, repelled the attempts of 
 the Spaniards, and was considered the patron- 
 ess of the reformed church. With regard to 
 the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, she en- 
 deavored to shift the odium from herself, and 
 attributed it to a mistake of her secretary Da- 
 vison, by whom the warrant was furthered. 
 The execution of Essex (see Devereux) was a 
 blow from which she never recovered. She 
 died, March 24, 1603. Masculine as her mind 
 was, she was yet enough of woman to be fond 
 of flattery and dress. Shakspeare, whom she 
 patronized, has paid her a compliment in one of 
 the most pleasing of his dramas — the Midsum- 
 mer's Night's Dream. Elizabeth is the " fair 
 vestal, throned in the west," who is proof 
 against the arrows of Cupid. 
 
 ELIZABETH PETRO WNA, daughter of 
 Peter the Great and Catharine I, was born in 
 1709. After the death of Anne, who appointed 
 for her successor, Ivan, son of her niece Anne, 
 the wife of Antony Ulrich, duke of Brunswick, 
 the latter proclaimed herself regent during the 
 minority of her son. A conspiracy was formed, 
 the regent and her son imprisoned, and Eliza- 
 beth Petrowna proclaimed empress, in 1741. 
 Elizabeth was ambitious of being considered the 
 most beautiful woman in her empire, and en- 
 gaged in the seven years' war, in consequence 
 of a personal sarcasm of Frederick the Great. 
 She did not, however, gain any decisive advan- 
 tage, and died Dec. 29, 1761, at the age of 52, 
 after a reign of 20 years. Her life was passed 
 in licentious indulgences. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Philippine Marie Helene of 
 France, Madame, the sister of Louis XVI, was 
 born May 23d, 1764. Although mild, virtuous, 
 benevolent, and inoffensive, she perished by the 
 guillotine, May 10, 1794. 
 
 ELIZABETHTO WN,in Essex county, New 
 Jersey, 14 miles S. S. W. of New York, con- 
 tains 4,184 inhabitants. It is a flourishing and 
 pleasant place, and the oldest town in the state, 
 having been settled by emigrants from Long 
 Island in 1664. 
 
 ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, lord, was 
 born in 1748, at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and early ad- 
 mitted to the bar. He was counsel for Warren 
 Hastings in 1785, assisted by Plomer and Dal- 
 las, and his client was acquitted. His foitune 
 was now fixed. In 1801 he was made attorney 
 general, and the following year succeeded lord 
 Kenyon, as lord chief justice of the king's bench, 
 and was created baron. He died Dec. 13,1818. 
 
 ELLERY, William, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of Independence, born at Newport, 
 R. I., Dec. 22, 1727, and was educated at Har- 
 vard College, studied law, became a member of 
 Congress in 1776, and served in that body until 
 1785, when he was appointed chief justice of 
 the Superior Court of Rhode Island. After- 
 wards he accepted the office of Collector of 
 Customs in his native town, and died at the age 
 of 92, Feb. 15,1820. 
 
 ELLIOT, Stephen, an American botanist, 
 and man of letters, was born at Beaufort, S. C, 
 in 1771, and educated at Yale College. He 
 early devoted his attention to natural history. 
 As a member of the State legislature, he was 
 distinguished for patriotism, learning and abili- 
 ty. He was president of the State bank, mem- 
 ber of several literary and scientific societies, 
 and editor of the Southern Review, and he re- 
 ceived the degree of L.L. D. from Yale College. 
 He died in the early part of 1830. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Oliver, was born at Wind- 
 sor, Connecticut, April 29, 1745. He was the 
 son of a farmer, and devoted his early years al- 
 ternately to literature and agriculture. He was 
 educated at Yale and Princeton Colleges, the 
 former of which he entered at the age of 17, and 
 was admitted to the bar, after the usual prepa- 
 ratory study, in 1771, in the county of Hartford, 
 Connecticut, and was appointed state attorney. 
 An ardent friend of freedom, he served in the 
 revolutionary army, was a member of the gen- 
 eral assembly of Connecticut, and a delegate to 
 the Congress of the United States. He was 
 made member of the Council and judge of the 
 Superior Court of his native state, assisted in 
 framing the federal convention, was chosen 
 senator in the first congress, and held his seat 
 throughout Washington's administration. He 
 was appointed chief justice of the United States 
 on the resignation of Mr. Jay, and was one of 
 the envoys sent to France in 1799, to procure 
 the adjustment of the differences which threat- 
 ened a very serious termination. Having re 
 turned to his native state, he died in 1807, in 
 the 63d year of his age. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ENG 
 
 234 
 
 ENG 
 
 ELSINORE, ELSINEUR, or HELSIN- 
 GOER, a Danish seaport, situated on the east 
 coast of the island of Zealand, where vessels 
 passing up or down the Baltic stop to pay toll 
 or procure stores. • The annual amount of toll is 
 from 600,000 to 700,000 dollars. Pop. 7000. 
 
 EMANUEL THE GREAT, king of Portu- 
 gal, ascended the throne in 1495. During his 
 reign the discoveries and exploits of Portuguese 
 navigators and commanders, opened the wealth 
 of America and the East Indies to Portugal. 
 Every thing seemed to flourish, and the period 
 merited the title which was given it — " the 
 golden age of Portugal." Emanuel died Dec. 
 13, 1521. He acquired renown by his expul- 
 sion of the Moors, and his patronage of men of 
 letters. 
 
 EMMET, Thomas Addis, born in Cork, Ire- 
 land, in 1 765. He was designed for the medical 
 profession, but the death of his elder brother, a 
 member of the bar, induced him to turn his at- 
 tention to the study of the law. He pursued it 
 with success and commenced practice in Dub- 
 lin. In 1795, Emmet joined the association of 
 United Irishmen, and was arrested March 12, 
 1798. Oliver Bond, doctor Macneven, and oth- 
 ers, were arrested at the same time. Emmet 
 was imprisoned for a long time in Fort George, 
 in the county of Nairn, Scotland, but with his 
 wife, who had shared his confinement, having 
 been finally liberated, he came to New York in 
 Nov., 1804. Emmet here successfully prac- 
 tised law, and in 1812 was appointed attorney- 
 general of the State of New York. He died in 
 the 63d year of his age, Nov. 14, 1827, during the 
 trial of an important case. In private life he was 
 beloved, and in public esteemed and respected. 
 
 EMS, a watering place in the duchy of Nas- 
 sau, which is surrounded by enchanting scenery. 
 
 ENGHIEN, Louis Antoine Henri de Bour- 
 bon, duke of, born at Chantilly, Aug. 2, 1772, 
 was the son of Louis Henry Joseph Conde, 
 duke of Bourbon, a descendant of the great 
 Conde. He served in various campaigns, par- 
 ticularly distinguished himself under his grand- 
 father. In 1804 he went to Ettenheim incog., 
 and married the princess Charlotte de Rohan 
 Rochefort. At this time the life of Bonaparte 
 was threatened, and the English, in particular, 
 hinted at his probable assassination. The duke 
 D' Enghien, having fallen under suspicion, was 
 arrested at Ettenheim, in the neutral territory 
 of Baden, brought to Vincennes at midnight, 
 tried with much informality, condemned" to 
 death, and shot the next morning, the whole 
 affair having been conducted, to say the least, 
 
 with ungenerous haste. No action of Napole- 
 on's has excited so much discussion as this. 
 Some writers laid the whole blame of the 
 transaction upon the emperor, and others en- 
 deavoring to free him altogether from the 
 charge. An actual conspiracy, supported by 
 English money, had been discovered at Paris, 
 that of Georges. By this conspiracy England 
 had been taken, by flagrante delicto, in Paris it- 
 self. The same spirit M'hich had sent Georges 
 from London to France, was to be found in the 
 cabinet of all the British embassies in Germany. 
 Peculiar circumstances induced M. Real, then 
 chief of the police, to send a trusty agent to 
 find out whether the duke of Enghien was al- 
 ways at Ettenheim, and what were his relations 
 and his habits. An officer of the gendarmerie 
 was entrusted with this mission, and this was 
 the foundation of all the evil. On his way to 
 Strasburg, this officer heard it mentioned as a 
 notorious fact, that the duke d' Enghien was in 
 the habit of attending the theatre in that city. 
 The spy sent to Ettenheim reached it with pre- 
 judices" which the least indications will increase. 
 He learns that there are some emigrants in the 
 neighborhood of the duke d' Enghien, that he 
 invariably gives them the warmest reception 
 when they visit him, and that the duke is fre- 
 quently absent for days at a time. It appeared 
 afterwards that from time to time, a passion for 
 hunting kept the duke for several successive 
 days in the mountains of the Black Forest. 
 This was not all. The imperfect pronunciation 
 of the Germans gave the officer to suppose, 
 then an obscure person in the suite of the duke, 
 a M. de Thumery, was no other than general 
 Dumourier. The union of these particulars 
 alarmed the officer, who, with more zeal than 
 truth, created fearful phantoms out of innocent 
 appearances. The judgment of the first consul 
 was obscured by the rapidity with which his 
 imagination moved, causing him to take for in- 
 contestible facts, stories which had but vague 
 conjecture for their foundation. Thus he soon 
 arrived at his conclusions. " In 60 hours one 
 can come from Strasburg to Paris. It requires 
 but five days to go and return. The unknown 
 personage (afterwards proved to be Pichegru), 
 who was received with so much respect by 
 Georges, is the duke d' Enghien. The duke is 
 the prime mover of the conspiracy, the soul of 
 it, at least one of the first accomplices." These 
 were the ideas which presented themselves tc 
 the first consul, and it must be confessed that 
 the supposed presence of Dumourier at Etten- 
 heim was a circumstance of weight. The fact, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ENG 
 
 235 
 
 ENG 
 
 if it had been true, and the first consul believed 
 it to be so, would have added to the suspicions 
 of which the duke d' Enghien was the subject. 
 But here it may be objected that these suspi- 
 cions were without foundation, that the first 
 consul ought to have known it, because the 
 chargi of foreign affairs at Carlsruhe wrote tbat 
 the duke of Enghien was leading the most quiet 
 and retired life at Ettenheim. It will be con- 
 ceded that his objection has little force ; for 
 might not the duke d' Enghien be concerned in 
 the conspiracies against Bonaparte, have an un- 
 derstanding with the emigrants in his neigh- 
 borhood, entertain Dumourier in his train, 
 either under his own or another name, and yet 
 find no occasion to change the external and reg- 
 ular order of his life ? 
 
 There was another cause which acted upon the 
 determination of the first consul, and which has 
 hitherto been passed over in total silence. The 
 conspiracy against the first consul was nurtured 
 in England, but its branches spread in every 
 direction. In England conspirators were pen- 
 sioned ; in Austria, battalions were raised. On 
 one side, were plots ; on the other, conspira- 
 cies : danger was everywhere, and perils were 
 daily augmenting. How could the first consul 
 imagine that the duke of Enghien, a prince of 
 the house of France, an officer of the English 
 army, was ignorant of the preparations wnich 
 were on foot? In the eyes of Bonaparte the 
 cabinets of London and Vienna acted in con- 
 cert. How could he persuade himself that a 
 Bourbon, placed at Ettenheim, should refuse to 
 participate in the association ? Sir Walter Scott 
 himself believed that the duke was established 
 at Ettenheim for the purpose of putting him- 
 self at the head of the royalists in that quarter, 
 or of presenting himself, if affairs required it, to 
 those of Paris. The discussion between Aus- 
 tria and France had come almost to menaces. 
 On the 9th of March Bonaparte addressed to the 
 emperor of Germany a summons to explain 
 himself. On the 10th was given the fatal order 
 relative to the duke of Enghien. Who can say 
 that these two ideas were strangers to each 
 other? That the greatness of the perils which 
 surrounded Bonaparte did not contribute to the 
 violence of the means which he employed to 
 oppose them, and make his enemies tremble ? 
 Who would venture to assert that Austria, al- 
 ways so intimately connected with England, had 
 no knowledge, not assuredly of the plots of as- 
 sassination, but of the various hostile plans em- 
 ployed against the first consul, and did not hold 
 herself in readiness to yield to the current of 
 
 events ? In the midst of these circumstances, 
 the reports of the agent sent to Ettenheim were 
 submitted to the first consul. Instantly a fear- 
 ful resolution was taken, and the order given for 
 the seizure of the duke. 
 
 How was this resolution taken ? Was it the 
 result of a sudden movement on the part of 
 Bonaparte, or was it determined by the delibe- 
 rations of a council ? The orders for the min- 
 ister of war were dictated, at 10 P. M. by the 
 first consul on issuing from a cabinet confer- 
 ence at which were present the two consuls, 
 Talleyrand, the chief justice, and Fouche, who 
 was then only a senator. Had they been as- 
 sembled by special convocation, or by chance ! 
 This is of little consequence. But what passed 
 at this conference ? It is here the interpreta- 
 tions of jealousy and hate begin. Is it true, as 
 some memoirs have asserted, that the minister 
 of foreign affairs, after a report upon the gene- 
 ral state of Europe, concluded by counselling 
 the violation of a neutral territory ? Is it true, 
 as some have asserted, that Fouche, in order to 
 create embarrassment, and make himself neces- 
 sary in the post which he had formerly occu- 
 pied, warmly advocated a measure which he 
 would soon be the first to denounce ? Is it true 
 that the opposition of Cambaceres to the seizure 
 of the duke upon a neutral territory, drew down 
 upon him the famous apostrophe of Bonaparte ; 
 " you have become very avaricious of the blood 
 of the Bourbons." 
 
 Bonaparte might have said : " The Bourbons 
 have sworn to destroy me, they have devoted 
 my heart to the steel of their satellites, they 
 have willed my assassination. Well ! let them 
 tremble in turn ! I — I can also assassinate. I 
 have only to stretch forth my hand to seize one 
 of them — I will seize him, I will destroy him, 
 and they shall feel that they can no longer at- 
 tempt my life with impunity." Perhaps, " in 
 the very whirlwind of his passion," an infernal 
 spirit, in order to strengthen him, may have 
 whispered cool reflections : " The divorce be- 
 tween France and the eldest branch of the 
 Bourbons seems definitive. The state of inac- 
 tion to which the princes of this branch have 
 been condemned has destroyed all sympathy 
 between them and heroic France. The name 
 of Conde, on the contrary, recalls more vividly, 
 the glory of arms. It recalls even the last wars. 
 The grandfather and the grandson have fought 
 among the brave, against the brave. There is 
 here a possibility of reconciliation — a germ of 
 sympathy. It is this branch which I must de- 
 stroy, even to the last shoot, .t will be a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ENG 
 
 236 
 
 EPA 
 
 crime, a great crime, but a state crime, a po- 
 litical crime. It will spread consternation in 
 France even among my most devoted friends ; 
 it will stupify all Europe ; but only for a mo- 
 ment; for to-morrow, other occurrences will 
 concentrate the attention of all Europe, to-mor- 
 row it will be apprised of the new crimes of 
 England, and the death of the duke of Enghien 
 will be lost in the various events which fortune 
 seems to prepare expressly for the purposes of 
 concealment and oblivion." 
 
 On the 15th of March the duke of Enghien 
 was seized at Ettenheim and brought to Stras- 
 burg. From Strasburg he was, on the 18th 
 transferred to Paris, where he arrived the 20th, 
 and thence was sent to the castle of Vincennes. 
 The governor of Paris appointed a council of 
 war which assembled in the night. The prince 
 was condemned to death, and the sentence was 
 immediately executed. In a proceeding dicta- 
 ted by policy legal formalities are rarely observ- 
 ed. They were not in the case of the duke of 
 Enghien. The prisoner of St. Helena contin- 
 ually justified himself by saying that the prince 
 was tried " by a competent tribunal.'' The 
 competence of the tribunal is a very doubtful 
 matter, but could it be settled, according to the 
 wishes of Napoleon, there would still remain in 
 this affair, the infraction of the laws which pro- 
 tect the accused. The duke had no defender. 
 Napoleon, it is true, has said, "If guilty, the 
 commission did right in condemning him to 
 death. If innocent, it should have acquitted 
 him, for no order can justify the conscience of 
 a judge." What a lesson for magistrates, for 
 commissions or counsels of war, which should 
 be tempted to make the scales of justice move 
 in accordance with the interests or the passions 
 of governments. 
 
 ENGLAND contains 40 counties, with a 
 population of 13,089,338. The counties are 
 Northumberland, Cumberland, Durham, York- 
 shire, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Cheshire, 
 Shropshire, Herefordshire, Monmouthshire, 
 Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, 
 Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, Northampton- 
 shire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Glou- 
 cestershire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, 
 Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, 
 Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Hert- 
 forshire, Middlesex, Surry, Kent, Sussex, 
 Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, 
 Somersetshire, Devonshire, Cornwall. The as- 
 pect of the country is various, but generally 
 pleasantly diversified with hills and verdant 
 plains. The climate, though moist and change- 
 
 able, is healthy. The agricultural productions 
 are grain, wool, horned cattle, and horses. 
 Among the minerals are coal, copper, tin, iron, 
 and lead. The inland navigation of England 
 is admirable for the number and excellence of 
 its canals, and the communication between 
 commercial places is facilitated by the perfect 
 condition of the roads. The commerce of 
 England exceeds that of any other nation on 
 the face of the globe, and the English have in 
 consequence been naturally called " a nation 
 of shopkeepers." The six most important 
 articles of manufacture are woollens, cotton, 
 silk, hardware, earthenware, and glass. Epis- 
 copacy is the established religion, but there is 
 a great number of dissenters, Catholics, inde- 
 pendents, Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists, 
 Quakers, Unitarians, Swedenborgians, and 
 Jews. Education in England is by no means 
 neglected, the Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge being the richest institutions in the 
 world. The exports of Great Britain amount 
 annually to £ 37,000,000, and the imports to 
 about £ 25,000,000. (For the history of Eng- 
 land, &c. See Britain.) 
 
 ENGLAND NEW; this name was given 
 by Charles I, of England, to that part of N. 
 America which now includes the States of 
 Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Rhode-Island, and Connecticut. 
 
 ENOCH, a patriarch who lived before the 
 deluge. 
 
 ENOS, the son of Seth, and father of C? nan. 
 He lived to the age of 905 years. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, a famous Theban des- 
 cended from the ancient kings of Bceotia He 
 was celebrated for his private virtues and mili- 
 tary accomplishments. His love of trutn was 
 so great that he was never known to give 
 utterance to a falsehood. He formed a most 
 sacred and inviolable friendship with Pelopidas 
 whose life he saved in battle. By his advice 
 Pelopidas delivered Thebes from the power of 
 Lacedasmon. This was the signal of war. 
 Epaminondas was placed at the head of the 
 Theban armies, and defeated the Spartans in 
 the celebrated battle of Leuctra, about 370 B. 
 C. Epaminondas entered the territories of 
 Lacedaemon with 50,000 men. Here he gained 
 many friends and partisans, but, at his return 
 from Thebes, he was seized as a traitor for 
 violating the laws of his country. While he 
 was making the Theban army victorious on 
 every side, he neglected the law which forbade 
 any citizen to retain in his hands the supreme 
 power for more than one month, and all his 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EFI 
 
 237 
 
 ERA 
 
 eminent services seemed unable to redeem him 
 from death. He paid implicit obedience to the 
 laws of his country, and only begged of his 
 judges that it- might be inscribed on his tomb, 
 that he had suffered death for saving his coun- 
 try from ruin. This animated reproach was 
 felt ; he was pardoned, and invested again with 
 sovereign power. He was successful in a war 
 with Thessaly, and again engaged against the 
 Lacedaemonians. The hostile armies met near 
 Mantinea 363 B.C. and while Epaminondas was 
 fighting bravely in the thickest of the enemy, 
 he received a fatal wound in the breast, and ex- 
 pired with joy on hearing that the Bseotians 
 had obtained the victory. On hearing his 
 friends regret that he had left no children, he 
 said ; " I leave behind me two immortal daugh- 
 ters, the victories of Leuctra and Mantinea. 
 
 EPEE, Charles Michael, abbe de 1', was born 
 at Versailles in 1712. None of the teachers who 
 had been successful with deaf and dumb pupils, 
 had published accounts of their method, so that 
 De L' Epee was not indebted to them for the 
 mode of instruction which he first employed 
 upon two sisters. His zeal in the cause of 
 those who were destitute of speech and hearing 
 led him into pecuniary embarrassment. One 
 incident in his life is peculiarly interesting. 
 He met, one day, in the streets of Paris a deaf 
 and dumb youth in the garb of a beggar whom 
 he was convinced was the heir of the rich fami- 
 ly of the Count of Solar. A law-suit followed, 
 which was at first successful, but when the 
 friends of Solar were dead, his property was 
 again wrested from him, and he was compelled 
 to enlist in the army as a curaissier. De 1' Epee 
 died in 1789. 
 
 EPHESUS, the capital city of Ionia, famous 
 for its splendid temple dedicated to the worship 
 of Diana. This superb temple occupied 220 
 years in its erection, was 425 feet long, 200 
 broad and adorned with an immense number 
 of lofty columns. It was burned by Erostratus 
 356 years B. C. to perpetuate his name. The 
 paltry village of Aiasoluk occupies the site of 
 the ancient city. 
 
 EPICTETUS, a stoic philosopher, born at 
 Hieropolis, in Phrygia, A. D. 90. He was the 
 slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero. 
 His master once struck him a severe blow upon 
 the leg. " You will break it," was the calm 
 reply of the stoic. The brute repeated the 
 blow and broke it. " Did I not tell you so ? " 
 was the quiet exclamation of the philosopher. 
 He was afterwards freed, and made governor 
 of Cappadocia A. D. 134. 
 
 EPICURUS, was born at Gargettus, near 
 Athens, 342 B. C. In the 36th year of his age 
 he opened his school in an Athenian garden. 
 He taught his scholars that the summum bonum 
 consisted in happiness ; but that happiness did 
 not spring from sensual enjoyments but from a 
 practice of the virtues. He commended wis- 
 dom, was temperate, moderate, gentle, firm, 
 and fearless of death. He died 270 B. C., and 
 had many followers. 
 
 EPIRUS, a province on the borders of Greece, 
 the most southerly portion of the modern Alba- 
 nia. This country was first inhabited by the 
 Chaones, and the kingdom of Epirus may be 
 said to have begun with Pyrrhus the son of 
 Achilles, about the year 900 B. C. About 280 
 B. C. another Pyrrhus, king of this country, 
 distinguished himself greatly by his wars with 
 the Romans, in favor of the Tarentines. Upon 
 the death of Deodamia, the last of this race, 
 about the year 240 B. C, the Epirots formed 
 themselves into a republic, which was reduced 
 by Paulus Amilius, the Roman general, all the 
 towns destroyed, and the inhabitants enslaved 
 in one day. Upon the taking of Constantino- 
 ple, in 1204, Michael Angelus seized this coun- 
 try, and his posterityheld it till it was taken by 
 the Turks under Amurath II, in 1432. In 
 1447, Castriot (Scanderbeg) revolted from the 
 Turks, but the country was finally reduced by 
 Mohammed II, in 1466. 
 
 EQUATOR, Republic of the, a South Amer- 
 ican state, composed of the three southwestern 
 departments of the former republic of Colombia ; 
 Ecuador, Assuay, and Guayaquil. It lies be- 
 tween Brazil on the east, Peru on the South, 
 New Granada on the north, and the Pacific 
 Ocean on the west, having an area of 325,000 
 square miles, and a population of 650,000 souls. 
 The eastern part is uninhabited or occupied by 
 independent Indians. The capital of the re- 
 public is Quito, with 70,000 inhabitants. This 
 section formerly constituted the audiencia of 
 Quito, dependent upon the vice-royalty of New 
 Granada. In 1823 it was delivered from the 
 Spanish yoke by the brilliant victory of Pichin- 
 cha gained by the patriot general Sucre, and 
 it joined the Colombian confederacy. When that 
 state fell to pieces in 1830, it declared itself an 
 independent state. 
 
 ERASMUS, Desiderius, a man celebrated 
 for his learning, was born at Rotterdam in 
 1467. At the age of 17 he assumed the monas- 
 tic habit, but subsequently obtained a dispen- 
 sation from his vows. He travelled through 
 many countries, but was received with the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ESC 
 
 238 
 
 EST 
 
 greatest kindness by Henry VIII, of England, 
 and was for a short time professor of Greek at 
 Oxford. Erasmus died 1536. Besides his the- 
 ological works, and his editions of the classics, 
 he published an Encomium on Folly, which has 
 been often reprinted. His letters are of histori- 
 cal value. 
 
 EREBUS, the son of Chaos and Darkness, 
 the brother and husband of night, and the 
 father of Day and Light. He was transformed 
 into a river which flows through the infernal 
 regions. 
 
 ERFURT, a fortress in Thuringia, belonging 
 to Prussia ; the town contains at present 21 ,330 
 inhabitants. It was founded in the 5th century. 
 It maintained a kind of independence, until the 
 17th century, when the elector of Mente gained 
 possession of it. In 1814 it was granted to Prus- 
 sia by the Congress of Vienna. Erfurt was 
 famous for the meeting between Napoleon and 
 the Emperor Alexander with many other kings 
 and princes. This was in September 1608, and 
 Napoleon's object was the pacification of all 
 Europe. He was now at the summit of power 
 and glory and he stood upon the very pinnacle 
 of grandeur, with a feeling of intense enjoy- 
 ment. " Come to Erfurt," he wrote exultingly 
 to Talma, " and you shall play to a whole pit full 
 of Kings ! " 
 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, lord Erskine, a celebrat- 
 ed lawyer, was the son of David Henry Erskine, 
 tenth Earl of Buchan, and was born in the year 
 1750. It was not until after he served some 
 years in the army and navy that he embraced 
 the legal profession at the age of 2G. In 1778, 
 he was admitted to the bar, and his success was 
 both speedy and triumphant. During 25 years 
 he enjoyed an extensive practice. He was 
 appointed attorney general to the prince of 
 Wales, and, in 1802, keeper of his seals for the 
 duchy of Cornwall. He died in 1823. Many 
 of his speeches and some political works have 
 been published. His popularity may be infer- 
 red from the fact that his pamphlet, entitled A 
 view of the Causes and Consequences of the 
 War with France, went through 48 editions. 
 
 ERZERUM, ARZERUM, or ARZ-ROUM, 
 anciently Arze, ,the capital of Turkish Armenia, 
 and of a pachalic of the same name, situated near 
 the head of the Euphrates, 250 miles N. N. E. 
 of Aleppo, contains about 100,000 inhabitants, 
 Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and Persians. It 
 is a well built place and enjoys considerable 
 trade. Its manufactures are numerous. 
 
 ESCURIAL, a magnificent palace, situated 
 on the ascent to the chain of mountains bound- 
 
 ing Old Castile, 22 miles from Madrid. It was 
 erected by Philip II, in commemoration of the 
 victory of St. Quentin, gained over the French 
 in 1557. The battle was fought on the day of 
 the festival of St. Lawrence, and the palace was 
 dedicated to this saint, whose instrument of 
 martyrdom, a gridiron, is immortalized in the 
 disposition of the buildings composing the Es- 
 curial. It is said to have cost 50,000,000 dollars, 
 and contains many noble works of art 
 
 ESNEH, ESNE, or ASNA, a city of Upper 
 Egypt, 27 miles S. of Thebes, standing on the 
 site of Latopolis, and containing some superb 
 ruins. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX, dwarfish tribes of North 
 America, occupying the northern coast of Amer- 
 ica, from prince William's sound to the borders 
 of the Atlantic on the coast of Labrador. They 
 live by hunting and fishing, and are alike des- 
 titute of laws and religion. They formerly put 
 to death widows and orphans, and those who. 
 from age or misfortune, were incapable of gain- 
 ing a subsistence. 
 
 ESSEQUIBO, a settlement of English Gui- 
 ana, on the borders of a river of the same name, 
 ceded to Great Britain in 1814. The soil is 
 fertile and well cultivated. 
 
 ESSEX, earl of, (see Devereux). 
 
 ESTACHAR, or ESTAKAR, or ISTA- 
 CHAR, a town of Persia, 160 miles S. S. E. of 
 Ispahan, near which are the ruins of the an- 
 cient Persepolis, the residence of the Persian 
 kings. 
 
 ESTAING, Charles Henry, count d', a French 
 admiral and lieutenant general of the French 
 armies before the breaking out of the revolution, 
 was the descendant of a noble French family, 
 and commenced his career in the West Indies. 
 He was twice taken prisoner by the English- 
 He was vice-admiral in the American war, and 
 was appointed a commander of the national 
 guards in 1789, but was guillotined in 1793. 
 
 ESTHER, a Jewish girl who became the 
 queen of Ahasuerus, the luxurious monarch of 
 Persia. (For the particulars of her story see 
 the book of Esther). 
 
 ESTHONIA, or the GOVERNMENT OF 
 REVAL, part of the province of Livonia, be- 
 longing to Russia, and containing 302,000 in- 
 habitants. After 1385 the country was sold to 
 the Teutonic knights, and formed a part of Li 
 vonia, subject for a century to Sweden, but ulti 
 mately reverting to the Russians. 
 
 ESTREMADURA, a Spanish province, is 
 bounded N. by Leon and Old Castile, E. by 
 New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by Por- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EUG 
 
 239 
 
 EUL 
 
 tugal. It is extremely fertile and contained, in 
 1797, 428,393 inhabitants. 
 
 ESTREMADURA, a province of Portugal, 
 bounded N. by the province of Beira, E. and S. 
 by Alentejo, and YV. by the ocean. It is 124 
 miles long, and 77 broad. It is generally fertile, 
 and contains 700,500 inhabitants. 
 
 ETHIOPIANS. This name was anciently 
 applied to all nations having a dark skin, and 
 was not confined to Africans, but was also appli- 
 ed to Asiatics. Ethiopia being one of the names 
 of Abyssinia, it was applied to the inhabitants. 
 
 ETON, a village of England, in Bucks, sep- 
 arated by the Thames from Windsor. It con- 
 tains 3,230 inhabitants. Its college is well-en- 
 dowed, and was founded in 1440. 
 
 ETRURIA, the country of the Etruscans, 
 now Tuscany, was bounded N. by the river 
 Magna, E. by the Apennines, S. by the Tiber, 
 and W. by the Mediterranean. The Etruscans 
 at a very early age had received the arts from 
 Greece, and produced some most beautiful spe- 
 cimens. They gave to the Romans their early 
 religious usages and architecture, and finally 
 became the victims of Roman ambition. 
 
 In 1801 the name of Etruria was restored, 
 and the country was made a kingdom and re- 
 mained so until amalgamated with the French 
 empire, by a senatorial decree of May 30, 1808. 
 The next year Eliza, the sister of Napoleon, 
 received this territory, with the title of grand- 
 duchess of Tuscany. In 1814 its ancient rulers 
 regained it. 
 
 ETTENHEIM, a small town of the duchy 
 of Baden, with 2680 inhabitants. Here the 
 duke of Enghien was arrested. 
 
 EUCLID, the father of mathematics, was 
 born at Alexandria, about 300 B. C. 
 
 EUERGET^E {benefactors), a name given 
 to the Jlgriaspcz or Arimaspi, a tribe of the Per- 
 sian province of Drangiana, on account of their 
 having saved the army of Cyrus when in dan- 
 ger of perishing for want of provisions. 
 
 EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy, fifth son of Eu- 
 
 fene Maurice, duke of Savoy-Carignan, was 
 orn at Paris in 1663. His mother was Olym- 
 pia Mancirfi, niece to Cardinal Mazarin. He 
 was educated for the church, but after the death 
 of his father, and the exile of his mother, he 
 and his brother Philip went to Vienna, where 
 they met with a gracious reception. In the 
 war which broke out with Turkey, prince Philip 
 fell in battle, and left his command to Eugene, 
 who signalized himself at the siege of Vienna 
 in 1683, as he did afterwards at Buda. He next 
 served against the French in Italy ; and in 1697 
 21 
 
 commanded the army in Hungary, where he 
 gained a splendid victory, in which the Turks 
 lost above 30,000 men, with their commander 
 the grand vizier. On the breaking out of the 
 war occasioned by the disputes about the Span- 
 ish succession, Eugene commanded the Impe- 
 rialists in Italy, where he was opposed to Vil- 
 leroi, whom he made prisoner. After this he 
 acted in conjunction with Marlborough. In 
 1712 the prince came to England to prevail 
 upon the court to continue the war, but could 
 not succeed. Compelled to act on the defensive, 
 he exerted himself to the utmost; and, in 1714, 
 settled preliminary articles with marshal Villars 
 at Rastadt, which ended soon after in a general 
 peace. 
 
 In 1716 the war with the Turks was renewed, 
 and the prince again took the field in Hungary^ 
 where he attacked the enemy in their camp, 
 and obtained a complete victory, which was 
 followed by the capture of Temeswar and Bel- 
 grade. From this time to 1733 Eugene re- 
 mained at Vienna, employed in the cabinet ; but 
 in that year he assumed the command in Italy, 
 where he experienced various success in the 
 contest with the combined powers of France, 
 Spain, and Sardinia. He was found dead in 
 his bed, April 10, 1736. 
 
 EUGENE DE BEAUHARNAIS, the son 
 of viscount Alexander Beauharnais and Jose- 
 phine, afterwards empress of France, was born 
 September 3, 1781. In the French revolution 
 he entered the army, and when his mother was 
 married to Bonaparte, accompanied the latter 
 to Italy and Egypt. He distinguished himself 
 in many campaigns. In 1805 he was made 
 prince of France and viceroy of Italy. In 1807 
 he was declared prince of Venice, and Napo- 
 leon's heir to the kingdom of Italy. During 
 the retreat from Moscow, his good conduct, 
 with that of Ney, saved the army from total 
 destruction. After the fall of Napoleon, he 
 surrendered Italy to the Austrians, and went 
 to Munich to his father-in-law, the king of Ba- 
 varia. Thenceforth he took no share in the for- 
 tunes of Napoleon. He was created duke of 
 Leuchtenburg, and the principality of Eichstedt 
 was bestowed upon him. He died at Munich, 
 Feb. 21, 1824. 
 
 EULER, Leonard, a mathematician of Bale, 
 born in 1707. He was educated at the univer- 
 sity of his native place. In his 19th year he 
 gained a prize from the academy of Paris for 
 the best treatise on the masting of vessels. He 
 took the department of Mathematics in the 
 academy of St. Petersburg, and published a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 EUR 
 
 240 
 
 EZE 
 
 vast number of treatises. In the Paris Academy 
 of Sciences he gained ten prizes. In 1741 he 
 became professor in the Berlin academy, but 
 returned to St. Petersburg where he died in 
 1783 in the office of director of the mathematical 
 department. Throughout his life, he received 
 honors from all quarters. He was cheerful and 
 amiable in private life, although the last 17 years 
 of his existence were past in total blindness. 
 EUPHRATES, PHRAT, or FRAT, one of 
 the largest and most celebrated rivers in Asia, 
 1,500 miles long, and is navigable for ships of 
 500 tons to Bassard. It rises in the mountains 
 of Armenia. 
 
 EURIPIDES, a celebrated tragic poet, in 
 great favor with Archelaus, was born at Salarnis 
 on the day that the army of Xerxes was routed 
 by the Athenians. He wrote 75 tragedies, only 
 nineteen of which are extant. Euripides was 
 called Misogynes for his hatred of women, and 
 particularly of his own wife. In the 75th year 
 of his age, he was torn to pieces by dogs. 
 
 EUROPE, the least extensive, but the most 
 improved of the four quarters of the globe, is 
 situated between 36° and 71° N. latitude ; hav- 
 ing from south to north a breadth of about 2,000 
 miles and from east to west a length of nearly 
 3000. It contains about three millions and a 
 half of square miles, with a population of 330 
 million, and is bounded by the sea in all direc- 
 tions except the east where it joins Asia. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal States of 
 Europe, with the religion and government of 
 each. 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Greek Church. 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Protestant. 
 
 Protestant. 
 
 Prot. and Cath. 
 
 Prot. and Cath. 
 
 Prot. and Cath. 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Protestant. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Hanover. 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 Wurtemberg. 
 
 German Small 
 
 States. 
 Bavaria. 
 Austria. 
 France. 
 Spain. 
 Portugal. 
 Sardinia. 
 Naples. 
 States of the 
 
 Church. 
 Itaiian Small 
 
 States. 
 Ionian Islands, 
 Turkey. 
 Greece. 
 
 Government. 
 Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 Monarchy. 
 Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 Republic. 
 Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 Catholic. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Greek Church. 
 Mohammedan. 
 Greek Church. 
 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 
 Abs. Monarchy. 
 
 Lim. Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Republic. 
 Despotism. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Li 
 
 EUSTATIA, ST.; one of the Leeward islands,, 
 8 miles S. W. of St. Christopher's, a vast rock 
 29 miles in circumference. Population, 18,000. 
 The Dutch settled here in 1600. It was suc- 
 cessively in the hands of the English, French, 
 Dutch, English, (a second time), and was re- 
 stored to the Dutch in 1697. In 1781 Admiral 
 Rodney reduced the inhabitants to poverty, 
 under pretence of their having supplied the 
 United States w T ith provisions. The island was 
 retaken by the French, again submitted to the 
 English in 1809, and was again restored to the 
 Dutch in 1814. 
 
 EUTROP1US, Flavius, a Latin author, who 
 flourished about A. D. 360; his Abridgment of 
 the History of Rome is dedicated to the empe- 
 ror Valens, to whose time it extends. 
 
 EVE ; the first woman, wife of Adam, and 
 created from a rib taken from his side. (See 
 Adam.) 
 
 EWING, John, a celebrated American divine 
 and mathematician, was born in Cecil county, 
 Maryland, June 22, 1732, and was graduated at 
 Princeton college in 1755. After completing 
 his education, he was for a short time tutor in 
 the college, and instructed the philosophical 
 classes of the college of Philadelphia, where he 
 was settled as pastor of the first presbyterian 
 congregation in 1759. He went to England in 
 1773 to obtain subscriptions for an Academy, 
 and received the degree of D. D. from the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. On his return to Amer- 
 ica in' 1775, he filled the office of provost of the 
 university of Pennsylvania until his death. He 
 published Lectures on Natural History, and 
 made some most important additions to the as- 
 tronomical articles in the American edition of 
 the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died Sept. 
 8, 1802, in the 71st year of his age. 
 
 EXETER, called by the Indians Swamscot, 
 a pleasant and flourishing town of New Hamp- 
 shire, in Rockingham county 15 miles N. N. 
 W. of Newbury port. It has an excellent 
 academy, founded by John Phillips in 1781, and 
 called Phillips Exeter academy. 
 
 EYLAU, Preuss, a small town in Prussia 
 Proper, where a great battle between the French 
 and Russians was fought on the 7th and 8th of 
 February, 1807, in which neither party gained 
 its object. The Russians retired behind the 
 Pregel, and the French, after remaining some 
 days on the field of battle, fell back on the Vis- 
 tula. 
 
 EZEKIEL, the third of the great prophets, 
 a son of Buzi, for whose history the reader is 
 referred to the Old Testament. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 FAB 
 
 241 
 
 FAI 
 
 F. 
 
 FABIUS MAXIMUS, Quintus, a celebrated 
 Roman who, from a dull and unpromising child- 
 hood, sprang into a maturity of valor and hero- 
 ism, and was gradually raised by his merit to 
 the highest offices in the state. In his first 
 consulship he gained a victory over Liguria, 
 and the fatal battle of Thrasymene occasioned 
 his election to the dictatorship. In this impor- 
 tant office he began to oppose Hannibal, not by 
 fighting him in the open field like his predeces- 
 sors, but continually harassing his army by 
 countermarches and ambuscades, for which he 
 received the surname of Cunctator, or Delayer. 
 When he had laid down his office of dictator, 
 his successors, for awhile, followed his plan ; 
 but the rashness of Varro and his contempt for 
 the operations of Fabius, occasioned the fatal 
 battle of Cannas ; and, on that occasion, the 
 Carthaginian enemy observed, that Fabius was 
 the HannibaJ of Rome. When he had made an 
 agreement with Hannibal, for the ransom of the 
 captives, which was totally disapproved by the 
 Roman senate, he sold all his estates to pay the 
 money, rather than forfeit his word to the ene- 
 my. The bold proposal of young Scipio to 
 carry the war from Italy into Africa, was re- 
 garded as chimerical by Fabius, and rejected by 
 him as too hazardous an experiment. He did 
 not, however, live to see the success of the Ro- 
 man arms under Scipio, and the conquest of 
 Carthage by measures which he treated with 
 contempt, and heard proposed with indignation. 
 He died in his 100th year, 202 B. C, after he 
 had been five times consul. 
 
 FABRICIUS,Caius, Luscinus, a truly heroic 
 and virtuous Roman, incorruptible at a time 
 when wealth was almost omnipotent, and pre- 
 serving a fearless bearing in the presence of 
 the mightiest. He lived at a time of danger to 
 the commonwealth, when Pyrrhus, king of Epi- 
 rus, had come to Italy, less for the purpose of 
 affording aid to the Tarentines, than of acquiring 
 a military reputation by conquering the masters 
 of the world. When he was sent on an em- 
 bassy to Pyrrhus for the purpose of redeeming 
 some prisoners, the king of Epirus attempted to 
 corrupt his fidelity by a bribe, which was indig- 
 nantly refused. The king on the next day or- 
 dered a curtain to be suddenly drawn, display- 
 ing to view an elephant of enormous size, a 
 creature hitherto unknown in Italy. The brave 
 Fabricius calmly said : — " Your elephant of to- 
 day moves me no more than your gold of yes- 
 terday." He died 275 B. C. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Thomas, lord ; was born at Den- 
 ton, in Yorkshire, in 161 1 He entered into the 
 service under lord Vere.in Holland, and on the 
 breaking out of the civil wars took part against 
 the king. Afterwards, however, the jealousy 
 of Cromwell disgusted him with the Puritans, 
 although continued in the employ of the gov- 
 ernment. He assisted in the Restoration, was 
 reconciled to Charles II, and died in 1671. 
 
 FAIRIES. Almost all nations have, in igno- 
 rant times, possessed a strong belief in the su- 
 pernatural, which has been continued to the 
 present day, among the unenlightened. Wild 
 and terrific scenes were peopled by the imagi- 
 nation with fierce and fearful beings, while 
 flowery dells, sequestred glades, green and 
 smiling forests, and pleasant water-falls, were 
 selected as the haunts of a gentler, and more 
 graceful race of beings, than belongs to hu- 
 manity. 
 
 Pastoral nations delighted to picture forms of 
 miniature elegance, whose habitations were 
 delicate and fragrant flowers. The fairy queen 
 Titania hung like a bee or butterfly, within 
 a hairbel, or led the gay dance by moonlight, 
 over roses, without bending the most fragile 
 floweret leaf beneath her footstep. The beings 
 called fairies were at first termed elves, the 
 word elf originating with the Saxons, who, from 
 remote antiquity, believed in them. 
 
 The Laplanders, Icelanders, and inhabitants 
 of Finland, believed in the existence of fairies. 
 Many affirmed that they had had intercourse 
 with them, and had been invited to their sub- 
 terranean retreats, where they were hospitably 
 entertained. The little men and women hand- 
 ed round wine and tobacco, with which the 
 mortal visiters were supplied in abundance, and 
 afterwards sent them on their way, with good 
 advice, and an honorable escort. Up to this 
 time, these people boast of mingling in the 
 magical ceremonies and dances of the fairies. 
 
 The word fairy is thought, by most writers, 
 to be derived from the Persian, and the charac- 
 ter of the English fairies and the Persian Peris 
 is similar. The Peris of the Orientals, are rep- 
 resented as females of exquisite beauty, and 
 great gentleness, who are not permitted to reside 
 in Heaven. They are not however of earth. 
 They live in the colors of the rainbow, among 
 the gorgeously -tin ted clouds, and are nourished 
 by the fragrance of sweet flowers. 
 
 The Dives of the Persians were spirits of the 
 male sex, with habits and dispositions, directly 
 contrary to those of the Peris. They were ma- 
 levolent, cruel, and fierce, and described as 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FA1 
 
 242 
 
 FAI 
 
 hideous in their appearance. Huge spiral horns 
 sprang from their heads, their eyes were large 
 and staring, their claws sharp and their fangs 
 terrific. Covered with shaggy hair, and hav- 
 ing long rough tails, it seemed as if they pos- 
 sessed every deformity. The Dives warred 
 with mankind, and pursued the Peris with un- 
 relenting hatred. Their lives, however, were 
 limited, and they were not incapable of feeling 
 personal violence. 
 
 The fancies of the inhabitants of the East, 
 teem with supernatural beings. The Genii, 
 spirits of vast size, were said to have been im- 
 prisoned by Solomon, who shut them up in 
 caskets, upon which he placed his seal. Some 
 were thrown into rivers. A fisherman once 
 drew one up from the bottom of a stream in his 
 net, and the vessel being opened, a dense smoke 
 arose from the interior. The smoke gradually 
 assumed the vast figure of a Genius. The 
 whole story is related in the Arabian Nights' 
 Entertainments. 
 
 Fairies of a certain class, such as the warlike 
 elves or fays, were believed to exist by all Eu- 
 ropean nations. During times of military en- 
 thusiasm, the fancy of warriors saw processions 
 of fairies, well-armed and mounted, bearing 
 gorgeous banners ; their weapons glittering in 
 the moonlight, or gleaming like lightning on 
 the darkness of the night. A Bohemian le- 
 gend says that a certain knight, travelling with 
 a friend, met one of these nocturnal processions, 
 and, disregarding the caution of his companion, 
 spurred his horse forward to attack them. 
 Horse and rider were found dead upon the spot 
 in the morning. 
 
 The Swedes asserted that there was a certain 
 class of supernatural beings, pretty much the 
 same as the Brownies of Scotland, who assisted 
 the miners, labored in the shafts, and were far 
 more ingenious than mortal w T orkmen. 
 
 The fairies of England were generally of a 
 harmless disposition. Oberon and Titania, the 
 fairy king and queen, were pleasant little peo- 
 ple, with a spice of humanity in their disposi- 
 tions. Robin Goodfellow was a mischievous 
 little creature, but not very spiteful. He was 
 represented like a rustic, " in a suit of leather, 
 close to his body, his hands and face russet col- 
 or, with a flail." 
 
 The Scottish fairies were certainly guilty of 
 great deviations from the path of honesty. One 
 of their greatest sins was that of stealing fine 
 children, from their cradles, and leaving in the 
 place of a healthy infant, a rickety and de- 
 formed being. The elves often stole away 
 
 wives from their husbands, and these women 
 were only to be regained by confronting the 
 fairy procession on a certain night, within a 
 day and a year, after the loss, which time was 
 allowed the bereaved mortals for restitution. 
 
 The electrical circles which are sometimes 
 found upon the turfweie believed to be fairy 
 rings, within which it was thought dangerous 
 to sleep, or to be found after sunset. The 
 Scotch fairies were of diminutive stature, of a 
 doubtful nature, capricious and very resentful. 
 The Scotch were afraid to speak of them dis- 
 respectfully, and even called malicious spirits, 
 " gude people." 
 
 These fairies lived in green hills, on which 
 they danced by moonlight. The interior of 
 their habitations is described as presenting a 
 most beautiful appearance, brilliant with glit- 
 tering gold and gems, and containing every 
 thing which a splendid fancy could contrive. 
 But as " all is not gold that glitters," these fine 
 appearances are said to be a show, put on to 
 conceal a mean or repulsive reality. 
 
 These little beings are admirable riders, and 
 the best judges of horses in the world. They 
 go about in large companies by night, when 
 their presence is disclosed by the shrill, bell-like 
 ringing of their bridles. When the little men 
 find their steeds jaded, they do not scruple to 
 continue their pleasure at the expense of" mor- 
 tals. They steal horses, and ride them almost 
 to death. The animals are found in the morn- 
 ing in their stalls panting and flecked with 
 foam, with their manes and tails matted and' 
 twisted. The shrewd reader will guess that 
 the fairies often had to bear the blame, which 
 belonged to careless grooms. 
 
 A sailor, on the Isle of Man, who was riding 
 to visit his sister, was invited by a party of jolly 
 fairies who were hunting, to join them in their 
 excursion. Not being aware of the nature of 
 the little men, who made a gay appearance, as 
 they swept by in green dresses, riding to the 
 music of a mellow horn, Jack followed on, de- 
 lighted, and only learned his danger when he 
 arrived at his sister's house. 
 
 These diminutive huntsmen used to seize 
 upon the horses which English residents 
 brought over to the Isle of Man, and ride them 
 without ceremony. A gentleman of the island 
 attributed the loss of half a dozen capital hunt- 
 ers, to the little men in green. 
 
 Sometimes they were more honest, and paid 
 good money for horses, to which they took a 
 fancy. A man who had a fine horse to sell, 
 was once riding his steed among the moun- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FAI 
 
 243 
 
 FAU 
 
 tains, when a dapper little gentleman stepped up, 
 and examined it. He made v the animal show 
 his paces, and, after some haggling about the 
 price, bought him. All this was well enough ; 
 but when the seller dismounted, the purchaser, 
 having fixed himself in the saddle, sank through 
 the earth with his bargain. The man who be- 
 held all this, was somewhat startled, but as there 
 was no mistake about the hard red gold which 
 he had received from the fairy horseman, he 
 put it in his pocket, and marched off. 
 
 The Brownies were singular beings. The 
 Brownie attached himself to some family, per- 
 forming menial offices with a good grace, like a 
 hired servant. But unlike a servant, he did 
 not labor in the hope of wages, on the contrary 
 an offer of recompense drove this delicate gen- 
 tleman away. He was fond of stretching him- 
 self at length before the fire, like a dog, and 
 this appeared to give him the highest satis- 
 faction. 
 
 An amusing anecdote is told concerning this 
 habit. A Brownie who had attached himself 
 to a certain house, used to hover round the 
 kitchen, uneasy if the servants sat up late, 
 which prevented him from occupying his place 
 upon the hearth. Sometimes the impatient 
 Brownie appeared at the door, and admonished 
 the servants in the following terms — " Gang a' 
 to your beds, sirs, and dinna put out the wee 
 grieshoch." — thus anglicised, " Go to your 
 beds, all of you, and do n't put out the few em- 
 bers." The Brownie left the hearth at the first 
 crow of the cock. 
 
 The inhabitants of Germany believe to this 
 day, that there exists a race called the Stille 
 Volke, the silent people. To every family of 
 eminence, a family of the Stille Volke is attach- 
 ed, containing just as many members as the 
 mortal family. When the lady of the mortal 
 family becomes a mother, the queen of the 
 Stille Volke enjoys the same blessing, and the 
 silent people endeavor to ward off any injury 
 which threatens those whom they protect. 
 
 It would be impossible to enumerate all the 
 different sprites with which superstition has 
 filled the woods, waters, hills, and valleys of 
 Europe. A few of the most agreeable elves 
 have been touched upon. It is not worth while 
 to present the darker features of a gloomy super- 
 stition, to the contemplation of the young. The 
 Kelpies and the wild Huntsmen have found no 
 place in this sketch. 
 
 The legends of the Irish are generally gay, 
 exhibiting the character of that poor, but pleas- 
 ant people. The Irish fairies are spruce little 
 21* 
 
 gentlemen, and merry little ladies, who trip it 
 away with blithe hearts, and light footsteps 
 upon their favorite and beautiful places of re- 
 sort. Poor people delight to describe wealth 
 and splendor, which they do not possess, and 
 accordingly, in the tales of the Irish, the pala- 
 ces of the " good people," are full of gold and 
 brilliance. 
 
 FALCONER, William, a pleasing English 
 poet, born in 1730, and brought up to the sea. 
 An occurrence in his own life forms the ground- 
 work of his poem the shipwreck. He was lost 
 at sea. 
 
 FALIERI, Marino, doge of Venice, in the 
 14th century, having, previously to his eleva- 
 tion, gained some brilliant victories for the 
 republic. Michael Steno, a young patrician, 
 having conceived himself injured, revenged 
 himself by some offensive lines directed against 
 the honor of the doge's wife. For this he was 
 only punished by a temporary confinement, and 
 the doge, burning for revenge, found a plan for 
 punishing the aristocracy and annihilating the 
 power of the senate. This, however, was dis- 
 covered, and Falieri put to death in 1355. Lord 
 Byron and Casimir Delavigne have made this 
 story the subject of two powerful dramas. 
 
 FALKIRK, a town of Scotland,. between the 
 Forth and Clyde, where the army of Scots com- 
 manded by Cumyn and Sir Wm. Wallace, was 
 defeated by Edward I, of England. But in 
 January 1746 the scene was reversed by the 
 defeat of the English. 
 
 FALKLAND'S ISLANDS, a group com- 
 prising two large and numerous small islands 
 mountainous and boggy, in the South Atlantic 
 ocean, East of the Straits of Magellan. The 
 harbor of Port Louis is a convenient watering 
 place for whale sloops. 
 
 FANTIN, or FANTEE ; an African country 
 on the gold coast, the inhabitants of which, 
 40,000 in number, are courageous but cunning, 
 living under an aristocratical form of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 FAROE or FAROER ; a group in the North- 
 ern ocean between Iceland and Shetland, be- 
 longing to Denmark. Population (in 1812), 
 5209. 
 
 FARQUHAR, George, an actor and soldier, 
 but chiefly remarkable for the ability of his dra- 
 matic works, born in Londonderry, Ireland, in 
 1678, died in 1707. 
 
 FAUST, a goldsmith of Mentz, to whom the 
 invention of the art of printing is attributed. 
 He died in 1466. 
 
 FAUST, doctor John, a dealer in the black 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FAU 
 
 244 
 
 FEO 
 
 art, who lived in the ICth century. He was a 
 student of Wittemberg, but abandoned theology 
 for magic. This personage is often confounded 
 with the preceding. He figures in many old 
 romances and tales, English and German. The 
 following is a sketch of one of these, " the His- 
 tory of the Damnable Life and Deserved Death 
 of Doctor John Faustus." This romance is a 
 translation from the German. It is filled " up 
 to the blue," with magic and supernatural hor- 
 rors, and acquires new interest from the fact 
 that it embodies the same old German tradition, 
 upon which Goethe founded his wild drama of 
 Faust. Faustus is first introduced as a student 
 of the University of Wittemberg, where he is 
 made Doctor of Divinity, but soon after gives 
 himself up entirely to the study of the Black 
 Art. He makes a compact with the devil, by 
 which the latter is to serve him in all his desires 
 for the space of twenty-four years, at the ex- 
 piration of which he is to deliver himself up, 
 body and soul, to the destroyer. This compact 
 is written with his own blood, and straightway 
 Mephistophiles becomes his familiar spirit. Gen- 
 erally speaking, this spirit is obedient to the 
 wishes of Faustus, but when the Doctor puts 
 an improper question, or tries to do a good ac- 
 tion, Mephistophiles dragoons him into propri- 
 ety by a rabble rout of imps, or frightens him 
 with a cock and a bull story about the other 
 world, giving him a foretaste of the pleasant 
 pastime of being " tossed upon pitchforks from 
 one devil to another." On one occasion, in 
 particular, a great procession of evil spirits came 
 to torment him, in which procession Lucifer 
 appears " in a manner of a man all hairy, but of 
 a brown color like a squirrel, curled, and his 
 tail turning upwards on his back as the squirrels 
 use. / think he could crack nuts too like a squir- 
 rel." 
 
 Then a minute account is given of Faustus's 
 journey to Tartarus, and through the air, and 
 among the planets, and afterwards through the 
 most famous kingdoms of the earth, whereby 
 it appears that he, and not Columbus, was the 
 discoverer of America. Of course the magic 
 doctor was deeply read in all mysteries, and he 
 certainly discourses wisely upon comets, and 
 falling stars, and other marvels. One chapter 
 relates " how Faustus was asked a question con- 
 cerning Thunder." His answer is certainly 
 very luminous for a Doctor in Divinity, and 
 the Black Art. " It hath commonly been seen 
 heretofore," says he," that before a thunder-clap 
 fell a shower of rain, or a gale of wind : for 
 commonly after wind falleth rain, and after 
 
 rain a thunder-clap, such thickness comes to 
 pass when the four winds meet together in the 
 heavens, the airy clouds are by force beaten 
 against the fixed crystal firmament, but when 
 the airy clouds meet with the firmament, they 
 are congealed, and so strike, and rush against 
 the firmament, as great pieces of ice when they 
 meet on the waters ; then each other sounded 
 in our ears ; and that we call thunder." After- 
 wards comes a series of the Doctor's merry 
 conceits, showing how he practised necroman- 
 cy ; how he transported three young dukes 
 through the air from Wittemberg to Munich ; 
 and how one of them fell from the magic cloak, 
 on which they sailed through the air, and was 
 left behind at Munich, being " strucken into an 
 exceeding dumps." We are also told how he 
 pawned his leg to a Jew; how he eat a load of 
 hay, and how he cheated a horse-jockey, and 
 conjured the wheels from a clown's waggon, 
 with many other wonders of a similar nature. 
 And finally, we are informed that, at the end 
 of the appointed time, the evil one came for him 
 between 12 and 1 o'clock at night, and after 
 dashing his brains out against the wall, left his 
 body in the yard, " most monstrously torn and 
 fearful to behold." 
 
 FAWKES, Guy, the principal agent in the 
 gunpowder plot, in the reign of James I, who, 
 being discovered, and having betrayed his ac- 
 complices to the number of eighty, was execu- 
 ted in 1605. (See Gunpowder Plot.) 
 
 FAYAL, one of the Azores, ten miles in 
 diameter, containing 22,000 inhabitants. It 
 rises in the form of a dome, and is extremely 
 fertile. 
 
 FAYETTE, General la. (See La Fayette.) 
 
 FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la 
 Motte, the venerable archbishop of Cambray, 
 was born in 1651 . He preached at the age of 
 15 with success, and was appointed archbishop 
 of Cambray in 1094. He had great success in 
 converting the Huguenots but it was by means 
 of mild persuasion and not of infuriate threats. 
 He superintended the education of the dukes 
 of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri, the grandsons 
 of Louis XIV. Fenelon died in 1715. His 
 literary productions are numerous, but his most 
 celebrated work is Les ^ventures de TiMmague, 
 which inculcates a pure system of morality in 
 the most pleasing and interesting manner. 
 
 FEODAL or FEUDAL LAWS, the tenurp 
 of land, by suit and service, to the lord or ownei 
 of it, introduced into England by the Saxons 
 about 600. This slavery increased under Wil- 
 liam I, 1068, who, dividing the kingdom into 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FER 
 
 245 
 
 FIS 
 
 baronies, gave them to certain persons, and re- 
 quired these persons to furnish the King with 
 money and a stated number of soldiers. The 
 feudal system was discountenanced in France 
 by Louis XI, about 1410, was limited in Eng- 
 land by Henry VII, in 1495; but abolished by 
 statute 12th Charles II, 1662. 
 
 FERDINAND V,surnamed the Catholic, son 
 of John II, King of Arragon, was born in 1453. 
 He married Isabella, queen of Castile, but was 
 allowed only a small share in the government. 
 In 10 years he conquered the Moors of Grena- 
 da, and expelled them from Spain in 1492. 
 He acquired Naples and Navarre, and, during 
 his reign, America was discovered by Colum- 
 bus. He died in 1516 of the dropsy. His 
 policy was despotic, and his character was 
 stained by the introduction of the Inquisition. 
 (See Inquisition.) 
 
 FERDINAND VII, of Spain, the son of 
 Charles IV. and Maria Louisa de Bourbon was 
 born October 14, 1784, and in 1801, he married 
 Maria Antonia Theresa de Bourbon, who died 
 of a violent medicine, after having been inju- 
 riously treated, in 1806. Ferdinand had four 
 wives, the last of whom was Maria Christiana, 
 daughter of Francis I, King of Naples. Fer- 
 dinand was pardoned by Charles IV for entering 
 into a conspiracy against his life, but the peo- 
 ple could not be persuaded of the innocence of 
 the monarch, or the guilt of his son, and on the 
 19th of March, 1808, Charles was forced to 
 abdicate in favor of Ferdinand VII. Ferdinand 
 was invited to Burgos by Napoleon, and abdi- 
 cated after mature deliberation, Joseph Bona- 
 parte being appointed to supply his place. 
 Fertiinand remained at Valencay until the end 
 of 1813. On his return to Spain, he professed 
 to entertain liberal principles, but he abolished 
 the Cortez, and till 1820 sanctioned what is 
 termed the reign of terror in Spain. On the 
 entrance of the French into Spain in 1823, a 
 regency was formed, and the king went to 
 Cadiz, whence he corresponded with the 
 enemy. After re-assuming his authority he 
 continued his despotic proceedings. Ferdinand 
 died in 1833. The affairs of Spain are now in 
 an unsettled state. Don Carlos, the brother of 
 Ferdinand, and his infant daughter being sup- 
 ported by two opposite parties, as the true sov- 
 ereigns. 
 
 FERGUSON, James, an experimental phi- 
 losopher, mechanist, and astronomer, was born 
 in Keith in 1710. While a shepherd, he watch- 
 ed the stars by night, and at an early age, 
 constructed a celestial globe. For some years 
 
 he supported himself in Edinburgh by his tal- 
 ents as a miniature painter. In 1763 he was 
 chosen member of the Royal Society. He 
 died in 1776. His works are numerous. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, or JUAN FERNANDEZ, 
 a fertile island 4 leagues long, and 2 wide, 100 
 leagues from the coast of Chili. Here Alexan- 
 der Selkirk, a Scotch mariner, lived alone from 
 the. year 1705 to 1709. 
 
 FERRARA, a duchy in upper Italy, for a 
 long time ruled by the house of Este, now 
 forming part of the States of the Church. 
 
 FESCH, Joseph, Cardinal, the uncle of Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte, and archbishop of Lyons, 
 was born at Ajaccio. He received various 
 employments and honors from his illustrious 
 nephew 
 
 FEZ, part of Mauritania, formerly a distinct 
 and powerful kingdom, but now a province of 
 Morocco. Although fertile, the Moors permit 3 
 large portion of the land to remain uncultivat 
 ed. It contains about 890,000 square miles 
 The city of Fez, built in 793, by Edris, con- 
 tains about 100,000 inhabitants. 
 
 FEZZAN, anciently PHAZANIA, is a 
 country of Africa South of Tripoli. The vege- 
 tation is luxuriant, although the climate is un- 
 pleasant. No exact estimate of the population 
 has been made. It perhaps amounts to rather 
 more than 100,000. 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, was born at Sharpham 
 Park, Somersetshire, April 22, 1707. His dra- 
 matic pieces, of which he wrote a number, do 
 not display the talent which his novels exhibit. 
 The latter, although tainted with frequent 
 grossness, display inimitable tact, drollery, and 
 knowledge of life. Fielding speedily dissipated 
 the fortune he received from his wife, and re- 
 sorted to the bar for support. Here his success 
 was not great, and his pen gave him the means 
 of life. He died in Lisbon, whither he went 
 on account of ill health, August 1754. 
 
 FINGAL, an ancient prince of Morven, a 
 province of Caledonia, born in 282. He was 
 the determined enemy of the Romans, and is 
 celebrated by Ossian, who represents him as 
 his fither. 
 
 FINLAND, a grand principality of Russia, 
 containing 135,600 square miles, and 1,378,500 
 inhabitants. But little of the soil is fit for. the 
 purposes of agriculture, and hunting forms the 
 principal resource of the hardy population. 
 Finland formerly belonged to Sweden, but was 
 conquered by a Russian army in 1808. 
 
 FISHER, John a Catholic bishop of Roches 
 ter, was born in 1459. He was a prelate more 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FLE 
 
 246 
 
 FLO 
 
 eminent for his learning and virtues, than for 
 ecclesiastical dignities and royal favor. Having 
 refused to acknowledge the spiritual supremacy 
 of Henry VIII, Fisher was thrown into prison, 
 and, after twelve months confinement, was con- 
 demned and executed, on the 22d of June, 1535. 
 FLAiNDERS, formerly a province of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, now forming the Belgic 
 Provinces of East and West Flanders. East 
 Flanders, contains 718,000 inhabitants; and 
 West Flanders 530,600. Both parts are ex- 
 tremely fertile and the Flemings are extensive- 
 ly employed in manufactures. The Franks 
 siezed upon Flanders about 412, and in 8G4 it 
 was granted to Baldwin I, with the title of count 
 of Flanders, the sovereignty being reserved to 
 France. The country, by the marriage of Philip, 
 duke of Burgundy, with Margaret, daughter of 
 Lewis de Malatin, earl of Flanders, in 1369, 
 came to the house of Burgundy ; and it passed 
 to the house of Austria by the marriage of Ma- 
 ry, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, to 
 Maximilian, emperor of Germany. Still the 
 sovereignty was in France till 1525, when 
 Charles V, taking Francis I, prisoner, at Pavia, 
 released it from that servitude. In 1556, 
 Charles resigned these territories to his son 
 Philip, king of Spain. The whole of this coun- 
 try was conquered by the French in 1794 ; but 
 only part of it now remains in their posses- 
 sion, forming the French department of the 
 north. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Charles, a parliamentary 
 general in the civil wars, the son of Sir Wil- 
 liam Fleetwood, knight, cup-bearer to James I, 
 and Charles I, and comptroller of Woodstock 
 park. In 1644, the subject of this article was 
 made colonel of horse, and governor of Bristol. 
 He was afterwards raised to the rank of lieuten- 
 ant-general, and had a share in the defeat of 
 Charles II at Worcester. On the death of Ire- 
 ton, Fleetwood married his widow, and being 
 now related to Cromwell, was appointed deputy 
 of Ireland, in which place he was succeeded by 
 Cromwell's younger son Henry. Fleetwood 
 joined in deposing Richard, and after the res- 
 toration he became one of the council of State, 
 and commander-in-chief of the forces, but after- 
 ward retired to private life at Stoke JNewing- 
 ton, where he died soon after. 
 
 FLETCHER, John, son to the bishop of 
 London, a famous dramatic writer, (see Beau- 
 mont and Fletcher). 
 
 FLEURUS or FLERUS ; a town of Belgi- 
 um, in the province of Hainault, on the Sambre, 
 six miles N. E. of Charleroi. Population 2400. 
 
 Four battles have been fought here. In 1622 
 the troops of Spain and Germany were matched 
 against each other. In 1690 the French defeat- 
 ed the allies here with great loss. In 1794 the 
 French gained a complete victory over the Aus- 
 trians, and it was on this occasion that aerosta- 
 tion was found to be of practical use. Coutel, 
 the chief of the rerostatic corps, ascended with 
 a general and adjutant, in a balloon of great 
 size, hovered over the enemy, and reconnoitered 
 their works. The information thus gained was 
 conveyed to the French by means of signal 
 flags. During the process of inflation, the fire 
 of a battery was opened upon the assistants, 
 and as the balloon ascended for the first time, a 
 cannon ball passed between its neck and the 
 gondola. Soon, however, the daring aeronauts 
 attained a safe elevation, and could see beneath 
 them the then harmless cannon fruitlessly dis- 
 charging their shot into the upper air. The 
 fourth battle, called the battle of Ligny, was 
 fought on June 16, 1815, between the Prussians 
 and French and was desperately contested. 
 
 FLEURY, Andre Hercule de, cardinal, pre- 
 ceptor to Louis XV, became prime minister on 
 the disgrace and fall of his rival, the duke of 
 Bourbon. His administration was conducted 
 with great skill and address; commerce and 
 industry flourished under him, and he had the 
 fortune to conciliate the differences between 
 the courts of London and Madrid. He died in 
 1743. 
 
 FLORA, so called by the Romans, the god- 
 dess of flowers. Her Greek name was Chloris. 
 Her festivals were celebrated with many licen- 
 tious practices. 
 
 FLORENCE, capital of the grand-duchy of 
 Tuscany, one of the most beautiful cities of 
 Italy, justly deserving the name which has been 
 bestowed on it — Florence the Fair. It contains 
 76,000 inhabitants. It is interesting from its 
 historical associations, and from the Invaluable 
 monuments of art which it contains, and with 
 which the Florentine gallery is crowded. The 
 Pitti palace, the cathedral, the church of St. 
 Croce, the church del Carmine, &c, can never 
 be sufficiently admired. The revival of the arts 
 took place here, and thence the regeneration of 
 Europe followed. 
 
 FLORIAN, a French dramatic writer, novel- 
 ist, and fabulist, married a niece of Voltaire. 
 He was a member of the French academy, and 
 died Sept. 13, 1794. 
 
 FLORIDA, a territory of the United States, 
 bounded N. by Alabama and Georgia, E. by the 
 Atlantic, S. and W. by the gulf of Mexico, 140 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 FOH 
 
 247 
 
 FOU 
 
 miles broad, and 400 miles long. It was divided 
 into E. and W. Florida in 1763, but at present 
 is subdivided into counties. The largest river, 
 the St. Johns, is navigable for 200 miles. The 
 country, is with few exceptions, level, and fer- 
 tile, although but little cultivated. Its majestic 
 forests give it a peculiar and picturesque ap- 
 pearance. Intermixed with the dark glossy 
 leaves of the oaks appear flowers of the most 
 vivid and varied colors. Groves of magnolias, 
 cover immense tracts of land, bending beneath 
 the weight of their snowy blossoms, and fill the 
 air with perfume. Florida was discovered in 
 1512, by Juan Ponce de Leon, in his famous 
 search after the fabulous fountain which was 
 to restore health and beauty to the aged, on 
 Palm Sunday, (Pascua Florida), and hence the 
 name. Pop. 1840, 54,107. 
 
 The French and Spaniards long made it the 
 theatre of contest, but at length the Spaniards 
 were established in the town and fort of St. 
 Augustine. In 1763, Florida was ceded to 
 Great Britain, in exchange for the island of 
 Cuba. In 1781 the Spanish governor, don Gal- 
 vez, conquered West Florida, which remained 
 in the possession of Spain until the peace of 
 1783, whereby Great Britain relinquished both 
 provinces to Spain. A negotiation for the trans- 
 fer of the whole province to the United States 
 was consummated by treaty in 1819 ; the treaty 
 was ratified by Spain in October, 1820, and 
 General Jackson took possession of it for the 
 United States in February, 1821. 
 
 FLOYD, William, the first delegate from 
 New York, who signed the declaration of Amer- 
 ican Independence, born on Long Island, Dec. 
 17, 1734. The inheritor of a large estate, he 
 was one of those who, like Charles Carroll, set 
 his all at stake, and his property was laid waste 
 by the British troops. After having command- 
 ed the militia of Long Island, and served as 
 senator, he removed, in 1803, to a farm on the 
 Mohawk river, where he died, Aug. 4, 1821, 
 aged 87 years. 
 
 FLUSHING, a fortified city, on the S. side 
 of the island of Walcheren, in the Netherlands. 
 Population 4,500. It carries on an active com- 
 merce with the East Indies. It was invested 
 by lord Chatham in 1809, and capitulated, but 
 was evacuated by the British on the 23d of De- 
 cember. 
 
 FO, FOE, or FOHI, the founder of the Chi- 
 nese religion, said to have been born in Cash- 
 mere, about 1027 B. C. Miracles attended his 
 birth, and were performed by him in after life. 
 His priests are called, in China, Leng ; in Tar- 
 
 tary, Lamas ; in Siam, Talapoins ; and in Eu- 
 rope, Bonzes. 
 
 FOLARD, chevalier Charles de, a celebrated 
 tactician, born at Avignon in 1669. He was 
 aide-de-camp under the duke de Vendome in 
 1702, was wounded in the battle of Cassano, 
 and made prisoner at Blenheim. He next served 
 against the Turks, and then entered into the 
 service of Charles XII, during the latter part of 
 his career. He died at Avignon, in 1752. 
 
 FONTAINE, Jean de la, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished literary men in the reign of Louis 
 XIV, born in 1621. Fontaine was educated at 
 Rheims, and went to Paris, where he lived in 
 habits of intimacy with the wits of the age. He 
 died at Paris, in 1G95, aged 74. The most sim- 
 ple of men in private life, his writings exhibit 
 shrewdness and a knowledge of mankind, which 
 place them above the reach of imitation. His 
 earl}'- works are tainted with licentiousness. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of France, 13 
 leagues S. S. E. of Paris, with a splendid palace 
 and a military academy. It is famous, in di- 
 plomatic history, as the place where several 
 treaties have been concluded. It was here that 
 Napoleon signed his first abdication, April 11th, 
 1814, and bade an affectionate farewell to his 
 devoted troops. 
 
 FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, where 
 the French, headed by Louis XV, defeated the 
 allies under the command of the duke of Cum- 
 berland, April 30, 1745. 
 
 FOOTE, Samuel, a comic dramatist, and ac- 
 tor, born at Truro, Cornwall, in 1721, died at 
 Dover, in October, 1777. He was a grest mimic 
 and a man of wit. A gentleman, who was the 
 fortunate possessor of some fine Constantia wine, 
 after praising its good qualities, invited Foote to 
 taste some. A very small bottle was produced, 
 together with a very small glass, which the nig- 
 gardly host half filled. The wag swallowed 
 this immediately. " Well, Foote," said his en- 
 tertainer, " what do you think of that? It is 
 47 years old." " What do I think ?" replied 
 the' wit ; " why, sir, I think it's very little for 
 its age." 
 
 FORLI, anciently Forum Lirii, belongs to 
 the States of the Church, contains 12,960 in- 
 habitants, and is 14 miles S. S. W. of Ravenna. 
 
 FORMOSA, an island in the Chinese sea, 
 240 miles long, and 60 broad, distinguished for 
 its admirable fertility, and the quality of its 
 fruits. 
 
 FORTUNA, the sister of the Fates, the god- 
 dess of success among the Greeks and Romans 
 
 FOULAHS, FOOLAHS, or FELLA 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 FOX 
 
 248 
 
 FOX 
 
 TAHS, a nation of Central Africa, extending 
 from the Atlantic to Darfoor. Mr. Hodgson says ; 
 "Of all the nations of Central Africa described 
 by captain Clapperton, the Fellatahs are the most 
 remarkable. The publication of his first jour- 
 ney to Soudan represented this people as inhab- 
 iting the country of the Negroes, but differing 
 from them essentially in physical character. 
 They have straight hair, noses moderately ele- 
 vated, the parietal bones not so compressed as 
 those of the Negro, nor is their forehead so 
 much arched. The color of their skin is a light 
 bronze, like that of the Wadreagans, or Melano- 
 Gostulians, and by this characteristic alone can 
 they be classed in the Ethiopian variety of the 
 human species. The Fellatahs are a warlike 
 race of shepherds, and have, within a short pe- 
 riod, subjugated an extensive portion of Soudan. 
 The lamented Major Laing, who arrived at 
 Timbuctoo, assures us that they were in pos- 
 session of that far-famed city. It was an order 
 from the Fellatah governor which compelled 
 him to leave Timbuctoo, and to his instigation 
 or connivance is his death probably to be attri- 
 buted. Mungo Park was killed by a party of 
 these people, while descending the Q,uorra. 
 They may be supposed to occupy the banks of 
 this unknown river, from its rise to its termi- 
 nation." 
 
 FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, Anthony Quen- 
 tin, an attorney, born in 1747, rendered his name 
 infamous during the revolution. He obtained 
 from Robespierre the post of public accuser, 
 but was put to death as one of the revolutionary 
 tribunal, May 7, 1795. 
 
 FOX, George, founder of the society of Qua- 
 kers, or Friends, was born at Drayton, in Lei- 
 cestershire, in 1624. The name of Quakers 
 was bestowed upon the sect at Derby, from their 
 trembling method of delivery, and from their 
 exhortations to tremble before the Lord. He 
 was persecuted, and imprisoned several times, 
 and died, in consequence of the hardships he 
 had suffered in 1690, in the 67th year of his 
 age. 
 
 FOX, Charles James, second son of Henry 
 Fox, first lord Holland, was born, Jan. 14, 1748. 
 He received his education at Eton, where he 
 distinguished himself by his classical exercises. 
 From that seminary he removed to Hertford 
 college, Oxford, after which he went on his 
 travels ; and in 1768 was returned to parliament 
 for Midhurst. In 1770 he was appointed a 
 commissioner of the admiralty, which place he 
 resigned in 1772, and soon after obtained a 
 place at the treasury board. Some differences 
 
 arising between him and lord North, he was 
 dismissed in 1774, and from that time took a 
 leading part in the opposition. " On his first 
 separation from the ministry,'' says Butler, " Mr. 
 Fox assumed the character of a whig. 
 
 " Almost the whole of his political life was 
 spent in opposition to his majesty's ministers. 
 In vehemence and power of argument he re- 
 sembled Demosthenes; but there the resem- 
 blance ended. He possessed a strain of ridicule 
 and wit, which nature denied to the Athenian ; 
 and it was the more powerful, as it always ap- 
 peared to be blended with argument, and to 
 result from it. To the perfect composition 
 which so eminently distinguished the speeches 
 of Demosthenes, he had no pretence. He was 
 heedless of method : — having the complete 
 command of good words, he never sought for 
 better; if those, which occurred, expressed his 
 meaning clearly and fo cibly, he paid little at- 
 tention to their arrangement or harmony. 
 
 " The moment of his grandeur was, when, 
 after he had stated the argument of his adver- 
 sary, with much greater strength than his ad- 
 versary had done, and with much greater than 
 any of his hearers thought possible, he seized 
 it with the strength of a giant, and tore and 
 trampled on it to destruction. If, at this mo- 
 ment, he had possessed the power of the Athe- 
 nian over the passions or the imaginations of 
 his hearers, he might have disposed of the house 
 at his pleasure ; but this was denied to him ; 
 and, on this account, his speeches fell very short 
 of the effect, which otherwise they must have 
 produced." 
 
 In 1780 he was elected for Westminister, 
 which, with a slight interruption, he continued 
 to represent to his death. When the Rocking- 
 ham party came into power, Mr. Fox was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. 
 On the dissolution of this administration, by the 
 death of the chief, a coalition was formed be- 
 tween Mr. Fox and lord North, who, with their 
 respective adherents, came again into office 
 until the introduction of the India bill occasion- 
 ed their final dismissal in 1734. In 1788, Mr. 
 Fox travelled, but while in Italy, he was recalled 
 in consequence of the king's insanity. On this 
 great occasion, he maintained that the prince 
 of Wales had a right to assume the regency : 
 which was opposed by Mr. Pitt and the Parlia- 
 ment. The next remarkable event in the pub- 
 lic life of Mr. Fox was the part he took with 
 regard to the French revolution. That change 
 he hailed as a blessing, while Burke denounced 
 it as a curse ; and this difference of sentiment 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FRA 
 
 249 
 
 FRA 
 
 produced a schism in the party which was never 
 repaired. On the death of Mr. Pitt, in 1806, 
 Mr. Fox came again into office, as secretary of 
 state ; but he died Sept. 13, 1806, and his remains 
 were interred in Westminister Abbey. 
 
 FRANCE, a vast country of Europe, com- 
 prising 213,800 square miles, 32,000,000 inhab- 
 itants. In 1824 the total value of exports was 
 440,542,000 francs ; of imports, in the same 
 year, 451,861,000 francs. In 1829, the revenue 
 was 986,156,821 francs, and the expenditures, 
 908,186,158 francs. Public debt, 3,000,000,000 
 francs. France is divided into 86 departments ; 
 85 are formed of the old provinces ; the 86th 
 was united to France in 1791. 
 
 The departments formed from the six north- 
 ern provinces are the department of the North, 
 Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Lower Seine, Erere, 
 Calvados, Manche, Orne, Seine, Seine-et-Oise, 
 Seine-et-Marne, Oise, Aisne, Aube, Upper 
 Marne, Marne, and Ardennes. The depart- 
 ments formed from the six provinces of the east, 
 are Meurthe, Moselle, Meuse, Vosges, Lower 
 Rhine, Upper Rhine, Doubs, Upper Saone, 
 Jura, Cote-d'or, Yonne, Saone-et-Loire, Ain, 
 Rhone, Loire, Isere, Drome, Upper Alps. The 
 departments formed from the seven provinces 
 of the south, axe the Mouths of the Rhone, 
 Lower Alps, Var, Upper Garonne, Tarn, Aude, 
 Herault, Gard, Lozere, Upper Loire', Ardeche, 
 Eastern, Pyrenees, Ariege, Lower Pyrenees, 
 Gironde, Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Lot, Ave- 
 
 ?ron, Tarn-et-Garonne, Landes, Gers, Upper 
 yrenees, Corsica. The departments formed 
 Sm the six provinces of the west, are Cha- 
 rente, Lower Charente, Vienne, Deux-Sevres, la 
 Vendee, Maine-et-Loire, Ille-et-Vilaine, Cotes- 
 du-Nord, Finesterre, Morbihan, Lower Loire, 
 Sarthe, Mayenne. The departments formed 
 from the eight central provinces are, Loiret, 
 Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher, Indre-et-Lore, Cher, 
 Indre, Nievre, Allier, Creuse, Upper Vi- 
 enne, Correze, Puy-du-D6me, Cantal,and Vau- 
 cluse. 
 
 France was called by the Romans, Transal- 
 pine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to distin- 
 guish it from Cisalpine Gaul, on the Italian 
 side of the Alps. Like other countries, it soon 
 became a desirable object to the ambitious Ro- 
 mans; and, after a brave resistance, was an- 
 nexed to their empire by the invincible arms 
 of Julius Ccesar, about 48 years B. C. Gaul 
 continued in the possession of the Romans until 
 the downfal of that empire, in the 5th century. 
 About 420, under the conduct of Pharamond, 
 the Franks, an ancient people of Westphalia, 
 
 commenced the conquest of the Gauls. The 
 Franks originated the Salic law by which the 
 sovereignty is rendered hereditary only in the 
 male line. The Franks and Burgundians, after 
 establishing their power, and reducing the Gauls 
 to a state of slavery, parceled out the lands 
 among their principal leaders ; and succeeding 
 kings found it necessary to confirm their privi- 
 leges, allowing them to exercise sovereign au- 
 thority in their respective governments, until 
 they, at length, assumed an independence, only 
 acknowledging the king as their head. This 
 gave rise to those numerous principalities that 
 formerly existed in France, and to the several 
 parliaments ; for every province became, in its 
 policy and government, an epitome of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 The first Christian monarch of the Franks 
 was Clovis, son of the chivalrous Childeric, who 
 is regarded as the true founder of the monarchy. 
 He expelled the Romans, and gained the bril- 
 liant victory of Tolbiac over the Germans. He 
 is celebrated by the vow which he made to em- 
 brace the Christian religion at the solicitation 
 of his wife Clotilda, and was baptized at Rheims. 
 The first race of French kings, prior to Charle- 
 magne, found a cruel enemy in the Saracens, 
 who then overran Europe, and retaliated the 
 barbarities of the Goths and Vandals upon their 
 posterity. In the year 800, Charlemagne, king 
 of France, the glory of these dark ages, became 
 master of Germany, Spain, and part of Italy, 
 and was crowned king of the Romans by the 
 pope. He divided his empire by will among 
 his sons, which proved fatal to his family and 
 their posterity. Soon after this the Normans 
 ravaged the kingdom of France, and, about the 
 year 900, obliged the French to yield up Nor- 
 mandy and Bretagne to Rollo, their leader, who 
 married the king's daughter and was persuaded 
 to profess himself a Christian. This laid the 
 foundation of the Norman power in France : 
 which afterwards gave a king to England, in 
 the person of William, duke of Normandy, who 
 subdued Harold, the last Saxon king, in the 
 year 1066. In the reign of Philip I, in 1060, 
 were commenced the crusades. In 110S, Philip 
 was succeeded by his son Louis the Fat, or 
 Louis VI, who engaged in a war with Henry 
 I, of England. Louis VII, surnamed the 
 Young, marched into Champagne in the year 
 1137, and having surprised the city of Vetry, 
 met with no resistance, except in the parochial 
 church, which he caused to be set on fire ; in 
 consequence of which 1,300 persons perished 
 in the flames. Philip II, or Philip-Augustus 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 FRA 
 
 250 
 
 FRA 
 
 nis son and successor, in 1180, and Richard I, 
 of England, undertook a joint expedition to the 
 holy land, in 1191; but the former returning 
 to Europe in disgust, the latter was obliged to 
 relinquish the enterprise. 
 
 Philip II was succeeded by his son, Louis 
 the Lion, in 1223. He was poisoned after a 
 short reign of three years, and was succeeded 
 in 1226, by his son Louis IX, commonly styled 
 St. Louis, who engaged in a new crusade against 
 the infidels in Egypt and Palestine, in which 
 himself and his nobility were taken prisoners. 
 Having been afterwards ransomed, he led an 
 army against the infidels of Africa, where he 
 died in 1270, before Tunis. 
 
 His son and successor, Philip III, kept the 
 field against the Moors, and saved the remains 
 of the French army ; and this procured him the 
 surname of the Hardy. In the reign of Philip 
 IV, surnamed the Fair, who succeeded in 1265, 
 the Supreme tribunals, called parliaments, were 
 instituted ; and the knights templars, a military 
 order, that had undertaken the defence of the 
 temple of Jerusalem, were suppressed and ex- 
 tirpated. The first branch of Capetian kings 
 ended with Charles IV, who left only a daugh- 
 ter; and the states having solemnly decreed 
 that all females were incapable of succeeding 
 to the crown, Philip de Valois, the next male 
 heir, was raised to the throne in 1328. 
 
 Edward III of England having claimed the 
 French crown, hostilities commenced, and the 
 English gained the battle of Crecy in 1346, and 
 Poictiers in 1356 ; but, about the end of the 14th 
 century, the French recovered all the provinces 
 which the English had conquered in France. 
 A civil war raging, Henry V, king of England, 
 took advantage of these disorders, and invaded 
 France in 1415. He made himself master of 
 Harfieur, and gained the famous battle of Agin- 
 court, in which the French lost an incredible 
 number of men. In 1420 the succession to the 
 French throne was secured to the king of Eng- 
 land by treaty ; in consequence of which, the 
 infant, Henry VI, was crowned king of France 
 at Paris. By degrees > Charles VII recovered 
 possession of the kingdom, in which he was 
 greatly assisted by Joan of Arc, a pretended 
 prophetess, who raised the siege of Orleans, and 
 defeated the English ; but being taken prisoner, 
 this gallant girl was barbarously burned for al- 
 leged sorcery. 
 
 On the death of Charles VIII, who was the 
 last prince of the first line of the house of Va- 
 lois, the duke of Orleans ascended the throne, 
 under the title of Louis XII, and was so hu- 
 
 mane, generous, and indulgent to his subjects, 
 that he obtained the appellation of Father of 
 his people. Francis I, one of the most distin- 
 guished of the kings of France, succeeded him. 
 He ascended the throne in 1515, at the age of 
 21, and died in 1547. He conquered the Milan- 
 ese in 1525, but was taken prisoner at the siege 
 ofPavia. In 1535 he possessed himself of Sa- 
 voy, but was afterwards defeated. On the ac- 
 cession of Francis II, commenced those civil 
 commotions which harassed France during 30 
 years. The king was instigated to attempt the 
 extirpation of the Protestants, who, by way of 
 reproach, were denominated Huguenots. The 
 minority and reign of Charles IX exhibited a 
 series of treacheries, commotions, and assassina- 
 tions ; and France became a field of war and 
 bloodshed. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
 disgraced the age. Henry III was a weak and 
 debauched prince ; and in him ended the line 
 of Valois. On his death, the crown devolved 
 on the house of Bourbon, in the person of Hen- 
 ry IV, king of Navarre, who was descended, 
 from Robert of France, count of Clermont, the 
 fifth and last son of Saint Louis. Henry was 
 the son of Antony of Bourbon, duke of Ven- 
 dome and Jeanne d'Albret, heiress of Navarre. 
 He was justly styled the Great, being one of 
 the best and most amiable of the French prin- 
 ces ; but he perished by the hand of an assassin 
 in 1610. 
 
 Under the minority and in the reign of Louis 
 
 XIII, France returned to its former state of 
 disorder and wretchedness, and cardinal Rich- 
 elieu, the prime minister, rendered the power 
 of the crown absolute. The reign of Louis 
 
 XIV, was long and brilliant. The great Conde 
 compelled the emperor Ferdinand III, and 
 Christiana, queen of Sweden, to conclude the 
 peace of Westphalia. But the unbounded am- 
 bition of Louis rendered him odious or formi- 
 dable to every prince in Europe. The united 
 forces of England, Holland, and Austria, obliged 
 him to conclude the peace of Ryswick in 1697, 
 and that of Utretcht in 1713. He reigned 73 
 years from 1642, to 1715. William III was the 
 great enemy of Louis XIV. In 1 702, he organ- 
 ized a new confederacy of the powers of Eu- 
 rope against him, but died before hostilities 
 commenced. The English duke of Marlbo- 
 rough, who led the allied forces, gained, in 1704, 
 the battle of Blenheim, which was followed by 
 other victories. But, in 1715, this bloody and 
 useless contest was terminated by the peace of 
 Utretcht, though Louis succeeded in placing 
 his grandson on the throne of Spain. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FRA 
 
 251 
 
 FRA 
 
 At the age of five years, his great grandson 
 ascended the throne, under the title of Louis 
 XV. In conjunction with Germany, Russia, and 
 Sweden, France, in this reign, twice contended 
 against Prussia and Great Britain. These wars 
 were concluded in 1748, and in 1763. Louis 
 XVI assumed the crown of France in 1774, 
 under the most unfortunate auspices. He found 
 a court abandoned to the utmost extravagance, 
 and the country loaded with an enormous debt. 
 The king convoked an assembly of the nota- 
 bles, consisting of princes, deputies chosen from 
 among the nobility, dignified clergy, the par- 
 liaments, and the pays d'dtat. 
 
 It was proposed to establish a land tax, with- 
 out any exception in favor of the nobility or 
 clergy. This proposal being followed by a gen- 
 eral refusal, the assembly of the notables was 
 dissolved, and the minister thought he could 
 make a more advantageous bargain with the 
 parliaments. But as the latter remonstrated, 
 and advanced the opinion, that the right of im- 
 posing new taxes belonged only to the states 
 general, the king convoked them in 1789. 
 Necker's indiscreet measure, by which it was 
 stipulated that the numbers of the tiers etat 
 (third estate) should be, at least, equal to that 
 of the other two orders conjointly, threw the 
 preponderance into the scale of the former, who 
 could not fail to find many adherents in the 
 superior classes. As soon as the deputies of 
 the third order had formed themselves into a 
 national assembly, the other orders were led 
 away by their impulsive force, and the equilib- 
 rium was entirely destroyed. 
 
 The storm of popular fury gathered and broke 
 rapidly. On the 14th of July, 1789, the Bastile 
 was taken. On the 4th of August the privi- 
 leges of the nobility were suppressed. On the 
 5th of October, 1789, the king, queen, and royal 
 family were forced from Versailles by the mob, 
 and brought captive to the capital. However, 
 the monarch disconcerted the schemes of his 
 adversaries by a free acceptance of the new 
 constitution, which abolished the feudal system, 
 and the titles of nobility. The situation of 
 Louis and his family became so unsupportable 
 under the harsh restraints which were imposed, 
 that they contrived to escape from their im- 
 placable enemies, but the unfortunate monarch, 
 being recognised at St. Menehoult, by Drouet, 
 the post-master, was stopped at Varennes, con- 
 strained to return to Paris with his family, and 
 to become a mere prisoner. 
 
 While the king was preparing to surrender 
 his throne and life, the jacobins caused a decree 
 2 
 
 to be enacted, suppressing the chasseurs and 
 grenadiers, of whom they were afraid, as well 
 as the staff of the national guard. All the 
 measures which they pursued till the 10th of 
 August, 1792, had, for their sole aim, the over- 
 throw of the monarchy. On that day, the Mar- 
 seillese, who had been invited to Paris to form 
 the advanced-guard in the attack on the palace 
 of the Tuilleries, in conjunction with the na- 
 tional guards, fired on the devoted Swiss who 
 composed the royal body-guard, and almost 
 annihilated them. The king and his family 
 sought refuge in the assembly ; it was decreed 
 that they should be imprisoned in the Temple, 
 and they were conducted thither. 
 
 The national convention was opened on the 
 21st of September, and, in the first sitting 
 abolished royalty, and proclaimed the republic 
 The king was tried and condemned, and on the 
 21st of January, 1793, perished on the scaffold. 
 " Son of St. Louis !" were the last words which 
 his confessor, the abbe Edgeworth, addressed to 
 him ; " Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven ! 
 Against the French republic, the emperor and 
 the king of Prussia had already declared war 
 and, on the king's death, their example was 
 followed by Great Britain and Holland, ano 
 speedily after by Spain and Russia. While 
 France was pressed on all sides by the different 
 powers of Europe, this unfortunate country was 
 a prey to all kinds of internal disorders, and to 
 the most unbounded licentiousness. 
 
 Robespierre and Danton obtained a decree by 
 which all the sans -culottes were to be armed 
 with pikes and muskets at the expense of the 
 rich, who were themselves to be disarmed as 
 suspected persons. Marat, one of the principal 
 agents in the revolution, was assassinated by 
 Charlotte Corday. Towards the close of June, 
 1793, the new constitution was adopted, and 
 great disturbances broke out at Lyons, Mar- 
 seilles, and in La Vendee. Soon after the sur- 
 render of Valenciennes to the English, the 
 committee of public safety was established to 
 desolate France by the most horrid butcheries 
 and persecutions. They apprehended all sus- 
 pected persons, and tried them by revolutionary 
 committees, the powers of which were so un- 
 limited, that they could readily seize on four- 
 fifths of the population of France. 
 
 One of their early victims was the unhappy 
 Marie Antoinette, the widow of the murdered 
 Louis. Her death was followed by the destruc- 
 tion of the Girondists. The infamous duke o' 
 Orleans was brought up to Paris from Mar- 
 seilles, and being tried and condemned, braved 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 FRA 
 
 252 
 
 FRA 
 
 the insults of the multitude on the way to 
 execution. Brittany and a great part of Nor- 
 mandy being filled with the royalists, who had 
 acquired the denomination of chouans, Carrier, 
 one of the most atrocious monsters of the revolu- 
 tion, was sent to Nantes, where he spared nei- 
 ther age nor sex, but put to death the aged, the 
 infirm, and even infants. The atrocities com- 
 mitted by the satellites of the convention in the 
 city of Lyons, exceeded all that can be con- 
 ceived; at the end of five months, nearly 6,000 
 persons had perished. 
 
 In Paris the executions were now multiplied 
 to such a degree, that eighty persons were fre- 
 quently conveyed in the same vehicle to the 
 place where they suffered. To cite the names 
 of all the illustrious victims who fell, would far 
 exceed our limits, and, at the same time, pre- 
 sent too horrid a picture of human depravity. 
 At length, Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, 
 were brought to condign punishment. A form 
 of government was afterwards settled by the 
 convention; and a council of ancients, a coun- 
 cil of five hundred, and five rulers, called a 
 directory, were appointed : but the other pow- 
 ers of Europe being still in league against 
 France, and the new government being unfor- 
 tunate in the field, the executive power was, in 
 1799, vested in three consuls, of whom the first 
 was the victorious Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 The consulate restored the energy of the gov- 
 ernment, and Bonaparte, having, in 1800, gained 
 the victory of Marengo, forced Austria to con- 
 clude the treaty of Luneville in February, 1801 ; 
 and concluded the treaty of Amiens with Eng- 
 land in October of that year ; thus restoring 
 peace to all Europe. The British government 
 refusing to surrender Malta, according to the 
 treaty of Amiens, after some angry discussions 
 the English ambassador left Paris in April, 
 1803, and war was recommenced. In 1804, the 
 first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, was crowned 
 emperor of France by the pope ; and, in 1805, 
 king of Italy, at Milan. He afterwards assumed 
 the title of Mediator of Switzerland, and Pro- 
 tector of the Confederation of the Rhine. He 
 made one of his brothers king of Holland, 
 another king of Naples, a third king of Spain, 
 and a fourth king of Westphalia. 
 
 These manifestations of ambition excited, in 
 succession, the jealousies and fears of all Europe. 
 Austria and Russia commenced hostilities in 
 1805, but were overthrown at Austerlitz ; Prus- 
 sia in 1806, but she was crushed at Jena ; Rus- 
 sia again in the same year, but she was defeated 
 at Friedland ; Spain, in 1807 ; Austria, again, in 
 
 1808, but she was overthrown at Wagram , 
 Russia, again, in 1812; and finally, Russia, 
 Prussia, Sweden, Austria, England, &c, invad- 
 ed France in 1814, when Napoleon abdicated, 
 retired to the island of Elba, and the Bourbons 
 were restored. After a year's absence, Napoleon 
 returned to Paris, but having been defeated in 
 the memorable battle of Waterloo, again abdi- 
 cated the throne, and was conveyed as a state 
 prisoner to the island of St. Helena, where he 
 died in 1821. The Bourbons were re-estab- 
 lished on the throne in the person of Louis 
 XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, and France relin- 
 quished the states and provinces acquired dur- 
 ing the revolutionary wars. Louis XVIII died 
 on the 16th of December, 1825, and his brother, 
 Charles X, ascended the throne, and was crown- 
 ed with splendor at Rheims, May 29, 1826, after 
 taking the solemn oath to govern according to 
 the charter. But the misfortunes of the Bour- 
 bons had not taught them wisdom. In 1830, 
 the tyranny of the ancien regime seemed to have 
 re-appeared, and fetters were placed upon the 
 press. On Tuesday morning, July 27th, the 
 liberal journals of Paris were seized, and a rev- 
 olution immediately broke out. In three days 
 the glorious struggle was terminated in favor 
 of the people. The paving-stones and tiles of 
 the houses became weapons more formidable 
 than sabres or muskets. The royal cavalry as 
 they rushed upon the barracades were assailed in 
 front and from above ; the young scholars of the 
 polytechnic school, a military institution, hav- 
 ing been dismissed without their swords, seized 
 what arms they could find, and ranged them- 
 selves on the side of the people. Some com- 
 manded the populace, others served the guns 
 with spirit and success. Aug. 2, the king abdi- 
 cated, and was permitted to leave France. The 
 duke of Orleans was chosen king, a new min- 
 istry appointed, and after a fair trial, the old 
 ministry was imprisoned for life. The affairs 
 of France now appear to be in a settled state. 
 
 FRANCE, Isle of, or Mauritius ; an island 
 in the Indian ocean, 600 miles east of Mada- 
 gascar, belonging to Great Britain. Its cir- 
 cumference is 150 miles. The climate is hot, 
 but healthy, a large portion of the land fertile, 
 and the whole well watered. Population in 
 1822, 87,603, of whom 13,475 were blacks. It 
 was discovered in the 16th century by the Por- 
 tuguese. The Dutch first settled in it, but re- 
 linquished it, and the French took possession of 
 the island ; but since 1810, it has been in the 
 hands of the English. 
 
 FRANCHE-COMTE, or Upper Burgundy, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 FRA 
 
 253 
 
 FRA 
 
 an ancient province of France, called by the 
 Romans, Sequania. It was wrested from the 
 Spanish by Louis XIV, and ceded to the French 
 by the peace of Nimeguen, in 1G78. It forms 
 the departments of the Doubs, Upper Saone, 
 and the Jura. 
 
 FRANCIS I, of France, surnamed by his 
 subjects, the father of literature, was born at 
 Cognac, in 1494. His father was Charles, 
 count of Angouleme. Wishing to accomplish 
 the projects of Louis with regard to the Milan- 
 ese, he passed the Alps, penetrated as far as 
 Milan, and found the Swiss encamped near 
 Marignano. The contest was kept up for two 
 whole days. Francis I, and the chevalier Bay- 
 ard performed prodigies of valor, and the mar- 
 shal of Trivulzio, who had been in eighteen 
 actions, called this a combat of giants. The 
 Swiss were beaten with a loss of 15,000 men, 
 and Sforza ceded Milan, and retired to France 
 where he died. The Swiss agreed to a per- 
 petual treaty of peace, and long remained the 
 faithful allies of France. Leo X, equally re- 
 conciled, came to a conference in which the 
 pragmatic sanction was abolished, to make way 
 for the concordate, by which the king enjoyed 
 the power of conferring benefices. 
 
 The death of the emperor, Maximilian I, pre- 
 sented the imperial throne to the view of Fran- 
 cis I, and Charles, of Austria. The former 
 never pardoned his rival for having obtained it, 
 and hence arose the interminable wars between 
 Austria and France. The first care of Francis 
 I, was to attach himself to Henry VIII, of Eng- 
 land, and they had an interview near Calais ; 
 but Charles V ruined his rival's scheme by 
 gaining the favor of the all-powerful Cardinal 
 Wolsey. The campaign which followed, pre- 
 sented a scene of alternate success and defeat 
 on both sides. The Milanese were won by the 
 intrigues of Leo X, and Charles V, and France 
 had at once for adversaries the new pope Adrian 
 VI, the Emperor, England, the Venetians, and 
 the Geonese, and, to crown her misfortunes, 
 the constable of Bourbon, whom discontent 
 drove to the arms of Charles V, and whom im- 
 perial favor raised to the rank of commander- 
 in-chief 
 
 The king fought in different places with va- 
 rious success. The imperialists and the Eng- 
 lish were repulsed by LaTremouille, the duke 
 of Guise, and the duke of Vendome ; but Bon- 
 nivet was beaten, and the brave Bayard killed, 
 in Italy. But these misfortunes did not destroy 
 the hopes of Francis: he passed the mountains 
 and re-entered the territory of the Milanese. 
 
 Following the advice of Bonnivet, he besieged 
 Pavia, although the oldest officers warned him 
 against doing so. The allies arrived in time to 
 succor it, and, on February 24th, 1525, was 
 fought the battle of Pavia, in which Francis I, 
 after having had two horses killed under him, 
 and smarting with wounds, was taken prisoner. 
 Bonnivet killed himself in despair. 
 
 The king wrote to the duchess of Angou- 
 leme, who was regent, this memorable line 
 Madam, ice have lost every thing but honor. 
 Transferred to Spain, he was imprisoned at 
 Madrid, where, disheartened and sick, he signed 
 the treaty by which he ceded Burgundy, Flan- 
 ders, and Artois, and gave up his two sons as 
 hostages. Issuing from his prison, his spirits 
 revived with the free air, and open scenery, and 
 springing upon a spirited horse, he exclaimed 
 with animation ; / am yet a king ! The pro- 
 gress of the king of France through Spain hardly 
 resembled that of a prisoner. Throughout his 
 journey, entertainments were given him by the 
 Spanish noblemen, who were glad of an oppor- 
 tunity to display their wealth and consequence. 
 One night, on arriving at a noble manor, he 
 was obliged to take his seat at a splendid festi- 
 val, which concluded with a ball, in which the 
 courteous monarch did not refuse to take a 
 part. He then asked two beautiful girls, the 
 daughters of a proud old nobleman, to dance 
 with him. But they only consented to perform 
 that part of the figure in which the lady averts 
 her face from her partner ; in short, so blindly 
 patriotic were these pretty Spaniards, that they 
 turned upon their heels, to the no small confu 
 sion of the king of France. Their old father, 
 however, not only disapproved of their con- 
 duct, but punished it in a summary manner, 
 for seizing both by the hair, he dragged them 
 out of the ball room with more rapidity than 
 grace. So much for refusing a king's invita- 
 tion. 
 
 Francis had now an opportunity of witness- 
 ing a whimsical instance of Spanish pride in 
 his reception by a certain old gentleman named 
 Don Diego d'Alvar, who, feigning a painful 
 indisposition, kept his seat, while the French 
 monarch remained standing in his presence. 
 Don Diego had a menagerie, an expensive 
 part of the establishment of a Spanish grandee 
 in those times. During the festival given to 
 Francis I, an African lion escaped from his 
 cage. Consternation spread among the guests, 
 each of whom thought himself the devoted vic- 
 tim of the infuriated animal, when the major- 
 domo of the castle, seizing in one hand, a flam 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 FRA 
 
 254 
 
 FRA 
 
 ing brand, and grasping his sword in the other, 
 advanced to meet the lion. The animal, fright- 
 ened by the flames, recoiled, and the major- 
 domo followed him up to his cage in which he 
 enclosed him with as much coolness as if he 
 had been operating upon a greedy hound taken 
 in the act of abstracting the deposits from the 
 larder. This act of courage was more admired 
 by Francis, than any thing else which occurred 
 at the castle of Don Diego. 
 
 Francis I returned to France. His cause 
 becoming that of all the princes who dreaded 
 the increase of the power of Charles V, a league 
 was formed between the princes of Italy, the 
 king of England, and Francis I. The indig- 
 nant emperor sent Laney into the States of the 
 Church, where he made himself master of many 
 places. The constable of Bourbon, even after 
 the conquest of Milan, wanting money, ad- 
 vanced upon Rome, and promised his troops 
 the pillage of this city. He was killed in the 
 assault. The furious soldiers, at the end of 
 two hours fighting, entered Rome, killed all 
 they met, sacked the houses, profaned the 
 churches, and delivered themselves up to ex- 
 cesses of all kinds, which continued for two 
 months. 
 
 The flame of war rekindled. Marshal Lau- 
 trec regained the greater part of Milan, sacked 
 Pavia, in revenge for the capture of the king, 
 then forced the imperialists to conclude a treaty 
 with the pope, who was besieged in the castle 
 of Saint Angelo, and went thence to Naples 
 where he perished of the plague with the rest 
 of his army. In 1529, a treaty of peace was 
 concluded at Cambray, called. the Peace of La- 
 dies (Paix des Dames), on account of the pleni- 
 potentiaries, the duchess of Angouleme, for 
 Francis I, and Margaret of Austria, governess 
 of the Low Countries, for Charles V. The 
 king engaged to pay the emperor 2,000,000 
 crowns, to cede the sovereignty of Flanders and 
 Artois, and to marry Eleonora, the sister of the 
 emperor, whose attentions had solaced his cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 Finding peace established, he employed him- 
 self in repressing a multitude of disorders to 
 which the wars had given rise, in making wise 
 regulations, in reforming legal abuses and pre- 
 serving the tranquillity of the church, which 
 reformers had already menaced. He founded 
 the college of France, protected literature, 
 which he himself cultivated, encouraged the 
 arts, founded the royal library and printing es- 
 tablishment, honored learned men, and labored 
 to deserve the title of Restorer of the Sciences. 
 
 But he again cast his eyes upon Milan, and in 
 1535, entered Italy, and made himself master 
 of Savoy. Charles, in turn, made an irruption 
 into Provence, but was repulsed with loss. 
 The Flemings, who had entered Picardy, met 
 with the same fate. The alliance concluded 
 between Francis I, and Soliman, the sultan of 
 the Turks, rendered Charles more prudent, and 
 he concluded a tru«e for ten years. This was 
 soon broken by his ill faith, and the murder of 
 two French ambassadors. Five French armies 
 were in readiness, and Charles V advanced to 
 Scissons, when new negotiations brought about 
 the peace of Crespy. In March, 1547, Francis, 
 who possessed so many good qualities, died, the 
 victim of his illicit intrigues. Notwithstanding 
 his numerous wars, he kept the finances of 
 France in a flourishing condition. 
 
 FRANCIS II, of France, son of Henry II, 
 married Mary Stuart, of Scotland, and ascended 
 the throne July 10, 1599. He died December 
 5, 1560, at the age of eighteen, leaving France 
 loaded with debt, and a prey to civil war. 
 
 FRANCIS, sir Philip, a famous politician, 
 was born in Ireland, in 1740. He was educated 
 at St. Paul's school ; after which he obtained a 
 place in the office of the Secretary of State. 
 In 1700, he went in the suit of the English 
 ambassador to Lisbon. In 1763. he was a clerk 
 in the war office, and, in 1773, he went out to 
 India, as a member of the council of Bengal, 
 and fought a duel with Warren Hastings, who 
 was wounded. On his return to England, he 
 was elected M. P. for Yarmouth in the isle of 
 Wight. He supported the proceedings against 
 Warren Hastings, whom he opposed on every 
 occasion. He was, however, a member of the 
 opposition, and when his friends came into 
 office, he was made knight of the bath. He, 
 died December 22, 1813. 
 
 FRANCONIA, a town of New Hampshire, in 
 Grafton county, 23 miles northeast of Haver- 
 hill, noted for its valuable iron mines. Popu- 
 lation 450. It contains a singular curiosity 
 called the Profile Rock, a high precipice which 
 presents a sjde view of a human face. 
 
 FRANKFORT, a town in Franklin county, 
 the seat of government of Kentucky, on the 
 Kentucky. It is a thriving place, with 1,917. 
 inhabitants. 
 
 FRANKFORT ON THE MAINE, one of 
 the four free cities of Germany, contains 54,000 
 inhabitants. It is the seat of the Germanic diet, 
 and is famous for its fairs. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, was born in Boston, 
 January 17, 1706. He was the youngest of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FRA 
 
 255 
 
 FRA 
 
 seventeen children, and was intended for his 
 father's business, which was that of a soap-boiler 
 and tallow-chandler, but being disgusted with 
 this employment, he was apprenticed to his 
 brother, who was a printer. This occupation 
 was more congenial to his taste, and he used 
 to devote his nights to the perusal of such books 
 as his scanty means enabled him to buy. By 
 restricting himself to a vegetable diet, he ob- 
 tained more money for intellectual purposes, 
 and at sixteen had read Locke on the Under- 
 standing, Xenophon's Memorabilia, and the 
 Port-Royal Logic, in addition to many other 
 works. Having incurred the displeasure of his 
 father and brother, he determined to procure 
 the cancelling of his indentures, and leave 
 Boston. This he accomplished, arrived at New 
 York, walked thence to Philadelphia, and en- 
 tered the city of Friends with some articles of 
 dress in his pockets, a dollar in cash, and a loaf 
 of bread under his arm. Here he obtained em- 
 ployment as a printer,- and Sir William Keith, 
 the governor, observing his diligence, persuaded 
 him to go to England, to purchase materials 
 for a press, on his own account. This was in 
 1725, but he found he was the bearer of no let- 
 ters that related to himself, and he was accord- 
 ingly obliged to work at his trade. He returned 
 to Philadelphia, where, in a short time, he en- 
 tered into business with one Meredith, and 
 about 1723, began a newspaper in which he 
 inserted many of his moral essays. He pub- 
 lished Poor Richard's Almanac which is well 
 known. At the age of twenty-seven, he began 
 the study of the modern and classical langua- 
 ges. He founded the University of Pennsylva- 
 nia and the American Philosophical Society, and 
 invented the Franklin stove, which still holds 
 its place even among the variety Of modern in- 
 ventions of a similar kind. In 1746, he made his 
 experiments on Electricity and applied his dis- 
 coveries to the invention of the lightning rod. 
 
 In 1751, he was appointed deputy post-mas- 
 ter general for the colonies. After the defeat 
 of Braddock, a bill for organizing a provincial 
 militia having passed the assembly, Franklin 
 was chosen colonel. In 1757, he was sent to 
 England with a petition to the king and coun- 
 cil against the proprietaries who refused to bear 
 a share in the public expenses. While thus 
 employed, he published several works, which 
 gained him a high reputation, and the agency 
 of Massachusetts, Maryland, and Georgia. In 
 1762, Franklin was chosen fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and made doctor of laws at Oxford, and 
 the same year returned to America. 
 22* 
 
 In 1764, he was again deputed to England as 
 agent of his province, and in 1766, was exam 
 ined before the House of Commons on the sub 
 ject of the stamp-act. His answers were clear 
 and decisive. His conduct in England was 
 worthy of his previous character. Finding him 
 warmly attached to the colonies, invective and 
 coarse satire were levelled against him, but his 
 integrity and matchless wit formed an invulnera- 
 ble defence. He was next offered " any reward, 
 unlimited recompense, honors and recompense 
 beyond his expectations," if he would forsake 
 his country, but he stood firm as a rock. 
 
 He returned to America in 1775, and was 
 immediately chosen a member of Congress, and 
 performed the most arduous duties in the ser- 
 vice of his country. He was sent as commis- 
 sioner to France in 1776, and concluded a 
 treaty, February 6, 1778, in which year he was 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court 
 of Versailles, and one of the commissioners for 
 negotiating peace with Great Britain. Although 
 he solicited leave, he was not permitted to return 
 till 1785. He was made president of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and as a delegate to the convention of 
 1787, approved the federal constitution. He 
 died April 17, 1790. 
 
 How generally he Avas beloved both at home 
 and abroad, the various honors which he re- 
 ceived, show. Incorruptible, talented, and vir- 
 tuous, he merited the eulogium of lord Chat- 
 ham', who characterised him as " one whom all 
 Europe held in high estimation for his know- 
 ledge and wisdom ; who was an honor, not to the 
 English nation only, but to human nature." 
 His wit and humor rendered his society accept- 
 able to every class. On one occasion, he was 
 dining with the English ambassador, and a 
 French functionary at Paris. The former rose, 
 and gave the following sentiment : " England — 
 the bright sun whose rays illuminate the world !" 
 The French gentleman, struggling between 
 patriotism and politeness, proposed ; u France 
 — the moon whose mild beams dispel the shades 
 of night." Doctor Franklin, rising in turn, 
 said ; " General George Washington — the 
 Joshua, who commanded the sun and moon to 
 stand still — and they obeyed him !" Franklin's 
 wit and humor are happily displayed in an epi- 
 taph which he wrote years before his death. 
 The body 
 of 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 printer, 
 (like the cover of an old book, 
 it3 contents torn out, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FRE 
 
 256 
 
 FUL 
 
 AND STRIPPED OF ITS LETTERING AND GILDING,) 
 
 LIES HERE, FOOD FOR WORMS ; 
 
 YET THE WORK ITSELF SHALL NOT BE LOST, 
 
 FOR IT WILL (AS HE BELIEVED) APPEAR ONCE 
 
 MORE 
 
 IN A NEW 
 
 AND MORE BEAUTIFUL EDITION, 
 
 CORRECTED AND AMENDED 
 
 BY 
 
 the Author. 
 
 FRANKS, a German tribe, living between 
 the Weser and the Elbe. Between the years 
 234 and 254, they invaded Gaul, but were re- 
 pulsed by Aurelian. They gained from the 
 Alemanni a very extensive territory on the 
 Rhine. 
 
 FREDEGONDE, the wife of Chilperic, of 
 France, a ruthless woman who persuaded her 
 husband to oppress his subjects. She is said to 
 have murdered Sigebert, Meroveus, the son of 
 Chilperic, Andoveus, his brother, and Pretex- 
 tatus, bishop of Rouen. Aterwards, retiring 
 to Paris, she continued her persecutions of 
 .Brunchant, and Childebert, her son, took the 
 field and vanquished him with the slaughter of 
 30,000 of his army. She then wasted Cham- 
 pagne, and retook Paris. She died in 597, 
 after having caused Chilperic to be assassin- 
 ated. 
 
 FREDERIC, Augustus III, elector of Saxony , 
 was chosen king of Poland, in 1694. He de- 
 clared war against Sweden, and was dethroned 
 by Charles XII. The reverses of the Swedish 
 monarch enabled Augustus to regain his throne 
 in 1709. He died February 1st, 1733, and was 
 succeeded by his son. 
 
 FREDERIC I, surnamed Barbarossa, suc- 
 ceeded to the imperial crown, on the death of 
 his uncle, Conrad III, in 1152. His first busi- 
 ness was to ensure the tranquillity of Germany, 
 after which he marched into Italy, and assumed 
 its sovereignty. He afterwards renewed the 
 war, took Milan a second time, and destroyed 
 it, but he was excommunicated by the pope. 
 He engaged in the crusades against the Turks, 
 defeated Saladin in two combats, and took sev- 
 eral cities from the infidels. He was drowned 
 July 10th, 1190; in the midst of his successes. 
 
 FREDERIC II, king of Prussia, commonly 
 called the Great, was the son of Frederic Wil- 
 liam I, and was born January 21, 1712. His 
 education was strict, but when he grew up, he 
 showed so strong an inclination to literature 
 and music, as to incur the displeasure of his 
 father, who considered reading as beneath the 
 dignity of a monarch and a man. So harsh 
 
 was the conduct of his parent, that in 1730, he 
 attempted to escape from Prussia, but was taken 
 with his travelling companion, Lieutenant Catt, 
 who was put to death by order of the king. 
 The prince himself was punished by confine- 
 ment. The death of his father raised him to 
 the throne, May 31st, 1740, and, by taking ad- 
 vantage of the defenceless state of Maria The- 
 resa, he added Silesia to his dominions. In 
 1744, he again took up arms against the queen 
 of Hungary ; and the treaty of Dresden, which 
 was concluded in 1745, left him in possession 
 of an extended territory. In 1755, he entered 
 into an alliance with England, which produced 
 the seven years' war; in which Frederic exhib- 
 ited all the powers of his character as a skil- 
 ful general. In 1757, he had to contend with 
 Russia, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and France ; 
 notwithstanding which, and though his ene- 
 mies made themselves masters of his capital, he 
 extricated himself from his difficulties, and by 
 the battle of Torgau, repaired all his losses. In 
 1763, peace was restored. Frederic afterwards 
 led a philosophic life, with the exception of his 
 share in dismembering Poland in 1773. He 
 died August 17, 1786, in the 75th year of his 
 age, and the 47th of his reign, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew Frederic William II. 
 
 FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, memo- 
 rable for the battle fought there on the 14th of 
 June, 1807, between the French and Russians,, 
 which resulted in the total defeat of the latter, 
 with immense loss. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLANDS, a group of islands 
 in the South Pacific Ocean, 150 in number. 
 They are very fertile, but contain but few 
 springs of good water. They were discovered 
 in 1773 by Captain Cook, who thought the in- 
 habitants amicable and inoffensive, although 
 subsequent events have shown them to be capa- 
 ble of the darkest treachery and the blackest 
 crimes. Population 200,000. 
 
 FRISIANS, an old tribe of Germans, inhab- 
 iting Friesland. Prussia took possession of 
 Friesland in 1744, and East Friesland was an- 
 nexed to Hanover in 1814. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, the celebrated American 
 engineer, was born in Pennsylvania in 1765. 
 At an early age he exhibited a fondness for the 
 mechanical arts, and a talent for draAving. In 
 his 22d year, he went to England, and subse- 
 quently to France, distinguishing himself in 
 both countries by mechanical inventions. He 
 returned to America in 1806. Mr. Livingston 
 and Fulton had built a steamboat upon the 
 Seine in 1803, which was completely successful, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 GAM 
 
 257 
 
 GEN 
 
 out, in 1807, the first attempt at steam naviga- 
 tion in America was made upon the Hudson. 
 The maximum speed of this was only five miles 
 an hour. In 1809 Mr. Fulton took a patent for 
 his invention, and in 1811 a second patent for 
 subsequent improvements. He died February 
 24th, 1815. 
 
 G. 
 
 GADSDEN, Christopher, lieutenant-gover- 
 nor of South Carolina, was born in 1724. He 
 was an ardent friend of liberty, and discharged 
 the duties of member of the provincial congress 
 with ability and applause. He died, Sept. 1805. 
 in the fc2d year of his age. 
 
 GAELS, a family of the Celts, who from 
 Gaul, passed over to Britain and the neighbor- 
 ing islands. Traces of them are still found in 
 the remote districts of Ireland and Scotland. 
 
 GAGE, Thomas, the last royal governor of 
 Massachusetts. He was lieutenant under 
 Braddock, witnessed his defeat, and bore his 
 body from the field of battle. In 1760 he was 
 appointed governor of Montreal, and a few 
 years afterwards succeeded to the chief com- 
 mand of the British forces in America. He was 
 the successor of Hutchinson in the office of 
 governor of Massachusetts, and his oppressive 
 measures precipitated the revolution. 
 
 GALBA, Sergius or Servius Sulpicius, em- 
 peror of Rome, was born B. C. 4, and succeed- 
 ed Nero on the imperial throne. He rose grad- 
 ually through various state offices although 
 continually exposed to the jealousy of Nero, 
 who ordered him to be assassinated, but having 
 escaped the toils which were laid for him, he 
 was saluted emperor A. D. 68. His avarice in- 
 duced him to profit by the sale of offices, and 
 his appointment of Piso Licinianus, instead of 
 Otho, to fill the office of colleague in the gov- 
 ernment, exasperated the soldiers, who put him 
 to death, A. D. 69, in the 72d year of his age, 
 after a reign of three months. 
 
 GALICIA, and LODOMIRIA, a kingdom 
 of Austria, which comprises 32,500 square miles, 
 and 4,075,000 inhabitants. Also, a province of 
 Spain, anciently Gallsecia, containing 1,795,199 
 inhabitants. 
 
 GALILEE, the most northerly province of 
 Palestine, the scene of many events in the life 
 of our Savior. It is now part of the govern- 
 ment of Damascus, oppressed by Turkish tyran- 
 ny, and infested by robbers. 
 
 GAM A, Vasco da, the celebrated Portuguese 
 navigator, who discovered the maritime way to 
 
 the East Indies by doubling the Cape of Good 
 Hope. He lived in the reign of Emanuel the 
 Fortunate. He was appointed viceroy of the 
 Portuguese Indies, and died Dec. 1524, at Goa. 
 
 GARDINER, bishop of Winchester, was a 
 slrenuous opponent of the reformation in Eng- 
 land. He lost his place under Henry VIII, but 
 regained it under the bigoted Mary, whom he 
 instigated to persecute the Protestants with fire 
 and sword. 
 
 GARR1CK, David, one of the most celebrated 
 and talented of English performers, and the 
 friend of doctor Johnson. He was born in 1716, 
 and died Jan. 20, 1779, after having amassed an 
 immense fortune by his profession. 
 
 GASTON DE FOIX, duke of Nemours, the 
 nephew of Louis XII, was born in 1488. He 
 ran a brilliant career in arms, and fell in the 
 battle of Ravenna, April 11, 1512. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, was born in England in 
 1728, and rose rapidly in the military profession. 
 Soon after the French war he purchased an es- 
 tate in Virginia, and was appointed adjutant- 
 general in the continental force on the breaking 
 out of our revolutionary war. The first move- 
 ment of Gates, after taking command of the 
 army that had just retreated from Canada in 
 1776, was to retire from Crown Point to Ticon- 
 deroga, and this excited pretty general surprise 
 and disapprobation. But he regained confidence 
 by those operations which resulted in the sur 
 render of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga. 
 When appointed to the command of the south- 
 ern army in 1780, he found it weak and badly 
 supplied, and disheartened by the aspect of af- 
 fairs in general. His conduct at the battle of 
 Camden, which was won by Cornwallis, sub- 
 jected him to a temporary loss of command and 
 legal investigation, although he was finally ac- 
 quitted. Meantime the war had ended, and 
 Gates removed from Virginia to New York, 
 where he died, April 10, 1806, in the 78th year 
 of his age. He was talented, well-informed, 
 courteous and pious. 
 
 GAUL, or GALLIA, the ancient name of 
 France. The inhabitants were naturally fierce 
 and warlike, and resisted the Romans by whom 
 they were finally subjugated, with great spirit. 
 
 GENEVA, a canton of Switzerland, com- 
 prising 91 square miles, and 53,560 inhabitants, 
 of whom a large proportion are Protestants. 
 The city of Geneva stands on the lake of the 
 same name, and is divided by the Rhone which 
 flows through it. It is famous for the manu- 
 factures of watches, chintz, woollens, muslins, 
 silks, porcelains, &c. After a variety of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 GEN 
 
 258 
 
 GEO 
 
 changes, it became subject to the dukes of Sa- 
 voy. But the citizens of Geneva, supported by 
 the Helvetic league, resisted the attempts of 
 the house of Savoy, with whom a permanent 
 accommodation was effected in 1603. Under 
 Calvin and other reformers, it eagerly embraced 
 a pure doctrine, and became the seat of the re- 
 formed religion. From the time of the conclu- 
 sion of the peace with Savoy, the history of 
 Geneva is little more than a narrative of con- 
 tentions between the aristocracy and democracy. 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN, emperor of the Moguls, 
 was born A. D. 1103, and received the name of 
 Temujin. He founded in 1206 that vast em- 
 pire, the grandeur of which was the theme of 
 admiration throughout the world. The leading 
 men of the small domain left him by his father, 
 having rebelled against him, he marched upon 
 them with an army of 30,000 men, and com- 
 pletely frustrated their designs. Tartary and 
 China fell before the power of the conqueror, 
 whose dominions extended to the banks of the 
 Dnieper. In the year 1225, the emperor ar- 
 rived at the banks of the river Tula, after an 
 absence of seven years. In the next year he 
 defeated the king of Tangut with the loss of 
 300,0U0 men. He died Aug. 24, 1227, in the 
 63d year of his age, leaving to his children an 
 empire 1200 leagues in length. The conquests 
 of the great Khan were stained with the most 
 atrocious cruelties, his march was like the pro- 
 gress of a fiery storm, bursting over several 
 countries at once, and involving them in ruin. 
 According to the most moderate calculation, no 
 fewer than 2,000,000 men fell beneath the mur- 
 dering sword, without reckoning the numbers 
 that affliction and the horrors of slavery con- 
 signed to the grave. 
 
 GENLIS, (Stephanie Felicite Ducrestde St. 
 Aubin, marchioness de Sillery) Countess de, 
 was born near Autun, in 1746. Soon after 
 her birth, she narrowly escaped suffocation, for 
 a gentleman who called to see her mother, was 
 about to sit down upon the chair on which the 
 infant was laid, had actually divided the flaps 
 of his coat for that purpose, and was only pre- 
 vented by the united screams of the nurse and 
 mother. The literary talent of Madame de 
 Genlis early developed itself, and induced the 
 Count de Genlis to offer her his hand, without 
 ever having seen her. She was governess of 
 the duke of Orleans' children, and many of her 
 early works were devoted to the cause of edu- 
 cation. She died in 1830, with a very high 
 reputation. 
 
 GENOA, a dukedom and city of Sardinia, 
 
 on the Mediterranean Sea. The city contains 
 76,000 inhabitants. The harbor is capacious 
 and secure. The city is built on an elevation, 
 and the streets are narrow, dirty, and steep. 
 The duchy contains 2,330 square miles, and 
 590,500 inhabitants. Genoa, possessed by the 
 Lombards, after the fall of the Western Roman 
 empire, came next into the hands of the Franks, 
 but was erected into a republic after the down- 
 fall of Charlemagne. Quarrels with the Pisans 
 and Venetians occupied the Genoese for many 
 years. The French assumed the sovereignty of 
 Genoa, but did not long retain it. Internal dis- 
 sensions not unfrequently enabled foreign pow- 
 ers to seize upon the State. In 1528 tranquillitv 
 was restored to Genoa, an aristocratical form of 
 government established, and a doge placed at 
 the head of the state. Sometime after this the 
 city was convulsed by the furious contentions 
 between the old and new nobility, the two por- 
 tions into which the aristocracy was divided. 
 By degrees Genoa lost her foreign possessions, 
 the last of which, Corsica, revolted in 1730. 
 During the invasion of Italy in 1797, Genoa ob- 
 served a strict neutrality, but the dissensions of 
 the Genoese did not escape the vigilant eye of 
 Napoleon ; he established a form of government 
 on the French representative system, and gave 
 it the title of the Ligurian republic. In 1815 
 the congress of Vienna annexed Genoa to the 
 territories of Sardinia, reserving to it its own 
 senate and council, without the concurrence of 
 which no taxes can be laid upon the Genoese. 
 
 GEORGE I, Lewis, king of Great Britain, 
 elector of Hanover, and duke of Brunswick- 
 Lunenburgh, was born May 28, 1660, and was 
 the son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia, grand- 
 daughter of James I. He was proclaimed 
 king of England, Aug. 1, 1714, and landed at 
 Greenwich in the following month. At the 
 commencement of his reign the whigs had the 
 ascendency : both in and out of parliament. In 
 1715 a revolution broke out in Scotland in favor 
 of the Pretender, but was quelled without much 
 trouble, although there were many who were 
 decidedly opposed to the existing government. 
 In 1715 the bill for Septennial parliaments was 
 brought into the house of lords by the duke of 
 Devonshire, and passed both houses. In 1718, 
 a quadruple alliance of England, Holland, 
 France, and Germany. w T as formed against 
 Spain, and the Spanish were defeated by Sir 
 George Byn£ on the coast of Sicily. In 1720 
 was started the celebrated South Sea scheme, 
 which involved thousands of families in ruin. 
 
 In 1721 Bishop Atterbury was seized and con 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 GEO 
 
 259 
 
 GER 
 
 veyed to the Tower, and afterwards banished 
 on suspicion of treason ; the duke of Norfolk, 
 the earl of Orrery, and others were imprisoned 
 for participation in the plot. In 1725 the treaty 
 of Hanover was signed to counteract the first 
 treaty of Vienna. In 17*27 the king visited his 
 electoral dominions at Hanover, but being seized 
 with a paralytic disorder on the road from Han- 
 over to Holland, he was conveyed to Osna- 
 burgh, June 11, 1727, where he died, in the 
 13th year of his reign. The disaffection towards 
 the elector of Hanover, on his arrival in England 
 was very great, and the populace gave no equiv- 
 ocal signs of it. One time a noisy mob sur- 
 rounded a carriage, which contained some Ger- 
 man ladies of the court, and assailed their ears 
 with epithets of abuse more fluent than elegant. 
 One of the foreigners, putting her head out of 
 the carriage- window, said, in her broken Eng- 
 lish ; " My good peoples, we ish come for all 
 your goods." " Yes," replied a surly fellow in 
 the crowd, " and for all our chattels too." 
 
 GEORGE II, AUGUSTUS, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born Oct. 30, 1683, and was created 
 prince of Wales, Oct. 4, 1714. In 1704 he mar- 
 ried Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Brand- 
 enburgh-Anspach, and in 1727 succeeded 
 George I. In 1729 the peace of Seville was 
 concluded with Spain, but the war with that 
 country was renewed in 1739. In 1742 Sir 
 Robert Walpole resigned, after having been 
 minister for nearly twenty years, and in the 
 same year, the king espousing the cause of 
 Maria Theresa, marched against the French 
 whom he defeated in the battle of Dettingen, 
 but without gaining much advantage. In 1745 
 Charles Edward, the Pretender, landed in Scot- 
 land, but was finally defeated at Culloden. The 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded in 1748. 
 In 1754 tfie encroachments of the French in 
 America brought on that war which resulted 
 happily for Great Britain, and some of the suc- 
 cesses of which in America are attributable to 
 the bravery of the provincial troops. In the 
 midst of general prosperity, George II died at 
 Kensington, Oct. 25, 1760, in the 77th year of 
 his age and 33d of his reign. He possessed no 
 shining qualities, and despised learning. 
 
 GEORGE III, king of Great Britain, eldest 
 son of Frederick, prince of Wales, was born June 
 4, 1738. He succeeded his grandfather George 
 II, Oct. 25, 1760, and married Charlotte Sophia, 
 princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Sept 8, 1761, 
 and both were crowned Sept. 22, in the same 
 year. He was deranged in mind from Oct. 
 1788 to March 1789. On April 24, 1789, he 
 
 went in procession to St. Paul's cathedral ; re- 
 covered from a second attack, March 16, 1804 ; 
 relapsed 1810 ; and died in Windsor Castle, Jan. 
 29, 1820, in the 82d year of his age, and 60th of 
 his reign. 
 
 GEORGE IV, son of the preceding, was born 
 Aug. 12, 1762. He had been regent during the 
 insanity of his father, whom he succeeded on 
 his death. In 1795, he had married Caroline 
 Amelia Augusta, whose sufferings and perse- 
 cution excited the indignation of the world 
 against her heartless husband. Well educated 
 and talented, he abused the gifts which were 
 bestowed upon him, and in his youth plunged 
 into the guiltiest excesses. Loaded with debt 
 he at length adopted a system of retrenchment, 
 sold his splendid racing-stud, and reduced his 
 whole establishment. With the assistance of 
 parliament, he extricated himself from his diffi- 
 culties. The indignation excited by a nefarious 
 transaction of his, which was exposed by the 
 Jockey Club, compelled him to abandon the 
 turf. He died July 26, 1830, and was succeed- 
 ed by his brother, the duke of Clarence, under 
 the title of William IV. 
 
 GEORGE CADOUDAL, a Chouan chief, 
 who, with general Pichegru, was concerned in 
 a conspiracy to take the life of Bonaparte when 
 first consul. He was brought over to France in 
 a British government vessel, but was seized by 
 the police, tried, condemned, and executed, 
 June 24, 1804, aged 35 years. 
 
 GEORGIA, one of the U. States, is bounded 
 N. by Tennessee and North Carolina ; N. E. by 
 South Carolina ; S. E. by the Atlantic ocean, S. 
 by Florida, and W. by Alabama. It is 300 miles 
 in length, and 240 in breadth, containing 60,000 
 square miles. Population 691,392. The soil is 
 like that of South Carolina, and the staple pro- 
 ductions are the same. The Cherokees, inhab- 
 iting the northwestern part of the state, are far 
 advanced in civilization. The first settlement 
 which the English made in Georgia, was in 
 1733, under the superintendence of James Og- 
 lethorpe. 
 
 GEORGIA, in Persian GURG1STAN, called 
 by the natives IBERIA, a rich country of Asia, 
 bounded by Circassia, Daghestan, Shirvan, Ar- 
 menia, and the Black Sea. The Greek religion 
 is the prevailing faith. The country belongs 
 chiefly to Russia, only a small part now remain- 
 ing in the hands of its former masters, the Turks. 
 
 GERMANICUS CAESAR, a son of Claudius 
 Drusus Nero, and Antonia, the virtuous niece 
 of Augustus. He was adopted by his uncle 
 Tiberius, and raised to the highest offices of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 GER 
 
 260 
 
 GER 
 
 state. At the time of the death of Augustus, he 
 was employed in a war with Germany, but Tibe- 
 rius, jealous of the hero, recalled him, although 
 he permitted him to celebrate a triumph for 
 his victories. He then sent him to the east with 
 sovereign authority, but viewed his successes 
 with a jealous eye. Germanicus died near An- 
 tioch, A. D. 19, in the 34th year of his age, not 
 without suspicion of poison. 
 
 GERMANTOVVN, a town of Pennsylvania, 
 7 miles N. of Philadelphia, memorable for a bat- 
 tle fought here on the 4th of October, 1777, be- 
 tween the Americans, under Washington, and 
 the British, to the disadvantage of the former. 
 
 GERMANY, was formerly divided into nine 
 circles, viz. Austria, Bavaria and Swabia, on 
 the south ; Franconia, in the centre ; Upper and 
 Lower Sazonij, and Westphalia, in the north ; 
 Upper and Lower Rhine in the west. The other 
 countries belonging to Germany, and not in- 
 cluded in the circles, were Bohemia, Moravia, 
 Silesia, and Lusatia. The secondary states of 
 Germany form, with a part of Prussia, Austria, 
 and some provinces of Denmark, and the Neth- 
 erlands, the GERMANIC CONFEDERA- 
 TION. The secondary states, are, in number, 
 36, of which the principal are : 1. The four 
 kingdoms of: Hanover, Saxony, Bavaria, Wur- 
 temberg : 2. Eight grand- duchies, viz. Hesse- 
 Cassel, Mecklenburg Schwerin, Oldenburg, 
 Mecklenburg Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, Baden, Luxemburg : 4. Ten duch- 
 ies and eleven principalities ; 5. Four free cities : 
 Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort on 
 the Maine. 
 
 Germany (Germania) like Gaul, was ancient- 
 ly occupied by numerous tribes, some of which 
 were only subjugated by the Romans, after a 
 very fierce and prolonged resistance. It was 
 afterwards conquered by Charlemagne, who 
 fixed his imperial residence in Germany. The 
 posterity of Charlemagne inherited this country 
 until the demise of Louis V. Otho the Illus- 
 trious, having declined the royal dignity, Con- 
 rad I, duke of Franconia, was unanimously 
 elected to fill the vacant throne in 912. Thence, 
 until 1806, the empire of Germany was an elec- 
 tive monarchy. Frederic I ascended the throne 
 in 1152, and during his reign was formed the 
 famous league of the Hanseatic towns for the 
 protection of commerce. Frederic II was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1218. He did 
 much for the encouragement of arts and lite- 
 rature. 
 
 The princes of the empire, assembled in diet, 
 at Frankfort, elected Pvodolnh of Hapsburg to 
 
 the imperial throne in 1272. He swayed the 
 imperial sceptre with ability for about 18 years, 
 and died, after a short illness, in the 73d year of 
 his age. Albert I of Austria was invested with 
 the diadem at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1298. Under 
 his harsh administration, the Sw T iss revolted, 
 and the foundation of the Helvetic republic was 
 laid. 
 
 Henry VII of Luxemburg was elected in 
 1308, and now commenced the celebrated divi- 
 sion of Guelphes and Ghibellines in the con- 
 tests between the emperors and popes. On his 
 death, Louis of Bavaria was recognised as law- 
 ful possessor of the throne in 1330. Charles 
 IV, king of Bohemia, received the imperial dia- 
 dem in 1356. His reign was prosperous, and 
 under his sway a spirit of opposition to the cor- 
 rupt clergy began to manifest itself. Wences- 
 laus, his son, succeeded him in 1378, after which 
 Sigismund ascended the throne in 1411. He 
 concurred with the pope in convoking the fa- 
 mous council of Constance, by which the re- 
 former Huss was condemned, and the war of 
 the Hussites followed. Albert II died in a 
 short time, and, in 1440, the electors placed up- 
 on the imperial throne Frederic III, duke of 
 Austria. His son Maximilian was elected king 
 of the Romans, and invested with the supreme 
 dignity in 1493. He was an active and enter- 
 prising prince. 
 
 Charles V presented himself as a candidate 
 for the imperial crown in 1520. Ferdinand, the 
 brother of Charles, succeeded him. Then came 
 Maximilian II, the son of Ferdinand, who had 
 already received the crown of Bohemia, and 
 had been elected king of the Romans. On 
 the demise of this illustrious prince, his eldest 
 son, who had been elected king of the Romans, 
 and acknowledged as his successor to the crown 
 of Hungary and Bohemia, succeeded to the em- 
 pire by the name of Rodolph II, in 1576. The 
 emperor ceded Bohemia to his brother Matthias, 
 who succeeded him in 1612. On the demise of 
 Matthias, Ferdinand was declared emperor in 
 1619, but, on account of his fanaticism the Prot- 
 estants renounced allegiance to him, and a war 
 ensued which was waged with sanguinary ani- 
 mosity by both parties. Ferdinand was at first 
 triumphant, and Germany began to tremble with 
 the apprehension of slavish subjection ; Gusta- 
 vus, king of Sweden, rushing with impetuosity 
 into the empire, defeated the imperialists, but 
 was slain on the plain of Lutzen. 
 
 On the death of Ferdinand II, his son, Fer- 
 dinand III, ascended the imperial throne, in 
 1637, at a critical period, and succeeded in 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 GER 
 
 261 
 
 GER 
 
 tranquillizing Germany, although the flames of 
 war yet rolled unabated. France, Sweden, Den- 
 mark, England, and some of the German states 
 were confederated against Spain and the house 
 of Austria. At length a treaty was concluded, 
 since known as the peace of Westphalia. On 
 the death of Ferdinand, Leopold I, king of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia, was declared duly elected to 
 the imperial throne in 1657. Scarcely were the 
 troubles in the north composed, when a war 
 with Turkey broke out, while Louis XIV of 
 France took this opportunity of marching against 
 the German monarch. But notwithstanding 
 his perplexities and embarrassments, Leopold 
 found means to render the crown of Hungary 
 hereditary in his family, an object which had 
 long been desired. The archduke Joseph was 
 chosen sovereign of Hungary, elected king of 
 the Romans, and ascended the imperial throne 
 in 1705. He governed with stern inflexibility, 
 and continued the Spanish war. The arch- 
 duke Charles was elevated to the imperial 
 throne, by the name of Charles VI, in 1711. 
 Anne queen of England, having expressed her 
 pacific intentions, he had to sustain the whole 
 weight of a war with France and Spain, unless 
 he accepted the terms of Louis. At length, 
 however, negotiations were commenced, and 
 the treaty of Utrecht re-established the general 
 peace. Charles died in the 29th year of his age. 
 He was the author of the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 which secured all the possessions of the house 
 of Austria to his daughter the archduchess 
 Maria Theresa, and which was guaranteed by 
 the states of the empire, and by all the great 
 powers of Europe. 
 
 The death of Charles, in 1740, was followed 
 by very serious commotions, but the Pragmatic 
 Sanction was preserved, and the treaty of Fus- 
 sen and Aix-la-Chapelle terminated the war of 
 the Austrian succession in favor of Maria 
 Theresa. Two years after the conclusion of 
 the treaty of Hubertsburg, the emperor Francis 
 died, in the twenty-first year of his reign. He 
 was succeeded by his son Joseph II. In 1704 
 his imperial majesty joined with Russia and 
 Prussia in the base dismemberment of Poland, 
 but this did not prevent hostilities from being 
 commenced with Austria and Prussia, on ac- 
 count of the succession to the electorate of Ba- 
 varia. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany, 
 queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and arch- 
 duchess of Austria, died in 1780. She left her 
 extensive possessions in the hands of a son, 
 who promulgated a decree in favor of the lib- 
 erty of the press, which had been hitherto much 
 
 circumscribed in the Austrian dominions. In 
 1783 Joseph II published an edict for the total 
 abolition of villanage and slavery in Bohemia, 
 Moravia, and Silesia; and similar measures 
 were taken soon after for the relief of the peas- 
 ants of Austrian Poland. He also abolished 
 the use of torture in his hereditary dominions, 
 and died in the 25th year of his reign. He was 
 succeeded by his brother, Leopold II, grand- 
 duke of Tuscany, in 1790. 
 
 The French revolution now attracting the 
 attention of all the European powers, a confe- 
 rence was held at Pilnitz between the emperor, 
 the king of Prussia, and the elector of Saxony ; 
 but, instead of advising an immediate attack 
 upon France, Leopold acted with his accus- 
 tomed moderation, and merely wished to oppose 
 an effectual security against the tremendous 
 hurricane which threatened Europe. However, 
 he was afterwards persuaded to commence hos- 
 tilities, but his designs were soon terminated 
 by his death, in the second year of his reign. 
 
 Francis II succeeded his father in 1792. At 
 the instigation of the king of Prussia, he re- 
 solved to use his utmost endeavors for the res- 
 toration of the monarchy in France ; but the 
 attempts of the allies were so unfortunate in 
 the first campaign, that they commenced the 
 second with altered views, and a feeling of in- 
 security in consequence of previous losses. The 
 second campaign proved more successful, but 
 that of 1794 was disastrous to the allies. The 
 fourth campaign again raised the hopes of the 
 Austrians. In 1790, from altered views of ex- 
 pediency, the French turned their arms upon 
 the Austrian possessions in Italy, where the 
 victories of Bonaparte soon spread the terror of 
 his name. 
 
 At length the court of Vienna, finding that 
 all expectations of effectual opposition to the 
 French were totally unfounded, concluded, in 
 1797, the treaty of Campo-Formio, by which 
 the emperor ceded to France the whole of the 
 Netherlands, and all his former territory in Italy, 
 but received in return the city of Venice, Istria, 
 Dalmatia, and the Venetian islands in the Adri- 
 atic. However the war was renewed with great 
 vigor on both sides, and, in 1799, the Austrians 
 compelled the French to evacuate nearly the 
 whole of Italy. The brilliant successes of the 
 archduke Charles in Germany, also, reanimated 
 the court of Vienna, and contributed to break 
 off the conferences at Rastadt. In the mean 
 time, Bonaparte, having returned from Egypt, 
 and been chosen first consul of the French re- 
 public, the war with Austria was destined to 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 GER 
 
 262 
 
 GER 
 
 take a new turn. That general, at the head of 
 an army of reserve, marched towards Italy ; and 
 having collected his artillery, transported it with 
 inconceivable labor across the Alps, and ad- 
 vanced to Milan. After reducing Pavia, and 
 defeating the Austrians in the battle of Monte- 
 bello, the French marched to the plain of Ma- 
 rengo. Both the French and Imperialists ex- 
 hibited extraordinary skill and resolution. At 
 length the first consul, availing himself of an 
 error which had been committed, compelled his 
 enemies to retreat. In Germany the French 
 had opened the campaign with similar success ; 
 and Genera] Moreau, after defeating the Impe- 
 rialists in several engagements, formed a junc- 
 tion with the army of Italy, and obliged the 
 Austrians to conclude an armistice. 
 
 Soon after preliminaries of peace were signed 
 at Paris by count St. Julien ; but as Bonaparte 
 refused to negotiate with England, the emperor 
 would not ratify them. Hostilities were there- 
 fore re-commenced, and the Austrians w T ere 
 defeated by Moreau in the decisive battle of 
 Hohenlinden. This was followed in 1801 by 
 the treaty of Luneville, by which the emperor 
 ceded to France the Belgic provinces, and the 
 whole of the country on the left side of the 
 Rhine. In 1805, the court of Vienna entered 
 into an alliance with Russia, the object of which 
 appears to have been to rescue the states of Eu- 
 rope from French predominance and oppression. 
 The emperor, therefore, made preparation for 
 war. Without waiting for the arrival of the 
 Russian troops, the Austrians marched towards 
 the banks of the Danube, where hostilities 
 commenced, and the French, under Bonaparte, 
 after a severe contest, succeeded in defeating 
 the Imperialists with great loss. The Austrians 
 retreated and Bonaparte advanced to Munich. 
 From this time, partial engagements took place, 
 in which the Austrians, though they fought 
 with their accustomed bravery, were uniformly 
 defeated. 
 
 The whole Austrian army in Suabia now 
 concentrated itself in and near Ulm ; and every- 
 thing seemed to indicate the approach of a gen- 
 eral and decisive battle. However, to the as- 
 tonishment and concern of all Europe, general 
 Mack, who was in Ulm w r ith 33,000 men, with- 
 out striking a blow agreed to the terms of ca- 
 pitulation offered by Bonaparte, evacuated that 
 important fortress, and surrendered himself and 
 his troops prisoners of war. 
 
 Bonaparte was every where victorious, and 
 the decisive battle of Austerlitz compelled the 
 emperor Francis to conclude an armistice which 
 
 was speedily followed by the treaty of Presburg, 
 In 1806, sixteen German princes renounced 
 their connection with the German empire, and 
 signed at Paris the Confederation of the Rhine, 
 by which they acknowledged Napoleon as their 
 protector. 
 
 This was followed, on the Gth of August, by 
 the renunciation of the title of emperor of Ger- 
 many, by Francis, who assumed that of emperor 
 of Austria, and who publicly absolved all the 
 German provinces and states from their recip- 
 rocal duties towards the German empire. In 
 1809, Francis, smarting under sacrifices already 
 made, and dreading farther encroachments, re- 
 solved to try again the chance of war, at a time 
 when a large proportion of the military force 
 of France was employed in completing the sub- 
 jugation of Spain. War was declared, in pro- 
 clamation from the archduke Charles and the 
 emperor Francis, and these were followed by a 
 manifesto, stating the provocations and causes 
 of alarm given by France to Austria. 
 
 The Austrians were defeated in two battles, 
 one at Abensburg by Napoleon in person, and 
 the other at Eckmuhl ; and after these defeats, 
 the French emperor proceeded to Vienna which 
 surrendered to him. But in the battle of As- 
 pern, which followed soon after, Napoleon ex- 
 perienced the severest check which his career 
 had yet received. However, after the decisive 
 battle of Wagram an armistice was concluded. 
 This was followed by a peace between Austria 
 and France, by which the emperor Francis 
 ceded to Napoleon all those parts of his territory 
 which bordered on the Adriatic. Other cessions 
 were also made. By a secret article in this 
 treaty, the emperor Francis agreed to give his 
 daughter, the archduchess Louisa Maria, in 
 marriage to Napoleon. After the disastrous 
 consequences of the Russian campaign, Austria 
 declared war against France, a declaration which 
 was followed by a treaty of amity and defensive 
 alliance between the courts of Vienna and Pe- 
 tersburg. Russia and Prussia had previously 
 formed treaties with Great Britain. Sweden 
 had also joined the allies, and the accession of 
 Bavaria to the common cause proved the gen- 
 eral concurrence of Germany to throw off the 
 yoke of Napoleon. The battle of Leipzig de- 
 cided the fate of Germany. 
 
 After Napoleon abdicated the throne of France 
 in 1814, the allied powers concluded a treaty at 
 Paris by which the German states were to be 
 independent, and united by a federal league. 
 As the Austrian or Catholic Netherlands were 
 unable to secure their independence, Belgian! 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 GIZ 
 
 263 
 
 GOD 
 
 was annexed to the Netherlands forming a sin- 
 gle state, under the sovereignty of the house of 
 Orange. After the battle of Waterloo, in 1815, 
 a congress of the allied powers was held at Vi- 
 . enna, at which the future tranquillity of Ger- 
 many was provided for by a solemn act of con- 
 federation, signed by its sovereigns and free 
 cities, including the emperor of Austria and the 
 king of Prussia, for those of their possessions 
 formerly appertaining to the German empire : 
 the king of Denmark for Holstein, and the king 
 of the Netherlands for Luxemburg. 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge, a patriotic American, one 
 of the signers of the declaration of independence, 
 was born at Marblehead, Massachusetts, July 
 14, 1744, and was educated at Harvard College. 
 He was elected, from his warm patriotism, a 
 member of the Massachusetts General Court, in 
 1772, and was afterwards a member of Congress, 
 presided at the treasury-board, and performed 
 several important tasks. In 1810 he was chosen 
 governor of Massachusetts, and the following 
 year re-elected. In 1812 he was chosen vice- 
 president of the United States, and died shortly 
 after. 
 
 GHENT, in French GAND, the capital of 
 East Flanders, a fine city, containing 82,000 
 inhabitants. Its manufactures are numerous 
 and lucrative. It has been the scene of several 
 diplomatic negotiations, of which that to resist 
 the tyranny of Spain, in 1578, and called the 
 pacification of Ghent, is particularly memorable, 
 as well as the treaty of peace between the Unit- 
 ed States and Great Britain, in December, 1814. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, an eminent English his- 
 torian, born at Putney, in 1737. He resided 
 much abroad, chiefly at Lausanne, but was 
 engaged in political life for a long time. He 
 conceived the idea of his great work, the De- 
 cline and Fall of the Roman Empire, at Rome, 
 as he sat amidst the ruins of the capitol, " while 
 the barefooted friars were singing vespers in 
 the temple of Jupiter." He died in England, 
 on the 16th of January, 1794, in the 57th year 
 of his age. 
 
 GIBRALTAR, a rocky promontory, in the 
 South of Spain, 1400 feet above the level of the 
 sea. It was taken by the English in 1704, 
 soon after the commencement of the war of the 
 Spanish succession, and has since been several 
 times besieged, but never with success. The 
 most determined attempt was that in 1779 which 
 was defeated by the skill of general Elliot. 
 
 GIZEH ; a city of Egypt, three miles above 
 Cairo, distinguished for the antique monuments 
 in its vicinity. 
 
 23 
 
 GLASGOW, a city of Scotland, in the coun- 
 ty of Lanark, one of the most ancient in the 
 kingdom, containing 202.000 inhabitants. It is 
 the first city in Scotland in regard to commerce 
 and manufactures. It contains, among other 
 superb public buildings, a magnificent cathe- 
 dral. Its university enjoys a high reputation. 
 
 GLENDOWER, Owen, a celebrated Welsh 
 chieftain, born in 1354. He was the determined 
 foe of Henry IV, and for a long time, kept a 
 marauding warfare which was highly annoying 
 to the English. He died, unsubdued, February 
 24, 1410. 
 
 GODFREY OF BOUILLON, marquis of 
 Anvers and duke of Brabant, was the son of 
 Eustace II, count of Boulogne, and was born 
 about the middle of the 11th century. He 
 served with distinction under Henry IV, em- 
 peror of Germany, but acquired an imperishable 
 fame in the crusades. At Nice, Edessa, and 
 Antioch, he particularly distinguished himself, 
 and in July, 1099, he took Jerusalem, after a 
 siege of five weeks. On taking possession of 
 the city, he threw off his armor, clothed him- 
 self in a mantle, and, with bare head and naked 
 feet, went to the church of the sepulchre. On 
 the foundation of the Latin kingdom of Jerusa- 
 lem, in the same year, Godfrey's virtues were 
 declared to be pre-eminent, and the princes 
 conducted him to the church which covered the 
 tomb of Christ and offered him a crown. But 
 he refused to wear a diadem of gold where his 
 Savior had worn a crown of thorns, and mod- 
 estly claimed the honor of being the defender 
 of the Holy Sepulchre. He, however, enjoyed 
 it but a short time, for he died July 18, 1100, just 
 one year after the taking of Jerusalem. 
 
 GODMAN, John D. an eminent American 
 naturalist, lecturer, and writer, was born at 
 Annapolis, in Maryland, and at an early age. 
 was apprenticed to a printer. Disliking his 
 business, he shipped as a sailor on board the 
 Chesapeake flotilla, in the war of 1813. Hav- 
 ing afterward studied medicine he settled in 
 New York, and was offered the professorship 
 of anatomy in Rutger's medical college. The 
 state of his health, however, rendered travelling 
 necessary, and he went to Vera Cruz, but with- 
 out experiencing the relief which he hoped. 
 He died in Philadelphia, April 17, 1830, in the 
 32d year of his age. His Natural History of 
 American Quadrupeds (3 vols. 8 vo.), and his 
 Rambles of a Naturalist are deservedly popular. 
 
 GODOLPHIN, Sidney, earl of Godolphin, 
 and lord high treasurer of England, was born 
 in Cornwall, and educated at Oxford. He was 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 G(FT 
 
 264 
 
 GOL 
 
 employed in the reigns of Charles II and 
 James II, although he voted for the exclusion 
 of the latter, in 1680. He was placed at the 
 head of the treasury on the accession of Queen 
 Anne, but was obliged to retire from office in 
 1710. ' He died in 1712. 
 
 GCETHE, John Wolfgang von, born Aug. 
 28, 1749, at Frankfort on the Maine. He dis- 
 played an early fondness for literature and the 
 arts which increased with his years. His studies 
 embraced the whole circle of the sciences. In 
 1771 he took the degree of doctor of laws, and 
 wrote a legal dissertation. He eventually set- 
 tled at Weimar, on the invitation of the grand- 
 duke, who conferred upon him several offices 
 and honors. He died, at an advanced age, in 
 1832. Of his various works, the Sorrows of 
 Werther, the drama of Faust, and the Appren- 
 ticeship of Wilhelm Meister, are well known, 
 through the medium of translation, to the Eng- 
 lish reader. 
 
 The following particulars of the life of this 
 celebrated man were written not long before 
 his death. " It would be difficult to find a man 
 who had arrived at the age of eighty-one with 
 fewer infirmities than Goethe. The prodigious 
 activity of his mind seems not to have worn 
 out his body, although the latter, it is said, was 
 put to the proof by his juvenile irregularities. 
 His elevated form, the striking regularity of 
 his features, his imposing and noble bearing, 
 the athletic proportions of his body, seem to 
 have suffered no injury from age ; he holds him- 
 self as upright as a young man of eighteen; no 
 apparent infirmity accompanies his years, and 
 the wrinkles of his face hardly indicate a man 
 of sixty. 
 
 " There is in his behavior and countenance 
 something cold and reserved, which adds to the 
 emotion which is felt in beholding him. He 
 rarely determines, in the interviews which he 
 grants to strangers, to display the resources 
 of his genius ; and visiters are sorry to observe 
 that these hours of audience are only moments 
 of repose for his spirit — perhaps of annoyance. 
 It is said that this reserve always disappears in 
 favor of strangers who arrive at Weimar, pre- 
 ceded by a literary reputation. Goethe has felt 
 obliged to impose this reserve upon himself to 
 avoid the unhappy consequences of frankness 
 which once distinguished him, and it is said 
 that English travellers have not a little contri- 
 buted to it by the indiscretion they have shown 
 in publishing in their journals incorrect frag- 
 ments of their -conversations with him. 
 
 "The life which Goethe leads at present 
 
 bears the impress of that vigor of mind and 
 body, which he has succeeded in preserving. 
 With a freshness and activity of mind, that 
 eighty years of a laborious life have not im- 
 paired, he knows how to profit by every mo-, 
 ment of the day. By six o'clock in the morn- 
 ing he is at work, and he permits no interrup- 
 tion until the hour of noon. During these long 
 mornings he writes letters, composes, reviews 
 his complete works, and arranges his corres- 
 pondence with Schiller, of which the first vol- 
 ume has been published some months. At noon 
 strangers are admitted. After dinner, he as- 
 sembles at his house, about 4 or 5 o'clock, the 
 limited number cf the elect who have the hap- 
 piness to live in habits of intimacy with him. 
 The evenings of Goethe are consecrated to 
 reading ; he reads with a prodigious rapidity, 
 which would be but a defect, were it not ac- 
 companied by an astonishing memory and an 
 extraordinary faculty of analysis. He is but 
 seldom seen at the theatre, and the theatre of 
 Weimar feels this abandonment but too sensi- 
 bly. Goethe was formerly the manager, per- 
 haps we may call him the creator of it : it 
 was he, who, aided by Schiller, formed all the 
 actors, who for more than a quarter of a cen- 
 tury, shone in the first rank upon the German 
 stage, and made the little theatre of Weimar 
 the true school of the dramatic art in Ger- 
 many." (See page 648.) 
 
 GOLCONDA ; (now Hyderabad) a province 
 of Hindostan, the soil of which is fertile, but 
 which is chiefly celebrated for its diamond 
 mines, which, now, however, hardly pay the 
 expenses of mining. It was anciently called 
 Tellingana. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, an eminent poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Ireland in 1731. 
 His father was a clergyman, and he studied at 
 Dublin, Edinburgh and Leyden, and took a 
 doctor's degree at Padua. Having made the 
 tour of Europe on foot, supporting himself by 
 flute playing, he reached London, after a long 
 absence, with but a few pence in his pocket. 
 Here he supported himself by his pen, and 
 compiled many works, besides composing those 
 which have rendered his name immortal. His 
 poem of The Traveller gained him an enviable 
 poetical reputation. His fame was established 
 on a firm basis by the Deserted Village. Im- 
 provident, like many men of genius, he was 
 about to marry his landlady to cancel a debt he 
 owed her, when the sale of his novel the Vicar 
 of Wakefield, which met the approbation of Dr 
 Johnson, afforded him a temporary relief. An 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 GOR 
 
 265 
 
 GRA 
 
 adventure which he himself met with formed 
 ""the groundwork of his highly successful com- 
 edy, She Stoops to Conquer. He put up at the 
 house of a gentleman, mistaking it for an inn, 
 and amused the inmates by calling out lustily 
 for whatever he wanted, ordering the servants, 
 slapping his host upon the back, and asking to 
 see the bill of fare. His mortification, on dis- 
 covering his mistake, can easily be imagined. 
 He died April, 1774. He was eccentric even to 
 absurdity, and, in society showed the simpli- 
 city of la Fontaine. Garrick, in some extempo- 
 raneous verses, spoke of him as 
 
 " Noll, 
 Who wrote like an angel, but talked — like poor Poll." 
 
 GONZALVO, Hernandez y Aquilar de Cor- 
 dova, commonly called the great captain, was 
 born in 1443. This celebrated Spaniard served 
 under Ferdinand and Isabella in the conquest of 
 Granada, where he took several strong places 
 from the Moors. Ferdinand gave him the com- 
 mand of the forces which he sent into the king- 
 dom of Naples, to succor Frederick and Al- 
 phonso. After having gained his purpose, he 
 returned to Spain, and then serving against the 
 Turks wrested Zante and Cephalonia from them. 
 He was afterwards, in consequence of his various 
 victories, appointed viceroy of Naples, with un- 
 limited powers. He died in 1515. 
 
 GOOKIN, Daniel, major-general of Massa- 
 chusetts from 1681 to 1637, the year of his 
 death. He was an Englishman, but came to 
 Virginia, in 1621, and removed to New Eng- 
 land that he might enjoy freedom of worship in 
 1644. He is the author of the Historical Col- 
 lections of the Indians in New England. 
 
 GORDIUS, a king of Phrygia, who fastened 
 the pole of his chariot with so ingenious a knot 
 that the oracle promised the kingdom to the 
 man who should untie it. Alexander the Great 
 cut it with his sword. 
 
 GORE, Christopher, a governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, born in Boston, in 1758, was the son 
 of a mechanic. His education was completed 
 at Harvard University ; he studied law and 
 practised it with success. He was the first 
 United States attorney for Massachusetts, and 
 was one of the commissioners to settle the 
 claims on England for the spoliations commit- 
 ted by her upon the property of the Americans. 
 He was twice elected senator for Suffolk county 
 in his native state, and in 1809 was chosen gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts, but remained in office 
 only one year. In 1814 he was chosen United 
 States senator, but died in retirement, March 1, 
 1827, in the 69th year of his age. 
 
 GOREE, a small island off the coast of Af- 
 rica, near Cape Verd, with a military post be- 
 longing to the French. 
 
 GOTH A, formerly a Saxon duchy, contain- 
 ing 522 square miles, and 83,000 inhabitants. 
 In. 1826 it was annexed to the duchies of Saxe- 
 Coburg, and Saxe-Altenburg. 
 
 GOTHS, an ancient barbarous tribe, whose 
 origin is very uncertain. They were said to 
 come from Scandinavia. For a long time they 
 resided in Germany whence they finally forced 
 their way and made themselves formidable to 
 the Romans. Under Alaric they took and plun- 
 dered Rome. The Goths of the east were called 
 Ostrogoths, and those of West Visigoths. 
 
 GOTTINGEN, a city of Hanover, on the 
 Leine, 22 leagues S. S. E. of Hanover. It con- 
 tains 10,000 inhabitants, and is famous for Its 
 university founded by King George II in 1734. 
 GRACCHUS, Tiberius Sempronius and Caius, 
 the sons of the celebrated Cornelia, lost their 
 lives in attempting to reform the republic. With 
 a winning eloquence, affected moderation, and 
 uncommon popularity, Tiberius began to revive 
 the Agrarian law, which had already caused 
 dissensions among the Romans. His proposi- 
 tion passed into a law, but he was killed in the 
 midst of a tumult, for, happening to raise his 
 hand to his head, his enemies declared that he 
 signified a desire for a crown, and he was killed 
 in the outbreak of popular fury which ensued. 
 His brother Caius supported the cause of the 
 people with more vehemence, and less modera- 
 tion than Tiberius, and his success animated 
 his resentment against the nobles. With the 
 privileges of a tribune, he treated the patricians 
 with contempt, and this behavior hastened his 
 ruin. He fled with a large number of his ad- 
 herents, but the consul Opinius attacked and 
 defeated them, and slew their leader, B. C. 121, 
 about thirteen years after the unfortunate end 
 of Tiberius. 
 
 GRANADA, an extensive province in the 
 south of Spain, bordering on the sea, about 200 
 miles in length. The soil of the valleys is fer- 
 tile. The city of Granada is interesting for its 
 historical recollections, and monuments of the 
 past. Among the latter is the magnificent 
 Alhambra, which has already been described. 
 Granada has some manufactures and is the seat 
 of an university. Population of'the city 80,000. 
 
 GRATTAN, Henry, a celebrated statesman, 
 was born about 1750, in Dublin. He was elect- 
 ed into the Irish parliament in 1775, and, by his 
 powerful remonstrances obtained for his coun- 
 try a participation in the commerce of Britain, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 GRE 
 
 266 
 
 GRE 
 
 for which he was rewarded by a vote of 50,000 
 pounds sterling. In 1790 he was returned for 
 the city of Dublin, and from that time was the 
 active leader of the opposition till the union 
 with England, which measure he resisted with 
 all his eloquence. When it was effected, lie 
 accepted a seat in the united house of commons 
 for Malton. In the French wars he supported 
 government with great ability ; but his princi- 
 pal exertions were called forth in advocating 
 the Catholic claims, to which cause he fell a 
 martyr, by leaving Ireland, in an exhausted 
 state, to carry the petition, with which he was 
 intrusted, to England. He died, soon after his 
 arrival, May 14, 1820; and his remains were 
 interred in Westminster Abbey. What Irish- 
 man does not feel proud that he has lived in 
 the days of Grattan ? Who has not turned to 
 him for comfort from the false friends and open 
 enemies of Ireland ? Who did not remember 
 him in the days of its burnings, and wastings, 
 and murders. No government ever dismayed 
 him — the world could not bribe him. He only 
 thought of Ireland — lived for no other object — 
 dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant 
 wit, his manly courage, and all the splendor 
 of his astonishing eloquence. He was so born, 
 and so gifted, that all the attainments of human 
 genius were within his reach ; but he thought 
 the noblest occupation of man was to make 
 other men happy and free ; and in that straight 
 line he went on for fifty years, without one side 
 look, without one yielding thought, without one 
 motive in his heart which he might not have 
 laid open to the view of God and man. He is 
 gone ! — but there is not a single day of his hon- 
 est life of which every good Irishman would 
 not be more proud, than of the whole political 
 existence of the Wellington's and the Lans- 
 downes, — the annual deserters and betrayers of 
 their native land. 
 
 GRAY, Thomas, an English poet, born in 
 London, in 1716. After completing the course 
 of education at Eton and Cambridge, he made 
 the tour of Europe, returning in 1741. The 
 remainder of his life was passed in literary re- 
 tirement. He was for ever laying gigantic lit- 
 erary plans, which he wanted the perseverance 
 to execute. He wrote little and published only 
 after mature deliberation. His Odes on A Dis- 
 tant Prospect of Eton College, on the Progress 
 of Poesy, The Bard, and his Elegy in a Country 
 Church Yard, are inimitable. This distinguish- 
 ed poet died of a gout in the stomach, July 30, 
 1771. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. (See Britain and Eng- 
 land.\ 
 
 GREECE. Ancient Greece, Gracia, Hdla$. f 
 and Achaia, contained about 42,000 square miles. . 
 It was bounded on the west by the Ionian Sea, 
 south by the Mediterranean Sea, east by the 
 ^Egean, and north by Thrace and Dalmatia. 
 This country has been esteemed superior to 
 every other part of the earth, on account of 
 the salubrity of the air, the temperature of the 
 climate, the fertility of the soil, and, above all, 
 the fame, learning, and arts of its inhabitants. 
 The most celebrated of its cities were Athens, 
 Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Sicyon, Mycenae, 
 Delphi, Troezene, Salamis, Megara, Pylos, &c. 
 
 The history of Greece is darkened, in its 
 primitive ages, by the mists of fable. The in- 
 habitants believed that they were the original 
 dwellers in the country, and sprang from the 
 earth, whereon they dwelt; and they heard, 
 with contempt, the probable conjectures which 
 traced their origin to the inhabitants of Asia, 
 and the colonies of Egypt. In the first periods 
 of their history, the Greeks were governed by 
 monarchs ; and there were as many kings as 
 there were cities. The monarchical power grad- 
 ually decreased ; the love of liberty established 
 the republican governments ; and no part of 
 Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the 
 hands of an absolute sovereign. The expedition 
 of the Argonauts first, rendered the Greeks re- 
 spectable among their neighbors : and in the suc- 
 ceeding age, the w T ars of Thebes and Troy gave 
 opportunity to their heroes to display their valor 
 in the field of battle. The simplicity of the an- 
 cient Greeks rendered them virtuous ; and the 
 establishment of the Olympic games in partic- 
 ular, where the only reward of the conqueror 
 was a laurel crown, contributed to their aggran- 
 dizement, and made them ambitious of fame, 
 and not the slaves of riches. 
 
 The austerity of their laws, and the educa- 
 tion of their youth, particularly at Lacedemon, 
 rendered them brave and active, insensible to 
 bodily pain, fearless and intrepid in the hour of 
 danger. The celebrated battles of Marathon, 
 Thermopylae, Salamis, Platrea, and Mycale, suf 
 ficiently show what superiority a well train- 
 ed, though small army possesses over millions 
 of undisciplined barbarians. After many signal 
 victories over the Persians, the Greeks became 
 elated with their success, and when they found 
 no one able to dispute their power abroad, 
 they turned their arms against each other, and 
 leagued with foreign states to destroy the most 
 flourishing of their cities. The Messenian and 
 Peloponnesian wars are examples of the dread- 
 ful calamities which arise from civil discord and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 GRE 
 
 267 
 
 GRE 
 
 long prosperity ; and the ease with which the 
 gold and sword of Philip of Macedon corrupted 
 and enslaved Greece, fatally proved that when 
 a nation becomes indolent and luxurious at 
 home, it ceases to be respectable in the eyes of 
 neighboring states. The annals of Greece, how- 
 ever, abound with singular proofs of heroism 
 and resolution. While the Greeks rendered 
 themselves so illustrious by their military ex- 
 ploits, the arts and sciences were assisted by 
 conquest, and received fresh lustre from the 
 liberal patronage bestowed on them. 
 
 From the fifteenth century until a recent 
 period, Greece was subject to the Turkish gov- 
 ernment. Although degraded — changed from 
 what she was, there was yet something in Mod- 
 ern Greece to remind the world of former days 
 of glorv- Ere the storm of the revolution 
 broke forth, the bard could sing — 
 
 f* On Suli's rock, and Parga's shore, 
 Exists die remnant of a line 
 
 Such as the Doric mothers bore, 
 And there, perhaps, some seed is sown, 
 That Heracleidan blood might own." 
 
 The revolution in the Morea broke out- at a 
 village of Achaia, March 23, 1821.' From that 
 time forward their warlike weapons were never 
 relinquished by the Hellenists. The Greeks 
 struggled against ferocity, bravery, wealth, and 
 power, while, they themselves, although the 
 sympathy of the liberal portion of the world 
 was theirs, not only received no assistance, but 
 even experienced checks from the cabinets of 
 Europe. At length England took the part of 
 the Greeks, and a Russian, French and British 
 squadron, under Admiral Sir Edward Codring- 
 ton, destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian armada of 
 110 ships, in the bay of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. 
 In March, 1828, the war between Russia and 
 Turkey broke out, and the interference of for- 
 eign powers produced the pacification of Greece 
 in 1829. The Turks were compelled to evacuate 
 Greece ; a limited monarchy was established ; 
 Otho I, a young man of eighteen, being at the 
 head of the government. Schools have now 
 been established in various places, and, freed 
 from the oppression which prostrated its ener- 
 gies, the Greek character now begins to appear 
 in a happy light. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, a distinguished major- 
 general in the American army during the re- 
 volution, was born in Rhode Island, May 22, 
 1742, and early evinced an attachment to litera- 
 ture and science, and a propensity for a mili- 
 tary life. In 1770 he was elected to the state 
 legislature, took part in the earliest battles of 
 23* 
 
 the revolution, and June, 6, 1775, assumed the 
 command of the army before Boston for a short 
 time. Want of space renders it impossible for 
 us to follow him through all the steps of his 
 career of glory, or even to enumerate his bril- 
 liant actions. He died in 1786, in Georgia, 
 whither he had removed upon some grants of 
 land. 
 
 GREENLAND, an extensive country of N. 
 America, belonging to Denmark, and settled 
 800 years ago. The natives belong to the Es- 
 quimaux family, and are rude in their man- 
 ners, and confined in their ideas. They are of 
 diminutive size, clothed in skins, and subsist- 
 ing by hunting and fishing. Their religious 
 notions are rude and primitive. There are 
 numerous settlements upon the coast of Green- 
 land, many of them being made by the Mora- 
 vian missionaries. 
 
 GREGORY I, pope of Rome, surnamed the 
 Great, succeeded PelagiusII, in 590, and intro- 
 duced many of the present ceremonies of the 
 Romish church. He was of a noble family and 
 induced to take monastic vows by a disgust of 
 worldlv affairs. He died in 604. 
 
 GREGORY VII, called Hildebrand before 
 his election, succeeded Alexander II, in the 
 year 1073, being advanced by the suffrages of 
 the cardinals, without the emperor's authority ; 
 the better to confirm himself in the pontificate, 
 he abolished the imperial power of conferring 
 investiture upon bishops and clergymen, and 
 became an inveterate enemy of the emperor 
 Henry IV. He prevailed upon Rodolph, Duke 
 of Suabia, to assume the title of emperor, and 
 take up arms against Henry, but Rodolph being 
 overthrown and slain, Henry marched directly 
 into Italy, besieged Rome, took the city, and 
 established Clement III upon the papal throne. 
 Gregory fled to Salerno, and there died, after 
 having enjoyed the papal dignity 12 years. 
 There were several other popes of the same 
 name. 
 
 GRENADA, New, formerly a viceroyalty of 
 South America, and more recently a portion of 
 Colombia, but now a separate republic. Together 
 with Venezuela, it was formerly called Terra 
 Firma. It has an area of 375 ,000 square miles, 
 and a population of 1 ,500,000 souls. The moun- 
 tains of the republic are rich in the precious 
 metals, yielding annually about 3,000,000 dol- 
 lars' worth of gold. 
 
 GRENOBLE, an old French city, capital of 
 the department of here, 113 leagues S. E. of 
 Paris. It was the first city to open its gates to 
 Napoleon, when he returned from Elba. The 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 GRE 
 
 268 
 
 GUA 
 
 garrison had taken up arms to resist the little 
 band of the imperialists, when Napoleon, ad- 
 vancing, and uncovering his breast, said to 
 them : — " If there be one among you, who 
 would slay his general and emperor, he can do 
 it — behold I am defenceless." He was answer- 
 ed by animating shouts of " Vive Vemycreu.r.' 1 '' 
 Population 25,000. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, an unfortunate and most 
 amiable lady, the daughter of Henry Grey, 
 marquis of Dorset, by lady Frances Brandon, 
 daughter of the duke of Suffolk, was of royal 
 descent on both sides. She was born in 1537, 
 at Bradgate Hall, her father's seat in Leicester- 
 shire ; and early in life gave proofs of uncom- 
 mon genius. She worked admirably with her 
 needle ; wrote an elegant hand ; played well 
 on several instruments; and was well versed 
 in Greek and Latin, besides being conversant 
 with French and Italian. Roger Ascham, " the 
 schoolmaster of princes," has given a beautiful 
 and affecting narrative of his interview with 
 her at Bradgate Hall, where he found her read- 
 ing Plato's Phaedon in Greek, while the family 
 were amusing themselves in the park. 
 
 In 1551, her father was created duke of Suf- 
 folk ; and at this time lady Jane Grey was much 
 at court ; where the ambitious duke of Northum- 
 berland projected a marriage between her and 
 his son, lord Guilford Dudley, which took place 
 at the end of May, 1553. Soon after this Ed- 
 ward VI died, having been prevailed upon in 
 his last illness, to settle the crown upon the 
 lady Jane, who, against her will, was proclaim- 
 ed with great pomp. 
 
 The splendor of royalty, however, endured 
 but a short time. The nation was dissatisfied, 
 and the nobility indignant at the presumption 
 of Northumberland, so that Mary was not long 
 in obtaining the victory, and, with an indignant 
 spirit, determined on revenge. Lady Jane and 
 her husband, after having been confined in the 
 Tower some months, were arraigned and con- 
 demned to death, Nov. 3, 1553. The sentence 
 was not carried into execution, until the 12th 
 of February in the following year, when lord 
 Guilford first suffered, and his lady immediately 
 afterwards, on the same scaffold. She died with 
 the firmness and meekness of a martyr ; and 
 such no doubt she was, since her Protestant 
 principles were more offensive to the queen, 
 than the part she had been compelled to act. 
 On the evening previous to her death she sent 
 a letter written in Greek to her sister; and even 
 after seeing the headless body of her husband 
 carried to the chapel, she wrote three sentences, 
 
 in Greek, Latin and English, in a table book, 
 which she presented to the lieutenant of the 
 tower. 
 
 GR1DLEY, Jeremiah, a distinguished lawyer, 
 who was born in 1705, and flourished in Mas- 
 sachusetts before the revolution. Although a 
 warm opponent of the British ministry, he ac- 
 cepted the office of attorney -general 0f the pro- 
 vince of Massachusetts Bay, and defended the 
 writs of assistance, but was completely refuted 
 by James Otis, who had studied law in his office. 
 He died in Boston, Sept. 7, 1767, aged about 62 
 years. 
 
 GRISONS, The, since 1778, the largest can- 
 ton of the Swiss confederacy, containing 88,000 
 inhabitants. Its exports are cattle, cheese, coals, 
 and valuable minerals. It was the Upper Rhoetia 
 of the Romans. 
 
 GRISWOLD, Roger, a governor of Connec- 
 ticut, was born at Lyme, in that state, in 1762. 
 He was educated at Yale College, and chosen 
 member of Congress in 1794. In 1807 he accept- 
 ed the office of judge of the Supreme Court of 
 Connecticut, and after serving as lieutenant- 
 governor, in 1811 was chosen governor of his 
 native state. He died in 1812. 
 
 GRONINGEN, the name of a province and 
 city of the Netherlands. The city contains 
 27,800 inhabitants, and is the seat of a famous 
 university. 
 
 GROTIUS, or De Groot, Hugo, a famous 
 scholar and statesman, born at Delft, April 10, 
 1583. So precocious were his powers, that he 
 was appointed advocate-general in his 24th 
 year. Grotius, having espoused the cause of 
 a religious sect called the Remonstrants, was 
 condemned to imprisonment for life in the fort- 
 ress of Louvenstein,but having concealed him- 
 self in a chest In which his wife had sent him 
 some books, he was carried out of the castle 
 unsuspected. After wandering about in seve- 
 ral countries, having been banished for ever 
 from his own, he went to Stockholm in 1634, 
 and was appointed counsellor of state, and am- 
 bassador to the French court. Although per- 
 sonally obnoxious to Cardinal Richelieu, he held 
 this office for 10 years, and then returned to 
 Sweden, passing through his native country, 
 where his reception was most flattering. He 
 solicited his dismission from the queen of Swe- 
 den, but, after leaving her court, was taken sick 
 at Rostock, in Poinerania, and died theie, Au- 
 gust 28, 1645. He was a profound and elegant 
 scholar, and a powerful writer. 
 
 GUADALAXARA, formerly an intendancy 
 of Mexico, now forms the state of Yalisco, in 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 GUE 
 
 269 
 
 GUI 
 
 the Mexican confederacy. It is fertile and well 
 timbered. Population, 800,000. Number of 
 square miles 72,000. The capital is a city of 
 the same name, built on a fertile plain, and 
 containing 60,000 inhabitants, Spaniards, mulat- 
 toes, and mestizoes. 
 
 GUADALOUPE, one of the largest and most 
 valuable ofHhe Caribbee Islands — about 70 miles 
 long, and 25 broad. It is divided into two parts 
 by a channel, which runs from north to south. 
 It was discovered by Columbus. After passing 
 alternately from the French to the English, its 
 possession was confirmed to the former in 1814. 
 Population 110,000. 
 
 GUANAXUATO, a rich and populous state 
 of Mexico, containing 450,000 inhabitants on 
 6,300 square miles. 
 
 GUANAXUATO, or Santa Fe Guanaxuato, 
 the capital of the preceding state, is 140 miles 
 northwest of Mexico, and contains 40,000 inhab- 
 itants. Of these many are miners, the mines 
 in the vicinity being uncommonly productive. 
 The city stands at an elevation of 6,836 above 
 the sea, and is situated in a mountainous defile. 
 
 GUATIMALA, the largest of the five slates 
 of the republic of Central America. It borders 
 on Mexico, the gulf of Honduras, and the Pacific 
 Ocean 
 
 GUATIMALDA, La Nueva, the seat of gov- 
 ernment of Central America, was founded in 
 1775, and contains 40,000 inhabitants. It is 
 situated on the river Vacas, near the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 GUAXACA, or Oaxaca, an uncommonly 
 rich and fertile state of Mexico, containing 
 600,000 inhabitants, many of whom are tribu- 
 tary Indians. The capital town of the same, 
 called also, Antequera, contains 40,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 GUAYAQUIL, a province of the Equator, 
 containing about 90,000 inhabitants. Guaya- 
 quil, the capital, on the west side of Guayaquil 
 river, has an excellent harbor. 
 
 GUELPHS, the name of a family, one of two 
 opposite factions that divided Italy about the 
 year 1255. the partisans of papal and imperial 
 power. The family of the Uberti were at the 
 head of the Florentine Ghibellines, the other 
 faction; and the people, or rather, the republi- 
 can party, resented their contumacy so much, 
 that they ran to arms, broke into the palace of 
 the Uberti, and, having killed some, forced all 
 the Ghibellines to take refuge in Sienna, where 
 they were hospitably received, in direct viola- 
 lion of a treaty between the Florentines and 
 Siennese. 
 
 GUESCLIN, Bertrand du, constable of France, 
 and one of her most renowned generals, born 
 in 1314, at the castle of Motte Broon ; near Ren- 
 nes. At the age of seventeen years, he won a 
 prize in a tournament. After the battle of Poic- 
 tiers, and the losses of Charles, du Guesclin 
 came forward, and redeemed the honor of his 
 country, wresting from the hands of the Eng- 
 lish almost all their possessions. He died, in the 
 midst of triumph, before Chateau-neuf-de-Rau- 
 don, July 13, 1380. He had nothing pleasing 
 or noble in his person, and owed his honors 
 wholly to his own exertions. 
 
 GUIANA, a country of South America, for- 
 merly of vast extent. At present what was 
 formerly Spanish Guiana, belongs to Venezuela, 
 and Portuguese Guiana, to Brazil. The remaiu- 
 ing portions are divided between the English, 
 Dutch, and French. The animals and birds of 
 Guiana are numerous, as are its vegetable pro- 
 ductions. Parts of Guiana are yet wild and 
 imperfectly known, and in its interior the El 
 Dorado of the Spaniards was formerly believed 
 to exist. 
 
 GUILFORD, a town and sea-port of New 
 Haven county, Connecticut, on Long Island 
 Sound, containing 2,344 inhabitants. It has 
 two harbors, and enjoys considerable trade. The 
 Indian name of the place was Menunkatuck. 
 
 GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French 
 physician, born in 1738, was the inventor of the 
 instrument for inflicting capital punishment, 
 which bears his name. 
 
 GUINEA. A large portion of the western 
 coast of Africa bears this name. But its limits 
 cannot be exactly defined. It is commonly 
 divied into the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, 
 the Gold Coast, and Slave Coast. 
 
 GUISE ; a town and dukedom of France, in 
 Picardy, besieged by the Spaniards in 1528. 
 The dukes of Guise were very important per- 
 sonages in all the affairs of France, from the 
 reign of Francis I, to that of Henry IV. This 
 family was a branch of the house of Lorraine, 
 promoted, by Francis I, in 1528, from counts of 
 Guise, to dukes. The first thus raised was 
 Claude, the son of Rene II. He had eight sons, 
 among whom were Francis, duke of Guise, Clau- 
 dius, duke of Aumale, and Rene, marquis of El- 
 bceuf. Francis gallantly defended Metz against 
 Charles V, and took Calais from the English. 
 He was assassinated in 1516. He was the father 
 of Henry, duke of Guise, and Charles, duke of 
 Maine, &c. Henry placing himself at the head 
 of the Holy League, was slain in the States of 
 Blois, by the order of his prince, in 1588 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 GUN 
 
 270 
 
 GUS 
 
 Charles, the other brother, took up arms against 
 Henry IV, till at last, in 1594, he was forced to 
 submit to that victorious prince. Charles, the 
 son of Henry, succeeded his father in the duke- 
 dom, and was the father of Henry II, who was 
 chosen king of Naples. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT, a conspiracy formed 
 in the beginning of James I, of England, for the 
 re-establishment of popery, which, were it not 
 a fact well known to all the world, could scarcely 
 be credited by posterity. The Roman Catho- 
 lics had expected great favor and indulgence 
 from James, both because he was a descendant 
 of Mary, a rigid Catholic, and because he had 
 sJiown some favor to that religion in his youth; 
 but they soon discovered their mistake, and 
 were at once surprised and enraged to find 
 James, on all occasions, express his resolution 
 of strictly executing the laws enacted against 
 them, and of persevering in the policy of his 
 predecessor. This declaration determined them 
 to destroy the king and parliament at a blow. 
 They therefore stored in the vaults under the 
 parliament-house, thirty-six barrels of gunpow- 
 der, purchased in Holland, and covered them 
 with coals and fagots. The meaning of a 
 warning but ambiguous letter, received by lord 
 Monteagle was first penetrated by the king. 
 The care of searching the vaults devolved upon 
 the earl of Suffolk, lord Chamberlain, who pur- 
 posely delayed the search until the day before 
 the meeting of parliament, Nov. 5, 1605. 
 
 He remarked the great piles of fagots, which 
 lay in the vault under the house of peers, and 
 seized a man preparing for the terrible enter- 
 prise, dressed in a cloak and boots, with a dark 
 lantern in his hand. This was one Guy Fawkes, 
 who had just disposed every part of the train 
 for taking fire the next morning; the matches 
 and other combustibles being found in his pock- 
 ets. The whole of the design was now discov- 
 ered ; but the atrocity of his guilt, and the des- 
 pair of pardon, inspiring him with resolution, 
 he told the officers of justice with an undaunted 
 air, that had he blown them and himself up 
 together, he had been happy. Before the coun- 
 cil he displayed the same intrepid firmness, 
 mixed even with scorn and disdfin, refusing to 
 discover his associates, and showing no concern 
 but for the failure of his enterprise. But. his 
 bold spirit was at length subdued ; after having 
 been confined to the tower for two or three days, 
 on the rack being shown him, his courage failed 
 him, and he made a full discovery of his accom- 
 plices, to the number of eighty, who all suffered 
 punishment. 
 
 GUSTAVUS I, king of Sweden, commonly 
 called Gustavus Vasa, was imprisoned when 
 Christian II, of Denmark, sought to enslave his 
 country. Having escaped from prison in 1519, 
 he arrived at Lubeck. after meeting with vari- 
 ous difficulties. Here he was countenanced by 
 the Senate, but failing of accomplishing his 
 object, he was proscribed by the tyrant, and fled 
 to Dalecarlia, where he roused the miners to 
 revenge the wrongs of their suffering country. 
 The young hero found the peasants prepared 
 to receive him with open arms, and to swear to 
 revenge the massacre at Stockholm with the 
 last drop of their blood. The brave Dalecarlians 
 flocked to the standard of Gustavus, who was, 
 from this moment, irresistible. After the burn- 
 ing of the Danish fleet, the diet assembled, Gus- 
 tavus was proclaimed king of Sweden and of 
 the two Gothlands, in 1523, and he soon suc- 
 ceeded in establishing the doctrines of Luther 
 in his dominions. 
 
 In 1531, Christian made preparations for re- 
 covering his throne, but his vast armament was 
 defeated with great slaughter. In 1542, Gus- 
 tavus prevailed on the states to render the crown 
 hereditary in his own family. This valiant, 
 wise, and virtuous hero, the true deliverer of 
 his country, died in 1560, at the age of 70. 
 
 GUSTAVUS II, Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
 succeeded Charles IX, in 1611, at the age of 
 eighteen. Gustavus having placed the Chan- 
 cellor Oxenstiern at the head of the administra- 
 tion of civil affairs, took charge himself of the 
 martial operations, and, in 1613, prosecuted the 
 war against Denmark with such vigor and suc- 
 cess, that, through the mediation of Great Brit- 
 ain and Holland, an advantageous peace was 
 procured, by which the Danish monarch re- 
 nounced all pretensions to the throne. He was 
 equally successful with the Russians, who ceded 
 to him the fine province of Livonia, and part of 
 the province of Novogorod. His hostilities, 
 however, with his cousin Sigismund, were of 
 longer duration, and were productive of those 
 glorious events which procured him a conspi- 
 cuous rank among the most distinguished war- 
 riors of his time. The king of Poland could not 
 forget the Swedish crown of which he had 
 been deprived by the impolitic conduct of his 
 father and himself, and formed a plot for seiz- 
 ing on Gustavus, who, however, avoided the 
 snare. 
 
 The Swedish monarch, having prepared a 
 numerous fleet, set sail, and laid siege to Riga, 
 in 1 621 . Gustavus proved victorious, but allow- 
 ed the besieged to capitulate on honorable terms. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 GW 
 
 271 
 
 HAL 
 
 During a series of years he was engaged in 
 constant warfare, which afforded him opportu- 
 nities of training the Swedes, and forming those 
 intrepid commanders and formidable battalions, 
 which long kept Europe in alarm. At length, 
 in 1629, Gustavus gloriously terminated the war 
 with Poland, anoW)btained large cessions of ter- 
 ritory. He did not, however, long enjoy the 
 fruits of his victories in peace. The resentment 
 which he felt against the emperor, and his am- 
 bition to curb the power of the house of Aus- 
 tria, determined him to march an army of sixty 
 thousand men into Germany, in 1(530. He re- 
 duced Frankfort on the Oder, and various other 
 places, and compelled the elector of Braden- 
 burgh to unite his troops with the Swedish 
 battalions. He then invaded Saxony. In 1631, 
 the imperialists awaited Gustavus at Leipzig, 
 with ah army of 40,000 men. The Swedish 
 monarch led his troops to the attack, and, after 
 an obstinate conflict, obtained a decisive victory. 
 He then penetrated into Bavaria, and levied 
 contributions on the opulent districts of Ger- 
 many. The battle of Lutzen ensued, in 1633, 
 on the fate of which contest, that of Europe 
 appeared to depend. The Swedish infantry 
 performed prodigies of valor, broke the line of 
 the imperialists, and seized their cannon. Vic- 
 tory had already declared for the Swedes, when 
 Gustavus was found stretched among the slain. 
 His death plunged Sweden into the greatest 
 affliction, but his triumphant bands for a time 
 supported her military reputation. 
 
 GUSTAVUS III, king of Sweden, the eldest 
 son of Adolphus Frederic, duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp, was born in 1746, and succeeded to 
 the throne on his father's death, February 12th, 
 1771. The country, which was convulsed 
 throughout, was tranquillized by the prudent 
 measures of Gustavus, who was wise, firm, and 
 accomplished, although fond of pleasure, and 
 ambitious. He determined to take part against 
 the French revolutionists, and thereby gave 
 very general dissatisfaction. A conspiracy was 
 formed against him; the most prominent mem- 
 bers being the counts Horn, Ribbing, and An- 
 karstrcom, and he was shot by the latter at a 
 masquerade at Stockholm, March 15, 1792. 
 
 GWINNETT, Burton, an Englishman, born 
 in 1732, emigrated to Charleston (S. C), in 
 1770, and was one of the signers of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence. He settled in Geor- 
 gia, where he took an active share in the affairs 
 of the revolution ; and was subsequently chosen 
 a member of the convention assembled for the 
 purpose of framing a state constitution. He 
 
 died of wounds received in a duel with General 
 Mcintosh, May 27, 1777, in the 45th year of his 
 age. 
 
 II. 
 
 HAARLEM or Haerlem, a large city of the 
 Netherlands, on the river Spaaren, about three 
 miles from the sea. It contains many fine pub- 
 lic edifices, and some scientific institutions. It 
 is a thriving place, and has 22,000 inhabitants. 
 
 HABAKKUK, a Jewish prophet, who flour- 
 ished about 600, B. C. 
 
 HiEMUS, the ancient name of the range of 
 mountains in Turkey, now called the Balkan. 
 
 HA GAR, an Egyptian slave of Abraham, 
 and the mother of Ishmael. (For her history, 
 vide Genesis.) 
 
 HAINAUT, or Hainault, a province of the 
 Netherlands, containing 574,800 inhabitants, 
 and 1683 square miles. Its soil is fruitful, and 
 its minerals valuable and abundant. 
 
 HALE, Nathan, a Captain in the American 
 revolutionary army, born in Coventry, Con- 
 necticut, and graduated at Yale College in 1773. 
 After the retreat from Long Island, he exam- 
 ined the British camp in disguise, but was ap- 
 prehended, tried, condemned, and executed 
 with circumstances of peculiar barbarity. (For 
 an account of his last moments, see article An- 
 dre.) 
 
 HALICARNASSUS, the capital of Caria, 
 in Asia Minor, now called Bodrun, or Budron. 
 It was here that queen Artemisia erected the 
 famous Mausoleum to the memory of her de- 
 ceased husband Mausolus. 
 
 H A LIF A X , the capital city of Nova Scotia, on 
 Chebucto Bay. Its fine harbor is one of the 
 best in America. Population 16,000. It was 
 first settled by an English colony, in 1749. 
 
 HALL, Lyman, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in Con- 
 necticut, in 1731, and studied medicine. He 
 removed, however, to Georgia, where he prac- 
 tised his profession until the breaking out of the 
 revolution induced him to devote his property 
 and person to the service of his country, and, 
 in 1775, he was chosen a delegate to the gen- 
 ral Congress, then assembled in Philadelphia. 
 In 1782, he was chosen governor of the State 
 of Georgia, but died in retirement in the 60th 
 year of his age. 
 
 HALLE, a Prussian city, in the province of 
 Saxony, on the right bank of the Saale, contain- 
 ing 23,873 inhabitants. Its university ranks 
 deservedly very high. It was the scene of an 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 HAM 
 
 272 
 
 HAN 
 
 obstinate conflict, on the 17th of October, 1806, 
 three days after the battle of Jena. 
 
 HALLOW ELL, a post-town in Kennebec 
 county, Maine, situated forty-five miles from 
 the mouth of the river Kennebec, 54 miles N. 
 N. E. of Portland. It is a flourishing place, 
 and contained, in 1840, 4,625 inhabitants. 
 
 HAMBURG, a free city of Germany, situ- 
 ated on the Elbe, about 80 miles from its mouth, 
 containing 122,000 inhabitants. It was founded 
 in the reign of Charlemagne, and was originally 
 a fort called Hammenburg. In 1618, it was 
 admitted into the number of imperial towns, 
 subject to the counts of Holstein. In 1768, 
 however, the subjection was annulled, and 
 Hamburg was confirmed into an independent 
 city. In 1807, it was taken possession of by a 
 large French garrison, and Bonaparte seized a 
 part of its public funds. In 1810, it was incor- 
 porated into the French empire ; and in 1813. a 
 memorable but unsuccessful effort was made to 
 shake off the French yoke. A contribution of 
 $9,000,000 was then levied upon it, and the 
 most positive orders were given to defend it, at 
 whatever sacrifice, against the 3llies. This led 
 to incalculable distress, to the destruction of the 
 houses on the ramparts, to the seizure of con- 
 siderable merchandise; and, finally, of the bank 
 funds by Davoust. At last, the city was evac- 
 uated in May, 1814, and part of the bank funds 
 have been restored by the Bourbons. 
 
 HAMILTON, Elizabeth, a lady of fine liter- 
 ary talent, born at Belfast, in Ireland. July 25, 
 1758, died July 23, 1816. During a residence 
 in Scotland, she acquired that knowledge of the 
 national peculiarities of the Scotch, which she 
 has so happily displayed in her Cottagers of 
 Glenburnie. She published several other works, 
 principally on the subject of education. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, was born in the 
 island of Nevis, in 1757. At the age of sixteen, 
 he entered Columbia college. New York, in 
 which institution he greatly distinguished him- 
 self. At the age of seventeen, he published 
 political essays in favor of the colonial cause, so 
 powerful and brilliant, that they were at first 
 attributed to Mr. Jay, then in the prime of life. 
 At nineteen, eager to peril his life in the cause 
 of his beloved country, Hamilton entered the 
 army ; he soon rose to the rank of captain of 
 artillery, and Washington appointed him his 
 aid-de-camp with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, 
 when he was but twenty years of age. At the 
 siege of Yorktown, he was in the hottest of the 
 fire, and headed an assault which carried one 
 of the enemies outworks. After the war, he 
 
 commenced the study of the law in New York, 
 and was speedily admitted to practice. In 
 1783, he was chosen member of Congress, and 
 distinguished himself by his ability, unwearied 
 industry, and patriotism. After having been 
 chosen to a seat in the Legislature of New York, 
 he became a member of the convention, which 
 met at Philadelphia for the purpose of framing 
 the federal constitution. The essays which he 
 published under the title of the Federalist, con- 
 tributed more than any thing else to render the 
 constitution popular. As secretary of the trea- 
 sury, to which office he was appointed in 1789, 
 he gained the reputation of one of the greatest 
 financiers of the age In 1795, he retired into 
 private life, but in 1798, as inspector general, 
 he organized the army intended to repel the 
 threatened invasion of the French, and in 1799, 
 on the death of Washington, he succeeded to 
 the chief command. 
 
 On June 11th, 1804, in consequence of a dis- 
 pute between Colonel Burr and General Ham- 
 ilton, the parties met at Hoboken, and Hamil- 
 ton was killed by the first shot, standing on the 
 fatal spot where his eldest son had recently been 
 killed in a similar rencounter. 
 
 HAMPDEN, or Hamden, John, a celebrated 
 English patriot, was born in London, in 1594. 
 He obtained a seat in the second parliament of 
 Charles I, and in the year 1636, his resistance 
 to the payment of the tax, called ship money, 
 drew upon him the eyes of all men, and he be- 
 came the champion of the disaffected. He was 
 one of the first to take up arms against the king ; 
 and it is not a little remarkable, that he fell in 
 the very same field where he mustered the 
 militia, near Brill, in Buckinghamshire, June 
 18, 1613. Lord Clarendon's character of him 
 is that which Sallust gave of Catiline : " He had 
 a head to contrive, a tongue to persuade, and a 
 hand to execute any mischief." But this opi- 
 nion is that of a firm supporter of legitimate 
 abuses, for Hampden appeared to have been in- 
 fluenced throughout his career by purely patri- 
 otic principles. 
 
 HANAU, a province of Hesse-Cassel, the 
 capital of which, 'Hanau, on the Kinzig, con- 
 tains 9,700 inhabitants. In 1792. Hanau was 
 attacked, but not occupied, by the French, but, 
 at the end of October. 1813. an Austrian and 
 Bavarian corps opposed here the great army of 
 the French, in their retreat from Leipsig : a 
 sanguinary conflict took place in which the 
 Bavarians were defeated, and the flying army 
 effected its retreat. 
 
 HANCOCK, John, was born at Quincy, in 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 HAN 
 
 273 
 
 HAN 
 
 Massachusetts. Having lost his parents early, 
 he was sent to Harvard College, where he grad- 
 uated in 1754, by his uncle, a rich and benevo- 
 lent merchant, to whose wealth and business 
 he succeeded in 1764. "After the battle of Lex- 
 ington, when pardon was offered to the rebels, 
 in case of submission to the royal authority,, 
 Hancock and Adams were the only Americans 
 excepted by Gage from the offer of mercy. 
 After having been president of the provincial 
 Congress of Massachusetts, Hancock was sent 
 to the general Congress at Philadelphia, in 1775, 
 and filled the presidential chair of that body 
 until 1779, when sickness compelled him to 
 relinquish it. He was annually chosen governor 
 of Massachusetts, from 1780 till 1785. In 1787, 
 he was re-elected, and filled the post until his 
 death in 1793, at the age of 56 years. 
 
 HANDEL or Haendel, George Frederic, a 
 native of Saxony, born February 24, 1684. He 
 early determined to cultivate his talents for 
 music, and he produced his earliest operas at 
 Hamburg. In 1710, he visited England, and 
 his fame and fortune were there established. 
 In 1741, he brought out his master-piece, the 
 Oratorio of the Messiah. Towards the latter 
 part of his life, he was affected with total blind- 
 ness, and he died, April 6, 1759, leaving a for- 
 tune of £20,000. His appetites were coarse, 
 his person ungainly, and his temper violent, 
 although an external roughness was compen- 
 sated by a humane and generous heart. 
 
 The following anecdote strikingly illustrates 
 his manners, and his peculiar humor. Dr. 
 Greene, a personal friend, as well as a warm 
 admirer of Handel, brought to the great Ger- 
 man an anthem of his own composition, request- 
 ing the favor of his opinion and remarks upon 
 it. Handel readily received the production, 
 promised to examine it immediately, and invited 
 the doctor to breakfast with him the next day. 
 Dr. Greene accordingly waited on the illustri- 
 ous musician. Handel, who had inspected the 
 composition, received him with cordiality, gave 
 him an elegant breakfast, treated him with 
 every politeness, but constantly continued to 
 evade his visiter's questions respecting his opin- 
 ion of the anthem. Greene, at length, too im- 
 patient to wait any longer for the great com- 
 poser's decision on the merits of his piece, 
 exclaimed vehemently, "My dearest friend, 
 keep me no longer in suspense — tell me, I pray 
 you — tell me what do you think of my anthem ?" 
 Handel, who had found it scientifically written, 
 but very deficient in melody, answered, " Oh, 
 it is ver fine, my dear doctor, ver fine indeed, 
 
 only it do vant air, and so I flung it out of de 
 vindow." 
 
 HANNIBAL, or Annibal, son of Hamilcar 
 Barcas, born B. C. 247, was a celebrated Car- 
 thaginian general. He was educated in his 
 father's camp, and inured from his early years 
 to the labors of the field, having passed into 
 Spain when nine years old ; at the request of 
 his father he took an oath of eternal enmity to 
 the Romans. After his father's death, he had 
 the command of the cavalry in Spain, and some 
 time after, upon the death of Asdrubal, he was 
 invested with the command of all the armies of 
 Carthage, though not yet in the twenty-fifth 
 year of his age. In three years of continual 
 success, he subdued all the nations of Spain, 
 which opposed the Carthaginian power, and 
 took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. 
 This city was in alliance with Rome and its 
 fall was the cause of the second Punic war, 
 which Hannibal prepared to support with all 
 the courage and prudence of a finished general. 
 The army with which he entered Italy amount- 
 ed, by the largest computation, to 100.000 foot, 
 and 20,000 horse. With this overwhelming 
 force he passed the Alps, conquered his oppo- 
 nents, crossed the Appenines, invaded Etruria 
 defeated Flaminius at the lake Thrasymene, and 
 Caius Terentius and L. yEmilius in the fatal bat- 
 tle of Cannee. 
 
 Had Hannibal, immediately after this battle, 
 marched his army to the gates of Rome, it must 
 have yielded amidst the general consternation, 
 but his delay continued so long that the Ro- 
 mans recovered their hopes, and. when he finally 
 approached the walls, he was informed that the 
 piece of ground on which his army then stood, 
 was being sold at a high price in the Roman 
 forum. He then, after some time, retired to 
 Capua, the luxuries of which enervated his 
 troops, and unfitted them for action ; this gave 
 rise to the saying that " Capua was a Cannae 
 to Hannibal." Marcellus, who succeeded the 
 cautious Fabius in the field, first taught the 
 Romans that Hannibal was not invincible. 
 Scipio having passed over into Africa, the Car- 
 thaginians now recalled Hannibal to combat the 
 adventurous Roman. After sixteen years of 
 flattering triumph, the Carthaginian general 
 left Italy, met Scipio at Zama, was defeated, 
 and fled to Adrumetum. The Carthaginians 
 procured peace on favorable terms, and Hanni- 
 bal fled to Syria, but he was pursued from 
 place to place by the animosity of the Romans, 
 and at length killed himself at the court of Pru- 
 sias, king of Bithynia, B. C. 183, aged 64 years. 
 
 \ 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 HAR 
 
 274 
 
 HAS 
 
 HANNO, a Carthaginian general of high re- 
 putation, who was conquered by Scipio in Spain. 
 He is not to be confounded with the great nav- 
 igator. 
 
 HANOVER, a kingdom in the north of Ger- 
 many, consisting of the duchy of Bremen, the 
 duchy of Lunenburg, and several other princi- 
 palities. It was erected into a kingdom in 1814. 
 It contains 14,800 square miles, and 1,582,574 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The Hartz mountains contain silver, iron, cop- 
 per, lead, &c. Hanover is subject to the king 
 of Great Britain, who is also styled king of Han- 
 over. A viceroy is at the head of the govern- 
 ment. When Napoleon had obtained dominion 
 over almost the whole continent in 1811, Han- 
 over became an integral part of the kingdom of 
 Westphalia, which had been formed of provin- 
 ces ceded by Prussia, and others to France, and 
 of which Jerome Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
 leon, was the sovereign. On the liberation of 
 Germany from the yoke of France, the Hano- 
 verians gave proofs of the most unalterable af- 
 fection and loyalty to their legitimate sovereign. 
 Hanover, its capital, suffered severely during 
 its occupation by the French from 1803 to 1813; 
 but was relieved from their presence by the 
 arrival of Bernadotte, with an allied force, on 
 the 6th of November of the latter year. 
 
 HANOVER, a town of Grafton county, N. 
 H. 53 miles N. W. of Concord. Population 
 2,613. Dartmouth college is a well endowed 
 institution of some antiquity in this town. 
 
 HARDICANUTE, the opponent of Harold, 
 filled the throne of England and Denmark for a 
 short time. He made himself odious by the 
 imposition of taxes, and died at the nuptials of 
 a Danish lord, in 1041. 
 
 HAROLD I, king of England, was the son of 
 Canute, by Alfwen daughter of the earl of 
 Southampton, his first wife. He was proclaim- 
 ed king of England, on the death of Canute, in 
 1035, and was supported by his countrymen, 
 the Danes, in opposition to Earl Godwin of 
 Kent, who favored Hardicanute. He reigned 
 four years without distinguishing himself, and 
 died in 1039. 
 
 HAROLD II, king of England, succeeded 
 Edward the Confessor, A. D. 1066. He was 
 defeated by William the Conqueror in the fatal 
 battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. 
 
 HAROUN AL RASCHID. (See Aaron or 
 Harun al Raschid.) 
 
 HARPER, Robert Goodloe, was born near 
 Fredericksburg, Va. of poor parents ; but was 
 extremely well-educated, and early displayed 
 
 great mechanical abilities. He served a short 
 time in a troop of light horse, but he soon with- 
 drew from the service for the purpose of com- 
 pleting his education. He entered Princeton 
 college, and, while distinguishing himself in the 
 upper classes, he was employed in the instruc- 
 tion of the lower. After leaving college he 
 went to Philadelphia, and thence to Charles- 
 ton, where he studied law, but soon retired to 
 an interior district to practice. Some essays 
 in a paper, gave a favorable idea of his talents 
 and principles, and he was elected to the legis- 
 lature, and soon after to congress. His career 
 in congress was such as to reflect high honor 
 upon him. After the prostration of the federal 
 party, he resumed the practice of law in Balti- 
 more, having married the daughter of the late 
 Charles Carroll. He triumphantly defended 
 judge Chase on his impeachment. He was 
 afterwards elected senator in congress and ma- 
 jor-general of the militia. The former office 
 his professional duties compelled him to relin- 
 quish. He was a fine public speaker, well read 
 in belles-lettres, and the useful sciences, and 
 beloved in private life. He died suddenly on 
 the 15th of January. 1825, aged 60. 
 
 HARRISBURG,' a borough in Dauphin 
 county, on the east bank of the Susquehanna, 
 the seat of government of Pennsylvania. Pop- 
 ulation in 1840, 6,020 It is a pleasant, thriv- 
 ing, and well-built town, although half a cen- 
 tury ago it was a wilderness inhabited by In- 
 dians. 
 
 HARRISON, Benjamin, a signer of the De- 
 claration of Independence, born in Virginia. 
 He was educated at William and Mary college, 
 and went early into public life, but he refused 
 the offers of the British government, and was 
 a delegate to the first congress in 1774. As 
 chairman of the board of war, speaker of the 
 house of burgesses, and governor of Virginia, 
 he was extremely popular and useful. He died 
 in 1791. 
 
 HART, John, the son of a farmer of New 
 Jersey, was one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence. His property suffered 
 when New Jersey became the theatre of war. 
 His death took place in 1780. 
 
 HARTFORD, a city of Hartford county, 
 Connecticut, on the west bank of the Connec- 
 ticut river, 50 miles above its mouth, and 100 
 miles W. S. W. of Boston. Pop. in 1840, 12,793. 
 It is a well-built and flourishing town. It was 
 settled by the English in 1635. Among its in- 
 stitutions is a Deaf and Dumb Asylum. 
 
 HASTINGS, a borough and market town of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 HAW 
 
 275 
 
 HEB 
 
 England, with 8,000 inhabitants, memorable for 
 the battle fought in its vicinity, which gave the 
 British crown to William, the Conqueror. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warren, was born in 1733, 
 at or near Daylesford, in Worcestershire, and 
 was sent to India, as a writer in the company's 
 service in 1750. On his arrival in the East, he 
 applied himself with diligence to the duties of 
 his station, and at his leisure studied the ori- 
 ental languages. After fourteen years residence 
 in Bengal, he returned to England ; but in 1769 
 he went out as second in council at Madras, 
 where he remained about two years, and then 
 removed to the presidency of Calcutta. As 
 governor-general, he was guilty of great oppres- 
 sion, and charges were brought against him in 
 parliament, supported by such men as Sheri- 
 dan, Burke, and Fox. Hastings returned to 
 England in 1786, and an impeachment followed. 
 His trial lasted nine years, and having been ac- 
 quitted he retired from public life, amply com- 
 pensated in a pecuniary view for the losses he 
 had sustained. He died Aug. 22, 1818. 
 
 HAVANA, or Havannah, the capital of Cuba, 
 and of the province and government of the 
 same name, is situated on the northern coast 
 of the island, at the mouth of the river Lagira. 
 Population, composed of whites, mulattoes, and 
 negroes, 112,023. The streets of the city are 
 dirty, but the strongly fortified harbor is one 
 of the finest in the world. The public edifices 
 of the city, particularly the Catholic churches, 
 are very splendid. The commerce of Havana 
 is extensive and increasing. It was founded 
 in 1511, by Diego Velasquez, and has been 
 twice taken by the English, but was restored 
 to Spain, in 1763. The bones of Columbus 
 repose in the cathedral of Havana. 
 
 HAWKE, Edward, lord, a gallant English 
 admiral, the son of a barrister, was born in 
 1713, and entered the naval service as a mid- 
 shipman at the age of 12. In 1734, he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Wolf, and in 
 1744 distinguished himself in'the action of Tou- 
 lon. In 1747, he was made admiral of the white, 
 and by the capture of a number of vessels of 
 a French squadron, procured his promotion to 
 the blue. In 1755 he was appointed vice-admi- 
 ral of the white. November 2d, 1759, he gained 
 a great victory over the French fleet, commanded 
 by Conflans in Quiberon bay, though it was a 
 lee shore, and the sea ran high in the midst of a 
 storm. He was raised to the peerage in 1776 a 
 few years after he had been appointed first lord 
 of the admiralty. He d:ed Oct. 14, 1781. 
 HAWLEY, Joseph, born at Northampton, 
 24 
 
 Massachusetts, in 1724, was graduated at Yale 
 College, and then practised law. He was one 
 of the ablest advocates of American liberty, and 
 rejected every offer made to induce him to de- 
 sert his country. He was elected to the legis- 
 lature in 1764, but retired in 1776, although he 
 still continued to inspire his countrymen by his 
 eloquence. He died March 10, 1788. 
 
 HAYNE, Isaac, a native of South Carolina, 
 distinguished himself by his services during the 
 revolution. After the capture of Charleston, he 
 took an oath of allegiance to Great Britain, with 
 the express stipulation that he should not bear 
 arms against his country. When in violation 
 of British promises, he was summoned to join 
 the British standard, he refused, and was in 
 consequence condemned by a court of inquiry, 
 and hanged, on the 4th of August, 1781. 
 
 HAYTL (See Domingo. St.) 
 
 HEBREWS. Abraham first received the 
 name of Hebrew from the Canaanites, among 
 whom he dwelt. The derivation of the word is 
 uncertain. Its signification before the time of 
 Jacob, or Israel, is uncertain, but it appears to 
 have been applied afterward exclusively to the 
 posterity of Jacob, and to have been synony- 
 mous with Israelites. After the Babylonish 
 captivity the appellation was changed to Jews. 
 Their history begins, of course, with Abraham. 
 
 After the call of Abraham, he went at first to 
 Canaan, which God had promised to his pos- 
 terity, taking with him Sarah his wife, and Lot 
 the son of his brother, and here led a wander- 
 ing life removing in search of pasture with his 
 flocks, from place to place, and dwelling with 
 his family, in tents. By the bounty of the 
 Lord, his wealth increased, and he became rich 
 in flocks, in gold and in silver. He treated the 
 chiefs who sought alliance with him on a foot- 
 ing of equality. We have already spoken of 
 the principal events of Abraham's life under 
 the proper head ; and it is needless to recap- 
 itulate them. Under Isaac and Jacob, the He- 
 brews still formed a great nomadic family, 
 without changing their habits and manners. 
 Jacob had twelve sons, from whom sprang the 
 twelve tribes of the Hebrew people. These 
 were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Dan, Judah, Nap- 
 thali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulon, Joseph, 
 and Benjamin. Joseph, having been sold to 
 some merchants by his jealous brethren, was 
 taken to Egypt, and rose to a high rank at the 
 court of Pharaoh. This led to the emigration 
 of his father's family to Eorypt, about 1800 B. C. 
 During the life-time of Joseph, the Hebrews 
 were well treated, but after his death, a tvranni- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 HEB 
 
 276 
 
 HEB 
 
 cal king filled the throne, and the persecutions 
 they endured threatened to annihilate the na- 
 tion. But God raised up a deliverer in the per- 
 son of Moses, and the children of Israel having 
 left the land of Egypt, were conducted over the 
 bed of the Red Sea, and afterwards were provi- 
 dentially preserved in the desert. When ar- 
 rived at Mount Sinai, the Lord promulgated 
 his laws from the summit of that awful moun- 
 tain. Notwithstanding the blessings which had 
 been heaped upon them, the Hebrews murmur- 
 ed, and became .idolatrous, and were in conse- 
 quence punished for their sins. The various 
 nations inimical to the Hebrews were repulsed 
 with loss. Moses having died on Mount Nebo, 
 before the entrance into the promised land, his 
 place was 'filled by the warlike Joshua. The 
 waters retired before the bearers of the ark, and 
 the people crossed the Jordan in safety. The 
 walls of the city of Jericho were destroyed by 
 the Lord, and the inhabitants slain by the Isra-' 
 elites. The period of Judges abounded in he- 
 roic exploits of individual valor, among which 
 those of Samson are the most celebiated. At 
 length, about 1100 B. C. the monarchy was 
 established, Saul being the first king. Saul 
 achieved some brilliant victories, but as he be- 
 came disregardful of the counsels of the prophet 
 Samuel, the latter privately anointed David, 
 the son of Jesse, a valorous youth, whose fame 
 eclipsed that of Saul. The reign of David ex- 
 tended from 1055 to 1015. It was rendered bril- 
 liant by victories over the Jebusites, Philistines, 
 Amalekites, Idumosans, Moabites, Ammonites, 
 and Zeba, but unhappy by the domestic misfor- 
 tunes and crimes which imbittered the heart of 
 king David. Under Solomon, his son, whose 
 reign extended from 1015 to 975, the nation at- 
 tained a high degree of splendor and conse- 
 quence, while his stern strength and pure integ- 
 rity, sunk under the corrupting influence of 
 wealth and luxury. Towards the latter part of 
 his reign, Solomon, enervated by the pleasures of 
 his seraglio, and enthralled by female favorites, 
 permitted the worship of false gods, and forsook 
 the Deity to whom he owed his glory. The re- 
 volt of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, took 
 place, while Rehoboam succeeded to the gov- 
 ernment of two, Judah and Benjamin. The ten 
 tribes formed the kingdom of Israel, the two 
 that of Judah. Sichem, at first, and afterward 
 Samaria, was the capital of Israel, and Jerusa- 
 lem that of Judah. The contest between the 
 two slates was furious, and not unequal. In 
 general the kingdom of Judah preserved the 
 worship of the true God, while that of Israel 
 
 was idolatrous. The kingdom of Israel existed 
 253 years after the separation, under 19 kings, 
 whose authority was gained and lost by violent 
 revolutions. Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 
 ended the kingdom, and carried the people cap- 
 tive into Asia'B. C. 722. 
 
 The kingdom of Judah existed under 20 kings 
 of the house of David, until 588 B. C, when 
 Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, and carried 
 away the inhabitants captive. During the cap- 
 tivity flourished Daniel, Jeremiah, and other 
 prophets, who were commissioned by God to 
 inform the Hebrew people of the fate which 
 awaited them. From the time of the captivity 
 they are more often known under the name of 
 JEWS, but we continue their history here that 
 it may be more intelligible. Their captivity 
 was terminated by Cyrus, king of Persia, who 
 published an edict permitting all the Jews to 
 return to their country, and to rebuild the tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem. They placed the foundations 
 of the temple ; but the Samaritans, the invete- 
 rate enemies of the Jews, procured a suspension 
 of their operations. Nevertheless Darius, in- 
 formed of the edict of Cyrus, permitted the com- 
 pletion of the temple. The Jews labored with 
 such spirit, that, four years after, the walls of 
 Jerusalem were rebuilt, and their worship re- 
 established. Nehemiah, being chosen governor 
 of Judea, neglected no exertions to maintain 
 the public observance of the laws of God. Es- 
 ther, a Jewish maiden, having found favor in 
 the eyes of Ahasuerus, king of Persia, this 
 monarch confirmed the immunities of the Jews, 
 preserved them from massacre, and severely 
 punished their implacable enemies. 
 
 In the time of the high-priest Onias, Seleu- 
 cus, king of Syria, sent Heliodorus to seize all 
 the gold of the temple. He came to Jerusalem 
 and entered the temple, intending to obey the 
 royal command. It was in vain that the high- 
 priest represented to him that the treasures 
 were deposites, destined for the support of the 
 fatherless and widows. Heliodorus turned a 
 deaf ear to his remonstrances, and was already 
 on the threshold of the treasury, when he be- 
 held a white horse, richly caparisoned, whose 
 rider wore a terrible aspect, with armor of gold. 
 At the same time Heliodorus was attacked by 
 two young men of surpassing- beauty, and would 
 have been slain, but for the interposition of 
 Onias, who implored the pardon of the Al- 
 mighty, and offered up a sacrifice to appease his 
 wrath. 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, or the Illustrious, the 
 successor of Seleucus, an impious prince, de- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 HEB 
 
 277 
 
 HEL 
 
 prived Onias of the sacerdotal office, and sold it 
 to the highest bidder. He entered Jerusalem with 
 a powerful army, and killed or enslaved 80,000 
 men. He had the boldness to enter the temple, 
 and to bear away the altar and golden table, the 
 golden candlestick, the precious vessels, and all 
 the money that the treasury contained, and even 
 undertook to abolish the religion of the Jews, 
 forbidding them, on pain of death, to maintain 
 their worship, and erecting the statue of Jupiter 
 Olympius on the altar of the temple. The Jews 
 were forced to attend the profane sacrifices, and 
 compelled to eat the flesh of animals prohibited 
 by their law. Under this persecution many of 
 the Jews yielded, but there were many who re- 
 mained firm, and among others, Eleazer and 
 the mother of the Maccabees, with her seven 
 children. 
 
 Eleazer, 90 years of age, would neither con- 
 form to the usages of the idolaters, nor feign to 
 do so. The conduct of the mother of the Mac- 
 cabees was heroic and firm. The mother and 
 her children were seized, and Antiochus wished 
 to compel them to eat the flesh of swine, but 
 they refused. Six of the children were then 
 killed in succession, but without effecting any 
 change in the resolution of the remainder. The 
 king hoping to succeed with the youngest, per- 
 sonally exhorted him to abandon the laws of his 
 fathers, swearing to render him wealthy and 
 happy, and make him one of his favorites ; but 
 he failed to make the slightest impression. The 
 child and his mother were cruelly put to death. 
 Judas Maccabaeus rendered his name formidable 
 to the enemies of the Jews, for, having collect- 
 ed an army of six thousand men, he performed 
 prodigies of valor. He conquered and killed 
 Apollonius, governor of Samaria, and the gen- 
 eral of the Syrian army. Every where victory 
 crowned his efforts, but the valiant leader fell in 
 battle , after slaying many of his enemies. Jona- 
 than and Simeon, his brothers, emulated his 
 glory. The Jews refused to recognise Jesus 
 Christ, who was born in the reign of Herod, 
 king of the Jews, as the Messiah. Christ fore- 
 told the destruction of Jerusalem, which was 
 taken by Titus, A. D. 70, after a siege of un- 
 paralleled horror. This was the signal of the 
 complete dispersion of the Jews, in fulfillment 
 of the divine warning. 
 
 The Weimar Geographical Ephemerides 
 gives the following estimate of the numbers of 
 the Jews, in all parts of the world. EUROPE : 
 in Russia and Poland, 658,809; Austria, 453,524 ; 
 European Turkey, 321,000; States of the Ger- 
 man Confederation, 138,000 ; Prussia, 134,000 ; 
 
 Netherlands, 80,000; France, 60.000; Italy. 
 36,000; Great Britain, 12,000; Cracow, 7,300 \ 
 Ionian Isles, 7,000 ; Denmark, 6,000 ; Switzer- 
 land, 1,970; Sweden, 450: total number of 
 Jews in Europe, 1,918,053. ASIA : Asiatic 
 Turkey, 300,000; Arabia, 200,000 ; Hindustan, 
 100,000; China, 60,000; Turkestan, 40,000; 
 province of Iran, 35,000 ; Russia in Asia, 3,000; 
 total, 738,000. AFRICA : Morocco and Fez, 
 300,000 ; Tunis, 130,000 ; Algiers, 30,000 ; 
 Abyssinia, 20,000; Tripoli, 12,000; Egypt, 
 12,000; total, 504,000. AMERICA: North 
 America, 5,000 ; Netherlandish Colonies, 500 ; 
 Demerara and Essequibo, 200 ; total, 5,700. 
 New Holland, 50. Grand total, 3,218,000. 
 
 HEBRIDES, or Western Islands ; a cluster 
 of islands, on the western coast of Scotland, in 
 the Atlantic ocean, containing 70,000 inhabit- 
 ants. The JYeic Hebrides are a group of islands 
 in the South Pacific ocean, discovered by Qui- 
 ros in 1506. They are extremely fertile. 
 
 HECTOR, the brave son of Priam, king of 
 Troy, and Hecuba, his wife, killed by Achilles. 
 
 HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, king of 
 Thrace, and second wife of Priam. She sur- 
 vived the fall of Troy but a short time, and was 
 stoned to death by the Greeks, who were exas- 
 perated at her bitter reproaches. 
 
 HEGIRA, the flight of Mohammed, from 
 Mecca to Medina, from which era the Moham- 
 medans begin their computation of time. They 
 fix it on the 16th of July, A. D. 622. 
 
 HELENA, the beautiful daughter of Leda, 
 wife of Tyndarus, as it is fabled, by Jupiter, 
 who introduced himself to her notice, in the 
 form of a swan. She married Menelaus, whom 
 she forsook for Paris, son of Priam, who bore 
 her to Troy, and thus kindled the flame of war 
 between the Greeks and Trojans. She was re- 
 ceived by Menelaus after the fall of Troy, but 
 on his death, was murdered by Polyxo of Ar- 
 gos, the widow of one of the warriors killed be- 
 fore Troy. 
 
 HELENA, St. a rocky island in the Atlan- 
 tic, on the coast of Southern Africa, 1200 miles 
 from any land. It is 10£ miles long, and 6| 
 broad, and belongs to the English. It was the 
 residence of the captive Napoleon from Novem- 
 ber, 1815 to May 5, 1821, the day of his death. 
 Here his body is buried, and by his side lies the 
 sword he wore upon the field of Austerlitz. 
 
 HELIOGABALUS, Marcus Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, a Roman emperor, son of Varius Marcel- 
 lus, called Heliogabalus, from having been a 
 priest of the Sun in Phoenicia. At the age of 
 14, he was invested with the purple on the death 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 HEN 
 
 278 
 
 HEN 
 
 of Macrmus, but his cruelty and licentiousness 
 were such, that his subjects rose against him, 
 and his head was severed from his body, March 
 10, A. D.222, in the eighteenth year of his age, 
 after a reign of 3 years~and 9 months. He bur- 
 thened his subjects with the most oppressive 
 taxes, his halls were covered with carpets of 
 gold and silver tissue, and his mats were made 
 with the • down of hares, and the soft feathers 
 found under the wings of partridges. He often 
 invited the lowest of the people to share his 
 banquets, and made them sit down on large 
 bellows full of wind, which, by suddenly empty- 
 ing themselves, threw the guests on the ground, 
 and left them a prey to wild beasts. He tied 
 some of his favorites to a large wheel, and was 
 particularly delighted to see them whirled round 
 like Ixion, and alternately suspended in the air, 
 and plunged beneath the water. 
 
 HELIOPOLIS, (city of the sun), a large and 
 ancient city of Egypt, a little above Memphis, 
 the stupendous remains of which yet excite at- 
 tention. Near here a fierce battle was fought 
 between the Turks and French, March 20, 1600. 
 
 HELLE, in fable, a daughter of Athamas, 
 and Nephese, who, to escape from the persecu- 
 tion of her step-mother Ino, trusted herself to 
 the back of a golden ram from which she fell 
 and was drowned in that part of the sea, called 
 the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles. 
 
 HELOISE, Eloise, or Louisa, the mistress 
 and wife of Abelard, born in Paris 1101. (See 
 Melard.) 
 
 HENGIST, the first Saxon king of Kent, 
 about the end of the 5th century. He was in- 
 vited to the assistance of the Britons against the 
 Scots and Picts, and received from the hands of 
 Vortigern the whole of Kent, for which he gave 
 his daughter in marriage. However, he leagued 
 with the enemies of Britain, and committed 
 great ravages beyond the limits of his territory. 
 He died in the year 488. 
 
 HENRY I, king of France, crowned at 
 Rheims in 1027. His mother, Constance, en- 
 deavored to set his youngpr brother, Robert, 
 upon the throne ; but, with the assistance of 
 Robert II, duke of Normandy, Henry defeated 
 the queen's army, and obliged his brother to 
 content himself with the dukedom of Burgun- 
 dy. ^ In his time Pope Leo IX held a council at 
 Rheims in France, and the Normans headed by 
 Robert Guicard, took Naples and Sicily from 
 the Saracens. He died, Aug. 4. 1060. 
 
 HENRY IV, king of France, called the 
 Great, born in 1553, was son of Anthony of 
 Bourbon, duke of Vendome. After the massa- 
 
 cre of St. Bartholomew, he signalized himself 
 against the leaguers, and on the death of Hen- 
 ry III, succeeded to the throne, taking the title 
 of king of France and Navarre. His enemies 
 endeavored in vain to make Cardinal de Bour- 
 bon king, under the title of Charles X. In 
 1589, with 4,000 men, he defeated 30,000 men 
 commanded by the duke of Mayenne, and, in 
 1599, with 1,200 men, he routed a force of 
 16,000. He also signalized himself in several 
 other battles, and besieged Paris, which held 
 out against him at the instigation of the Span- 
 iards. He was afterwards crowned at Char- 
 tres. He defeated 18,000 Spaniards in Bur- 
 gundy, 1594, with 1500 men, took Amiens, and 
 reduced the leaguers whom he generously par- 
 doned. The duke de Biron's execution, in 
 1602, was the only example of just severity in 
 his reign ; and France had enjoyed peace for 16 
 years, when Ravaillac, with a knife, stabbed the 
 king in his coach at Paris, May 14, 1610, the 
 day after the queen's coronation. 
 
 HENRY I, emperor of Germany, son of 
 Otho, duke of Saxony, succeeded Conrad, his 
 brother-in-law, in 919. He reduced Arnold, 
 duke of Bavaria, and vanquished the Hungari- 
 ans, Bohemians, Sclavonians. and Danes. He 
 took the kingdom of Lorraine from Charles the 
 Simple, defeated the Hungarians a second time, 
 and killed 8,000 of their number. He died of 
 an apoplexy in 936. 
 
 HENRY III, of Franconia, surnamed the 
 Black, succeeded Conrad II, in 1039. He de- 
 feated the Bohemians, that denied bim tribute, 
 in his second campaign, and restored Peter to 
 the throne of Hungary, whence his subjects had 
 driven him in 1043, reduced the petty princes 
 of Italy, and made war on the Hungarians. He 
 died at Bothfeld in Saxony, in 1056. 
 
 HENRY I, of England, surnamed Beauclerc, 
 was born in 1068, and succeeded his brother, 
 William Rufus, in 1100. He married Matilda, 
 daughter of Malcolm, king of Scots, in the same 
 year. Soon after this, his brother Robert re- 
 turned from abroad, and laid claim to the crown 
 of England; but in 1105, Henry invaded Nor- 
 mandy with a strong army ; took some of the 
 principal towns ; and a battle ensuing, Robert 
 was overthrown, taken prisoner, and sent to 
 England. In 1109, he betrothed his daughter 
 Maude to the emperor of Germany. In 1117 
 he was challenged by Louis of France, and he 
 lost his queen, May 1, 1119. In 1120, he con- 
 veyed his son to Normandy, to receive the 
 homage of the barons of that duchy ; on his re- 
 turn, the young prince, his sister Maude, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 HEN 
 
 279 
 
 HEN 
 
 all but one of the ship's company, were drowned, 
 the vessel having been run upon a rock. This 
 affliction shortened the life of Henry, who died 
 Dec. 1, 1135, in the68lh year of his age, leaving 
 his daughter Matilda heir to all his dominions. 
 
 HENRY II, king of England, was born in 
 1133, and having invaded England January 7, 
 1153, had homage done him as successor to Ste- 
 phen, in 1154, in which year he also began to 
 reign. In 1170 he had his son Henry crowned 
 king of England. In 1 172 he reduced Ireland to 
 subjection. The murder of Thomas a Becket, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, was attributed to 
 Henry, who was compelled to do penance for it. 
 The latter part of his reign was troubled. In 
 1173 he imprisoned his queen on account of 
 Rosamond, his mistress. He died at Chinon, 
 near Saumur, in the 56th year of his age, and 
 the 35th of his reign, in the course of which he 
 displayed great bravery and wisdom. 
 
 HENRY III, of England, was born Oct. 1, 
 1207, and was crowned at Gloucester, Oct. 23, 
 1216. He married Eleanor, daughter of the 
 count of Provence, Jan. 14, 1236; pledged his 
 crown and jewels for money when he married 
 his daughter Margaret, to the king of Scots, 
 1242 ; was obliged by his nobles to resign the 
 power of a sovereign, and sell Normandy and 
 Anjou to the French, 1258. In 1261, he shut 
 himself up in the tower of London, for fear of 
 his nobles. In 1264, he engaged in a contest 
 with the nobles, but, after having experienced 
 many reverses, was, owing to the bravery of his 
 son, triumphant in the famous battle of Eves- 
 ham, in which Leicester lost his life. Over- 
 come by the cares of government, and the infir- 
 mities of age, Henry died at Westminster, Nov. 
 16.1272. 
 
 HENRY IV, duke of Hereford, and grand- 
 son of Edward III, was born in 1367 ; married 
 Mary, the daughter of the earl of Hereford, who 
 died in 1394, before he obtained the crown. In 
 1397 he fought in personal combat with the 
 duke of Norfolk, but Richard II stopped the 
 combat, and ordered the combatants to leave 
 the kingdom ; the duke of Norfolk for life, and 
 Henry for 10 years. The latter returned to 
 England in arms against Richard, in 1399, com- 
 pelled him to abdicate the throne, and was 
 crowned king of England the same year. In 
 1402 he was defeated by the Welsh, and in 
 1403, he married Joan of Navarre, widow of 
 the duke of Rretagne. In 1403 the rebellion of 
 the Percies began, but was soon suppressed. 
 Henry died of the apoplexy, in Westminister, 
 March 20, 1413, was buried at Canterbury, and 
 was succeeded by his son. 24* 
 
 HENRY V, who was born in 1388, and was 
 crowned in 1413. In his youth he was noto- 
 rious for all kinds of debauchery, but reformed 
 his life on receiving the crown. In 1415 he 
 embarked for France, and landed at Harfleur, 
 with an immense army, part of which was de- 
 stroyed by dysentery. The battle of Agincourt 
 succeeded, in which the English gained a splen- 
 did victory. In 1416, Henry pledged his regalia 
 for 20,0007, to push his conquest, and a treatj 
 being concluded, fixed his court at Paris in 
 1421 ; but, just as his glory had reached its 
 summit, and both crowns devolved upon him, 
 he died at the age of 34 years. 
 
 HENRY VI, was born at Windsor, in 1421; 
 ascended the throne August 31, 1422, and was 
 proclaimed king of France the same year. Hen- 
 ry V, previous to his death had appointed the 
 duke of Bedford, his eldest brother, to the re- 
 gency of France. In 1 428 the duke commenced 
 the siege of Orleans, the first adverse blow to 
 the English power in France, for it was saved 
 by Joan of Arc (which see). In 1445 Henry 
 married Margaret of Anjou, and was crowned 
 in the same year. In 1446 Jack Cade's insur- 
 rection broke out, and in 1452, the duke of 
 York, who had been appointed to the regency 
 of England by Henry V, marched to London 
 with an army of 10,000 men, but retiring into 
 Kent was followed by Henry VI, at the head 
 of a superior force. The king soon after was 
 incapacitated from sickness, and the duke of 
 York was appointed lieutenant and protector 
 of the kingdom. In 1455, however, Henry re- 
 sumed the reins of government, and annulled 
 the protectorship of the duke, who levied an 
 army, though without advancing any pretension 
 to the crown. At length a battle was fought 
 at St. Albans on the 31st of May, when the 
 Yorkists slew about 5,000 of their enemies; 
 Henry fell into the hands of his adversary, and 
 was obliged to surrender his authority. 
 
 After various fluctuations of fortune, the duke 
 appeared at London, and the parliament de- 
 clared in favor of his claim, but decreed that 
 Henry should possess the dignity during his 
 life -time, and that the administration should, in 
 the meanwhile, remain with the duke. Mar- 
 garet, however, spurned this compact, collected 
 a strong army, defeated and slew the duke, and 
 affixed his head, encircled with a paper crown, 
 upon the gates of York. Margaret, after some 
 successes, was finally defeated in the memora- 
 ble battle of Touton, which ended in the com- 
 plete triumph of the Yorkists, who were, how- 
 ever, shortly to experience a reverse in the bat- 
 tle of Hexham, 1464. Henry reascended his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY 
 
 HEN 
 
 280 
 
 HEN 
 
 throne, but was finally imprisoned and murder- 
 ed. The young son of Magaret was murdered 
 at Tewkesbury, and the queen, after having 
 bravely defended her husband's cause in twelve 
 battles, died in France, in a miserable condition. 
 
 HENR* VII, descended from John of Gaunt, 
 and nearly allied to Henry VI, was born in 
 1455. He landed at Milford Haven, Aug. 7, 
 1485, and having defeated the usurper Richard 
 III, at the memorable battle of Bosworth, in 
 the same year, was proclaimed king. In 1486 
 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
 Soon after his marriage he went into the north, 
 where the partisans of Richard were strong, 
 and making hostile preparations, but they were 
 quelled. The conspiracy of 1487, headed by 
 Lambert Siennel, an imposter who pretended 
 to be a Plantagenet, was also put down. Henry 
 received, as a compromise for his claim upon 
 the French crown £186,250, besides 25,000 
 crowns yearly. In 1492 the country was dis- 
 turbed by an imposter named Osbeck, or War- 
 beck. (See IVarbeck.) The schemes of another 
 imposter, named Wilford, who personated the 
 earl of Warwick, afforded Henry a pretext for 
 arresting the earl, and signing his death-war- 
 rant. Henry died of a consumption in 1509. 
 By his avarice and rapacity, he is said, at one 
 period, to have amassed £1,800,000. 
 
 HENRY VIII, was born in 1491, and suc- 
 ceeded Henry VII in 1509. He placed himself 
 at the head of a formidable army, 50,000 strong, 
 and invaded France, but after an ostentatious 
 and ineffectual campaign, concluded a truce. 
 By the advice of Cardinal Wolsey, in whom he 
 chiefly confided, he agreed to an interview with 
 Francis I of France. This expensive congress 
 was held near Calais, within the English pale, 
 in compliment to Henry for crossing the sea. 
 In the same year a costly tournament was held 
 in Picardy by the two sovereigns. By such 
 means all the immense treasures of the late 
 king were quite exhausted, and Henry relied 
 on Wolsey alone for replenishing his coffers. 
 In 1521 Henry received the title of defender of 
 the Faith. 
 
 In 1527, Henry, who had been 18 years mar- 
 ried to Catharine of Arragon. the widow of his 
 brother, conceived a violent passion for the 
 beautiful Anna Bullen, one of the queen's maids 
 of honor, and immediately set about procuring 
 a divorce from his wife. But both the pope 
 and Cardinal Wolsey were unwilling to sanction 
 this unjustifiable scheme. Wolsey was therefore 
 forced to give place to Thomas Cranrner, and, 
 after being arrested, died at Leicester Abbey, 
 
 not without suspicion of having been poisoned, 
 Henry now privately married Anna Bullen, 
 whom he had created marchioness of Pembroke. 
 As the monks had shown the greatest resist- 
 ance to his wishes, he resolved at once to de- 
 prive them of their power. Commissioners 
 sent to examine into the state of convents and 
 monasteries, found the religious tainted with 
 the worst of crimes, and a geneial horror was 
 excited in the nation. In 1536, a new visitation 
 was appointed, and fresh crimes were brought 
 to light. In less than two years from this ex- 
 posure, Henry became possessed of all the mo- 
 nastic revenues. 
 
 In 1536, Henry caused his innocent queen, 
 Anna Bullen, to be put to death, and on the 
 following day he married Jane Seymour. The 
 most cruel religious persecutions now ensued, 
 and among the deaths of those obnoxious to the 
 king, was that of Sir Thomas More. Jane Sey- 
 mour having died in child-bed, Henry contracted 
 a marriage with Anne of Cleves. He hated 
 her, however, from the moment he saw her ; 
 and resolved to get rid of her and his prime- 
 minister Cromwell together. Cromwell was 
 accordingly arrested for high-treason : and with- 
 out even being heard in his own defence, was 
 condemned and suffered on the scaffold. Anne 
 of Cleves being divorced, Henry married Cath- 
 arine Howard, in August 1540, who being ac- 
 cused of infidelity, was beheaded on Tower-hill, 
 with the lady Rochford, February 12, 1542. In 
 1543, Henry married his sixth and last wife, 
 Catharine Parr. Though his health was declin- 
 ing apace, yet his implacable cruelties were not 
 less fiequent. The duke of Norfolk, and his 
 son, the earl of Surrey, were the last who felt 
 the effects of the tyrant's groundless suspicions. 
 The latter was arrested, tried, and condemned 
 for high-treason, notwithstanding his eloquent 
 and spirited defence, and the sentence was soon 
 after executed upon him on Tower-hill. The 
 parliament meeting on the 14th day of January, 
 1546, a bill of attainder was found against the 
 duke of Norfolk. The death-warrant was made 
 out, and immediately sent to the lieutenant of 
 the tower. The duke prepared for death, but 
 was saved by the death of Henry, Jan. 28, 1547, 
 at the age of 56, after a reign of nearly 38 years. 
 
 HENRY, Patrick, son of John Henry, was 
 born in the colony of Virginia, May 29, 1736. 
 Passionately addicted to field sports, and averse 
 to toil of any kind, even the elements of educa- 
 tion were mastered by him with distaste, al- 
 though he had a strong mind, and a retentive 
 memory. At the age of eighteen he married 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 HEN 
 
 281 
 
 HER 
 
 Mis3 Skelton, and settled on a farm, but agri- 
 cultural as well as mercantile pursuits, in which 
 he afterwards embarked, possessed no charm 
 for him, and he was unsuccessful. As a final 
 effort, he resolved to attempt the law, and was 
 licensed to practise after six weeks' preparatory 
 study. For several years his practice was lim- 
 ited and the wants of his family extreme, but 
 his prospects were eventually bettered. In 
 17C5 he was elected member of the house of 
 Ourgesses, and introduced his celebrated resolu- 
 tions on the stamp act. In the midst of the 
 debate on the occasion, he exclaimed, " Caesar 
 had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, 
 and George the Third" — — " Treason ! " cried 
 the speaker — " Treason, treason !" echoed from 
 every part of the house. Henry faltered not 
 for an instant, but, taking a loftier attitude, and 
 fixing on the speaker an eye of fire, he added 
 
 u may profit by their example. If this be 
 
 treason, make the most of it." Henry served 
 his country in various posts, was sent to the 
 congress at Philadelphia, in 1774, took the field, 
 and was elected governor of the commonwealth. 
 In 1791 he retired from public life, and died in 
 1797. To his large family he left wealth and a 
 good name. His eloquence was manly and 
 convincing, and his voice powerful and musical. 
 The following was his language in 1775 
 
 " It is vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. 
 Gentlemen may cry, peace, peace — but there is 
 no peace. The war has actually begun. 
 
 " The next gale, that sweeps from the north, 
 will bring to our ears the clash of resounding 
 arms! Our brethren are already in the field ! 
 Why stand we here idle ? What is it that gen- 
 tlemen wish ? What would they have ? Is life 
 so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased 
 at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, 
 Almighty God. — I know not what course others 
 may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give 
 me death!" 
 
 He took his seat. No murmur of applause 
 was heard. The effect was too deep. After 
 the trance of a moment, several members started 
 from their seats. The cry, " to arms," seemed 
 to quiver on every lip, and gleam from every 
 eye! Richard II. Lee arose and supported Mr. 
 Henry with his usual spirit and elegance. But 
 his melody was lost amidst the agitations of 
 that ocean, which the master spirit of the storm 
 had lifted up on high. That supernatural voice 
 still sounded in their ears and shivered along 
 their arteries. They heard, in every pause, the 
 cry of liberty or death. They became impatient 
 of speech — their souls were on fire for action. 
 
 HERCULANEUM, a city not far from Na- 
 ples, which was buried in an eruption of Vesu- 
 vius, in the reign of Titus, A. 1). 79. It has 
 been excavated and presents a most curious and 
 interesting spectacle. 
 
 HERCULES, a fabulous Grecian hero, the 
 son of Jupiter and Alemena, the wife of Am- 
 phitryon, king of Thebes. In vain did the 
 jealous Juno send two serpents to kill the young 
 hero in his cradle, he strangled them both, and 
 thus displayed to all the divinity of his origin. 
 He had to combat for a long time the enmity 
 of Juno, who exacted of him twelve labors, 
 independently of other signal actions which he 
 performed. 1. He killed the Nemean lion, to 
 deliver the kingdom of Mycene, and wore his 
 skin in the remainder of his exploits. 2. He 
 slew the Lernean hydra, whose heads multipli- 
 ed seven-fold, on being severed. 3. He brought 
 to Eurysthens upon his shoulders the Eryman- 
 thean boar, an animal of a prodigious size. 4. 
 He subdued the golden-horned, and brazen- 
 hoofed stag of Diana. 5. He destroyed with 
 his arrows the foul Styrnphalian birds of extra- 
 ordinary size and voracity. 6. He cleansed 
 the Augaaan stables. 7. He tamed the furious 
 bull of Crete. 8. He gave Diomodes to be de- 
 voured by his own horses which had been fed 
 on human flesh. 9. He vanquished the Ama- 
 zons, whose queen, Hippolyta, he gave in mar- 
 riage to his friend Theseus. 10. He brought 
 the oxen of Geryon king of Spain, to Greece. 
 This was only effected by killing this monarch, 
 formidable for his triple head. 11. Hercules 
 obtained the golden apples of the garden of the 
 Hesperides, by killing the dragon with a hun- 
 dred heads that guarded them. 12. He dragged 
 away Cerebus,the three-headed dog that watch- 
 ed the gate of hell, into which he descended 
 twice, once with his friend, Theseus, and after- 
 wards to seek the queen Alceste, who devoted 
 herself to death for her husband Admetus. 
 
 The centaur Nessus having insulted Dejani- 
 ra, the wife of Hercules, the hero killed him 
 with an arrow, the barb of which was poisoned 
 with the blood of the Lernean hydra. The 
 centaur, in dying, persuaded Dejanira, to give 
 a tunic dipped in his blood, to her husband, 
 in token of reconciliation. Hercules had no 
 sooner clothed himself in this garment than he 
 perceived that he was poisoned by it. He ac- 
 cordingly, with the help of Philoctetes, built a 
 funeral pile on Mount CEta and expired in the 
 flames. But Jupiter received him in the ranks 
 of the gods, and gave him in marriage Hebe, 
 the beautiful goddess of youth. Hercules is 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 HIE 
 
 282 
 
 HIL 
 
 generally represented as a robust man, leaning 
 on his club. On his shoulders he wears the 
 skin of the Nemean lion, and holds in his hands 
 the Hesperian fruit. 
 
 HEROD, surnamed the Great, was born in 
 Ascalon. Judea, B. C. 71. He was made king 
 of Judea by means of Anthony, and rendered 
 himself odious by his tyranny, and as he knew 
 that the day of his death would become a day 
 of mirth and festivity, he ordered the most illus- 
 trious of his subjects to be confined and mur- 
 dered the very instant he expired, that every 
 eye in the kingdom might seem to shed tears 
 at the death of Herod. This order was never 
 executed. He died in the 7t)th year of his age, 
 after a reign of 40 years, which was rendered 
 memorable bv the birth of Christ. 
 
 HESSE-CASSEL, or KURHESSEN, an 
 electorate, member of the Germanic confedera- 
 cy, containing (552.700 inhabitants. The soil is 
 generally fertile, and the annual revenue about 
 4,500,000 guilders. 
 
 HESSE-DARMSTADT, Grand-duchy of, 
 contains 750,000 inhabitants. The climate is 
 healthy, and great facilities exist for the exten- 
 sion of commerce. 
 
 HIERO I, a king of Syracuse, after his bro- 
 ther Gelon, rendered himself odious by his ty- 
 ranny in the beginning of his reign. He made 
 war against Theron, the tyrant of Agrigentum, 
 and took Himera. He obtained three different 
 crowns at the Olympic games, two in horse- 
 races, and one in a chariot-race. The first 
 Olympic ode of Pindar is inscribed to him, and 
 mention is made of his horse Phrenicus, by 
 which he was the winner of the Olympic crown. 
 The ancient races were somewhat different 
 from the modern. At. the former, honor alone 
 was the reward of the winner, and no one lost 
 either his character or his money. 
 
 In the latter part of his reign the conversation 
 of Simonides, Epicharmus, Pindar, &c, softened 
 the roughness of Hiero's manners, and the 
 severity of his government, and tended to ren- 
 der him the patron of learning, genius, and 
 merit. He died after a reign of 18 years. B. C. 
 467, leaving the crown to his brother Thrasy- 
 bulus, who disgraced it by his tyranny. 
 
 HIERO II, a descendant of Gelon, reigned 
 about 200 years after the preceding; was ap- 
 pointed to carry on the war against the Cartha- 
 ginians. He joined his enemies in besieging 
 Messana, which had surrendered to the Romans; 
 but he was beaten by Appius Claudius, the Ro- 
 man consul, and obliged to retire to Svracuse, 
 where he was soon blocked up. Seeing all 
 
 hopes of victory lost, he made peace with the 
 Romans and proved so faithful to his engage- 
 ments, during the fifty-nine years of his reign, 
 that the Romans never had a more firm, or 
 more attached ally. He died in the 94th year 
 of his age, about 225 years B. C. He was uni- 
 versally regretted, and all the Sicilians showed 
 by their lamentations that they had lost a com- 
 mon father and a friend. He liberally patron- 
 ized the learned, and employed the talents of 
 Archimedes for the good of his country. 
 
 HILL, Rowland, Rev., son of Sir Rowland 
 Hill, was born at Hawkestone, in 1775, and ed- 
 ucated at Eton and Cambridge. He was a 
 Calvinistic methodist, and took Whitfield for 
 his model. His discourses were singular, being 
 sometimes crowded with puns, and stories, while 
 at others, their solemnity was unbroken. Some 
 of his straits are mentioned in his diary. — 
 " 1767, Jan. 1, preached at Chesterton; we had 
 the honor of a mob — no other harm was done 
 than the windows broke." "Thursday — in a 
 barn, for the first time, with much comfort. 
 God send, if I am to live, this may not be my 
 last barn. Some gownsmen were there, but 
 they were not permitted to do more than gnash 
 with their teeth." Mr. Hill used to be circum- 
 spect in receiving recruits. To a person who 
 had a great desire to preach, and talked about 
 hiding his talents, he replied that " the closer 
 he hid them the better." Robert Hall once re- 
 plied to a shoemaker, who expressed a similar 
 reluctance to hide his talents in a napkin, " the 
 smallest pocket-handkerchief you have will do, 
 sir." In his "field campaigns" he used to go 
 to large towns on market-days, and address the 
 assemblage in the market houses. When he 
 heard of a fair or a revel he preached in spite 
 of the violence with which he was assailed, and 
 often with success. His favorite text was, 
 " Come ye out from among them." Harris, 
 one of Whitfield's most energetic followers, re- 
 lates of himself, that once on a journey, being 
 tempted to desert his Master's cause, he said, 
 "Satan, I'll match thee for this," "and so I 
 did," said he, " for I had not ridden far, before 
 I came to a revel, where there was a show of 
 mountebanks, which 1 entered, and just as they 
 were commencing, 1 jumped into the midst of 
 them and cried out, let us pray, which so thun- 
 derstruck them, that they listened to me quietly, 
 while I preached them a most tremendous ser- 
 mon, that frightened many of them home." 
 
 At Edinburgh, on the Calton Hill, Mr. Hill 
 preached to an assemblage of 10,000 people. 
 The old women, as they looked out of their 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 HOL 
 
 283 
 
 HOJN 
 
 doors at the stream of human beings, observing 
 some soldiers amongst them, exclaimed, " Eh, 
 sirs, what will become of us now ? The verra 
 sodgers are ganging to hear the preaching." 
 Mr. Hill died in April, 1833. 
 
 H1NDOSTAN (See India). 
 
 HINGHAM, a flourishing town of Plymouth 
 county, Mass., 14 miles S. of Boston. The 
 manufacture of wooden ware is extensive, and 
 the mackerel fisherv gives employment to many. 
 Population (in 1830) 3,357. 
 
 HIPPIAS and H1PPARCHUS, two sons of 
 Pisistratus, king of Athens, whom they suc- 
 ceeded 527 B. C. Hipparchus was slain in a 
 conspiracy 512 B. C, by Harmodius and Aris- 
 togiton, who had devoted themselves to their 
 country. Hippias alone now held the reins of 
 government, but he became odious, and on the 
 siege of Athens by the Lacedaemonians, he sur- 
 rendered the city and retired to Ligseum, on the 
 Hellespont, 509 B. C. Thus Athens once more 
 recovered its liberty. An attempt was after- 
 wards made to restore Hippias to the govern- 
 ment of Athens. By some authors he is said 
 to have perished at the battle of Marathon ; but 
 others assert that he died at Lemnos in poverty 
 and distress. 
 
 HOFER, Andrew, the Tell of the Tyrol, a 
 heroic Tyrolese, who headed an insurrection 
 of his countrymen on the 10th of April, 1809. 
 His resistance to the French on many occasions, 
 was chivalric, and successful. After he found 
 farther resistance useless, he concealed himself, 
 but was betrayed by a priest, conveyed to Man- 
 tua, arid shot, February 20, 1810. He met his 
 fate with firmness, rejoicing that he had done 
 his duty. 
 
 HOHENLINDEN, a village of Bavaria, 18 
 miles E. of Munich, remarkable for the great 
 defeat which the Austrian army sustained here 
 on the 3d of December, 1800, from the French, 
 under Moreau. 
 
 HOLLAND, a maritime province of the 
 Netherlands, bounded W. by the German ocean, 
 E. by the Zuyder Zee, and the province of 
 Utrecht, and S. by Zealand. The agricultural 
 wealth of the province is great. The extent 
 of the whole is about 2,200 square miles, and 
 the population 820,449. (For its history, &c, 
 see Netherlands.) 
 
 HOLLAND, NEW, is the largest island in 
 the world, and was formerly supposed to form 
 part of a vast continent. It is 2,600 miles long, 
 and 2000 miles broad. It was discovered by 
 the Dutch in 1605, but not determined to be an 
 island until 1770, when this fact was established 
 
 by Captain Cook. The soil is very variable, 
 some portions are extremely fertile, and others 
 uncommonly sterile. It is now known as Austra- 
 lia ; and is sub-divided into New Holland and New 
 South Wales. 
 
 HOLSTEIN, a German duchy, bounded N 
 by Sleswick, E. by the Baltic, and duchy of 
 Lauenburg, and S. and W. by the kingdom of 
 Hanover, from which it is separated by the river 
 Elbe. It contains 3,285 square miles, and 
 362,300 inhabitants, mostly Lutherans. Almost 
 the whole of the country is fruitful. Its early 
 history is obscure. It was conquered by Char- 
 lemagne, formed part of a county under Lo- 
 thaire, and was erected into a duchy, with two 
 other counties in 1777. 
 
 HOLYOKE, Edward Augustus, M. D. son of 
 the Rev. Edward Holyoke, president of Harvard 
 college, was born Aug. 1 , 1728, in Essex county, 
 Mass. He was graduated at Harvard in 1746, 
 and commenced the practice of medicine at 
 Salem in 1749. He was distinguished in his 
 profession, and published several scientific dis- 
 quisitions. He died March 31, 1829, being then 
 over one hundred years of age. 
 
 HOMER, the most celebrated poet of anti- 
 quity, was, according to common tradition, 
 born on the river Meles, not far from Smyrna. 
 His father's name was Moeon, and his mother's 
 Critheis. Seven cities contended for the honor 
 of being his birth-place : Smyrna, Colophon, 
 Chios, Argos, xAthens, Rhodes, and Salamis. It 
 is doubtful whether he lived in the 10th, 9th, 
 or 8th century before Christ. Little is known 
 of Homer. He has been represented as blind, 
 but this must have been a misfortune occurring 
 in his latter days, for his descriptions could only 
 have been given by a man possessed of sight. 
 He wandered about singing his poems, which 
 were handed down from mouth to mouth, and 
 from generation to generation, after his death, 
 until they were finally transmitted to paper, and 
 thus preserved from oblivion. 
 
 HONDURAS, one of the Mexican states, 
 bounded N. by the bay of Honduras, E. by 
 the Caribbean Sea, S. by Nicaragua, and W. 
 by Guatimala and Vera Paz. It is 890 miles 
 from E. to W.and 150 from N. to S. The face 
 of the country is diversified, and the soil very 
 fertile. Part of Honduras is possessed by the 
 Mosquito Indians, and the British have some 
 settlements in it. 
 
 HONORIUS, the first emperor of the West- 
 ern empire of Rome, who succeeded his father 
 Theodosius the Great, with his brother Arca- 
 dius, A. D. 395. He was neither bold nor 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 HOO 
 
 284 
 
 HOW 
 
 vicious, but he was of a modest and timid dis- 
 position, unfit for enterprise, and tearful of dan- 
 ger. He conquered his enemies by means of his 
 generals, and suffered himself and his people 
 to be governed by ministers who took advan- 
 tage of their imperial master's indolence and 
 inactivity. He died of the dropsy, in the 39th 
 year of his age, Aug. 15, A. D. 423. 
 
 HOOD, Robin, an outlaw in the time of Rich- 
 ard I, who dwelt chiefly in Sherwood Forest, 
 Nottinghamshire, and was the most romantic 
 and courteous, as well as the most powerful of 
 bandits. He took from the rich, but he gave to 
 the poor. It is said that he was bled to death 
 by a nun, to whom he applied for phlebotomy, 
 in the year 1 '247. 
 
 HOOD, Samuel, lord viscount, was the eld- 
 est son of the Rev. Samuel Hood, vicar of 
 Thorncombe, in Devonshire; at which place 
 he was born in 1724. He went to sea at 
 the age of sixteen, and, after serving six years, 
 was made a lieutenant. In 1754 he became 
 a master and commander ; and, for his gallant- 
 ry in taking a fifty-gun ship, was made a post- 
 captain in 1759 " In 1778 he was appointed 
 commissioner of Portsmouth dock-yard, which 
 place he resigned in 1780, on being made rear- 
 admiral. With this rank he sailed to the West In- 
 dies, where he defeated the attempt made upon 
 St. Christopher's by count de Grasse. He also 
 had an active part in the victory obtained over 
 that commander on the 12th of April, 1782; 
 for which he was created baron Hood of Cath- 
 erington, in the kingdom of Ireland. In 1784, 
 he was elected into parliament for Westmin- 
 ster ; but, in J 787, he vacated his seat, on being 
 named one of the lords of the admiralty. In 
 1793, he was appointed to command in the 
 Mediterranean, where he distinguished himself 
 by taking possession of Toulon, and, when it 
 was no longer tenable, destroying the arsenal, 
 dock-yard, and shipping. After this he made 
 himself master of Corsica, and then returned 
 to England, where he was made a viscount, and 
 
 governor of Greenwich hospital. He died at 
 ath, January 27, L v lb\ 
 HOOPER, William, the son of a Scotch 
 clergyman, was born in Boston, June 17, 1742. 
 He was one of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence. He was educated at Harvard 
 college, and studied law under James Otis, but 
 commenced the practice of it in North Carolina. 
 In 1773 he was chosen to the provincial legis- 
 lature from the town of Wilmington, and in 
 1774 was sent a delegate to the general con- 
 gress at Philadelphia. He advocated the cause 
 
 of liberty with his pen and voice, and was its 
 prominent champion. He died in October, 
 1790, aged 48. 
 
 HOPKINS, Stephen, a signer of the Declar- 
 ation of independence, was born in Providence, 
 now Scituate, March 7, 1707. He was chosen 
 speaker of the general assembly in 1741. In 1751 
 he was appointed Chief Justice of the superior 
 court of Rhode Island, and in 1774 a delegate 
 to the general congress. Previous to this he 
 had held for some years the office of governor 
 of Rhode Island. In 1778, he was a fourth 
 time chosen member of congress. He died 
 July 13, 1785, at the age of 78. 
 
 HOPKIINSON, Francis, an American author, 
 one of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, born in Philadelphia in 1738. In 
 1776 he was a delegate to congress from Bor- 
 dentown, New Jersey. He also served, his 
 country by his various satirical writings, some 
 of which are really meritorious. 
 
 HORATII, three Roman brothers, who dur- 
 ing the reign of Tullus, to prevent the effusion 
 of blood in a general battle, engaged the Curi- 
 atii, three Alban brothers, to decide the contest. 
 Two of the Horatii were slain, when the sur- 
 viving brother feigning flight, permitted the 
 Curiatii, who were disabled by wounds, to ap- 
 proach him one by one, and then slew them 
 singly, thus deciding the contest in favor of the 
 Romans. The conqueror stained his triumph by 
 murdering his sister, because, amidst her coun- 
 try's joy, she could shed tears at the death of 
 her lover, one of the Curiatii. 
 
 H OR ATI US, Codes, (the one-eyed), alone 
 sustained the attack of the Etrurian army, while 
 his friends broke down the bridge over the 
 Tiber that led to Rome, behind him. He then 
 committed himself to the waves, armed as he 
 was, and reached Rome in safety. This exploit 
 was performed B. C. 507. 
 
 HORATIUS FLA CCUS, Quintus, a. cele- 
 brated Roman poet, was born at Venusium, B. 
 C. 05. He was well educated, and fought at Phil- 
 ippi , B. C. 42. After the ruin of the hopes of the 
 patriots, he lived in retirement and even refused 
 the splendid offers of Augustus, preferring the 
 peaceful solitude of his Sabine farm. He died 
 suddenly, in the 9th year B. C, and 57th of 
 his age. 
 
 HOWARD, Thomas, earl of Surrey, and duke 
 of Norfolk, was born in 1473. He was bred to 
 arms, and soon after the accession of Henry 
 VIII, was honored with the order of the garter. 
 He succeeded his brother, Sir Edward Howard, 
 as high admiral, in 1513 ; and the victory of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 HOW 
 
 285 
 
 HOW 
 
 Flodden-field was chiefly owing to his valor 
 and skill. For this, the title of duke of Nor- 
 folk was restored to his father, and he was 
 himself created earl of Surrey. In 1521, he went 
 to Ireland as lord lieutenant, and while there 
 suppressed a dangerous rebellion. Notwith- 
 standing these services, he was sent to the 
 tower by Henry, at the close of his reign, and 
 kept there till the accession of Mary, when he 
 was released, and contributed to suppress Wy- 
 att's rebellion. He died in 1554. 
 
 HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey, was the 
 eldest son of the preceding nobleman, by Eli- 
 zabeth, daughter of Edward Stafford, duke of 
 Buckingham. He was born in 1520. He was 
 well educated, talented, and chivalric. While at 
 Florence, he issued a general challenge, and in 
 a splendid tournament, maintained the beauty of 
 his mistress, Geraldine, at the point of the lance. 
 He was completely victorious. Tn 1542, he 
 served in the army, under his father, in Scot- 
 land ; and, in 1544, he went as field-marshal to 
 Boulogne, where, being then knight of the 
 garter, he was constituted king's lieutenant and 
 captain general. Happening, however, to prove 
 unfortunate in an attempt upon the enemy's 
 convoy of provisions, he incurred the king's 
 displeasure, which hastened his ruin. Some 
 intemperate language, used by him, was caught 
 hold of; charges were brought against him, and, 
 beino- found guilty, he was beheaded on Tower 
 HilirJanuary 19, 1546-7. 
 
 HOWARD, Charles, earl of Nottingham, was 
 the son of William lord Howard, of Effingham, 
 and grandson of Thomas, the second duke of 
 Norfolk. He was born in 1536. He went, in 
 1559, to congratulate Francis II, of France, on 
 his accession to the throne ; and, in 1569, was 
 made general of the horse in the army sent 
 against the earls of Northumberland, and West- 
 moreland. The next year he went with a fleet 
 of men-of-war to convoy the princess Anne of 
 Austria to Spain; and in 1573, he succeeded 
 his father in his titles and estate. The same 
 year he was installed knight of the garter, and 
 made lord Chamberlain of the household ; and, 
 in 1585, constituted lord high admiral of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 In 1583, he commanded the fleet which de- 
 feated and dispersed the Spanish armada ; and, 
 in 1596, when another invasion was appre- 
 hended, he was appointed commander-in chief 
 at sea, as the earl of Essex was on the land. In 
 this expedition Cadiz was taken, and the Span- 
 ish fleet burnt ; for which he was made earl of 
 Nottingham and justice-itinerant of all the for- 
 
 ests south of Trent. In 1601, he suppressed 
 the earl of Essex's rebellion, and was princi- 
 pally concerned in bringing that nobleman to 
 the block. James I continued him in all his 
 employments; and at the coronation the earl 
 acted as lord-high-steward. In 1605, he went 
 ambassador to Spain ; and in 1613, he conveyed 
 the princess Elizabeth, on her marriage, to 
 Flushing. He died in 1624, at the age of 88. 
 
 HOWARD, John, the philanthropist, was 
 born at Hackney, in 172G. He was bound 
 apprentice to a grocer in London ; but disliking 
 the business, and having an independent for- 
 tune, he purchased his indentures, and made 
 the tour of France and Italy. On his return, 
 he married a widow lady, much older than him- 
 self, who died about three years afterwards. In 
 1756, he undertook a voyage to Lisbon, to see 
 the place after the earthquake; but, on the 
 voyage, the ship was taken by a French priva- 
 teer, and carried to France. On being released, 
 Mr. Howard retired to a villa in the New For- 
 est; and, in 1758, married a second time; but 
 lost his lady in 1765. About this time he set- 
 tled at Cardington, near Bedford, where his 
 time was much occupied in benevolent objects, 
 and in the education of his son. In 1773, he 
 received the office of high sheriff, which led 
 him to make inquiries into the state of prisons. 
 With this view, he travelled over England, 
 through France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Turkey. He published, in 1777, 
 a work entitled ' : The State of the Prisons in 
 England and Wales." dedicated to the House 
 of Commons. In 1780, appeared an appendix, 
 with an account of the author's travels in Italy. 
 He also printed a description of the Bastile, a 
 translation of Tuscany's new code of civil law; 
 and, in 1789, " An Account of Europe." The 
 plague was now the object of his researches, 
 and, with a design of ascertaining the nature 
 of this disorder, and the means of curing it, he 
 set out for the east ; but died of a malignant 
 epidemic, at Cherson, January 29th, 1790. A 
 statue has been erected to his memory in St. 
 Paul's cathedral. 
 
 HOWARD, John Eager, colonel, a gallant 
 officer in the American revolution, was born in 
 Maryland, June 4th, 1752. He principally dis- 
 tinguished himself in the southern campaigns, 
 and received a wound at the battle of Eutaw, 
 from the effects of which he never recovered. 
 He was chosen governor of Maryland in 1783, 
 and filled the post for three years. From 1796, 
 till 1803 he was a member of the Senate of the 
 United States. He died in October, 1827. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 HOW 
 
 2S6 
 
 HUN 
 
 HOWE, Richard, earl, the third son of Sir 
 Emanuel Scrope, second viscount Howe, was 
 born in 1725, and, at the age of fourteen, went 
 on board the Severn, part of the squadron des- 
 tined for the South Seas, under Anson. In 
 1745, he was with admiral Vernon, and soon 
 after was made commander of the Baltimore 
 sloop, in which, with another armed vessel, he 
 beat off two French ships conveying troops and 
 ammunition to the Pretender ; for which he 
 was made a post captain. On the breaking out 
 of the war with France, he commanded the 
 Dunkirk ; with which he took the Alcide, a 
 French 04, off Newfoundland. In 1757, he 
 served under Sir Edward Hawke, and his ship, 
 the Magnanime, battered the fort on the Aix, 
 till it surrendered. After this he was appoint- 
 ed commodore of a squadron, with which he 
 took the town of Cherburg, and destroyed the 
 basin. In 17G0, he was appointed colonel of 
 the marines; and, in 1763, had a seat at the 
 admiralty-board. In 1765, he was made trea- 
 surer of the navy ; and, in 1770, promoted to be 
 rear-admiral of the blue ; in 1775, rear-admiral 
 of the white, and afterwards vice-admiral of the 
 blue. France having now entered into a war 
 with England, lord Howe was sent to America 
 to oppose D'Estaing. In 1782, he was made an 
 English viscount, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of the fleet sent to the relief of Gibraltar, 
 which object he accomplished. The next year 
 he was made first lord of the admiralty ;" but 
 soon resigned that station to Lord Keppel. In 
 1788, he was created an English earl. On 
 the breaking out of hostilities with France, in 
 1793, he was appointed to the command of the 
 channel fleet; and on the 1st of June, in the 
 following year, he gained a complete victory 
 over the French, who lost seven ships of the 
 line. For this he received the thanks of par- 
 liament; the king visited him on board his ship, 
 presented him with a valuable sword, and made 
 him knight of the garter. The last service 
 rendered by his lordship to his country, was in 
 reducing the mutinous seamen to their duty, at 
 Portsmouth, in 1797. He died August 5th. 
 1799. 
 
 HOWE, Sir William, brother of the preced- 
 ing, succeeded General Gage in the command 
 of the forces, in America, in 1775. He defeated 
 the Americans in the battle of Brooklyn (1776), 
 took possession of New York, and in the Octo- 
 ber of the same year, repelled the Americans at 
 Germantown. He was succeeded in his com- 
 mand by Clinton, in 1778 His death took 
 place in 18L4. 
 
 HUDSON CITY, capital of Columbia coun 
 ty, N. Y. ? is a flourishing place, situated on the 
 east bank of the Hudson river, 117 miles north 
 of New York city. Population in 1840, 5,670. 
 It was founded in 1784. 
 
 HUGH CAPET; duke and afterwards king 
 of France, was the son of Hugh the Great, who 
 dying, left him under the protection of Rich- 
 ard I, duke of Normandy. Lothaire, king of 
 France, pleased with Hugh's prudence and 
 generosity, gave him, in 960, the dukedom of 
 France, with the earldom of Paris and Poitou. 
 Louis V dying fifteen or sixteen months after 
 his father, Hugh Capet was proclaimed king at 
 Noyon, and crowned at Rheims, 987. Charles 
 I, duke of Lower Lorraine, son of Louis IV, the 
 only man of the royal blood left in France, was 
 taken prisoner by Hugh, and died in 992. 
 
 HUNGARY, 'the country of the Magyars, or 
 Hungarians. They are represented as derived 
 from the Huns of Attila. A complete account 
 of ancient Hungary would present little more 
 than the melancholy picture of a country, the 
 perpetual seat of war. The Romans for a time 
 assumed the ascendant, and obtained a decided 
 superiority over the opposite and conflicting 
 parties. The Hungarians are proved to belong 
 to the Finnish nations, from the resemblance 
 that prevails between certain words of their 
 respective dialects. The Magyars appear to 
 have been a principal division of that great 
 northern nation contiguous to the Altai moun- 
 tains, whence issued the hordes who introduced 
 such changes in the character of nations, Asi- 
 atic and European. So far as the Magyars are 
 concerned, their progress from the Altai moun- 
 tains seems obvious. About the end of the 9th 
 century, we find a division of them entering the 
 plains of Munkatz, under their leader, Almus, 
 whose son Arpad, was the first duke of Hun- 
 gary. In a few years (896), Arpad had dispos- 
 sessed several of the princes of Hungary, and 
 contracted alliances with others. He subduec 
 a considerable portion of the Moravian king- 
 dom ; and, in the ardor of conquest, was for 
 attempting to establish himself in the territories 
 of Arnulph. Arpad finally extended his con- 
 quests into Bavaria, Suabia, Franconia, and 
 Italy; his exertions were divided, but every- 
 where successful. His son Zoltan, in 907, had 
 penetrated into Alsatia, Lorraine, and France. 
 While the genius of the state was thus aspiring 
 to eminence, the strength of others seemed pro- 
 portionately paralyzed, as if the unremitting 
 cruelties characteristic of Attila were again lo 
 be feared. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 HUN 
 
 287 
 
 HUN 
 
 The imputation of ferocity affixed to the 
 'name of the Huns inspired terror, till their 
 fourth duke, Geysa, diverted their ferocious 
 dispositions into other channels. The attention 
 he bestowed in giving a tinge of religion to the 
 mind and manners of his countrymen, operated 
 as an incentive to their civilization. It was 
 not until the commencement of the 11th cen- 
 tury, that a people rude, and proud of their 
 rudeness, were induced to lay aside their bar- 
 barous habits. Stephen, their last duke, and 
 first king, introduced the Christian religion, 
 and those social institutions, which, if left to 
 operate unrestrained, give a stamp to the char- 
 acter of a people. He died in 1038, after a 
 reign of 41 years, during which he had estab- 
 lished laws in the interior, reunited Transylva- 
 nia to his kingdom, subjugated the Sclavi, and 
 Bulgarians, and effected much for the amelio- 
 ration of society and morals. 
 
 On the death of Stephen, Hungary became 
 subject to the tyranny of various princes, the 
 country being involved, for nearly a century, 
 in the horrors of civil war. In this distracted 
 state of the kingdom, various usurpers aspiring 
 to the throne, the churches were destroyed, and 
 the ministers of religion persecuted. Any in- 
 tervals of peace were interrupted by the Bul- 
 garians, Walachians, Russians, Croats, &c. re- 
 newing their inroads. Under Ladislaus 1, 1077, 
 the country enjoyed some tranquillity ; religion, 
 commerce, legislation, tempered the bold inde- 
 pendence of a dark age ; and as a warrior, he 
 also became the temporary savior of his coun- 
 try The race of Stephen I became extinct 
 with Andrew III. John Corvin or Hunniades, 
 was justly celebrated for his military achieve- 
 ments in his wars with Amurathll, and Moham- 
 med II. His son, Mathias Corvin, was unan- 
 imously elected king in 1458, and gave early 
 indications of great gifts and talents, adding 
 not a little to the lustre of his father's acquire- 
 ments. From his character, policy, military 
 operations, and great power, he has been de- 
 scribed as one of the most accomplished kings 
 of Hungary. Such was the force of his mind, 
 that his views extended to whatever could se- 
 cure his government, and render it formidable. 
 His ends were great, and his means prudent ; 
 he kept both the Turks and Austrians at bay, 
 and, as a politician and hero, was watchful 
 over his enemies, both at home and abroad. 
 To his other eminent qualities this king added 
 a measure of literary reputation. He is said to 
 have been conversant with the languages, arts, 
 and sciences of his time ; Ihe country flourished 
 25 
 
 under his establishments, civil and military, 
 and the love of his subjects shows the great 
 esteem in which he was held by them. Com- 
 pared, generally, with his contemporaries in 
 power, the energy of his mind seems worthy of 
 admiration. He knew how to anticipate hos- 
 tile designs, and we find the kingdom, under 
 his government, preponderating in the balance 
 of Europe. Mathias had no children, and the 
 election of a new king occasioned a scene of 
 distress. Under Louis II, in 3516, the Turks 
 besieged Belgrade, which surrendered to their 
 arms ; and this was followed by various other 
 successes. In the famous battle of Mohacs, 
 (1526), Louis was defeated and slain, Buda was 
 given up to pillage, and the ferocious barbari- 
 ans, under Solyman II, after plundering the 
 country, converted the scene of their depreda- 
 tions into an immense desert. The country 
 was now convulsed with disputes about the sue- 
 cession, the archduke Ferdinand being oppos- 
 ed by John Zapolya, who was finally seated on 
 the throne. Zapolya died in 1540, and the 
 Hungarians invited Ferdinand to the throne 
 The country was again desolated and crimsoned 
 with blood. In 1564, Maximilian II, emperor 
 of Germany, laid claim to the crown, but it was 
 not till 1570, that a peace was finally ratified 
 between the Hungarians and Germans. John 
 Sigismund, son ot Zapolya, was created prince 
 of Transylvania; and the next circumstance to 
 be noticed and recorded, is the definitive sub- 
 jection of the Hungarians to the imperial house 
 of Austria. At the accession of Charles VI, 
 emperor of Germany, a definitive treaty, in 
 1711, terminated all differences; it was not till 
 then that every principle of internal hostility, 
 all those evils which had proved a hindrance to 
 civilization, disappeared. As the Hungarians 
 are now united to the Austrian dynasty, the 
 series of their kings is that of the emperors. 
 After Maximilian II, they occur in the follow- 
 ino- order: Rodoiph, 1576; Mathias II, 1612; 
 Ferdinand II, 1619; Ferdinand III, 1637; Le- 
 opold I, 1658; Joseph I, 1705; Charles VI, 
 1711; Maria Theresa, 1741; Joseph 11,1780; 
 Leopold II, 1789 ; and Francis II, now king of 
 Hungary and emperor of Austria. The greater 
 part of the soil of Hungary is exceedingly pro- 
 ductive, and no country has so many mineral 
 and medicinal springs. Its population (exclusive 
 of Transylvania) exceeds 9,400,000. Education 
 is not neglected. The condition of the peas- 
 antry, however, is deplorable. 
 
 HUNTINGTON, Samuel, one of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence, born ia 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ICE 
 
 288 
 
 IND 
 
 Windham, Conn., in 1732. He was the son of 
 a farmer, and self-educated. At the age of 22, 
 he was admitted to practice law in his native 
 place, but shortly afterwards removed to Nor- 
 wich. In 1764, he was representative of Nor- 
 wich to the General Assembly, and in the next 
 year king's attorney ; but in 1774, was made a 
 judge or the Superior Court. In 1775, he was 
 chosen a member of the council of Connecticut, 
 and in 177b', took his seat as a delegate to the 
 general Congress. In 1779, he succeeded Mr. 
 Jay as president of that body. In 1786, he 
 succeeded Mr. Gnswold, as governor of Con- 
 necticut and rilled the office till his death, Jan- 
 uary 5, 1796. 
 
 HUSS, John, the celebrated reformer, was a 
 native of Bohemia, born in 1373, and educated 
 at the university of Prague. He early perceived 
 the corruption of the Romish church, and ex- 
 posed its prevalent abuses freely, although per- 
 secuted by several popes. He finally appeared 
 at Constance, was tried in 1415, burned alive, 
 and his ashes thrown into the Rhine. The 
 rebellion of the followers of Huss lasted fifteen 
 years, and filled Bohemia with bloodshed. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Thomas, was born in Bos- 
 ton, in 1711, graduated at Harvard College in 
 1727. He was appointed Lieutenant Governor 
 of Massachusetts in 1758, and chief-justice in 
 1760. In 1771 , he was made Governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts. He was ambitious, avaricious, and 
 hypocritical. He was succeeded by Gage in 
 1774, and lived in retirement at Brompton, 
 where he died June 3d, 1780, in his 69th year. 
 He was a writer of considerable merit. At one 
 time a Boston mob attacked his house which 
 was nearly demolished. 
 
 HYDER, Ally Khan, an eastern prince, the 
 formidable enemy to the British in India. He 
 was frequently successful, and, in 1766, his do- 
 minions contained 70,000 square miles. He 
 died in 1782. 
 
 I. 
 
 ICELAND, a large island in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, near the confines of the polar circle, 
 about 280 miles in length, belonging to Den- 
 mark. Christianity was introduced into it in 
 981. Among its curiosities is Mount Hecla, 
 whose terrific eruptions have often caused the 
 greatest distress among the inhabitants. The 
 islanders are simple, frugal, industrious, and 
 pious. The lower classes are uncommonly 
 well informed. The staple exports nre fish, oil, 
 feathers, sulphur, and salted mutton ; and the 
 
 imports wood, salt, tobacco, coffee, iron, and 
 fishing-tackle. Population about 50,000. 
 
 ILLINOIS, one of the United States; boun- 
 ded north by Michigan Territory ; east by Lake 
 Michigan and Indiana; south by the Ohio, and 
 west by the Mississippi, which rivers separate 
 it from Missouri. It contains 58,000 square 
 miles. Population, in 1840, 476,183. Vanda- 
 lia is the capital. The face of the country is 
 little broken by hills, being generally level, or 
 only gently undulating. The soil is very fertile. 
 The state has a school fund, and there is a col- 
 lege at Jacksonville. The first settlements 
 were made at Kaskaskia, and Cahokia, by the 
 French, about 1756. In 1818, Illinois was 
 erected into a state. 
 
 INDIA. This country was visited early by 
 the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and other remote 
 nations of antiquity ; afterwards conquered »n 
 part by the Persians, subsequently by Alexander 
 the Great, and since by the Mohammedans. 
 The authentic history of it, however, is of no 
 higher date than the year 100U A. D., com- 
 mencing with the conquests of Mohammed 
 Gazni, who possessed the eastern parts of Persia, 
 and made twelve expeditions into Hindostan, 
 sacking some of the principal cities, carrying 
 off their treasure, and trying to exterminate the 
 inhabitants, as he could not convert them to 
 Mohammedanism. The empire soon crumbled 
 to pieces, being held together only by conquest. 
 From 1158 to 1398, other invasions, by the fol- 
 lowers of Mohammed continually occurred, till 
 the irruption of Nadir Shah, otherwise called 
 Kouli Khan, who had raised himself from ob- 
 scurity' to the throne of Persia. One of the 
 most remarkable invasions was that of Tamer- 
 lane in 1398. After having carried into cap- 
 tivity a vast number of the poor inhabitants, he 
 caused 10,000 to be massacred in cold blood, 
 lest they should join the enemy. In 1555, 
 Akbar, the greatest emperor the Moguls had 
 ever had, began to reign ; and during a series 
 of wars, massacres, invasions, and other simi- 
 lar pastimes of despotic princes, occupied the 
 throne 51 years. Two princes, Jehah Guire, 
 and Shah Jehan, succeeded ; the latter, a de- 
 bauched character, was dethroned by Aureng- 
 zebe, who also put three or four of his brothers 
 to death. From 1660, until 1678, he kept the 
 kingdom tranquil ; but then commenced wars 
 against the princess of the Deccan, which con- 
 tinued till his death, in 1707. As if his evil 
 deeds were to be punished in his descendants, 
 eleven of them were raised to the throne in 
 about as many years, and most of them assas- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 IND 
 
 289 
 
 IND 
 
 sinatcd. In 1738, Nadir Shah, of Persia, in- 
 vaded the empire, entered Delhi, the capital, 
 and demanded vast sums of money as a contri- 
 bution. In 1743, Nizem-el-Mulk, viceroy of 
 the Deccan, died at the age of 104 years ; by 
 his invitation, principally, had Nadir entered 
 the territory of the Moguls, and destroyed the 
 power of the emperor, as only one imperial 
 army ever entered the field after his departure, 
 and that was defeated by the Rohillas. Delhi, 
 therefore, and a few miles around it, constituted 
 almost the sole territory of the descendants of 
 Tamerlane : while the governors of districts 
 and provinces, under the names of rajahs, na- 
 bobs, and a variety of others, became independ- 
 ent sovereigns. Nizam's second son having 
 succeeded, instead of the eldest, to his father's 
 throne, this event first began those contests 
 between the French and English East India 
 Companies, that, after several year's bloody 
 wars, terminated in the expulsion of the former 
 from India. In 1600, queen Elizabeth first sent 
 an ambassador at Akbar, to solicit commercial 
 intercourse with his dominions. A company 
 was formed to carry the scheme into effect; 
 their vo}'ages were pretty successful, and, after 
 having to contend with the Portuguese in sev- 
 eral naval engagements, they at length succeed- 
 ed in forming a factory at Surat, on the Malabar 
 Coast, by permission of the emperor Jehaun-gier. 
 Here they did not at first prosper, partly from 
 the inadequacy of their funds, and partly from 
 the enmity of the Dutch and Portuguese. Ac- 
 cident, however, laid the foundation of their 
 prosperity in the present important city of Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 In 1747, the war commenced, and was carried 
 on with spirit by both sides, Mr. Clive contri- 
 buting to the successes of the English, until, in 
 1755, a cessation of hostilities took place. In 
 175ii, Calcutta was threatened by the nabob of 
 Bengal, Surajah Dowlah, who marched 40,000 
 foot, 30,000 horse, and 4,000 elephants against 
 it. Cassambuzar surrendered to him at once; 
 and Calcutta beinw invested, was taken in three 
 days. This caused the trao-edy of the Black 
 Hole.— (See Black Hole.) Colonel Clive, who 
 had now a commission in the king's service, 
 immediately on the receipt of this news, em- 
 barked from Fort St. David's with 400 Euro- 
 peans and 1000 Seapoys, on board admiral 
 Watson's fleet. All the old possessions were 
 soon regained, and the nabob was reduced to 
 make peace, after a bold attack upon his camp. 
 War, however, was now proclaimed against 
 France, and Chandernagore reduced, permis- 
 
 sion being obtained from the nabob for that pur- 
 pose. Very soon afterwards, he quarreled with 
 the company ; war with him also was inevita- 
 ble ; and, at the battle of Plassy, Clive, with a 
 handful of troops, defeated his whole army. In 
 this he was assisted by the neutrality of Meer 
 Jaffier Ali Khan, who stood aloof during the 
 engagement. On the Coromandel coast, in the 
 mean time, affairs were going on very indiffer- 
 ently for the English. But things again took a 
 turn ; all the enterprises of the French com- 
 mander seeming to fail. His attempt upon 
 Wandewash, in 17G0, proved extremely unfor- 
 tunate. Again the French forces attempted a 
 stand under the walls of Cheltaput, 18 miles 
 from the field of battle ; but finally retired into 
 Pondicherry, their only remaining stronghold. 
 Cheltaput, Tirnmery, and Arcot, quickly fell 
 into the hands of the English ; with Carical, 
 Chellambrum, Verdachellum, Permucoil, Al- 
 ampera, and Waldour. Pondicherry itself was 
 invested ; the batteries opened in December, 
 and the place capitulated January 15th, 1761, 
 the whole of the French power in India being 
 thus annihilated. Meer Jaffier, the nabob of 
 Bengal, not answering the expectations of the 
 company was deposed, and Meer Cassirn Ali 
 Khair placed on the Musnud, or throne. War 
 was soon declared against him — but peace was 
 finally concluded, as the English council had 
 been guilty of great injustice. 
 
 In 1767, a new enemy appeared in the Dec- 
 can. This was no other than Hyder Ally or 
 Hyder Naig, who had raised himself from the 
 rank of seapoy to that of a powerful prince. 
 For several years this prince baffled the attempts 
 of the English to crush him, and by concentrat- 
 ing immense forces, gained great advantages 
 over them. In 1781, Sir Cyre Coote was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief. Hyder, with two 
 hundred thousand men, risked a battle with 
 him, July 1st ; but, notwithstanding his vast 
 superiority, was routed with great slaughter. 
 He tried another on the 27th of August, with 
 similar ill-success and loss. Other actions ter- 
 minated in a similar manner. In 1783, the 
 government of Bombay determined to carry the 
 war as close home as possible to Hyder's doors*. 
 For this purpose General Matthews invaded 
 Canara, took nearly all the towns, and obtained 
 immense plunder. Hyder Ally, in the mean 
 while, had died, and Tippoo, his son, assembling 
 an army of 150,000 men to recover the loss, 
 appeared before Bidnore on the 7th of April, 
 and compelled the English to capitulate. 
 
 Some time before this a war had broken out 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 IND 
 
 290 
 
 IND 
 
 with the Mahrattas. At length, however, peace 
 was concluded. Tippoo Sultan, for a succes- 
 sion of years, opposed the English, and various 
 campaigns were undertaken against him. The 
 commanders in these bloody adventures were 
 General Meadows, Lord Cornwallis, and Sir 
 Arthur Wellesly, afterwards duke of Welling- 
 ton. The marquis of Hasting's administration 
 was advantageous to the British, but ruinous to 
 the natives. We draw a veil over the bloody 
 contests, and oppressive measures, by which 
 the natives of the East were crushed, their 
 princes ruined and betrayed, their wealth stolen 
 from them, and their dearest rights trampled 
 under foot, without remorse or hesitation. The 
 course of the British in India has been denoun- 
 ced by the most eloquent and upright men in 
 England — the voice of indignation has been 
 lifted up against the company — in vain. Con- 
 fiding in their immense wealth, steeled by their 
 unrelenting avarice, proud in their constant 
 success, they smile at every attempt to shake 
 their power, or impeach their offices; and if 
 the course of their conduct is no longer marked 
 with that extended desolation and calamity 
 which formerly distinguished it, it is because 
 the spark of resistance is quenched in the ashes 
 of universal ruin. (For further inforn^jition, 
 with regard to India, see the articles East In- 
 dies and Asia.) 
 
 INDIANS ; a name commonly applied to the 
 aborigines of the new continent. Those of 
 Mexico, and parts of South America, were, 
 when they first became known to the Span- 
 iards, far advanced in civilization. Their ar- 
 chitecture had little of the rudeness of a primi- 
 tive and untaught race, and their character con- 
 trasted favorably with that of their conquerors. 
 The tribes of North America, as they approach- 
 ed the north, lost much of the refinement which 
 was apparent in their southern brethren, ap- 
 peared to have little notion of the comforts 
 of life, and took the highest delight in the dar- 
 ing exploits of hunting and war. Each tribe 
 had a distinctive character — a peculiar physiog- 
 nomy , and peculiar habits ; but, of course, there 
 are certain general features, belonging to them 
 in common. We cannot devote much space to 
 this subject, and a general sketch, only, will be 
 expected. The Chippeway race is "the most 
 numerous at present. The New England tribes 
 were Algonquins, and the Narragansets, the 
 Mohegans, the Delaware or Lenni°Lenape, the 
 Iroquois or Six Nations, were of the same 
 stock. West of the Mississippi we find another 
 family, the Sioux or Dahcotah Indians, branches 
 
 of which are Winnebagoes, the Otoes, the 
 Ioways, the Missouries, the Assinniboins, the 
 Omahaws, the Kansas, and the Osages. The 
 Sacks and Foxes, the Pawnees, the Murtarees, 
 or Bigbellies, the Mandans, the Crows and Black- 
 feet, the Shosonees, the Chohunnish, the Skill- 
 oots, Echeloots, Multnoniahs, Clatrops, &c.,are 
 among the other tribes of the western country. 
 The Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Creeks, of 
 which latter the Seminoles are a division, in- 
 habit the southern parts of the United States. 
 North of the Great Slave Lake, is another In- 
 dian family comprising several divisions. 
 
 All the Indian tribes are noted for their 
 hospitality and bravery. The women perform 
 the labors of the field, while war and hunting 
 are considered the only occupations worthy ot 
 the men. Every man has as many wives as he 
 can support, and these women share his affec- 
 tions without quarrelling or murmuring. Instan- 
 ces of devoted attachment between two persons, 
 however, are by no means uncommon. The 
 Indians believe in the existence of a Supreme 
 Being, but they never demand blessings of 
 him, saying, He knows best what is good for 
 them, and content themselves with returning 
 thanks for benefits received. But they also have 
 superstitious notions, and sacrifice to invisible 
 beings. They attach great importance to their 
 medicines — bags full of rubbish. In war they 
 seldom give quarter, and prisoners are gener- 
 ally tortured, and burnt at the stake. It is the 
 pride of a vanquished chieftain to endure these 
 tortures without a murmur, and to perish, 
 singing, with an unfaltering voice, his tri 
 umphant death-song, in which he recounts his 
 previous exploits, the number of the foes that 
 have fallen beneath his hatchet, and whose 
 scalps adorn his wigwam, and rejoices at the 
 prospects of reaching those Elysian fields of 
 after-life, where, through eternity, the immor- 
 tal huntsman pursues and slays the flying 
 game. 
 
 The traditions of the Iroquois abound with 
 touching relations of the injustice they have 
 sustained from the whites, from their first set- 
 tling in the country. " We and our tribes," 
 say they, " lived in peace and harmony with 
 each other before the white people came into 
 this country ; our council-house extended far 
 to the north, and the south. In the middle of 
 it we could meet from all parts to smoke the 
 pipe of peace together,: when the white men 
 arrived in the south, we received them as 
 friends, we did the same when they arrived in 
 the east. We knew not but the Great Spirit 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 IND 
 
 291 
 
 INQ 
 
 had sent them to us for some good purpose, and 
 therefore we thought they must be a good peo- 
 ple. We were mistaken. The whites will 
 not rest contented until they shall have de- 
 stroyed the last of us, and made us disappear 
 entirely from the face of the earth." 
 
 The Indian swiftness of foot and sagacity in 
 tracing the march of an enemy are well known, 
 and need not be dwelt on here : their attach- 
 ment to the memory of their deceased friends 
 is a striking and amiable point in their charac- 
 ters. Menandon, an Oneida chief, who was a 
 Christian, and survived the minister that con- 
 verted him, lived to be a hundred and twenty 
 years old. Just before he died, he said, " I am 
 an aged hemlock. The winds of one hundred 
 years have whistled through my branches. I 
 am dead at top (referring to his blindness). 
 Why I yet live, the Good Spirit only knows. 
 Pray to Jesus that I may wait my appointed 
 time to die ; and when I die, lay me by the side 
 of my minister and father, that I may go up 
 with him to the great resurrection." 
 
 The Indians have afforded instances of strong 
 sentiment. Schoolcraft relates that " a noble 
 minded girl, named Oolaita, being attached to 
 a young chief of her own tribe, was commanded 
 by her parents to marry an old warrior, renown- 
 ed for his wisdom and influence in the nation. 
 It being impossible to avoid the match, she left 
 her father's house while the marriage -feast was 
 preparing, and throwing herself from an awful 
 precipice, was dashed to pieces." 
 
 Some of the Indians believe that the evil 
 spirit is the maker of spirituous liquors, from 
 which, notwithstanding, too many of them can- 
 not refrain. Yet there have been numerous 
 instances to the contrary, when drunkenness 
 has urged them to commit some crime which, 
 in their sober moments, they held in detesta- 
 tion. 
 
 " An Indian, who had been brought up in 
 Minisink, near the Delaware water-gap, and to 
 whom the German inhabitants of that nighbor- 
 hood had given the name of Cornelius Rosen- 
 baum, told Mr. Heckewelder, near fifty years 
 ago, that he had once, when under the influ- 
 ence of strong liquor, killed the best Indian 
 friend he had, fancying him to be his worst 
 avowed enemy. He said that the deception 
 was complete, and that while intoxicated, the 
 face of his friend presented to his eyes all the 
 features of the man with whoni he was in a 
 state of hostility. It is impossible to express 
 the horror with which he was struck when he 
 awoke from that delusion ; he was so shocked, 
 25* 
 
 that he from that moment resolved never more 
 to taste of the maddening poison, of which he 
 was convinced the devil was the inventor; for 
 it could only be the evil spirit that made him 
 see his enemy when his friend was before him, 
 and produced so strong a delusion on his bewil- 
 dered senses that he actually killed him. From 
 that time, until his death, which happened 
 thirty years afterwards, he never drank a drop 
 of ardent spirits, which he always called * the 
 De\il's Blood,' and was firmly persuaded that 
 the devil, or some of his inferior spirits, had a 
 hand in preparing it." 
 
 INDIANA, one of the United States, bounded 
 north by Lake Michigan and Michigan Terri- 
 tory, east by Ohio, south by the Ohio river, 
 separating it from Kentucky, and west by Il- 
 linois. It contains 36,000 square miles, and 
 685,866 inhabitants, of whom 3,629 are free 
 blacks. Near the Ohio, the country is hilly, 
 but farther north, it is less broken, and is gen- 
 erally fertile. The soil and productions are not 
 dissimilar to those of Illinois, lndianoplis, the 
 seat of government, was laid out in 1821. Vin- 
 cennes was settled by the French in 1730. In- 
 diana was erected into a state in 1816. 
 
 INNSPRUCK, or Innsbruck, the capital of 
 the Tyrol, situated on the Inn. Population, 
 10,800. The valley in which it stands was the 
 scene of several of" the events that took place 
 during the heroic resistance made by the Tyrol- 
 ese to the French and Bavarians in 1809. 
 
 INQUISITION. The, or Holy Office, as it 
 is called, was an institution of the Catholic 
 church, established in Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
 and other Catholic countries, ito try persons ac- 
 cused of holding opinions, contrary to those 
 received by the church. 
 
 The members of this jurisdiction were called 
 inquisitors, because, without any proof of aper- 
 son's being guilty, they seized him upon com- 
 mon report, and investigated his conduct ; thejf 
 themselves, deciding upon his guilt or inno- 
 cence. 
 
 There is some controversy about the origin 
 of the inquisition, but it is allowed that Pope 
 Innocent III first gave rise to the Holy Office 
 While this man was at the head of the Catholic 
 church, the Albigenses of France, who refused 
 to embrace the monstrous doctrines of the Ro- 
 man Catholic church, were persecuted and 
 hunted like wild beasts. 
 
 It was in the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, that Pope Innocent sent Pierre de Castel- 
 man, archdeacon of Maguelonne, and Rainier, 
 another priest, to stir up a spirit of zeal and p t r- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 INQ 
 
 292 
 
 INQ 
 
 secution against the heretics. Dominic, a fa- 
 mous Spaniard, founder of the order of Preach- 
 ers, fell in with the messengers of the pope in 
 the year 1206, and labored, with energy, to put 
 an end to the heresy, as any opinion different 
 from the doctrines of the church was called. 
 
 These priests inquired into the conduct of 
 the princes, and men in office, towards the here- 
 tics, and from the scrutiny to which they sub- 
 jected suspected persons, were called inquisitors. 
 These inquisitors had no court and no decisive 
 authority, being mere spies of the pope. St. 
 Dominic, is said to have founded the first regu- 
 lar tribunal at Toulouse. Innocent III signi- 
 fied his approbation, and authorised the estab- 
 lishment in the year 1215. 
 
 So cruel were the proceedings of the Inqui- 
 sition, that even Catholics endeavored to pre- 
 vent its establishment in different countries; but 
 Spain, a country famous for its devotion to the 
 Catholic religion, and for its ignorance, became 
 its chosen seat. 
 
 The Spanish Inquisition is always spoken of 
 with horror and indignation. In Spain it was 
 first introduced in 1478. The first inquisitor- 
 general, and the first court were constituted in 
 1481. 
 
 The kings of Castile, before they were 
 crowned, took an oath, that they, as well as 
 their subjects, should be under the power of the 
 Holy Office, as it was impiously called. The 
 inquisitors received their power from the pope's 
 mouth, or by means of letters, and he alone had 
 power to remove them from office. 
 
 Nothing could be more horrible than the pro- 
 ceedings of the Inquisitors. Without being 
 permitted to know who accused him, a man 
 was suddenly seized ; his dearest friends aban- 
 doned him at once, no one dared to speak to 
 him. From the midst of the luxuries of life, he 
 was hurried to a loathsome dungeon. Upon 
 the slightest pretence, the torture was applied, 
 and many an innocent person, in the pangs of 
 death, was forced to accuse himself. 
 
 The very lnwyer who plead for them was in 
 terror of the Inquisition and completely in its 
 power. The slightest sentence he uttered, 
 which could possibly be turned against him, 
 was enough to place the advocate also in dan- 
 ger of his life. 
 
 There were two classes of punishments, the 
 ecclesiastical or religious punishments, and the 
 civil. The ecclesiastical punishments wen; ex- 
 communication, loss of a christian burial in con- 
 secrated ground, and loss of all right to hold 
 offices. As civil punishments, the inquisitors 
 
 disinherited the children of the criminal ; thaS 
 is, declared that if their father died a heretic, 
 they, although Catholics, should not hold any 
 of his property. They also pronounced the sen- 
 tence of infamy, which deprived a man of all 
 his property , of all right to hold an office, and of 
 all power, even over his children and servants. 
 
 Criminals were also imprisoned. They in- 
 curred the bann, or curse, by which they lost 
 all the rights of a human being, were driven out 
 of all society, and might be falsely accused, 
 beaten and robbed, without any hope of getting 
 redress. In fact, if any lawyer delended them 
 against an accusation, he was pronounced infa- 
 mous and deprived of office. 
 
 The last, and most frightful punishment, was 
 that of being burned alive, sometimes with an 
 iron gag in the mouth, which prevented the 
 agonized sufferer from uttering an intelligible 
 cry. Often however, while burning, they were 
 left at liberty to speak, and supplicated for mer- 
 cy, in a manner which would have moved any 
 but the hardest-hearted to pity, and yet these 
 priestly tyrants dared to say that their actions 
 found favor in the eyes of Heaven. 
 
 The tortures to which the inquisitors put the 
 accused, to make them confess their guilt, were 
 dreadful. The tortures were of five kinds. 
 First, their being threatened with the torture ; 
 second, their being carried to the place of tor- 
 ture; third, their being stripped and bound; 
 fourth, their being hoisted on the rack ; fifth, 
 squassation, in wh;ch the limbs are all disjointed. 
 
 Squassation was thus performed. The pri- 
 soner's hands being tied behind his back, heavy 
 weights are attached to his feet, and he is hoist- 
 ed up by a rope, until his head touches the pul- 
 ley. Hanging in this awful situation for some 
 time, his limbs and j.oints become stretched 
 frightfully ; and when suddenly let to fall, the 
 fall being checked by the rope before he touches 
 the ground, all his limbs are disjointed. The 
 horrible pain he now feels is increased by the 
 immense weight hanging at his feet. 
 
 The inquisition inflicted squassation, when 
 determined on, once, twice, or even three times 
 in the space of an hour. What could the poor 
 wretch enjoy of life, if ho gained his liberty at 
 length ? How much did the inquisitors have of 
 the true spirit of religion ? 
 
 When we examine farther into the annals of 
 the inquisition, humanity shudders, and the im- 
 agination almost realizes the horrors which are 
 presented. Lovely and innocent women had 
 their delicate frames torn to pieces by the racks 
 of these monsters, because they refused to ac 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 INQ 
 
 293 
 
 IRE 
 
 Knowledge that as the true religion which 
 sanctioned such enormities. Such were the 
 torments inflicted upon Jane Bohorques and 
 her attendant, a young Protestant girl. They 
 were afterwards burnt at the auto da fe, or act 
 of faith. 
 
 These acts of faith, when a large number of 
 the condemned were often collected to suffer at 
 once, were always held upon festival days. The 
 procession issued from the halls of the inquisi- 
 tion, the Dominican friars with the standard of 
 their order, coming first. On one side their 
 flag had the picture of Saint Dominic, on the 
 other, the motto, " Justice and Mercy." 
 
 After these came the penitents, all in sleeve- 
 less black coats, with lighted wax tapers, and 
 bare-footed. Those who had narrowly escaped 
 burning, followed next in order, with flames 
 pointing downward painted on their coats. 
 
 The relapsed came next, with habits covered 
 with flames pointing upward. Lastly marched 
 those who are peculiar enemies to the Romish 
 doctrines. Their habits were covered with 
 flames, pointing upward, and on their breasts 
 they bore a likeness of themselves, in the act of 
 being devoured by wild beasts, and serpents. 
 
 At Lisbon, the place where they were burned, 
 was the Ribera. containing as many stakes as 
 there were condemned criminals, surrounded 
 with furze. The stakes of the professed, as 
 they were called, were about four yards high, 
 with a seat for the prisoner upon aboard, with- 
 in a yard of the top. The negative and relapsed 
 prisoners were first strangled and burned ; the 
 professed then ascended the ladder with a Je- 
 suit upon each side, who exhorted them to con- 
 fess their sins and return to the Romish church. 
 If they refused, the priests descended the ladder, 
 and the executioner going up, chained them 
 to the stake. After an interval the priests again 
 ascended and if the prisoners proved still obsti- 
 nate, they were forsaken and the spectators 
 called out " Let the dogs' beards be made ! " 
 The operation alluded to was performed by 
 thrusting poles, having flaming bunches of furze 
 at the end, against the faces of the criminals. 
 These were generally held against them until 
 their faces were burnt to a coal, the whole pro- 
 ceeding eliciting shouts of approbation and joy. 
 
 After this the furze at the foot of the stake 
 was fired, and, in general, reached no higher 
 than the knees of the condemned, so that they 
 were literally roasted to death. In a calm they 
 might die in half an hour, in a high wind sel- 
 dom under two hours. 
 
 In ancient times, the Spaniards thought the 
 
 entertainment, afforded by the horrid spectacle 
 of an auto da, f&, equal to that derived from a 
 bull-fight, or a dance. In honor of Elizabeth, 
 the new queen, daughter of Henry 2d of France, 
 a girl of thirteen, an Act of faith was held in 
 1560, in which, not content with burning some 
 human beings, they consumed a few effigies. 
 
 Napoleon, abolished this terrible Inquisition, 
 and this just exercise of power should be re- 
 membered, when many of his crimes are brought 
 to view. When Ferdinand was restored, by the 
 success of Napoleon's opponents, to the Spanish 
 throne, he re-established it. There never was 
 an institution of such dreadful cruelty, nor one 
 in which the laws of religion and mercy were 
 so daringly defied, under pretence too, of vin- 
 dicating morality and pure piety. 
 
 If the Inquisition, in modern days, was less 
 bloody than formerly, we are to attribute it, not 
 to the spirit of the institution, but to the increase 
 of knowledge, which will finally, we trust, put 
 an end to all abuses. 
 
 IONIA, a district of Asia Minor. Ionia was 
 divided into twelve small states which formed 
 a celebrated confederacy often spoken of by the 
 ancients. These states were Priene, Miletus, 
 Colophon, Clazomenre, Ephesus, Lebedos, Leos, 
 Erythra?, Phocrea, Smyrna, and the capitals of 
 Samos and Chios. After they had enjoyed, for 
 some time, their freedom and independence, 
 they were made tributary to the power of Lydia 
 by Crcesus. The Athenians assisted them to 
 shake off the yoke of the Asiatic monarchs, but 
 they soon forgot their duty and relation to their 
 mother country, and joined Xerxes when he 
 invaded Greece. They were delivered from 
 the Persian yoke by Alexander, and finally 
 were reduced by the Romans under the dictator 
 Sylla. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS, a republic in the south 
 of Europe under the protection of Great Brit- 
 ain. The seven chief islands are Corfu, Paxos, 
 Santa Maria, Ithaca, Cephalavia, Zante. and 
 Cerigo. Population 180,000 Greeks, Italians, 
 and Jews, with a few English. 
 e IOWA TERRITORY, lies between the Mis- 
 sissippi and Missouri rivers, and directly north of 
 the State of Missouri. It is rich in minerals. 
 Dubuque, on the Mississippi contains 1,500 souls, 
 1 bank, and 3 churches. The other villages are 
 Davenport, Bloomington, and Burlington on the 
 same river, and Fannington on the Des Moines. 
 Population in 1840, 43,035. See North West 
 Territory. 
 
 IRELAND, this fertile island, which has an 
 area of 32,200 square miles, forms part of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 IRE 
 
 294 
 
 IRE 
 
 kingdom of Great Britain. It is divided into 
 four large provinces, viz., Ulster, Leinster, Con- 
 naught, and Munster, which are sub-divided 
 into 32 counties. The face of the country is 
 diversified, but almost all of it is susceptible of 
 cultivation. The population, in 1831, amounted 
 to 7,784,530. 
 
 There are no serpents, or venomous reptiles 
 in Ireland, and St. Patrick is said to have driven 
 them all into the sea. At the lake of Killarney, 
 the peasants still preserve the following ludi- 
 crous tradition. When the labors of St. Patrick 
 were drawing to a close, there was one enormous 
 serpent who sturdily refused to emigrate, and 
 baffled the attempts of the good saint for a long 
 time. He haunted the romantic shores of Kil- 
 larney, and was so well pleased with his place 
 of residence, that he never contemplated the 
 prospect of removing without a deep sigh. At 
 length St. Patrick, having procured a large 
 oaken chest, with nine strong bolts to secure its 
 lid, took it on his shoulder one fine sunshiny 
 morning, and trudged over to Killarney, where 
 he found the serpent basking in the sun. " Good 
 morrow to ye \" said the saint. " Bad luck to 
 ye !" replied the serpent. " Not so, my friend," 
 replied the good saint, "you speak unwisely — 
 I'm your friend. To prove which, haven't I 
 brought you over this beautiful house as a shel- 
 ter to you? So be aisy, my darling." But the 
 serpent, being a cunning reptile, understood 
 what blarney meant, as well as the saint him- 
 self. Still, not wishing to affront his apparently 
 friendly visiter, he said, by way of excuse, that 
 the chest was not large enough for him. St. 
 Patrick assured him that it would accommodate 
 him very well. " Just get into it, my darlint, 
 and see how aisy you'll be." The serpent 
 thought to cheat the saint, so he whipped into 
 the chest, but left an inch or two of his tail 
 hanging out over the edge. " I told you so, ' 
 6aid he, " there's not room for the whole of 
 me." "Take care of your tail, my darling!" 
 cried the saint, as he whacked the lid down on 
 the serpent. In an instant the tail disappeared, 
 and St. Patrick proceeded to shoot all the bolts. 
 He then took the chest on his shoulders. " Let 
 me out !" cried the serpent. " Aisy" cried the 
 saint, " I'll let you out tomorrow." So saying, 
 he threw the box into the waters of the lake, to 
 the bottom of which it sank to rise no more. 
 But for ever afterwards, the fishermen affirmed 
 that they heard the voice of the poor cozened 
 reptile eagerly inquiring, " Is tomorrow come 
 yet? Is tomorrow come yet?" 
 
 The early history of Ireland is involved in 
 
 great obscurity, and it is impossible to distin- 
 guish fact from fiction in the tales of its early 
 historians. There is strong evidence, however, 
 that the Irish are descended from the Celts. 
 Strongbow, (the surname of the earl of Pem- 
 broke) at the request of Dermot Mc' Morrogh, 
 king of Leinster, invaded Ireland, and a great 
 part of the island was soon conquered by the 
 English, who by degrees became masters of the 
 whole country. A parliament was summoned 
 at Dublin, May 1st, 1536, which declared Hen- 
 ry VIII the supreme head on earth of the church 
 of Ireland, and annulled the papal power. 
 Every person who refused to take the oath of 
 supremacy, was declared guilty of high treason. 
 But, to resist the royal usurpations, confederacies 
 were formed and the Reformation was rendered 
 so odious to the Irish, that it made slow progress 
 among them. Though the liturgy of the church 
 of England was performed for the first time on 
 Easter Sunday, 1551, the bulk of the nation 
 still adhered steadfastly to their ancient faith, 
 and the cause of religion became the cause of 
 the nation. The attempts to force a people to 
 renounce the faith which they had received 
 from St. Patrick, and to receive a new system 
 of religion, with an English ritual, naturally 
 become blended with the national prejudices 
 against English oppression, and co-operated in 
 raising the insurrection of Tyrone. A general 
 system of rebellion to shake off the English 
 yoke, was organized in Ireland, about 1596; 
 and the most formidable of the rebel chiefs was 
 O 'Neil, who disdaining the title of earl of Ty- 
 rone, had assumed the rank and appellation of 
 king of Ulster, and received a supply of arms 
 and ammunition from Spain. This rebellion 
 was finally terminated by the submission of 
 O'Neil. 
 
 The conduct of James I, estranged the affec- 
 tions of the Irish, and, during the reign of 
 Charles I, a rebellion broke out which deluged 
 the country in blood. The cruelties of Crom 
 well toward Ireland are almost incredible. 
 20,000 Irishmen were sold as slaves, and 40,000 
 entered into foreign service, to escape from 
 tyranny at home. 
 
 On the death of the Protector, Richard Crom- 
 well confirmed his brother Henry in the gov- 
 ernment of Ireland, by the new title of lord- 
 lieutenant. Henry exerted himself with vigor 
 to support the tottering authority of his brother; 
 but, alter the abdication of Richard, Charles II 
 was proclaimed with every manifestation of joy 
 in all the great towns of Ireland. On the ac- 
 cession of James II to the throne of England, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 IRE 
 
 295 
 
 IRE 
 
 Ormand was succeeded in the government, of 
 Ireland, by the earl of Clarendon. The earl of 
 Tirconnel was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the army, and made independent of the lord- 
 lieutenant. This, and other proceedings in 
 favor of the Catholics, alarmed the Protestant 
 part of the kingdom, and most of the traders, 
 and those whose fortunes were transferable fled 
 from the country. The distracted state of this 
 unhappy kingdom, at the period of the revolu- 
 tion, in^lGSB, can hardly be described. The 
 Protestants in the north proclaimed William 
 and Mary. James, who had sailed from Brest, 
 with a large armament, landed at Kinsale, in 
 March, 1689. He was opposed by an English 
 army commanded by William in person. A 
 dreadful civil war took place, but at length, the 
 battle of the Boyne, on the 1st of July, 1690, 
 decided the fate of James, who fled to France. 
 The Irish subjects outlawed for the rebellion 
 of 16S8, amounted to 300,978, and their Irish 
 possessions comprised 1,600,000 acres. In 1796, 
 the injured Irish, denied the enjoyments of their 
 dearest rights, and condemned to political dis- 
 ability on account of professing the Catholic 
 religion, once more rebelled. The French fa- 
 vored them, but only a small French force ever 
 landed, and they surrendered to the superior 
 army of Cornwallis. The insurgents being ex- 
 cluded from all quarters, fled, and were pursued 
 with great slaughter. On the first of January, 
 1801, the union of Great Britain with Ireland 
 was effected. The political disabilities of the 
 Catholics have been recently removed, but still 
 the condition of Ireland is unhappy. 
 
 One cause of the distresses of Ireland, is absen- 
 teeism, the absence in England of great landed 
 proprietors, whose estates are underlet by rapa- 
 cious agents that grind the poor tenants without 
 mercy 
 
 In spite of religious intolerance and civil dis- 
 qualifications — of statutes which rendered com- 
 merce a crime, and laws which made industry 
 penal ; of abuses of power under William, and 
 of taxes quadrupled under the last of the Stuarts 
 and the first of the Brunswicks, still something 
 like a counterpoise was found to balance these 
 political evils, in the home residence of the edu- 
 cated gentry, and in the political bustle and ac- 
 tivity of an Irish parliament. As soon as the 
 positive calamities of war and confiscation ceas- 
 ed, as soon as an approach was made to Euro- 
 pean habits and policy, and industry was per- 
 mitted to find a scope and a reward for its ex- 
 ertions, the nation made a sudden and a rapid 
 progress in civilization and comfort, simply 
 
 through the efficiency of its own resources, and 
 the demands of its own market. It was in vain 
 that the taiismanic words " Irishmen" and "Pa- 
 pist" were employed to arm passion and preju- 
 dice against the country ; it was in vain that 
 commercial jealousy threw shackles round its 
 infant manufactures. In spite of these and 
 many other obstacles, the moral strength of a 
 country always distinguished for the natural 
 endowments of its population, rose superior to 
 the cruel pressure of its political inflictions; 
 and the domestic activity and intellectual im- 
 provement of the people — slow and limited as 
 they appear, when compared with the advances 
 of the sister kingdom — proceeded with a rapid- 
 ity little short of miraculous, under so stultifying 
 a system of legislation and government. It was 
 then that the light of national genius concen- 
 trated its long-scattered rays to a point, and 
 shining steadily from its proper focus, threw 
 out those inextinguishable sparks of moral lus- 
 tre, 
 
 " Which are wont to give 
 
 Light to a world, and make a nation live." 
 
 It was then that the powerful collision of active 
 ardent, and energetic minds produced that 
 brilliant burst of talent which, for something 
 more than a century, flung over the political 
 darkness of the land a splendor to which her 
 struggles and her misfortunes served only to 
 give a stronger relief and more brilliant effect. 
 It was then that, after ages of mental depres- 
 sion, the Irish intellect broke out, like the Irish 
 rebellion, " threescore thousand strong," when 
 none expected or were prepared for the splendid 
 irruption. The old mart of learning was re- 
 opened to the erudite of Europe, as in those 
 times when, if a sage was missing, it was said 
 " emandaius est ad disciplinam in Hibernia;" 
 and the rich stream of native humor which, 
 like a caverned river, had hitherto " kept the 
 noiseless tenor of its way," darkened by im- 
 pending shadows, now rushed forth with the 
 rapidity of a torrent, pure, sparkling, and 
 abundant, at the first vent afforded to its pro- 
 gress. 
 
 Even the arts, in these stirring times of social 
 concentration, awakened from their long and 
 deadly slumbers ; and the slowly reviving school 
 of painting in England received some of its most 
 noted disciples from Ireland, a country so little 
 adapted, by its miseries and its commotions, to 
 the cultivation of the most tranquil and medita- 
 tive of intellectual pursuits. 
 
 The absence of great proprietors in Ireland, 
 necessarily brings with it, or if not necessarily, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ISP 
 
 296 
 
 ITA 
 
 has actually brought with it the employment 
 of middle-men, which forms one standing and 
 regular Irish grievance. It is the common 
 method in Ireland to extort the last farthing 
 which the tenant is willing to give for land 
 rather than quit it, and the machinery by which 
 such a practice is carried into effect, is that of 
 the middle-man. He gives high prices that he 
 may obtain higher from the occupant ; more is 
 paid by the actual occupant than is consistent 
 with the preservation of the land; it is injured, 
 run out, and the most shocking consequences 
 ensue from it. There is little manufacture in 
 Ireland; the price of labor is low ; the demand 
 for labor irregular. If a poor man is driven, 
 by distress of rent, from his potatoe garden, he 
 has no other resource — all is lost; he will do 
 the impossible (as the French say) to retain it — 
 subscribe any bond, and promise any rent. The 
 middle-man has no character to lose ; and he 
 knew when he took up the occupation that it 
 was one with which pity had nothing to do. 
 On he drives, and backward the poor peasant 
 recedes, losing something at every step, till he 
 comes to the very brink of despair, and then 
 he recoils, and murders his oppressor, and is a 
 White Boy, or a Right Boy ; — and the soldier 
 shoots him, and the judge hangs him. 
 
 Ireland may yet be liberated, and raised to its 
 just rank among the nations of the earth ; but 
 not by the exertions — the public talk and clamor 
 of her politicians. They are rigid and inflexi- 
 ble in little things, but very flexible and ac- 
 commodating in great things. You would think, 
 to hear them, that the same planet could not 
 contain them and the oppressors of their coun- 
 try — perhaps not the same solar system. Yet 
 for money, claret, and patronage, they lend their 
 countenance, assistance, and friendship to her 
 sternest enemies. 
 
 IROQUOIS, or the Six Nations, a confedera- 
 cy of Indian nations, who supported the British 
 interest during the revolutionary war. They 
 were brave and heroic. 
 
 ISAAC, the son of Abraham. (See Abraham.) 
 
 ISMAIL, or Ismailow, a town in Russia, in 
 Bessarabia, on the N. side of the Danube, 33 
 miles from the Black Sea. It is memorable for 
 its siege, in 1790, by the Russians under Souva- 
 roff or Suwarrow. It was taken by a terrible 
 assault, on the 23d of December. Of the Turks 
 30,000 were massacred in cold blood, and 10,000 
 made prisoners. The Russians lost 5.000 men 
 on the day of capture, and twice that number in 
 previous operations. 
 
 ISPAHAN, or Spahawn, anciently Aspadona, 
 
 Independent 
 
 formerly the capital of Persia. At one time it is 
 said to have contained 1,000,000 inhabitants; 
 at present it has about 200,000. In 1387 the in- 
 habitants were massacred when the place was 
 taken by Timur Beg. It contains some hand- 
 some buildings, but retains few vestiges of its 
 former splendor. 
 
 ITALY, since the downfall of Rome, has 
 been divided into different states, and has lost 
 that power which it formerly enjoyed. Its his- 
 torical remains, its schools of art, its delicious 
 climate, give it an undying interest. It now 
 contains 21,400,000 inhabitants. 
 The following are its political divisions : 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 Kingdom of Sardinia, 
 States of the Church, 
 Grand-duchy of Tuscany, 
 Duchy of Parma, i 
 
 Duchy of Modena, with Massa and 
 
 Carrara, 
 Duchy of Lucca, 
 Principality of St. Marino, 
 Principality of Monaco, _, 
 
 Austrian Italy, (Venice, and Lom-"| 
 
 bardy), 
 French Italy, (Corsica), I Subject of 
 
 Swiss Italy, (canton of Tessin, part [Foreign Powers 
 
 of the Grisons and Valais), 
 English Italy, (group of Malta), J 
 
 Italy has borne, at different periods, the dif- 
 ferent names of Saturnia, ^Enotria, Hesperia, 
 Ausonia, Tyrrhenia. It has been called the 
 garden of Europe ; and the panegyric which 
 Pliny bestows upon it, does not seem in any 
 degree exaggerated. The ancient inhabitants 
 called themselves Aborigines, offspring of the 
 soil, and the country was soon after peopled by 
 colonies from Greece. Italy has been the 
 mother of arts as well as of arms, and the im- 
 mortal monuments which remain of the elo- 
 quence and poetical genius of its inhabitants 
 are universally known. The early part of the 
 history of this country, is, however, involved 
 in the greatest obscurity. The first light thrown 
 on this land of darkness was by the settlement 
 of Greek colonies in the south, where, eventu- 
 ally, a large tract of country was called Magna 
 Gra^cia. The annals of Rome are said to go 
 back 750 j r ears B. C. (See Rome.) 
 
 Italy continued subject to one power for more 
 than H00 years; until the fifth century, when 
 the Goths crossed the barriers of the Alps. To- 
 wards the year 560 A. D. the Lombards entered 
 the north of Italy, took Milan and Pavia, and 
 founded a kingdom which continued during 
 two centuries, until overthrown by Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 After his death Italy belonged to his succes- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ITA 
 
 297 
 
 JAC 
 
 sors on the imperial throne, but their tenure 
 was precarious ; the great barons laboring to 
 assert their independence, and the popes to ex- 
 tend their temporal dominions. The subsequent 
 history is little more than a succession of mili- 
 tary struggles, of little interest, until 960, when 
 Otho I repaired, in person, to the north of Italy, 
 granted municipal rights to the cities, and im- 
 proved the interior government in general. 
 The whole was united to the German empire ; 
 but from this compact fresh feuds and commo- 
 tions followed ; the Italian nobility were jealous 
 of their privileges ; conspiracies were formed, 
 detected, and suppressed, and no constant alle- 
 giance was exhibited to the German govern- 
 ment, or the magistracy put into authority by 
 it. A series of wars continued for several ages. 
 In the 14lh century, Italy was divided into the 
 kingdom of Naples, the estates of the Church, 
 Tuscany, Parma, and Lombardy, the Genoese 
 and the Venetian territories, and other petty 
 states. For two centuries the Venetians and 
 Genoese were the most considerable commer- 
 cial people in Europe, and Venice, in particu- 
 lar, possessed large foreign colonies ; and, in 
 1194, took Constantinople and held in sove- 
 reignty portions of what now constitutes Tur- 
 key in Europe and Greece. The foundation of 
 the temporal power of the popes was laid about 
 1080, by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, who 
 bequeathed a large portion of her dominions to 
 pope Gregory VII. After that time the popes 
 successively made great acquisitions of territo- 
 ry : but, in 1798, Rome was taken by Berthier, 
 and Bonaparte annexed the papal dominions to 
 France. They were, however, restored in 
 1814. (See articles, Genoa, Milan, Piedmont, 
 Rome, &c.) 
 
 SUCCESSION. A. P. 
 
 Odoacer, Chief of the Heruli 476 
 
 Theodorir, the Ostrogoth 493 
 
 Athalaric 526 
 
 Theodatus 534 
 
 Vitiges 536 
 
 Araric 540 
 
 Totila 541 
 
 Teias, the last of the Goths 553 
 
 Narses, governor 554 
 
 Alboin, the Lombard 5fi8 
 
 Cleophis 572 
 
 Interregnum of 12 years in which the Lom- / r 74 
 
 bards were governed by dukes. \ 
 
 Antharis 586 
 
 Agilulf 590 
 
 Adehvald, with his mother Theodelinda 616 
 
 Arivahi (126 
 
 Rotharis 638 
 
 Rodoald fi54 
 
 Arihert I 653 
 
 Pertharithus ) „_ 
 
 Gondibert \ 6C2 
 
 Grimoald 663 
 
 Garibald 672 
 
 Pertharithus, restored 673 
 
 Cunibert, his son 680 
 
 Cunibert, alone 691 
 
 Luipertus 701 
 
 Ragiinbertus 701 
 
 Anbert II 702 
 
 Alisprandus 712 
 
 Luitprandus 713 
 
 Hildebrand 742 
 
 Ratchis, duke of Friuli 744 
 
 Astulfus 750 
 
 Desiderius or Didier 756 
 
 In 774, Desiderius, the last of the Lombards, 
 was taken prisoner by Charlemagne ; and the 
 kingdom of Italy was united, first to France, 
 and afterwards to the Empire, till 888, when it 
 was separated from the latter, on the death of 
 Charles the Fat. 
 
 Guy and Berenger I 888 
 
 Lambert 896 
 
 Louis 899 
 
 Berenger 1 restored 904 
 
 Rodolpli, king of Burgundy 922 
 
 Hugh, king of Aries 926 
 
 Lothario 947 
 
 Berenger II 950 
 
 In 963, Berenger was deposed, by pope Leo 
 VIII, and next year the emperor Otho I reduced 
 Italy and reunited it to the empire ; to which it 
 continued nominally to belong till 1805, when 
 Bonaparte revived the ancient title of king of 
 Italy. 
 
 ITHACA, now Thiaki, an island in the guif 
 of Patras, belonging to the Ionian republic. 
 Population 8000. It is celebrated as the resi- 
 dence of Ulysses. 
 
 IVICA, Iviza, or Ibiza (anciently Ebusus) a 
 fertile and valuable island in the Mediterranean, 
 belonging to Spain. It contains 190 square 
 miles, and 21 ,094 inhabitants. It fell into the 
 hands of the Spaniards in 1294, and submitted 
 to Sir John Leake, with a British squadron, in 
 1706. It has generally followed the fortunes of 
 the neighboring islands, Majorca and Minorca. 
 
 J. 
 
 JACKSON, James, an officer in our revolu- 
 tionary army, was born in England, in 1757, 
 and settled in Georgia in 1772. He was en- 
 gaged in the attack on Savannah, w r hen but 
 nineteen years old, and a few years afterwards 
 was chosen brigade-major of the Georgia militia. 
 After the close of the war, throughout which he 
 displayed great gallantry and prudence, he 
 commenced the practice of law, and in 1783, 
 became a member of the legislature. In 1788 
 he was chosen governor of Georgia, but de 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 JAM 
 
 298 
 
 JAM 
 
 clined the honor, and was promoted to the rank 
 of major-general of the militia of the state. He 
 was afterwards chosen senator to Congress, and 
 died in Washington, Jan. 19, 1606. 
 
 JACOB, the son of Isaac, and the last of the 
 patriarchs. For his history the reader is re- 
 ferred to the Scriptures. 
 
 JAFFA , anciently Joppa, a town of Syria, in 
 the Pachalic of Damascus, 12 leagues N! W. of 
 Jerusalem. Population 3,650. It was taken hy 
 Bonaparte in 1799. 
 
 JAMAICA, one of the West India islands 
 belonging to Great Britain. It is about 150 
 miles long, and 40 broad ; and lies 30 leagues 
 west of Hay ti. It is less fertile than some other 
 of the West India islands, but is a rich and val- 
 uable country. It is subject to earthquakes. 
 Sugar, rum, molasses, indigo, coffee, cotton, 
 cocoa, pimento, and ginger are the most valua- 
 ole articles of export. The present population 
 is about 414,000 of whom 30,000 are free people 
 of color, and 37,000 whites. The island was 
 discovered by Columbus, May 3,1494. In 1655 
 it was taken from the Spanish by the English 
 under the command of Benn and Venables. In 
 1795 a war commenced between the maroons, 
 the runaways of the Spanish settlers, and the 
 white inhabitants, when the barbarous expedi- 
 ent of using bloodhounds being resorted to, for 
 the purpose of tracing the haunts of the negroes, 
 they were at last compelled to surrender at dis- 
 cretion to their enemies the whites. 
 
 JAMES I, king of Scotland, was born in 
 1394. At the age of eleven years, he was sent 
 to France, that he might escape the danger to 
 which he was exposed by the ambition of his 
 uncle, the duke of Albany ; but, falling into the 
 hands of the English, he and his retinue were 
 confined in the tower, where, however, the 
 young prince received an excellent education. 
 His talents were of a high order. Our distin- 
 guished countryman, Washington Irving, has 
 given an interesting account of him in one of 
 the papers of the Sketch Book, which we must 
 be permitted to condense and copy below : 
 
 " 1 visited the ancient keep of the castle, 
 where James the First of Scotland, the pride 
 and theme of Scottish poets and historians, was 
 for many years of his youth detained a prisoner 
 of state. It is a large gray tower, that has stood 
 the brunt of ages, and is still in good preserva- 
 tion. It stands on a mound which elevates it 
 above other parts of the castle, and a great flight 
 of steps into the interior. In the armory, which 
 is a Gothic hall, furnished with weapons of va- 
 rious kinds and ages, I was shown a coat of 
 
 armor hanging against the wall, which I was 
 told had once belonged to James. From hence 
 I was conducted up a staircase to a suite of 
 apartments of faded magnificence, hung with 
 storied tapestry, which formed his prison, and 
 the scene of that passionate and fanciful amour, 
 which has woven into the web of his story the 
 magical hues of poetry and fiction. 
 
 " The whole history of this amiable but un- 
 fortunate prince is highly romantic. The in 
 telligence of his capture, coming in the train of 
 many sorrows and disasters, proved fatal to his 
 unhappy father. 
 
 " The news, we are told, was brought to him 
 while at supper, and did so overwhelm him 
 with grief, that he was almost ready to give up 
 the ghost into the hands of the servants that 
 attended him. But being carried into his bed- 
 chamber, he abstained from all food, and in three 
 days died of hunger and grief at Rothesay. 
 
 " James was detained in captivity above eigh- 
 teen years ; but, though deprived of personal 
 liberty, he was treated with the respect due to 
 his rank. He was well learnt, we are told, to 
 fight with the sword, to joust, to tournay, to 
 wrestle, to sing and dance, he was an expert 
 mediciner, right crafty in playing both of lute 
 and harp, and sundry other instruments of mu- 
 sic, and was expert in grammar, oratory, and 
 poetry." 
 
 In prison he wrote the king's Quhair (Book.) 
 " The subject of the poem is his love for the 
 lady Jane Beaufort, daughter of the Earl of 
 Somerset, and a princess of the blood royal of 
 England, of whom he became enamored in the 
 course of his captivity." " His passion for the 
 lady Jane, as it was the solace of his captivity, 
 so it facilitated his release, it being imagined 
 by the Court, that a connection with the blood 
 royal of England would attach him to its own 
 interests. He was ultimately restored to his 
 liberty and crown, having previously espoused 
 the Lady Jane, who accompanied him to Scot- 
 land, and made him a most tender and devoted 
 wife. 
 
 " He found his kingdom in great confusion, 
 the feudal chieftains having taken advantage of 
 the troubles and irregularities of a long inter- 
 regnum, to strengthen themselves in their pos- 
 sessions, and place themselves above the power 
 of the laws. James sought to found the basis 
 of his power in the affections of his people. 
 He attached the lower orders to him by the re- 
 formation of abuses, the temperate urid equable 
 administration of justice, the encouragement of 
 the arts of peace, and the promotion of every 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 JAM 
 
 299 
 
 JAM 
 
 thing that could diffuse comfort, competency, 
 and innocent enjoyment, through the humblest 
 ranks of society. He mingled occasionally 
 among the common people in disguise ; visited 
 their firesides; entered into their cares, their 
 pursuits, and their amusements, informed him- 
 self of the mechanical arts, and how they could 
 best be patronized and improved ; and was thus 
 an all-pervading spirit, watching with a benevo- 
 lent eye over the meanest of his subjects. Hav- 
 ing in this generous manner made himself 
 strong in the hearts of the common people, he 
 turned himself to curb the power of the factious 
 nobility ; to strip them of those dangerous im- 
 munities which they had usurped; to punish 
 such as had been guilty of flagrant offences ; 
 and to bring the whole into proper obedience to 
 the crown. For some time they bore this with 
 ontward submission, but with secret impatience 
 and brooding resentment. A conspiracy was 
 at length formed against his life, at the head of 
 which was his own uncle, Robert Stewart, Earl 
 of Athol, who being too old himself for the per- 
 petration of the deed of blood, instigated his 
 grandson, Sir Robert Stewart, together with Sir 
 Robert Graham, and others of less note, to com- 
 mit the deed. They broke into his bed-cham- 
 ber at the Dominican convent near Perth, where 
 he was residing, and barbarously murdered him 
 by oft-repeated wounds. His faithful queen, 
 rushing to throw her tender body between him 
 and the sword, was twice wounded in the inef- 
 fectual attempts to shield him from the assas- 
 sin ; and it was not until she had been forcibly 
 torn from his person, that the murder was ac- 
 complished." 
 
 This tragedy was acted Feb. 20, 1437. When 
 the footsteps of the ruthless assassins were heard 
 approaching the door of the royal apartment, 
 Catharine Douglas, one of the queen's ladies, 
 secured it for a moment, by thrusting her arm 
 through the staple, and sustaining, with unwa- 
 vering fortitude, the shocks of the assailants, 
 till her arm was broken, and the door forced. 
 
 The sentiments with which Mr. Irving con- 
 cludes his sketch of James, are best conveyed 
 in his own beautiful language. " Others may 
 dwell on the illustrious deeds of James as a 
 warrior and a legislator ; but I have delighted 
 to view him merely as the companion of his 
 fellow men, the benefactor of the human race, 
 stooping from his high estate to sow the sweet 
 flowers of poetry and song in the paths of com- 
 mon life. He was the first to cultivate the vigor- 
 ous and hardy plant of Scottish genius, which 
 has since been so prolific of the most wholesome 
 26 
 
 and highly flavored fruit. He carried with him 
 into the sterner regions of the north, all the fer- 
 tilizing arts of southern refinement. He did 
 every thing in his power to win his country- 
 men to the gay, the elegant, and gentle arts, 
 which soften and refine the character of a peo- 
 ple, and wreathe a grace round the loftiness of 
 a proud and warlike spirit. He wrote many 
 poems, which, unfortunately for the fulness of 
 his fame, are now lost to the world ; one which 
 is still preserved, called " Christ's Kirk of the 
 Green," shows how diligently he had made 
 himself acquainted with the rustic sports and 
 pastimes, which constitute such a source of 
 kind and social feeling among the Scottish 
 peasantry; and with what simple and happy 
 humor he could enter into their enjoyments. 
 He contributed greatly to improve the national 
 music ; and traces of his tender sentiment, and 
 elegant taste, are said to exist in those witching 
 airs, still piped among the wild mountains and 
 lonely glens of Scotland. He has thus con- 
 nected his image with whatever is most gracious 
 and endearing in the national character ; he has 
 embalmed his memory in song, and floated his 
 name down to after ages in the rich stream of 
 Scottish melody. The recollection of these 
 things was kindling at my heart, as I paced the 
 silent scene of his imprisonment. I have visited 
 Vancluse with as much enthusiasm as a pil- 
 grim would visit the shrine at Loretto ; but I 
 have never felt more poetical devotion than 
 when contemplating the old tower and the little 
 garden at Windsor, and musing over the ro- 
 mantic loves of the lady Jane, and the Royal 
 Poet of Scotland." 
 
 JAMES VI, king of Scotland, and I of Eng 
 land, was the son of the unfortunate Mary, by 
 her cousin Lord Darnley, and was born at Ed- 
 inburgh, in June, 1556. He had Buchanan 
 for his instructer, who, when accused of hav- 
 ing made his pupil a pedant, replied, " that he 
 could make nothing else of him." In 1589, 
 he married Anne, daughter of Frederick, king 
 of Denmark, whom he brought from Copen- 
 hagen. In 1600, while hunting, an attempt, 
 was made to seize his person by the earl of 
 Gowrie, who, with his brother, was slain, while 
 the king escaped unhurt. In 1603, he succeed- 
 ed to the English throne ; and, the year follow- 
 ing, the Hampton court conference, between 
 the divines of the established church and the 
 Puritans, was held in his presence. The next 
 year the gunpowder plot was discovered. The 
 condemnation and death of Raleigh was the 
 greatest blot on the character and reign of James, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 JAN 
 
 300 
 
 JAY 
 
 who also lessened his popularity by undertak- 
 ing the defence of the Protestants of Germany, 
 and then abandoning their cause. He died in 
 March, 1625. 
 
 JAMES II, king of England, succeeded his 
 brother Charles II, in 1685. A conspiracy set 
 on foot by the duke of Monmouth, was the 
 first disturbance in his reign. Monmouth had 
 ever been the darling of the people, and some 
 averred that Charles had married his mother, 
 and owned his legitimacy on his death-bed. The 
 duke of Argyle in the north, seconded his views, 
 and, with Monmouth, planned a double insur- 
 rection, but both were defeated and executed. 
 James suspended the exercise of the protestant 
 religion, acknowledged the supremacy of the 
 pope, and allowed the Jesuits to establish them- 
 selves in the kingdom. The indignation of the 
 people was now roused, and they hailed with 
 joy the arrival of the prince of Orange, before 
 whom James fled. He was hospitably received 
 by the king of France, who aided him in his 
 subsequent unsuccessful attempts to regain his 
 throne. James died at St. Germain in France, 
 1701. 
 
 JAMESTOWN, Virginia, situated on an isl- 
 and in James river, 32 miles above its mouth. 
 It was the first English settlement in Virginia, 
 and was established in 1608. It is now nearly 
 deserted. 
 
 JANIZARIES ; these formidable foot soldiers, 
 at first the guards of the Ottoman monarch s, 
 and for a long time the arbiters of their fate, 
 were finally broken up in 1826, the date of 
 their last rebellion. They were established by 
 Amurath I , and originally consisted of the fin- 
 est looking Christian slaves, educated in the 
 Mohammedan religion and arms. When first 
 formed, this new militia was consecrated in the 
 presence of the sultan, by a dervish, who stand- 
 ing in the front of their ranks, stretched the 
 sleeve of his gown over the head of the foremost 
 soldier, and delivered his blessing in these words 
 — " Let them be called Janizaries (yingi chert, 
 or new soldiers) ; may their countenances be 
 ever bright ; their hand victorious ; their swords 
 keen ; may their spear always hang over the 
 heads of their enemies ; and, wheresoever they 
 go, may they return with a white face.' White 
 and black face are common and proverbial ex- 
 pressions of praise and reproach in the Turkish 
 language. 
 
 JANUS, a deity believed by the Romans to 
 have the double office of opening and shutting 
 the gate of heaven. He was represented with 
 two faces, his temple at Rome was built in the 
 
 form of a square, and was opened in time of 
 war, and shut in time of peace. 
 
 JAPAN ; an empire to the east of China, 
 composed of a great number of islands. The 
 principal are Niphon, Kiusin or Ximo, and 
 Xicoco, or Sicof. The Japanese have nominal- 
 ly two emperors, one is the Dairi, the supreme 
 pontiff, and oracle of religion, and the other the 
 Cubo, a secular emperor, who is invested with 
 absolute authority. His residence is at Jeddo, 
 a large city, the capital of the empire, in the 
 island of Niphon. The Japanese are enterpris- 
 ing, hardy, and warlike, but treacherous and 
 proud. Their religion is idolatrous. Francis 
 Xavier established a catholic congregation here, 
 which was destroyed by the Dutch, in 1637. 
 The soil is fertile and the productions various. 
 The silks, cottons, porcelain, lackered wares, 
 &c. are in high repute. The population of 
 Japan is about 225 millions. 
 
 JASON, son of iEson, king of Solchos, in 
 Thessaly, famous for his share in the Argo- 
 nautic expedition. 
 
 JAVA ; a large island in the eastern seas, 
 642 miles long, and 128 broad. In 1815 the 
 population amounted to 5,000,000. Java was 
 discovered by the Portuguese in 1510. But the 
 Dutch obtained their possessions, and the island 
 was divided between them, and the native prin- 
 ces. It is exceedingly fertile, producing rice, 
 cotton, coffee, pepper, sugar, drugs of all kinds, 
 and various fruits. The coffee of this island is 
 renowned. There are also mines of gold, rubies, 
 diamonds, and emeralds. Batavia is a strongly 
 fortified city, the centre of the Dutch East In- 
 dia Company, and the residence of a governor. 
 In 1811 the island was taken by the British, but 
 it was restored by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
 The natives are much oppressed, and have sev- 
 eral times revolted. 
 
 J AY, John, an American statesman and jurist, 
 was born in the city of New York, Dec. 1, 1745, 
 O. S., and was educated at King's (now Colum- 
 bia) college. In 1768, he was admitted to prac- 
 tice law, and in 1774 was chosen a delegate to 
 the first provincial congress which met at Phil- 
 adelphia. Two years afterwards he was chosen 
 president of congress. In 1778 he was chosen 
 chief justice of New York, the constitution of 
 which he had been instrumental in framing. 
 The next year he was sent on a mission to 
 Spain, to procure aid and a recognition of our in- 
 dependence. In 1782 he was one of the commis- 
 sioners appointed to negotiate a treaty of peace 
 with Great Britain. On his return, Mr. Jay was 
 placed at the head of the department for foreign 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 JEF 
 
 301 
 
 JER 
 
 affairs, in which office he continued until ap- 
 pointed Chief Justice of the United States. In 
 ]784 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to 
 Great Britain, and on his return entered on the 
 duties of office of governor of the state of New 
 York, to which he had been elected during his 
 absence. He died May 17, 1829. 
 
 JEFFERSOxN, Thomas, the third president 
 of the United States of America, was born at 
 Shadwell, Virginia, April 2, 1743, O. S. He 
 spent two years at William and Mary's college, 
 and then commenced the study of the law, 
 which he was admitted to practice in 17G7. In 
 1769 he took his seat in the general assembly 
 of Virginia, which the governor of Virginia dis- 
 solved. He was then elected to fill the place of 
 Peyton Randolph in the congress, and assumed 
 his seat in that body, June 21, 1775. He was 
 one of the committee appointed to draw up a 
 Declaration of Independence, and that docu- 
 ment, with a few alterations, is his own compo- 
 sition. June 1, 1779, Mr. Jefferson was chosen 
 governor of Virginia, but, after two years, he 
 resigned, being of opinion that a military man 
 would be better suited for the emergencies 
 of the times. On July 5, 1784, Mr. Jefferson 
 sailed for Paris, having been appointed by con- 
 gress a third commissioner to negotiate treaties 
 of commerce with other nations, Mr. Adams 
 and Dr. Franklin being the other two. He was 
 actively engaged until 1789 when he returned 
 to the United States and was appointed Secre- 
 tary of State. Dec. 1st, 1 790, he resigned this 
 office, and lived in retirement until 1797, when 
 he was chosen Vice President of the United 
 States. In 1801 he was chosen president by a 
 majority of one, Mr. Adams being his competi- 
 tor. He filled the office of chief magistrate for 
 eight years, when he retired to his seat at Mon- 
 ticello, where he died on the 4th of July, 1826, 
 the same day on which Mr. Adams expired. 
 He made himself known as an author in 1781, 
 by his Notes on Virginia. In private life he 
 was hospitable, and pleasing in his manners; 
 in public, the unyielding, sagacious and tal- 
 ented leader of the demorcratic party. A monu- 
 ment of his enterprise and benevolence remains 
 in the college established at Charlottesville, in 
 which he filled the office of rector for some years. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, baron Wem, was born 
 at Acton in Denbighshire. He was not regu- 
 larly admitted to the bar, but being at Kings- 
 ton assizes in the year of the plague, 1666, 
 when there were scarcely any barrister's pres- 
 ent, he was permitted to plead, and from that 
 time continued to do so, without having his 
 
 title questioned. In 1683 he was made chief 
 justice of the King's Bench. At the accession 
 of James II he was created baron Jeffreys of 
 Wem, in the county of Salop; and, on the sup- 
 pression of the duke of Monmouth's rebellion, 
 he was sent to try the prisoners in the west, 
 where he committed the most shocking cruel- 
 ties, for which, at his return, he was constituted 
 lord chancellor of England. When the prince 
 of Orange arrived, Jeffreys, knowing his unpop- 
 ularity, endeavoured to escape in the disguise 
 of a seaman, but was detected in Wapping, car- 
 ried before the council, by the mob, and com- 
 mitted to the Tower, where he died April 18, 
 1689. 
 
 JENA, a town of Saxe-Weimar, in Thurin- 
 gia, containing 5,000 inhabitants, memorable 
 for the battle between the French and Prus- 
 sians, on the 14th of October, 1806. The em- 
 peor Napoleon headed the French troops, and 
 prince Hohenlohe the Prussians. The battle 
 was sanguinary in the extreme ; 250,000 or 
 300,000 men, of which the two armies were 
 composed, with 700 or 800 pieces of artillery , 
 scattered death in every direction, and exhibited 
 one of the most awful scenes recorded in his- 
 tory. The result was decisive in favor of 
 the French. The Prussians lost, according to 
 the bulletins of the French, 20,000 killed and 
 wounded, and from 30,000 to 40,000 prisoners, 
 with 300 pieces of cannon, 60 standards, and 
 immense magazines of w r arlike stores and pro- 
 visions. 
 
 JEROME of Prague, a Bohemian reformer, 
 was the scholar of Wickliffe, and John Huss, 
 and began to publish their doctrines. In 1415, 
 he was examined before the council of Con- 
 stance, when John Huss was in prison. He 
 contrived, however, to escape, but was taken, 
 delivered into the hands of a magistrate, and 
 burned. May 30, 1416. 
 
 JERUSALEM, or HIEROSLYMA, (in He- 
 brew, Salem, in Turkish, Solyman) a celebrated 
 city of Palestine, subject to the pacha of Damas- 
 cus. Its environs are barren and mountainous ; 
 and the town irregularly built. The number of 
 inhabitants is 25,000, 1300 being Mohamme- 
 dans, and 4000 Jews. There are 61 Christian 
 convents in the city. The church of the Holy 
 Sepulchre has been an object of veneration and 
 curiosity for 18 centuries. The temple of the 
 Mohammedans is a splendid edifice. Melchise- 
 dek is called the founder and king of Jerusa- 
 lem. It was a long time in the hands of the Jeb- 
 usites from whom king David took it. Solomon 
 built the temple at Jerusalem. After his death 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 JER 
 
 302 
 
 JES 
 
 Sesostris, king of Egypt, took the city, and 
 plundered it, during Rehoboam's reign. In 
 short, it was five times taken. Its most mem- 
 orable siege was that by Titus, B. C. 70, when 
 the city and the temple were entirely destroyed, 
 and 110,UCu persons are said to have perished, 
 and 97,000 to have been made prisoners, and 
 afterwards either sold as slaves, or wantonly 
 exposed, for the sport of their cruel victors, to 
 the fury of wild beasts. Millman, the historian 
 of the Jews, thus eloquently describes the de- 
 struction of the temple. " It was an appalling 
 spectacle to the Roman, what was it to the Jew ? 
 The whole summit of the hill which command- 
 ed the city blazed like a volcano. One after 
 another the buildings fell in, with a tremen- 
 dous crash, and were swallowed up in the fiery 
 abyss. The roofs of cedar were like sheets of 
 flame ; the gilded pinnacles shone like spikes of 
 red light ; the gate towers sent up tall columns 
 of flame and smoke. The neighbouring hills 
 were lighted up ; and dark groups of people 
 were seen watching in horrible anxiety the pro- 
 gress of the destruction : the walls and heights 
 of the upper city were crowded with faces, 
 some pale with the agony of despair, others 
 scowling unavailing vengeance. The shouts 
 of the Roman soldiery, as they ran to and fro, 
 and the howlings of the insurgents who were 
 perishing in the flames, mingling with the roar- 
 ing of the conflagration, and the thundering 
 sound of falling timbers. The echoes of the 
 mountains replied, or brought back the shrieks 
 of the people on the heights : all along the 
 walls resounded screams and wailings ; men 
 who were expiring with famine, rallied their 
 remaining strength to utter a cry of anguish 
 and desolation. 
 
 " The slaughter within was even more dread- 
 ful than the spectacle from without. Men and 
 women, old and young, insurgents and priests, 
 those who fought and those who entreated 
 mercy were hewn down in indiscriminate car- 
 nage. The numbers of the slain exceeded 
 that of the slayers. The legionaries had to 
 clamber over heaps of dead, to carry on the 
 work of extermination. John, at the" head of 
 some of his troops, cut his way through, first 
 into the outer court of the temple, afterwards 
 into the upper city. Some of the priests upon 
 the roof wrenched off the gilded spikes with 
 their sockets of lead, and used them as missiles 
 against the Romans below. Afterwards they 
 fled to a part of the wall, about fourteen feet 
 wide : they were soon summoned to surrender; 
 but two of them, Mair, son of Belgo, and Jo- 
 
 seph, son of Delia, plunged headlong into the 
 flames !" 
 
 In the 7th and 8th centuries, the crusaders 
 contended fiercely for the possession of Jeru- 
 salem, and it was taken by Godfrey of Bou- 
 illon. The Christians founded a kingdom there 
 which was ended by the Turks in 1187. 
 
 JESUITS, The ; the religious order of the 
 Jesuits was founded by a military gentleman of 
 Biscay named Ignatius Loyola. The order was 
 sometimes called Loyolists, and sometimes Ini- 
 ghists, from the founder's Spanish name, Inigo 
 de Cyuipuscoa. Ignatius assembled at Rome 
 ten of his companions, chosen, for the most part, 
 from the University of Paris, in the year 1538. 
 He submitted the plan of his institution, which 
 he said was inspired by divinity, to Pope Paul 
 
 A committee appointed by that pontiff to ex- 
 amine the character of the institution, declared 
 it inimical to the interests of the church, as well 
 as unnecessary. The opposition to the establish- 
 ment of the order was overcome by the Loyo- 
 lites agreeing in addition to the three vows of 
 poverty, celibacy, and monastic obedience, to 
 take an oath of submission to the pope, agree- 
 ing to go whithersoever he should direct, and 
 to claim nothing for their support from the holy 
 see. 
 
 In the very charter, however, by which the 
 followers of Ignatius bound themselves to the 
 interests of the pope, they agreed blindly to 
 obey their general. The pope finally confirmed 
 the institution by a bull or decree, in the year 
 1540. The founder of the order of Jesuits being 
 originally an uneducated soldier, it is supposed 
 that he was a mere tool in the hands of artful 
 men, and that he was not in reality the author 
 of the writings which bear his name. The order 
 was confirmed under the title of the " Company 
 of Jesus." 
 
 At first the number of members was limited 
 to sixty, but this restriction was removed, and 
 the Jesuits multiplied rapidly. In the year 
 1710, the order had 24 professed houses; 59 
 houses of probation ; 340 residences ; 612 col 
 leges; 200 missions ; 150 seminaries and board 
 ing schools ; and consisted of 19,998 Jesuits. 
 The code of laws by which the Jesuits were 
 governed was perfected by Layner and Aqua- 
 viva, who succeeded Loyola as generals of the 
 order, and were possessed of far more talent 
 than their predecessor. 
 
 Many causes contributed to ensure the sue 
 cess of the institution. The Jesuits were re- 
 quired to be more active than other monks, hav- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 JES 
 
 303 
 
 JES 
 
 ing little to do with the usual monastic func- 
 tions. They were soldiers devoted to the ser- 
 vice of God and the pope. They cultivated 
 the acquaintance of the great, and were deeply 
 imbued with the spirit of intrigue. Loyola 
 made the government of the institution purely 
 monarchical. The general was chosen for life 
 by deputies from the different provinces. His 
 power was absolute, and no case and no indi- 
 vidual were exempt from it. The general had a 
 despotic power over the members of the institu- 
 tion ; a much greater power than the head of 
 any monastic order had ever before exercised. 
 The Jesuits were obliged to obey their general, 
 not only in outward observances, but to him 
 they submitted the direction of their minds. 
 Every novice was obliged, every six months, 
 to manifest his conscience to his superior or to 
 some one appointed by him ; and these novices 
 were closely watched by others of the order, 
 who were directed to give notice to the general 
 of any thing important. 
 
 The heads of the several houses were obliged 
 to transmit frequent reports of the character and 
 conduct of the departments over which they 
 presided, to the superior, and these reports were 
 carefully kept and arranged, that the general 
 might refer at once to the account of particular 
 houses at any period. The provincials and 
 heads of departments of the order transmitted 
 full and minute accounts of the civil state of 
 the respective countries in which they resided. 
 
 The number of reports annually received was 
 6584, or 177 reports to each province of which 
 there were 37. The education of youth was 
 an object which the Jesuits were particularly 
 anxious to promote and direct, and the business 
 of education was soon almost entirely conduct- 
 ed by them. In spite of their vow of poverty, 
 they contrived to amass vast possessions, and in 
 the East and West Indies carried on a very lu- 
 crative commerce. 
 
 They were the confessors to monarchs and 
 men of rank, and the influence they acquired 
 was very great. They sought to acquire and 
 enlarge property, and in South America, being 
 possessed of wealthy dominions, they ruled over 
 some hundred thousand subjects, as monarchs. 
 They favored the passions of mankind by sanc- 
 tioning unbridled license of manners, by the 
 moral code they taught. Regular and severe 
 in their own habits, they were enabled to make 
 a selfish use of the irregularities they counte- 
 nanced. 
 
 The principal end aimed at by the Jesuits, 
 was the establishment of the doctrines of the 
 26* 
 
 Romish Church, and they are said to have 
 shrunk from no crime which could further their 
 endeavors. They were not unacquainted with 
 the persuasive power of the tortures of the in- 
 quisition, in making proselytes. One of their 
 most noted missionaries was Francis Xavier, 
 called the " apostle of India." He sailed for 
 the Portuguese settlements in India, in 1542, 
 and soon spread the doctrines of the Romish 
 church over the continent and surrounding isl- 
 ands. 
 
 It is not our intention to detail the proceed- 
 ing of the Jesuits in the process of making for- 
 eign proselytes, nor the controversies to which 
 it gave rise. They were accused of making 
 compromises with some sects, permitting them 
 to retain profane customs and improper rites, 
 in consideration of their publicly embracing the 
 doctrines of the Romish church. As we "have 
 before hinted, it is quite as probable that as 
 
 any- 
 
 many converts were made by terror as by mild- 
 ness, since the Jesuits were willing to do 
 thing to maintain a show of success. 
 
 They took possession of the fertile province 
 of Paraguay, in the 17th century, and labored 
 to disseminate military arts and improvements 
 among the Indians. They introduced the com- 
 forts of civilization among the inhabitants, and 
 thus in the first place gained their affection and 
 esteem. Proceeding in this manner, they grad 
 ually strengthened their influence, so that a few 
 priests readily ruled some hundred thousand 
 Indians. 
 
 But these priests did not maintain the purity 
 of conduct, which they had given reason at first 
 to suppose would be their constant guide in all 
 their actions. They soon manifested schemes 
 of the most daring ambition and insatiable ava- 
 rice. They yearly sent home to the European 
 Jesuits, immense quantities of gold, which 
 they procured principally from Paraguay. They 
 armed the Indians, and excited them to hatred 
 against the Spaniards and Portuguese, evident- 
 ly showing their intentions of making a separate 
 sovereignty of Paraguay. 
 
 In 1750, the courts of Madrid and Lisbon 
 entered into a treaty for fixing the boundaries 
 of their respective possessions, in South Amer- 
 ica. When this treaty came to be executed in 
 the year 1752, the Jesuits opposed it, and an- 
 imated the Indians strenuously to resist the 
 Portuguese and Spaniards, in the war which 
 followed. The disgrace of the Jesuits at the 
 Portuguese Courts originated in their conduct 
 on this occasion. 
 
 The Jesuits had no particular habit. They 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 JE9 
 
 304 
 
 JES 
 
 were divided into five classes; professed fa- 
 thers, spiritual coadjutors, approved scholars, lay 
 brothers, also termed temporal coadjutors, and 
 novices. Some writers add a sixth class, called 
 adjuncts, which are said to have been numer- 
 ous, distinguished by different garments, and 
 incorporated with the other classes. The pro- 
 fessed father* publicly took the three vows of 
 their order, and the fourth regarding obedience 
 to the pope, missions, &c. 
 
 The spiritual coadjutors made public vows of 
 poverty, submission and celibacy, but omitted 
 the vow of obedience to the head of the church. 
 Approved scholars were those who after a novi- 
 ciate of two years, were admitted, and had 
 declared the three religious vows, but had not 
 made them solemnly and publicly. These ap- 
 proved scholars were on their way to become 
 spiritual coadjutors, but were only admitted to 
 that degree, and the degree of professed fathers, 
 after two years' noviciate, seven years' study, 
 seven years' regency, an additional year of no- 
 viciate, and thirty-three years of age, at which 
 time of life our Savior was crucified. The 
 vows were binding on the part of the scholars, 
 but the general could dispense with them if he 
 saw proper. 
 
 The order was divided into assistances, the 
 assistances into provinces, and the provinces 
 again into houses. The general resided at 
 Rome, was invested with absolute authority for 
 life, and had under him five assistants, named 
 from the kingdom or country to which they 
 belonged. These were the assistants of Italy, 
 France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. These 
 assistants put their departments in the way of 
 preparing and forwarding their affairs. 
 
 Each province had four sorts of houses : The 
 professed houses, which had no lands connected 
 with them ; colleges, where instruction was given 
 in the sciences ; residences, where people em- 
 ployed in any thing connected with confessions, 
 preaching, or missions, resided, and the houses 
 of the novices. Some of the buildings appro- 
 priated to instruction were called seminaries, 
 in which young Jesuits went through a course 
 of theology and philosophy. Each province 
 was governed by a provincial, and each house 
 by a superior, who was called Rector in the col- 
 leges, but superior elsewhere. 
 
 Members of this order could receive no pre- 
 ferment, except it was enjoined upon them by 
 the pope, who did so in many instances, eight 
 cardinals having been chosen from the Jesuits. 
 When Henry IV, of France, was assassinated 
 by Jean Catel, a Jesuitical scholar, this act and 
 
 the writings of Guignard, one of the order, in 
 favor of regicide, caused them to be expelled 
 by several parliaments, and denounced as cor- 
 rupters of youth and enemies of government. 
 
 Louis XIII again countenanced them, and 
 Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIV showed 
 them favor. In the reign of the latter monarch, 
 they obtained the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, in favor of the Protestants. They 
 gained an almost complete triumph over their 
 enemies, the Jansenists, when among other 
 things, their refusal to administer the sacra- 
 ment to the Jansenists, created a turn of the 
 tide against them, which ended in their dissolu- 
 tion. 
 
 The Jesuits were tried before the grand 
 chamber of the parliament of Paris, and lost 
 their case, which grew out of a desire to com- 
 pound their debts, when, having carried on 
 great commerce in Martinico, they had sus- 
 tained heavy losses by war. An examination 
 into their own books, only proved the charges 
 against them. Professing poverty, they were 
 found to possess riches ; pretending to modera- 
 tion and justice, they were convicted of incul- 
 cating principles which endangered the well 
 being of the king and realm. 
 
 The Jesuits were expelled from Portugal in 
 1759; from France in 1764; and their society 
 was abolished by pope Clement XIV, in 1773. 
 Had they adhered to the principles they pro- 
 fessed, in the outset, and merely aimed at civil 
 izing and converting savages, and increasing 
 knowledge at home, the institution would have 
 been as justly celebrated, as it is now de- 
 nounced for ambition, avarice, cruelty, and 
 corruption. 
 
 JESUS, called also CHRIST (the anointed), 
 was born of the Virgin Mary, at Bethlehem, in 
 the 12th year of the consulate of Augustus, 
 four or five years before the commencement of 
 the vulgar era. Angels had announced his birth 
 as tidings of great joy to mankind. He was 
 circumcised upon the 8th day. Three Magi, 
 learned in the science of astronomy, having 
 perceived in the firmament a singular star y 
 knew that it was the miraculous luminary of 
 which the prophet Balaam had spoken, and 
 immediately left the east, and journeyed to 
 Bethlehem to do him homage, and present 
 their offerings. Joseph, the husband of Mary, 
 having received divine warnings and directions 
 in a dream, carried the infant and his mother 
 into Egypt, to escape the fury of Herod, who 
 ordered an inhuman massacre of all the child- 
 ren in the land. After the death of Herod, the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 JOA 
 
 305 
 
 JOH 
 
 parents of Jesus dwelt at Nazareth, and they 
 brought him, every year, to Jerusalem, to the 
 feast of the Passover. When he was but twelve 
 years old, Joseph and Mary found him, after an 
 absence from them of three days, in the Temple, 
 seated in the midst of the doctors, listening to 
 them, and propounding questions. All who 
 heard him were filled with admiration at the 
 wisdom of his answers. 
 
 Jesus commenced his public life in the thir- 
 tieth year of his age. For the various acts of it 
 the reader is referred to the New Testament. 
 The close of his life affectingly displayed the 
 love of God for men. On the eve of his death, 
 after having supped with his disciples, he insti- 
 tuted the Eucharist, and, having been betrayed 
 by Judas, whose designs he had explained to 
 one of his disciples, he suffered himself to be 
 taken and bound, condemned to death before 
 the Jewish tribunal, scourged and crowned with 
 thorns, and crucified upon Mount Calvary. The 
 body of our Lord was placed in a sepulchre of 
 stone, sealed and guarded by the Jews, but on 
 the third day, according to prediction, his resur- 
 rection from the grave took place. He dwelt 
 upon the earth forty days, which he passed in 
 the company of his disciples, teaching them 
 how to spread the light of his pure religion 
 through the nations of the earth. On the forti- 
 eth day he ascended to heaven in the presence 
 of more than five hundred of his disciples, 
 where he is seated at the right hand of the 
 Father. 
 
 JEWS (See Hebrews). 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, (Jeanne <TArc), called the 
 Maid of Orleans, was born of low parentage at 
 Domremig, a village on the borders of Lor- 
 raine. When the affairs of France were in a 
 deplorable state, and the city of Orleans was so 
 closely besieged by the duke of Bedford that 
 its fall appeared inevitable, Joan pretended to 
 have received a divine commission to expel the 
 invaders. At this time, a belief in the super- 
 natural endowments was by no means uncom- 
 mon, and, far from being confined to the lower 
 classes, pervaded the minds of the loftiest and 
 most pretending. Joan, on being introduced to 
 king Charles VII, offered to raise the siege of 
 Orleans, and conduct her prince to Rheims, 
 there to be crowned with the usual solemnities ; 
 at the same time demanding for herself a con- 
 secrated sword, which had long hung suspended 
 in the church of St. Catharine. Her request 
 was granted, and she fulfilled her promises, 
 entered Orleans in triumph, and appeared, clad 
 in a splendid suit of armor, at the coronation of 
 
 Charles, which took place in the Cathedral of 
 Rheims. The gallant maid, her mission done, 
 now sought to retire into private life, but she 
 was urged to stay. She yielded to the general 
 wish with fatal facility — fatal, because, having 
 been taken with the garrison of Compeigne, 
 she was, to the disgrace of Bedford and the 
 English, condemned to death, and expired at 
 the stake, in the market place of Rouen, May 
 30, 1431. She was never a servant, as English 
 writers have represented ; and was a lovely 
 girl of eighteen, when she first sought an audi- 
 ence of Charles. An authentic portrait, yet 
 extant, shows that she possessed a face and 
 figure of exquisite loveliness; a countenance to 
 which a beaming eye, and a tender expression 
 of melancholy, imparted an interest, which 
 rendered her fascination irresistible. 
 
 JOHN I, king of England, the youngest son 
 of Henry II, by Eleanor of Guienne, ascended 
 the throne in 1199. The first act of his reign 
 was to secure the provinces on the continent, 
 which had revolted in favor of young Arthur. 
 his nephew, whom he murdered with his own 
 hand in prison. John having resisted the pope's 
 nomination of Stephen Langton to the see of 
 Canterbury, the pope revenged himself by giv- 
 ing away his kingdom to the king of France. 
 This circumstance created a war, and John 
 advanced to Dover with 00,000 men, to meet 
 the French king, who was preparing an army 
 to take possession of England. In this posture 
 of affairs, the pope, whose high authority in 
 temporal as well as spiritual concerns, was con- 
 sidered to be then almost omnipotent, intimated 
 to John, by his legate, that there was bu£ one 
 way to secure himself from the threatened dan- 
 ger : which was, to put himself entirely under 
 the papal protection, and to perform whatever 
 the pope should command. Accordingly, John 
 took the most extraordinary oath recorded in 
 history, in the presence of his subjects, upon 
 his knees, and with his hands held up, between 
 those of the legate. By this most scandalous 
 concession, John once more averted the threat- 
 ened blow : but he had now incurred the detes- 
 tation of his subjects. 
 
 The barons of England formed a confederacy 
 against him, and compelled him, on the 19th 
 of June, 1215, to sign that famous bulwark of 
 English liberty , the Magna Charta. John, how 
 ever, refused to be governed by this charter 
 This produced a second civil war, in which the 
 barons had recourse to the king of France for 
 assistance. John directed his rout toward Lin- 
 colnshire with an army, but being obliged to 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 JOH 
 
 306 
 
 JOS 
 
 keep too close to the sea-shore, and not being 
 apprised of the influx of the tide at a particular 
 place, he lost all his carriages, treasure, and 
 baggage. Grief for the loss he had sustained, 
 threw him into a fever, of which he died, at 
 Newark, in the 51st year of his age, and the 
 18th of his detested reign, A. D. 1216. 
 
 JOHN, Sobieski, or John III, king of Poland, 
 was born in 1629, and distinguishea himself in 
 arms, particularly by his brilliant victory over 
 the Turks at Choczim, and by his repulse of 
 the same enemies when they threatened Vienna 
 in 1683. He died in 1696. 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, L. L. D., one of the 
 most eminent literary men of the 18th century, 
 was born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, in 1709, 
 and was the son of a bookseller. He entered 
 Pembroke college at the age of nineteen, and 
 passed three years there without taking a de- 
 gree. For some years after leaving college, he 
 was unsettled in his views, which, however, 
 chiefly turned to literature. In 1735, he mar- 
 ried Mrs. Porter, a mercer's widow of twice his 
 own age, probably for her fortune of £800, 
 although he describes the affair as a " love 
 match on both sides." In 1737, he came to 
 London in company with David Garrick, who 
 had been one of his pupils, to seek his fortune. 
 Here he supported himself by his pen, his first 
 publication in London being a poem in imita- 
 tion of one of Juvenal's satires. He was for 
 many years a contributor to the Gentlemans' 
 Magazine. In 1747, he issued his plans for an 
 English Dictionary, a work which, when pub- 
 lished, folly equalled the high expectations 
 which had been formed of it. His periodical 
 papers, the Rambler, and Idler, displayed in a 
 favorable light, the talents of the author. The 
 moderate success of the tragedy of Irene con- 
 vinced Dr. Johnson that he was incapable of 
 producing dramas which would reflect honor 
 on his pen. His fine romance of Rasselas, 
 Prince of Abyssinia, was written in the even- 
 ings of one week to defray his mother's funeral 
 expenses. In 1762, he received a government 
 pension of £300 per annum. He published 
 some political pamphlets, which . however, do 
 not display very great argumentative powers. 
 His last undertaking, the Lives of the Poets, 
 was completed in 1781. He died December 
 13th, 1784, and was interred in Westminster 
 Abbey, where a statue is erected to his memory. 
 His biography, by his friend Boswell, is one of 
 the most amusing works of the kind ever writ- 
 ten, and still continues to enjoy high popul- 
 arity. 
 
 JONES, John Paul, was the son of a gar^ 
 dner, and was born in Scotland, July 6th, 1747. 
 His father's name was Paul, and that of Jones 
 was added by his son for some unknown rea- 
 son. Jones, at the age of twelve, engaged 
 in the merchant-service, but on the break- 
 ing out of the American war, having been for 
 some time a resident here, he offered his ser- 
 vices to the colonies, and was appointed first 
 lieutenant of the Alfred. He contributed more 
 than any one else, to inspire confidence in our 
 infant navy, and extend the terror of our arms. 
 His capture of the British ship of war Serapis, 
 in a bloody engagement off" Flambourgh-head, 
 September 23, 1779, filled the world with admi- 
 ration at his bravery. The Bonne Homme 
 Richard, Jones's vessel, sank soon after the en- 
 gagement. When his services were no longer 
 required by this country, he entered the service 
 of Russia, but retired in disgust, and died at 
 Paris in poverty, July 18, 1792. 
 
 JOSEPH II, emperor of Germany. (See 
 Austria.) 
 
 JOSEPHINE, (Rose Tascher de la Pagerie), 
 was born in Martinique, June 24, 1763, and 
 married at an early age to viscount Beauhar- 
 nais, who was executed in the reign of terror. 
 Josephine married Bonaparte in 1796. She 
 lived to see Napoleon raised to the zenith of his 
 power, and then hurled from the summit he 
 had gained. But at that hour of affliction the 
 affectionate Josephine had no longer a right to 
 be near the man she adored, for he had divorced 
 her to marry Maria Theresa, from motives of 
 policy. Josephine had been crowned at Paris, 
 and Milan, and retired to her beautiful seat of 
 Malmaison with the title of empress-queen- 
 dowager. She was called the Star of Napoleon., 
 and his better destiny forsook him when he 
 cast off his amiable and lovely wife. She died 
 May 29th, 1814, her last words being, Vile de 
 Elbe — Napoleon ! The poor mourned in her a 
 faithful friend, the artists of the capital a kind 
 and munificent patron, and the lovers of Napo- 
 leon the peerless woman who had graced his 
 throne in the brightest moments of his career. 
 Truly did the emperor say ; " If I win battles, 
 Josephine wins heart." 
 
 JOSEPHITS, Flavius, a Jewish historian, 
 born A. D. 37. He signalized himself by sup- 
 porting a siege of 47 days against Vespasian 
 and Titus in a town of Judea. The city was 
 finally taken by treachery, and 40,000 of the 
 inhabitants were slain, the number of captives 
 being only 1200. Josephus saved his life by 
 flying into a cave, and finally surrendered to 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 JUL 
 
 307 
 
 J UP 
 
 Vespasian, who gave him his liberty, and treat- 
 ed him with great favor. Josephus was present 
 at the siege of Jerusalem. He died A. D. 93, in 
 the 56th year of his age. 
 
 JUBA, the second of that name, was the son 
 of Juba I, king of Numidia, and was among the 
 captives led to Rome to grace the triumph of 
 the victorious Caesar. He gained the hearts of 
 the Romans by the courteousness of his man- 
 ners, and Augustus rewarded his fidelity by 
 giving him in marriage Cleopatra, the daughter 
 of Antony, and conferring upon him the title 
 of king, and making him master of all the ter- 
 ritories which his father once possessed. His 
 popularity was so great that the Athenians rais- 
 ed a statue to him, and the Ethiopians worship- 
 ped him as a divinity. 
 
 JUDjEA. (See Palestine.) 
 
 JUGGERNAUT, or Jaganath (lord of the 
 world), a celebrated temple in Hindostan, on 
 the coast of Orissa. The idol is a shapeless 
 block of wood, with a hideous black face, and 
 crimson jaws yawning open. This is the repre- 
 sentative of Vishnu, the preserver of the world. 
 On days of festival, the idol is placed on a 
 tower, 60 feet high, moving on wheels, beneath 
 which the blinded Hindoos throw themselves 
 on the ground and are crushed by the progress 
 of the car. 
 
 JUGURTHA, son of Mastanabal murdered 
 Hiempsal,the son of his uncle Micipsa, and ex- 
 iled Adherbal, the brother of Hiempsal, to seat 
 himself on the throne of Numidia. Adherbal 
 supplicated the aid of the Romans, but the gold 
 of Jugurtha procured a decision in his favor. 
 Adherbal, who surrendered to the usurper, was 
 inhumanly murdered, and the Roman people 
 breathing vengeance against the murderer, the 
 senate were constrained to declare war upon 
 him. The Jugurthine war required an im- 
 mense expenditure of blood and treasure, but 
 Jugurtha was finally defeated by Marius, and 
 starved to death in a Roman prison. Numidia 
 then became a Roman province. 
 
 JULIAN, the Apostate, (Flavius Claudianus) 
 son of Julius Constans, the brother of Con- 
 stantine the Great, was born at Constantinople. 
 The massacre which attended the elevation of 
 Constans, son of Constantine the Great to the 
 throne, nearly proved fatal to Julian and his 
 brother Gallus. The two brothers were private- 
 ly educated together, and taught the doctrines 
 of the Christian religion. Gallus received the 
 instructions of his teachers with deference and 
 submission, but Julian showed his dislike for 
 Christianity by secretly cherishing a desire to 
 
 become one of the votaries of Paganism. He 
 was appointed to rule over Gaul, with the title 
 of Caesar, by Constans, and there he showed 
 himself worthy of the imperial dignity by his 
 prudence, valor, and the numerous victories he 
 obtained over the enemies of Rome in Gaul 
 and Germany. His mildness, as well as his 
 condescension, gained him the hearts of his 
 soldiers ; and when Constans, to whom Julian 
 became an object of suspicion, ordered him to 
 send part of his forces to the east, the army im- 
 mediately mutinied, and promised eternal fidel- 
 ity to their leader, refusing to obey the order 
 of Constans. They even compelled Julian, by 
 threats and entreaties, to accept the title of em- 
 peror, and the death of Constans, which soon 
 after happened, left him sole master of the Ro- 
 man empire, A. D. 361. 
 
 His immediate disavowal of the doctrines 
 of Christianity procured Julian the title of the 
 Apostate. His change of religious opinion was 
 attributed to the austerity with which he had 
 been taught the doctrines of Christianity, or, 
 according to others, to the literary conversation 
 and persuasive eloquence of some of the Athe- 
 nian philosophers. After he had made his pub- 
 lic entry into Constantinople, he determined to 
 continue the Persian war, and check those bar- 
 barians, who had for sixty years derided the 
 indolence of the Roman emperors. Having 
 crossed the Tigris, he burned his fleet and bold 
 ly advanced into the enemy's country. He de- 
 feated the Persian forces, but died of a wound 
 received in battle, A. D. 365, aged 33 years. 
 
 JUNIUS. The signature under which some 
 powerful letters were published in Woodfall's 
 Public Advertiser, in London, between the 
 years 1769 and 1772. They were chiefly poli- 
 tical. After the greatest scrutiny, the real au- 
 thor has not been positively ascertained. 
 
 JUPITER, the son of Rhea and Saturn, was 
 concealed from his father, who devoured his 
 offspring, and brought up in Crete, where he 
 was nursed by the nymph Amalthea. He forc- 
 ed Saturn to surrender to him the empire of 
 the world, which he shared among his brothers, 
 giving the ocean to Neptune, and hell to Pluto, 
 remaining himself master of the heavens ; he 
 was called the father of gods and men. The 
 giants, descended from his uncle Titan, made 
 war upon him, but were defeated. He gave 
 Juno, his wife and sister, ample cause for jeal- 
 ousy, and from the multiplicity of his intrigues, 
 was almost literally the father of his people. 
 He is generally represented with thunderbolts 
 in his hand, the eagle at his side, his flowing 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 KAT 
 
 308 
 
 KIN 
 
 nair encircled with a diadem. His figure was 
 majestic, and a long beard added to the impos- 
 ing aspect of his lofty countenance. Bulls, in 
 preference to other animals, were sacrificed to 
 him. 
 
 JUSTINIAN I, surnamed the Great, empe- 
 ror of the east, celebrated as a lawgiver, was 
 born in 483, of an obscure family. He shared 
 the fortune of his uncle, Justin I, who, from a 
 lowly station, was raised to the throne. Jus- 
 tinian flattered the people and the Senate, and, 
 in 527, on the death of his uncle, was proclaim- 
 ed emperor. He gained great victories, and 
 enacted admirable laws, but he loaded his sub- 
 jects with taxes, and was severe to strangers, 
 while the crimes of his own servants went un- 
 punished. He died in 565, in the 83d year of 
 his age, after a reign of 38 years. 
 
 JUTLAND, a province of Denmark, contain- 
 ing 9,500 square miles and 440,000 inhabitants. 
 Its pastures and woodlands are valuable, and 
 its iron mines are a source of revenue. 
 
 JUVENAL, Decius Junius, flourished at 
 Rome in the latter half of the first century. 
 He was sent to Egypt by Domitian, who dread- 
 ed his satire, but returned under Trajan, in the 
 82d year of his age. His sixteen satires are 
 powerful and caustic. 
 
 JUXON, William, an English prelate, was 
 born at Chichester, in 1582. In 1635 he was 
 advanced to the post of lord high treasurer, 
 which no churchman had held since the reign 
 of Henry VII. This office he resigned in 1641, 
 when it was admitted by all parties, that he had 
 conducted himself without reproach. After at- 
 tending his royal master, Charles I, during his 
 imprisonment in the Isle of Wight, and on the 
 scaffold, he went into retirement ; but, at the 
 Restoration, he was made archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and had the satisfaction of placing the 
 crown on the head of Charles the Second. He 
 died June 4, 1663. 
 
 K. 
 
 KALB, Baron de, born in Germany about 
 1717, was a major-general in the American 
 army. Previous to serving in the war of our 
 revolution, he had been engaged in the ser- 
 vice of France 42 years. He was brave and 
 benevolent. He was killed at Camden, Aug. 
 15, 1778. 
 
 KATSBACH, a river of Silesia, near which 
 a battle was fought, Aug. 26, 1813, between 
 the Prussians under Blucher, and French under 
 Macdonald. 
 
 KEHL, a small town of Germany, on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, which has been seve- 
 ral times taken by the French and Austrians. 
 
 KEITH, James, field-marshal in the Russian 
 service, was born in Scotland, in 1696. In 1715, 
 he joined the pretender, and was wounded at 
 the battle of Sheriff-muir, but made his escape 
 to France. From Paris he went to Spain, and 
 obtained a command in the Irish brigade ; but, 
 on accompanying the Spanish embassy to Rus- 
 sia, he entered into the service of that state, 
 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-gen- 
 eral, and invested with the order of the Black 
 Eagle. By his skill Oczagon was taken j and, 
 in the war with Sweden, he materially contri- 
 buted to the victory of Wilmanstrand, and the 
 taking of Aland. He had, afterwads, a share 
 in raising the empress Elizabeth to the throne ; 
 but, not being rewarded according to his ser- 
 vices, he left Petersburg for Prussia, where the 
 king made him governor of Berlin, and field- 
 marshal. He was killed at the battle of Hoch- 
 kirchen, Oct. 14, 1758. 
 
 KENILWORTH, a town of Warwickshire, 
 England, five miles north of Warwick. Pop- 
 ulation 3,097. Its castle was founded by Geof- 
 frey de Clinton, Chamberlain and treasurer to 
 king Henry 1. Most of the buildings, of which 
 the remains are still visible, were raised by John 
 of Gaunt, who had acquired the castle by mar- 
 riage. Through his son, Henry IV, the castle 
 again reverted to the crown, and continued so, 
 until Queen Elizabeth conferred it on Robert 
 Dudley, earl of Leicester. This nobleman spent 
 immense sums in enlarging and adorning the 
 building, and when all was finished, he enter- 
 tained the queen here for fourteen days in a 
 style of extraordinary magnificence. 
 
 KENTUCKY, one of the United States of 
 America, bounded N. by Ohio, Indiana and 
 Illinois, from which it is separated by the river 
 Ohio, E. by Virginia, S. by Virginia and Ten- 
 nesse,andW. by the river Mississippi. Popu- 
 lation, in 1840, 776,923, of whom 7,309 were 
 free colored persons, and 165,213 slaves. The 
 first permanent settlement was made by Dan- 
 iel Boone, in 1775. In 1792 Kentucky was ad- 
 mitted into the Union as an independent state. 
 The eastern parts of this state are mountain- 
 ous, but the remainder partly level, and partly 
 undulating. A large portion of the soil is ad- 
 mirable. Education is by no means neglected, 
 and Transylvania University, at Lexington, is 
 a flourishing and well-endowed institution, with 
 which a medical and law school are connected. 
 
 KING, Rufus, a distinguished American 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 KNO 
 
 309 
 
 KOR 
 
 diplomatist, orator, and statesman, born at Scar- 
 borough, Maine, in 1755, and was graduated at 
 Harvard college, in 1777, after which he studi- 
 ed law under Theophilus Parsons of Newbury- 
 port. After having served a short time in the 
 army, he commenced the practice of his pro- 
 fession and obtained a seat in the congress of 
 1784. In 1787 he went from Massachusetts to 
 the convention assembled for the purpose of 
 framing a constitution, and in 1788 removed to 
 New York city. The next year he was elected 
 a member of the New York legislature, and 
 chosen senator of the United States. In the 
 spring of 1796, Mr. King was appointed by Pres- 
 ident Washington, Minister Plenipotentiary to 
 the court of St. James, and continued in the 
 discharge of the duties of his office until 1803, 
 when he returned to this country. He was de- 
 feated as a candidate for the office of governor 
 of New York, but he had been nominated by 
 his friends without his knowledge, and his con- 
 sent to stand was given with reluctance. He 
 died April 29, 1827, in the 73d year of his 
 age. 
 
 KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated French 
 general, born at Strasburg.in 1754. In the Aus- 
 trian army he served against the Turks, and 
 rose to the rank of lieutenant. He next en- 
 rolled himself under the banners of the French 
 republic, and although he openly expressed his 
 detestation of the policy of the revolutionary 
 government, he experienced the favor of the 
 Directory, who were loath to part with so able 
 a soldier. Of the nature of his command in 
 Egypt, and the manner of his death, June 14, 
 1800, we have already spoken (see Evypt.) 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD. The consideration of this 
 subject properly belongs to Chivalry, and, as 
 such, has been noticed in the earlier part of this 
 volume by a few brief remarks. (See Chivalry.) 
 There were various orders of knights, as Tem- 
 plars &c. See Templars. 
 
 KNOX, John, the celebrated Scotch reformer, 
 was born in 1505, at Gifford, in the county of 
 East Lothian. He became tutor to some young 
 gentlemen whom he carefully brought up in 
 Protestant principles. Notwithstanding his life 
 was sought by Cardinal Beaton, and his suc- 
 cessor, Archbishop Hamilton, Knox went on 
 propagating the new doctrines ; and, in 1547, 
 preached publicly at St. Andrews; but that 
 place being taken the same year by the French, 
 he was carried off with the garrison. In 1549 
 he recovered his liberty , and landed in England ; 
 where he was appointed chaplain to Edward 
 VI. On the accession of queen Mary, he went 
 
 to Geneva, and thence to Frankfort, where he 
 took part with the English exiles who opposed 
 the use of the liturgy ; but their adversaries 
 prevailing, Knox returned to Geneva, and soon 
 after went to Scotland. While engaged in the 
 ministry, he received an invitation to return to 
 Geneva, with which he complied ; and, in his 
 absence, the bishops passed sentence of death 
 on him for heresy. In 1558, he printed " The 
 First Blast of the Trumpet against the Mon- 
 strous Regimen of Women," intended as an 
 attack upon Mary, queen of England, and his 
 own sovereign ; but it had afterwards the effect 
 of provoking queen Elizabeth and her minis- 
 ters against the author. The year following he 
 returned to his own country, where he render- 
 ed the Reformation triumphant. In 1567 he 
 preached the sermon at the coronation of James 
 VI, and another at the opening of the parlia- 
 ment, but he died at Leith, Nov. 24, 1572. 
 
 KNOX, Henry, a major-general in the Unit- 
 ed States army, was born at Boston, July 25, 
 1750. He was a bookseller before the revolu- 
 tion, but volunteered and served at Bunker 
 Hill. Throughout the war he distinguished 
 himself by his bravery, but particularly at York- 
 town, after which he was created major-gen- 
 eral by Congress. As secretary of war, he serv 
 ed 11 years. His death took place Oct. 25,1806, 
 at Thomaston, Maine. 
 
 KORAN, or AL KORAN, a book contain- 
 ing the precepts of the Mohammedan religion, 
 a paper copy of which, bound in silk and gems, 
 was said to have been brought down to the 
 lowest heaven by the angel Gabriel. 
 
 KORNER, Theodore, a celebrated German 
 poet, born in 1791. Feeble and sickly during 
 his early youth, he roamed the garden and for- 
 est in pursuit of health, and was not premature- 
 ly doomed to study. His earliest instructions 
 were received at Freyburg, but he afterwards 
 went to Leipzig, which his imprudent conduct 
 compelled him to quit. The month of August, 
 1811, the date of Korner's arrival at Vienna, 
 commenced the most important era of his life. 
 Shielded by the purity of his principles, and 
 the strength of his religious convictions, he was 
 uninfluenced by the fascinating allurements of 
 that gayest and most light-hearted of cities, nor 
 did he for a moment forget that the improve- 
 ment of his literary taste, and the developement 
 of his moral character, was a primary object in 
 his visit of Vienna. The brilliant talents which 
 then encircled the Viennese theatres with a halo 
 of brightness, fired the imagination of Korner, 
 and he resolved to appear publicly as a candi- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 KOR 
 
 310 
 
 KOS 
 
 date for the dramatic laurel. Sixteen pieces, of 
 different kinds, composed or finished in the 
 space of fifteen months, and the greater part 
 performed with a success which far exceeded 
 the expectations of the youthful poet, were, to- 
 gether with a few fugitive poems, the first fruits 
 of his residence in a world which was completely 
 literary, as well as the earliest proofs of his tal- 
 ent for easy versification. On the first repre- 
 sentation of one of his tragedies, the audience 
 demanded the appearance of the author, an 
 honor to poetic talent which is rarely accorded 
 in Vienna. Cherished and admired by the pub- 
 lic, he was soon made the dramatic poet of the 
 court. This appointment secured his worldly 
 fortune, and, as if to fill his cup of happiness 
 to the brim, he was inspired by an ardent pas- 
 sion for a worthy object, and no dark shadow 
 fell upon the tide of his affections. 
 
 Such was the enviable situation of Korner, 
 when, at the commencement of the year 1813, 
 Prussia called upon her sons, to win back for 
 her the priceless guerdon of her national inde- 
 pendence. This appeal found an echo in the 
 bosom of the poet. From this moment, all his 
 thoughts, all his affections, turned on the lib- 
 eration of his country, to whose service he de- 
 voted his person and his pen, and to whom he 
 was ready to sacrifice his life, his fortune, and 
 his prospect of glory and love. As soon as he 
 had resolved to fight for the emancipation of 
 Germany, warmed with that enthusiasm which 
 has ever been repaid with victory, he wrote 
 thus to his father: " The Prussian eagle, ex- 
 tending his pinions, awakes in every bosom, a 
 hope of national liberty — at this moment, when 
 the stars of fate are pouring down on me a 
 flood of brightness, when all the fascinating 
 joys of life are within my reach, at this mo- 
 ment, I swear to God that it is a noble senti- 
 ment which animates me, a firm belief, that no 
 sacrifice is too great, for the greatest of bles- 
 sings, the liberty of our beloved country. I feel 
 compelled to rush into the fury of the tempest. 
 Shall I, far from the path of my victorious 
 brethren, send them hymns and songs inspired 
 by a safe and cowardly enthusiasm ?" 
 
 He set out from Vienna on the 15th of March, 
 and at Breslau was admitted into the corps of 
 volunteers commanded by Lutzow, whose care 
 had formed the band that bore his name. Youth 
 distinguished by the high tone of their senti- 
 ments, and the finish of their education, officers, 
 already known by honorable services, men of 
 high rank and reputation, filled with a patriotic 
 and religious enthusiasm, had assembled in 
 
 crowds beneath the banners of Lutzow, burning 
 to avenge the wrongs of oppressed liberty. A 
 few days after the admission of Korner, the 
 ceremony of the consecration of Lutzow's corps 
 took place in the village church. This was an 
 affecting and inspiring scene. 
 
 Ardent, brave, and devoted to his military 
 duties, Korner avoided no fatigues and perils, 
 but, on the contrary, was only wearied with in- 
 action. He rose, by degrees, to the post of ad- 
 jutant to Lutzow, and owed this advancement 
 only to the intrepidity and intelligence which 
 he "displayed on every occasion. Still poetry 
 and song occupied his leisure moments; but 
 instead of being his recreations, they had be- 
 come his arms ; his lyre was no less formidable 
 than his sword. The events of the day, his per- 
 sonal emotions, and the patriotism of his coun- 
 try are displayed in his verses. 
 
 On the 26th of August, the corps of Lutzow 
 confronted the French at Kitzen. During an 
 hour's halt in a forest, Korner composed his 
 famous Sword Song. At break of day he wrote 
 it in his port-folio, and was reading it to a 
 friend, when the signal for attack was given. 
 The enemy, although superior in point of 
 numbers, made but a brief resistance — Korner 
 showed himself fiercely eager in the pursuit. 
 Of a shower of balls which the French artille- 
 rists poured upon the Prussians, but three took 
 effect, and one of these carried to the bosom of 
 the poet, at the age of 22, that glorious death 
 which he had so poetically prophecied, and so 
 religiously desired. His mortal remains were 
 interred by the wayside, at the foot of an oak 
 the tree, whose leaves were employed by the 
 ancient Romans, to form their civic crowns. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, 
 was born of a respectable family of Lithuania, 
 in 175G, and was educated at the military school 
 of Warsaw, after which he went to France, and 
 next to America, where he served as aid-de- 
 camp to Washington. On his return home 
 he was made major-general, and distinguished 
 himself greatly in the war of 1792, but without 
 effect. Two years afterwards the Poles again 
 took up arms, and were headed by Kosciusko ; 
 but all his exertions were fruitless, and he was 
 made prisoner by the Russians, Catharine threw 
 him into a dungeon, but Paul released him and 
 tendered him his own sword, which the illus- 
 trious patriot declined ; " I no longer need a 
 sword, for I have no longer a country." Kos- 
 ciusko visited America a second time, but, in 
 1798, returned to France, where he settled. 
 Bonaparte vainly endeavored to procure his ser- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 LAF 
 
 311 
 
 LAO 
 
 vices. His death was occasioned by a fall with 
 his horse down a precipice, in the vicinity of 
 Vevay, Switzerland, Oct. 16, 1817. 
 KOULI-KHAN, (See JYadir-Shah.) 
 
 LABRADOR ; a country of North America 
 of great extent, between the 50th and 60th de- 
 grees of N. latitude. It is but little known, 
 and the climate is uncommonly severe. The 
 Esquimaux inhabit its coasts. It belongs to 
 great Britain and is annexed to the government 
 of Newfoundland. 
 
 LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mottier, formerly 
 marquis de, was born at Chavagnac, near Brion 
 de, in Auvergne. Sept. 6, 1757. He was edu- 
 cated at Paris, appointed an officer in the guards 
 of honor, and, at the age of 16, married the 
 grandaughter of the duke de Noilles. In 1777 
 he left France secretly, and hastened to Ameri- 
 ca, arriving at Charleston, S. C. at the age of 
 19. He received a command in the continental 
 army, and raised and equipped a body of men 
 at his own expense. The gallant actions which 
 he performed will for ever live in the annals of 
 our country. In 1779 he returned to France, 
 for the purpose of assisting the cause of Ameri- 
 ca, and materially influenced the treaty which 
 was then concluded with France. He returned 
 and assumed the command of a body of 2000 
 men whose equipments were furnished partly 
 at his own expense. Congress passed various 
 resolutions, honorable to him, and, after dis- 
 playing a chivalric gallantry at Yorktown, the 
 young marquis once more set sail for his native 
 country. In 1784, he complied with the vari- 
 ous urgent entreaties to visit this country, and 
 was every where received with the most touch- 
 ing marks of gratitude and esteem. During the 
 French revolution he appeared the warm and 
 consistent friend of liberty, but the enemy of 
 licentiousness, and, as commander-in-chief of 
 the national guards of Paris, saved the lives of 
 the royal family at Versailles. He organized 
 the club of Feuillans in opposition to the infa- 
 mous Jacobin club, the members of which he 
 openly denounced. He was appointed, in 1792, 
 one of the major-generals of the French armies, 
 and vainly endeavored to save the king. His 
 exertions in the cause of humanity, procured 
 his denunciation before the bar of the assembly, 
 a price was set upon his head, and he was com- 
 pelled to fly from France. But he was taken 
 by the Austrians, and confined in the castle of 
 Olmutz, until Aug. 25, 1797, when he was re- 
 27 
 
 leased. La Fayette opposed the usurpations of 
 Napoleon, whose conciliatory offers he refused 
 without a single exception. In Aug. 1824, La- 
 fayette landed at New York, and passed tri- 
 umphantly through each of the states, received 
 every where with every demonstration of de- 
 light. The war-worn veterans of the revolu- 
 tion hailed his return to the scenes of his earli- 
 est exploits, and there was not one dissentient 
 voice, in the acclamations which welcomed him. 
 Sep. 7, 1825, the frigate Brandywine restored 
 him to his country. In the December follow- 
 ing Congress granted him $200,000, and a 
 township of land. During the late French re- 
 volution, Lafayette was appointed general-in- 
 chief of the national guards, an office which he 
 resigned in December. The death of this great 
 man, which took place recently at Paris, was 
 duly noticed both in France and this country. 
 A political opponent once out of the arena, was 
 to Lafayette, no longer any thing but a friend ; 
 the circle of those admitted to share his private 
 hospitality was so ample, that it comprised the 
 partisans of nearly every doctrine, and almost 
 the natives of every clime ; but no feeling was 
 ever wounded, nor even a prejudice assailed 
 within its sacred limits. It was, doubtless, to 
 this admirable feature in his private character 
 that he owed much of the affectionate esteem 
 with which every party regarded him, and 
 which turned Paris — frivolous, volatile Paris — 
 into a city of mourning at his death. He died 
 May 21, 1834, at the age of 77, of a malignant 
 fever, occasioned by walking, bareheaded, and 
 on foot, at the funeral of M. Dulong, a member 
 of the chamber of deputies. 
 
 LANGDON, John, an American patriot, 
 born at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739, was bred 
 up to the business of a merchant, but early en- 
 tered into the military service of the colonies. 
 In 1775 he took his seat in the general congress, 
 in 1776, was appointed navy-agent; in 1777, 
 was speaker of the assembly of New Hampshire, 
 and in 1785 president of the Senate. He was 
 afterwards a senator in Congress, and governor 
 of New Hampshire. He died, Sept. 18, 1819. 
 
 LANNES, John, marshal of France, duke of 
 Montebello, was born in 1769, and in 1792 en- 
 tered the army as sergeant-major. In Italy, 
 Egypt, and Austria, he raised himself in the 
 estimation of Napoleon, and was created by 
 him marshal of the empire. At the battle of 
 Esslingen, May 22, 1809, he lost both his legs 
 by a cannon-ball and expired a few days after. 
 
 LAOCOON, a priest of Neptune at Troy, 
 who, with his two sons, was destroyed by two 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LAT 
 
 312 
 
 LAU 
 
 enormous serpents, sent by Minerva to punish 
 him for his impiety. There is an antique group 
 of statuary extant representing this event. 
 
 LAPEROUSE, John Francis Galaup de, a 
 French navigator, born in Languedoc, in 1741, 
 who, after making a successful voyage of dis- 
 covery, was probably wrecked at Mallicolo, 1 1° 
 4' S. latitude, 169° 20' E. longitude. 
 
 LAPLAND, is bounded N. by the Arctic 
 ocean, E. by the White Sea, S. by Sweden, and 
 W. by Norway, and the Atlantic. It is divided 
 into Russian, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian 
 Lapland. The country is generally broken and 
 mountainous, and the climate intensely cold. 
 The villages are small and scattered, and the 
 country is thinly inhabited. The Laplanders 
 are illiterate and unrefined, but attached to their 
 country, hardy, and persevering. Their aver- 
 age height is four feet. The rein-deer supplies 
 them with food and clothing, and transports 
 their light sledges at a rapid rate. 
 
 LATIMER, Hugh, was born at Thurcaston, 
 in Leicestershire about 1470, and was the son 
 of a respectable yeoman. Being an admired 
 preacher, his influence was of great importance, 
 and in consequence he soon became obnoxious 
 to the papal party. The martyrdom of Bilney, 
 at Norwich, served only to animate Latimer, 
 who had the courage to write a letter of remon- 
 strance to the king, on the evil of prohibiting 
 the use of the Bible in England. Henry (the 
 Eighth) took this in good part, and presented 
 the writer to the living of" West Kington, in 
 Wiltshire, but this only redoubled the malice 
 ofLhis enemies, who were still more provoked at 
 his elevation, in 1535, to the bishopric of Wor- 
 cester, for which he was indebted to the good 
 offices of Anne Bullen and Thomas Cromwell. 
 Of his plain dealing, the following circumstance 
 is a proof. It was then the custom for the bish- 
 ops to make presents, on new year's day, to the 
 king, and among the rest, Latimer waited at 
 court with his gift, which, instead of a purse of 
 gold, was a New Testament, having the leaf 
 turned down at a passage denouncing the ruling 
 passion of the king. Henry, however, was not 
 offended by this bluntness ; and when, some 
 time afterwards, Latimer was called before him 
 to account for a sermon which he had preached 
 at court, he justified it so honestly, that the 
 monarch dismissed him with a smile. 
 
 But, after the fall of Cromwell, his adversa- 
 ries prevailed, and he was sent to the Tower for 
 speaking against some measures of the king ; 
 and there he remained for the rest of Henry's 
 reign. On the accession of Edward, he was re- 
 
 leased ; but though he was now in favor at court, 
 no arguments could induce him to resume the 
 episcopal function. He resided with Cranmer 
 at Lambeth ; and when Mary ascended the 
 throne, " Father Latimer," as he was generally 
 called, was cited to appear before the privy - 
 council, by whom he was sent to the Tower. 
 On passing through Smithfield, he said, " this 
 place has long groaned for me;" but he was 
 not sacrificed there ; the triumphant party or- 
 dering him to be conveyed to Oxford, with his 
 friends, Ridley and Cranmer. There, after a 
 mock conference and degradation, Latimer and 
 Ridley were brought to the stake, Oct. ]6, 1555. 
 On coming to the spot, Latimer said to his com- 
 panion, "Be of good cheer, brother ; we shall 
 this day kindle such a torch in England as, I 
 trust, shall never be extinguished." 
 
 LATINUS, a son of Fannus, by Marcia, and 
 king of the Aborigines in Italy, who were called 
 from him Latini. He married Amata, by whom 
 he had a son and a daughter. The son died in 
 his infancy, and the daughter, Lavinia, was se- 
 cretly promised in marriage by her mother, to 
 Turnus, king of the Rutuli, one of her most 
 powerful admirers. The gods opposed this 
 union, and the oracle declared that Lavinia 
 must become the wife of a foreign prince. The 
 arrival of iEneas in Italy seemed favorable to 
 this prediction, and Latinus, by offering his 
 daughter to the foreign prince, and making him 
 his friend and ally, seemed to have fulfilled the 
 commands of the oracle. Turnus, however, 
 disapproving of the conduct of Latinus, claimed 
 Lavinia as his lawful wife, and prepared to sup- 
 port his cause by arms. iEneas took up arms 
 in his own defence, and Latium was the seat of 
 the war. After mutual losses, it was agreed 
 that the quarrel should be decided by the two 
 rivals, and Latinus promised his daughter to the 
 conqueror. ^Eneas obtained the victory, and 
 married Lavinia. Latinus soon after died, and 
 was succeeded by his son-in-law. 
 
 LAURENS, Henry, was born at Charleston, 
 S. C, in 1724. He was a merchant and amassed 
 an ample fortune by his industry. He was in 
 London at the breaking out of the revolutionary 
 troubles; but returned to America in 1774, and 
 was chosen president of the council of safety. 
 In 1776 he took his seat in congress, of which 
 body he was president, and continued in office 
 until 1778. In 1779 he was appointed minister 
 plenipotentiary of the United States to Holland, 
 but on his way was captured by the British, 
 and confined 14 months in the tower. He died 
 Dec. 2, 1792, nearly 70 years of age. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 LAW 
 
 313 
 
 LEE 
 
 LAURENS, John, lieutenant colonel, son of 
 the preceding, was educated in England, and 
 joined the American army in 1777. In 1730 he 
 was sent as a special minister to France, and by 
 his boldness in presenting to the king a memo- 
 rial at the levee, received a definitive answer to 
 his application for a loan which was satisfacto- 
 rily arranged. His first essay in arms was at 
 Brandy wine. At the battle of German town, he 
 exhibited prodigies of valor, in attempting to 
 expel the enemy from Chew's house, and was 
 severely wounded. He was engaged at Mon- 
 mouth, and greatly increased his reputation at 
 Rhode Island. At Coosahatchie, defending the 
 pass with a handful of men, against the whole 
 force of Provost, he was again wounded, and 
 was probably indebted for his life to the gal- 
 lantry of captain Wigg, who gave him his horse 
 to carry him from the field, when incapable of 
 moving, his own having been shot under him. 
 He headed the light infantry, and was among 
 the first to mount the British lines at Savannah ; 
 displayed the greatest activity and courage dur- 
 ing the siege of Charleston; entered, with the 
 forlorn hope, the British redoubt carried by 
 storm at Yorktown, and received with his own 
 hand, the sword of the commander; by inde- 
 fatigable activity, thwarted every effort of the 
 British garrison in Charleston, confining them, 
 for upwards of 12 months, to the narrow limits 
 of the city and neck, except when, under pro- 
 tection of their shipping, they indulged in dis- 
 tant predatory expeditions ; and, unhappily, at 
 the very close of the war, too careless by ex- 
 posing himself in a trifling skirmish, near Com- 
 babee, sealed his devotion to his country by 
 death. 
 
 LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, count de, 
 was born in Paris, in 1769, of obscure parents ; 
 notwithstanding which he received a good edu- 
 cation, became the aid-de-camp of Bonaparte, 
 and was entrusted with several important offi- 
 ces, besides being made a peer of France. In 
 1815, on the restoration of the Bourbons, he was 
 tried, and condemned to death as an accomplice 
 of Napoleon, but, the day before the execution, 
 his heroic wife, who was permitted to visit him, 
 changed clothes with him in prison, and the 
 count passed the guard unnoticed, and entered 
 the sedan-chair with his daughter. He found 
 means to escape to Munich" but the govern- 
 ment had the inhumanity to detain the count- 
 ess in prison, which harshness deprived her of 
 reason. Her husband was pardoned, and re- 
 turned to France in 1821. 
 
 LAWRENCE, James, a distinguished naval 
 
 commander, was born in New Jersey, in 1781. 
 In 1798 he entered the navy as a midshipman 
 and, for his services in the Tripolitan war, was 
 made first lieutenant. Feb. 24, 1813, Law- 
 rence, in command of the Hornet, took the 
 British brig of war Peacock, after an action of 
 15 minutes. June 1, 1813, he sailed out of Bos 
 ton harbor, in command of the frigate Chesa- 
 peake, to accept the challenge of captain Brooke 
 of the Shannon. The result might have been 
 easily foretold. The Chesapeake was an infe- 
 rior vessel, and her crew shipped upon the spur 
 of the moment, while the Shannon was a fine 
 vessel, well manned, with a crew in perfect 
 training. Lawrence was mortally wounded, 
 but survived the action four days. His last 
 words, before he was carried below, were, 
 " Don't give up the ship !" The flag of the 
 Chesapeake was not hauled down until almost 
 all her officers were killed or wounded. 
 
 LEDYARD, John, a celebrated American 
 traveller, born at Groton, Connecticut, in 1751 . 
 At the age of 19 he entered Dartmouth college, 
 for the purpose of acquiring the information 
 necessary for his becoming a missionary among 
 the Indians. He acquired knowledge with great 
 facility, but so ardent a desire did he have for 
 travel, that he soon escaped from college, shipped 
 as a sailor, went to Gibraltar, enlisted there, 
 produced his discharge, and returned home in 
 one year. He crossed the Atlantic again, work- 
 ing his passage to Plymouth, and thence beg- 
 ging his way to London, where he became ac- 
 quainted with captain Cook, whom he accom- 
 panied in his last voyage. In 1782 he returned 
 to Connecticut. Having formed a plan of 
 making the tour of the globe on foot, departing 
 from London to the eastward, he went as far as 
 Irkutsk, where he was arrested, by an order 
 from the empress, as a French spy, and con- 
 ducted to the borders of Poland, where he was 
 liberated, with an intimation that his presence 
 in the dominions of the czarina was so little de- 
 sirable, that a repetition of his visit would pro- 
 duce a warrant for his execution. He reached 
 London, after an absence of 15 months, in a 
 destitute condition, at the age of 37 ; he imme- 
 diately accepted a proposal to travel into the 
 interior of Africa, on behalf of the African As- 
 sociation, but he was taken ill at Cairo, and 
 died, November, 1788. 
 
 LEE, Charles, a major-general in our revo- 
 lutionary army, was a native of North Wales, 
 and became an officer at the age of eleven. 
 After distinguishing himself at Ticonderoga, 
 and under Burgoyne in Portugal, he entered the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LEE 
 
 314 
 
 LEP 
 
 Polish service. In 1773 he arrived at New 
 York, and in 1775 received a commission from 
 congress. He was taken prisoner, and re- 
 mained some time in the hands of the British 
 but was released Oct. 17, 1777. At the battle 
 of Monmouth he permitted his command to re- 
 treat; and was reproached by Washington, to 
 whom he used disrespectful language, was tried 
 by a court-martial, and sentenced to a year's 
 suspension, Aug. 12, 1778. He died Oct. 2, 
 1782. He was an able officer, but proud, and 
 ambitious. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, a signer of the De- 
 claration of Independence, was born at Stratford, 
 Westmoreland county, Va., Jan. 20, 1732, but 
 received his education in England. He return- 
 ed to America in his 19th year. In the house 
 of burgesses, he displayed his talents and patri- 
 otism, and, in 17G5, assisted Patrick Henry's 
 resolutions against the Stamp Act, with great 
 zeal. In 1774 he attended the first general con- 
 gress which assembled at Philadelphia, as one 
 of the Virginia delegation. His services were 
 various, and his labor incessant. June 7, 1776, 
 he moved, " that these united colonies are, and 
 of right ought to be, free and independent 
 states ; that they are absolved from all allegi- 
 ance to the British crown ; and that all politi- 
 cal connection between them and the state of 
 Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." 
 In 1784 he was chosen president of congress, 
 and died, July 19, 1794. 
 
 LEE, Arthur, was born in Virginia, Dec. 20, 
 1740. He was educated in England, at Eton, 
 and took the degree of M. D. at Edinburgh. In 
 1770 he commenced the practice of medicine in 
 Virginia. He was afterwards a secret agent of 
 our government at London and Paris, and, on 
 the return of doctor Franklin to America, be- 
 came the sole agent of Massachusetts. In 1777 
 he was appointed by Congress commissioner to 
 Spain, and he was subsequently employed in 
 Prussia. He returned to America in 1780, and 
 the next year he was chosen to the assembly, 
 from which he went to congress. He was 
 called to the board of treasury, of which he con- 
 tinued to be a member from 1784 to 1789. He 
 died at his farm Dec. 12, 1792. 
 
 LEE, Henry, general, was born in Virginia, 
 Jan. 29, 1756, and was graduated at Princeton 
 college in his 18th year. In 1776, he obtained 
 the command of a troop of the Virginia light 
 horse, and, in 1777 joined the main army, un- 
 der Washington. His conduct throughout the 
 whole revolutionary struggle merits the highest 
 praise. Ever in the front of danger, he per- 
 
 formed several daring feats which have been 
 rarely equaled. After the termination of the 
 war, he was alternately a member of Congress, 
 and of the assembly of his state, of which he 
 was governor for three successive years. He 
 died in 1818. 
 
 LEIPSIC, or properly Leipzig, a large city, 
 founded in the 10th century, and now contain- 
 ing 41,000 inhabitants.- It is famous for its 
 affairs, being the centre of the German book- 
 trade, and is also distinguished by its university. 
 Here was fought an important battle between 
 the allies and the French, October 18th, 1813. 
 The whole loss of the French has been estima- 
 ted at 60,000, that of the allies at 45,000 in killed 
 and wounded. 
 
 LENTULUS, a celebrated family at Rome, 
 which produced many great men in the com- 
 monwealth. Publius Lentulus Sura joined Cat- 
 iline's conspiracy, was convicted, imprisoned, 
 and afterwards executed. 
 
 LEO X, (Giovanni de' Medici), a pope, was 
 born at Florence in 1475, being the second son 
 of Lorenzo de : Medici. At the age of 13 he 
 was made a cardinal. He succeeded Julius II 
 in 1513, and assumed the name of Leo. He 
 was a patron of literature, and particularly en- 
 couraged the study of the Greek language. 
 After opposing the king of France, he made 
 peace with him, and, in 1515, concluded a con- 
 cordate on the abolition of the Pragmatic sanc- 
 tion. He died in 1521. 
 
 LEOBEN, a town in the Austrian duchy of 
 Styria. where the convention was concluded 
 between the French and Austrians, on the 20th 
 of April, 1797, which terminated in the peace 
 of Campo Formio. 
 
 LEON, anciently, the kingdom of Leon, one 
 of the great divisions of Spain, is famous for its 
 fertility, and contains 1,215,551 inhabitants. 
 
 LEONIDAS, a celebrated king of Sparta, 
 sent by his countrymen to oppose Xerxes. 
 When the Persian monarch demanded his arms, 
 Leonidas answered ; " Come and take them ! " 
 With his three hundred Spartans, and a few 
 auxiliaries, he defended the pass of Thermo- 
 pylce against the whole Persian army. He died 
 surrounded by heaps of slain enemies. 
 
 LEPANTO, or Ainabachti, a seaport in Tur- 
 key, on the gulf of Corinth, now the gulf of 
 Lepanto, or gulf of Patras, with 2000 inhabi- 
 tants. In 1475, the Venetians defended it 
 against the Turks during a siege of 4 months. 
 The famous sea fight of Lepanto. between the 
 Turks and Spaniards, in which Cervantes lost 
 his hand , was fought Oct. 7, 1571 . The Turks, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 LEV 
 
 315 
 
 LIG 
 
 being at anchor in the gulf, and hearing that, 
 the Christians were bearing down upon them 
 from Corfu, reinforced their fleet which con- 
 sisted of 250 gallies, 70 frigates and brigantines. 
 The Christian fleet consisted of 210 galleys, 28 
 transports, and 6 galeapes, furnished with 
 heavy artillery, commanded by John of Austria, 
 including the Spanish squadron furnished by 
 Philip II ; the Venetian, with the flower of the 
 nobility of Venice, and the pope's galleys. The 
 Ottoman fleet alone was stronger than the three 
 Christian squadrons. The two forces engaged 
 with all the ancient and modern weapons of 
 attack and defence, viz. arrows, javelins, grap- 
 pling-irons, cannon, muskets, pikes, and swords. 
 They fought hand to hand, as most of the gal- 
 leys grappled together. Don John of Austria 
 and Veniero, the Venetian commander, attacked 
 the Ottoman admiral Ali, and having taken him 
 and his galley, immediately struck off his head, 
 and placed it on the top of his own flag. The 
 Turks lost upwards of 150 vessels. Their loss 
 in killed was about 15,000, and 5,000 Christian 
 slaves were set at liberty. The Christians are 
 said to have lost about 5,000 men. The battle 
 lasted from six in the morning till evening, 
 when the approaching darkness, and the rough- 
 ness of the sea, compelled the victors to put into 
 the nearest haven, whence they despatched 
 couriers to all Christian courts, with the news 
 of the triumph. 
 
 LEPIDUS, Marcus iEmilius, celebrated as 
 being one of the triumvirs with Augustus and 
 Antony. He was sent against Brutus and Cas- 
 sius, and some time after, leagued with Mark 
 Antony, who had gained the hearts of his sol- 
 diers by artifice, and their commander by his 
 address. He received Africa as his portion in 
 the division of the empire ; but his indolence 
 soon rendered him despicable in the eyes of his 
 soldiers and of his colleagues, and Augustus, 
 who was well acquainted with the unpopularity 
 of Lepidus, went to his camp, and obliged him 
 to resign the power to which he was entitled as 
 triumvir. After this degrading event, he sunk 
 into obscurity, and retired, by order of Augus- 
 tus to Cerceii, a small town on the coast of La- 
 tium, where he ended his days, B. C. 13, for- 
 gotten as soon as he had fallen. 
 
 LEUCTRA, a village of Baeotia, famous for 
 the victory which Epaminondas, the Theban 
 general, here obtained over the superior force 
 of Celeombrotus, king of Sparta, B. C. 371. 
 From that time the Spartans lost the ascenden- 
 cy , which they had for sometime held in Greece. 
 
 LEVEN, Loch, a lake of Scotland, 12 miles 
 27* 
 
 in circumference, in Kinrosshire. The castle 
 of Loch Leven, was granted by Robert III to 
 Douglas, and was formerly a very strong place, 
 capable of accommodating a numerous garrison. 
 It was in this castle that queen Mary was con- 
 fined after she had been separated from Both- 
 well, and had been taken prisoner by the con- 
 federate lords, at the battle of Carberry hill. 
 After various ineffectual attempts, she contrived 
 to make her escape. 
 
 LEWIS, Francis, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in South 
 Wales in 1715, engaged in mercantile pursuits, 
 and came to America at the age of 21 . In 1775 
 he was elected to the continental congress from 
 the state of New York. In the course of the 
 war he fell into the hands of the British, and his 
 estate was confiscated. He died Dec. 30, 1803, 
 in his 39th year. 
 
 LEXINGTON, a town of Massachusetts, 12 
 miles N. W. of Boston, where the struggle for 
 liberty was commenced, April 19, 1775, the 
 militia, to the number of 70, being drawn out 
 to receive the British detachment sent to de- 
 stroy the military stores collected by the pro- 
 vincials. Seven Americans were killed, and 
 three wounded. 
 
 LIBERIA, a territory on the Western coast 
 of Africa, where the American Colonization 
 Society established a settlement of free blacks 
 in 1820. It is at present in a flourishing condi- 
 tion, although it has had many obstacles to con- 
 tend against. 
 
 LIEGNITZ, capital of the government of 
 that name in Silesia, Prussia, has 9,600 inhabi- 
 tants. On the 16th of August, 1760, the king 
 of Prussia obtained a victory over the Austrian 
 general Landon near this place. 
 
 LIGNY, a village of the Netherlands, in the 
 province of Namur, remarkable as the scene of 
 an obstinate and sanguinary battle between the 
 Prussians and the French, in June, 1815, which 
 was the prelude to the decisive battle of Water- 
 loo. On the 16th Blucher was attacked by 
 Bonaparte with his whole force, except two 
 corps under Ney, and the first corps under d' 
 Erlon. A furious conflict ensued, in which the 
 villages of St. Amand and Ligny fell into the 
 possession of the French. The combatants dis- 
 played the most determined animosity, and no 
 quarter was asked, offered, or accepted. A des- 
 perate attack of the Prussians, led by marshal 
 Blucher in person, suddenly recovered St. 
 Amand and a height in its vicinity, and the 
 fortune of the day seemed to turn in their favor. 
 Bonaparte instantly despatched orders to bring 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LIS 
 
 316 
 
 LOC 
 
 up the corps under d'Erlon, but ere its arrival, 
 the French had recovered the village. Wel- 
 lington meantime was desirous of relieving the 
 Prussians, but he was himself attacked; and, 
 as the fourth corps under Bulow had not arrived, 
 Blucher was obliged to withdraw from his po- 
 sition at Lambref, and retire upon Tilly. 
 
 LIMA, the capital of the republic of Peru, 
 contains about GO ,000 inhabitants. The manners 
 of the inhabitants are loose, although the higher 
 classes are well educated. It is often visited by 
 earthquakes, of which two recent ones, in 1822, 
 and 1828 were uncommonly destructive. 
 
 LIMERICK, a city of Ireland, on the Shan- 
 non, capital of the county of Limerick, a well- 
 built and thriving manufacturing place, contain- 
 ing 60,000 inhabitants. It was taken by the 
 English in 1174, In 1651 it was reduced by 
 Ire ton, in the service of the parliament, after a 
 vigorous siege. In 1690 it was unsuccessfully 
 besieged by king William in person, but in 1691 
 it surrendered to general Ginkle, afterwards earl 
 of Athlone. 
 
 LINCOLN, Benjamin, was born at Hingham, 
 Mass., Jan 13, 1733, old style. At the beginning 
 of the revolutionary war, he was lieutenant- 
 colonel of the provincial militia, but was soon 
 appointed major-general in the continental 
 forces. While with Gates's army in the north, 
 he was wounded in the leg, and part of the 
 main bone was necessarily removed. In the 
 attack on Savannah, 1779, in conjunction with 
 the French, Lincoln was repulsed. He was 
 forced to capitulate in Charleston, in 1780, in 
 consequence of the discontent of the inhabitants, 
 and the troops under his command. At York- 
 town General Lincoln distinguished himself as 
 he had done throughout the whole of the revo- 
 lutionary struggle. He afterwards commanded 
 the militia that quelled Shay's rebellion. In 
 May, 1787, he was elected lieutenant-governor 
 of Massachusetts, and, in the summer of 1789, 
 was appointed collector of customs in the port 
 of Boston. He died 1810. 
 
 LISLE, or LILLE (Flemish, Ryssel) a large 
 city of France, formerly capital of French Flan- 
 ders, and now in the department of the Nord, 
 containing 69,860 inhabitants. Louis XIV took 
 it from the Spaniards in 1667 ; but notwith- 
 standing the vast labor and expense bestowed 
 in his reign on its fortifications, it surrendered 
 in 1708, after a long and sanguinary siege, to 
 the allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
 prince Eugene. At the peace of Utrecht, it 
 was restored to France, and in 1792, was bom- 
 barded by the Austrians without success. 
 
 LITHUANIA, formerly an independent 
 grand-duchy, but in 1569, annexed to Poland, 
 seized by Russia on the dismemberment of 
 Poland. It is fertile, and rich in minerals, 
 while its forests abound in game. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Philip, one of the signers of 
 the Declarationof independence, born at Albany, 
 N.. ¥., January 15, 1716, was educated at Yale 
 college, and, after graduating, became a mer- 
 chant. In 1759 he was sent to the general pro- 
 vincial assembly, and to congress in 1774. He 
 likewise served as senator in the legislature of 
 his native state, and died Jan 12, 1778, during 
 the session of congress of which he was a mem- 
 ber. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robert R. was born in New 
 York City, Nov. 27, 1746, and graduated at 
 King's college in 1765. He studied and prac- 
 ticed law in his native city where he enjoyed a 
 very high reputation, was elected to the first 
 general congress, was one of the committee to 
 draw up the Declaration of Independence, and 
 in 1780, was appointed secretary of foreign af- 
 fairs. He held for several years the office of 
 chancellor of New York, and, in 1801, was ap- 
 pointed by president Jefferson, minister pleni- 
 potentiary to France. Bonaparte distinguished 
 him by peculiar favor. In 18C5 Mr. Livingston 
 returned to the United States, and died March 
 26, 1813. He devoted the latter part of his life 
 to the promotion of agriculture, and w-as presi- 
 dent of the New York Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Brockholst, son of William 
 Livingston, governor of New Jersey, was born 
 in the city of New York, Nov. 25, 1757, and 
 served with great distinction under Schuyler 
 and Arnold. He went to Spain in 1779, as 
 private secretary of Mr. Jay. On his return 
 he studied law and was admitted to practice in 
 April, 1783. He was made judge of the Su- 
 preme court of New York, Jan. 8, 1802, was 
 raised to the bench of the Supreme court of the 
 United States, in 1806, and died during the 
 session of the court at Washington, March 18, 
 1823, in the 66th year of his age. 
 
 LLOYD, James, was born in Boston, in 1769, 
 educated at Harvard college, and commenced 
 business as a merchant. In 1808 he was elected 
 by the legislature of Massachusetts, a senator 
 in congress. Throughout the most trying times 
 he displayed great calmness, patriotism, and 
 ability. He died at New York in 1831. 
 
 LOCRIS, a country of Middle Greece, the 
 inhabitants of which were divided into the Locri 
 Ozolaa, a Epizephyrii, the Locri, Epicnemidii, 
 and the Locri Opuntii. They were a brave 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 LON 
 
 317 
 
 LOU 
 
 and warlike people and signalized themselves by 
 their efforts to maintain the liberty of Greece. 
 
 LODI, a large town in the government of 
 Lombardy, belonging to Venice, on the Adda, 
 containing 17,800 inhabitants. One of the 
 most daring exploits that characterised the 
 commencement of Bonaparte's military career, 
 was performed here in 1706, by forcing the pas- 
 sage of the bridge over the Adda, though de- 
 fended by 10,000 Austrians. Napoleon always 
 spoke of it as " that terrible passage of the bridge 
 of Lodi." 
 
 LOMBARDS, also called Longobardi, or 
 Langobardi, originally a Scandinavian tribe, 
 were first found by the Romans in the eastern 
 part of the principality of Luneburg, and in the 
 Altmark. At the close of the fifth century, 
 they made their appearance on the north side 
 of the Danube, and about the middle of the 6th 
 century, the king Alboin gained great advanta- 
 ges over the Gepidce, and conquered all upper 
 Italy, and a part of Middle Italy. Desiderius, 
 the last king, was conquered A. D. 774 by Pe- 
 pin of France, who subverted the kingdom of 
 the Lombards in Italy, after it had been in ex- 
 istence for the space of 206 years. The present 
 government of Lombardy belongs to Austria, 
 contains nearly 2,200,000 inhabitants, and its 
 capital is Milan. 
 
 LONDON. This vast city, the metropolis 
 of Great Britain, is situated on the banks of the 
 Thames, about 60 miles from the sea, and stands 
 in lat. 51° 31' N. and Ion. 5' 37" W. from Green- 
 wich. The total population, including the 
 several parishes which belong to the city, is 
 1,500,000. The streets of the city are generally 
 wide, the houses arranged with great regard to 
 uniformity, and well built. The royal palace, 
 Westminster Abbey, and St. Paul's Cathedral, 
 are magnificent buildings. The manners of 
 the lower classes are loose, and intemperance 
 prevails among them to an alarming degree. 
 London was fortified by the Romans in the year 
 50 ; walled in 294 ; made a bishop's see 604 ; re- 
 paired by Alfred, 885. In 1090 it was not paved. 
 In 1192 an order to build the houses of stone, 
 and have them slated, as they were then built 
 of wood and thached with straw, was not ob- 
 served. In 1208 king John granted a charter 
 to the inhabitants to choose a mayor out of their 
 own body annually (this office having been 
 formerly for life), to elect and remove their 
 sheriffs at pleasure, and their common council- 
 men annually. 
 
 LONDONDERRY, Marquis of, more gene- 
 rally known under the title of lord Castlereagh, 
 
 an active statesman in the reigns of George 
 III. and IV, by whose influence the legislative 
 union of Ireland was effected ; and who, as 
 secretary-of-state, promoted those measures by 
 which the confederacy of the European powers 
 was concentrated against Napoleon. In August, 
 1822, he was appointed minister from Great 
 Britain to the congress at Verona, but two days 
 before his intended departure, he destroyed 
 himself in a fit of mental distraction. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, or Nassau island, an island 
 belonging to the state of New York, from which 
 it is separated by the East river. It is 120 miles 
 long, and from 10 to 20 broad. The soil of the 
 island is admirably adapted for agriculture. 
 
 LORRAINE, for a long time a fief of the 
 German empire, and a subject of contention 
 between France and Germany, at present forms 
 the French departments of the Meuse, the Vos- 
 ges, the Moselle, and the Meurlhe. Square 
 miles, 10,150; pop. 1,800,000. Its forests and 
 mountains contain great quantities of game, and 
 many minerals. 
 
 LOUDON, or Laudon, Gideon Ernest, an 
 Austrian general, was born at Footzen, in Livo- 
 nia, in 1716, of a family that originally came 
 from Scotland. He displayed great talents in 
 the seven years' war, and was made a major- 
 general, and invested with the order of Maria 
 Theresa. In 1757 he contributed to the victory 
 of Hochkirchen, and afterwards gained that of 
 Kunersdorf, He next defeated the Prussians 
 at Landshut, and made himself master of Glatz. 
 On the conclusion of the peace, he was created 
 a baron of the empire ; in 1766, nominated an 
 aulic counsellor ; and, in 1778, made field-mar- 
 shal. He next commanded against the Turks ; 
 and, in 1789 took Belgrade. He died, July 14, 
 1790. His modesty was proverbial. The duke 
 of Aremberg, being once asked by the empress 
 at a court party where Loudon was, answered — 
 " There he is, as usual, behind the door, quite 
 ashamed of possessing so much merit." 
 
 LOUIS IX, king of France, commonly call- 
 ed St. Louis, was the son of Louis VIII, and 
 was born in 1215. Being an infant at the time 
 of his father's death, the regency was confided 
 to Blanche of Castile, the queen-dowager. 
 Scarcely had Louis attained the age of 21 years, 
 and taken the reins of government into his own 
 hands, when Henry III of England demanded 
 the provinces which Louis VIII had promised 
 to restore. A tender was made of Poictou, and 
 part of Normandy ; but Henry was resolved to 
 try the issue of a battle, and his army was de- 
 feated on the banks of the Charente. In 1248 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LOU 
 
 318 
 
 LOU 
 
 Louis undertook a crusade to the Holy Land, 
 and landed in Egypt ; Damietta was abandoned 
 by the Saracens on the approach of his troops, 
 who advanced to Cairo, in full confidence of 
 success. But famine, the sword, and disease 
 so wasted his forces, that he fell, with all his 
 nobility, into the hands of the enemy. His 
 ransom was the city of Damietta, and 400,000 
 francs. Louis remained five years in Palestine, 
 repaired the fortifications of some cities, ran- 
 somed nearly 1200 prisoners, but, on the news 
 v of his mother's death, he returned promptly to 
 France, and employed himself in securing the 
 enjoyment of peace and justice. His piety 
 caused him to build many churches and hospit- 
 als, and his subjects blessed a reign which ap- 
 peared as peaceful as it was happy, when ill 
 news from Palestine roused the enterprising 
 spirit of the king, and another crusade was de- 
 termined upon. He departed with his three 
 sons, but instead of going directly to Palestine, 
 landed at Tunis, and commenced the siege of 
 that place. The heat of the climate and the 
 plague thinned the ranks of the army ; Louis 
 lost one of his sons, and died himself at the age 
 of 55 years, after a reign of 44. He was placed 
 among the saints Dy pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 LOUIS XI, the son of Charles VI, was born 
 in 1423. In 1440 he put himself at the head of 
 a faction called la Praguerie, against the king, 
 his father, with whom he afterwards became 
 reconciled. He was at the siege of Tartas, in 
 1 442. and was afterwards present at the raising 
 of that of Dieppe, which was besieged by the 
 English, subsequently to which he defeated 
 6000 Swiss, near the city of Basle. His father's 
 death took place July 1, 1461, and Louis was 
 crowned August 15. He removed from his 
 court all the princes and nobility, who then en- 
 gaged the principal persons of the kingdom in 
 a league, to which they gave the name of 
 League of the Public good (ligue du bien public.) 
 The duke of Berry, the king's brother, the 
 dukes of Bretagne and Bourbon, and the son 
 of the duke of Burgundy, were the chiefs of 
 this party. The king, who marched to defend 
 Paris, engaged them July 2, 1465, without much 
 advantage, but he broke up the league by a 
 peace concluded in October following, at Con- 
 flans, by which he agreed to give Normandy to 
 his brother ; and to cede some territories to 
 Burgundy. Louis, however, did not keep his 
 pledges ; his brother was soon poisoned, and it 
 was thought that Louis was the author of the 
 atrocious deed. The young duke of Burgundy 
 determined to revenge the death of his friend, 
 
 but fell in the midst of brilliant projects, in a 
 battle with the Swiss. Louis passed his last 
 years in the chauteau of Plessis-les-tours, a prey 
 to the horrors of a guilty conscience, and died 
 there in 1483. 
 
 LOUIS XII, born in 1462, succeeded to the 
 throne of France in 1498. He became the dupe 
 of his allies, who prevailed on him to attempt 
 the conquest of Genoa, Naples, and Milan, the 
 issue of which proved unfortunate. In his war 
 against the Spaniards he was equally unsuc- 
 cessful ; his army being defeated, and his fleet 
 of observation, which was stationed off" the 
 coast of Catalonia, driven into port. Henry 
 VIII of England, having waged a successful 
 war on the French territory, suddenly broke 
 with his allies, and, having made peace with 
 Louis, bestowed on him the hand of his sister. 
 In the midst of his preparations to recover the 
 loss he had sustained in Italy, Louis died in 
 1515. 
 
 LOUIS XIII was born in 1601, succeeded 
 his father, Henry IV, in 1610, and, the state 
 being placed under the regency of Mary of 
 Medicis, the widowed queen of Henry IV. In 
 1611, Sully retired from the court, and was 
 succeeded by Concini, mariechal d' Ancre, who 
 gained unlimited sway. He supported Mary 
 de Medicis in all her prodigal measures ; but 
 his unpopular career was terminated by an as- 
 sassian, and the queen mother was exiled to 
 Blois. Richelieu reconciled the queen and 
 Louis, and in 1624, was put at the head of the 
 administration. He died in 1642, and his death 
 was soon followed by that of Louis, who sur- 
 vived the Cardinal only a few months. 
 
 LOUIS XIV, son of the preceding, ascended 
 the throne in 1643, under the regency of his 
 mother, Anne of Austria, who chose cardinal 
 Mazarin as her minister. In the war against 
 Spain and Austria, the duke d' Enghien and 
 marshal Turenne were victoriors in Germany 
 and the Netherlands. By the peace of West 
 phalia, in 1648, France gained Alsace, and 
 Sundgau, Brisach, and the right to garrison 
 Phillipsburg. In the same year began the civil 
 war of the Frondeurs, against Mazarin, who 
 was relieved by the great prince of Conde. In 
 1650 Conde formed an independent party, but 
 was arrested and imprisoned, and in 1652 was 
 defeated by the royalists, under Turenne, at 
 the battle of St. Antoine. In 1653, Conde 
 joined the Spaniards, the war against whom 
 was vigorously carried on by Turenne. By the 
 peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis gained 
 Roussillon and Conflans, a great acquisition of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 LOU 
 
 319 
 
 LOU 
 
 territory; and, in 1660, received the daughter 
 of Philip IV in marriage. In 1661, Mazarin 
 died, and Louis took upon himself the affairs 
 of government, appointing Colbert minister of 
 finance, under whom the arts, commerce, and 
 manufactures greatly flourished. On the death 
 of Philip IV of Spain, Louis began the career 
 of those conquests which acquired him the title 
 of Great. By virtue of his marriage with Maria 
 Theresa of Austria, he laid claim to Cambresis 
 Franche-Conte, Luxembourg, and a great part 
 of the Spanish Netherlands, and entered Flan- 
 ders at the head of an army of 35,000 men. 
 However, the triple alliance of England, Swe- 
 den, and Holland, compelled the French mon- 
 arch to renounce all but Flanders, and to 
 conclude the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1668. 
 Louvois now became minister of war; and, in 
 1670, Louis effected the dissolution of the triple 
 alliance; overran great part of Holland, and 
 compelled the elector of Brandenburg to con- 
 clude a treaty of neutrality, in 1673. In 1674, 
 Louis, being abandoned by his former allies, 
 formed a league with Sweden, and resolved to 
 humble the republic of Holland. He made a 
 sham attack on Bommel by sea ; but the prince 
 of Conde being compelled to retreat with his 
 army, the united provinces were lost to France. 
 
 In 1675, Turenne perished before Salzbach. 
 At length, a treaty was signed at Nimeguen, in 
 1678, whereby all the provinces wrested from 
 the Dutch were restored, and Louis gained 
 Franche-Conte, Dunkirk, and part of Flanders. 
 In 1681, the Chambers of Re-union were erect- 
 ed, and, in 1684, Louis seized Strasburg, Lux- 
 emburg, and Deux Ponts. In the same year, 
 Louis sent a fleet against Genoa ; and, in the 
 following year, he bombarded Tripoli and Tu- 
 nis. In 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes, 
 and the Protestants were compelled to fly the 
 kingdom for safety. In 1683, he took possession 
 of Avignon and the Palatinate of the Rhine, 
 which he devastated in the following year. 
 The fortune of Louis was now on the decline. 
 Louvois died in 1691, and, in 1692, the French 
 fleet was destroyed by the British at La Hogue. 
 The French were, however, victorious in Spain 
 and the Netherlands, under Vendome and Lux- 
 emburg. 
 
 In 1696, Louis concluded the peace of Turin 
 with Savoy ; and, in the following year the 
 peace of Ryswick was concluded, whereby 
 Louis restored his conquests, made after the 
 death of Charles II of Spain. In 1700 the 
 war of the Spanish succession commenced, 
 when Louis declared for Philip of Anjou, in 
 
 opposition to Charles, archduke of Austria, sup- 
 ported by the European confederates. War 
 was now declared against France ; Louis was 
 defeated at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde ; 
 and Malplaquet, and prince Eugene was every- 
 where triumphant. Louis sued for peace in 
 vain, but a change in the English cabinet gave 
 a new turn to the politics of Europe ; and, in 
 1713, the peace of Utrecht was concluded, fol- 
 lowed by that of Radstadt, between marshal 
 Villars and prince Eugene, when Louis ceded 
 his possessions in America to England, and his 
 Italian dominions to Austria and Savoy. In 
 1715, Louis died, in the 72d year of his reign, 
 at the age of 77. 
 
 LOUIS XV, only five years of age at the 
 death of the preceding monarch, was placed 
 under the regency of the duke of Orleans. In 
 1726 the regency of Cardinal Henry commen- 
 ced, on whose death, Louis took on himself 
 the management of public affairs and declared 
 war against Germany and Hungary. After a 
 life spent in the greatest' voluptuousness, he 
 died, an object of general odium, in 1774. 
 
 LOUIS XVI. (See France.) 
 
 LOUIS XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, 
 displayed much energy and bravery in his 
 struggles against Napoleon. After Napoleon 
 had departed for Elba, Louis entered Paris on 
 the 3d of May, 1814. On the 20th of March, 
 1815, the king left the Tuileries, and Napoleon 
 re-entered Paris. On the 8th of July, Louis 
 again returned to Paris. His death took place 
 September 16, 1824. 
 
 LOUISBURG, formerly a considerable town 
 and fortress of the island of Cape Breton. It 
 was taken from the French by the English fleet 
 under Sir Peter Warren, and the provincial 
 forces commanded by Sir William Pepperel in 
 the year 1745 ; but afterwards restored to 
 France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 
 1748. It was again taken by the English, un- 
 der the command of admiral Boscawen, and 
 general Amherst, in 1758, and its fortifications 
 since demolished. It is now almost deserted. 
 
 LOUISIANA, is divided into three parts. 
 The first contains the parishes east of the Mis- 
 sissippi, the second the parishes bordering on 
 the west side of the Mississippi, and the third 
 the western parishes. The southern portion of 
 Louisiana is level, and abounds with swamps 
 and prairies, the former of which are destitute 
 of trees, and stretch out as far as the eye can 
 reach, in gloomy and unbroken dreariness. 
 But on the borders of the rivers the land is the 
 most fertile imaginable, and yields in great 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 LUN 
 
 320 
 
 LUT 
 
 abundance, cotton, sugar, and rice. Besides 
 New Orleans, the principal towns are Baton 
 Rouge, Alexandria, Nachitoches, St. Francis- 
 ville, Donaldsville, &c. Education, in general, 
 is much neglected ; there is a Catholic college, 
 at New Orleans, which enjoys a high reputation, 
 and there are academies in various parts of the 
 state. 
 
 Louisiana was discovered in 1682 by La 
 Salle, a Frenchman, and its name was bestow- 
 ed in compliment to Louis XIV, then seated on 
 the throne of France. It was not until 1699 
 that a regular settlement was commenced at 
 Iberville. It passed into the hands of Spain, by 
 treaty, in 1762, but was restored to France in 
 1795, and was purchased by the United States 
 in 1803, for 15,000,000 dollars ; the vast territo- 
 ry thus acquired includes the state of Louisiana, 
 the State of Missouri, the territory of Arkansas, 
 and the country beyond to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. Louisiana was admitted into the union as 
 an independent state in 1812. Population 345, 
 590, of which 165,219 are slaves. 
 
 LOWELL, a large manufacturing town of 
 Massachusetts, 25 miles N. W. of Boston, sit- 
 uated at the junction of the Concord and Mer- 
 rimack rivers, containing, according to the last 
 census, 20,981 inhabitants, but at present double 
 that number. 
 
 LUCCA, a city and duchy of Italy, originally 
 a colony of the Romans. It has repeatedly 
 changed masters. The city contains 22,000 
 inhabitants, and the duchy 143,500. The ducal 
 power is limited by that of the senate which is 
 annually assembled. 
 
 LUCRETIA, a noble Roman matron, the 
 wife of Collatinus, who lived in the reign of 
 Tarquin the Proud. While other ladies" were 
 engaged in frivolous amusements, she was 
 found at work in the midst of her handmaidens. 
 Sextus, the son of Tarquin, inflamed with a 
 base passion, gained entrance to her apartment 
 at midnight, during the absence of her husband, 
 and dishonored her. Lucretia, unable to sur- 
 vive her shame, killed herself. Brutus (which 
 see) had the body conveyed to the forum, and 
 delivered so moving and inspiring an address, 
 that the populace rose against their oppres- 
 sors, and the regal dignity was abolished in 
 Rome. Brutus, and Collatinus, the husband 
 of the matron, were the first consuls. 
 
 LUNEVILLE, an open city of Lorraine, de- 
 partment of the Meuse, containing 12,778 in- 
 habitants. A treaty between Austria and the 
 French republic, was concluded here in Feb. 
 1801. 
 
 LUTHER, Martin, was born Nov. 10, 1483, 
 at Isleben, in Lower Saxony. In 1508, he be- 
 came lecturer in philosophy at Wittemberg, 
 and, while thus employed, received orders 
 from his superiors to go to Rome, where he had 
 ample opportunity of observing the corruptions 
 of popery. In 1517 pope Leo X published in- 
 dulgences to enable him to complete the build- 
 ing of St. Peters, which measure proved the 
 cause of an incurable breach in the Roman 
 church. Tetzel, the Dominican, who had the 
 sale of these pardons in Germany, behaved so 
 scandalously, that Luther published a thesis in 
 which he denied the validity of papal indulgen- 
 ces. Tetzel, who was then at Frankfort, caus- 
 ed Luther's thesis to be burnt, and published 
 another in answer to it, which roused the indig- 
 nation of the students of Wittemberg to such a 
 degree, that they burned his thesis in return. 
 Luther, in the midst of these proceedings, 
 wrote to the pope in terms of respect, and 
 though he did not retract his positions, he ex- 
 pressed his readiness to submit to authority. 
 In the meantime, the contention became fiercer 
 between the champions for indulgences, and 
 their opponents. The pope aggravated the 
 matter by citing Luther to appear at Rome ; 
 but the latter wisely declined putting himself 
 in a place where destruction was certain. He 
 had now secured the protection of the elector 
 of Saxony, who, instead of giving him up, de- 
 manded that the cause should be heard in 
 Germany. With this the pope complied, and 
 Cajetan was sent to Augsburg, whither Luther 
 repaired ; but after two conferences, he left the 
 place, from an apprehension of a design upon 
 his life. In 1519 was held a conference at Le- 
 ipsic, between Luther and Eck, professor of 
 divinity at Ingolstadt, which ended without 
 bringing the parties nearer to each other. 
 
 The pope, on his side, became exasperated, 
 and issued his bull of excommunication against 
 the reformer, who caused it to be publicly 
 burnt in the presence of the whole university 
 of Wittemberg. On his way home from the 
 diet of Worms, in 1521, he was carried off by a 
 party of horsemen to one of the castles belong- 
 ing to his friend, the elector, who adopted this 
 method to secure him from his enemies. In 
 this Patmos, as he called it, Luther remained 
 ten months, and then returned to Wittemberg, 
 where he published a sharp reply to Henry VIII, 
 who had written a book against him, on the 
 seven sacraments. In 1529 the emperor as- 
 sembled a diet at Spires, to check the progress 
 of the new opinions ; and here it was that the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 LYC 
 
 321 
 
 LYD 
 
 name of Protestants first arose, from the pro- 
 test made by the electoral princes who were in 
 favor of the Reformation, against the rigorous 
 measures which were proposed in this assembly. 
 In 1534, Luther's translation of the whole bible 
 was published ; and the same year he printed 
 a book against the service of the mass. At 
 length, worn out, more by labor than age, this 
 illustrious man died at his native place, Febru- 
 ary 18, 1546, and his remains were solemnly in- 
 terred in the cathedral of Wittemberg. 
 
 LUTZEN, a small town of Prussian Saxony, 
 in the government of Merseburg, the neighbor- 
 hood of which is famous for two great battles, 
 one in 1632, in which the Austrians were de- 
 feated by Gustavus of Sweden, who was him- 
 self killed in the action ; and the other in 1813, 
 when the French, under Bonaparte, defeated 
 the combined forces of Prussia and Russia. 
 
 LUXEMBURG, a province of the Nether- 
 lands, containing 293,555 inhabitants. Its cap- 
 ital of the same name, was besieged, in 1794, 
 by the victorious armies of France, and capitu- 
 lated on the 17th of June, 1795. 
 
 LYCURGUS, a celebrated lawgiver of Spar- 
 ta, the son of king Eunomus, and brother to 
 Polydectes, flourished in the latter half of the 
 9th century B. C. He travelled with the spirit 
 of a philosopher, and visited Asia and Egypt 
 without suffering himself to be corrupted by 
 the licentiousness and luxury which prevailed 
 there. The confusion which followed his de- 
 parture from Sparta, having made his presence 
 necessary, he returned home at the earnest so- 
 licitations of his countrymen. The disorders 
 which reigned at Sparta induced him to reform 
 the government. Lycurgus found no difficulty 
 in reforming the abuses of the state, and all 
 were equally anxious in promoting a revolution 
 which had received the sanction of heaven. 
 This happened 884 years before the Christian 
 era. Lycurgus first established a senate, which 
 was composed of 28 senators, whose authority 
 was designed to preserve the tranquillity of the 
 state, and maintain a due and just equilibrium 
 between the kings and the people, by watch- 
 ing over the encroachments of the former, and 
 checking the seditious convulsions of the latter. 
 All distinctions of rank were destroyed, and by 
 making an equal and impartial division of the 
 land among the members of the commonwealth, 
 Lycurgus banished luxury, and encouraged the 
 useful arts. The use of money, either of gold 
 or silver, was totally forbidden, and the intro- 
 duction of heavy brass and iron coin, brought 
 no temptations to the dishonest, and left every 
 
 individual in possession of his effects without 
 any fear of robbery or violence. All the citizens 
 dined in common, and no one had greater claims 
 to indulgence and luxury than another. The 
 intercourse of Sparta with other nations was 
 forbidden, and few were permitted to travel. 
 The youths were intrusted to the public mas- 
 ter, as soon as they had attained their seventh 
 year, and their education was left to the wis- 
 dom of the laws. They were taught early to 
 think, to answer in a laconic manner, to at- 
 tempt to excel in repartee. They were encour- 
 aged to steal, and theft was only punished for 
 being discovered. Thus we are told that a youth 
 who carried off a fox beneath his cloak, permit- 
 ted the animal to gnaw into his vitals, rather than 
 disclose his theft by dropping the prize. These 
 laws gave rise to a race of men distinguished for 
 their intrepidity, fortitude and independence. 
 
 After promulgating his code, Lycurgus re- 
 tired from Sparta to Delphi, or according to 
 others, to Crete ; and, before his departure, he 
 bound all the citizens of Lacedcemon by a sol- 
 emn oath, that neither they nor their posterity 
 would alter, violate, or abolish the laws which 
 he had established, before his return. He soon 
 after died, and "ordered his ashes to be thrown 
 into the sea, fearful lest, if they were carried to 
 Sparta, the citizens would consider themselves 
 freed from the oath which they had taken, and 
 empowered to make a revolution. The wisdom 
 and the good effect of the laws of Lycurgus 
 have been fully demonstrated at Sparta, where, 
 for 400 years they remained in full force, but 
 the legislator has been censured as cruel and 
 impolitic. Lycurgus has been compared with 
 Solon, the celebrated legislator of Athens, and 
 it has been judiciously observed, that the former 
 gave his citizens morals conformable to the laws 
 which he had established, and that the latter had 
 given the Athenians laws which coincided with 
 their customs and manners. The office of Ly- 
 curgus demanded resolution, and he showed 
 himself inexorable and severe. In Solon, arti- 
 fice was requisite, and he showed himself mild 
 and even indulgent. The moderation of Lycur- 
 gus is highly commendable, particularly when 
 we recollect that he treated with the greatest 
 humanity and confidence Alcander, a youth 
 who had put out one of his eyes in a seditious 
 tumult. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated 
 by Philopcemen, B. C. 188, but only for a little 
 time, as they were soon after reestablished by 
 the Romans. 
 
 LYDIA, anciently Maeonia, a celebrated 
 kingdom of Asia Minor, whose boundaries were 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LYO 
 
 322 
 
 LYS 
 
 different at different times. It received the 
 name of Lydia from Lydus, one of its kings. 
 It was governed by monarchs. who, after the 
 fabulous ages, reigned 249 years, in the fol- 
 lowing order : Ardysus began to reign 797 B. 
 C.J Alyattes, 761 ; Meles, 747 ; Caudaules, 735 ; 
 Gyges, 718 ; Ardysus II, 6*80 ; Sadyattes, 631 ; 
 Alyattes II, 619, and Croesus 562, who was con- 
 quered by Cyrus B. C. 548, when the kingdom 
 became a province of the Persian empire. Three 
 different races reigned in Lydia, the Atyadae, 
 the Heraclidae, and the Mermnadae. The his- 
 tory of the first is obscure and fabulous; the 
 Heraclidae began to reign about the time of the 
 Trojan war, and the crown remained in their 
 family for about 500 years, and was always 
 transmitted from father to son. Caudaules was 
 the last of the Heraclidae ; and Gyges the first 
 and Croesus the last of the Mermnadae. The 
 Lydians were great warriors in the reign of the 
 Mermnadas. They invented the art of coining 
 gold and silver, and were the first who exhibited 
 public sports, &c. Lydia remained a part of the 
 eastern Roman empire until 1326, when it was 
 conquered by the Turks. 
 
 LYMAN, Phinehas, major-general, born at 
 Durham, about 1716, graduated at Yale college 
 in 1738. He was afterwards a tutor in this 
 institution, studied law, and practised it with 
 great success. After serving as a member of the 
 assembly of Connecticut, he was elected to the 
 council, and, in 1755, appointed major-general 
 and commander-in-chief of the Connecticut 
 forces. In the battle of lake George the com- 
 mand devolved upon him, and he also com- 
 manded the American forces in the expedition 
 to Havannah. After spending some years in 
 England, he returned to America, and, in 1775, 
 embarked for the Mississippi, followed by his 
 family. He died in West Florida, 1778. 
 
 LYNCH, Thomas, Jr., one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 South Carolina, Aug. 5, 1749, and educated in 
 England. In 1775 he joined the revolutionary 
 army, but a severe sickness compelled him to 
 relinquish his plan of serving his country in the 
 field. He was elected to congress, and signed 
 the Declaration of Independence, but his health 
 failing, he was advised to go to St. Eustatia, and 
 embarked at the close of the year 1779, after 
 which date the vessel was not heard of. 
 
 LYONS, a large city in the south-east of 
 France, containing 135,723 inhabitants. This 
 city sustained a siege against the Jacobins for 
 several months in 1793, and after its surrender 
 the principal inhabitants were massacred by the 
 
 terrorists under Collot d'Herbois. In the spring 
 of 1814, several severe actions took place in the 
 neighborhood, between the French and Austri- 
 ans ; on the return of Napoleon from Elba, in 
 March, 1815, he was received here with accla- 
 mation. 
 
 LYSANDER, a celebrated general of Sparta, 
 in the last years of the Peloponnesian war. He 
 drew Ephesus from the interest of Athens, and 
 gained the friendship of Cyrus the Younger. 
 He gave battle to the Athenian fleet, consisting 
 of 120 ships, at ^Egos Potamos, and destroyed 
 it all, excepting three ships, with which the 
 enemy's general fled to Evagoras, king of Cy- 
 prus. In this celebrated battle, which happened 
 405 years B. C, the Athenians lost 3,000 men, 
 and with them their empire and influence among 
 the neighboring states. Lysander well knew 
 how to take advantage of his victory, and the 
 following year Athens, worn out by a long war 
 of 27 years, and discouraged by its misfortunes, 
 gave itself up to the power of the enemy, and 
 consented to destroy the Piraeus, to giv"e up all 
 its ships, except twelve, to recall all those who 
 had been banished, and, in short, to submit in 
 every thing, to the power of Lacedaemon. Be- 
 sides these humiliating conditions, the govern- 
 ment of Athens was totally changed, and thirty 
 tyrants were set over it by Lysander. This glo- 
 rious success, and the honor of having put an 
 end to the Peloponnesian war, increased the 
 pride of Lysander. He had already began to 
 pave his way to universal power, by establish 
 ing aristocracy in the Grecian cities of Asia, 
 and now he attempted to make the crown of 
 Sparta elective. The sudden declaration of war 
 against the Thebans saved him from the accu- 
 sations of his adversaries, and he was sent, to 
 gether with Pausanias, against the enemy. He 
 was defeated and killed, 394 years B. C, in the 
 Boeotian war. 
 
 LYSIMACHUS,a son of Agathocles, who 
 was among the generals of Alexander. He 
 sided with Cassander and Seleucus against An- 
 tigonus and Demetrius, and fought with them 
 at the celebrated battle of Ipsus. He afterwards 
 seized Macedonia, after expelling Pyrrhus from 
 the throne, B. C. 286, but his cruelty rendered 
 him odious, and the murder of his son Agatho- 
 cles so offended his subjects, that the most opu- 
 lent and powerful revolted from him and aban- 
 doned the kingdom. He pursued them to Asia, 
 and declared war against Seleucus, who had 
 given them a kind reception. He was killed in 
 a bloody battle, 281 years B. C. in the 80th year 
 of his age. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MAC 
 
 323 
 
 MAD 
 
 M. 
 
 MACARTNEY, George, earl, celebrated in 
 diplomatic history, principally for his embassy 
 to China in 1792. He died in 1806. 
 
 MACASSAR, formerly a large city of Ce- 
 lebes, with a fine harbor. On its site now stands 
 the little village of Vlaardingen with 1,000 in- 
 habitants. The natives in the vicinity are, in 
 general, faithful, and hospitable ; their number 
 is about 10,000. 
 
 MACBETH, an usurper and tyrant, who fill- 
 ed the Scottish throne during a part of the 11th 
 century. He murdered his kinsman, Duncan, 
 to clear the path to royalty. He also put to 
 death M'Gill and Banquo, the most powerful 
 men in his dominions. Macduff becoming the 
 object of his suspicions, escaped into England, 
 but the inhuman tyrant wreaked his vengeance 
 on his wife and children, whom he caused to 
 be butchered. Macduff and Malcolm, son of 
 Duncan, having obtained assistance from the 
 English, entered into Scotland, and forced Mac- 
 beth to retreat into the Highlands, where he 
 was soon afterwards slain in battle by Macduff. 
 Shakspeare's Macbeth is one of the most pow- 
 erfully drawn characters of his tragedies. 
 
 MACHIAVELLI, Nicholas, a celebrated 
 writer, born of a noble family of Florence, in 
 1469. His first efforts produced a comedy called 
 Mandragora, which proved so popular, on ac- 
 count of its satire, at Florence, that Leo X sent 
 for the actors to exhibit it to a Roman audi- 
 ence. Machiavelli acquired, however, greater 
 fame by his political writings. By the influ- 
 ence of the Medicis, and as a recompense for 
 the suffering he had endured on the rack on sus- 
 picion of a conspiracy with the Soderini against 
 Julius, afterwards Clement VII, he was made 
 Secretary and Historiographer to the republic 
 of Florence. He died in 1527, of a medicine 
 which he had taken by way of prevention. 
 
 MACCABEES. (See Hebrews.) 
 
 MACEDONIA, now Makdonia, or Filiba Vil- 
 ajeti, an ancient kingdom of Europe, found- 
 ed by Caranus and Perdiccas, B. C. 800. It 
 first became powerful under Philip and his son 
 Alexander the Great, the last of whom gave it 
 new splendor, subdued the neighboring states, 
 destroyed the liberties of Greece, 338, and con- 
 quered the Persian empire. Macedonia con- 
 tinued in the family of Alexander, or of his 
 generals, until 168 B. C. ; when by the defeat 
 of Perseus it became a Roman province ; it con- 
 tinued to belong to the Eastern empire until 
 1393, when the Turks under Baiazet IV invad- 
 28 
 
 ed the country, which was finally conquered by 
 them in 1429. The present inhabitants are a 
 hardy race. Their country is rich, well- wooded 
 and mountainous. Population, about 700,000 ; 
 square miles, 15,250. 
 
 MACKEAN, Thomas, was born March 19, 
 1734, in the county of Chester, Pennsylvania, 
 and was admitted to the bar of the Supreme 
 Court of Pennsylvania, in 1757. For seventeen 
 successive years he was elected a member of 
 the assembly. He was sent to the congress 
 held at New York in 1765, took an active part 
 in the revolutionary proceedings, and served in 
 arms in New Jersey, where he greatly distin- 
 guished himself. In 1777 he was chosen chief- 
 justice of Pennsylvania, and was afterwards 
 elected governor of the state. He died June 
 24, 1817, in his 84th year. 
 
 MACPHERSON, James, a Scottish writer, 
 was born in 1738. His fame rests upon his 
 tianslation from the Gaelic of the poems of 
 Ossian, the authenticity of which has been 
 denied by many writers, but was finally par- 
 tially allowed after a severe literary investiga- 
 tion. The question gave rise to warm dispute 
 between Macpherson and Dr. Johnson. Mac- 
 pherson died in 1796. 
 
 MADAGASCAR, a large island of Africa, 
 900 miles long, and from 120 to 300 broad. Pop. 
 3,000,000. It is extremely fertile. It was first 
 visited by the Portuguese in the beginning of 
 the 16th century. It is situated in the Indian 
 Ocean, near the southern part of Africa, from 
 which it is separated by the Mozambique chan- 
 nel. Madagascar yields in abundance wheat, 
 rice, sugar, grapes, honey, and excellent fruits. 
 Almost all the European animals are found 
 here in abundance. The forests are composed 
 of a prodigious variety of trees, and furnish 
 vast quantities of ornamental wood. Among the 
 gums of the woods, is the valuable gum elastic. 
 The islanders are warmly attached to liberty, 
 but licentious and indolent. The island is di- 
 vided among many petty kings or chiefs. The 
 religion is Mohammedan, mingled with idola- 
 try and Judaism. The climate is very hot, but 
 the air is, in most parts of the country, health- 
 ful. The French have several times attempted 
 to form settlements, but in general unsuccess- 
 fully. 
 
 MADEIRA, an island off the western coast 
 of Africa, belongs to Portugal. Pop. 100,000. 
 It is situated between the straits of Gibraltar 
 and the Canaries, is 15 leagues long; 60 in cir- 
 cumference. It was discovered by Zarco, a 
 Portuguese, in 1419. It is celebrated for its ex- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAH 
 
 324 
 
 MAH 
 
 cellent wines, the best of which is known under 
 the name of London particular. Its other pro- 
 ductions are sugar, grain, fruits, and cattle. 
 Funchal is the capital. 
 
 JVL-ECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the intimate 
 friend of Augustus, and so great a patron of 
 men of letters, that his name is proverbially 
 used to characterize persons of the same dispo- 
 sition. According to Horace, he was descend- 
 ed from the kings of Etruria. Augustus, one 
 day, being on the tribunal, passing sentence of 
 death on several persons, Maecenas sent him 
 a paper, with this inscription, " Come down, 
 butcher !" which struck the emperor so forcibly 
 that he immediately descended from his seat. 
 Maecenas was the patron of Virgil and Horace, 
 who immortalized him in their works. He dis- 
 tinguished himself also in the field, particularly 
 at the battles of Modena and Philippi. When 
 Augustus and Agrippa went to Sicily, Maece- 
 nas assumed tbe administration of the govern- 
 ment, though he was not ambitious of power. 
 He died 8 yearsB. C. In private life his char- 
 acter was stained by a devotion to sensual plea- 
 
 MAGHELHAENS, or MAGELLAN, Fer- 
 nando de, a Portuguese navigator, who, having 
 served under Albuquerque, obtained the com- 
 mand of a fleet from the emperor Charles V, 
 and discovered the straits at the extremity of 
 South America, which bear his name. He took 
 possession of the Philippine islands, where he 
 was slain in a skirmish with the natives in 1521. 
 
 MAGNA CHART A (the Great Charter), 
 the charter extorted from king John by the 
 English barons at' Runnemede, June 15, 1215, 
 which laid the foundation of the public rights 
 of the people of England. 
 
 MAHMOUD I, emperor of the Turks, raised 
 from the dungeon to the throne in 1731 ; con- 
 cluded the peace of Belgrade in 1739, by which 
 he kept Belgrade, Servia, and Wallachia, and 
 obtained Azof. 
 
 MAHMOUD II, present emperor of the 
 Turks, began his reign in 1808. His reign has 
 been a good deal disturbed. His introduction of 
 the European dress and discipline among his 
 troops is said to be a fatal innovation. 
 
 MAHOMET, or, according to the orthog- 
 raphy and pronunciation of the orientals, Mo- 
 hammed (the Glorified) surnamed Aboul Cas- 
 sem, the founder of the Arabic empire, and of 
 the religion to which he gave his name, was 
 born at Mecca, the 10th of November, 570, A. 
 D., according to the most probable opinion. 
 He was of the tribe of the Korashites, the no- 
 
 blest and the most powerful of the country. He 
 lost his father before he was two years old, and 
 his mother before he was eight, but their affec- 
 tionate attention was supplied by the care of his 
 uncle, Abu Taleb, a merchant. In the family 
 of this friendly protector, he was employed to 
 travel with his camels between Mecca and Sy- 
 ria, till his 25th year, when he entered into the 
 service of Cadiga, a rich widow, whom, though 
 12 years older than himself, he married three 
 years after. Thus suddenly raised to afflu- 
 ence and consequence above his countrymen, 
 he formed the secret plan of obtaining for him- 
 self the sovereign power, and judging there 
 was no way so likely to gain his end as by ef- 
 fecting a change in the religion of his country- 
 men, he adopted that as his instrument. 
 
 He now spent much of his time alone in a 
 cave near Mecca, employed as he gave out, in 
 meditation and prayer, though it is said that in 
 reality he called to his aid a Persian Jew, well 
 versed in the history and laws of his sect, and 
 two Christians, one of the Jacobite, and the 
 other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of 
 these men he framed his Koran, or the book 
 which he pretended to have received at differ- 
 ent times from heaven by the hands of the angel 
 Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicly as- 
 sumed the prophetic character, calling himself 
 the Apostle of God. His disciples were at first 
 very few, consisting only of his wife, nephew, 
 and servant, but in the course of three years he 
 had greatly increased the number of his follow- 
 ers. On these he imposed tales but too well 
 adapted to deceive ignorant and superstitious 
 minds. He pretended to have passed into the 
 highest heavens in one night, on the back of a 
 beautiful ass called Al Borak, and accompa- 
 nied by the angel Gabriel : that he there had an 
 interview with Adam, Abraham, Moses, and 
 Jesus Christ, who acknowledged his superior- 
 ity, which was confirmed to him by the Deity 
 himself. This romance staggered even some 
 of his best friends, and a powerful party being 
 formed against him, he was forced to quit 
 Mecca, and to seek refuge in Medina. This ex- 
 pulsion dates the foundation of his empire, and 
 of his religion. The Mohammedans adopt it as 
 their chronological era, calling it the Hegira, 
 being tbe 16th day of July, A. D. 622. 
 
 Mahomet had still a number of disciples, 
 upon whom he inculcated the principle, that 
 they were not to dispute for their religion by 
 words, but by the sword. No doctrine could 
 possibly be better suited to a lawless and wan- 
 dering people ; it was soon carried into practice, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MAH 
 
 325 
 
 MAI 
 
 and the Jewish Arabs were the first to experi- 
 ence its effects. Upon them Mahomet com- 
 mitted the most shocking cruelties, numbers 
 were put to death, others were sold for slaves, 
 and their goods distributed among the soldiers. 
 A faith, thus propagated, could not but suc- 
 ceed in a country like Arabia. His adherents 
 were not only rewarded by plunder here, but 
 had held out to them a felicity of the most sen- 
 sual kind hereafter. In 627 Mahomet made a 
 treaty with the inhabitants of Mecca, which 
 within two years he violated, and captured the 
 place. Having made himself master of Arabia, 
 he extended his conquests into Syria, where he 
 took several cities, and laid some of the princes 
 under tribute. His career was stopped only by 
 . his death, which was supposed to be occasioned 
 by poison, administered to him by a Jewess, and 
 sprinkled on a shoulder of mutton, of which 
 the prophet partook with a high relish. -When 
 the woman was examined, she declared that 
 she had perpetrated the deed, on purpose to try 
 whether he was a true prophet ; an answer 
 somewhat remarkable, as the innoxiousness of 
 poison was one of the privileges promised by 
 our Lord to his disciples. The poison is said to 
 have taken effect three years after it had been 
 administered. When he found himself dying, 
 Mahomet caused himself to be supported to the 
 mosque, where he celebrated the praise of God, 
 demanded pardon for his sins, and then, mount- 
 ing his throne, said : " If any one complaineth 
 that I have stricken him unjustly — lo ! here is 
 my back, let him return the blows. If I have 
 injured the reputation of anyone, let him treat 
 me in the same manner. If I have taken money 
 from any one, I am here ready to restore it." 
 H»s last words were, " Lord, pardon me; and 
 place me among those whom thou hast raised 
 to grace and favor." He died the 8th of June, 
 A. D. 632, having lived 63 years. 
 
 He was of small stature, and of a sanguine 
 temperament : he had a large head, regular and 
 decided features ; his eyes were large, black, 
 and full of fire ; his forehead was large, his nose 
 aquiline, his cheeks full, and his mouth large. 
 His teeth were white, but set a little apart from 
 each other, and between his eye-brows was a 
 vein which swelled when he was in anger. 
 Notwithstanding his corpulency, his gait was 
 easy and graceful. After the death of Cadiga, 
 he had several wives and concubines, by whom 
 he had many children, but left only one daugh- 
 ter named Fatima, who married his successor 
 Ali, having lived to see his doctrines and his 
 power extended over Arabia, Syria, and Persia. 
 
 MAHOMET I, emperor of the Turks, was 
 the son of Bajazet 1, and succeeded his brother 
 Moses, in 1413. He reestablished the glory of 
 the Ottoman empire, which had been ravaged 
 by Tamerlane, and fixed the seat of government 
 at Constantinople. 
 
 MAHOMET IV was born in 1642, and be- 
 came emperor in 1649, after the tragical death 
 of his father, Ibrahim I. He marched in person 
 against Poland, and having taken several places, 
 made peace with that country on condition of 
 receiving an annual tribute. Sobieski, however, 
 defeated him near Choczim, and obtained so 
 many other advantages, that a peace favorable 
 to Poland, was concluded in 1676. The Janis- 
 saries, attributing this and other misfortunes, 
 to the indolence of the sultan, deposed him in 
 1687, and sent him to prison where he died in 
 1691. 
 
 MAHRATTAS,a powerful nation of moun- 
 taineers in India, who have maintained a series 
 of wars with the British and native powers. 
 Their capital, Poona, was taken in 1817. The 
 possessions of the Mahrattas formerly extended 
 from the coast of Malabar to that of Orissa, in 
 the Ghaut mountains, but have been much nar- 
 rowed. 
 
 MAINE, one of the United States, bounded 
 N. W. and N. by Lower Canada; E. by New 
 Brunswick ; S. E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and W. by New Hampshire. The population, 
 in 1840, was 501,793 The Penobscot is the prin- 
 cipal river; and the Kennebec, a noble river, 
 waters a large extent of fertile country. The 
 commerce of Maine is greatly facilitated by 
 uncommon natural advantages. The principal 
 article of export, however, is timber, as a large 
 portion of Maine is uncultivated, and covered 
 with forests. Portland, now a city, is the largest 
 place in Maine. The next in importance are 
 Bangor, Thomaston, Bath, Hallo well, Bruns- 
 wick, and Eastport. At Brunswick, there is a 
 flourishing institution, called Bowdoin college, 
 which has a medical school connected with it. 
 There is a Baptist college at Waterville, and at 
 Bangor there is a literary and theological sem- 
 inary, supported by the Congregationalists. The 
 first European settlers in Maine were the Eng- 
 lish, who established themselves at York in 1630. 
 Until 1820, Maine formed a part of Massachu- 
 setts, under the title of the district of Maine, 
 but at the above-mentioned period it was erect- 
 ed into an independent state. 
 
 MA1NTENON, Frances d'Aubigne, March- 
 ioness de, grand daughter of Theodore Agrippa 
 d'Aubigne, was born in 1635, in the prison of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAL 
 
 226 
 
 MAL 
 
 Niort, where her father was confined. On his 
 death, Frances was sent to France, being pat- 
 ronised by her paternal aunt, Madame de Vil- 
 lette. From her, however, she was removed by 
 an order of court, lest she should be brought up 
 a Protestaiii. In 1651 she married the celebrat- 
 ed Scarron, from whom she learned the Latin, 
 Spanish, and Italian languages. On his death, 
 being in straitened circumstances, she accepted 
 a pension from the queen, which was renewed 
 to her after the death of that princess, through 
 the favor of Madame de Montespan ; and under- 
 took the education of Louis's children by that 
 )ady. 
 
 In this situation she acquired the esteem of 
 the king, who in 1G74 purchased for her the 
 estate of Maintenon, which name she assumed. 
 In 1685, the king, over whom she had a com- 
 plete ascendency, made her his wife ; but the 
 marriage was never publicly avowed. She has 
 been accused of moving him to revoke the edict 
 of Nantes; but this is improbable, as it is cer- 
 tain she exerted all her influence in behalf of 
 the suffering Protestants. 
 
 Her better actions deserve, beyond all doubt, 
 much of the notice which has been given to 
 the meaner part of her story. She exhibited 
 all the characteristics of a woman striving to be 
 great beyond the sphere of her sex, and the 
 usual inconsistencies of famous women were 
 very conspicuous in her : yet many of her acts 
 were undoubtedly great. The royal institution 
 of St. Louis, for the young and indigent female 
 nobility, was founded by Madame de Mainte- 
 non, and liberally endowed by the king. This 
 was afterwards called the Society of St. Cyr, 
 and was distinguished by many excellent regu- 
 lations. To her influence has been attributed 
 the settlement of that peace so salutary to the 
 French affairs, after the destructive effects of 
 the seven years' war, carried against all the 
 ambitious designs and mortified impatience of 
 the French generals. For a considerable time 
 she lived on terms of intimacy with Fenelon, 
 and on his recommendation patronised Madame 
 Guon ; but afterwards she joined the persecu- 
 tors of that excellent man. On the death of 
 Louis she retired to St. Cyr, where she died in 
 1718. 
 
 MALACCA, a country of India beyond the 
 Ganges, consisting of a peninsula, 170 miles 
 long, and 120 broad. It abounds in forests, and 
 contains many fruit trees, which render it very 
 valuable. 
 
 MALESHERBES, Christian William La- 
 moignon, an eminent Fiench counsellor, was 
 
 born at Paris in 1721. In 1775 he was made 
 minister of state for the interior. Under his ad- 
 ministration numerous abuses were removed ; 
 but the year following he resigned, and travel- 
 led into different countries, in a plain attire, and 
 under an assumed name. Of the revolution, 
 he conceived a hope that it would be produc- 
 tive of good ; yet he voluntarily pleaded the 
 cause of Louis XVI, and defended him with all 
 the ardor of conscious rectitude. He was con- 
 demned to death, with his daughter and grand- 
 daughter, by the revolutionary tribunal, April 
 22, 1793. 
 
 MALPLAQUET, Battle of. This memora- 
 ble battle was fought on the 11th of September, 
 1709. Of the allied troops, altogether amount- 
 ing to almost 120,000 men, two armies had 
 been formed : one commanded by the Duke of 
 Marlborough, and the other by Prince Eugene, 
 of Savoy. They were found to consist of 165 
 battalions and 270 squadrons. The French 
 troops were, for the most part, new-raised men, 
 ill clothed, and ill mounted, but in great num- 
 bers. To reinforce their army in Flanders, they 
 had drawn 15,000 men from Germany; these, 
 and others from the Moselle, &c; made their 
 troops amount to 150 battalions and 300 squad- 
 rons. Marshal Villars was commander-in-chief; 
 Marshal Boufflers had been sent to assist him 
 at the battle, but without encroaching upon his 
 authority. 
 
 The manner in which the French were post- 
 ed may be thus described. Their right wing 
 was covered by the wood of Taisniere on one 
 side, and by that of Jansart on the other. The 
 latter had behind it thick hedges, with three 
 ditches and artificial entrenchments one be- 
 hind another ; the access also was difficult, be- 
 cause of a marshy ground which lay before 
 them. Against this wing the Dutch infantry 
 were to make their attack. Their centre took 
 up all the open space between the wood of Jan- 
 sart and that of Sart. A hamlet towards the 
 middle covered the depth of this centre, which 
 was also defended by a line extending from one 
 wood to the other. Their left wing was posted, 
 partly in the wood of Sart and partly behind, in 
 the plain ; the wood served as a natural covert, 
 besides which they had felled trees, and raised 
 banks of earth and fascines, fortified with can- 
 non. In the lines o[ their centre were open- 
 ings, to let their cavalry advance. Their artil- 
 lery was posted on advantageous eminences, 
 and they had nothing in their camp to encum- 
 ber them. 
 
 The signal for the attack was given, by the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MAL 
 
 327 
 
 MAM 
 
 discharge of 50 pieces of cannon. Prince Eu- 
 gene then advanced with his right, to penetrate 
 into the wood of Sart. In the charges of this 
 wing, General Shulemburg, the Duke of Ar- 
 gyle, and other generals, led on 86 battalions, 
 and Count Loweem 22 other battalions, to at- 
 tack the intrenchments in the woods of Sart 
 and Taisniere. General Withers also, with 19 
 battalions, attacked the enemy in another in- 
 trenchment beyond the woods of Taisniere and 
 in Great Blagniere. The design in both succeed- 
 ed : the fight, however, was long and obstinate, 
 the enemy defending themselves with equal vig- 
 or. The allies were repulsed more than once, but 
 notwithstanding the barricadoes of felled trees 
 and other impediments, the action wavering 
 almost two hours, they saw themselves at last 
 masters of the wood, and had penetrated so far 
 that they could see the hind part of the in- 
 trenchments of the enemy's centre. 
 
 The attack of the left wing did not begin till 
 half an hour after that of the right, but it last- 
 ed longer, and was much more bloody. Thirty 
 battalions, sustained by 15 others, Prussians, 
 Hanoverians, or Hessians, engaged with above 
 70. These thirty battalions were commanded by 
 Prince Friso of Nassau, general of the foot, and 
 by Baron Fagel. Following his example, the 
 troops of his attack advanced as far as the third 
 intrenchment. But these they could not force, 
 as the enemy were well seconded by fresh bat- 
 talions drawn from their centre. The assail- 
 ants were even driven back to their own post. 
 Nevertheless the prince led on his troops a sec- 
 ond time, to attack those intrenchments which 
 he had once gained and lost again. They re- 
 covered the two first, but the third still remain- 
 ed impregnable. When the enemy's left retir- 
 ed, the Duke directed the Earl of Orkney, with 
 15 battalions, to attack and post himself in the 
 intrenchments in the plain between the woods 
 of Sart and Jansart. This was executed, and 
 gave the horse an opportunity to enter them, 
 and advance into the plain. The first squad- 
 rons, led by the Prince of Hesse and the Prince 
 D'Auvergne, were put into disorder by the 
 household troops, but rallied, under the fire of 
 those battalions. Advantages and disadvantages 
 succeeded alternately six times, till the Prince 
 of Hesse turning to the left, fell upon the rear 
 of the infantry that had been engaged with the 
 Prince of Nassau. This was the decisive stroke. 
 On the sight of the diversion made by the Prince 
 of Hesse, the Dutcli battalions recovered new 
 strength, broke through the third and last in- 
 trenchment, and drove all opposition before 
 28* 
 
 them. In general, the French made their re- 
 treat in good order ; but three regiments of 
 Danish cavalry made a terrible slaughter among 
 several battalions of their right that had been 
 surrounded. The allies pursued as far as the 
 village of Quievrain ; the enemy lost 16 of their 
 cannon, 20 colors, 26 standards, and left other 
 indisputable marks of victory, including a num- 
 ber of prisoners. Many were taken next morn- 
 ing in Bavay and the neighboring places, weari- 
 ness or their wounds not permitting them to 
 follow their army. 
 
 MALTA, anciently Melita, and formerly de- 
 pendent on Sicily, is 7 leagues long and 4 broad, 
 with a population of 80,000 inhabitants. Gozo 
 and Comino are two small islands in its vicinity 
 Its capital, La Valette, is one of the strongest 
 places in the world, and has a valuable harbor 
 of great importance in the commerce of the 
 Archipelago and the Levant. The island for- 
 merly belonged to the order of Malta, or knights 
 of St. John, whose head was a grand master, 
 the sovereign of this little state. The French 
 gained possession of it in 1798, but the English 
 took it in 1800. The soil of this island, which 
 is rock covered with a light bed of earth, pro- 
 duces all sorts of vegetables, excellent fruits, 
 the oranges, in particular, being famous, silk, 
 sugar, and cotton. The climate is mild and the 
 air uncommonly salubrious. The Maltese are 
 sober, fine seamen, and devoted to commerce. 
 
 MAMALUKES, MAMLOUKS,or MAME- 
 LUKES, from the Arabic Memalik, a slave, a 
 body of cavalry, formed in Egypt 1214, from 
 Georgian and Circassian slaves, chosen for 
 their beauty and strength ; from 1254 they gov 
 erned that country for 263 years, and expelled 
 the Christians from Palestine in 1291. They 
 remained a military body in Egypt, till the year 
 1810, but their chiefs were treacherously de- 
 stroyed by Mohammed Ali in 1811. They were 
 mounted on superb Turkish horses, which al- 
 though spirited and full of fire, were docile, and 
 obedient to the word and bit. The prevailing 
 color of this breed is gray, and the unfailing 
 tenderness with which the horses of the Turks 
 are treated, is repaid by astonishing fidelity on 
 the part of these fine animals. The horses of 
 the Mamelukes were splendidly caparisoned, 
 and their studded trappings and rich bits rang 
 in their gallop. The saddles had high pum- 
 mels and cruppers, and the huge, shovel stir- 
 rups were occasionally gilded and curiously or- 
 namented. The riders wore full turbans, light 
 jackets, loose short sleeves, and flowing trow- 
 sers. Their arms were an ataghan or sabre of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 MAN 
 
 328 
 
 MAR 
 
 Damascus steel, which is so finely tempered that 
 a blade composed of it breaks in the hand of an 
 unskilful swordsman. The Mamelukes were 
 skilled in the use of these sabres and never 
 gave slight wounds. Besides the ataghan, the 
 Mameluke nad a carbine slung at his back, and 
 a brace of pistols at his saddle-bow. 
 
 At the famous battle of the pyramids, the 
 Mamelukes were almost annihilated by the 
 French infantry under Bonaparte. The im- 
 penetrable squares of the French regiments 
 received them with a most galling fire. The 
 horses reared and plunged, and the riders fell 
 by hundreds. In the very agony of death, while 
 expiring upon the ground, some of the dis- 
 mounted Moslem dragged themselves to the 
 feet of the French troops, and cut at their legs 
 with their long crooked sabres. Some backed 
 their chargers upon the infantry, and caused 
 them to strike the soldiers with their heels. 
 But their rout was complete. Many perished 
 in the Nile, and but a remnant escaped to Up- 
 per Egypt. Although individually the finest 
 cavalry in the world, they were incapable of 
 acting in concert. 
 
 MANCO CAPAC, the fictitious founder of 
 the Peruvian monarchy, a deity, who appeared 
 to the Peruvians, and taught them the arts of 
 civilized life. 
 
 MANLIUS, Marcus Capitolinus, a celebrated 
 Roman consul and commander; who, when 
 Rome was taken by the Gauls, retired into the 
 capitol and preserved it from a sudden attack 
 made upon it in the night. The dogs which were 
 kept in the capitol made no noise ; but the geese, 
 by their cry, awoke Manlius, who had just time 
 to repel the enemy. Geese from that period 
 were always held sacred among the Romans, 
 and Manlius was honored with the surname of 
 Capitolinus. He afterwards endeavored to sub- 
 vert the liberties of his country, and was thrown 
 down the Tarpeian rock, 333 B. C. 
 
 MANLIUS, Titus Torquatus, a famous Ro- 
 man, who displayed great courage in his youth 
 as military tribune. In the war against the 
 Gauls he accepted a challenge given by one of 
 the enemy ; and having slain him, took his col- 
 lar from his neck, on which account he assum- 
 ed the name of Torquatus. He was the first 
 Roman advanced to the dictatorship without 
 being previously a consul. But he tarnished his 
 glory by putting his son to death, for defeating 
 the enemy without having received orders to 
 attack them. This gave great disgust to the 
 Romans ; and on account of his severity in his 
 government, all edicts of extreme rigor were 
 
 called Manliana Edicta. He flourished B. C. 
 340. 
 
 MANTINEA, a village of Greece, where f 
 in 363 B. C. a battle was fought between the 
 Thebans and Lacedemonians, in which Epami- 
 nondas was killed. 
 
 MARAT, Jean Paul. The name of this mon- 
 ster revives the recollection of the worst atro- 
 cities of the French revolution. He wrote 
 strongly in favor of the worst of parties, and 
 was a member of the convention. Marat, who 
 belonged to the Mountain party, and was deep- 
 ly implicated in their sanguinary proceedings, 
 was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, in 1793. 
 
 MARATHON, a village of Greece, 15 miles 
 N. E. of Athens. It is famous for the battle 
 fought in its plains in 490 B. C, in which Mil- 
 tiades, with a small Grecian foree, totally de- 
 feated the numerous army sent by Darius, king 
 of Persia, to conquer Greece. 
 
 MARENGO, a village in the Sardinian duchy 
 of Montferrat, celebrated for the victory of Bo- 
 naparte over the Austrians in 1800. Some de- 
 tails of this most severe conflict, which, per- 
 haps beyond all others, established the military 
 character of Bonaparte, then consul, are well 
 entitled to a place in a compendium of history. 
 The French head-quarters were removed to 
 Voghera, which the army passed through on its 
 way to Tortona, and took up a position round 
 Tortona to blockade it by divisions ; the ad- 
 vance-guard quietly went round the town, and 
 passed without any thing remarkable having 
 taken place. If the Austrian commander was 
 doubtful as to what line of conduct he ought 
 to pursue, this was his time to determine; the 
 possession of Genoa gave him choice either to 
 fight, or shut himself up in the garrison he 
 held ; and he should not have forgotten that so 
 long as he held Genoa, his army had a retreat 
 from the port, and to have kept the communi- 
 cation open with that city should have been his 
 chief concern. The French fought for Genoa 
 from a knowledge of its value, and Bonaparte 
 hastened to derive advantage from the neglect 
 of the Austrians ; he ordered the banks of the 
 Po opposite Valenza to be guarded, lest they 
 should escape that way ; and the passess be- 
 tween Piedmont and Genoa to be gained. Mas- 
 sena and Suchet were rapidly advancing to 
 annoy the rear of the Austrians, and the con- 
 sul in his letter to the inferior consuls, does not 
 seem ignorant of the movements in his favor 
 by the army of Italy. — The French army un- 
 derstood that Melas had evacuated Turin, and 
 was advancing to meet them with 60,000 men. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MAR 
 
 329 
 
 MAR 
 
 General Gardanne retired to take post at Ma- 
 rengo, on the plain of which his great body of 
 cavalry would be of much service. — The con- 
 sul Bonaparte skirted Marengo, and was seen 
 examining the ground with attention, by turns 
 meditating and giving orders. 
 
 The army passed that night at St. Julian's, 
 at the entrance of the plain of Marengo : on the 
 morning of the 14th June, some discharges of 
 cannon roused them from their repose ; all was 
 soon in readiness. Gardenne was attacked at 
 seven o'clock ; the enemy showed much vigor 
 of preparation ; a few weak points were touched 
 on, but his intentions were unknown till late 
 in the morning. Berthier was first in the field, 
 and wounded soldiers arriving, owned that the 
 Austrians were in force. General Victor's di- 
 vision was drawn up in order of battle. Gen- 
 eral Lannes' division formed the right wing. 
 The French army was in two lines, and the 
 cavalry supported its wings. — The consul Bona- 
 parte, about 11 o'clock hastened to the field of 
 battle. General Desaix was ordered to support 
 Victor. The Austrians were careful of their 
 position near the bridge, on the Borrnida ; but 
 the principal point of action was at St. Ste- 
 fano, from hence they could cut off the retreat 
 of the French, and they gave their attention to 
 this point. The division under Victor began to 
 give way, and many corps of cavalry and in- 
 fantry were drove back. The firing came nearer, 
 and a sudden and dreadful discharge was heard 
 on the Borrnida ; the French were soon after seen 
 retreating, carrying the wounded on their shoul- 
 ders, and the Austrians gained upon them. Bo- 
 naparte advanced, and urged all he met with ; 
 his presence encouraged them ; his own guards 
 no longer continued about his person, but near 
 him shared in the battle. The grenadiers of the 
 consular guard advanced against the enemy : 
 although they were only about 500 men, they 
 still advanced, and forced every thing in their 
 passage ; they were three times charged by the 
 enemies' cavalry ; they surrounded their colors 
 and wounded, and having exhausted all their 
 ammunition, they then slowly fell back, and 
 joined the rear guard. 
 
 The army fought retreating in all directions ; 
 the Austrians turned the right wing, the gar- 
 rison of Tortona made a sortie, and the French 
 were thus surrounded. The consul, in the cen- 
 tre, encouraged the gallant corps that defended 
 the defile which crossed the road, shut up on 
 one side by a wood, and on the other by some 
 thick vineyards of lofty growth ; the village of 
 Marengo was on the left. Of the French artil- 
 
 lery, the few that remained had but little am- 
 munition left. Thirty pieces of cannon, well 
 served by the enemy, cut up the French. In 
 the midst of this slaughter, the consul appeared 
 to brave death. The ground was ploughed up 
 by the enemies' shot, even between the legs of 
 his horse; but undaunted, and with the greatest 
 coolness, he gave his orders as events requir- 
 ed : he was urged to retire, but discovered no 
 change. Marengo seemed the prize for which 
 both parties contended. Gardanne flanked the 
 corps going to attack it ; the Austrians for a mo- 
 ment gave way, but being reinforced, marched 
 on. General Kellerman, the younger, support- 
 ed the left ; a regiment of dragoons routed a 
 column of Austrian cavalry, but was charged 
 by superior numbers, and was giving way, 
 when two more columns advanced to his as- 
 sistance, and took 100 prisoners. 
 
 The consul being informed that the reserve 
 of General Desaix was not yet arrived, hasten- 
 ed to the division of General Lannes to slacken 
 its retreat : he tells them it was his practice 
 to sleep on the field of battle. The enemy, 
 however, advanced; the retreat was absolute- 
 ly necessary, which took place in good order, 
 though eighty pieces of cannon were playing 
 on them : this did not annoy the firmness of the 
 French, they manoeuvred as though they were 
 on a parade. At four o'clock in the afternoon, 
 not more than 6000 infantry stood to their col- 
 ors, and six pieces of cannon only could be 
 made use of; one-third of the army was unable 
 to combat, and more than another third was 
 occupied in removing the sick and wounded, 
 owing to the want of carriages. 
 
 Every circumstance was eminently discourag 
 ing to the French army, but their fortitude and 
 courage changed their situation in the course 
 of two hours afterwards. The divisons of 
 Mounier and Desaix showed themselves ; they 
 arrived on a gallop, after a forced march often 
 leagues, anxious to avenge their fallen com- 
 rades. The crowd of dead and wounded might 
 well have damped their ardor, but one opinion 
 only reigned among them, and they rushed on 
 to glory. General Melas, being ignorant of 
 what passed in the French line, and also igno- 
 rant of the reinforcements that had timely ar- 
 rived to their succor, changed that disposition 
 which had given him success, and which it was 
 his interest as well as duty to have followed 
 up. He extended his wings, thinking, by this 
 manoeuvre, to have cut the enemy off, but it 
 only brought on his own disaster. Bonaparte, 
 whom nothing escaped, seized on this favor- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAR 
 
 330 
 
 MAR 
 
 able opportunity, and altered his plan accord- 
 ingly- 
 
 When Desaix reached the heights, the con- 
 sul, the generals, and the staff went through 
 the ranks inspiring confidence. This took up 
 near an hour, while the Austrian artillery was 
 bearing upon their ranks, and many were thus 
 killed without moving, except to cover their 
 comrades' dead bodies. The signal for charg- 
 ing was at length heard. Desaix, at the head of 
 a light battalion, threw himself upon the Aus- 
 trians, and charged with the bayonet : all the 
 French were in motion at once, in two lines, 
 their fire carried every thing before it; the ene- 
 my were in every position overthrown. The 
 French line now presented a formidable front; 
 as quick as the cannon was brought up, they 
 made dreadful havoc among the affrighted Aus- 
 trians ; they fell back, and their cavalry charg- 
 ed with fury ; a powder wagon blew up, and 
 their alarm increased; in fact, all gave way 
 and fled. The French cavalry rushed into the 
 plain, and advanced towards the enemy. De- 
 saix trampled on all obstacles which opposed 
 him. Victor carried Marengo, and flew towards 
 the Bormida. The centre, under Muratadvanc- 
 ed into the plain ; he much annoyed the Aus- 
 trian centre, and kept a great body of cavalry 
 in check. Desaix cut off the left wing of the 
 Austrians completely, and in the moment of 
 his victory received a mortal wound. General 
 Kellerman made 6000 prisoners, with two gen- 
 erals and officers of the staff. Night com- 
 ing on, the Austrians were all in disorder ; all 
 crowded together near the centre, and many 
 were thrown into the river, off the bridge ; their 
 artillery intercepted their retreat. The third 
 line of Austrian cavalry, wishing to save the 
 infantry, came up; a ditch separated the com- 
 batants ; the French crossed it, and immediate- 
 ly surrounded the two first platoons. The Aus- 
 trians were thrown into disorder ; the pursuit 
 continued, and they made a great many pris- 
 oners ; the Austrian rear guard was cut to 
 pieces. Night setting in, and the extreme fa- 
 tigue of the horses, made Murat determine not 
 to expose his troops more after so succesful a 
 day's work. The armies had been fourteen 
 hours within musket-shot of each other, and 
 wanted rest. Victory waved on each side four 
 times during the day, and sixty pieces of can- 
 non were alternately won and lost. When the 
 battle ended, the French had taken 12 stand- 
 ards, 26 pieces of cannon, and 7000 prisoners. 
 The Austrians lost seven generals, 400 officers, 
 and b000 men killed or wounded. The French 
 
 lost Generals Desaix and Watrin killed, four 
 generals of brigade wounded, and 3000 men 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The French 
 army, when the battle commenced, was reck- 
 oned at about 45,000 strong, with about thirty 
 pieces of artillery. The Austrian army was 
 from 55 to 60,000 men, including near 18,000 
 cavalry, and an immense train of artillery well 
 provided. 
 
 MARGARET OF ANJOU, daughter of 
 Rene, king of Sicily, and wife of Henry VI, 
 king of England. The duke of Gloucester hav- 
 ing opposed her marriage, she effected his ruin, 
 and he was strangled in prison. In the wars 
 of the rival roses, she displayed the character 
 of a heroine. Her husband having been taken 
 prisoner in 1455 by the duke of York, she levied 
 forces, defeated the duke, set Henry at liberty, 
 and entered London in triumph. In 1460, her 
 army was defeated at Northampton by the earl 
 of Warwick, and Henry again became a pris- 
 oner. The queen, however, escaped, and gath- 
 ered another army, with which she marched 
 against the duke of York who fell in the bat- 
 tle of Wakefield. She next defeated Warwick 
 at St. Albans; but was routed, after a bloody 
 contest at Towton : on which she fled to France 
 to implore succor from Louis XI, who refused 
 her any assistance. This intrepid woman then 
 returned to England, where she joined several 
 cf her party, but was defeated at Hexham. In 
 1471 she was taken prisoner, and in 1475 she 
 purchased her liberty by a large ransom. She 
 then returned to France, where she died in 
 1482, aged 59. 
 
 MARGARET, queen of Denmark and Nor- 
 way, commonly called the Semiramis of the 
 north, vanquished Albert at Falkoping in 1389, 
 and died in 1412. Albert had contemptuously 
 termed her " the king in petticoats." 
 
 MARIAMNE, the wife of Herod the Great, 
 by whom she had two sons, Alexander and Aris- 
 tobulus, and two daughters. Herod was very 
 fond of Mariamne ; but she had little regard 
 for him, especially after he put to death her bro- 
 ther Aristobulus. When Herod went to Rome 
 to court the favor of Augustus, he left secret 
 orders with Joseph us, and Sohemus, to destroy 
 Mariamne, and her mother, if any misfortune 
 should happen to him. Mariamne having ob- 
 tained the secret from Sohemus, upbraided 
 Herod at his return, with his inhumanity, for 
 which he put her to death, together with So- 
 hemus, B. C. 22. 
 
 MARINO SAN, an Italian republic in the 
 ancient duchy of Urbino. It is one of the small- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MAR 
 
 331 
 
 MAR 
 
 est states in Europe, and contains but 7000 in- 
 habitants, dispersed through a number of small 
 villages. 
 
 MARIUS, Caius, a celebrated Roman gen- 
 eral. He conquered Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 
 and afterwards, for several successive years, car- 
 ried on war with the Cimbri and Teutones, bar- 
 barous nations, who attempted to subdue Italy. 
 In his old age he engaged in a civil war with 
 Sylla, and was compelled to flee to Africa, 
 where he was found seated amidst the ruins of 
 Carthage. His party becoming victorious, he 
 returned to Rome, where he died, 86 B. C. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, (Churchill, John) duke 
 of, prince of the Roman empire, was born at 
 Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1(150, and received an 
 indifferent education, for his father took him to 
 court at the age of 12 years. About 1666, he 
 was made an ensign in the guards, and served 
 for sometime at Tangier. In 1672 he was with 
 the duke of Monmouth, who served with the 
 French against the Dutch, and was made cap- 
 tain of grenadiers. The conduct of Mr. Chur- 
 chill at the battle of Nimeguen gained the par- 
 ticular notice of Marshal Turenne, who called 
 him the handsome Englishman. At the siege 
 of Maestricht, his bravery was so distinguished 
 that the French king thanked him particularly 
 at the head of the line. He was made, on his 
 return to England, lieutenant-colonel, gentle- 
 man of the bed-chamber, and master of the robes 
 to the duke of York. He attended that prince 
 to Holland, and into Scotland, and about this 
 time married Miss Jennings, a lady in waiting 
 of Anne, afterwards queen of Great Britain. 
 In 1682 he was made a peer, by the title of 
 Baron Eymouth in Scotland ; and when James 
 came to the crown, he was sent ambassador to 
 France to announce the event. In 1685 he 
 was created Lord Churchill of Sandridge in the 
 county of Hertford. The same year he sup- 
 pressed Monmouth's rebellion, and took him 
 prisoner, and continued to serve king James 
 with great fidelity, until the arrival of the prince 
 of Orange, when he left him, but without tak- 
 ing any soldiers with him. The prince was 
 proud of this acquisition, gave his lordship a 
 gracious reception, and intrusted him with the 
 sole regulation of the army. In 1689 he was 
 sworn of the privy council, and made one of 
 the gentlemen of the bed-chamber of the king, 
 and created earl of Marlborough. The same 
 year he was sent to Holland as commander of 
 the English forces. He next served in Ireland, 
 and reduced Cork with other strong places. But 
 notwithstanding these important services, he 
 
 was dismissed from his employments, and com- 
 mitted to the tower; from which, however, he 
 was soon released. The cause of this injustice 
 has never been explained. 
 
 At the commencement of queen Anne's reiffn, 
 the earl came to England, whence he had been 
 sent ambassador to Holland, and recommended 
 a speedy war with France and Spain, which 
 advice was followed. He then went to the con- 
 tinent, as captain-general of the English forces, 
 and performed many brilliant actions through- 
 out his various campaigns, too numerous in- 
 deed to be detailed here. At the battle of Ram- 
 illies, May 12, 1706, he narrowly escaped death, 
 a cannon-shot taking off the head of Colonel 
 Bingly, as he was helping the duke to his horse. 
 In 1711 he returned to England, but was soon 
 deprived of his employments by queen Anne, 
 whose successor, however, restored him his 
 military appointments. He died June 15, 1722. 
 
 A distinguished poet thus mentions this great 
 warrior : — 
 
 " 'Tvvas then great Marlb'rough's mighty soul was 
 
 proved, 
 That in the shock of charging hosts unmoved, 
 Amidst confusion, horror, and despair, 
 Examined all the dreadful scenes of war ; 
 In peaceful thought the field of death surveyed, 
 To fainting squadrons sent the timely aid ; 
 Inspired repulsed battalions to engage, 
 And taught the doubtful battle where to rage. 
 So when an angel, by divine command, 
 With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, 
 (Such as of late o'er pale Britannia past,) 
 Calm and serene he drives the furious blast, 
 And pleased th' Almighty's wonders to perform, 
 Rides on the whirlwind, and directs the storm." 
 
 MARMONTEL, John Francis, an eminent 
 French writer, born at Bort, in Limousin, in 
 1719. He was the son of a tailor, but educated 
 at the college of Toulouse, and afterwards 
 made an abbe. He was imprisoned in the Bas- 
 tille for writing a satire on an influential per- 
 son, but escaped the revolutionary fury. He 
 died in 1798 at Abbeville. His literary char- 
 acter depends chiefly on his Moral Tales. 
 
 MARS, in ancient mythology, the son of 
 Juno, and the god of war. He is represented 
 with a helmet on his head, a spear in his hand, 
 often on a car, animated with the ardor of bat 
 tie. The Romans honored him most, and erect 
 ed many temples to him. His priests, the Salii, 
 celebrated his festivals by dancing, and beating 
 their bucklers in accord to music. He was the 
 favorite of Venus, and completely supplanted 
 Vulcan, who, however, revenged himself. 
 
 MARTINlCO,or MARTINIQUE, the larg- 
 est of the Carribee islands, belonging to France, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAR 
 
 332 
 
 MAR 
 
 contains 332,865 inhabitants. The productions 
 arp sugar, tobacco, coffee, cassava, &c. The 
 climate is very warm. 
 
 MARY STUART, queen of Scots, daughter 
 of James V, of Scotland, and Mary of Lorraine, 
 was born in 1532, and eight days after her birth, 
 inherited the throne by the death of her father. 
 
 The regency refused the politic offer of Hen- 
 ry VIII, to unite both kingdoms by the marriage 
 of his son Edward with the heiress of Scotland. 
 At six years of age, she was contracted to the 
 dauphin of France, and resided at Paris till the 
 marriage was solemnized in 1548. There she 
 committed her first political error, in deference 
 to the wishes of her father-in-law ; assuming 
 the title of queen of England, on the ground of 
 Elizabeth's illegitimacy from the unlawfulness 
 of Catharine's divorce. Such an act could not 
 be forgotten by a woman of Elizabeth's feelings ; 
 and accordingly, on Mary's arrival in Scotland, 
 on the death of Francis, Elizabeth never left 
 unemployed a single opportunity of ruining 
 her. Mary was also a formidable rival in point 
 of female attraction, and Elizabeth could not 
 forgive her competitor in being surpassed by 
 her in beauty. 
 
 Through the intrigues of Elizabeth, Mary, 
 who had many offers much more suited to her 
 rank, gave her hand to Lord Darnley, a weak but 
 impetuous man, who was noway calculated to 
 retain her affections. Mary, in return for his 
 slighting and capricious conduct, gave unbe- 
 coming countenance to an Italian musician, 
 named Rizzio, who was invidiously supposed 
 to share the privileges of her husband. Darnley 
 joined some other nobles, who getting privately 
 into the palace, burst into the queen's room, 
 and murdered Rizzio before her face. 
 
 She now transferred her favors to James 
 Hepburn, earl Both well, to whom, although at 
 first disagreeable to her, she seems to have 
 given herself away, principally to accomplish 
 her revenge upon her husband. Darnley was 
 soon after killed by an explosion of his house 
 from gunpowder, and the general voice of his- 
 tory attributes the design to the Queen. Her 
 subsequent conduct confirmed the belief: Both- 
 well was publicly impeached for the murder, 
 and the Queen markedly implicated ; yet after 
 a scene of mock violence and plotted detention, 
 she gave her hand to the alleged murderer of 
 her husband. Neither party, however, was 
 long allowed to reap the advantage of the con- 
 nexion. Both well, being opposed by a powerful 
 confederacy of the nobles, fled, and perished 
 miserably in Norway 
 
 The confederate lords then obliged Mary to 
 sign a renunciation of her crown in favor of her 
 son, and she herself was committed as a prisoner, 
 and secluded from her friends. The place of 
 her confinement in the castle of Lochleven was 
 all but inaccessible ; but Mary's beauty had pro- 
 cured her a friend in one of her attendants, and 
 by his means she contrived to escape. She 
 found herself very speedily at the head of a con- 
 siderable body of troops, who proclaimed her 
 pretensions, and prepared to maintain them 
 against those of the regent. They were, how- 
 ever, worsted in an engagement which ensued ; 
 and Mary, panic-struck, fled towards England, 
 and put herself under the protection of one of 
 Elizabeth's governors. 
 
 This was exactly what that princess had hoped. 
 She, however, disguised her designs under the 
 mask of friendship; affected to pity the forlorn 
 condition of the fugitive queen ; and, under the 
 idea of granting her an asylum, betrayed her 
 into a prison. Elizabeth thus became the arbi- 
 ter between Mary and her late subjects, and a 
 sort of court was appointed to hear both parties, 
 and decide between them ; but the proceedings 
 were stopped by Mary refusing to answer the 
 accusations brought against her. 
 
 During Mary's continuance in confinement, 
 she engaged the affection of the Duke of Nor- 
 folk, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, but who 
 seems very readily to have entered into those 
 ambitious views which such an alliance wouid 
 naturally open to him. The design, however, 
 was discovered, and Norfolk was committed to 
 the Tower. On the promise of renouncing his 
 scheme he was released; but on violating it, 
 was again committed, tried, and executed. 
 Mary had, by the countenance she gave to this 
 plan, rendered herself sufficiently odious to a 
 people who almost adored the woman she was 
 endeavoring to supplant; and, on the discovery 
 of a traitorous correspondence with Spain, in 
 which Mary had coolly acceded to the plot of 
 assassinating the Queen, the anger and violence 
 of the English people knew no bounds; and 
 though it may well be doubted whether even 
 this act could justify the subjecting of an inde- 
 pendent princess to trial and punishment by a 
 foreign people, the general exasperation pre- 
 vailed, and Elizabeth, with well-feigned reluc- 
 tance, signed the warrant for her cousin's exe- 
 cution. 
 
 Mary's character ever rose with her misfor- 
 tunes, and now at their climax displayed a firm- 
 ness and an energy of which her impetuous 
 temper and fluctuating policy had excited little 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MAR 
 
 333 
 
 MAR 
 
 suspicion. After a long confinement at Cov- 
 entry, she was removed to Fotheringay Castle, 
 to undergo the formality of a trial. When 
 brought before the commissioners she disclaimed 
 their authority, and asserted her innocence. 
 The commissioners, after hearing her defence, 
 declared her guilty of conspiring the death of 
 Elizabeth, and condemned her to death. Mary 
 received the tidings with complacency. Many 
 foreign powers interested themselves in her 
 behalf; and her son James endeavored to save 
 her life, but in vain. 
 
 A warrant was sent down, and read to the 
 royal captive, who only entreated that she might 
 be permitted the consolations of her own reli- 
 gion ; but even this favor was inhumanly re- 
 fused. She was beheaded in the castle of Foth- 
 eringay, Feb. 8, 1587, after praying to God to 
 forgive all who had thirsted for her blood. Her 
 remains were interred in Peterborough cathe- 
 dral, from whence, with filial piety, they were 
 afterwards removed by her son, and deposited 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 The last letter the Queen of Scots ever ad- 
 dressed to Elizabeth, as well as the base man- 
 ner in which she treated it, may prove interest- 
 ing. 
 
 " Madam, I thank God from the bottom of 
 my heart that, by the sentence which has been 
 passed against me, he is about to put an end to 
 my tedious pilgrimage. 1 would not wish it 
 prolonged, though it were in my power, having 
 had enough of time to experience its bitterness. 
 I write at present only to make three last re- 
 quests, which, as I can expect no favor from 
 your implacable ministers, I should wish to owe 
 to your majesty and to no other. First, as in 
 England I cannot hope to be buried according 
 to the solemnities of the Catholic church (the 
 religion of the ancient kings, your ancestors 
 and mine, being now changed), and as in Scot- 
 land they have already violated the ashes of my 
 progenitors, I have to request, that as soon as 
 my enemies have bathed their hands in my in- 
 nocent blood, my domestics may be allowed to 
 inter my body in some consecrated ground ; 
 and above all, that they may be permitted to 
 carry it to France, where the bones of the 
 Queen, my most honored mother, repose. Thus, 
 that poor frame which has never enjoyed repose 
 so long as it has been joined to my soul, may 
 find it at last when they will be separated. 
 V Second, as I dread the tyranny of the harsh men 
 to whose power you have abandoned me, I en- 
 treat your majesty that I may not be executed 
 in secret, but in the presence of my servants 
 
 and other persons who may bear testimony of 
 my faith and fidelity to the true church, and 
 guard the last hours of my life and my last 
 sighs from the false rumors which my adversa- 
 ries may spread abroad. Third, I request that 
 my domestics, who have served me through so 
 much misery and with so much constancy, may 
 be allowed to retire without molestation where- 
 ever they choose, to enjoy for the remainder of 
 their lives the small legacies which my poverty 
 has enabled me to bequeath to them. I conjure 
 you, madam, by the blood of Jesus Christ, by 
 our consanguinity, by the memory of Henry 
 VII, our common father, and by the royal title 
 which I carry with me to death, not to refuse 
 me those reasonable demands, but to assure me, 
 by a letter under your own hand, that you will 
 comply with them ; and I shall then die as I 
 have lived, your affectionate sister and prisoner, 
 Mary Queen of Scots." 
 
 Whether Elizabeth ever answered this letter 
 does not appear ; but it produced so little effect, 
 that epistles from her to Sir Amias Paulet still 
 exist, which prove that in her anxiety to avoid 
 taking upon herself the responsibility of Mary's 
 death, she wished to have her privately assas- 
 sinated or poisoned. Paulet, however, though 
 a harsh and violent man, positively refused to 
 sanction so nefarious a scheme. Yet in the 
 very act of instigating murder, Elizabeth could 
 close her eyes against her own iniquity, and 
 affect indignation at the alleged offences of 
 another. But perceiving, at length, that no al 
 ternative remained, she ordered her secretary 
 Davidson to bring her the warrant for Mary's 
 execution, and after perusing it, she deliberately 
 affixed her signature. She then desired him 
 to carry it to Walsingham, saying, with an iron- 
 ical smile, and in a "merry tone," that she 
 feared he would die of grief when he saw it. 
 Walsingham sent the warrant to the chancellor, 
 who affixed the great seal to it, and despatched 
 it by Beal, with a commission to the Earls of 
 Shrewsbury, Kent, Derby, and others, to see it 
 put in execution. Davidson was afterwards 
 made the victim of Elizabeth's artifice, — who, 
 to complete the solemn farce she had been 
 playing, pretended he had obeyed her orders 
 too quickly, and doomed him in consequence 
 to perpetual imprisonment. 
 
 From tyrants like these who would have ex- 
 pected either mercy or justice ? Mary was per- 
 fectly resigned to her fate, and met it like one 
 who placed the most unwavering reliance in 
 the efficacy of the religion she professed. After 
 hearing the warrant for her execution, she said 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAR 
 
 334 
 
 MAR 
 
 that though " she was sorry it came from Eliza- 
 beth, she had long been expecting the man- 
 date for her death, and was not unprepared to 
 die." " For many years," she added, " I have 
 lived in continual affliction, unable to do good 
 to myself or to those who are dear to me ; and 
 as I shall depart innocent of the crime which 
 has been laid to my charge, I cannot see why 
 I should shrink from the prospect of immortal- 
 ity." She then laid her hand on the New Tes- 
 tament, and solemnly protested that she had 
 never either devised, compassed, or consented 
 to the death of the Queen of England. Before 
 leaving the world, Mary felt a natural curiosity 
 to be informed upon several subjects of public 
 interest, which, though connected with herself, 
 and generally known, had not penetrated the 
 walls of her prison. She asked if no foreign 
 princes had interfered in her behalf, — if her 
 secretaries were still alive, — if it was intended 
 to punish them as well as her, — if they brought 
 no letters from Elizabeth or others, — and, above 
 all, if her son, the King of Scotland, was well, 
 and had evinced any interest in the fate of a 
 mother who had always loved and never wrong- 
 ed him. Being satisfied upon these points, she 
 proceeded to inquire when her execution was 
 to take place ? Shrewsbury replied that it was 
 fixed for the next morning at eight. She ap- 
 peared startled and agitated for a few minutes, 
 saying that it was more sudden than she had 
 anticipated, and that she had yet to make her 
 will, which she had hitherto deferred, in the 
 expectation that the papers and letters which 
 had been forcibly taken from her would be re- 
 stored. She soon, however, regained her self- 
 possession ; and informing the commissioners 
 that she desired to be left alone to make her 
 preparations, she dismissed them for the night. 
 Upon Bourgoine making the remark that 
 ' more than a few hours was allowed to the 
 meanest criminal,' she said "she must submit 
 with resignation to her fate, and learn to regard 
 it as the will of God." She then requested her 
 attendants to kneel with her, and she prayed 
 fervently for some time in the midst of them. 
 Afterward, while supper was preparing, she 
 employed herself in puling all the money she 
 had by her into separate purses, and affixed to 
 each, with her own hand, the name of the per- 
 son for whom she intended it. At supper, 
 though she sat down to table, she ate little. Her 
 mind, however, was in perfect composure ; and 
 during the repast, though she spoke little, placid 
 smiles were frequently observed to pass over 
 her countenance. — The calm magnanimity of 
 
 their mistress only increased the distress of her 
 servants. They saw her sitting among them 
 in her usual health, and with almost more than 
 her usual cheerfulness, partaking of the viands 
 that were set before her ; yet they knew that it 
 was the last meal at which they should ever be 
 present together ; and that the interchange of 
 affectionate service upon their part, and of con- 
 descending attention and endearing gentleness 
 on hers, which had linked them to her for so 
 many years, was now about to terminate for 
 ever. Far from attempting to offer her conso- 
 lation, they were unable to discover any for 
 themselves. As soon as the melancholy meal 
 was over, Mary desired that a cup of wine should 
 be given to her ; and putting it to her lips, drank 
 to the health of each of her attendants by name. 
 She requested that they would pledge her in 
 like manner ; and each, falling on his knee, and 
 mingling tears with the wine, drank to her, 
 asking pardon at the same time for all the faults 
 he had ever committed. In the true spirit of 
 Christian humility, she not only willingly for- 
 gave them, but asked their pardon also. The 
 inventory of her wardrobe and furniture was 
 then brought to her ; and she wrote in the mar- 
 gin opposite each article the name of the person 
 to whom she wished it should be given. She 
 did the same with her rings, jewels, and all her 
 most valuable trinkets ; and there was not one 
 of her friends or servants, either present or ab- 
 sent, to whom she forgot to leave a memorial. 
 
 These duties being discharged, Mary sat 
 down to her desk to arrange her papers, to finish 
 her will, and to write several letters. She then 
 drew up her last will and testament ; and with- 
 out ever lifting her pen from the paper, or stop- 
 ping at intervals to think, she covered two large 
 sheets with close writing, forgetting nothing of 
 any moment, and expressing herself with all 
 that precision and clearness which distinguished 
 her style in the very happiest moments of her 
 life. She named as her four executors — the 
 Duke of Guise, her cousin-german ; the Arch- 
 bishop of Glasgow, her ambassador in France; 
 Lesley, Bishop of Ross ; and Monsieur de Ruys- 
 seau, her chancellor. She next wrote a letter 
 to her brother-in-law, the King of France, in 
 which she apologized for not being able to enter 
 into her affairs at greater length, as she had 
 only an hour or two to live, and had not been 
 informed till that day after dinner that she was 
 to be executed next morning. " Thanks be 
 unto God, however," she added, " I have no 
 terror at the idea of death, and solemnly declare 
 to you that I meet it innocent of every crime 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MAR 
 
 335 
 
 MAR 
 
 The bearer of this letter, and my other servants, 
 will recount to you how I comported myself in 
 my last moments." The letter concluded with 
 earnest entreaties that her faithful followers 
 should be protected and rewarded. — Her anx- 
 iety on their account at such a moment indi- 
 cated all that amiable generosity of disposition 
 which was one of the leading features of Mary's 
 character. About two in the morning she sealed 
 up all her papers, and said she would now think 
 no more of the affairs of this world, but would 
 spend the rest of her time in prayer and com- 
 mune with her own conscience. She went to 
 bed for some hours ; but she did not sleep. Her 
 lips were observed in continual motion, and her 
 hands were frequently folded and lifted up to- 
 wards heaven. 
 
 On the morning of Wednesday, the 8th of 
 February, Mary rose with the break of day ; and 
 her domestics, who had watched and wept all 
 night, immediately gathered round her. She 
 told them that she had made her will, and re- 
 quested that they would see it safely deposited 
 in the hands of her executors. She likewise 
 besought them not to separate until they had 
 carried her body to France ; and she placed a 
 sum of money in the hands of her physician to 
 defray the expenses of the journey. Her earnest 
 desire was, to be buried either in the church of 
 St. Denis, in Paris, beside her first husband 
 Francis, or at Rheims, in the tomb which con- 
 tained the remains of her mother. She ex- 
 pressed a wish, too, that, besides her friends 
 and servants, a number of poor people and 
 children from different hospitals should be pres- 
 ent at her funeral, clothed in mourning at her 
 expense, and each, according to the Catholic 
 custom, carrying in his hand a lighted taper. 
 
 She now renewed her devotions, and was in 
 the midst of them, with her servants praying 
 and weeping round her, when a messenger from 
 the commissioners knocked at the door, to an- 
 nounce that all was ready. She requested a 
 little longer time to finish her prayers, which 
 was granted. As soon as she desired the door 
 to be opened, the sheriff, carrying in his hand 
 the white wand of office, entered to conduct her 
 to the place of execution. Her servants crowded 
 round her, and insisted on being allowed to 
 accompany her to the scaffold. But contrary 
 orders having been given by Elizabeth, they 
 were told that she must proceed alone. — Against 
 a piece of such arbitrary cruelty they remon- 
 strated loudly, but in vain ; for as soon as Mary 
 passed into the gallery, the door was closed, 
 and believing that they were separated from 
 29 
 
 her for ever, the shrieks of the women and the 
 scarcely less audible lamentations of the men 
 were heard in distant parts of the castle. 
 
 At the foot of the staircase leading down to 
 the hall below, Mary was met by the Earls of 
 Kent and Shrewsbury ; and she was allowed to 
 stop to take farewell of Sir Andrew Melvil, the 
 master of her household, whom her keepers had 
 not allowed to come into her presence for some 
 time before. With tears in his eyes Melvil 
 knelt before her, kissed her hand, and declared 
 that it was the heaviest hour of his life. Mary 
 assured him that it was not so to her. " I now 
 feel, my good Melvil," said she, "that all this 
 world is vanity. When you speak of me here- 
 after, mention that I died firm in my faith, wil- 
 ling to forgive my enemies, conscious that I had 
 never disgraced Scotland my native country, 
 and rejoicing in the thought that I had always 
 been true to France, the land of my happiest 
 years. Tell my son," she added, and when 
 she named her only child, of whom she had 
 been so proud in his infancy, but in whom all 
 her hopes had been so fatally blasted, her feel- 
 ings for the first time overpowered her, and a 
 flood of tears flowed from her eyes — " tell my 
 son that I thought of him in my last moments, 
 and that I have never yielded, either by word 
 or deed, to aught that might lead to his preju- 
 dice ; desire him to preserve the memory of his 
 unfortunate parent, and may he be a thousand 
 times more happy and more prosperous than 
 she has been." 
 
 Before taking leave of Melvil, Mary turned 
 to the commissioners, and told them that her 
 three last requests were, that her secretary Curl, 
 whom she blamed less for his treachery than 
 Naw, should not be punished; that her servants 
 should have free permission to depart to France ; 
 and that some of them should be allowed to 
 come down from the apartments above to see 
 her die. The earls answered, that they believed 
 the two former of these requests would be grant- 
 ed ; but that they could not concede the last, 
 alleging, as their excuse, that the affliction of 
 her attendants would only add to the severity 
 of her sufferings. But Mary was resolved that 
 some of her own people should witness her last 
 moments. " I will not submit to the indignity," 
 she said, u of permitting my body to fall into 
 the hands of strangers. You are the servants 
 of a maiden queen, and she herself, were she 
 here, would yield to the dictates of humanity, 
 and permit some of those who have been so long 
 faithful to me to assist me at my death. Re- 
 member, too, that I am cousin to your mistress, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 xMAR 
 
 336 
 
 MAS 
 
 and the descendant of Henry VII; I am the 
 dowager of France, and the anointed queen of 
 Scotland." Ashamed of any further opposition, 
 the earls allowed her to name four male and 
 two female attendants, whom they sent for, and 
 permitted to remain beside her for the short 
 time she had yet to live. 
 
 The same hall in which the trial had taken 
 place was prepared for the execution. At the 
 upper end was the scaffold, covered with black 
 cloth, and elevated about two feet from the floor. 
 A chair was placed on it for the Queen of Scots. 
 On one side of the block stood two executioners, 
 and on the other the Earls of Kent and Shrews- 
 bury ; Beal and the sheriff were immediately 
 behind. The scaffold was railed off from the 
 rest of the hall, in which Sir Amias Paulet with 
 a body of guards, the other commissioners, and 
 some gentlemen of the neighborhood, amounting 
 altogether to about two hundred persons, were 
 assembled. Mary entered, leaning on the arm 
 of her physician, while Sir Andrew Melvil car- 
 ried the train of her robe. She was in full dress, 
 and looked as if she were about to hold a draw- 
 ingroom, not to lay her head beneath the axe. 
 She wore a gown of black silk, bordered with 
 crimson velvet, over which was a satin mantle ; 
 a long veil of white crape, stiffened with wire, 
 and edged with rich lace, hung down almost to 
 the ground ; round her neck was suspended an 
 ivory crucifix, and the beads which the Catho- 
 lics use in their prayers were fastened to her 
 girdle. The symmetry of her fine figure had 
 long been destroyed by her sedentary life ; and 
 years of care had left many a trace on her beau- 
 tiful features. But the dignity of the queen 
 was still apparent; and the calm grace of men- 
 tal serenity imparted to her countenance at 
 least some share of its former loveliness. With 
 a composed and steady step she passed through 
 the hall, and ascended the scaffold, — and as she 
 listened unmoved while Beal read aloud the 
 warrant for her death, even the myrmidons of 
 Elizabeth looked upon her with admiration. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots, died in the forty-fifth 
 year of her age. Her remains now repose in 
 Westminster Abbey, about ten yards from the 
 tomb of Elizabeth. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the southern states, 
 divided into two parts by Chesapeake bay 
 which extends from north to south, and thus 
 forms the Eastern shore and the Western shore. 
 Population 469,232. The eastern shore, which 
 is low and level, is sandy, and, below the falls 
 of the rivers, the western shore is similar. But 
 above these the ground gradually rises until 
 
 the western part of the state is quite mountain- 
 ous. Annapolis is the seat of government, but 
 Baltimore is the largest place in the state, and 
 the third city in the union. The university of 
 Maryland, St. Mary's college, and Rutger's col- 
 lege, are all well endowed and respectable in- 
 stitutions. There are many other seminaries in 
 different parts of the state. The most important 
 articles of exportare flour and tobacco. Charles 
 I, in 1632, made a grant of this country to lord 
 Baltimore, a Catholic, who commenced a settle- 
 ment here with about 200 Catholics, in 1634. 
 
 MASHAM, Abigail, bed-chamber woman to 
 queen Anne, in which situation she supplanted 
 the duchess of Marlborough, and procured the 
 dismissal of the whig ministry, which led to the 
 peace of Utrecht in 1713. 
 
 MASINISSA, king of a small country in Af- 
 rica, took part with the Carthaginians against 
 Rome, but afterwards became the ally of the 
 Romans, who were indebted to him for many 
 victories. At his death he made Scipio ^Emi- 
 lianus guardian of his kingdom. He died B. C. 
 149. 
 
 MASK, IRON, or Man in the Iron Mask, the 
 most singular prisoner ever confined within the 
 walls of the Bastile ; of whom, notwithstanding 
 all the curiosity and conjecture that have been 
 employed to ascertain his quality and pedigree, 
 nothing authentic has transpired to the present 
 time. In 1698 he was brought from the island 
 of St. Marguerite by Mons. de St. Mars, the 
 newly-appointed governor of the Bastile, was at- 
 tended with the greatest respect, maintained a 
 sumptuous table, and had every possible indul- 
 gence shown him until the time of his death in 
 Nov. 19, 1703. This mysterious prisoner, on his 
 removal to the Bastile, was carried in a litter, 
 accompanied by several men on horseback, who 
 had orders to put him to death, if he made the 
 slightest attempt to show his face or otherwise 
 discover himself. His face was concealed with 
 a mask of black velvet with springs of steel, 
 which were so constructed that he could eat 
 without taking it off. A physician of the Bas- 
 tile, who had often attended him, said he had 
 never seen his face, though he had frequently 
 examined his tongue and other parts of his body ; 
 but added, that he was admirably well made, 
 that his skin was brown, his voice interesting, 
 that he was very accomplished, read much 
 played on the guitar, and had an exquisite taste 
 for lace and fine linen. 
 
 The pains taken in his concealment show 
 that he was a person of considerable quality and 
 importance, and from the following circurn- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MAS 
 
 337 
 
 MAS 
 
 stances it appears singular that he was never 
 discovered. Whilst at St. Marguerite, he one 
 day wrote something with his knife on a silver 
 plate, which he threw from the window towards 
 a boat, lying near the tower. A fisherman took 
 up the plate and brought it to the governor, who, 
 with great astonishment, asked the man if he 
 had read the writing or showed it to any one : 
 and, although the fisherman answered in the 
 negative, kept him in confinement until he was 
 perfectly satisfied, after which he dismissed 
 him, saying, " It is lucky for you that you can- 
 not read." The abbe Papon says, in the year 
 1778, I had the curiosity to visit the apartment 
 of this unfortunate prisoner : it looks towards 
 the sea. I found in the citadel an officer in the 
 independent company there, 79 years of age. 
 He told me that his father had often related to 
 him that a young lad, a barber, having seen one 
 day something white floating on the water, took 
 it up. It was a very fine shirt, written almost 
 all over ; he carried it to Mons. de St. Mars, 
 who, having looked at some parts of the writing, 
 asked the lad, with an appearance of anxiety, 
 if he had not had the curiosity to read it ? He 
 assured him he had not, but two days after- 
 wards the boy was found dead in his bed. 
 
 Immediately after the prisoner's death, his 
 apparel, linen, clothes, mattresses, and every- 
 thing that had been used by him, were burnt; 
 the walls of his room were scraped, the floor 
 was taken up, and every precaution used that 
 no trace of him might be left behind ; and yet 
 there are traces. When he was on the road 
 from St. Marguerite to his last residence, Mons. 
 de St. Mars was overheard to reply to a question 
 of the prisoner, relative to any design against his 
 life. "No, prince, your life is in safety; you 
 must only allow yourself to be conducted." 
 
 A prisoner told M. la Grange Chancel that 
 he was lodged, with other prisoners, in the room 
 immediately over this celebrated captive, and 
 found means of speaking to him by the vents of 
 the chimney ; but he refused to inform them 
 who he was, alleging, that it would cost him 
 his own life, as well as the lives of those to 
 whom the secret might be revealed. Various 
 have been the individuals supposed to have 
 been the masked prisoner ; particularly the duke 
 de Beaufort, the count de Vermandois, a foreign 
 minister, and the duke of Monmouth, have been 
 conjectured in turn. Collateral facts, neverthe- 
 less, demonstrate that neither of these could 
 have been the person. Voltaire, who has ex- 
 pressly written on this mysterious affair, says, 
 
 that the secret was known to Monsieur de 
 Chamillard, and that the son-in-law of that 
 minister conjured him on his death bed to tell 
 him the name of the man with the mask ; but 
 he replied it was a state secret, which he had 
 sworn never to divulge. 
 
 From the account given in a work published 
 in Paris, in 1790, it appears that this unfortu- 
 nate person was the twin brother of Louis XIV, 
 born eight hours after this monarch, and who 
 was the unhappy victim of superstition and 
 cruelty. His father Louis XIII, being weak 
 enough to give credit to the prediction of some 
 impostors, that if the queen should be delivered 
 of twins, the kingdom would be involved in 
 civil war, ordered the birth of this prince to be 
 kept a profound secret; and had him privately 
 educated in the country as the illegitimate son 
 of a nobleman : but on the accession of Louis 
 XIV the young man gave indications of having 
 discovered his parentage, of which his brother 
 being informed, ordered him to be imprisoned 
 for life, and to wear a mask in order to prevent 
 his being recognised. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the New Eng- 
 land states, contains 737,699 inhabitants, accord- 
 ing to the last census. Parts of the state are 
 very hilly. The Green mountains cross the 
 western part of the state from N. to S. Massa- 
 chusetts is the most commercial state of the 
 Union, and the third as regards manufactures 
 which are rapidly increasing. Boston is the 
 capital, and the literary and commercial me- 
 tropolis of the state. Other large and impor- 
 tant towns are Salem, Lowell, New-Bedford, 
 Newburyport, Marblehead, Beverly, Charles- 
 town, Cambridge, Plymouth, Lynn, Nantucket, 
 Springfield, Worcester, &c. The literary in- 
 stitutions of Massachusetts rank deservedly 
 high. Harvard university at Cambridge, is the 
 oldest, and best endowed institution in the Uni- 
 ted States. With it are connected, a theologi- 
 cal, a law, and a medical school. Its library is 
 the largest in the United States, containing about 
 40,000 volumes. Williams college at Williams- 
 town, the Collegiate Charity institution at Am- 
 herst, and the theological seminary at Andover, 
 are all valuable institutions, and worthy of the 
 patronage they receive. 
 
 This state comprises the two former colonies 
 of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, which 
 were united under one government in lb'92 
 The first English settlement was made at Ply 
 mouth, by 101 Puritans, who fled from religious 
 persecution, and landed on the iron-bound coast 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAT 
 
 338 
 
 MAZ 
 
 m the severity of mid-winter, December 22d, 
 1620. The men of Massachusetts were fore- 
 most in the expeditions undertaken by the Brit- 
 ish against the French in America. Their blood 
 was shed before Quebec and at Louisburg. and 
 their best and bravest were ever ready in the 
 field to support the interests of their parent 
 country. At length, when the oppressive meas- 
 ures of Britain could no longer be submitted to, 
 Massachusetts was the seat of the earliest con- 
 flicts in favor of liberty. The plains of Lexing- 
 ton and Concord, and the heights of Charles- 
 town, have become hallowed by the American 
 blood that bedewed them, and the glorious ex- 
 ample of Massachusetts was speedily followed 
 by the sister colonies. 
 
 In 178G, an insurrection broke out under one 
 Shays, but he was defeated at Springfield, in 
 1787. Since then nothing lias occurred to dis- 
 turb the tranquillity, or affect the prosperity of 
 this flourishing and wealthy State. 
 
 MASSANIELLO, a contraction for Thomas 
 Aniello, the name of a Neapolitan fisherman, 
 who headed a revolt of his countrymen, and 
 threw off the Spanish yoke. Like many men 
 of low origin who have suddenly risen to sove- 
 reign power, he became bewildered by change 
 of his fortunes, and his frenzy was probably 
 heightened by his intemperate habits, which 
 impelled him to commit many acts of sanguin- 
 ary violence, and he was killed A. D. 1646. 
 
 MASSENA, Andre, duke of Rivoli, and 
 prince of Esslingen, marshal of France, born at 
 Nice in 1758, was a favorite general of Napo- 
 leon, and, in consequence of his success during 
 his Italian campaign, was called by the emperor 
 the darling of victory. In 1799, he defeated the 
 Russians at Zurich, and in the following year 
 defended Genoa during a protracted siege. In 
 1810 he was frustrated in his pursuit of lord 
 Wellington before the lines of Torres Vedras. 
 He died in 1817. 
 
 MATHIAS CORVINUS, called the great, 
 king of Hungary and Bohemia, was the son of 
 John Hunniades. The enemies of his father 
 confined him in prison in Bohemia ; but on re- 
 gaining his liberty he was elected king of Hun- 
 gary in 1458. His election, however, was op- 
 posed by many of the Hungarian lords, who 
 offered the crown to Frederick III. The Turks 
 profiting by these divisions invaded the coun- 
 try, but were expelled by Mathias, who com- 
 pelled Frederick to yield to him the crown of 
 St. Stephen, of which he had obtained posses- 
 sion. The war was afterwards renewed, and 
 Mathias overrunning Austria, took Vienna and 
 
 Neustadt, on which the emperor was obliged to 
 make a peace in 1487. 
 
 Mathias reformed many abuses, particularly 
 with respect to duels and law-suits, and was 
 preparing an expedition against the Turks when 
 he died of an apoplexy in 1490. 
 
 MATILDA, or Maud, the daughter of Henry 
 I, king of England, and wife of Henry IV. 
 Emperor of Germany, was nominated in 1135 
 successor to the English throne by her father ; 
 but in her absence Stephen usurped the title. 
 Arriving in England with a large army in 1139 
 she defeated Stephen, and was acknowledged 
 queen in a parliament held in 1141. 
 
 Stephen afterwards defeated the empress, on 
 which the national synod declared for him, and 
 Matilda was obliged to leave the kingdom. On 
 the death of the emperor she married Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by whim she had a 
 son, afterwards Henry II, king of England. 
 Matilda died in 1167, aged 67. 
 
 MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, 
 Roman emperor, was the son of Maximianus 
 Hercules, and declared himself Augustus in 
 306. He was opposed by Galerius Maximianus, 
 who was defeated, and slew himself. Maxen- 
 tius then marched into Africa, where he be- 
 came odious by his cruelties. Constantine af- 
 terwards defeated him in Italy, and he was 
 drowned in crossing the Tiber in 312. 
 
 Before the battle, Constantine adopted the 
 cross as his standard, and after the victory, 
 made Christianity the religion of the empire. 
 
 MAXIMINUS, Caius Julius Verus, Emperor 
 of Rome, was the son of a peasant in Thrace, 
 and having displayed great courage in the Ro- 
 man armies, he rose to command. On the death 
 of Alexander Severus, he caused himself to be 
 proclaimed emperor A. D. 235. He was a great 
 persecutor ; and put to death above 4000 per- 
 sons, on suspicion of their being concerned in a 
 conspiracy against him. His soldiers assassi- 
 nated him near Aquileia, A. D. 256. His stat 
 ure and strength were very extraordinary : and 
 his disposition proportionally brutal. Forty 
 pounds of meat, and eighteen bottles of wine, 
 were his ordinary allowance for a day. His 
 strength was such that he is said to have stopped 
 a chariot in full speed with one of his fingers. 
 
 MAZARIN, Julius, a Roman cardinal and 
 minister of state, was born in Piscina in Italy, in 
 1602. Being appointed Nuncio Extraordinary 
 to France, he acquired the friendship of Riche- 
 lieu and the confidence of Louis XIII. In 1641, 
 Pope Urban VIII made him cardinal ; and on 
 the death of Richelieu, Louis appointed him 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MEC 
 
 339 
 
 MEN 
 
 Minister of State. He was also nominated one 
 of the executors of the king's will, and had the 
 principal management of affairs during the mi- 
 nority of Louis XIV ; but at length the mur- 
 murs of the people rose so much against him, 
 that he found it expedient to quit the kingdom, 
 and a price was set on his head. 
 
 He afterwards recovered his power, and con- 
 tinued to render the state the most important 
 services, the principal of which was the restor- 
 ing peace between France and Spain in 1C59. 
 His application to business produced a disease, 
 of which he died ; n 1661. 
 
 MAZEPPA, John, a Polish gentleman, born 
 in the palatinate of Podilia, was educated as the 
 page of Jean Casimir, arJl, at his court, became 
 acquainted with letters. A n intrigue in his 
 youth with the wife of a Toi'si^ gentleman 
 caused him to be bound, n<k»_d, tv 1 "he back of 
 a wild horse. 
 
 " * Bring forth the hcrse ! '— th« Lin^e vas brought ; 
 In truth, he was a. n^ble steid, 
 A Tartar of the Ukraine breed ; 
 
 Who look'd as though tl:e rpeed of th< jgni 
 
 Were in his limbs ; nut he was wMd, 
 
 Wild as the wild de°,r, a.\d intavjght ; 
 
 With spur and bridle undented— 
 
 'Twas but a day he had been caught ; 
 
 And snorting, with erected mane, 
 
 And struggling fiercely, but in vain, 
 
 In the full foam of wrath and dread, 
 
 To him the desert-born was led." Byron. 
 
 On being loosed, the horse, which was of the 
 Ukraine, returned thither, bearing Mazeppa, 
 who arrived, half dead with hunger and fatigue. 
 Some peasants afforded him succor, and he 
 remained a long time among them, signalizing 
 himself in many exertions against the Tartars. 
 The superiority of his understanding acquired 
 him the respects of the Cossacks, and, in con- 
 sequence of his increasing reputation, the czar 
 was constrained to make him Prince of the 
 Ukraine. He, however, joined Charles XII, 
 and fought for him at the fatal battle of Pultawa. 
 
 In some parts of Cermany, during the feudal 
 times, an infringement of the forest-laws, was 
 punished by chaining the offender to the back 
 of a wild stag, which bounded away with him, 
 through thorny thickets, and wild passes, until 
 death relieved him of his sufferings. 
 
 MECCA, a large city of Arabia, formerly 
 containing 100,000 inhabitants; the present 
 population is about 60,000. It derives its cele- 
 brity from being the birth-place of Mahomet, 
 and the seat of his power, and accordingly every 
 pious Mussulman makes a pilgrimage to it at 
 least once in his life. Here a conspiracy was 
 formed against the prophet, and flight was his 
 29* 
 
 only resource. After an exile of seven years, 
 however, the fugitive missionary was enthroned 
 as the prince and prophet of his native country. 
 
 MEDIA, a celebrated country of Asia. It 
 was originally called Aria, till the age of Med us, 
 the son of Medea, who gave it the name of Me- 
 dia. The province of Media was first raised 
 into a kingdom by its revolt from the Assyrian 
 monarchy, B. C. 820 ; and, after it had for some 
 time enjoyed a kind of republican government, 
 Deioces. by artifice, procured himself to be called 
 king, 700 B. C. After a reign of 53 years, he 
 was succeeded by Phraotes, B. C. 647 ; who 
 was succeeded by Cyaxares, B. C. 625. His 
 successor was Astyages, B. C. 585, in whose 
 reign Cyrus became master of Media, B. C. 
 551 ; and ever after the country was occupied 
 by the Persians. 
 
 The Medes were warlike in the primitive 
 ages of tneir power; they encouraged poly- 
 gamy, and were remarkable for the homage 
 which they paid to their sovereigns, who were 
 styled kings of kings. This title was afterwards 
 adopted by their conquerors, the Persians ; and 
 it was still in use in the age of the Roman em- 
 perors. 
 
 MEDICIS, Cosmo, called the elder, the foun- 
 der of an illustrious family at Florence, was a 
 merchant, and was born in 1389. He acquired 
 great wealth, which he appropriated to the no- 
 ble purposes of advancing learning, and sup- 
 porting learned men. He collected a noble 
 library, which he enriched with inestimable 
 manuscripts. The envy excited against him 
 by his riches, raised him many enemies, by 
 whose intrigues he was obliged to quit his na- 
 tive country. He then retired to Venice, where 
 he w T as received as a prince. His fellow-citizens 
 afterwards recalled him, and he bore a prin- 
 cipal share in the government of the republic 
 thirty years. He died in 1464. On his tomb 
 was engraved this inscription : The Father of 
 his people, and the Deliverer of his Country. 
 
 MEDINA, or Medina el Nebi, a city of Ara- 
 bia, celebrated from its containing the tomb of 
 Mahomet ; during his residence there it was at- 
 tacked by an army of 10,000 enemies, but the 
 prudence of Mahomet declined a general en- 
 gagement, and the confederates at length retired. 
 
 MEDINA SIDONIA, Alfonso Perez Guz- 
 man, Duke de, commander of the celebrated 
 Spanish armada in 1588. 
 
 MENZIKOFF, Alexander, a prince of the 
 Russian empire, was the son of a peasant, and 
 the servant of a pastry-cook, who employed him 
 to cry pies about the streets. His appeanuice 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MEX 
 
 340 
 
 MEX 
 
 pleasing Peter the Great, he took him into his 
 service. Menzikoff soon insinuated himself 
 into the confidence of his sovereign, who made 
 him governor of lngria, with the rank of major- 
 general, and at length conferred on him the title 
 of prince. In 1713 he was accused of pecula- 
 tion, and condemned to pay a heavy fine, which 
 the czar remitted and restored him to favor. 
 Under the czarina Catharine he had still more 
 power, and his daughter was married to Peter 
 II, who made Menzikoff duke of Cozel, and 
 grand master of the imperial hotel. But by the 
 intrigues of Dolgorucki, mistress of the czar, he 
 fell into disgrace, and was banished to his es- 
 tate ; where he lived in such magnificence, that 
 Peter was persuaded to send him, for his own 
 safety, into Siberia, where he died in a poor hut, 
 in 1729. 
 
 MESSALINA, Valeria, daughter of Messala 
 Barbatus, and wife of the Emperor Claudian, an 
 abandoned woman. Having espoused her fa- 
 vorite Silius, in the lifetime of her husband, 
 she was put to death by order of the emperor, 
 A. D. 46. There was another of this name, 
 who was the third wife of Nero, after her first 
 husband Atticus had been put to death by that 
 tyrant. On the death of Nero she devoted the 
 remainder of her days to study, and acquired a 
 great reputation 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA, or Diarbekr, part of the 
 kingdom of Assyria, which was founded by Pul 
 in 790 B. C. It underwent all the revolutions 
 of this and the Persian empire, till it was con- 
 quered by Trajan in 106 ; after which it several 
 times changed masters betwixt the Romans and 
 the Persians, but generally belonged to the lat- 
 ter, till it was conquered by the Saracens, to- 
 gether with the rest of Persia, in 651 . It was 
 seized by the Seljuks in 1046, and by Genghis 
 Khan in 1218. In 1360 Tur Ali Beg, the Turk- 
 man, founded the dynasty called Ak Koyunlu, 
 or the white sheep, in this country. 
 
 It submitted to Timur Beg in 1400, but he did 
 not retain the conquest. In 1514 it was con- 
 quered by Ismael Sofi, the Persian, was half 
 conquered by the Turks in 1554, recovered by 
 the Persians in 1613, but completely reduced by 
 the Turks in 1637, when the emperor Morad 
 took Bagdat. 
 
 MEXICO, or New Spain ; a republic of North 
 America, formerly belonging to Spain, and gov- 
 erned by a viceroy. The land attains an un- 
 common elevation in the interior, Mexico, the 
 capital, being 7,000 feet above the ocean. The 
 highest summit of the Cordilleras of Mexico, is 
 the volcanic peak of Popocatepetl, 17,716 feet 
 
 high. The climate on the coast is hot, and, in 
 general, unhealthy, but upon the high table- 
 land, it is uncommonly salubrious. A large 
 portion of the soil is fertile, producing maize, 
 wheat, sugar, indigo, tobacco, agave, different 
 kinds of fruits, bananas, manioc, vanilla, cocoa, 
 cochineal, logwood and mahogany. The an- 
 nual produce of the rich gold and silver mines, 
 for which Mexico is celebrated, is about 
 20,000.000 dollars. One of these mines is eight 
 miles in length, and, in one place, 1640 feet in 
 depth. The religion is Roman Catholic. Ed- 
 ucation is generally neglected, although there is 
 a university in the city of Mexico. The city is 
 well built, its streets are wide and airy, and il 
 contains many splendid public buildings. Pop- 
 ulation about 168,800. A large portion of the 
 population is composed of subdued Indians. 
 
 When the Spaniards, under Cortez, com- 
 menced the conquest of Mexico, they found the 
 native Indians far advanced in civilization, 
 wealthy, hospitable, liberal, and, in general, in- 
 offensive. They appeared to have an instinc- 
 tive dread of the foreigners, and yet treated 
 them with kindness. They were willing to 
 share their wealth with the Spaniards, but noth- 
 ing less than the whole would satisfy the cu 
 pidity of the Christians. After scenes of cruel- 
 ty and treachery the Spanish leader completed 
 the conquest in 1521. The country continued 
 under the jurisdiction of a Spanish viceroy, un- 
 til it declared itself independent in 1820. The 
 following description of a Mexican dinner is 
 given by a recent traveller. At dinner nothing 
 seemed so strange to me as the manner in which 
 the lady of the house leaves the table. It must 
 be premised that the dining-tables are so high, 
 that little men are much perplexed about get- 
 ting their food. Our hostess, who was small 
 and pretty fat, was seated so that her mouth was 
 at the edge of her plate and her shoulders under 
 the table. As soon as her appetite was satisfied, 
 she left the table at which we remained seated. 
 In the centre of the room was suspended a ham- 
 mock into which she flung herself with great 
 nonchalance, and giving herself a slight push 
 by applying her foot to a pillar, she swung to 
 and fro in this position. Soon after, one of her 
 waiting maids brought her a cigar rolled up in 
 paper, and after having lighted it, began to 
 smoke it herself and then stuck it in her mis- 
 tress' mouth. This operation was performed so 
 skilfully that the motion of the hammock did 
 not for a moment cease. Our pretty hostess 
 gave a fresh impulse to her dormitory, and 
 when the see-sawing motion had ceased, the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MIL 
 
 341 
 
 MIL 
 
 cigar was smoked up, the lady asleep, and our 
 dinner ended. 
 
 MICHIGAN, one of the United States, con- 
 sists of two Peninsulas, one lying between lakes 
 Superior and Michigan, and Wisconsin Territory ; 
 the other, between lake Michigan on the west, 
 Huron on the east, and Ohio and Indiana on 
 the south, the two containing at least 60,000 
 square miles. Both are well watered. Monroe, 
 on the Raisin, is a thoroughfare for travellers. 
 The principal villages are Pontiac, Ypsilanti and 
 Ann Arbor. Population in 1840, 212,267. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Arthur, a distinguished 
 American patriot, was born in S. Carolina, in 
 1743, but was educated in England. As a mem- 
 ber of Congress, he signed the Declaration of 
 Independence, and lost a great part of his prop- 
 erty during the revolution. He died Jan. J, 1787. 
 
 MILAN, a duchy in the north of Italy, con- 
 tains 2,250.000 inhabitants. It was comprised, 
 with several other districts under the general 
 name of Lombardy, until the 14th century, when 
 Visconti, a Milanese nobleman, purchased the 
 ducal title from the reigning emperor; the 
 marriage of his daughter to the duke of Or- 
 leans, gave rise to the pretensions of the kings 
 of France to this duchy. After the death of the 
 last duke of this line, Francis Sforza, a man of 
 family and talents, so ingratiated himself with 
 the people, that he was unanimously chosen 
 duke in 1450. 
 
 On the extinction of the Sforza family a cen- 
 tury after, the emperor Charles V gave the 
 Milanese as a fief of the empire to his son Philip 
 II, king of Spain, and it remained an appendage 
 to that crown till 1706, when a brilliant cam- 
 paign of Prince Eugene, put it in possession of 
 the house of Austria, to which, with the excep- 
 tion of the Sardinian Milanese, it continued 
 subject during 90 years, until the victories of 
 Bonaparte in 1796. On the formation of the 
 Cisalpine republic, the whole of Milan, divided 
 into four departments, was comprised in it; but 
 on the restoration of the old order of things, in 
 1814, the part belonging to the king of Sardinia, 
 was restored, and the remainder incorporated 
 with Austrian Italy. 
 
 MILAN, capital city of the duchy of the 
 same name, contains many splendid public 
 buildings, and 130,000 inhabitants. The French 
 made themselves masters of it in 1796; but 
 were driven out in 1799 by the victorious 
 army of the Austrians and Russians. After 
 the battle of Marengo, Milan again fell into 
 the hands of the French, and continued the 
 
 seat of their viceroy until the fall of Bonaparte 
 in 1814. 
 
 MILTIADES,an Athenian, married Hege- 
 sipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the king of the 
 Thracians. In the third year of his government 
 his dominions were threatened by an invasion 
 of the Scythian Nomades, whom Darius had 
 some time before irritated by entering their coun- 
 try. He fled before them ; but, as their hostili- 
 ties were but momentary, he was soon restored 
 to his kingdom. Three years after he left Cher- 
 sonesus, and set sail for Athens, where he was 
 received with great applause. 
 
 He was present at the celebrated battle of 
 Marathon, in which all the chief officers ceded 
 their power to him, and left the event of the 
 battle to depend upon his superior abilities. He 
 obtained an important victory over the more 
 numerous forces of his adversaries ; and when 
 he had demanded of his fellow-citizens an olive 
 crown, as the reward of his valor in the field 
 of battle, he was not only refused, but severely 
 reprimanded for presumption. Some time after 
 Miltiades was intrusted with a fleet of 70 ships, 
 and ordered to punish those islands which had 
 rovolted to the Persians. 
 
 He was successful at first ; but a sudden re- 
 port that a Persian fleet was coming to attack 
 him, changed his operations as he was besieg- 
 ing Paros. 
 
 He raised the siege and returned to Athens, 
 where he was accused of treason, and particu- 
 larly of holding a correspondence with the ene- 
 my. The falsity of these accusations might have 
 appeared, if Miltiades had been able to come into 
 the assembly. A wound which he had received 
 before Paros detained him at home ; and his 
 enemies, taking advantage of his absence, be- 
 came more eager in their accusations, and louder 
 in their clamors. He was condemned to death : 
 but the rigor of the sentence was retracted on 
 the recollection of his great services to the Athe- 
 nians, and he was put into prison till he had 
 paid a fine of 50 talents to the state. His ina- 
 bility to discharge so great a sum detained him 
 in confinement, and soon after his wounds be- 
 came incurable, and he died about 489 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. The crimes of Miltiades 
 were probably aggravated in the eyes of his 
 countrymen, when they remembered how he 
 made himself absolute in Chersonesus ; and in 
 condemning the barbarity of the Athenians to- 
 wards a general who was the source of their 
 military prosperity, we must remember the jea- 
 lousy which ever reigns among a free and in- 
 dependent people, and how watchful they are 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MIR 
 
 342 
 
 MIS 
 
 in defence of the natural rights which they see 
 wrested from others by violence and oppression. 
 MINDEN, a town of Prussia, containing 
 8,960 inhabitants. Here Prince Ferdinand gain- 
 ed a victory over the French in the campaign 
 of 1759. The merit of the victory is principally 
 to be ascribed to the valor and steadiness of the 
 British troops engaged. Minden surrendered 
 on the next day ; and the French retreated to 
 the other side or the Weser. 
 
 MINORCA, the second of the Balearic isl- 
 ands in the Mediterranean, contains 30,000 in- 
 habitants. It produces abundance of vegeta- 
 bles, some wines, and oil; and has mines of 
 iron, lead, and admirable marble. The inhabit- 
 ants are devoted to commerce, and of the Ro- 
 man Catholic persuasion. The climate, al- 
 though hot, is agreeable. In 1708 the English 
 took possession of it, and retained it till 1758, 
 when it was retaken by a French fleet and 
 army, after the failure of an attempt to relieve 
 it, which led to the sentence of the unfortunate 
 Admiral Byng. At the peace of 1763 Minorca 
 was restored to Britain: but in 1782 it was re- 
 taken by the Spaniards. It was once more taken 
 by the British in 1798 ; but was restored at the 
 peace of A miens in 1802. 
 
 MINOS, a king of Crete, who gave laws to 
 his subjects, B. C. 1406, which still remained in 
 full force in the age of the philosopher Plato. 
 His justice and moderation procured him the 
 appellation of the favorite of the gods, the wise 
 legislator, in every city of Greece : and, accord- 
 ing to the poets, he was rewarded for his equity, 
 after death, with the office of supreme and ab- 
 solute judge in the infernal regions. 
 
 MIRABKAU, Honore Gabriel, Count de, a 
 French nobleman was born in 1749. He was 
 born with a club foot, a defect which has given 
 rise to a comparison with Byron more distin- 
 guished for ingenuity than accuracy. In addi- 
 tion to this defect, his tongue, fastened by the 
 frcenum,gave little promise of oratorical success. 
 But the size and vigor of his limbs, and the cir- 
 cumstance of two molar teeth being already 
 formed in his mouth, were sufficiently extraor- 
 dinary. He was also early attacked with the 
 small pox which left its usual impress on his 
 face. In a letter from the marquis, his father, 
 to the countess of Rochefort, the following pas- 
 sage occurs : " A fete is this day given in honor 
 of my mother (the dowager-marchioness, widow 
 of Jean-Antoine de Mirabeau, then 72 years of 
 age). It is the production of my son's tulor (an 
 indefatigable author and actor of such follies.) 
 You will see a little monster perform therein, 
 
 whom they call my son ; but who, were he 
 the son of La Thorrillere, could not display a 
 greater aptitude for all sorts of devilment." In 
 another letter, dated 21 st of September, 1758, he 
 writes thus ; " My son, whose size, prattle, and 
 ugliness are wonderfully on the increase, grows 
 more exquisitely and peculiarly ugly from day 
 to day, and, withal, a most indefatigable speech- 
 ifier." 
 
 At an early age he quarreled with his father, 
 and fled from the paternal mansion, but the old 
 count procured alettre de cachet, and imprisoned 
 him. He however escaped, and lived for a long 
 time in habits of dissipation : in proof of which 
 the following anecdote is related. Mirabeau, one 
 day, called up his valet to discharge him. The 
 fellow asked the reason. " It is this," said Mi- 
 rabeau ; " You were drunk yesterday, as I my- 
 self was. Now, sir, you remember you agreed 
 to get drunk only on days when I was sober." 
 " 1 remember it," replied the valet; " but you 
 will excuse me when you reflect upon the im- 
 possibility of my obeying you — for you are 
 drunk every day." Mirabeau reflected a mo- 
 ment, and retained the domestic. 
 
 He went to Berlin towards the close of the 
 reign of Frederic, and was there when the 
 French revolution commenced, on which he 
 returned home, and was elected a member of 
 the states-general. He rendered his name me- 
 morable by the display of the most polished and 
 powerful eloquence. In 1791 he became pres- 
 ident of the national assembly ; but died of a 
 fever on the 2d of April following. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States, con 
 taining,in 1840,375,651 inhabitants. The north- 
 ern pait of the country is uneven, but not moun- 
 tainous, while the southern part is a swampy 
 level. Cotton is the staple production. After 
 Natchez, the largest town, come Jackson, Wash- 
 ington, Woodvifle, Port Gibson, Monticello, &c. 
 
 There are two colleges in this state, one at 
 Washington, and one at Shieldsborough. There 
 are but few Indians in Mississippi — most of the 
 Chickasaws and Choctaws having been remov- 
 ed beyond the Mississippi. The first settlement 
 in this state was commenced at Natchez in 1716. 
 In 1817 Mississippi was admitted into the Union 
 as an independent state. 
 
 MISSOURI, one of the United States, con- 
 tains 383,702 inhabitants. It is well watered, 
 and the face of the country greatly diversified. 
 The highest peaks of the Ozark mountains 
 reach an elevation of 3,000 feet. The soil upon 
 the rivers is, in general, highly productive, and 
 the staple productions are Indian corn, grain, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MIT 
 
 343 
 
 MIT 
 
 hemp, flax, and tobacco. The lead mines of 
 Missouri are very valuable, and yield annually 
 about 4,000,000 pounds of lead. Jefferson is the 
 seat of government. St. Louis is a large and 
 flourishing town. Education has been provided 
 for by liberal allowances. 
 
 MITHRIDATES I, was the third king of 
 Pontus. He was tributary to the crown of Per- 
 sia, and his attempts to make himself independ- 
 ent proved fruitless. He was conquered in a 
 battle, and obtained peace with difficulty. Xen- 
 ophon calls him merely a governor of Cappa- 
 docia. He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, B. 
 C. 363. 
 
 The second of that name, King of Pontus, 
 was grandson to Mithridates I. He made him- 
 self master of Pontus, which had been conquer- 
 ed by Alexander, and had been ceded to Anti- 
 gonus at the general division of the Macedonian 
 empire among the conqueror's generals. He 
 reigned about 26 years, and died at the advanc- 
 ed age of 84 years, B. C. 302. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Mithridates III. 
 This enterprising and powerful monarch en- 
 larged his paternal possessions by the conquest 
 of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, and died after 
 a reign of thirty -six years. 
 
 The fourth succeeded his father Ariobarzanes, 
 who was the son of Mithridates IH. 
 
 The fifth succeeded his father Mithridates 
 IV, and strengthened himself on his throne by 
 an alliance with Antiochus the Great, whose 
 daughter, Laodice, he married. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Pharnaces. 
 
 The sixth succeeded his father Pharnaces. 
 He was the first of the kings of Pontus who 
 made alliance with the Romans. He furnished 
 them with a fleet in the third Punic war, and 
 assisted them against Aristonicus, who had laid 
 claim to the kingdom of Pergamus. He was 
 murdered B. C. 123. 
 
 The seventh, surnamed Eupator, and The 
 Great, succeeded his father Mithridates VI, 
 though only at the age of 11 years. The begin- 
 ning of his reign was marked by ambition, cru- 
 elty and artifice. He murdered the two sons 
 whom his sister Laodice had had by Ariarathes, 
 King of Cappadocia, and placed one of his own 
 children, only eight years old, on the vacant 
 throne. These violent proceedings alarmed Ni- 
 comedes, King of Bithynia, who had married 
 Laodice, the widow of Ariarathes. 
 
 He suborned a youth to act as King of Cap- 
 padocia, as the third son of Ariarathes, and La- 
 odice was sent to Rome to impose upon the sen- 
 ate, and assure them that her third son was still 
 
 alive, and that his pretensions to the kingdom 
 of Cappadocia were just and well grounded. 
 Mithridates used the same arts of dissimula- 
 tion. He also sent to Rome Gordius, the gov- 
 ernor of his son, who solemnly declared before 
 the Roman people, that the youth who sat on 
 the throne of Cappadocia, was the third son and 
 lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that he was sup- 
 ported as such by Mithridates. 
 
 This intricate affair displeased the Roman 
 senate, and finally to settle the dispute between 
 the two monarchs, the powerful arbiters took 
 away the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithri- 
 dates, and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. These 
 two kingdoms being thus separated from their 
 original possessors, were presented with their 
 freedom and independence ; but the Cappado- 
 cians refused it, and received Ariobarzanes for 
 king. Such were the first seeds of enmity be- 
 tween Rome and the King of Pontus. 
 
 Mithridates, the more effectually to destroy 
 the power of his enemies in Asia, ordered all 
 the Romans that were in his dominions to be 
 massacred. This was done in one night, and 
 no less than 150,000 according to Plutarch, or 
 80,000 Romans, as Appian mentions, were 
 made, at one blow, the victims of his cruelty. 
 This universal massacre called aloud for revenge. 
 Aquilius, and soon after Sylla, marched against 
 Mithridates with a large army. The former 
 was made prisoner ;' but Sylla obtained a victory 
 over the king's generals, and another decisive 
 engagement rendered him master of all Greece, 
 Macedonia, Ionia, and Asia Minor, which had 
 submitted to the victorious arms of the mon- 
 arch of Pontus. This ill fortune was aggra- 
 vated by the loss of about 200,000 men, who 
 were killed in the several engagements that 
 had been fought, and Mithridates, weakened 
 by repeated ill success by sea and land, sued 
 for peace from the conqueror, which he ob- 
 tained on condition of defraying the expenses 
 which the Romans had incurred by the war, 
 and of remaining satisfied with the possessions 
 which he had received from his ancestors. 
 
 While these negotiations of peace were carri- 
 ed on, Mithridates was not unmindful of his real 
 interests. His distress, and not his inclinations, 
 obliged him to wish for peace. He immediate- 
 ly took the field with an army of 140,000 in 
 fantry and 16,000 horse, which consisted of his 
 own forces and those of his son-in-law Tigranes, 
 King of Armenia. With such a numerous ar- 
 my, he soon made himself master of the Ro- 
 man provinces in Asia ; none dared to oppose 
 his conquests, as the Romans, relying on his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MIT 
 
 344 
 
 MON 
 
 fidelity, had withdrawn the greatest part of their 
 armies from the country 
 
 The news of his warlike preparations was 
 no sooner heard, than Lucullus, the consul, 
 marched into Asia, and without delay block- 
 ed up the camp of Mithridates, who was then 
 besieging Cyzicus. The Asiatic monarch es- 
 caped from him, and fled into the heart of 
 his kingdom. Lucullus pursued him with the 
 utmost celerity, and would have taken him 
 prisoner after a battle, had not the avidity of his 
 soldiers preferred the plundering of a mule load- 
 ed with gold, to the taking of a monarch who 
 had exercised such cruelties aginst their coun- 
 trymen, and shown himself so faithless to the 
 most solemn engagements. 
 
 The appointment of Gldbrio to the command 
 of the Roman forces, instead of Lucullus, was 
 favorable to Mithridates, and he recovered the 
 greatest part of his dominions. The sudden 
 arrival of Pompey, however, soon put an end 
 to his victories. A battle, in the night, was 
 fought near the Euphrates, in which the troops 
 of Pontus labored under every disadvantage. 
 
 An universal overthrow ensued, and Mith- 
 ridates, bold in his misfortunes, rushed through 
 the thick ranks of the enemy, at the head of 
 800 horsemen, 500 of whom perished in the 
 attempt to follow him. Mithridates found a safe 
 retreat among the Scythians ; and, though des- 
 titute of power, friends, and resources, yet he 
 meditated the destruction of the Roman em- 
 pire, by penetrating into the heart of Italy by 
 land. 
 
 These wild projects were rejected by his fol- 
 lowers, and he sued for peace. It was denied 
 to his ambassadors, and the victorious Pompey 
 declared, that to obtain it, Mithridates must ask 
 it in person. He scorned to trust himself in 
 the hands of his enemy, and resolved to conquer 
 or to die. His subjects refused to follow him 
 any longer, and they revolted from him, and 
 made his son Pharnaces king. The son show- 
 ed himself ungrateful to his father, and even, 
 according to some writers, he ordered him to 
 be put to death. 
 
 This unnatural treatment broke the heart of 
 Mithridates ; he obliged his wife to poison her- 
 self, and attempted to do the same himself. It 
 was in vain ; the frequent antidotes he had 
 taken in the early part of his life strengthened 
 his constitution against the poison, and when 
 this was unavailing, he attempted to stab him- 
 self. The blow was not mortal ; and a Gaul, 
 who was then present, at his own request gave 
 him the fatal stroke, about 63 years B. C, in 
 
 the 72d year of his age. This prince, who 
 made war against the Romans forty years, and 
 was never entirely vanquished but by Pompey, 
 although he had lost many battles against Lu- 
 cullus, has been much praised. Cicero calls 
 him the greatest of kings since the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 MODENA, a duchy in the north of Italy, 
 containing 375,000 inhabitants. In 1796 the 
 duke of Modena was expelled from his domin- 
 ions by the French : and at the peace of Cam- 
 po Formio, in 1797, the Modenese possessions 
 were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic ; 
 but in 1814 they were restored by the Congress 
 of Vienna to the duke. 
 
 MOLUCCAS, or SPICE ISLANDS, are be- 
 tween the Sunda isles, the Philippines and New 
 Holland. These islands were discovered by the 
 Portuguese in 1511, but now belong to the 
 Dutch, who obtain from them sandal wood, 
 musk, cloves, and spices. There are also mines 
 of copper and silver, which are very productive, 
 and delicious fruits. 
 
 MONGULS, or MONGOLS, The. An Asi- 
 atic tribe, who inhabited the central regions of 
 the continent, and were little known till Gen- 
 ghis Khan, by his conquests, immortalized their 
 name. He extended his dominions through a 
 space of more than 800 leagues from east to west, 
 and above 1,000 from north to south, over the 
 most powerful and wealthy kingdoms of Asia. 
 It is with justice, therefore, that he is acknow- 
 ledged to have been the greatest prince who 
 ever filled the eastern throne. He was the 
 son of Pisuka, who first brought under his 
 command the greater part of the chiefs of the 
 Mongul nations, and who designated his son by 
 the name of Temujin. from a vanquished khan 
 so called. 
 
 After the death of his father, Temujin mar- 
 ried the daughter of the great Khan, who, har- 
 boring suspicions to the prejudice of his son-in- 
 law, was dethroned, and Temujin took posses- 
 sion of the empire. Temujin was at that time 
 forty years of age, when, seeing himself master 
 of very extensive dominions, he adopted the 
 resolution of rendering his power in some de- 
 gree lawful, by the public homage of all the 
 princes within the precincts of his empire. Ac- 
 cordingly, he convoked them at Karakorom, 
 his capital ; and, with the diadem encircling his 
 brow, he advanced into the midst of this au- 
 gust assembly, seated himself on his throne, 
 and received the compliments of the khans and 
 other nobility, who offered up prayers for his 
 health and prosperity. They then confirmed to 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MON 
 
 345 
 
 MON 
 
 him and his successors the sovereignty of the 
 Mongul empire. 
 
 After some subsequent victories, a similar in- 
 auguration took place at the head of his army, 
 when Kockja. one of his relatives, who, by 
 strictly practising the rigid duties of religion, 
 had obtained the reputation of being inspired, 
 approached the prince, and informed him, that 
 it was the pleasure of God that he should hence- 
 forth assume the name of Genghis Khan. 
 
 However, it is probable that the ambition of 
 Genghis Khan might have been satisfied with 
 his dominions, had not the sovereign of the 
 Kin, or northern part of China, imprudently 
 demanded of him the same tribute as was paid 
 him by princes whom he had dethroned, and 
 whose authority he had usurped. This claim 
 irritated the haughty conqueror, whose troops 
 poured like a torrent over 'China, routed its 
 armies, desolated the country, and amassed im- 
 mense treasures. The cities, and even the royal 
 residence, fell into the hands of Genghis Khan, 
 who, in the short space of five years, found him- 
 self master of all that extensive territory, and 
 who appointed Muhuli, his experienced gen- 
 eral, governor and lieutenant, with the title of 
 king, which was to descend to his posterity. 
 
 Genghis Khan had determined to make the 
 domains of Mohammed, Sultan of Karazm, the 
 boundary of his empire ; but a disagreement 
 taking place with that sovereign, the great khan 
 assembled all his forces, and, after defeating the 
 sultan, besieged and took Bochara, the centre 
 of his dominions, where all his wealth was 
 lodged. Though Mohammed possessed a great 
 part of Turkestan, was master of Great Bukha- 
 ria, and Karazm, whence his monarchy derived 
 its name, and held in possession all Persia, Per- 
 sian Irak, and the frontiers of India, he could 
 make no effectual opposition. 
 
 The celerity and military exploits of Genghis 
 Khan resembled a torrent spreading devasta- 
 tion, or rather a thunderbolt bursting over 
 several countries at once, and involving them 
 in flames and ruin. Though the sultan made 
 every effort in his power to succor his wretched 
 dominions, his armies were constantly defeated 
 in general engagements; and, after eluding his 
 pursuers, he landed on a small island in the 
 Caspian Sea, where an acute disease, added to 
 his grief, speedily terminated his life. 
 
 His son Jalaloddin endeavored, but in vain, 
 to avenge the cause of his father on the Mon- 
 guls. While Genghis Khan, on one side of his 
 empire, had fixed the Indus as its limits, his 
 lieutenants on the other subjugated Persia, en- 
 
 closed the Caspian Sea within his dominions, 
 and carried their victorious arms as far as Ico- 
 nium, whose sultans, with some other Turkish 
 sovereigns, they rendered tributary. The fur- 
 ther enterprises of this aspiring monarch were 
 always crowned with victory. He was constant- 
 ly attended by prosperity, which never quitted 
 him to his tomb. 
 
 He died A. D. 12*27, at the age of seventy, 
 after a reign of twenty-two years, preserving to 
 the last an undiminished authority over all the 
 surrounding nations. The qualities of Genghis 
 Khan characterized a conqueror. He possessed 
 a genius capable of conceiving great and ardu- 
 ous designs, and prudence equal to their execu- 
 tion ; a natural and persuasive eloquence ; a de- 
 gree of patience, which enabled him to endure 
 and overcome fatigue ; an admirable temper- 
 ance ; a superior understanding, and a penetrat- 
 ing mind, that instantly conceived the measure 
 proper to be adopted on every occasion. His 
 military talents appeared in his successfully in- 
 troducing a strict discipline and severe police 
 among the Tartars, who till that time were 
 unused to any restraint. His laws were sim- 
 ple, and suitable to a newly-formed people, who 
 have few complex social connections. 
 
 Though some of his own children, and princes 
 of the blood were Christians, and some Jews 
 and Mohammedans, they incurred no marks of 
 his disapprobation. He instituted a grand hunt- 
 ing-match, the model of which he left to his 
 successors. Though Genghis Khan had declar 
 ed his son Octa his successor, this prince refus- 
 ed to accept the crown till it was delegated to 
 him by the states, which did not assemble till 
 two years after the death of his father. He com- 
 mitted the general management of affairs to 
 Yelu, a man of integrity and extensive know- 
 ledge ; and he placed at the head of his armies 
 his own brother Toley, whose talents were of 
 singular utility in the war which his father had 
 left him to prosecute against .the inhabitants of 
 Southern China. Q,uay-yew, or Kayuk had a 
 great respect for his mother, who, therefore, 
 still retained a considerable share of the govern- 
 ment. His beneficence and courage are deserv- 
 edly applauded ; and he commanded the armies 
 in person at the conquest of Corea, and of the 
 nations in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, A. 
 D. 1247. He died at the age of 43, after a reign 
 of eight years. 
 
 On the first day of the year 1368, Chu was 
 solemnly proclaimed Emperor of China, amid 
 the greatest demonstrations of joy. Touhante- 
 mur, naturally a coward, determined to retire 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MON 
 
 346 
 
 MON 
 
 into Tartary, and, surrounded by his guards, 
 his wives, and others of his court, took his 
 course towards the north. Thus ended the em- 
 pire of the Monguls in China, after they had 
 continued in possession of that vast country 
 during a terra of 162 years. Touhantemur re- 
 tained his sovereignty over the Monguls in Tar- 
 tary, where he was succeeded A. D. 1370 by his 
 son, Ayyewshilitata, against whom, and his suc- 
 cessors, the Chinese, sustained many sanguin- 
 ary wars, notwithstanding the great wall which 
 separated them. At length, however, they ceas- 
 ed to disturb each other, and lived quietly with- 
 in their own territories. In this interval the 
 Manchoos became formidable, and in the end 
 subdued both the Monguls and the Chinese. 
 
 MONK, George, Duke of Albemarle, was 
 descended from the Plantagenets, and born in 
 Devonshire in 1608. At the age of 17 he serv- 
 ed under his relation, Sir Richard Grenville, in 
 an expedition against Spain; and, in 1630, he 
 went as an ensign to the Low Countries, where 
 he obtained a captain's commission. In 1639, he 
 attended Charles I to Scotland, and was made 
 lieutenant-colonel ; afterwards he went to Ire- 
 land, and for his services in the rebellion, was 
 appointed governor of Dublin. On his return 
 to England with his regiment, in 1643, he was 
 made major-general in the Irish brigade, then 
 employed in the siege of Nantwich, in Cheshire, 
 where he was taken prisoner, and sent to the 
 Tower. After remaining in confinement about 
 three years, he was induced to accept a com- 
 mission under the parliament against the Irish 
 rebels ; in which service he performed several 
 great exploits, but at last fell under censure, for 
 concluding a treaty with O'Neil. Upon this he 
 gave up the command, and retired to his estate ; 
 but was soon called to serve with Cromwell in 
 Scotland, where he bore a part in the battle of 
 Dunbar ; after which he was left in the com- 
 mand of the English forces in that kingdom. 
 
 In 1653, he was joined with Blake and Dean 
 in the naval service against the Dutch fleet, 
 commanded by Van Tromp, with whom two 
 desperate battles were fought that year, in both 
 of which the English were victorious. Peace 
 being soon after concluded, Monk returned to 
 Scotland, where he remained during the usurp- 
 ation of Cromwell, who regarded him with jeal- 
 ousy, and even imparted to him, in a letter, the 
 suspicions which he entertained of his design 
 to restore the king. Monk took no notice of 
 this, but watched his opportunity : and when 
 the authority of Richard Cromwell declined, he 
 began his movements, and conducted them with 
 
 so much judgment as to bring about that im- 
 portant event without bloodshed or confusion. 
 After this he was created Duke of Albemarle, 
 and knight of the garter. The remainder of his 
 life was not spent inactively ; for when hostili- 
 ties broke out with the Dutch, he again com- 
 manded the fleet, and fought De Ruyter and 
 Van Tromp in a tremendous battle, which last- 
 ed three days. The duke had scarcely returned 
 into port before he was called to London, in 
 consequence of the dreadful fire which laid the 
 greatest part of the capital in ashes ; and so 
 dear was he to the people, that when he passed 
 along, they cried out, " If his Grace had been 
 there, the city would not have been burned." 
 He died Jan. 3, 1670 ; and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. By his duchess, who survived 
 him but a few months, he had one son, Christo- 
 pher, who died governor of Jamaica, without 
 issue, in 1688. 
 
 MONMOUTH, Duke of, son of Charles II 
 by Lucy Waters, to whom it was said that mon- 
 arch was secretly married. He was early placed 
 in the army, and served some campaigns in 
 Flanders with great reputation. His supposed 
 claims to the crown placed him in enmity with 
 the Duke of York, and he lived in intimate 
 connection with the party that promoted the 
 famous succession bill, and with the patriots of 
 that age. 
 
 On the death of his father he went abroad, 
 and soon after landed in the west of England, 
 publishing a pioclamation, in which he took 
 the regal title, and made noble professions in 
 favor of liberty. Numbers flocked to his stand- 
 ard, but his forces were overcome by the genius 
 of Marlborough at Bridgewater. A terrible pro- 
 scription followed in the western counties, in 
 which General Kirk and Judge Jefferies com- 
 mitted frightful cruelties ; and Monmouth him- 
 self being taken to London, was tried and exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 MONTAGUE, Edward, Earl of Sandwich, 
 was the son of Sir Sidney Montague, and born 
 in 1625. At the age of 18 he raised a regiment 
 in the service of parliament, and was present 
 in several battles; but in the Dutch war he left 
 the army for the navy, and was associated with 
 Blake in the Mediterranean. Afterwards he 
 commanded the fleet in the North Sea ; but at 
 his return was deprived of it on suspicion of 
 being in the royal interest. Monk, however, 
 procured him to be replaced ; and he conveyed 
 the king to England ; after which he was cre- 
 ated Earl of Sandwich. In the war of 1664 he 
 commanded under the Duke of York, and had 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MON 
 
 347 
 
 MOO 
 
 a principal share in the great battle of June 3, 
 1665. Soon after this he went to Spain, where 
 he negotiated a peace between that country and 
 Portugal. On the renewal of the Dutch war 
 in 167*2, he commanded a squadron under the 
 duke of York ; but his ship taking fire, he jump- 
 ed overboard, and was drowned. 
 
 MONROE, James, a president of the United 
 States, was born April 28, 1758, in Virginia, 
 and educated in William and Mary College. 
 He entered the revolutionary army as a cadet 
 in 1776. Throughout the revolution he served 
 with distinction, and at the age of 24, was 
 elected a member of congress. In 1794, he was 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary to France. 
 On his return he filled the post of governor of 
 Virginia, and afterwards was minister to France, 
 to London, and to Spain, successively. On his 
 return, he was chosen governor of Virginia, and 
 in 1811 was appointed Secretary of State. In 
 1817 he succeeded James Madison in the presi- 
 dency, from which office he retired at the end 
 of his second term. He died on the 4th of July , 
 1831. 
 
 MONTEZUMA, the king of Mexico, at the 
 time of the invasion of the Spaniards. At a 
 short distance from the city of Mexico, they 
 were met by Montezuma at the head of his 
 nobles, and surrounded by his guards and cour- 
 tiers. Cortez was received by the emperor with 
 hospitality and confidence which he soon for- 
 feited : for having learned that a traditionary 
 prophecy was current that a powerful nation, 
 children of the sun, would chastise the country, 
 as a punishment for their sins, he readily turn- 
 ed the idea to his own advantage. Cortez came 
 to the determination of seizing Montezuma in 
 his palace, which he entered with 10 officers 
 and soldiers. He requested Montezuma, to 
 take up a temporary residence with the Span- 
 iards, to which demand the monarch reluctant- 
 ly consented. Here he suffered every indig- 
 nity ; and Cortez, on a frivolous pretext that the 
 monarch was the instigator of some tumults, 
 ordered him to be fettered and thrown into 
 prison. 
 
 Montezuma remained a prisoner six months, 
 during which period Cortez was actively em- 
 ployed in furthering his own views. The for- 
 mer now acknowledged himself in form a vas- 
 sal of the Spanish king, and, a tumult arising, 
 Cortez placed him in view of his enraged sub- 
 jects, but in vain. The forlorn monarch was 
 pierced by an arrow, and died broken-hearted 
 and despairing. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, Richard, a major-general 
 
 in the army of the United States, born in Ire- 
 land, in 1737. He settled in this country, after 
 serving under Wolfe ; and having embraced the 
 American cause, was killed in an attack upon 
 Quebec, in 1776. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, Gabriel, Count, a French 
 nobleman, who, in 1559, had the misfortune to 
 kill Henry II, by accidentally striking him in 
 the eye at a tournament. He then quitted 
 France ; but returned during the civil wars, and 
 placed himself at the head of the Protestants. 
 After many vicissitudes he was taken prisoner, 
 and beheaded at Paris in 1574. 
 
 MONTREAL, a city of Lower Canada, situ- 
 ated on an island in the St. Lawrence, 180 miles 
 above Quebec, and 200 below lake Ontario, at 
 the head of ship navigation. The streets are 
 regular, the houses are built of gray stone, and 
 present a singular appearance from being cov- 
 ered with tin. Montreal College is a very flour- 
 ishing institution. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 MONTROSE, Marquis of, one of the most 
 chivalrous partisans of Charles I, who after the 
 cause of the Stuarts appeared to be hopeless, 
 persevered in exciting insurrections in Scot- 
 land, but being taken he was brought to Edin- 
 burg, tried, and executed on a gibbet 40 feet 
 high, on the 23d of September, 1650. 
 
 MOORE, Sir John, was born at Glasgow in 
 1761. At the age of 15 he obtained an ensigncy 
 in the 51st regiment of foot ; of which, in 1790, 
 he became lieutenant-colonel, and served with 
 his corps in Corsica, where he was wounded in 
 storming the Mozello fort at the siege of Calvi. 
 In 1796 he went out as a brigadier-general to 
 the West Indies, under Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
 who appointed him to the government of St. 
 Lucie, in the capture of which he had a princi- 
 pal share. 
 
 On his return home, in 1797, he was employ- 
 ed in Ireland during the rebellion, and was 
 raised to the rank of major-general. In 1799 
 he went on the expedition to Holland, where 
 he was again wounded severely ; notwithstand- 
 ing which, he soon afterwards went to the Medi- 
 terranean ; and at the battle of Alexandria re- 
 ceived a cut from a sabre on the breast, and a 
 shot in the thigh. On his return to England 
 he was made a knight of the Bath ; and in 1808 
 was appointed to command an army in Spain, 
 where, after a signal retreat before a superior 
 force, he fell under the walls of Corunna, Jan. 
 16th, 1809. 
 
 The description of the battle of Corunna, and 
 of the death of Sir John Moore, is thus briefly 
 given by Bisset. The British army reached 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MOR 
 
 348 
 
 MOR 
 
 Comnna on the 12th of Jan. 1309, having lost 
 one fourth of its numbers. Their situation was 
 so disadvantageous that some officers suggested 
 the proposal of terms to Soult, on condition 
 that he should permit the troops to embark un- 
 molested. Sir John Moore rejected the advice, 
 and declared his resolution to accept no terms 
 which should be in the least dishonorable to the 
 army or to his country. In the evening of the 
 14th the transports from Vigo hove in sight. 
 After the embarkation of the troops on the 10th, 
 orders were issued, that if the French did not 
 move, the embarkation of the reserve should 
 commence at four in the afternoon. 
 
 At mid-day, the general received information 
 that the enemy were getting under arms. Two 
 columns of the enemy directed their march on 
 the right wing of the British, which was dis- 
 advantageous^ posted. Sir John Moore hast- 
 ened to this part of the field, when the 4th regi- 
 ment on the right flank was menaced by a body 
 of the enemy who were hastening up the valley 
 to turn it. He proceeded to direct the move- 
 ments of the other regiments in this division, 
 and was in the act of ordering up the guards to 
 support the42d Highlanders, when he was struck 
 from his horse by a cannon-ball, which carried 
 away his left shoulder and part of the collar- 
 bone, leaving the arm hanging by the flesh. He 
 was borne away by six soldiers of the 42d. 
 
 The troops continued to fight bravely under 
 Sir John Hope, on whom the command devolv- 
 ed, and at night-fall remained masters of the 
 field. This victory was obtained under great dis- 
 advantages ; the French force exceeded 20,000 
 men, well appointed and provided with cannon. 
 The British scarcely amounted to 15,000, ex- 
 hausted by harassing marches, and discouraged 
 by the loss of their military chest, their stores, 
 their baggage, their horses, their sick, their 
 wounded, their wives and children. 
 
 General Moore lived to hear that the battle 
 was won ; and in his last moments, after an af- 
 fecting reminiscence of his mother, expressed 
 a hope that his country would do him justice. 
 His body was removed at midnight to the cita- 
 del of Corunna, wrapped in a military cloak 
 and blankets, and buried in a grave dug in the 
 ramparts. 
 
 MORAVIA. The present population of this 
 province of the Austrian empire, is 1,990,464. 
 Its history is briefly as follows. It was ancient- 
 ly named Quadia, and was part of the territory 
 of the Quadi and Marcomanni, for several cen- 
 turies the terror of the Roman frontier. Not- 
 withstanding the many checks they received 
 
 from the Romans and their barbarian neighbors,, 
 these tribes maintained their independence till 
 they were overpowered by Attila, in the fifth 
 century. The Sclavonians next founded a 
 republic here, and maintained a precarious inde- 
 pendence, till Swatopluk united the whole of 
 the Sclavonic, republics, and founded the king- 
 dom of Moravia ; which comprehended Bohe- 
 mia, Lusatia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, 
 Dalmatia, &c. 
 
 On the death of this prince, in 894, his pos- 
 sessions were divided among his three sons, 
 but dissensions arising among them, the Boii, 
 or ancestors of the Bohemians, conquered part 
 of them, and threatened the rest. In a short 
 time, the Magyars, or invaders of Hungary r 
 completely defeated the Moravians in 907, and 
 thus crushed their independence. This fertile 
 country, after being almost reduced to a desert, 
 was seized on by the Dukes of Bohemia, who 
 kept it till 1182, when it again became a sepa- 
 rate government, and was erected into a mar- 
 quisate. Moravia next fell into the hands of 
 the Hungarians, but their internal troubles soon 
 obliged them to relinquish their valuable acqui- 
 sition. 
 
 Moravia for a time resumed its independence, 
 but after various changes, became again subject 
 to the kings of Bohemia ; and in 1527, Moravia 
 was added to the possessions of the house of 
 Austria, and has since been subject to the same 
 sovereign. 
 
 MORE, Sir Thomas, Chancellor of Eng- 
 land, was the son of Sir John More, one of the 
 judges of the King's Bench, and was born in 
 London, in 1480. He was educated in the family 
 of Cardinal Morton, archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 and at the age of 21 , he obtained a seat in par- 
 liament, where he opposed a subsidy demanded 
 by Henry VII with such spirit, as incurred the 
 resentment of the king, who avenged himself on 
 the judge his father, by causing him to be fined 
 and imprisoned. When admitted to the bar, 
 More delivered a lecture in the church of St. 
 Lawrence, Jewry, on part of St. Augustin's 
 works, and the reputation he thereby acquired 
 procured him to be chosen law-reader in Fur- 
 nival's Inns. In 1508, he was made judge of 
 the sheriffs court, and justice of peace. 
 
 Henry VIII delighted in the conversation of 
 More, and conferred upon him the honor of 
 knighthood; besides which he made him treas- 
 urer of the exchequer. Sir Thomas assisted the 
 monarch in his hook against Luther, and he 
 afterwards defended it in a very able treatise. 
 In 1523, he was chosen speaker of the House of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MOR 
 
 349 
 
 MOR 
 
 Commons ; and in 1530, he succeeded Wolsey 
 as lord chancellor, which office he discharged 
 three years with scrupulous integrity. Find- 
 ing, however, that the affair of the king's di- 
 vorce, to which he was adverse, would involve 
 him in difficulties, he resigned the seals, and 
 thereby provoked the anger of Henry, who was 
 still more irritated by his refusal to attend the 
 coronation of Ann Boleyri. 
 
 An attempt was made to implicate him in the 
 practices of Elizabeth Barton ; and, though this 
 failed, he was committed to the Tower, for re- 
 fusing the oath of supremacy. After an impris- 
 onment of twelve months, he was brought to 
 his trial in the court of King's Bench, where, 
 notwithstanding his eloquent defence, he was 
 found guilty of treason, and sentenced to be 
 beheaded. His behavior, in the interval, cor- 
 responded with the uniform tenor of his life ; 
 and, on July 6, 1535, he ascended the scaffold, 
 with his characteristic pleasantry, saying to the 
 lieutenant of the Tower, " I pray you, see me. 
 safe up ; and as for my coming down, you may 
 let me shift for myself." In the same spirit, 
 when he laid his head on the block, he told the 
 executioner to wait till he had removed his 
 beard, " For that," said he, " hath committed 
 no treason." Thus fell this illustrious English- 
 man, whose learning and virtue entitled him to 
 a better fate. 
 
 MOREAU, Victor, a French general, who 
 gained great advantage over the Austrians 
 under Kray at Mosskirk; and, notwithstanding 
 their gallant exertions, compelled them to re- 
 treat witli considerable loss. The subsequent 
 actions of Bibberach and Memmingen proved 
 equally unfortunate to the Austrians. Moreau, 
 after signalizing himself in many celebrated 
 victories, and in many masterly and successful 
 military operations on the frontiers of Italy and 
 Germany in the campaigns of 179(3 and 1799, 
 invaded Germany in 1800. Here, in co-opera- 
 tion with Bonaparte, he resumed an offensive 
 campaign. He took possession of Munich, and 
 laid the Bavarian territories and the duchy of 
 Wirtemberg under heavy contributions. 
 
 The emperor of Austria now judged it expe- 
 dient to sue for an armistice ; which Moreau 
 granted on the 14th of July. The armistice 
 expired in the November following ; and Mo- 
 reau, on the 3d of December, gained the deci- 
 sive victory of Hohenlinden. By a turn of 
 circumstances Moreau is found in 1813 in alli- 
 ance with Bernadotte, his early companion in 
 arms, who commanded the army of the north in 
 Germany against Napoleon. On the 28th of 
 
 August, Napoleon came out of Dresden with 
 130,000 men to attack the allies, having de- 
 tached a force, under Vandarixme, to seize the 
 passes in their rear. In the assault on the pre- 
 ceding day, Napoleon observed Moreau con- 
 versing with the emperor Alexander and some 
 other officers. Turning to a cannoneer, and 
 pointing out the object of his displeasure, he 
 said: "Send a dozen balls upon that man i w 
 The officers obeyed. A ball struck Moreau, 
 shattering both his legs and tearing open the 
 belly of his horse. He bore the amputation of 
 both limbs with great firmness, and was carried 
 in a litter, formed by the lances of the Cossacks 
 to Toplite, where he expired. 
 
 MORGAN, Daniel, a revolutionary officer, 
 was born in New Jersey, but removed to Vir- 
 ginia in 1755. He rose to the rank of brigadier- 
 general. His riflemen rendered themselves 
 formidable to the British throughout the strug- 
 gle. Morgan died in 1799. 
 
 MOROCCO, a large kingdom of Africa, and 
 the chief of the Barbary states. Population, 
 6,000,000. It was formerly called Mauritania, 
 and was then occupied by a hardy Nomadic 
 race. It afterwards yielded to the Saracens; 
 and, in the eleventh century, a chief of, Lami- 
 tuna assumed the character of a reformer of 
 the Mahometan religion, and assembled all the 
 neighboring tribes under his standard. His fol- 
 lowers, called Almoravides, conquered Morocco, 
 and even Barbary and Spain, thus establishing 
 a vast empire entitled that of Mohgreb, or the 
 West. In the following century they were 
 supplanted by the Almohades ; and in .1557, an 
 Arabian chief, one of the descendants of Maho- 
 met, ascended the throne, which his posteritj 
 have since occupied. 
 
 MORTON, (Earl of), was a chief actor in 
 the transactions of the reign of Mary, and in 
 the minority of James VI of Scotland. He 
 joined in the murder of Rizzio, and after the 
 death of King Darnley assisted to expel Mary 
 from the throne. In 1572 he was elected Re- 
 gent, and in 1581 he was beheaded at Edin- 
 burg. 
 
 MORTON, John, born in Pennsylvania; in 
 the congress of 1776 he gave the casting vote 
 in the Pennsylvania delegation in favor of the 
 Declaration of Independence, and signed the 
 document. He died in 1777. 
 
 MORRIS, Gouverneur, was born at Morris- 
 ania in New York, Jan. 31 , 1752. He gradu- 
 ated at the college in the city of New York in 
 his sixteenth year, and immediately commenced 
 the study of law. At the age of seventeen he 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MOR 
 
 350 
 
 MOS 
 
 assumed his pen and commenced his career as 
 a political writer. Mr. Morris was chosen a 
 member of the first provincial congress. He 
 was twice elected a member of congress by the 
 legislature of N. York. In 1780 he established 
 himself in Philadelphia in the practice of the 
 law. In this year, he was thrown from his car- 
 riage, and his leg was so severely injured that 
 it was necessary to perform amputation, an op- 
 eration which he bore with great fortitude. In 
 1781 he was appointed assistant financier, and 
 performed the duties of his office with ability 
 for three years. He was a member of the con- 
 vention which met in 1787 for the purpose of 
 framing a constitution for the United States. In 
 1790, Mr. Morris, being then in France, re- 
 ceived credentials from General Washington 
 as a private agent for transacting important 
 business with the British ministry. He pro- 
 ceeded to London but soon returned to Paris 
 without having effected anything. He returned 
 to America in 1798. Here he served some 
 years in the senate of the United States. He 
 married in 1809, a daugher of Thomas Randolph 
 of Virginia, and died Nov. 6th, 1816, aged 65. 
 
 Mr. Sparks, in his interesting life of Morris, 
 thus delineates his moral qualities : His acute 
 powers of mind, a thorough consciousness of 
 his own strength, and his quick sense of the 
 ridiculous, joined to a lofty independence of 
 thought, often betrayed him into a forwardness 
 of manner, a license of expression, and an in- 
 dulgence of his humor, little suited to soothe 
 the pride, or flatter the vanity, or foster the 
 self-love of those about him. He might dazzle 
 by his genius, surprise by his novel flights of 
 fancy, amuse by his wit, and confound by his 
 arguments, and thus extort the tribute of admi- 
 ration, but fail in gaining the willing applause 
 of love. No man was better acquainted with 
 the forms and etiquette of society, none had 
 moved more widely in the circles of" fashion and 
 rank, or examined with a keener scrutiny the 
 deep fountains of the human passions, or knew 
 better how to touch the springs of men's mo- 
 tives, yet this rare intuition, this more rare ex- 
 perience, and this great knowledge, did little 
 towards modifying the tendencies of his nature, 
 or diverting the first bent of his mind. He was 
 sometimes overbearing in conversation. At 
 any rate, when he spoke he expected to be heard. 
 There is an anecdote illustrative of this point. 
 At a breakfast-table, he was in close conversation 
 with a gentleman, to whose harangue he had 
 listened patiently, till it was his turn to reply. 
 
 He began accordingly, but the gentleman was 
 inattentive, and a bad listener. "Sir," said 
 Mr. Morris, " if you will not listen to my argu- 
 ment, I will address myself to the teapot," and 
 went on with much animation of tone and ges- 
 ture, till he had finished his replication. 
 
 But this defect, after all, was only a spot on 
 the surface. *****Justice, truth, charity, honor, 
 held an uncontrolled 'empire in his soul, and 
 never lost their influence or authority. 
 
 MOSCOW, an extensive city of Russia in 
 Europe, founded in the middle of the 12th cen- 
 tury. Present population, 246,545. In 1382 
 it was besieged by Tamerlane, and it soon fell 
 into the hands of the Tartars, who again attack- 
 ed it in 1571. They burnt. the city; but it was 
 afterwards rebuilt, and was for a century and 
 a half the capital of the empire, and the resi- 
 dence of the court till 1700. 
 
 In September, 1812, the memorable confla- 
 gration took place, by which three-fourths of 
 the city was consumed. The general plan of 
 the campaign in the war with the French was 
 to abandon and destroy ; in August and Septem- 
 ber, when the French continued to advance, 
 and it was thought impossible to check their 
 progress, Count Rostopchin forewarned the in- 
 habitants of the sacrifices they would be called 
 on to make. The churches and the treasury 
 were stripped of their ornaments ; the persons 
 belonging to the public establishments were re- 
 moved to Kasan, and barks, laden with corn, 
 were sunk in the Moskva, to prevent their fall 
 ing into the hands of the enemy. The decisive 
 battle of Borodino was fought on the 8th of Sep- 
 tember, about 70 miles from Moscow, and the 
 hospitals were soon filled with wounded. On 
 the news of the retreat of the Russian army, a 
 general movement took place in Moscow. 
 
 On the 13th of September the enemy drew 
 near, and the mass of the population of Moscow 
 fled into the surrounding country. On the 14th 
 the French entered the city, and that night a 
 fire broke out, which was soon got under. On 
 the 15th fires burst forth from the shops ; and 
 on the following night a general conflagration 
 took place, explosions in different places, and 
 fagots thrown from towers, showed that means 
 were employed to spread destruction in ev*»ry 
 quarter. During the next da} r smoke rolled in 
 thick clouds over the town, and at night a vast 
 globe of flame illuminated the atmosphere sev- 
 eral leagues round. The conflagration waa 
 rapidly spread by a violent wind, the building* 
 fell in with a tremendous crash, and the immense 
 stones, calcined and blackened, only remained 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MUC 
 
 351 
 
 MUR 
 
 to denote their site. The French sentinels 
 were, however, unable to detect the incendiaries; 
 several stragglers were arrested, tried, and shot, 
 — but all the men taken in attempting to spread 
 the flames, declared they had acted under the 
 direction of Rostopchin and the director of po- 
 lice. The French officers, on finding it imprac- 
 ticable to extinguish the flames, authorized a 
 systematic pillage. The plunder was immense ; 
 but the greater part was abandoned in the dis- 
 astrous retreat. The fire raged till the 19th: 
 Bonaparte now remained at Moscow a month, 
 in the hope of prevailing on the Russians to 
 conclude a peace. Baffled in this attempt, he 
 quitted the city on the 18th of October. The 
 young guard, which formed the garrison left 
 by Bonaparte, intrenched itself in the Kremlin; 
 and, having undermined part of the walls and 
 interior buildings, blew them up on the 23d 
 October, the day of the final evacuation. The 
 rebuilding of the city proceeded but slowly till 
 1814, when the greatest exertions were made ; 
 and by the beginning of 1818 the new city 
 seemed to have risen from the ruins, — and by 
 the end of that year the whole was completed. 
 — (See Russia.) 
 
 MOSES, a celebrated legislator and general 
 among the Jews, well known in sacred history. 
 He was born in Egypt 1571, B C, he conducted 
 the Israelites through the Red Sea, and gave 
 them laws and ordinances, during their pere- 
 grination of 40 years in the wilderness of Arabia. 
 He died at the age of 120. 
 
 MOULTRIE, William, major-general in our 
 revolution, came to South Carolina from England 
 at an early age. He served against the Indians 
 prior to 1775, and, during the revolution dis- 
 tinguished himself at Charleston, Beaufort, 
 Stono, and Sullivan's island, the fort of which 
 was named after him. He died at Charleston, 
 Sept. 27, 1805. 
 
 MUCIUS, Scaevola, (the left-handed), Cains 
 Mucius Cordus. When Porsenna, king of 
 Etruria, had besieged Rome to reinstate Tar- 
 quin in all his rights and privileges, Mucius 
 determined to deliver his country from so dan- 
 gerous an enemy. He disguised himself in the 
 habit of a Tuscan, and as he could speak the 
 language fluently, he gained an easy introduc- 
 tion into the camp, and soon into the royal 
 tent. Porsenna sat alone with his secretary 
 when Mucius entered. The Roman rushed 
 upon the secretary and stabbed him to the 
 heart, mistaking him for his royal master. This 
 occasioned a noise, and Mucius, unable to es- 
 cape, was seized and brought before the king. 
 30* 
 
 He gave no answer to the inquiries of the 
 courtiers, and only told them that he was a Ro- 
 man, and to give them a proof of his fortitude, 
 he laid his right hand on an altar of burning 
 coals, and sternly looking at the king, and with- 
 out uttering a groan, he boldly told him, thai 
 300 young Romans like himself, had conspired 
 against his life, and entered the camp in dis- 
 guise, determined either to destroy him or per- 
 ish in the attempt. This extraordinary confes- 
 sion astonished Porsenna ; he made peace with 
 the Romans and retired from their city. Mu- 
 cius obtained the surname of Saevola, because 
 he had lost the use of his right hand by burning 
 it in the presence of the Etrurian king. 
 
 MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, contains 
 80,000 inhabitants. It surrendered to the Swedes 
 and German Protestants, under Gustavus Ado! 
 phus, in 1632; in 1704, it fell into the hands ot 
 the Austrians. In 1741 it shared the vicissitudes 
 of the war, and in 1796, the French army under 
 Moreau, obliged the elector to make a separate 
 treaty. In 1800 Moreau again occupied Bava- 
 ria, and secured his superiority by the victory 
 of Hohenlinden ; and from that time, to 1813, 
 Bavaria remained in alliance with the French. 
 
 MURAT, an officer of Napoleon's army, cre- 
 ated grand duke of Berg and Cleves in 1806, was 
 the son of a pastry-cook, and was born at Achers 
 in 1771. At a very early age he was a fine 
 horseman, and fond of military exercises. It is 
 not surprising, therefore, that he escaped from 
 the convent where he was placed to study the- 
 ology, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons. 
 His merit raised him from the ranks and he 
 fought under Napoleon throughout his career. 
 On the elevation of Joseph to the Spanish throne, 
 in 1809, Bonaparte transferred the crown or 
 Naples to Murat, his brother-in-law. In Dec. 
 1812, Murat was appointed to the chief command 
 of the French army at Wilna, after their mem- 
 orable but ill-fated retreat from Moscow. In 
 1814 Murat joined the alliance against France 
 by opening his ports to the English, and engag- 
 ing to assist Austria with an army of 30,000 
 men. In 1815 Murat, by an enterprise against 
 the Austrians in Italy, had lost the crown of 
 Naples. When the expedition from Elba reach- 
 ed France, he assembled his cabinet, and de- 
 clared his resolution to support the allies ; but 
 on learning that Bonaparte had entered Lyons, 
 he demanded leave of the pope to march a force 
 through his territories. Pius the VII refused : 
 on which two Neapolitan divisions penetrated 
 to Rome, and his holiness, hastily retiring^ 
 placed himself under the protection of the Eng- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MUR 
 
 352 
 
 NAM 
 
 lish at Genoa. Murat himself advanced to An- 
 cona, and his army marched in four columns 
 on the routes of Bologna, Modena, Reggio, and 
 Ferrara, while a fifth division drove the Austrian 
 ganisons from Cesena and Rimini. Haras^nd 
 on all sides oy the British and Austrian forces, 
 and having in vain solicited an armistice, he 
 attacked Bianchi, near Tolentino, in which 
 contest his army was totally ruined. After a 
 disastrous retreat of ten days, he found, on 
 approaching Naples, that the inhabitants had 
 declared for the King of Sicily wherever the 
 Austrians appeared ; that Colonel Church was 
 raising against him an army of his late subjects ; 
 and that every thing, in short, was going against 
 him. Leaving his followers, who were now 
 reduced to 4000 men, he hastened to Naples, and 
 arrived at the palace, exhausted with fatigue. 
 He escaped in disguise with a few adherents to 
 the Isle of lschia, and embarking thence for 
 France, landed on the 25th of May at Cannes. 
 Murat, after the battle of Waterloo, made his 
 retreat in an open boat to Corsica. In Septem- 
 ber, proposals were made to Joachim, that he 
 should assume the name of a private person, 
 that he should choose his abode either in Bohe- 
 mia, Moravia, or Upper Austria ; and that he 
 should engage not to quit those states without 
 the consent of the emperor. He rejected this 
 overture, and undertook, in imitation of Bona- 
 parte, an expedition for the recovery of his 
 kingdom. When he landed at Pizzo on the 8th 
 of October, he could only muster about 30 offi- 
 cers. Thus disappointed he proceeded to Mon- 
 teleone. He was overtaken half-way by a very 
 strong party, and after fighting desperately, 
 broke through his pursuers, and hastened to the 
 beach, where he was seized and conveyed be- 
 fore General Nanziante the commandant of Ca- 
 labria. On the 15th, pursuant to orders from 
 Naples, he was tried by court-martial, and found 
 guilty of having attempted to excite rebellion 
 and civil war ; sentence of death was pronounced 
 upon him, and executed on the same day. 
 
 MURRAY, Alexander, was born at Chester- 
 town, Maryland, in 1755. At the age of 18 he 
 commanded a merchant-vessel. At 21 he was 
 appointed a lieutenant in the navy, but fouglit 
 on shore, until he could obtain a vessel. He 
 commanded several letters of marque during 
 the revolutionary struggle, and served some 
 time under Barry. When in command of the 
 Constellation he beat off some Tripolitan gun- 
 boats with great spirit and success. His last 
 appointment was to the post of commandant 
 of the navy-yard at Philadelphia. He died, 
 Oct. 6, 1821. 
 
 MURRAY, (Earl of), was the natural son 
 of James V, King of Scotland. He was a pow- 
 erful supporter of the reformation. After the 
 return of Mary from France, he administered 
 her affairs until her marriage with Darnley, 
 which he opposed by force of arms, and was 
 obliged to flee into England. After the murder 
 of Rizzio, he was again restored to favor. He 
 went abroad to France on the murder of Darn- 
 ley in 1500, and returned on being elected re- 
 gent by his party. This election was confirmed 
 by parliament, and he soon established his au- 
 thority. Mary, escaping from Lochleven Cas- 
 tle, collected her friends, who were defeated at 
 Langside, near Glasgow, and she was compelled 
 to flee into England in 1508. He was support- 
 ed by the alliance of queen Elizabeth. In 1569, 
 he was murdered by Hamilton, a partisan of 
 Mary, whose life he had spared. He dispensed 
 justice with so much impartiality; repressed the 
 licentious borderers with so much courage, 
 maintained religion, and established such order 
 and tranquillity in the country, that his admin- 
 istration was extremely popular, and he was 
 long and affectionately remembered by the name 
 of the " Good Regent." 
 
 N. 
 
 NADIR SHAH, (see Persia.) 
 
 NAMUR, a province of Belgium. The soil 
 is remarkably fertile, and the earth yields many 
 valuable minerals. The city of Namur, the cap- 
 ital, is situated at the junction of the Sambre 
 and Meuse, 28 miles from Brussels, and con- 
 tains 19,150 inhabitants. In 1092, the strength 
 of the place being discovered to the French by 
 the treacherous Baron de Bresse, who, under 
 pretence of being taken, deserted the Spanish 
 service, Louis XIV, with 80,000 men besieged 
 it : the town was taken after a few days resist- 
 ance. While the French continued to besiege 
 the castle, King William III, of Great Britain, 
 marched, with 100.000 men to its relief: but 
 the French, being advantageously posted, de- 
 clined battle. His majesty, however, drove 
 them from their posts, and attempted to pass the 
 river by means of bridges ; but, in the mean 
 time, a great rain swelled the river, carried 
 down the bridges, prevented his attacking them, 
 and gave them an opportunity to take the cas- 
 tle, which made but a feeble defence : the great- 
 est loss of the French was at Coehorn Fort, 
 which was valiantly defended by Colonel Coe- 
 horn, its founder and governor, who was danger- 
 ously wounded. The fort was surrendered, and 
 the castle not long after, but were retaken 1G95. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 NAP 
 
 353 
 
 NAP 
 
 NAN-KING, or Nankin, or Kiang-ning, a 
 Chinese city, capital of Kiang-nan, 50ll miles S. 
 E. of Peking. It was formerly the imperial 
 city, and one of the largest in the world, being 
 12 leagues in circuit. In 1045 its magnificent 
 palace was destroyed by the Mantchou Tartars. 
 Its principal ornament, the celebrated porcelain 
 tower, was built 1411, A. D. 
 
 NANTES, a city of France, capital of the 
 department of the Lower Loire, pleasantly sit- 
 uated on the Loire, 26 miles from the Atlantic. 
 Population 71,739. Its manufactures are exten- 
 sive, and its public institutions important. In 
 history it is celebrated for the act called the 
 Edict of Nantes, which was passed by Henry 
 IV, by which the Protestants enjoyed toleration 
 in France, 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV 
 in 1685 ; by which bad policy 50,000 French 
 Protestants were induced to quit France, and 
 seek refuge in England. 
 
 NAPLES, the capital and royal residence of 
 the Two Sicilies, in Terra di Lavoro, containing 
 361,754 inhabitants, is charmingly situated on 
 the brink of the most beautiful bay in the world, 
 a scene on which is thus eloquently described 
 by a recent traveller. 
 
 It is evening and scarcely a breeze ruffles the 
 bosom of the beautiful bay, which resembles a 
 mirror reflecting on its glassy surface the bright 
 sky and the thousand glittering stars with which 
 it isstudded. Naples, with its white colonnades, 
 seen amidst the dark foliage of its terraced gar- 
 dens, rises like an amphitheatre ; lights stream 
 from the windows, and fall over the sea beneath 
 like columns of gold. The castle of St. Elmo 
 crowning the centre ; Vesuvius, like a sleeping 
 giant in grim repose, whose awaking all dread, 
 is to the left ; and to the right are the vine- 
 crowned heights of beautiful Varmero, with 
 their palaces and villas peeping forth from the 
 groves that surround them ; while rising above 
 it, the convent of Camaldoli lilts its head to the 
 skies. 
 
 Resina, Portici, Castel-a-Mare, and the lovely 
 shores of Sorrento, reach out from Vesuvius, as 
 if they tried to embrace the isle of Capri, which 
 forms the central object ; and Pausihppo and 
 Misenum, which in the distance seemed joined 
 to Procidaand Ischia, advance to meet the beau- 
 tiful island on the right. The air as it leaves 
 the shore, is laden with fragrance from the 
 orange-trees and jasmine, so abundant round 
 Naples ; and the soft music of the guitar, or 
 lively sound of the tambourine, marking the 
 brisk movements of the tarantella, steals on the 
 ear. But hark ! a rich stream of music, silenc- 
 
 ing all other, is heard, and a golden barge ad- 
 vances; the oars keep time to the music, and 
 each stroke of them sends forth a silvery light; 
 numerous lamps attached to the boat, gives it at 
 a little distance, the appearance of a vast shell 
 of topaz floating on a sea of sapphire. Nearer 
 and nearer draws this splendid pageant, the 
 music falls more distinctly on the charmed ear 
 — and one sees that its dulcet sounds are pro- 
 duced by a band of glittering musicians clothed 
 in royal liveries. 
 
 This illuminated barge is followed by another, 
 with a silken canopy overhead, and the curtains 
 drawn back to admit the balmy air. Cleopatra, 
 when she sailed down the Cydnus, boasted not 
 a more beautiful vessel ; and, as it glides over 
 the sea, it seems impelled by the music which 
 precedes it, so perfectly does it keep time to its 
 enchanting sounds, leaving a bright trace be- 
 hind, like the memory of departed happiness. 
 But who is he that guides this beauteous bark ? 
 His tall and slight figure is curved, and his 
 snowy locks, falling over ruddy cheeks, show 
 that age has bent, but not broken him : he looks 
 like one born to command — a hoary Neptune 
 steering over his native element — all eyes are 
 fixed on him, but his follow the glittering barge 
 that precedes him. And who is she that has 
 the seat of honor at his side ? Her fair, large, 
 and unmeaning face wears a placid smile ; and 
 those liffht blue eyes and fair ringlets speak her 
 of another land ; her lips, too, want the fine 
 chiseling which marks those of the sunny clime 
 of Italy ; and the expression of her countenance 
 has more in it of earth than heaven. Innume- 
 rable boats, filled with lords and ladies, follow, 
 but intrude not on the privacy of this regal bark, 
 which passes before us like the visions in a 
 dream. He w r ho steered was Ferdinand, king 
 of the two Sicilies; and she who sat beside him 
 was Maria- Louisa, ex-empress of France. 
 
 The climate of Naples is delightful, and such 
 of the lazzaroni as are unable to procure shelter 
 experience no painful results from sleeping in 
 the open air. The nobles are opulent and lux- 
 urious, and a love of pleasure pervades alike all 
 classes. The necessaries of life are easily ob- 
 tained, and the poor lazzaroni, of whom there 
 are 30,000, lay by enough money to enable them 
 to witness the cheap amusements of their city. 
 During the government of Pandulph II, as 
 Prince of Benevento, A.D. 1003, the Normans 
 first arrived in Italy, and established themselves 
 in this country ; Landulph V, the son of Pan- 
 dulph, was expelled from the government by 
 Richard I, the Norman Count of Aversa, who 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NAP 
 
 354 
 
 NAP 
 
 caused himself to be proclaimed Prince of Ben- 
 evenlo. Thus the dominion of the Lombards 
 in this principality terminated in A. D. 1059. — 
 Richard was succeeded in the government of 
 Benevento by Jordanus, Richard II, Robert, 
 Richard III, Jordanus II, Robert II, and Roger, 
 who assumed the title of king, and obtained the 
 investiture of the dukedom of Naples. Some 
 years after, Roger having taken Pope Innocent 
 prisoner, obliged his holiness to confirm to him 
 the title of king. 
 
 To him succeeded William in 1154, William 
 II in 1166, Tancred, Count of Lecce, in 1190, 
 Frederick in 1208, who enlarged and embel- 
 lislied the city of Naples, which he made the 
 chief place of his residence ; and Conrad in 1250. 
 Four years after Conrad died, and was succeed- 
 ed by Conradin, whose army was attacked and 
 dispersed by Manfred. In 1253 Manfred as- 
 sumed the crown of Sicily ; and in 1266 was 
 defeated and slain by the army of Charles of 
 Anjou, on whom Pope Urban had conferred the 
 title of king. Soon after Conradin laid claim 
 to Sicily, and marched with an army into Italy, 
 but was entirely defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Charles, who caused him and the Duke of Aus- 
 tria to be publicly beheaded upon a scaffold in 
 the market-place of Naples, A. D. 1269. 
 
 Charles, by his arbitrary and oppressive gov- 
 ernment, so entirely lost the affections of the 
 Sicilians, that they offered their allegiance to 
 Peter, king of Arragon, who was soon after 
 crowned at Palermo, and from this period the 
 history of Naples is one unvaried and uninter- 
 esting detail of similar scenes of war and inva- 
 sion, during nearly the space of two hundred 
 years. 
 
 At length, after a long separation, Alphonso 
 of Arragon united both Sicily and Naples under 
 his dominion. Upon the death of Ferdinand, 
 Charles V succeeded to Naples, as well as to 
 the rest of the Spanish monarchy. During his 
 reign, and that of his successors Philip II, 
 Philip III, and Philip IV, this country was 
 governed by the Viceroys of Spain, and suffered 
 
 f really from their oppression. On the death of 
 hilip IV, A. D. 1664, Charles II succeeded to 
 the crown of Spain, and adopted Philip of An- 
 jou, afterwards Philip V, as the heir of all his 
 dominions. 
 
 In 1700 Philip succeeded to the crown of Na- 
 ples and Sicily ; but his title was opposed by 
 the house of Austria, and a conspiracy procured 
 the government of Naples for Charles II, son 
 of the emperor Leopold. However, by the con- 
 ditions of the general peace, Naples again owned 
 
 the sway of Philip in 1719 ; hut Sicily was given 
 to the duke of Savoy. Some years after, the 
 emperor, Charles VI, again seized upon Naples, 
 and by cession obtained also Sicily. He con- 
 tinued to reign over them for several years, till 
 Don Carlos, being vested with the rights of his 
 father, who was yet alive, conquered these two 
 kingdoms in 1734, and fixed the seat of his gov- 
 ernment among his subjects. 
 
 Don Cailos changed the face of his kingdoms, 
 which, on his taking possession of the crown of 
 Spain, he left in a flourishing condition to his 
 son Ferdinand IV, in 1759. 
 
 In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from Na- 
 ples, and were all conveyed into the pope's do- 
 minions, the vicinity of whose territories ren- 
 dered every scheme of opposition fruitless. 
 During the invasion of Italy by the French, 
 after some immaterial hostilities, a suspension 
 of arms was agreed to between the king of Na- 
 ples and the republican commander in 17 ( J0; 
 and soon after a peace was concluded between 
 the two powers, Naples being required to pay a 
 sum of eight millions, either in money or in na- 
 val stores. 
 
 In 17 V J8 the king of Naples commenced hos- 
 tilities against the French, attacked the new 
 Roman republic, and entered Rome in triumph; 
 but, in the year following, he was obliged to 
 conclude an armistice with the enemy on very 
 hard conditions. Naples was reduced under the 
 power of the French in 1799, who constituted it 
 a republic, and established a provisionary gov- 
 ernment. However, a few months afterwards, 
 the great successes of the Austro-Russian army 
 forced the French to evacuate Naples; and, by 
 the aid of the English, the king of the Two 
 Sicilies, who had hoisted his flag on board the 
 Foudroyant, the English admiral's ship, was en- 
 abled to return once more to his capital. But 
 the victory of Bonaparte at Marengo, and the 
 conditions of the treaty of Luneville gave the 
 French a great ascendency in Italy. 
 
 In 1805 Bonaparte issued a proclamation, de- 
 claring that the Neapolitan dynasty had ceased 
 to reign, and ordered his troops to subject the 
 ichole of Italy to his laws or those of his allies. 
 In consequence of this, a French army, under 
 the command of Joseph Bonaparte, entered Na- 
 ples, and occupied all the principal fortresses in 
 the kingdom. The king of Naples and the 
 royal family were obliged to seek an asylum in 
 Sicily. Under the prince of Hesse, Gaeta made 
 a long and memorable defence against the 
 French troops; and was taken only in conse- 
 quence of that commander being badly wound- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NAP 
 
 355 
 
 NAP 
 
 ed, and some of his officers proving treacherous. 
 On the translation of Joseph Bonaparte to the 
 throne of Spain, in 1808, Joachim Murat, who 
 had married a sister of Napoleon, was nominat- 
 ed to the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 After an extraordinary career, in which some 
 of the martial talents and vigor of Murat were 
 displayed, but were ill seconded by his troops, 
 Naples was invested by land, whilst an English 
 naval force entered its port, and compelled a 
 surrender of the ships and arsenal. The Nea- 
 politan commanders, and those of Austria and 
 England, signed a convention, of which the 
 prominent feature was the abdication of Joa- 
 chim. Naples was occupied by the allies, who 
 were joined by an armament of English and 
 Sicilians ; and Ferdinand IV, king of the Two 
 Sicilies, after an absence of nine years, was re- 
 stored in 1815. 
 
 Naples has suffered, at different periods, from 
 earthquakes and eruptions of Vesuvius. 
 
 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, one of the 
 most extraordinary characters recorded in his- 
 tory, and distinguished alike for his extraordi- 
 nary fortunes, his civil talents, and his military 
 genius, was one of the numerous family of an 
 advocate of Ajaccio, in Corsica, and was born 
 there August 15, 1769. After receiving the 
 rudiments of a classical education, he entered 
 the military school at Brienne where he was 
 distinguished by the gravity of his character, 
 and his sedulous study of the mathematics. 
 Even his sports partook of his graver pursuits, 
 and we are told that he was successful in the 
 little military operations which he undertook. 
 On the occurrence of a day which was com- 
 monly considered a holiday, Bonaparte's in- 
 structed confined him and his companions to 
 the school-grounds. The young engineer con- 
 structed a mine with great ingenuity , which, in 
 exploding, blew down the walls and enabled the 
 juvenile rebels to escape. When he could en- 
 list no young recruits in his mimic army, Na- 
 poleon would use flints as substitutes for sol- 
 diers, and marshal them with great care. A boy 
 who disturbed his array was severely punished 
 by Napoleon. Many years after when the im- 
 perial diadem was on his head, Napoleon was 
 informed that one of his old schoolmates desired 
 an interview. This genileman assured the 
 chamberlain that the emperor would recollect 
 him if he mentioned that there was a deep scar 
 on his forehead. When the emperor was in- 
 formed of this, he said, " I do not forget how he 
 got that scar — I threw a general at his head at 
 Brienne." 
 
 At sixteen he received the commission of 
 second lieutenant in the regiment of Lafere, 
 which he joined at Valence. At 20 he was pro 
 moted to a captaincy, and in December, 1793 
 obtained the command of the artillery in the at- 
 tack on Toulon, then occupied by the English, 
 and contributed by the originality of his plans 
 to the success of their operations. In 1794 he 
 was commandant of the artillery in the army of 
 Italy, and so much distinguished himself, that 
 in May 1795, he was made general of infantry. 
 In 1795 when some of the sections of Paris rose 
 in insurrection against the convention, the com- 
 mand of the conventional troops was entrusted 
 to him and he gained a complete victory. He 
 was at that time very thin, although distin- 
 guished for corpulency in the latter part of his 
 life. On one occasion he gained a bloodless 
 victory over the rabble whose exertions were 
 stimulated by a very fat old woman. " There," 
 cried she, " look at the soldiers ! they 're the 
 wretches thatfatten in idleness while we starve " 
 " Look at her and look at me," said Napoleon, 
 " and tell us which is the fattest." This raised 
 a laugh, and the populace dispersed quietly. 
 On this, as on many other occasions, his know 
 ledge of human nature was apparent. In his 
 twenty-sixth year, Napoleon was appointed 
 commander-in chief of the army of Italy, and 
 commenced his brilliant operations in that ca 
 pacity, in April, 17U0. He successively defeat 
 ed the Austrians and Piedmontese at Monte 
 notte, Millesimo, Mondovi, and Lodi ; forcing 
 the king of Sardinia to make peace, and over- 
 running Lombardy, the Venetian States, the 
 States of the Church, and Naples, in spite of 
 every exertion of the Austrians and their allies, 
 during which he gained a series of brilliant and 
 decisive victories, and compelled Austria in 
 1797, to make peace at Campo Formio. 
 
 In 1798 he took the command of the army 
 destined against Egypt, and on his passage from 
 Toulon, captured Malta. He afterwards landed 
 at Alexandria, and overran Egypt and Syria, 
 every where victorious except at Acre ; where, 
 for want of besieging artillery, he was repulsed 
 by Sir Sydney Smith. In Oct. 1799, the mis- 
 government of France, and the disasters which 
 had befallen the French troops, induced him to 
 return ; and being received as a savior by the 
 French nation, on the 9th of Nov. he effected a 
 revolution in Paris, and was proclaimed first 
 consul of the republic. After offers of peace to 
 the confederates which were rejected, he crossed 
 the Alps with an army of recruits, and in June 
 1800, gained the battle of Marengo and re-ac 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NAP 
 
 356 
 
 NAP 
 
 quired possession of Italy. A general peace 
 was the consequence. In 1802 he was elected 
 consul for life, and in May, 1804, he assumed 
 the title of Napoleon I, emperor of the French, 
 and in Dec. 2, was crowned at Paris by the 
 Pope. In March, 1805, he was declared king 
 of Italy, and in May crowned at Milan. He 
 had previously established his military order of 
 the Legion of Honor and distributed the crosses 
 which were the distinguishing badges. ' Of all 
 to whom the cross of the legion of honor was 
 tendered, Lafayette alone had the courage to 
 decline it. Napoleon, either from want of true 
 perception of moral greatness, or because the 
 detestable servility of returning emigrants had 
 taught him to think, there was no such thing as 
 honor or independence in man, exclaimed, when 
 they told him that Lafayette refused the decora- 
 tion, " What, will nothing satisfy that man, but 
 the chief command of the National Guard of the 
 Empire ?" Yes, much less abundantly satisfied 
 him ; — the quiet possession of the poor rem- 
 nants of his estate, enjoyed without sacrificing 
 his principles.' 
 
 In September, 1805, the confederacy of Eu- 
 ropean powers being renewed, he invaded Ger- 
 many, and at Ulm captured 30,000 Austrians. 
 In November, he entered Vienna, and on Dec. 
 2, gained the battle of Austerlitz, over the em- 
 perors of Russia and Austria, after which he 
 concluded peace with Austria, created the elec- 
 tors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg kings, and 
 made his elder brother, Joseph, king of Naples. 
 In October, 1806, he invaded Prussia, and on 
 the 3d of that month gained a decisive victory 
 at Jena and Auerstadt, by which the whole 
 Prussian monarchy, and Germany to the Baltic, 
 came under his authority. The " Man of Des- 
 tiny " had now filled Europe with the terror of 
 his name, the bare mention of which shook the 
 crowned heads of the oldest monarchies of the 
 continent with palsied apprehension. In vain 
 the dagger, the mine, and the bowl had been 
 prepared for him. His star had not yet begun 
 to decline from the zenith. Napoleon was al- 
 most miraculously preserved from poison. It is 
 well known that he was an inveterate snuff- 
 taker. When his mind was deeply engaged his 
 snuff-box was in constant requisition. He once 
 left his apartment for a few moments, and re- 
 turned to take his box from the mantel-piece. 
 He thought the snuff felt somewhat strangely, 
 and calling to a dog, that was lying near him, 
 administered a pinch. The poor animal soon 
 rolled over in the agonies of death ; and Napo- 
 leon thenceforth kept his snuff in his waistcoat 
 pockets which he had sheathed with tin. 
 
 November 20th, he promulgated at Berlin the 
 famous decree by which he proposed to exclude 
 the trade of Britain from all the ports of the 
 continent. In June, 1807, having overrun Po- 
 land, he totally defeated the emperor of Russia 
 at Eglan and Friedland, after which an inter- 
 view took place between them on a raft on the 
 Niemen, followed by the treaty of Tilsit. In 
 November of that year, he marched an army 
 into Lisbon, driving the Portuguese court to the 
 Brazils ; and on December 1, created his young- 
 er brother Jerome, king of "Westphalia. On 
 May 5, 1808, was concluded the treaty by which 
 Charles IV ceded to the emperor all his rights 
 in the crown of Spain. Joseph, brother of the 
 emperor, was proclaimed king of Spain, on the 
 6th of June. On the 27th of September, in the 
 same year, Napoleon had an amicable interview 
 with the emperor of Russia at Erfurt, and they 
 jointly proposed peace with England , which was 
 rejected. On the 29th of October, the emperor 
 departed from Paris and placed himself at the 
 head of the army in Spain, the right wing of 
 which pursued Sir John Moore to Corunna, 
 while he marched to Madrid and seated his bro- 
 ther on the Spanish throne ; but in the meantime, 
 the Austrians took the field ; Napoleon hastened 
 to oppose them, and gained successive victories 
 at Abensburg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon. On the 
 16th of December, 1809, he divorced the em 
 press Josephine, and on the 2d of April, 1810, 
 married Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria. 
 The 20th of March, 1811, was signalized by the 
 birth of his son who was crowned king of Rome 
 
 In 1812, he assembled a great army in Po- 
 land, and invaded Russia, and having at the 
 Borodino, and at Moskwa, gained two bloody 
 victories, he entered Moscow on the 14th of 
 September; that city, having been afterwards 
 burned by the Russians, became untenable, and 
 the French retreated for winter quarters towards 
 Poland, but an early and unusual frost setting 
 in during their march, they lost their horses, 
 were compelled to abandon their artillery, and 
 three fourths of the army perished or were made 
 prisoners. On this Napoleon returned to Paris, 
 and Poland and Prussia were occupied by the 
 Russians. 
 
 In April 1813, Napoleon again took the field 
 against the Prussians, and gained the victories 
 of Lutzen, Bantzen, and Wartzen ; but the Aus- 
 trians and Bavarians joined the confederacy 
 against him, and he was attacked at Leipsic by 
 the combined armies of the European nations ; 
 being forced to abandon that city with immense 
 loss, and retreat to Metz, thereby abandoning 
 his German conquests. In 1814, the confede 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 NAP 
 
 357 
 
 NAP 
 
 rates having passed the Rhine, penetrated, after 
 various battles, to Paris, which, being surren- 
 dered by marshals Marmont and Morlier, Na- 
 poleon concluded a treaty with the allies at 
 Fontainebleau, by which he agreed to retire to 
 the island of Elba, with provision for himself 
 and family. 
 
 In March, 1815, Napoleon embarked with 
 (500 of his guards and made a sudden descent in 
 Provence. On the 10th, he entered Lyons, on 
 the 20th, Paris in triumph. His banners flew 
 from steeple to steeple, until they finally waved 
 in the wind from the pinnacles of Notre Dame. 
 On the 1st of June, he held the meeting in the 
 Champ de Mai, and soon joined the army on 
 the Belgian frontier, where on the 16th, he de- 
 feated Blucher at Ligny with a loss of 22,000 
 men. On the 18th, was fought the bloody bat- 
 tle of Waterloo, in which the French army was 
 completely defeated. The following account of 
 the conduct of Napoleon at the battle of Water- 
 loo is from the journal of a French officer. 
 
 He has ruined us — he has destroyed France 
 and himself; — yet I love him still. It is im- 
 possible to be near him and not to love him : he 
 has so much greatness of soul — such majesty of 
 manner. He bewitches all minds ; approach 
 him with a thousand prejudices, and you quit 
 him filled with admiration : but then, his mad 
 ambition ! his ruinous infatuation ! his obstina- 
 cy without bounds ! Besides, he was wont to 
 set every thing upon a cast : his game was all 
 or nothing ! Even the battle of Waterloo might 
 have been retrieved, had he not charged with 
 the guard. This was the reserve of the army, 
 and should have been employed in covering his 
 retreat instead of attacking, but, with him, 
 whenever matters looked desperate, he resem- 
 bled a mad dog. He harangues the guard — he 
 puts himself at its head — it debouches rapidly — 
 it rushes upon the enemy. We are mowed 
 down by grape — we waver, — turn our backs — 
 and the rout is complete. A general disorgani- 
 zation of the army ensues, and Napoleon, re x 
 turned to himself, is cold as: a stone. The last 
 time I saw him was in returning from the 
 charge, when all was lost. My thigh had been 
 broken by a musket shot in advancing, and I 
 remained in the rear, extended on the ground. 
 Napoleon passed close to me ; his nose was 
 buried in his snuffbox, and his bridle fell loose- 
 ly on the neck of his horse, which was pacing 
 leisurely along. A Scotch regiment was ad- 
 vancing at the charge in the distance. The 
 Emperor was almost alone. Lallemande only 
 was with him. The latter still exclaimed, 
 
 " All is not lost, sire ; all is not lost ; — rally, 
 soldiers ! rally !" The Emperor replied not a 
 word. Lallemande recognises me in passing. 
 " What ails you, Raoul !" " My thigh is shat- 
 tered by a musket ball." " Poor devil, how I 
 pity you! how I pity you! Adieu — adieu!" 
 The emperor said not a word ! 
 
 " When, after the disaster at Waterloo, Na- 
 poleon came back in desperation to Paris, and 
 began to scatter dark hints of dissolving the 
 representatives Chamber, repeating at Paris the 
 catastrophe of Moscow, and thereby endeavor- 
 ing to rouse the people of France to one univer- 
 sal and frantic crusade of resistance, Lafayette 
 was the first to denounce the wild suggestion. 
 He proposed a series of resolutions, announcing 
 that the independence of the nation was threat- 
 ened, declaring the Chambers a permanent 
 body, and denouncing the instant penalties of 
 high treason against all attempts to dissolve it. 
 The same evening he proposed, in the secret 
 assembly of the council of state, the abdication 
 of Napoleon. The subject was again pressed 
 the following day ; but the voluntas act of the 
 emperor anticipated the decision." 
 
 On the 8th of July, the king returned to Pa- 
 ris, and on the 15th of July, Napoleon surren- 
 dered himself to the English at Rochefort. He 
 only asked permission to pass the remainder of 
 his days in England, under an assumed name, 
 and in a private character, but he was conveyed 
 to St. Helena, as a prisoner of state. A few 
 officers of his suite accompanied him. In the 
 island he was treated with great indignity and 
 meanness until his death which was the result 
 of an intestine disorder, and took place May 5, 
 1821. In his last moments, he was delirious, and 
 his last words — tete a" armce — proved that he 
 fancied himself, at the head of his troops, watch- 
 ing the fluctuating current of a battle. He was 
 buried in a little valley where a simple slab 
 marks the place of his repose. Two weeping 
 willow trees wave over it, and an iron railing 
 encircles that spot of ground which is so dear to 
 millions. 
 
 Napoleon, in person, was below the middle 
 size ; and, in the latter part of his life, quite 
 corpulent. His strait brown hair fell over a 
 broad high forehead ; his complexion was clear 
 olive, and his features regular and classical. An 
 air of subdued melancholy was the prevailing 
 characteristic of his countenance in repose ; but 
 he had the power of dismissing all expression 
 from his features, when he chose to baffle scru- 
 tiny. At such times the curious observer might 
 gaze upon his still grey eye and quiet lip with 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NAP 
 
 358 
 
 NAR 
 
 out finding any indication of the thoughts which 
 were passing within. 
 
 Napoleon was ambitious — and committed 
 some of the crimes to which ambition leads. 
 He drenched the sands of Egypt and the snows 
 of Russia, and the plains of Germany, and Italy, 
 and Spain, with the best blood of France and 
 the best of Europe :- yet he was not destitute 
 of the feelings of humanity, and, as he rode over 
 a field heaped with the dead and dying victims 
 of his ambition, his fine eye would fill with 
 tears. But feeling without repentance is of no 
 avail. Yet if Napoleon was lavish of the lives 
 of others, he was no less prodigal of his own ; 
 and often proved that he possessed a soldier's 
 soul, amidst the hottest fire of the enemy. If 
 he laid his grasp upon nations — 
 
 "Their ransom did the general coffers fill." 
 He often pardoned, but he never failed to re- 
 ward. It was thus that he attached his soldiers 
 to him with indissoluble bonds. A thousand 
 proofs may be given of their attachment to their 
 emperor. At Waterloo, one man was seen, 
 whose left arm was shattered by a cannon ball, 
 to wrench it off with the other, and throwing it 
 up in the air, he exclaimed to his comrades, 
 Five rempereur, jusqu'a la mort ! When he 
 took his final farewell of France, all wept, but 
 particularly Savary, and a Polish officer who 
 had been exalted from the ranks by Bonaparte. 
 He clung to his master's knees : wrote a letter 
 to Lord Keith, entreated permission to accom- 
 pany him, even in the most menial capacity, 
 which could not be admitted. 
 
 With men like these to follow him, Napoleon 
 had the power of choosing his own course. Cir- 
 cumstances did not force him into the path he 
 followed : — he was, in a degree, the controller 
 of his fate — a free agent, with ample means to 
 gratify his washes. He might have been a 
 Washington — he preferred to be a Caesar. 
 
 On the 7th of July, 1840, Louis Phillipe, king 
 of the French, after obtaining the consent of 
 England, sent a frigate commanded by his son, 
 the Prince de Joinville, to St. Helena, to con- 
 vey the remains of Napoleon to France. On the 
 30th of November, they reached Cherbourg, 
 from whence they were conveyed, borne with 
 great pomp to Paris, and deposited in the dome of 
 the Hospital des Invalides, on the 15th of Dec. 
 
 NAPOLI DI ROMANIA, or Nauplia, a port 
 and city on the eastern coast of theMorea, on 
 the gulf of Nauplia, or Argolis, containing about 
 5000 inhabitants. It was taken by the Greeks 
 during their last revolution, and in 1824 became 
 
 for a time the seat of government. In 1205, it 
 was taken by the French and Venetians ; and a 
 little after king Giannoviza seized and plun- 
 dered it. The Venetians bought it of Peter 
 Cornaro's widow in 1383, and defended it gal- 
 lantly against Mahomet II, in 1460, obliging him 
 to raise the siege, as they did Solyman, 1537. 
 In 1G8G, general Morosini, after he had taken 
 Navarin and Modon, ordered general Konings- 
 mark to possess himself of Mount Palamida, 
 which is near the town, and commands it ; and 
 whilst he battered it from this place, general 
 Morosini gave battle to the Serasker, who came 
 to relieve it; defeated him, and took Argos 
 their fleet, together with their king Ternis 
 The Seraskier advanced again with 1000 men, 
 and fell upon the Venetians in their trenches, 
 where the battle was dubious for three hours; 
 but at last the Turks fled, general Konings- 
 mark, the princes of Brunswick and Turenne, 
 signalizing themselves in the action. After the 
 battle, the siege was pushed on with vigor, and 
 the Turks, having capitulated, were conducted 
 to Tenedos. The Venetians found in the cas- 
 tle 17 brass cannons, seven iron cannons, and 
 one mortar. 
 
 NARBONNE, anciently Narbo-Martius, a 
 city of France, in the department of the Aude, 
 containing 10.097 inhabitants. It is one of the 
 most ancient cities of that kingdom. In 435, 
 the Visigoths besieged this city in vain ; but it 
 was treacherously delivered to them in 462, by 
 count Agripin. And in 732, the Saracens being 
 admitted into the city as friends, took posses- 
 sion of it, and slew all except the king. In 736, 
 Charles Martel took it from the Saracens ; since 
 which it has been subject to the crown of 
 France. The cathedral church is very ancient 
 and famous, and is by some supposed to have 
 been a metropolitan see, since the year 309. It 
 is dedicated to St. Justus and St. Martyr, and 
 renowned for its organs, and the raising of Laz- 
 arus, painted by an eminent artist. The city is 
 well fortified, and has only two gates. The 
 dukes of Septima-fia, were also dukes of Nar- 
 bonne ; the counts of Toulouse, who succeeded 
 them, had the same title ; and the city and dio- 
 cese was governed under them by viscounts. 
 Gaston de Foix, king of Navarre, in 1468, be- 
 stowed the lordship of Narbonne upon John his 
 second son, who married the sister of Louis 
 XII, by whom he had Gaston de Foix, killed at 
 the battle of Ravenna in 1513. This Gaston ex- 
 changed the city and lordship of Narbonne with 
 his uncle, for other lands, in 1507, by which 
 means it became united to the crown of France 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NAX 
 
 359 
 
 NEL 
 
 NASEBY, a village of Northamptonshire, 
 England, famous for the battle fought there in 
 1645, between kin? Charles I and the parlia- 
 mentary forces. This decisive and well dis- 
 puted engagement was fought with nearly equal 
 forces on both sides. The king commanded in 
 person, and displayed all the conduct of a pru- 
 dent general and stout soldier. Fairfax and 
 Skippon were his opponents; and Cromwell 
 behaved with his usual prudence and gallantry. 
 The royal infantry was entirely discomfited ; 
 and, though the king cried aloud to the caval- 
 ry, ■' One charge more and we recover the day !" 
 they could not be prevailed on to renew the 
 combat, and the king was obliged to quit the 
 field. The slain on the side of the parliament, 
 however, exceeded those of the king. Among 
 the spoils was found the king's cabinet, with 
 copies of his letters to the queen. 
 
 NASSAU, a sovereign duchy of the German 
 empire, with an area of 1959 square miles, and a 
 population of 363,470. The soil is extremely 
 fertile. 
 
 NATCHEZ, a city of Mississippi, on the 
 east bank of the Mississippi, 280 miles above 
 New Orleans. Population in 1830, 2790. This 
 city possesses great commercial advantages, but 
 unfortunately has been frequently visited by the 
 yellow fever The place is well-built, the streets 
 are of considerable width. 
 
 NATOLIA, Annatolia, or Anadoli, a fertile 
 and productive province of Asiatic Turkey, 650 
 miles in length, and 400 broad, containing 
 270,000 square miles, and 6,000,000 inhabitants'. 
 It is also called Asia Minor, and anciently com- 
 prised Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Galatia, Pheygia, 
 Mysia, iEolia, Ionia, Lydia, Caria, Doris, Pysi- 
 dia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Cappadocia, and 
 Pontus. 
 
 NAVARINO (Neocastro;) a fortified town 
 on the S. W. coast of the Morea, with a large 
 harbor. In 1715 it was in the hands of the Ve- 
 netians who fortified it against the Turks. Here 
 (Oct. 20, 1827) the combined Russian, French, 
 and English fleet, commanded by admiral Cod- 
 rington, destroyed the Turco-Egyptian fleet, of 
 214 sail, in three hours. 
 
 NAVARRE, a province of Spain, with the 
 title of kingdom, divided formerly into Upper 
 and Lower Navarre. The latter is now in- 
 cluded in the French department of the Lower 
 Pyrenees, and the former forms the Spanish 
 kingdom of Navarre. Spanish Navarre con- 
 tains 271 ,285 inhabitants. 
 
 NAXOS, now JYaxia, in very ancient times 
 Dia and Stongyte, the largest island of the Cy- 
 31 
 
 clades, contains 169 square miles, and 10,000 
 inhabitants. The Naxians were anciently gov- 
 erned by kings, but they afterwards exchanged 
 this form of government for a republic, and en- 
 joyed their liberty till the age of Pisistratus, 
 who appointed a tyrant over them. They were 
 reduced by the Persians ; but in the expedition 
 of Darius and Xerxes against Greece, they re- 
 volted and fought on the side of the Greeks. 
 During the Peloponnesian war, they supported 
 the interest of Athens. The capital was also 
 called Naxos ; and near it, B. C. 377, the Lace- 
 daemonians were defeated by Chabrias. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR 1, or Muchodono- 
 sar, king of Nineveh and Babylon. He is sup- 
 posed to be the same with Nabopolassar, gov- 
 ernor of Babylon, who founded the kingdom of 
 Nineveh. He sent Holophernes against Judea, 
 who was slain by Judith. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, king of Assyria 
 and Babylon, is supposed to have been the son 
 of the preceding. He invaded Judea, took Je- 
 rusalem, and carried the treasures of the temple, 
 and a number of captives, to Babylon. After 
 this, he set up a golden statue in the plain of 
 Dura, which he commanded all his subjects to 
 adore, on pain of being cast into a fiery furnace. 
 Three young Jews, named Shadrach, Meshach, 
 and Abednego, refused to submit to this idola- 
 try, and the sentence was executed upon them ; 
 but they were preserved amidst the flames. 
 Having lost his senses, he became an outcast 
 from the society of men, and lived among wild 
 beasts in the forest ; but on recovering his rea- 
 son, he again ascended the throne and died, B. 
 C. 562, after reigning 43 years. 
 
 NECHO, king of Egypt, called in scripture, 
 Pharaoh Necho, succeeded his father, Psamme- 
 ticus, B. C. 616. He undertook to make a cana4 
 from the Nile to the Arabian gulf, which un- 
 dertaking he was forced to abandon, after losing 
 a great number of men. The ships of Necho 
 sailed from the Red Sea, round the coast of 
 Africa, into the Mediterranean ; and returned 
 to Egypt, after a voyage of three years. This 
 monarch invaded Assyria, and on his march was 
 attacked by Josiafu king of Judah, who was 
 slain in the battle. The king of Egypt was de- 
 feated in his turn by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 obliged to return to his own country, where he 
 died,B. C. 600. 
 
 NELSON, (Horatio, Viscount), an English 
 admiral, was the fourth son of the rector of 
 Burnham Thorpe in Norfolk, where Horatio 
 was born Sept. 29, 1758. At the age of twelve 
 years he was taken to sea by his maternal un 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NEL 
 
 360 
 
 NEL 
 
 cle, Captain Suckling, of the Raisonable man- 
 of-war. In 1773 in a voyage undertaken for 
 the discovery of a north-west passage, the young 
 seaman distinguished himself by his skill, cour- 
 age, and promptitude. Soon after his return 
 he was appointed to a station in the Seahorse, 
 in which he sailed to the East Indies. 
 
 He passed for a lieutenant in 1777, and re- 
 ceived his commission as second of the Lowes- 
 toff frigate ; in which he cruised against the 
 Americans. In 1779 he obtained the rank of 
 post captain, and was appointed to the command 
 of the Hinchinbrooke, with which he sailed to 
 the West Indies, and while there essentially 
 contributed to the taking of Fort Juan in the 
 gulf of Mexico. We find him next commanding 
 the Boreas, having under him the Duke of Cla- 
 rence, who was captain of the Pegasus. 
 
 While thus engaged he married the daughter 
 of William Woodward, judge of the Island of 
 Nevis, by whom he never had any issue. On 
 the breaking out of the war with France he was 
 nominated to the Agamemnon of 64 guns, on 
 board of which he sailed to the Mediterranean, 
 and was present at the taking possession of 
 Toulon. He was also present at the siege of 
 Bastia, where he served at the batteries with a 
 body of seamen ; as he afterwards did at Calvi : 
 and while employed before that place he lost 
 an eye. He was so active on that station that 
 his name was dreaded throughout the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 He was with Admiral Hotham in the action 
 with the French fleet, March 15, 1795 ; and the 
 same year he took the island of Elba. In 179G 
 he was appointed commodore on board La Mi- 
 nerve, in which frigate he captured La Sabine, 
 a forty gun ship. Soon after this he descried 
 the Spanish fleet, and stpered with the intelli- 
 gence to Sir John Jervis off* St. Vincent. He 
 had scarcely communicated the news, and shift- 
 ed his flag on board the Captain of 74 guns, 
 when the enemy hove in sight. A close action 
 ensued, which terminated in a complete victory 
 on the side of the British, who were inferior in 
 numbers. On this occasion Commodore Nelson 
 attacked the Santissima Trinidada of 136 guns; 
 and afterwards he boarded and took the San 
 Nicolas of 80 guns, from whence he proceeded 
 in the same manner to the San Josef of 112 
 guns; both of which surrendered to him. For 
 his share in this glorious victory, the commodore 
 was honored with the order of the Bath ; and 
 having soon afterwards hoisted his flag as rear 
 admiral of the blue, he was appointed to com- 
 jnand the inner squadron at the blockade of 
 
 Cadiz. He there made a bold but unsuccessful 
 attempt to bombard the city, heading his men 
 himself. 
 
 The next exploit in which he was engaged 
 was an attempt to take possession of Teneriffe ; 
 which design also failed, with the loss of Cap- 
 tain Bowen of the Terpsichore. In this expe- 
 dition Admiral Nelson lost his right arm by a 
 cannon shot, and was carried off to the boat by 
 his son-in-law Captain Nesbit, on his back. He 
 now returned to England for the recovery of 
 his health, and received the grant of a pension 
 of 1000/. a year. The brave admiral, however, 
 did not long remain inactive: he rejoined Earl 
 St. Vincent, who, on receiving intelligence of 
 the sailing of Bonaparte from Toulon, detached 
 Sir Horatio Nelson with a squadron in pursuit 
 of him. 
 
 After exploring the coast of Italy, this inde- 
 fatigable commander steered for Alexandria, 
 where to his great mortification not a French 
 ship was to be seen. He then sailed to Sicily, 
 and having taken in a fresh supply of water, 
 and obtained more correct information, returned 
 to Alexandria, which he descried August 1, 
 1798, at noon. The enemy were discovered in 
 Aboukir Bay, tying at anchor in line of battle ; 
 and supported by strong batteries on an Island, 
 and strengthened by gun-boats. Notwithstand- 
 ing this formidable appearance, the Britibh ad- 
 miral made the signal for battle ; and, by a mas- 
 terly and bold manoeuvre, gave directions for 
 part of his fleet to lead inside the enemy, who 
 were thus exposed between two fires. 
 
 The contest was hot and bloody. Several of 
 the French ships were soon dismasted ; and, at 
 last the admiral's ship l'Orient of 120 guns took 
 fire, and blew up. The firing, however, con- 
 tinued, but by the dawn of day only two sail of 
 the line were discovered with their colors fly- 
 ing, all the rest having struck. Soon after this 
 he sailed for Sicily, and from thence to Naples, 
 where he quelled a rebellion, and restored the 
 king. Having performed these and other im- 
 portant services, Lord Nelson returned to Eng- 
 land, and was received with enthusiastic joy. 
 A confederacy of the northern powers having 
 alarmed the government, he was employed to 
 dissolve it. A fleet was fitted out, the com- 
 mond of which was given to Admiral Sir Hyde 
 Parker, assisted by Lord Nelson. On their ar- 
 rival off the Catlegat, and being refused a pas- 
 sage, Lord Nelson offered his services for con- 
 ducting the attack on the Danish force, which 
 was stationed to oppose an entrance. This 
 being accepted, he shifted his flag to the Ele 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NEI 
 
 361 
 
 NER 
 
 phant, and "passed the Sound with little loss. 
 On the 2d of April the action commenced at 
 ten o'clock, and after a sharp conflict seventeen 
 sail of the Danes were sunk, burnt, or taken. 
 A negotiation was then entered into between 
 his lordship and the Crown Prince ; in conse- 
 quence of which the admiral went ashore, and 
 an armistice was settled. 
 
 Having accomplished these great objects, he 
 returned to England, and was created a vis- 
 count. In August 1801, he bombarded the 
 enemy's flotilla of gun-boats at Boulogne, but 
 without any material effect. A treaty suddenly 
 taking place, his lordship retired, but hostilities 
 recommencing he sailed for the Mediterranean, 
 and in Marcli 1803, took the command of that 
 station on board the Victory. Notwithstanding 
 all his vigilance, the French fleet escaped from 
 Toulon, and was joined by that of Cadiz ; of 
 which being apprized, he pursued them to the 
 West Indies with a far inferior force. The 
 combined squadrons, however, struck with ter- 
 ror, returned without effecting any thing; and, 
 after a partial action with Sir Robert Calder off 
 Farrol, re-entered Cadiz. Admiral Nelson re- 
 turned to England, but soon set sail to join his 
 fleet off Cadiz. 
 
 The French under Admiral Villeneuve, and 
 the Spaniards under Gravina, ventured out with 
 a number of troops on board, October 19, 1805, 
 and on the 21st, about noon, the action began 
 off Cape Trafalgar. Lord Nelson ordered his 
 ship the Victory to be carried alongside his old 
 antagonist, the Santissima Trinidada, where he 
 was exposed to a severe fire of musketry ; and, 
 not having the precaution to cover his coat, 
 which was decorated with his star and other 
 badges of distinction, he became an object for 
 the riflemen placed purposely in the tops of the 
 Bucentaur, which lay on his quarter. A shot 
 from one of these entered just below his shoul- 
 der, of which he died in about two hours. In 
 this action the enemy's force consisted of thirty - 
 three ships of the line, and several of extraordi- 
 nary magnitude ; while the British were only 
 twenty-seven. After the fall of Lord Nelson, 
 the command devolved on Admiral Colling- 
 wood, by whose bravery and skill a complete 
 victory was obtained. The remains of Lord 
 Nelson were interred with great pomp in St. 
 Paul's cathedral, January 9, following. 
 
 NELSON, Thomas, junior; a signer of the 
 Declaration of American Independence, was 
 born at York, in Virginia, Dec. 26, 1738. He 
 received an excellent education in England, 
 and returned to America about the close of the 
 
 year 17G1 . After having been a member of the 
 house of burgesses in his native state, he was 
 chosen a member of the first congress, and re- 
 tained his seat until 1777. At this date, the 
 feeble state. of his health obliged him tempora- 
 rily to relinquish his seat, and as soon as he 
 recovered, he was chosen brigadier-general and 
 commander-in-chief of the forces of the com- 
 monwealth. In 1779 he was re-elected to con- 
 gress, but obliged by sickness to return home 
 again. However, he took up arms against the 
 British and distinguished himself in several 
 military expeditions. In 1781 he succeeded 
 Mr. Jefferson as governor of Virginia, and 
 through the most troubled times of the common- 
 wealth, acquitted himself fearlessly and well. 
 He died Jan. 4. 1789, in his 51st year. 
 
 NEPTUNE, in ancient mythology, the god 
 of the sea, the brother of Jupiter from whom 
 he derived his sovereignty. He is generally 
 represented as a bearded old man, with a tri- 
 dent in his hand, seated in a huge marine shell 
 which is drawn over the waters by sea-horses. 
 
 NERO, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, after 
 his adoption called Claudius Drusus, the son of 
 Caius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Agrippina* 
 the daughter of Germanicus, was born at An- 
 tium, A. D. 37. 
 
 He was adopted by the emperor Claudius, A. 
 D. 50, and four years after he succeeded to him 
 on the throne. The beginning of his reign was 
 marked by acts of the greatest kindness and 
 condescension, by affability, complaisance, and 
 popularity. The object of his administration 
 seemed to be the good of his people ; and when 
 he was desired to sign his name to a list of mal- 
 efactors that were to be executed, he exclaimed, 
 / wish to heaven I could not write. He was an 
 enemy to flattery, and when the senate had 
 liberally commended the wisdom of government, 
 Nero desired them to keep their praises till he 
 deserved them. These promising virtues were 
 soon discovered to be artificial, and Nero dis- 
 played the propensities of his nature. He de- 
 livered himself from the sway of his mother,, 
 and at last ordered her to be assassinated. 
 
 This unnatural act of barbaritj might astonish 
 some of the Romans, but Nero had his devoted 
 adherents ; and when he declared that he had 
 taken away his mother's life to save himself 
 from ruin, the senate applauded his measures, 
 and the people signified their approbation. Many 
 of his courtiers shared the unhappy fate of 
 Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or 
 caprice all such as obstructed his pleasure. He 
 sacrificed to his wantonness his wife Octavia 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NER 
 
 362 
 
 NER 
 
 Poppaea, and the celebrated writers, Seneca, 
 Lucan, Petronius, &o. The Christians also 
 did not escape his barbarity. 
 
 He had heard of the burning of Troy, and as 
 he wished to renew that dismal scene, he caused 
 Rome to be set on fire in different places. The 
 conflagration became soon universal, and during 
 nine successive days the fire was unextinguish- 
 ed. All was desolation, nothing was heard but 
 the lamentations of mothers whose children had 
 perished in the flames, the groans of the dying, 
 and the continual fall of palaces and buildings. 
 Nero was the only one who enjoyed the general 
 consternation. He placed himself on the top of 
 a high tower, and he sang on his lyre the de- 
 struction of Troy, a dreadful scene which his 
 barbarity had realized before his eyes. He at- 
 tempted to avert the public odium from his head, 
 by a feigned commiseration of the miseries of his 
 subjects. He began to repair the streets and 
 the public buildings at his own expense. He 
 built himself a celebrated palace, which was 
 profusely adorned with gold, and precious stones, 
 and with whatever was rare and exquisite. The 
 entrance of this edifice could admit a large co- 
 lossus of the emperor 120 feet high, the galleries 
 were each a mile long, and the whole was cov- 
 ered with gold. 
 
 The roofs of the dining halls represented the 
 firmament in motion as well as in figure, and 
 continually turned round night and day, show- 
 ering down all sorts of perfumes and sweet wa- 
 ters. When this grand edifice, which occupied 
 a great part of the city, was finished, Nero said, 
 that now he could lodge like a man. His pro- 
 fusion was not less remarkable in all his other 
 actions. When he went a fishing, bis nets 
 were made with gold and silk. He never ap- 
 peared twice in the same garment, and when 
 he undertook a voyage, there were thousands 
 of servants to take care of his wardrobe. This 
 continuation of debauchery and extravagance, 
 at last roused the resentment of the people. 
 Many conspiracies were formed against the em- 
 peror, but they were generally discovered, and 
 such as were accessary suffered the greatest 
 punishments. 
 
 The most dangerous conspiracy against Ne- 
 ro's life, was that of Piso, from which he was 
 delivered by the confession of a slave. The 
 conspiracy of Galba proved more successful ; 
 and the conspirator, when he was informed that 
 his plot was known to Nero, declared himself 
 emperor. The unpopularity of Nero favored 
 his cause, he was acknowledged by all the Ro- 
 man empire, and the senate condemned the ty- 
 
 rant that sat on the throne to be dragged naked 
 through the streets of Rome, and whipped to 
 death, and afterwards to be thrown down from 
 the Tarpeian rock like the meanest malefactor. 
 This, however, was not done, Nero, by a vol- 
 untary death, having prevented the execution 
 of the sentence. He killed himself, A. D. 08, 
 in the 32d year of his age, after a reign of 13 
 years and eight months. 
 
 Rome was filled with acclamations at the in- 
 telligence, and the citizens, more strongly to 
 indicate their joy, wore caps such as were gen- 
 erally used by slaves who had received their 
 freedom. Their vengeance was not only exer- 
 cised against the statues of the deceased tyrant, 
 but his friends were the objects of the public 
 resentment, and many were crushed to pieces 
 in such a violent manner, that one of the sen 
 ators, amid the universal joy, said that he was 
 afraid they should soon have cause to wish for 
 Nero. Though his death seemed to be the 
 source of universal gladness, yet many of his 
 favorites lamented his fall, and were grieved to 
 see that their pleasures and amusements were 
 stopped by the death of the patron of debauch- 
 ery and extravagance. Even the king of Par- 
 thia sent ambassadors to Rome to condole with 
 the Romans, and to beg that they would honor 
 and revere the memory of Nero. His statues 
 were also crowned with garlands of flowers, 
 and many believed that he was not dead, but 
 that he would soon make his appearance, and 
 take a due vengeance upon his enemies. 
 
 NERO, CLAUDIUS, a Roman general sent 
 into Spain to succeed the two Scipios. He suf- 
 fered himself to be imposed upon by Asdrubal, 
 and was soon after succeeded by young Scipio 
 He was afterwards made consul, and intercepted 
 Asdrubal, who was passing from Spain into 
 Italy with a large reinforcement for his brother 
 Annibal. An engagement was fought near the 
 river Metaurus, in which 56,000 of the Cartha- 
 ginians were left on the field of battle, and great 
 numbers taken prisoners, 207 B. C. 
 
 NKRVA COCCEIUS, a Roman emperor 
 after the death of Domitian, A. D. 00. He 
 rendered himself popular by his mildness, his 
 generosity, and the active part he took in the 
 management of affairs. He suffered no statues 
 to be raised to his honor, and he applied to the 
 use of the government all the gold and silver 
 statues which flattery had erected to his prede- 
 cessor. In his civil character he was the pa 
 tern of good manners, of sobriety, and tempe- 
 rance. He made a solemn declaration that no- 
 senator should suffer death during his reign 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 NET 
 
 363 
 
 NEW 
 
 and this he observed with such sanctity, that 
 when two members of the senate had conspired 
 against his life, he was satisfied to tell them 
 that he was informed of their wicked machina- 
 tions. He also conducted them to the public 
 spectacles, and seated himself between them, 
 and, when a sword was offered to him, according 
 to the usual custom, he desired the conspirators 
 to try it upon his body. Such goodness of heart, 
 such confidence in the self conviction of the 
 human mind, and such reliance upon the con- 
 sequence of his lenity and indulgence, concil- 
 iated the affection of all his subjects. Yet, as 
 envy and danger are the constant companions 
 of greatness, the praetorian guards at last mu- 
 tinied, and Nerva nearly yielded to their fury. 
 He uncovered his aged neck in the presence of 
 the incensed soldiery, and bade them wreak their 
 vengeance upon him, provided they spared the 
 life of those to whom he was indebted for the 
 empire, and whom his honor commanded him to 
 defend. His seeming submission was unavail- 
 ing, and he was at last obliged to surrender to 
 the fury of his soldiers, some of his friends and 
 supporters. The infirmities of his age, and his 
 natural timidity, at last obliged him to provide 
 himself against any future mutiny or tumult, 
 by choosing a worthy successor He had many 
 friends and relations, but he did not consider 
 the aggrandizement of his family, and he chose 
 for his son and successor, Trajan, a man of whose 
 virtues and greatness of mind he was fully con- 
 vinced. This voluntary choice was approved 
 by the acclamations of the people ; and the wis- 
 dom and prudence which marked the reign of 
 Trajan showed how discerning was the judg- 
 ment, and how affectionate were the intentions 
 of Nerva for the good of Rome. He died A. 
 D. 98, in his 72d year, and his successor showed 
 his respect for his merit and his character by 
 raising him altars and temples in Rome, and in 
 the provinces, and by ranking him in the num- 
 ber of the gods. Nerva was the first Roman 
 emperor who was of foreign extraction, his fa- 
 ther being a native of Crete. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, a kingdom of Europe, 
 separated from Belgium in the revolution of 
 1830, previously to which it contained 25,375 
 square miles, and 6,059,566 inhabitants. The 
 earliest accounts of the Netherlands are from 
 the Romans, by whom all the southern and 
 central part (called Belgia) was kept in subjec- 
 tion till the decline of their empire in the fifth 
 century. It was formerly, under the govern- 
 ment of counts, but being incorporated with the 
 extensive possessions of the duke of Burgundy, 
 
 the Netherlands passed to Maximilian of Aus- 
 tria, father of Charles V, who united the 17 
 provinces into one state ; but the bigotry of his 
 son Philip II. produced the separation of the 
 Dutch provinces, and great dissension and dis- 
 tress in the others. They remained under the 
 Spanish crown until the middle of the 17th 
 century, when arduous exertions were made by 
 Conde and Turenne to add them to the domin- 
 ions of Louis XIV. The quadruple alliance, 
 concluded at the Hague in 1668, however, put 
 a stop to their progress, but. the wars from 1672 
 to 1679, and 1689 to 1697, were prosecuted 
 chiefly for the Netherlands. At length, in 1702, 
 Louis obtained them, but the French being de- 
 feated by the duke of Marlborough at the battle 
 of Ramifies, in 1706, the southern provinces 
 were brought under the powei of the allies, and 
 assigned to Austria at the peace of Utrecht. A 
 peace ensued, until the war of 1741 was trans- 
 ferred to the Netherlands, and the French un- 
 der Marshal Saxe recovered them. Bergen-op- 
 Zoorn was captured by the French in September 
 1747, and Maestricht in the following year, 
 when the successes of the British navy, and the 
 persevering aspect of the coalition led to the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and the south- 
 ern Netherlands thus became restored to Aus- 
 tria. By the treachery of Austria in 1756 they 
 were once more nearly ceded to France, but the 
 scheme was not carried into effect. In the 
 campaign of 1792 Austria again lost the Nether- 
 lands, and though recovered in 1793, they again 
 passed over to France in 1794. The hope of 
 recovering them was the cause of the coalition 
 of 1799 and 1805, both baffled in their object. 
 The disasters of the French army in Russia in 
 1812, at length, opened the long-wished for 
 prospect. In 1813, Germany occupied all the 
 exertions of the allies, but in 1814 the Nether- 
 lands were detached by a consequence of the 
 revolution by which the Bourbons were restored; 
 and the British cabinet accomplished the union 
 of the seventeen provinces, and their erection 
 into an independent state, under the prince of 
 Orange, in 1815. The prince, therefore, as- 
 sumed the title of king of the Netherlands, and 
 errand duke of Luxembourg. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a British province of 
 North America. Population 110,000. In the 
 interior of the country the soil is admirable, and 
 the uplands are well timbered. Grass and grain 
 are the principal agricultural productions, and 
 the main exports are timber and fish. The rive*- 
 St. John's is the principal stream. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, an island in the North 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 NEW 
 
 364 
 
 NEW 
 
 Atlantic ocean near the gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497. The 
 population is estimated at about 80,000. It is 
 380 miles long, and from 40 to 280 broad, being 
 of triangular shape. The face of the country is 
 very rugged, but timber is abundant. The cli- 
 mate is cold and dreary. The fisheries off the 
 banks employ mure than one hundred thousand 
 men. St. John's, the capital, contains about 
 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United 
 States, bounded north by Lower Canada ; east by 
 the Atlantic ocean and the state of Maine ; south 
 by Massachusetts, and west by Connecticut 
 river. It has an area of 7,41)1 miles, and a pop- 
 ulation of 284,754 There are numerous rivers 
 in the state, which is very mountainous, the 
 White Mountains displaying some of the most 
 sublime scenes to be found in this country. 
 The chief towns are Concord, the seat of gov- 
 ernment, Portsmouth, Dover, Walpole, Clare- 
 mont, Hanover, Hopkinton, Salisbury, Lon- 
 donderry, and Durham. Dartmouth College, in 
 Hanover, and Philip's Academy at Exeter, are 
 both flourishing institutions. Agriculture is 
 the chief occupation of the people. John Smith 
 discovered New Hampshire in 1614, but its 
 name was bestowed by John Mason, to whom, 
 and Sir Ferdinand Gorges, grants of land were 
 made by the crown in 1022. The country was 
 thence popularly termed the Hampshire Grants, 
 The first settlements were made in 1623, at 
 Dover and Portsmouth. From 1641, to 1679, 
 the settlements formed a portion of Suffolk 
 county, Massachusetts. Charles II sepaiated 
 them It was afterwards reunited to Massa- 
 chusetts, but finally separated in 1741. The 
 present const.tution is that which was altered 
 in 1792, from that of 1784. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the United States; 
 bounded north by New York; east by New 
 York and the Atlantic Ocean ; south by the 
 Ocean, and west by Delaware and Pennsylva- 
 nia. The northern part of the state is moun- 
 tainous, but the southern level. The former 
 is the most fertile and has soil well adapted to 
 agricultural purposes. Iron is found among 
 the mountains in great abundance. The chief 
 towns are Trenton, the seat of government, 
 Newark, New Brunswick, Elizabethtown, Bur- 
 lington, Palterson, <fec. The college of New 
 Jeisey at Princetown is a deserving institution. 
 Population in 1840. 373 308. The first settle- 
 ment in this state was made at Elizabethtown in 
 1664. In 1676, the country was divided into 
 East and West Jersey, which were separate 
 
 proprietary governments, and not united unti? 
 1702, at which time the name of New Jersey 
 was given to the colony. In the measures of 
 our revolution this state was ever active and 
 forward, and suffered severely from the war. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, a great commercial city 
 of Louisiana, in the parish of Orleans, situated 
 on the Mississippi, 105 miles from its mouth, 
 following the course of the stream. It containg 
 102,193 inhabitants. A large part of the popula- 
 tion are French and Spaniards, and the dwel- 
 lings and manners of the inhabitants are more 
 European than American. It is built on ground 
 lower than the surface of the river, and an em- 
 bankment, called the levee, protects the city 
 from inundation. This is 160 miles in length. 
 The yellow fever periodically visits New Or- 
 leans and commits great ravages. 
 
 Early in December, 1815, a large British 
 force entered Lake Pontchartrain, near New 
 Orleans, defeating, after an obstinate conflict, 
 the small American naval force stationed there. 
 The British forces were commanded by general 
 Packenham, the American by Major General 
 Andrew Jackson. Several skirmishes took 
 place in which the British suffered severely. 
 On Sunday morning early, January 8, a grand 
 attack was made by the British on the Ameri- 
 can troops in their entrenchments. After an 
 engagement of upwards of an hour, the enemy 
 were cut to pieces to a degree almost beyond 
 example, and fled in confusion, leaving their 
 dead and wounded on the field of battle. The 
 loss of the British was 700 killed, 1400 wounded, 
 500 taken prisoners, making a total of 2,600. 
 The American loss in the engagement was 7 
 killed, and 6 w T ounded. Sir Edward Packen- 
 ham and Major General Gibbs were among the 
 slain. Th^.' attack was not renewed, and in a 
 short time the British left the coast. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES, a British colony 
 on the eastern coast of New Holland. This 
 district was taken possession of by Captain 
 Cook on his first voyage, in 1770, who gave it 
 the name of Botany Bay. The colony, com- 
 menced in 1778, and composed partly of con- 
 victs, is flourishing and promises to be valuable 
 to the mother country. Its staple commodity 
 is wool. The revenue, in 1828, was JE 112,577. 
 
 NEWTON, Sir Isaac, justly called the cre- 
 ator of natural philosophy, was born at Wools- 
 thorpe,in Lincolnshire, December 25, 1642. old 
 style. He evinced, in early youth, a great 
 fondness for mechanical pursuits, and a remark- 
 able aptitude for drawing, and constructing 
 machinery, being his own instructer in all his 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NEW 
 
 365 
 
 NEW 
 
 pursuits. At the age of eighteen he entered 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. Here his fond- 
 ness for mathematical studies enabled him to 
 make a great proficiency in them, and before 
 completing his 23d year, he made some great 
 discoveries in the science to which he was 
 attached. The fall of an apple led him to a 
 train of reflections which resulted in his eluci- 
 dation of the principles of gravitation. It is 
 impossible to follow him through his scientific 
 career, tracing out the brilliant discoveries he 
 made in optics, chemistry, &e. In 1G68, New- 
 ton was elected by his university to the con- 
 vention parliament. In 1699, he was made 
 master of the mint. In 1703, he was chosen 
 president of the royal society, and in 1705, 
 was knighted by queen Anne. He died March 
 20, 1727, and was interred in Westminster 
 Abbey, when a monument was erected to his 
 memory by his family. 
 
 The following is Pope's epitaph on this great 
 man ; 
 
 Isaacus Newton hic jacet, 
 q,uem immortalem ccef.i, natura, 
 
 Tempus OSTENDUNT, 
 MORTALEM HOC M ARMOR FATETUR. 
 Nature and all her works lay hid in night, 
 God said, Let Newton be— and all was light. 
 
 This great man was mild and good natured 
 in his private life. The following anecdote 
 shows his character in a most amiable light. 
 " He had constructed a small laboratory for 
 prosecuting his chemical investigations, and 
 seems, after his publication of his principia, to 
 have devoted almost all his time to them. One 
 morning (1692), he had accidentally shut up his 
 little pet dog Diamond in his room, and, on 
 returning, found that the animal, by upsetting 
 a candle on his desk, had destroyed the labors 
 of several years. On perceiving his loss, he 
 only exclaimed, ' Oh, Diamond ! Diamond ! 
 thou little knowest the mischief thou hast 
 done !' " 
 
 His modesty was equal to his merits. " When 
 his friends expressed their admiration of his 
 discoveries, he said, < To myself, I seem to have 
 been as a child playing on the seashore, while 
 the immense ocean of truth lay unexplored 
 before me.' " 
 
 NEW YORK, one of the United States, is 
 bounded north by Upper and Lower Canada; 
 east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connect- 
 icut; south by New Jersey and Pennsylvania; 
 and west by Pennsylvania", Lake Erie, and the 
 Niagara river. It contains 45,(558 square miles. 
 The increase of the population is very rapid, as 
 
 may be perceived from the following state- 
 ment. 
 
 Population in 1702. 21,708 
 
 " in 1800 536,050 
 
 " in 1820 1,372,811 
 
 " in 183J 1,913,604 
 
 in 1840 2,428,921 
 
 New York, CoMn ' W5, Montgomery, 
 
 Kings, Hamilton, 
 
 Queen's, Saratoga, 
 
 Richmond, Washington, 
 
 Suffolk, Warren, 
 
 Westchester, Essex, 
 
 Dutchess, Clinton, 
 
 Putnam, Franklin, 
 
 Orange, St. Lawrence, 
 
 Rockland, Jefferson, 
 
 Ulster, Lewis, 
 
 Sullivan, Herkimer, 
 
 Delaware, Oneida, 
 
 Greene, Madison, 
 
 Columbia, Oswego, 
 
 Albany, Otsego, 
 
 Rensselaer, Chenango, 
 
 Schenectady, Broome, 
 
 Schoharie, Cortland, 
 
 Tompkins, Livingston, 
 
 Tioga, Monroe, 
 
 Steuben, Orleans, 
 
 Onondaga, Genesse, 
 
 Cayuga, Alleghany, 
 
 Seneca, Niagara, 
 
 Ontario, Erie, 
 
 Yates, Cattaraugus, 
 
 Wayne, Chautauqua. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 New York, Brooklyn, 
 
 Albany (the seat of government), 
 Troy, Utica, 
 
 Hudson, Rochester. 
 
 Schenectady, Buffalo. 
 
 There are also 780 towns and 180 incorpo 
 rated villages. 
 
 New York contains numerous large rivers, 
 among which may be mentioned the Hudson, 
 Mohawk, St. Lawrence, Delaware, Susquehan 
 na, Tioga, Alleghany, Genesee, Oswego, Niag- 
 ara. Lakes — Erie, Ontario, Champlain, George, 
 Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida, &c. 
 
 The internal navigation of the state of New 
 York surpasses that of any other state, and is 
 continually being improved. The Erie and 
 Northern Canals are both great works. The 
 surface of this state is greatly diversified. In 
 some parts the elevation is great, and the Kaats 
 kill mountains presents some sublime scenery. 
 In various places are found iron ore, gypsum, 
 limestone, marble, slate, lead, &c. 
 
 Education is liberally provided for in New 
 York, and the Columbia College in the city, 
 Union College at Schenectady, and Hamilton 
 College at Clinton, &c, are flourishing institu- 
 tions. The Military Academy at West Point, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NEW 
 
 366 
 
 NIN 
 
 under the direction of the national government, 
 is an admirable institution. These are but the 
 most prominent. The annual expenditure made 
 for the purpose of public education amounts to 
 $ 700,0;, 0. The state finances are in a very 
 flourishing condition; the annual income is 
 $ 2,000,000. The stnple productions are princi- 
 pally wheat and other grain, flour, provisions, 
 salt, pot and pearlashes, and lumber. 
 
 New York was first discovered by Henry 
 Hudson, an English navigator, in 1000. He 
 sailed up the river which bears his name to the 
 distance of 150 miles, and on his return to Eu- 
 rope, communicated the results of his enter- 
 prise to his employers, the Dutch East India 
 Company. Dutch trading establishments were 
 immediately formed at different places. The 
 earliest establishment of the kind was Fort 
 Orange, founded in 1G13, on the site of the city 
 of Alb -my. New Amsterdam (now the city of 
 New York), was formed a few years later. 
 The East India Company having obtained from 
 the government of Holland a giant of the ex- 
 clusive riglit to trade in America, called the 
 country which they settled, New Netherlands. 
 
 In 1604, Charles II, of England, granted to 
 his brother, the duke of York and Albany, an 
 extensive territory which included the colony 
 of New Netheiland.s. A small armament was 
 fitted out in England to act against the Dutch 
 in America, who, however, speedily submitted 
 to the English. The latter changed the names 
 of New Amsterdam to New York, and Fort 
 Orange to Albany. In May, 1775, the inhabit- 
 ants of New York asserted their independence, 
 and through the revolutionary war, took a dis- 
 tinguished part in the struggle for liberty. 
 
 N EW-YORK CITY, lies in the state of New 
 York, and is situated on an island at the junc- 
 tion of Hudson and East rivers, at the head of 
 New- York bay. sixteen miles from the Atlantic 
 Ocean. The Island is about fifteen miles long, 
 and one and a half brnad. The Indian name 
 of this island is Manhattan The island con- 
 stitutes a cmnty of itself. Population in 1840, 
 312,982 The schools of New York enjoy a 
 higli reputation. There are more than 100 
 churches in the city, many of them handsomely 
 built and ornamented. The charitable and lit- 
 erary institutions are numerous. The citizens 
 of New York came forward early in defence of 
 their rights, and suffered severely during the 
 revolutionary struggle. After the retrpat of 
 Washington from Long Island, the city was 
 seized by the British who held it until the 25th 
 of November, 1783. 
 
 NEY, Michael, duke of Elchingen, prince of 
 Moscow, marshal and peer of France, grand- 
 cross of the legion of honor, knight of St. 
 Louis, &c, was born in Alsace, in 1769. H8 
 rose from the ranks to the chief command of 
 armies, but was more distinguished for his 
 bravery than his tactics. He opposed Welling- 
 ton in Spain, and pursued the British army to 
 the lines of Torres Vedras. He afterwards 
 served under Napoleon in Russia, and at the 
 great battle of the Moskwa acquired the name 
 of " the bravest of the brave." At the return 
 of Napoleon from Elba, the command of the 
 royalist army was confided to him, but being 
 threatened with the desertion of his troops, he 
 went over to the emperor. For this he was 
 tried on the second return of the Bourbons, con- 
 demned, and shot. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a state of the Guatimalcan 
 confederacy, bounded north by Honduras; east 
 by the Caribbean Sea; south by Costa Rica, 
 and west by the Pacific. The country is fertile, 
 rich in forests, and the precious metals. The 
 population is 250,000. 
 
 NICHOLSON, James, an American naval 
 officer, born at Charlestown, Maryland, in 1737. 
 Throughout the revolutionary war. he served 
 with distinction in our infant navy. June 2d, 
 1780, Nicholson, with the Trumbull, a frigate 
 of 32 guns, manned with only 199 men, fought 
 a severe action with the British frigate Wyatt. 
 This engagement lasted three houis, at the ex- 
 piration of which the disabled state of the 
 Trumbull's masts, compelled Nicholson to with- 
 draw with a loss of nine men killed, and twen- 
 ty-one wounded. This gallant commander died 
 in September, 1806. 
 
 N1GRITIA, Soudan, or Takrour, a name 
 applied generally to the interior parts of Africa, 
 which are imperfectly known. It includes 
 many kingdoms and countries, as Bambarra, 
 Timbuct.oo, Kong, Houssa, Borgou, Yarriba, 
 Nyffe, Funda, Bournou, Mandara, &c. 
 
 NINUS, a son of Belas, who built a city to 
 which he gave his own name, and founded the 
 Assyrian monarchy, of which he was the first 
 sovereign, B. C. 2059. He was very war- 
 like, and extended his conquests from Egypt to 
 the extremities of India and Bactriana. Ninus 
 reigned fifty-two years, and at his death he left 
 his kingdom to the care of his wife Semiramis, 
 by vvlum he had a son. The history of Ninus 
 is very obscure, and even fabulous according 
 to the opinion of some. Ninus after death re- 
 ceived divine honors, and became the Jupiter 
 of the Assyrians and the Hercules of the dial 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NOR 
 
 367 
 
 NOR 
 
 deans. The celebrated city, the capital of As- 
 syria, built on the banks of the Tigris by Ninus, 
 is called Nineveh, in Scripture. It was taken by 
 the united armies of Cyaxares and Nabopolas- 
 sar king of Babylon. 13. C. 606. 
 
 NORMANDY, an ancient province in the 
 north of France, now divided into five depart- 
 ments, and containing 2,000,000 inhabitants. 
 In the latter part of the ninth century the Nor- 
 mans settled here, and were governed by their 
 own dukes ; the most renowned of whom, was 
 William, who achieved the conquest of Eng- 
 land in 1066. In 1346, Normandy was overrun 
 by Edward III; and in 1418, it was held by 
 Henry V, who conquered the whole province, 
 and obtained its formal cession to England by 
 the peace of 1420. It was wrested from the 
 English in 1440; and from that time Normandy 
 was exempt from the evils of war, until the 
 religious contests of the sixteenth century. It 
 escaped in the revolution, though, in 1794, a 
 Vendean army entered its western frontier; 
 but were soon put to flight. Normandy had, 
 until the revolution, its separate parliaments, 
 which sat at Rouen; and its provincial laws 
 and usages were preserved under the name of 
 Coutumier de Nor?7iandie. 
 
 NORRIS, Sir John, second son of Henry, the 
 first Lord Norris, famous for his valor, was first 
 trained up in military exercises under Admiral 
 Coligni in the civil wars of France, next in 
 Ireland, under Walter, earl of Essex, then 
 served in the Netherlands under Matthias, arch- 
 duke of Austria, in 1570, afterwards under the 
 Duke of Lorrain, 1582 ; next under William of 
 Nassau ; and, in the 27th of Queen Elizabeth 
 was constituted colonel-general of all the horse 
 and foot sent out of England to the relief of 
 Antwerp, then besieged by the Spaniards, and 
 empowered to treat with the states-general for 
 the entertaining of the English foot appointed 
 to serve in those parts. In the 30th of Queen 
 Elizabeth, being then president of the council 
 in the province of Munster, in Ireland, he had 
 a commission giving him power to constitute 
 such principal officers as well by sea and land, 
 as he thought fit for the defence of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 In the 33d of Queen Elizabeth he was con- 
 stituted captain-general of those English auxil- 
 iaries that were sent to King Henry IV, of 
 France, against his rebellious subjects in Bre- 
 tagne ; and having deported himself with great 
 prudence and courage in all these eminent 
 employments, to the great honor of the Eno-lish 
 nation as well as of his own name, expected 
 
 that upon the re-calling of Sir William Russell, 
 knight, afterwards Lord Russell, he should have 
 been deputy of Ireland ; but, finding that Thom- 
 as, Lord Borough, was preferred to that com- 
 mand, and himself required to continue still in 
 Munster, he became so highly discontented, as 
 to occasion his premature death. 
 
 NORTH, Frederick, second Earl of Guilford, 
 was the eldest son of Francis, the first earl, and 
 was born in 1732. He was educated at Eton, 
 and at Trinity -college, Oxford ; after which he 
 went to Leipsic. On his return home he was 
 elected into parliament : and in 1759, he became 
 a commissioner of the Treasury. In 1763, he 
 succeeded Lord Bute at the head of the board ; 
 but resigned his seat in 1765; and the year fol- 
 lowing he become joint-receiver and pay-master 
 of the forces. In 1767, he was appointed Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer; and in 1770, first lord 
 of the Treasury ; both which offices he held 
 during the American war, till 1782. Not long 
 after this, the' same statesmen who had lepeat- 
 edly threatened his lordship with an impeach- 
 ment, formed a coalition with him; but this 
 motley administration lasted a very few months. 
 In 1790, Lord North succeeded his father in 
 the earldom, and died in 1792, having been blind 
 some years. 
 
 NORTH W T EST TERRITORY, now divi- 
 ded into the Territories of Iowa (see Iowa,) and 
 Wisconsin. The latter is bounded on the north 
 by the British possessions, east by lake Superior, 
 Michigan State, and lake, south by Illinois, and 
 west by the Mississippi. Its largest rivers are 
 the Wisconsin or Porcupine, which falls into the 
 Mississippi at Fort Crawford, and the Fox, 
 which, after passing through lake Winnebago, 
 empties into Green Bay, a large arm of lake 
 Michigan, between Fort. Howard and Navarino. 
 Milwaukee on lake Michigan, at the mouth of 
 Milwaukee river has the best harbor in the Ter- 
 ritory. It is a prairie country, and like Iowa 
 contains mines of lead and copper. The num- 
 ber of inhabitants by the census of 1840, 
 was 30,752. 
 
 NORWAY, an extensive kingdom of the 
 north of Europe, united to Sweden in 1814. 
 The face of the country is broken by mount- 
 ain ridges, the summits of which are covered 
 with snow and ice. The climate presents the 
 extremes of heat and cold, and a great propor- 
 tion of the soil is barren In fact, the wealth 
 of Norway consists in timber, cattle, fisheries, 
 and minerals. The chief towns are Bergen, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 NOV 
 
 368 
 
 NOV 
 
 Christiana, Drontheim, Konigsberg, Christian- 
 sand, and Fredericshall. Population, 1,150,132. 
 Norway was divided into petty principalities 
 until the ninth century, and was little known 
 till 1397, when it was incorporated with Den- 
 mark. Their peaceful union continued till 
 1814, when it was interrupted by the treaty 
 which the king of Denmark was compelled to 
 make with Great Britain, resigning the sove- 
 reignty of Norway to the king of Sweden, to 
 which Norway was forced to submit ; but as 
 an integral state, and with the preservation of 
 its constitution and laws. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF PRINCES. 
 
 800 Getho. 
 991 Olausl. 
 998 Sueno. 
 
 1011 Olaus II. 
 
 In 1029, Norway was conquered by Canute 
 the Great king of Denmark, and was governed 
 by Sueno, as regent. On the death of Canute, 
 Norway recovered its independence. 
 
 1036 Macrnus I, 
 
 1048 Harold I, 
 
 1066 Olaus III, 
 
 1077 Magnus II, 
 
 1110 Magnus III, 
 
 1138 Harold II, 
 
 1148 Magnus III, restored, 
 
 1158 Ingo Gibbus, 
 
 1176 Interregnum, 
 
 1180 Magnus IV, 
 
 1232 Hakon I, the Tyrant, 
 
 1263 Olaus IV, 
 
 1280 Erick, 
 
 1300 Hakon II, 
 
 1315 Magnus V, 
 
 1326 Hakon III, 
 
 1328 Magnus VI, 
 
 1359 Hakon IV, 
 
 1375 Olaus V, 
 
 1387 Margaret, Qneen of Denmark. 
 
 In 1417, the kingdoms of Denmark and Nor- 
 way were united, under Erick IX. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA , a British province of North 
 America, a peninsula jutting out into the Atlan- 
 tic, containing about 15,617 square miles. It is 
 about 250 miles in length, and partially sepa- 
 rated from New Brunswick by the Bay of 
 Fundy. The country is somewhat rough, but 
 the soil in the interior is good. The exports 
 consist principally of fish, timber, and plaster 
 of Paris. Halifax is the chief town. Popula- 
 tion, 160,000. of which 30,000 belong to Cape 
 Breton, in which is a dependancy of this prov- 
 
 ince. Nova Scotia was discovered by John 
 Cabot in 1497. The French, who gave it the 
 name of Acadia, were the first settlers. Sir 
 William Alexander settled in Nova Scotia in 
 1621, but it was surrendered to the French by 
 Charles I, on the family alliance between him 
 and that court in 1632. It was recovered by 
 Major Sedgwick, under Cromwell, in 1654; 
 delivered again to the French, by Charles II, in 
 1662 ; recovered by Sir William Phipps in 1690 ; 
 ceded to France at the peace of Ryswick in 
 1697 ; but conquered again by the English in 
 1710, and confirmed to them by the treaty of 
 Utrecht in 1714. Afterward, in conjunction 
 with the Indians, the French gave great distur- 
 bance to the English settlers in this country ; 
 but their possession was again confirmed by the 
 treaty of Aix-a-Chapelle in 1748. 
 
 NOVGOROD, a city of European Russia, 
 containing 10,000 inhabitants. It is the capi- 
 tal of a government of the same name, and for- 
 merly enjoyed many privileges under an inde- 
 pendent prince. It was once so rich and pow- 
 erful, that a common proverb was, " Who can 
 oppose God, or the great city of Novgorod ?" 
 Vithold, Great Duke of Lithuania, was the first, 
 who, in 1427, obliged this city to pay a tribute 
 of 200,000 crowns. John Basilowitz Grotsdin, 
 tyrant of Moscovy, made himself master of it 
 in 1477, and placed a governor in it ; and, some 
 time after, came in person and plundered the city, 
 carrying away with him to Moscow, 300 wag- 
 ons loaded with gold, silver, and precious stones, 
 and other rich goods and furniture; to which 
 place he also transported the inhabitants of Nov- 
 gorod, and sent Moscovites to inhabit their city. 
 John Basilowitz, Great Duke of Moscovy, in 
 1569, upon a groundless suspicion of their de- 
 signing to revolt, slew many of its inhabitants, 
 besides a vast number that were trodden to 
 death by a party of his horse, let in upon them. 
 After having plundered the rich church of 
 Sancta Sophia, and all the treasures of the other 
 churches, he also pillaged the archbis-hopnc, 
 and then commanded the archbishop to ride 
 upon a while horse, with a fiddle tied about 
 his neck, and a flute in his hand ; and in this 
 posture conducted him to Moscow. This city 
 was taken by the Swedes in 1611. and restored 
 to the Russians in 1634. In 1664, it was popu- 
 lous, and a place of good trade, encompassed 
 with a timber wall, well stored with ammuni- 
 tion and brass ordnance, and defended by a 
 castle. This duchy, once the greatest in Rus- 
 sia, was assigned by lot to Ruruk Varegus, their 
 first duke, whose posterity enlarged their do- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 NUM 
 
 59 
 
 (EDI 
 
 minions as far as the Greek empire on one side, 
 and Norway on the other. 
 
 NUMA POMPILIUS, a Sabine, the second 
 king of Rome, reigned from 714 to 672 B. C. 
 At the death of Romulus, the Romans fixed 
 upon him to be their new king ; and two sen- 
 ators were sent to acquaint him with the deci- 
 sions of the senate, and of the people. Numa 
 refused their offers ; and it was only at the re- 
 peated solicitations and prayers of his friends, 
 that he was prevailed upon to accept the royalty. 
 The beginning of his reign was popular, and he 
 dismissed the 300 body guards which his pre- 
 decessor had kept around his person ; observ- 
 ing, that he did not distrust a people who had 
 compelled him to reign over them. He was not 
 like Romulus, fond of war and military expedi- 
 tions ; but he applied himself to tame he feuo- 
 city of his subjects, to inculcate in the r minds 
 a reverence for the Deity, and to qu 11 their 
 dissensions, by dividing all the citizens .nto dif- 
 ferent classes. 
 
 NUMANTIA, a town of Spain, n ar the 
 sources of the river Durius, celebrated for the 
 war of 14 years, which, though unprotected by 
 walls and towers, it bravely maintained against 
 the Romans. The inhabitants obtained some 
 advantages over the Roman forces, till Scipio 
 Africanus was empowered to finish the war, 
 and to see the destruction of Nurnantia. He 
 began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, 
 and was bravely opposed by the besieged, who 
 were no more than 4,000 men able to bear arms. 
 Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, 
 and the courage of the Numantines was soon 
 changed into despair and fury. Their provi- 
 sions began to fail, and they fed upon the flesh 
 of their horses, and afterwards of that of their 
 dead companions, and at last, were necessitated 
 to draw lots to kill and devour one another. 
 The melancholy situation of thei) affairs obliged 
 some to surrender to the Roman general. Sci- 
 pio demanded them to deliver themselves upon 
 the morrow; they refused, and when a longer 
 time had been granted to their petitions, they 
 retired and set fire to their houses, and all de- 
 stroyed themselves, B. C. 133, so that not even 
 one remained to adorn the triumph of the con- 
 queror. Some historians, however, deny that, 
 and maintain that a number of Numantines de- 
 livered themselves into Scipio's hands, and that 
 fifty of them were drawn in triumph at Rome, 
 and the rest sold as slaves. The fall of Numan- 
 tia was more glorious than that of Carthage or 
 Corinth. 
 
 O. 
 
 OATES, Titus, an infamous character, was 
 born about 1619. He was the son of a Baptist 
 preacher, and was educated at Merchant Tai- 
 lors' school, from whence he removed to Cam- 
 bridge, and afterwards took orders. In 1677, he 
 turned Roman Catholic, and was admitted into 
 the Society of Jesuits. On his return to Eng- 
 land, however, he declared himself a Protest- 
 ant, and in conjunction with one Dr. Ezrael 
 Tongue, gave information of a pretended pop- 
 ish plot ; which met with too ready a belief, and 
 several persons were executed. Oates was re- 
 warded with a pension of £1200 a year; but, 
 when James II came to the throne, he was 
 found guilty of perjury, pilloried, whipped, and 
 ordered to be imprisoned for life. In the reign 
 of William III lie obtained his liberty, and a 
 pension of £400 a year. He died in 1705. 
 
 OAXACA, one of the states of the Mexican 
 confederacy, containing about 600,000 inhabit- 
 ants. The capital, a handsome city of the same 
 name, contains 40,000 inhabitants. The climate 
 is temperate, and the soil extremely fruitful 
 Cold and silver are found in abundance. 
 
 OCTAVIA, a Roman lady, sister to the em- 
 peror Augustus, and celebrated for her beauty 
 and virtues. Her marriage with Antony was a 
 political step to reconcile her brother and her 
 husband. Antony proved for sometime atten- 
 tive to her, but he soon after despised her for 
 Cleopatra. After the battle of Actium and the 
 death of Antony, Octavia, forgetful of the in- 
 juries she had received, took into her house all 
 the children of her husband, and treated them 
 with maternal tenderness. The death of Mar- 
 cellus her son continually preyed upon the mind 
 of Octavia, who died of melancholy about ten 
 years before the Christian era. Her brother paid 
 great regard to her memory, by pronouncing 
 himself her funeral oration. The Roman people 
 also showed their respect for her virtues, by 
 their wish to pay her divine honors. 
 
 CEDIPUS, son of Laius, king of Thrace, and 
 Jocasta. Laius was induced to believe that his 
 son would be his murderer, and the infant was 
 accordingly exposed on Mount Citha;ron. He 
 was educated at the court of Polybus, king of 
 Corinth. Being reproached by a haughty no- 
 bleman with not being the son of Polybus, he 
 solved to satisfy himself by making inquiries at 
 the shrine of the Delphic oracle. The answer 
 was as follows : " Avoid thy country if thou 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 OLY 
 
 370 
 
 OLY 
 
 wouldst escape the sin of murdering thy father 
 and marrying thy mother." CEdipus, looking 
 on Corinth as his country, fled thence to Thebes, 
 where he killed his father, without knowing him, 
 and received the hand of his mother Jocasta. 
 Discovering the horrible calamity which had be- 
 fallen him, CEdipus put out his eyes, and died 
 far from the scene of his misfortunes. Jocasta 
 hanged herself. 
 
 OHIO, one of the United States, bounded 
 N. by Michigan territory and lake Erie, E. by 
 Pennsylvania and the Ohio river, S. by the 
 Ohio river which separates it from Virginia and 
 Kentucky, and W. by Indiana. The population 
 of Ohio has increased and is increasing with 
 unexampled rapidity. In 1790 it contained but 
 3,000 inhabitants. In 1840, 1,519,467. There 
 are several colleges in Ohio, all of which are 
 flourishing. 
 
 The rivers are the Ohio, Muskingum, Hock- 
 hocking, Scioto, Miami, Maumee, Sandusky, 
 and Cuyahoga. The eastern and southeastern 
 parts of the state are uneven, but not mountain- 
 ous. The soil is very fertile, yielding in abun- 
 nance wheat, maize, rye, and other kinds of 
 grain. The minerals are iron, coal, limestone, 
 and freestone. Chief towns, Columbus, Chilli- 
 cothe, Cincinnati, Steubenville, Circleville, Ma- 
 rietta, Dayton, Cleveland, New Lancaster, &c. 
 The first permanent settlement in Ohio was 
 made at Marietta, April, 178S, by a party of emi- 
 grants from New England. In 1799 the first ter- 
 ritorial legislature was assembled at Cincinnati. 
 In 1802 it was erected into an independent state. 
 
 OLDCASTLE, Sir John, Lord Cobham, was 
 the head of the Lollards, and esteemed by 
 Henry IV and Henry V. The latter monarch 
 at the instance of the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, expostulated with him, and endeavored 
 to reconcile him to the Catholic faith. But 
 Cobham persevered in his opinion, and was at 
 length condemned to the flames for his religious 
 tenets. Cobham escaped from the tower and 
 four years afterwards was retaken, hanged as 
 a traitor,, and his body burnt. 
 
 OLMUTZ, or HOLOMAUC; a city and 
 formerly capital of Moravia, with 12,890 inha- 
 bitants. It was captured by the Swedes in 1642, 
 and unsuccessfully besieged by the Prussians in 
 1758. Lafayette was a long time confined in 
 the prisons of the citadel. 
 
 OLYMPIAS, a celebrated woman, who was 
 daughter of a king of Epirus, and who married 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, by whom she had 
 Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness, and 
 more probably her infidelity, obliged Philip to re- 
 
 pudiate her, and to marry Cleopatra, the niece 
 of King Attalus. Olympias was sensible of this 
 injury, and Alexander showed his disapproba- 
 tion of his father's measures by retiring from 
 the court to his mother. The murder of Philip, 
 which soon followed this disgrace, and which 
 some have attributed to the intrigues of Olym- 
 pias, was productive of the greatest extrava- 
 gances. The queen paid the highest honor to 
 her husband's murderer. She gathered his man- 
 gled limbs, placed a crowm of gold on his head, 
 and laid his ashes near those of Philip. 
 
 When Alexander w r as dead, Olympias seized 
 the government of Macedonia; and, to estab- 
 lish her usurpation, she cruelly put to death Ari- 
 daeus, with his wife Eurydice, as also Nicanor, 
 the brother of Cassander, with 100 leading men 
 of Macedon, who were inimical to her interest. 
 Such barbarities did not long remain unpun- 
 ished ; Cassander besieged her in Pydna, where 
 she had retired with the remains of her family, 
 and she was obliged to surrender after an obsti- 
 nate siege. The conqueror ordered her to be 
 accused, and to be put to death. A body of 200 
 soldiers were directed to put the bloody com- 
 mands into execution, but the splendor and 
 majesty of the queen disarmed their courage, 
 and she was at last massacred by those whom 
 she had cruelly deprived of their children, about 
 316 years before the Christian era. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES, were celebrated by the 
 ancient Greeks in honor of Jupiter Olympius, 
 on the plain opposite the modern town of Lala. 
 They occurred once in every four years, and 
 the Greeks computed time from them. They 
 alwaj's commenced on the 11th of the month 
 Hecatombceon (which nearly corresponds with 
 our July.) No females, except the priestesses 
 of Ceres, were permitted to witness them, death 
 being denounced to the woman who should be 
 present. The competitors prepared themselves 
 by ten months' exercise in the gymnasium at 
 Elis. The games consisted of races on horse- 
 back and on foot, leaping, throwing the discus, 
 wrestling, boxing, musical and poetical contests. 
 The reward was a wreath of olives. 
 
 Placing was considered in Greece a matter 
 of the highest national importance ; had it not 
 been so, Sophocles would have been guilty of 
 a great fault in his Electra, where he puts 
 into the mouth of the messenger who comes to 
 recount the death of Orestes, a long description 
 of this sport. Of the training and management 
 of the Olympic race-horse we are unfortunate- 
 ly left in ignorance — all that can be inferred 
 being the fact, that the equestrian candidates 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 OMA 
 
 371 
 
 OMA 
 
 were required to enter their names and send 
 their horses to Elis at least thirty days before 
 the celebration of the games commenced, and 
 that the charioteers and riders, whether owners 
 or proxies, went through a prescribed course 
 of exercises during the ensuing month. They 
 had their course for full-aged horses, and their 
 course for colts ; and their prize for which mares 
 only started, resembling in these respects our 
 degenerate selves. It is true that the race with 
 riding-horses was neither so magnificent, nor 
 so expensive, and consequently not considered 
 so royal, as the race with chariots, yet they 
 had their gentlemen-jockeys in those days, and 
 noted ones too, for among the number were 
 Philip, king of Macedon, and Hiero, king of 
 Syracuse (see Hiero.) The want of stirrups 
 alone must have been a terrible deficiency. But 
 horsemanship was an art in which the Greeks 
 excelled. Homer, although he mentions only 
 chariots in his account of the siege of Troy, 
 speaks of riding so familiarly in some parts of 
 his Iliad and Odyssey, that it must have been 
 practised among the Greeks before the compo- 
 sition of either of these poems. In the fifteenth 
 book of the Iliad, he represents the strength and 
 activity of Ajax, when he fought in defence of 
 the Grecian ships of war that were attacked by 
 the Trojans, and leaped from one ship to an- 
 other, by the readiness and address with which 
 a skilful horseman would vault from the back 
 of one horse to that of another ; and his ability 
 to defend many ships at once by that of an ac- 
 complished rider, who is capable of managing 
 and controlling several horses at the same time. 
 
 High on the decks, with vast gigantic stride, 
 The god-like hero stalks from side to side. 
 So when a horseman from the watery mead 
 (Skilled in the manage of the bounding steed,) 
 Drives four fair coursers, practised to obey, 
 To some great city through the public way ; 
 Safe in his art, as side by side they run, 
 He shifts his seat, and vaults from one to one, 
 And now to this, and now to that he flies ; 
 Admiring numbers follow with their eyes. 
 {Pope's Homer. 
 
 The Olympiad, from which the Greeks began 
 to reckon, was, according to Petavius, 1777 ; ac- 
 cording to Usher, 1772 ; and according to Cal- 
 visius, 774 B. C. Gatterer, and most of the 
 moderns call it 776. 
 
 OMAR I, the second caliph, or successor of 
 Mahomet. He was raised to this dignity after 
 the death of Abubeker in 634. Soon after his 
 entering upon the government, he carried on 
 wars with Ali, who was the lawful successor 
 of Mahomet, and who had retired into Arabia. 
 32 
 
 Omar having defeated Ali, taken the city Bosra, 
 and many other places of Arabia, turned his 
 arms against the Christians, and entered Syria, 
 where he gained a victory over Theodorus Bo- 
 gairus, brother to the Emperor Heraclius, and 
 afterwards returned victorious into Arabia. The 
 emperor, who was then at Jerusalem, desirous 
 to provide for his own safety, took the relics 
 and most precious ornaments of the temple; 
 and leaving Theodorus with Bahamus, retired 
 to Constantinople. In 635, Omar gathered his 
 forces, and marched against Damascus, which 
 he took the year following, and afterwards all 
 Phoenicia, and committed a thousand violences 
 to force people to embrace his religion. The. year 
 following, a part of his army subdued Alexan- 
 dria, and not long after all Egypt. In the mean 
 time, Omar went in person to attack Jerusalem, 
 and after two years' siege entered it victoriously 
 in 638. Omar thus reduced all Judea to his obe- 
 dience, and Jerusalem was, from that time, pos- 
 sessed by infidels till the conquest of it by God- 
 frey of Bouillon in 1099. In 639 he subdued 
 all Mesopotamia, and at the same time built the 
 city of Cairo, near the ruins of Memphis, in 
 Egypt. And lastly, in 643, he made himself 
 master of Persia. From the time of his taking 
 Jerusalem he made his ordinary residence in 
 that city, and built a magnificent temple there in 
 honor of Mahomet ; and, after having reigned 
 ten years, he was killed by a Persian, one of his 
 domestics, and buried at Medina in 644. 
 
 OMAR II, the tenth caliph, or successor of 
 Mahomet, was chosen after the death of his 
 cousin, Solyman Hascoin, in the beginning of 
 the year 721, at the time that Constantinople 
 was besieged. He collected all his forces, and 
 attacked that city ; but the besieged made so 
 stout a resistance, and so good use of their fire- 
 works, that he was forced to raise it. And 
 scarcely was Marvan, or Masalma, the general 
 of the army, safe out of the channel of Con- 
 stantinople, when a dreadful tempest destroyed 
 most of his ships, and many others were con- 
 sumed by fire, so that of 300 ships only fifteen 
 escaped, five of which were taken by the Chris- 
 tians, and the other ten proceeded with the 
 news of this defeat to the caliph, who imagin- 
 ing that God was angry with him for permit- 
 ting Christians the exercise of their religion in 
 his dominions, made all those whose fathers or 
 mothers were Mahometans, embrace Mahome- 
 tanism on pain of death, and upon great pen- 
 alties forbade the eating of swine's flesh, and 
 use of wine. He discharged all Christians that 
 turned Mahometans from paying taxes and eus- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 OR A 
 
 372 
 
 OR A 
 
 toms, and cruelly persecuted the others ; and 
 pushed on by a false zeal, he sent letters to Leo 
 Isauricus, the emperor of Constantinople, to 
 embrace Mahometanism, and sent a renegade 
 to instruct Mm in the way of it •, but he died 
 soon after, having reigned two years. 
 
 OPORTO, or PORTO, the second city of 
 Portugal, lies on both sides of the Duero, about 
 160 miles north of Lisbon. It contains 70,000 
 inhabitants. It was in the possession of the 
 French in 1808 — 9, and its commerce has suf- 
 fered much from the tyrannical regulations of 
 Don Miguel. 
 
 ORACLES, Ancient, impostures of the priest- 
 hood, supported by the policy of governments, 
 and apparently credited by habit and education ; 
 but constantly used to impose on the soldiery 
 and ignorant multitudes. 
 
 No institutions were more famous than the 
 ancient oracles of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. 
 They were impudently said to be the will of 
 the gods themselves ; and were consulted, not 
 only upon every important matter, but even in 
 the affairs of private life. To make peace or 
 war, to introduce a change of government, to 
 plant a colony, to enact laws, to raise an edi- 
 fice, or to marry, were all sufficient reasons to 
 consult the pretended will of the gods. 
 
 The small province of Bceotia could once 
 boast of 25 oracles, and Peloponnesus of the 
 same number. Not only the chief of the gods 
 gave oracles, but in process of time heroes 
 were admitted to enjoy the same privileges ; 
 and the oracles of a Trophonius and an Anti- 
 noiis were soon able to rival the fame of those 
 of Apollo and Jupiter. The temple of Delphi 
 seemed to claim a superiority over the other 
 temples ; its fame was once so extended, and its 
 riches were so great, that not only private per- 
 sons, but even kings and numerous armies, 
 made it an object of plunder and of rapine. 
 
 The manner of delivering oracles was differ- 
 ent. A priestess at Delphi was permitted to 
 pronounce the oracles of the god, and her de- 
 livery of the answers was always attended with 
 acts of apparent madness and desperate fury. 
 Not only women, but even doves, were the min- 
 isters of the temple of Dodona ; and the sup- 
 pliant votary was often startled to hear his ques- 
 tions readily answered by the decayed trunk, 
 or the spreading branches of a neighboring oak. 
 Ammon conveyed his answers in a plain and 
 open manner ; but Amphiaraus required many 
 ablutions and preparatory ceremonies, and he 
 generally communicated his oracles to his sup- 
 pliants in dreams and visions. Sometimes the 
 
 first words that were heard, after issuing from 
 the temple, were deemed the answers of the 
 oracles, and sometimes the nodding or shaking 
 of the head of the statue, the motions of fishes 
 in a neighboring lake, or their reluctance in 
 accepting the food which was offered to them, 
 were as strong and valid as the most express 
 and most minute explanations. 
 
 Some have strongly believed that all the ora- 
 cles of the earth ceased at the birth of Christ, 
 but the supposition is false. It was, indeed, the 
 beginning of their decline ; but they remained 
 in repute, and were consulted, though perhaps 
 not so frequently, till the fourth century, when 
 Christianity began to triumph over paganism. 
 The oracles often suffered themselves to be 
 bribed. Alexander did it ; but it is well known 
 that Lysander failed in the attempt. Herodotus, 
 who first mentioned the corruption which often 
 prevailed in the oracular temples of Greece and 
 Egypt, has been severely treated for his remarks 
 by the historian Plutarch. Demosthenes is also 
 a witness of the corruption ; and he observed, 
 that the oracles of Greece were servilely sub- 
 servient to the will and pleasure of Philip, king 
 of Macedon, as he beautifully expresses it by 
 the word Philippized. 
 
 When in a state of inspiration, the eyes of 
 the priestess suddenly sparkled, her hair stood 
 on end, and a shivering ran over all her body. 
 In this convulsive state she spoke the oracles 
 of the god, often with loud howlings and cries, 
 and her articulations were taken down by the 
 priest, and set in order. Sometimes the spirit 
 of inspiration was more gentle, and not always 
 violent; yet Plutarch mentions one of the 
 priestesses who was thrown into such an ex 
 cessive fury, that not only those that consulted 
 the oracle, but also the priests that conducted 
 her to the sacred tripod, and attended her dur- 
 ing the inspiration, were terrified, and forsook 
 the temple ; and so violent was the fit, that she 
 continued for some days in the most agonizing 
 situation, and at last died. 
 
 At Delphos, the Pythia, before she placed 
 herself on the tripod, used to wash her whole 
 body, and particularly her hair, in the waters of 
 the fountain Castalia, at the foot of Mount Par- 
 nassus. She also shook a laurel-tree that grew 
 near the place, and sometimes ate the leaves, 
 with which she crowned herself. 
 
 The priestesses always appeared in the gar- 
 ments of virgins, to intimate their purity and 
 modesty; and they were solemnly bound to 
 observe the strictest laws of temperance and 
 chastity, that neither fantastical dresses nor 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ORA 
 
 373 
 
 ORA 
 
 lascivious behavior might bring the office, the 
 religion, or the sanctity of the place, into con- 
 tempt. There was originally but one Pythia, 
 besides subordinate priests ; but afterwards two 
 were chosen, and sometimes more. The most 
 celebrated of all these is Phemonoe, who is 
 supposed by some to have been the first who 
 gave oracles at Delphi. The oracles were al- 
 ways delivered in hexameter verses, a custom 
 which was some time after discontinued. The 
 Pythia was consulted only one month in the 
 year, about the spring. It was always required, 
 that those who consulted the oracle should make 
 large presents to Apollo, and from thence arose 
 the opulence, splendor, and the magnificence, 
 of the celebrated temple of Delphi. Sacrifices 
 were also offered to the divinity; and, if the 
 omens proved unfavorable, the priestess refused 
 to give an answer. There were generally five 
 priests who assisted at the offering of the sacri- 
 fices ; and there w T as also anothei who attended 
 the Pythia, and assisted her in receiving the 
 oracle. 
 
 The most celebrated of the ancient oracles 
 were Delphos,Delos, Ammon, Dodona, the Ro- 
 man Augurs, and the Sibylline Books. 
 
 Delphos, now called Castri, the capital of 
 Phocis, in Greece, was anciently much celebrat- 
 ed for its temple and oracle of Apollo. It was 
 also called Pytho by the poets, from the serpent 
 Python, which Apollo killed in this place. Pau- 
 sanias, however, says that this name Pytho was 
 given to the city of Delphos by Py this, son of 
 Delphus, and grandson of Lycorus. The Greek 
 historians gave to this city the name of Delphos, 
 which some suppose to have been so called 
 from Adelpkol, brethren, because Apollo and his 
 brother Bacchus were both worshipped there ; 
 and others, with greater probability, derive the 
 name from Delphos, single or solitary, referring 
 to the retired situation of the city among the 
 mountains. 
 
 Justin questions which was the most wor- 
 thy of admiration, the fortification of the place, 
 or the majesty of the god who here delivered 
 his oracles. The temple of Apollo occupied a 
 large space, and many streets opened to it. The 
 first discovery which laid the foundation of the 
 extraordinary veneration in which the oracle 
 of Delphos was held, and of the riches accu- 
 mulated in the temple, is said to have been 
 occasioned by some goats which were feeding 
 on Mount Parnassus, near a deep and large 
 cavern, with a narrow.entrance. These goats 
 having been observed by the goatherd, Core- 
 tas, to frisk and leap after a strange manner, 
 
 and to utter unusual sounds immediately upon 
 their approach to the mouth of the cavern, he 
 had the curiosity to view it, and found himself 
 seized with the like fit of madness, skipping, 
 dancing, and foretelling things to come. 
 
 At the news of this discovery multitudes 
 flocked thither, many of whom were possessed 
 with such frantic enthusiasm, that they threw 
 themselves headlong into the opening of the 
 cavern, insomuch that it was necessary to issue 
 an edict, forbidding all persons to approach it. 
 This surprising place was treated with singular 
 veneration, and was soon covered with a kind 
 of chapel, which was originally made of laurel 
 boughs, and resembled a large hut. This, ac- 
 cording to the Phocian tradition, was surround- 
 ed by one of wax, raised up by bees ; after this 
 a third was built of solid copper, said to have 
 been the workmanship of Vulcan. 
 
 This last was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 or (according to some authors) by fire, which 
 melted the copper ; and then a sumptuous tem- 
 ple, altogether of stone, was erected by two ex- 
 cellent architects, Trophimus and Agamedes. 
 This edifice was destroyed by fire in the 58th 
 Olympiad, or 548 years B. C. The Amphicty 
 ons proposed to be at the charge of building 
 another ; but the Alcmeonides,a rich family of 
 Athens, came to Delphos, obtained the honor 
 of executing the building, and made it more 
 magnificent than they had at first proposed. 
 The riches of this temple, amassed by the do- 
 nations of those who frequented it, and consult- 
 ed the oracle, exposed it to various depreda- 
 tions. At length the Gauls, under the conduct 
 of Brennus, came hither for the same purpose, 
 about 278 years B.C.; but they were repulsed 
 with great slaughter. Last of all, Nero robbed 
 it of five hundred of its most precious brazen 
 and golden statues. 
 
 It has not been ascertained at what time this 
 oracle was founded. It is certain, however, 
 that Apollo was not the first who was consulted 
 here. iEschylus, in his tragedy of Eumenides, 
 says, Terra was the first who issued oracles at 
 Delphi : after her, Themis, then Phcabe, another 
 daughter of Terra, and, as it is said, mother of 
 Latona, and grandmother to Apollo. Pausanias 
 says, that before Themis, Terra and Neptune 
 had delivered oracles in this place, and some 
 say that Saturn had also been consulted here. 
 At length the oracle of Apollo became estab- 
 lished and permanent ; and such was its repu- 
 tation, and such were the multitudes from all 
 parts that came to consult it, that the riches 
 whiqh were thus brought into the temple and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ORA 
 
 374 
 
 OKA 
 
 city, became so considerable as to be compared 
 with those of tne Persian kings. 
 
 About the time when this oracle was first 
 discovered, the whole mystery requisite for ob- 
 taining the prophetic gift, is said to have been 
 merely to approach the cavern and inhale the 
 vapor that issued from it, and then the god inspir- 
 ed all persons indiscriminately ; but at length, 
 several enthusiasts, in the excess of their fury, 
 having thrown themselves headlong into the 
 cavern, it was thought expedient to contrive a 
 prevention of this accident, which frequently 
 occurred; Accordingly, the priests placed over 
 the hole, whence the vapor issued, a machine 
 which they called a tripod, because it had three 
 feet, and commissioned a woman to seat her- 
 self in it, where she might inhale the vapor 
 without danger, because the three feet of the 
 machine stood firmly upon the rock. This 
 priestess was named Pythia, from the serpent 
 Python, slain by Apollo, or from the Greek pa- 
 thesthai, signifying to inquire, because people 
 came to Delphi to consult this deity. The fe- 
 males first employed, were virgins, selected 
 with great precaution ; but the only-qualifica- 
 tion necessary was to be able to speak and re- 
 peat what the god dictated. 
 
 This was done by placing her ear close to 
 one of the horns of the altar, and listening to 
 the voice of one of Apollo's priests, to whom 
 the question had been communicated. This 
 priest, who stood near the altar, in the interior 
 of the temple, having been assisted by his 
 brethren in the necessary devotions and sacri- 
 fices, opened the Book of Fate, which was de- 
 posited in the temple, and after many prayers 
 worked the required problems. The answer, 
 which from the nature of the case in hand, was 
 often conditional, being communicated to the 
 priestess on the tripod, was, after various cere- 
 monies, delivered to the inquiring multitude, 
 or to the individual who came privately to con- 
 sult the oracle. 
 
 The custom of choosing young virgins con- 
 tinued for a long time, till one of them, who 
 was extremely beautiful, w T as dishonored by a 
 young Thessalian. An express law was then 
 enacted, that none should be chosen but wo- 
 men above fifty years old. At first there was 
 only one priestess, but afterwards there were 
 two or three. The oracles were not delivered 
 every day ; but gifts and sacrifices were in 
 some cases presented for a long time, and even 
 for a whole year ; and it was only once a year, 
 in the month bosion, which answered to the 
 beginning of spring, that Apollo inspired the 
 
 priestess. Except on this day, she was forbid- 
 den, under pain of death, to go into the sanc- 
 tuary to consult Apollo. 
 
 Alexander, before his expedition into Asia, 
 came to Delphi on one of those days when the 
 sanctuary was shut, and entreated the priestess 
 to mount the tripod; which she steadily refus- 
 ed, alleging the law which forbade her. The 
 prince became impatient, and drew the priestess 
 by force from her cell, and whilst he was con- 
 ducting her to the sanctuary, she took occasion 
 to exclaim, " My son, thou art invincible ! /" As 
 soon as these words were pronounced, Alexan- 
 der cried out that he was satisfied, and would 
 have no other oracle. 
 
 It is here to be observed, however, that great, 
 but unnecessary, preparations were often made, 
 for giving mysteriousness to the oracle, and for 
 commanding the respect that was paid to it. 
 Among other circumstances relating to the sac- 
 rifices that were offered, the priestess herself 
 fasted three days, and before she ascended the 
 tripod, she bathed herself in the fountain Cas- 
 talia. She drank water from that fountain, and 
 chewed laurel-leaves gathered near it. She was 
 then led into the sanctuary by the priests, who 
 placed her upon the tripod. 
 
 As soon as she began to be agitated b} 7 the 
 divine exhalation, said to arise from the cavern, 
 but which was merely the vapor of incense 
 burnt there, in order to give more mystery to 
 the affair, her hair stood on end, her aspect be- 
 came wild and ghastly, her mouth began to 
 foam, and her whole body was suddenly seized 
 with violent tremblings. In this condition she 
 attempted to escape from the priests, who de- 
 tained her by force, while her shrieks and howl- 
 ings made the whole temple resound, and filled 
 the bystanders with a sacred horror. 
 
 At length, unable to resist the impulse of the 
 god, she surrendered herself up to him, and at 
 certain intervals uttered from the bottom of her 
 stomach, by the faculty or power of ventrilo- 
 quism, some unconnected words, which the 
 priests ranged in order, and put in form of verse, 
 giving them a connection which they had not 
 when they were delivered by the priestess. 
 The oracle being pronounced, the priestess was 
 taken off the tripod, and conducted back to her 
 cell, where she continued several days, to re- 
 cover herself. Lucan tells us, that speedy death 
 was frequently the consequence of her enthu- 
 siasm. The oracles pronounced by the priestess 
 being generally delivered to the poets, who at- 
 tended on the occasion, and being put by them 
 into wretched verse, gave occasion to the rail- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ORA 
 
 375 
 
 ORA 
 
 Sery, that " Apollo the prince of the muses, was 
 the worst of poets." The priests and priest- 
 esses, to whose conduct the responses of the 
 oracle were committed, were, however, fre- 
 quently guilty of fraud and imposture. And 
 many instances might be mentioned, in which 
 the Delphic priestess was not superior to cor- 
 ruption. Hence she persuaded the Lacedaemo- 
 nians to assist the people of Athens in the ex- 
 pulsion of the thirty t} r rants. Hence, also, she 
 caused Demaratus to be divested of the royal 
 dignity to make way for Cleomenes ; and sup- 
 ported the impostor Lysander, when he endea- 
 vored to change the succession to the throne 
 of Sparta. It is not improbable, that Themisto- 
 cles, who well knew the importance of acting 
 against the Persians by sea, inspired the god 
 with the answer he gave, " to defend them- 
 selves with walls of wood." 
 
 These answers were likewise, on many occa- 
 sions equivocal. Thus, when Croesus was about 
 to invade the Medes, he consulted this oracle 
 upon the success of the war, and received for an- 
 swer, that by passing the river Halys, he should 
 ruin a great empire. But he was left to conjec- 
 ture, or to determine by the event, whether this 
 empire was his own or that of his enemies. Such 
 was also the same oracle's answer to Pyrrhus, — 
 i Aio te, JFMcide, Romanos vincere posse, '--which 
 meant, " I say O son of iEacus, that thou canst 
 overcome the Romans," or, " I say O son of 
 iEacus, that the Romans can overcome thee." 
 The oracle of Apollo, in Delos, was one of the 
 most famous oracles in the world, not only for 
 its antiquity, but for the richness of the sacred 
 presents dedicated to the god, and the numbers 
 of persons' that resorted hither from all parts 
 for advice ; in which respect it surpassed not 
 only all the oracles of other gods, but even those 
 of Apollo himself, — that of Delphos alone ex- 
 cepted. Some writers say, that the island had 
 the name of Delos, from the clear and simple 
 terms in which the answers were here given by 
 the oracle, contrary to the ambiguity observed 
 in other places ; but it was consulted only while 
 Apollo made Delos his summer residence, for 
 his winter abode was at Patara, a city of Ly- 
 cia. The presents offered by the votaries to 
 Apollo, were laid on the altar, which, as some 
 say, was erected by Apollo himself, when he 
 was only four years old, and formed of the 
 horns of goats, killed by Diana, on Mount Cyn- 
 thus. It was preserved pure from blood and 
 every kind of pollution, as offensive to Apollo. 
 The whole island was an asylum, which ex- 
 tended to all living creatures, dogs excepted, 
 32* 
 
 which were not suffered to be brought on 
 shore. 
 
 The native deities, Apollo and Diana, had 
 three very magnificent temples erected for them 
 in this island. That of Apollo, was, according 
 to Strabo, (lib. x.) begun by Erysiapthus, the 
 son of Cecrops, who is said to have possessed 
 this island 1558 years B. C. ; but it was after- 
 wards much enlarged and embellished at the 
 general charge of all the Grecian states. But 
 Plutarch says, that it was one of the most state- 
 ly buildings in the universe, and describes its 
 altar, as deserving a place among the seven 
 wonders of the world. The inscription in this 
 temple, as Aristotle informs us, (Ethic. 1. i. c. 9.) 
 was as follows : " Of all things the most beau- 
 tiful is justice ; the most useful is health ; and 
 the most agreeable is the possession of the be- 
 loved object." Round the temple were magni- 
 ficent porticoes, built at the charge of various 
 princes, as appears from the still legible inscrip- 
 tions. To this temple the neighboring islands 
 sent yearly a company of virgins to celebrate 
 with dancing the festival of Apollo, and his 
 sister Diana, and to make offerings in the name 
 of their respective cities. 
 
 Delos was held in such reverence by most 
 nations, that even the Persians, after having 
 laid waste the other islands, and every where 
 destroyed the temples of the gods, spared De- 
 los; and Datis, the Persian admiral, forbore to 
 anchor in the harbor. 
 
 The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the 
 deserts of Libya, nine days journey from Alex- 
 andria. It had a famous oracle, which, accord- 
 ing to ancient tradition, was established about 
 18 centuries before the time of Augustus, by 
 two doves which flew away from Thebais in 
 Egypt, and came, one to Dodona, and the other 
 to Libya, where the people were soon informed 
 of their divine mission. The oracle of Ammon 
 was consulted by Hercules, Perseus, and others ; 
 but when it pronounced Alexander to be the 
 son of Jupiter, such flattery destroyed its long 
 established reputation, and in the age of Plu- 
 tarch it was scarcely known. The situation of 
 the temple was pleasant ; and there was near it 
 a fountain whose waters were cold at noon and 
 midnight, and warm in the morning and even- 
 ing. There were above 100 priests in the tem- 
 ple, but the elders only delivered oracles. There 
 was also an oracle of Jupiter Ammon in iEtlii- 
 opia. 
 
 Dodona was a town of Thesprotia in Epirus. 
 There was in its neighborhood, upon a small 
 hill called Tmarus, a celebrated trade of Jupi 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ORA 
 
 376 
 
 ORA 
 
 ter. The town and temple of the god were first 
 built by Deucalion, after the universal deluge. 
 It was supposed to be the most ancient oracle 
 of all Greece, and according to the traditions 
 of the Egyptians mentioned by Herodotus, it 
 was founded by a dove. Two black doves, as 
 he relates, took their flight from the city of 
 Thebes in Egypt, one of which flew to the tem- 
 ple of Jupiter Amnion, and the other to Dodona, 
 where with a human voice they acquainted the 
 inhabitants of the country that Jupiter had con- 
 secrated the ground, which in future would give 
 oracles. The extensive grove which surround- 
 ed Jupiter's temple was endowed with the gift 
 of prophecy, and oracles were frequently de- 
 livered by the sacred oaks, and the doves which 
 inhabited the place. This fabulous tradition of 
 the oracular power of the doves, is explained 
 by Herodotus, who observes that some Phoeni- 
 cians carried away two priestesses from Egypt, 
 one of whom went to fix her residence at Do- 
 dona, where the oracle was established. It may 
 further be observed, that the fable might have 
 been founded upon the double meaning of the 
 word peleiai, which signifies doves in most parts 
 of Greece, while in the dialect of the Epirots, 
 it implies old women. In ancient times the 
 oracles were delivered by the murmuring of a 
 neighboring fountain, but the custom was after- 
 wards changed. Large kettles were suspended 
 in the air near a brazen statue, which held a 
 lash in its hand. When the wind blew strong, 
 the statue was agitated and struck against one 
 of the kettles, which communicated the motion 
 to all the rest, and raised that clattering and 
 discordant din which continued for a while, 
 and from which the priests drew their predic- 
 tions. Some suppose that the noise was occa- 
 sioned by the shaking of the leaves and boughs 
 of an old oak, which the people frequently con- 
 sulted, and from which they pretended to re- 
 ceive the oracles. It may be observed with 
 more probability that the oracles were delivered 
 by the priests, who, by concealing themselves 
 behind the oaks, gave occasion to the multitude 
 to believe that the trees were endowed with the 
 power of prophecy. As the ship Argo was built 
 with some of the oaks of the forest of Dodona 
 there were some beams in the vessel which 
 gave oracles to the Argonauts, and warned 
 them against the approach of calamity. Within 
 the forest of Dodona there was a stream with 
 a fountain of cool water, which had the power 
 of lighting a torch as soon as it touched it. 
 This fountain was totally dry at noon-day, and 
 wa3 restored to its full course at midnight, from 
 
 which time till the following noon it began to 
 decrease, and at the usual hour was again de- 
 prived of its waters. The oracles of Dodona 
 were originally delivered by men, but afterwards 
 by women. 
 
 The Roman Augurs, were certain priests 
 at Rome who foretold future events, and took 
 their name, ab avium garritu. They were first 
 created by Romulus to the number of three. 
 Servius Tullius added a fourth, and the tri- 
 bunes of the people, A. U. C. 454, increased 
 the number to nine ; and Sylla added six more 
 during his dictatorship. They had a particular 
 college, and the chief amongst them was called 
 Magister Collegii. Their-office was honorable} 
 and if any one of them was convicted of any 
 crime, he could not be deprived of his privi- 
 lege ; an indulgence granted to no other sacer- 
 dotal body at Rome. The augur generally sat 
 on a high tower, to make his observations. His 
 face w T as turned towards the east, and he had 
 the north to his left, and the south at his right. 
 With a crooked staff he divided the face of the 
 heavens into four different parts, and afterwards 
 sacrificed to the gods, covering his head with 
 his vestment. There were generally five things 
 from which the augurs drew omens : the first 
 consisted in observing the phenomena of the 
 heavens, such as thunder, lightning, comets, 
 &c. The second kind of omen was drawn from 
 the chirping or flying of birds. The third was 
 from the sacred chickens, whose eagerness or in- 
 difference in eating the bread which was thrown 
 to them, was looked upon as lucky or unlucky. 
 The fourth was from quadrupeds, from their 
 crossing or appearing in some unaccustomed 
 place. The fifth was from different casualties, 
 which were called Dira, such as spilling salt 
 upon a table, or wine upon ones clothes, hearing 
 strange noises, stumbling or sneezing, meeting 
 a wolf, hare, fox, or pregnant bitch. Thus did 
 the Romans draw their prophecies ; the sight 
 of birds on the left hand was always deemed 
 a lucky object, and the words sinister et lavus, 
 though generally supposed to be terms of ill 
 luck, were always used by the augurs in an 
 auspicious sense. 
 
 A strange old woman came once to Tarqui- 
 nius Superbus, king of Rome, with nine books, 
 which she said were the Oracles of Sibyls, and 
 proffered to sell them. But the king making 
 some scruple about the price, she went away 
 and burnt three of them ; and returning with 
 the six, asked the same sum as before. Tarquin 
 only laughed at the humor ; upon which the old 
 woman left him once more ; and after she had 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ORA 
 
 377 
 
 ORE 
 
 burnt three others, came again with those that 
 were left, but still kept to her old terms. The 
 king began now to wonder at her obstinacy, 
 and thinking there might be something more 
 than ordinary in the business, sent for the 
 augurs to consult what was to be done. They, 
 when their divinations were performed, soon 
 acquainted him what a piece of impiety he had 
 been guilty of, by refusing a treasure sent to 
 him from heaven, and commanded him to give 
 whatever she demanded for the books that re- 
 mained. The woman received her money, and 
 delivered the writings, and only charging them 
 by all means to keep them sacred, immediately 
 vanished. Two of the nobility were presently 
 after chosen to be the keepers of these oracles, 
 which were laid up with all imaginable care in 
 the capitol, in a chest under ground. They could 
 not be consulted without a special order of the 
 senate, which was never granted, unless upon 
 the receiving some notable defeat, upon the ris- 
 ing of any considerable mutiny or sedition in the 
 state, or upon some other extraordinary occasion. 
 The number of priests in this, as in most other 
 orders, was several times altered. The Duumviri 
 continued till about the year of the city 388, 
 when the tribunes of the people preferred a law, 
 that there should be ten men elected for this 
 service, part out of the nobility, and part out of 
 the commons. We meet with the Decemviri 
 all along from hence, till about the time of 
 Sylla the dictator, when the Quindecemviri 
 occur. It were needless to give any further ac- 
 count of the Sibyls, than that they are generally 
 agreed to have been ten in number ; for which 
 we have the authority of Varro, though some 
 make them nine, some four, some three, and 
 some only one. They all lived in different ages 
 and countries, were all prophetesses, and, ac- 
 cording to common opinion, foretold the coming 
 of our Saviour. As to the writing, Dempster 
 tells us it was on linen. 
 
 Solinus acquaints us, that the books which 
 Tarquin bought were burnt in the conflagra- 
 tion of the capitol, the year before Sylla's dic- 
 tatorship. Yet there were others of their inspired 
 writings, or at least copies or extracts of them, 
 gathered up in Greece and other parts, upon 
 a special search made by order of the senate ; 
 which were kept with the same care as the 
 former, till about the time of Theodosius the 
 Great, when the greatest part of the senate 
 having embraced the Christian faith, they began 
 to grow out of fashion ; till at last Stilicho burnt 
 them all under Honorius, for which he is severe- 
 ly censured by the poet Rutilius. 
 
 ORDEAL. In the dark ages, when judicial 
 proceedings were exceedingly imperfect, it was 
 believed that on extraordinary occasions, the 
 guilt or innocence of a suspected person would 
 be manifested by a direct interposition of the 
 deity, and various methods were resorted to to 
 procure conviction or acquittal. These were 
 termed ordeals or judgments of God. As late 
 as the 16th century it was generally believed 
 that if a murderer was forced to touch the 
 corpse of the person he had murdered, blood 
 would flow from the lips and wounds. 
 
 The ordeal was of various kinds; that of fire, 
 that of red hot iron, that of cold water, that of 
 judicial pottage, that of hallowed cheese, that of 
 boiling water, that of the cross, and that of dice 
 laid on relics covered with a woollen cloth. 
 There were particular masses for each species 
 of ordeal. 
 
 Fire ordeal was performed either by taking 
 up in the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron, 
 of one, two, or three pounds' weight; or else 
 by walking barefoot and blindfold, over nine 
 red-hot ploughshares, laid lengthwise, at une- 
 qual distances ; and if the party escaped with- 
 out injury, he was adjudged innocent, but if 
 otherwise, as without collusion it generally hap- 
 pened, he was then condemned as guilty. One 
 of these proceedings was as follows : a ball of 
 iron was prepared, of one, two, or three pounds' 
 weight, according to the nature of the accusa- 
 tion. When all the prayers and religious cere- 
 monies were finished, the ball was heated red- 
 hot. The prisoner, having crossed himself, and 
 sprinkled his hand with holy water, took the 
 ball of hot iron in his hand, and carried it to 
 the distance of nine feet ; after which his hand 
 was placed in a bag, that was sealed and re- 
 mained so for nine days ; at the expiration of 
 which it was examined, in the presence of 
 twelve persons of each party. If any marks of 
 burning appeared upon it, the accused was found 
 guilty ; if otherwise, he was declared innocent. 
 
 The ordeal of water was performed either by 
 plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boil- 
 ing water, or by casting the suspected person 
 into a river or pond of cold water, and if he 
 floated therein, without any action of swim- 
 ming, it was deemed an evidence of his guilt. 
 but if he sunk he was acquitted. The latter 
 ordeal was adopted with regard to witches and 
 sorcerers and was thought infallible. The Chi- 
 nese, Africans, Tartars, and Hindoos have their 
 ordeals. 
 OREGON TERRITORY, that portion of the 
 United States territo.y which lies west of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ORL 
 
 378 
 
 OTH 
 
 Rocky Mountains, discovered by Gray, an 
 American navigator, in 1790. The soil is gen- 
 erally fertile. 
 
 ORKNEY ISLANDS, or ORCADES, a clus- 
 ter of small islands on the northern coast of 
 Scotland, about 67 in number, only 29 of which 
 are inhabited. Pop. 27,179. The population of 
 Kirkwall, (or Pomona or Mainland, the princi- 
 pal island) is 2212. These islands are scattered 
 over a space 50 miles long, and 30 broad. Little 
 of the soil is adapted foi agriculture, although 
 it affords good pasturage. Game is abundant 
 — red grouse, plovers, and snipe, eagles, wild 
 ducks geese, solan geese or gannets, swan, &c. 
 thronging to the Orkneys. They are mentioned 
 by several Roman writers, and were visited by 
 the fleets of Agricola, sent to explore the isl- 
 and. The first inhabitants were the Picts, but 
 they were subdued by the Norwegians or Nor- 
 mans, at the time that that enterprising people 
 effected conquests through almost every part of 
 Europe. Orkney, after this, was governed by 
 a succession of warlike earls, who constantly 
 kept up a powerful fleet, with which they rav- 
 aged the coasts of England, Ireland, and Scot- 
 land; in the latter of which, they conquered 
 several northern counties. The black raven 
 which was the flag of Orkney continued to be 
 an object of terror till the time of James III 
 of Scotland, in 1474, when the Orkneys were 
 ceded to that monarch as part of the mar- 
 riage portion of Margaret of Denmark ; and 
 this treaty was afterwards confirmed on the 
 marriage of James VI with Ann of Denmark. 
 The piratical expeditions of the earls of Ork- 
 ney were then suppressed, and it has long been 
 a well regulated and peaceable portion of the 
 British empire. 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis Joseph Philip, was born 
 in 1747, and bore the title of duke of Chartres 
 until 1787. He was rich and handsome, and, 
 although not deficient in intelligence, ignorant, 
 credulous, selfish, and sensual. In the revolu- 
 tion he took part against the royal family, ren- 
 dering himself infamous by his libels on Marie 
 Antoinette. After the death of the king, the 
 Jacobins, who had no further use for him, pro- 
 cured his condemnation by the revolutionary 
 tribunal. lie met his fate with firmness, Nov. 
 C, 1793. , He is well known by his assumed 
 name of Earalit6. 
 
 ORLOFF, Count, the favorite of Catharine 
 II of Russia, murdered the czar Peter III, 1762. 
 Catharine loaded him and his brothers with 
 honors, and dignified them with the title of 
 counts. Orloff having, however, aimed at the 
 
 honor of publicly receiving the hand of Cath- 
 arine, he was ordered to travel, together with a 
 grant of 100,000 rubles in ready money, a pen- 
 sion of 50,000, a magnificent service of plate, 
 and an estate containing 6,000 peasants. 
 
 OSTEND, a fortified and well-built seaport 
 in the Belgic province of West Flanders. Pop. 
 10,500. It is noted for the sieges which it has 
 withstood ; particularly for a terrible siege of 
 three years, from July 5, 1601, to Sept. 22, 1604, 
 against the armies of Spain, when the tower was 
 valiantly defended by the troops of the prince of 
 Orange, assisted by the forces of queen Eliza- 
 beth, under the command of Sir Francis Vere, 
 who was chief general for five months. The 
 loss of the Spaniards was immense, being little 
 short of 100,000 men ; and although they after- 
 wards succeeded in taking the place, it was yet 
 at such an expense of men and treasure, that 
 this siege is justly considered as the chief cause 
 of the ruin of their affairs in the Netherlands, 
 and of the establishment of the independence 
 of the United Provinces. On the death of 
 Charles II of Spain the French seized Ostend : 
 but in 1706, after the battle of Ramillies,it was 
 retaken by the allies. The emperor Charles VI 
 established an East India Company here, but it 
 met with such a powerful opposition from the 
 maritime powers, that after many negotiations, 
 it was abolished in 1731. Ostend was taken 
 by the French in 1745, but given up at the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. In the war of 1750 
 the French garrisoned the town for the empress 
 Maria Theresa. The emperor Joseph again at- 
 tempted to establish an East India trade, but 
 was not very successful. In 1792 it was taken 
 by the French, and retaken by the English in 
 1793, who garrisoned it for the emperor Fran- 
 cis II. When the French conquered Belgium, 
 Ostend fell into their hands. In the course of 
 the war, a detachment of British troops landed, 
 and destroyed the sluices of the canals through 
 which the French were collecting a naval force. 
 The detachment after effecting their object 
 were made prisoners of war. 
 
 OTHO, Marcus Salvius, a Roman emperor, 
 descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. 
 He was acknowledged by the senate and the 
 Roman people, but the sudden revolt of Vitelli- 
 us, in Germany, rendered his situation precari- 
 ous, and it was mutually resolved that their re- 
 spective right to the empire should be decided 
 by arms. Otho obtained three victories over 
 his enemies, but in a general engagement near 
 Brixellum, his forces were defeated, and he 
 stabbed himself when all hopes of success were 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 OTT 
 
 379 
 
 OTT 
 
 vanished, after a reign of about three months, 
 on the 20th of April, A. D. 69. 
 
 OTHO I, emperor of Germany, elected at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle'in 936. At the earnest solici- 
 tation of the Italians, Otho repaired in person to 
 Rome, where he was solemnly crowned empe- 
 ror of the Romans in 9G0, dignified with the ap- 
 pellation of Augustus, and honored with the 
 homage of the senate and people. He died in 
 972. 
 
 OTHO II, surnamed the Sanguinary, suc- 
 ceeded his father on the imperial throne : but 
 his authority was warmly disputed by Henry, 
 duke of Bavaria, and the commencement of his 
 reign was disturbed by some hostile incursions 
 of the Danes and Bohemians. In 979 he led a 
 numerous body of forces into Italy, in order to 
 punish a revolt of the Romans. He died in 983, 
 and was succeeded by his son Otho III, at the 
 age of 12 years, 
 
 OTIS, James, was born in Massachusetts, 
 Feb. 5, 1725, and was graduated at Harvard 
 college, after which he studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar in Plymouth. He removed 
 to Boston in 1750, and rose rapidly in his pro- 
 fession. His speech against the " writs of as- 
 sistance," {see Adams) was the first public proof 
 which Mr. Otis gave of his attachment to the 
 cause of liberty. In May 1761 he was chosen 
 to the legislature. Six years afterwards, on the 
 repeal of the Stamp Act, he was chosen Speak- 
 er of the House of Representatives, but was 
 negatived by the governor. In 1769 he received 
 a wound on the head in a scuffle with one of the 
 commissioners of customs in the British coffee- 
 house, to which injury his subsequent derange- 
 ment has been attributed. He was killed by a 
 stroke of lightning May 23, 1783. 
 
 " He was," says Mr. Tudor, his biographer, 
 M a man of powerful genius and ardent temper, 
 with wit and humor that never failed : as an 
 orator, he was bold, argumentative, impetuous, 
 and commanding, with an eloquence that made 
 his own excitement irresistibly contagious ; as a 
 lawyer, his knowledge and ability placed him 
 at the head of his profession ; as a scholar, he 
 was rich in acquisition, and governed by a clas- 
 sic taste ; as a statesman and civilian he was 
 sound and just in his views ; as a patriot, he re- 
 sisted all allurements that might weaken the 
 cause of that -country to which he devoted his 
 life, and for which he sacrificed it." 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE, Turkish Empire, 
 Ottoman, or Sublime Porte. The Ottomans 
 are displeased with the name of Turks, which 
 they reject as indicating uncivilized barbarians. 
 
 The remembrance of Turk, a descendant of Ja- 
 phet, and the father of all the nations or tribes 
 that inhabit Tartary, might confer on that 
 branch of the Ottomans the honor of being the 
 most ancient and illustrious in the world. 
 
 Othman I, descended from the celebrated 
 Genghis Khan, with seven other Turkish cap- 
 tains, seized all the countries which had been in 
 the possession of the Seleucidse in Asia Minor, 
 A. D. 1300. 
 
 He assumed the title of sultan, and, pursuing 
 his conquests, took Prusa in Bithynia, which he 
 made the seat of the Ottoman empire or king- 
 dom. He died after a reign of twenty-seven 
 years, in 1328, which had been entirely spent 
 in military expeditions, and was succeeded by 
 his son Orchan, who continued the conquests 
 of his father in the Greek empire, and took 
 Nicea or Nicomedia. 
 
 Murad, or Amurath I, the son and successor 
 of Orchan, succeeded also to his father's usur- 
 pation of the country, in 1356; and passing the 
 straits of Gallipoli, he took Adrianople, which 
 he made the seat of his empire. 
 
 Amurath is extolled for his justice, temper- 
 ance, modesty, and piety. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son, Bajazet I, in 
 1389, whose brother, attempting to supplant 
 him, was strangled ; and this is said to have 
 been the first instance of that sanguinary cus- 
 tom, afterwards so common, of putting to death 
 princes of the royal blood. This prince is cel- 
 ebrated by his victories, and by the most dis- 
 tressing misfortunes. He flew from Asia to 
 Europe, and returned to Asia with such incon- 
 ceivable rapidity, that the Turks have given him. 
 the surname of Thunderbolt. He provoked the 
 attacks o£ Timur Bee, or Tamerlane, who wish- 
 ed to accommodate their differences, but who 
 accepted the challenge of Bajazet, and in the 
 plains of Prusa proved completely victorious, in 
 one of the bloodiest battles that had ever been 
 fought. It continued a whole day, and thou- 
 sands on both sides fell by the sword ; but, while 
 displaying the utmost efforts of valor, Bajazet 
 was defeated and made prisoner. 
 
 An interregnum of 12 years succeeded, dur- 
 ing which the three sons of Bajazet governed 
 each a separate part of the empire ; but, at 
 length, it was united under Mohammed, in 
 1413, who had an opportunity of displaying a 
 noble character, the brightest features in which 
 were gratitude and clemency. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Murad, or Amurath II, in 
 1422, who was a cruel tyrant, and who took 
 Thessalonica, or Salonica, and put the inhabit- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 OTT 
 
 380 
 
 OTT 
 
 ants to the sword ; and invaded and subdued 
 Servia, destroying all before him ; entered Tran- 
 sylvania, ravaging the country, and murdering 
 the natives ; and acted the same brutal part in 
 Walachia. He gained the famous battle at 
 Varna, in which Stephen, king of Hungary, was 
 slain. Amurath died of age and grief at his ill 
 success against Scanderbeg king of Epirus, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Mohammed II, in 
 1451, the greatest warrior of all the Turkish 
 sultans. His reign lasted 30 years, and was a 
 continued series of battles and victories, almost 
 without a single reverse. However, he had to 
 contend with generals capable of suspending his 
 progress, and of checking his ambition, had 
 their forces been equal to their courage. Among 
 these were the celebrated Huniades, king of 
 Hungary ; Matthias Corvinus, his son ; and 
 above all, Scanderbeg, after whose death the 
 Turks made relics of his bones, which they wore 
 as a preservative against dangers. On the 29th 
 of May, 1453, Mohammed took the city of Con- 
 stantinople. Thus ended the Greek empire, 
 and the seat of the Turkish was founded. Un- 
 provoked, the Turks attacked it, and never 
 ceased till they had usurped the throne, as they 
 had done those of so many other states and 
 kingdoms, murdering millions in cold blood, 
 and by tortures of inconceivable barbarity. Af- 
 ter Mohammed had taken the capital, he turned 
 his arms against what still remained of the 
 Greek empire, in the isles and on the continent. 
 
 He was succeeded by his eldest son, Bajazet 
 II, in 1480, who subdued the Moldavians ; made 
 a conquest of Caramania ; rendered several of 
 the Asiatic princes tributary ; had considerable 
 success in Syria; reduced Croatia; occasioned 
 great devastation in the Morea ; landed a body 
 of troops in the island of Rhodes : and paved 
 the way for the conquest of Egypt, by depriving 
 the Mamelukes, who commanded in that coun- 
 try, of the necessary succors which they derived 
 from Circassia. Exhausted with fatigue and 
 debauchery, Bajazet was desirous of placing the 
 crown on the head of his eldest son, Ahmed. 
 In this situation of affairs, Selim, the youngest, 
 arrived in the neighborhood of Constantinople, 
 under the pretence of paying a visit to his 
 father. This young prince was soon surround- 
 ed by the whole court, who ranged themselves 
 under his banners ; and the aged monarch, fore- 
 seeing what would be the event of such a visit, 
 willingly resigned his crown into the hands of 
 Selim. 
 
 Selim ascended the throne in the 45th year 
 of his age, in 1512, and caused his brothers, 
 
 Ahmed and Corcul, with five of his nephews, 
 and a great many of the nobility, to be put to 
 death. As he had received the crown from the 
 suffrages of the soldiers, who wished only for 
 war, he endeavored to gratify their desires, and 
 leading his army into Egypt, completely de- 
 feated the Mamelukes. However, as he im- 
 agined he could not ensure the quiet possession 
 of Egypt, but by the total extinction of that 
 people, he offered rew r ards to those who should 
 discover any of them, and denounced the se- 
 verest punishment against such as concealed 
 them. When he thought he had. them all as- 
 sembled, he ordered a superb throne to be erect- 
 ed for him upon the banks of the Nile, without 
 the gates of Cairo ; and these unhappy wretch- 
 es being brought into his presence, he caused 
 them all to be murdered before his eyes, and 
 their bodies to be thrown into the river. 
 
 Solyman, the son of Selim, had scarcely 
 mounted the throne, in 1520, when he formed 
 the design of extending his empire as much in 
 Europe, as his father had done in Asia. He 
 directed his attempts against the Christians, and 
 soon took Rhodes from the knights of St. John, 
 who had possessed the island for upwards of 
 200 years. He then attacked Hungary, took 
 Buda, and entered Austria with fire and sword. 
 He laid siege to Vienna ; where finding a des- 
 perate resistance, he withdrew his troops, but 
 previously massacred all his prisoners, men, 
 women, and children. He made John, king of 
 Hungary, tributary to him, and took Bagdad, 
 the whole of Assyria, and Mesopotamia. In 
 short, he extended his reputation as a warrior to 
 both extremities of the world. 
 
 Selim, the son of Solyman, made peace with 
 Germany and Persia, and took the island of 
 Cyprus from the Venetians, in 1566. 
 
 Amurath III, the eldest son of Selim, in 1575, 
 was obliged to give large sums to appease the 
 janisaries, who, having been accustomed, dur- 
 ing the vacancy of the throne, to plunder, and 
 even massacre their fellow-citizens, were dis- 
 appointed on this occasion. To give employ- 
 ment to his untractable soldiery, he made war 
 upon Russia, Poland, Germany, and Venice, 
 and subdued Georgia. He is said to have been 
 of a quiet disposition, a lover of justice, and 
 very zealous in his religion. He left behind 
 him 20 sons, of whom 19 were strangled by the 
 eldest, his successor. 
 
 Mohammed III, having thus secured to him- 
 self the throne by the slaughter of his brothers, 
 in 1596, thought it necessary also to take away 
 the life of all the late sovereign's wives and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 OTT 
 
 381 
 
 OTT 
 
 concubines, by whom it was possible that there 
 should be any posthumous progeny. The in- 
 solence of the janisaries now greatly increased, 
 and they were perpetually revolting and fight- 
 ing with the other soldiers. The pachas also 
 rebelled in many provinces ; and the sultan, 
 through fear, made peace with them, and con- 
 firmed them in their office. Immersed in the 
 pleasures of the seraglio, Mohammed bestowed 
 no other attention on public afFairs than was 
 absolutely necessary. He caused his eldest son, 
 a prince of inestimable qualities, to be put to 
 death. 
 
 Ahmed ascended the throne when he was 
 scarcely 15 years old, in 1605, and soon demon- 
 strated that the sceptre was not unworthily in- 
 trusted to him. Under his reign, those fires 
 which are so common began at Constantinople, 
 and which seldom or never break out but when 
 the people are discontented. Ahmed was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Mustapha, in 1617. His 
 cruelties rendered him so odious, that he was 
 deposed and sent to prison in the castle of the 
 Seven Towers, and his nephew, Othman, placed 
 on the throne, in 1618. Othman, discontented 
 with his janisaries, meditated revenge against 
 them ; and as he could not drive them from 
 Constantinople, he formed the design of trans- 
 ferring the seat of government into Asia. But 
 the janisaries discovering his intention, massa- 
 cred the grand vizier, who they supposed to be 
 the author of the measure, imprisoned the em- 
 peror, who was soon after put to death, and re- 
 instated Mustapha on the throne. The uncle, 
 however, derived very little benefit from this 
 event. He was treated as an idiot, led about 
 upon an ass exposed to the derision and insults 
 of the populace, and then carried back to prison, 
 where he was strangled by the orders of his 
 successor. 
 
 Amurath IV, brother to the unfortunate Oth- 
 man, by intrepidity and courage repressed the 
 turbulence of the janisaries, and freed himself 
 from every kind of rebellion, in 1621. During 
 his reign, which lasted 17 years, he caused 
 14,000 men to be destroyed. His chief amuse- 
 ment was to run about the streets in the night, 
 with a sabre in his hand, and to cut down all 
 whom he met. He was succeeded by his bro- 
 ther Ibrahim, in 1639, who had languished four 
 years in prison, and who, on being restored 
 thus unexpectedly to liberty and empire, was so 
 intoxicated by the new pleasures which they 
 presented, that resigning the administration of 
 government to the former ministers, he devoted 
 himself entirely to the luxuries of the haram. 
 
 The mufti having excited a revolt among the 
 janisaries, and Ibrahim, finding himself unable 
 to resist, resigned the crown, and in a few days 
 was put to death. 
 
 Mohammed IV the eldest son of Ibrahim, suc- 
 ceeded his father, in 1649. His reign was long 
 and glorious ; but after so many years passed in 
 prosperity, which ought to have established his 
 power, he was forced to abdicate the throne, 
 though he survived his deposition, and was not 
 molested in his apartment, which served as a 
 prison. The exploits of this emperor, which, if 
 detailed at length, would fill a volume, are not 
 so far distant from the present period as to be 
 obscured by the veil of time. The famous siege 
 of Candia, which subjected the ancient Crete 
 to the dominion of the crescent, makes a con- 
 spicuous figure in the page of history. At the 
 beginning of the 18th century, fathers at Vi- 
 enna were accustomed to relate to their chil- 
 dren the battles which they had witnessed un- 
 der the walls of that city, when Sobieski disap- 
 pointed the hopes of the Mohammedans. Mo- 
 hammed IV distinguished himself by his incli- 
 nation to mercy, and seldom commanded his 
 troops in person ; which probably caused the 
 revolt of the soldiers, who placed the crown on 
 the head of one of his brothers. Solyman II 
 did not seat himself on the throne without ap- 
 prehension, in 1685 ; and, while receiving the 
 usual congratulations, seemed every moment to 
 expect his formidable brother with the execu- 
 tioners and instruments of death. Solyman had 
 to support a disastrous war against Germany 
 and Venice, the misfortunes of which were at- 
 tended with the most ruinous consequences. 
 But Kiopruli Mustapha Pacha being appointed 
 grand-vizier , regenerated the empire, and putting 
 himself at the head of the main army, besieged 
 and took the fortress of Belgrade. He died of 
 the dropsy, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Ahmed II, in 1691, who had as little judgment, 
 and as little influence in the government. Ki- 
 opruli being killed on the banks of the Danube, 
 when on the point of obtaining a victory, the 
 sovereign soon followed his general to the grave. 
 
 Mustapha II, son of Mohammed IV, gave 
 new vigor to the empire, in 1695, which had 
 languished under his predecessors. He resolved 
 to command his troops in person, but met with 
 a more disgraceful and more complete defeat 
 than the Turks had ever experienced. His 
 troops, not receiving their pay in due time, took 
 up arms, deposed Mustapha, and invited Ahm- 
 ed his brother to repair to the army. 
 
 Ahmed III in the course of five months put 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 OTT 
 
 382 
 
 PAI 
 
 to death more than 14,000 soldiers, who had 
 taken the greatest share in the rebellion, and 
 who were carried away in the night-time, and 
 drowned in me Bosphorus. A war broke out 
 between the Porte and Russia; that with Ger- 
 many and Venice was rekindled ; and another 
 was carried on in Persia. These military ex- 
 peditions, though not always unsuccessful, re- 
 duced the empire to a state of general weak- 
 ness, which was felt particularly in the capital : 
 all tended to irritate the minds of men, and pro- 
 duced a revolt that dethroned Ahmed, after a 
 reign of 27 years. On the deposition of Ahm- 
 ed, in 1730, and the elevation of his nephew 
 Mohammed V, a considerable alteration took 
 place in the mode of carrying on the govern- 
 ment. From the time of Mohammed II, the 
 whole administration had been usually delega- 
 ted to the vizier ; but as this and the preceding 
 rebellion had originated in the overgrown pow- 
 er and ambition of these officers, Mohammed V 
 took the authority into his own hands, and de- 
 termined to change his viziers frequently. This 
 prince was unfortunate in his battles both with 
 the Russians and Kouli Khan, whom he was 
 obliged to acknowledge as sophi of Persia. 
 
 On the death of Mohammed, his brother Os- 
 man came from confinement to the throne ; in 
 1754 ; and the kislar-aga and his secretary gain- 
 ed the confidence of his new sovereign, and as- 
 sumed all their former power. Osman was suc- 
 ceeded by Mustapha III, the son of Ahmed, in 
 1757, who deprived the kislar-aga of his place 
 and influence, and attached to the vizierat great 
 part of the emoluments formerly given to the 
 kislar-aga. Mustapha having attacked the 
 Russians, in 1769, a bloody war commenced 
 with the exploits of Prince Gallitzin, who gain- 
 ed four separate and complete victories over the 
 Turks, whom he obliged to abandon Choczin. 
 The Russians speedily overran Moldavia and 
 Walachia, and gained a great naval victory off 
 Tchesme, where the whole of the Turkish fleet 
 was destroyed. These and other important suc- 
 cesses of the Russians compelled the Turks to 
 conclude a dishonorable peace, soon after the 
 death of Mustapha, and the accession of his bro- 
 ther Abdulhamid. The peace of 1774, was the 
 first great step towards the limitation of an em- 
 pire, originally founded, and gradually extend- 
 ed, by rapine and injustice. On the death of 
 Abdulhamid, in 1789, Selim III, son of Musta- 
 pha, ascended the throne, at a time when the 
 empire was engaged in another unsuccessful 
 war with Russia, which terminated greatly in 
 favor of the latter power. From this period, 
 
 the most interesting and important concerns 
 relating to the Ottoman empire, were for some 
 time connected with the internal and civil broils, 
 in which the celebrated Passwan Oglu, or Pez- 
 man Ohlu, took a very active and decided part 
 against the regular government. Civil war, 
 which was probably fomented by the French, 
 when they invaded Egypt, appeared likely to 
 become general throughout Turkey ; a revolu- 
 tion was effected by the janisaries, who deposed 
 Selim III, and raised to the throne Mustapha 
 IV, in 1801, and had it not been for the assist- 
 ance of the English, and the regard which they 
 paid to its interests, in the treaty of pacification, 
 in 1802, it is probable that the Ottoman Porte 
 would have ceased to exist as an independent 
 nation. Russia declared war against Turkey, 
 on the pretext of a peace concluded with Eng- 
 land by the latter power, in 1809, and the Turks 
 and Russians commenced hostilities against 
 each other with no other apparent object than 
 mutual destruction. At length, mutual ex- 
 haustion rendered the operations on both sides 
 languid ; and Russia finding herself invaded by 
 the formidable power of France, a treaty of 
 peace was concluded with Turkey, in 1812, 
 which ceded the cities and districts on the left 
 of the Pruth as the price of pacification. 
 
 The present sultan, Mahmoud, has met with 
 many losses. He is attached to the European 
 dress and discipline, and has introduced many 
 improvements, which are, however, regarded 
 merely in the liorht of innovations by his subjects. 
 
 OXENSTIERN (Axel), a Swedish states- 
 man, was born in 1583. He was the favorite 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, after whose death he 
 conducted the affairs of the kingdom with equal 
 ability and integrity. He died in 1654. 
 
 PACA, William, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, born in Maryland 
 Oct. 31, 1740. After graduating at the college 
 of Philadelphia, he studied law, and commenced 
 practice in Annapolis. From 1774 to 1778 he 
 was a member of congress, and vacated his seat 
 when he was appointed chief justice of the su- 
 preme court of his state, of which he was chosen 
 governor in 1782. In 1789 he was appointed by 
 Washington judge of the district court of the 
 United States for Maryland, and held that im- 
 portant post until his death, which took place 
 10 years after, in the sixtieth year of his age. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, one of the signers of 
 the American Declaration of Independence, was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 PA1 
 
 3§3 
 
 PAL 
 
 born at Boston, hi 1731. For some time after 
 graduating from Harvard college, he kept a 
 public school. Having studied theology, he 
 became a chaplain in the provincial forces in 
 1755, but soon studied law in which he made 
 great proficiency, and settled at Taunton. After 
 having served at the general representative as- 
 sembly, he was chosen member of the continen- 
 tal congress which met at Philadelphia in 1774. 
 He was several years in congress, and was an 
 active member of the committee that framed 
 the constitution of Massachusetts. He held the 
 office of attorney-general from the time the gov- 
 ernment was organized until 1790, when he 
 was made judge of the supreme court, an office 
 which he held until 1804. He died in the 85th 
 year of his age, May 11, 1814. 
 
 PAINE, Thomas, a political and deistical 
 writer, was born in 1737 at Thetford in Norfolk, 
 where he was brought up to the business of a 
 stay maker. He afterwards became an excise- 
 man at Lewes ; but being dismissed for some 
 mal-practices, he went to America in 1774, be- 
 came editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine, and 
 aided the revolution by a pamphlet called Com- 
 mon Sense, for which he was rewarded with 
 £500 by the legislature of Pennsylvania. He 
 was also appointed clerk to the committee for 
 foreign affairs. In 1780 he was appointed clerk 
 to the assembly of Pennsylvania, and in 1785 
 received $3,000 from congress, and 500 acres of 
 land from the state of New York. 
 
 In 1790 he went to London and excited con- 
 siderable notice by his Rights of Man, written 
 in answer to Burke's Reflections on the French 
 Revolution. A prosecution, however, being 
 commenced against him, he fled to France, 
 where he was chosen a member of the national 
 convention, but incurred the displeasure of the 
 Jacobins for recommending a lenient course 
 towards Louis XVI, and was thrown into prison. 
 Here he narrowly escaped death. The jailor, 
 when he received orders for a batch of prisoners 
 to be carried to execution, was in the habit of 
 marking the doors of their cells with chalk. One 
 day , Paine had left his cell to visit a fellow- 
 prisoner, and the door stood wide open. The 
 drunken jailor, having occasion to single out 
 some victims, chalked the inside of Paine's 
 door, which was afterwards closed, and thus he 
 escaped notice, when, on the ensuing day, the 
 devoted prisoners were delivered up to the 
 proper authorities. By the publication of his 
 Age of Reason, a work levelled at Revelation, 
 he forfeited the esteem of many Americans who 
 had been his warm friends. He fell into disre- 
 33 
 
 pute, when, on his return to America, he gave 
 himself up to intemperate habits. He died June 
 8, 1809, the victim of his excesses, and was 
 buried on his own farm, interment on their 
 ground having been refused by the society of 
 Friends to whom application was made. Cob- 
 bett, who professes an unbounded admiration 
 for Tom Paine, dug up his bones, and carried 
 them to England. 
 
 PALESTINE, (See Hebrews). Palestine ex- 
 tends from Coelo-Syria to Arabia Petrea; on 
 the west it has the Mediterranean, and on the 
 east Arabia Deserta. The country is moun- 
 tainous, and there is only one principal river, 
 the Jordanes, or Jordan, which rising on Mount 
 Hermon, falls into the lake of Gennesareth, or 
 sea of Tiberias ; after which it loses itself in a 
 more spacious one, Lacus Asphaltites, the Bi- 
 tuminous Lake, or Dead Sea. On the western 
 side of Jordan were Juda?a on the south, Sama- 
 ria in the middle, and Galilee in the north ; on 
 the eastern side was Persea. The Philistines 
 were mostly on the coast towards Egypt. In 
 the kingdom of Judah stood Hierosolyma, or 
 Jerusalem, built on several hills, the largest of 
 which was Mount Sion ; it formed the southern 
 part of the city. On the east of the second, or 
 lower city, was Mount Moriah. Jerusalem, 
 when enlarged and beautified by David, Solo- 
 mon, &c, became a most renowned city, and 
 as such is mentioned by Herodotus under the 
 name of Cadytis. Its temple on Mount Moriah, 
 was a noble and costly structure. Both the 
 city and temple were destroyed by the Chalde- 
 ans, about 600 years B. C. The second temple, 
 which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Her- 
 od the Great. The destruction of Jerusalem by 
 Titus was A. D. 70. Under Adrian, a new 
 city, altogether Roman, and called ^Elia, was 
 built, but there was an alteration in its site. 
 Sion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, 
 was not comprised within the new city. It 
 subsists at present, but in a deplorable condition, 
 inhabited by a motley group of Turks, Jews, 
 and Christians. A mosque has supplanted the 
 temple. Northeast of Mount Moriah was the 
 Mount of Olives, beyond the brook and valley 
 of Kedron ; on the south was the valley of Hin- 
 nom, and on the north Mount Calvary. Six 
 miles to the southeast was Bethlehem. A 
 rugged mountainous country lay between Jeru- 
 salem and Jericho, famous for its balm. For 
 this, and for their palm-trees, both Judasa and 
 Idumsea were celebrated. Hebron, a place of 
 high antiquity, was the sepulchre of Abraham 
 and his family. In the time of the crusades it 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PAM 
 
 384 
 
 PAM 
 
 bore the name of St. Abraham ; and the Arabs, 
 who always respect their primitive names, call 
 it Cabr Ibrahim, or the tomb of Abraham. Gaza 
 and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve their names, 
 as also Ekron. Gath is more inland. Azotus 
 was the ancient Ashdod. Lydda, in the inte- 
 rior, has the name of Lod. South of it is Arim- 
 athea. Towards the south lay Idumea, or 
 Edom : the natives were subdued by the Macca- 
 bees, and incorporated with the Jewish nation. 
 In Jerome's time the country was deserted, the 
 few inhabitants having their dwellings in cav- 
 erns. 
 
 PALMYRA, the ruins of a great city of Asia, 
 in the desert of Syria, said to have been de- 
 stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. The only brilliant 
 part of its history was under Odenathus and his 
 queen Zenobia. It afterwards fell under the 
 power of the Mahometans, but at what period 
 it sank into its present state of desolation is 
 uncertain. 
 
 PAMPAS; vast plains in the southern part 
 of Buenos Ayres, extending from the de la Plata 
 nearly to the Andes, 750 miles long, and 450 
 broad. Part of these plains are covered with 
 grass, and part with open forests. They con- 
 tain herds of wild horses and cattle and some 
 beasts of prey, and are inhabited by the Gua- 
 chos, a race of men of Spanish origin who live 
 on horseback and subsist by hunting, and the 
 fierce Indians who lead the life of the Guachos, 
 but are constantly at war with them. Captain 
 Head's Rough Notes of some Rapid Journeys 
 across the Pampas, and among the Andes, con- 
 tains the best and most amusing account we 
 have of them. 
 
 The Guachos make use of the lasso in hunt- 
 ing. The lasso, so called from the Spanish lazo, 
 or noose, consists of a rope made of twisted 
 strips of untanned hide, varying in length from 
 fifteen to twenty yards, and is about as thick as 
 the little finger. It has a noose or running- 
 knot at one end, the other extremity being fast- 
 ened by an eye and button to a ring in a strong 
 hide belt or surcingle, bound tightly round the 
 horse. The coil is grasped by the horseman's 
 left hand, while the noose, which is held in the 
 right, trails along the ground except when in 
 use, and then it is whirled round the head with 
 considerable velocity, during which, by a pecu- 
 liar turn of the wrist, it is made to assume a 
 circular form ; so that, when delivered from the 
 hand, the noose preserves itself open until it 
 falls over the object at which it has been aimed. 
 
 The unerring precision with which the lasso 
 is thrown, is perfectly astonishing, and to one 
 
 who sees it for the first time, has a very magi- 
 cal appearance. Even when standing still it is 
 by no means an easy thing to throw the lasso ;, 
 but the difficulty is vastly increased when it 
 comes to be thrown from horseback and at a 
 gallop, and when, in addition, the rider is oblig- 
 ed to pass over uneven ground, and to leap 
 hedges and ditches in his course. Yet such is 
 the dexterity of the guachos or countrymen, 
 that they are not only sure of catching the an- 
 imal they are in chase of, but can fix, or as they 
 term it, place the lasso on any particular part 
 they please. 
 
 Suppose that a wild bull is to be caught, and 
 that two mounted horsemen, guassos, as they 
 are called in Chili, or guachos on the Pampas, 
 undertake to kill him. As soon as they dis- 
 cover their prey, they remove the coil of the 
 lasso from behind them, and, grasping it in the 
 left hand, prepare the noose in the right, and 
 dash off, at full gallop, each swinging his lasso 
 round his head. The first who comes within 
 reach aims at the bull's horns, and when he 
 sees, which he does in an instant, that the lasso 
 which he has thrown will take effect, he stops 
 his horse, and turns it half round, the bull con- 
 tinuing his course, till the whole cord has run 
 out. The horse, meanwhile, knowing, by ex- 
 perience, what is going to happen, leans over 
 as much as he can in the opposite direction 
 from the bull, and stands trembling in expecta- 
 tion of the violent tug which is to be given him 
 by the bull, when brought up by the lasso. So 
 great, indeed, is the jerk which takes place at 
 this moment, that were the horse not to lean 
 over in the manner described, he would cer- 
 tainly be overturned ; but standing, as he does, 
 across the road, with his feet planted firmly on 
 the ground, he offers sufficient resistance to 
 stop the bull as instantaneously as if he had 
 been shot, though, the instant before, he was 
 running at full 6peed. 
 
 If the intention be to kill the animal for the 
 sake of the tallow and hide alone, as is often 
 the case, one of the guachos dismounts, and 
 running in, cuts the bull's hamstrings with a 
 long knife which he always wears in his girdle ; 
 and, instantly afterwards, dispatches him by a 
 dexterous cut across the back of the neck. The 
 most surprising thing is, the manner in which 
 the horse, after being left by his rider, manages 
 to preserve the lasso always tight; this would 
 be less difficult if the bull were to remain always 
 steady, but it sometimes happens that he makes 
 violent struggles to disentangle himself from the 
 lasso, rushing backwards and forwards in a fu- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PAM 
 
 385 
 
 PAR 
 
 rious manner. The horse, however, with won- 
 derful sagacity, alters his pace, and prances 
 about, as if conscious of what he is doing, so as 
 to resist every movement of the bull, and never 
 to allow the lasso to be relaxed for a moment. 
 
 When a wild horse is to be taken, the lasso 
 is always placed round the two hind legs, and, 
 as the guacho rides a little on one side, the jerk 
 pulls the entangled feet laterally, so as to throw 
 him on his side, without endangering his knees 
 or his face. Before the horse can recover the 
 shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching the 
 poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it 
 round the prostrate animal's head : he then 
 forces into his mouth one of the powerful bits 
 of the country, straps a saddle on his back, 
 and, bestriding him, removes the poncho; upon 
 which, the astonished horse springs on his legs, 
 and endeavors, by a thousand vain efforts, to 
 disencumber himself of his new master, who 
 sits quite composedly on his back ; and, by a 
 discipline which never fails, reduces the horse 
 to such complete obedience that he is soon 
 trained to lend his speed and strength in the 
 capture of his wild companions. 
 
 The equestrian education of the dwellers on 
 the Pampas, commences early. At the age of 
 four the Guacho is mounted on horseback, and 
 assists in driving the cattle to the enclosure. 
 Even then he is adventurous, and can bring 
 back by force those horses that attempt to es- 
 cape. As his years increase, he becomes more 
 daring and manly, and spends his time in gal- 
 loping after the ostrich, the gama, the hare, and 
 the tiger. 
 
 The Pampas Indians, a daring and hardy race 
 of men, who have never been conquered, and 
 to whom the great changes of the seasons ap- 
 pear to come with singularly little inconven- 
 ience, are always on horseback, whether beneath 
 the burning skies of summer, or the piercing cold 
 of winter ; and they are at all seasons wholly 
 without clothing. The}' are formed into tribes, 
 under tbe command of caciques, and are a war- 
 like people. Mounted on their fleet and sure- 
 footed horses, with their spears eighteen feet 
 long, which they can manage with great power, 
 and dexterity, they are most formidable. On 
 foot they are almost powerless ; as their habitual 
 riding deprives them of the faculty of walking. 
 When mounted, however, their fleetness is 
 almost incredible. When they march for an 
 attack, they collect a great troop of horses, and, 
 raising their war-cry, set off at a gallop. If the 
 march be long, they change horses several 
 times, and always reserve their best ones to be 
 
 mounted fresh when they are in sight of the 
 enemy. The horses only are used for riding, 
 but they drive rnares along with them to serve 
 as food. Their onset is destructive, and, until 
 their horses are worn out with fatigue, to resist 
 them is no easy matter. 
 
 Riding in the Pampas is rendered dangerous 
 by the numerous holes which the bisacho bur- 
 rows in the ground like a rabbit. Their holes 
 frequently cause great injury to the feet of the 
 horses, but custom renders the horse cautious 
 amidst these dangers; and, as for the Guacho, 
 it is impossible to eject him from the saddle, 
 unless the horse shall actually fall. Captain 
 Head tried the rapid mode of travelling prac- 
 tised by the Guachos, and survived to describe 
 it. At first he found his head a little confused 
 with the constant galloping, and when he dis- 
 mounted, he was so giddy that he could not 
 stand ; but he in time got accustomed to it, and 
 found it more pleasant. He found the young 
 men the worst drivers in point of speed. The 
 children had no fear, and therefore always dash- 
 ed on at the most rapid rate, and the old men 
 made up in skill, while the young men wanted 
 alike the daring forwardness of the children, 
 and the experience of the old men. Captain 
 Head must have travelled at a prodigious rate. 
 From Mendoza he determined to gallop to Bue- 
 nos Ayres, and, attended by a single Guacho, 
 mounted horse to recross the Pampas. It was 
 now that the captain tried the velocity and felt 
 the pleasure of really independent travelling 
 across the Pampas ; and his speed can be com- 
 pared to nothing upon record — even that of the 
 Guacho who accompanied him, or of Mazeppa 
 as he was bound to tbe wild horse. Starting 
 from Mendoza before day-break, he found him- 
 self at half past seven in the evening, at the 
 distance of one hundred and fifty -three miles; 
 which, as he had been just fourteen hours and 
 a half on horseback, was nearly at the rate of 
 ten miles an hour. He was fatigued, and could 
 get nothing to eat, and so, taking his saddle into 
 a shed, he laid down his head on it, and was 
 asleep in an instant. The voice of the Guacho 
 roused him an hour before daylight, and he 
 again galloped off at the rate of the preceding 
 day. It is needless to follow the course of this 
 adventurous traveller — enough has been said 
 to show the mode of life and travelling in the 
 Pampas. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a state of South America, 
 bounded N. by Brazil, E. and S. by the Parana, 
 and W. by the Paraguay. It contains a popu- 
 lation of 150,000 according to the lowest esti 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PAR 
 
 386 
 
 PAR 
 
 mate ; some give twice that number. It was 
 discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526,, and in 
 1776 formed a province of the viceroyalty of 
 B uenos Ay res. The independence of Paraguay 
 was acknowledged in 1827, by Don Pedro, then 
 emperor of Brazil. Dr. Francia, who was 
 made dictator for life; was most despotic in his 
 government. He recently died at the advanced 
 age of 90 years, and hopes are entertained that 
 more liberal principles will prevail in Paraguay. 
 
 PARGA, a sea-port on the coast of Albania, 
 was built on the decline of the Roman empire. 
 It is hardly mentioned in history till 1401 , when 
 it entered into an alliance with Venice, which 
 continued until the subversion of the latter in 
 1797. In 1814 Ali Pacha marched against it 
 with a military force ; the Pargiots withstood 
 the attack, but applied to the British in Corfu, 
 and received a garrison from them, in the hope 
 of being incorporated with the republic of the 
 Ionian Islands. To this compact, however, the 
 British did not give effect; the dread of con- 
 tinued dissensions with the Albanians led to a 
 negotiation for its surrender ; Ali paying an in- 
 demnity to those who should refuse to remain 
 after a change of government. The evacua- 
 tion took place in 1819, most of the inhabitants 
 removing to the Ionian Islands. 
 
 PARIS, the capital of France, lies upon both 
 banks and two islands of the Seine, 112 miles 
 S. E. of Havre. The population, in 1827, was 
 890,451. It is an archie piscopal see, the resi- 
 dence of the monarch, the legislative body, the 
 ministers and ambassadors, one of the largest, 
 most populous, and richest cities in the world, 
 containing some most superb monuments. In- 
 cluding its suburbs, it is 18 miles in circumfer- 
 ence, and is much superior to London in pala- 
 ces and public edifices. Not only does it enjoy 
 a literary and scientific preeminence, but is one 
 of the gayest capitals in Europe. The houses 
 are lofty and built of the stone taken from the 
 quarries that extend beneath the city, thus 
 forming the celebrated catacombs. The royal 
 palaces are the Louvre, and Tuileries. It was 
 very strong, when, under the name of Lutetia, 
 it resisted a Roman detachment sent against it 
 by Csesar. The Romans strengthened the for- 
 tifications; in the fifth century it was taken by 
 the Franks ; and in 508 was constituted the 
 capital of the kingdom. It was improved by 
 Charlemagne, and surrounded with walls at the 
 end of the twelfth century. Under Louis XIV 
 some improvements were made : but Versiille* 
 being then the chief care of the Bourbons, Paris 
 received only slow and partial embellishments, 
 
 until the revolution, w T hen it became essential 
 for the new rulers (particularly Bonaparte) to 
 concilia' 3 the favor of so important a city. 
 
 PARK, Mungo, a native of Scotland, born 
 near Selkirk, Sept. 10, 1771, fell a victim to the 
 cause of science, being murdered in Africa, 
 while engaged in his third expedition, 1805. 
 His published travels are highly interesting. 
 
 PARMA, a fine city in the north of Italy, 
 capital of the duchy of the same name, con- 
 taining 35,000 inhabitants. It was founded by 
 the ancient Etrurians. In the 16th century, 
 Paul III gave it to his son Luigi Farnese whose 
 descendants continued to reign as dukes of Par- 
 ma till the extinction of the male branch. In 
 1714, Elizabeth Farnese married Philip V of 
 Spain, and brought him the duchy as a dowry. 
 Her son Don Carlos took possession of it in 
 1731 ; but it being settled in 1735, that Don 
 Carlos should be made king of the two Sicilies, 
 the duchy of Parma and Piacenza was ceded to 
 the emperor, and governed by the house of 
 Austria till 1748, when they were given up to 
 Don Philip, son of Philip V. By the peace of 
 Luneville, the duke of Parma was raised to the 
 throne as king of Etruria, in 1801. In 1805, 
 Parma and Piacenza were united to France, 
 and on the fall of Bonaparte they were taken by 
 the Austrians, and in 1814 were given by the 
 treaty of Paris to Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, 
 devolving on her death to Austria and Sardinia 
 — a provision which has since been modified by 
 certain equivalents. 
 
 PARSONS, Theophilus, was the son of a 
 minister of Byfield, Mass., and was born Feb., 
 1750. After completing his legal studies, he 
 opened an office in New bury port, and assumed 
 a high standing in his profession ; in 1806 he 
 succeeded chief-justice Dana in the Supreme 
 Judicial Court of Massachusetts. He died at 
 Boston. Oct. 30, 1813. 
 
 PARTH1A, this celebrated kingdom of an- 
 tiquity was situated in the northern part of the 
 modern Khorassan, and was bounded on the N. 
 by Hyrcania, on the S. by Aria, on the E. 
 by Carmania the Desert, and on the W. by 
 Media. The ancient Parthians were originally 
 a tribe of Scythians, who, being expelled from 
 the land of their nativity, took up their abode in 
 this part of Asia. Arsaces, the founder of the 
 Parthian monarchy, assumed the regal dignity 
 B. C. 250. His son Arsaces II subdued Media, 
 but was soon dispossessed of this acquisition. 
 
 On the death of Arsaces, the government de- 
 volved on his son Priapatius, who bequeathed 
 the crown to his eldest son Phraates. This last 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PAR 
 
 387 
 
 PAR 
 
 prince subdued the Mardi, a warlike people of 
 the east. He left the kingdom to his brother 
 Mithridates, who soon reduced Bactria, Persia, 
 Media, Elymais, and several other countries, 
 and carried his victorious arms into India, even 
 beyond the boundaries of Alexander's conquests. 
 He afterwards made himself master of Babylo- 
 nia and Mesopotamia ; and his reign is regarded 
 as the epoch of the Parthian grandeur. 
 
 We pass over a few unimportant reigns till 
 we come to that of Orodes, who engaged in war 
 with M. Licinius Crassus, which was attended 
 with a vast effusion of blood, and proved ex- 
 tremely disastrous both to the Parthians and the 
 Romans. At length, Crassus was overthrown 
 with a great slaughter, and his head sent to 
 Orodes ; whilst his vanquished troops tamely 
 surrendered or were put to the sword. Orodes 
 sent an army to besiege the city of Antioch, 
 which, however, the Parthians could not take. 
 To revenge the death of Crassus, the Romans 
 entered Syria, B.C. 50, and, after some partial en- 
 gagements, succeeded in defeating Pacorus, the 
 son of Orodes, who was killed in the battle. Oro- 
 des appointed Phraates his successor, B. C. 36. 
 
 Phraates no sooner attained to this height of 
 power than he caused all his brothers by the 
 daughter of Antiochus Eusebes to be put to 
 death, and attempted to despatch Orodes also, 
 by poison, which proving ineffectual, he ordered 
 him to be stifled in his bed, and exercised the 
 same cruelty upon the prime nobility, his eldest 
 son, and the other branches of the royal family. 
 To elude the vengeance of this barbarian, many 
 of the Parthian nobles emigrated into Syria, and 
 prevailed on Marc Antony to invade their un- 
 happy kingdom. The Romans, however, were 
 so harassed by the enemy, that they were re- 
 duced to the most pitiable extremities, and nar- 
 rowly escaped destruction. 
 
 The Parthian monarch continuing to exercise 
 the most wanton cruelties upon his own sub- 
 jects, the nobles entered into a conspiracy, and 
 chasing him from the country, conferred the 
 sovereignty on Tiribates, one of their own body. 
 Phraates, however, returned, and defeating his 
 rival in a pitched battle, recovered his paternal 
 inheritance. 
 
 At length, this tyrant was poisoned by his 
 wife, that her son Phraatices might ascend the 
 throne. Phraatices had scarcely assumed the 
 diadem, when his subjects, resolving to revenge 
 the crime to which he had been accessary, rose 
 in arms, and placed one Orodes, who was of the 
 Arsacidan family, on the throne. This prince 
 was assassinated. 
 
 On the death of Orodes II, the emperor Au- 
 gustus was requested by the Parthians to send' 
 one of the sons of Phraates, who had been edu- 
 cated at Rome, to assume the government. 
 Accordingly, he sent them Vonones, but the 
 Parthians growing weary of him, persuaded 
 Artabanus, king of Media, to chase him from 
 the throne. Artabanus, at length, firmly estab- 
 lished himself in the government of Parthia, and 
 died in the 31st year of his reign. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Bardanes, who made war 
 upon Izates, king of Adiabene, A. D. 47, who 
 had greatly assisted in restoring Artabanus to 
 the throne of Parthia. This ingratitude was so 
 warmly resented by the Parthian nobles, that 
 they caused Bardanes to be assassinated, and 
 bestowed the crown on his brother. 
 
 Gotarzes was succeeded by one Venones, 
 governor of Media, A. D. 49. On the demise 
 of this last prince, the government devolved on 
 Vologeses, the son of Gotarzes, who maintained 
 a bloody war against the Romans, on account 
 of the crowns of Armenia and Syria, which he 
 had bestowed on Tiridates and Pacorus, two of 
 his brothers. Artabanus III next ascended the 
 throne. He was succeeded by his son Pacorus. 
 Cosdroes, the son of Pacorus, invaded Arme- 
 nia in the beginning of his reign, and expelled 
 Exadares, who had been placed on the throne 
 of that country by the emperor Trajan. To re- 
 venge this insult, Trajan marched into the East, 
 recovered Armenia, made himself master of 
 Mesopotamia, pursued his route to Babylon and 
 Ctesiphon, and bestowed their crown on Par- 
 thanaspates, a prince of the Arsacidan family. 
 
 On the death of Trajan, however, the Parthi- 
 ans recalled Cosdroes, and chased Parthanas- 
 pates from the throne. After a very long reign, 
 Cosdroes was succeeded by his eldest son, Vol- 
 ogeses II, who, after carrying on hostilities 
 against Rome for about four years, with various 
 success, consented to acknowledge the sove- 
 reignty of the Roman people. 
 
 On the demise of the Parthian king, his 
 nephew Vologeses III ascended the vacant 
 throne, and having incensed the emperor Se- 
 verus, was stripped of his treasures, his wives, 
 and his children. Artabanus, the son and suc- 
 cessor of Vologeses, had scarcely established 
 himself in the kingdom, when the emperor Ca- 
 racalla, desirous of signalizing himself against 
 the Parthians, sent ambassadors to demand his 
 daughter in marriage. This was readily grant- 
 ed ; and the king, being informed that the em- 
 peror was coming to solemnize the nuptials, 
 went out to meet him, with the chief of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PAU 
 
 388 
 
 PEL 
 
 Parthian nobility, all unarmed and habited in 
 splendid dresses. This peaceable train no soon- 
 er approached the Roman troops, than they were 
 attacked with the utmost fury, and Artabanus 
 himself was compelled to elude destruction by a 
 precipitate flight. 
 
 On account of this exploit, the base Caracalla 
 assumed the surname of Parthicus. Artabanus 
 swore irreconcilable hatred to the perfidious 
 emperor, and inspired the whole nation with the 
 same spirit of vengeance. An engagement was 
 fought between the Parthians and the Romans, 
 which was terminated only by darkness. Ca- 
 racalla dying, an alliance between the two em- 
 pires was proposed, and peace was concluded. 
 At this juncture, an enterprising Persian, named 
 Artaxares, after a dreadful engagement, defeat- 
 ed Artabanus at the head of all the Parthian 
 forces. Artaxares caused Artabanus to be put 
 to death, and restored the empire to the Per- 
 sians, after they had been subject to the princes 
 of Parthia for the space of 475 years. The roy- 
 al family of Arsaces, however, continued to 
 reign in Armenia till the time of the emperor 
 Justinian. 
 
 PATAGONIA, avast country occupying the 
 southern extremity of South America, discov- 
 ered by Magellan in 1519. The climate is cold 
 and the natives are wandering savages. Some 
 of the tribes are large-bodied, though not the 
 giants which they have been described. 
 
 PATNA, a celebrated city of Hindostan, and 
 capital of the province of Bahar. On the 25th 
 June, 1763, the British detachment stationed 
 there for the protection of the factory, scaled 
 the walls, and began pillaging the houses. 
 They were, however, attacked by the garrison, 
 and taken prisoners. In revenge for this affair, 
 the Rajah gave orders that all the Europeans 
 should be shot, which sentence was carried into 
 execution upon 40 persons, by a serjeant, who 
 fired into the doors and windows on the prison- 
 ers, while they were at dinner in the hall of the 
 factory. On the 6th November, in the same 
 year, the city was stormed by major Adams, 
 since which it has been under the British sway. 
 
 PAUSANIAS, a Spartan general, who great- 
 ly signalized himself at the battle of Plata?a, 
 against the Persians. He was afterwards set at 
 the head of the Spartan armies, and extended 
 his conquests in Asia; but the haughtiness of 
 his behavior created him many enemies, and the 
 Athenians soon obtained a superiority in the 
 affairs of Greece. Pausanias was dissatisfied 
 with his countrymen, and he offered to betray 
 Greece to the Persians, if he received in mar- 
 
 riage, as the reward of his perfidy, the daugh- 
 ter of their monarch. His intrigues were dis- 
 covered oy means of a youth, who was intrust- 
 ed with his letters to Persia, and who refused to 
 go, on the recollection that such as had been em- 
 ployed in that office before had never returned. 
 The letters were given to the Ephori of Sparta, 
 and the perfidy of Pausanias laid open. He fled 
 for safety to a temple of Minerva, and as the 
 sanctity of the place screened him from the 
 violence of his pursuers, the sacred building 
 was surrounded with heaps of stones, the first 
 of which was carried there by the indignant 
 mother of the unhappy man. He was starved 
 to death in the temple, and died about 471 years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 PELOPIDAS, a celebrated general of Thebes, 
 son of Hippocles No sooner had the interest 
 of Sparta prevailed at Thebes, and the friends 
 of liberty and national independence been ban- 
 ished from the city, than Pelopidas, who was in 
 the number of the exiles, resolved to free his 
 country from foreign slavery. His plan was 
 bold and animated, and his deliberations were 
 slow. Meanwhile, Epaminondas, who had been 
 left by the tyrants at Thebes, as being in ap 
 pearance a worthless and insignificant philoso 
 pher, animated the youths of the city ; and at 
 last Pelopidas, with eleven of his associates, en- 
 tered Thebes, and easily massacred the friends 
 of the tyranny, and freed the country from for- 
 eign masters. After this successful enterprise, 
 Pelopidas was unanimously placed at the head 
 of the government ; and so confident were the 
 Thebans of his abilities as a general and a magis- 
 trate, that they successively reelected him thir- 
 teen times to fill the honorable office of governor 
 of Boeotia. Epaminondas shared with him the 
 sovereign power, and it was to their valor and 
 prudence that the Thebans were indebted for a 
 celebrated victory at the battle of Leuctra. In 
 a war which Thebes carried on against Alexan- 
 der, tyrant of Plierse, Pelopidas was appointed 
 commander ; but his imprudence, in trusting 
 himself unarmed into the enemy's camp, prov- 
 ed fatal to him. He was taken prisoner, but 
 Epaminondas restored him to liberty. The per- 
 fidy of Alexander irritated him, and he was 
 killed bravely fighting in a celebrated battle 
 in which his troops obtained the victory, B. C. 
 364 years. Pelopidas is admired for his valor, 
 as he never engaged an enemy without obtain- 
 ing the advantage. The impoverished state of 
 Thebes before his birth, and after his fall, plain- 
 ly demonstrates the superiority of his genius 
 and of his abilities ; and it has been justly ob 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PEN 
 
 389 
 
 PEN 
 
 served that with Pelopidas and Epaminondas, 
 the glory and the independence of the Thebans 
 rose and set. 
 
 PELOPONNESUS, a celebrated peninsula 
 which comprehends the most southern parts 
 of Greece. It received its name from Pelops, 
 who settled there as the name indicates, (the 
 island of Pelops). It had been called before, 
 Apia, Pelasgia-, and Argos, and in its form, it 
 has been observed by the moderns, highly to 
 resemble the leaf of the plane tree. Its pre- 
 sent name is Morea, which seems to be deriv- 
 ed from the Greek word signifying a mulberry- 
 tree, which is found there in great abundance. 
 The Peloponnesus was conquered, some time 
 after the Trojan war, by the Heraclidse or de- 
 , scendants of Hercules, who had been forcibly 
 expelled from it. The inhabitants of this pen- 
 insula rendered themselves illustrious like the 
 rest of the Greeks, by their genius, their fond- 
 ness for the fine arts, the cultivation of learn- 
 ing, and the profession of arms ; but in nothing 
 more than by a celebrated war which they carri- 
 ed on against Athens and her allies for twenty- 
 seven years, and which from them received 
 the name of the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 PENN, William, was born in London, in 
 1644. At an early age he joined the society of 
 friends or quakers, and was expelled from the 
 university at Oxford as a nonconformist. His 
 unshaken adherence to the principles he had 
 adopted drew down upon him the indignation 
 of his father, which was a source of grief to 
 Penn, although it did not induce him to relin- 
 quish the society which he had chosen. In 
 1668, he appeared as a preacher, and also as- 
 sumed his pen to make known and defend his 
 principles, for which he was fined and impris- 
 oned. In 1681, finding no rest from perse- 
 cution, he petitioned Charles II for the patent 
 of a province and drew up the Constitution of 
 Pennsylvania. He wrote to the Indians to pro- 
 pitiate them and assure them of his good inten- 
 tions, and having displayed the plausibility of 
 his scheme, induced a large number of respect- 
 able families to embark for the New World. In 
 1682 Penn visited his province in person, and 
 remained two years, regulating the affairs of 
 Philadelphia, and establishing amicable rela- 
 tions with his neighbors. The treaty which 
 Penn concluded with the Indians was never 
 violated, [n 1699 he made a second visit to 
 Pennsylvania, but the machinations of his ene- 
 mies at home induced him to return in 1701. 
 He died in 1718. 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States, 
 
 Erie 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Fayette 
 
 Northumberland 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Perry 
 
 Greene 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Huntington 
 
 Potter 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Pike 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 Schuylkill 
 
 Juniatta 
 
 Somerset 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 Susquehanna 
 
 Lehigh 
 
 Tioga 
 
 Luzerne 
 
 Union 
 
 Lycoming 
 
 Venango 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Warren 
 
 M'Kean 
 
 Washington 
 
 Mercer 
 
 Wayne 
 
 Mifflin 
 
 Westmoreland 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 York 
 
 is bounded N. by New York, E. by the rivei 
 Delaware, separating it from New Jersey; S. E. 
 by the state of Delaware, S. by Maryland and 
 part of Virginia, and W. by Virginia and Ohio, 
 It has an area of 47,000 square miles, and in 
 1830. it contains d 1 ,348,233 inhabitants. 
 Pop. 1840, 1 ,724,038. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Adams 
 
 Alleghany 
 
 Armstrong 
 
 Beaver 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Berks 
 
 Bradford 
 
 Bucks 
 
 Butler 
 
 Cambria 
 
 Centre 
 
 Chester 
 
 Clearfield 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Crawford 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Dauphin 
 
 Delaware 
 
 The large rivers are the Delaware, Schuyl- 
 kill, Susquehanna, Lehigh, Juniatta, Allegha- 
 ny, Mononghahela, Ohio, &c. The Alleghany 
 and Blue Mountains intersect this state. As a 
 large portion of the state is hilly and moun- 
 tainous, some of the soil is poor ; but a great 
 part is admirably adapted to tillage. Among 
 the minerals found in Pennsylvania, coal is ob- 
 tained in the largest quantities. As a manufac- 
 turing state Pennsylvania takes the precedence 
 of others. The principal places are Philadel- 
 phia, Pittsburg, Lancaster, Reading, York, 
 Harrisburg (the seat of government), Carlisle, 
 Easton, Chambersburg, Columbia. There are 
 various seminaries of learning in this state, 
 among which may be mentioned the University 
 of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Dickinson 
 College at Carlisle, Washington College at 
 Washington, Jefferson College at Cannons- 
 burg, and Alleghany college at Meadville. 
 The late Stephen Girard left a fund of two 
 million dollars which has been appropriated to 
 a college for the education of orphans. It is 
 situated in the city of Philadelphia, long the 
 residence of its beneficent founder. 
 
 The inhabitants of Pennsylvania are of Eng- 
 lish, German, Irish, Scotch, Welsh, Swedish, 
 and Dutch origin. The grant to Penn has 
 been noticed in the preceding article. The city 
 of Philadelphia was laid out in 1682; but Swe- 
 dish settlements had been made in the state as 
 early as 1638. The rights of the native posses- 
 sors of the soil, were respected, in every in 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PEP 
 
 390 
 
 PER 
 
 stance, and they only relinquished their land on 
 being paid fair prices. The policy of this con- 
 duct was perceptible in the amicable disposition 
 of the Indians. In 1799 the seat of government 
 was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster, 
 and again, in 1812, to Harrisburg, where it re- 
 mains. 
 
 PEPIN, surnamed the short, king of France, 
 the first of the second race of the French raon- 
 archs, was the son of Charles Martel, and bro- 
 ther of Carloman. The two brothers divided 
 the government between them after the death 
 of their father, but Carloman retiring afterwards 
 into Italy, Pepin remained sole manager, and 
 carried his design farther ; in short, seeing that 
 all concurred to set the crown upon his head, 
 and to dethrone Childeric III, he called a par- 
 liament that he might have their consent, which 
 was unanimously granted him, and in the mean 
 time deputed Bouchard, bishop of Wurtzburg, 
 and Fulrad, abbot of St. Denys, and chaplain to 
 the prince, to go to Rome, in order to be in- 
 formed of Pope Zachary, who was the worthiest 
 to be on the throne, he who took no care of the 
 affairs of the kingdom, or he who, by his pru- 
 dence and valor, governed it wisely, and kept 
 it from the oppressions of the enemy. Zacha- 
 ry, who stood in need of Pepin's forces, declared 
 in his favor. This answer being related in 
 France, the bishops who were assembled at 
 Soissons with Boniface, archbishop of May- 
 ence, having the suffrage and universal consent 
 of the grandees and people, crowned king Pe- 
 pin on the 1st of May, 752. At the same time 
 Childeric was deposed, and afterwards put into 
 a monastery. A*fter the performance of this 
 ceremony, the new king put a stop to the revolt 
 of his brother Griphon, and took Vannes. Pope 
 Stephen II. who succeeded Zachary, finding 
 himself extremely incommoded by the Lom- 
 bards, had recourse to Pepin, whom he came 
 into France to see. The king received him at 
 the castle of Poictier near Vitri, and sent him 
 to the abbey of St. Dennis ; and some time after, 
 this pope anointed and crowned him, with his 
 two sons Charles and Carloman, at Ferrieres, 
 July 28, 754. Next year Pepin went into Italy, 
 and having forced Astulphus, king of the same 
 Lombards, to give up all that he had taken from 
 the church of Rome, he returned into France, 
 and sent back pope Stephen into Italy ; but the 
 Lombards failing to keep their word, the king 
 repassed the Alps in 756. and constrained them 
 to give all manner of satisfaction to the pope of 
 Rome ; being come back into France, he spent 
 the rest of his life in making war upon the Sax- 
 
 ons, and upon Gaifre, or Waifer, duke of Aqui- 
 tain, whom he defeated six or seven times, till 
 the year 768, when this prince being killed by 
 his own subjects, the king remained master of 
 all his dominions. Some time after, he died of 
 a dropsy, the 24th of September, in the same 
 year, aged 54 ; having reigned after his corona- 
 tion by the pope 16 years. 
 
 PEPIN I, of that name, king of Aquitain, 
 was the second son of Louis the Debonnaire, 
 and of Ermengarda, made king of Aquitain in 
 817, was afterwards head of the conspiracies 
 against his father in 830 and 833. He died in 
 the year 838, and was buried in the collegiate 
 church of St. Radegonda in Poictiers. 
 
 PEPIN II, king of Aquitain, succeeded his 
 father in his dominions ; he conducted some 
 troops to LothariusI,his uncle, and served him 
 at the battle of Fontenay, in the year 841 : he 
 was afterwards taken by Sanchus, count of 
 Gascony, and sent to Charles the Bald, his un- 
 cle, who put him into a monastery ; two years 
 after which he found a way to escape, and join- 
 ed the Normans. He plundered Poictiers, and 
 several other places, in 857 ; but the Aquitains 
 fell upon him, and having made him prisoner, 
 delivered him to the French, who condemned 
 him as a traitor to his country, and to Chris- 
 tianity, and put him to death, in 864. 
 
 PEPIN, king of Italy, was the son of Charle- 
 magne, and Hildegarda his second wife, born in 
 the year 777. The king, his father, carried him 
 to Rome, where he was baptized, and received 
 the name of Carloman ; which pope Adrian I 
 changed into that of Pepin, when crowning him 
 king of the Lombards, on Easter-day, in the 
 year 781. He, on several occasions, gave proof 
 of his courage and bravery. In 799, he beat the 
 Huns, and subdued Grimauld, duke of Bene- 
 ventum ; he died at Milan, in the year 810. 
 
 PEPIN, surnamed the Fat, mayor of the pal- 
 ace in France, was the son of Anchises, and 
 grandson of St. Arnold, afterwards bishop of 
 Metz. He began to govern in Austrasia, and 
 was vanquished in the year 681, by Ebroin ; but 
 in 687, he defeated king Thierri, and acted his 
 part so well, that he had all the authority in the 
 two kingdoms, under Clovis III, Childebertand 
 Dagobert III ; and it must be confessed, he was 
 worthy of the empire of the Franks. He gained 
 several battles against Berthairus, in 691 ; Rad- 
 bord, duke of Friezland, in 707; and Wiler, 
 duke of Suabia, whom he defeated in 709, and 
 712. He died in 7l4 ; near Liege. 
 
 PERCEVAL Spencer, second son of John, 
 earl of Egmont, was born in 1762. He was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PER 
 
 391 
 
 PER 
 
 educated at Harrow School, and next at Trini- 
 ty College, Cambridge, where he took his mas- 
 ter's degree in J 782, and the year following be- 
 came a student of Lincoln's Inn. He com- 
 menced practice as a barrister in the king's 
 Bench, from whence he removed to the Court 
 of Chancery. In 1796 he was made king's 
 counsel, and about the same time attracted the 
 notice of Mr. Pitt, by a pamphlet, proving that 
 an impeachment of the House of Commons 
 does not abate by a dissolution of parliament. 
 The same year he was returned for Northamp- 
 ton. In 1801 he was made solicitor-general, 
 and the next year attorney-general. On the 
 change of administration, in 1807, he was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of the exchequer in which 
 situation he displayed great political talents, 
 particularly in the settlement of the regency ; 
 but, unhappily he fell soon afterwards, in the 
 lobby of the House of Commons, by the hands 
 of an assassin, named Bellingham, May 11, 1812. 
 
 PERICLES, an Athenian of a noble family, 
 son of Xanthippus and Agariste. When he 
 took a share in the administration of public af- 
 fairs, he rendered himself popular by opposing 
 Cimon, who was the favorite of the nobility ; 
 and to remove every obstacle which stood in the 
 way of his ambition, he lessened the dignity and 
 the power of the court of the Areopagus, which 
 the people had been taught for ages to respect 
 and to venerate. He also attacked Cimon, and 
 caused him to be banished by the ostracism. 
 Thucydides also, who had succeeded Cimon on 
 his banishment, shared the same fate, and Peri- 
 cles remained for 15 years the sole minister, 
 and as it may be said the absolute sovereign of 
 a republic, which always showed itself so jeal- 
 ous of her liberties, and which distrusted so 
 much the honesty of her magistrates. 
 
 He made war against the Lacedaemonians, 
 obtained a victory over the Sicyonians near Ne- 
 masa, and waged a successful war against the 
 inhabitants of Samos. The Peloponnesian war 
 was fomented by his ambitious views, and when 
 he had warmly represented the flourishing state, 
 the opulence, and actual power, of his country, 
 the Athenians did not hesitate a moment to un- 
 dertake a war against the most powerful repub- 
 lics of Greece, a war which continued for 27 
 years, and which was concluded by the destruc- 
 tion of their empire, and the demolition of their 
 walls. 
 
 The arms of the Athenians were for some 
 time crowned with success ; but an unfortunate 
 expedition raised clamors against Pericles, and 
 the enraged populace attributed all their losses 
 
 to him, and to make atonement for their ill suc- 
 cess, they condemned him to pay 50 talents. 
 
 This loss of popular favor, did not so much 
 affect Pericles as the recent death of all his chil- 
 dren ; and when the tide of unpopularity was 
 passed by, he condescended to come into the 
 public assembly, and to view with secret pride 
 the contrition of his fellow-citizens, who uni- 
 versally begged his forgiveness for the violence 
 which they had offered to his ministerial char- 
 acter. 
 
 He was again restored to all his honors ; but 
 the dreadful pestilence which had diminished 
 the number of his family, proved fatal to him, 
 and about 429 }?ears before. Christ, in his 70th 
 year, he fell a sacrifice to that terrible malady, 
 which robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. 
 
 Pericles was for 40 years at the head of the 
 administration, 25 years with others, and 15 
 alone ; and the flourishing state of the empire 
 during his government, gave occasion to the 
 Athenians publicly to lament his loss, and ven- 
 erate his memory. 
 
 As he was expiring, and seemingly senseless, 
 his friends that stood around his bed expatiated 
 with warmth on the most glorious actions of 
 his life, and the victories which he had won ; 
 when he suddenly interrupted their tears and 
 conversation, by saying that in mentioning the 
 exploits that he had achieved, and which were 
 common to him with all generals, they had for- 
 got to mention a circumstance which reflected 
 far greater glory upon him as a minister, a 
 general, and above all, as a man. " It is," said 
 he, " that not a citizen in Athens has been 
 obliged to put on mourning on my account." 
 
 PERSIA, IRAN, or CHAHISTAN, a coun- 
 try of Asia, is bounded N. by Russia, the Cas- 
 pian sea, and Independent Tartary, E. by Be- 
 loochistan and Afghanistan, S. by the Persian 
 gulf, and W. by Turkey ; containing 500,000 
 square miles, and 9,500,000 inhabitants. The 
 Persians profess the Mohammedan religion, of 
 the sect of Ali. The country contains a few 
 Guebres or Fire-worshippers. Persia has excel- 
 lent fruits, cotton, fine wool, silk, horses, cam- 
 els, pearls, vines; mines of precious stones and 
 different minerals. Much of the soil is sandy. 
 The Persians are true Asiatics — effeminate and 
 fond of pleasures; they are of small size. 
 
 It anciently extended about two thousand 
 eight hundred English miles in length, from 
 the Hellespont to the mouth of the Indus; and 
 about two thousand miles in breadth, from Pon- 
 tus to the mouth of the Arabian Gulf. The 
 Persians are supposed to have descended from 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PER 
 
 392 
 
 PER 
 
 Elam, the son of Shem; and, in Scripture, they 
 are sometimes denominated Elamites. 
 
 The first king of Elam mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture is Chederlaomer, who conquered many of 
 the Asiatic provinces, and held the kings of 
 Sodom, Gomorrah, Bela, Admah, and Zeboim, 
 in subjection for twelve years. He was, how- 
 ever, vanquished by the patriarch Abraham, 
 and lost the sovereignty of the Pentapolis. 
 From this period to the reign of Cyrus, the his- 
 tory of Elam or Persia is clouded with fiction. 
 
 Cyrus, styled the Great, on account of his 
 extensive conquests, and his restoration of the 
 captive Jews, was the son of Cambyses, a Per- 
 sian grandee, and of Mandane, daughter of As- 
 tyages, king of the Medes. 
 
 In the fortieth year of his age, he was called 
 to the assistance of his uncle Cyaxares, who 
 had ascended the throne of Media, and who ap- 
 pointed him generalissimo both of the Medes 
 and Persians. 
 
 The powerful alliance formed against the 
 Medes in 557, induced the king of Armenia to 
 withhold his usual tribute. Cyrus, therefore, 
 marched against him, and compelled him to pay 
 his tribute, and to furnish his customary quota 
 of auxiliaries. 
 
 The Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, Thra- 
 cians, and other nations of Lesser Asia, having 
 entered into an alliance against Cyaxares, chose 
 Croesus, King of Lydia, to be their general. 
 The confederates assembled in the vicinage of 
 the river Pactolus, and advanced to Thymbra, 
 whither Cyrus also marched with one hundred 
 and thirty thousand troops, besides three hun- 
 dred armed chariots, several moving towers, 
 and a considerable number of camels, upon 
 which were mounted Arabian archers. 
 
 The forces of Croesus, however, were twice 
 as numerous as those of Cyrus, and amounted 
 to four hundred thousand men. The battle was 
 extremely bloody, and Cyrus himself was some- 
 time in imminent danger; but at length the 
 confederates gave way on all sides. 
 
 After this engagement, Cyrus took Sardis, 
 the capital of Lydia, and made Croesus prisoner, 
 whom he replaced on the throne. After sub- 
 duing Syria and Arabia, he marched against 
 Babylon, which he reduced after a siege of two 
 years, and put an end to the Babylonian em- 
 pire. 
 
 About two years after the reduction of Baby- 
 lon, Cyaxares died, and left the whole govern- 
 ment of the empire to Cyrus, 534, who at this 
 time published the famous decree by which the 
 Jews were permitted to return to their native 
 
 country, and restored all the vessels which Ne- 
 buchadnezzar had brought from Jerusalem. 
 
 Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, 
 who, soon after his accession to the throne, re- 
 solved to undertake an expedition against Egypt, 
 and in that kingdom committed great cruelties 
 and devastations. 
 
 Cambyses was returning into Persia, to quell 
 a revolt which had been occasioned by Smerdis, 
 one of the magi, who pretended to be the brother 
 of the king, when he accidentally received a 
 wound from his sword, of which he died. 
 
 The counterfeit Smerdis was injured by his 
 excessive precautions. Cyrus having formerly 
 caused the ears of the magi to be cut off, this 
 mutilation occasioned a discovery ; and a con- 
 spiracy of seven of the principal Persian grand- 
 ees being formed against Smerdis, he was assas- 
 sinated. 
 
 When the public tumults had subsided, the 
 conspirators held a council on the kind of gov- 
 ernment which should be established, and after 
 some debate, they determined in favor of mon- 
 archy. They agreed, therefore, to meet next 
 morning on horseback, at an appointed place 
 near the city, and to acknowledge him wmose 
 horse first neighed, as King of Persia. 
 
 This plan was adopted, and Darius, by a 
 stratagem of his groom, obtained the sovereignty. 
 Darius had scarcely entered the fifth year of his 
 reign, when he was compelled to lead all his 
 forces against Babylon, which had revolted, and 
 made great preparations for sustaining a regular 
 siege. 
 
 To prevent the consumption of their provis 
 ions, the Babylonians collected all their old 
 men, women, and children, and strangled them 
 without distinction, only reserving one wife for 
 each man, and a female servant. 
 
 After Babylon had been besieged a year and 
 eight months, it was taken by the contrivance 
 of Zopyrus, who cut off his own nose and ears, 
 and pretending that he was thus mangled by 
 the Persian monarch for advising him to relin- 
 quish his undertaking, was admitted into the 
 city by the inhabitants. 
 
 Having settled the affairs of Babylon, Darius 
 undertook an expedition against the Scythians, 
 B. C. 514, on pretence of revenging the calam- 
 ities which that people had brought upon Asia, 
 about one hundred and twenty years before. 
 
 By means of a bridge of boats, he transported 
 his army across the Bosphorus, and subdued 
 Thrace; and having appointed his fleet to join 
 him at the Ister, or Danube, he also passed over 
 that river into Scythia. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PER 
 
 393 
 
 PER 
 
 The Scythians avoided an engagement, and 
 retired before him, laying waste the country, 
 and filling up all the wells and springs, till the 
 Persian troops were quite exhausted with tedious 
 and fatiguing marches. 
 
 At last, Darius resolved to abandon this wild 
 enterprise, and causing a great number of fires 
 to be lighted, he left the old men and invalids 
 in the camp, and marched with all expedition 
 to regain the pass of the river. 
 
 The king re-crossed the Danube, and returned 
 into Thrace, where he left Megabyzus, one of 
 his generals, to complete the conquest of that 
 country, and, repassing the Bosphorus, took 
 up his quarters at Sardis. 
 
 Darius having declared his son Xerxes, who 
 was born after his father's exaltation to the 
 throne, his successor in the kingdom, this prince 
 made preparations against Greece, B. C. 485. 
 
 He entered into an alliance with the Cartha- 
 ginians, who were to attack the Greek colonies 
 in Sicily and Italy, and who raised an army of 
 three hundred thousand men in Spain, Gaul, 
 Italy, and Africa. To prevent a repetition of a 
 former disaster which befell the Persian fleet, 
 Xerxes commanded a passage for his galleys to 
 be cut through mount Athos. He also ordered 
 a bridge of boats to be laid across the Hellespont 
 for the passage of his troops into Europe. 
 
 Having made the necessary preparations, 
 the Persian monarch began his march against 
 Greece, B. C. 480, with a land army of one mil- 
 lion eight hundred thousand men. His fleet 
 consisted of twelve hundred and seven large 
 ships, and three thousand galleys and transports, 
 which contained five hundred and seventeen 
 thousand six hundred and ten men; so that the 
 whole body of forces amounted to two millions 
 three hundred and seventeen thousand six hun- 
 dred and ten. This number was so much in- 
 creased on the march by such nations as made 
 their submissions, that Xerxes arrived at Ther- 
 mopylae with two millions six hundred and forty 
 one thousand six hundred and ten men, besides 
 servants, eunuchs, women, &c. 
 
 The Grecian fleet was victorious over that of 
 Persia in some partial engagements, and after- 
 wards completely at the battle of Salamis, in 
 which the dispersion was so general, and the 
 defeat so decisive, that Xerxes, afraid of not 
 being able to preserve a single vessel to carry 
 him from Europe, made an expeditious retreat, 
 and was conveyed into Asia in a small boat. 
 
 This success inspired the other Greeks with 
 new courage ; and they joined the Athenians 
 and Lacedaemonians in harassing the Persians 
 
 on all sides. The land-army ventured a decis- 
 ive battle at Platoea in Boeotia, B. C, 479, where, 
 out of three hundred thousand, only three thou- 
 sand Persians escaped. The dissolute conduct 
 of Xerxes rendered him obnoxious to his sub- 
 jects ; and he was murdered by his chief favo- 
 rite, Artabanus, who persuaded Artaxerxes, the 
 king's third son, that Darius, his eldest brother, 
 had been guilty of the crime of parricide. Ar- 
 taxerxes, therefore, killed Darius, and finding 
 that Artabanus entertained a design against 
 him, he ordered him to be put to death, B. C. 
 465. 
 
 The new monarch having thus removed one 
 formidable competitor, endeavored to secure 
 his crown against the attempts of his brother, 
 Hystaspes, who held the government of Bactria. 
 Artaxerxes attacked and defeated the adherents 
 of Artabanus. He then sent an army into Bac- 
 tria, which had declared in favor of Hystaspes ; 
 and though victory was doubtful in the first 
 battle, Artaxerxes was successful in the second ; 
 and firmly established himself in the empire. 
 Artaxerxes died in peace, and left the succession 
 to Xerxes, B. C. 424, the only son he had by his 
 queen, though by his concubines he had seven- 
 teen, among whom were Sogdianus, Ochus, 
 and Arsites. 
 
 Xerxes II had assumed the diadem only 
 forty-five days, when, being inebriated at a pub- 
 lic entertainment, Sogdianus seized an oppor- 
 tunity to assassinate him. The regicide was 
 scarcely seated on the throne, when Ochus hav- 
 ing declared his intention of revenging the mur- 
 der of Xerxes, Sogdianus was deserted by all 
 his subjects, and finally doomed to^xpiate his 
 crimes by a cruel death. 
 
 Ochus, being now invested with supreme au- 
 thority, assumed the name of Darius, and is 
 mentioned by historians under the appellation 
 of Darius Nothus, or Darius the bastard. In 
 this reign, the Egyptians shook off the Persian 
 yoke ; and the Medes also revolted. 
 
 Darius, having settled the affairs of the rebel- 
 lious provinces, bestowed the supreme command 
 of Asia Minor on his youngest son, Cyrus, B. 
 C. 407, who was ordered to assist the Lacedae- 
 monians against the Athenians. This order, 
 however, soon exposed the weakness of the 
 king's politics; for the Lacedaemonians, after 
 conquering the Athenians, invaded the Persian 
 provinces in Asia. 
 
 Darius died, B. C. 404, and left the imperial 
 diadem to his son, Arsaces, who assumed the 
 name of Artaxerxes, and received the appella- 
 tion of Mnemon, on account of his extraordinary 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PER 
 
 394 
 
 PER 
 
 memory. Cyrus resolved to exert all his abil- 
 ities to drive his brother from the throne, and 
 having procured a number of Grecian auxilia- 
 ries, marched his troops to the plains of Cunaxa, 
 in the province of Babylon, where he found Ar- 
 taxerxes, at the head of nine hundred thousand 
 men, ready for battle. 
 
 A sanguinary contest immediately commenc- 
 ed ; and Cyrus, on seeing his brother, engaged 
 him with such fury as seemed to change the 
 battle into a single combat. The rebellious 
 prince, however, fell by the hands of the king 
 and his guards. The ten thousand Greeks, 
 under the conduct of Xenophon, effected that 
 memorable retreat, which has always been con- 
 sidered as a noble achievement among military 
 operations. 
 
 On the death of Darius, three of the princes, 
 viz., Ariaspes, Ochus, and Arsames, became 
 competitors for the crown. 
 
 Ochus practised so effectually on the credu- 
 lity of Ariaspes, that he poisoned himself; and 
 Arsames was assassinated by the son of Tiriba- 
 zus. These acts of cruelty overwhelmed Arta- 
 xerxes with such insupportable grief that he 
 died. 
 
 Ochus concealed the death of the king, and 
 assumed the administration of government in 
 the name of Artaxerxes. He caused himself, 
 in the name of the king, to be declared his suc- 
 cessor ; and after ten months, he published the 
 death of Artaxerxes. An insurrection in sev- 
 eral of the provinces immediately followed ; but 
 the leaders of the confederacy disagreeing 
 among themselves, the rebellion terminated 
 without any effusion of blood. 
 
 Ochus no sooner possessed absolute authority, 
 than he began to fill his capital and the whole 
 empire with carnage and misery. He caused 
 Ocha, his own sister and mother-in-law, to be 
 buried alive ; shut up one of his uncles, with a 
 hundred of his sons and grand-sons, in a court 
 of the palace, where they were massacred by a 
 body of archers ; and put all the branches of the 
 royal family to death. 
 
 This insupportable tyranny occasioned another 
 rebellion, which was not quelled without much 
 difficulty. This revolt was scarcely terminated, 
 when the Sidonians and other natives of Phoe- 
 nicia joined the Cypriots and Egyptians in a 
 confederacy against Persia. 
 
 Ochus effected the reduction of Sidon, and 
 compelled all the other cities to make submis- 
 sions. He also reduced the city of Jericho, 
 and having concluded a peace with the kino's of 
 Cyprus, he led his victorious troops into Egypt 
 
 which he completely subdued. Ochus passed 
 his time amidst every species of luxury and 
 voluptuousness. 
 
 Bagoas, an Egyptian eunuch, prevailed on 
 the king's physician to administer a strong poi- 
 son, instead of medicine, to his royal benefactor. 
 Having thus accomplished his purpose, he 
 caused the flesh of the king to be cut in pieces 
 and thrown to dogs and cats. He then placed 
 on the throne Arses, the youngest prince, and 
 condemned all the rest to death. 
 
 But Arses, sensible of the slavery in which 
 he was held, concerted measures to free himself 
 from it. Bagoas, therefore, effected his destruc- 
 tion in the second year of his reign, B. C. 336, 
 and bestowed the imperial diadem on Darius 
 Codomanus, who was a descendant of Dariua 
 Nothus, and at that time governor of Armenia. 
 
 This prince, however, had not long enjoyed 
 the sovereignty, when the ambitious eunuch 
 determined to remove him, and with this design 
 provided a deleterious potion ; but Darius, being 
 apprised of his danger, compelled Bagoas to 
 drink the poison, and thus established himself 
 on the throne. 
 
 In the second year of this reign, Alexander, 
 king of Macedon, crossed the Hellespont at the 
 head of a well-disciplined army, with the design 
 of revenging the injuries which Greece had re- 
 ceived from the Persians during three hundred 
 years. On his arrival at the Granicus, he found 
 on the opposite bank a numerous Persian army, 
 amounting to 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. 
 Though Alexander had not more than 30,000 
 foot, and 5,000 horse, he crossed the Granicus 
 at the head of his cavalry, and attacked with 
 impetuosity the whole Persian force. An ob- 
 stinate conflict ensued, in which the Persians 
 were defeated with the loss of 20,000 foot and 
 2,000 horse, and in which Alexander exposed 
 his life to the most imminent danger. 
 
 The invasion having assumed a serious as- 
 pect, Darius led his army into Cilicia, B. C. 
 333, and advanced to the city of Issus, near 
 which Alexander drew up his troops on an ad- 
 vantageous ground. Darius retreated precipi- 
 tately to the adjoining mountains, where he 
 mounted a horse, and continued his flight. Al- 
 exander was now entire master of the field, and 
 of the Persian camp, in which the mother, wife, 
 and son of Darius, were taken prisoners. 
 
 In 331, B. C, the Persian monarch, having 
 assembled a numerous army, prepared for bat- 
 tle in a large plain near the city of Arbela, on 
 the confines of Persia. The Persians com- 
 menced the attack, but were totally routed, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PER 
 
 395 
 
 PER 
 
 Darius was again fcompelled to seek safety in 
 flight. Darius, who had sought an asylum at 
 Ecbatana, in Media, had collected another army, 
 with which he intended to make a last effort, 
 B. C. 330. He was, however, prevented by 
 Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes, a 
 Persian nobleman, who entered into a conspi- 
 racy against him, and binding him with golden 
 chains, shut him up in a covered cart, and re- 
 treated precipitately towards Bactria. They 
 intended, if Alexander pursued them, to deliver 
 up the object of his resentment ; or, if -they es- 
 caped the Macedonian conqueror, to murder 
 Darius, and usurping the imperial diadem, to 
 "renew the war. 
 
 When Alexander was informed of the base 
 designs of Bessus and Nabarzanes, he advanced 
 with a small body of light-armed cavalry ; and, 
 as soon as the king of Macedon came within 
 sight of the enemy, they immediately took to 
 flight, and having discharged their darts at the 
 unfortunate Persian monarch, left him welter- 
 ing in his blood. Thus died Darius, in the fif- 
 tieth year of his age, and sixth of his reign, and 
 with him ended the Persian empire, after it 
 had existed 206 years. 
 
 After the Persians had been subject to the 
 Parthians for the space of 475 years, Artaxares, 
 a Persian of mean descent and spurious birth, 
 excited a revolt among his countrymen; and, 
 the reigning monarch being dethroned and put 
 to death, the Persian empire was restored. The 
 emperor Alexander Severus, attacked and de- 
 feated Artaxares, and wrested from him several 
 of his provinces. Artaxares, however, recov- 
 ered these provinces, and, after swaying the 
 sceptre with great reputation for the space of 
 twelve years, died in peace. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Sapor, A. D. 
 242, who was equally famous for his personal 
 strength and mental abilities, but who was of 
 a fierce, cruel, and untractable disposition. 
 
 Sapor left his kingdom to his son Hormisdas, 
 who, refusing to interfere in the affairs of the 
 Romans, died in peace, A. D. 273, after a reign 
 of one year and ten days. 
 
 His son Vararanes I, enjoyed the regal dignity 
 three years, without being disturbed by the Ro- 
 mans, or attempting to extend the limits of his 
 empire. 
 
 Vararanes II meditated an invasion of the 
 Roman provinces, A. D. 277, but on the ap- 
 
 E roach of the Emperor Probus, he abandoned 
 is design, and sued for peace. 
 Vararanes III was denominated Segansaa, 
 or king of the Segans, and was succeeded by 
 
 Narses, A. D. 294, a prince of great abilities 
 and resolution. He died in the seventh year 
 of his reign, and was succeeded by Misdates, 
 whose actions were not sufficiently interesting 
 to claim the attention of posterity. 
 
 Sapor II his successor, A. D. 308, was a 
 zealous assertor of the dignity of the Persian 
 crown, and endeavored to unite all the provinces 
 of the ancient empire under his authority. This 
 restless and ambitious monarch was succeeded 
 by Artaxerxes, A. D..380, who lived in amity 
 with the Romans, and enjoyed the regal dignity 
 about four years. 
 
 Vararanes IV, succeeded his father Sapores, 
 and governed his dominions eleven years. Is- 
 digertes was deservedly celebrated for his vir- 
 tuous disposition, and, at the death of the Em- 
 peror Arcadius, A. D. 401, was intrusted with 
 the care of his son Theodosius II, and the Ro- 
 man empire. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Vararanes V, 
 A. D. 421. In his reign, the indiscreet zeal of 
 a Christian, who set fire to a Persian temple, 
 renewed the war with the Romans. The Per- 
 sian monarch obtained the assistance of the Sa- 
 racens, and, notwithstanding the defeats which 
 he experienced from the R,omans, he rendered 
 even victory disadvantageous to the enemy. 
 
 Vararanes VI, was next invested with the 
 diadem, A. D. 442, which he wore for seventeen 
 years and four months. His son and successor. 
 Peroses, being incensed against the Euthalites 
 or White Huns, marched an army into their 
 country ; but the Euthalites cutting off" his re- 
 treat, obliged him to swear that he would never 
 more invade them. Peroses, however, assem- 
 bled his forces, and marched a second time to- 
 wards the northern frontiers; but, the Euthalites 
 rushing unexpectedly upon him, slew and took 
 captive most of his army, and put him to death. 
 
 The nobles bestowed the crown on his brother 
 Valens, who, at the expiration of four years, fell 
 a victim to the oppressive cares of government. 
 He was succeeded by Cavades, the son of Pe- 
 roses, A. D. 486. On the death of Cavades, his 
 son Chosroes ascended the throne, A. D. 531 
 The Persian monarch, however, was almost 
 constantly engaged in hostilities with the east- 
 ern empire ; but, the Romans having given him 
 a complete defeat, he was so deeply affected 
 with his ill success, that he sickened and died. 
 He was succeeded by his son Hormisdas, A. D. 
 579. 
 
 Hormisdas was dethroned by a person of the 
 royal blood, named Bindoes, who had been 
 loaded with chains for a slight offence. The 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PER 
 
 396 
 
 PER 
 
 unfortunate monarch being heard in his own 
 defence, recommended his younger son Hor- 
 misdas as his successor, in preference to his 
 elder son Chosroes. The assembly, however, 
 at the instigation of Bindoes, caused his son 
 Hormisdas, and the prince's mother, to be cut 
 in pieces ; and ordered the eyes of the deposed 
 monarch to be put out with a hot iron. 
 
 Chosroes II, ascended the throne, A. D. 592. 
 On the death of the Emperor Mauritius, he took 
 up arms against the Romans, A. D. G05, and 
 such was his success, that, in nine years, he 
 plundered the provinces of Syria, Mesopotamia, 
 Phoenicia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Galacia, Paph- 
 lagonia, and all the country as far as Chalcedon. 
 He also ravaged Judea; pillaged the city of 
 Jerusalem; and sold ninety Christians to the 
 Jews, who put them all to death. These extra- 
 ordinary conquests induced him to make an 
 expedition into Egypt; he reduced Alexandria 
 and all the country toward Libya, and added 
 the empire of Africa to that of Asia. 
 
 He was defeated in several battles, and finally 
 murdered in a dungeon by command of his own 
 son. Siroes having ascended the throne of Per- 
 sia, A. D. 626, concluded a treaty of perpetual 
 peace with Heraclius ; but, he was murdered 
 by one of his generals, after twelve months 
 reign. His son, Ardeser, was next invested 
 with the government, but was assassinated in 
 the seventh month of his reign by Sarbas, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Persian forces, who seiz- 
 ed the diadem for himself. A civil war, how- 
 ever, crushed the ambitious projects of the 
 usurper, and elevated to the throne Isdigertes 
 II, A. D. 630. 
 
 The reign of this prince was short and un- 
 happy. He defended his country with becom- 
 ing resolution against the Saracens, till the 
 spirits of his subjects were entirely broken by 
 repeated defeats. At last he was slain in bat- 
 tle ; and, in him ended the royal line of Artax- 
 ares. With his death terminated the Persian 
 empire, which had maintained a splendid exist- 
 ence for upwards of 400 years. 
 
 The founder of the dynasty of Shahs in Per- 
 sia, was Ismael, surnamed Sophi, who was de- 
 scended in the direct male line from Ali, the 
 son-in-law of Mohammed. In 1500 there was 
 a great number of the sectaries of Ali among 
 the Mohammedans of Asia. Ismael assembled 
 about 700, who were attached to his family ; and 
 attacking his father's murderer, slew him in 
 battle, and took possession of his dominions. 
 He was a monster of inhumanity and cruelty, 
 and reigned 23 years ; during which period be- 
 
 gan the struggle for power between the Persians 
 and the Turks. 
 
 Ismael was succeeded by his son Tahmasp, 
 A. D. 1523. He was succeeded by Ismael II, 
 his son, A. D. 1575. Mohammed, the brother 
 and successor of Ismael, had spent his life in 
 privacy, wholly devoted to religious duties; and 
 assumed the sceptre, A. D. 1577. Mohammed 
 left three sons, the two eldest of whom, Hamzeh 
 and Ismael, merely appeared upon the throne, 
 about 1584, and are scarcely numbered among 
 the emperors. 
 
 By the contrivance of a vizier, named Kouli 
 Khan, Shah Abbas prosecuted the war against 
 the Turks, which he conducted in person, with 
 great success and glory; retook Tauris, and 
 defeated his enemies in several engagements. 
 In his dying moments, he sent for four of the 
 chief lords of his council to his bed side, and 
 told them that it was his will that his grandson, 
 Mirza, should succeed him, and assume the 
 name of his father. After assembling all the 
 lords in the neighborhood of Ispahan, they 
 crowned him A. D. 1623. On his accession to 
 the throne, he assumed the name of Safi. This 
 prince was a second Nero, who, bearing in his 
 countenance every mark of clemency and good- 
 ness cherished in his heart the vicious inclina- 
 tions of a savage and inexorable tyrant. He 
 reigned 13 years, and left a son named Abbas, 
 who succeeded him, and whom his father had 
 ordered to be deprived of sight ; but the com- 
 passion of the executioner had spared him. 
 
 Under Abbas II, A. D. 1642 ; intoxication, 
 passion, and an uncontrollable love of power, 
 rendered life not more secure than under his 
 brutal father. On the death of Abbas, his el- 
 dest son Safi was immediately saluted emperor, 
 A. D. 1666, but afterwards assumed the name 
 of Solyman. Solyman died a natural death, 
 after a reign of 29 years, A. D. 1694 ; and was 
 succeeded by his son Shah Husseyn, the most 
 merciful and most unfortunate prince of his 
 race. History furnishes few instances of a dis- 
 solution so entire as that of the kingdom of Per- 
 sia, under the feeble and inactive Husseyn. 
 
 At length, after a series of disasters, Husseyn 
 was obliged to abdicate the throne to Mahmoud. 
 Before this ceremony took place, the king tra- 
 velled through the principal streets of Ispahan 
 on foot, deploring the misfortunes of his reign, 
 and consoling the people who surrounded him, 
 by endeavoring to excite in them hopes of bet- 
 ter fortune under a new government. 
 
 In dispossessing Husseyn, A. D. 1723, Mah- 
 moud avenged himself on all those, who, by 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PER 
 
 397 
 
 PET 
 
 negligence, ignorance, parly-spirit, cowardice, 
 or treason, had contributed to the ruin of the 
 state. The conduct of Mahmoud tended to ex- 
 cite the odium of his subjects ; and he saw his 
 projects defeated, and himself beginning to be 
 treated with general hatred. In order to avert 
 these misfortunes, which he imputed to the an- 
 ger of heaven, he imposed on himself a sort of 
 penance, which continued ]5 days, and which 
 had the effect of completely deranging his senses. 
 His captains, seeing him at the point of death, 
 turned their thoughts on Ashraf, who refused 
 ihe crown,- except the head of his cousin Mah- 
 moud should be brought to him. 
 
 Mahmoud, therefore, who could not have 
 lived many hours longer, was put to death ; and 
 the destroyer of the dynasty of the Shahs enjoy- 
 ed his triumph only two years. Ashraf ordered 
 all the guards, ministers, and confidants of Mah- 
 moud, to be executed ; and did not spare even 
 those who had placed him on the throne. 
 
 About this time, Kouli Khan became distin- 
 guished ; and having tendered his services to 
 Tahmasp, in three campaigns he made him 
 master of all the possessions of the Afghans. 
 Ashraf offered to abdicate the throne, and to 
 restore the treasures which he had inherited 
 after Mahmoud's death ; but Kouli Khan, refus- 
 ing to listen to any terms of accommodation, 
 pursued his enemy even to death, and with him 
 ended the transitory dynasty of the Afghans. 
 
 Tahmasp was reestablished on the throne by 
 the power of Kouli Khan, A. D. 1730; who, in 
 a short time deposed him, and introduced into 
 his place his infant son, by the name of Abbas 
 III. The infant emperor dying within six 
 months, Kouli Khan was elected to the vacant 
 throne ; and, on his accession, took the name 
 of Nadir Shah. 
 
 The reign of this prince was marked with 
 glory and conquest. His government was des- 
 potic and tyrannical ; and he formed the design 
 of a general massacre of the principal Persians. 
 He conquered Usbec Tartary ; but was not so 
 successful against the Daghistan Tartars. Pie 
 beat the Turks in several engagements, but was 
 unable to take Bagdad. His conduct became 
 so intolerable, that he was assassinated in his 
 own tent, in the year 1747. 
 
 Many pretenders, upon his death, started up; 
 but the fortunate candidate was Kerim Khan, 
 who was crowned at Tauris, in 1763. His death 
 gave rise to another disputed succession, with 
 civil wars, which lasted 14 years. At length, 
 Aga Mohammed raised himself to the sove- 
 reignty. After a short reign he died, and trans- 
 
 mitted the throne to his nephew, who assumed 
 the title of Feth Ali Shah, an accomplished 
 prince; under whose sway, Persia may for a 
 time enjoy some tranquillity. 
 
 PERTH, a city of Scotland, capital of Perth- 
 shire, on the Tay, 39 miles north of Edinburgh, 
 containing 20.000 inhabitants. It is supposed 
 to have been founded by Agricola the Roman 
 general during his invasion of Scotland. On 
 Feb. 21, 1437, king James I was murdered here 
 in a monastery, by Robert Graham. In 1644 
 Montrose seized on Perth, after the battle of 
 Tibbermier : it was likewise the head-quarters 
 of the Earl of Mar and the Pretender, in 1715. 
 
 PERU, are public of South America, for- 
 merly a viceroyalty, containing 500,000 square 
 miles, and 1 ,800,000 inhabitants. It is rich in 
 mineral and vegetable productions. The popu- 
 lation is composed of European Spaniards, Cre- 
 oles, Mestizoes, Indians, and mulattoes. It was 
 discovered by Pizarro, in 1524. The battle of 
 Caxamarca, on the 10th of November, 1532, de- 
 cided the fate of Peru ; and Atahualpa, the 
 captive monarch, was treacherously and inhu- 
 manly put to death by the cruel and avaricious 
 Spaniards. Pizarro, after having defeated Paula 
 Inca, the brother of Atahualpa, entered Cusco, 
 the capital. Quito was next taken. In 1533, 
 Pizarro founded the city of Lima, and employed 
 himself in establishing a form of government. 
 While thus employed, a new enemy started up, 
 — the ambitious Almagro ; who, in a decisive 
 battle fought near Cusco, was taken prisoner 
 and beheaded. Two years afterwards, Pizarro 
 was assassinated, on the 26th of June, 1541. 
 The viceroyalty of Peru, being transmitted 
 down from one governor to another, in a line 
 directed more by the fortunes of war, and the 
 vicissitudes of events, than by any regular plan 
 of succession, terminated in June, 1821, by the 
 capture of Lima; and, by a declaration pub- 
 lished in the next month, the independence of 
 Peru was declared to be the wish of the people. 
 
 PETER the Great, czar of Russia, was the 
 son of Alexis Michaelowitz, and born May 30, 
 1672. On the decease of his half-brother, Feo- 
 dor, in 1682, Peter was proclaimed czar, in con- 
 junction with John, his eldest brother, who died 
 in 1696, and left him in full possession of the 
 empire. While a youth, he conceived those 
 projects of improvement which have stamped 
 immortality upon his name. He entered into 
 the military life, and performed the duties of a 
 common soldier, till, by rising gradually from 
 the ranks to the command of a body of troops, 
 he exhibited the duty of obedience, and the ne 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PET 
 
 398 
 
 PET 
 
 cessity of discipline, in his own example. He 
 visited Holland under a disguised name, in 
 1698. Here he worked as a common laborer in 
 the dock-yard, and then went to England. 
 While thus engaged, the news of an insurrec- 
 tion, exciLcu by the Princess Sophia, obliged 
 him to return to Russia, where he severely 
 punished the conspirators, and confined his sis- 
 ter in a nunnery. In 1700 he declared War 
 against Charles XII, of Sweden, and though 
 unsuccessful at first, he afterwards gained such 
 advantages as induced him to build a fortress 
 on the Baltic, called, after him, Petersburg. In 
 1709, the czar obtained the victory of Pultowa, 
 after which he conquered Livonia, Ingria, Fin- 
 land, and part of Pomerania. But he had a 
 narrow escape, when engaged in a contest with 
 the Turks, who surrounded his army on the 
 banks of the Pruth : from which perilous state 
 he was extricated by- the Empress Catharine, 
 who entered into a treaty of peace with the 
 grand vizier. In 1716, the czar and his consort 
 visited Denmark and Holland, where he left 
 Catharine while he made a journey to Paris. 
 He died of a strangury, Jan. 28, 1725, and was 
 succeeded by the czarina Catharine. 
 
 A colossal statue was erected to his memory 
 at St. Petersburg, by Catharine second. The 
 huge block of granite which forms its pedestal, 
 and which weighs upwards of fifteen tons, was 
 conveyed from a marsh at a distance of four 
 English miles from St. Petersburg, and two 
 from the sea. On approaching near to the 
 rock, the simple inscription fixed on it in bronze 
 letters, " Petro Primo, Catherina Secunda, 
 MDCCLXXXH," meets the eye. The same 
 inscription in the Russian language appears on 
 the opposite side. The area is enclosed within 
 a handsome railing placed between granite 
 pillars. 
 
 " The idea," says Dr. Granville, " of Falco- 
 net, the French architect, commissioned to erect 
 an equestrian statue of the extraordinary man at 
 whose command a few scattered huts of fisher- 
 men were converted into palaces, was to repre- 
 sent the hero as conquering, by enterprise and 
 personal courage, difficulties almost insur- 
 mountable. This the artist imagined might be 
 properly represented by placing Peter on a fiery 
 steed, which he is supposed to have taught by 
 skill, management and perseverance, to rush 
 up a steep and precipitous rock, to the very 
 brink of a precipice, over which the animal and 
 the imperial rider pause without fear, and in an 
 attitude of triumph. The horse rears with his 
 fore feet in the air, and seems to be impatient 
 
 of restraint, while the sovereign ■, turned towards 
 the Island, surveys with calm and serene coun- 
 tenance his capital rising out of the waters, 
 over which he extends the hand of protection. 
 
 " The bold manner in which the group has 
 been made to rest on the hind legs of the horse 
 only, is not more surprising than the skill with 
 which advantage has been taken of the allego- 
 rical figure of the serpent of envy spurned b}' 
 the horse, to assist in upholding so gigantic a 
 mass. This monument of bronze is said to have 
 been cast at a single jet. The height of the fig- ' 
 ure of the emperor is eleven feet ; that of the 
 horse seventeen feet; the general weight -of 
 the metal in the group is equal to 36,636 Eng- 
 lish pounds. 
 
 " I heard a venerable Russian nobleman, who 
 was living at St. Petersburg when this monu- 
 ment was in progress, relate, that as soon as the 
 artist had formed his conception of the design. 
 he communicated it to the Etspress, together 
 with the impossibility of representing to nature 
 so striking a position of man and animal, with- 
 out having before his eyes a horse and rider in 
 the attitude he had devised. General Melessi- 
 no, an officer having the reputation of being the 
 mo§t expert as well as the boldest rider of the 
 day, to whom the difficulties of the artist were 
 made known, offered to ride daily one of Count 
 Alexis OrlofFs best Arabians, to the summit of 
 a steep artificial mound formed for the purpose ; 
 accustoming the horse to gallop up to it, and to 
 halt suddenly, with his fore legs raised, pawing 
 the air over the brink of a precipice. This dan- 
 gerous experiment was carried into effect by the 
 general for some days, in the presence of seve- 
 ral spectators and of Falconet, who sketched 
 the various movements and parts of the group 
 from day to day, a/id was thus enabled to'pro- 
 duce perhaps the finest, certainly the' most cor- 
 rect statue of the kind in Europe." 
 
 PETER the Hermit, a French enthusiast of 
 the 11th century, who made a pilgrimage to 
 Palestine, and, on his return to Europe, preach- 
 ed up the crusade, for the recovery of the holy 
 city from the infidels. His suceess was such as 
 might have been expected in an ignorant age. 
 He passed through Hungary with an immense 
 crowd of followers, thousands of whom perished 
 miserably. Peter, however, entered Syria, and 
 displayed great bravery at the taking of Jerusa- 
 lem. He then returned to France, where he 
 died, in the abbey of Noirmoutier. of which he 
 was the founder. 
 
 PETERS, Richard,, was born near Philadel- 
 phia, Aug. 22, 1744, and was graduated at the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PHI 
 
 399 
 
 PHI 
 
 University of Pennsylvania. He studied law, 
 and, having served a short time, as captain in 
 the revolutionary army, he was transferred to 
 the board of war where his services were pub- 
 licly acknowledged. For thirty-six years he 
 held the station of judge of the District Court 
 of Pennsylvania. He made many agricultural 
 experiments, most of which were highly suc- 
 cessful. He was particularly distinguished for 
 a fertile fancy, and great wit, and many of his 
 bon mots bid fair to be long remembered. 
 
 One day, arriving at a tavern, he perceived 
 the entrance occupied by two persons — a very 
 fat and a very lean man. After waiting for a 
 long time in hopes of their making way' for him, 
 he dashed in between them, exclaiming ; " In I 
 go, through thick and thin ! " His celebrity 
 for wit commenced at an early age. 
 
 PETRARCA, Francesco, or, as he is gener- 
 ally termed by English writers, Petrarch, was 
 an Italian poet and scholar, who adorned the 
 14th century. He was born at Arezzo in Tus- 
 cany, July 4, 1304. He studied law, and the- 
 ology, entering into the ecclesiastical state in 
 1326. His platonic affection for the beautiful 
 Laura led him to write amatory sonnets in his 
 native tongue, which tributes of affection were 
 continued after the death of the virtuous lady 
 who inspired them. Petrarch died at Arqua, 
 near Padua, July 18, 1374. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, is situated in a county 
 of the same name, in the state of Pennsylvania, 
 about five miles from the junction of the Dela- 
 ware and Schuylkill rivers. The city was 
 founded by William Penn in 1682. The mem- 
 bers of the first continental congress assembled 
 here Sept. 5, 1774. In 1777 it was in the hands 
 of the British from Sept. 26 until the 18th of 
 June. The population of Philadelphia, accord- 
 ing to the last census, was 205,850. It is one 
 of the most regular cities in the world, being 
 handsomely built of brick, and is a place of 
 great trade and opulence, and, with regard to 
 manufactures surpasses all other cities in the 
 United States. It contains 100 houses of pub- 
 lic worship, many other public buildings, and 
 numerous literary and humane institutions. 
 
 PHILIP I king of France, born in 1053, was 
 the son of Henry I crowned at Rheims, 1059. 
 His jealousy against William the Conqueror 
 laid the foundations of the wars between Eng- 
 land and France. He died at Milan, July 29, 
 1108, having reigned 49 years. 
 
 PHILIP II, king of France, surnamed Au- 
 gustus, was born August 22, 1165. He began 
 to reign in 1180. He made war with the Eng- 
 34* 
 
 lish ; but some time after, he undertook the 
 crusade in 1190. He took Acre, defeated sev- 
 enteen thousand Saracens, and returned about 
 Christmas, 1191. In 1214, the Emperor Otho 
 IV, a Count of Flanders, and several confed- 
 erate princes raised an army of 150,000 men 
 against him, when the king engaged them at 
 Bovines, and gained the victory. The king 
 fought with great intrepidity at Bovines, and 
 had his horse killed under him. He died at 
 Mante upon the Seine, July 14, 1223, after a 
 reign of 42 years. 
 
 PHILIP III, king of France, surnamed the 
 Hardy, was the son of St. Louis. Having con 
 quered the Saracens, he returned to France, 
 where he was crowned in 1271. Philip went 
 in person against the Arragonese, and took Gi- 
 rone, and on his return died of a malignant fever 
 at Perpignan in the 16th year of his reign, aged 
 41. 
 
 PHILIP IV, king of France, surnamed the 
 Fair, as also le Grand, born at Fontainebleau 
 in 1268, and succeeded his father Philip III in 
 1285. The ill conduct of James of Castillon, 
 Earl of St. Paul, caused a sedition at Bruges. 
 The king sent an army to reduce it, under the 
 command of Robert earl of Artois ; but they 
 were defeated at the battle of Courtray in 1302. 
 Philip recovered himself in some measure again, 
 especially on the 18th of August 1304, in the 
 memorable battle at Mons in Puelle, where 
 above 25,000 Flemings were slain. At length, 
 peace was made in 1305. Philip died at Fon- 
 tainbleau, in 1314, after a reign of 29 years. 
 
 PHILIP V, king of France, surnamed the 
 Long, youngest son to Philip the Fair, succeed- 
 ed to the crown in 1317, but died after a reign 
 of five years. He renewed his alliance with 
 the Scots in 1318, and expelled the Jews out of 
 his dominions. He died at Long-Champ, aged 
 28 years. 
 
 PHILIP VI, king of France, succeeded in 
 1328. Having a dispute with Edward of Eng- 
 land, war broke out in 1338. Next year Cam- 
 bray was besieged by the English. The king 
 had taken the part of Charles de Blois, his 
 nephew, and had received homage for Britany, 
 which John de Montfort pretended to ; but the 
 latter was supported by king Edward, who 
 made a descent into Normandy, took Caen, and 
 gained the victory at Cressy , in which 11 French 
 princes, 80 barons, 1200 knights, and 30,000 
 soldiers were slain. The English, flushed with 
 this victory, took Calais, which continued in 
 their hands 210 years, till 1558. Philip VI died 
 at Nogent le Potrou, 1350, aged 57, in the 23d 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PHI 
 
 400 
 
 PHI 
 
 year of his reign. He had great courage and 
 resolution ; but was blamed for introducing the 
 imposition upon salt. 
 
 PHILIP II, of Spain, born in 1527, was son 
 of the Em^ror Charles V, and Isabel of Portu- 
 gal. He made a league with the English, and 
 sent 40,000 men into Picardy, who gained a 
 victory over 18,000 French at St. Quintin in 
 1557. This misfortune was repaired by the 
 taking of Calais, Thionville and Dunkirk ; and 
 was afterwards followed by a peace made at 
 Chateau Cambresis in 1559. In 1580, Philip 
 made himself master of the kingdom of Portu- 
 gal ; and his troops contributed to the defeat of 
 the Turks at the battle of Lepanto. He also 
 reduced the Moors who revolted against him in 
 1561. He subdued Pignon or Peunon de Velez 
 in Africa, and the isles which from him are 
 called, the Philippine Islands. After this, Philip 
 sent out a fleet of above fourscore ships, which 
 was called, the Invincible Armada, against 
 Queen Elizabeth of England. They sailed 
 from Lisbon, May 29, 1588, and were destroyed 
 partly by storms, and partly by the valor of the 
 English. This loss is said to have amounted 
 to 10,000 men and 60 ships ; but Philip received 
 the news of it without the least discomposure. 
 On the news being communicated to him, he 
 answered calmly, that he thanked God, that he 
 was able to rig out such another. Philip died 
 at the Escurial. Sept. 13, 1598, aged 71. 
 
 PHILIP III, of Spain, born at Madrid, 1578, 
 succeeded his father Philip II, in 1598, reform- 
 ed the courts of judicature, expelled the Moors 
 out of Spain, and made a peace in the Low 
 Countries, and afterwards lived in repose. He 
 died on the 31st of March 1621, in the 43d year 
 of his age, and 23d of his reign. 
 
 PHILIP of Macedon, son of Argseus, suc- 
 ceeded his father and reigned 38 years, B. C. 
 640. The second of that name was the fourth 
 son of Amyntas, king of Macedonia. He was 
 eent to Thebes as an hostage by his father, 
 where he learnt the art of war under Epami- 
 nondas, and studied with the greatest care the 
 manners and the pursuits of the Greeks. He 
 was recalled to Macedonia, and ascended the 
 throne. The neighboring nations ridiculing 
 the youth and inexperience of the new king of 
 Macedonia, appeared in arms ; but Philip soon 
 convinced them of their error. Unable to meet 
 them as yet in the field of battle, he suspended 
 their fury by presents, and soon turned his arms 
 against Amphipolis, a colony tributary to the 
 Athenians. 
 
 Amphipolis was conquered, and added to the 
 
 kingdom of Macedonia ; and Philip meditated 
 no less than the destruction of a republic which 
 had rendered itself so formidable to the rest of 
 Greece, and had even claimed submission from 
 the princes of Macedonia. He made himself 
 master of a Thracian colony, to which he gave 
 the name of Philippi. 
 
 In the midst of his political prosperity, Philip 
 did not neglect the honor of his family. Every 
 thing seemed now to conspire to his aggrandize- 
 ment; and historians have observed, that Philip 
 received in one day the intelligence of three 
 things which could gratify the most unbounded 
 ambition, and flatter the hopes of the most as- 
 piring monarch, — the birth of a son, an honor- 
 able crown at the Olympic games, and a victory 
 over the barbarians of Ulyricum. 
 
 But all these increased rather than satiated 
 his ambition ; he declared his inimical senti- 
 ments against the power of Athens, and the in- 
 dependence of all Greece, by laying siege to 
 Olynthus, a place which, on account of its situ- 
 ation and consequence, was most advantageous 
 to the intrigues of every Macedonian prince. 
 
 The Athenians sent 17 vessels and 2,000 men 
 to the assistance of Olynthus, but the money of 
 Philip prevailed over all their efforts. The 
 greatest part of the citizens suffered themselves 
 to be bribed by the Macedonian gold, and Olyn- 
 thus surrendered to the enemy, and was instant- 
 ly reduced to ruins. In his attempts to make 
 himself master of Euboea, Philip was unsuccess- 
 ful ; and Phocion, who despised his gold, obliged 
 him to evacuate an island whose inhabitants 
 were as insensible to the charms of money, as 
 they were unmoved at the horrors of war, and 
 the bold efforts of a vigilant enemy. From 
 Euboea he turned his arms against the Scythi- 
 ans, but the advantages which he obtained over 
 this indigent nation were inconsiderable. 
 
 He next advanced far intoficeotia, and a gen- 
 eral engagement was fought at Chreronea. The 
 fight was long and bloody, but Philip obtained 
 the victory. At the battle of Chaeronea the in- 
 dependence of Greece was extinguished ; and 
 Philip, unable to find new enemies in Europe, 
 formed new enterprises, and meditated new 
 conquests. 
 
 He was appointed general of the Greeks 
 against the Persians, and was called upon to re- 
 venge those injuries which Greece had suffered 
 from the invasions of Darius and of Xerxes. 
 But he was stopped in the midst of his warlike 
 preparations, being stabbed by Pausanias as he 
 entered the theatre, at the celebration of the 
 nuptials of his daughter Cleopatra. He was 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PHO 
 
 401 
 
 PHO 
 
 murdered in the 47th year of his age, and the 
 24th of his reign, 346 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 PHILIP, king, Sachem of Pokanoket, was 
 the youngest son of Massasoit. In 1075, he 
 commenced a war with the English, who suf- 
 fered severely from his enmity. He was killed 
 Aug. 12, 1676. 
 
 PHILIPPINES, a group of islands in the Pa- 
 cific ocean, 1200 in number. They were dis- 
 covered by Magellan in 1521, and the first set- 
 tlements were made by the Spaniards in 1570. 
 Manilla is the capital of the Spanish posses- 
 sions. The population is composed of Chinese, 
 Spaniards, mestizoes, and natives, and amounts 
 to about two and a half millions. These islands 
 are fruitful and productive, but subject to rava- 
 ges from hurricanes, earthquakes, and volcanic 
 eruptions. 
 
 PHOCION, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
 virtues, private as well as public. He often 
 checked the violent and inconsiderate measures 
 of Demosthenes, and when the Athenians 
 seemed eager to make war against Philip, king 
 of Macedonia, Phocion observed that war should 
 never be undertaken without the strongest and 
 most certain expectations of success and victory. 
 
 He was 45 times appointed governor of 
 Athens, and no greater encomium can be passed 
 upon his talents as a minister and statesman, 
 than that he never solicited that high, though 
 dangerous, office. It was through him that 
 Greece was saved from an impending war, and 
 he advised Alexander rather to turn his arms 
 against Persia, than to shed the blood of the 
 Greeks, who were either his allies or his subjects. 
 
 But not totally to despise the favors of the 
 monarch, he begged Alexander to restore to 
 their liberty four slaves that were confined in 
 the citadel of Sardis. 
 
 When the Piraeus was taken, Phocion was 
 accused of treason, and therefore, to avoid the 
 public indignation, he fled for safety to Poly- 
 perchon. Polyperchon sent him back to Athens, 
 where he was immediately condemned to drink 
 the fatal poison. He received the indignities of 
 the people with uncommon composure ; and 
 when one of his friends lamented his fate, Pho- 
 cion exclaimed, " This is no more than what I 
 expected ; this treatment the most illustrious 
 citizens of Athens have received before me." 
 He died about 31 8 years before the christian era. 
 
 It has been observed of Phocion, that he never 
 appeared elated in prosperity, or dejected in ad- 
 versity ; he never betrayed pusillanimity by a 
 tear, nor joy by a smile. His countenance was 
 
 stern and unpleasant, but he never behaved with 
 severity, his expressions were mild, and his re- 
 bukes gentle. At the age of 80 he appeared at 
 the head of the Athenian armies like the most 
 active officer, and to his prudence and cool va- 
 lor in every period of life his citizens acknow- 
 ledged themselves much indebted. His merits 
 were not buried in oblivion ; the Athenians re- 
 pented of their ingratitude, and honored his 
 memory by raising him statues, and putting to a 
 cruel death his guilty accusers. 
 
 PHOCIS, an ancient country of Greece, 
 bounded N. by Thessaly, E. by Locris and 
 Boeotia, S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and W. by 
 Doris, and the country of the Ozolian Locrians. 
 Phocis was rendered famous for a war which it 
 maintained against some of the Grecian repub- 
 lics, and which has received the name of the 
 Phocian war. This celebrated war originated 
 in the following circumstances : When Philip, 
 king of Macedonia, had fomented divisions in 
 Greece, and disturbed the peace of every repub- 
 lic, the Greeks universally became discontented 
 in their situation, and jealous of the prosperity 
 of the neighboring states. 
 
 The Aniphictyons, who were the supreme 
 rulers of Greece, and who at that time were 
 subservient to the views of the Thebans, the 
 inveterate enemies of the Phocians, showed the 
 same spirit, and like the rest of their country- 
 men, were actuated by the same jealousy and 
 ambition. As the supporters of religion, they 
 accused the Phocians of impiety for ploughing 
 a small portion of land which belonged to the 
 god of Delphi. They immediately commanded, 
 that the sacred field should be laid waste, and 
 that the Phocians, to expiate their crime, should 
 pay a heavy fine to the community. 
 
 The inability of the Phocians to pay the fine, 
 and that of the Aniphictyons to enforce their 
 commands by violence, gave rise to new events. 
 The people of Phocis resolved to oppose the 
 Amphyctyonic council by force of arms. Dur- 
 ing two years hostilities were carried on be- 
 tween the Phocians and their enemies, the The- 
 bans and the people of Locris, but no decisive 
 battles were fought. 
 
 Philip of Macedonia, who had assisted the 
 Thebans, was obliged to retire from the field 
 with dishonor, but a more successful battle was 
 fought near Magnesia, and the monarch, by 
 crowning the head of his soldiers with laurel, 
 and telling them that they fought in the cause 
 of Delphi and heaven, obtained a complete vic- 
 tory. This fatal defeat, however, did not ruin 
 the Phocians : Phayllus, took the command of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 PIC 
 
 402 
 
 PIN 
 
 their armies, and doubling the pay of his sol- 
 diers, he increased his forces by the addition 
 of 9,000 men from Athens, Lacedaemon, and 
 Achaia. 
 
 But all this numerous force at last proved in- 
 effectual, the treasures of the temple of Delphi, 
 which had long defrayed the expenses of the 
 war, began to fail, dissensions arose among the 
 ringleaders of Phocis, and when Philip had 
 crossed the Straits of Thermopylae, the Phocians, 
 relying on his generosity, claimed his protec- 
 tion, and implored him to plead their cause be- 
 fore the Amphictyonic council. His feeble in- 
 tercession was not attended with success, and 
 the Thebans, the Locrians, and the Thessalians, 
 who then composed the Amphictyonic council, 
 unanimously decreed, that the Phocians should 
 be deprived of the privilege of sending members 
 among the Amphictyons. 
 
 The Phocians, ten years after they had un- 
 dertaken the sacred war, saw their country laid 
 desolate, their walls demolished, and their cities 
 in ruins, by the wanton jealousy of their ene- 
 mies, and the inflexible cruelty of the Macedo- 
 nian soldiers. B. C. 343. They were not, how- 
 ever, long under this disgraceful sentence, their 
 well known valor and courage recommended 
 them to favor, and they gradually regained their 
 influence and consequence by the protection of 
 the Athenians, and the favors of Philip. 
 
 PHCENICE,or Phoenicia, a country of Asia, 
 at the east of the Mediterranean, whose bound- 
 aries have been different in different ages. Some 
 suppose that the names of Phoenicia, Syria, and 
 Palestine, are indiscriminately used for one and 
 the same country. Phoenicia, according to Ptol- 
 emy, extended on the north as far as the Eleu- 
 therus, a small river which falls into the Medi- 
 terranean sea, a little below the island of Ara- 
 dus, and it had Pelusium, or the territories of 
 Egypt, as its more southern boundary, and Syria 
 on the east. Sidon and Tyre were the capital 
 towns of the country. The inhabitants planted 
 colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 particularly Carthage, Hippo, Marseilles, and 
 Utica ; and their manufactures acquired such 
 a superiority over those of other nations, that 
 among the ancients, whatever was elegant, 
 great, or pleasing, either in apparel, or domes- 
 tic utensils, received the epithet of Sldonian. 
 The Phoenicians were originally governed by 
 kings. They were subdued by the Persians, 
 and afterwards by Alexander, and remained 
 tributary to his succpssors and to the Romans. 
 
 P1CHEGRU, Charles, a French general, was 
 born at Arbois, in 1701, in Franchecomie. His 
 
 parentage was mean, but he received a good 
 education under the monks in his native town; 
 after which he entered into the arm}', and be- 
 came a serjeant. In the revolution he was ele- 
 vated to the rank of a general, and in 1793 
 gained a victory over the combined armies at 
 Hagenau ; in consequence of which he succeed- 
 ed to the command of the army of the north. 
 His most celebrated exploit was the subjugation 
 of Holland, for which he was elected a member 
 of the national assembly. At length he fell un- 
 der the suspicion of being a royalist, and was 
 banished to Cayenne, from whence he escaped 
 to England. In the spring of 1804, he went to 
 Paris, but was soon seized, and thrown into a 
 dungeon of the temple, where he probably 
 strangled himself on the 6th of April of the 
 same year. 
 
 PICKENS, Andrew, a celebrated revolution- 
 ary officer, born in Bucks county, Pennsylva- 
 nia, Sept. 13, 1739. While he was still young, 
 his residence was removed to South Carolina. 
 He had fought against the French, and the 
 Cherokees before the breaking out of the revo- 
 lution. He again encountered the Indians in 
 the revolutionary war, and acted a gallant part 
 at the battle of Cowpens, as well as at that of 
 Eutaw springs. At the conclusion of the war, 
 he served his country in various civil offices, 
 and died, full of years and honors, Oct. 11. 1317. 
 
 PICKERING, Timothy, colonel, was born 
 at Salem, Mass., July, 17, 1745, and was edu- 
 cated at Harvard college. He served with dis- 
 tinction during the revolutionary war ; towards 
 the close of which he succeeded general Greene 
 as quarter- master-general, and contributed great- 
 ly to the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 
 In 1791 he was made postmaster-general, and 
 in 1794, secretary of war. In 1803 he was cho- 
 sen senator to Congress from Massachusetts, 
 and in 181] , when his term of office had expired, 
 was made member of the executive council. 
 During the last war with Great Britain, he was 
 a member of the board of war for the defence 
 of the state. From 1814 to 1817 he was incon- 
 
 fress. Having retired to private life, he died 
 an. 29, 1829. 
 
 PIEDMONT, a principality of the Sardinian 
 monarchy, containing an area of 6,575 square 
 miles,,with 1,400,000 inhabitants. From 1798 
 to 1802 it was attached to France. 
 
 PINCKNEY, Charles Cotesworth, was bom 
 in South Carolina, but educated in England, 
 where he studied law. He returned to his na- 
 tive state in 1769. He held a colonel's com- 
 mission during the revolutionary war, and aid 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 PIS 
 
 403 
 
 PIT 
 
 ed in the defence of Charleston. After the con- 
 clusion of the war he was appointed minister 
 plenipotentiary to France, where his treatment 
 by the French directory was insulting. He was 
 ordered to leave the French territories. He 
 died in 1325. 
 
 PINCKNEY, Thomas, a major-general in the 
 army of the United States, the brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, Oct. 23, 1750. He studied law in Eng- 
 land. During the revolution, he served with 
 distinction, and at the , conclusion of the war, 
 was elected second governor of South Carolina. 
 At the expiration of his term of office, he was 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court 
 ; of St. James. After a few years he was ap- 
 pointed minister to the court of Spain. He re- 
 turned to America in 1796, and was soon elect- 
 ed to Congress. In the war of 1812 he received 
 the commission, of major-general. He died 
 i Nov. 2, 1823. 
 
 PINKNEY, William, a distinguished Ameri- 
 can lawyer, b»rn* at Annapolis, in Maryland, 
 March 17, 1764. He three times went to Eu- 
 rope as minister, and commanded a volunteer 
 company during the war of 1812, receiving a 
 severe wound in the battle of Bladensburg. He 
 died Feb. 25, 1822. 
 
 PISISTRATUS, an Athenian, son of Hip- 
 pocrates, who early distinguished himself by 
 his valor in the field and by his address and elo- 
 quence at home. After he had rendered him- 
 self the favorite of the populace by his liberali- 
 ty, and by the intrepidity with which he had 
 fought their battles, particularly near Salamis, 
 he resolved to make himself master of his coun- 
 try. Pisistratus was not disheartened by the 
 measures of his relation Solon, but he had re- 
 course to artifice. The people too late per- 
 ceived their credulity ; yet, though the tyrant 
 was popular, two of the citizens, Megacles and 
 Lycurgus, conspired together against him, and 
 by their means he was forcibly. ejected from the 
 • city. 
 
 The private dissensions of the friends of lib- 
 erty proved favorable to the expelled tyrant, 
 and Megacles, who was jealous of Lycurgus, 
 secretly promised to restore Pisistratus to all his 
 rights and privileges in Athens, if he would 
 • marry his daughter. Pisistratus consented, and 
 by the assistance of his father : in-law, he was 
 soon enabled to expel Lycurgus, and to re-es- 
 tablish himself. In the midst of his triumph, 
 however, Pisistratus felt himself unsupported, 
 and some time after, when he repudiated the 
 daughter of Megacles, he found that not only 
 
 the citizens, but even his very troops were alien 
 ated from him by the influence, the intrigues, 
 and the bribery of his father-in-law. 
 
 He fled from Athens, where he could no lon- 
 ger maintain his power, and retired to Euboea. _ 
 Eleven years after, he was drawn from his ob- 
 scure retreat by means of his son Hippias, and 
 he was a third time received by the people of 
 Athens as their master and sovereign. He died 
 about 527 years before the Christian era, after 
 he had enjoyed the sovereign power at Athens 
 for 33 years, including the years of his banish- 
 ment. 
 
 PITCAIRN'S ISLAND, in the South Pa- 
 cific ocean, »is 6 miles long and 3 broad, and re- 
 markably fertile, possessing a fine climate. It 
 was discovered by Carteret in '1767, but was 
 then uninhabited. In 1789, however, it Was 
 settled by some of the mutineers of the English 
 ship Bounty. The mutiny of the Bounty is of 
 such importance as to claim our attention here. . 
 It is best describedin the following extract from 
 the voyage of captain Bligh : 
 
 On the 27th of December it blew a severe 
 storm of wind from tlfa eastward, in the course 
 of which we suffered graatly. One sea broke 
 away the spare yards and spars out of the star- 
 board mainchains ; another broke into the ship 
 and stove all the boats. Several casks of beer 
 that had been lashe'd on deck broke loose, and 
 were washed overboard ; and it was not with- 
 out great risk and difficulty that we were able 
 to secure the boats from being washed away 
 entirely. A great quantity of our bread was 
 also damaged and rendered useless, for the sea 
 had stove in our stern, and filled the cabin with 
 water. 
 
 On the 5th of January, 1788, we saw the 
 island of Teneiiffe about twelve leagues distant, 
 and next day, being Sunday, came to an anchor 
 in the road of Santa Cruz. There we took in 
 the necessary supplies, and, having finished our 
 business, sailed on the 10th. 
 
 I now divided the people into three watches, 
 and gave the charge of the third watch to Mr. 
 Fletcher Christian, one *of" the mates. I have 
 always considered this a desirable regulation 
 when circumstances will admit of it, and I am 
 persuaded that unbroken rest not only contri- 
 butes much towards the health of the ship's 
 company, but enables them more readily to ex- 
 ert themselves in cases of sudden emergency. 
 
 As I wished to proceed to Otaheite without 
 stopping, I reduced the allowance of bread to 
 two-thirds, and. caused the water for drinking to 
 be filtered through drip-sUmes, bought at Ten 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PIT 
 
 404 
 
 PIT 
 
 eriffe for that purpose I now acquainted the 
 ship's company of the object of the voyage, and 
 gave assurances of certain promotion to every 
 one whose endeavors should merit it. 
 
 On Tuesday the 26th of February, being in 
 South latitude 29° 38', and 44° 44' West longi- 
 tude, we bent new sails, and made other neces- 
 sary preparations for encountering the weather 
 that was to be expected in a high latitude. Our 
 distance from the coast of Brazil was about 100 
 leagues. 
 
 On the forenoon of Sunday the 2d of March, 
 after seeing that every person was clean, divine 
 service was performed, according to my usual 
 custom on this day. I gave to Mr. Fletcher 
 Christian, whom I had before directed to take 
 charge of the third watch, a written order to act 
 as lieutenant. 
 
 The change of temperature soon began to be 
 sensibly felt, and, that the people might not suf- 
 fer from their own negligence, I supplied them 
 with thicker clothing, as better suited to the 
 climate. A great number of whales of an im- 
 mense size, with two spout-holes on the back 
 of the head, were seen on the 11th. 
 
 On a complaint made to me by the master, I 
 found it necessary to punish Matthew Quintal, 
 one of the seamen, with two dozen of lashes, 
 for insolence and mutinous behavior, which was 
 the first time that there was any occasion for 
 punishment on board. 
 
 We were off Cape St. Diego, the eastern part 
 of the Terra de Fuego, and, the wind being un- 
 favorable, I thought it more advisable to go 
 round to the eastward of Staten-land than to 
 attempt passing through Straits le Maire. We 
 passed New Year's Harbor and Cape St. John, 
 and on Monday the 31st were in latitude 60° 1' 
 south. But the wind became variable, and we 
 had bad weather. 
 
 Storms, attended with a great sea, prevailed 
 until the 12th of April. The ship began to leak, 
 and required pumping every hour, which was 
 no more than we had reason to expect from such 
 a continuance of gales of wind and high seas. 
 The decks also became so leaky that it was ne- 
 cessary to allot the great cabin, of which I made 
 little use except in fine weather, to those people 
 who had not berths to hang their hammocks in, 
 and by this means the space between decks was 
 less crowded. 
 
 With all this bad weather, we had the addi- 
 tional mortification to find, at the end of every 
 day, that we were losing ground ; for, notwith- 
 standing our utmost exertions, and keeping on 
 the most advantageous tracks, we did little bet- 
 
 ter than drift before the wind. On Tuesday 
 the 22d of April, we had eight down on the 
 sick list, and the rest of the people, though in 
 good health, were greatly fatigued; but I saw, 
 with much concern, that it was impossible to 
 make a passage this way to the Society Islands, 
 for we had now been thirty days in a tempestu- 
 ous ocean. Thus the season was too far ad- 
 vanced for us to expect better w r eather to enable 
 us to double Cape Horn ; and, from these and 
 other considerations, I ordered the helm to be 
 put a- weather, and bore away for the Cape of 
 Good Hope, to the great joy of every one on 
 board. 
 
 We came to an anchor on Friday the 23d of 
 May, in Simon's Bay, at the Cape, after a tol- 
 erable run. The ship required complete caulk- 
 ing, for she had become so leaky, that we were 
 obliged to pump hourly in our passage from 
 Cape Horn. The sails and rigging also re- 
 quired repair, and, on examining the provisions, 
 a considerable quantity was found damaged. 
 
 Having remained thirty-eight days at this 
 place, and my people having received all the 
 advantage that could be derived from refresh- 
 ments of every kind that could be met with, we 
 sailed on the 1st of July. 
 
 A gale of wind blew on the 20th, with a high 
 sea; it increased after noon with such violence, 
 that the ship was driven almost forecastle under 
 before we could get the sails clewed up. The 
 lower yards were lowered, and the top-gallant 
 mast got down upon deck, which relieved her 
 much. We lay to all night, and in the morn- 
 ing bore away under a reefed foresail. The sea 
 still running high, in the afternoon it became 
 very unsafe to stand on ; we therefore lay to all 
 night, without any accident, excepting that a 
 man at the steerage was thrown over the wheel 
 and much bruised. Towards noon the violence 
 of the storm abated, and we again bore away 
 under the reefed foresail. 
 
 In a few days we passed the Island of St. 
 Paul, where there is good fresh water, as I was 
 informed by a Dutch captain, and also a hot 
 spring, which boils fish as completely as if done 
 by a fire. Approaching to Van Dieman's land, 
 we had much bad weather, with snow and hail, 
 but nothing was seen to indicate our vicinity, 
 on the 13th of August, except a seal, which ap- 
 peared at the distance of twenty leagues from 
 it. We anchored in Adventure Bay on Wednes- 
 day the 20th. 
 
 In our passage hither from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, the winds were chiefly from the west- 
 ward, with very boisterous weather. The ap- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PIT 
 
 405 
 
 PIT 
 
 proach of strong southerly winds is announced 
 by many birds of the albatross or petrel tribe ; 
 and the abatement of the gale, or a shift of wind 
 to the northward, by their keeping away. The 
 thermometer also varies five or six degrees in 
 its height, when a change of these winds may 
 be expected. 
 
 In the land surrounding Adventure Bay are 
 many forest trees one hundred and fifty feet 
 high ; we saw one which measured above thirty- 
 three feet in girth. We observed several eagles, 
 some beautiful blue-plumaged herons, and par- 
 roquets in great variety. 
 
 The natives not appearing, we went in search 
 of them towards Cape Frederic Henry. Soon 
 after, coming to a grapnel close to the shore, for 
 it was impossible to land, we heard their voices, 
 like the cackling of geese, and twenty persons 
 came out of the woods. We threw trinkets 
 ashore tied up in parcels, which they would not 
 open out until 1 made an appearance of leaving 
 them ; they then did so, and, taking the arti- 
 cles out, put them on their heads. On first 
 coming in sight, they made a prodigious clatter- 
 ing in their speech, and held their arms over 
 their heads. They spoke so quick, that it was 
 impossible to catch one single word they uttered. 
 Their color is of a dull black ; their skin scari- 
 fied about the breast and shoulders. One was 
 distinguished by his body being colored with 
 red ochre, but all the others were painted black, 
 with a kind of soot, so thickly laid over their 
 faces and shoulders, that it was difficult to as- 
 certain what they were like. 
 ' On Thursday, the 4th of September, we sailed 
 out of Adventure Bay, steering first towards the 
 east-southeast, and then to the northward of 
 east, when, on the 19th, we came in sight of a 
 cluster of small rocky islands, which I named 
 Bounty Isles. Soon afterwards we frequently 
 observed the sea, in the. nijrht time, to be cov- 
 ered by luminous spots caused by amazing 
 quantities of small blubbers, or medusa?, which 
 emit alight, like the blaze of a candle, from the 
 strings or filaments extending from them, while 
 the rest of the body continues perfectly dark. 
 
 We discovered the island of Otaheite on the 
 25th, and, before casting anchor next morning in 
 Matavai Bay, such numbers of canoes had come 
 off, that, after the natives ascertained we were 
 friends, they came on board, and crowded the 
 deck so much, that in ten minutes I could scarce 
 find my own people. The whole distance which 
 the ship had run, in direct and contrary courses, 
 from the time of leaving England until reaching 
 Otaheite, was twenty -seven thousand and eigh- 
 
 ty-six miles, which, on an average, was one 
 hundred and eight miles each twenty-four hours. 
 
 Here we lost our surgeon on the 9th of De- 
 cember. Of late he had scarcely ever stirred 
 out of the cabin, though not apprehended to be 
 in a dangerous state. Nevertheless, appearing 
 worse than usual in the evening, he was re- 
 moved where he could obtain more air, but 
 without any benefit, for he died in an hour af- 
 terwards. This unfortunate man drank very 
 hard, and was so averse to exercise, that he 
 would never be prevailed on to take half a dozen 
 turns on deck at a time, during all the course of 
 the voyage. He was buried on shore. 
 
 On Monday the 5th of January, the small 
 cutter was missed, of which I was immediately 
 apprised. The ship's company being mustered, 
 we found three men absent, who had carried it 
 off. They had taken with them eight stand of 
 arms and ammunition ; but with regard to their 
 plan, every one on board seemed to be quite ig- 
 norant. I therefore went on shore, and engaged 
 all the chiefs to assist in recovering both the 
 boat and the deserters. Accordingly, the for- 
 mer was brought back in the course of the day, 
 by five of the natives ; but the men were not 
 taken until nearly three weeks afterwards. 
 Learning the place where they were, in a dif- 
 ferent quarter of the island of Otaheite, I went 
 thither in the cutter, thinking there would be 
 no great difficulty in securing them with the 
 assistance of the natives. However, they heard 
 of my arrival ; and when I was near a house in 
 which they were, they came out wanting their 
 fire-arms, and delivered themselves up. Some 
 of the chiefs had formerly seized and bound 
 these deserters; but had been prevailed on, by 
 fair promises of returning peaceably to the ship, 
 to release them. But finding an opportunity 
 again to get possession of their arms, they set 
 the natives at defiance. 
 
 The object of the voyage being now com- 
 pleted, all the bread-fruit plants, to the number 
 of one thousand and fifteen, were got on board 
 on Tuesday the 31st of March. Besides these, 
 we had collected many other plants, some of 
 them bearing the finest fruits in the world ; and 
 valuable, from affording brilliant dyes, and for 
 various properties besides. At sunset of the 
 4th of April, we made sail from Otaheite, bid- 
 ding farewell to an island where for twenty- 
 three weeks we had been treated with the ut- 
 most affection and regard, and which seeiped to 
 increase in proportion to our stay. That we 
 were not insensible to their kindness, the suc- 
 ceeding circumstances sufficiently proved ; for 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PIT 
 
 406 
 
 PIT 
 
 to the friendly and endearing behavior of these 
 people may be ascribed the motives inciting an 
 event that effected the ruin of our expedition, 
 which there was every reason to believe would 
 have been attended with the most favorable issue. 
 
 Next morning we got sight of the island Hua- 
 heine ; and a double canoe soon coming along- 
 side, containing ten natives, I saw among them 
 a young man who recollected me, and called me 
 by my name. I had been here in the year 1780, 
 with Captain Cook, in the Resolution. A few 
 days after sailing from this island, the weather 
 became squally, and a thick body of black clouds 
 collected in the east. A water-spout was in a 
 short time seen at no great distance from us, 
 which appeared to great advantage from the 
 darkness of the clouds behind it. As nearly as 
 I could judge, the upper part was about two 
 feet in diameter, and the lower about eight, 
 inches. Scarcely had I made these remarks, 
 when I observed that it was rapidly advancing 
 towards the ship. We immediately altered our 
 course, and took in all the sails except the fore- 
 sail ; soon after which it passed within ten yards 
 of the stern, with a rustling noise, but without 
 our feeling the least effect from it being so near. 
 It seemed to be travelling at the rate cf about 
 ten miles an hour, in the direction of the wind, 
 and it dispersed in a quarter of an hour after 
 passing us. It is impossible to say what injury 
 we should have received, had it passed directly 
 over us. Masts, I imagine, might have been 
 carried away, but I do not apprehend that it 
 would have endangered the loss of the ship. 
 
 Passing several islands on the way, we an- 
 chored at Annamooka, on the 23d of April ; and 
 an old lame man called Tepa, whom I had 
 known here in 1777, and immediately recollect- 
 ed, came on board, along with others, from dif- 
 ferent islands in the vicinity. They were de- 
 sirous to see the ship, and on being taken be- 
 low, where the bread-fruit plants were arranged, 
 they testified great surprise. A few of these 
 being decayed, we went on shore to procure 
 some in their place. 
 
 The natives exhibited numerous marks of the 
 peculiar mourning which they express on losing 
 their relatives ; such as bloody temples, their 
 heads being deprived of most of the hair, and 
 what was worse, almost the whole of them had 
 lost some of their fingers. Several fine boys, not 
 above six years old, had lost both their little fin- 
 gers ) and several of the men, besides these, had 
 parted with the middle finger of the right hand. 
 
 The chiefs went off with me to dinner, and 
 we carried on a brisk trade for yams ; we also 
 
 got plantains and bread fruit. But the yams 
 were in great abundance, and very fine and 
 large. One of them weighed above forty-five 
 pounds. Sailing canoes came, some of which 
 contained not less than ninety passengers. Such 
 a number of them gradually arrived from differ- 
 ent islands, that it was impossible to get any 
 thing done, the multitude became so great, and 
 there was no chief of sufficient authority tq 
 command the whole. I therefore ordered a 
 watering party, then employed, to come on 
 board, and sailed on Sunday the 26th of April. 
 
 We kept near the island of Kotoo all the af- 
 ternoon of Monday, in hopes that some canoes 
 would come off to the ship, but in this we were 
 disappointed. The wind being northerly, we 
 steered to the westward in the evening, to pass 
 south of Tofoa ; and I gave directions for this 
 course to be continued during the night. The 
 master had the first watch, the gunner the mid- 
 dle watch, and Mr. Christian the morning 
 watch. This was the turn of duty for the night. 
 
 Hitherto the voyage had advanced in a course 
 of uninterrupted prosperity, and had been at- 
 tended with circumstances equally pleasing and 
 satisfactory. But a very different scene was 
 now to be disclosed ; a conspiracy had been 
 formed, which was to render all our past labor 
 productive only of misery and distress ; and it 
 had been concerted with so much secrecy and 
 circumspection, that no one circumstance es- 
 caped to betray the impending calamity. 
 
 On the night of Monday, the watch was set 
 as I have described. Just before sunrise, on 
 Tuesday morning, while I was yet asleep, Mr. 
 Christian, with the master at arms, gunner's 
 mate, and Thomas Burkitt, seaman, came into 
 my cabin, and seizing me, tied my hands with 
 a cord behind my back ; threatening me with 
 instant death if I spoke or made the least noise. 
 I nevertheless called out as loud as I could, in 
 hopes of assistance ; but the officers not of their 
 party were already secured by sentinels at their 
 doors. At my own cabin door were three men, 
 besides the four within ; all except Christian 
 had muskets and bayonets ; he had only a cut- 
 lass. I was dragged out of bed, and forced on 
 deck in my shirt, suffering great pain in the 
 mean time from the tightness with which my 
 hands were tied. On demanding the reason of 
 such violence, the only answer was abuse for 
 not holding my tongue. The master, the gun- 
 ner, surgeon, master's mate, and Nelson the 
 gardener, were kept confined below, and the 
 fore hatchway was guarded by sentinels. The 
 boatswain and carpenter, and also the clerk, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FIT 
 
 407 
 
 PIT 
 
 were allowed to come on deck, where they saw 
 me standing abaft the mizzen-mast, with my 
 hands tied behind my back, under a guard, with 
 Christian at their head. The boatswain was 
 then ordered to hoist out the launch, accom- 
 panied by a threat, if he did not dp it instantly, 
 
 TO TAKE CARE OF HIMSELF. 
 
 The boat being hoisted out, Mr. Hayward 
 and Mr. Hallet, two of the midshipmen, and 
 Mr. Samuel, the clerk, were ordered into it. I 
 demanded the intention of giving this order, and 
 endeavored to persuade the people near me not 
 to persist in such acts of violence ; but it was to 
 no effect; for the constant answer was, : - Hold 
 your tongue, sir, or you are dead this moment." 
 
 The master had by this time sent, requesting 
 that he might come on deck, which was permit- 
 ted ; but he was soon ordered back again to his 
 cabin. My exertions to turn the tide of affairs 
 were continued; when Christian, changing the 
 cutlass he held for a bayonet, and holding me 
 by the cord about my hands with a strong gripe, 
 threatened me with immediate death if 1 would 
 not be quiet; and the villains around me had 
 their pieces cocked and bayonets fixed. 
 
 Certain individuals were called on to get into 
 the boat, and were hurried over the ship's side ; 
 whence I concluded, that along with them I 
 was to be set adrift. Another effort to bring 
 about a change produced nothing but menaces 
 of having my brains blown out. 
 
 The boatswain and those seamen who were 
 to be put into the boat, were allowed to collect 
 twine, canvass, lines, sails, cordage, an eight- 
 and-tweniy gallon cask of water ; and Mr. Sam- 
 uel got 150 pounds of bread, with a small quan- 
 tity of rum and wine : also a quadrant and com- 
 pass : but he was prohibited, on pain of death, 
 to touch any map or astronomical book , and nny 
 instrument, or any of my surveys and drawings. 
 
 The mutineers having thus forced those of 
 the seamen whom they wished to get rid of into 
 the boat. Christian directed a dram to be served 
 to each of his crew. J then unhappily saw that 
 nothing could be done to recover the ship. The 
 officers were next called on deck, and forced 
 over the ship's side into the boat, while I was 
 kept apart from every one abaft the mizzen-mast. 
 Christian, armed with a bayonet, held the cord 
 fastening my hands, and the guard around me 
 stood with their pieces cocked ; but on my 
 daring the ungrateful wretches to fire, the}'- un- 
 cocked them. Isaac Martin, one of them, I saw 
 had an inclination to assist me ; and as he fed 
 me with shaddock, my lips being quite parched, 
 we pvplained each other's sentiments by looks. 
 35 
 
 But this was observed, and he was removed 
 He then got into the boat, attempting to leave 
 the ship ; however, he was compelled to return. 
 Some others were also kept contrary to their 
 inclination. 
 
 It appeared to me, that Christian was some 
 time in doubt whether he should keep the car- 
 penter or his mates. At length he determined 
 on the latter, and the carpenter was ordered into 
 the boat. He was permitted , though not with- 
 out opposition, to take his tool chest. 
 
 Mr. Samuel secured my journals and com- 
 mission, with some important ship papers ; this 
 he did with great resolution, .though strictly 
 watched. He attempted to save the time-keep- 
 er, and a box with my surveys, drawings, and 
 remarks, for fifteen years past, which were very 
 numerous, when he was hurried away with — 
 " Damn your eyes, you are well off to get what 
 you have." 
 
 Much altercation took place among the mu- 
 tinous crew during the transaction of this whole 
 affair. Some swore, " I'll de damned if he does 
 not find his way home, if he gets any thing with 
 him," meaning me ; and when the carpenter's 
 chest was carrying away, " Damn my eyes, he 
 will have a vessel built in a month;" while 
 others ridiculed the helpless situation of the 
 boat, which was very deep in the water, and 
 had so little room for those who were in her. 
 As for Christian, he seemed as if meditating 
 destruction on himself and every one else. 
 
 I asked for arms, but the mutineers laughed 
 at me, and said I was well acquainted with the 
 people among whom I was going ; four cut- 
 lasses, however, were thrown into the boat, af- 
 ter we were veered astern. 
 
 The officers and men being in the boat, they 
 only waited for me, of which the master-at- 
 arms informed Christian, who then said, " Come, 
 Captain Bligh, your officers and men are now 
 in the boat, and you must go with them ; if you 
 attempt to make the least resistance, you will 
 instantly be put to death;" and without further 
 ceremony, I was forced over the side by a tribe 
 of armed ruffians, where they untied my hands. 
 Being in the boat, we were veered astern by a 
 rope. A few pieces of pork were thrown to us, 
 also the four cutlasses. The armorer and car- 
 penter then called out to me to remember that 
 they had no hand in the transaction. After 
 having been kept some time to make sport for 
 these unfeeling wretches, and having under- 
 gone much ridicule, we were at length cast 
 adrift in the open ocean. 
 
 Eighteen persons were with me in the boat, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PIT 
 
 408 
 
 PIT 
 
 —-the master, acting surgeon, botanist, gunner, 
 boatswain, carpenter, master, and quarter-mas- 
 ter's mate, two quarter-masters, the sail maker, 
 two cooks, my clerk, the butcher, and a boy. 
 There remained on board, Fletcher Christian, 
 the master's mate ; Peter Haywood, Edward 
 Young, George Stewart, midshipmen ; the mas- 
 ter-at-arms, gunner's mate, boatswain's mate, 
 gardener, armorer, carpenter's mate, carpenter's 
 crew, and fourteen seamen, being altogether the 
 most able men of the ship's company. 
 
 Having little or no wind, we rowed pretty 
 fast towards the island of Tofoa, which bore 
 north-east about ten leagues distant. The ship 
 while in sight steered west-northwest, but this 
 I considered only as a feint, for when we were 
 sent away, "Huzza for Otaheite!" was fre- 
 quently heard among the mutineers. 
 
 Christian, the chief of them, was of a respect- 
 able family in the north of England. This was 
 the third voyage he had made with me. Not- 
 withstanding the roughness with which I was 
 treated, the remembrance of past kindnesses 
 produced some remorse in him. While they 
 were forcing me out of the ship, I asked him 
 whether this was a proper return for the many 
 instances he had experienced of my friendship ? 
 He appeared disturbed at the question, and an- 
 swered with much emotion, " That — Captain 
 Bligh — that is the thing — I am in hell- I am in 
 hell." His abilities to take charge of the third 
 watch, as I had so divided the ship's company, 
 were fully equal to the task. 
 
 Haywood was also of a respectable family in 
 the north of England, and a young man of abili- 
 ties, as well as Christian. These two had been 
 objects of my particular regard and attention, 
 and I had taken great pains to instruct them, 
 having entertained hopes that, as professional 
 men, they would have become a credit to their 
 country. Young was well recommended ; and 
 Stewart of creditable parents in the Orkneys, at 
 which place, on the return of the Resolution 
 from the South Seas in 1780, we received so 
 many civilities, that in consideration of these 
 alone I should gladly have taken him with me. 
 But he had always borne a good character. 
 
 When I had time to reflect, an inward satis- 
 faction prevented the depression of my spirits. 
 Yet, a few hours before, my situation had been 
 peculiarly flattering ; 1 had a ship in the most 
 perfect order, stored with every necessary, both 
 for health and service ; the object of the voyage 
 was attained, and two-thirds of it now com- 
 pleted. The remaining part had every pros- 
 pect of success. 
 
 It will naturally be asked, what could be the 
 cause of such a revolt ? In answer, I can only 
 conjecture that the mutineers had flattered them- 
 selves with the hope of a happier life among the 
 Otaheitans than they could possibly enjoy in 
 England ; which, joined to some female con- 
 nections, most probably occasioned the whole 
 transaction. 
 
 The women of Otaheite are handsome, mild, 
 and cheerful in manners and conversation ; pos- 
 sessed of great sensibility, and have sufficient 
 delicacy to make them be admired and beloved. 
 The chiefs were so much attached to our peo- 
 ple, that they rather encouraged their stay 
 among them than otherwise, and even made 
 them promises of large possessions. Under 
 these, and many other concomitant circum- 
 stances, it ought hardly to be the subject of sur- 
 prise that a set of sailors, most of them void of 
 connections, should be led away, where they 
 had the power of fixing themselves in the midst 
 of plenty, in one of the finest islands in the 
 world, where there was no necessity to labor, 
 and where the allurements of dissipation are 
 beyond any conception that can be formed of it. 
 The utmost, however, that a commander could 
 have expected, was desertions, such as have al- 
 ready happened more or less in the South Seas, 
 and not an act of open mutiny. 
 
 But the secrecy of this mutiny surpasses be- 
 lief. Thirteen of the party who were now with 
 me had always lived forward among the sea- 
 men ; yet neither they, nor the messmates of 
 Christian, Stewart, Haywood, and Young, had 
 ever observed any circumstance to excite sus- 
 picion of what was plotting ; and it is not won 
 derful if I fell a sacrifice to it, my mind being 
 entirely free from suspicion. Perhaps, had ma- 
 rines been on board, a sentinel at my cabin-door 
 might have prevented it ; for I constantly slept 
 with the door open, that the officer of the watch 
 might have access to me on all occasions. If 
 the mutiny had been occasioned by any griev- 
 ances, either real or imaginary, I must have 
 discovered symptoms of discontent, which would 
 have put me on my guard ; but it was far other- 
 wise. With Christian, in particular, I was on 
 the most friendly terms ; that very day he was 
 engaged to have dined with me ; and the pre- 
 ceding night he excused himself from supping 
 with me on pretence of indisposition, for which 
 I felt concerned, having no suspicions of his 
 honor or integrity. 
 
 PITT, William, the second son of Earl 
 Chatham, was born May 28, 1759. In ]780, he 
 obtained a seat in parliament, where he exerted 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PIU 
 
 409 
 
 PLA 
 
 the power of his eloquence against Lord North. 
 On the removal of that minister. Mr. Pitt did 
 not obtain a place ; hut when the Earl of Shel- 
 burne succeeded the Marquis of Rockingham, 
 he became chancellor of the exchequer. This 
 ministry, however, was soon displaced by the 
 coalition of Lord North and Mr. Fox, in 1782 : 
 but the famous India bill of the latter producing 
 another change, at the end of 1783, Mr. Pitt be- 
 came first lord of the treasury, as well as chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. Though in this situa- 
 tion he had to encounter an extraordinar}* com- 
 bination of talents and influence, he overcame 
 all obstacles, and carried many important meas- 
 ures, particularly his own India bill, a commer- 
 cial treaty with France, the acts against smug- 
 gling, and the establishment of a sinking fund. 
 The illness of the king, in 1788, opened a new 
 field for the energies of this great man, who, by 
 taking constitutional ground in regard to the 
 right of parliament to settle a regency, ingra- 
 tiated himself with the nation, though certain 
 of being removed when that appointment should 
 take place. The recovery of his majesty, how- 
 ever, fixed him more firmly in his seat. The 
 next great event in his life was that of being 
 called to oppose the power of revolutionary 
 France, and to secure the nation from similar 
 convulsions. At length he acceded to the wish 
 that an experiment for peace should be tried, 
 which took place in 1801, under Mr. Adding- 
 ton ; but the event proved how fallacious were 
 the hopes of the people ; and, in 1804, Mr. Pitt 
 was recalled to power. But his health was now 
 in a very precarious state, and he died at Put- 
 ney, Jan. 23, 1806. His remains were deposit- 
 ed in Westminster Abbey. Very honorable 
 eulogiums were pronounced on his memory by 
 all parties, and his debts weie paid at the public 
 expense, according to a vote of parliament. 
 
 PIUS VI, Pope, or John Angelo Braschi, was 
 born at Cesena in 1717. He succeeded Cle- 
 ment XIV in 1775, and soon after made a re- 
 form in the public treasury. When the empe- 
 ror Joseph II decreed that all the religious or- 
 ders in his dominions were free from papal ju- 
 risdiction, Pius, apprehensive of the consequen- 
 ces of such a measure, went in person to Vienna 
 in 1782 ; but though he was honorably received, 
 his remonstrances were ineffectual. The French 
 Revolution, however, was of more serious con- 
 sequence to the papal see. The pope, having 
 favored the allies, Bonaparte entered the eccle^ 
 eiastical territory, and compelled him to purchase 
 a peace. Basseville was then sent from the re- 
 public to Rome, where the people assassinated 
 
 him in 1793. This furnished the pretext for 
 another visitation, and accordingly Bonaparte 
 again entered Italy, made the pope prisoner in 
 his capital, and hurried him over the Alps to 
 Valence, where he died, August 29, 1799. 
 
 PITTSBURG, a city, and capital of Alle- 
 ghany county, Pennsylvania, 297 miles west by 
 north of Philadelphia, is beautifully situated on a 
 plain at the junction of the Alleghany and Mo- 
 nongahela rivers. It is the great thoroughfare 
 to the western country, and, excepting New 
 Orleans and Cincinnati, is the first town of the 
 valley of the Mississippi. It was incorporated 
 a city in 1816. The principal cause which has 
 contributed, aside from its eligible location, to 
 ensure the prosperity of Pittsburg, is, the ex- 
 haustless mass of mineral coal that exists in its 
 neighborhood. Some of the beds are 340 feet 
 above low water level, and about 290 above the 
 bed of the town. The great abundance of this 
 valuable material has converted Pittsburg into a 
 vast workshop, and a warehouse for the immense 
 country below, upon the Ohio and other large 
 rivers of the valley. . According to a recent es- 
 timation there are now in operation in that city, 
 and its immediate vicinity, nearly 100 steam 
 engines, on which are employed some 2500 
 hands, and consuming about 160,000 bushels of 
 coal per month. 'She city contains, according to 
 the last census, 21,296 inhabitants. 
 
 PLATA, United Provinces of the, or the Ar- 
 gentine Republic, a republic of South America, 
 consisting of a part of the former Spanish vice- 
 royalty of the Rio de la Plata, or Buenos Ayres, 
 contains 800,000 inhabitants. The country was 
 discovered by Don Juan Diaz de Solis, in 1517 s 
 and settlements were made in 1553. The gov- 
 ernment was at first dependant upon that of 
 Peru. In 1810 the insurrection against Spain 
 broke out, and in 1816 the provinces of Buenos 
 Ayers formally declared their independence. 
 
 PLATiEA, and Platceae, a town of Boeotia, 
 near mount Cithaeron, on the confines of Me- 
 garis and Attica, celebrated for a battle fought 
 there, between Mardonius the commander of 
 Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lace- 
 daemonian and the Athenians. The Persian 
 army consisted of 300,000 men, 3,000 of which 
 scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The 
 Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost 
 but few men, and among these 91 Spartans, 52 
 Athenians, and 16 Tegeans, were the only sol- 
 diers found in the number of the slain. The 
 plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Per 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 POl 
 
 410 
 
 POL 
 
 sian camp was immense. Pausanias received 
 the tenth of all the spoils, on account of his un- 
 common valor during the engagement, and the 
 rest were rewarded each according to their re- 
 spective merit. This battle was fought on the 
 22d September, the same day as the battle of 
 Mycale, 479 B. C, and by it Greece was deliv- 
 ered from the continual alarms to which she 
 was exposed on account of the Persian inva- 
 sions, and from that time none of the princes of 
 Persia dared to appear with a hostile force be- 
 yond the Hellespont. Plataea was taken by the 
 Thebans, after a famous siege, in the beginning 
 of the Peloponnesian war, and destroyed by the 
 Spartans, B. C. 427. Alexander rebuilt it, and 
 paid great encomiums to the inhabitants, on ac- 
 count of their ancestors, who had so bravely 
 fought against the Persians at the battle of Ma- 
 rathon, and under Pausanias. 
 
 POITIERS, anciently Pictavi, a town of 
 France, now capital of the department of the 
 Vienne, containing 21,502 inhabitants. It is 
 memorable for a battle between the English un- 
 der Edward the Black prince, and the French 
 under John II, fought here on Sept. 19, 1356. 
 The van of the army which consisted altogether 
 of only 8,000 men was commanded by the Earl 
 of Warwick ; the rear by the Earls of Salisbury 
 and Suffolk ; the main-body by the prince him- 
 self. The first division of John's army, which 
 consisted of 80,000 strong, was commanded by 
 the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother ; the 
 second by the dauphin ; the third by the king 
 himself. A French detachment which ad- 
 vanced first to the charge, was discomfited and 
 overthrown, one of the marshals was slain, the 
 other taken prisoner ; and the remainder of the 
 detachment fell back, and put every thing into 
 disorder. In that critical moment, the Captal 
 de Buche unexpectedly appeared and attacked 
 the dauphin's line, which fell into confusion. 
 Landas, Bodenai, and St. Venant, now set the 
 example of flight, which was followed by that 
 of the whole division. The Duke of Orleans, 
 seized with a panic, thought no longer of fight- 
 ing, but carried off his division by a retreat, 
 which soon after turned into a flight. The di- 
 vision under king John was still, however, more 
 numerous than the whole English army ; and 
 the only resistance made that day was by his 
 line of battle. The prince of Wales fell "with 
 impetuosity on some German cavalry placed in 
 the front; a fierce battle ensued : but the Ger- 
 man generals, together with the Duke of Athens, 
 falling in the engagement, that body of cavalry 
 gave way, and left the king himself exposed to 
 
 the whole fury of the enemy. The king, spent 
 with fatigue, and overwhelmed by numbers, 
 might easily have been slain, but every English 
 gentleman, ambitious of taking alive the royal 
 prisoner, spared him in the action, exhorted him 
 to surrender, and offered him quarter. Several 
 who attempted to seize him suffered for their 
 temerity. In this dilemma he cried out, 
 " Where is my cousin, the Prince of Wales ?" 
 and seemed unwilling to become prisoner to 
 any person ofinferior rank ; but being told that 
 the prince was at a distance, he threw down his 
 gauntlet, and yielded himself, together with his 
 son, to Dennis de Morbec, a fugitive knight of 
 Arras. — The moderation which Edward dis- 
 played on this occasion, has for ever stamped 
 his character. At a repast which was prepared 
 in his tent for his royal prisoner, he served be- 
 hind his chair, as if he had been one of his reti- 
 nue. He refused to seat himself at table with 
 his majesty : and John received, when a cap- 
 tive, those honors which had been denied him 
 when on a throne. 
 
 POLAND, in Polish Polska; a country in 
 the northern part of Europe. It was formerly 
 of vast extent, and although now dismembered, 
 a part of it retains the ancient name, and con- 
 tains about 4,600,000 Poles. The events of the 
 late unhappy struggle for independence, with 
 the most powerful empire of Europe, are in the 
 minds of every one who takes an interest in the 
 fate of nations. The revolution commenced 
 with an insurrection at Warsaw, Nov. 19, lc30. 
 The Polish diet on the 24th of January declared 
 the independence of their country. The spirit 
 of resistance was not quelled without a long 
 struggle and a horrible effusion of blood on both 
 sides. 
 
 Poland was formerly called the granary of 
 Europe; but this was when its boundaries ex- 
 tended from the Baltic to the Black Sea; and 
 when the Ukraine and Lithuania were includ- 
 ed. At present its limits are so circumscribed 
 and its arable surface so indifferently cultivated, 
 or naturally so infertile that the kingdom of Po- 
 land, strictly speaking, furnishes little more 
 corn than supplies its own population. The 
 immense supplies of wheat, sent to Dantzic,are 
 chiefly from the detached provinces of Galicia, 
 united to Austria, and from Volhynia and Po- 
 dolia, now belonging to Russia. 
 
 The landed estates of Poland are almost every 
 where large, and either belong to the crown, 
 to the nobles, or to religious corporations. They 
 are farmed by the proprietors, by means of stew- 
 ards ; or let out in small portions on the meyer 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 POL 
 
 411 
 
 POL 
 
 or leibeigener tenure. There are scarcely any 
 free farmers or cottagers. Bonaparte passed 
 an edict while Poland was under his protection 
 as a duchy, to annul the leibeigener tenure ; but 
 it is said the peasants were too much afraid to 
 trust to their own industry to take advantage 
 of it ; and it was never carried into effect. The 
 nobles have, generally, houses on their estates 
 which they occupy at least part of the year ; at 
 other periods it is taken care of by the steward, 
 who is always admitted to the table of his lord, 
 being himself what is called of noble descent. 
 The estates of religious houses are of great ex- 
 tent ; they are sometimes let to nobles and others 
 on a corn rent, who generally sublet them ; and 
 in a few cases they are farmed by the corpora- 
 tion. The postmasters on the different main 
 roads invariably rent a considerable portion of 
 land for the support of their horses. Most of 
 these are meteyers, but some are free men and 
 pay a money rent, and there are one or two in- 
 stances of nobles farming the post. The houses 
 and offices of these postmasters afford the strong- 
 est resemblance to a British farm-yard. 
 
 The farm-house and farmery of the peasant 
 postmaster are both included in an immense 
 shed or barn, with a small apartment at one end 
 for the master's dwelling, the remaining space 
 divided for live stock and implements of every 
 description, and for the cattle, carriages, and 
 lodging place of travellers who may stop during 
 the night. Most of these places are sufficiently 
 wretched as inns, but in the present state of 
 things they answer very well for the other pur- 
 poses to which they are applied, and are supe- 
 rior to the hovels of the farmers who are not 
 postmasters, and who are clustered together 
 in villages or in the outskirts of towns. Some 
 villages, however, in the south of Poland, are 
 almost entirely built still on the same general 
 plan of a living-room of a large barn, the main 
 area of which serves for the purposes of a com- 
 plete farmery. The buildings of Poland, ex- 
 cepting those of the principal towns, are con- 
 structed of timber and covered with shingles. 
 The sheds and other agricultural buildings are 
 boarded on the sides ; but the cottages are formed 
 of logs joined by moss or clay ; of frames filled 
 up with wicker work and clay ; or of other modes 
 and materials still more rude. The commonest 
 have no chimnies or glass windows. 
 
 The climate of Poland, though severe, is 
 much less precarious than that of the south of 
 Germany or of France. A winter of from five 
 to seven months, during the greater part of 
 which the ground is covered with snow, is suc- 
 35* 
 
 ceeded by a rapid spring and warm summer; 
 and these are followed by a short, cold, wet 
 autumn. The surface of Poland is remarkably 
 even ; to the traveller passing through the coun- 
 try it appears an interminable forest. Rye is 
 the bread corn of the country. The digittaria 
 sanguinalis is sown as a plant of luxury in a 
 few places, and the seeds ground and used as 
 meal. Potatoes are now becoming general and 
 succeed well in every part of the country. 
 Turnips or cabbages are rarely seen, even in 
 gardens ; few of the cottagers indeed have any 
 garden ; those who have, cultivate chiefly po- 
 tatoes and kohlrube. Many species of mush- 
 rooms grow wild in the woods and wastes, and 
 most of these are carefully gathered and cooked 
 in a variety of ways, as in Russia. The wastes 
 or commons are left entirely to nature. 
 
 The implements and operations of agricul- 
 ture are incredibly rude. We have seen lands 
 ploughed by one cow, tied by the horns to a 
 sharpened pole ; in other instances a pair of oxen 
 drag a wretched implement, formed by the pea- 
 sant, who is in all cases his own plough and 
 wheelwright as well as house carpenter and 
 builder. Their best or usual plough has no 
 mold board ; and the crop is in many cases 
 more indebted to the excellence of the soil, and 
 the preceding winter's frost, than the farmer. 
 Horses are their general beasts of labor ; their 
 harness is willow shoots. The body of their 
 best market carts, in which even the lesser no- 
 bles visit each other, are of wicker work, and 
 the axle and wheels are made without any- 
 iron. 
 
 The family of the Lechs kept possession of 
 this country till the year 550, when it was vested 
 in 12 Palatines or Waywodes, who divided Po- 
 land into the same number of provinces. 
 
 To them succeeded the family of Piastus, 
 under whom it was raised from a dukedom to 
 a kingdom, and after whose extinction the race 
 of Jagello were invested with the regal dignity. 
 
 On the death of Sigismund, the last of the Ja- 
 gello family, Henry, duke of Anjou, and brother 
 to Charles IX of France, ascended the Polish 
 throne ; but, on the death of the king of France, 
 he quitted Poland, and was succeeded by Ste- 
 phen Bathori ; this prince subdued the barbarian 
 Cossacks. 
 
 On the death of Ladislaus VI, his brother, 
 John Cassimer, a cardinal, was elected to fill 
 the throne ; but grieved at beholding his king- 
 dom laid waste by domestic and foreign war, 
 he abdicated the government. Under Michael 
 Coribut, Poland was obliged to become tributary 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 POL 
 
 412 
 
 POM 
 
 to the Ottoman Porte ; but John Sobieski, ge- 
 neral of the crown, defeated the Turks, and 
 delivered his country from tribute. 
 
 On the death of Michael, Sobieski ascended 
 the throne ; and having again defeated the Turks 
 with great slaughter, he compelled them to raise 
 the siege of Vienna, in 1683. 
 
 After a glorious reign, Sobieski died; when 
 Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony, was cho- 
 sen king, in opposition to the Prince of Conti. 
 Augustus was dethroned by Ch;irles XII of 
 Sweden; who placed on the throne Stanislaus; 
 but Augustus was afterwards re-established by 
 the Czar of Russia. 
 
 On his death, Stanislaus was chosen king 
 a second time; but through the influence of 
 Germany and Russia, his election was annulled ; 
 and the son of the late king was invested with 
 the sovereignty, by the name of Augustus III. 
 On his death, through the intervention of Rus- 
 sia, Count Poniatowski was elected king, and 
 proclaimed by the title of Stanislaus Augustus ; 
 but his reign was one continued scene of con- 
 fusion and distress. 
 
 In 1772, the courts of Russia, Prussia, and 
 Vienna, in a most unprincipled manner, divided 
 among themselves the greater part of this un- 
 fortunate country. 
 
 In 1795, they completed this great political 
 crime, by seizing on the remaining part, and 
 expunging Poland from among independent 
 nations. At the congress held at Vienna in 
 1815, part of Poland was united to the Russian 
 empire, with the preservation of its own consti- 
 tution ; and, on this event, Alexander, emperor 
 of Russia, assumed the title of King of Poland. 
 
 What a melancholy task is his who seeks for 
 the records of Poland on the historical tablet for 
 the last fifty years ! The nation which once 
 carried its conquests as far as Dacia, made the 
 Divan tremble, and chased the flying Spain be- 
 yond the Danube, the king who once paternally 
 planned his country's weal, the nobles who once 
 appeared at the signal of foreign invasion, clad 
 in brass and steel, the peasant who once bared 
 his brawny breast and stood in the last rampart 
 of his country, where are their names recorded ? 
 Can we avoid recurring to the past, to that mo- 
 ment which promised to be so propitious, when 
 the hopes of the country were, after a long in- 
 terval of death-like sleep, awakened, but awak- 
 ened to slumber again, perhaps in eternal sleep ? 
 The giant warrior of Corsica spread before the 
 Poles a golden vision. He mocked Poland with 
 the name of liberty ! At the head of his myriad 
 men of war he said to the Polish mother, " that 
 
 son, which is in thy cradle, shall be free \" 
 " Poland shall be free." Six months passed, and 
 the dome which had echoed these words was 
 filled with the lances of the Cossacks. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Melchior de, a cardinal, was 
 born in 1661, at Puy, in Langu >doc. He stud- 
 ied at Paris, after which he was employed in 
 diplomatic concerns, in which he gave such sat- 
 isfaction, as to be rewarded with the purple. 
 During the regency he was banished to his 
 abbey "of Anchin ; but afterwards he was recall- 
 ed, and appointed agent for French affairs at 
 Rome. In 1726, he was made archbishop of 
 Auch. He died in 1741. 
 
 POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a Roman consul 
 under the reign of Agustus, who distinguished 
 himself as much by his eloquence and writings, 
 as hy his exploits in the field. He was with 
 J. Caesar when he crossed the Rubicon. He 
 defeated the Dalmatians, and favored the cause 
 of Antony against Agustus. He was greatly 
 esteemed by Agustus. when he had become one 
 of his adherents, after the ruin of Antony. He 
 died in the 80th year of his age, A. D. 4. 
 
 POMPADOUR, (Jeanne Antoinette, Poisson, 
 Marchioness of,) the mistress of Louis XV, 
 was the daughter of a financier, and the wife of 
 M. d'Etioles, when she attracted the notice of 
 the king, who made her a marchioness in 1745. 
 She liberally encouraged the arts, and collected 
 a valuable cabinet of curiosities. She died in 
 1764, aged 44. 
 
 POMPEII, an ancient city of Campania, 
 buried, like Herculaneum A. D. 79. It was 
 first discovered in 1748. 
 
 POMPEY, (C), surnamed the Great from 
 the greatness of his exploits, was son of Cneius 
 Pompeius Strabo and Lucilia, and was born B. 
 C. 107. He early distinguished himself in the 
 field of battle, and fought with success and 
 bravery under his father, whose courage and 
 military prudence he imitated. In the disturb- 
 ances which agitated Rome, by the ambition 
 and avarice of Marius and Sylla, Pompey fol- 
 lowed the interest of the latter, and by levying 
 three legions for his service he gained his friend- 
 ship and his protection. 
 
 In the 26th year of his age, he conquered Sic- 
 ily, which was in the power of Marius and his 
 adherents, and in forty days he regained all the 
 territories of Africa, which had forsaken the 
 interest of Sylla. He now appeared, not as a 
 dependant, but as a rival, of the dictator, Sylla; 
 and his opposition to his measures totally ex- 
 cluded him from his will. 
 
 After the death of Sylla, Pompey supported 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 POM 
 
 413 
 
 POM 
 
 himself against the remains of the Marian fac- 
 tion, which were headed by Lepidus. He was 
 soon made consul, and in that office he restored 
 the tribunitial power to its original dignity : and 
 in forty days removed the pirates from the Me- 
 diterranean, where they had reigned for many 
 years, and by their continual plunder and au- 
 dacity almost destroyed the whole naval power 
 of Rome. 
 
 While he extirpated these maritime robbers, 
 Pompey was called to greater undertakings, 
 and empowered to finish the war against Mi- 
 thridates, king of Pontus, and Tigranes, king 
 of Armenia. His operations against the King 
 of Pontus were bold and vigorous; and in a 
 general engagement the Romans so totally de- 
 feated the enemy, that the Asiatic monarch 
 escaped with difficulty from the field of battle. 
 Pompey did not lose sight of the advantages 
 which despatch would ensure : he entered Ar- 
 menia, and received the submission of King 
 Tigranes. 
 
 Part of Arabia was subdued, Judea became 
 a Roman province, and when he had now no- 
 thing to fear from Mithridates, who had volun- 
 tarily destroyed himself, Pompey returned to 
 Italy with all the pomp and majesty of an east- 
 ern conqueror. 
 
 The Romans dreaded his approach ; they knew 
 his power, and his influence among his troops, 
 and they feared the return of another tyrannical 
 Sylla. Pompey, however, banished their fears ; 
 he disbanded his army, and the conqueror of 
 Asia entered Rome like a private citizen. To 
 strengthen himself, and to triumph, over his 
 enemies, Pompey soon after united his interest 
 with that of Caesar and Crassus, and formed 
 the first triumvirate, by solemnly swearing that 
 their attachment should be mutual, their cause 
 common, and their union permanent. 
 
 But this powerful confederacy was soon after 
 broken ; the sudden death of Julia, the wife of 
 Pompey, and daughter of Caesar, and the total 
 defeat of Crassus in Syria, shattered the political 
 bands which held the jarring interest of Caesar 
 and Pompey united. 
 
 Pompey dreaded his father-in-law, and yet 
 he affected to despise him ; and, by suffering 
 anarchy to prevail in Rome, he convinced his 
 fellow-citizens of the necessity of investing him 
 with dictatorial power. But while the conqueror 
 of Mitiiridates was as a sovereign at Rome, the 
 adherents of Caesar were not silent. They de- 
 manded that either the consulship should be 
 given to him, or that he should be continued in 
 the government of Gaul. This just demand 
 
 would perhaps have been granted, but Cato op- 
 posed it ; and when Pompey sent for the two 
 legions which he had lent to Caesar, the breach 
 became more wide, and a civil war inevitable. 
 
 Caesar was privately preparing to meet his 
 enemies, while Pompey remained indolent, and 
 gratified his pride in seeing all Italy celebrate 
 his recovery from an indisposition by universal 
 rejoicings. But he was soon roused from his 
 inactivity ; and it was now time to find his 
 friends, if any thing could be obtained from the 
 caprice and the fickleness of a people which he 
 had once delighted and amused by the exhibi- 
 tion of games and spectacles in a theatre which 
 could contain 20,001) spectators. 
 
 Caesar was now near Rome ; he had crossed 
 the Rubicon, which w T as a declaration of hostil- 
 ities ; and Pompey, who had once boasted that 
 he could raise legions to his assistance by stamp- 
 ing with his foot, fled from the city with pre- 
 cipitation, and retired to Brundusium with the 
 consuls and part of the senators. Caesar was 
 now master of Rome, and in sixty days all Italy 
 acknowledged his power, and the conqueror 
 hastened to Spain, there to defeat the interest 
 of Pompey, and to alienate the hearts of his sol- 
 diers. He was too successful; and, when he 
 had gained to his cause the western parts of 
 the Roman empire, Caesar crossed Italy, and 
 arrived in Greece, where Pompey had retired, 
 supported by all the power'of the east, the wish- 
 es of the republican Romans, and a numerous 
 and well-disciplined army. 
 
 Pompey repelled him with great success ; and 
 he might have decided the war if he had con- 
 tinued to pursue the enemy while their confu 
 sion was great, and their escape almost impos- 
 sible. Want of provisions obliged Caesar to 
 advance towards Thessaly ; Pompey pursued 
 him, and in the plains of Pharsalia the two 
 armies engaged. The whole was conducted 
 against the advice and approbation of Pompey; 
 and by suffering his troops to wait for the ap- 
 proach of the enemy, he deprived his soldiers 
 of that advantage which the army of Caesar 
 obtained by running to the charge with spirit, 
 vigor, and animation. The cavalry of Pompey 
 soon gave way, and the general retired to his 
 camp overwhelmed with grief and shame. 
 
 But here there was no safety ; the conqueror 
 pushed on every side, and Pompey disguised 
 himself and fled to the sea-coast, whence he 
 passed to Egypt, where he hoped to find a safe 
 asylum till better and more favorable moments 
 returned, in the court of Ptolemy, a prince whom 
 he had once protected and ensured on his throne. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 POR 
 
 414 
 
 POR 
 
 When Ptolemy was told that Pompey claimed 
 his protection, he consulted his ministers, and 
 had the baseness to betray and to deceive him. 
 A boat was sent to fetch him on shore and the 
 Roman general left his galley after an affection- 
 ate and tender parting with his wife Cornelia. 
 The Egyptian sailors satin sullen silence in 
 the boat; and when Pompey disembarked Achil- 
 las and Septimius assassinated him. His wife, 
 who had followed him with her eyes to the 
 shore, was a spectator of the bloody scene ; and 
 she hastened away from the bay of Alexandria, 
 not to share his miserable fate. He died B. C. 
 48, in the 53th or 59th year of his age, the day 
 after his birth-day. 
 
 PONDICHERRY, a city on the sea-coast of 
 the soutli of India, since 1672 capital of a French 
 colony, and contains 40,00l) inhabitants. Inef- 
 fectually besieged by the British, under Admi- 
 ral Boscawen, in 1743. In 1761 it was taken, 
 after a tedious siege and blockade, by the army 
 under Colonel Coote, when 2000 Europeans 
 were made prisoners, and 500 pieces of cannon 
 and 100 mortars taken. In 1763 it was restored 
 to the French; in October, 1778, it surrendered 
 to the British, under Sir H. Monro; but was 
 again restored in 1783. 
 
 PONTUS, an ancient kingdom of Asia Mi- 
 nor. This country came into subjection to 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, about 560 B. C, and 
 underwent the revolutions of the Lydian and 
 Persian empires till about 300 B. C, when it 
 became independent of the Macedonians under 
 Mithridates II. It grew very considerable un- 
 der Mithridates VII, who extended his empire 
 overall Asia Minor; but could not retain his 
 conquests, being defeated successively by Sylla, 
 Lucullus, and Pompey ; and, after many dread- 
 ful defeats, this country was disposed of by the 
 Romans on his death in 64 B. C. Upon the 
 taking of Constantinople bv the Latins in 1204, 
 Alexius Comnenus established at Trebisond, 
 in this country, a new empire of the Greeks, 
 which continued till Mohammed II put an end 
 to it in 1459. 
 
 POPE, Alexander, a celebrated English poet, 
 born in London, May 22, 1683. His application 
 and talent for versification were manifested at 
 an early age ; his Pastorals being written at the 
 age of 16. His translation of Homer's Iliad, 
 his Epistle from Eloisa to Abelard, the essay 
 on Man, and the Dunciad, are well known to 
 every English scholar. He died May 30, 1744. 
 His temper was soured by his bodily infirmities 
 which were numerous. 
 
 PORSENNA, or Porsena, a king of Etruria, 
 
 who declared war against the Romans because 
 they refused to restore Tarquin to his throne, 
 and to his royal privileges. He was at first 
 successful, the Romans were defeated, and Por- 
 senna would have entered the gates of Rome, 
 had not Codes stood at the head of a bridge, 
 and supported the fury of the whole Etrurian 
 army, while his companions behind were cutting 
 off the communication with the opposite shore 
 This act of bravery astonished Porsenna ; but 
 when he had seen Mutius Scaevola enter his 
 camp with an intention to murder him, and 
 when he had seen him burn his hand without 
 emotion, to convince him of his fortitude and 
 intrepidity, he no longer dared to make head 
 against a people so brave and so generous. He 
 made a peace with the Romans, and never after 
 supported the. claims of Tarquin. The gene- 
 rosity of Porsenna's behavior to the captives 
 was admired by the Romans, and to reward his 
 humanity they raised a brazen statue to his 
 honor. * 
 
 PORTUGAL ; a kingdom of Europe, bound 
 ed N. and E. by Spain, S. and W. by the At- 
 lantic ocean. Population in 1826, 3,530,000 
 Anciently Lusitania, it was successively sub- 
 ject to the Suevi, the Goths and the Moors. 
 About the beginning of the twelfth century, it 
 regained its liberty by the valor of Henry of 
 Lorraine, grandson of the French monarch, who 
 possessed it with the title of count. His son, 
 Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained a deci 
 sive victory over fi\e Moorish kings, was pro- 
 claimed king by the soldiers. On the death of 
 Ferdinand, in 1383, the states gave the crown 
 to his natural brother John, surnamed the Bas- 
 tard, who was equally politic and enterprising, 
 and in whose reign the Portuguese first projected 
 discoveries in the western ocean. In the reign 
 of his great-grandson, John II, who was a prince 
 of profound sagacity and extensive views, the 
 Portuguese made conquests in the interior of 
 Africa, and discovered the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Emanuel adopted the plan of his predecessors, 
 and sent out a fleet; which, ranging through 
 unknown seas, arrived at the city of Calicut, on 
 the coast of Malabar ; while others of his vessels 
 discovered Brazil, in 1501. These princes had 
 the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery, 
 which led to many subsequent improvements of 
 navigation and commerce. Their discoveries 
 on the coast of Africa, led to the voyage of Co- 
 lumbus, and the discovery of America. They 
 also established valuable colonies in Africa and 
 America, and an extensive empire in India. 
 John III, the son of Emanuel, admitted the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PRE 
 
 415 
 
 PRU 
 
 new-founded order of the Jesuits, which has 
 since been a powerful engine of despotism and 
 superstition. Sebastian his grandson, heroically 
 led an army against the Moors in Africa, where 
 he perished in battle. Sebastian, leaving no 
 issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Hen- 
 ry, who also dying without children, Philip, 
 king of Spain, obtained the crown, A. D. 1580. 
 In 1G04, Portugal rendered itself independent 
 of Spain ; and John, duke of Braganza, ascended 
 the throne, by the title of John IV. His son, 
 Alphonso VI, was deposed on account of his 
 cruelties; and the sceptre was transferred to his 
 brother. Peter II reigned peaceably thirty 
 years; and, under the mild government of his 
 son, John V, the arts began to flourish. In the 
 reign of Joseph I, in 1755, the city of Lisbon 
 was laid in ruins by an earthquake, in which 
 10,000 persons lost their lives. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his daughter, Mary Frances Isabella; 
 who for many years was so infirm in body and 
 mind, that the affairs of the kingdom were 
 managed by a regency. In 1807, the Prince 
 Regent retired with the queen, his mother, and 
 the rest of the royal family, to the Brazils, in 
 South America. Rio de Janeiro then became 
 the seat of the Portuguese government. Por- 
 tugal was, however, wrested by the English out 
 of the hands of the French in 1808. The strug- 
 
 fle between Dom Pedro, and his brother Dom 
 Iiguel has ended in Portugal. Dom Pedro, 
 having secured the crown to his daughter Don- 
 na Maria la Gloria, expired in the midst of tri- 
 umph. 
 
 PRAGA, a town of Poland, taken by storm 
 by General Suwarrow, in 1794, when it was 
 plundered, set on fire, and the inhabitants and 
 the troops of the Polish insurgents who had 
 taken refuge there, together amounting to 
 20,000, were barbarously massacred. 
 
 PREBLE, Edward, a celebrated American 
 naval officer, was born in the part of Fal- 
 mouth now called Portland, Maine, Aug. 15, 
 1761. In 1779 he obtained a midshipman's 
 warrant on board the Protector, a state ship of 
 26 guns, which was captured by the English. 
 Preble, however, was released at New York 
 and returned home. When first lieutenant of 
 the Winthrop sloop of war, hi displayed great 
 
 fallantry in cutting out a hostile brig of war in 
 enobscot harbor. After performing various 
 services, in 1803 he was invested with the 
 command of the Constitution, and being sta- 
 tioned in the Mediterranean, he not only pre- 
 vented a war between Morocco and the United 
 States, but bombarded Tripoli, and brought the 
 
 bashaw to terms. I or this service he received 
 the thanks of Congress, and an emblematical 
 medal. He died Aug. 25, 1807, in the 47th year 
 of his age. 
 
 PRESCOTT, William, one of the heroes of 
 the American revolution, was born at Goshen, 
 in Massachusetts, in 1726. He was a lieutenant 
 in the continental foices at the taking of Cape 
 Breton, in 1758, and greatly distinguished him- 
 self on that occasion. He commanded at the 
 battle of Bunker Hill, and was the last to leave 
 the entrenchments. He resigned his colonel's 
 commission in 1777, but was present at the cap- 
 ture of Burgoyne as a volunteer under Gates. 
 He died in 1795. 
 
 PRESTON-PANS, a Scotch village 8 miles 
 E. of Edinburgh, memorable for the defeat of 
 the royalists by the troops of the Pretender in 
 1745. 
 
 PRUSSIA, the smallest of the great powers 
 of Europe, contains 13,726,833 inhabitants, and 
 106,852 square miles. It is generally a level 
 country, Silesia alone being much broken. The 
 productions are grain, flax, hemp, &c. Nearly 
 two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants, the 
 remainder Catholics. Prussia contains many 
 universities of high repute, and in few r coun- 
 tries are the seeds of knowledge so general- 
 ly disseminated. This country was inhabited 
 by the Borussi, who denominated it Borussia : 
 which has been corrupted to Prussia. 
 
 They were conquered by the knights of the 
 Teutonic order ; whom Cassimer IV, king of 
 Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves 
 his vassals ; and to allow Polish Piussia to con- 
 tinue under the protection of Poland. 
 
 Albert, Margrave of Brandenburgh, and grand 
 master of the order, had the dukedom of Prus- 
 sia conferred on him, by Sigismund I, king of 
 Poland, A. D. 1525. 
 
 Frederick William, elector of Brandenburgh, 
 surnamed the Great, was freed from paying 
 any homage to the crown of Poland. 
 
 His son Frederick, raised the duchy of Prus- 
 sia to a kingdom, A. D. 1701. 
 
 His son, Frederick William, was a wise and' 
 politic prince, who amassed a prodigious treas- 
 ure, though he maintained an army of 60,000 
 men. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Frederick II, 
 who was one of the first military, political, and 
 literary characters, that ever filled a throne ; but 
 very despotic in the administration of his gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 His reign was pregnant with striking histo- 
 rical events. In 1744, he added Silesia t« his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PTO 
 
 416 
 
 PTO 
 
 dominions ; but in 175G, Russia, Austria, and 
 France, leagued against him ; and he main- 
 tained against them the famous seven years' 
 war. 
 
 He was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick 
 William III, a weak and an impolitic prince; 
 he joined in the league against the French re- 
 public, and then deserted his allies. 
 
 Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by Frederick 
 William IV, who unhappily revived some obso- 
 lete pretensions to Hanover, in 1805; and, on 
 Napoleon proposing to restore that electorate 
 to the king of England, in 18UC, Frederick took 
 the field ; but being totally defeated at Jena, his 
 kingdom was conquered by Napoleon. 
 
 His ally, the Emperor of Russia, came too 
 late to his assistance ; and being himself over- 
 thrown at Friedland, was forced to conclude a 
 treaty at Tilsit, in 1807; by which the fortresses 
 of Prussia were left in the hands of the French, 
 till a peace with England. The French have 
 since been expelled, and Prussia, in conjunc- 
 tion with the other powers of Europe, twice 
 assisted in deposing Napoleon, and has recover- 
 ed the conquered provinces. 
 
 PTOLEMY I, surnamed Lagus, a king of 
 Egypt, son of Arsinoe. When Alexander in- 
 vaded Asia, the son of Arsinoe attended him as 
 ene of his generals. During the expedition, he 
 behaved with uncommon valor, and killed one 
 of the Indian monarchs in single combat. After 
 the conqueror's death, in the general division 
 of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy obtained, 
 as his share, the government of Egypt, with 
 Libya, and part of the neighboring territories of 
 Arabia. He made himself master of Coelosyria, 
 Phoenicia, and the neighboring coast of Syria; 
 and when he had reduced Jerusalem, he carried 
 about 100,000 prisoners to Egypt, to people the 
 extensive city of Alexandria, which became 
 the capital of his dominions. He made war 
 with success against Demetrius and Antigonus, 
 who disputed his right to the provinces of Sy- 
 ria. The bay of Alexandria being dangerous of 
 access, he built a tower to conduct the sailors in 
 the obscurity of the night; and that his subjects 
 'might be acquainted with literature, he laid the 
 foundation of a library, which, under the suc- 
 ceeding reigns, became the most celebrated in 
 the world. He also established in the capital 
 of his dominions, a society, called Museum, of 
 which the members, maintained at the public 
 expense, were employed in philosophical re- 
 searches, and in the advancement of science 
 and the liberal arts. 
 
 Ptolemy died in the 84th year of his age, 
 
 after a reign of 39 years, about 284 years before 
 Christ. 
 
 The second son of Ptolemy I succeeded his 
 father on the Egyptian throne, and was called 
 Philadelphus by antiphrasis, because he killed 
 two of his brothers. While Ptolemy strength- 
 ened himself by alliances with foreign powers, 
 the internal peace of his kingdom was disturb- 
 ed by the revolt of Magas, his brother, king of 
 Cyrene. The sedition, however, was stopped, 
 though kindled by Antiochus, king of Syria ; 
 and the death of the rebellious prince re-estab- 
 lished peace for some time in the family of Phil- 
 adelphus. Philadelphus died in the 64th year 
 of his age, 246 years before the Christian era. 
 During the whole of his reign, Philadelphus 
 was employed in exciting industry, and in 
 encouraging the liberal arts and useful know- 
 ledge among his subjects. The inhabitants of 
 the adjacent countries were allured by promises 
 and presents, to increase the number of the 
 Egyptian subjects ; and Ptolemy could boast of 
 reigning over 33,339 well-peopled cities. He 
 gave every possible encouragement to com- 
 merce ; and by keeping two powerful fleets, 
 one in the Mediterranean, and the other in the 
 Red Sea, he made Egypt the mart of the world. 
 His army consisted of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 
 horse, besides 300 elephants, and 2000 armed 
 chariots. His palace was the asylum of learn- 
 ed men, whom he admired and patronised. He 
 increased the library which his father had found- 
 ed, and showed his taste for learning, and his 
 wish to encourage genius. This celebrated 
 library, at his death, contained 200,000 volumes 
 of the best and choicest books ; and it was after- 
 wards increased to 700,000. Part of it was 
 burnt by the flames of Caesar's fleet, when he 
 set it on fire to save himself; a circumstance, 
 however, not mentioned by the general : and 
 the whole was again magnificently repaired by 
 Cleopatra, who added to the Egyptian library 
 that of the kings of Pergamus. It is said that 
 the Old Testament was translated into Greek 
 during his reign ; a translation which has been 
 called Septuagint, because translated by the 
 labors of 70 different persons. 
 
 The third, succeeded his father Philadelphus 
 on the Egyptiangjhrone. He early engaged in 
 a war against Antiochus Theus, for his unkind- 
 ness to Berenice, the Egyptian king's sister, 
 whom he had married with the consent of Phil- 
 adelphus. With the most rapid success he con- 
 quered Syria and Cilicia, and advanced as far 
 as the Tigris; but a sedition at home stopped 
 his progress, and he returned to Egypt loaded 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PTO 
 
 417 
 
 PTO 
 
 with the spoils of conquered nations. The last 
 years of Ptolemy's reign were passed in peace, 
 if we except the refusal of the Jews to pay the 
 tribute of 20 silver talents, which their ances- 
 tors had always paid to the Egyptian monarchs. 
 Evergetes (as he was called by the Egyptians) 
 died 221 years before Christ, after a reign of 
 25 years : and like his two illustrious predeces- 
 sors, he was the patron of learning, and, indeed, 
 he is the last of the Lagides who gained popu- 
 larity among his subjects by clemency, moder- 
 ation, and humanity, and who commanded re- 
 spect even from his enemies, by valor, pru- 
 dence and reputation. • 
 
 The fourth succeeded his father Evergetes on 
 the throne of Egypt, and received the surname 
 of Philopater by antiphrasis ; because, according 
 to some historians, he destroyed his father by 
 poison. He began his reign with acts of the 
 greatest cruelty and debauchery. In the midst 
 of his pleasures, Philopater was called to war 
 against Antiochus, king of Syria ; and at the 
 head of a powerful army, he soon invaded his 
 enemy's territories, and might have added the 
 kingdom of Syria to Egypt, if he had made a 
 prudent use of the victories which attended his 
 arms. In the latter part of his reign, the Ro- 
 mans, whom a dangerous war with Carthage 
 had weakened, but at the same time roused to 
 superior activity, renewed, for political reasons, 
 the treaty of alliance which had been made 
 with the Egyptian monarchs. Philopater at 
 last, weakened and enervated by intemperance 
 and continual debauchery, died in the 37th year 
 of his age, after a reign of 17 years, 204 years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 The fifth succeeded his father Philopater, as 
 king of Egypt, though only in the fourth year 
 of his age. The Romans renewed their alliance 
 with him after their victories over Annibal, and 
 the conclusion of the second Punic war. When 
 Ptolemy had reached his 14th year, according 
 to the laws and customs of Egypt, the years 
 of his minority had expired. He received the 
 surname of Epiphanes, or Illustrious, and was 
 crowned at Alexandria, with the greatest so- 
 lemnity. Young Ptolemy was no sooner deliv- 
 ered from the shackles of his guardian, than he 
 betrayed the same vices which had character- 
 ized his father. His crueltift raised seditions 
 among his subjects ; but these were twice quel- 
 led by the prudence and the moderation of one 
 Polycrates, the most faithful of his corrupt min- 
 isters. 
 
 In the midst of his extravagance, Epiphanes 
 did not forget his alliance with the Romans ; 
 
 above all others, he showed himself eager to 
 cultivate friendship with a nation, from whom 
 he could derive so many advantages ; and dur- 
 ing their war against Antiochus, he offered to 
 assist them with money against a monarch, 
 whose daughter, Cleopatra, he had married, but 
 whom he hated on account of the seditions he 
 raised in the very heart of Egypt. After a reign 
 of 24 years, 180 years before Christ, Ptolemy 
 was poisoned by his ministers, whom he had 
 threatened to rob of their possessions, to carry 
 on a war against Seleucus, king of Syria. 
 
 The sixth succeeded his father Epiphanes on 
 the Egyptian throne, and received the surname 
 of Philometer, on account of his hatred against 
 his mother Cleopatra. He made war against 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, to re- 
 cover the provinces of Palestine and Coelosy- 
 ria, which were part of the Egyptian domin- 
 ions ; and after several successes, he fell into 
 the hands of his enemy, who detained him in 
 confinement. During the captivity of Philo- 
 meter, the Egyptians raised to the throne his 
 younger brother, Ptolemy Evergetes, or Phys- 
 con, also son of Epiphanes ; but he was no 
 sooner established in his power, than Antio- 
 chus turned his arms against Egypt, drove out 
 the usurper, and restored Philometer to all his 
 rights and privileges as king of Egypt. This 
 artful behavior of Antiochus was soon compre- 
 hended by Philometer; and when he saw that 
 Pelusium, the key of Egypt, had remained in 
 the hands of his Syrian ally, he recalled his bro- 
 ther Physcon, and made him partner on the 
 throne, and concerted with him how to repel 
 their common enemy. This union of interest in 
 the two royal brothers, incensed Antiochus ; he 
 entered Egypt with a large army, but the Ro- 
 mans checked his progress, and obliged him to 
 retire. No sooner were they delivered from the 
 impending war, than Philometer and Physcon, 
 whom the fear of danger had united; began with 
 mutual jealousy to oppose each other's views. 
 Physcon was, at last, banished by the superior 
 power of his brother ; and as he could find no 
 support in Egypt, he immediately repaired to 
 Rome. To excite more effectually the compas-i 
 sion of the Romans, and to gain their assist- 
 ance, he appeared in the meanest dress, and 
 took his residence in the most obscure corner 
 of the city. He received an audience from the 
 senate ; and the Romans settled the dispute be- 
 tween the two royal brothers, by making them 
 independent of one another, and giving the 
 government of Libya and Cyrene to Physcon, 
 and confirming Philometer in the possession of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PTO 
 
 418 
 
 PTO 
 
 Egypt, and the island of Cyprus. The death of 
 Philometer, J 45 years before the Christian era, 
 left Physcon master of Egypt, and all the de- 
 pendent provinces. 
 
 The seventh Ptolemy, surnamed Physcon, as- 
 cended the throne of Egypt after the death of 
 his brother Philometer ; and as he had reigned 
 for some time conjointly with him, his succes- 
 sion was approved, though the wife and the 
 son of the deceased monarch laid claim to the 
 crown. He ordered himself to be called Ever- 
 getes, but the Alexandrians refused to do it, and 
 stigmatized him with the appellation of Kaker- 
 getes, or evil-doer, a surname which he deserv- 
 ed by his tyranny and oppression. A series of 
 barbarities rendered him odious ; but as no one 
 attempted to rid Egypt of her tyranny, the 
 Alexandrians abandoned their habitations, and 
 fled from a place which continually streamed 
 with the blood of their massacred fellow citi- 
 zens. Physcon endeavoured to re-people the 
 city which his cruelty had laid desolate ; but 
 the fear of sharing the fate of the former in- 
 habitants, prevailed more than the promise of 
 riches, rights, and immunities. He died at 
 Alexandria in the 67th year of his age, after a 
 reign of 29 years, about 116 years before Christ. 
 
 The eighth, surnamed Lathyrus, from an ex- 
 crescence, like a pea, on the nose, succeeded 
 his father Physcon as king of Egypt. He had 
 no sooner ascended the throne, than his mother 
 Cleopatra, who reigned conjointly with him, ex- 
 pelled him, and placed the crown on the head 
 of his brother, Ptolemy Alexander, her favorite 
 son. Lathyrus, after he had exercised the great- 
 est cruelty upon the Jews, by his conquest of 
 Judaea, and made vain attempts to recover the 
 kingdom of Egypt, retired to Cyprus till the 
 death of his brother Alexander restored him to 
 his native dominions. In the latter part of his 
 reign, Lathyrus was called upon to assist the 
 Romans with a navy for the conquest of Athens ; 
 but Lucullus, who had been sent to obtain the 
 wanted supply, though received with kingly 
 honors, was dismissed with evasive and unsat- 
 isfactory answers, and the monarch refused to 
 part with troops which he deemed necessary to 
 preserve the peace of his kingdom. Lathyrus 
 died 81 years before the Christian era, after a 
 reign of 36 years, since the death of his father 
 Physcon ; 11 of which he had passed with his 
 mother Clpopatra on the Egyptian throne, 18 in 
 Cyprus, and seven after his mother's death. 
 
 The 12th, the illegitimate son of Lathyrus, 
 ascended the throne of Egypt at the death of 
 Alexander III. He received the surname of 
 
 Auletes, because he played skilfully on the flute. 
 His rise showed great marks of prudence and 
 circumspection ; and as his predecessor, by his 
 will, had left the kingdom of Egypt to the Ro- 
 mans, Auletes knew that he could not be firmly 
 established on his throne, without the approba- 
 tion of the Roman senate ; and when he had 
 suffered the Romans quietly to take possession 
 of Cyprus, the Egyptians revolted, and Auletes 
 was obliged to fly from his kingdom, and seek 
 protection among the most powerful of his allies. 
 The senators of Rome decreed to re-establish 
 Auletes on his throne ; and he was no sooner 
 restored to power, than he sacrificed to his am- 
 bition his daughter Berenice, and behaved with 
 the greatest ingratitude and perfidy to Rabi- 
 rius, a Roman who had supplied him with 
 money when expelled from his kingdom. Au- 
 letes died four years after his restoration, about 
 51 years before the Christian era. 
 
 The 13th, surnamed Dionysius, or Bacchus, 
 ascended the throne of Egypt conjointly with 
 his sister Cleopatra, whom he had married, ac- 
 cording to the directions of his fathpr Auletes. 
 He was in the 13th year of his age, when his 
 guardian, Pompey, after the fatal battle of Phar- 
 ealia, came to the shores of Egypt, and claimed 
 his protection. He refused to grant the requir- 
 ed assistance; and by the advice of his minis- 
 ters, he basely murdered Pompey, after he had 
 brought him to shore under the mask of friend- 
 ship and cordiality. To obtain the favor of 
 the conqueror of Pharsalia, Ptolemy cut off the 
 head of Pompey ; but Caesar turned with indig- 
 nation from such perfidy, and when he arrived 
 at Alexandria, he found the King of Egypt as 
 faithless to his cause as to that of his fallen 
 enemy. Caesar sat as judge to hear the various 
 claims of the brother and sister, to the throne ; 
 and to satisfy the people, he ordered the will of 
 Auletes to be read, and confirmed Ptolemy and 
 Cleopatra in the possession of Egypt, and ap- 
 pointed the two younger children masters of 
 the island of Cyprus. This fair and candid de- 
 cision might have left no room for dissatisfac- 
 tion; but Ptolemy refused to acknowledge Cae- 
 sar as a judge or a mediator. The Roman en- 
 forced his authority by arms, and three victo- 
 ries were obtained over the Egyptian forces. 
 Ptolemy, who had been for some time a prisoner 
 in the hands of Caesar, now headed his armies ; 
 but a defeat was fatal, and as he attempted to 
 save his life by flight, he was drowned in the 
 Nile, about 46 years before Christ, and three 
 years and eight months after the death of Au 
 letes. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 PUN 
 
 419 
 
 PUN 
 
 PUEBLA LA, or La Puebla de los Angeles, 
 a state of the Mexican confederacy, containing 
 20,000 square miles, and 813,300 inhabitants. 
 It anciently comprised the Indian republic of 
 Tlascala, which the Spaniards, on their arrival 
 in the country, found in a flourishing condition. 
 
 PULAWSKI, Count Joseph, a noble-minded 
 Pole, who having been banished from his na- 
 tive land, entered the service of the United 
 States, and fell in the attack on Savannah, Oct. 
 9, 1779. 
 
 PULTAWA or POLTAWA, a fortified town 
 of Russia, 450 miles S. W. of Moscow, with 
 9,000 inhabitants, before which Peter the Great 
 defeated Charles 12th of Sweden, June 27, 1709. 
 Charles, who had been wounded in a former 
 engagement, was much indisposed. The litter 
 in which he caused himself to be carried was 
 twice overturned, and the second time broken 
 by the enemy's cannon. After an obstinate and 
 bloody engagement, the Swedish army was en- 
 tirely routed and dispersed ; 9,000 of the van- 
 quished were left dead on the field of battle, and 
 a great number surrendered themselves prison- 
 ers of war. Charles, with 300 of his guards, 
 escaped with difficulty to Bender, a Turkish 
 town in Moldavia. 
 
 PULTENEY, William, earl of Bath, was 
 born of an ancient family, in 1682. After trav- 
 elling through Europe, he was elected into par- 
 liament, and became distinguished as a zealous 
 whig. On the accession of George I he was 
 appointed a privy-councillor, and secretary at 
 war, being then the friend of Sir Robert Wal- 
 polej but afterwards a difference arose be- 
 tween them, and Pulteney became the leader 
 of opposition. He also joined Bolingbroke in 
 conducting a paper called " The Craftsman," 
 the object of which was to annoy the minister. 
 This produced a duel between Pulteney and 
 Lord Hervey ; and the king was so much dis- 
 pleased with the conduct of the former, that he 
 struck his name out of the list of privy coun- 
 cillors, and also from the commission of the 
 peace. On the resignation of Walpole, in 1741 , 
 Pulteney was created Earl of Bath ; but from 
 that time his popularity ceased. He died June 
 8, 17G4. y 
 
 PUNIC WAR. The first Punic war was 
 undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, 
 B. C. 204. Sicily, an island of the highest con- 
 sequence to the Carthaginians as a commercial 
 nation, was the seat of the first dissensions. The 
 Mamertini, a body of Italian mercenaries, were 
 appointed by the king of Syracuse to guard the 
 town of Messana ; but this tumultuous tribe, in- 
 36 
 
 stead of protecting the citizens, basely massa 
 cred them, and seized their possessions. This 
 act of cruelty raised the indignation of all the 
 Sicilians, and Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had 
 employed them, prepared to punish their per- 
 fidy ; and the Mamertini, besieged in Messana, 
 and without friends or resources, resolved to 
 throw themselves for protection into the hands 
 of the first power that could relieve them. They 
 were, however, divided in their sentiments, and 
 while some implored the assistance of Carthage, 
 others called upon the Romans for protection. 
 Without hesitation or delay, the Carthaginians 
 entered Messana, and the Romans also hastened 
 to give to the Mamertini that aid which had been 
 claimed from them with as much eagerness as 
 from the Carthaginians. At the approach of 
 the Roman troops, the Mamertini, who had 
 implored their assistance, took up arms, and 
 forced the Carthaginians to evacuate Messana. 
 From a private quarrel the war became general. 
 The Romans obtained a victory in Sicily, but 
 as their enemies were masters at sea, the advan- 
 tages which they gained were small and incon- 
 siderable. Duilius at last obtained a naval vic- 
 tory, and he was the first Roman who ever re- 
 ceived a triumph after a battle by sea. The 
 losses which they had already sustained induc- 
 ed the Carthaginians to sue for peace, and the 
 Romans, whom an unsuccessful descent upon 
 Africa, under Regulus, had rendered diffident, 
 listened to the proposal, and the first Punic 
 war was concluded B. C. 241, on the following 
 terms : — The Carthaginians pledged themselves 
 to pay to the Romans, within 20 years, the sum 
 of 3,000 Euboic talents; they promised to re- 
 lease all the Roman captives without ransom, 
 to evacuate Sicily, and the other islands of the 
 Mediterranean, and not to molest Hiero, king 
 of Syracuse, or his allies. The Romans, to stop 
 the progress of the Carthaginians towards Italy, 
 made stipulations with them, by which they 
 were not permitted to cross the Iberus, or to 
 molest the cities of their allies the Saguntines. 
 When Hannibal succeeded to the command 
 of the Carthaginian armies in Spain, he spurned 
 the boundaries which the jealousy of Rome had 
 set to his arms, and he immediately formed the 
 siege of Saguntum. The Romans were ap- 
 prised of the hostilities which had been begun 
 against their allies, but Saguntum was in the 
 hands of the active enemy before they had taken 
 any steps to oppose him. Without delay, B. 
 C.218, Hannibal marched a numerous army of 
 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse, towards Italy, re- 
 solved to carry on the war to the gates of Rome. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 PUN 
 
 420 
 
 PUN 
 
 The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus. and of the lake 
 of Thrasymenus, threw Rome into the greatest 
 apprehensions, but the prudence and dilatory 
 measures of the dictator Fabius. soon taught 
 them to hope for better times. Yet the conduct 
 of Fabius was universally censured as coward- 
 ice, and the two consuls who succeeded him in 
 the command, pursuing a different plan of oper- 
 ations, brought on a decisive action at Cannae, 
 in which 45,000 Romans were left on the field 
 of battle. This bloody victory caused so much 
 consternation at Rome, that some authors have 
 declared that if Hannibal had immediately 
 marched from the plains of Cannoe to the city, 
 he would have met with no resistance, but 
 could have terminated a long and dangerous 
 war with glory to himself, and the most inesti- 
 mable advantages to his country. The news of 
 this victory was carried to Carthage by Mago, 
 and the Carthaginians refused to believe it till 
 three bushels of golden rings were spread be- 
 fore them, which had been taken from the Ro- 
 man knights in the field of battle. Affairs now 
 took a different turn, and Marcellus, who had 
 the command of the Roman legions in Italy, 
 soon taught his countrymen that Hannibal was 
 not invincible in the field. In different parts of 
 the world the Romans were making very rapid 
 eonquests. Hannibal no longer appeared formid- 
 able in Italy ; if he conquered towns in Campa- 
 nia or Magna Grsecia, he remained master of 
 them only while his army hovered in the neigh- 
 borhood, and if he marched towards Rome the 
 alarm he occasioned was but momentary, the 
 Romans were prepared to oppose him, and his re- 
 treat was therefore the more dishonorable. The 
 conquests of young Scipio in Spain had now rais- 
 ed the expectations of the Romans, and he had 
 no sooner returned to Rome than he proposed to 
 remove Hannibal from the capital of Italy by 
 carrying the war to the gates of Carthage. This 
 was a bold and hazardous enterprise, but though 
 Fabius opposed it, it was universally approved 
 by the Roman senate, and young Scipio was 
 empowered to sail to Africa. The conquests of 
 the young Roman were as rapid in Africa as in 
 Spain, and the Carthaginians, apprehensive for 
 the fate of their capital, recalled Hannibal from 
 .Italy. Hannibal received their orders with in- 
 dignation, and with tears in his eyes he left 
 Italy, where for sixteen years he had known no 
 superior in the field of battle. At his arrival in 
 Africa, the Carthaginian general soon collected 
 a large army, and met his exulting adversary 
 in the plains of Zama. The battle was long 
 and bloody, and though one nation fought for 
 
 glory, and the other for the dearer sake of lib- 
 erty, the Romans obtained the victory, and Han- 
 nibal, who had sworn eternal enmity to the gods 
 of Rome, fled from Carthage after he had ad- 
 vised his countrymen to accept the terms of the 
 conqueror. This battle of Zama was decisive, 
 the Carthaginians sued for peace, which the 
 haughty conquerors granted with difficulty. 
 
 During the 50 years which followed the con- 
 clusion of the second Punic war, the Carthagi- 
 nians were employed in repairing their losses 
 by unwearied application and industry; but 
 they found still in the Romans a jealous rival 
 and a haughty conqueror, and in Masinissa, the 
 ally of Rome, an intriguing and ambitious mon- 
 arch. The king of Numidiamade himself mas- 
 ter of one of their provinces ; but as they were 
 unable to make war without the consent of 
 Rome, the Carthaginians sought relief by em- 
 bassies, and made continual complaints in the 
 Roman senate of the tyranny and oppression of 
 Masinissa. Commissioners were appointed to 
 examine the cause of their complaints ; but as 
 Masinissa was the ally of Rome, the interest of 
 the Carthaginians was neglected, and whatever 
 seemed to depress their republic, was agreeable 
 to the Romans. Cato, who was in the number 
 of the commissioners, examined the capital of 
 Africa with a jealous eye ; he saw it with con 
 cern, rising as it were from its ruins ; and when 
 he returned to Rome, he declared in full senate, 
 that the peace of Italy would never be estab 
 lished while Carthage was in being. The sen- 
 ators, however, were not guided by his opinion, 
 and the delenda est Carthago of Cato did not pre- 
 vent the Romans from acting with moderation. 
 But while the senate were debating about the 
 existence of Carthage, and while they consid 
 ered it a dependent power, and not as an ally, 
 the wrongs of Africa were without redress, and 
 Masinissa continued his depredations. Upon 
 this the Carthaginians resolved to do their cause 
 that justice which the Romans had denied them ; 
 they entered the field against the Numidians, 
 but they were defeated in a bloody battle by 
 Masinissa, who was then 90 years old. In this 
 bold measure they had broken the peace ; and 
 as their late defeat had rendered them despe- 
 rate, they hastened with all possible speed to the 
 capital of Italy to justify their proceedings, and 
 to implore the forgiveness of the Roman sen- 
 ate. The news of Masinissa's victory had al- 
 ready reached Italy, and immediately some 
 forces were sent to Sicily, and from thence or- 
 dered to pass into Africa. The ambassadors of 
 Carthage received evasive and unsatisfactory 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PUN 
 
 421 
 
 PUT 
 
 answers from the senate ; and when they saw 
 the Romans landed at Utica, they resolved to 
 purchase peace by the most submissive terms 
 which even the most abject slaves could offer. 
 The Romans acted with the deepest policy : 
 no declaration of war had been made, though 
 hostilities appeared inevitable ; and in answer 
 to the submissive offers of Carthage the con- 
 suls replied, that to prevent every cause of quar- 
 rel, the Carthaginians must deliver into their 
 hands 300 hostages, all children of senators, 
 and of the most noble and respectable families. 
 The demand was great and alarming, but was 
 no sooner granted, than the Romans made ano- 
 ther demand, and the Carthaginians were told 
 that peace could not continue, if they refused 
 to deliver up all their ships, their arms, engines 
 of war, with all their naval and military stores. 
 The Carthaginians complied, and immediately 
 40,000 suits of armor, 20,000 large engines of 
 war, with a plentiful store of ammunition and 
 missile weapons were surrendered. After this 
 duplicity had succeeded, the Romans laid open 
 the final resolutions of the senate, and the Car- 
 thaginians were then told that, to avoid hostil- 
 ities, they must leave their ancient habitations 
 and retire into the inland parts of Africa, and 
 found another city, at the distance of not less 
 than ten miles from the sea. This was heard 
 with horror and indignation ; the Romans were 
 fixed and inexorable, and Carthage was filled 
 with tears and lamentations. But the spirit of 
 liberty and independence was not yet extin- 
 guished in the capital of Africa, and the Cartha- 
 ginians determined to sacrifice their lives for 
 the protection of their gods, the tombs of their 
 forefathers, and the place which had given them 
 birth. Before the Roman army approached the 
 city, preparations to support a siege were made, 
 and the ramparts of Carthage were covered 
 with stones, to compensate for the weapons and 
 instruments of war which they had ignorantly 
 betrayed to the duplicity of their enemies. The 
 town was blocked up by the Romans, and a 
 regular siege begun. Two years were spent in 
 useless operations, and Carthage seemed still 
 able to rise from its ruins, to dispute for the 
 empire of the world; when Scipio, the descend- 
 ant of the great Scipio, who finished the second 
 Punic war, was sent to conduct the siege. De- 
 spair and famine now raged in the city, and 
 Scipio gained access to the city walls, where 
 the battlements were low and unguarded. His 
 entrance into the streets was disputed with un- 
 common fury, the houses, as he advanced, were 
 set on fire, to stop his progress ; but when a 
 
 body of 50,000 persons, of either sex, had claim- 
 ed quarter, the rest of the inhabitants were dis- 
 heartened, and such as disdained to be prison- 
 ers of war, perished in the flames, which grad- 
 ually destroyed their habitations, 147 B. C. after 
 a continuation of hostilities for three years. 
 During 1 7 days Carthage was in flames ; and 
 the soldiers were permitted to redeem from the 
 fire whatever possession they could. This re- 
 markable event happened about the year of 
 Rome 606. The news of this victory caused 
 the greatest rejoicings at Rome ; and immedi- 
 ately commissioners were appointed by the Ro- 
 man senate, not only to raze the walls of Car- 
 thage, but even to demolish and burn the very 
 materials with which they were made : and in 
 a few days, that city which had been once the 
 seat of commerce, the model of magnificence, 
 the common store of the wealth of nations, and 
 one of the most powerful states of the world, left 
 behind no traces of its splendor, of its power, or 
 even of its existence. 
 
 PUTNAM, Israel, a distinguished American 
 officer, who served both in the French and Eng- 
 lish wars, was born at Salem, Mass. Jan. 7, 
 1718. In 1739 he settled at Pomfret, Connecti- 
 cut, where he had purchased a tract of land. 
 Here he descended into a dark cavern, and kill- 
 ed a wolf, which had committed great depreda- 
 tions upon the flocks of the farmers. He en- 
 tered on his first campaign in the war of 1755, 
 being then appointed to command a company, 
 and he received a major's commission in 1757. 
 His services prior to the breaking out of the 
 revolutionary war were various and valuable. 
 The news of this great event found Putnam at 
 the plough. He unyoked his oxen, and setoff 
 for the scene of action. Having levied a regi- 
 ment he was appointed major-general, and, on 
 the retreat of the Americans from Bunker Hill, 
 checked the pursuing forces. He was indefati- 
 gable and ardent in the discharge of his duty, 
 and his value was properly appreciated as we 
 see from the important duties which were en- 
 trusted to him. 
 
 After the battle of Monmouth, he was posted 
 at Reading, Connecticut, with orders to protect 
 the Sound, and the garrison at West Point. On 
 a visit to one of his outposts, attended b} r only 
 150 men, he was closely pursued by Governor 
 Tyron, at the head of 1200 royal troops, and 
 escaped by plunging on horseback, down a pre- 
 cipice so steep that foot passengers descended 
 only by an artificial stairway. Putnam com- 
 manded the Maryland line, stationed near West 
 Point, in the campaign of 1779. A paralytic 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PVR 
 
 422 
 
 PYR 
 
 affection seized upon the right side of Putnam 
 during the latter part of his life, but did not 
 impair his cheerfulness and spirit. He died at 
 Brooklyn, Connecticut, May 29, 1790, aged 72 
 years. 
 
 PYRRHUS, a king of Epirus, was saved 
 when an infant, by the fidelity of his servants, 
 from the pursuit of the enemies of his father, 
 who had been banished from his kingdom, and 
 he was carried to the court of Glautias, king of 
 Illyricum, who educated him with great tender- 
 ness. Cassander, king of Macedonia, wished 
 to despatch him, as he had so much to dread 
 from him; but Glautias not only refused to 
 deliver him up into the hands of his enemy, 
 but he even went with an army and placed him 
 on the throne of Epirus, though only twelve 
 years of age. 
 
 About five years after, the absence of Pyrrhus 
 to attend the nuptials of one of the daughters 
 of Glautias, raised new commotions. The mon- 
 arch was expelled from his throne by Neoptole- 
 rnus, who had usurped it after the death of 
 ^Eacides ; and being still without resources, he 
 applied to his brother-in-law Demetrius for 
 assistance. He accompanied Demetrius at the 
 battle of Ipsus, and afterwards passed into 
 Egypt, where, by his marriage with Antigone 
 the daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a 
 sufficient force to attempt the recovery of his 
 throne. He was successful in the undertaking, 
 but to remove all causes of quarrel, he took the 
 usurper to share with him the royalty, and some 
 time after he put him to death under pretence 
 that he had attempted to poison him. 
 
 In the subsequent years of his reign, Pyrrhus 
 engaged in the quarrels which disturbed the 
 peace of the Macedonian monarchy ; he marched 
 against Demetrius. By dissimulation he ingra- 
 tiated himself in the minds of his enemy's sub- 
 jects, and when Demetrius labored under a mo- 
 mentary illness, Pyrrhus made an attempt upon 
 the crown of Macedonia, which, if not then 
 successful, soon after rendered him master of 
 the kingdom. This he shared with Lysima- 
 chus for seven months, till the jealousy of 
 the Macedonians, and the ambition of his col- 
 league, obliged him to retire. Pyrrhus was 
 meditating new conquests, when the Tarentines 
 invited him to Italy to assist them against the 
 encroaching power of Rome. He gladly accept- 
 ed the invitation, but his passage across the 
 Adriatic proved nearly fatal, and he reached 
 the shores of Italy, after the loss of the greatest 
 part of his troops in a storm. 
 
 At his entrance into Tarentum, B. C. 280, he 
 
 began to reform the manners of the inhabitants y 
 and by introducing the strictest discipline among 
 their troops, to accustom them to bear fatigue 
 and to despise dangers. In the first battle 
 which he fought with the Romans, he obtained 
 the victory, but for this he was more particu- 
 larly indebted to his elephants, whose bulk and 
 uncommon appearance astonished the Romans 
 and terrified their cavalry. The number of the 
 slain was equal on both sides, and the conqueror 
 said that such another victory would totally 
 ruin him. He also sent Cineas, his chief min- 
 ister, to Rome, and though victorious, he sued 
 for peace. These offers of peace were refused. 
 
 A second battle was fought near Asculum, 
 but the slaughter was so great, and the valor so 
 conspicuous on both sides, that the Romans and 
 their enemies reciprocally claimed the victory 
 as their own. Pyrrhus still continued the war 
 in favor of the Tarentines, when he was invited 
 into Sicily by the inhabitants, who labored 
 under the yoke of Carthage and the cruelty of 
 their own petty tyrants. 
 
 His fondness for novelty soon determined him 
 to quit Italy ; he left a garrison at Tarentum, 
 and crossed over to Sicily, where he obtained 
 two victories over the Carthaginians, and took 
 many of their towns. He was for awhile suc- 
 cessful, and formed the project ©f invading Af- 
 rica; but soon his popularity vanished. 
 
 He had no sooner arrived at Tarentum than 
 he renewed hostilities with the Romans with 
 great acrimony, but when his army of 80,000 
 men had been defeated by 20,000 of the enemy, 
 under Curius, he left Italy with precipitation. 
 B. C. 274, ashamed of the enterprise. 
 
 In Epirus he attacked Antigonus, who was 
 then on the Macedonian throne. He gained 
 some advantages over his enemy, and was at 
 last restored to the throne of Macedonia. He 
 afterwards marched against Sparta, at the re- 
 quest of Cleonymus, but when all his vigorous 
 operations were insufficient to take the capital 
 of Laconia, he retired to Argos where the treach- 
 ery of Aristeus invited him. The Argives de- 
 sired him to retire, and not to interfere in the 
 affairs of their republic which were confounded 
 by the ambition of two of their nobles. He 
 compiled with their wishes, but in the night he 
 marched his forces into the town, and might 
 have made himself master of the place had he 
 not retarded his progress by entering it with 
 his elephants. 
 
 The combat that ensued was obstinate and 
 bloody, and the monarch, to fight with more 
 boldness, and to encounter dangers with more 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 QUE 
 
 423 
 
 RAL 
 
 facility, exchanged his dress. He was attacked 
 by one of the enemy, but as he was going to 
 run him through in his own defence, the mo- 
 ther of the Argive, who saw her son's danger 
 from the t^n of a house, threw down a tile, and 
 brought Pyrrhus to the ground. His head was 
 cut oil", and carried to Antigonus, who gave his 
 remains a magnificent funeral, and presented 
 his ashes to his son Helenus, 272 years before 
 the Ciiristian era. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUEBEC, city ; the capital of Lower Canada, 
 situated on a promontory, on the northwest 
 side of the river St. Lawrence, 180 miles below 
 Montreal, containing about 40,000 inhabitants. 
 ft is divided into two parts, the Upper and 
 Lower Town. The Upper Town is built on a 
 bold precipice of naked rock, rising to the height 
 of 345 feet. Some of the most striking peculi- 
 arities of the place are thus forcibly described 
 by an American author: — 
 
 " Quebec, for an American city, is certainly 
 a peculiar town : a military town — most com- 
 pactly and permanently built — stone its sole 
 material — environed, as to its important parts, 
 by walls and gates — and defended by numerous 
 heavy cannon — garrisoned by troops, having 
 the arms, the costume, the music, the discipline 
 of Europe — foreign in language, features, and 
 origin, from most of those whom they are sent 
 to defend — founded upon a rock, and its higher 
 parts overlooking a great extent of country — 
 between three and four hundred miles from the 
 ocean — in the midst of a great continent, and 
 yet displaying fleets of foreign merchantmen, 
 in its fine capacious bay, and showing all the 
 bustle of a crowded seaport — its streets narrow, 
 populous, and winding up and down almost 
 mountain declivities — situated in the latitude 
 of the finest parts of Europe — exhibiting in its 
 environs the beauty of a European capital, and 
 yet, in winter, smarting with the cold of Sibe- 
 ria — governed by people of different language 
 and habits from the mass of the population — 
 opposed in religion, and yet leaving that popu- 
 lation without taxes, and in the full enjoyment 
 of every privilege, civil and religious." 
 
 Its siege and capture in 1759, by Major Gen- 
 eral Wolfe, was fatal both to the English and 
 French commanders. In 1776, General Mont- 
 gomery and Arnold attempted to take Quebec 
 by storm, but Montgomery fell, and Arnold was 
 compelled to retreat. 
 
 QUERETARO, one of the states of the Mex- 
 36* 
 
 ican confederacy, formed in 1824, containing 
 1 5,000 square miles, and 60,000 inhabitants. The 
 climate is temperate and the productions valua- 
 ble. 
 
 QUINCY, JosiaH, junior, was born in Bos- 
 ton, February 23, 1744, and graduated at Har- 
 vard College in 1763, after which he studied 
 law, and raised himself to eminence in his 
 profession. Together with John Adams, Mr. 
 Quincy defended the soldiers who fired upon 
 the Bostonians on the 5th of March, and pro- 
 cured the acquittal of all but two, who were 
 punished by a slight branding. In May, 1774 t 
 he published his Observations on the Act of 
 Parliament, commonly called the " Boston Port 
 Bill," with Thoughts on Civil Society, and 
 Standing Armies, — a work of great power. In 
 September, 1774, Mr. Quincy sailed for Lon- 
 don, in the hopes of benefitting his country by 
 his patriotic exertions in England. His ser- 
 vices were indeed valuable — but his application 
 completed the prostration of his bodily powers 
 which had been previously sapped by long and 
 hopeless disease. He died on his voyage home, 
 April 20th, 1775. 
 
 QUITO, recently a part of the republic of 
 Colombia, and formerly attached to JNew Gra- 
 nada. It now forms the republic of the Equa- 
 tor. The city of the same name has 90,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 R, 
 
 RAAB, a city of Hungary, where the Aus- 
 trians commanded by the Archduke John, were 
 defeated by the French under Eugene Beau- 
 harnais. viceroy of Italy, June 14th, 1809. 
 
 RALEIGH, or Ralegh, Sir Walter, was 
 born in Devonshire, in 1552. He served in the 
 Netherlands; and in 1579, accompanied his 
 half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on a voy- 
 age to America. On his return, he distin- 
 guished himself against the Irish rebels, and 
 was joined in a commission for the government 
 of Munster. 
 
 In 1584, he obtained letters patent for discov- 
 ering unknown countries, by virtue of which 
 he took possession of that part of America, 
 which was afterwards called, in honor of Eliza- 
 beth, Virginia. Soon after this he received the 
 honor of knighthood, was elected into parlia- 
 ment for Devonshire, made warden of the Stan- 
 naries, and also rewarded with several grants of 
 land in England and Ireland. 
 
 In 1588, he bore an active part in the destruc- 
 tion of the Spanish armada ; and the year fol- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 RAM 
 
 424 
 
 REE 
 
 lowing he accompanied the King of Portugal to 
 his dominions, for which the queen gave him a 
 gold chain. 
 
 In 1592, he commanded an expedition against 
 Panama. a oon after this he fell under the 
 royal displeasure, on account of an amour with 
 the daughter of Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, 
 though Raleigh acted honorably in marrying 
 the lady. In 1595, he engaged in an enterprise 
 for the conquest of Guiana, where he took the 
 city of San Josef. The year following, he dis- 
 played great valor in the expedition against 
 Cadiz ; and he was also appointed to a command 
 in the armament sent out to intercept the Span- 
 ish plate fleet, which he would have captured 
 had he not been thwarted by the earl of Essex. 
 
 The ruin of that unfortunate nobleman was 
 hastened by Raleigh, who little thought that he 
 was thereby preparing the way for his own 
 destruction. On the accession of James, he 
 was deprived of his preferments, and brought to 
 trial at Winchester, lor conspiring, with Lord 
 Cobhain and others, to place Arabella Stewart 
 on the throne. 
 
 Raleigh was condemned ; but the sentence 
 was respited, and he lay twelve years in the 
 Tower. In 1616, he was released, and intrusted 
 with a squadron destined against Guiana ; but 
 the enterprise failed, after an attack on the 
 town of St. Thome, where Sir Walter's eldest 
 son was killed. When Raleigh landed in Eng- 
 land, he was arrested, and sent to the Tower, 
 from whence he endeavored to make his escape, 
 but was taken, and received sentence of death, 
 which was carried into execution in Old Palace 
 Yard, Oct. 29, 1618. 
 
 RAMILLIES, a village of Belgium, twen- 
 ty-six miles southeast of Brussels, celebrated 
 for a victory gained over the French by the 
 duke of Marlborough, May 23, 1706. The vic- 
 tories obtained about this time by the allies in 
 Spain determined Louis to assemble all his 
 forces in Flanders and on the Rhine. Villeroy 
 was sent to check the conquests of the Duke of 
 Marlborough. His army was attacked by Marl- 
 borough near the village of Ramillies with such 
 impetuosity, that the French were scarcely 
 assailed when they were vanquished. The 
 troops of the royal household, however, on the 
 right, forced the Dutch and Danish cavalry to 
 retreat towards the left, and would have com- 
 pletely routed them had not Marlborough hast- 
 ened to their succor. The troops of the royal 
 household were driven back, and their ranks 
 broken. The detachments stationed in the 
 village were either put to death or made pris- 
 
 oners ; and Villeroi and the elector of Hava- 
 na escaped with great difficulty. In the tu- 
 multuous disorder of the French troons, the 
 fugitives who were pursued by the enemy's 
 cavalry, were impeded in their retreat by the 
 baggage, and great numbers of them were slain. 
 The field of battle was strewed with 8000 killed, 
 and 6000 were made prisoners. Thus the most 
 formidable army which Louis XIV had raised 
 for a considerable time, as the last effort of his 
 despair, melted away with the glory of the 
 nation, of which it was the sole resource. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Peyton, president of the first 
 Congress, was born in Virginia, and received 
 his legal education in England. In 174d. hav- 
 ing returned to Virginia, he was appointed 
 king's attorney -general for the colony, although 
 but twenty-five years of age. April 12, 1766, 
 he was chosen speaker of the house of burgesses, 
 and resigned the office of attorney-general. As 
 soon as he joined the first continental congress, 
 he was chosen its president. His patriotic 
 exertions were unfortunately terminated by a 
 stroke of apoplexy, Oct. 21, 1775. 
 
 RAVAILLAC, a fanatic, who assassinated 
 Henry IV, of France, May 14th, 1610. The 
 king had got into his carriage at four in the 
 afternoon, to pay a visit to his minister Sully. 
 He had been followed eight days by the regi 
 cide, who had a poinard in his hand, and had 
 not quitted the side of the carriage since its 
 departure from the palace of the Louvre. In 
 the rue de la Ferronnerie, a very narrow street, 
 there was a stoppage which induced the mon- 
 arch to alight from his carriage. While he 
 was stepping out, the assassin stabbed him 
 twice with his poinard ; the second blow was 
 fatal, and the corpse was conveyed to the Lou- 
 vre. Ravaillac was seized, and put to death by 
 the most horrid tortures which cruelty could 
 devise. 
 
 READ. George, one of the signers of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, born in Maryland, in 
 the year 1734. In 1753, he was admitted to the 
 bar, although but nineteen years old, and he 
 commenced the practice of the law in the town 
 of Newcastle. Through the revolutionary war 
 he held a seat in Congress, and was a Senator 
 of the United States, after the adoption of the 
 constitution, until 1793, when he was made 
 chief-justice of Delaware. He died suddenly 
 in 17.08. 
 
 REED, Joseph, president of the state of Penn- 
 sylvania, was born in New Jersey, August 27, 
 1741. He graduated at Princeton College, and 
 studied law. Through part of the revolutionary 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REF 
 
 425 
 
 REF 
 
 war he served with distinction, having the rank 
 of adjutant-general. In 1778, he was elected 
 to Congress. He was now secretly offered 
 £10,000 by the British agents, if he would 
 exert his abilities to effect a reconciliation with 
 the parent country. His answer deserves com- 
 memoration. " I am not worth purchasing ; but, 
 poor as I am, the king is not rich enough to 
 buy me." In the same year, he was elected 
 president of Pennsylvania; and held the office 
 three years. He first detected and exposed the 
 character of Arnold, whom he brought to trial 
 for mal -practices. President Reed died on the 
 5th of March, 1784. 
 
 REFORMATION, that great change in the 
 corrupted system of Christianity, begun by Lu- 
 ther in the year 1517. Leo X, when raised to 
 the papal throne, found the revenues of the 
 church exhausted by the vast projects of his 
 two ambitious predecessors, Alexander VI, and 
 Julius II. His own temper, naturally liberal 
 and enterprising, rendered him incapable of that 
 severe and patient economy which the situation 
 of his finances required. On the contrary, his 
 schemes for aggrandizing the family of Medici, 
 his love of splendor, his taste for pleasure, and 
 his magnificence in rewarding men of genius, 
 involved him daily in new expenses ; in order 
 to provide a fund for which, he tried every 
 device that the fertile invention of priests had 
 fallen upon, to drain the credulous multitude 
 of their wealth. Amoprg others, he had recourse 
 to a sale of indulgences. 
 
 The right of promulgating these indulgences 
 in Germany, together with a share in the pro- 
 fits arising from the sale of them, was granted 
 to Albert, elector of Mentz, and archbishop of 
 Magdeburg, who, as his chief agent for retail- 
 ing them in Saxony, employed Tetzel, a Domi- 
 nician friar of licentious morals, but of an active 
 spirit, and remarkable for his noisy and popular 
 eloquence. He, assisted by the monks of his 
 order, executed the commission with great zeal 
 and success, but with little discretion or de- 
 cency ; and though by magnifying excessively 
 the benefit of their indulgences, and by dispos- 
 ing of them at a very low price, they carried on 
 for some time an extensive and lucrative traffic 
 among the crudulous and the ignorant; the 
 extravagance of their assertions, as well as the 
 irregularities in their conduct came at last to 
 give general offence. 
 
 Whilst Luther was at the height of his repu- 
 tation and authority, Tetzel began to publish 
 indulgences in the neighborhood of Wittem- 
 berg, and to ascribe to them the same imaginary 
 
 virtues which had, in other places, imposed on 
 the credulity of the people. As Saxony was 
 not more enlightened than the other provinces 
 of Germany, Tetzel met with prodigious suc- 
 cess there. It was with the utmost concern that 
 Luther beheld the artifice's of those who sold, 
 and the simplicity of those who bought indul- 
 gences. 
 
 The opinions of Thomas Aquinas and the 
 other schoolmen, on which the doctrine of 
 indulgences was founded, had already lost much 
 of their authority with him ; and the Scriptures, 
 which he began to consider as the great stand- 
 ard of theological truth, afforded no counte- 
 nance to a practice equally subversive of faith 
 and of morals. His warm and impetuous tem- 
 per did not suffer him long to conceal such 
 important discoveries, or to continue a silent 
 spectator of the delusion of his countrymen. 
 
 From the pulpit, in the great church at Wit- 
 temberg, he inveighed bitterly against the irreg- 
 ularities and vices of the monks who published 
 indulgences ; he ventured to examine the doc- 
 trines which they taught, and pointed out to 
 the people the danger of relying for salvation 
 upon any other means thnn those appointed by 
 God in his word. The boldness and novelty of 
 these opinions drew great attention ; and being 
 recommended by the authority of Luther's per- 
 sonal character, and delivered with a popular 
 and persuasive eloquence, they made a deep 
 impression on his hearers. Encouraged by the 
 favorable reception of his doctrines among the 
 people, he wrote to Albert, elector of Mentz 
 and archbishop of Magdeburg, to whose juris- 
 diction that part of Saxony was subject, and 
 remonstrated warmly against the false opinions, 
 as well as wicked lives, of the preachers of 
 indulgences ; but he found that prelate too 
 deeply interested in their success to correct 
 their abuses. His next attempt was to gain the 
 suffrage of men of learning. For this purpose 
 he published ninety-five theses, containing his 
 sentiments with regard to indulgences. 
 
 These he proposed, not as points fully estab- 
 lished, or of undoubted certainty , but as subjects 
 of inquiry and disputation ; he appointed a day, 
 on which the learned were invited to impugn 
 them, either in person or by writing; to the 
 whole he subjoined solemn protestations of his 
 high respect for the apostolic see, and of his 
 implicit submission to its authority. No oppo- 
 nent appeared at the time fixed ; the theses 
 spread over Germany with astonishing rapidity j 
 they were read with the greatest eagerness ; 
 and all admired the boldness of the man, who 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REF 
 
 426 
 
 REF 
 
 had ventured not only to call in question the 
 plenitude of papal power, but to attack the Do- 
 minicans, armed with all the terrors of inquisi- 
 torial authority. 
 
 The friars of St. Augustin, Luther's own 
 order, gave no check to the publication of these 
 uncommon opinions. Luther had, by his piety 
 and learning, acquired extraordinary authority 
 among his brethren ; he professed the highest 
 regard for the authority of the pope ; his pro- 
 fessions were at that time sincere ; and as a 
 secret enmity subsists among all the monastic 
 orders of the Romish church, the Augustins 
 were highly pleased with his invectives against 
 the Dominicans, and hoped to see them exposed 
 to the hatred and scorn of the people. 
 
 His sovereign, the elector of Saxony, the 
 wisest prince at that time in Germany, secretly 
 encouraged his attempts, and flattered himself 
 that this dispute among the ecclesiastics them- 
 selves might give some check to the exactions 
 of the court of Rome, which the secular princes 
 had long, though without success, been endeav- 
 oring to oppose. 
 
 Several theses appeared in opposition to the 
 ninety- rive published by Luther ; and the argu- 
 ments produced for his confutation were the 
 sentiments of schoolmen, the conclusions of the 
 canon law, and the decrees of popes. In the 
 mean time, these novelties in Luther's doc- 
 trines, which interested all Germany, excited 
 little attention and no alarm in the court of 
 Rome. Leo, fond of elegant and refined plea- 
 sures, intent upon great schemes of policy, a 
 stranger to theological controversies, and apt to 
 despise them, regarded with the utmost indif- 
 ference the operations of an obscure friar, who, 
 in the heart of Germany, carried on a scholas- 
 tic disputation in a barbarous style. He impu- 
 ted the whole to monastic enmity and emula- 
 tion, and seemed inclined not to interpose in 
 the contest, but to allow the Augustins and 
 Dominicans to wrangle about the matter with 
 their usual animosity. 
 
 The solicitations, however, of Luther's adver- 
 saries, together with the surprising progress 
 which his opinions made in different parts of 
 Germany, roused at last the attention of the 
 court of Rome, and obliged Leo to take meas- 
 ures for the security of the church against 
 an attack that now appeared too serious to be 
 despised. For this end he summoned Luther 
 to appear at Rome, within sixty days, before the 
 auditor of the chamber, and the inquisitor-gen- 
 eral, who had written against him, whom he 
 empowered jointly to examine his doctrines, 
 
 and to decide concerning them. He wrote, at 
 the same time, to the elector of Saxony, be- 
 seeching him not to protect a man whose heret- 
 ical and profane tenets were so shocking to 
 pious ears; and enjoined the provincial of the 
 Augustins to check, by his authority, the 
 rashness of an arrogant monk, which brought 
 disgrace upon the order of St. Augustin, and 
 gave offence and disturbance to the whole 
 church. The professors in the university of 
 Wittemberg, anxious for Luther's safety, wrote 
 to the pope, and, after employing several pre- 
 texts to excuse Luther from appearing at Rome, 
 entreated Leo to commit the examination of his 
 doctrines to some persons of learning and au- 
 thority in Germany. The elector requested the 
 same thing of the pope's legate at the diet of 
 Augsburg ; and as Luther himself, who at that 
 time did not even entertain the smallest suspi- 
 cion concerning the divine origin of papal au- 
 thority, had written to Leo a submissive letter, 
 promising an unreserved compliance with his 
 will, the pope gratified them so far as to em- 
 power his legate in Germany, cardinal Cajetan, 
 a Dominican, eminent for scholastic learning, 
 and passionately devoted to the Roman see, to 
 hear and determine the cause. 
 
 Luther, having obtained the emperor's safe 
 conduct, immediately repaired to Augsburg. 
 The cardinal required him, by virtue of the 
 apostolic powers with which he was clothed, to 
 retract his errors with legard to indulgences 
 and the nature of faith, and to abstain for the 
 future from the publication of new and danger- 
 ous opinions. Luther, fully persuaded of the 
 truth of his own tenets, and continued in the 
 belief of them by the approbation which they 
 had met with among persons conspicuous both 
 for learning and piety, was surprised at this 
 abrupt mention of a recantation, before any 
 endeavors were used to convince him that he 
 was mistaken. He declared with the utmost 
 firmness, that he could not, with a safe con- 
 science, renounce opinions which he believed 
 to be true; nor should any consideration ever 
 induce him to do what would be so base in 
 itself, and so offensive to God. At the same 
 time, he continued to express no less reverence 
 than formerly for the authority of the apostolic 
 see ; he signified his willingness to submit the 
 whole controversy to certain universities which 
 he named, and promised neither to write nor 
 preach concerning indulgences for the future, 
 provided his adversaries were likewise enjoined 
 to be silent with respect to them. All these 
 offers Cajetan disregarded or rejected, and still 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REF 
 
 427 
 
 REF 
 
 insisted peremptorily, on a simple recantation, 
 threatening him with ecclesiastical censures, 
 and forbidding him to appear again in his pres- 
 ence, unless he resolved instantly to comply 
 with what he had required. 
 
 The judges before whom Luther had been 
 required to appear at Rome, without waiting 
 for the expiration of the sixty days allowed 
 him in the citation, had already condemned him 
 as an heretic. Leo had, in several of his briefs 
 and letters, stigmatized him as a child of ini- 
 quity, and a man given up to a reprobate sense. 
 As every step which was taken by the court of 
 Rome, convinced Luther that Leo would soon 
 proceed to the most violent measures against 
 him, he had recourse to the only expedient in 
 his power, in order to prevent the effect of the 
 papal censures. He appealed to a general coun- 
 cil, which he affirmed to be the representative 
 of the Catholic church, and superior in power 
 to the pope, who, being a fallible man, might 
 err, as St. Peter, the most perfect of his prede- 
 cessors, had erred. 
 
 It soon appeared that Luther had not formed 
 rash conjectures concerning the intentions of 
 the church of Rome. A bull of a date prior to 
 his appeal, was issued, by the pope, in which 
 he magnified the virtue and efficacy of indul- 
 gences ; he required all Christians to assent to 
 what he delivered as the doctrine of the catho- 
 lic church, and subjected those, who should 
 hold or teach any contrary opinion, to the 
 heaviest ecclesiastical censures. Among Lu- 
 tber's followers, this bull, which they consider- 
 ed as an unjustifiable effort of the pope in order 
 to preserve that rich branch of his revenue 
 which arose from indulgences, produced little 
 effect. But among the rest of his countrymen, 
 such a clear decision of the sovereign pontiff 
 against him, and enforced by such dreadful 
 penalties, must have been attended with conse- 
 quences very fatal to his cause, if these had not 
 been prevented, in a great measure, by the 
 death of the emperor Maximilian, whom both 
 his principles and his interest prompted to sup- 
 port the authority of the holy see. To this 
 event was owing the suspension of any fur- 
 ther proceedings against Luther for 18 months. 
 Perpetual negotiations, however, in order to 
 bring the matter to some amicable issue, were 
 carried on during that space. The manner in 
 which these were conducted having given Lu- 
 ther many opportunities of observing the cor- 
 ruption of the court of Rome, he began to utter 
 some doubts with regard to the divine original 
 of the papal authority. A public disputation 
 
 was held upon this important question at Leip- 
 sic, between Luther and Eccius, one of his 
 most learned and formidable antagonists ; but 
 it was fruitless and indecisive. Nor did this 
 spirit of opposition to the doctrines and usurp- 
 ations of the Romish church break out in Sax- 
 ony alone ; an attack no less violent, and occa- 
 sioned by the same causes, was made upon 
 them about this time in Switzerland. The Fran- 
 ciscans being intrusted with the promulgation 
 of indulgences in that country, executed their 
 commission with the same indiscretion, which 
 had rendered the Dominicans so odious in Ger- 
 many. They proceeded nevertheless with un- 
 interrupted success till they arrived at Zurich. 
 There Zuinglius, a man not inferior to Lu- 
 ther in zeal and intrepidity, ventured to oppose 
 them ; and being animated with a republican 
 boldness, he advanced with more daring and 
 rapid steps to overturn the whole fabric of the 
 established religion. The appearance of such a 
 vigorous auxiliary, and the progress which he 
 made, was at first matter of great joy to Luther. 
 On the other hand, the decrees of the universi- 
 ties of Cologne and Louvaine, which pronounc- 
 ed his opinions to be erroneous, afforded great 
 cause of triumph to his adversaries. 
 
 But the undaunted spirit of Luther acquired 
 additional fortitude from every instance of op- 
 position; and he began to shake the firmest 
 foundations on which the wealth or power of 
 the church were established. At last, on the 
 15th of June, 1520, the bull, so fatal to the 
 church of Rome, was issued. Forty-one pro- 
 positions, extracted out of Luther's works, are 
 therein condemned as heretical, scandalous, 
 and offensive to pious ears; all persons are for- 
 bidden to read his writings, upon pain of ex- 
 communication ; such as had any of them in 
 their custody, are commanded to commit them 
 to the flames : he himself, if he did not, within 
 GO days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his 
 books, is pronounced an obstinate heretic ; is 
 excommunicated, and delivered unto Satan for 
 the destruction of his flesh ; and all secular 
 princes are required, under pain of incurring 
 the same censure, to seize his person, that he 
 might be punished as his crimes deserved. 
 
 This sentence, which he had for some time 
 expected, did not disconcert or intimidate Lu- 
 ther. After renewing his appeal to the general 
 council, he published remarks upon the bull of 
 excommunication ; and being now persuaded 
 that Leo had been guilty both of impiety and 
 injustice in his proceedings against him, he 
 boldly declared the pope to be that man of sin, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY 
 
 REF 
 
 428 
 
 REF 
 
 or antichrist, whose appearance is foretold in 
 the New Testament ; he declaimed against his 
 tyranny and usurpations with greater violence 
 than ever; he exhorted all Christian princes 
 to shake off such an ignominious yoke ; and 
 boasted of his own happiness in being marked 
 out as the object of ecclesiastical indignation, 
 because he had ventured to assert the liberty of 
 mankind. In the following year he was re- 
 quested to appear before his avowed enemy, 
 the Emperor Charles V, in the diet at Worms, 
 when, unmoved by the apprehensions of his 
 friends, who reminded him of the fate of Huss, 
 he instantly obeyed, and there acknowledged, 
 that his writings had occasionally been violent 
 and acrimonious; but he refused to retract his 
 opinions, until they should be proved erroneous 
 by the scriptures. 
 
 An edict, pronouncing him an excommuni- 
 cated criminal, and commanding the seizure of 
 his person as soon as the duration of the safe 
 conduct which he had obtained should have ex- 
 pired, was immediately promulgated. Freder- 
 ick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who had all 
 along countenanced him without professing his 
 doctrines, now withdrew him from the storm. 
 As Luther was returning from Worms, a troop 
 of horsemen, in masks, rushed from a wood, 
 seized him, and conveyed him to the castle 
 of Wartburg, where he was concealed nine 
 months, encouraging his adherents by his pen, 
 and cheered in return by accounts of the rapid 
 diffusion of his doctrines. John, the successor 
 of Frederick, took a decisive step, and establish- 
 ed the reformed religion in 1527 throughout 
 his dominions. In a diet at Spires, held about 
 the same time, the execution of the edict of 
 Worms against the Lutherans, now too formid- 
 able to be oppressed with impunity, was sus- 
 pended until the convocation of a general coun- 
 cil, to remedy the disorders of the church. But 
 in another diet held at the same place, in 1529, 
 the suspension was revoked by a decree obtain- 
 ed through the influence of Charles ; who then 
 found himself at more leisure to push forward 
 his views against the supporters of the reform- 
 ation. Against this new decree, six princes, 
 and the deputies of thirteen imperial cities and 
 towns, solemnly protested ; and from this the 
 appellation of Protestants became common to all 
 who embraced the reformed religion. At the 
 diet of Augsburg, in Swabia, the following 
 year, a clear statement of the reformed faith, 
 drawn up by Luther and Melancthon, was pre- 
 sented to Charles and the diet, on behalf of the 
 Protestant members of the empire ; and hence 
 
 it obtained the name of " the Confession of 
 Augsburg." This confession was received as 
 the standard of the Protestant faith in Germany. 
 The same or next year, the Protestant princes 
 made the famous league of Smalkalde, for the 
 mutual defence of their religion, which obliged 
 the emperor to grant the Protestant Luther- 
 ans a toleration, till the differences in religion 
 should be settled in a council, which he engaged 
 himself to call in six months. The Protestant 
 party gaining strength every day, instead of 
 being viewed only as a religious sect, as hither- 
 to, soon came to be considered as a political 
 body of no small consequence ; and having re- 
 fused the bull for convening a council at Man 
 tua, Charles summoned a general diet at Ratis- 
 bon, where a scheme of religion, for reconcil- 
 ing the two parties, was examined and proposed, 
 but without effect. 
 
 At length, in 1545, the famous council of 
 Trent was opened for accommodating the dif- 
 ferences in religion; but the Protestants refused 
 to attend or obey a council convoked in the 
 name, and by the authority, of the pope, and 
 governed by his legates. The following year 
 Luther died, but the work of reformation which 
 he had begun did not die with him ; for though 
 Charles, having concluded a treaty with the 
 pope for the destruction of the reformed reli- 
 gion and its adherents, assembled troops on all 
 sides, and was at first successful in the field, 
 yet on the appearance of Maurice, elector of 
 Saxony, in arms against him, with a force 
 which he was wholly unprepared to resist, he 
 was checked in his career, and the consequences 
 were, the " religious peace," concluded at Pas- 
 sau, in Bavaria, in 1552, and the complete 
 security of religious freedom to the Protestant 
 states in Germany, which they have enjoyed 
 ever since. During the course of these events 
 the reformed opinions were extending their in- 
 fluence in various other countries. Before this 
 time, they were completely adopted in Sweden, 
 and had likewise obtained perfect toleration in 
 Denmark, where they were adopted soon after 
 as the doctrines of the national church. They 
 were, also, daily gaining converts in other king- 
 doms of Europe. They acquired raany friends 
 even in Italy. They privately diffused them- 
 selves in Spain, notwithstanding the crowded 
 dungeons and busy flames of the Inquisition. 
 
 In France they had still more ample success, 
 where their abettors have long been contempt- 
 uously termed Huguenots. This appellation 
 was given to the Protestants in France in 1560, 
 and is supposed by some to be derived from a 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REG 
 
 429 
 
 REV 
 
 gate in Tours called Huguon, where they first 
 assembled. According to others, the name is 
 taken from the first words of their original pro- 
 test, or confession of faith, Hue nos venimus, 
 &c. At Geneva, they were firmly established 
 by Calvin ; but their principal triumph was in 
 Great Britain, where the papal power and juris- 
 diction were abolished by parliament, the king 
 was declared supreme head of the church, and 
 all the authority of which the popes were de- 
 prived was vested in him. 
 
 In England, that vast fabric of ecclesiastical 
 dominion, which had been raised with such art, 
 and of which the foundations seemed to have 
 been laid so deep, being no longer supported by 
 the veneration of the people, was overturned in 
 a moment. In the reign of Edward VI, a total 
 separation was made from the church of Rome 
 in articles of doctrine, as well as in matters of 
 discipline and jurisdiction. 
 
 The Roman Catholics themselves are ready 
 to admit, that the papal doctrines and authority 
 would soon have fallen into ruin in all parts 
 of the world, in consequence of the opposition 
 made to them by Luther and his adherents, had 
 not the force of the secular arm, and the fire 
 of the Inquisition, been employed to support 
 the tottering edifice. In the Netherlands par- 
 ticularly, the most grievous persecutions took 
 place ; so that, by the Emperor Charles V, up- 
 wards of 100,000 were destroyed, whilst still 
 greater cruelties were exercised upon the peo- 
 ple there by his son. Philip II. The formida- 
 ble ministers of the Inquisition put so many to 
 death, and perpetrated such horrid acts of cru- 
 elty and oppression in Italy, &c, that most of 
 the reformed consulted their safety by a volun- 
 tary exile, while others returned to the religion 
 of Rome, at least in external appearance. In 
 France, too, the Huguenots were persecuted 
 with unparalleled fury ; and, though many 
 princes of the blood, and of the first nobility, 
 had embraced their sentiments, yet in no part 
 of the world did the reformers surfer more. 
 
 REGULUS, M. Attillius, a consul during 
 the first Punic war. He reduced Brundusium ; 
 and, in his second consulship, he took sixty- 
 four, and sunk thirty, galleys of the Cartha- 
 ginian fleet on the coast of Sicily. Afterwards 
 he landed in Africa; and so rapid was his suc- 
 cess, that in a short time he defeated three gen- 
 erals, and made himself master of about two 
 hundred places of consequence on the coast. 
 The Carthaginians sued for peace, but the con- 
 queror refused to grant it, and soon after he was 
 defeated in a battle by Xanthippus, and 30,000 
 
 of his men were left on the field of battle, and 
 15,000 taken prisoners. Regulus was in the 
 number of the captives, and he was carried in 
 triumph to Carthage. He was afterwards sent 
 by the enemy to Rome to propose an accommo- 
 dation, and an exchange of prisoners; and, if 
 his commission was unsuccessful, he was bound 
 by the most solemn oaths to return to Carthage 
 without delay. When he came to Rome, Reg- 
 ulus dissuaded his countrymen from accepting 
 the terms which the enemy proposed ; and when 
 his opinion had had due influence on the senate, 
 he then retired to Carthage, agreeably to his en- 
 gagements. The Carthaginians were told that 
 their offers of peace had been rejected at Rome 
 by the means of Regulus; and, therefore, they 
 prepared to punish him with the greatest sever- 
 ity. His eyelids were cut off, and he was expos- 
 ed for some days to the excessive heat of the 
 meridian sun, and afterwards confined in a bar- 
 rel, whose sides were every where filled with 
 large iron spikes, till he died in the greatest 
 agonies. His sufferings were known at Rome, 
 and the senate permitted his widow to inflict 
 whatever punishments she pleased on some of 
 the most illustrious captives of Cartharge who 
 were in their hands. She confined them also in 
 presses filled with sharp iron points ; and was 
 so exquisite in her cruelty, that the senate at 
 last interfered, and stepped the barbarity of her 
 punishments. Regulus died about 5251 years 
 before Christ. 
 
 REVOLUTION, AMERICAN. For an ac- 
 count of the causes which produced this great 
 event, the reader is referred to the article Uvited 
 States. In the present article we shall present 
 a somewhat detailed account of the war, touch- 
 ing briefly, however, on those events which 
 have been noticed under their respective heads. 
 
 The first battle of the American Revolution 
 was fought upon the 19th of April, 1775, at 
 Lexington and Concord. Stores had been col- 
 lected at the last named place, 18 miles from 
 Boston, for the American army, and General 
 Gage determined to destroy them. Wishing 
 to do it without fighting, he sent out 800 grena- 
 diers and light infantry, from Boston, at 11 
 o'clock in the evening of the 18th. as silently 
 as possible. It was heard of, however, in the 
 country. By two o'clock in the morning, 130 
 of the Lexington militia had assembled on the 
 green, at the meeting-house, to oppose them. 
 They were dismissed, but collected again be- 
 tween four and five, at the beat of the drum. 
 The 800 British troops came marching up the 
 road, Major Pitcairn at their head. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 430 
 
 REV 
 
 " Disperse, you rebels !" cried the major, ad- 
 dressing the militia; " throw down your arms, 
 and disperse !" They did not disperse, however. 
 He now rode forward, discharged a pistol, bran- 
 dished his sword, and ordered his soldiers to 
 fire. They did so, and three or four of the 
 Americans were killed. The soldiers shouted, 
 fired again, and then proceeded towards Con- 
 cord. 
 
 At Concord, they disabled two large cannon, 
 threw 500 pounds of ball into wells, and staved 
 about 60 barrels of flour. They fired upon the 
 Concord militia under Major Butterick's com- 
 mand. Two men were killed; a skirmish fol- 
 lowed, and the English retreated, as fast as 
 possible, to Lexington. The people weie com- 
 ing upon them, by this time, from all parts of 
 the country. The British were lired upon, on 
 all sides, from the sheds, houses and fences. 
 
 At Lexington, where they halted to rest, they 
 were joined by 900 more troops, sent out from 
 Boston, under Lord Percy. These brought two 
 cannon with them; and the country people were 
 kept back. They still fired upon the troops, 
 however, and, being generally good marksmen, 
 made terrible havoc. The regulars, as the En- 
 glish troops were called, readied Charlestown 
 at sunset, and returned the next day into Bos- 
 ton. Sixty-five of their number had been kill- 
 ed, one hundred and eighty wounded, and 
 twenty-eight made prisoners. Of the provin- 
 cials, fifty were killed, and thirty-eight wound- 
 ed and missing. There were never more than 
 three or four hundred of the latter fighting at 
 one time, and these fought as they pleased, 
 without order. The regulars were obliged to 
 keep in the main road; but the militia, knowing 
 every inch of the country, flanked them, and 
 fired upon them at all the corners. 
 
 The news of this first battle produced a tre- 
 mendous excitement throughout the country. 
 The dead were buried with great ceremony and 
 pomp. Great bodies of militia marched towards 
 Boston. Agreements were entered into by 
 thousands of people, to defend the Bostonians 
 to the last gasp. The English forts, arsenals, 
 magazines, and public money, were seized upon 
 by the people ; and more money was coined, 
 and more troops were raised. 
 
 Every body was armed, and ready for battle. 
 When the news of the Lexington battle reached 
 Barnstable, a company of militia started off for 
 Cambridge at once. In the front rank was a 
 young man, the only child of an old farmer. 
 As they came to the old gentleman's house, 
 they halted a moment. The drum and fife 
 
 ceased. The farmer came out with his gray 
 head bare. " God be with you all," said he ; 
 " and you, John, if you must fight, fight like a 
 man, or never let me see you again." The old 
 man gave him his blessing. The poor fellow 
 brushed a tear from his eye, and the company 
 marched on. 
 
 The news of the battle reached a small town 
 in Connecticut, on the morning of the Sabbath. 
 It was nearly time to go to meeting, when the 
 beating of a drum, and the ringing of the bell, 
 attracted the attention of the people. In ex- 
 pectation that some great event was about to 
 happen, every unusual signal had a startling 
 effect upon the public ear. When the drum 
 and the bell were heard, therefore, the men 
 came running to the meetinghouse green, in 
 breathless haste. Soon the clergyman was 
 among them, and they were all told, that some 
 of their countrj'men had been shot by the Brit- 
 ish soldiers, at Lexington. The faces of the 
 men, as they heard it, were pale, but not from 
 fear ; it was immediately resolved, that thirty 
 persons should be equipped,' and set out for 
 Boston. Those who could best go, were select- 
 ed, and went home to make preparations. 
 
 At noon, they had all returned to the little 
 lawn in front of the meeting-house. Theie 
 was a crowd of people around. There were 
 friends, and acquaintances, and wives, and 
 children. Such as were not well supplied with 
 clothes and equipments, were immediately sup- 
 plied by their neighbors. Among the crowd, 
 there was one remarkable individual. This 
 was a rich old miser, who was never known 
 to part with his money, but with extreme 
 reluctance. On the present occasion, his na- 
 ture seemed changed. He took several of 
 the soldiers apart, whom he supposed likely 
 to be destitute, and put into their hands about 
 thirty dollars in hard cash ; at the same time 
 saying, in a low voice, " Shoot the rascals ! 
 shoot them ! If you come back, perhaps you will 
 pay me; if not, God bless you." 
 
 After all the arrangements were made, the 
 soldiers entered the broad aisle of the church. 
 An affecting and fervent prayer was then offer- 
 ed by the clergyman, in behalf of the county, 
 and in behalt of these brave men, that were 
 about to enter upon the dangerous chances of 
 war. After the prayer, he made a short but 
 animated address, encouraging the men to do 
 their duty. He pronounced a blessing, and 
 then they departed. 
 
 General Putnam was a farmer, and was 
 ploughing in the field, when the tidings from 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 431 
 
 REV 
 
 Lexington were brought to him. He did not 
 stay even to unharness his cattle ; but, leaving 
 the plough in the unfinished furrow, he went 
 to his house, gave some hasty directions re- 
 specting his affairs, mounted his horse, and 
 with a rapid pace proceeded to Boston. 
 
 The Assembly was, at this time, sitting at 
 Watertown, a few miles from Boston. They 
 sent a letter, explaining the whole affair, to the 
 English people. They complained, that the 
 troops had long been insulting the provincials, 
 and had now undertaken to murder them. 
 They begged of the government to interfere, 
 and prevent war ; but declared, they would 
 submit to no more tyranny. They called God 
 to witness the justice of their cause, and p^dg- 
 ed themselves to defend each other to the last 
 drop of blood. 
 
 Letters were sent also to other Colonies. 
 They voted to raise a large army, and, in a 
 short time, 30,000 were assembled about Bos- 
 ton ; thousands, who were not needed, were 
 sent home. General Putnam commanded at 
 Cambridge, and General Thomas at Roxbury; 
 all intercourse between the English troops and 
 the country ended at once. 
 
 It must be considered, however, that this 
 collection of people was very different from a 
 well-trained army. But they were brave, and 
 heartily devoted to the cause. The country 
 people supplied them with large quantities of 
 vegetables and meat. But they went and came 
 as they pleased. They had few uniforms ; their 
 muskets were of all sizes and shapes ; they had 
 only sixteen cannon, and half of these were not 
 fit for use ; and, though all the men were good 
 marksmen, only a few regiments had been 
 trained enough to appear like regular soldiers. 
 
 The same might be said of the militia 
 throughout the country. But they determined 
 to make the best of themselves, of their heavy 
 old cannon, and rusty muskets ; and were in 
 great hopes, that, by a few short battles, the 
 English would be entirely driven from the 
 country. The English, on the other hand, 
 especially in England, had a mean opinion of 
 the American courage. One of their generals 
 promised, if they would give him five or six 
 regiments, he would drive the whole of these 
 cowardly rebels from one end of the continent 
 to the other. 
 
 The British troops soon began to feel a little 
 uncomfortable in Boston. The provincials had 
 surrounded them so completely, that no pro- 
 visions could enter the city. Fresh meat and 
 vegetables were very scarce ; and though they 
 37 
 
 had vessels enough, they could get no supplies 
 on the coast of New England. The people 
 every where had driven their cattle into the 
 back country. 
 
 The governor would not suffer the inhabi- 
 tants of Boston to leave the town. He feared 
 that, if they left, the Americans would fall upon 
 him at once. But he promised them, at last, 
 that, if all their arms should be handed in at 
 Faneuil Hall, or some other place, they should 
 be allowed to go away, and thirty carts should 
 be admitted from the country to carry off their 
 furniture. 
 
 About 1800 muskets, and a great many pis- 
 tols and bayonets, were given up accordingly ; 
 and several of the citizens received passports, 
 and left the town. But the governor soon 
 after pretended, that the people had deceived 
 him, in keeping back part of their arms, and he 
 refused any more passports. The poor and 
 sick only were suffered to go. Among these, 
 there were several who were terribly afflicted 
 with the small-pox. The disease spread among 
 the militia about Boston, and the Americans 
 were now more angry than ever, for they sus- 
 pected this to be a matter of design on the part 
 of General Gage. 
 
 While these things were passing, the other 
 Provinces were also preparing for war. The 
 people of New York refused the English troops 
 there all supplies. They armed and trained 
 themselves, seized upon the ammunition in the 
 arsenals, removed the women and children, 
 and determined, if nothing else would do, to 
 burn the whole of that large and beautiful city. 
 In New Jersey, at the news of the Lexington 
 battle, the people seized upon the public treas- 
 ure, and, at Baltimore, upon about 1500 Eng 
 lish muskets. Similar steps were taken in 
 South Carolina, where two regiments of infan- 
 try, (foot soldiers.) and one of cavalry, (horse- 
 men,) were raised in a few days. 
 
 There was, at this time, a great deal of diffi 
 culty in Virginia, between the English gover- 
 nor, Dunmore, and the Assembly. He feared 
 the people would seize on the powder of the 
 public magazine at Williamsburgh, and order- 
 ed it to be carried on board a vessel called the 
 Jasper, lying at anchor in the river James. 
 The mob crowded about his house ; and he be 
 gan to talk of setting free the negro slaves, and 
 destroying the city. On the whole, it was clear, 
 that both the governor and the people were in 
 a humor for fighting. 
 
 They went farther than this in Connecticut. 
 It was there resolved to undertake an expedi- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 REV 
 
 432 
 
 REV 
 
 lion to Ticonderoga, on Lake Cham plain, near 
 Canada. As this place was full of stores, and 
 stood upon the great route by which every thing 
 and every body passed, between Canada and 
 the Provinces, it was important to conquer it. 
 The Connecticut Assembly voted 1,800 dollars 
 for the purpose ; and powder, ball, and whatever 
 would be needed for a siege, was provided. 
 
 The troops assembled with as little display as 
 possible, at Castletown, on tbe banks of Wood 
 Creek, on the great road to Ticonderoga. Some 
 of these troops were from Connecticut, some 
 from the Boston army, and some were people 
 from the Green Mountains, in Vermont. These 
 latter were called Green Mountain Boys, and 
 were famous for skill in the use of the rifle. 
 
 The captain of one of these companies cap- 
 tured an English officer, a year or two after the 
 time we are speaking of. The Englishman 
 complained to the American captain, that these 
 riflemen gave the regulars a great deal of trou- 
 ble. " They aim," said he, " at an English 
 officer, as far as they can see his uniform plain- 
 ly, and shoot him dead. They hardly conde- 
 scend to kill any thing less tban a corporal." 
 
 " They can do better still," said the Ameri- 
 can captain ; and he ordered up two of his 
 riflemen. " Is your piece in good order ? " said 
 he to the first. " Yes, sir," answered the Green 
 Mountaineer. He then stuck a knife in a tree, 
 about fifty paces distant, and ordered the man to 
 split his ball. He fired, and the ball was cut in 
 two pieces on the edge of the knife. The other 
 was ordered to shoot the ace of clubs out of a 
 card j and he did so. The Englishman was 
 amazed. These sharp-shooters had only been 
 four weeks from their ploughs in Vermont. 
 
 The leaders of the expedition against Ticon- 
 deroga, were Colonel Ethan Allen and Colonel 
 Easton. They were joined at Castletown by 
 Colonel Arnold, from the Boston army. They 
 marched on quietly, and arrived in the night 
 on the bank of the lake, opposite Ticonderoga. 
 They crossed over, and landed on the other 
 side, close by the fortress. 
 
 They entered it under the covered way, by 
 day-break, with a tremendous shout. The sol- 
 diers of the garrison were roused, ran out, half 
 dressed, and began firing. A hot scuffle, with 
 gun-breeches and bayonets, hand to hand, en- 
 sued. The commander of the fort came at last. 
 Colonel Allen ordered him to surrender. " To 
 whom ? " said the officer, in great astonishment. 
 " To the American Congress ! " said Allen, in 
 a voice of thunder. The commander saw it 
 was in vain to resist, and so he gave up the 
 
 fort. Here were found 124 fine brass cannon, 
 and a large quantity of ammunition. 
 
 A hundred cannon more were taken by the 
 Americans at Crown Point, another fort on the 
 same lake, defended by a small garrison. The 
 next plan was to seize upon an English armed 
 vessel, called a corvette, which lay anchored 
 near fort St. John. The Americans soon rigged 
 out a schooner. Arnold commanded it, and sail- 
 ed with a fair wind for the fort, while Allen 
 followed slowly, with his troops, in some flat 
 
 Arnold came upon the corvette, and captured 
 it without the least difficulty. The wind sud- 
 denly shifted, and he was far on his way back, 
 with the prize, when he met Allen and the 
 boats. After taking another fort at Skeensbo- 
 rough, the officers and soldiers returned home. 
 
 Meanwhile, the English were skirmishing 
 with the provincials at Boston. There were 
 some islands in the harbor, where the English 
 found forage for their horses and cattle. The 
 Americans undertook to carry off these cattle 
 from Noddle's Island and Hog Island, and suc- 
 ceeded, after some fighting. They scoured 
 Pettick's Island and Deer Island, soon after, in 
 the same way. The English were put to a good 
 deal of trouble to get food. 
 
 They were finally so much pressed by the 
 American army, that General Gage found him- 
 self obliged to make a new effort against them. 
 The provincials had sent 1000 men, under 
 Colonel Prescott, to fortify Bunker's Hill, in 
 Charlestown. Instead of doing so, however, 
 by some mistake, he fortified Breed's Hill, 
 which is nearer the city. The Americans took 
 possession of it in the evening, and worked so 
 well, that, before morning, they had thrown up 
 a redoubt about eight rods square ; and so 
 silently, that the British knew nothing of it till 
 day-break. 
 
 The latter, when they discovered the redoubt, 
 began firing upon the people in the fort ; but 
 the Americans worked on, till they raised a 
 breastwork, reaching from the east side of the 
 redoubt to the bottom of the hill. As Breed's 
 Hill commands the city, the British saw they 
 must either be driven off, or drive off the pro- 
 vincials. They, therefore, opened a tremendous 
 fire from the batteries and armed vessels, that 
 floated on all the waters about Boston. Show- 
 ers of bombs and balls were fired. A terrible 
 battery was raised upon Copp's Hill, opposite 
 Breed's ; but all in vain. The Americans work- 
 ed on, and had finished a trench, or ditch before 
 noon, which reached to the bottom of the hill. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 433 
 
 REV 
 
 It was now the 17th of June, and on this day 
 was fought the famous battle of Bunker Hill. 
 The British were determined to make a great 
 effort. The provincials lay ready for them on 
 the hill. General Putnam, of Connecticut, 
 commanded the whole force. They had mus- 
 kets, but few of them bayonets or rifles. They 
 were sharp-shooters, however, and were brave 
 men as ever breathed. 
 
 About noon of a terribly hot day, the whole 
 British camp seemed to be in motion. A vast 
 multitude of sloops and boats started from the 
 Boston shore, covering the water far and wide. 
 The soldiers landed at Moreton's Point, in 
 Charlestown, protected by their batteries behind 
 them. Here they paraded in fine order. They 
 were the flower of the English army, and were 
 commanded by General Howe and General 
 Pigot. But the Americans appeared a little too 
 strong and too cool for them ; and they waited 
 for a few more companies to join them. 
 
 The Americans took this opportunity to pro- 
 tect themselves still more, by pulling up some 
 post and rail fences, which they set before them, 
 m two rows, and filled the space between with 
 fresh hay, which they gathered from the hill. 
 The British began to march. The militia left 
 to defend Charlestown, retreated. The British 
 entered it, and set fire to the buildings. In a 
 few moments, 500 wooden buildings were in 
 flames. The wind blew high, and the fire 
 streamed up, and roared in the most terrible 
 manner. 
 
 Thousands of people were gazing at the 
 scene, from the Boston steeples, and waiting 
 with great anxiety for the fate of the battle. 
 There were multitudes, also, on all the high 
 roofs and hills round about. Never was there 
 such a bustle and stir. The English marched 
 slowly towards the redoubt, halting now and 
 then, for the cannon to come up and fire. They 
 came, at last, within musket-shot; and the re- 
 doubt, which had been as still as the grave, till 
 this moment, blazed all at once, with a tremen- 
 dous volley. 
 
 The British were soon thinned off, and com- 
 pelled to retreat. Many fled for their lives, and 
 threw themselves into the boats. The green 
 field of battle was covered with dead bodies. 
 The officers ran hither and thither, to rally the 
 troops; and, after some time, persuaded them 
 to march forward again. The Americans wait- 
 ed for them quietly, and received them once 
 more with a flood of balls. The British fled 
 down the hill to the shore. 
 
 General Howe was alone upon the field ; all 
 
 his officers being killed and wounded around 
 him. General Clinton, who had been watching 
 the battle from Copp's Hill, now came to his 
 aid with new troops. They made a third effort, 
 with more spirit than before. Clinton led on 
 the whole body; the cannon still firing from the 
 ships and batteries, and the flames.and smoke 
 of the burning town sweeping over them like 
 the blast of a furnace. 
 
 The powder of the Americans was now ex- 
 hausted, and they were compelled to draw off. 
 They retired to Prospect Hill, fighting with 
 their muskets as if they were clubs, and there 
 began throwing up new works. The British 
 intrenched themselves on Bunker Hill, and 
 neither army seemed willing to attack the other. 
 They had had fighting enough for one day. 
 Of 3000 British troops, 1054 were killed or 
 wounded. A large part of these were officers. 
 The sharp-shooters had taken the poor fellows 
 down like so many gray squirrels. 
 
 The Americans lost five pieces of cannon. 
 Their killed, of about 1,500 engaged in the bat- 
 tle, amounted to 134; their wounded to 314. 
 General Warren was among the dead. He was 
 a brave man, and was loved and lamented by 
 all classes of people. An English officer, who 
 knew him by sight, saw him in the retreat, 
 rallying the Americans. He borrowed a gun 
 of one of his soldiers, and, taking a fatal aim, 
 shot him in the head, and he fell dead on the 
 spot. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill, as it was called, 
 though fought on Breed's Hill, had no decisive 
 effect; yet it roused the country, showed the 
 Americans that they were able to contend with 
 the regulars, and taught the British, that the 
 provincials were not exactly the cowards they 
 had taken them for. The capture of Breed s 
 Hill did them more hurt than good. They 
 were obliged to defend it now, and they had 
 not too many men before to defend the town. 
 Their soldiers were also worn out with fatigue, 
 and were much depressed by the hot weather. 
 
 The Americans began now to fortify the 
 town of Roxbury. Their works went up very 
 fast, notwithstanding the continual fire of the 
 British cannon. They 'wad plenty of food, too, 
 while the British were near starving. The 
 latter could get nothing on the Boston islands, 
 or along the Massachusetts coast, but by hard 
 fighting ; and very little by that. They were 
 at last obliged to let most of the Bostonians pass 
 out of the town. They had not provisions 
 enough to keep them alive. 
 
 A British sloop of war, the Falcon, Captain 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 434 
 
 REV 
 
 Lmzee, one day, " hove in sight," as the sailors 
 say, off that town. She had been in search of 
 two American schooners from the West Indies. 
 One of these, Captain Linzee had just captured, 
 and he now followed the other into Gloucester 
 harbor. 
 
 He anchored, and sent two barges, with fif- 
 teen men in each, armed with muskets and 
 swivels, and followed by a whale boat, in which 
 was a lieutenant and six privates, with orders 
 to seize the schooner, and bring her off. The 
 Gloucester people saw what was going on, and 
 brought out their rusty muskets along shore in 
 great numbers. The lieutenant, with the barge- 
 men, boarded the schooner at the cabin win- 
 dows. The militia, however, began to blaze 
 away at them off the shore. Three of the Brit- 
 ish were killed, and the lieutenant was wound- 
 ed in the thigh. He soon made off for the Fal- 
 con, as fast as his boat would carry him. 
 
 Captain Linzee now sent a cutter and the 
 schooner he had taken, with orders to fire on 
 the " saucy rebels," wherever they should see 
 them. He amused himself, meanwhile, by 
 cannonading the town. He fired a broadside 
 into the thickest part of the settlement, to begin 
 with. " Now," said he to the crew, " now, my 
 boys, we'll aim at that dirty old church. Well 
 done ! crack away ! one shot more ! knock 'em 
 down !." 
 
 The balls went through the houses in every 
 direction ; but not a man, woman or child was 
 injured. Meanwhile the men of Gloucester had 
 gone out upon the water, and taken possession 
 of both schooners, the cutter, the two barges, 
 the boat, and every man in them all. They had 
 but one killed, and two wounded. The British 
 lost about forty men. 
 
 The Continental Congress met again at Phil- 
 adelphia, May 7, 1775. They were men sent 
 from all the Colonies but Georgia; and though 
 they had no precise right, by any law, to act for 
 the whole country, yet the whole country were 
 ready to obey them. 
 
 They chose George Washington, of Virginia, 
 commander-in-chief of the American army, and 
 appointed many other officers to act under him. 
 Among these were Gates, Lee, Schuyler and 
 Montgomery, of New York ; Pomeroy, Heath 
 and Thomas, of Massachusetts; Greene, of 
 Rhode Island ; Putnam, Wooster and Spencer, 
 of Connecticut; Ward and Sullivan, of New 
 Hampshire. These were some of the bravest 
 and best men of the country. 
 
 General Washington went directly to the 
 army at Cambridge. He arrived there on the 
 
 3d of July. Though he used no parade, wearing 
 only a small sword at his side, epaulettes on 
 his shoulders, and a black cockade on his hat, 
 he was easily known, by his fine figure and 
 noble countenance. He was treated every 
 where with the greatest respect. 
 
 Having reviewed the army, he found only 
 14,500 men in a condition for service ; these 
 had to defend a line of twelve miles. They 
 were now arranged and trained as well and as 
 fast as possible, no man understanding this 
 business better than General Gates, who was an 
 old soldier, as well as Washington. 
 
 They had not 10,000 pounds of powder, at 
 this time, in the army, being only nine charges 
 to a man. Had the enemy known this, and 
 attacked them, they must have fled like a flock 
 of deer. Great efforts were made, however, and 
 several tons soon arrived from New Jersey. 
 
 The provincials had, at this time, no riflemen ; 
 though light troops of this kind were exceeding- 
 ly needed, to bring in recruits, and provisions, 
 and to scour such a wild country as America 
 then was, abounding in rivers, swamps, moun- 
 tains, and woods. Congress soon raised a few 
 companies in Pennsylvania and Virginia; and 
 1 ,4Q0 of them arrived at the camp early in Au- 
 gust. 
 
 These troops had, some of them, marched five 
 or six hundred miles, and were stout and hardy 
 men ; many of them were more than six feet 
 tall. They were dressed in white frocks, or 
 rifle shirts, and round hats. They were terrible 
 fellows for sharp-shooting; equal to the Green 
 Mountain Boys already mentioned. At a re- 
 view, a company of them, on a quick march, 
 fired their balls into marks seven inches across, 
 at the distance of 250 yards. They often shot 
 down the British officers, in Boston, like so 
 many wild animals, at more than double the 
 common musket distance. 
 
 More powder was procured about this time, 
 from the coast of Africa, in exchange for New 
 England rum. This was managed so shrewdly, 
 that every ounce in the British forts there, was 
 bought up for the American army. The Mas- 
 sachusetts rulers passed a law, also, that no 
 powder should be fired at any beast, bird, or 
 mark ; they wished it all to be saved for the war. 
 
 Congress took measures for the coining of 
 money, and the raising of troops in all quarters. 
 The people obeyed the directions of Congress 
 with alacrity. Every man, from sixteen years 
 of age to fifty, was a member of some militia 
 company ; and one fourth part of the whole, 
 called minute men, were to keep themselves 
 ready for action at a moment's notice. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 REV 
 
 435 
 
 REV 
 
 Captains were to be paid twenty dollars a 
 month ; lieutenants and ensigns, thirteen ; cor- 
 porals and sergeants, eight ; and privates, six. 
 No province was more active than Pennsylva- 
 nia. Companies were raised in all the country 
 towns. Many of the Quakers, even though 
 they did not approve of fighting, were so carried 
 away with the general feeling, as to turn out 
 and train with the rest. 
 
 Three large battalions were raised in Phila- 
 delphia alone, besides artillery, cavalry, rifle- 
 men, pioneers, and others. They often manoeu- 
 vred in presence of Congress. The whole city 
 was full of the music of drums, fifes and bugles. 
 
 Among others, a company was formed of 
 eighty old Germans, who had, most of them, 
 fought a long time before in Europe. They 
 were called the Old Men's Company. Instead 
 of cockades, they wore black crape, to signify 
 their sorrow at taking up arms at such an age. 
 The captain was near a hundred years old, and 
 had been in seventeen battles. He had been 
 a soldier forty years. The drummer was ninety- 
 four, and the youngest in the corps was about 
 seventy. In the county of Bristol, a regiment 
 was raised, and they were clothed, armed, and 
 furnished with colors by the women. 
 
 About this time, Congress took the necessary 
 steps to keep peace with the Indian tribes. But 
 they never employed them to fight against the 
 English, though the English hired them to fight 
 against the Americans. One objection that the 
 Americans had to employing them was, that 
 the Indian way of fighting was entirely too 
 barbarous and cruel to be suffered among civil- 
 ized people. 
 
 Another was, that they could not be depended 
 on. They were greedy for wages, but so de- 
 ceitful, that they could not be safely trusted. 
 A story told of a sergeant, who travelled through 
 the woods of New Hampshire, on his way to 
 the American army, will show the character of 
 the Indians. 
 
 He had twelve men with him. Their route 
 was far from any settlement ; and they were 
 obliged every night to encamp in the woods. 
 The sergeant had seen a good deal of the Indi- 
 ans, and understood them well. Early in the 
 afternoon, one day, as they were marching on, 
 over bogs, swamps and brooks, under the great 
 maple trees, a body of Indians, more than their 
 own number, rushed out upon a hill in front of 
 them. 
 
 They appeared to be pleased at meeting with 
 the sergeant and his men. They considered 
 them, they said, as their best friends. For 
 37* 
 
 themselves, they had taken up the hatchet for 
 the Americans, and would scalp and strip those 
 rascally English for them, like so many wild 
 cats. " How do you do, pro ?" (meaning broth- 
 er,) said one ; and " How do ye do, pro?" said 
 another ; and so they went about, shaking hands 
 with the sergeant and his twelve men. 
 
 They went off, at last ; and the sergeant, 
 having marched on a mile or two, halted his 
 men, and addressed them. " My brave fellows/ 
 said he, " we must use all possible caution, or, 
 before morning, we shall all of us be dead men. 
 You are amazed ; but, depend upon me, these 
 Indians have tried to put our suspicion to sleep. 
 You will see more of them by and by." 
 
 They concluded, finally, to adopt the follow- 
 ing scheme for defence. They encamped for 
 the night near a stream of water, which pro- 
 tected them from behind. A large oak was 
 felled, and a brilliant fire kindled. Each man 
 cut a log of wood about the size of his body, 
 rolled it nicely up in his blanket, placed his hat 
 on the end of it, and laid it before the fire, that 
 the enemy might take it for a man. 
 
 Thirteen logs were fitted out in this way, 
 representing the sergeant and his twelve men. 
 They then placed themselves, with loaded guns, 
 behind the fallen tree. By this time, it was 
 dark ; but the fire was kept burning till mid- 
 night. The sergeant knew, that if the savages 
 ever came, they would come now. 
 
 A tall Indian was seen, at length, through 
 the glimmering of the fire, which was getting 
 low. He moved cautiously towards therti, 
 skulking, as an Indian always does. He seem- 
 ed to suspect, at first, that a guard might be 
 watching; but, seeing none, he came forward 
 more boldly, rested on his toes, and was seen to 
 move his finger, as he counted the thirteen men, 
 sleeping, as he supposed, by the fire. 
 
 He counted them again, and retired. Another 
 came up, and did the same. Then the whole 
 party, sixteen in number, came up, and glared 
 silently at the logs, till they seemed to be sat- 
 isfied they were fast asleep. Presently they 
 took aim, fired their whole number of guns 
 upon the logs, yelled the horrid war-whoop, 
 and rushed forward to murder and scalp their 
 supposed victims. The sergeant and his men 
 were ready for them. They fired upon them; 
 and not one of the Indians was left to tell the 
 story of that night. The sergeant reached the 
 army in safety. 
 
 Treaties having been made with the Indians, 
 Congress recommended, that the 20th day of 
 July, 1775, should be observed, in all the Pro- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 436 
 
 REV 
 
 vinces, as a day of fasting and prayer ; and it 
 was so. The people were every where disposed 
 to implore Heaven to prevent war, and to soften 
 the hearts of their enemies. In Philadelphia, 
 Congress attended church in a body. 
 . As they were just entering the house of wor- 
 ship, they received news from Georgia, that 
 this Province had at last concluded to join in 
 the common cause, with the other twelve. Un- 
 til this time, the people there had said and done 
 but little ; but they determined now to make 
 amends for lost time. 
 
 A Declaration of Rights was soon after writ- 
 ten by Congress, and sent over every part of 
 the country. It gave a history of the whole 
 difficulty, from first to last, between England 
 and America; and ended with an account of 
 the burning of Charlestown, the seizure of the 
 provincial vessels by the British, and the hiring 
 of the savages to fight against the Americans. 
 
 " We are compelled," said they, " to submit 
 to tyranny, or to take up arms. We have 
 counted the cost of this war, and have deter- 
 mined to be free, as our fathers have been be- 
 fore us, and as we trust our children shall be 
 after us. We declare, before God, that we will 
 defend each other, and the liberties of the whole 
 country, to the last moment of life." 
 
 This was signed by John Hancock, president, 
 and by Charles Thompson, secretary, of Con- 
 gress. The ministers read it from their pulpits 
 in all parts of the nation. It was read in Cam- 
 bridge, to a vast multitude, and General Putnam 
 assembled his troops on Prospect Hill to hear 
 it. This was followed by a prayer from a cler- 
 gyman. All the troops cried, three times, 
 *' Amen;" the artillery fired a general salute, 
 and the colors were seen flying, with the usual 
 mottoes; on one side, " An appeal to Heaven," 
 and, on the other, " He who has brought us 
 over will defend us." 
 
 A petition was next drawn up to the English 
 king, and addresses were written to the people 
 of England, Ireland, and Canada. Congress 
 were resolved to leave nothing unsaid, or un- 
 done, that offered any chance of restoring peace. 
 The Canadians were persuaded to remain neu- 
 tral, taking no part on either side. 
 
 The British general, Cirleton, used efforts to 
 make them enlist as soldiers. They were offer- 
 ed two hundred acres of land in any part of 
 America they should choose, at the end of the 
 war. Each married man was to have fifty acres 
 more for his wife, and fifty for each of his chil- 
 dren ; with a guinea, (about five dollars,) as a 
 bounty, at the time of enlisting. 
 
 A few only were persuaded in this way ; a 
 good many Indians, however, were hired. They 
 collected at Montreal, in great numbers, in July, 
 1775. Among the rest were six. famous tribes, 
 called the Six Nations. They swore, in the 
 piesence of Carleton, to fight for the English 
 king ; and thus, soon after, the Indian war be- 
 gan. 
 
 It may seem strange, that, during the dis- 
 turbances in the various Colonies, little or no- 
 thing should have been done, by the English 
 governors, to put down the rebellion. The 
 truth is, they had no troops, and not much mo- 
 ney, at their disposal; and, before they could 
 be supplied, the spirit of independence had gone 
 too far to be repressed. 
 
 In Virginia, Governor Dunmore, being com- 
 pelled to leave Williamsburgh, and fearing that 
 it would not be safe for him to remain upon the 
 land, went on board a royal armed vessel. Hav- 
 ing collected a fleet, he resolved to harass the 
 Virginians as much as possible, if he could 
 not govern them. He was joined by all the 
 tories, that is, the Americans who favored the 
 English. 
 
 He laid waste the coast, at various places, in 
 the most shocking manner, murdering and 
 burning like a pirate. He burnt Hampton, on 
 the bay of Hampton, among the rest, and un- 
 dertook to establish his camp there. But the 
 Virginians soon drove him back upon the wa- 
 ter. He then declared all the negro slaves to 
 be free, and invited them to join him. A few 
 of them succeeded in doing so. 
 
 He lauded again at Norfolk, where the tories 
 were numerous; and a battle was fought, a few 
 miles from that city, at a place called Great 
 Bridge, with a regiment of Virginia militia 
 and minute men. The governor had only 200 
 regulars about him. The rest was a mere mob, 
 of black, white and gray. 
 
 The first attack was made by the British, on 
 the American entrenchment. The battle lasted 
 some time, with a good deal of spirit. At last, 
 the British captain was killed, and the troops 
 fell back upon the bridge. The governor did 
 not like fighting; so, during the battle, he con- 
 tented himself with looking on at a distance. 
 The negroes loved fighting as little as the gov- 
 ernor. They found it by no means pleasant to 
 have their flesh cut to pieces with bullets; so, 
 after a few shots, they ran away as fast as they 
 could. The governor also thought it best to 
 retreat, and. accordingly, he and his men went 
 on board of their vessels. 
 
 This affair did not serve to sweeten Governor 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 437 
 
 REV 
 
 Dunmore's temper; nor did it put him in a 
 better humor, to find that his friends, the tories at 
 Norfolk, had beet) handled roughly by the peo- 
 ple there, alter his retreat with his negro allies. 
 He now returned into the bay, with a ship of 
 war, and,sent a message ashore, declaring that, 
 unless the people furnished him provisions, he 
 should batter the town down about their ears. 
 They refused to supply him : so he gave them 
 notice, in the morning, to remove the women 
 and children ; and then, with his own sloop of 
 war, the frigate Liverpool, and two corvettes, 
 he blazed away upon the place, till scarcely one 
 stone was left upon another. The provincials, 
 to disappoint him of his provisions, burnt the 
 whole country round about. 
 
 In South Carolina, Governor Campbell ar- 
 rived at Charleston, from England, about the 
 same time with the news of the Lexington bat- 
 tle. The people were on their guard, and he 
 tried in vain to get the better of tliem, by invit- 
 ing the tories to assist him ; but the tories were 
 afraid to do so. He began to be frightened a 
 little himself, being a man of less courage than 
 Governor Dunmore ; so he said little or nothing 
 for some time. 
 
 To unmask him, the American leaders sent 
 privately to him one Adam Macdonald, captain 
 in a militia regiment. He called himself Dick 
 Williams, and offered his services to the gov- 
 ernor. The latter was delighted, and told him 
 all his plans. Having heard them attentively, 
 Adam went away, and told the whole to the 
 persons who employed him. 
 
 They immediately sent a committee, Mac- 
 donald among the number, to wait upon his 
 excellency, and request him to show his royal 
 commission, if he had any, as governor. He 
 declined this proposal. There were some hints 
 then thrown out, about putting him in confine- 
 ment. These came to his ears, and he retreated, 
 with very little ceremony or delay, to an Eng- 
 lish corvette, anchored in the harbor. The 
 Assembly requested him to return ; but he re- 
 fused. 
 
 Nothing more was seen of him, or his gov- 
 ernment, in Charleston. The tories were nu- 
 merous in other sections of the Province, how- 
 ever, and he mustered them together in great 
 force. The people were alarmed. The militia 
 were ordered out ; and the two parties were on 
 the eve of an engagement. But at length the 
 tories were dispersed, and they gave no more 
 trouble at that time. 
 
 The provincials in South Carolina continued 
 to be very active. They captured Fort John- 
 
 son, on James's Island, in Charleston harbor, 
 and -placed batteries on Point Huddrel. The 
 English ships were at last driven off. The next 
 thing with the people was, to send an expedi- 
 tion after an English vessel laden with powder, 
 which was anchored on the bank, called the 
 Bar of St. Augustine, a town on the coast of 
 East Florida. " She was taken, and 15,000 
 pounds of powder were carried to Charleston. 
 
 In North Carolina, the Provincial Congress 
 raised 1000 regular militia, and 3000 minute 
 men. The English governor, Martin, disliked 
 the appearance of things, and endeavored to 
 muster a force of the Irish and Scotch part of 
 the inhabitants. He also fortified his own house, 
 at Newbern, with artillery. The people seized 
 upon his cannon ; and he fled to a fort upon 
 Cape Fear River. 
 
 The provincials marched after him, led on by 
 Colonel Ashe. He retreated on board a vessel, 
 as the other governors had done. Colonel Ashe 
 burnt the fort to ashes the same night. The 
 Assembly declared the governor a traitor. He 
 answered them in a very long letter, which they 
 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. 
 A large quantity of ball and powder was found 
 in his cellar and gardens, at Newbern. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, the people prepared active- 
 ly for war. A single mill, near Philadelphia, 
 manufactured five hundred pounds of powder a 
 week. Governor Tryon, after endeavoring a 
 long time to manage the Province, followed the 
 example of the other governors. 
 
 In other parts of the country, the enemy was 
 not asleep. One Captain Wallace, command- 
 ing an English squadron of small vessels off" 
 Rhode Island, was doing all the damage in his 
 power, by ravaging the coast, and making prize 
 of the merchant vessels. His chief object 
 seemed to be, to supply himself and his force 
 with provisions. "With this view, he made a 
 furious attack upon the town of Bristol, and 
 fired, from morning till night, upon their houses 
 and churches. He bored them through and 
 through, till, finally, the people supplied him 
 and his squadron with fresh meat, and he sailed 
 away. 
 
 About this time, a body of American troops 
 were sent from Massachusetts to Rhode Island, 
 under General Lee. He was a man of great 
 courage, and warm temper. He obliged all the 
 inhabitants, whom he went to defend, to take 
 the most terrible oaths, to do precisely what 
 Congress should command ; and, at. all events, 
 to break off all intercourse with the tools of 
 tyranny, " vulgarly called," as the oath said. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 438 
 
 REV 
 
 "the fleets and armies of the king." Congress 
 were not much pleased with this manoeuvre. 
 It was well meant, without doubt, but it was 
 very rough, and of no real use. 
 
 On the 18th of October, 1775, Falmouth, now 
 Portland, in Maine, was bombarded by Captain 
 Moet, of the ship Canceaux, of 16 guns. The 
 whole town was consumed. He had formerly 
 received some affront in the place, and revenged 
 himself in this way. He sent the people word 
 at night, that he should destroy the tewn in the 
 morning ; they removed their furniture, and he 
 went to work early the next day with his can- 
 non. The town had been twice sacked by the 
 Indians, but never suffered so severely before. 
 
 The most important affair of this year, was 
 an expedition to Canada. The provincials had 
 done so well upon Lake Chain plain, that the 
 scheme of another expedition in the same quar- 
 ter was much approved of. Congress hoped 
 that, if Canada was invaded at once, many of 
 the inhabitants would join the Americans. 
 
 Three thousand men, commanded by Gener- 
 als Montgomery, VVooster and Schuyler, were 
 fitted out. Boats were built for them on the 
 lake, at Crown Point, and the sum of 50,000 
 dollars was collected , to pay the expenses. Gov- 
 ernor Carleton, of Canada, intrenched himself, 
 with a strong force, at the entrance of the river 
 Sorel, which leads out of the lake, and which 
 the Americans would be obliged to pass. 
 
 The latter took possession of an island in the 
 lake, at the mouth of the river, and, from that 
 place, planned an attack on Fort St. John, 
 where the governor was. This fort stood on 
 the left bank of the Sorel, and commanded the 
 passage to Canada. The Americans moved on, 
 without cannon, to a swamp within a mile and 
 a half of the fort. They defeated a body of In- 
 dians, who attacked them in crossing a small 
 river, waited for reinforcements, and laid siege 
 to the fort. 
 
 Farther north, on the Sorel, was a small fort, 
 called Chambly. The English had no idea of 
 the provincials passing St. John to fall upon 
 Chambly; but they did so; took the garrison 
 prisoners; obtained 124 barrels of powder for 
 the siege of St. John, and sent the colors they 
 had captured to Congress. Other detachments 
 scoured the country between the Sorel and the 
 St. Lawrence; the Canadians supplying them 
 every where with arms and provisions. 
 
 Just at this time, Colonel Allen and Major 
 Brown undertook an expedition against the city 
 of Montreal, which stands on an island in the 
 St. Lawrence. Allen found boats ready for him 
 
 at Longueville, and crossed the river in the 
 night, below Montreal. Here Brown was to 
 have joined him with his troops, but missed his 
 way, and Allen was left, with a small force, in 
 the neighborhood of the city. 
 
 It was just sunrise. The murmur of the city 
 was heard at a few miles' distance, and by and 
 by the roll of the English drums came upon the 
 ear. The Americans now saw that they were 
 discovered. Before long, a column of British 
 infantry came marching down the bank of the 
 river. There was an almost breathless silence 
 in Allen's small band, as they came up. Fven 
 Allen himself stood fast, and gazed at them. 
 
 " To the boats ! to the boats !" cried a dozen 
 of his soldiers ; " there's a thousand of them." 
 " Silence ! every man of ye !" roared Allen, 
 brandishing a huge horse-pistol. " The first 
 man that turns his back upon the red coats, 
 shall smell gunpowder." They were satisfied 
 with this arrangement, on the whole, examined 
 their rifles, and stood ready for the onset. 
 
 " Stand your ground, boys !" shouted Allen. 
 A party of British soldiers was moving towards 
 them from the main body, at double quick time. 
 " Let them come !" cried a tall, fine looking 
 hunter at his side ; " let them come !" He 
 brought his rifle to his eye, as he spoke. 
 
 "Fire!" shouted the British officer, and in- 
 stantly the hunter dropped dead at the feet of 
 Allen. His hardy followers shrunk back. They 
 were sprinkled with the blood of the poor hunt- 
 er. " Fire ! fire !" shouted Allen, with a voice 
 of thunder. They fired, and a hot skirmish 
 commenced. Several of the English fell, and 
 several of the Americans: others fled. Some 
 defended themselves behind rocks and trees. 
 Allen was at last left alone, surrounded, and 
 compelled to surrender. He brushed a few 
 tears away for the fate of his friend, the young 
 hunter, and marched on with the English. 
 
 He was kept a prisoner more than two years, 
 and then was exchanged for some English offi- 
 cer, whom the Americans had taken. The irons 
 put upon him were so fastened about him. and 
 so heavy, that, for a long time, he could lie 
 down only on his back. A chest was his seat 
 by day, and his bed by night. 
 
 He was sent to England, to be tried as a pri- 
 soner of state, not as a fair and open enemy, but 
 as a rebel. At this time, all the Americans 
 were called rebels, and the English used to 
 speak of hanging great numbers of them, when 
 the war was over. 
 
 Allen was a man of very large frame, and 
 prodigious strength. He possessed great coi.r 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 REV 
 
 439 
 
 REV 
 
 age, and was much inclined to daring enter- 
 prise. His reputation, it seems, had gone be- 
 fore him to England ; and he was, therefore, 
 kept in very close confinement. The people 
 were as much afraid of him, as if he had been a 
 whale, or a sea-serpent. They sometimes used 
 to come and see him in his prison ; but they 
 were very shy, and, if he so much as turned 
 round, they would run away like a flock of 
 startled sheep. 
 
 But the Americans were always on the watch. 
 They thought it probable, that the governor 
 would set out about this time, and were ready 
 for him. He embarked his 800 men in a large 
 number of boats, and undertook to cross the St. 
 Lawrence, precisely where Allen had crossed 
 it, at Longueville. 
 
 But Colonel Warner, with three hundred of 
 the Green Mountain sharp-shooters, and a few 
 cannon, lay among the bushes, on the river 
 bank, as the governor's boats came over. 
 The Americans waited quietly till they were 
 fairly within reach, and then poured out upon 
 them a tremendous volley of grape-shot. The 
 governor's party retreated in great haste, with 
 some loss of lives ; and nothing more was seen 
 of them. 
 
 News of this defeat soon came to Major Pres- 
 ton, the British commander of the besieged fort 
 of St. John. He began to think it a desperate 
 case with him, and so concluded to surrender to 
 the American general, Montgomery. This he 
 did on the 3d of November, 1775. He had held 
 out like a brave man, the siege having lasted 
 six weeks- 
 
 The Americans found in this fort seventeen 
 brass cannon, twenty-two iron ones, and a large 
 quantity of balls and bombs. The powder had 
 been used to the last kernel, and the provisions 
 to the last morsel. The capture was an impor- 
 tant one. St. John, standing on the Sorel, 
 which leads from Lake Champlain to the St. 
 Lawrence, commanded the passage to and from 
 Canada ; and was, therefore, called the Key of 
 Canada. 
 
 The next movement of the Americans was, 
 to take possession of the mouth of the Sorel, 
 where it empties into the St. Lawrence. The 
 point of land which is formed by the meeting 
 of the two rivers, was fortified with batteries, 
 which swept the river in such a manner, that 
 no English vessel could pass, without being 
 bored through and through. As the St. Law- 
 rence is wide here, the Americans provided a 
 fleet of boats and floating batteries, to guard the 
 other side, and thus completely stopped the pas- 
 sage up and down that river. 
 
 Just at this time, Governor Carleton had left 
 Montreal, which stands faither up the St. Law- 
 rence from the sea, with a fleet of" English ships 
 under his command, and without having heard 
 of these fortifications. What added to the dif- 
 ficulty of his situation, was, that, the very day 
 after he left Montreal, another body of Ameri- 
 cans, under Montgomery himself, appeared un- 
 der the walls of that city, and called upon the 
 people to surrender. 
 
 This detachment had marched across the 
 country from Fort St. John. The land is flat 
 and marshy, and their journey had been slow 
 and difficult. It gave them great satisfaction to 
 have reached Montreal just as the governor had 
 gone off" with his force. The city, having no 
 defence, was compelled to surrender. General 
 Montgomery treated the people so handsomely, 
 that they supplied him with a large quantity of 
 clothes for his troops. 
 
 These were very much needed. It was now 
 the middle of November, and they were weary 
 of a long, cold march. Some of the soldiers, 
 during this severe journey, would have gone 
 back to their snug homes in Vermont and the 
 other Provinces ; but General Montgomery di- 
 vided the clothes among them, and encouraged 
 them to proceed. 
 
 Governor Carleton was now unpleasantly sit- 
 uated on the river, with Montreal, in the posses- 
 sion of Montgomery, above him, and the fortifi- 
 cations at the mouth of the Sorel below. If he 
 could have been taken, all Canada would have 
 been easily conquered; but he contrived, one 
 dark night, to pass through among the floating 
 batteries, in a small boat, with the oars muffled. 
 Thus he escaped safely to a town on the north- 
 ern bank, called Trois Rivieres ; and from that 
 place he went to Quebec. 
 
 The English fleet, which the governor had 
 left behind, surrendered to the Americans, in a 
 day or two, with a large number of soldiers and 
 officers aboard. General Montgomery left gar- 
 risons in Montreal, and Forts Chambly and St. 
 John, on the Sorel, to keep the Indians in awe, 
 and marched on to Quebec, with a small force 
 of three hundred men. 
 
 While these things were going forward, Gen- 
 eral Washington, in his camp at Cambridge, 
 had conceived the plan of sending an expedi- 
 tion against Quebec, by way of a rough, wild 
 route, known only to the backwoodsmen and 
 hunters. This was through the District of 
 Maine. 
 
 He selected Colonel Arnold to command the 
 expedition ; a rash but brave man, who had as- 
 sisted, as we have seen, in the capture of Ti 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 REV 
 
 440 
 
 REV 
 
 Oonderoga and Crown Point. Fourteen com- 
 panies were put under his command ; three of 
 riflemen, and one of artillery, under Captain 
 Lamb, being among the number. In all, there 
 were about eleven hundred men. A few others 
 joined them, of their own accord; and among 
 these volunteers was Aaron Burr, afterwards 
 vice-president. He was then 20 years of age. 
 
 Maine is crossed, from north to south, as a 
 map will show, by the river Kennebec, rising in 
 the mountains between Maine and Canada, and 
 emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, not far from 
 Casco Bay, near a town now called Bath. On 
 the other side of the same mountains, and close, 
 therefore, by the small upper streams of the 
 Kennebec, another river rises, called the Chau- 
 diere. This empties into the St. Lawrence, 
 nearly opposite Quebec. ' 
 
 In crossing these mountains, between the 
 sources of the two rivers, on the two sides, it is 
 necessary to pass very steep and' wild places, 
 over marshes and torrents. No human being 
 dwelt there then, and nobody lives there to this 
 day. Such was the route Arnold and his brave 
 soldiers were to travel. 
 
 He left Boston in September, 1775, and ar- 
 rived at Newburyport, near the mouth of the 
 Merrimac. The vessels that waited for him 
 here, conveyed him and his men to the mouth 
 of the Kennebec. With a fresh south wind, 
 they sailed up the river fifty miles, to a town 
 called Gardiner. Here were two hundred bat- 
 teaux, ready for them. These were long, light, 
 flat boats, much used by the Canadians, hunt- 
 ers and others, in shoal waters. 
 
 Having laden these with his arms and pro- 
 visions, Arnold proceeded up the river to Fort 
 Wester, on the right bank. Here he divided 
 his corps into three detachments. The rifle- 
 men, under Captain Morgan, moved on forward, 
 as a vanguard, to explore the country ; to sound 
 the fords, that is, ascertain where the river 
 might be crossed easily ; and to look out for the 
 portages. These are places where the river 
 ceases to be navigable, on account of shoals, 
 falls, or rocks. The lading of the boats must, 
 therefore, be carried forward upon the banks, 
 by hand, or by beasts of burden. The batteaux 
 are then carried on, also, till the river becomes 
 deeper and smoother. 
 
 Arnold's second detachment marched the 
 next day after the first ; and the third detach- 
 ment the day after that. The current of the 
 river was rapid, the bottom rocky, and often 
 interrupted by fills. Every hour, the water 
 entered some of the batteaux, and damaged the 
 
 provisions and arms. At every portage, — and 
 these occurred very often, — the boats were to be 
 unladen, and carried on the shoulders of the 
 troops. 
 
 In places where the river was rapid, yet free 
 of rocks, the batteaux were hauled up slowly 
 by soldiers on the banks, who dragged them 
 along with ropes. The army, however, ad- 
 vanced, and at length they had wild mountains 
 to cross, steep precipices to climb, vast shady 
 forests to pass under, and quagmires to wade 
 through. They had also deep valleys to tra- 
 verse, where the pine trees were tossing over 
 their heads in the stormy wind, and where the 
 river was rushing and foaming over the rocks, 
 with a noise like the ocean. 
 
 They were sometimes a whole day in travel- 
 ling four or five miles, with their baggage laced 
 on their backs, and axes in their hands to hew 
 a road through the wilderness. Some of the 
 men died at last with weariness ; many others 
 fell sick, and all of them were at length sorely 
 pressed for food. 
 
 Many a young soldier, as he lay down at 
 night, hungry and tired, on his pillow of green 
 boughs, thought of the warm bright fire-side, 
 where a mother was weeping for him. But 
 these thoughts were vain. They rose in the 
 morning, and pressed on patiently, brave men 
 as they were. 
 
 By the time they had reached the source of 
 Dead River, a branch of the Kennebec, their 
 provisions were almost exhausted. The sol- 
 diers were living, or rather starving, now, upon 
 the poor lean dogs they had taken with them, 
 and even this food was a luxury. At this place, 
 Colonel Enos received orders from Arnold to 
 send back the sick to Boston. He took the op- 
 portunity to return himself, with his whole de- 
 tachment. He was afterwards tried for this 
 desertion, by a court-martial, and acquitted, for 
 the reason that the men must otherwise have 
 starved. 
 
 But Colonel Arnold marched on. For thirty- 
 two days, not a single human dwelling was 
 met with. The army arrived at last upon the 
 mountains, between the Kennebec and the 
 Chaudiere. The little food still left was divid- 
 ed equally, and then the troops were directed 
 to look out as they could for their own living. 
 They discovered, finally, with inconceivable joy, 
 the sources of the Chaudiere, and the first log- 
 houses of the Canadians. 
 
 These people received them well, and assisted 
 them. Arnold addressed a proclamation to the 
 Canadians, waited for his rear guard to over 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 441 
 
 REV 
 
 take him, pressed on, and arrived, November 
 9th, at Point Levy, nearly opposite Quebec. 
 The people of the city were as much amazed at 
 the sight of him and his men, as if they had 
 been so many goblins. 
 
 The English colonel, Maclean, had heard of 
 their coming, however, by a letter, which Ar- 
 nold had given to an Indian on the Kennebec, 
 to carry to General Schuyler. The Indian gave 
 it to Maclean, and the latter removed all his 
 batteaux from the Point Levy side of the river, 
 to the other bank. The wind blew a gale too ; 
 and so the city had time to prepare for defence. 
 
 All the people of Quebec were immediately 
 armed, and brought within the walls — soldiers 
 or not soldiers, English, French, Scotch and 
 Irish, regulars and marines. The wind mode- 
 rated, and Arnold undertook to pass the river on 
 the night of November 13th. The same day, 
 Montgomery had taken Montreal. 
 
 One hundred and fifty men remained to make 
 ladders for scaling the city walls. The rest suc- 
 ceeded in crossing the river. The banks being 
 very steep here, Arnold and his men marched 
 down upon the edge of the river towards Que- 
 bec, and climbed the Heights of Abraham, close 
 by the city, and almost overlooking it. Here he 
 waited for his 150 ladder men, and hoped that 
 the city would surrender. 
 
 They were prepared for him, however; and 
 Maclean not only refused to receive the message 
 requiring him to surrender, but fired upon the 
 bearer of it. Arnold had no cannon, and only 
 six charges of powder to each man. Hearing, 
 therefore, that Maclean was about to sally out 
 upon him, he retired twenty miles up the river, 
 to Point au Tremble. He met, on his march, 
 the ship in which Governor Carleton was sail- 
 ing down to Quebec ; and heard, when he reach- 
 ed the point, that he had left it but a few hours 
 before. 
 
 General Montgomery arrived here, and join- 
 ed Arnold, on the 1st of December, 1775, after 
 a weary march from Montreal. The weather 
 was excessively cold, and the roads were block- 
 ed up with snow. His force was about three 
 hundred men ; and never were people more de- 
 lighted to see each other, than were these three 
 hundred, and the little band of brave fellows, 
 who had followed Arnold. Montgomery had 
 brought clothing for the latter; and they stood 
 in great need of it, indeed. 
 
 The soldiers now marched in company, and 
 arrived in sight of Quebec on the 5th. A sum- 
 mons was sent to Carleton to surrender ; but 
 he ordered his troops to fire upon the bearer. 
 
 Montgomery then planted a battery of six can- 
 non within 700 paces of the walls. They were 
 laid upon banks of snow and ice ; the pieces 
 were small : and the fire had little effect. The 
 snow had now fallen in huge drifts, and the 
 weather was excessively cold. A council of 
 war was called, and an immediate assault on 
 the city was resolved upon. 
 
 Two detachments, under Montgomery and 
 Arnold, were to attack the walls of the lower 
 part of the town. This taken, the rest would 
 probably submit without fighting. On the last 
 day of the year 1775, between four and five in 
 the morning, in the midst of a heavy snow- 
 storm, the American columns advanced. 
 
 An Irish captain, going his rounds upon the 
 walls of the town, observed the guns fired by 
 the Americans as a signal, and at once caused 
 the drums to beat, and roused the garrison to 
 arms. Montgomery, with his detachment, pass- 
 ing along under Cape Diamond, came to a small 
 battery of cannon. The guard threw down their 
 arms, and fled. The Americans had nearly taken 
 possession of it, but the road was impeded with 
 immense masses of snow. Montgomery, with 
 his own hands, opened a path for his troops. 
 
 Two hundred of them came up at last, and 
 rushed on. Just then, a cannoneer, who had 
 fled, on seeing the Americans halt, returned to 
 his post, at the little battery, and, taking a match, 
 which happened to be still burning, fired a can- 
 non charged with grape-shot. The Americans 
 were within forty paces. Montgomery dropped 
 dead upon the spot, and his troops soon fled. 
 
 Arnold had made an assault, meanwhile, at 
 another point. But he soon received a musket 
 ball in the leg, which splintered the bone ; and 
 he was carried off to the hospital, almost by force, 
 as he was unwilling to quit the field. Captain 
 Morgan, with two companies of riflemen, now 
 advanced upon the battery. His sharp-shooters 
 killed many of the English through the embra- 
 sures. The guard fled. Morgan rushed forward, 
 and some prisoners were taken. But here the 
 courage of his troops failed them. Morgan alone 
 stood firm. As the morning dawned, he rallied 
 his riflemen with a voice of thunder, and they 
 rushed forward. A detachment sallied out up- 
 on them, at this moment, from the walls; and 
 the English captain summoned them to lay down 
 their arms 
 
 Morgan aimed a musket at him, and shot him 
 dead. The English retreated ; a hot skirmish 
 ensued. Some ladders were planted against the 
 walls, but a terrible fire was poured down upon 
 the men who attempted to ascend them. A de- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 442 
 
 REV 
 
 tachment of the British now assaulted the Amer- 
 icans on another side, and they were compelled, 
 at last, to surrender. 
 
 Arnold, with his remaining force, retreated 
 three miles from the city, and intrenched him- 
 self. Governor Carleton kept within the walls 
 of Quebec, satisfied with waiting till reinforce- 
 ments should reach him from England, in the 
 spring. So ended the famous assault upon 
 Quebec. 
 
 A braver man than Montgomery never fell 
 on a field of battle. The whole country wept 
 for his loss. Even the Canadians lamented him, 
 and Carleton buried his body with all the hon- 
 ors of war. Colonel Barre, and Fox, and Burke, 
 the great orators of England, pronounced his 
 praises in the English parliament. Congress, 
 ordered a monument to be procured from France, 
 and erected to his memory. 
 
 Having given some account of the most im- 
 portant events of the year 1775, the first of the 
 war, we come now to 1776. In the winter and 
 spring of this year, Boston was still surround- 
 ed by the American army under Washington. 
 The British in the town, meanwhile, were re- 
 duced to great extremity. For fuel, they used 
 the timber of houses, which they pulled down 
 for the purpose. 
 
 They were in want of food, and some armed 
 ships were ordered to Georgia, to buy up rice ; 
 but the people of that Province opposed them 
 with so much success, that, of eleven vessels, 
 only two got off with their cargoes. 
 
 The Old South Church, in Washington 
 street, was entirely destroyed inside, and used 
 as a riding-room for a regiment of dragoons. 
 The pulpit and pews were taken out, and the 
 floor covered with earth. The frame-work of 
 one pew, carving, silk furniture, and all, was 
 taken out, and used for a pig-sty. The North 
 Church, so called, was entirely demolished. 
 
 All this time, notwithstanding there was 
 much suffering in the town, the English officers 
 and the tories contrived to pass the time, when 
 they were not fighting the Americans, in danc- 
 ing, and other amusements. They had a small 
 theatre, and, in the evening of February 8th, 
 were acting a farce, called " The Blockade of 
 Boston." One figure, meant to ridicule Wash- 
 ington, was rigged out in the most uncouth 
 style, with a large wig, and a long rusty sword. 
 
 Another character was an American ser- 
 geant, in his country dress, with an old gun on 
 his shoulder, eight feet long. At the moment 
 this figure appeared, one of the British sergeants 
 came running on the stage, and cried out, ■" The 
 
 Yankees are attacking our works on Bunker 
 Hill." The audience took it for a part of the 
 play ; but General Howe knew it was no joke, 
 and called out," Officers, to your alarm-posts !" 
 
 The American army, at this time about Bos- 
 ton, was but little better provided for than the 
 English. Many fell sick with fatigue and ex- 
 posure. They had provisions enough from the 
 country, to be sure, while the English troops 
 were said to be living wholly on salt meat, and 
 the Boston tories upon horse-flesh. But the 
 whole number, in January, was reduced to less 
 than ten thousand ; and these, having enlisted 
 for a few months only, were every day going 
 home. 
 
 At one time, there were hardly men enough 
 to man the lines. As for powder, they had but 
 four rounds to a man ; and but four small brass 
 cannon, and a few old iron pieces, full of holes, 
 with the wood-work broken off. They were 
 fitted into logs, like the barrel of a gun into the 
 stock, and lifted up and down, and wheeled 
 about in this way, but to some good purpose 
 The British laughed at these machines, at first 
 but they soon found them no laughing matter. 
 
 They kept up a continual cannonade, in re 
 turn ; firing about two thousand shot and bomb 
 shells, it is said, in the course of a few months 
 But the whole of this firing killed only twelve 
 Americans. It was about this time, that a party 
 of the English officers, walking on Beacon Hill, 
 in the course of the season, in the evening, were 
 frightened by terrible noises in the air. They 
 ran down the hill with the greatest despatch. 
 It seems that they mistook the buzzing of a few 
 beetles and bugs, for the whizzing of" air-guns." 
 They suspected that the cunning Yankees had 
 contrived some queer machines for killing them, 
 without the noise of gunpowder. 
 
 There were two cannon kept in a gun-house 
 opposite the Mall, at the corner of West street, 
 in the care of one Paddock. The British found 
 it out, and Paddock promised to deliver them' 
 up. A party of school boys undertook to pre- 
 vent him from doing it. 
 
 The school-house was the next building to 
 the gun-house, separated only by a yard, com- 
 mon to both, and surrounded by a high fence. 
 The boys contrived to enter the gun-house 
 windows, in the rear, in spite of an English 
 guard, which had been placed before the build- 
 ing. The guns were taken off their carriages, 
 carried into the school-room, and placed in a 
 large box under the master's desk, in which wood 
 was kept. 
 
 The English soon missed the guns, and began 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 443 
 
 REV 
 
 to search the yard. They then entered the 
 school-house, and examined itall over, excepting 
 the box, which the master placed his lame foot 
 upon. They were too polite to disturb him, and 
 excused him from rising. The boys looked on, 
 but lisped not a word. The guns remained in 
 the box for a fortnight, when one of the largest 
 boys carried them away in a trunk, one eve- 
 ning,on a wheel-barrow. A blacksmith at the 
 south end. kept them some time under a pile of 
 coal ; and they were at last put into a boat at 
 night, and conveyed safely to the American 
 camp. 
 
 The condition of the American army in the 
 earl} part of the year 1776 was miserable. They 
 soon after received five brass cannon, small arms 
 of all kinds, cargoes of provisions, &c. These 
 were all captured from the British, off the coast, 
 by American privateers. Privateers are armed 
 vessels, fitted out by private individuals. 
 
 In England, the year 1776 opened with new 
 resolutions, on the part of the ministry, and the 
 majority of Parliament, to continue the war. 
 The party called the whigs, were violently op- 
 posed to it; but the tories, the ministry, and 
 king, regarded the Americans as rebels, and 
 resolved to spare no pains to punish them se- 
 verely. 
 
 They found it difficult to enlist soldiers in 
 England, for the war was unpopular with the 
 lower classes. Recruiting officers were sent 
 about, the royal standard was raised in all the 
 cities, and large bounties and wages were pro- 
 mised ; but to little purpose. In Scotland, some 
 thousands were raised ; and a bargain was made 
 with some of the small states of Germany, 
 for about seventeen thousand German troops. 
 These were called Hessians, because a part of 
 them came from Hesse. 
 
 In the meantime, the American army at Bos- 
 ton, began to form plans for seizing upon the 
 town, for taking the British garrison prisoners, 
 and for destroying their fleet in the harbor. But 
 they kept quietly in their quarters till March, 
 1776; the British now and then sallying out on 
 the American lines ; and the latter returning 
 the compliment, by playing upon the town with 
 their rusty cannon. 
 
 During this month, the news came of the 
 doings of tlie ministry in England, and of the 
 king's violent speech, at the close of the session 
 of Parliament. The whole American army was 
 greatly excited. The speech was publicly burnt 
 in the camp. At the same time, the red ground 
 of the American flag was changed, and, in place 
 of it, thirteen blue and white stripes were in- 
 
 serted, as an emblem of the thirteen Colonies, 
 that were united in the struggle for liberty. 
 These stripes are still retained in our national 
 flag. 
 
 There was something of the same feeling in 
 Congress as in the army. Stimulated by the 
 conduct of the king and Parliament, they re- 
 solved, from this time, to follow up the war, at 
 all hazards. Hearing that an attack would be 
 made upon New York, they urged General 
 Washington to press, as closely as possible, the 
 siege of Boston, so that the British might not be 
 able to spare troops to send against Mew York. 
 He wished to attack the town at once, but most 
 of his generals opposed this plan ; and he con- 
 cluded to fortify the heights of Dorchester, 
 which command the entire city on the south 
 side. 
 
 Heavy batteries were opened from the Ame- 
 rican works in Cambridge, Roxbury and Lech- 
 mere Point. The bombs fell into the town every 
 hour, and houses were constantly set on fire by 
 them. All this was to employ the British upon 
 that side, while the Americans, on the night of 
 the 4th of March, secretly marched over Dor 
 Chester Neck. 
 
 The frost rendered the roads good, and such 
 was the silence of the march, and the tremen- 
 dous roar kept up by the batteries, that 2,000 
 troops passed over, with 300 loaded carts, and 
 nothing was known of it till morning. Had the 
 British suspected this manoeuvre, they would 
 have taken measures to prevent it. By four 
 o'clock in the morning, two fortifications were 
 raised upon the two heights. 
 
 The British were amazed. " These rebels 
 have done more in one night," said General 
 Howe, who now commanded, " than my army 
 would have done in a week." A terrible can- 
 nonade now opened from the British forts, and 
 the shipping, upon the American fortifications 
 on Dorchester Heights. But few men, howev- 
 er, were killed ; and the Americans worked on 
 in high spirits, taking no notice of the cannon- 
 balls, as they came, ploughing the ground 
 about them. 
 
 General Howe saw that he must either leave 
 the town, or dislodge the Americans from the 
 heights. He resolved upon the latter ; but a 
 long storm, and a very high sea, prevented his 
 troops from crossing over. He finally conclud- 
 ed to give up the town, and transport his whole 
 force to Halifax, in Nova Scotia. 
 
 Knowing that his shipping might be prevented 
 from passing out of the harbor, by the American 
 fortifications, he prepared a great mass of stuff 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 444 
 
 REV 
 
 for setting fire to the town, and then proposed 
 to Washington and the selectmen, that if his 
 troops were suffered to pass safely, the town 
 should be left standing. This was agreed to. 
 
 He had 150 carrying vessels, called transports, 
 in the harbor ; and he embarked on board these, 
 on the 17th of March, taking with him 1,500 of 
 the American tories. Never was such a scene 
 of confusion, plunder, hurrying, crying and 
 quarrelling; there were fathers bearing their 
 baggage, mothers leading their children, beasts 
 of burden loaded with furniture. The vessels 
 were crowded. The British were some days 
 getting out of the bay; and had the pleasure, 
 meanwhile, of seeing the American army 
 marched into Boston, with great rejoicing. 
 
 The siege had lasted sixteen months. Pro- 
 visions had become so scarce, that fresh fish 
 aold at a shilling a pound ; geese at nine shil- 
 lings apiece ; a turkey at two dollars ; hams at 
 two shillings a pound; sheep at six dollars 
 each ; and apples at six dollars a barrel. Two 
 hundred and fifty pieces of cannon were left 
 behind; also a quantity of wheat and other 
 grain, a good deal of coal for fuel, and 150 
 horses. 
 
 The English soldiers now began to think that 
 the Americans were an enemy worth conquer- 
 ing, and that powder was not absolutely wasted 
 upon them, as upon so many crows. They 
 were provoked by the treatment they had 
 received from the sharp-shooters at Breed's 
 Hill, and the rough compliments of the old 
 cannon. 
 
 The Americans, on the other side, now en- 
 tered upon the war with their whole hearts. 
 They were irritated more than ever at the con- 
 duct of the English ministry, in hiring the 
 Hessian soldiers. This irritation was not al- 
 layed by the bill which had just passed through 
 Parliament, compelling all persons found in 
 American vessels, to serve on board his majes- 
 ty's ships of war. 
 
 From this time, the war, on both sides, assum- 
 ed a more determined character. A strong 
 English force was sent to relieve Carleton, in 
 Canada. Arnold's whole force before Quebec, 
 now amounted to only 3,000 men. Many of 
 these were sick of the small-pox. General 
 Thomas died of the disease. The river was 
 clear of ice, April, 1776. and English reinforce- 
 ments were expected every day by the govern- 
 or. An attack was made upon Quebec, but it 
 failed of success; and Arnold was now obliged 
 to break up his camp and retreat, leaving his 
 baggage behind Governor Carleton pursued, 
 
 till the Americans reached the mouth of the 
 river Sorel. 
 
 About the last of May, English forces arrived 
 at Quebec, amounting to 13,000 men, com- 
 manded by Burgoyne, Phillips, and a German 
 general, called Reidesel. Arnold, meanwhile, 
 was skirmishing with the Canadians and In- 
 dians, about Montreal and the Sorel. In a 
 short time, he went down the St. Lawrence to 
 Trois Rivieres, where there was a large body 
 of English. 
 
 He expected to surprise them in the night, 
 but was misled by his guide ; and. when he 
 arrived late in the morning, the enemy was 
 drawn up in battle array. A skirmish began, 
 and the Americans were defeated. They fled 
 over a wild, swampy country of woods, leaving 
 many prisoners behind them ; and, having 
 crossed the St. Lawrence, at last arrived at 
 Fort St. John, on the Sorel. 
 
 The English pursued them to this place, 
 Arnold's force was too small to resist a siege. 
 He therefore set fire to the magazine and bar- 
 racks, and retreated farther south to Crown 
 Point. The English, having lost their batteaux, 
 could pursue him no farther, and soon after 
 returned to Quebec. 
 
 The Americans, under Arnold, had suffered 
 exceedingly in the retreat. They sometimes 
 waded in the water to the waist, and dragged 
 the loaded batteaux up the rapids by main 
 strength. Two regiments, at one time, had not 
 a single man in health ; another had only six, 
 and a fourth only forty. On the first of July, 
 they reached Crown Point. And thus ended 
 the courageous, but unfortunate expedition to 
 Canada. 
 
 During the summer of 1776, Crown Point 
 was taken by the British ; and the Americans, 
 now commanded by General Gates, withdrew 
 to Ticonderoga. A fleet was built on the lake, 
 at Skeensborough, consisting of a sloop, three 
 schooners, and six gondolas, which are large 
 flat vessels. They carried, in the whole, more 
 than 100 guns, and more than 400 men. Ar 
 nold commanded the fleet. 
 
 By the month of October, the British had 
 collected a much larger naval force ; and, as 
 nothing could be done, by way of invading the 
 Provinces from Canada, till Lake Champlain 
 should be cleared of the Americans, they sailed 
 up the lake, and engaged them. The two fleets 
 fought till night. Arnold then very skilfully 
 made his escape, and, in the morning, not an 
 American sail was to be seen. 
 
 The British fleet followed on, however, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 445 
 
 REV 
 
 found thern again off Crown Point. Some of 
 the American vessels escaped to Ticonderoga. 
 Seven of them remained. They were attacked, 
 and the action continued some hours. Arnold 
 was determined that his vessels should not be 
 taken. He contrived, therefore, to run them on 
 shore, and there they were blown up. He did 
 not leave his own vessel till she was wrapped 
 in flames. Lake Champlain was now in the 
 power of the British ; but Gates and Arnold had 
 prevented them, strong as their force was, from 
 invading the Provinces farther south. It was 
 now too late in the season to attempt it. 
 
 Boston, which had been entered by the 
 American army on the 17th of March, was no 
 longer disturbed by the enemy. The British, 
 finding that the Provinces of North Carolina 
 and Virginia were too strong for them, deter- 
 mined to make an attack upon the city of 
 Charleston, in South Carolina. 
 
 Admiral Parker and General Clinton reached 
 Charleston harbor on the 28th of June, and, 
 with eleven large vessels of war, commenced a 
 tremendous attack upon Fort Moultrie. This 
 stood upon Sullivan's Island, six miles from the 
 city, and was built of a kind of wood called 
 palmetto, so spongy and soft, that the balls were 
 buried in it, and no splinters were thrown off. 
 
 The foit was defended by sixty pieces of 
 cannon. Ship after ship poured in their tre- 
 mendous broadsides. The whole harbor seemed 
 to be but a sheet of flame. The Americans 
 aimed well, and every shot had its effect. Some 
 of the English vessels were soon stranded. The 
 Thunder, after firing more than sixty bombs, 
 was disabled. The Bristol was almost destroy- 
 ed, and a great number of men were killed. 
 
 The fire of the fort suddenly stopped. Their 
 powder was exhausted. The enemy thought 
 themselves sure of the victory, and the ships 
 moved nearer, with their flags flying, and their 
 drums beating. But the Americans were soon 
 supplied from the shore, and the battle lasted, 
 hotter than ever, till seven in the evening. 
 The English drew off in the night, and the 
 enterprise was abandoned. This defence of 
 Fort Moultrie was one of the most gallant ac- 
 tions of the war. 
 
 Every man and every officer fought like a 
 hero. Congress voted their thanks to the whole 
 garrison, and to several of the officers by name. 
 A sword was presented to a sergeant of grena- 
 diers, named Jasper. In the heat of the battle, 
 the staff of the fort flag had been cut down by a 
 ball. It fell from the parapet to the ground be- 
 low. Jasper sprang after it, fastened it to the 
 
 rammer of a cannon, and noisted it again, amid 
 the fire of the enemy. 
 
 General Clinton arrived at Staten Island, off 
 the harbor of New York, about the 12th of July. 
 General Howe, with the army which left Boston 
 for Halifax, in March, had taken possession of 
 the island on the second of the month. Two 
 hundred of the inhabitants enlisted under his 
 banner. Some of the New Jersey people came 
 into his camp, and Governor Tryon, of New 
 York, visited him, informed him of the state of 
 the Province, and encouraged him to believe 
 that every thing must soon yield to his army. 
 
 The British plan now was, to direct the whole 
 English force upon the Province of New York, 
 and to make it, with the city of New York, the 
 centre of all their operations in America. From 
 this point, they could march south upon the 
 southern Provinces ; here they could receive 
 stores from England by water, and provisions 
 from Staten and Long Islands ; and here thej 
 could ascend the Hudson, and meet Burgoyne, 
 in his route south from Canada. At least, such 
 were the views of the English officers; but the 
 event will show, that these things were more 
 easily said than done. 
 
 The revolution in America had now reached 
 a point from which it could not turn backward. 
 The feelings of a great part of the people were 
 alienated from England, and a deep hostility 
 was planted in their bosoms. They had origi- 
 nally asked for justice, and that was denied. 
 Oppression followed, and that they resisted. 
 Then came the British armies, with fire and 
 sword, to consume their dwellings, and shed 
 their blood. 
 
 A high-spirited people were not likely to look 
 on these things but with resentment. Their 
 love and respect for England were originally 
 very strong. These, indeed, lasted up to the 
 period of which I am now speaking. But now 
 all thoughts of reconciliation were abandoned. 
 The people no longer asked for redress ; they 
 cast off their allegiance to the king, and deter- 
 mined to be free ; the " spirit of 76," which is 
 often alluded to, was the earnest voice of a na- 
 tion, resolving that they would risk every thing 
 for independence. 
 
 In June, 1776, Congress had chosen five of 
 their members to consider the great question, 
 whether the Provinces should declare them- 
 selves a Free and Independent Nation. These 
 were Jefferson. Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and 
 Livingston. They reported in favor of so doing; 
 and Congress agreed with them. Independence 
 was solemnly declared on the fourth day of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 REV 
 
 446 
 
 REV 
 
 July. The declaration was written by Jefferson, 
 and signed by John Hancock, president. It was 
 then signed by every other member of Congress. 
 
 This declaration has become famous among 
 all nations. It was drawn up by Thomas Jef- 
 ferson ; anu then it was a great deal discussed 
 by the members of Congress, and many amend- 
 ments and alterations were made. It was a long 
 time before Congress could satisfy themselves. 
 One gentleman objected to one word, and 
 another to another word, till, as Franklin said 
 to Mr. Jefferson, it fared like the sign of a hatter 
 in Philadelphia, composed in these words, ''John 
 Thompson, hatter, makes and sells hats for ready 
 money," with the figure of a hat at the end. 
 
 Before nailing it over his door, the hatter 
 submitted it to his friends for correction. One 
 thought, the word " hatter" of no use, it be- 
 ing followed by the words " makes hats." So 
 "hatter" was struck out. A second said that 
 " makes " might as well be omitted ; his cus- 
 tomers would not care who made the hats. A 
 third thought "ready money" was useless; it 
 was not the custom of the place to sell for any 
 thing but money. These were brushed out, and 
 it now read, "John Thompson sells hats." "Sells 
 hats!" says the next man the hatter met; 
 "why, nobody will expect you to give them 
 away." "Sells" was knocked out, and then 
 "hats," because there was one painted on the 
 board. This, with "John Thompson," was all 
 that remained. The declaration was trimmed 
 in much the same manner. But it satisfied 
 every body at last. 
 
 This story, therefore, only applies to the man- 
 ner in which the Declaration of Independence 
 was discussed in Congress. As it was finally 
 passed and signed by the members of Congress, 
 it was one of the most noble efforts of the hu- 
 man mind. 
 
 The people received and read it with great 
 joy. Independence was proclaimed, with great 
 parade, at Philadelphia, on the 8th. Cannon 
 were fired, the bells rung, bonfires were kindled, 
 and the ppople seemed to be mad with joy. On 
 the 11th, the declaration was read to each brigade 
 of the American army, then assembled at New 
 York, and received with prodigious peals of 
 applause. 
 
 The same evening, the statue of George III, 
 erected in 1770, was dragged through the 
 streets, by the " sons of liberty ; " and the lead 
 it was made of was melted into musket balls. 
 An immense multitude, at Baltimore, received 
 the declaration in the same manner; the air 
 ringing with shouts, and the roar of cannon. 
 
 The king's effigy was made the sport of the 
 populace, and burnt in the public square. 
 
 In Boston, the declaration was read from the 
 gallery of the State-house, to an immense crowd, 
 gathered from all quarters. Men, women and 
 children assembled to hear it, and every moment 
 the air sounded with the shouts of the multi- 
 tude. The troops were drawn up, splendidly 
 dressed and armed, in King street, which from 
 that time was called State street. 
 
 The bells rang, the people shouted, the can- 
 non thundered and blazed, and the striped ban- 
 ners waved from the steeples, till the whole air 
 seemed to be alive. In the evening, all the 
 ensigns of royalty, English lions, sceptres or 
 crowns, whether graven or painted, were torn 
 in pieces, and burnt in State street. 
 
 The Virginian Convention voted, that the 
 king's name should be struck out from all the 
 public prayers. They ordered, that the great 
 seal of that Commonwealth should represent 
 Virtue as the guardian genius of the Province, 
 resting one hand upon her lance, and holding 
 with the other a sword, trampling upon tyranny, 
 in the shape of a prostrate man, with a crown 
 fallen from his head, and a broken chain in his 
 hand. 
 
 Such was the declaration of independence, 
 and such the manner in which it was received 
 by the Americans. They had now declared them- 
 selves to the world as a free people ; but ere their 
 freedom could be established, they had yet to pass 
 through a long, bloody and desolating war. 
 
 General Washington now occupied New 
 York and Long Island, which lies a few miles 
 from the city, with seventeen thousand troops. 
 On the 22d of August, the English landed, in 
 great force, on the island, and a very hot battle 
 was fought, among the hills and woods. A 
 whole regiment of fine young men from Mary- 
 land were killed, some cannon were lost, and 
 the Americans retreated to the northern part of 
 the island. 
 
 Here the stormy weather kept the enemy 
 from attacking the camp again. But, fearing 
 an assault every moment, the Americans con- 
 cluded to pass over to the island of New York, 
 and join the rest of the army. This was done 
 in the night of August 2!>th. They kindled up 
 circles of bright fires in their camp, to deceive 
 the enemy, and started off in their boats at 11 
 o'clock in the evening. 
 
 They were so near the British all the while, 
 as to hear the sound of their pickaxes, and now 
 and then the shout of a British soldier, as he 
 walked on guard. They were neither seen nor 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 447 
 
 REV 
 
 heard, however. The fleet of boats moved off" 
 from the shore, like an army of ghosts. Not a 
 word was said, no drums beat, no bugles rang, 
 no colors waved in the breeze. 
 
 A fair wind favored the troops ; they crossed 
 the water like birds. In the morning, at eight, 
 when the fog cleared up, which had covered 
 them in the passage, and the sun shone out bright 
 and warm upon the green shores, the wooded 
 hill-tops of the islands, and the smooth surface 
 of the bay, the American army had vanished. 
 Tiie camp was deserted, the fires had gone down, 
 and nothing was seen, but a few distant boats, 
 which had come back for the cannon. 
 
 Previous to the retreat of the Americans, 
 several skirmishes were fought between the 
 two armies. Two forts, one belonging to the 
 English, and the other to the Americans, were 
 within half gun shot of each other, and were 
 only separated by a small creek. It was at last 
 agreed between the British and American offi- 
 cers, that the sentinels should not fire upon 
 each other, as they went their rounds. So they 
 became very civil. " Give us a quid of your 
 tobacco, my good friend," cried the English 
 guard to the American sentinel. " Oh ! cer- 
 tainly," said the latter. He drew his twisted 
 roll from his pocket, and tossed it across the 
 creek to the Englishman, who gnawed off a 
 quid, and threw it back again. 
 
 The British army now pressed the Americans 
 with great activity ; the latter were driven back 
 from point to point. They left the city of New 
 York, at last, and the British entered it. A few 
 days after, a terrible fire raged in the place, and 
 consumed more than a thousand houses. The 
 British supposed the inhabitants had set it on 
 fire, and were so angry, as to throw some of 
 them into the flames. 
 
 Washington now retreated into the back coun- 
 try. The British scoured the Province of New 
 York with their troops, and covered all the 
 shores with their vessels. Several strong forts 
 were taken, together with their garrisons. 
 Nothing could be done to oppose them. The 
 Americans were never so much discouraged. 
 
 Geheral Washington, with his army, marched 
 into New Jersey, and attempted to harass the 
 British army there, under Cornwallis. But 
 they were too strong, and Washington was 
 obliged to retreat night and day : over mountain 
 and valley, he fled before them. The time the 
 militia had enlisted for was short, and many of 
 them went home. Whole companies deserted, 
 and the army was so small in December, that 
 Washington knew every man by his name. 
 38* 
 
 They were so nearly naked and ragged, too, 
 and looked so miserable, that their own coun- 
 trymen would not join them. Large numbers 
 went over to the enemy. They were driven, 
 week after week, up and down the banks of the 
 Delaware. The infantry left the frozen ground 
 bloody behind them, with their bare and sore 
 feet. They were so closely pursued, that thej 
 could scarcely cross a stream, and beat down 
 the bridges after crossing it, before the enemj 
 came galloping up on the other side. 
 
 The British cavalry traversed the country, 
 with their large, fine horses, and elegant uni- 
 forms. The hundred or two horsemen of the 
 American army, were mounted upon wretched, 
 worn-out horses, so lean and frightful, as to be 
 the constant theme of ridicule with the British 
 soldiers. The riders were not much better. 
 " Ragamuffins" had become a common name for 
 them. 
 
 These were gloomy times : and the Ameri- 
 can people began to fear, that they would be 
 crushed in their struggle for freedom. Manj 
 were entirely disheartened. Some persons base- 
 ly deserted the cause of their country, in this 
 hour of trouble, and went over to the enemy. 
 But Washington remained firm and undismay- 
 ed. While other minds were shaken with 
 doubt and fear, he remained steadfast and re- 
 solved. Looking deeply into the future, and 
 placing his trust in Heaven, he seemed to pene- 
 trate the clouds, that shed their gloom upon the 
 land, and to see beyond them a brighter and ft 
 happier day. 
 
 He always appeared before his soldiers with ft 
 smile, and fought or fasted with them, as neces- 
 sity required. He inspired all around him with 
 courage, and wrote many letters to Congress, 
 entreating them to make great exertions to send 
 him assistance. Accordingly, they endeavored 
 to rouse the country, by representing to the peo- 
 ple the necessity of an immediate increase of 
 the army. 
 
 This appeal was not without its effect. Phi- 
 ladelphia, in a very short time, furnished Wash- 
 ington with a regiment of fifteen hundred noble 
 fellows, who were resolved to support him to the 
 last. They had been accustomed to the gaj 
 company and high living of the city; but they 
 shouldered the musket, slept, with a mere blan- 
 ket around them, on the frozen ground, or 
 in sheds and barns ; and suffered every thin£ 
 with the poorest of the army. 
 
 The British now withdrew into winter quar- 
 ters. They occupied the villages for man" 
 miles, up and down, on the eastern side of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY 
 
 REV 
 
 448 
 
 REV 
 
 Delaware, with their army. Washington was 
 below them, on the other side, but they were 
 tired of pursuing him ; and they believed that 
 his army would soon dwindle away, and the 
 whole com.Lry be conquered. They scarcely 
 took the trouble to set jruards at night. 
 
 But Washington watched them like a lynx. 
 On the night of December 23th, he crossed the 
 Delaware, again, with a large part of his army. 
 The night was dark, stormy and cold. The river 
 was crowded with broken ice, rushing togetber, 
 and sweeping down upon its swift current. But, 
 notwithstanding these difficulties and dangers, 
 the river was passed by the American troops, 
 and they marched on to Trenton. 
 
 They entered that place at eight in the morn- 
 ing. A large body of Hessians were stationed 
 there. They were completely surprised; but 
 they fought bravely for a short time. Five 
 hundred cavalry made their escape ; but some 
 fine cannon and more than a thousand prisoners 
 were tak^n by the Americans. Cornwallis, 
 who lay a few miles off, thought so little of the 
 American " ragamuffins," at this time, that he 
 mistook the noise of the cannon at Trenton for 
 thunder. 
 
 The British army were amazed at this unex- 
 pected event. They moved and marched about, 
 but to no purpose. Washington started off for 
 the mountains of New Jersey. The British 
 were close upon his rear. They encamped so 
 near him one evening, that they thought it im- 
 possible for him to escape. They put off attack- 
 ing him, however, till the next morning. 
 
 The Americans kindled up tbeir fires, as usual, 
 and marched off at one o'clock, without noise. 
 They reached Princeton at daybreak, and fell 
 upon the British there so suddenly and so fierce- 
 ly, that sixty of them were killed, and three 
 hundred taken prisoners. Their commanding 
 officer had some fears of an attack, and had 
 written to the commander of the British army, a 
 day or two before, for a reinforcement. " Don't 
 be alarmed." was the answer; " with a corporal 
 and six men, you may scour the whole coun- 
 try ; don't be alarmed." They found themselves 
 mistaken, however, as we have seen. Wash- 
 ington now formed a camp at Morristown. Mil- 
 itia came to him from all parts. 
 
 The British treated their prisoners with cru- 
 elty. Hundreds were confined in the New 
 York prisons. They were often insulted as 
 rebels. A party of them was once brought 
 before General Howe, to be tried. An English 
 gentleman pleaded their youth in their favor. 
 u It won't do," said the general; " hang up the 
 
 rascals ! hang them up !" They were only cart- 
 ed through the streets, however, seated on cof- 
 fins. Halters were tied about their necks, and 
 the British soldiers hooted at them. 
 
 While these things were going on, late in 
 the year 177b', at New York, Sir Peter Parker 
 scoured the coasts of Rhode Island with a large 
 squadron, and overran the whole Province. 
 Meanwhile, a man by the name of Stuart was 
 sent, by the British, among the Indians in the 
 high, wild lands back of Virginia, and the 
 other southern Colonies. 
 
 The Cherokees were persuaded by him to 
 make war ; and they rushed in upon the settle- 
 ments of the whites, burning the villages, and 
 scalping men, women and children. ut a 
 large American force soon marched into their 
 own country. Their wigwams were burnt to 
 the ground, and their cornfields trampled under 
 foot. They were frightened at last, and begged 
 for peace. 
 
 It once happened, during the expedition 
 against the Indians, that, the Americans hav- 
 ing marched a long way among the hills, Major 
 Pickens was sent ahead with twenty-five men, 
 as a scouting party, to examine the country. 
 One morning, as he and his party waded 
 through the tall grass on the bank of a stream 
 called Little River, more than two hundred 
 Indians came rushing out on a ridge of land 
 just above them. " Let us scalp thern / cried 
 the Indian leader to his men; " they are too 
 few to shoot. ' 
 
 But Major Pickens .was prepared for their 
 onset. His men were sharp-shooters, and each 
 man had his rifle. He ordered them not to fire 
 until he did; to take sure aim; and, having 
 fired, to bury themselves in the grass, and load 
 their rifles. The Indian chief soon came up 
 within twenty-five yards of the little band, 
 yelling and shaking his tomahawk. Pickens 
 stretched out his rifle, took a deliberate aim, 
 and shot him dead. 
 
 The twenty-five brave riflemen now fired. 
 The Indians fell on all sides. They yelled 
 more than ever, with fury and terror, dropped 
 their tomahawks, and fell back among the. trees. 
 Even there the rifles were too sure for them. 
 Not an Indian could show himself over a log or 
 a rock, but a bullet instantly whistled through 
 him. 
 
 One of them was seen running his gun 
 through the roots of a fallen tree. A rifleman 
 aimed at him as coolly as if he had been a 
 wooden mark, hit him precisely in the nose, 
 and laid him flat on his back. Another Indian 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 449 
 
 REV 
 
 lifted the dead body, and was running off with 
 it, — for the Indians never leave the dead, — 
 when another rifleman fired, and killed him. 
 Dozens of them were picked ofF in this way, 
 and the rest fled. 
 
 A few such skirmishes as these made the In- 
 dians soon tired of fighting the Americans, to 
 which they had been instigated by the British. 
 The next year, when an attempt was made to 
 set inem upon the white inhabitants along the 
 frontiers, they replied to the British emissaries, 
 that " the hatchet was buried so deep that they 
 could not find it." 
 
 In the spring of 1777, General Howe amused 
 himself by sending out detachments from his 
 cat. > to ravage various parts of the country. 
 On the 20th of April, Governor Try on embark- 
 ed at New York with a detachment; sailed 
 through the Sound; and landed at Fairfield, 
 Connecticut. They marc lied through the coun- 
 try : battle array, and reached Danbury in 
 twenty hours. 
 
 As they came, the few militia who were 
 there fled at full speed. The British began 
 to burn and demolish every thing except the 
 houses of the tories. Eighteen houses were 
 consumed ; and eight hundred barrels of pork 
 and beef, two thousand barrels of flour, and 
 seventeen hundred tents were carried off" or 
 destroyed. But the militia now began to mus- 
 ter " : im the country round about. 
 
 At Ridgefield, General Arnold blocked up 
 tl "oad in front of the British, who were now 
 returning. He had with him about five hun- 
 dred men. These brave fellows, who had 
 marched fifteen or twenty miles in the rain, 
 kept up a brisk fire upon the enemy, as they 
 came on; and stood their ground, till the Brit- 
 ish formed a lodgment upon a hill at their left 
 hand. They were then obliged to give way. 
 The British rushed on, and a whole platoon 
 fired at General Arnold, who was not more 
 than thirty yards distant. His horse was killed. 
 A soldier advanced to run him through with his 
 bayonet; Arnold shot him dead with his pistol, 
 and escaped. The British lost more than two 
 hundred men, but made good their retreat to 
 the Sound. Congress presented General Ar- 
 nold with a fine war-horse, richly caparisoned, 
 for his gallantry. 
 
 By way of retaliation, on the 24th of May, 
 Colonel Meigs, an American, crossed the Sound 
 with one hundred and seventy men, in whale- 
 boats, and fell upon the enemy at Sagg Harbor, 
 on Long Island. They burned twelve vessels, 
 destroyed a large quantity of forage, killed six 
 
 men, and brought off ninety prisoners, without 
 losing one of their own men. Ttiey returned 
 to Guilford, having been the distance of ninety 
 miles in twenty-five hours from the time of 
 their departure. Congress ordered an elegant 
 sword to be presented to Colonel Meigs. 
 
 General Howe made great efforts, in the 
 spring of 1777, to persuade the Americans to 
 enlist under him. They were promised large 
 wages and bounties ; but very few of them 
 could be wheedled in this way. They hated 
 the Germans even more than they did the Eng- 
 lish. But great numbers of militia crowded to 
 Washington's camp, at Middle Brook, New Jer- 
 sey. His army amounted to fifteen thousand 
 men. 
 
 He was so strongly intrenched among the 
 hills, that Howe dared not attack him. The 
 summer was spent in marching to and fro, in 
 New Jersey, without effecting much. But in 
 July, the British mustered a force of sixteen 
 thousand men, at New York. These left there, 
 soon after, with a large fleet. An attack was 
 expected every where upon the coast ; but no 
 one knew whither they were bound. Having 
 been off at sea, with high winds, for a long 
 time, they entered Chesapeake Bay at last, and 
 landed at Turkey Point. 
 
 They left that place September 3d, and, 
 marching towards Philadelphia, came up with 
 Washington's army at a place called Chad's 
 Ford, on the river Brandy wine. On the 11th, 
 they had a warm skirmish, and the Americans 
 were driven back. Congress removed to York 
 town, Virginia; and Howe entered Philadel 
 phia, in great triumph, September 26th. 
 
 The Americans were defeated again at Ger- 
 mantown, on the 4th of October. The battle 
 began early in the morning, when nothing 
 could be seen farther than thirty yards. Dur- 
 ing the whole action, which lasted nearly three 
 hours, the firing on both sides was directed by 
 the flash of each other's guns. The smoke of 
 the cannon and musketry, mingled with the 
 thick fog, rested over the armies in clouds. 
 
 The Americans saved their artillery, even to 
 a single cannon, which had been dismounted. 
 This piece belonged to General Greenes divi- 
 sion ; and he stopped in the midst of the re- 
 treat, and coolly ordered it to be placed in a 
 wagon. In this manner it was carried off. 
 
 General Greene's aid-de-camp, Major Burnet 
 wore a long cue in this battle, as the fashion 
 then was in the army. As he turned round to 
 attend to the cannon just mentioned, his cue 
 was cut off by a musket ball from the enemy. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 450 
 
 REV 
 
 " Don't hurry, my dear major," cried Greene, 
 laughing ; " pray dismount, and get that long 
 cue of yours ; don't be in haste." 
 
 The English were driving after them at a tre- 
 mendous rate, cavalry, cannon, and all. The 
 major jumped from his horse, however, and 
 picked up his cue. Just at that moment, a shot 
 took off a large powdered curl from the head of 
 Greene. The major, in turn, advised him to 
 stop and pick it up ; but he rode on quietly, and 
 was the last man on tbe field. 
 
 About this time, a smart action was fought at 
 Red Bank, on the Jersey side of the Delaware, 
 seven miles below Philadelphia. The Ameri- 
 cans had erected batteries here, and upon Mud 
 Island, half a mile distant, in the middle of 
 the river. Nothing, therefore, belonging to the 
 British, could piss up and down between their 
 camp, which was now at Philadelphia, and 
 their fleet in the river below. 
 
 Two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were placed 
 in the channel. They stretched from the isl- 
 and nearly to the bank. 
 
 Howe sent down two thousand Germans, 
 under Col. Donop, to attack the Red Bank re- 
 doubt. This was defended by four hundred men. 
 
 This number was so small, that half the 
 redoubt was left, vacant, and a line was drawn 
 through the middle of it. The enemy came on 
 fiercely enough, with a brisk cannonade ; enter- 
 ed the empty part of the redoubt, and shouted 
 for victory. But it was now the garrison's turn. 
 They poured out such a tremendous fire, that 
 the Germans, after a brief conflict, fled, with 
 the loss of four hundred men. Their brave 
 commander, Donop, was killed. Late in the 
 season, however, these fortifications in the river 
 were abandoned. 
 
 Washington retired into winter quarters, at 
 Valley Forge, sixteen miles from Philadelphia. 
 His army might have been tracked, by the blood 
 of their feet, in marching, without shoes or 
 stockings, over the hard, frozen ground. Thou- 
 sands of them had no blankets, and were oblig- 
 ed to spend the night in trying to get warm, in- 
 stead of sleeping. They erected log-huts for 
 lodgings. 
 
 For a fortnight, they nearly starved. They 
 were sometimes without bread and without 
 meat. A person passing by the huts of these 
 poor fellows in the evening, might have seen 
 the n, through the crevices, stretching their 
 cold hands over the fire, and a soldier occasion- 
 ally coming in or going out, with nothing but a 
 blanket on his shoulders. " iNo pay, no clothes, 
 no provisions, no rum," said they to each other. 
 
 But they loved Washington and their country 
 too well, to desert them in these trying times. 
 
 While a British force lay on the west side of 
 Rhode Island, under General Prescott, during 
 this last season, (1777,) one Barton, a militia 
 major, learned their situation from a deserter, 
 and planned an attack upon them. He collect- 
 ed his regiment, and asked, which of them 
 would hazard their lives with him. If any 
 were willing, they should advance two paces. 
 Every man came forward; they knew Barton 
 well for a brave fellow. 
 
 He chose thirty-six of them, mustered five 
 whale-boats, and started off at nine o'clock in the 
 evening. The men promised to follow him at 
 all hazards. He directed them to sit perfectly 
 still, like statues, and obey him. Barton's boat 
 went ahead, distinguished by a long pole run 
 out from the stem, with a handkerchief tied to it. 
 
 As they rowed by Prudence Island, they 
 heard the English guard cry, " All's well." A 
 noise was heard on the main land, like the 
 trampling of horses; but, as the night was 
 very dark, nothing could be seen, and no man 
 whispered a word. They now landed, and set 
 off silently for Prescott's lodgings, which were 
 a mile from the shore. The Americans had 
 to pass by a house occupied by a company of 
 troopers. 
 
 " Who comes there ?" cried the sentinel. 
 They said nothing ; and a few trees standing 
 before them, their number could not be seen. 
 They moved on. " Who comes there?" mut- 
 tered the sentinel again. " Friends," replied 
 Barton. "Friends," says the soldier, "ad- 
 vance, and give the countersign." " Poh '. 
 poh ! ' said Barton ; " We have no countersign 
 — have you seen any rascals to-night?" He 
 rushed upon the guard, at this moment, like a 
 lion, and threatened to blow his brains out, if 
 he uttered a syllable. The poor fellow was hor- 
 ribly frightened, but they took him along with 
 them. They soon reached the house, burst in 
 the door, and rushed forward. A British sol- 
 dier, with only a shirt on, rushing out at the 
 same time, ran for the cavalry house, to give 
 the alarm. The men would not believe him, but 
 laughed at him for being frightened at ghosts. 
 He confessed that the creature (Barton) was 
 clothed in white — and so it passed off. 
 
 " Is General Prescott here ?" shouted Barton, 
 to the master of the house. " No, sir ! oh no, 
 sir !" said the poor fellow, scared almost out of 
 his wits. Nobody in the house seemed to know 
 any thing about Prescott. " Then," shouted 
 Barton, at the head of the staircase, " I will 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 451 
 
 REV 
 
 burn the house down about your ears." And 
 he seized a flaming brand from the fire place. 
 
 H What noise is this?" cries somebody in the 
 next chamber. Barton opened the door, and 
 found an elderly gentleman sitting up in bed. 
 " Are you General Prescott, sir?" " Yes, sir." 
 " You are my prisoner, then," said Barton. 
 Prescott was half dressed by the soldiers in 
 a moment, and carried off to the shore, with 
 a Major Barrington, who had leaped from a 
 chamber window. 
 
 They had scarcely rowed through the Eng- 
 lish fleet, when a discharge of cannon gave the 
 alarm. Fifty boats pursued them in the dark. 
 They escaped, however, and, in six hours from 
 the time of starting, landed at Warwick Point. 
 " You have made a monstrous bold push, ma- 
 jor," said Prescott, as they stepped ashore. 
 "Thank you, sir," said Barton, with a bow; 
 " we have done as well as we could." This 
 capture occasioned great joy throughout the 
 country. 
 
 Having seen Washington's army in their 
 winter quarters at Valley Forge, we shall now 
 follow the northern army, under Gates, and the 
 English under Burgoyne, through the cam- 
 paign of 1777. The latter intended to break his 
 way from Canada, up the river Sorel, through 
 Lakes Cham plain and George, and the river 
 Hudson, to New York. He had under his com- 
 mand one of the finest armies ever seen. 
 
 The Americans were driven before him, from 
 Cham plain almost to A lbany. Burgoyne press- 
 ed after them ; but his route lay through the 
 woods, and the Americans cut large trees on 
 both sides of the road, so that they fell across it, 
 and blocked it up entirely. The country was 
 so covered with marshes, and crossed by creeks, 
 that the British were obliged to build no less 
 than forty bridges ; one of them was a log 
 bridge, extending two miles across a swamp. 
 July 30th, Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, on 
 the Hudson. 
 
 He had with his army a large number of In- 
 dian warriors, and they ravaged the country in 
 the most horrible manner. One of them mur- 
 dered a beautiful American girl, Miss McRea. 
 She was the daughter of a tory, and was to be 
 married to a young English officer. The latter 
 sent two Indians to guide her across the wood 
 from the fort to his own station. They quar- 
 relled on the way, which should have special 
 charge of her, and one of them, to terminate the 
 dispute, sunk his tomahawk in her head, and 
 ended her life. 
 
 The spirit of the whole country was greatly 
 
 excited by these things ; and an army of thir 
 teen thousand men was collected under Gen- 
 eral Gates, to oppose Burgoyne. Meanwhile, 
 a British force, under General St. Leo-er, had 
 crossed Lake Ontario, from the St. Lawrence, 
 and laid siege to Fort Schuyler, on the southern 
 side. General Herkimer marched northward 
 with eight hundred militia, to relieve it. He 
 fell into an ambuscade, however, in the woods, 
 and was killed. 
 
 In his last moments, though mortally wound- 
 ed, he was seen sitting on a stump, still en- 
 couraging his men. They stood firm, and sev- 
 eral of the British Indians fell at their first fire. 
 The rest were so enraged, that they turned upon 
 the tories and the British, and murdered seve- 
 ral of them. The battle was heard at the fort, 
 and two hundred and fifty of the Americans 
 came out to reinforce the detachment. The 
 British were wholly routed. The Indians fled, 
 howling like wild beasts, and left their kettles, 
 blankets, tomahawks and deer-skins behind. 
 
 But St. Leger, with his Indians and tories, 
 still besieged Fort Schuyler. General Arnold 
 was now sent, with one thousand men, to at- 
 tack them. But this force was too small, and 
 the Americans had recourse to a stratagem to 
 frighten the enemy. Colonel Brooks, after- 
 wards governor of Massachusetts, seized upon 
 one Cuyler, a tory, who owned a large farm- 
 house. He was in great terror, lest the Ameri- 
 cans should plunder him ; but Brooks agreed 
 to let him go, and spare his property, if he 
 would travel to Fort Schuyler, and tell the Brit- 
 force there, that Arnold was coming upon them 
 with an immense army. 
 
 Cuyler consented. He bored his coat through 
 in two or three places, in the skirts, and made 
 all haste across the woods to the British camp. 
 He informed the Indians there, that Arnold was 
 rushing upon them with a tremendous force ; 
 he said he had fled before them for his life, and 
 showed them the bullet-holes in his old coat, in 
 proof of his story. 
 
 The Indians were frightened. Nothing could 
 persuade them to stay with St. Leger. " You 
 told us," said they, " there would be no fight- 
 ing for us; that we should smoke cur pipes; 
 and when you had taken the prisoners in the 
 fort, we were to have the pleasure of cutting 
 their throats. But this won't do." According- 
 ly, seven or eight hundred immediately left; 
 him. He was himself so alarmed, that he fled 
 with his troops, and left his baggage behind 
 him. 
 
 Two Indian chiefs, who, it seems, understood 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 452 
 
 REV 
 
 the plot, followed them in their march, and 
 played jokes upon the officers. One of the 
 chiefs had loitered behind ; and just as the offi- 
 cers reached a deep, muddy place, he came 
 running up to them, out of breath, and cried 
 out, " They are coming ! they are coming !" 
 The soldiers threw down their knapsacks, and 
 plunged through the mire as fast as they could 
 go. St. Leger himself was completely plaster- 
 ed with mud from head to foot. 
 
 In this way, Fort Schuyler was relieved from 
 the siege without bloodshed. The stratagem 
 practised by the Americans, afforded a great 
 deal of amusement to the army. 
 
 About the middle of August, Burgoyne sent 
 five hundred Hessians and one hundred Indians, 
 under Colonel Baum, to take possession of a 
 collection of* American provisions, at Benning- 
 ton, Vermont. But General Stark was there, 
 luckily, with eight hundred New Hampshire 
 and Vermont militia. Colonel Baum, finding 
 this force greater than his own, threw up tem- 
 porary breastworks for defence, and sent to 
 Burgoyne for reinforcements. Several skir- 
 mishes now followed, in which the Americans 
 had the advantage. Animated by success, they 
 at length ventured to make a general attack 
 upon the breastworks of the enemy. They 
 were without cannon, and destitute even of 
 bayonets The Hessians, too, fought very brave- 
 ly for two hours. 
 
 But they were now opposed by still braver 
 men. The Americans rushed into the very 
 flash of their cannon and musketry. Stark had 
 said, at the outset of the battle, " My fellow 
 soldiers, we conquer to-day, or this night Mary 
 Stark is a widow." Such deep resolution 
 seemed to be in the breast of every man. They 
 could not be resisted. Multitudes of the ene- 
 my fell before their keen and well-directed fire. 
 Baum himself was killed, and most of his de- 
 tachment either lost their lives, or were taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 The Americans, not expecting another ene- 
 my, had dispersed themselves after the battle. 
 Suddenly, a reinforcement of several hundred 
 British troops, under Colonel Breyman, arrived 
 at Bennington. The Americans were now near 
 losing all they had gained. But it happened 
 that a regiment, under Colonel Warner, reached 
 the place soon after. These, with the militia, 
 immediately made an attack upon the enemy. 
 They fought till sunset, when the British re- 
 treated, and, undercover of the night, the great- 
 er part effected their escape. 
 
 In these two engagements, four hundred of 
 the enemy were killed and wounded, six hun- 
 dred were taken prisoners ; and two hundred 
 and fifty dragoon swords, eight loads of bag- 
 gage, and twenty horses, fell into the hands of 
 the Americans. A Vermont clergyman, at the 
 commencement of the first day's battle, mounted 
 a stump, and prayed for the Americans. The 
 British heard him, and fired at him. The stump 
 was bored through with their bullets, but the 
 clergyman was unhurt. He stepped down. 
 " Now give me a gun," said he ; and he fired 
 the first shot on the American side. 
 
 An old farmer in the neighborhood had five 
 sons in the battle. He was told the next day, 
 that one of them had come to a miserable end. 
 "What!" cried the gray-headed patriot, " did 
 he leave his post ? did he run from the enemy ?" 
 " Oh no, sir ; worse than that — he fell among 
 the slain, fighting like a hero." " Then I am 
 satisfied," said the old man ; " bring him in ; 
 let me look upon my noble boy." The corpse 
 was brought in ; he wept over it. He then 
 called for a bowl of water, and a napkin ; washed 
 the blood away with his own trembling hands, 
 and thanked God, that his son had died for his 
 country. 
 
 By the middle of September, the American 
 army under Gates was within three miles of the 
 great army of Burgoyne, on the Hudson. The 
 latter was now severely pressed for provisions, 
 and undertook to march on towards Albany. 
 The Americans met him at Stillwater, on the 
 19th ; a fierce battle was fought ; and the Brit- 
 ish could advance no farther. They pitched 
 their camp on the plains of Saratoga, three miles 
 above the village, within cannon-shot of the 
 American lines. 
 
 General Clinton was at this time attempting 
 to force a passage up the Hudson, from New 
 York, to reinforce Burgoyne. Spies and scouts 
 were constantly passing between the two armies. 
 One Palmer was at last caught in this business, 
 and brought into the camp of the American 
 general, Putnam, at Peekskill, New York. He 
 was found to be an American tory, and the 
 British had made him a lieutenant for his pains. 
 Governor Tryon wrote for his release, and 
 threatened vengeance if he were executed. 
 
 Putnam addressed the following note to the 
 governor, in reply ■ — 
 
 " Sir — Nathan Palmer, a lieutenant in your 
 service, was taken in my camp as a spy ; he 
 was tried as a spy; he was condemned as a 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 453 
 
 REV 
 
 spy ; and you may rest assured, sir, he shall be 
 hanged as a spy. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. 
 
 Israel Putnam. 
 To his Excellency Governor Tryon. 
 
 P. S. Afternoon. He is hanged." 
 
 Hot skirmishes now took place every day be- 
 tween the two armies at Saratoga. September 
 23d, a cannonade was kept up, with a tremen- 
 dous roar and blaze, for three hours. The field 
 was strown with tbe killed. An English cap- 
 tain, with forty-eight men, had tbe command of 
 four fine cannon. He fought till thirty-six of 
 his men were killed. His horses being shot 
 down at last, the cannon were left to the Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 Some of the American soldiers, during these 
 skirmishes, often placed themselves in the 
 boughs of high trees, the country being wild 
 and woody, and played with their rifles upon 
 the rear and flanks of the enemy. The British 
 officers were picked off like birds. Burgoyne 
 himself once narrowly escaped. His aid-de- 
 camp, General Phillips, was delivering a mes- 
 sage to him, when he received a rifle ball in his 
 arm. His saddle was furnished with very rich 
 lace, and the sharp-shooter had taken him for 
 Burgoyne. 
 
 October 7th, the whole British line was driven 
 back by a tremendous charge. The German 
 lines stood firm to the last, and Colonel Brooks 
 was ordered to attack them. He galloped 
 toward them at the head of his regiment, waving 
 his sword ; and Colonel Arnold rushed on with 
 him. Arnold was wounded, and carried off. 
 Brooks kept on, and the Germans were driven 
 back. Colonel Cilley,of New Hampshire, cap- 
 tured a. cannon with his own hands, and was 
 seen astride upon it, in the heat of the battle, 
 shouting to his soldiers. 
 
 In this battle, Burgoyne had a bullet pass 
 through his hat, and another through the edge 
 of his vest. The English general Frazer fought 
 nobly for a long time. Colonel Morgan ob- 
 served him at last, called up one of his best rifle- 
 men, and pointed him out. " Do you see that 
 tall, fine looking fellow," said he, " fighting like 
 a lion ? It is Frazer. I honor the man — but he 
 must die." This was enough for the rifleman. 
 He aimed, and Frazer was shot dead. 
 
 On the 18th of October, 1777, the whole 
 British army under Burgoyne surrendered to 
 General Gates. There were nearly ten thou- 
 sand men, including Indians; forty cannon, 
 seven thousand muskets, and a vast quantity of 
 tents and cartridges. The whole country was 
 
 filled with rejoicing. The thanks of Congress 
 were voted to Gates anr* ais army. But the 
 best effect of the vic^ry was, that the French 
 now concluded to fight with the Americans 
 against England. 
 
 Treaties between the two nations were signed 
 February Cth, 1778, and a fast sailing schooner 
 from France reached Casco Bay, in Maine, In 
 about a month, with the news. It occasioned 
 prodigious joy in Congress, in the army at Val- 
 ley Forge, and over the whole country. A 
 French fleet arrived on the ccast early in July. 
 
 General Clinton knew that they were coming, 
 and therefore thought it necessary to remove to 
 New York. He left Philadelphia on the 18th 
 of June, and marched through New Jersey, to- 
 ward the latter place. The British army had 
 been in possession of Philadelphia for many 
 months. Their departure was a most welcome 
 event to the inhabitants. The business of the 
 city was very much interrupted while they 
 were there, and the intercourse of the inhabi- 
 tants with the neighboring towns and villages, 
 was attended with much difficulty and vexation. 
 
 The following is the story of Captain Plun- 
 kett, who escaped from the British, while they 
 were at Philadelphia, in a curious manner. He 
 was an American officer, and, being taken pris 
 oner, was carried to that city, and kept in con- 
 finement. Some years before, he had formed a 
 very pleasant acquaintance with a young Qua- 
 keress. She became apprized of his situation, 
 and determined to effect his release. Accord- 
 ingly, she privately sent him the uniform of a 
 British officer. The captain put it on, and or- 
 dered the guard to open the door. The latter, 
 taking him for a British officer, allowed him to 
 pass into the streets. He immediately went to 
 the house of the young Quakeress, where he 
 remained concealed for some time. His bene- 
 factress then procured for him an old market 
 woman's gown, bonnet and shawl. The cap- 
 tain dressed himself in these, and, thus disguised, 
 set out to leave the city. The British soldiers, 
 who were on guard at the gate, taking him for 
 a market woman, allowed him to pass; and thus 
 he escaped from the enemy. 
 
 The Americans contrived some machines, 
 which were filled with gunpowder, and sent 
 down the river Delaware, near to the city. They 
 expected that these would explode, and annoy 
 the British shipping; they did, in fact, no 
 damage, but the British were very much alarm- 
 ed ; accordingly, they fired cannon at every 
 thing they saw floating in the river. The 
 Americans heard of all this, and they were very 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 454 
 
 REV 
 
 much amused with it. Mr. Francis Hopkinson, 
 a man of great wit, wrote a ballad on the sub- 
 ject, which follows. Sir William, spoken of 
 in the poem, was Sir William Howe, the British 
 commander. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF THE KEGS. 
 
 Gallants, attend, and hear a friend 
 
 Trill forth harmonious ditty: 
 Strange things I'll tell, which late befell 
 
 In Philadelphia city. 
 'Twas early day, as poets say, 
 
 Just when the sun was rising, 
 A soldier stood on log of wood, 
 
 And saw a thing surprising. 
 As in a maze he stood to gaze, — 
 
 The truth can't he denied, sir, — 
 He spied a score of kegs, or moie. 
 
 Come floating down the tide, sir. 
 A sailor too, in jerkin blue, 
 
 This strange appearance viewing, 
 First rubb'd his eyes, in great surprise, 
 
 Then said, " Some mischief's brewing. 
 "These kegs do hold the rebels bold, 
 
 Pack'd up like pickled herring; 
 And they're come down t' attack the town, 
 
 In this new way of ferrying." 
 The soldier flew, the sailor too, 
 
 And, scar'd almost to death, sir, 
 Wore out their shoes, to spread the news, 
 
 And ran till out of breath, sir. 
 Now up and down, throughout the town, 
 
 Most frantic scenes were acted ; 
 And some ran here, and others there, 
 
 Like men almost distracted. 
 Some fire cried, which some denied, 
 
 But said the earth had quaked ; 
 And girls and boys, with hideous noise, 
 
 Ran through the streets half naked. 
 Sir William he, snug as a flea, 
 
 Lay all this time a snoring, 
 Nor thought of harm, as he lay warm 
 
 The land of dreams exploring. 
 Now in a fright he starts upright, 
 
 Awaked by such a clatter: 
 He rubs both eyes, and boldly cries, 
 
 " Alas, what is the matter?" 
 At his bedside he then espied 
 
 Sir Erskine at command, sir; 
 Upon one foot he had one boot, 
 
 And the other in his hand, sir. 
 " Arise, arise t" Sir Erskine cries ; 
 
 " The rebels— more's the pity — 
 Without a boat, are all afloat, 
 
 And ranged before the city. 
 "The motley crew, in vessels new, 
 
 With Satan for their guide, sir, 
 Pack'd up in bags, or wooden kegs, 
 
 Come driving down the tide, sir. 
 u Pherefure prepare for bloody war, — 
 
 These kegs must all be routed, 
 Or surely we despised shall be, 
 
 And British courage doubted." 
 Tl»e royal band now ready stand, 
 
 All ranged in dread array, sir, 
 
 With stomach stout, to see it nut, 
 
 And make a bloody day, sir. 
 The cannons roar from shore to shore, 
 
 The small arms make a rattle ; 
 Since wars began, I'm sure no man 
 
 E'er saw so strange a battle. 
 The rebel dales, the rebel vales, 
 
 With rebel trees surrounded, 
 The distant woods, the hills and floods, 
 
 With rebel echoes sounded. 
 The fish below swam to and fro, 
 
 Attack'd from every quarter; 
 " Why sure," thought they, " the d 's to pay, 
 
 'Mongst folks above the water." 
 The kegs, 'tis said, though strongly made, 
 
 Of rebel staves and hoops, sir, 
 Could not oppose their powerful foes, 
 
 The conquering British troops, sir. 
 From morn to night, these men of might 
 
 Display'd amazing courage, 
 And when the sun was fairly down, 
 
 Retired to sup their porridge. 
 An hundred men, with each a pen, 
 
 Or more, upon my word, sir, 
 It is most true, would be too few, 
 
 Their valor to record, sir. 
 Such feats did. they perform that day, 
 
 Against these wicked kegs, sir, 
 That years to come, if they get home, 
 
 They'll make their boasts and brags, sir. 
 
 As soon as Washington heard that Clinton 
 had left Philadelphia, he broke up his quarters 
 at Valley Forge, and followed hard after him. 
 A hot battle was fought on the 28th, near Mon- 
 mouth court-house. It did not cease till the 
 evening. Washington slept upon his cloak 
 under a tree, expecting more fighting in the 
 morning; but the British marched off in the 
 night. Sixty of their soldiers were found dead 
 on the battle-field, without wounds. Fatigue 
 and the excessive heat had killed them. 
 
 In the beginning of this battle, one Molly 
 Pitcher was occupied in carrying water from 
 a spring to a battery, where her husband was 
 employed in loading and firing a cannon. He 
 was shot, dead at last, and she saw him fall. An 
 officer rode up, and ordered off the cannon. 
 " It can be of no use, now," said he. but Molly 
 stepped up, offered her services, and took her 
 husband's place, to the astonishment of the 
 army. She fought well, and half pay for life 
 was given her by Congress. She wore an 
 epaulette, and was called Captain Molly, ever 
 after. 
 
 In the midst of the fight, there was a soldier, 
 whose gun-lock was knocked off by a bullet. 
 At the same instant, a soldier at his side was 
 killed. He picked up the dead man's musket, 
 and was preparing to fire, when a bullet entered 
 the muzzle of the gun, and twisted the barrel 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 455 
 
 REV 
 
 into the shape of a cork-screw. Although the 
 bullets were flying around him like hail-stones, 
 he deliberately knelt down upon the spot, un- 
 screwed the lock from the musket in his hand, 
 and fastened it to his own gun, which he had 
 thrown away. In a few minutes, he was again 
 prepared, and then engaged in the deadly con- 
 flict. 
 
 No other great battles were fought during the 
 campaign of 1778. The armies only molested 
 each other by sending out small detachments. 
 One Gray, called " No Flint Gray," because he 
 always ordered his soldiers to carry their flints 
 in their pockets, and use the bayonets only, lay 
 in wait in a barn, one night, for a British party. 
 He set guards on the road, but these fell asleep. 
 
 The enemy found out his situation, rushed 
 in upon him, and surprised him in profound 
 slumber. Sixty-seven, out of one hundred and 
 four of his men, were cruelly bayoneted on the 
 spot. Twenty were made prisoners, and a few 
 escaped. One of these had eleven bayonet 
 wounds in his body ; but he lived many years 
 afterward. 
 
 Colonel McLane, of Lee's famous legion of 
 troopers, had a narrow escape. He had planned 
 an attack on a small British force stationed on 
 a turnpike road, eight miles from Philadelphia, 
 and rode ahead with a single soldier, to point 
 out the way for his men. It was in the gray 
 of the morning. His comrade suddenly shouted, 
 " Colonel, the British !" spurred his horse, and 
 was out of sight in a moment. 
 
 There, indeed, were the enemy all about him. 
 They had lain in ambuscade, and thus suddenly 
 came upon him. A dozen shots were fired, but 
 his horse only was wounded in the flank. This 
 spurred the animal on at such a furious rate, 
 that he dashed through the woods like a hawk. 
 The colonel now came up with a farm-house by 
 the road-side, when a number of British officers 
 observed him as he passed They thought he 
 was on his way to the English army, which 
 was directly ahead. 
 
 He dashed by, and they soon found out their 
 mistake, and pursued him. His horse went 
 with such speed, however, over fences and 
 fields, and every other obstacle, that, at last, 
 only two men continued to pursue him. These 
 came up with him at the ascent of a small hill, 
 the three horses so exhausted, that neither could 
 be forced out of a walk. One of the soldiers 
 cried, " Surrender, you rebellious rascal, or we 
 will cut you to pieces." 
 
 The colonel made no reply, but laid his hand 
 on his pistols. The man now came up, and 
 39 
 
 seized him by the collar, without drawing his 
 sword. The colonel drew a pistol from his hol- 
 ster, aimed it at the Englishman's heart, and 
 killed him. The other now seized him on the 
 other side ; a fierce struggle ensued. The colo- 
 nel received a severe sword-gash in his left arm ; 
 but he drew his second pistol that moment with 
 his right, placed it between the Englishman's 
 eyes, and killed him by a shot in the head. Colo- 
 nel McLane now stopped the flow of his own 
 blood, by crawling into a mill-pond, and at last 
 reached the American camp. 
 
 In the camp at Morristown, during the win- 
 ter and the spring of 1779, the Americans were 
 often without meat or bread ; and they ate peas, 
 barley, and almost every kind of horse-food, but 
 hay. Salt could only be got for eight dollars a. 
 bushel. The snow was four feet deep. They 
 had nothing but a bed of straw and a blanket 
 at night. They made log huts in February, 
 which were tolerably comfortable. But many 
 deserted, and the rest were almost discouraged, 
 
 Small parties were often sent out by each of 
 the armies to annoy the other. On one occa- 
 sion, a man by the name of May hew was pur- 
 sued through the snow by two of the British 
 troopers. They gained fast upon him, and he 
 found he must be overtaken. So he turned 
 about, and asked, if they would give him quar- 
 ter. " Yes, you dog," shouted both of them, 
 "we'll quarter you." Upon this, Mayhew 
 resolved to give them one shot. He fired at 
 the foremost, who immediately yelled out, 
 " The rascal has broken my leg." Both of them 
 wheeled about, and galloped away as fast as 
 they could go. 
 
 Little was done on either side during the 
 year 1779. The British main army, under 
 Clinton, was at New York; and the Americans, 
 under Washington, were among the Highlands, 
 above that city, on the river Hudson. In the 
 spring, a British force was sent to ravage the 
 coast of Virginia. They destroyed every thing 
 in their way — villages, shipping and stores. 
 The Virginians sent to the British general to 
 ask, " what sort of war this was." He replied, 
 that " all rebels must be so treated." 
 
 A month or two afterwards, Governor Try on 
 was sent to commit similar havoc in Connecti- 
 cut. Colonel Whiting had mustered the militia 
 at Fairfield. Tryon came to that place, and 
 commanded him to surrender. He gave him 
 an hour for consideration ; but, before that 
 time had elapsed, his soldiers set the town 
 on fire, and a great part of it was laid in ashes. 
 
 At New Haven, all possible damage was 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 456 
 
 REV 
 
 done. Toe harbor was covered over with 
 feathers, poured out from the beds of the peo- 
 ple. Desks, trunks, closets and chests were 
 broken open ; the women were robbed of their 
 buckles, rings, bonnets and aprons. East Ha- 
 ven was afterwards burnt, and Nor walk shared 
 a similar fate. 
 
 At a place near Stamford, the British came 
 upon General Putnam, who had one hundred 
 and fifty militia-men with him, and two can- 
 non. With these, he kept the enemy at bay 
 for some time. He then ordered the soldiers 
 into a swamp hard by, where the British troop- 
 ers could not follow ; and he himself rode at full 
 gallop down a steep rock behind the meeting- 
 house. Nearly one hundred steps had been 
 hewn in it, like a flight of stairs, for the people 
 to ascend in going to meeting. The troopers 
 stopped at the brink, and dared not follow him. 
 He escaped with a bullet-hole through his hat. 
 
 In July, a fleet of thirty-seven small vessels 
 was fitted out from Boston, with fifteen hun- 
 dred militia on board, under General Wads- 
 worth and General Lovell. The object was, to 
 drive the British from the Penobscot river, in 
 Maine, where they had built a fort at a place 
 called Bagaduce then, now Castine. They 
 were near succeeding, when a British fleet ap- 
 peared off the mouth of the river. They were 
 obliged to leave their vessels, and most of the 
 troops, after some fighting, escaped across the 
 wild lands of Maine, to the settlements on the 
 river Kennebec. 
 
 On the Hudson, the Americans were more 
 successful. On the 15th of July, Washington 
 sent General Wayne up the river with twelve 
 hundred men, to attack a strong British fort 
 called Stony Point. At eleven in the evening, 
 Wayne arrived within a mile or two of the fort. 
 The troops were now formed into two columns. 
 Colonel Fleury marched on in front, with one 
 hundred and fifty volunteers, guided by twenty 
 picked men. They marched silently, with 
 unloaded guns and fixed bayonets. A disor- 
 derly fellow, who persisted in loading his gun, 
 was run through the body by his captain. 
 
 No man was suffered to fire. The fort was 
 defended by a deep swamp, covered with water. 
 The troops marched through it, waist deep. 
 They proceeded with charged bayonets, under 
 a tremendous fire of cannon and musketry from 
 the British, till the two columns met in the 
 centre of the fort. The garrison, six hundred 
 in number, were taken prisoners, with fifteen 
 cannon, and a large quantity of stores. The 
 Americanslo st a hundred men : seventeen of the 
 
 twenty picked men, who inarched in front, were 
 among the number. 
 
 General Lincoln commanded in the Southern 
 Provinces during 1779, the British still holding 
 possession of Savannah. He besieged them 
 there with the help of the French fleet, but was 
 driven off. Prevost, the British general, him- 
 self, met with the same bad luck in besieging 
 Charleston. South Carolina. The people resist- 
 ed him nobly, with some assistance from Lin- 
 coln, and the siege was abandoned. 
 
 But Prevost ravaged the country, burning 
 and plundering without mercy. The tories 
 joined him, and the negro slaves were hired to 
 serve him as spies and scouts. Peter Francisco, 
 an American trooper, made himself famous at 
 this time. A British plundering dragoon enter- 
 ed a hut in the country, where he happened to 
 be, and ordered him to " deliver up every thing, 
 or die." 
 
 "I have nothing to deliver," said Peter, who 
 was unarmed ; " do as you please." " Off with 
 those great silver buckles on your shoes, you 
 scoundrel !" said the dragoon. " Take them, if 
 you like," answered Peter ;" I will not give 
 them." The soldier stooped to cut them off 
 with his knife, placing his sword under his 
 arm, with the hilt towards Peter. He seized 
 upon it, and struck the dragoon with such force 
 as to sever his head from his body at a single 
 blow. 
 
 Sergeant Jasper was another brave fellow, 
 who has been mentioned before. He once 
 went secretly, with a young friend of his, by 
 the name of Newton, to visit his brother, a sol- 
 dier at a British fort. As he stayed there a day 
 or two, his brother took him to see some Amer- 
 ican prisoners, just brought in. They were 
 all hand-cuffed. There was a young woman 
 among the rest, with her husband, and a beau- 
 tiful little boy, five years old, leaning his head 
 on her bosom, and weeping. 
 
 Jasper and Newton were hardly able to bear 
 this. They walked to a wood near by. " I 
 shall not live long," said Jasper. " Why so?" 
 said the other. " Why, the thought of that 
 poor woman haunts me. I shall die, if I do not 
 save them." " That is my mind, exactly," 
 said Newton, grasping Jasper's hand. " Go 
 on, my brave friend ; 1 will stand by you to the 
 last." 
 
 After breakfast, the prisoners were sent on 
 towards Savannah, under a guard of ten armed 
 men. The two friends followed them through 
 the woods, but without arms. Thinking they 
 would stop at the Spa, a famous spring two 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 457 
 
 REV 
 
 miles from Savannah, they went secretly round 
 to that place, and concealed themselves in 
 the bushes. By and by, the party came up, 
 and the prisoners were suffered to rest at the 
 spring. 
 
 Two men kept guard with their muskets, 
 while two more came to the spring for water. 
 The others piled their arms up, and sat down at 
 a distance. The two guards now rested their 
 guns against a tree, and began drinking from 
 their canteens. " Now's the time," cried Jas- 
 per. At the same instant, the two heroes 
 sprang from the bushes, snatched the two mus- 
 kets, and shot down the two guards. 
 
 By this time, two of the soldiers had seized 
 upon their guns. But they were instantly 
 knock down. Jasper and Newton stood over 
 the pile of guns, and ordered the other six to 
 surrender. They were glad to do so. The 
 American prisoners were now armed, and the 
 hand-cuffs were taken from them, and put upon 
 the British soldiers, and the party soon reach- 
 ed the American camp. 
 
 During the year 1780, nothing of great conse- 
 quence was done in the Northern Provinces. 
 The two armies lay near each other, the British 
 being in New York, and the Americans on the 
 Hudson ; but no battles were fought. 
 
 When the British troops took New York, and 
 the Americans had retired some distance up the 
 North River, De Lancey joined the British, took 
 a colonel's commission, and raised a regiment 
 of horse, which was called Le Lancey 's corps. 
 The other took a captain's commission in the 
 American army ; and now, feelings of hostility 
 took the place of the former friendship and kind- 
 ness that subsisted between them. 
 
 The British often sent out parties to procure, 
 in whatever way they could, cattle, sheep, &e., 
 for food. On one occasion, such a party had 
 collected a large number of these animals, and 
 succeeded in driving them within the British 
 lines, before they were discovered. The place 
 to which they had conveyed their plunder, was 
 within fifteen or twenty miles of New York, and 
 was considered a place of security. Captain 
 Moulton was one of the most active partisans in 
 the American army, and was often employed in 
 enterprises which required both daring and dex- 
 terity. 
 
 Being well acquainted with the country, the 
 posts where the British were stationed, and also 
 the place where they had retired with their plun- 
 der, he requested and obtained permission to 
 attempt its recapture. In this service, he had 
 about one hundred men under his command. 
 
 His plan was, to avoid the British posts, dash 
 upon his prey, take them by surprise, and make 
 his retreat before any alarm could be given. 
 Unless completely successful, the destruction of 
 the whole party seemed inevitable. It was about 
 thirty or forty miles from the head-quarters of 
 the American army to the scene of action, which 
 lay several miles within the enemy's lines. 
 
 Captain M. and his party began their march 
 about noon. He ordered several of his men to 
 keep half a mile or more in advance, to guard 
 against surprise. At sunset, they were about 
 ten or fifteen miles from the place where they 
 expected to find the cattle. They rested till 
 midnight, and then set off for the scene of ac- 
 tion. They found all still and quiet on their 
 route. When within a mile, they halted, and 
 Captain M. gave directions as to the assault, 
 which he intended to make soon after day-break. 
 He ordered his men not to fire a gun, but told 
 them to rush upon those who guarded the cat- 
 tle, and kill, or take them prisoners. 
 
 These orders were strictly obeyed, and the 
 surprise was complete. In less than an hour, 
 the cattle were collected, and, with a few pris- 
 oners, were on their way to the American camp, 
 under the escort of twenty men, who were di- 
 rected bv Captain M. to push on as fast as possi- 
 ble, until they had passed a large open plain, 
 which lay in their route. He was to stay with 
 the rest of the party, and destroy the stores which 
 they could not convey away, and was then to 
 follow and endeavor to overtake them, by the 
 time they had crossed the plain. 
 
 It was two hours after his first arrival, before 
 Captain M. commenced his return. His situa- 
 tion he knew to be extremely critical. Colonel 
 De Lancey was stationed "but ten or twelve 
 miles distant, with his regiment of horse ; and 
 he feared he would be upon him before he could 
 join the rest of the party. He had just reached 
 the plain already mentioned, when he heard the 
 tramp of horses, and saw a troop of cavalry 
 coming at full gallop upon him. He ordered 
 his men to push on, hoping to cross the plain 
 before he was overtaken. But he had only 
 reached the middle, when De Lancey and his 
 troop had come very near. 
 
 Captain Moulton immediately halted, and 
 formed his men in a hollow square, ordering 
 the front line to kneel on one knee, and present 
 their bayonets, resting the butt-end of the gun 
 on the ground ; the others to present theirs over 
 the heads of their comrades. He warned them 
 not to fire a gun, and not to speak; but to be 
 unmoved, firm and steadfast. Scarcely were 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 458 
 
 REV 
 
 they thus formed, when the horse, to the num- 
 ber of two or three hundred, came on at full 
 charge, appearing as if they would ride over the 
 little band, and trample them to the earth. 
 
 But in vain did their riders urge them to the 
 onset. When within a rod of the bristling bay- 
 onets, they recoiled, and, wheeling to the right 
 and left, passed round the corps, and formed for 
 another charge, which was made with little suc- 
 cess. They could only bring their horses near 
 enough to clash their swords upon the bayonets, 
 but without reaching the soldiers. A few pistols 
 were fired, but without effect. Colonel De L. 
 then called upon Captain M. to surrender, but 
 received no answer. At length the horsemen 
 wheeled about, and were preparing for a third 
 charge. Captain M. then spoke to De Lancey : 
 — " If you make another assault upon us, I will 
 order twenty balls to be put through your heart, 
 though we are sacrificed the next moment!" 
 De Lancey knew this to be no idle threat. He 
 therefore retired with his men, and left the little 
 patriot band to pursue their march. The next 
 day, they arrived at head quarters, with their 
 plunder and prisoners. 
 
 The most important event of this year, was 
 the treason of General Arnold. He commanded 
 a very strong fort at West Point, sixty miles 
 from New York, on the North River. He un- 
 dertook to deliver it into the possession of the 
 British. 
 
 Major Andre, a young British officer, went 
 on shore in the night from a British ship in the 
 river, to arrange the business with Arnold. The 
 two officers met privately at some distance from 
 the fort. Arnold agreed, for a certain sum of 
 money, and other considerations, to surrender 
 the fort, with the garrison, cannon and ammu- 
 nition, into the hands of the British commander. 
 In settling the details of this business, Andre 
 was detained till the next day ; and then the 
 boatmen refused to carry him back. He had to 
 return by land, and to pass by the American 
 camp, on his way to New York. He was fur- 
 nished with a horse, and exchanged his uniform 
 for a common coat. 
 
 He thought himself already out of danger, 
 when, as he trotted quietly on through "the 
 woods, he was stopped by three Americans, who 
 were scouting between the out-posts of the two 
 armies. " Who goes there ? " cried the first, 
 seizing his bridle. Andre was frightened, and 
 asked the scout where he belonged. " Below," 
 answered he, meaning New York. 
 
 " So do I," said Andre, deceived ; " I'm a 
 British officer, in areat haste ; don't stop me." 
 
 "Are you, indeed?" said the scouts; "then 
 we'll see about that ! " They found his papers 
 in his boots. He offered them his gold watch, 
 horse and purse, if they would release him; but 
 they told him they knew their business too well. 
 He was carried to the camp, and though a brave 
 and accomplished young man", yet he was con- 
 demned and hanged, according to the usages of 
 war, as a spy. Even the Americans shed many 
 tears for him. The scouts were handsomely re- 
 warded. 
 
 Arnold escaped from West Point in great 
 haste. Andre had contrived to send him notice 
 of his capture. He was dining with some of his 
 friends, when the letter came. They saw he 
 was very much agitated. He started up, and 
 looked wild ; made an excuse to go out, and they 
 saw nothing more of him. He went to New 
 York, and joined the British army; was paid 
 about fifty thousand dollars, and was appointed 
 a general in the British service, for his intended 
 treason. His name was covered with everlast- 
 ing shame and disgrace. Even his gallantry 
 and decided military talents were overlooked 
 and forgotten in his infamy. The British them- 
 selves despised him. After the war, he went to 
 England, where he lived many years in obscu- 
 rity and contempt. 
 
 The head-quarters of General Washington 
 were at Tappan, on the Hudson, at the time he 
 heard of Arnold's treason. Having taken meas- 
 ures to put the fort in a state of security, he ap- 
 pointed a court-martial, to try Andre. After 
 a very deliberate examination, he was found 
 guilty, and condemned to be hanged as a spy. 
 When the gallant young officer heard that he 
 was condemned to be hanged, he wrote a very 
 pathetic letter to Washington, praying that he 
 might be shot, and die as a soldier, rather than 
 be executed like a felon. 
 
 No man had a kinder heart than General 
 Washington ; and he would gladly have granted 
 the request of the unfortunate young English- 
 man. But duty to his country would not per- 
 mit him to soften the sentence of the law. He 
 was very anxious to bring Arnold to justice, and 
 imagined that, if he could be taken, Andre might 
 be set free. He resolved to make an attempt to 
 effect these desirable objects, and, having form- 
 ed his plan, Washington sent to Major Lee to 
 repair to head quarters, at Tappan. " I have 
 sent for you," said General Washington, "in 
 the expectation that you have some one in your 
 corps, who is willing; to undertake a delicate and 
 hazardous project. Whoever comes forward will, 
 confer great obligations upon me personally, and,. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 459 
 
 REV 
 
 in behalf of the United States, I will reward him 
 amply. No time is to be lost; he must proceed, 
 if possible, to-night. 1 intend to seize Arnold, 
 and save Andre." 
 
 Major Lee named a sergeant-major of his 
 corps, by the name of Ghampe, a native of Vir- 
 ginia, a man full of bone and muscle, with a 
 countenance grave, thoughtful, and taciturn, of 
 tried courage, and inflexible perseverance. 
 
 Champe was sent for by Major Lee, and the 
 plan proposed. This was for him to desert ; to 
 escape to New York ; to appear friendly to the 
 enemy; to watch Arnold, and, upon some fit 
 opportunity, with the assistance of some one 
 whom he could trust, to seize him, and conduct 
 him to a place on the river, appointed, where 
 boats should be in readiness to bear them away. 
 
 Champe listened to the plan attentively ; but, 
 with the spirit of a man of honor and integrity, 
 replied, " that it was not danger nor difficulty 
 that deterred him from immediately accepting 
 the proposal, but the ignominy of desertion, and 
 the hypocrisy of enlisting with the enemy." 
 
 To these objections Lee replied, that although 
 he would appear to desert, yet, as he obeyed the 
 call of his commander-in-chief, his departure 
 could not be considered as criminal ; and that, 
 if he suffered in reputation for a time, the mat- 
 ter would one day be explained to his credit. 
 As to the second objection, it was urged, that to 
 bring such a man as Arnold to justice, loaded 
 with guilt as he was ; and to save Andre, so 
 young, so accomplished, so beloved; to achieve 
 so much good in the cause of his country, was 
 more than sufficient to balance a wrong, exist- 
 ing only in appearance. 
 
 The objections of Champe were at length sur- 
 mounted, and he accepted the service. It was 
 now eleven o'clock at night. With his instruc- 
 tions in his pocket, the sergeant returned to 
 camp; and, taking his cloak, valise and orderly 
 book, drew his horse from the picket, and mount- 
 ed, putting himself upon fortune. 
 
 Scarcely had half an hour elapsed, before 
 Captain Carnes, the officer of the day, waited 
 upon Lee, who was vainly attempting to rest, 
 and informed him, that one of the patrol had fal- 
 len in with a dragoon, who, being challenged, 
 put spurs to his horse, and escaped. Lee, hoping 
 to conceal the flight of Champe, or at least to 
 delay pursuit, complained of fatigue, and told 
 the captain that the patrol had probably mistaken 
 a countryman for a dragoon. Carnes, however, 
 was not thus to be quieted ; and he withdrew to 
 assemble his corps. On examination, it was 
 found that Champe was absent. The captain 
 
 now returned, and acquainted Lee with the dis- 
 covery, adding, that he had detached a party to 
 pursue the deserter, and begged the Major's 
 written orders. 
 
 After making as much delay as practicable 
 without exciting suspicion, Lee delivers his or- 
 ders, in which he directed the party to take 
 Champe, if possible. " Bring him alive," said 
 he, " that he may suffer in the presence of the 
 army ; but kill him if he resists, or tries to escape 
 after being taken." 
 
 A shower of rain fell soon after Champe's de- 
 parture, which enabled the pursuing dragoons 
 to take the trail of his horse ; his shoes, in com- 
 mon with those of all the horses of the corps, 
 being made in a peculiar form, and each having 
 a private mark, which was to be seen in the path. 
 
 Middleton, the leader of the pursuing party, 
 left the camp a few minutes past twelve, so that 
 Champe had the start of but little more than an 
 hour — a period by far shorter than had been con- 
 templated. During the night, the dragoons were 
 often delayed in the necessary halts to examine 
 the road ; but, on the coming of morning, the 
 impression of the horse's shoes was so apparent, 
 that they pressed on with rapidity. Some miles 
 above Bergen, a village three miles north of 
 New York, on the opposite side of the Hudson, 
 on ascending a hill, Champe was seen not more 
 than half a mile distant. Fortunately, Champe 
 descried his pursuers at the same moment, and, 
 conjecturing their object, put spurs to his horse, 
 with the hope of escape. 
 
 By taking a different road, Champe was, for 
 a time, lost sight of; but, on approaching the 
 river, he was again perceived. Aware of his 
 danger, he now lashed his valise, containing his 
 clothes and orderly book, to his shoulders, and 
 prepared himself to plunge into the river, if ne- 
 cessary. Swift was his flight, and swift the 
 pursuit. Middleton and his party were within 
 a few hundred yards, when Champe threw him- 
 self from his horse, and plunged into the river, 
 calling aloud upon some British galleys, at no 
 great distance, for help. A boat was instantly 
 despatched to the sergeant's assistance, and a fire 
 commenced upon the pursuers. Champe was 
 taken on board, and soon after carried to New 
 York, with a letter from the captain of the gal- 
 ley, stating the past scene, all of which he had 
 witnessed. 
 
 The pursuers having recovered the sergeant's 
 horse and cloak, returned to camp, where they 
 arrived about three o'clock the next day. On 
 their appearance with the well known horse, the 
 soldiers made the air resound with the acclamar 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 460 
 
 REV 
 
 tion that the scoundrel was killed. The agony 
 of Lee, for a moment, was past description, lest 
 the faithful, honorable, intrepid Champe had 
 fallen. Rut the truth soon relieved his fears, 
 and he repaired to Washington to impart to 
 him the success, thus far, of his plan. 
 
 Soon after the arrival of Champe in New 
 York, he was sent to Sir Henry Clinton, who 
 treated him kindly, but detained him more than 
 an hour in asking him questions ; to answer 
 some of which, without exciting suspicion, re- 
 quired all the art the sergeant was master of. 
 He succeeded, however, and Sir Henry gave 
 him a couple of guineas, and recommended him 
 to Arnold, who was wishing to procure Ameri- 
 can recruits. Arnold received him kindly, and 
 proposed to him to join his legion. Champe, 
 however, expressed his wish to retire from war ; 
 but assured the general, if he should change his 
 mind, he would enlist. 
 
 Champe found means to communicate to Lee 
 an account of his adventures ; but, unfortunate- 
 ly, he could not succeed in taking Arnold, as 
 was wished, before the execution of Andre. 
 Ten days before Champe brought his project to 
 a conclusion, Lee received from him his final 
 communication, appointing the third subsequent 
 night for a party of dragoons to meet him at 
 Hoboken, opposite New York, when he hoped 
 to deliver Arnold to the officers. 
 
 Champe had enlisted into Arnold's legion, 
 from which time he had every opportunity he 
 could wish, to attend to the habits of the gene- 
 ral. He discovered that it was his custom to 
 return home about twelve every night, and that, 
 previously to going to bed, he always visited 
 the garden. During this visit, the conspirators 
 were to seize him, and, being prepared with a 
 gag, they were to apply the same instantly. 
 
 Adjoining the house in which Arnold resided, 
 and in which it was designed to seize and gag 
 him, Champe had taken off several fence-pal- 
 ings, and replaced them, so that with ease, and 
 without noise, he could readily open his way to 
 the adjoining alley. Into this alley he intended 
 to convey his prisoner, aided by his companion, 
 one of two associates, who had been introduced 
 by the friend to whom Champe had been origi- 
 nally made known by letter from the com- 
 mander-in-chief, and with whose aid and coun- 
 sel he had so far conducted the enterprise. His 
 other associate was with the boat, prepared at 
 one of the wharves on the Hudson River, to re- 
 ceive the party. 
 
 Champe and his friend intended to place 
 themselves each under Arnold's shoulder, and 
 
 thus to bear him, through the most unfrequented 
 alleys and streets, to the boat, representing Ar- 
 nold, in case of being questioned, as a drunken 
 soldier, whom they were conveying to the 
 guard-house. 
 
 When arrived at the boat, the difficulties 
 would be all surmounted, there being no dan- 
 ger nor obstacle in passing to the Jersey shore. 
 These particulars, as soon as made known to 
 Lee, were communicated to the commander-in- 
 chief, who was highly gratified with the much 
 desired intelligence. He requested Major Lee 
 to meet Champe, and to take care that Arnold 
 should not be hurt. 
 
 The day arrived, and Lee, with a party of 
 accoutred horses, — one for Arnold, one for the 
 sergeant, and the third for his associate, who 
 was to assist in securing Arnold, — left the camp, 
 never doubting the success of the enterprise, 
 from the tenor of the last received communica- 
 tion. The party reached Hoboken about mid- 
 night, where they were concealed in the ad- 
 joining wood ; Lee, with three dragoons sta- 
 tioning himself near the shore of the river. 
 Hour after hour passed, but no boat approached. 
 
 At length the day broke, and the major re- 
 tired to his party, and, with his led horses, 
 returned to the camp, where he proceeded to 
 head-quarters, to inform the general of the much 
 lamented disappointment, as mortifying as it 
 was inexplicable. Washington, having perus- 
 ed Champe's plan and communication, had in- 
 dulged the presumption, that at length the object 
 of his keen and constant pursuit was sure of 
 execution, and did not dissemble the joy which 
 such a conviction produced. He was chagrined 
 at the issue, and apprehended that his faithful 
 sergeant must have been detected in the last 
 scene of his tedious and difficult enterprise. 
 
 In a few days, Lee received an anonymous 
 letter from Champe's patron and friend, inform- 
 ing him, that on the day preceding the night 
 fixed for the execution of the plot, Arnold had 
 removed his quarters to another part of the 
 town, to superintend the embarkation of troops, 
 preparing, as was rumored, for an expedition to 
 be directed by himself; and that the American 
 legion, consisting chiefly of American deserters, 
 had been transferred from their barracks to one 
 of the transports, it being apprehended that, if 
 left on shore until the expedition was ready, 
 many of them might desert. 
 
 Thus it happened, that John Champe, instead 
 of crossing the Hudson that night, was safely 
 deposited on board one of the fleet of transports, 
 from whence he never departed, until the troops 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 461 
 
 REV 
 
 under Arnold landed in Virginia. Nor was he 
 able to escape from the British army until after 
 the junction of Lord Cornwallis at Petersburg, 
 when he deserted ; and, proceeding high up 
 into Virginia, he passed into North Carolina, 
 and, keeping in the friendly districts of that 
 state, safely joined the army soon after it had 
 passed the Congaree, in pursuit of Lord Rawdon. 
 
 His appearance excited extreme surprise 
 among his former comrades, which was not a 
 little increased, when they saw the cordial re- 
 ception he met with from the late Major, now 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Lee. His whole story was 
 soon known to the corps, which re-produced the 
 love and respect of officers and soldiers, hereto- 
 fore invariably entertained for the sergeant, 
 heightened by universal admiration of his late 
 daring and arduous attempt. 
 
 Champe was introduced to General Greene, 
 who very cheerfully complied with the promise 
 made by the commander-in-chief, so far as in 
 his power ; and, having provided the sergeant 
 with a good horse, and money for his journey, 
 sent him to General Washington, who munifi- 
 cently anticipated every desire of the sergeant, 
 and presented him with a discharge from fur- 
 ther service, lest he might, in the vicissitudes 
 of war, fall into the hands of the enemy, when, 
 if recognised, he was sure to die on a gibbet. 
 
 When General Washington was called by 
 President Adams, in 1798, to the command of 
 the army, prepared to defend the country against 
 French hostility, he sent to Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Lee, to inquire for Champe ; being determined 
 to bring him into the field at the head of a com- 
 pany of infantry. Lee sent to Loudon county, 
 Virginia, where Champe settled after his dis- 
 charge from the army ; when he learned that 
 the gallant soldier had removed to Kentucky, 
 where he soon after died. 
 
 We must now return to our history. Con- 
 gress continued to make great efforts to supply 
 the army, though the paper money they had 
 issued was worth so little, that a soldier would 
 give forty of these dollars for a breakfast, and a 
 colonel's pay would hardly find oats for his 
 horse. The merchants of Philadelphia raised a 
 large sum of better money, however, and sent 
 it to the army. The. ladies of that city furnish- 
 ed a large quantity of clothing. 
 
 But the British, all this time, were overrun- 
 ning the two Carolinas. . They had taken 
 Charleston on the 11th of May, 1780, after a long 
 siege, and a brave defence by General Lincoln. 
 
 General Gates was soon after sent to take 
 command of the southern army. He was joined 
 
 by hundreds of the Carolina militia. Congress 
 sent him some fine Maryland and Delaware 
 troops also. They had a very long and hard 
 march through the woods, finding nothing to 
 eat on the way, but peaches and green corn, 
 with now and then a flock of wild turkeys, or a 
 drove of wild hogs. But they were brave men, 
 and did not murmur. They even joked each 
 other on account of their thin faces, and lank 
 legs. 
 
 A battle took place on the 16th of August, 
 near Camden, South Carolina, between Gates 
 and the British under Lord Cornwallis. The 
 former was defeated, and fled eighty miles into 
 the back country. The lean, northern soldiers 
 we have just mentioned, fought nobly an hour 
 after all the rest had been routed like an army of 
 sheep. The brave Baron De Kalb was wound- 
 ed in eleven places. He fell from his horse, and 
 died in the hands of the British. He was a 
 Frenchman, and sent his compliments, in his 
 last moments, to " his gallant Maryland and 
 Delaware soldiers." 
 
 Generals Marion and Sumpter gave the Brit- 
 ish great trouble during this campaign. Small 
 parties of the mountain militia joined them, and 
 they swept down upon the enemy, wherever 
 they could find them in small parties. The far- 
 mers' wives furnished them pewter spoons and 
 platters, to make into bullets; and they forged 
 swords of scythes and the saws of saw-mills. 
 
 In October, sixteen hundred of these moun- 
 taineers mustered together to attack a British 
 force under Major Ferguson, who had encamp- 
 ed not far from the mountains. For weeks, 
 they had no salt, bread, or spirits ; they slept 
 upon boughs of trees, without blankets, drank 
 only from the running streams, and lived upon 
 wild game, or ears of corn, and pumpkins, roast- 
 ed by their great log-fires in the woods. 
 
 They were to assault Ferguson in three par- 
 ties, and Colonel Cleaveland addressed his party 
 in these words : " My brave boys, we have beat 
 the red-coats and the tories, and we can beat 
 them again. They are all cowards. You must 
 fight, each man for himself, without orders. 
 Fire as quick as you can, and stand as long as 
 you can. If you must retreat, get behind the 
 trees — don't run, my fine fellows, don't run !'' 
 " Hurrah for the mountaineers !" cried they, 
 and rushed down upon the enemy. 
 
 The Americans were driven back at the point 
 of the bayonet ; but they only lay down among 
 the logs and rocks, and, being sharp-shooters, 
 killed more than two hundred of the enemy. 
 Ferguson was killed himself, and eight hundred 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 REV 
 
 462 
 
 REV 
 
 of his soldiers surrendered. Ten of the most 
 savage tories, notorious rascals, were hung up 
 on the neighboring trees. 
 
 With the year 1781, on which we now enter, 
 the war drew rapidly toward a close. It was 
 carried on almost entirely in ihe Southern Prov- 
 inces. General Greene was appointed to com- 
 mand the American forces in that quarter. At 
 the time of his arrival, they were a miserable, 
 half-starved militia, of three thousand men. 
 They marked the frozen ground with the blood 
 of their bare feet, and lived half the time upon 
 frogs, taken from the swamps, wild game, rice, 
 and wretchedly lean cattle. 
 
 But they were soon reinforced ; and small 
 parties, under Sumpter, Marion, Morgan, and 
 others, often annoyed the forces of Cornwallis. 
 Colonel Washington laid siege to a strong block- 
 house near Camden, defended by a British 
 colonel, and a hundred tories. He had no can- 
 non, and few men ; but he carved out a few 
 pine lugs in the shape of cannon, mounted them 
 on wheels, and summoned the tories to surren- 
 der. They were frightened at the appearance 
 of his big cannon, and surrendered. Not a shot 
 was fired upon either side. 
 
 On the 17th of January, Colonel Morgan, 
 with eight hundred militia, was attacked at a 
 place called the Cowpens, in South Carolina, by 
 Tarleton, a famous British officer, with eleven 
 hundred men and two cannon. The enemy 
 rushed on with a tremendous shout. The front 
 line of militia were driven back. Tarleton pur- 
 sued them, at full gallop, with his troopers, and 
 fell upon the second line. They too were giv- 
 ing way. 
 
 At this moment, Colonel Washington charged 
 Tarleton with forty-five militia-men, mounted, 
 and armed as troopers. The whole line now ral- 
 lied under Colonel Howard, and advanced with 
 fixed bayonets. The British fled. Their cannon 
 were left behind ; three hundred British soldiers 
 were killed and wounded, and five hundred were 
 taken prisoners ; eight hundred muskets, sev- 
 enty negroes, and one hundred dragoon horses, 
 also fell into the hands of the Americans. Many 
 British officers were killed. Morgan always 
 told his sharp-shooters " to aim at the epaulettes, 
 and not at the poor rascals who fought for six- 
 pence a day." 
 
 General Greene was now driven back, by 
 Cornwallis, into North Carolina. The latter 
 pursued him through the Province, over moun- 
 tains and swamps, and arrived at the river Dan, 
 just as Greene had crossed it. Cornwallis now 
 found it necessary to turn about; and so he 
 
 marched back, and Greene soon followed him 
 with new forces. 
 
 Sumpter joined him at Orangeburg, having 
 received orders to do so during his hasty retreat 
 before the enemy. It seems Greene could fin<i 
 no man in his army who would carry the mes 
 sage to Sumpter. A country girl, named Emily 
 Geiger, at last offered her services, and was sent 
 She was taken by the British, and confined for 
 the purpose of being searched. She, however, 
 ate up the letter which she carried, piece by 
 piece. They released her, to go home, as they 
 supposed ; but she took a roundabout way, 
 reached Sumpter's camp safely, and delivered 
 her message, in her own words. 
 
 The Americans were defeated near Guilford 
 court-house on the 15th of March. But Corn 
 wallis retreated soon after. He had suffered 
 great loss, and his army was small. A militia 
 colonel cried out in this battle, as the British 
 were marching up, i: They will surround us.' 
 He was frightened himself, and frightened his 
 soldiers so much, that they gave way, while the 
 enemy were one hundred and forty yards distant . 
 
 Colonel Washington, at the head of his troop 
 ers, nearly captured Cornwallis in this battle. 
 He was just rushing upon the British general, 
 when his cap fell from his head. As he leaped 
 to the ground for it, the leading American officer 
 behind him was shot through the body, and ren- 
 dered unable to manage his horse. The animal 
 wheeled round, and galloped off with his rider; 
 and the troop, supposing it was Washington's oi - 
 der, wheeled about also, and rode off at full speeu. 
 
 Fort Watson, between Camden and Charles- 
 ton, surrendered, in April, with 114 men, to 
 General Marion. The fort was built on a mound 
 of earth thirty feet high ; but Marion, with his 
 mountaineers, had raised a work which over- 
 looked it in such a manner, that not a man in 
 the fort could show his head over the parapets, 
 or scarcely point his musket through a hole in 
 the walls, but the riflemen above would shoot 
 him. Greene was again defeated at Camden . 
 on the 25th of April, by nine hundred English 
 under Lord Raw don. 
 
 But in a month or two, the British lost si* 
 forts, and that of Augusta was among them 
 Here there were three hundred men, as a garri 
 son, who almost buried themselves undei 
 ground, while the Americans were building up 
 batteries within thirty yards, which swept the 
 fort through and through. Greene and all his 
 officers, and all his men, fought nobly the whole 
 season. " I will recover the Province," said the 
 general, " or die in the attempt." It is remarka- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 REV 
 
 463 
 
 REV 
 
 ble, that although his force was much inferior to 
 that of Cornwallis, and though he was frequently 
 defeated, yet, by his admirable manoeuvres, the 
 result of the campaign was entirely favorable to 
 the Americans, and injurious to the British. 
 
 Greene attacked the enemy at Eutaw Springs, 
 September 8th, and completely defeated them, 
 killing and capturing eleven hundred of their 
 best soldiers. In pursuing the enemy, one 
 Manning found himself surrounded by them. 
 He seized upon a small British officer ; and, be- 
 ing himself a stout man, placed him on his 
 shoulders, and retreated, the English not daring 
 to fire at him. The little officer was horribly 
 frightened, but Manning took good care of him. 
 
 The war was closed by the capture of Corn- 
 wallis, at Yorktown, on York River, Virginia. 
 He had left Carolina, and now expected to over- 
 run Virginia. But in September, the Ameri- 
 cans and French, under Washington, surround- 
 ed him from all quarters, on the land ; while the 
 French fleet, riding in Chesapeake Bay, blocked 
 up the mouths of the rivers, and kept the Eng- 
 lish fleet from coming in. 
 
 It was impossible for Clinton, with all his 
 forces at New York, to reinforce Cornwallis. 
 Washington had kept him in fear all summer, 
 and made him believe, till the last moment, that 
 he was to be besieged in New York. It was not 
 till August 24th, that Washington left his camp 
 on the Hudson, and marched through New Jer- 
 sey and Pennsylvania, to the head of the Chesa- 
 peake. The French Admiral De Grasse, who 
 had jast arrived, carried the American forces 
 down the bay to Yorktown. 
 
 The army passed through Philadelphia, on 
 this march, in the most splendid style. The 
 line was more than two miles long. The streets 
 were crowded with spectators ; and the win- 
 dows, to the highest stories, were filled with la- 
 dies, waving their handkerchiefs, as the gallant 
 troops passed by. It was a magnificent specta- 
 cle. There was Washington, with all his gen- 
 erals ; the French Count Rochambeau, with all 
 his; General Knox, with one hundred fine can- 
 non ; and the whole army, pressing on with 
 proud steps and a noble confidence. The music 
 was beautiful ; every body thought they would 
 conquer ; and, just at this time, news came, that 
 the French fleet had arrived in the Chesapeake. 
 The city rang with the shouts of the immense 
 multitude. 
 
 By the 7th of October, Cornwallis was com- 
 pletely besieged. He had raised intrench- 
 ments; but the allied army, the Americans and 
 French, had erected breast- works all about him, 
 
 circle after circle, and now opened a battery of 
 one hundred cannon. They fired day and night. 
 The roar was terrible. The ground, for miles, 
 shook with it ; and the bombs and shells were 
 seen whirling and crossing each other in the 
 dark sky, and blazing like comets. 
 
 If they fell upon the ground, it was torn up 
 for a rod around, and dozens were killed when 
 they burst. The bombs sometimes went over 
 the heads of the enemy, and fell among the Brit- 
 ish vessels in the harbor, near the British works 
 at Gloucester Point, on the other side of the river. 
 The water spouted in columns as they fell. 
 
 One night, an attack was made upon two re- 
 doubts, which the British had built out so far, 
 that they stood in the way of some American 
 works just building around them. The French 
 were ordered to take one redoubt, and the Amer- 
 icans, under Lafayette, the other. The two 
 parties tried to out-do each other. Lafayette 
 carried his redoubt first, however, and sent his 
 aid-de-camp to the leader of the French party, 
 through all the fire of the batteries, to tell him he 
 was in. " So will I be," said the Frenchman, "in 
 five minutes;" and he performed his promise. 
 
 Cornwallis surrendered on the 19th. His ar-. 
 my, of about seven thousand men, marched out, 
 at two o'clock, and passed between the Ameri- 
 can line on one side, and the French on the 
 other, stretched out for more than a mile. They 
 were all dressed in their most splendid uniforms, 
 with fine music, and colors flying. The Eng- 
 lish marched, carrying their colors bound up, 
 with a slow and solemn step. 
 
 The English general rode up to Washington, 
 at the head of the line, and excused the absence 
 of Cornwallis, who feigned sickness. Wash- 
 ington pointed him politely to General Lincoln, 
 and the latter directed him to a large field, where 
 the whole British army laid down their arms, 
 and were led away prisoners. After this capture, 
 the English gave up all hopes of success. No 
 fighting of any consequence took place, after 
 this, upon the land. 
 
 The British troops were wholly withdrawn 
 from the United States of America in the fol- 
 lowing season. The terms of peace with Eng- 
 land were settled by the British and American 
 ambassadors at Paris, in November, 1782. 
 
 The 3d of November, 1783, was fixed upon 
 by Congress for the final disbanding of the 
 American army. On the day previous, Wash- 
 ington issued his farewell orders, and bade an 
 affectionate adieu to the soldiers who had fought 
 with him in the great struggle, which was now 
 over. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 RHO 
 
 464 
 
 RIC 
 
 Soon after taking leave of the army, General 
 Washington was called to the still more painful 
 hour of separation from his officers, greatljr en- 
 deared to him by a long series of common suf- 
 ferings and dangers. 
 
 The officers, having previously assembled in 
 New York for the purpose, General Washing- 
 ton now joined them, and, calling for a glass of 
 wine, thus addressed them : " With a heart full 
 of love and gratitude, I now take my leave of 
 you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days 
 may be as prosperous and happy, as your former 
 ones have been glorious and honorable." 
 
 Having thus affectionately addressed them, 
 he took each by the hand, and bade him fare- 
 well. Followed by them to the side of the Hud- 
 son, he entered a barge, and, while tears flowed 
 down his cheeks, he turned towards the com- 
 panions of his glory, and bade them a silent adieu. 
 
 Thus ended the American Revolution. 
 
 REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, an eminent En- 
 glish painter, born at Plympton in Devonshire, 
 in 1723. He was particularly celebrated for his 
 portraits, in which he rejected the stiff, formal 
 style of his predecessors. In 1769 he was elect- 
 ed president of the royal academy and received 
 the honor of knighthood. He lived in habits 
 of intimacy with Johnson, Garrick, Burke, and 
 other eminent men of his time, and, although 
 afflicted with incurable deafness in the latter 
 part of his life, enjoyed conversation by means 
 of a trumpet. In 1791 his eyesight failed, and 
 the following year he died, at the age of seventy. 
 
 Mr. Burke once observed to Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds — " What a delight you have in your pro- 
 fession." — " No, Sir," said Dr. Johnson, taking 
 up the question, " Reynolds only paints to get 
 money — " Miss Hannah Moore, who was pre- 
 sent, defending Sir Joshua, insisted that the 
 pleasure experienced by the artist was derived 
 from higher and more luxuriant sources than 
 mere pecuniary consideration. " Only answer 
 me," said the moralist, in an impressive tone, 
 " did Leander swim the Hellespont merely be- 
 cause he was fond of swimming?" 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States, 
 bounded N. and E. by Massachusetts, S. by the 
 Atlantic ocean, and W. by Connecticut; con- 
 taining 1350 square miles, and 108,830 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 COUNTIES AND SHIRE TOWNS. 
 
 Bristol - - - Bristol 
 Kent - - - East Greenwich 
 
 Newport - - - Newport 
 Providence - - Providence. 
 
 Rhode Island is extensively engaged in man- 
 
 ufactures. The principal article is cotton goods. 
 The land in the vicinity of Narraganset bay is 
 very fertile, in other parts poor. Brown Uni- 
 versity, at Providence, is a well-endowed and 
 flourishing institution ; and education generally 
 receives careful attention. Roger Williams, a 
 minister who was driven from Massachusetts 
 on account of his religious principles, made the 
 first settlement in this state at Providence in 
 1636. He established a community in which 
 persecution for religion was unknown. The 
 official style of the state is the state of Rhode, 
 Island and Providence Plantations. The island 
 which gives its name to the state is in Narra- 
 ganset bay, is about 15 miles long and 3 broad, 
 healthy and pleasant, and containing 3 town- 
 ships, Newport, Portsmouth, and Middletown. 
 
 RHODES, an island in the Grecian archi- 
 pelago, 10 miles from the southern coast of Asia 
 Minor, now in the hands of the Turks. It was 
 formerly celebrated for the fertility of its soil, 
 its consecration to the gods, and its wonderful 
 works of art, including the celebrated Colossus 
 (see Colossus of Rhodes). It was made a Roman 
 province in the reign of Vespasian. In 1309 
 the knights of St. John held possession of it but 
 were forced to surrender it to Soliman II, in 
 1522. 
 
 RICHARD I, king of England, surnamed 
 Cceur de Lion, was born at Oxford, 1157, and 
 was crowned at London Sept. 3, 1189 ; released 
 the king and people of Scotland from their oaths 
 of homage they had taken to his father, for 
 10,000 marks, Dec. 5, 1189; embarked at Do- 
 ver, Dec. 11 ; set out on the crusade, and joined 
 Philip of France on the plains of Vezelay, June 
 29, 1190; took Messina the latter end of the 
 year ; married Berengera, daughter of the king 
 of Navarre, May 12, 1191 ; defeated the Cyprf- 
 ans, and took their king prisoner, 1191 ; and 
 was taken prisoner near Vienna, on his return 
 home, by Leopold, Duke of Austria, Dec. 20, 
 1192, by whom he was detained two years, and 
 was ransomed for 40,000/., and set at liberty at 
 Mentz. He returned to England March 20, 
 1194, but a war breaking out between England 
 and France, King Richard besieged the castle 
 of Chaluz, near Limoges, in Normandy, where 
 he was shot with an arrow, and died April 6. 
 1199; he was buried at Fontevraud, and suc- 
 ceeded by his brother. 
 
 RICHARD II, King of England, was born 
 at Bourdeaux in 1367, and succeeded King Ed- 
 ward III in 1377. Being only eleven years old 
 when he came to the crown, the kingdom was 
 governed, during his minority, by his uncles, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 RIC 
 
 465 
 
 RID 
 
 the Dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester. His 
 reign was disturbed by the famous rebellion of 
 Wat Tyler and Jack Straw. He next found 
 himself involved in a war with the barons, who 
 forced him at last to sacrifice his misleading fa- 
 vorites to their revenge. But the events which 
 proved most fatal to him were the Duke of 
 Gloucester's death, whom he caused to be 
 smothered, and his unjust seizure of the Duke 
 of Lancaster's goods upon his decease. Upon 
 these provocations, Richard, having gone to 
 Ireland to pacify a disturbance there, Henry, 
 the young Duke of Lancaster, landed in England 
 with some forces, which soon increased to a great 
 number by the discontented party. The Duke 
 of York, whom King Richard had left to govern 
 the kingdom in his absence, could gain but little 
 assistance to oppose the Duke of Lancaster. 
 The king's affairs now bore so dismal an aspect, 
 that he offered to resign his crown. On this, 
 he was conducted to London, where he was 
 lodged in the Tower. A parliament was sum- 
 moned at Westminster, in which. King Richard 
 was charged with the breach of his coronation 
 oath, in thirty-two articles ; the result of which 
 was, his solemn resignation of the crown to his 
 cousin Henry, Duke of Lancaster, which was 
 accepted by the parliament. Thus the house 
 of Lancaster obtained the throne in the person 
 of this Henry IV of that name ; till the house 
 of York prevailing in the reign of Henry VI, 
 the Lancasterian line lost the crown. Upon 
 this resignation, King Richard was removed to 
 Pomfret Castle, where he was soon after mur- 
 dered, Feb. 13,1400. 
 
 RICHARD III, formerly duke of Gloucester, 
 was the youngest brother of King Edward IV, 
 and the last king of England of the line of York. 
 This wicked prince, to obtain the crown and 
 secure it when it was in his possession, spared 
 nothing that stood in his way. Having first 
 killed King Henry VI, and Prince Edward his 
 son, he next procured the death of the Duke of 
 Clarence, his own brother, by an impeachment 
 of high-treason in the reign of Edward IV. Ed- 
 ward dying, left two sons in their nonage, Ed- 
 ward V, his next successor, and Richard. Be- 
 fore Edward could be crowned, Richard, his 
 uncle, seated himself on the throne by the as- 
 sistance of the Duke of Buckingham. 
 
 This being done, he had Edward and his 
 brother, then in the Tower, smothered in their 
 beds. There was then at the court of the Duke 
 of Bretagne, in France, Henry, earl of Rich- 
 mond, the next heir to the house of Lancaster, 
 whose advancement to the crown Buckingham, 
 
 with some others of the conspiracy, resolved 
 upon ; with this sage proviso, that Henry should 
 consent to marry the Lady Elizabeth, eldest 
 daughter of King Edward IV, in order to unite 
 the two houses of York and Lancaster; but be- 
 fore the plot was carried into execution, the 
 duke being betrayed by an old servant of his, 
 lost his head without any form of trial. Henry t 
 in the mean time, was preparing to come over," 
 and landed soon after with 200 men at Milford 
 Haven. At last, with a body of 5000 men, he 
 encountered King Richard at Bosworth, in Lei- 
 cestershire, in 1485. The battle was sharp, and 
 some time doubtful ; and at last Henry gained 
 the day, and by this single victory obtained the 
 crown. Richard was killed in the field, and 
 was buried at Leicester. (See Bosworth Field.) 
 
 King Richard is erroneously represented as 
 a deformed person. He was of small stature, 
 but not otherwise noticeable. Walpole has 
 done much towards removing some of the darker 
 stains upon his character. 
 
 RICHELIEU, (Armand Jean du Plessis), a 
 cardinal and statesman, was born of a noble 
 family at Paris, in J 585. He studied in the 
 Sorbonne, and in 1607 obtained the bishopric 
 of Lucon. He was also appointed grand-al- 
 moner, and in 1G1G made secretary of state. 
 When Mary de Medici fell into disgrace, Rich- 
 elieu was banished to Avignon, where he wrote 
 his "Method of Controversy." Being soon 
 after recalled to court, he brought about a rec- 
 onciliation between the king and queen, for 
 which he was rewarded with a cardinal's hat, 
 and appointed prime minister, in which situa- 
 tion he displayed extraordinary talents. He 
 subdued the Protestants, reduced Savoy, hum- 
 bled Spain, struck terror into Germany, and 
 commanded the admiration of all Europe. In 
 the midst of this splendor, he died Dec. 4, 
 1642, and was buried at the Sorbonne, where 
 Girardon constructed a magnificent mausoleum 
 to his memory. 
 
 RIDLEY (Nicholas), a Protestant martyr, 
 was born in Northumberland. To qualify him- 
 self for divinity, he went to Paris, and studied 
 some time in the Sorbonne. On his return he 
 was chosen proctor of the university, in which 
 capacity he signed the declaration against the 
 papal supremacy. He was also elected public 
 orator, and archbishop Cranmer made him his 
 chaplain. Soon after this he became master of 
 Pembroke Hall, with which he held some con- 
 siderable church preferment at Canterbury and 
 Westminster. On the accession of Edward VI, 
 he was consecrated bishop of Rochester; and, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ROB 
 
 466 
 
 ROB 
 
 m 1550, was translated to London, where he 
 discharged the duties of his office with unwea- 
 ried diligence. He was also employed in all 
 the ecclesiastical measures of that reign, par- 
 ticularly in the compiling of the liturgy, and the 
 framing of the articles of religion. But one of 
 the most distinguished occurrences in the life 
 of this great prelate, was that of inciting King 
 Edward to endow the three great foundations 
 of Christ's, Bartholomew's, and St. Thomas's 
 hospitals. It was the misfortune, however, of 
 the bishop, to become the dupe of the Duke of 
 Northumberland, who prevailed upon him to 
 concur in the proclamation of Lady Jane Grey. 
 For this he was committed to the Tower, and 
 after a confinement of eight months, sent to 
 Oxford, there to hold a disputation with the tri- 
 umphant party. This mockery was followed 
 by a degradation from the episcopal dignity, 
 and sentence of condemnation to the flames, 
 which he endured with the venerable Latimer 
 before Baliol College, Oct. 15, 1555. 
 
 RIZZIO (David), a Piedmontese musician, 
 who ingratiated himself into the favor of Mary 
 queen of Scotland. He became her secretary 
 for French despatches, and was the only avenue 
 by which honors or emolument could be ob- 
 tained ; at the same time that he became more 
 and more obnoxious to the whole kingdom, 
 particularly to the nobles. He was barbarously 
 assassinated by Darnley, the husband of Mary, 
 on the suspicion of a criminal intercourse be- 
 tween her and Rizzio. 
 
 ROBERT II, king of Scotland, and first of 
 the Stuarts, succeeded David Bruce, his uncle, 
 in 1371. At the solicitation of Charles V of 
 France, he invaded England, took Berwick and 
 Perth, and defeated 15,000 English, who invaded 
 Scotland, under General Talbot. A truce being 
 agreed upon betwixt the English and French 
 soon after, in which the Scots were compre- 
 hended, the English invaded the Scots before 
 the publication, wasting the lands of the Doug- 
 lasses and Lindsays. The truce being ended, 
 the Scots invaded England ; on which, Richard 
 II invaded Scotland with 60,000 foot and 8000 
 horse. The Scots, not having force enough to 
 fight him, invaded England again, to divert him. 
 The Scots designed to invade England again, 
 but knowing the king to be of a peaceable in- 
 clination, and his eldest son unfit for war, they 
 made application to Robert, earl of Fife, the 
 second, and levied 30,000 men privately for the 
 expedition. 
 
 The Scots divided their army into two parts ; 
 the greatest commanded by the king's two sons, 
 
 marched towards Carlisle. Douglas, with 300 
 horse and 2000 foot entered Northumberland. 
 The great army carried all before them without 
 opposition ; but Douglas, having wasted the 
 country as far as Durham, came before New- 
 castle, and threatened it with a siege. He staid 
 before the town two days, which were spent in 
 skirmishes ; and at last the generals, Douglas 
 and Percy agreed upon a personal rencounter, 
 wherein Percy was dismounted and disarmed ; 
 but his men coming to his rescue, he was saved. 
 Douglas now marched off with his men, and 
 attacked Otterburn castle. Douglas resolved 
 to stay there and answer Percy's challenge; 
 who, marching against him with 10,000 men, 
 had nearly surprised him at supper. 
 
 But the alarm being given, and the Scots ad- 
 vantageously posted, the battle began with great 
 vigor. Douglas broke into the thick of the en- 
 emy, and made a terrible slaughter, but before 
 his men came up, he had received three mortal 
 wounds. The English, at length, were totally 
 routed, 1840 slain, 1000 wounded, and 1040 
 taken prisoners. The Scots carried off the Per- 
 cies, with four hundred prisoners of note ; dis- 
 missed the rest; took Douglas's corpse, with 
 those of other great men, along with them, and 
 buried them at Melrose. This victory was ob- 
 tained July 21, 1388, but Douglas was so deeply 
 lamented, that both the Scots armies returned 
 home as melancholy as if they had been con- 
 quered. King Robert died April 19, 1300, in 
 the 19th year of his reign. 
 
 ROBERT III, called John Robert, succeeded 
 Robert II in 1390. He was the first who cre- 
 ated dukes in Scotland ; and his brother, the 
 viceroy, was made Duke of Albany ; but Doug- 
 las refused this new title. A war happened af- 
 terwards with England, in which the Earl of 
 March took part with the English, who invaded 
 the kingdom, and besieged Edinburgh castle; 
 the English returning without having effected 
 their purpose, the Scots invaded Northumber- 
 land, and were surprised and defeated on re- 
 turning with their spoil ; when Archibald Doug- 
 las gathered 10,000 men, but was defeated, 
 taken prisoner, and many of the nobles slain, 
 by Henry Percy of Northumberland, and George 
 earl of March abovementioned, May 7, 1401. 
 
 In the mean time all things went to ruin in 
 Scotland, by the tyranny of the governor, who 
 starved his nephew, the prince, to death; so 
 that the king was obliged to secure James by 
 sending him to France ; but landing at Flam- 
 borough in Yorkshire, he was detained prisoner 
 by the English, contrary to the truce, which so 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ROD 
 
 467 
 
 ROM 
 
 afflicted his father, that he died April 1, 1406, 
 and the government was settled upon his broth- 
 er ; during whose administration the English 
 invaded Scotland, and overran the southern 
 counties. 
 
 In 1419 auxiliaries were sent to France under 
 the Earl of Buchan, who defeated the Duke of 
 Clarence ; for which the Earl of Buchan was 
 made Lord High Constable of France. Robert, 
 the governor of Scotland, died in 1420, and his 
 son Murdo succeeded him : during whose re- 
 gency more auxiliaries were sent to France, 
 and Douglas was created Duke of Touraine in 
 that kingdom ; but they were twice defeated by 
 the English, under John duke of Bedford, who 
 carried James I king of Scotland with him, be- 
 ing still prisoner since his arrival at Flambo- 
 rough. James being prevailed upon to forbid 
 his subjects to fight against that army where 
 he was in person, they answered, that they did 
 not acknowledge him for their king while he 
 was in the power of his enemy. But not long 
 after, Murdo, the governor, being displeased 
 with the insolence of his own sons, James I was 
 ransomed and brought home in 1423. 
 
 ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- 
 worth, Marquis of, came into power on the 
 dissolution of the Grenville administration, in 
 1765, and was appointed first Lord of the Trea- 
 sury. He was a nobleman possessing but a 
 mediocrity of understanding, and noway scal- 
 culated to warrant the expectation of his long 
 continuance in office : he was, however, a man 
 of disinterested principles and unaffected patri- 
 otism. The chief business of his administration 
 was to undo all that his predecessors had done, 
 particularly repealing the stamp and cider acts. 
 In 1766 he was succeeded in his office by the 
 Duke of Grafton. 
 
 RODNEY, Caesar, a signer of the American 
 declaration of independence, was born at Dover, 
 Delaware, about 1730. He successively filled 
 the offices of high sheriff, justice of the peace, 
 and judge of the lower courts, and represented 
 his county in the provincial legislature. In 
 1775 he was made brigadier-general. In 1777 
 he remained for two months in the camp near 
 Princeton, laboriously occupied. For four years 
 he was president of his state, but retired from 
 office in 1782, and died the following year. 
 
 RODNEY, George, Brydges, admiral, was 
 the son of captain Henry Rodney, a naval officer. 
 He was born in 1717, entered early into the 
 navy, and in 1742 obtained the command of a 
 ship. In 1749 he was appointed Governor of 
 Newfoundland; and on his return, in 1753, 
 40 
 
 married the sister of the Earl of Northampton. 
 In 1759 he was made Admiral of the Blue ; and 
 the same year destroyed the stores, prepared at 
 Havre de Grace, for an invasion of England. 
 In 1761 he served on the West India station 
 with such activity, that at the conclusion o'f the 
 war he was made a baronet. In 1768 he was 
 elected into parliament for Northampton ; but 
 the contest ruined his estate. In 1771 he went 
 to Jamaica as commander-in-chief; and at the 
 expiration of the term of service, retired to 
 France, where overtures were made to him on 
 the part of that government, which he refused 
 with indignation. In 1779 he was again called 
 into employment ; and the year following, by 
 defeating the Spanish fleet, off Cape St. Vin- 
 cent, he saved Gibraltar. After this he went 
 to the West Indies, where, on the 12th of April, 
 1782, he gained a great victory over Count de 
 Grasse ; for which he was made a peer. He 
 died in London, May 24, 1792. 
 
 ROE, Sir Thomas, a statesman, was born 
 about 1560, at Low Layton, in Essex, and ed- 
 ucated at Magdalen college, Oxford ; after which 
 he became a student of one of the Inns of court. 
 In 1604 he was knighted, and soon after went 
 to make discoveries in America. In 1614 he 
 was sent on an embassy to the Mogul, at whose 
 court he remained three years. In 1621 he 
 went in the same capacity to Constantinople, 
 and during his residence there, collected a num- 
 ber of manuscripts, which he presented to the 
 Bodleian library. In 1629, Sir Thomas negoti- 
 ated a peace between Poland and Sweden : and 
 it was by his advice, that Gustavus Adolphus 
 entered Germany, where he gained the battle 
 of Leipsic. In 1640 he was chosen to repre- 
 sent the university of Oxford in parliament. 
 The next year he was sent ambassador to the 
 diet of Ratisbon, and on his return was made 
 Chancellor of the Garter. He died in 1644. 
 
 ROME, a city of Italy, the capital of the Ro- 
 man empire, situate on the banks of the river 
 Tiber, at the distance of about sixteen miles 
 from the sea. The name of its founder, and the 
 manner of its foundation, are not precisely 
 known. Romulus, however, is universally 
 supposed to have laid the foundations of that 
 celebrated city, on the 20th of April, according 
 to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 
 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 
 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the 
 Trojan war, and in the 4th year of the sixth 
 Olympiad. 
 
 In its original state, Rome was but a small 
 castle on the summit of Mount Palatine ; and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 ROM 
 
 468 
 
 ROM 
 
 the founder, to give his followers the appear- 
 ance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was 
 obliged to erect a standard as a common asylum, 
 for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who 
 fled from their native country to avoid the pun- 
 ishment which attended them. From such an 
 assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, 
 and before the death of the founder, the Ro- 
 mans had covered with their habitations, the 
 Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, 
 with Mount Cashus, and Quirinalis. 
 
 After many successful wars against the neigh- 
 boring states, the views of Romulus were di- 
 rected to regulate a nation naturally fierce, war- 
 like, and uncivilized. Under the successors of 
 Romulus, the power of Rome was increased, 
 and the boundaries of her dominions extended ; 
 while one was employed in regulating the forms 
 of worship, and inculcating in the minds of his 
 subjects a reverence for the Deity, another was 
 engaged in enforcing discipline among the ar- 
 my, and raising the consequence of the soldiers 
 in the government of the state ; and a third 
 made the object of his administration consist in 
 adorning his capital, in beautifying its edifices, 
 and in fortifying it with towers and walls. 
 
 During 244 years the Romans were governed 
 by kings, but the tyranny, the oppression, and 
 the violence of the last of these monarchs, and 
 of his family, became so atrocious, that a revo- 
 lution was effected in the state, and the demo- 
 cratical government was established. The 
 monarchical government existed under seven 
 princes, who began to reign in the following 
 order : Romulus, B. C. 753 ; and after one 
 year's interregnum, Numa, 715; Tullus Hosti- 
 lius, 672 ; Ancus Martius,' 640 ; Tarquin Pris- 
 cus, 616; Servius Tullius, 578; and Tarquin 
 the Proud, 534, expelled 25 years after, B. C. 
 504 ; and this regal administration has been 
 properly denominated the infancy of the Roman 
 empire. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Tarquins from the 
 throne, the Romans became more sensible of 
 their consequence : with their liberty they ac- 
 quired a spirit of faction, and became so jealous 
 of their independence, that the first of their con- 
 suls who had been the most zealous and ani- 
 mated in the assertion of their freedom, was 
 banished from the city because he bore the 
 name, and was of the family of the tyrants ; and 
 another, to stop their suspicions, was obliged to 
 pull down his house, whose stateliness and 
 magnificence above the rest, seemed incompati- 
 ble with the duties and the rank of a private 
 citizen. 
 
 To the fame which their conquests and daily 
 successes had gained abroad, the Romans were 
 not a little indebted for their gradual rise to 
 superiority ; and to this may be added the poli- 
 cy of the census, which every fifth year told 
 them their actual strength, and how many citi- 
 zens were able to bear arms. And, indeed, it 
 was no small satisfaction to a people, who were 
 continually making war, to see, that in spite of 
 all the losses which they might sustain in the 
 field, the increase of the inhabitants of the city 
 was prodigious, and almost incredible : and had 
 Romulus lived after the battle of Actium, he 
 would have been persuaded with difficulty of 
 the great number of inhabitants contained with- 
 in those walls, which, in the most flourishing 
 period of his reign, could scarce muster an ar- 
 my of 3000 infantry and 300 horse. 
 
 But when Rome had flourished under the 
 consular government for about 120 years, and 
 had beheld with pleasure the conquests of her 
 citizens over the neighboring states and cities, 
 which, according to a Roman historian, she was 
 ashamed to recollect in the summit of her pow- 
 er, an irruption of the barbarians of Gaul ren- 
 dered her very existence precarious, and her 
 name was nearly extinguished. The valor of 
 an injured individual, Camillus, saved it from 
 destruction, yet not before its buildings and 
 temples were reduced to ashes. 
 
 This celebrated event, which gave the appel- 
 lation of another founder of Rome to Camillus, 
 has been looked upon as a glorious era to the 
 Romans. But no sooner were they freed from 
 the fears of their barbarian invaders, than they 
 turned their arms against those states which re- 
 fused to acknowledge their superiority, or yield 
 their independence. Their wars with Pyrrhus 
 and the Tarentines, displayed their character in 
 a different view ; if they before had fought for 
 freedom and independence, they now drew their 
 swords for glory ; and here we may see them 
 conquered in the field, and yet refusing to grant 
 that peace for which their conqueror himself 
 had sued. The advantages they gained from 
 their battles with Pyrrhus were many. The 
 Roman name became known in Greece, Sicily, 
 and Africa, and in losing or gaining a victory, 
 the Romans were enabled to examine the ma- 
 noeuvres, observe the discipline, and contem- 
 plate the order and the encampments of those 
 soldiers whose friends and ancestors had accom- 
 panied Alexander the Great in the conquest of 
 Asia. 
 
 Italy became subjected to the Romans at the 
 end of the 'war with the Tarentines, and that 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 ROM 
 
 469 
 
 ROM 
 
 period of time has been called the second age, 
 or the adolescence of the Roman empire. Af- 
 ter this memorable era, they tried their strength 
 not only with distant nations, but also upon a 
 new element ; and in the long wars which they 
 waged against Carthage, they were successful, 
 and obtained the sovereignty of the sea : and 
 though Hannibal for sixteen years kept them 
 in continual alarms, hovered round their gates, 
 and destroyed their armies almost before their 
 walls, yet they were doomed to conquer, and 
 soon to add the kingdom of Macedonia and the 
 provinces of Asia to their empire. 
 
 Yet while their conquests were so extensive 
 abroad, we find them torn by factions at home ; 
 and so far was the resentment of the poorer cit- 
 izens carried, that we see the enemy at the gates 
 of the city, while all are unwilling to take up 
 arms and to unite in the defence of their com- 
 mon liberty. The senators and nebles were 
 ambitious of power, and endeavored to retain in 
 their hands that influence which had been ex- 
 ercised with so much success, and such cruelty, 
 by their monarchs. This was the continual 
 occasion of tumults and sedition. The people 
 were jealous of their liberty. The oppression 
 of the nobles irritated them, and the stripes to 
 which they were too often exposed without 
 mercy, were often productive of revolutions. 
 
 The plebeians, though originally the poorest 
 and most contemptible citizens of an indigent 
 nation, whose food in the first ages of the em- 
 pire was only bread and salt, and whose drink 
 was water, soon gained rights and privileges by 
 their opposition. Though really slaves, they 
 became powerful in the state ; one concession 
 from the patricians produced another, and when 
 their independence was boldly asserted by their 
 tribunes, they were admitted to share in the 
 highest offices of the state, the laws which for- 
 bade the intermarriage of plebeian and patrician 
 families were repealed, and the meanest peasant 
 could by valor and fortitude be raised to the dig- 
 nity of dictator and consul. It was not till these 
 privileges were obtained by the people from the 
 senate, that Rome began to enjoy internal peace 
 and tranquillity, her battles were then fought 
 .with more vigor, her soldiers were more anima- 
 ted, and her sovereignty was more universally 
 established. 
 
 But supreme power, lodged in the hands of a 
 factious and ambitious citizen, becomes too often 
 dangerous. The greatest oppression and tyran- 
 ny took the place of subordination and obedi- 
 ence ; and from those causes proceeded the un- 
 parralleled slaughter and effusion of blood under 
 
 a Sylla and a Marius. It has been justly ob- 
 served, that the first Romans conquered their 
 enemies by valor, temperance, and fort? f . de , 
 their moderation also and their justice were 
 well known among their neighbors, and not only 
 private possessions, but even mighty kingdoms 
 and empires, were left in their power, to be dis- 
 tributed among a family, or to be ensured in the 
 hands of a successor. 
 
 They were also chosen umpires to decide 
 quarrels, but in this honorable office they con- 
 sulted their own interest; they artfully sup- 
 ported the weaker side, that the more powerful 
 might be reduced, and gradually become their 
 prey. 
 
 Under J. Caesar and Pompey, the rage of civil 
 war was carried to unprecedented excess : it 
 was not merely to avenge a private injury, but it 
 was a contest for the sovereignty ; and though 
 each of the adversaries wore the mask of pre- 
 tended sincerity, and professed himself to be the 
 supporter of the republic, no less than the abo- 
 lition of freedom and the public liberty was the 
 aim. What Julius began, his adopted son 
 achieved : the ancient spirit of national inde- 
 pendence was extinguished at Rome ; and after 
 the battle of Actium, the Romans seemed una- 
 ble to govern themselves without the assist- 
 ance of a chief, who, under the title of impera- 
 tor, an appellation given to every commander 
 by his army after some signal victory, reigned 
 with as much power and as much sovereignty 
 as another Tarquin. 
 
 Under their emperors, the Romans lived a 
 luxurious and indolent life, they had long forgot 
 to appear in the field, and their wars were left 
 to be waged by mercenary troops, who fought 
 without spirit or animosity, and who were ever 
 ready to yield to him who bought their allegi- 
 ance and fidelity with the greatest sums of 
 money. Their leaders themselves were not the 
 most prudent or the most humane ; the power 
 which they had acquired by bribery was indeed 
 precarious, and among a people, where not only 
 the highest offices of the state, but even the 
 imperial purple itself are exposed to sale, there 
 cannot be expected much happiness or tranquil- 
 lity in the palace of the emperor. 
 
 The reigns of the successors of Augustus 
 were distinguished by variety ; one was the 
 most abandoned and profligate of men, whom 
 his own vices and extravagance hurried out of 
 the world, while his successor, perhaps the 
 most clement, just, and popular of princes, was 
 sacrificed in the midst of his guards and attend 
 ants, by the dagger of some offended favorite or 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ROM 
 
 470 
 
 ROM 
 
 disappointed eunuch. Few indeed were the 
 emperors of Rome whose days were not short- 
 ened by poison, or the sword of an assassin. If 
 one for some time had the imprudence to trust 
 himself in the midst of a multitude, at last to 
 perish by his own credulity, the other consult- 
 ed his safety, but with no better success, in the 
 innumerable chambers of his palace, and changed 
 every day, to elude discovery, the place of his 
 retirement. After they had been governed by a 
 race of princes, remarkable for the variety of 
 their characters, the Roman possessions were 
 divided into two distinct empires, by the enter- 
 prising Constantine, A. D. 328. Constantino- 
 ple became the seat of the eastern empire, and 
 Rome remained in the possession of the west- 
 ern emperors, and continued to be the capital 
 of their dominions. 
 
 In the year 800 of the Christian era, Rome 
 with Italy was delivered by Charlemagne, the 
 then emperor of the west, into the hands of the 
 pope, who still continues to hold the sovereign- 
 ty, and to maintain his independence under the 
 name of the Ecclesiastical States. 
 
 The original poverty of the Romans has often 
 been disguised by their poets and historians, 
 who wished it to appear that a nation who were 
 masters of the world, had had a better begin- 
 ning than a race of shepherds and robbers. Yet 
 it was to this simplicity they were indebted for 
 their successes. Their houses were originally 
 destitute of every ornament, they were made 
 with unequal boards, and covered with mud, 
 and these served them rather as a shelter against 
 the inclemency of the seasons than for relaxa- 
 tion and ease. Till the age of Pyrrhus, they 
 despised riches, and many salutary laws were 
 enacted to restrain luxury and to punish indo- 
 lence. They observed great temperance in their 
 meals ; young men were not permitted to drink 
 wine till they had attained their 30th year, and 
 it was totally forbidden to women. 
 
 Their national spirit was supported by pol- 
 icy ; the triumphal procession of a conqueror 
 along the streets amidst the applause of thou- 
 sands, was well calculated to promote emula- 
 tion ; and the number of gladiators who were 
 regularly introduced, not only in public games 
 and spectacles, but also at private meetings, 
 served to cherish their fondness for war, whilst 
 it steeled their hearts against the calls of com- 
 passion ; and when they could gaze with plea- 
 sure upon wretches whom they forcibly obliged 
 to murder one another, they were not inactive 
 in the destruction of those whom they consid- 
 ered as inveterate foes or formidable rivals in 
 the field. 
 
 In their punishments, civil as well as milita- 
 ry, the Romans were strict and rigorous ; a de- 
 serter was severely whipped and sold as a slave, 
 and the degradation from the rank of a soldier 
 and dignity of a citizen was the most ignomin- 
 ious stigma which could be affixed upon a se- 
 ditious mutineer. 
 
 The transmarine victories of the Romans 
 proved at last the ruin of their innocence and 
 bravery. They grew fond of the luxury of the 
 Asiatics : and conquered, by the vices and indo- 
 lence of those nations whom they had subdued, 
 they became as effeminate and as dissolute as 
 their captives. Marcellus was the first who in- 
 troduced a taste for the fine arts among his 
 countrymen. The spoils and treasures that 
 were obtained in the plunder of Syracuse and 
 Corinth, rendered the Romans partial to ele 
 gant refinement and ornamental equipage. 
 Though Cato had despised philosophy, and de- 
 clared that war was the only profession of his 
 countrymen, the Romans, by their intercourse 
 with the Greeks, soon became fond of litera- 
 ture ; and though they had once banished the 
 sophists of Athens from their city, yet they be- 
 held with rapture their settlement among them 
 in the principal towns of Italy, after the con- 
 quest of Achaia. 
 
 They soon after began to imitate their pol- 
 ished captives, and to cultivate poetry with suc- 
 cess. From the valor of their heroes and con- 
 querors, indeed, the sublimest subjects were 
 offered to the genius of their poets ; but of the 
 little that remains to celebrate the early victo- 
 ries of Rome, nothing can be compared to the 
 nobler effusions of the Augustan age. 
 
 There were no less than 420 temples at Rome, ' 
 crowded with statues, the priests were nume- 
 rous, and each divinity had a particular college 
 of sacerdotal servants. Their wars were de- 
 clared in the most awful and solemn manner, 
 and prayers were always offered in the temples 
 for the prosperity of Rome, when a defeat had 
 been sustained, or a victory won. The power 
 of fathers over their children was very exten- 
 sive, and indeed unlimited ; they could sell 
 them or put them to death at pleasure, without 
 the forms of a trial, or the interference of the 
 civil magistrate. Many of their ancient fami- ' 
 lies were celebrated for the great men whom 
 they had produced, hut the vigorous and inter- 
 ested part they took in the government of the 
 republic exposed them often to danger; and 
 some have observed that the Romans sunk into 
 indolence and luxury when the Cornelii, the 
 Fabii, the iEmilii, the Marcelli, &c, who had 
 so often supported their spirit and led them to 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ROM 
 
 471 
 
 ROM 
 
 victory, had been extinguished in the bloody 
 wars of Marius and of the two triumvirates. 
 When Rome was become powerful, she was 
 distinguished from other cities by the flattery 
 of her neighbors and citizens ; a form of wor- 
 ship was established to her as a deity, and tem- 
 ples were raised in her honor, not only in the 
 city but in the provinces. 
 
 Emperors, from Julius Caesar to Jovian, dis- 
 tinguishing the length of their reign and its 
 commencement. 
 
 r. B. c. 
 
 Julius Caesar 16 — 46 
 
 Augustus 43 — 30 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Tiberius 22 — 14 
 
 Caligula 4— 36 
 
 Claudius •. 14 — 40 
 
 Nero 14 — 54 
 
 Galba, Otho and Vitellius 1± — 69 
 
 Vespasian 10 — 69 
 
 Titus 3—78 
 
 Domitian 15 — 81 
 
 Nerva 1— 96 
 
 Trajan 19— 97 
 
 Adrian 21 — 116 
 
 Antoninus Pius 23 — 137 
 
 Aurelius 19 — 161 
 
 Commodus . . .• 13 — 180 
 
 Pertinax 1 — 193 
 
 Severus 17 — 194 
 
 Caracalla 7 — 211 
 
 Helio<?:il)alus 4 — 218 
 
 Alexander 13 — 222 
 
 Maximums 3 — 235 
 
 Gordian, jun 6 — 238 
 
 Philip 5 — 244 
 
 Decius 2 — 249 
 
 Gallus 3 — 251 
 
 Gallienus 14 — 254 
 
 Claudius 2 — 268 
 
 Aurelian 5 — 270 
 
 Tacitus 1 — 275 
 
 Probus 6 — 276 
 
 Numerian 2 — 282 
 
 Dioclesian 20 — 284 
 
 Constantine Chlorus 3 — 304 
 
 Constantine the Great 30 — 307 
 
 Constantius II 24 — 337 
 
 Julian 2 — 361 
 
 Jovian 1 — 363 
 
 Valentinian succeeded in 364, when the em- 
 pire was divided into the eastern and western 
 branches, of which the latter terminated in 476, 
 and the former in 1453, when Constantinople 
 was taken by the Turks. 
 
 The following description of the city of Rome 
 will prove interesting and useful. 
 
 Rome was built on the banks of the river 
 Tiber, on seven hills called Palatinus, Capito- 
 linus, Aventinus, Quirinalis, Ccelius, Viminalis, 
 and Esquilinus : as the city increased in size, 
 three others were added ; the Janiculum, Vatica- 
 nus and Hortulorum. 
 40* 
 
 It was at first nearly square, containing about 
 1000 houses, and was almost a mile in circum- 
 ference; but in its most flourishing state the 
 walls surrounded a space of 50 miles, and it 
 reckoned 4,000,000 of inhabitants. The gates, 
 at the death of Romulus, were four ; but at 
 length it had no less than 37, the principal of 
 which were Triumphalis, Esquilina, Flaminia, 
 Carmentalis, Quirinalis and Viminalis. 
 
 Romulus divided the city into three tribes; 
 to these Servius Tullus added a fourth ; but 
 Augustus found it necessary, for the better 
 order and government of the city, to divide it 
 into 14 regions or wards. 
 
 Rome abounded with magnificent buildings ; 
 Temples, Theatres, Amphitheatres, and places 
 for exercise or amusements, buildings, for the 
 assemblies of the people, public places, piazzas 
 or porticoes, columns, triumphal arches and 
 trophies, aqueducts, public sewers and high- 
 roads. The chief temples were the Capitol, the 
 Pantheon, the temple of Janus, and that of 
 Saturn. 
 
 The Pantheon was built by Agrippa, son-in- 
 law to Augustus, and dedicated to all the gods : 
 it is of a circular form, and has no windows ; 
 but its roof, which is in the shape of a dome, 
 has an opening on the top for the admission of 
 light. The top was covered with silver plates, 
 but their place is now supplied with lead ; the 
 walls in the inside were either solid marble, or 
 incrusted ; the front on the outside was covered 
 with brazen plates gilt; and the gate was of 
 brass, of extraordinary work and size. It is 
 now called the Rotunda, and is' a Christian 
 church, consecrated to the Virgin Mary and All 
 Saints : the ascent to it was by 12 steps ; but 
 the descent is now by as many, the earth 
 around being so much raised by the demolition 
 of houses. The temple of Saturn served for 
 the public treasury, as being the most secure 
 place in the city : here were preserved the mi- 
 litary ensigns, among which were the public 
 records and registers, the great ivory tables, con- 
 taining a list of all the tribes, and the schemes 
 of the public accounts. The temple of Janus 
 was remarkable for its two brazen gates, one 
 on each side ; which were to be open in time of 
 war, and shut in time of peace. There were 
 numerous temples dedicated to Apollo, Juno, 
 Mars, and other gods : there were also build- 
 ings called curias, where the inhabitants of each 
 curia or parish met to perform divine service. 
 The theatres were of a semi-circular form ; 
 sometimes so large as to contain 80,000 persons : 
 the seats rose one above another ; and were 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ROM 
 
 472 
 
 ROM 
 
 divided into three ranges, appropriated to the 
 senators, knights, and commons. Amphithea- 
 tres were buildings of a round or oval shape, 
 appropriated to the greater shows of gladiators, 
 wild beasts. &c. 
 
 A circus was a place used for the celebration 
 of chariot races and other popular sports, and 
 for making harangues ; they were usually ob- 
 long, with ranges of seats for the convenience 
 of the spectators. The most remarkable was 
 the Circus Maximus : it was a mile in circum- 
 ference ; containing seats for 150,000 spectators, 
 and was extremely beautiful. 
 
 The Naumachise were places for exhibiting 
 naval engagements, built nearly in the form of 
 a circus : some of them were of such amazing 
 extent, that considerable fleets engaged in them 
 without inconvenience. The principal public 
 place in Rome was the Forum Romanum : the 
 Campus Martius, or field of Mars, was without 
 the city. The Forum was a large oblong open 
 space, where the assemblies of the people were 
 held, where justice was administered, and pub- 
 lic business transacted : it was entirely sur- 
 rounded with arched porticoes, within which 
 were spacious halls called basilicce, where courts 
 of justice might sit for the decision of private 
 affairs. The Campus Martius was a large plain 
 along the Tiber, where the Roman youth prac- 
 tised all kinds of feats of activity, and learned 
 the use of arms : it was adorned with the sta- 
 tues of famous men, and with triumphal arches, 
 columns, porticoes, and other magnificent struc- 
 tures. The piazzas, or porticoes, were among 
 the most splendid ornaments of the city, being 
 supported on marble pillars, and adorned with 
 statues. They were used chiefly for walking 
 and riding under cover : under these also au- 
 thors recited their works, and philosophers dis- 
 puted. Many pillars were erected at Rome in 
 honor of great men, or to commemorate illus- 
 trious actions ; the most remarkable are those 
 of Trajan and Antoninus Pius. Trajan's pillar, 
 which is still standing in the middle of a forum, 
 is composed of 24 pieces of marble, so curiously 
 cemented as to appear but one : its height is 
 128 feet ; and it has in the inside 185 steps for 
 ascending to the top, and 40 windows for the 
 admission of light : its diameter at the bottom 
 is 12 feet, and at the top ten feet. On the pillar 
 are represented the warlike exploits of Trajan 
 and his army ; on the top was a colossal statue 
 of that emperor, 20 feet high, holding in his 
 left hand a sceptre, and in his right hand a hollow 
 globe of gold containing his ashes; but this has 
 been taken down, and a statue of St. Peter 
 
 erected in its place. The pillar of Antoninus 
 is another of the most precious remains of an- 
 tiquity : the sculpture and other ornaments 
 resemble those on Trajan's pillar, but the work- 
 manship is greatly inferior; it is 176 feet high, 
 the steps of ascent are 106, and the windows 56. 
 Triumphal arches were erected in honor of il- 
 lustrious generals, who had gained signal victo- 
 ries in war : several of them are still standing. 
 At first they were built of brick or stone, but 
 afterwards magnificently of marble ; they had 
 a large arched gate in the middle, and two 
 small ones on each side, ornamented with co- 
 lumns and statues, and various figures done in 
 sculpture. The aqueducts were, by far, the 
 noblest proofs of the granduer of the empire : 
 some of these wonderful channels brought water 
 from upwards of 60 miles through rocks and 
 mountains, and over valleys : supported on 
 arches in some places above 109 feet high, one 
 row being placed above another. The common 
 sewers were subterranean channels, constructed 
 with amazing strength, to carry the filth of the 
 city into the Tiber. Agrippa caused seven 
 streams to meet together under ground in one 
 channel, with such a rapid current as to carry 
 all before it : sometimes when these streams 
 were swelled with immoderate rains, they car- 
 ried away huge pieces of stone and timber, yet 
 the fabric received no detriment ; sometimes 
 terrible earthquakes shook the foundations of the 
 city, but these channels remained impregnable. 
 The public ways were among the greatest of 
 the Roman works, and were made with amazing 
 labor and expense. The Via Appia was per- 
 haps the most noble ; it was carried to a distance 
 of 350 miles, and was made of stones from one 
 to five feet square, but so artfully joined as to 
 seem one ; under wmich there were two layers, 
 the first of rough stones cemented with mortar, 
 and the second of gravel. Although this road 
 has been constructed upwards of 2,000 years, 
 parts of it still remain entire. 
 
 Romulus, soon after the foundation of Rome, 
 divided the inhabitants into three tribes, and 
 each tribe into ten curiae ; but the number of 
 tribes was by degrees increased to 35. The 
 Roman people were also divided into two ranks, 
 called patricians and plebeians ; to which another 
 order was afterwards added, called equites. The 
 patricians were so called from the patres, or fa- 
 thers, who composed the senate ; they were like- 
 wise called patrones, or patrons. The plebeians 
 were so called from plebs, the common people ; 
 they were also termed clientes, or clients. The 
 patricians were called patrones, and the pie- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ROM 
 
 473 
 
 ROM 
 
 beians clientes because the patricians were ap- 
 pointed to watch over and protect the plebeians, 
 and were their counsellors and advocates ; while 
 the plebeians, who were obliged to choose pat- 
 rons, were expected to serve them with fidelity, 
 to pay them all possible deference, and even to 
 assist with money, if requisite. 
 
 The equites, or knights did not at first form 
 a distinct order in the state : they were chosen 
 into the equestrian order by the censor, and 
 presented with a horse at the public expense, 
 and with a gold ring : they were taken promis- 
 cuously from among such of the patricians and 
 plebeians as had attained their eighteenth year, 
 and whose fortune amounted to 3,229/. Among 
 the Romans there were nobiles, novi, and igno- 
 biles; also ingenui, liberti, and libertini. The 
 nobiles were those whose ancestors had held the 
 office of consul, prsetor, censor, or curule aedile: 
 they had a right to make images of themselves, 
 which were kept with care by their descendants, 
 and were carried out at funerals. Those who 
 were the first of their family, who had raised 
 themselves to any of the above offices, were 
 denominated homines novi, new men, or up- 
 starts. The Romans called those ignobiles who 
 had no images of their own. or of their ancestors. 
 They whose parents had always been free, were 
 called ingenui ; slaves who had been made free, 
 were called liberti and libertini. The Romans 
 had slaves, who not only did all domestic servi- 
 ces, but were likewise employed in various 
 trades and manufactures. Men became slaves 
 by being taken in war, by being born in a 
 state of servitude, or criminals were reduced to 
 slavery by way of punishment. The Roman 
 slaves were publicly sold in a market-place, and 
 were at the absolute disposal of the buyer, not 
 being esteemed as persons, but as things or 
 effects. Among the Romans, those who en- 
 deavored to ingratiate themselves with the peo- 
 ple were called populares ; while those who 
 favored the interests of the senate, and the 
 passions of the great, received the appellation of 
 the optimates, — but this was a distinction of 
 party, and not of rank or dignity. 
 
 The senate was the chief council of state in 
 Rome, or a body of magistrates intrusted with 
 the care of putting the laws into execution, and 
 was instituted by Romulus, to be the perpetual 
 council of his newly-formed state. At its crea- 
 tion, it consisted of J 00 persons, whom Romu- 
 lus chose from among such of the inhabitants 
 as were most illustrious for their birth, wisdom, 
 and integrity. 
 
 The senators were called patres, or fathers, 
 
 on account of their age, gravity, and the pater- 
 nal care they had of the state. Under the suc- 
 cessors of Romulus, and in the time of the re- 
 public, the number of senators was, by degrees, 
 increased to upwards of 1,000 ; but Augustus 
 reduced them to 600. The kings had, at first, 
 the sole right of naming senators; but they 
 were afterwards chosen by the consuls, and at 
 last by the censors only. 
 
 At first only patricians were admitted to a 
 seat in the senate ; but afterwards the plebeians 
 and equites were admitted. Those who were 
 appointed senators, were to be possessed of an 
 estate of not less than 9,175Z. sterling, and to be 
 upwards of 30 years of age. They were nomi- 
 nated and enrolled by the censors ; besides 
 which, several great offices qualified those who 
 filled them, for a place in the senate ; and mili- 
 tary services sometimes procured admission. 
 
 Beside a want of sufficient revenue, no one 
 could sit in the senate who had exercised a low 
 trade, or whose father had been a slave. The 
 senators were distinguished by an oblong stripe 
 of purple, sewed on the forepart of their senato- 
 rial gown ; and black buskins reaching to the 
 middle of the leg, with the letter C in silver on 
 the top of the foot. The chief privilege of the 
 senators was their having a particular place at 
 the public spectacles, called orchestra ; it was 
 next the stage in the theatre, and next the arena, 
 or open space, in the amphitheatre. The senate 
 was assembled at first by the kings, and after 
 their expulsion by the consuls and praetors ; it 
 could also be summoned by the tribunes of the 
 people, even against the will of the consuls. 
 The kings were said at one time to act accord- 
 ing to the counsel of the senate : afterwards 
 Tarquin banished or put to death the senators, 
 as he chose, and again, after the regal govern- 
 ment was abolished, the power of the senate 
 was raised to its highest pitch. 
 
 The senate could be held only in a temple, 
 that is, a place consecrated by the augurs : it 
 was assembled commonly within the city ; but 
 it met without the walls for the reception of 
 foreign ambassadors, and of their own generals, 
 who were never permitted to come within the 
 walls while in actual command. The senate 
 assembled usually three times a month, but was 
 often called together on other days for the des- 
 patch of business ; and in it nothing could be 
 done before the rising nor after the setting of 
 the sun. 
 
 Before the business of the senate commenced, 
 the consul, or magistrate who presided, offered a 
 sacrifice ; and on entering the senate-house the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 ROM 
 
 474 
 
 ROM 
 
 members rose to do him honor ; he then propos- 
 ed the business to them. The senate was con- 
 sulted on every thing pertaining to the admin- 
 istration of the state, except the creation of 
 magistrates, the passing of laws, and the deter- 
 mination of war or peace ; all which properly 
 belonged to the Roman people. 
 
 The magistrate presiding asked the opinion 
 of every member individually, beginning with 
 the oldest senator, or with the consuls elect; 
 and all that pleased stood up and gave their 
 judgment upon the point : but when they only 
 assented to tlie opinion of another, they continu- 
 ed sitting. They who addressed the senate had 
 the privilege of speaking as long as they pleased, 
 and of introducing in their speech many things 
 foreign to the subject; so that when any mem- 
 ber wished to hinder the passing of a decree, he 
 protracted his speech till after sunset. As it 
 was not lawful for the consul to interrupt an 
 orator, those who abused this right were some- 
 times forced to desist from speaking by the 
 noise and clamor of the other senators. 
 
 When as many as wished to address the sen- 
 ate had concluded, the presiding magistrate 
 made a short* report of their several opinions, 
 and then ordered the senate to divide one party 
 to one side of the house, and the opposite to the 
 other ; the number being told, a majority decided 
 the debate. After the division of the senate, a 
 decree was made out according to the opinion 
 of the majority, and the names of those who had 
 been most anxious for the decree were usually 
 prefixed to it ; it was then taken to the tribunes 
 of the people, for their approbation or rejection. 
 
 When the opinions of the senators were ask- 
 ed, as related above, the decree was termed 
 senatus consultum ; but when in cases of little 
 concern, or such as required expedition, a de- 
 cree was made without any opinions being 
 asked, it was called senatus consultum per dis- 
 cessionem. A decree could be prevented from 
 passing the senate by the interposition of the 
 tribunes of the commons ; it might be done also 
 by a magistrate of equal authority with him 
 who proposed the business, or when the num- 
 ber of senators required by law was not present. 
 
 The proceedings of the senate were private 
 till Julius Ccesar appointed that they should be 
 published. When affairs of secrecy were dis- 
 cussed, the clerks and other attendants were 
 not admitted ; but what passed was written by 
 some of the senators. 
 
 A magistrate in the Roman republic was a 
 person invested with public authority, either 
 religious, civil, or military; so that the same 
 
 person might act as a priest and a judge, regu- 
 late the police of the city, direct the affairs of 
 the empire, and command an army. The ma- 
 gistrates of Rome were elective ; and, previous 
 to their election, they were called candidati, 
 from a white shining robe which they wore 
 while soliciting the votes of the people. The 
 candidate for an office was obliged to be present 
 in person, and to be approved by the magis- 
 trates : he declared his intention generally a 
 year before the election ; and the interval was 
 spent in securing his friends, and gaining the 
 favor of the people by every popular art. 
 
 The Roman magistrates were variously divid- 
 ed : the most proper and commodious division 
 is into ordinary, extraordinary and provincial. 
 The magistrates in Rome, called ordinary, were 
 those who were created at stated times, and 
 were constantly in the republic. The chief 
 ordinary magistrates were the consuls, praetors, 
 censors, tribunes, eediles, and quaestors. The 
 extraordinary magistrates were such as were 
 not constantly and statedly elected in the re- 
 public, but arose out of some public disorder 
 or emergency. The extraordinary magistrates 
 were the dictator and master of horse, the de- 
 cemviri, military tribunes, and interrex. The 
 magistrates of Rome were termed provinciales 
 when they were appointed to the government 
 of a province or distant part of the empire. In. 
 the beginning of the Roman republic, the ma- 
 gistrates were chosen only from the patricians ; 
 but afterwards, indiscriminately, from the other 
 orders. All magistrates were obliged, within 
 five days after entering on their office, to swear 
 that they would observe the laws ; and after the 
 expiration of their office, they might be brought 
 to trial, if they had done any thing amiss. 
 
 We must now only notice the Roman games. 
 The Roman games, as constituting part of 
 religious worship, were always consecrated to 
 some god, and were either stated, or vowed by 
 generals in war, or celebrated on extraordinary 
 occasions : the most celebrated games were those 
 of the circus. The shows exhibited in the cir- 
 cus maxim us were chariot and horse races; 
 contests of agility and strength ; a mock fight 
 on horseback ; the combat of wild beasts ; the 
 representation of a horse and foot battle ; and 
 the sham sea-fight. 
 
 The charioteers were distributed into four 
 parties or factions distinguished by their diffe- 
 rent colored dress. The spectators favored one 
 or the other color, as humor or caprice inclined 
 them. In the time of Justinian, 30,000 men 
 lost their lives at Constantinople in a tumult 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 ROM 
 
 475 
 
 BOM 
 
 raised by contention among the partisans of 
 these several colors. These were running, 
 leaping, boxing, wrestling, and throwing the 
 quoit : boxers covered their hands with a kind 
 of gloves, which had lead or iron sewed into 
 them, to make the stroke fall with a greater 
 weight. The combats between wild beasts were 
 various : sometimes a tiger being matched with 
 a lion, sometimes a lion with a bull, a bull with 
 an elephant, a rhinoceros with a bear, &c. : men 
 also fought with wild beasts, being either forced 
 to it by punishment, as the primitive Christians 
 often were; or they fought voluntarily, or for hire. 
 
 There were naumachiae or naval combats 
 which were instituted for the purpose of ac- 
 quiring naval discipline : in later times, how- 
 ever, those who fought were composed of cap- 
 tives or condemned malefactors, who fought to 
 death, unless saved by the clemency of the em- 
 peror. 
 
 The gladiators were men who fought with 
 weapons in a public circus, for the entertain- 
 ment of the public. These shows seem to have 
 taken their rise from the custom of slaughter- 
 ing captives at the tombs of those slain in battle, 
 which was supposed to appease their manes, 
 but from which humanity recoils with horror. 
 Gladiators were at first composed of captives, 
 slaves, and of condemned malefactors, who 
 were regularly trained for the combat ; yet in 
 the more degenerate period of the empire, free- 
 born citizens, and even senators engaged in this 
 dangerous and disgraceful employment. The 
 gladiators were named after the arms they used : 
 the most remarkable were the retiarii and the 
 secutores. The rf-tiarius wore a short tunic, 
 with his head bare : he held in his left-hand a 
 trident, or three-pointed spear ; and in his right, 
 a net, with which he endeavored to entangle 
 his adversary, that with his trident he might 
 despatch him. The secutor, or follower, was 
 armed with a helmet, a shield, and a sword, and 
 was matched with the retiarius : if the latter 
 missed his aim in throwing the net, he attempt- 
 ed by flight to gain time for a second cast ; 
 while the secutor pursued to prevent his design 
 by despatching him. 
 
 The Romans were unacquainted with drama- 
 tic entertainments, or stage-plays, for some cen- 
 turies after the building of the city : they were 
 first introduced at Rome on account of a pesti- 
 lence, to appease the divine wrath: they were 
 divided, as with us, into tragedy, comedy, and 
 pantomime. The Roman tragedy and comedy 
 were wholly borrowed from the Greeks, and 
 nearly resembled ours : their chief difference 
 
 consisted in the chorus, ihis was usually a 
 company of actors, which remained on the 
 stage singing and conversing on the subject in 
 the intervals of the acts. 
 
 The modern city of Rome contains 144,542 
 inhabitants. 
 
 ROMILLY, Sir Samuel, an eminent lawyer, 
 was born March 1, 1757. In 1783 he was called 
 to the bar. At length he rose to distinction in 
 the Court of Chancery ; and, in the last admin- 
 istration of Mr. Fox, was made solicitor-general. 
 When the party to whom he was attached went 
 out of office, he also retired. He exerted him- 
 self in endeavoring to effect a revision of the 
 criminal code, with a view to the limitation of 
 capital punishments to a few heinous offences ; 
 on which subject he published an able pam- 
 phlet ; as he also did another against the erec- 
 tion of the office of vice-chancellor The death 
 of this eminent man was most melancholy. 
 Shocked at the loss of his lady, who died in the 
 Isle of Wight, he became delirious, and de- 
 stroyed himself, November 2, 1818. 
 
 ROMULUS, founder of Rome, was born at 
 the same birth with Remus ; but of what pa- 
 rents it is impossible to say, as the account of 
 their origin is involved in much fable and mys- 
 tery. They undertook to build a city, hoping 
 that it would become a warlike and powerful 
 nation. Romulus marked with a furrow the 
 place where he wished to erect the walls ; but 
 their slenderness was ridiculed by Remus, who 
 leaped over them with the greatest contempt. 
 This irritated Romulus, and Remus was imme- 
 diately put to death, either by the hand of his 
 brother or one of the workmen. 
 
 When the walls were built, the city was with- 
 out inhabitants ; but Romulus, by making an 
 asylum of a sacred grove, soon collected a num- 
 ber of fugitives, foreigners, and criminals, whom 
 he received as his lawful subjects. Yet however 
 numerous these might be, they were despised by 
 the neighboring inhabitants, and none were will- 
 ing to form matrimonial connexions with them. 
 
 But Romulus obtained by force what was de- 
 nied to his petitions. The Romans celebrated 
 games in honor of the god Consus, and forcibly 
 carried away all the females who had assembled 
 there to be spectators of these unusual exhibi 
 tions. These violent measures offended the 
 neighboring nations ; they made war against the 
 ravishers with various success, till at last they 
 entered Rome, which had been betrayed to them 
 by one of the stolen virgins. A violent engage 
 ment was begun in the middle of the Roman 
 forum : but the Sabines were conquered, or, ac 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ROO 
 
 476 
 
 ROS 
 
 cording to Ovid, the two enemies laid down their 
 arms when the women had rushed between the 
 two armies, and by their tears and entreaties 
 raised compassion in the bosoms of their parents 
 and husbands. 
 
 The Sabines left their original possessions and 
 came to live in Rome, where Tatius, their king, 
 shared the sovereign power with Romulus. 
 The introduction of the Sabines into the city of 
 Rome was attended with the most salutary con- 
 sequences ; and the Romans, by pursuing this 
 plan, and admitting the conquered nations 
 among their citizens, rendered themselves more 
 powerful and more formidable. Afterwards 
 Romulus divided the lands which he had ob- 
 tained by conquest ; one part was reserved for 
 religious uses, to maintain the priests, to erect 
 temples, and to consecrate altars ; the other was 
 appropriated for the expenses of the state ; and 
 the third part was equally distributed among his 
 subjects, who were divided into three classes or 
 tribes. 
 
 The most aged and experienced, to the num- 
 ber of 100, were also chosen, whom the mon- 
 arch might consult in matters of the highest im- 
 portance, and from their age they were called 
 senators, and from their authority patres. The 
 whole body of the people were also distinguish- 
 ed by the name of patricians and plebeians, pa- 
 tron and client, who by mutual interest were 
 induced to preserve the peace of the state, and 
 to promote the public good. 
 
 Some time after, Romulus disappeared, as he 
 was giving instructions to the senators ; and the 
 eclipse of the sun, which happened at that time, 
 was favorable to the rumor which asserted that 
 the king had been taken up to heaven, 714 B. 
 C. after a reign of 39 years. 
 
 RONCESVALLES, a valley in Navarre, 
 where the army of Charlemagne, on their return 
 from an expedition to that country, were at- 
 tacked in the narrow passes of the mountains, 
 and all that were separated from the main body 
 were killed, among whom were several chiefs 
 of note. 
 
 ROOKE, Sir George, a gallant English ad- 
 miral, was born in Kent in 1650. He entered 
 early into the naval service, and had the com- 
 mand of several expeditions in the reigns of 
 King William and Queen Anne ; all of which 
 he conducted with equal skill and courage. In 
 1702 he attacked the French fleet in the harbor 
 of Vigo, and took several galleons and men-of- 
 war, besides destroying a number of others. In 
 1704 he made himself master of Gibraltar ; not- 
 withstanding which, such was the violence of 
 
 party, Sir George was soon afterwards super 
 seded by the Whigs, who endeavored to lessen 
 his services by representing them as the effects 
 of mere chance and good fortune. He died Jan- 
 uary 24, 1709. When he made his will, some 
 of his friends wondered at the slenderness of his 
 circumstances, considering what employments 
 he had been engaged in ; to whom the dying 
 hero said, " I do not leave much, 'tis true ; but 
 what I do leave was honestly gotten ; it never 
 cost a seaman a tear, nor the nation a farthing. • ' 
 
 ROSCOE, William, was born in 1732, of 
 humble parents, and, having received a com- 
 mon education, was articled, at an early age, to 
 an attorney at Liverpool. He soon mastered, 
 by dint of hard study, the Latin, French, and 
 Italian languages, while he, at the same time, 
 neither neglected his business nor the study of 
 the English Classics. His first poetical work, 
 Mount Pleasant, was written at the age of six- 
 teen. As a banker, Mr. Roscoe was unsuc- 
 cessful. His most important and celebrated 
 works are the Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, and 
 the Life of Leo X. He died in 1831 ; and his 
 memory is affectionately cherished by the in- 
 habitants of Liverpool, whose taste he endeavor- 
 ed to improve, and whose public works he ably 
 and strenuously supported. 
 
 ROSE, George, a statesman, was the son of 
 an episcopal clergyman at Brechin, in the shire 
 of Angus, and was born there, in 1744. He 
 was brought up under an uncle, who kept a 
 school near London, after which he went into 
 the navy, and became a purser ; but, by the in- 
 terest of the Earl of Marchmont, he was taken 
 from thence, and made keeper of the records in 
 the Exchequer. Here his talents for business 
 were soon discovered, and he was appointed to 
 superintend the publication of the Domesday 
 Book ; after which he was employed to com- 
 plete the journals of the Lords, in thirty-one 
 volumes, folio. From this period his .advance- 
 ment was rapid, and his services were duly ap- 
 preciated and engaged, by almost every admin- 
 istration. Mr. Pitt, in particular, placed un- 
 bounded confidence in his judgment on subjects 
 of trade and finance ; and, when Pitt returned 
 to power, after the short peace, Mr. Rose was 
 made president of the board of trade, and trea- 
 surer of the navy. On the death of Mr. Pitt, 
 another change occurred ; but, when the ad- 
 ministration formed by Lord Grenville retired, 
 Mr. Rose resumed his former station, and con- 
 tinued in it till his death, which happened at 
 Cuffnels, his seat in Hampshire, Jan. 13, 1818. 
 
 ROSS, George, a signer of the Declaration 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 RUS 
 
 477 
 
 RUS 
 
 of Independence, born in 1730, at Newcastle, 
 Delaware, was the son of a clergyman. At the 
 age of eighteen, having been admitted to prac- 
 tise law, he settled at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 
 He was for some years a member of Congress, 
 and discharged the duties of his office to the 
 entire satisfaction of his numerous constituents. 
 In July, 1779, an attack of the gout put an end 
 to his life in his fiftieth year. 
 
 ROUEN, anciently Rothomagus, a city of 
 France, formerly capital of the province of Nor- 
 mandy, situated on the right bank of the river 
 Seine, 86 N. W. of Paris. Population 88,000. 
 It was besieged by Henry V. of England in 
 1418, and taken after a siege of five months, but 
 again fell into the hands of the French in 1449. 
 
 RUPERT Prince, the third son of Frederic, 
 king of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of 
 James I. He was born in 1619, and received 
 an education adapted to the military service. 
 In the civil wars of England, while his elder 
 brother became a pensioner to the parliament, 
 prince Rupert adhered steadfastly to his royal 
 uncle, and defeated the rebels in several en- 
 gagements ; for which the king honored him 
 with the garter, and made him a peer- The 
 prince, however, was more successful as a 
 naval commander than on the land, particularly 
 after the restoration, in the great Dutch war, on 
 the conclusion of which he led a retired life, 
 occupied wholly in scientific pursuits. He died 
 in London in 1682, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, first duke of Bedford, 
 was the eldest son of Francis, the fourth earl of 
 Bedford, and was born in 1614. He received 
 his education at Magdalen-college, Oxford, and 
 at the coronation of Charles I, was created knight 
 of the oath. In the beginning of the civil war, 
 he acted against the king, and commanded the 
 reserve of horse in the battle of Edgehill ; but 
 in 1645, he joined the royal standard, and fought 
 with great bravery at the battle of Newbury. 
 His estate, in consequence, was put under se- 
 questration, but on his submission to the parlia- 
 ment it was restored. He then led a private life 
 till the return of Charles II, when he assisted at 
 the coronation, and was made a knight of the 
 garter. He also attended the coronation of 
 William and Mary, and in 1694, was created 
 Duke of Bedford. He died in 1700. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, lord, third son of the 
 preceding, was born about 164 L He received 
 a private education under puritanical teachers. 
 His early life, however, appears to have been 
 rather dissipated, till he married, in 1667, the 
 
 excellent daughter of Lord Southampton. On 
 becoming a member of the House of Commons, 
 he distinguished himself by his zeal for the ex- 
 clusion of the Duke of York ; and at length be- 
 came so far involved in a conspiracy for effecting 
 a revolution, that, when the Rye-house plot was 
 discovered, an indictment was preferred against 
 him, and he was condemned at the Old Bailey. 
 Great exertions were made to save his life, but 
 all without effect, and he was beheaded in Lin- 
 coln's-Inn-fields, July 18, 1683. After the revo- 
 lution an act was passed, to annul and make 
 void the proceedings against Lord Russell. His 
 widow, lady Rachel, died Sept. 29, 1723, at the 
 age of 87. 
 
 RUSSIA. This great empire contains half 
 of Europe, stretches across the north of Asia, 
 and includes vast possessions in North America, 
 thus almost girding the entire globe. It has an 
 area of about 8,000,000 square miles, with about 
 65,000,000 inhabitants. The revenue, before 
 the last Polish rebellion, was $55,000,000, and 
 the public debt, in 1824, $170,000,000. The 
 subject of education has received the attention 
 of government, but not many years ago, even 
 the Russian nobles were shamefully ignorant. 
 The condition of the peasants is deplorable : 
 they are the property of the crown or of indi- 
 viduals, and are transferred with estates, being 
 considered in the light of irrational live stock. 
 
 A traveller gives the following account of a 
 curious scene which he witnessed in Russia: 
 I had been some years in St. Petersburg before 
 my mind had become familiarized with the bru- 
 tal abasement of the serfs in the surrounding 
 country. It is strange for one used to a free 
 country, to observe the feudal system, in its 
 strictest sense, still holding its ground in a part 
 of the continent of Europe surrounded by en- 
 lightened and civilized countries, which, how- 
 ever, do not exert the least influence upon it. 
 The Russian peasant is treated more harshly 
 than the West Indian negro ; like him, he is 
 not his own master, like him, he has no family ; 
 he, and his children, may be sold at any mo- 
 ment. He is forced to die upon his natal soil, 
 pursued through life by a tyrannical master, 
 who often wreaks his vengeance on his slave 
 by depriving him of the necessaries of life; he 
 cannot go to seek subsistence in other lands, but 
 must die, consuming himself with silent grief. 
 Nay — the peasant has no wrongs — he is a mere 
 machine, moved only by the rod of his driver. 
 
 But let us drop this grave style, and look 
 upon the sunny side of Russian manners, and 
 nothing is so droll as the nuptial ceremonies 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 RUS 
 
 478 
 
 RUS 
 
 which take place at the fete of St. Peter and St. 
 Paul, at Petrowski, a village about 15 leagues 
 from St. Petersburg. 
 
 This festival always attracts a crowd of curi- 
 ous spectators; but it is difficult to penetrate 
 into the centre of the village, in the midst of 
 the ceremonies, without you are accompanied 
 by a man of some authority or rank. It was 
 with the painter of the empress mother, on 
 whose estates the ceremony takes place, that 
 I saw the singular spectacle. 
 
 On approaching we witnessed the arrival of 
 a crowd of young girls, each having a flower or 
 a ribbon in their hair, and mounted upon little 
 horses, some of which were forced to carry 
 double and even treble. Their mothers accom- 
 panied them armed with stout cudgels. The 
 young men appeared clad in bridal garments. 
 Nothing is as ugly as the Russian, particularly 
 those of Petrowski, and this rendered the scene 
 grotesque in the extreme. 
 
 The young girls were drawn up in lines 
 along the street of the village, and the suitors 
 approached, like Turks in the slave-market of 
 Stamboul, examined, and made comparisons ; 
 and when one of them found a beauty that suit- 
 ed him, without a word, he pushed her out of 
 the line, and shoved her into a neighboring 
 house to await the conclusion of the bargain. 
 Parents have no right to interfere with the 
 choice of their children, only if the mother ob- 
 jects to the suitor of her girl, she commonly 
 amuses herself at his expense by giving him a 
 sound beating with her cudgel. The Lutheran 
 minister and the magistrate preside at these es- 
 pousals, registering the names of the couples, 
 and the definitive celebration of the marriages 
 takes place about eight days after. 
 
 In the ninth century, the Scandinavians, 
 who were Danes, Normans, or Norwegians, and 
 Swedes, emigrated from the north, and, cross- 
 ing the Baltic, settled in this country. These 
 intruders were called Waregers, from which 
 the name of Russes or Russians is derived. 
 After subduing Courland, Livonia, and Estho- 
 nia, the Waregers were offered the government 
 of the whole country, and, embracing the pro- 
 posal, deputed to the office three brothers of 
 known abilities and valor, whose names were 
 Ruric, Sineus, and Truwor. They reigned 
 very amicably together, and made considerable 
 additions to their respective territories, all of 
 which at length devolved on Ruric, by the death 
 of Sineus and Truwor, who left no issue. 
 
 Ruric left his dominions in 878, to his son 
 Igor, a minor, under the care of a relation 
 
 named Olech, who governed with great ability 
 and integrity during the nonage of the young 
 prince, and who undertook an expedition against 
 Constantinople, which he besieged for some 
 time, and at length compelled the emperor to 
 purchase peace at a stipulated price. On the 
 death of Olech, Igor undertook an unsuccessful 
 expedition against Constantinople, and after- 
 wards ravaged and desolated the country of the 
 Drevlians, by whom he was slain. Swetoslaw, 
 the son of Igor, was a great warrior, and en- 
 larged his dominions by the acquisition of much 
 territory, but was basely murdered by the prince 
 of the Petchenegans. 
 
 Wolodimir I, succeeded in 976, and impru- 
 dently divided his dominions among his twelve 
 sons, who became enemies to each other, and, 
 after his death, replunged their country into all 
 the horrors of murder, massacres, and civil 
 wars. 
 
 In 1019, Jaroslaw, who had been appointed 
 to the government of Novogorod, assembled his 
 forces, and attacking his brothers, dispossessed 
 them of their dominions, which he usurped. 
 He also divided his territories among his five 
 sons, who, being equally ambitious, and able to 
 injure each other, renewed all the horrors of 
 civil war, in 1106. At length, Wolodimir II, 
 being more fortunate and more enterprising 
 than the rest, possessed himself of the greatest 
 part of these territories, and was declared uni- 
 versal monarch. He transferred his power to 
 his son Wsewold II, who plunged the state into 
 fresh disorder, by dividing his dominions among 
 his sons. These dissensions afforded the Tar- 
 tars an opportunity of making incursions into 
 Russia, which they plundered and desolated, 
 and which was also attacked by the Poles, in 
 1237. To complete the misery of the Russians, 
 the Tartars returned, and, attacking them with 
 irresistible fury, made an entire conquest of 
 their country. 
 
 During several reigns which occupy a space 
 of more than 200 years, the miseries of a foreign 
 yoke were aggravated by the calamities of in- 
 testine discord and civil war. At length, in 
 1450, John Basilowitz I, by his invincible spirit, 
 and refined policy, became the conqueror and 
 deliverer of his country , and laid the foundation 
 of that grandeur which has since distinguished 
 Russia. Taking advantage of a war in which 
 the Tartars were engaged, and having in the 
 mean time considerably increased his forces, he 
 disclaimed all subjection to that people, attacked 
 their dominions, and made himself master of 
 Casan, where he was crowned. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 RUS 
 
 479 
 
 RUS 
 
 He was honored with the surname of Great, 
 and assumed the title of Czar, which signifies 
 Emperor, but which was more used by his suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 On the death of John Basilowitz in 1505, the 
 crown ought to have devolved to his eldest son 
 Demetrius, whom he had by a former wife ; but 
 his widow Sophia, by various artful insinua- 
 tions, obtained it for her own son Gabriel, who, 
 disliking his own name, assumed that of Basilius 
 Twansowitz. He engaged in a war with the 
 Poles and Crim-Tartars, who, penetrating to 
 the gates of Moscow, made the czar tremble on 
 his throne, and obliged him to submit to their 
 conditions. The Tartars entered Russia a sec- 
 ond time, ravaged the country, and, making 
 themselves masters of Moscow, compelled Basi- 
 lius to acknowledge himself their vassal, and to 
 promise to pay them an annual tribute. John 
 Basilowitz II, succeeded in 1533, and was one 
 of the greatest monarchs of Russia. He was 
 constantly engaged in war with the Tartars, 
 the Poles, the Swedes, the Danes, or the Turks, 
 and was almost always successful. He left 
 two sons ; Theodore Iwanowitz, who succeeded 
 him, and Demetrius, an infant, placed under 
 the tutelage of the knez Bogdam Bielski. This 
 guardian formed the design of placing his pupil 
 on the throne, in prejudice to his elder brother 
 Theodore, whose simplicity and want of talents 
 rendered him incapable of supporting the weight 
 of a diadem. But though the nobles delivered 
 Theodore from the enterprises of Bielski, that 
 weak monarch suffered all the authority to 
 centre in the hands of the knez Boris Gudenow, 
 whose sister he had married, and who, after 
 ordering Demetrius to be put to death, admin- 
 istered to Theodore a slow poison. 
 
 Finding his dissolution approaching, Theo- 
 dore offered the sceptre to some of his nearest 
 relations : but as they all refused it, he threw it 
 on the floor, saying, " Let him be the emperor 
 who picks it up." Boris Gudenow then step- 
 ped forward, and took it, to the great dissatis- 
 faction of the nation. In Theodore ended the 
 family of Ruric, which had governed Russia 
 upwards of 700 years. His reign was disturb- 
 ed, and terminated by the re-appearance of the 
 real or pretended Demetrius. 
 
 Thinking it impossible to oppose an effectual 
 resistance to Demetrius, Boris, in a moment of 
 despair, took poison, of which he died. Theo- 
 dore was only fifteen years of age at the time 
 of his father's death, and ascended the throne 
 in 1605. After making his public entry into 
 Moscow, Demetrius was crowned sovereign of 
 41 
 
 all the Russians. Notwithstanding these sue 
 cesses, a party was formed against him. The 
 conspirators declared that Demetrius was an 
 impostor, whose design was to extirpate the 
 nobility, to overturn the religion of Russia, and 
 render the people slaves to Poland. An insur- 
 gent multitude attacked the palace ; and Deme- 
 trius, finding himself surrounded, leaped from 
 a window, broke his thigh in the fall, was taken, 
 and put to death. Immediately after the mur- 
 der of Demetrius. Zuski, the leader of the con- 
 spirators, was elected sovereign by the suffrages 
 of the people, though the nobles and senators 
 were divided in opinion between him and John 
 Galitzin. 
 
 Two noblemen, discontented with the gov- 
 ernment of their country, declared that Deme- 
 trius still existed ; and, raising an army, they 
 combated and defeated Zuski, but were in their 
 turn defeated, made prisoners, and put to death. 
 To this shade succeeded a real being, who has 
 been called a third Demetrius, and who was a 
 schoolmaster at Socola, a small town in Polish 
 Russia. For some time the Poles gave every 
 assistance in their power to this pretender, and 
 changing sides, they aided the czar in expelling 
 the schoolmaster, who fled into Tartary, where 
 he was afterwards assassinated. Zuski was 
 afterwards deposed, shaven, and immured in a 
 convent, where he died. 
 
 In 1610 the crown was offered to Uladislaus, 
 son of the king of Poland, who sent before him 
 an army of Poles, that committed every species 
 of devastation. At length the delays of Ulad- 
 islaus, the insolence and licentiousness of the 
 Poles, and the impatience of the Russians, who 
 saw no end of their sufferings, excited the 
 people to discontent and insurrection. As the 
 election of Uladislaus was rendered of no effect 
 by his never appearing to accept the crown, 
 the Russians proceeded to the choice of a new 
 sovereign, and elected Michael Theodorowitz 
 Romanow, son of Philaretus. This great and 
 pacific prince died in the 49th year of his age, 
 and the 33d of his reign, and bequeathed the 
 crown to his son, then in his 16th year. 
 
 Alexis Theodorowitz succeeded to the throne 
 in 1645, and appointed as his first minister and 
 counsellor Boris Morosau, a man till then held 
 in estimation and respect, and possessed of great 
 abilities, but unfortunately tainted with the 
 spirit of ambition. Open traffic was made of 
 justice; offices and employments were publicly 
 sold. These exactions and oppressions excited 
 the resentment of the inhabitants of Moscow, 
 who, finding their petitions disregarded, and no 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 RUS 
 
 480 
 
 RUS 
 
 grievances redressed, proceeded to the utmost 
 excesses. This act of popular vengeance in- 
 structed the czar to beware of reposing unlim- 
 ited confidence in his ministers, and to guide 
 the helm of the empire with his own hand. He 
 employed his subsequent life in rectifying and 
 repairing, by a mild and equitable administra- 
 tion, the faults and errors into which he had 
 been led in his youth, by his too great confi- 
 dence in favorites and ministers. He died in 
 the 46th year of his age. By his first wife, 
 Alexis left two sons, Theodore and John, and 
 a daughter called Sophia; and by a second, Pe- 
 ter, and the Princess Natalia. 
 
 Theodore succeeded to the throne in 1676, at 
 the age of 19 years, and possessed all the good 
 qualities of his father, whose example he imitat- 
 ed in attempting to polish Russia, and to intro- 
 duce into that country useful establishments. 
 Theodore having appointed Peter his successor 
 on the throne, to the exclusion of his elder 
 brother, John, the intrigues of the Princess So- 
 phia, their sister, occasioned a dreadful rebellion, 
 which was at length terminated with proclaim- 
 ing the two princes, John and Peter, joint sov- 
 ereigns, and associating Sophia in the govern- 
 ment as co-regent in I 682. 
 
 The imbecility of the elder brother, and the 
 youth of Peter, allowed Sophia to enjoy all the 
 honors of sovereignty. She married John to 
 a young lady of the house of Soltikoff, and form- 
 ed a design against the life of Peter, who, being 
 informed of her intention, made his ' escape, 
 raised troops, and caused Sophia to be impris- 
 oned and deprived of all authority. 
 
 From 1690 Peter is to be considered as sole 
 sovereign of Russia ; since from the period of 
 this revolution to the year 1696, in which John 
 died, the latter led a private and retired life. 
 Peter the Great died 1725, at the age of fifty- 
 three years, and was succeeded on the throne 
 by his widow, Catharine. 
 
 She left the throne to Peter II, grandson of 
 the late czar, in 1727, whose father Peter the 
 Great had inhumanly condemned to suffer 
 death. This prince was extremely beloved by 
 his people ; and Russia has since termed his 
 reign its happiest period during a hundred 
 years.— On the death of Peter II in 1730, the 
 council, the senate, the general officers, and 
 other persons of distinction, assembled, and 
 elected to the throne Anne Iwanowna, duchess 
 of Courland, and second daughter of John, Pe- 
 ter's eldest brother. Anne successfully execut- 
 ed many projects conceived by Peter the Great, 
 and died at Petersburg, after a glorious and 
 happy reign often years, A. D. 1740. 
 
 Previous to her death, the late empress had 
 declared her niece, Anne of Mecklenburg, grand- 
 duchess, and her niece's son, Iwan, emperor of 
 Russia, though he was a very remote descend- 
 ant of the house of Romanow, and seemed 
 rather of German than Russian extraction. 
 However, there appeared another aspirant to 
 the throne, who was the Princess Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Peter the Great,and aunt to the grand 
 duchess Anne, and who finally succeeded in 
 the attempt. Iwan, the innocent and uncon- 
 scious boy, who, with no ambition to rule, had 
 been raised to the imperial purple, was dethron- 
 ed, and immured in a dungeon ; and the grand 
 duchess and her husband were imprisoned in a 
 fortress, where they died. 
 
 Elizabeth, having thus obtained possession 
 of the throne of Russia in 1740, bent all her 
 thoughts to the government of the empire. 
 However, her reign was tarnished by the insti- 
 tution of a political court of inquisition, under 
 the name of a secret state chancery, empowered 
 to examine into and punish all expressions of 
 displeasure with the measures of government 
 
 On the death of Elizabeth, Charles Peter Ul- 
 ric, only son of the Duke of Holstein, peaceably 
 ascended the throne of Russia in 1762, as the 
 declared successor of the late empress, and as- 
 sumed the title of Peter III. He was grandson 
 to Peter the Great and Catharine I, whose el- 
 dest daughter, the Princess Anne, had married 
 his father, Charles Frederic. 
 
 Peter had for a longtime slighted his consort, 
 Catharine of the house of Anhalt-Zerbst, and 
 now openly lived with the Countess of Wo- 
 rontzoff, niece to the chancellor of that name. 
 Catharine indulged in the greatest licentious- 
 ness ; and, after the dismissal of Poniatowski, 
 the Polish ambassador, with whom she had been 
 too intimate, she carried on a criminal inter- 
 course with Gregory Orloff, who became an 
 active and a zealous member of a conspiracy 
 against the czar. To the conspiracy of Bestu- 
 cheff, supported by his nephew, the Prince of 
 Wolskonsky, and by Count Panin, was added 
 another, of which the Princess Dashkoff, a girl 
 only eighteen years of age, was the most active 
 and spirited member. Of these factions, which 
 acted in unison, but without the cognizance of 
 each other, Catharine was the animating spirit. 
 
 At length a report was propagated, that the 
 emperor entertained the design of declaring 
 Prince Iwan his successor ; of disowning the 
 young grand duke, Paul Petrowitz, as his son; 
 and of immuring Catharine for life in a prison, 
 and substituting in her place his mistress, the 
 Countess of Worontzoff. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 RUS 
 
 481 
 
 RUS 
 
 At seven in the morning of the 9th of July, 
 1762, Catharine entered the city of Petersburg 
 in the absence of the czar; and having induced 
 the soldiers to believe that her death, together 
 with that of her son, had been decreed by the 
 emperor that night, the troops took the oath of 
 allegiance to her. She then repaired to the 
 church of Casan, where the archbishop of No- 
 vogorod placed on her head the imperial crown, 
 and in a loud voice proclaimed her sovereign 
 of all the Russias, under the name of Catha- 
 rine II. 
 
 The new empress now marched at the head 
 of the troops against her husband, who was 
 solacing himself with his mistress at one of his 
 houses of pleasure, when he was informed of 
 the event which had taken place at Petersburg. 
 Consternation immediately pervaded his whole 
 company. The emperor, perplexed and con- 
 founded, ordered, countermanded, asked advice, 
 adopted, and again rejected it, and at length set 
 out with his mistress and aid-de-camp to meet 
 Catharine at the castle of Peterhoff, vainly 
 hoping to move, by submission, the heart of a 
 woman who was utterly devoid of pity or com- 
 passion. The unfortunate Peter, after being 
 induced to write and sign a renunciation of the 
 throne of Russia, was cast into prison, where a 
 few days after he was murdered. 
 
 On the death of Augustus III, king of Poland, 
 in 1764, Catharine, who had signed a treaty of 
 alliance with Prussia, raised to the throne of 
 that kingdom Stanislaus Poniatowski, her for- 
 mer paramour, notwithstanding the murmurs 
 and resistance of the Polish nation. During 
 the absence of the empress at Riga, a conspiracy, 
 real or pretended, was formed in favor of Prince 
 Iwan, who was barbarously put to death. The 
 purposes for which Poniatowski had been raised 
 to the throne of Poland, began gradually to de- 
 velop themselves ; and having traced on a map 
 a line of demarcation, by which a great part of 
 the Polish territory had been assigned to Russia, 
 Catharine insisted on the recognition of these 
 limits, and the. propriety of her claim. The 
 Poles having induced the Ottoman Porte to 
 take up arms in their behalf, hostilities com- 
 menced between Turkey and Russia, and the 
 empress resolved to rend the Grecian islands 
 from the Ottoman Porte, and to be the patroness 
 of liberty in Greece, and the foundress of a new 
 republic. At length the dismemberment of 
 Poland was effected by Russia, Austria, and 
 Prussia ; and Turkey was obliged to conclude 
 a peace on very disadvantageous terms. The 
 ambition of Catharine again excited the jealousy 
 
 and the fears of the Turkish emperor by the 
 designs which she entertained respecting her 
 grandson, whose name and education suffi- 
 ciently denoted her intention. War was, there- 
 fore, again declared by the Porte against Rus- 
 sia, whose minister was shut up in the castle 
 of the Seven Towers. Joseph II, emperor of 
 Germany, sent 80,000 Austrians to the assist- 
 ance of Catharine ; and every thing seemed ta 
 announce the ruin of the Ottoman power. Sur- 
 rounding nations, however, beheld with jealousy 
 the designs of the empress, who threatened to 
 destroy the equilibrium of Europe, but who, 
 notwithstanding her victories and her conquests, 
 at length perceived that a cessation of hostilities 
 was very desirable. Accordingly, after some 
 time, peace was concluded between Russia and 
 the Porte, and a bloody and expensive war 
 terminated. The arms of Russia and Prussia 
 were now united in partitioning the remainder 
 of Poland ; and Frederic William, at the head 
 of his forces, fought against Kosciusko, whose 
 talents, courage, and despair w T ere unavailing 
 against multiplied and increasing numbers. 
 After a few bloody victories, the courts of Pe- 
 tersburg and Berlin succeeded in dividing the 
 remains of that unhappy country ; and the 
 courtiers of Catharine shared among them the 
 possessions of the proscribed. 
 
 Catharine died after a long and prosperous 
 reign, and at a time when she hoped to drive 
 the Turks out of Europe, and to seize on the 
 throne of Constantinople. 
 
 On the death of Catharine II, in 1796, Paul 
 Petrowitz, her son, who was at that time 43 
 years of age, was proclaimed emperor of Russia 
 The first acts of the new czar were extremely 
 popular ; and his actions seemed to contradict 
 the report of his stern and capricious disposition. 
 However, Paul's conduct in the first days o£ 
 his reign, was soon afterwards reversed. 
 
 Paul concluded with the king of Great Bri- 
 tain a treaty, by which they agreed to oppose, 
 in the most efficacious manner, the successes 
 of the French arms in extending the principles 
 of anarchy, to promote solid and lasting peace, 
 and to endeavor to re-establish the balance of 
 power in Europe. For some time the Russians 
 and their allies were fortunate ; but their suc- 
 cesses being afterwards converted into defeats, 
 the emperor broke off the alliance which had 
 been concluded with the court of London. In- 
 dignant that the British government would 
 not acquiesce in his having appointed himself 
 grand-master of Malta, Paul entered into an 
 alliance with France, and excited a formidable 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 RUS 
 
 482 
 
 RUS 
 
 confederacy of the maritime powers of the north 
 against the naval interests of Great Britain, 
 which was broken by the battle of Copenhagen. 
 His capricious and extravagant actions, some 
 of which bordered on frenzy, gave great offence 
 to many of the principal nobles ; and he was 
 murdered in the night of the 23d of March, 
 1801, though his death has been ascribed to an 
 apoplectic fit. 
 
 The day after his decease, his eldest son, Al- 
 exander Paulowitz, who was in the 24th year 
 of his age, was proclaimed emperor of all the 
 Russias, and issued several popular ukases, in 
 one of which he revived and confirmed all the 
 regulations of the empress Catharine for the 
 encouragement of industry and commerce. 
 
 Bonaparte not fulfilling the secret convention 
 which had been entered into between France 
 and Russia, with respect to the evacuation of 
 the kingdom of Naples by the French troops, 
 the adjusting of the affairs of Italy, and the 
 indemnity promised to be granted to the king 
 of Sardinia, Alexander ordered an additional 
 levy of land forces throughout his dominions 
 He afterwards attempted to negotiate a general 
 peace among the powers of Europe ; but finding 
 this impracticable, on account of the disposition 
 and views of Bonaparte, he joined Austria and 
 England in the coalition against France. The 
 Russian troops however, could not join the 
 Austrians till the latter had suffered several se- 
 vere defeats. The battle of Austerlitz termi- 
 nated unfavorably to the allies ; and the empe- 
 ror of Germany concluding a separate peace 
 with France immediately after that event, the 
 Russian troops returned into their own country. 
 When war broke out between France and Prus- 
 sia, the emperor Alexander ordered his forces 
 to the assistance of the latter power. However, 
 before they could arrive to aid their allies, the 
 French had over-run Prussia, and penetrated 
 into Poland, where they were defeated by the 
 Russians ; but Bonaparte, having compelled his 
 vassal princes to furnish their stipulated contin- 
 gents of troops, again advanced, and gained the 
 battle of Friedland, which obliged the emperor 
 Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit. 
 
 That treaty was soon after followed by a de- 
 claration of war, on the part of Russia, against 
 Great Britain ; and one immense power now 
 occupied Europe, arranging and controlling 
 every thing in conformity to its views. Russia, 
 which had become the willing instrument of 
 French policy, not only withdrew from her al- 
 liance with Sweden, but attacked that country. 
 In 1808, an army of 40,000 men was sent into 
 
 Finland, from which the Swedes we r c finally 
 expelled. 
 
 By the treaty of Tilsit, Russia bound herself 
 to accede to the continental sj-stem, and to ex- 
 clude from her ports all British manufactures 
 and colonial produce. Not aware of the conse- 
 quences of his engagements, the emperor Al- 
 exander had placed himself in a situation of 
 great difficulty. If he attempted to fulfil the 
 treaty by interdicting the trade between Great 
 Britain and the Russian empire, he deprived his 
 subjects of the best market for their produce, 
 and roused his nobility against him. On the 
 other hand, his apprehensions of the power of 
 Bonaparte w r ere strong and well founded. He, 
 therefore, determined on a species of compro- 
 mise, and forbade the introduction of all British 
 produce and manufactures into his dominions, 
 except by special license, and in neutral ships. 
 
 Soon after the differences commenced be- 
 tween Napoleon and the emperor Alexander, 
 the former took such measures as he thought 
 would either awe the latter into submission, or 
 secure victory and success in case of hostilities : 
 he assembled large bodies in the north of Ger- 
 many ; he kept possession of a great part of 
 Prussia especially of the places most conven 
 iently situated for an attack on Russian Poland; 
 and he forcibly occupied Swedish Pomerania. 
 Preparations were made by Russia to meet the 
 approaching crisis ; and before the commence- 
 ment of hostilities, the force that could be 
 brought against the French amounted to nearly 
 300,000 men, exclusively of the militia. On 
 the other hand, the emperor Francis engaged 
 to furnish 30,000 men to France in her war with 
 Prussia; the troops of the confederation of the 
 Rhine had been raised to their stipulated quota; 
 and the kings of Saxony and Naples had been 
 induced to embark with Napoleon in this great 
 enterprise. The armies of Bonaparte on the 
 frontiers of Russian Poland amounted to at least 
 300,000 infantry, and 60,000 cavalry, in a state 
 of the highest discipline and equipment, and 
 commanded by the first military talents of the 
 age. 
 
 The preparations on each side corresponded 
 with the magnitude of the interests embarked 
 in the contest. In numbers the combatants 
 were not, at first, on an equality ; and in disci- 
 pline, in science, and in organization, the 
 French possessed a great superiority. On the 
 9th of May, 1812, Napoleon left Paris; and ar- 
 riving on the banks of the Niemen on the 22d 
 of June, he issued to his soldiers a proclamation 
 in his usual confident and laconic style. This 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 RUS 
 
 483 
 
 RUT 
 
 was his only declaration of war. The French 
 and their allies passed the Niemen without op- 
 position, and obtained possession of Wilna, the 
 capital of Lithuania. The re-establishment of 
 the kingdom of Poland was now proclaimed, 
 and a diet assembled under the guarantee of the 
 French emperor; and, by these means, the na- 
 tional enthusiasm was raised in his favor, and 
 the ranks of his army were swelled by Polish 
 levies. 
 
 The emperor of Austria recalled his ambas- 
 sador from Petersburg, and furnished his con- 
 tingent of troops to the French. Russia, how- 
 ever, acquired a new and zealous, though remote, 
 ally in England, who formed a treaty of friend- 
 ship and reciprocal defence with her, and a sim- 
 ilar one with Sweden. In proportion as the 
 French advanced into the territories of Russia, 
 the more resistance they experienced ; and sev- 
 eral bloody engagements took place, without 
 producing any decisive effect. The first great 
 stand was made at the city of Smolensk, which 
 is in the direct road to Moscow, and for the de- 
 fence of which the Russians were posted. How- 
 ever, in the middle of the night, after a severe 
 engagement, a dreadful conflagration was ob- 
 served in the city ; and the Russians abandoned 
 Smolensk, and retired across the Dnieper. 
 Moscow was now the great object to be con- 
 tended for ; and the Russian main army took a 
 strong position to cover it from the attack of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 A dreadful engagement ensued ; and the re- 
 sult of this battle, which was named by the Rus- 
 sians the Battle of Borodino, was a victory 
 claimed by each party. The French entered 
 Moscow seven days after this engagement; but 
 in order to deprive the French of a place for 
 their winter quarters, the governor had ordered 
 the city to be set on fire ; and the French troops 
 had scarcely entered the Kremlin, when Mos- 
 cow appeared in flames in different parts. The 
 conflagration was so extensive, and raged with 
 such fury for several days, that not more than a 
 tenth of the buildings remained unconsumed. 
 The French began their retreat from Moscow, 
 but were closely pursued by an exasperated foe. 
 To add to their calamities a Russian winter set 
 in with deep snow. The sufferings of the 
 French were extreme, and their losses prodigious. 
 Horses died in such numbers, that the greatest 
 part of the artillery was left behind, and the 
 cavalry was nearly dismounted ; whole bodies 
 of men, disabled by cold and hunger, surren- 
 dered without resistance to the pursuers ; and 
 nothing appeared but disaster and dismay. It 
 41* 
 
 is probable, that of nearly 400,000 troops engaged 
 in this frantic expedition, not 50,000, including 
 the Prussian and Austrian contingents, escaped 
 out of Russia. 
 
 Intoxicated by former successes, Napoleon 
 expected that he had only on this, as on former 
 occasions, to strike deeply into the heart of the 
 invaded country, and that victory would hover 
 round the wings of his eagles ; but the constancy 
 of the Russian government, the devoted patriot- 
 ism of the people, the valor of the Russian army, 
 and above all, the rigors of the season, consum- 
 mated the ruin of the legions of an ambitious 
 chief, who, in one expedition, had thus sacrificed, 
 of friends and foes, soldiers and peaceable in- 
 habitants, nearly one million of his species ! 
 
 The Russian armies pursued the remnant of 
 the French armies into Germany, where the 
 former were joined by Prussia, by the princes 
 of Germany, and finally by Austria. Sweden 
 also joined the league against France. The 
 battle of Leipsic, which was gained by the allies 
 over Bonaparte, determined the fate of Germa- 
 ny, and shook to its foundation the mighty em- 
 pire raised by Napoleon. By the treaty of Vi- 
 enna, in 1815, the duchy of Warsaw, with the 
 exception of certain provinces and districts, was 
 ceded to the emperor of Russia, who addressed 
 a letter to the Polish diet, announcing the fate 
 of their country, and that he had assumed the 
 title of king of Poland. 
 
 i\fter the death of the emperor Alexander, 
 Dec. 1, 1825, his brother Nicholas ascended the 
 throne. The principal events which have oc- 
 curred since the commencement of his reign, 
 are, the war with Turkey, and the revolt of the 
 Poles. The latter was not crushed without a 
 violent struggle, which cost the Russians a ter- 
 rible effusion of blood. 
 
 RUTLEDGE, John, a native of South Caro- 
 lina, distinguished himself by his manly elo- 
 quence in the first congress, and was appointed 
 president and commander-in-chief of South 
 Carolina, in 1776. In 1779 he was chosen gov- 
 ernor. He died Jan. 23, 1800. 
 
 RUTLEDGE, Edward, a signer of the De- 
 claration of Independence, was born in South 
 Carolina, Nov. 1749. He chose the profession 
 of the law, and received a part of his legal edu- 
 cation in England. He was a member of the 
 continental Congress from 1774 till 1777. In 
 1779 Mr. Rutledge was re-appointed to Con- 
 gress, but relinquished his seat from ill health. 
 However, he soon took the field at the head of 
 a company, but was taken prisoner, and re- 
 mained in the hands of the British nearly a year. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 RYE 
 
 484 
 
 SAC 
 
 In 1798, having retired from the practice of 
 the law, he was elected governor of South Caro- 
 lina, but died Jan. 23, 1800. 
 
 RUYTER, Michael Adrian de, a Dutch Ad- 
 miral, was born at Flushing in 1607. In the 
 war with England, which broke out in 1652, he 
 convoyed a rich fleet through the channel, and 
 brought the whole into port, after an engage- 
 ment which lasted two days. He was next 
 joined in command with Van Tromp, and dis- 
 tinguished himself as well in the great battle 
 of three days, fought in February, 1653, as in 
 that where Van Tromp fell in July following. 
 In 1653, he defeated the Swedes, for which the 
 king of Denmark gave him a patent of nobility. 
 At the renewal of hostilities with England, in 
 the reign of Charles II, De Ruyter gained an 
 advantage over Prince Rupert and Monk ; but, 
 two months afterwards, another battle was 
 fought, in which the Dutch were defeated. 
 The following year, however, he avenged him- 
 self, by riding triumphantly in the Thames, and 
 destroying several English men-of-war at Sheer- 
 ness. In 1672, he attacked the combined En- 
 glish and French fleets ; and though the battle 
 was undecided, De Ruyter kept the sea, and 
 convoyed home a fleet of merchantmen. The 
 gallant commander was mortally wounded in an 
 engagement with the French, off Messina, and 
 died at Syracuse, April 11, 1676. His remains 
 were interred at Amsterdam, and a monument 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT, took its name from a 
 farm called the Rye-house, the property of 
 Rumbal, one of the conspirators against the life 
 of Charles II. The particulars of this plot are, 
 that while schemes on a very grand scale were 
 concerting in the higher circles to check the 
 rapid strides of tyranny encroaching on the 
 rights and liberties of the people, others of a 
 subordinate class were hatching, which, though 
 perhaps not exactly on equally honorable prin- 
 ciples, were nevertheless somewhat similar as 
 to their final purpose. Among the abettors of 
 this latter class were Colonel Rumsey, an old 
 republican officer ; lieutenant-colonel Walcot ; 
 Goodenough, under sheriff of London ; Fergu- 
 son, an independent minister ; and several at- 
 torneys, merchants, and tradesmen of London. 
 Their object was to assassinate Charles on his 
 way from Newmarket; but the house in which 
 the king resided there happening to take fire, 
 obliged him to leave that place earlier than he 
 intended ; and thus the execution of the design 
 was prevented. 
 
 S. 
 
 SABINES, an ancient people of Italy, reck- 
 oned among the Aborigines, or those inhabitants 
 whose origin was not known. Some suppose 
 that they were originally a Lacedaemonian co- 
 lony, who settled in that part of the country. 
 The possessions of the Sabines were situated in 
 the neighborhood of Rome, between the river 
 Nar and the Anio, and bounded on the north by 
 the Apennines and Umbria, south by Latium, 
 east by the iEqui, and by Etruria on the west. 
 The greatest part of the contiguous nations 
 were descended from them, such as the Um- 
 brians, the Campanians, the Sabelli, the Osci, 
 Samnites, Hernici, iEqui, Marsi, Brutii, &c. 
 The Sabines are celebrated in ancient history 
 as being the first who took up arms against the 
 Romans, to avenge the rape of their females at 
 a spectacle where they had been invited. After 
 some engagements, the greatest part of the 
 Sabines left their ancient possessions, and mi- 
 grated to Rome, where they settled with their 
 new allies. They were at last totally subdued 
 about the year of Rome 373, and ranked as Ro- 
 man citizens. Their chief cities were Cures, 
 Fidenae, Reate, Crustumerium, Corniculum, 
 Nomentum, Collatia, &c. The character of 
 the nation for chastity, for purity of morals, and 
 for the knowledge of herbs and incantations 
 was very great. 
 
 SACHEVEREL, Henry, a celebrated divine, 
 was the son of a clergyman at Marlborough, 
 where he had his education, and afterwards be 
 came demy of Magdalen-college, Oxford. Sach 
 everel obtained a fellowship; and in 1708 took 
 his doctor's degree. The following year he 
 preached two sermons, one at the assizes at 
 Derby, and the other at St. Paul's, in both 
 which he asserted, that the church was in im- 
 minent danger. For these discourses, which 
 were considered as inflammatory, he was im- 
 peached by the House of Commons, and tried 
 before the Lords, in 1710; when being found 
 guilty of a misdemeanor, he was suspended from 
 preaching for three years. This only increased 
 his popularity, and brought the ministry into 
 such contempt, that they were obliged to resign 
 their places. At the expiration of the sentence 
 the doctor was presented to the rectory of St. 
 Andrew, Holborn. He died in 1724. 
 
 SACKVILLE, Thomas, lord Buckhurst and 
 earl of Dorset, was the son of Sir Richard Sack- 
 ville, and was born at Witham, in Sussex, in 
 1527. He was educated at Oxford, from whence 
 he removed to Cambridge, and next to the Inner 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SAI 
 
 485 
 
 SAL 
 
 Temple. On leaving the Temple he went 
 abroad ; and, after his return, was made lord 
 Buckhurst. In 1587 he was sent on an embassy 
 to the United Provinces. After this he was made 
 knight of the garter ; and chosen chancellor of 
 Oxford. On the death of Burleigh he was ap- 
 pointed lord treasurer ; and in the next reign 
 created earl of Dorset. He died in 1 G08. 
 
 SACKVILLE, Charles, sixth earl of Dorset 
 and Middlesex, was born in 1637. In 1C65 he 
 volunteered on board the fleet ; and the night 
 previous to the engagement with the Dutch, 
 wrote the famous song, " To all you ladies now 
 at land." Soon after this he was made a gen- 
 tleman of the bed-chamber by Charles II, who 
 also sent him on several embassies. At the 
 Revolution he was appointed lord chamberlain 
 to king William, whom he accompanied to Hol- 
 land. He died at Bath, Jan. 19, 1706. 
 
 SACKVILLE, lord George, viscount, the 
 third son of the first duke of Dorset, was born 
 in 1716. He obtained a commission in the 
 army, and distinguished himself in the battles 
 of Dettingen and Fontenoy. In 1758 he was 
 made a lieutenant-general ; but in the year fol- 
 lowing fell into disgrace for his conduct at the 
 battle of Minden, owing to a mistake in the 
 orders sent to him by prince Ferdinand. He 
 was tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the 
 service ; but was restored in the next reign. In 
 1775 he was appointed secretary of state for the 
 American colonies ; but in 1783 he went out of 
 office, and was created a viscount. He died in 
 1785. 
 
 SADLER, Sir Ralph, an English statesman, 
 was born in 1507, at Hackney, in Middlesex. 
 In early life he was taken into the family of 
 Cromwell, earl of Essex, who introduced him 
 to Henry VIII, in consequence of which he had 
 a share in the dissolution of the monasteries, 
 and partook of the spoil. He was also sent on 
 an embassy to Scotland, to negotiate a marriage 
 between prince Edward and queen Mary, but 
 without effect. In the war which followed, 
 sir Ralph distinguished himself greatly, and 
 was made a knight banneret on the field after 
 the battle of Pinkie. He was also appointed 
 master of the great wardrobe. At the accession 
 of Elizabeth he was again sent to Scotland ; and 
 when the unfortunate Mary came to England, 
 she was committed to his care. He died in 
 1587. 
 
 SAINT HELENA, an island in the South 
 Atlantic, 1200 miles west of the continent of 
 Africa, and 1800 east of South America. The 
 island is a rock about 21 miies in circumference, 
 
 very high and very steep, and only accessible 
 at the landing-place, in a small valley at the 
 east side of it, which is defended by batteries of 
 guns ; and as the wind always blows from the 
 south-east, if a ship overshoots the island ever 
 so little, she cannot recover it again. St. He- 
 lena is said to have been first discovered by the 
 Portuguese, on the festival of the empress 
 Helena, mother of the emperor Constantine 
 the Great, whose name it still bears. The En- 
 glish East India Company took possession of it 
 in 1600, and held it without interruption till the 
 year 1673, when the Dutch took it by surprise. 
 The English, under the command of Captain 
 Munden, recovered it again within the space 
 of a year, and at the same time took three 
 Dutch East India ships that lay in the road. 
 This island is celebrated in modern history, as 
 the place to which the emperor Napoleon was 
 exiled by the confederate powers in August, 
 1815, and where he died in 1820. — See JVapc/eon. 
 SALADIN, or SALAHEDDIN YUSEF 
 BEN AYUB, was at first general of the army 
 of Noureddin, sultan of Damascus, and in 1164 
 he conquered Egypt, and married the widow of 
 the prince of Grand Cairo. After the death of 
 Noureddin, he was called to the government 
 during the minority of the prince his son. Be- 
 ing advanced to this power, he resolved to 
 attack the Christians; and accordingly, in 1177, 
 having raised an army, he endeavored to sur- 
 prise Jerusalem, but was defeated with great 
 slaughter, on the 25th of November. This loss 
 inspiring him with revenge, in 1180 he passed 
 the Euphrates, took several cities, as far as 
 Nisibis, and made himself formidable to all his 
 neighbors. He took Aleppo in .1184. But not 
 long after, the Christians put a stop to his con- 
 quests, by a cessation of arms. The earl of 
 Tripoli being jealous of Guy, king of Jerusa- 
 lem, persuaded Saladin to break the truce ; 
 who, following his counsel, defeated the Chris- 
 tians, the 1st of May, 1187 : and having raised 
 an army of above 800,000 men, he obtained a 
 second victory over them, took Guy in the 
 flight, beheaded all the knights Templars, and 
 of St. John, made himself master of Acre, 
 Bairut, Giblet, Saide, and divers other places, 
 and at last of Jerusalem. Pope Urban II, upon 
 hearing of this news, died of grief. Saladin 
 several times stormed the city of Tyre, but was 
 often repulsed; and after some other losses sus- 
 tained from the Christians, he died in 1193, in 
 the 57th year of his age, having reigned over 
 Egypt 22 years, and 19 as absolute master of 
 Syria. No Asiatic monarch has filled so large 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SAL 
 
 486 
 
 SAL 
 
 a space in the eyes of Europe, as the antagonist 
 of Coeur de Lion. He was a compound of the 
 dignity and baseness, the greatness and the 
 littleness of man. As the Moslem hero of the 
 third holy war, he proved himself a skilful 
 general and a valiant soldier. He hated the 
 Christian cause, for he was a zealous Mussul- 
 man. He gained the throne by blood, artifice, 
 and treachery ; but though ambitious, he was 
 not tyrannical ; he was mild in his govern- 
 ment ; the friend and dispenser of justice. 
 Wars and rebellions filled all the thoughts of 
 Saladin, and he established no principles of suc- 
 cession. Three of his numerous progeny be- 
 came sovereigns of Aleppo, Damascus, and 
 Egypt; others had smaller possessions; and 
 the emirs and atabaks of Syria again struggled 
 for independence. — See Crusades. 
 
 SALAMANCA, capital of a province of 
 Spain in the southern part of the kingdom of 
 Leon, contains 13,920 inhabitants. Its cele- 
 brated university was founded in the thirteenth 
 century by Alphonso IX of Leon. A memo- 
 rable battle was fought here on the 23d of July, 
 1812, between the British, under lord Wel- 
 lington, and the French, under Marmont. On 
 the 16th of June, lord Wellington appeared 
 before the city, with his main army, when the 
 French general, leaving a force to defend the 
 fortifications, retired with his troops across the 
 Tonnes. He afterwards attempted to relieve 
 the forts, which had been formed into a depot 
 of stores ; but the British general compelled 
 him to abandon them . to their fate. Major- 
 general Clinton was now ordered to reduce 
 them ; and this being accomplished, lord Wel- 
 lington put his army in motion against Mar- 
 mont, wbo hastily retired across the Douro. 
 
 A series of skilful movements now ensued on 
 both sides, until the 21st July, when the allied 
 army was concentrated on the Tonnes ; the 
 French crossed the river on the same day, and 
 appeared to threaten Ciudad Rodrigo. During 
 the 22d and 23d, Marmont practised a variety of 
 evolutions, to distract the attention of the Bri- 
 tish general from his real plan. In aiming to 
 surround the British, he extended and weakened 
 his own line ; and lord Wellington, watching 
 the progress of this error, seized the favorable 
 opportunity for striking a decisive blow. His 
 arrangements were soon made, and no time lost 
 in executing them. Major-general Pakenham, 
 with the third division, began a furious assault 
 on the flanks of the enemy's left, in which he 
 was supported by brigadier-general Bradford's 
 brigade, by the fourth and fifth divisions, and 
 
 by the cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton, in 
 front. The French, though finely posted, and 
 supported by cannon, were overthrown. Their 
 centre was driven from the hill with precipita- 
 tion ; the right wing, being joined by some 
 fugitives, maintained a show of resistance, but 
 they were driven in confusion from the field. 
 
 The pursuit was continued till night,, when 
 the French guard was overtaken, attacked, and 
 put to flight, the cavalry leaving the infantry 
 to their fate. Three whole battalions surren- 
 dered, and large quantities of stores, baggage, 
 and ammunition, fell into the conquerors' hands. 
 Eleven pieces of cannon, two eagles, and six 
 colors, were also taken ; five generals, three 
 colonels, three lieutenant-colonels, 150 officers, 
 and 7000 soldiers, were made prisoners. The 
 loss of the allies was about 700 killed, and 4000 
 wounded. 
 
 SALAMIS, or SALAM1NA, now Colouri, 
 an island in the Saronic gulf, on the southern 
 coast of Attica opposite Eleusis, at the distance 
 of about a league, with a town and harbor of 
 the same name. It was originally peopled by a 
 colony of Ionians, and afterwards by some of 
 the Greeks from the adjacent islands and coun- 
 tries. It is celebrated for a battle which was 
 fought there between the fleet of the Greeks 
 and that of the Persians, when Xerxes invaded 
 Attica. The Persian ships amounted to above 
 2000, and those of the Greeks to about 380 sail. 
 In this engagement, which was fought on the 
 20th of October, B. C. 480, the Greeks lost 40 
 ships, and the Persians about 200, besides an 
 immense number which were taken with all 
 the ammunition they contained. 
 
 SALISBURY, or NEW SARUM, an an- 
 cient city of England in the county of Wilts. 
 A parliament was summoned here in the reign 
 of Edward I ; another was held in 1328, to in- 
 quire into the state of the kingdom, then under 
 the tyranny of queen Isabel and earl Mortimer ; 
 and it was here the latter broke in upon their 
 deliberations with an armed force. In the first 
 year of Richard III, Henry Stafford, duke of 
 Buckingham, by whose influence and exertions 
 Richard was advanced to the throne, was exe- 
 cuted here. During the civil wars of Charles I, 
 Salisbury was frequently laid under contribu- 
 tions by the contending parties. Pop. 9,876. 
 
 SALLUST1US, C. Crispus, a Latin histo- 
 rian born at Amiternum, in the country of the 
 Sabines, 86 B. C. He received his education 
 at Rome, and made himself known as a public 
 magistrate in the office of quaestor and consul. 
 His licentiousness, and the depravity of his 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SAN 
 
 487 
 
 SAR 
 
 manners, however, did not escape the censure 
 of the age, and Sallust was degraded from the 
 dignity of a senator, B. C. 50. A continuation 
 of extravagance could not long be supported by 
 the income of Sallust, but he extricated him- 
 self from all difficulties by embracing the cause 
 of Caesar. He was restored to the rank of 
 senator, and made governor of Numidia. In 
 the administration of his province, Sallust be- 
 haved with unusual tyranny ; he enriched him- 
 self by plundering the Africans, and at his 
 return to Rome he built himself a magnificent 
 house, and bought gardens, which, from their 
 delightful and pleasant situation, still preserve 
 the name of the gardens of Sallust. He died 
 in the 51st year of his age, 35 years before the 
 Christian era. 
 
 SALSETTE, an island on the western coast 
 of Hindostan. The first account we have of 
 this island, is dated in 1330 ; it was then gov- 
 erned by a Mahometan judge. It was taken 
 possession of by the Portuguese in the 16th 
 century, and by the Mahrattas in 1750. In 
 1773, during a rupture with the Mahrattas, it 
 was occupied by the British troops, and has ever 
 since remained in their possession. 
 
 SAMOS, an island in the y^Egean sea, on the 
 coast of Asia Minor, from which it is divided 
 by a narrow strait, with a capital of the same 
 name, built B. C. 986. It was first in the pos- 
 session of the Leleges, and afterwards of the 
 Ionians. The people of Samos were at first 
 governed by kings, and afterwards the form of 
 their government became democratical and oli- 
 garchical. Samos was in its most flourishing 
 situation under Polycrates, who had made him- 
 self absolute there. The Samians assisted the 
 Greeks against the Persians, when Xerxes in- 
 vaded Europe, and were reduced under the 
 power of Athens, after a revolt, by Pericles, B. 
 C. 441. They were afterwards subdued by 
 Eumenes.king of Pergamus, and were restored 
 to their ancient liberty by Augustus. Under 
 Vespasian. Samos became a Roman province. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, a group in the 
 North Pacific ocean, covering about 6000 square 
 miles, and containing 150,000 inhabitants, were 
 discovered by Captains Cook and King in 1778, 
 and were named by them after Lord Sandwich. 
 Owing to desolating wars, the present popula- 
 tion does not exceed 150,000, although Captain 
 King made it amount to 400,000. The princi- 
 pal islands are Hawaii (Owhyhee), Maui 
 (Mowee), Oahu (Woahoo), Taui (Atooi), and 
 Nihau (Oneehow). The climate is warm, but 
 healthy : many of the islands are volcanic. The 
 
 most important vegetable productions are taro, 
 yam, breadfruit, cocoanut, strawberry, native, — 
 and oranges, grapes, &c. not indigenous. The 
 adoption of Christianity has produced the hap- 
 piest effects upon the natives, who were for- 
 merly sunk in idolatry, sacrificing human vic- 
 tims upon their altars. The mission established 
 at Hawaii by the American Board of Foreign 
 Missions, has been completely successful. There 
 are over 900 schools in the islands. The situa- 
 tion of the Sandwich islands causes them to be 
 visited by many vessels for repairs and provis- 
 ions, while, in a commercial point of view, they 
 are by no means to be overlooked. 
 
 SARACENS (Orientals) ; the name adopted 
 by the Arabs after their settlement in Europe, 
 their original name, signifying Dwellers in the 
 West, becoming inappropriate after their change 
 of residence. 
 
 SARAGOSSA, (in Spanish, Zaragoza), a 
 city of Spain, capital of Arragon, 175 miles N. 
 E. of Madrid. The name is a corruption of 
 Csesar Augustus, a Roman colony on the site 
 of which the modern city is built. Pop. 45,000. 
 It is famous in history for its dreadful sieges in 
 1808 and 1809; contests in which was display- 
 ed the unyielding fortitude of the inhabitants 
 of the north of Spain. The French having 
 obtained possession of Navarre in June 1808, 
 advanced to Saragossa, and attempting to take 
 the city by assault, were repulsed with loss. 
 Returning with augmented numbers, they oc- 
 cupied the best positions, and invested nearly 
 half the town, keeping up a fire from mortars 
 and battering cannon. On the 4th of August 
 they entered the central street, but they were 
 unable to make much progress, and, discouraged 
 by intelligence from the south of Spain, retired 
 at last, on the 14th. The second siege was no 
 less obstinate and sanguinary. The French, 
 with great reinforcements, marched in the end 
 of November, 1808. once more against Sara- 
 gossa. Their first great attack, gave them pos- 
 session of some important posts, but with heavjr 
 loss. On the 10th of January began the bom- 
 bardment, which, violent as it was, caused less 
 injury than a contagious fever among the gar- 
 rison. The Spaniards, however, continued to 
 make, under the brave Palafox, a most deter- 
 mined resistance, and it was not till after a 
 bombardment of six weeks, and a very unequal 
 contest in mining, that Saragossa surrendered. 
 SARATOGA, a town in Saratoga county, 
 N. Y. Bemis's heights, where Burgoyne was 
 defeated Oct. 17th, 1777, is within its limits, as 
 is also the village of Saratoga Springs, whose 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SAR 
 
 488 
 
 SAR 
 
 mineral waters are the most celebrated in the 
 Union. Beside the well known Congress Spring, 
 there are 17 others. It has 75 boarding houses, 
 (the four largest containing 965 rooms,) 4 large 
 bathing establishments, 2 libraries and reading- 
 rooms, 35 stores, 1 daily, and 2 weekly papers, 4 
 seminaries, 6 churches, 1500 inhabitants, and 
 about 35,000 annual visitors. There is a rail 
 road from Albany, through Schenectady, and 
 another from Troy through Waterford, to this 
 village. Saratoga lake, a beautiful sheet of 
 water of nine miles in length, affords fine fish- 
 ing. 
 
 SARDANAPALUS, the last king of Assyria. 
 His effeminacy caused a rebellion among his 
 subjects, and being defeated by them, he burned 
 himself, his wives, and treasures, in his palace, 
 B. C. 820, according to Eusebius. 
 
 SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
 with the title of kingdom. It has an area of 
 9100 square miles, and 490,050 inhabitants. 
 The capital is Cagliari, and the chief town 
 Sassari. Its productions consist of grain, oil, 
 citrons, oranges, and other fruits : while wine 
 and cattle are abundant. There are mines of 
 lead and silver. The Catholic is the prevailing 
 religion of the island. 
 
 The Sardinian monarchy is composed in part 
 of the island of Sardinia, but in a much greater 
 proportion of Piedmont, Savoy, and the territory 
 of Genoa. In 1720, Victor Amadeus II ex- 
 changed the island of Sicily for Sardinia, and 
 assumed the present royal title. After a peace 
 of twenty years, this state became involved in 
 the war between France and Austria, which 
 was closed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 
 1748. The contest occasioned by the part which 
 Sardinia took in the French revolution, began 
 in 1792, and was maintained until 1796, when 
 the assumption of the command by Bonaparte, 
 led to the overthrow of the allied forces in the 
 course of a few weeks, and to the conclusion of 
 an unfavorable treaty of peace. 
 
 This treaty was followed in two years by the 
 removal of the royal family to Sardinia, and 
 the incorporation of their continental states 
 with the French territory. The prospect of 
 reinstatement opened by the progress of the 
 allies in 1799, was completely overcast by the 
 battle of Marengo. The continental territories 
 were not restored to the legitimate sovereign 
 until the overthrow of Bonaparte in 1814. 
 
 The island of Sardinia is unknown in history 
 until the time of its occupancy by the Cartha- 
 ginians, who doubtless confined themselves to 
 
 a few maritime stations, from which they were 
 expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war. 
 The Romans, after establishing themselves 
 here two centuries before the Christian era, 
 continued in possession of the island until the 
 decline of the empire. It was afterwards invaded 
 by the Saracens. The sovereignty of the island 
 was acquired by the king of Arragon, and re- 
 tained by the crown of Spain until the 18th 
 century. In 1719 it was given to the duke of 
 Savoy. In 1794 the inhabitants of Cagliari, en- 
 couraged by the progress of the French revolu- 
 tion, rose in insurrection, and caused the Pied- 
 montese viceroy, with all the individuals of his 
 county, to be sent out of the island. The 
 other towns followed the example; and the re- 
 sult was, that after two years of contention, the 
 king granted a general pardon, declared that 
 the cortes or representative body, should assem- 
 ble at least once in ten years, and confirmed all 
 the ancient laws, customs, and privileges of the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 SARDIS or SARDES, an ancient city of 
 Lydia, formerly its capital. Cyrus took this 
 city in the 59th Olympiad, and subdued the 
 whole kingdom of Lydia, taking Croesus the 
 king, prisoner. In the 69th Olympiad, Arista- 
 goras having got twenty ships from the Athe- 
 nians, persuaded the people to rebel against the 
 Persians, and some time after took the city and 
 burnt it, which occasioned the wars between 
 the Persians and the Greeks. Antiochus Mag- 
 nus took this city from Achseus by treason, 
 after a year's siege. Tamerlane likewise be- 
 sieged this city six years, and ruined it about 
 1 398. The city stood on the edge of a spacious 
 and fruitful plain, and has still many marks of 
 its antiquity to be found amongst its ruins. It 
 was anciently one of the strongest inland cities 
 of Asia, especially when besieged by Antiochus 
 Magnus. In this city Antigonus caused Cleo- 
 patra, the sister of Alexander the Great, to be 
 put to death. 
 
 S ARM ATI A, an extensive country in the 
 north of Europe and Asia, divided into Europe- 
 an and Asiatic. The European was bounded by 
 the ocean on the north, Germany and the Vis- 
 tula on the west, the Jazygae on the south, and 
 the Tanais on the east. The Asiatic was bound- 
 ed by Hyrcania, the Tanais. and the Euxine 
 sea. The former contained the modern king- 
 doms of Russia, Poland, Lithuania, and Little 
 Tartary ; and the latter, Great Tartary, Circas- 
 sia, and the neighboring country. The Sarma- 
 tians were a savacre uncivilized nation, often 
 confounded with the Scythians, naturally war- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SAV 
 
 489 
 
 SAV 
 
 like, and famous for painting their bodies to ap- 
 pear more terrible in the field of battle. They 
 were well known for their lewdness, and they 
 passed among the Greeks and Latins by the 
 name of barbarians. In the time of the empe- 
 rors they became very powerful ; they disturbed 
 the peace of Rome by their frequent incursions ; 
 till at last, increased by the savage hordes of 
 Scythia, under the barbarous names of Huns, 
 Vandals, Goths, Alans, &c, they successfully 
 invaded and ruined the empire in the third and 
 fourth centuries of the Christian era. 
 
 SATURN, the Kronos of the Greeks, father 
 of the gods. As destiny had foretold that he 
 would be dethroned by one of his sons, he de- 
 voured all that were born, with the exception 
 of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, whom their 
 mother Rhea saved. He was dethroned by Ju- 
 piter and sought refuge with Janus in Italy, 
 where he occupied himself with agriculture. 
 He is represented as an old man with a scythe 
 in one hand, and an hour-glass in the other, to 
 show that time destroys every thing, and rolls 
 onward without interruption. 
 
 SAVILLE, George, marquis of Halifax, a 
 statesman, was born in Yorkshire, in 1630. He 
 was created a peer for his loyalty at the Resto- 
 ration ; and in 1682 was raised to the dignity of 
 a marquis, soon after which he was made lord 
 privy seal. At the beginning of the reign of 
 James II, he was appointed president of the 
 council, but on refusing his consent to the repeal 
 of the test acts, he was dismissed. In the con- 
 vention parliament, he sat as speaker of the 
 House of Lords, and concurred in all the meas- 
 ures of the Revolution ; butafterwards he joined 
 the opposition. He died in 1695. 
 
 SAVOY, an Italian duchy belonging to the 
 Sardinian monarchy, bordering on France, 
 Switzerland, and Piedmont, contains 3,750 
 square miles, and 501,165 inhabitants. The soil 
 is poor. From the year 1000 till 1580, a long 
 list of princes governed Savoy ; but their reigns 
 were uninteresting, and marked by no political 
 event of importance. In 1580, Charles Eman- 
 uel invaded the marquisate of Saluces, which 
 he wrested from France, and thereby gained a 
 frontier for his capital of Turin. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Victor Amadeus I, who waged war 
 against tbe Spaniards with equal success, in 
 1635. Francis Hyacinth, Charles Emanuel II, 
 and Charles Emanuel III, were his successors. 
 To the last of these princes, Turin owes some 
 of her most magnificent structures ; and he also 
 caused the amazing passage through the rock 
 Mount Viso to be cut. Charles Emanuel was 
 
 succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus II, in 
 1675, who persecuted his Protestant subjects, 
 the Valdenses, with all the fury and malice of a 
 bigot, and who was besieged in his capital, Tu- 
 rin, by the French, till the latter had lost four- 
 teen thousand men before the place, and the 
 ammunition of the besieged was almost ex- 
 hausted. The duke of Savoy was soon after 
 joined by prince Eugene, whom he assisted in 
 defeating the French, and driving them out of 
 Lombardy. He formally resigned his crown to 
 the prince of Piedmont, in 1730, Charles Em- 
 anuel, his son, reserving for himself a yearly 
 income of one hundred thousand pounds. Ac- 
 cordingly, Charles Emanuel HI succeeded him 
 in the government ; but being persuaded by an 
 interested minister, that his father was endeav- 
 oring to gain over the troops, and that he held 
 frequent conferences with physicians and apoth- 
 ecaries, he caused him to be dragged from his 
 bed, and carried to a house with latticed win- 
 dows, which in every thing resembled a prison, 
 in 1732. The old man died soon after. Some 
 years after the commencement of the French 
 revolution, Savoy was ceded by Charles Eman- 
 uel IV to France, and constituted one of the de- 
 partments, called the department of Mont Blanc. 
 In this state it continued till the general peace, 
 in 1814, when Savoy was restored to the family 
 of its former possessors, in the person of Victor 
 Emanuel, king of Sardinia. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF PRINCES. 
 
 1000 Beroald the Saxon. 
 
 1027 Humbert I White Hands. 
 
 1048 Amadeus I Count of Maurienne. 
 
 1072 Humbert II. 
 
 1108 Amadeus II. 
 
 1148 Humbert II vhe Saint. 
 
 1188 Thomas. 
 
 1233 Amadeus III. 
 
 1253 Boniface, or Roland. 
 
 1263 Peter, or Charlemagne the Little 
 
 1268 Philip. 
 
 1285 Amadeus IV or V the Great. 
 
 1323 Edward. 
 
 1329 Aimon. 
 
 1343 Amadeus VI the Green. 
 
 1383 Amadeus VII the Red. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1391 Amadeus VIII the Pacific. 
 
 1451 Louis. 
 
 1465 Amadeus IX the Saint. 
 
 1472 Philibert I the Hunter. 
 
 1482 Charles I the Warlike. 
 
 1489 Charles II. 
 
 1496 Philip Lackland. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SAX 
 
 490 
 
 SAX 
 
 1497 Philibert II the Fair. 
 
 1504 Charles III the Good. 
 
 1553 Emanuel Philibert, Iron Hand. 
 
 1580 Charles Emanuel I the Great. 
 
 1630 Victor Amadeus I. 
 
 1637 Francis Hyacinthus. 
 
 1633 Charles Emanuel II. 
 
 1675 Victor Amadeus II. 
 
 In 1713, the house of Savoy became regal, by 
 the accession of Victor Amadeus to the crown 
 of Sicily, which, in 1718, he exchanged with 
 the emperor for Sardinia. 
 
 Kings of Sardinia and Dukes of Savoy. 
 
 1718 Victor Amadeus II. 
 
 1730 Charles Emanuel III. 
 
 1773 Victor Amadeus III. 
 
 1796 Charles Emanuel IV. 
 
 In 1792, Savoy was seized by the French re- 
 publicans, and made a department, under the 
 name of Mont Blanc. In 1802, Piedmont was 
 also annexed to that republic. 
 
 Kings of Sardinia 
 
 1802 Victor Emanuel. 
 
 1821 Charles Felix. 
 
 1831 Charles Albert. 
 
 SAXE, Maurice, count de, a celebrated gen- 
 eral, was born in 1696, at Dresden, being the 
 natural son of Frederic Augustus, elector of 
 Saxony and king of Poland, by the countess of 
 Konigsmark. At the age of twelve years he 
 was at the siege of Lisle, where he displayed 
 signal courage ; as he did the following year at 
 that of Tournay. He bore a part in the battle 
 of Malplaquet, and in 1711 accompanied the 
 king of Poland to Stralsund, where he swam 
 over the river, with a pistol in his hand, in sight 
 of the enemy. On his return to Dresden, the 
 king raised a regiment of horse for him, which 
 he instructed in new evolutions. He continued 
 to distinguish himself in the war with Sweden ; 
 and in 1717 served against the Turks. In 1720 
 he obtained the rank of marechal de camp, in 
 the French army. In 1726 he was chosen duke 
 ofCourland; but the election being set aside, 
 he returned to France, where he was made lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1734. In 1741 he took Prague 
 by assault ; in 1744 he was appointed a marshal 
 of France ; and the next year he gained the 
 battle of Fontenoy. This was followed by the 
 capture of Brussels, and the battle of Raucoux, 
 for which the king of France made him mare- 
 chal-general of his camps and armies. In 1747 
 he achieved the victory of Lahfeldt; and in 
 1743 took Maestricht. He died Nov. 30, 1750. 
 
 SAXONY, kingdom of, is bounded N. and E. 
 by Prussia, S. by Bohemia, W. by the Saxon 
 
 principalities and Bavaria. It contains 5,800 
 square miles, and 1,414,523 inhabitants. The 
 Saxons are supposed by most authors to be the 
 ancient Catti described by Tacitus. The gov- 
 ernment of the whole Saxon nation was vested 
 in twelve chieftains, who were chosen annually, 
 and who elected from among themselves a chief 
 judge. In time of war they chose a king, whose 
 power ceased on the return of peace. Charle- 
 magne, on succeeding his father Pepin, in 772, 
 resolved to compel the Saxons to change their 
 religion, and embrace Christianity. Accord- 
 ingly, he attacked and defeated them, and 
 obliged their king, Wittekind, to fly into Den- 
 mark, who, finding himself totally unable to re- 
 sist the force of the victorious Charlemagne, 
 accepted the conditions offered him, and was 
 baptized with his whole family, by Lullo, bish- 
 op of Mentz. In 804, after a calamitous war of 
 thirty years, the Saxons were entirely subdued, 
 when Charles had defeated them in numerous 
 battles, and transported many thousands to 
 Flanders, Brabant, and other countries. 
 
 The subsequent sovereigns of Saxony have 
 uniformly asserted themselves to be descended 
 from the illustrious Wittekind ; and the reign- 
 ing family still pride themselves on the same 
 origin. They reckon among their progenitors 
 several great men who were honored with the 
 surnames of the Grave, the Pacific, the Con- 
 stant, the Pious, the Magnanimous, and some 
 of whom wore crowns, whilst others declined 
 them. 
 
 From the middle of the l^nth century, when 
 the succession of the dukes of Saxony com- 
 menced, to the present time, are reckoned thir- 
 ty-six, almost without interruption, and this 
 proves that the generality of those princes at- 
 tained an advanced age, though living chiefly 
 amid the dangers of war. Frederic Augustus 
 succeeded his father as elector, in 1763, at the 
 age of thirteen years. The Saxons remained 
 neutral in the war of 1740, between Russia and 
 Austria. In 1756 they were tempted to take a 
 part by the flattering promises of Austria, but 
 they soon had cause to repent. In the war of 
 1793, the contingent furnished by Saxony against 
 France was not large, and no decided part was 
 taken in the war until 1806, when the elector 
 sent all his troops to the field in support of 
 Prussia. 
 
 The overthrow of that power enabled Bona- 
 parte to attach the Saxons to his cause by the 
 most substantial advantages. For although the 
 king of Saxony was under the necessity of 
 making his peace with the conqueror, upon any 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SAY 
 
 491 
 
 SCA 
 
 terms which the latter might choose to dictate 
 to the vanquished party, yet in order to separate 
 him from the interests of the Prussian monarch, 
 the emperor of the French treated him with 
 great lenity, induced him to accede to the con- 
 federation of the Rhine, and gave him the title 
 of king, with considerable accessions of terri- 
 tory. Further additions were made to the king- 
 dom of Saxony in 1809 ; but these acquisitions 
 were only temporary. 
 
 On the irruption of the allied armies into Sax- 
 ony, in 1813, the king quitted Dresden, and 
 identified his interests with the interests of 
 France. After the battle of Leipsic, that city 
 was taken by assault ; and the king of Saxony 
 was made prisoner with his whole court. This 
 country was afterwards placed under the provi- 
 sional occupation of Prussia : and Frederic Wil- 
 liam made known his intention of uniting Sax- 
 ony to Prussia. However, the energetic conduct 
 of the king of Saxony preserved him from total 
 ruin. 
 
 By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, that sove- 
 reign ceded to Prussia certain districts and ter- 
 ritories belonging to the kingdom of Saxony ; 
 and the Saxon people, to whom the paternal 
 sway of their king had endeared him, passed 
 under the government of Prussia with extreme 
 reluctance. 
 
 SAY, Thomas. This distinguished naturalist, 
 died at New Harmony, Indiana, on the 10th 
 October, 1834. It may be fearlessly asserted 
 that few individuals, certainly none in this coun- 
 try, have contributed so extensively to enlarge 
 the boundaries of Natural Science, as Mr. Say. 
 To his native genius supported by untiring zeal, 
 and indefatigable research, the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences of Philadelphia is indebted for 
 its opening reputation. Mr. Say was among 
 the earliest members, if not one of the founders 
 of this institution. 
 
 His original communications to the society 
 alone, in the most abstruse departments of zoolo- 
 gy, Crustacea, insects, &c.,of the United States 
 occupy more than 800 printed pages of their jour- 
 nal ; his essays published in some of our leading 
 periodical journals are equally respectable, per- 
 haps equally numerous. His contributions to 
 the American Encyclopaedia, though highly val- 
 uable, are not so generally known. His separate 
 work, on American Entomology, and another 
 on Conchology have met with deserved appro- 
 bation with the learned. With the brilliant re- 
 sults of his laborious exertions as naturalist to 
 the two celebrated expeditions by the authority 
 42 
 
 of the United States government under com- 
 mand of Major, now Lieutenant Colonel S. H. 
 Long, the reading public is already familiar. 
 Some years previously he accompanied Mr. Mac- 
 lure, and other kindred spirits on a scientific 
 excursion to the Floridas. The pages of the 
 Academy's Journal, were subsequently enriched 
 by details of the fruits of this undertaking. 
 
 In the year 1825 our devoted student consent- 
 ed in an evil hour to forego the society of his 
 early friends, and the companions of his labors, 
 and to remove to New Harmony on the Wabash, 
 where he ended his useful career by a disease 
 brought on by the peculiar climate of the coun- 
 try ; the correspondent of the National Gazette 
 to whom we are indebted for the above abstract, 
 from a very interesting account of Mr. Say's life 
 and last illness, says, " on the 10th, death came 
 over him like a summer cloud — he met the em- 
 brace as the weary traveller falls into the arms 
 of restoring sleep. Intellect triumphed to the 
 last hour." 
 
 SCANDERBEG, the name given by the 
 Turks to George Castriotto, king of Albania; 
 his father's name was John, who being reduced 
 to extremity by Amurath II, was forced to put 
 five of his sons into his hands, of whom Scan 
 derbeg was the youngest. He pleased the ty- 
 rant, who poisoned his brothers, but spared him. 
 Finding him endowed with very extraordinary 
 qualities, he had him educated. Having given 
 several instances of his courage in Amurath's 
 service, who was the usurper of his estates, 
 Scanderbeg thought it was high time to think of 
 making use of his valor for himself against the 
 tyrant. In this design he so dexterously deceived 
 the governor ofCroya,the chief city of Albania, 
 that he made himself master of that and several 
 other places ; and in 1433 took possession of his 
 hereditary dominion, and upon his being admit- 
 ted to the crown declared himself a Christian. 
 He compelled the Turks to raise the siege of 
 Croya, and cut to pieces the forces that were 
 sent against him. Amurath himself having laid 
 a second siege to this place, died before the 
 walls, without being able to take it, though he 
 was extremely desirous of being revenged on 
 Scanderbeg. Under Mahomet II he had seven 
 or eight armies to contest with, but the victory 
 was still on his side. It is said, that though he 
 had killed above two thousand Turks with his 
 own hand, yet was he never wounded. Ma- 
 homet, compelled by his valor and success, made 
 peace with him, while Scanderbeg took a jour- 
 ney to the kingdom of Naples. The Turks, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SCH 
 
 492 
 
 SCH 
 
 seeing the truce expired, laid siege again to 
 Croya, but to no purpose ; for Scanderbeg was 
 soon with them, and forced them to raise the 
 siege twice. He died at Lissa, a city belonging 
 to the Venetians, Jan. 27, 1467, in the sixty- 
 third year of his age. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, a name given by the an- 
 cients to Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Lap- 
 land, which they supposed to be an island. 
 
 SCAURUS, M. jEmilius, a Roman consul, 
 who distinguished himself by his eloquence at 
 the bar, and by his successes in Spain, in the 
 capacity of commander. He was sent against 
 Jugurtha, and some time after was accused of 
 suffering himself to be bribed by the Numidian 
 prince. Scaurus conquered the Ligunans, and 
 during his censorship built the Milvian bridge at 
 Rome, and began to pave the road, which from 
 him was called the ^Emilian. He was origi- 
 nally very poor. He wrote some books, and 
 among these a history of his own life, all now 
 lost. His son, of the same name, made himself 
 known by the large theatre which he built dur- 
 ing his edileship. This theatre, which could 
 contain 30,000 spectators, was supported by 360 
 columns of marble, 38 feet in height, and adorned 
 with 3000 brazen statues. This celebrated edi- 
 fice r according to Pliny, proved more fatal to 
 the manners and the simplicity of the Romans, 
 than the proscriptions and wars of Sylla had 
 done to the inhabitants of the city. 
 
 SCHILLER, Frederic, a German poet of 
 great reputation, was born at Manheim, a small 
 town of Wurtemberg, Nov. 10, 1759, and was 
 the son of a gentleman, who, having served in 
 the army as a surgeon and officer, had retired to 
 private life, and, at the date of the birth of the 
 poet, was holding art inconsiderable post under 
 the king of Wurtemberg. Both the parents of the 
 poet, appear to have been persons possessed of 
 estimable moral qualities, and no inconsiderable 
 share of literary taste and talent. Schiller was 
 not destitute of filial gratitude, and may be sup- 
 posed to have expressed his own feelings in the 
 following passage from one of his historical 
 dramas. Don Carlos is addressing his father 
 Philip: B 
 
 M How sweet and rapturous it is to feel 
 Ourself exalted in a lovely soul,— 
 To know our joys make glow another's cheek, 
 Our fears to tremble in another's heart, 
 Our sufferings bedew another's eye ! 
 How beautiful and grand 'tis, hand in hand 
 With a dear son, to tread youth's rosy path, 
 Again to dream once more the dream of life ! 
 How sweet and great, imperishable is 
 The virtue of a child, to live for ages, 
 Transmitting good unceasingly! How sweet 
 
 To plant what a dear son will one day reap, — 
 To gather what will make him rich, — to feel 
 How deep one day will be his gratitude !" 
 
 Schiller was placed in the school of Stuttgard. 
 where he may be said to have educated him- 
 self, for literature and the fine arts were under 
 the ban of the duke of Wurtemberg, whose 
 pedantic pedagogues vainly endeavored to turn 
 the gigantic mind of Schiller from its natural 
 inclination. Knowing nothing of the world 
 but from books, forbidden to mingle in female 
 society, and seeing in his fellow students but 
 multiplied copies of a certain severe and soul- 
 less model, which their preceptors continually 
 held up for admiration and imitation, the poet 
 turned to his own fancy for relief, and to be- 
 guile the tedium of his unnatural life, wrote the 
 tragedy of the Robbers, an extraordinary per- 
 formance, full of imagination and energy, bril- 
 liant with the light of genius and youth, but, 
 to use the deliberate criticism of its author, " a 
 monster, for which by good fortune the world 
 has no original, and which I would not wish to 
 be immortal, except to perpetuate an example 
 of the offspring which Genius, in its unnatural 
 union with Thraldom, may give to the world." 
 
 The anonymous author of an admirable Life 
 of Schiller thus speaks of the effect produced by 
 the Robbers. 
 
 " The publication of such a work as this 
 naturally produced an extraordinary feeling in 
 the literary world. Translations of the Robbers 
 soon appeared in almost all the languages of 
 Europe, and were read in all of them with a 
 deep interest, compounded of admiration and 
 aversion, according to the relative proportions 
 of sensibility and judgment in the various minds 
 which contemplated the subject. In Germany, 
 the enthusiasm which the Robbers excited was 
 extreme. The young author had burst upon the 
 world like a meteor ; and surprise, for a time, 
 suspended the power of cool and rational criti- 
 cism. In the ferment produced by the univer- 
 sal discussion of this single topic, the poet was 
 magnified above his natural dimensions, great 
 as they were : and though the general sentence 
 was loudly in his favor, yet he found detractors 
 as well as praisers, and both equally beyond the 
 limits of moderation. 
 
 " One charge brought against him must have 
 damped the joy of literary glory, and stung 
 Schiller's pure and virtuous mind more than 
 any other. He was accused of having injured 
 the cause of morality by his work : of having 
 set up to the impetuous and fie~y temperament 
 of youth a model of imitation, which the young 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCH 
 
 493 
 
 SCH 
 
 were too likely to pursue with eagerness, and 
 which could only lead them from the safe and 
 beaten tracks of duty into error and destruc- 
 tion. It has even been stated, and often re- 
 peated since, that a practical exemplification of 
 this doctrine occurred, about this time, in Ger- 
 many. A young nobleman, it was said, of the 
 fairest gifts and prospects, had cast away all 
 these advantages ; betaken himself to the forests, 
 and, copying Moor, had begun a course of active 
 operations, — which, also copying Moor, but less 
 willingly he had ended by a shameful death. 
 
 "It is now hardly necessary to contradict 
 these theories : or to show that none but a can- 
 didate for Bedlam as well as Tyburn could be 
 seduced from the substantial comforts of exist- 
 ence, to seek destruction and disgrace, for the 
 sake of such imaginary grandeur. The Ger- 
 man nobleman of the fairest gifts and prospects 
 turns out, on investigation, to have been a Ger- 
 man blackguard, whom debauchery and riotous 
 extravagance had reduced to want ; who took 
 to the highway, when he could take to nothing 
 else, — not allured by an ebullient enthusiasm, 
 or any heroical and misdirected appetite for sub- 
 lime actions, but driven by the more palpable 
 stimulus of importunate duns, an empty purse, 
 and five craving senses. Perhaps, in his latter 
 days, this philosopher may have referred to 
 Schiller's tragedy, as the source from which he 
 drew his theory of life ; but if so, we believe 
 he was mistaken. For characters like him, the 
 great attraction was the charm of revelry, and 
 the great restraint, the gallows, — before the 
 period of Karl Von Moor, just as they have 
 been since, and will be to the end of time. 
 Among motives like these, the influence of the 
 most malignant book could scarcely be discer- 
 nible, and would be little detrimental, if it were. 
 
 " Nothing, at any rate, could be farther from 
 Schiller's intentions than such a consummation. 
 In his preface he speaks of the moral effects of 
 the Robbers in terms which do honor to his 
 heart, while they show the inexperience of his 
 head. Ridicule, he signifies, has long been tried 
 against the wickedness of the times, whole car- 
 goes of hellebore have been expended in vain ; 
 and now he thinks recourse must be had to 
 more pungent medicines. We may smile at the 
 simplicity of this idea ; and safely conclude that, 
 like other specifics, the present one would fail 
 to produce a perceptible effect: but Schiller's 
 vindication rests on higher grounds than these. 
 His work has on the whole furnished nourish- 
 ment to the more exalted powers of our nature ; 
 the sentiments and images which he has shaped 
 
 and uttered, tend, in spite of their alloy,, to 
 elevate the soul to a nobler pitch; and this is a 
 sufficient defence. As to the danger of misap- 
 plying the inspiration he communicates, of for- 
 getting the dictates of prudence in our zeal for 
 the dictates of poetry, we have no great cause 
 to fear it. Hitherto, at least, there has always 
 been enough of dull reality, on every side of us, 
 to abate such fervors in good time, and bring us 
 back to the most sober level of prose, if not to 
 sink lis below it. We should thank the poet 
 who performs such a service ; and forbear to 
 inquire too rigidly whether there is a ' moral ' 
 in his piece or not. The writer of a work which 
 interests and excites the spiritual feelings of 
 men, has as little need to justify himself by 
 showing how it exemplifies some wise saw or 
 modern instance, as the doer of a generous 
 action has to demonstrate its merit, by dedu- 
 cing it from the system of Shaftsbury, or Smith, 
 or Paley, or whichever happens to be the favor- 
 ite system for the age and place. The instruc- 
 tiveness of the one, and the virtue of the other, 
 exist independently of all systems or laws, and 
 in spite of all." 
 
 The tragedy of the Robbers, although written 
 before the completion of Schiller's college 
 course, did not appear until he had attained the 
 age of twenty-one, and was beginning to dis- 
 charge the duties of surgeon in the army. The 
 spirit and popularity of the poet's performance 
 were highly displeasing to the despotic duke 
 of Wurtemberg, who issued an order for Schil- 
 ler to confine himself to the studies peculiar to 
 his profession. The youthful poet was com- 
 pelled to suffer a week's confinement for the 
 crime of having gone to Manheim to attend the 
 representation of his drama, and fearing a 
 severer punishment for the repetition of the 
 offence, he fled to Manheim, and thence to the 
 hospitable dwelling of Madam von Wollzogen, 
 near Meiningen. Protected by this lady he sent 
 forth two new plays— Fiesco, and Court Intrigue 
 and Love. He was next appointed poet to the 
 theatre at Manheim, a post of honor and profit. 
 At the expiration of eighteen months, Schiller 
 growing dissatisfied with his situation, went 
 from Manheim to Leipsic, and thence to Dres- 
 den. At the latter place he concluded his 
 famous tragedy of Don Carlos. 
 
 " Schiller's Carlos is the first of his plays that 
 bears the stamp of any thing like full maturity. 
 The opportunities he had enjoyed for extending 
 his knowledge of men and things, the sedulous 
 practice of the art of composition, the study of 
 purer morals, had not been without their full 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCH 
 
 494 
 
 SCH 
 
 effect. Increase of years had done something 
 for him ; diligence had done much more. The 
 ebullience of youth is now chastened into the 
 steadfast energy of manhood ; the wild enthu- 
 siast, that SDurned at the errors of the world, 
 has now become the enlightened moralist, that 
 laments their necessity, or endeavors to find out 
 their remedy. A corresponding alteration is 
 visible in the external form of the work, in its 
 plot and diction. The plot is contrived with 
 great ingenuity, embodying the result of much 
 study, both dramatic and historical. The lan- 
 guage is blank verse, not prose, as in the former 
 works; it is more careful and regular, less 
 ambitious in its object, but more certain of at- 
 taining it. Schiller's mind had now reached its 
 full stature : he felt and thought more justly ; he 
 could bettei express what he felt and thought." 
 
 " The tragedy of Carlos was received with 
 immediate and universal approbation. In the 
 closet and on the stage, it excited the warmest 
 applauses equally among the learned and un- 
 learned. Schiller's expectations had not been 
 so high ; he knew both the excellences and the 
 faults of his work: but he had not anticipated 
 that the former would be recognised so instan- 
 taneously. The pleasure of this new celebrity 
 came upon him, therefore, heightened by sur- 
 prise. Had dramatic eminence been his sole 
 object, he might now have slackened his exer- 
 tions ; the public had already ranked him as 
 the first of their writers in that favorite depart- 
 ment. But this limited ambition was not his 
 moving principle ; nor was his mind of that 
 sort for which rest is provided in this world. 
 The primary disposition of his nature urged him 
 to perpetual toil : the great aim of his life, the 
 unfolding of his mental powers, was one of those 
 which admit but a relative, not an absolute 
 progress. New ideas of perfection arise as the 
 former have been reached ; the student is al- 
 ways attaining, never has attained. 
 
 " Schiller's worldly circumstances, too, were 
 of a kind well calculated to prevent excess of 
 quietism. He was still drifting at large on the 
 tide of life : he was crowned with laurels, but 
 without a home. His heart, warm and affec- 
 tionate, fitted to enjoy the domestic blessings 
 which it longed for, was allowed to form no 
 permanent attachment : he felt that he was 
 unconnected, solitary in the world ; cut off 
 from the exercise of his kindlier sympathies ; 
 or if tasting such pleasures, it was ' snatching 
 them rather than partaking of them calmly.' 
 The vulgar desire of wealth and station never 
 entered his mind for an instant ; but as years 
 
 were added to his age, the delights of peace and 
 continuous comfort were fast becoming more 
 acceptable than any other ; and he looked with 
 anxiety to have a resting-place amid his wan- 
 derings, to be a man among his fellovvmen. 
 
 " For all these wishes Schiller saw that the 
 only chance of fulfilment depended on un- 
 wearied perseverance in his literary occupations. 
 Yet though his activity was unabated, and the 
 calls on it were increasing rather than diminish- 
 ed, its direction was gradually changing. The 
 drama had long been stationary, and of late 
 been falling in his estimation ; the difficulties of 
 the art, as he viewed it at present, had been over- 
 come, and new conquests invited him in other 
 quarters. The latter part of Carlos he had 
 written as a task rather than a pleasure ; he 
 contemplated no farther undertaking connected 
 with the stage. For a time, indeed, he seems 
 to have wavered among a multiplicity of enter- 
 prises ; now solicited to this, and now to that, 
 without being able to fix decidedly on any. 
 The restless ardor of his mind is evinced by the 
 number and variety of his attempts ; its fluctua- 
 tion by the circumstance that all of them are 
 short in extent, or left in the state of fragments. 
 Of the former kind are his lyrical productions, 
 many of which were composed about this period, 
 during intervals from more serious labors. The 
 character of these performances is such as his 
 former writings give us reason to expect. 
 With a deep insight into life, and a keen and 
 comprehensive sympathy with its sorrows and 
 enjoyments, there is combined that impetuosity 
 of feeling, that pomp of thought and imagery 
 which belong peculiarly to Schiller. If he had 
 now left the drama, it was clear that his mind 
 was still overflowing with the elements of 
 poetry ; dwelling among the grandest concep- 
 tions, and the boldest or finest emotions ; think- 
 ing intensely and profoundly, but decorating its 
 thoughts with those graces, which other facul- 
 ties than the understanding are required to 
 afford. With these smaller pieces, Schiller oc- 
 cupied himself at intervals of leisure through- 
 out the remainder of his life. Some of them 
 are to be classed among the finest efforts of 
 his genius. The Walk, the Song of the Bell, 
 contain exquisite delineations of the fortunes 
 and history of man ; his Ritter von Toggenburg, 
 his Cranes of Ibycus, his Hero and Leander, 
 are among the most poetical and moving ballads 
 to be found in any language." 
 
 Schiller now turnecf his attention to history, 
 his first performance in this department being 
 The Revolt of the Netherlands, unfortunately 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SCH 
 
 495 
 
 SCH 
 
 a fragment, but written in an exceedingly pure 
 style, and displaying throughout a most pene- 
 trating and philosophical spirit. Of his habits 
 the following is an interesting account. 
 
 " He wrote and thought with an impetuosity 
 beyond what nature always could endure. His 
 intolerance of interruptions first put him on the 
 plan of studying by night ; an alluring but per- 
 nicious practice, which began at Dresden, and 
 was never afterwards forsaken. His recrea- 
 tions breathed a similar spirit : he loved to be 
 much alone, and strongly moved. The banks 
 of the Elbe were the favorite resort of his 
 mornings ; here, wandering in solitude amid 
 groves and lawns, and green and beautiful 
 places, he abandoned his mind to delicious 
 musings ; watched the fitful current of his 
 thoughts, as they came sweeping through his 
 soul in their vague, fantastic, gorgeous forms; 
 pleased himself with the transient images of 
 memory and hope ; or meditated on the cares 
 and studies which had lately been employing, 
 and were again soon to employ him. At times, 
 he might be seen, floating on the river in a 
 gondola, feasting himself with the loveliness cf 
 earth and sky. He delighted most to be there, 
 when tempests were abroad : his unquiet spirit 
 found a solace in the expression of his own 
 unrest on the face of Nature ; danger lent a 
 charm to his situation ; he felt in harmony with 
 the scene, when the rack was sweeping storm- 
 fully across the heavens, and the forests were 
 sounding in the breeze, and the river was rol- 
 ling its chafed waters into wild eddying heaps. 
 
 "Yet before the darkness summoned him 
 exclusively to his tasks, Schiller commonly de- 
 voted a portion of the day to the pleasures of 
 society. Could he have found enjoyment in 
 the flatteries of admiring hospitality, his present 
 fame would have procured them for him in 
 abundance. But these things were not to 
 Schiller's taste. His opinion of the " flesh-flies " 
 of Leipzig we have already seen ; he retained 
 the same sentiments throughout all his life. 
 The idea of being what we call a lion is offen- 
 sive enough to any man, of not more than com- 
 mon vanity, and less than common understand- 
 ing : it was doubly offensive to him. His 
 pride and his modesty alike forbade it. The 
 delicacy of his nature, aggravated into shyness 
 by his education and his habits, rendered situa- 
 tions of display more than usually painful to 
 him ; the digito vratzrtuntium was a sort of 
 celebrity he was far from coveting. In the cir- 
 cles of fashion, he appeared unwillingly, and 
 seldom to advantage : their glitter and parade 
 42* 
 
 were foreign to his disposition : their strict cere- 
 monial cramped the play of his mind. Hem- 
 med in, as by invisible fences, among the intri- 
 cate barriers of etiquette, so feeble, so inviolable, 
 he felt constrained and helpless ; alternately 
 chagrined and indignant. It was the giant 
 among pigmies ; Gulliver, in Lilliput, tied down 
 by a thousand packthreads. But there were 
 more congenial minds, with whom he could 
 associate ; more familiar scenes, in which he 
 found the pleasures he was seeking. Here Schil- 
 ler was himself; frank, unembarrassed, pliant to 
 the humor of the hour. His conversation was 
 delightful, abounding at once in rare and sim- 
 ple charms. Besides the intellectual riches 
 which it carried with it, there was a flow of 
 kindliness and unaffected good humor, which 
 can render dulness itself agreeable. Schiller 
 had many friends in Dresden, who loved him 
 as a man while they admired him as a writer. 
 Their intercourse was of the kind he liked, 
 sober, as well as free and mirthful. It was the 
 careless, calm, honest effusion of his feelings 
 that he wanted ; not the noisy tumults and 
 coarse delirium of dissipation. For this, under 
 any of its forms, he at no time showed the small- 
 est relish." 
 
 In 1789, Schiller, chiefly through the interest 
 of his friend Goethe, was appointed Professor of 
 History at the University of Jena, a few miles 
 from the town of Weimar. He was then thirty 
 years old, and married von Lengefeld of Rudol- 
 stadt, to whom he had been engaged some time 
 before. In 1791 he published his History of the 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 
 An ardent admirer of Shakspeare, he thus 
 writes in 1797; 
 
 " I have just been reading the plays of Shak- 
 speare, which treat of the war between the two 
 roses; and now, after finishing Richard the Third, 
 am filled with a real wonder. This is one of the 
 sublimest of tragedies, and at this moment I 
 cannot name even another of Shakspeare's that 
 is superior to it. The great destinies prepared 
 in the preceding pieces are here accomplished 
 after a truly great fashion, and according to the 
 most sublime conception. That the subject 
 excludes all that is feminine, tender, sentimen- 
 tal, adds very much to the high effect : all in it is 
 energetic and grand : nothing common disturbs 
 the aesthetic emotion : one enjoys, as it were, 
 the pure form of the dread tragic. A high 
 Nemesis presides over the piece, the conscious- 
 ness of which penetrates the mind from the bo- 
 ginning to the end. It is to be wondered at, 
 how the poet always succeeds in forcing the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCH 
 
 496 
 
 SCH 
 
 unpoetic matter to render up poetic booty ; and 
 now skilfully he represents that which cannot 
 be directly represented ;— I refer to his art in 
 using symbols, where the reality cannot be 
 exhibited. No play of Shakspeare reminds me 
 so strongly of the Greek tragedy." 
 
 Wallenstein, a drama in three parts, which 
 cost Schiller the labor of two years, was follow- 
 ed speedily by Mary Stuart, a work of great 
 power, but not equalling the play which im- 
 mediately preceded it. As there is no English 
 version of Mary Stuart, the following anony- 
 mous translation of Q,ueen Elizabeth's soliloquy 
 previous to her signing the death-warrant for 
 the execution of the queen of Scots, may be ac- 
 ceptable as giving some idea of the tragic in- 
 terest of the drama from which it is extracted. 
 
 Subjection to my subjects ! O, most vile 
 
 Of servitudes 1 I'm worn and sick at heart, 
 
 With fawning on the idol I despise. 
 
 When shall I sit upon my throne in freedom? 
 
 No longer flattering men's wishes, whims — 
 
 To win their praise ; nor sueing for support 
 
 To a vile rout best managed by a juggler. 
 
 Ah, he who has a public he must please, 
 
 Call him not king — he, only he, deserves 
 
 The name, whose deed asks no man's commendation. 
 
 Why have I reigned in law and justice ever, 
 
 duelling my own desires— to find, when now 
 
 A deed despotic must, ay, must be done, 
 
 A shackle on my hands? Before the model 
 
 Myself have raised, I shrink, and am condemned. 
 
 Had I, like Spanish Mary, ruled these realms 
 
 With iron hand, — the queenly blood, which now 
 
 I thirst for, might be shed — and none dare murmur. 
 
 Was't then my own free choice, this luckless justice? 
 
 No 't was the offspring of necessity — 
 
 The stern necessity, which sways e'en princes. 
 
 This making Laic the partner of my reign 
 
 Has gained my people's love. JV/iat, but that love, 
 
 Could, or can now, support me on my throne ? 
 
 — A throne disputed, envied, circled in, 
 
 Assaulted by a host of enemies ! 
 
 Europe bands all her powers to destroy me. 
 
 On my poor head Rome's vengeful pontiff hurls 
 
 The excommunicating bann : great France 
 
 Salutes me with a Judas kiss : fast, fast, 
 
 O'er ocean bound a thousand giant ships, 
 
 To pour the Spaniards wrath unquenchable 
 
 On this lone isle, and its devoted queen. 
 
 Here then I stand — a woman 'gainst a world. 
 
 In this extremity, I must secure 
 
 My subjects' faithfulness, at any hazard ; 
 
 The bareness of my title to the crown 
 
 I must deck out with certain royal virtues : 
 
 The stains, which my own father's words have fixed 
 
 Upon my birth— in vain, in vain [ seek 
 
 To hide them ! Busy-fingered hate, still by, 
 
 Lays them all bare ; and ever holds before 
 
 My blasted eyes, this Stuart— threatening spectre — 
 
 Thwarting, and maddening— O, I'll not endure it. 
 
 I must— I will have peace. Her head shall fall. 
 
 — She is the fury of my life— a spirit 
 
 Of torment conjured up by Fate against me! 
 Where'er some lonely flower of hope or joy 
 Blooms in my path — there coils this snake of Hell. 
 My fate's whole blackness centres in one name — 
 The freezer of my friends, the thief, who hath stolen 
 My lover's heart," the pest, that, day and night, 
 Haunts me, and now is pulling me to earth — 
 All blister on my lips in that one name — 
 ; Tis Mary Stuart. Purge the earth of her, 
 And I am free— free as the mountain air. 
 
 [A long pause. In what succeeds the Queen re- 
 firs to a late interview with her prisoner.] 
 With what a look of scorn she eyed me ! Ha ! 
 Didst think to blast me? Wretch! Poor, powerless 
 
 wretch ! 
 Thy glance kills not, I wield a better weapon : 
 Its stroke is death ! it strikes, and where art thou ? 
 
 [Advancing to the table with a quick step y 
 and seizing the pen.] 
 A bastard, am I ? True, while thou dost live. 
 But babbling doubts of my imperial birth 
 Perish with thee, tiuit thou my subjects' sight— 
 They doubt, compare, prefer, rebel, no more, 
 And lam hailed at once their true-born queen. 
 
 [She signs the paper with rapid and firm strokes; then 
 drops the pen and starts back with a look of terror.] 
 
 Mary Stuart, was followed by the Maid of 
 Orleans, the Bride of Messina, and William 
 Tell. Schiller died in the spring of 1805, at 
 the age of forty-five, in the full vigor of his in- 
 tellectual powers. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Charles, esteemed by Louis 
 XIII for his many important services rendered 
 to the crown of France. He first signalized 
 himself at the siege of Sommierie, in Langue- 
 doc; showed great conduct at the attack ofPas 
 de Suse, and taking ofPrivas, in 1629; accom- 
 panied the king in his voyage to Savoy, in 1630 ; 
 was dangerously wounded at the battle of Rou- 
 vroi, in 1632; but afterwards worsted the Span- 
 iards in Roussillon ; forced them to raise the 
 siege of Leucate ;. overthrew them at Canet and 
 Sigean,in 1639; relieved Ilhes, in Catalonia, in 
 1640 ; and took Perpignan and Saluzzo in 1642. 
 He died in 1656. in the 56th year of his age. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Henry, count of Nanteuil 
 and Duretal, was the son of Gaspar Schomberg, 
 a German, and succeeded his father as general 
 field-marshal of the German troops in the French 
 king's service. He was sent ambassador ex- 
 traordinary to England, in 1615; at his return 
 he had a command in the army of Piedmont, 
 under the marshal Lesdiguieres, and contribu- 
 ted to the taking of several places in 1620. He 
 assisted at the reduction of the cities of Rouen, 
 Caen, la Fleehe, Pont de Ce, and Navarreins, 
 as well as at the sieges of St. Jean d'Angely 
 and Montauban. He also shared in the honor 
 of taking of Roianne, Negtepelisse, Marsillar- 
 gues, and other places in Languedoc ; in 1627 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCI 
 
 497 
 
 SCI 
 
 he was present at the action of the Isle of Re, 
 where the English were defeated. In 1630 he 
 took Pignerol, and relieved Cazal, and gained 
 the battle of Castelnaudary! He died at Bour- 
 deaux in 1632, in the forty -ninth year of his age. 
 He was buried in the church of the priory of 
 Nanteuil. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Frederic, duke of, an emi- 
 nent general, was the son of count Schomberg, 
 by the daughter of lord Dudley, and was born in 
 1(319. He served first in the army of the United 
 Provinces ; but in 1650 retired to France, where 
 he was esteemed next to Conde and Turenne. 
 In 1660 he visited England, from whence he 
 proceeded to Portugal, where he was created a 
 grandee, and obtained a pension. On his return 
 to France, he commanded in Flanders, and 
 obliged the prince of Orange to raise the siege 
 of Maestricht, for which he was made a mar- 
 shal. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 he went again to Portugal ; but being obliged 
 to quit the kingdom by the inquisition, he re- 
 moved to Holland, and afterwards entered into 
 the service of the elector of Brandenburg. In 
 1688 he accompanied the prince of Orange to 
 England ; and after the Revolution was created 
 a duke, with which title he received a grant of 
 one hundred thousand pounds. In 1689 he 
 commanded in Ireland, where he was killed at 
 the battle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. 
 
 SCHUYLER, Philip, a general in the Amer- 
 ican revolution, was born at Albany, N. Y., 
 in 1731, and being appointed major general, in 
 1775, evinced great courage and skill through- 
 out the war. He was a member of the old con- 
 gress, and, in 1789, was appointed a senator in 
 the national legislature. He died Nov. 18, 1804, 
 in the 73d year of his age. 
 
 SCIO or Chios (in Turkish, Sahi-Massi) a 
 fertile island in the Grecian Archipelago, con- 
 taining 392 square miles. In April 14, 1822, 
 the revolt of the Sciots was punished by the 
 Turks, by the massacre of 40,000 persons with- 
 out distinction of age or sex. Such was the fero- 
 cious spirit exercised towards them, that in 1823, 
 the population had been reduced from 120,000 
 to 16,000. 
 
 SCIPIO, Cneius, surnamed Asina, was con- 
 sul A. U. C. 494 and 500. He was conquered 
 in his first consulship in a naval battle, and lost 
 17 ships. The following year he took Aleria, 
 in Corsica, and defeated Hanno, the Carthagi- 
 nian general, in Sardinia. He also took 200 of 
 the enemy's ships, and the city of Panormum 
 in Sicily. He was father to Publius and Cneius 
 Scipio. Publius, in the beginning of the sec- 
 
 ond Punic war, was sent with an army to Spain 
 to oppose Hannibal ;. but when he heard that 
 his enemy had passed over into Italy, he at- 
 tempted by his quick marches and secret evo- 
 lutions to stop his progress. 
 
 He was conquered by Hannibal near the 
 Ticinus, where he nearly lost his life, had not 
 his son, who was afterwards surnamed Africa- 
 nus, courageously defended him. He again 
 passed into Spain, where he obtained some 
 memorable victories over the Carthaginians, 
 and the inhabitants of the country. 
 
 His brother Cneius shared the supreme com- 
 mand with him, but their great confidence 
 proved their ruin. They separated their ar- 
 mies, and soon after Publius was furiously at- 
 tacked by the two Asdrubals and Mago, who 
 commanded the Carthaginian armies. The 
 forces of Publius were too few to resist with 
 success the three Carthaginian generals. The 
 Romans were cut to pieces, and their com- 
 mander was left on the field of battle. No soon- 
 er had the enemy obtained this victory, than they 
 immediately marched to meet Cneius Scipio, 
 whom the revolt of 30,000 Celtiberians had 
 weakened and alarmed. The general, who was 
 already apprized of his brother's death, secured 
 an eminence, where he was soon surrounded on 
 all sides. After desperate acts of valor he was 
 left among the slain, or, according to some, he 
 fled into a tower, where he was burnt with 
 some of his friends by the victorious enemy. 
 
 SCIPIO, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africa- 
 nus, was son of Publius Scipio, who was killed 
 in Spain. He first distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Ticinus, where he saved his father's 
 life by deeds of unexampled valor and boldness. 
 The battle of Cannse, which proved so fatal to 
 the Roman arms, instead of disheartening Scipio, 
 raised his expectations, and he no sooner heard 
 that some of his desperate countrymen wished 
 to abandon Italy, and to fly from the insolence 
 of the conqueror, than with his sword in his 
 hand, and by his firmness and example, he 
 obliged them to swear eternal fidelity to Rome, 
 and to put to immediate death the first man who 
 attempted to retire from his country. It was 
 soon known how able he was to be at the head 
 of an army; the various nations of Spain were 
 conquered, and in four years the Carthaginians 
 were banished from that part of the continent; 
 the whole province became tributary to Rome ; 
 New Carthage submitted in one day, and in a 
 battle 54,000 of the enemy were left dead on 
 the field. After these signal victories, Scipio 
 was recalled to Rome, which still trembled a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCI 
 
 498 
 
 SCI 
 
 the continual alarms of Hannibal, who was at 
 her gates. The conqueror of the Carthaginians 
 in Spain was looked upon as a proper general 
 to encounter Hannibal in Italy ; but Scipio op- 
 posed the measures which his countrymen wish- 
 ed to pursue, and he declared in the senate that 
 if Hannibal was to be conquered he must be 
 conquered in Africa. These bold measures 
 were immediately adopted, though opposed by 
 the eloquence, age, and experience of the great 
 Fabius, and Scipio was empowered to conduct 
 the war on the coasts of Africa. With the dig- 
 nity of consul he embarked for Carthage. Han- 
 nibal, who was victorious at the gates of Rome, 
 was instantly recalled to defend the walls of his 
 country, and the two greatest generals of the 
 age met each other in the field. Terms of ac- 
 commodation were proposed ; but in the parley 
 which the two commanders had together, noth- 
 ing satisfactory was offered, and while the one 
 enlarged on the vicissitudes of human affairs, 
 the other wished to dictate like a conqueror, and 
 recommended the decision of the controversy to 
 the sword. 
 
 The celebrated battle was fought near Zama, 
 and both generals displayed their military know- 
 ledge in drawing up their armies and in choos- 
 ing their ground. Their courage and intrepidi- 
 ty were not less conspicuous in charging the 
 enemy ; a thousand acts of valor were perform- 
 ed on both sides, and though the Carthaginians 
 fought in their own defence, and the Romans 
 for fame and glory, yet the conqueror of Italy 
 was vanquished. About 20,000 Carthaginians 
 were slain, and the same number made prison- 
 ers of war, B. C. 202. Only 2000 of the Ro- 
 mans were killed. This battle was decisive ; 
 the Carthaginians sued for peace, which Scipio 
 at last granted on the most severe and humiliat- 
 ing terms. 
 
 The conqueror after this returned to Rome, 
 where he was received with the most unbound- 
 ed applause, honored with a triumph, and dig- 
 nified with the appellation of Afrin.anus. Here 
 he enjoyed for some time the tranquillity and 
 the honors which his exploits merited, but in 
 him also as in other great men, fortune showed 
 herself inconstant. Scipio offended the popu- 
 lace in wishing to distinguish the senators from 
 the rest of the people at the public exhibitions ; 
 and when he canvassed for the consulship for 
 two of his friends, he had the mortification to 
 see his application slighted, and the honors 
 which he claimed, bestowed on a man of no 
 character, and recommended by neither abilities 
 nor meritorious actions. 
 
 He retired from Rome, no longer to be a spec- 
 tator of the ingratitude of his countrymen, and 
 in the capacity of lieutenant accompanied his 
 brother against Antiochus, king of Syria. In 
 this expedition his arms were attended with 
 usual success, and the Asiatic monarch submit- 
 ted to the conditions which the conquerors dic- 
 tated. At his return to Rome, Africanus found 
 the malevolence of his enemies still unabated. 
 Cato, his inveterate rival, raised seditions against 
 him, and the Petilli, two tribunes of the people, 
 accused the conqueror of Hannibal of extortion 
 in the provinces of Asia, and of living in an in- 
 dolent and luxurious manner. 
 
 Scipio condescended to answer to the accu- 
 sation of his calumniators ; the first day was 
 spent in hearing the different charges, but when 
 he again appeared on the second day of his tri- 
 al, the accused interrupted his judges, and ex- 
 claimed, " Tribunes and fellow-citizens, on this 
 day, this very day, did I conquer Hannibal and 
 the Carthaginians: come, therefore, with me, 
 Romans ; let us go to the capitol, and there re- 
 turn our thanks to the immortal gods for the 
 victories which have attended our arms." 
 These words had the desired effect ; the tribes, 
 and all the assembly followed Scipio, the court 
 was deserted, and the tribunes were left alone 
 in the seat of judgment. 
 
 Yet when this memorable day was past and 
 forgotten, Africanus was a third time summon 
 ed to appear ; but he had fled before the im- 
 pending storm, and retired to his country-house 
 at Liternum. The accusation was therefore 
 stopped, and the accusers silenced, when one of 
 the tribunes, formerly distinguished for his ma- 
 levolence against Scipio, rose to defend him, 
 and declared in the assembly, that it reflected 
 the highest disgrace on the Roman people, that 
 the conqueror of Hannibal should become the 
 sport of the populace, and be exposed to the 
 malice and envy of disappointed ambition. 
 
 Some time after Scipio died in the place of his 
 retreat, about 184 years before Christ, in the 
 48th year of his age ; and so great an aversion 
 did he express, as he expired, for the depravity 
 of the Romans, and the ingratitude of their sen- 
 ators, that he ordered his bones not to be con- 
 veyed to Rome. They were accordingly in- 
 humated at Liternum, where his wife iEmilia, 
 the daughter of Paulus ^milius, who fell at the 
 battle of Cannre, raised a mausoleum on his 
 tomb, and placed upon it his statue, with that- 
 of the poet Ennius, who had been the compan- 
 ion of his peace and of his retirement. 
 
 SCIPIO, Lucius Cornelius, surnamed Asiati 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCI 
 
 499 
 
 SCI 
 
 cus, accompanied his brother Africanus in his 
 expeditions in Spain and Africa. He was re- 
 warded with the consulship, A. U. C. 564, for 
 his services to the state, and he was empowered 
 to attack Antiochus, king of Syria, who had de- 
 clared war against the Romans. Lucius was 
 accompanied in this campaign by his brother 
 Africanus ; and by his own valor, and by the 
 advice of the conqueror of Hannibal, he soon 
 routed the enemy, and in a battle near the city 
 of Sardes he killed 50,000 foot and 4,000 horse. 
 
 Peace was soon after settled by the submis- 
 sion of Antiochus, and the conqueror, at his re- 
 turn home, obtained a triumph, and the sur- 
 name of Asiaticus. He did not, however, long 
 enjoy his prosperity ; Cato, after the death ot 
 Africanus, turned his fury against Asiaticus, 
 and the two Petilli, his devoted favorites, pre- 
 sented a petition to the people, in which they 
 prayed that an inquiry might be made to know 
 what money had been received from Antiochus 
 and his allies. The petition was instantly re- 
 ceived, and Asiaticus, charged to have suffered 
 himself to be corrupted by Antiochus, was sum- 
 moned to appear before the tribunal of Teren- 
 tius Culeo, who was on this occasion created 
 prsetor. 
 
 The judge, who was an inveterate enemy to 
 the family of the Scipios, soon found Asiaticus, 
 with his two lieutenants and his qurestor, guilty 
 of having received, the first 6,000 pounds weight 
 of gold, and 480 pounds weight of silver, and 
 the others nearly an equal sum, from the mon- 
 arch against whom, in the name of the Roman 
 people, they were enjoined to make war. Im- 
 mediately they were condemned to pay large 
 fines ; but while the others gave security, Scipio 
 declared that he had accounted to the public for 
 all the money which he had brought from Asia, 
 and therefore that he was innocent. 
 
 For this obstinacy Scipio was dragged to pri- 
 son, but his cousin Nasica pleaded his cause be- 
 fore the people, and the prsetor instantly ordered 
 the goods of the prisoner to be seized and con- 
 fiscated. The sentence was executed, but the 
 effects of Scipio were insufficient to pay the fine, 
 and it was the greatest justification of his inno- 
 cence, that whatever was found in his house had 
 never been in the possession of Antiochus or his 
 subjects. This, however, did not totally liber- 
 ate him ; he was reduced to poverty, and re- 
 fused to accept the offer of his friends and of his 
 clients. Some time after he was appointed to 
 settle the disputes between Eumenes and Seleu- 
 cus, and at his return the Romans, ashamed of 
 their severity towards him, rewarded his merit 
 
 with such uncommon liberality, that Asiaticus 
 was enabled to celebrate games in honor of his 
 victory over Antiochus, for ten successive days, 
 at his own expense. 
 
 SCIPIO Nasica was son of Cneius Scipio, and 
 cousin to Scipio Africanus. He was refused 
 the consulship, though supported by the inter- 
 est and the fame of the conqueror of Hannibal; 
 but he afterwards obtained it, and in that hon- 
 orable office conquered the Boii, and gained a 
 triumph. He was also successful in an expe- 
 dition which he undertook in Spain. When 
 the statue of Cybele was brought to Rome from 
 Phrygia, the Roman senate delegated one of 
 their body, who was the most remarkable for 
 the purity of his manners and the innocence of 
 his life, to go and meet the goddess in the har- 
 bor of Ostia. 
 
 Nasica was the object of their choice, and as 
 such he was enjoined to bring the statue of the 
 goddess to Rome with the greatest pomp and 
 solemnity. Nasica also distinguished himself 
 by the active part which he took in confuting 
 the accusations laid against the two Scipios, 
 Africanus and Asiaticus. There was also ano- 
 ther of the same name, who distinguished him- 
 self by his enmity against the Gracchi, to whom 
 he was nearly related 
 
 SCIPIO, Publius iEmilianus, son of Paulus, 
 the conqueror of Perseus, was adopted by the 
 son of Scipio Africanus. ^Emilianus first ap- 
 peared in the Roman armies under his father, 
 and afterwards distinguished himself as a legion 
 ary tribune in the Spanish provinces, where he 
 killed a Spaniard of gigantic stature, and ob 
 tained a mural crown at the siege of Intercatia. 
 He passed into Africa to demand a reinforce- 
 ment from king Masinissa, the ally of Rome, 
 and he was the spectator of a long and bloody 
 battle which was fought between that monarch 
 and the Carthaginians, and which soon produced 
 the third Punic war. Some time after, iEmili- 
 anus was made edile, and next appointed con- 
 sul, though under the age required for that im- 
 portant office. 
 
 He was empowered to finish the war with 
 Carthage, and as he was permitted by the sen- 
 ate to choose his colleague, he took with him 
 his friend Laelius, whose father, of the same 
 name, had formerly enjoyed the confidence and 
 shared the victories of the first Africanus. The 
 siege of Carthage was already begun, but the 
 operations of the Romans were not continued 
 with vigor. Scipio had no sooner appeared be- 
 fore the walls of the enemy, than every com- 
 munication with the land was cut off, and that 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 SCI 
 
 500 
 
 SCO 
 
 they might not have the command of the sea, a 
 stupendous mole was thrown across the harbor, 
 with immense labor and expense. This, which 
 might have disheartened the most active ene- 
 my, rendered the Carthaginians more eager in 
 the cause of freedom and independence. All 
 the inhabitants, without distinction of rank, age, 
 or sex, employed themselves without cessation 
 to dig another harbor, and to build and equip 
 another fleet. In a short time, in spite of the 
 vigilance and activity of iEmilianus, the Ro- 
 mans were astonished to see another harbor 
 formed, and 50 gallies suddenly issuing under 
 sail, ready for the engagement. 
 
 This unexpected fleet, by immediately attack- 
 ing the Roman ships, might have gained the 
 victory ; but the delay of the Carthaginians 
 proved fatal to their cause, and the enemy had 
 sufficient time to prepare themselves. Scipio 
 soon got possession of a small eminence in 
 the harbor; and, by the success of his subse- 
 quent operations, he broke open one of the gates 
 of the city, and entered the streets, where he 
 made his way by fire and sword. The surren- 
 der of above 50,000 men was followed by the re- 
 duction of the citadel, and the total submission 
 of Carthage, B. C. 147. 
 
 The captive city was set on fire ; and though 
 Scipio was obliged to demolish its very walls, to 
 obey the orders of the Romans, yet he wept bit- 
 terly over the melancholy and tragical scene ; 
 and in bewailing the miseries of Carthage, he 
 expressed his fears lest Rome, in her turn, in 
 some future age, should exhibit such a dreadful 
 conflagration. The return of iEmilianus to 
 Rome was that of another conqueror of Hanni- 
 bal, and like him he was honored with a mag- 
 nificent triumph, and received the surname of 
 Africarms He was chosen consul a second 
 time, and appointed to finish the war which the 
 Romans had hitherto carried on without success 
 or vigorous exertions, against Numantia. The 
 fall of Numantia was more noble than that of 
 the capital of Africa, and the conqueror of Car- 
 thage obtained the victory only when the ene- 
 mies had been consumed by famine or bj' self- 
 destruction, B. C. 133. 
 
 For his conquests in Spain, ^Emilianus was 
 honored with a second triumph, and with the 
 surname of JYumantinus. Yet his popularity 
 was short; and by telling the people that the 
 murder of their favorite, his brother-in-law, 
 Gracchus, was lawful, since he was turbulent, 
 and inimical to the peace of the republic, Scipio 
 incurred the displeasure of the tribunes, and was 
 received with hisses. His authority for a mo- 
 ment quelled their sedition, when he reproach- 
 
 ed them for their cowardice, and exclaimed, 
 " Factious wretches, do you think that your 
 clamors can intimidate me ; me, whom the fury 
 of your enemies never daunted ? Is this the 
 gratitude that you owe to my father Paulus, 
 who conquered Macedonia, and to me ? With- 
 out my family, you were slaves. Is this the 
 respect you owe to your deliverers? Is this 
 your affection ?" This firmness silenced the 
 murmurs of the assembly, and some time after, 
 Scipio retired from the clamors of Rome to 
 Caieta, where, with his friend Leslius, he passed 
 the rest of his time in innocent pleasure and 
 amusement, in diversions which had pleased 
 them when children. He afterward returned to 
 Rome, and again engaged in public affairs. This 
 active part of Scipio was seen with pleasure by 
 the friends of the republic, and not only the 
 senate, but also the citizens, the Latins, and 
 neighboring states, conducted their illustrious 
 friend and patron to his house. It seemed also 
 the universal wish that the troubles might be 
 quieted by the election of Scipio to the dictator- 
 ship ; and many presume that that honor would 
 be conferred upon him. In this, however, the 
 expectations of Rome were frustrated : Scipio 
 was found dead in his bed, to the astonishment 
 of the world ; and those who inquired for the 
 causes of this sudden death, perceived violent 
 marks on his neck, and concluded that he had 
 been strangled, B. C. 128. 
 
 SCLA VONIA, a province in the south of the 
 Austrian empire. It formed, under the Ro- 
 mans, a part of the ancient Illyria, and derived 
 its present name from a tribe of Sclavi, or Slavi, 
 who settled here in the 6th century. It was 
 overrun by the Turks, and continued in their 
 possession about 170 years. The Franks, in 
 their military successes before and during the 
 age of Charlemagne, often encountered Sclavo- 
 nic tribes, and, carrying them into captivity, 
 the name of Slave, or Esclave, became synony- 
 mous with captive. 
 
 SCOTLAND ; a country of Europe forming 
 the northern division of Great Britain, contain- 
 ing 29,600 square miles, and 2,365,700 inhabi- 
 tants. It is divided by the Grampian mountains 
 into two parts, the Highlands and Lowlands. 
 
 HIGHLAND COUNTIES. 
 
 Orkney (Isles) Inverness. 
 
 Caithness Argyle 
 
 Sutherland Bute 
 
 Nairn Aberdeen 
 
 Murray Kincardine 
 
 Banf Angus 
 
 Ross Perth 
 
 Cromarty Fife 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SCO 
 
 501 
 
 SCO 
 
 LOWLAND COUNTIES. 
 
 Kinross Ayr 
 
 Clackmannan Wigton 
 
 Stirling Lanark 
 
 Dumbarton Peebles 
 
 West Lothian Selkirk 
 
 Mid Lothian Roxburgh 
 
 East Lothian Dumfries 
 
 Berwick Kircudbright. 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 Scotland contains many beautiful lakes, or 
 .ochs. The southern part of Scotland is agree- 
 ably diversified, but the northern contains many 
 mountains, with few fertile valleys. Bennevis, 
 one of the summits of the Grampian mountains, 
 rises to the height of 4,387 feet. The chief 
 towns are Glasgow, Edinburgh, Paisley, Aber- 
 deen, Dundee, Greenock, Perth, Dumfermline, 
 Inverness, Falkirk, Kilmarnock, and Montrose. 
 Scotland is noted for its manufactures, the prin- 
 cipal of which are cotton, linen, woollen, and 
 iron. The Scotch are Presbyterians. The 
 universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. An- 
 drew's, and Aberdeen, enjoy great celebrity ; 
 and by the number and excellence of common 
 schools, the Scotch are well-informed. 
 
 This part of the island of Great Britain was 
 anciently called Caledonia, and the inhabitants 
 Caledones, who were of Celtic original, and 
 probably those tribes of the Britons, who had 
 wandered the farthest northward. In the fourth 
 century we find them distinguished into Scots 
 and Picts. In 85, Agricola, the Roman gene- 
 ral, attempted to conquer this part of the island, 
 but did not effect the conquest of more than 
 that part which is south of the Forth and Clyde. 
 In 121 Adrian relinquished more, building a 
 wall from the Solway Frith to the river Tyne. 
 In 144 the Romans extended their boundaries 
 again as far as the wall of Agricola; but Seve- 
 rus, though he invaded the whole country in 
 208, thought proper to adhere to the boundary 
 of Adrian. 
 
 Upon the Romans quitting this island in 410, 
 the Scots regained the possession of all that is 
 now called Scotland, and made excursions very 
 far southward, though without retaining their 
 conquests. 
 
 About 839 the Picts are said to have been 
 entirely reduced by Kennet II, the first sole 
 king of all Scotland. Donald, brother to Ken- 
 net, reigned four years, and was succeeded by 
 Constantine, his nephew, son of Kennet, who 
 being made prisoner by a party of Danes, 
 was beheaded by the enemy in a cave, after- 
 wards called the Devil's Cave. He was suc- 
 
 ceeded by his brother Eth, who, after a reign 
 of one year, was followed by Gregory, surnamed 
 the Great. The king of Ireland being a minor, 
 his authority was usurped by two factious no- 
 blemen. Gregory therefore passed over into 
 that country as guardian of the young king, 
 and after appointing a regency, he returned 
 into Scotland, where he finished a life of action 
 and of glory at Dun-o-deer, in the Garioch, in 
 892, and was buried with his ancestors at lcolm- 
 kill. 
 
 Donald VI, the worthy successor of Gregory, 
 rendered considerable service to Alfred, king 
 of England, in his wars with the Danes. He 
 was succeeded by Constantine III, who, depart- 
 ing from the policy of his predecessors, entered 
 into an alliance with the Danes, in the hope of 
 being able to extend his dominions by their 
 help. But he was disappointed. After failing 
 in an expedition against England, he resigned 
 his crown to Malcolm, and spent the remainder 
 of his life in the solitude of the cloister. The 
 connection of the English and Scots against 
 the Danes, was continued under Indulf, who 
 defeated these freebooters in many bloody en- 
 gagements. His successor Duff resigned his 
 principality of Cumberland to Colin, the son of 
 Indulf; but the latter, not contented with his 
 domain, excited various insurrections in the 
 kingdom, and at last Duff was either slain or 
 driven into exile. 
 
 Colin indulged in the greatest licentiousness, 
 and was succeeded by Kennet 111, the son of 
 Malcolm, who vigorously prosecuted the war 
 against the Britons of Strathcluyd, till at last 
 their principality was finally subjected to the 
 dominion of the Scots. However, Kennet was 
 assassinated, and the throne was usurped by 
 Constantine the Bold, who fell in an engage- 
 ment with Grime, the son of Duff, in 993. 
 Grime, regardless of the claims of Malcolm, 
 son of Kennet, and prince of Cumberland, caus- 
 ed himself to be crowned at Scone, but was 
 defeated and slain after a reign of eight years. 
 
 In 1004, Malcolm having convened the nobil- 
 ity, was acknowledged sovereign, and invested 
 with the royal dignity. He defeated in three 
 different engagements the Danes, who had ef- 
 fected a settlement in Cambria ; and these suc- 
 cesses gained him the title of the most victorious 
 king. He died after a reign of thirty years, 
 and left no issue to succeed him except Dun- 
 can, a grandson by his daughter Beatrix. 
 
 Duncan was cut off by the hand of domestic 
 treachery in the seventh year of his reign, and 
 the throne was usurped by his murderer Mac- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SCO 
 
 502 
 
 SCO 
 
 beth. Consciousness of guilt kept alive in his 
 breast a jealousy which prompted him to re- 
 peated acts of cruelty ; and he put to death Mac 
 Gill, then Banquo, the most powerful man in 
 his dominions, with the wile and infant children 
 of Macduff, who saved his own life by flying 
 into England. 
 
 Macduff applied himself to Malcolm, son of 
 the late king Duncan, who on the death of his 
 father had escaped to his principality in Cum- 
 berland ; and having obtained assistance from 
 England, they made war on the usurper, whom 
 they soon drove to the most inaccessible parts 
 of the Highlands, where, after defending him- 
 self for the space of two years, he was at last 
 killed in a sally by Macduff. Malcolm mount- 
 ed the throne of his fathers ; he married Mar- 
 garet of England, who had fled to Scotland for 
 safety of her life. Malcolm engaged in war 
 with the king of England, and after laying 
 waste the open country, besieged Alnwick, in 
 Northumberland. 
 
 According to Scottish historians, the place 
 was so closely pressed, that a knight came out 
 of the castle with its keys on the point of a 
 spear, and pretending that he wished to lay 
 them at Malcolm's feet, that prince advanced 
 to receive them, and was by the traitor run 
 through the eye, and killed on the spot. They 
 also add, that the prince Edward was mortally 
 wounded in endeavoring to avenge his father's 
 death. According to English historians, Mal- 
 colm and his son fell in battle, and their army 
 suffered a total route. 
 
 Margaret, who was at this time sick at Edin- 
 burgh, being informed of the death of her hus- 
 band and son, made confession, received the 
 sacrament, gave her dying blessing and advice 
 to her children, and expired. Malcolm and 
 Margaret left six children ; Edmund, Edgar, 
 Alexander, David, Matilda, and Mary. Ano- 
 ther of Malcolm's sons was of illegitimate birth, 
 and was called Duncan. 
 
 Donald, the brother of Malcolm, presented 
 himself as a candidate for the crown ; but the 
 illegitimate Duncan advanced his pretensions 
 with great firmness, and obliged his father's 
 brother to relinquish. In order to support him- 
 self on the throne, Duncan called in the Nor- 
 wegians, renouncing in their favor all claims 
 on the Orkney and Shetland isles. But those 
 barbarians rendering themselves more odious 
 than ever the English had been, the nobles re- 
 nounced their allegiance to Duncan, and placed 
 on the throne Malcolm's eldest son Edgar, who 
 had returned to Scotland with his two brothers, 
 
 and who, after a reign of eight years, which was 
 disturbed neither by domestic conspiracy nor 
 foreign wars, died in the year 1 107. 
 
 He was succeeded by his brother Alexander, 
 who being also destitute of progeny, left the 
 crown to David, the last of Malcolm's sons. 
 Immediately on his accession a contest which 
 had for some time prevailed, concerning the 
 independence of the Scottish church, was re- 
 newed. In an advanced age David lost his 
 only son Henry, but, before his death, which 
 happened in the year 1153, he caused his grand- 
 son Malcolm to be proclaimed and acknow- 
 ledged heir to his crown. 
 
 Malcolm IV, who was only twelve or fifteen 
 years of age at the time of his accession, ceded 
 the counties of Northumberland and Cumber- 
 land to Henry II of England, did homage for 
 the earldom of Huntingdon, and meeting that 
 monarch at Carlisle, followed him in his expe- 
 dition against Toulouse in France. On his 
 return he was continually disturbed with insur- 
 rections, and was saved only by the intervention 
 of the clergy. He died unmarried at the age 
 of twenty-five years. 
 
 William was crowned immediately after his 
 brother's death, in 1165, and entering into a 
 confederacy against Henry king of England, 
 was defeated and taken prisoner. William ac- 
 cepted his liberation on the most humiliating 
 terms ; five castles being delivered up to the 
 English as sureties, and the king's brother 
 and twenty nobles as hostages. The accession 
 of Richard to the English throne was, however, 
 fortunate for Scotland. He released William 
 and his kingdom from that feudal dependency 
 on England, which had been unjustly extorted 
 from him during his captivity, and engaged to 
 restore his fortresses. William reigned forty- 
 nine years, and died in the seventy-second year 
 of his age. 
 
 His son and successor, Alexander II, settled 
 by treaty the claims which had been the sub- 
 jects of contest between the two crowns, and 
 procured for himself a reign as peaceable as 
 could be expected in a nation full of turbulent 
 nobles. Alexander III was only nine years of 
 age when he was crowned. Ambassadors were 
 sent to London to demand Henry's daughter 
 in marriage ; and this being easily granted, both 
 courts met at York, and the ceremony was per- 
 formed with great pomp. Alexander did hom- 
 age to Henry for his English possessions, which 
 the latter confirmed by a charter. 
 
 The king saw himself bereft of all his chil- 
 dren, except Margaret, who was married to 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SCO 
 
 503 
 
 SCO 
 
 Eric of Norway ; and in the third year after her 
 marriage she also died, leaving only an infant 
 daughter, on whom the crown of Scotland was 
 settled. Alexander was thrown from his horse 
 over a precipice, and perished in the fall. Ed- 
 ward, who was one of the most valiant and 
 politic monarchs that ever sat on the English 
 throne, being ambitious of adding Scotland to 
 the dominions of his crown, applied to the court 
 of Rome to authorise a marriage between his 
 son and his grand-niece, and having gained the 
 consent of Eric, he intrigued with the Scottish 
 nobles to obtain their concurrence. Every 
 thing seemed to favor his views, when the child 
 was taken ill on the passage from Norway, and 
 died at Orkney. 
 
 The Scots now saw full before them the un- 
 happy prospect of a disputed succession, war 
 with England, and intestine discord. In order, 
 therefore, to avoid the miseries of a civil war, 
 both parties made choice of Edward as umpire, 
 and agreed to aquiesce in his decree. The chief 
 competitors for the crown were Bruce and Ba- 
 liol, both descendants of David, earl of Hun- 
 tingdon, who was brother to the two kings, 
 Malcolm and William. 
 
 Edward advanced with a great army to the 
 frontiers of Scotland, whither he invited the 
 nobility and all the competitors to attend him. 
 However, in the character of umpire, the king 
 of England arrogated to himself the feudal sov- 
 ereignty of the kingdom, compelled all the ba- 
 rons to swear allegiance to him, and took pos- 
 session of all the fortresses with his troops. 
 
 One hundred and four commissioners being 
 appointed to examine the several claims, gave 
 their verdict in favor of Baliol, who was crown- 
 ed accordingly in 1292. 
 
 But Baliol renouncing his allegiance soon 
 after, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland 
 with an immense army, and compelled this 
 weak prince to submit and make a solemn and 
 irrevocable resignation of his crown into the 
 hands of the king of England. National ani- 
 mosities, and the insolence of victory, conspired 
 to render the English government intolerable 
 to the Scots, who bore with the utmost impa- 
 tience a yoke, to which, from the earliest period 
 of their monarchy, they had always been unac- 
 customed. 
 
 In 1296, Sir William Wallace, whose mag- 
 nanimous soul could no longer brook to see his 
 country torn by factions, deserted by its chiefs, 
 and oppressed by foreigners, bravely stepped 
 forth to re-unite the friends of liberty under his 
 banner, and undertook several enterprises, all 
 43 
 
 of which added to the glory of his name, and 
 to the number of his followers, till at length he 
 obtained a numerous army. 
 
 The Scots were now forced to the cruel ex- 
 pedient of putting to the sword every English- 
 man they found in arms. King Edward, who 
 was then in France, ordered the earl of Surrey 
 to suppress this daring insurrection ; and lord 
 Henry Percy marched at the head of an army 
 of forty thousand men against Wallace. The 
 latter retreated northward, where he was joined 
 by new adherents ; and when Warrene advanc- 
 ed to Stirling, he found Wallace encamped in 
 excellent order on the opposite bank of the 
 Forth. 
 
 A desperate engagement ensued, in which 
 the English were utterly defeated, and obliged 
 to evacuate the kingdom. This success pro- 
 cured Wallace the title of Guardian ; but he 
 still acknowledged the captive king, Baliol 
 However, the cause was ruined by the jealousy 
 of the nobles. The English monarch returned 
 from France, and marched into Scotland at the 
 head of seventy thousand men. Wallace now 
 voluntarily resigned his authority, and retained 
 only one corps that refused to fight under any 
 other leader. The English army came up with 
 the enemy near Falkirk, and defeated and dis- 
 persed the Scots with great slaughter. 
 
 At length, with much difficulty, Edward 
 completed the conquest of Scotland, without 
 being able to seize or subdue the patriotic Wal- 
 lace. Disappointed in all his schemes for that 
 purpose, he did not disdain to stoop to treach- 
 ery ; and Sir William was basely betrayed by 
 a traitor, and sent to London, where he was 
 tried and barbarously put to death as a rebel. 
 Robert Bruce, the restorer of the Scottish 
 throne, and father of a new race of kings, was 
 the grandson of the competitor of Baliol for the 
 crown. 
 
 Having resolved to quit the court of Edward, 
 to whom his father and grandfather had meanly 
 sworn allegiance, he contrived to escape, and 
 to join the Scotch patriots of Lochmaben. Af- 
 ter collecting what forces he could, in 1306, he 
 attacked the English, who were unprepared, 
 and having gained possession of several castles, 
 he was solemnly crowned at Scone. King Ed- 
 ward immediately dispatched Aymer de Val- 
 ence into Scotland, who, falling in with Bruce 
 at Methven, attacked him, and notwithstanding 
 a most vigorous resistance, totally defeated the 
 Scottish army. 
 
 Bruce fled almost unattended, to the Western 
 Isles, where he wandered about for some time 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 504 
 
 SCO 
 
 in distress ; but Edward dying on his way to 
 Scotland, Bruce was delivered from a powerful 
 enemy, and his party daily increased. In 1313 
 Edward II assembled his whole forces, amount- 
 ing, according to the Scottish historians, to one 
 hundred thousand men. Robert's army did 
 not exceed thirty thousand men, but they were 
 men of tried valor. He encamped beside a 
 rivulet called Bannockburn, near Stirling, the 
 castle of which had been long besieged by the 
 Scots. Edward being determined to relieve it, 
 the two armies commenced an engagement, 
 which lasted for a long time, and in which both 
 sides displayed great bravery. 
 
 However, the English at length betook them- 
 selves to flight, and were pursued by the Scots, 
 who made a great slaughter. King Edward 
 with difficulty escaped to Dunbar : the flower 
 of his nobility fell in this battle, and the liberty 
 of Scotland triumphed. However, it was not 
 till the deposition of Edward that Robert Bruce 
 wrested from England a solemn renunciation 
 of all claims on Scotland, and secured a peace 
 by marrying his son David to Joan, sister to 
 Edward III. 
 
 Thus ended the glorious conflict of Robert 
 for the independence of his crown, after a reign 
 of 24 years. During the minority of David, 
 Edward, son of John Baliol, being supported 
 by the English, invaded Scotland in 1332, was 
 proclaimed king, and, like his father, did hom- 
 age as vassal of England. David, with his 
 queen, found refuge in France ; but Edward 
 Baliol dismembering his kingdom in favor of 
 the English, lost the affections of his subjects. 
 David returning from France, repulsed Ba- 
 liol, and was himself taken prisoner near Dur- 
 ham. Baliol resigned his claims to Edward, 
 who, soon after, acknowledged David as kinjr, 
 and restored him to liberty on condition of his 
 paying a great ransom. 
 
 David, leaving no progeny, was succeeded 
 by Robert II, grandson of Bruce, and the first 
 king of the Stuart family. In 1371, the war 
 with England was renewed, and continued 
 with little interruption to the end of this reign. 
 Robert III refused to do homage for his crown 
 to Henry IV. In 1390, understanding that his 
 eldest son was starved to death by his uncle, 
 the duke of Albany, and wishing to secure his 
 surviving child James, he made him embark 
 for France ; but his ill-fated stars threw the 
 prince into the hands of his enemies, and the 
 father fell a prey to his grief, on being told of 
 his son's captivity in the tower of London. 
 James was still detained in the hands of king 
 
 Henry ; and the regency of the duke of Albany, 
 his uncle, the murderer of his brother, was rec- 
 ognised in Scotland in 1405. 
 
 After a long captivity he was restored to his 
 kingdom, which he governed thirteen years, 
 when he was barbarously assassinated. New 
 broils attended the minority of James II, who 
 was only seven years old at the time of his ac- 
 cession in 1437. At the age of fourteen the 
 young king assumed the reins of government, 
 but he was soon after killed by the bursting of 
 a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh. 
 
 James III succeeded him in 1460. After 
 marrying Margaret of Denmark, he gave him- 
 self up to astrology, and through jealousy made 
 away with his own brother, the earl of Mar, 
 while the duke of Albany, the other brother, 
 escaped to France. Being invited to England, 
 now again at war with her northern neigh- 
 bor, the duke of Albany took the title of Alex- 
 ander, king of Scotland, by the gift of Edward, 
 and marched to the borders. But a treaty being 
 concluded, Albany returned to his allegiance, 
 and to his brother's favor. Albany, however, 
 again withdrew to England ; and a fresh con- 
 spiracy being formed against James, the rebels 
 prevailed on the king's son, the young duke 
 of Rothsay, to head their army. An engage- 
 ment took place near Bannockburn, in which 
 the rebels were successful, and the king, in 
 his flight, was thrown from his horse, and car- 
 ried to the first hovel, where he was stabbed to 
 the heart by one of the insurgents. 
 
 James IV succeeded his father in 1488. At 
 the instigation of the French court, he rashly 
 entered into a w r ar against Henry VIII, brother 
 of his queen, and, notwithstanding the advice 
 of his best counsellors, led an army into Eng- 
 land, where, at the memorable battle of Hodden 
 field, he lost the flower of his nobility and his 
 own life. 
 
 James V being only two years old at the 
 death of his father, his mother Margaret, sister 
 to the king of England, was appointed regent 
 and guardian by the will of her husband. The 
 young king assumed the government at the 
 age of thirteen, in 1513, with a council of eight; 
 but he soon shook off" the yoke of his council. 
 Henry VIII having proclaimed war against 
 Scotland, an inroad was planned on the west- 
 ern borders ; but James despising and distrust- 
 ing his nobles, gave the command of the army 
 to a man of less note. This insult provoked the 
 troops, who refused to fight at the Raid of Sol- 
 way Moss, and ten thousand men laid down their 
 arms before five hundred English, without 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCO 
 
 505 
 
 SCO 
 
 striking a blow. These sad tidings broke the 
 proud heart of James, who refused from that 
 moment to take any sustenance, and, after lan- 
 guishing some days, expired in the thirty-first 
 year of his age. 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, was born a few days 
 before 'the death of her father. The disasters 
 of her reign began and ended only with her 
 life. At an early age Mary was sent to France, 
 where she was brought up at the court of Henry 
 II, whose eldest son Francis was destined to 
 be her husband. The minority of Mary Stuart 
 was agitated by great disturbances ; and the re- 
 gency was claimed by different competitors as 
 a privilege of blood or family appanage. At 
 length, the queen abandoned the helm of gov- 
 ernment to any adventurer who might wish to 
 seize it. The tempests excited by ambition and 
 jealousy, were increased by the gusts of religi- 
 ous fanaticism. 
 
 Popery struggled against the Reformation 
 with an already evident disadvantage ; and the 
 vessel of state, buffetted by those storms, was 
 every moment in imminent danger of sink- 
 ing. 
 
 At this critical situation of affairs, Mary re- 
 turned to assume the sovereignty of her king- 
 dom after the death of Francis II, who had left 
 her a widow at the age of eighteen years. By 
 assuming the title of queen of England on the 
 death of Henry VIII, she excited the jealousy 
 of Elizabeth, who succeeded to the English 
 throne, and who never pardoned her cousin this 
 assertion of her rights. The religious dissen- 
 sions by which Scotland was divided, were ef- 
 fectually subservient to the views of Elizabeth, 
 who gained the affections of the reformed party, 
 and excited their suspicions against their sove- 
 reign, Mary being sprung from the blood of the 
 Guises, and niece to the cardinal de Lorraine, 
 who was the scourge of the Protestants. 
 
 To their religious and political opinions the 
 young queen could not reconcile herself, and 
 hence arose a decided aversion between the 
 sovereign and her subjects. Her council in- 
 duced her to re-marry, and she gave her hand 
 to her cousin Henry lord Darnley. This mar- 
 riage displeased Elizabeth. Soon after Mary's 
 marriage with Darnley, she became disgusted 
 with his deceit and plausibility. Darnley , think- 
 ing this change of disposition was occasioned 
 by her having conceived a passion for some 
 other man, unjustly suspected David Rizzio, an 
 Italian musician^ However, he soon found 
 a set of willing accomplices in the execution of 
 vengeance against his wife ; and, accordingly, 
 
 one evening, while the queen was at snapper 
 with the countess of Argyle, Henry conducted 
 the confederates by a private staircase into the 
 queen's apartment, where they seized Rizzio, 
 and after dragging him into an adjoining room, 
 despatched him with fifty-six wounds. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the grief and indigna- 
 tion of Mary on this occasion ; but, finding her- 
 self entirely in the power of the conspirators, 
 she was obliged to dissemble. On the 19th of 
 June, 1566, at Edinburgh Castle, she bore her 
 only son, afterwards James VI of Scotland, and 
 I of England. At length, after a series of tra- 
 gical disasters, Mary placed herself in the hands 
 of Elizabeth, by whose order she was executed 
 at Fotheringay castle in 1587. (See Mary 
 Queen of Scots.) 
 
 All the rights and pretensions of Mary now 
 devolved upon her son, who was considered, as 
 well by Catholics as Protestants, as the pre- 
 sumptive heir to the throne of England, and the 
 rightful sovereign of Scotland. The pacific 
 disposition and the clemency of James towards 
 offenders, multiplied crimes of all kinds, and 
 encouraged such acts of violence as brought his 
 government under contempt. All was foment- 
 ed by the intrigues of Elizabeth, who still strove 
 to retain James weak, by keeping his affairs 
 continually embroiled. On the death of Eliza- 
 beth, in 1603, the lords of the privy council 
 proclaimed James king of England. 
 
 Before this monarch left Scotland to take pos- 
 session of his new kingdom, he had with great 
 zeal labored to civilize the northern and west- 
 ern Highlands. He was himself a scholar ; and 
 to his love of learning the Scots are indebted 
 for the parochial schools, which afford the com- 
 mon people so much advantage in point of edu- 
 cation, over other countries. He encouraged 
 trade and the fisheries, and greatly promoted 
 the industry of his subjects. In 1603, he took 
 his farewell. By means of the king's accession 
 to the English throne, the regal power in Scot- 
 land acquired additional strength; and James 
 attempted to avail himself of this circumstance 
 for the union of both the national churches and 
 the kingdom into one. After a reign and life 
 of nearly 59 years, James was seized with his 
 last illness, which some affirm to have been 
 caused by poison. Charles I entered Edinburgh 
 with great magnificence, and was crowned at 
 Holyroodhouse. In the Parliament which was 
 now summoned, the lords of the articles brought 
 in a bill for confirming the royal prerogative, to- 
 gether with the power granted to the late king 
 to prescribe apparel to churchmen with their 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 506 
 
 CO 
 
 own consent. This unpopular, and indeed fri- 
 volous and vexatious bill, passed through Parlia- 
 ment, and received the royal sanction ; and un- 
 der Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, and Spots- 
 wood the historian, archbishop of St. Andrews, 
 the king proceeded to introduce a book of liturgy 
 into the public worship of the Scottish churches. 
 These measures excited the most general dis- 
 content, and produced the most violent com- 
 motions. 
 
 A civil war at length became unavoidable; and 
 the covenanters prepared for it with vigor and 
 resolution. They received arms, ammunition, 
 and money, from France, and other countries; 
 and no regularly established commonwealth 
 could take wiser measures. Lesley, a soldier 
 of experience and ability, the earl of Montrose, 
 a youth of heroic genius, with other leaders of 
 the party, all of them men of sense and resolu- 
 tion, conducted the military affairs. After 
 seizing and fortifying the most important places 
 of strength in the kingdom they invaded Eng- 
 land, and compelled the royal forces to retreat 
 to York. 
 
 At this period, the English rebels courted a 
 closer union with their Scottish friends, and 
 agreed to receive the solemn league and cove- 
 nant, to preserve the reformed religion establish- 
 ed in the church of Scotland, and to reform Eng- 
 land and Ireland, according to the word of God, 
 and the example of the purest churches. Accord- 
 ingly a subsidiary army of 20,000 Scots hastened 
 to join Lord Fairfax, and effectually assisted him 
 in reducing the city of York. While the king's 
 affairs declined in England, the brave Montrose 
 had left the Scottish army, and raised the royal 
 standard in the north. This active nobleman, 
 having raised a supply of 1200 troops from Ire- 
 land, hastened to take the command of this 
 auxiliary force, and several more flocked to his 
 standard. He attacked and defeated a party of 
 the covenanters, 6000 in number, under Tulli- 
 bardine ; and Perth opened its gates to the vic- 
 tor, and was laid under contribution. At Aber- 
 deen, Montrose gained a second victory over 
 the troops under Lord Burleigh, and laid waste 
 the country of Argyle. Montrose gained in 
 succession the victories of Auldearn, Alford, 
 and Kilsyth, but his whole army was destroyed 
 at Philiphaugh by the troops under Sir David 
 Lesley, and he was never able afterwards to 
 bring a formidable force into the field, notwith- 
 standing all the efforts he could make. 
 
 The fortunes of Charles being now ruined in 
 England, he was reduced to the desperate ex- 
 pedient of seeking refuge in the heart of an 
 
 army which was in open rebellion against him. 
 The immediate consequences of this fatal step 
 were orders expedited to his adherents to lay 
 down their arms. Montrose obeyed, and retir- 
 ed to France. The English parliament demand- 
 ing of the Scottish army the person of the king, 
 they preferred delivering him up rather than 
 go to war in his defence. The kingdom was, 
 however, divided into two parties, and the duke 
 of Hamilton and the majority in parliament, in 
 opposition to the church, succeeded in raising a 
 numerous army to support the king against 
 Cromwell and his adherents, who appeared to 
 entertain designs totally hostile both to the 
 king's person and government : with this army 
 they set forward to invade England, and to res- 
 tore the king to his ancient rights. But the 
 violent party considered it the height of impiety 
 to fight for an uncovenanted king. 
 
 The Scotch troops, not daring to unite them- 
 selves with the English royalists who had re- 
 fused the covenant, both armies were easily 
 destroyed by Cromwell, who, after exercising 
 the severest vengeance against the friends of 
 Charles in Scotland, returned in triumph to 
 England, and brought Charles to public trial 
 and execution. The covenanters now declar- 
 ed for the young king, Charles II, then in 
 Holland, on condition of his becoming the pu- 
 pil of Presbyterianisrn, and taking the covenant. 
 Montrose was despatched to the Orkneys, to 
 make an attempt for the king's restoration on 
 better terms ; but being attacked by a much 
 superior force, he was defeated, and put to death 
 in 1650. With him were executed Spotswood, 
 Hay, Sibbald, and Ury of Urry, all friends to 
 the royal cause. 
 
 Charles II now sailed from Holland for the 
 Scottish coast, and threw himself entirely into 
 the hands of the covenanters, who required him 
 to sign the covenant, and exhorted him to be 
 faithful to that holy confederacy. Cromwell 
 marched into Scotland against the now royal 
 covenanters, whom he attacked, and defeated at 
 Dunbar. Notwithstanding this defeat, the roy- 
 alists in Scotland increased. 
 
 Charles was crowned at Scone on the 1st of 
 January, 1651 ; but he was obliged to take the 
 covenant, and to undergo other mortifications. 
 Cromwell, however, succeeded in an attempt to 
 cut off the royalists from all their communica- 
 tions with the north and the Highlands ; and 
 when they invaded England, defeated them at 
 Worcester. Charles escaped, and at last took 
 shipping from the coast of Sussex, and arrived 
 safe at Feschamp in Normandy. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCO 
 
 507 
 
 SCO 
 
 After the restoration of Charles IT, in 1660, 
 the Parliament was opened with unusual splen- 
 dor at Edinburgh ; and in the proceedings of 
 this assembly, the royal prerogative was exalted 
 to a pitch of despotism. Deprived at last of 
 public worship, the persecuted Presbyterians 
 rose in open rebellion. On the Pentland hills 
 they were met by the king's forces, under Dal- 
 ziel, and were routed with considerable slaugh- 
 ter, at the first onset. Commotions and insur- 
 rections multiplied during the whole reign of 
 Charles II, who attempted, sometimes by gentle 
 means, and sometimes by acts of severity, to 
 crush Presbyterianism,and to induce the people 
 to substitute another form of church govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Though the people of England, as well as the 
 Parliament of Scotland, had made a surrender 
 to the crown of all their constitutional rights, 
 in 1685, the history of the reign of James VII 
 proves how little dependence is to be placed on 
 those professions. James was not ignorant of 
 the intrigues and ambition of his son-in-law, 
 the prince of Orange, with whom Monmouth, 
 Argyle, Dalrymple, afterwards earl of Stair, 
 Burnet, soon to be bishop of Sarum, and the 
 English and Scotch exiles, found refuge. The 
 insurrections occasioned by Argyle and Mon- 
 mouth widened the breach between the unfor- 
 tunate monarch and his disaffected subjects. 
 
 James proposed to his Scottish Parliament a 
 relaxation of the penal laws against the Roman 
 Catholics ; but the proposal was received with 
 such coldness, that the chancellor thought it 
 prudent to drop the bill entirely. However, the 
 court issued declarations in favor of Presbyte- 
 rians, of Quakers, of Roman Catholics, and at 
 last " suspended all penal and sanguinary laws 
 for nonconformity to the religion established by 
 law." The Presbyterians of Edinburgh, and the 
 ministers all over Scotland, gladly accepted of 
 this toleration, and thanked the king for his 
 protection. 
 
 In 1638, James, finding himself abandoned 
 by his friends, fled ; and his constrained flight 
 was pronounced an abdication of the throne of 
 Scotland. Indifferent as to modes of religion, 
 William treated with Presbyterians as well 
 as Episcopalians. The throne was declar- 
 ed vacant by the convention ; and William ac- 
 cepted of the crown tendered to him by a deputa- 
 tion from the states, and, with his spouse, took 
 a coronation oath. By a majority of the votes 
 in Parliament, William was reluctantly prevail- 
 ed on to repeal the constitution of the lords 
 of articles, to abandon the patronage and the 
 43* 
 
 supremacy over the church, and to re-establish 
 Presbytery. 
 
 William, after a fruitless attempt to gain the 
 chieftains by pecuniary offers, issued a procla 
 mation denouncing military execution against 
 all who should not before the expiration of the 
 year take an oath of fealty to him. William 
 dying in 1702, the accession of queen Anne 
 gave new hopes to the pretender, son of the 
 late king James, and his adherents. 
 
 William had never dissolved the Convention 
 Parliament. The members of this Parliament 
 assembled, and empowered the queen to nomi- 
 nate commissioners for treating of an union. 
 The commissioners repaired to London, to treat 
 with those appointed in England. At length, 
 the whole of the articles of the union were 
 completed and signed by all the Scottish com- 
 missioners excepting one, who was Lockhart of 
 Carnwarth. Notwithstanding the strong op- 
 position which this measure experienced, on 
 Thursday the 16th of January, 1707, the whole 
 articles of the union were, without any material 
 alteration, approved by a legal majority in Par- 
 liament ; and the lord high commissioner, touch- 
 ing the act with the sceptre, sanctioned it with 
 that consent of the crown, which was requisite 
 to give it in Scotland the force of a law. The 
 treaty of union, thus finally ratified by the Sco- 
 tish Parliament, was immediately transmitted 
 to London, where it was equally honored by 
 the sanction of the Parliament and the royal 
 consent. On the 28th of April, the Scottish 
 Parliament was dissolved, never more to be as- 
 sembled; and the Scots and English were hence 
 forth to be one people. 
 
 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 Fergus I. B. C. 330 
 
 Feritharis — 305 
 
 Mainus — 290 
 
 Dornadilla — 261 
 
 Nothatus — 233 
 
 Reutherus — 213 
 
 Reuthra — 187 
 
 Thereus — 173 
 
 Josina — 161 
 
 Finnan us — 137 
 
 Durstus — 107 
 
 Evenus I. — 98 
 
 Gillus — 79 
 
 Evenus II. — 77 
 
 Ederus — 60 
 
 Evenus III. — 12 
 
 Metallanus — 5 
 
 Caractacus A. D. 32 
 
 Corbred I. — 54 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 503 
 
 SCO 
 
 Dardanus 
 Corbred II, 
 Luctacus 
 Mogaldus 
 Conarus 
 Ethodius I. 
 Satrael 
 Donald I. 
 Ethodius II. 
 Achiro 
 Nathalocus 
 Findocus 
 Donald II. 
 Donald III. 
 Crathilinthua 
 Finchormarchus 
 Romachus 
 
 Angusianus or JEne&s 
 Fethelmachus 
 Eugenius I. 
 Fergus II. 
 Eugenius II. 
 Dongard 
 Constantine I. 
 Congale I. 
 Goran I. 
 Eugenius III. 
 Congale II. 
 Kinnatellus 
 Aidan 
 Kennet I. 
 Eugenius IV. 
 Ferchard II, 
 Donald IV. 
 Ferchard I. 
 Maldwin 
 Eugenius V. 
 Eugenius VI. 
 Amberchelet 
 Eugenius VII. 
 Mordac 
 Etfinius 
 Eugenius VIII, 
 Fergus III. 
 Solvatius 
 Achaius 
 Congale III, 
 Dongal 
 Alpin 
 Kennet II. 
 Donald V. 
 Constantine II. 
 Ethus 
 Gregory- 
 Donald VI. 
 Constantine III, 
 
 70 Malcolm I. — 938 
 
 72 Indulphus — 958 
 
 104 Duphus — 968 
 
 107 Cullenus — 972 
 
 142 Kennet III. — 973 
 
 161 Constantine IV. — 994 
 
 193 Grimus — 996 
 
 197 Malcolm II. — 1004 
 
 216 Duncan — 1034 
 
 230 Macbeth — 1040 
 
 242 Malcolm III. — 1057 
 
 252 Donald VII. — 1093 
 
 262 Duncan II. — 1095 
 
 263 Donald VII. again — 1095 
 277 Interregnum — 1096 
 320 Edgar — 1097 
 368 Alexander I. — 1107 
 371 David I. — 1124 
 373 Malcolm IV. — 1153 
 376 William — 1165 
 413 Alexander II. — 1214 
 419 Alexander III. — 1240 
 451 Interregnum — 1245 
 457 John Baliol — 1292 
 479 Robert I. — 1306 
 501 David II. — 1329 
 545 Edward Baliol — 1332 
 548 David II. again — 1341 
 
 568 Robert II. — 1371 
 
 569 John Robert — 1390 
 604 James I. — 1405 
 606 James II. — 1437 
 622 James III. — 1460 
 632 James IV. — 1488 
 646 James V. — 1513 
 664 Mary Stuart — 1542 
 684 James VI. — 1567 
 687 SCOTT, sir Walter, baronet, the eldest son 
 
 697 of Walter Scott, was born in the city of Edin- 
 
 698 burgh, Scotland, Aug. 15, 1771. It is proper to 
 715 remark that his mother was a lady of talent, the 
 730 friend of Burns and Ramsay, and the author of 
 761 some meritorious verses. Sir Walter was edu- 
 763 cated at the high school of Edinburgh, and at 
 766 the university. At an early age, he was cele- 
 787 brated as a story-teller, " when the applause of 
 819 his companions was his recompense for the dis- 
 824 grace and punishments which the future ro- 
 831 mance-writer incurred by being idle himself, 
 834 and keeping others idle, during hours that should 
 854 have been employed on their tasks." 
 
 858 Sir Walter Scott's account of his birth and 
 
 874 circumstances is characterized by his usual mod- 
 
 876 esty. 
 
 892 " My birth, without giving the least preten- 
 
 903 sion to distinction, was that of a gentleman, and 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SCO 
 
 509 
 
 SCO 
 
 connected me with several respectable families 
 and accomplished persons. My education had 
 been a good one, although I was deprived of its 
 full benefit by indifferent health, just at the pe- 
 riod when I ought to have been most sedulous 
 in improving it. The young men with whom 
 I was brought up, and lived most familiarly, 
 were those who, from opportunities, birth and 
 talents, might be expected to make the greatest 
 advances in the profession to which we were all 
 destined ; and I have the pleasure still to pre- 
 serve my youthful intimacy with no inconside- 
 rable number of them, whom their merit has 
 carried forward to the highest honors of their 
 profession. Neither was I in a situation to be 
 embarrassed by the res angusta domi, which 
 might have otherwise interrupted my progress 
 in a profession in which progress is proverbially 
 slow. I enjoyed a moderate degree of business 
 for my standing, and the friendship of more than 
 one person of consideration efficiently disposed 
 to aid my views in life. The private fortune, 
 also, which I might expect, and finally inherit- 
 ed, from my family, did not, indeed, amount to 
 affluence, but placed me considerably beyond all 
 apprehension of want. I mention these partic- 
 ulars merely because they are true. Many better 
 men than myself have owed their rise from in- 
 digence and obscurity to their own talents, which 
 were, doubtless, much more adequate to the task 
 of raising them than any which I possess. Al- 
 though it would be absurd and ungracious in me 
 to deny that I owe to literature many marks of 
 distinction to which I could not otherwise have 
 aspired, and particularly that of securing the 
 acquaintance, and even the friendship, of many 
 remarkable persons of the age, to whom I might 
 not otherwise have made my way ; it would on 
 the other hand, be ridiculous to affect gratitude 
 to the public favor, either for my position in so- 
 ciety, or the means of supporting it with decen- 
 cy — matters which had been otherwise secured 
 under the usual chances of human affairs. Thus 
 much I have thought it necessary to say, upon 
 a subject which is, after all, of very little conse- 
 quence to any one but myself." 
 
 In 1792 he was called to the bar. Of his 
 success in his profession, and the nature of his 
 studies and pursuits, we will give his own ac- 
 count, taken from one of his interesting prefaces. 
 
 " It may be readily supposed that the attempts 
 which I made in literature had been unfavorable 
 to my success at the bar. The goddess Themis 
 is, at Edinburgh, and I suppose every where 
 else, of a peculiarly jealous disposition. She 
 will not readily consent to share her authority, 
 
 and sternly demands from her votaries not only 
 that real duty be carefully attended to and dis- 
 charged, but that a certain air of business shall 
 be observed even in the midst of total idleness. 
 It is prudent, if not absolutely necessary, in a 
 young barrister, to appear completely engrossed 
 by his profession; however destitute of employ- 
 ment he may be, he ought to preserve, if pos- 
 sible, the appearance of full occupation. He 
 should at least seem perpetually engaged among 
 his law papers, dusting them, as it were ; and, 
 as Ovid advises the fair, 
 
 Si nullus erit pulvis, tamen excute nullum. 
 Perhaps such extremity of attention is more es- 
 pecially required, considering the great number 
 of counsellors who are called to the bar, and how 
 very small a proportion of them are finally dis- 
 posed, or find encouragement, to follow the law 
 as a profession. Hence the number of deserters 
 is so great, that the least lingering look behind 
 occasions a young novice to be set down as one 
 of the intending fugitives. Certain it is, that 
 the Scottish Themis was at this time peculiarly 
 jealous of any flirtation with the Muses, on the 
 part of those who had ranged themselves under 
 her banners. This was probably owing to her 
 consciousness of the superior attractions of her 
 rivals. Of late, however, she has relaxed in 
 some instances in this particular ; an eminent 
 example of which has been shown in the case 
 of my friend, Mr. Jeffrey, who, after long con- 
 ducting one of the most influential literary pe- 
 riodicals of the age, with unquestionable ability, 
 has been, by the general consent of his brethren, 
 recently elected to be their Dean of Faculty, or 
 President, being the highest acknowledgment 
 of his professional talents which they had it in 
 their power to offer. But this is an incident 
 much beyond the ideas of a period of thirty 
 years' distance, when a barrister who really pos- 
 sessed any turn for lighter literature, was at as 
 much pains to conceal it, as if it had in reality 
 been something to be ashamed of; and I could 
 mention one instance in which literature and 
 society have suffered loss, that jurisprudence 
 might be enriched. Such, however, was not my 
 case ; for the reader will not wonder that my open 
 interference with matters of light literature di- 
 minished my employment in the weightier mat- 
 ters of the "law. Nor did the solicitors, upon 
 whose choice the council takes rank in his pro- 
 fession, do me less than justice by regarding 
 others among my contemporaries as fitter to 
 discharge the duty due to their clients, than a 
 young man who was taken up with running after 
 ballads, whether Teutonic or national. My pro- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 510 
 
 SCO 
 
 fession and I, therefore, came to stand nearly 
 upon the footing on which honest Slender con- 
 soled himself with having established with Mis- 
 tress Anne Page : " There was no great love in 
 the beginning, and it pleased Heaven to decrease 
 it on farther acquaintance." I became sensible 
 that the time was come when I must either 
 buckle myself resolutely to the " toil by day, the 
 lamp by night," renouncing all the Delilahs of 
 my imagination, or bid adieu to the profession 
 of the law, and hold another course. I confess 
 my own inclination revolted from the more se- 
 vere choice which might have been deemed by 
 many the wiser alternative. As my transgres- 
 sions had been numerous, my repentance must 
 have been signalized by unusual sacrifices. I 
 ought to have mentioned, that, since my four- 
 teenth or fifteenth year, my health, originally 
 delicate, had become extremely robust. From 
 infancy I had labored under the infirmity of a 
 severe lameness, but, as 1 believe is usually the 
 case with men of spirit who suffer under personal 
 inconveniences of this nature, I had, since the 
 improvement of my health, in defiance of this 
 incapacitating circumstance, distinguished my- 
 self by the endurance of toil on foot or horseback, 
 having often walked thirty miles a day, and rode 
 upwards of a hundred, without stopping. In this 
 manner I made many pleasant journeys through 
 parts of the country then not very accessible, 
 
 faining more amusement and instruction than 
 have been able to acquire since I have travel- 
 led in a more commodious manner. I practised 
 most sylvan sports, also, with some success, and 
 with great delight. But these pleasures must 
 have been all resigned, or used with great mod- 
 eration, had I determined to regain my station 
 at the bar. It was even doubtful whether I could, 
 with perfect character as a jurisconsult, retain a 
 situation in a volunteer corps of cavalry, which 
 I then held. The threats of invasion were at 
 this time instant and menacing ; the call by Brit- 
 ain on her children was universal, and was an- 
 swered by many, who, like myself, consulted 
 rather their will than their ability to bear arms. 
 My services, however, were found useful in as- 
 sisting to maintain the discipline of the corps, 
 being the point on which their constitution ren- 
 dered them most amenable to military criticism. 
 In other respects the squadron was a fine one, 
 consisting of handsome men, well mounted and 
 armed at their own expense. My attention to 
 the corps took up a great deal of time ; and while 
 it occupied many of the happiest hours of my 
 life, it furnished an additional reason for my re- 
 luctance again to encounter the severe course 
 
 of study indispensable to success in the junuical 
 profession. 
 
 On the other hand, my father, whose feelings 
 might have been hurt by my quitting the bar, 
 had been for two or three years dead ; so that I 
 had no control to thwart my own inclination ; 
 and my income being equal to all the comforts, 
 and some of the elegancies, of life, I was not 
 pressed to an irksome labor by necessity, that 
 most powerful of motives; consequently, I was 
 the more easily seduced to choose the employ- 
 ment which was most agreeable. This was yet 
 the easier, as in 1800 I had obtained the prefer- 
 ment of Sheriff of Selkirkshire, about £300 a 
 year in value, and which was the more agreeable 
 to me, as in that county I had several friends 
 and relations. But 1 did not abandon the pro- 
 fession to which I had been educated, without 
 certain prudential resolutions, which at the risk 
 of some egotism, I will here mention ; not with- 
 out the hope that they may be useful to young 
 persons who may stand in circumstances similar 
 to those in which I then stood. In the first place, 
 upon considering the lives and fortunes of per- 
 sons who had given themselves up to literature, 
 or to the task of pleasing the public, it seemed 
 to me that the circumstances which chiefly af- 
 fected their happiness and character were those 
 from which Horace has bestowed upon authors 
 the epithet of the irritable race. It requires no 
 depth of philosophic reflection to perceive, that 
 the petty warfare of Pope with the dunces of his 
 period, could not have been carried on without his 
 suffering the most acute torture, such as a man 
 must endure from musquitoes, by whose stings 
 he suffers agony, although he can crush them 
 in his grasp by myriads. Nor is it necessary to 
 call to memory the many humiliating instances 
 in which men of the greatest genius have, to 
 avenge some pitiful quarrel, made themselves 
 ridiculous during their lives, to become the still 
 more degraded objects of pity to future times. 
 Upon the whole, as I had no pretension to the 
 genius of the distinguished persons who had 
 fallen into such errors, I concluded there could 
 be no occasion for imitating them in these mis- 
 takes, or what I considered as such ; and, in 
 adopting literary pursuits as the principal occu- 
 pation of my future life, I resolved, if possible, 
 to avoid those weaknesses of temper which seem- 
 ed to have most easily beset my more celebrated 
 predecessors. With this view, it was my first 
 resolution to keep, as far as was in my power, 
 abreast of society ; continuing to maintain niy 
 place in general company, without yielding to 
 the very natural temptation of narrowing myselt 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 SCO 
 
 511 
 
 SCO 
 
 to what is called literary society. By doing so, 
 I imagined I should escape the besetting sin of 
 listening to language which, from one motive or 
 other, ascribes a very undue degree of conse- 
 quence to literary pursuits; as if they were, in- 
 deed, the business, rather than the amusement 
 of life. The opposite course can only be com- 
 pared to the injudicious conduct of one who 
 pampers himself with cordial arid luscious 
 draughts, until he is unable to endure whole- 
 some bitters. Like Gil Bias, therefore, I resolv- 
 ed to stick by the society of my commis, instead 
 of seeking that of a more literary cast: and to 
 maintain my general interest in what was going 
 on around me, reserving the man of letters for 
 the desk and the library. My second resolution 
 was a corollary from the first. I determined that, 
 without shutting my ears to the voice of true 
 criticism, I would pay no regard to that which 
 assumes the form of satire. I therefore resolved 
 to arm myself with the triple brass of Horace, 
 against all the roving warfare of satire, parody, 
 and sarcasm; to laugh if the jest was a good 
 one ; or, if otherwise, to let it hum and buzz it- 
 self to sleep. It is to the observance of these 
 rules (according to my best belief) , that, after a 
 life of thirty years engaged in literary labors of 
 various kinds, I attribute my never having been 
 entangled in any literary quarrel or controversy ; 
 and, which is a more pleasing result, that I have 
 been distinguished by the personal friendship of 
 my most approved contemporaries of all par- 
 ties. I adopted, at the same time, another reso- 
 lution, on which it may doubtless be remarked, 
 that it was well for me that I had it in my pow- 
 er to do so, and that, therefore, it is a line of 
 conduct which can be less generally applicable 
 in other cases. Yet I fail not to record this part 
 of my plan, convinced that, though it may not 
 be in every one's power to adopt exactly the same 
 resolution, he may nevertheless, by his own ex- 
 ertions, in some shape or other, attain the object 
 on which it was founded ; namely, to secure the 
 means of subsistence, without relying exclusive- 
 ly on literary talents. In this respect, I deter- 
 mined that literature should be my staff, but not 
 my crutch ; and that the profits of my labor, how- 
 ever convenient otherwise, should not become 
 necessary to my ordinary expenses. With this 
 purpose I resolved, if the interest of my friends 
 could so far favor me, to retire upon any of the 
 respectable offices of the law, in which persons 
 of that profession are glad to take refuge when 
 they feel themselves, or are judged by others, 
 incompetent to aspire to its higher offices and 
 honors. Upon such an office an author might 
 
 hope to retreat, without any perceptible altera- 
 tion of circumstances, whenever the time should 
 arrive that the public grew weary of his en- 
 deavors to please, or he himself should tire of 
 the occupation of authorship. At this period 
 of my life I possessed so many friends capable 
 of assisting me in this object of ambition, that I 
 could hardly overrate my own prospects of ob- 
 taining the moderate preferment to which I lim- 
 ited my wishes : and, in fact, I obtained, in no 
 long period, the reversion of a situation which 
 completely met them." 
 
 The preferment of which he here speaks was 
 to the office of Sheriff of Selkirkshire, of about 
 £ 300 a year in value. In 1 806 he was appoint- 
 ed a clerk of the session in Scotland. His first 
 original productions were several ballads of great 
 merit. Sir Walter thus notices the circum- 
 stances which engaged him in literary pursuits. 
 
 " During the last ten years of the eighteenth 
 century, the art of poetry was at a remarkably 
 low ebb in Britain. Hayley to whom fashion 
 had some years before ascribed a higher degree 
 of reputation than posterity has confirmed, had 
 now lost his reputation for talent, though he still 
 lived admired and respected as an amiable and 
 accomplished man. The Bard of Memory slum- 
 bered on his laurels, and he of Hope had scarce 
 begun to attract his share of public attention. 
 Cowper, a poet of deep feeling and bright ge- 
 nius, was dead ; and even while alive, the hy- 
 pochondria, which was his mental malady, im- 
 peded his popularity. Burns, whose genius our 
 southern neighbors could hardly yet compre- 
 hend, had long confined himself to song- writing. 
 Names which are now known and distinguished 
 wherever the English language is spoken, were 
 then only beginning to be mentioned ; and, un- 
 less among the small number of persons who 
 habitually devote a part of their leisure to litera- 
 ture, those of Southey, Wordsworth, and Cole- 
 ridge, were but little known. The realms of 
 Parnassus, like many a kingdom at the period, 
 seemed to lie open to the first bold invader, 
 whether he should be a daring usurper, or could 
 show a legitimate title of sovereignty." 
 
 " I had, indeed, tried the metrical translations 
 which were occasionally recommended to us at 
 the High School. I got credit for attempting 
 to do what was enjoined, but very little for the 
 mode in which the task was performed ; and I 
 used to feel not a little mortified when my ver- 
 sions were placed in contrast with others of ad- 
 mitted merit. At one period of my schoolboy 
 days 1 was so far left to my own desires as to 
 become guilty of verses on a thunder-storm 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 512 
 
 SCO 
 
 which were much approved of, until a malevo- 
 lent critic sprung up, in the shape of an apoth- 
 ecary's blue-buskined wife, who affirmed that 
 my most sweet poetry was stolen from an old 
 magazine. I never forgave the imputation, 
 and even now I acknowledge some resentment 
 against the poor woman's memory. She indeed 
 accused me unjustly, when she said I had stolen 
 my brooms ready made ; but as I had, like most 
 premature poets, copied all the words and ideas 
 of which my verses consisted, she was so far 
 right, that there was not an original w v ord or 
 thought in the whole six lines I made one or 
 two faint attempts at verse, after I had under- 
 gone this sort of daw-plucking at the hands of 
 the apothecary's wife ; but some friend or other 
 always advised me to put my verses in the fire, 
 and like Dorax in the play, I submitted, though 
 ' with a swelling heart.' In short, excepting 
 the usual tribute to a mistress's eyebrow, which 
 is the language of passion rather than poetry, I 
 had not for ten years indulged the wish to couple 
 so much as love and dove, when, finding Lewis 
 in possession of so much reputation, and conceiv- 
 ing that, if I fell behind him in poetical powers, 
 I considerably exceeded him in general infor- 
 mation, I suddenly took it into my head to at- 
 tempt the style by which he had raised himself 
 to fame." 
 
 Having now married, he resided at Ashie- 
 steel, a delightful retirement, in an uncommon- 
 ly beautiful situation, by the side of a fine river, 
 whose streams were favorable for angling, and 
 surrounded by hills abounding in game. His 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel, and Marmion, poems 
 of great originality and beauty, were produced 
 in 1805 and 1803, and received at once into favor. 
 The Lady of the Lake was published in 1810. 
 Speaking of this poem, the author remarks : " I 
 remember that about the same time a friend 
 started in to ' heeze up my hope,' like the min- 
 strel in the old song. He was bred a farmer, 
 but a man of powerful understanding, natural 
 good taste, and warm poetical feeling, perfectly 
 competent to supply the wants of an imperfect 
 or irregular education. He was a passionate 
 admirer of field sports, which we often pursued 
 together. As this friend happened to dine with 
 me at Ashiesteel one day, I took the opportunity 
 of reading to him the first canto of the Lady of 
 the Lake, in order to ascertain the effect the poem 
 was likely to produce upon a person who was 
 but too favorable a representative of readers at 
 large. It is, of course, to be supposed, that I 
 determined rather to guide my opinion by what 
 my friend might appear to feel, than by what he 
 
 might think fit to say. His reception of my re- 
 citation, or prelection, was rather singular. He 
 placed his hand across his brow, and listened 
 with great attention through the whole account 
 of the stag hunt, till the dogs threw themselves 
 into the lake to follow their master, who embarks 
 with Ellen Douglas. He then started up with 
 a sudden exclamation, struck his hand on the 
 table, and declared, in a voice of censure calcu- 
 lated for the occasion, that the dogs must have 
 been totally ruined by being permitted to take 
 the water after such a severe chase. I own I 
 was much encouraged by the species of reverie 
 which had possessed so zealous a follower of the 
 sports as this ancient Nimrod, who had been 
 completely surprised out of all doubts of the 
 reality of the tale." 
 
 The Lady of the Lake was followed by the 
 Vision of Don Roderick, Rokeby, Lord of the 
 Isles, Harold the Dauntless, and the Bridal of 
 Trier main. 
 
 " The Lady of the Lake, "says Scott, " brought 
 out on the usual terms of division of profits be- 
 tween the author and publishers, was not long 
 after purchased by them for £500, to which 
 Messrs. Longman and Co. afterwards added 
 £100 in their own unsolicited kindness, in con- 
 sequence of the uncommon success of the work. 
 It was handsomely given to supply the loss of a 
 fine horse, which broke down suddenly while 
 the author was riding with one of the worthy 
 publishers." ****** 
 
 "The publishers of the Lay of the Last Minstrel, 
 emboldened by the success of that poem, wil- 
 lingly offered a thousand pounds for Marmion. 
 The transaction being no secret, afforded Lord 
 Byron, who was then at general war with all 
 who blacked paper, an opportunity to include 
 me in his satire entitled English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers. I never could conceive how an ar- 
 rangement between an author and his publish- 
 ers, if satisfactory to the persons concerned, 
 could afford matter of censure to any third par- 
 ty. I had taken no unusual or ungenerous 
 means of enhancing the value of my merchan- 
 dise. — I had never higgled a moment about the 
 bargain, but accepted at once what I considered 
 the handsome offer of my publishers. These 
 gentlemen, at least, were not of opinion that they 
 had been taken advantage of in the transaction, 
 which indeed was one of their own framing; 
 on the contrary, the sale of the poem was so far 
 beyond their expectation, as to induce them to 
 supply the author's cellar with what is always 
 an acceptable present to a young Scottish house- 
 keeper, namely, a hogshead of excellent claret." 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SCO 
 
 513 
 
 SCO 
 
 We must extract the account of his own 
 change from poetry to prose. — He is speaking 
 of Rokeby. 
 
 " The cause of my failure, had, however, a far 
 deeper root. The manner, or style, which, by 
 its novelty, attracted the public in an unusual 
 degree, had now, after having been three times 
 before them, exhausted the patience of the read- 
 er, and began in the fourth to lose its charms. 
 The reviewers may be said to have apostrophiz- 
 ed the author in the language of Parnell's Ed- 
 win : — 
 
 " And here reverse the charm, he cried, 
 And let it fairly now suffice, 
 The gambol has been shown." 
 
 The licentious combination of rhymes, in a man- 
 ner not perhaps very congenial to our language, 
 had not been confined to the author. Indeed, 
 in most similar cases, the inventors of such nov- 
 elties have their reputation destroyed by their 
 own imitators, as Actseon fell under his own 
 dogs. The present author, like Bobadil, had 
 taught his trick of fence to a hundred gentlemen 
 (and ladies), who could fence very nearly, or 
 quite, as well as himself. For this there was no 
 remedy ; the harmony became tiresome and or- 
 dinary, and both the original inventor and his 
 invention must have fallen into contempt, if he 
 had not found out another road to public favor. 
 What has been said of the metre only, must be 
 considered to apply equally to the structure of 
 the poem and of the style. The very best pas- 
 sages of any popular style are not, perhaps, sus- 
 ceptible of any imitation, but they may be ap- 
 proached by men of talent : and those who are 
 less able to copy them, at least lay hold of their 
 peculiar features, so as to produce a burlesque 
 instead of a serious copy. In either way, the 
 effect of it is rendered cheap and common ; and, 
 in the latter case ridiculous to boot. The evil 
 consequences to an author's reputation are at 
 least as fatal as those which befall a composer, 
 when his melody falls into the hands of the street 
 ballad-singer. Of the unfavorable specimens of 
 imitation, the author's st} T le gave room to a very 
 large number, owing to an appearance of facility 
 on which some of those who used the measure 
 unquestionably leaned too far." 
 
 " The effect of the more favorable imitations, 
 composed by persons of talent, was almost equal- 
 ly unfortunate to the original minstrel, by show- 
 ing that they could overshoot him with his own 
 bow. In short the popularity which Once at- 
 tended the school, as it was called, was now fast 
 decaying. Besides all this, to have kept his 
 ground at the crisis when Rokeby appeared, 
 
 its author ought to have put forth his utmost 
 strength, and to have possessed at least all his 
 original advantages, for a mighty and unexpect- 
 ed rival was advancing on the stage — a rival 
 not in poetical powers only, but in that of at- 
 tracting popularity, in which the present writer 
 had preceded better men than himself. The 
 reader will easily see that Byron is here meant, 
 who after a little velitation of no great promise, 
 now appeared as a serious candidate in the 
 First Canto of ChUde Harold. I was astonish- 
 ed at the power evinced by that work, which 
 neither the Hours of Idleness, nor the English 
 Bards and Scotch Reviewers, had prepared me 
 to expect from its author. There was a depth 
 in his thought, an eager abundance in his dic- 
 tion, which argued full confidence in the inex- 
 haustible resources of which he felt himself 
 possessed ; and there was some appearance of 
 that labor of the file, which indicates that the 
 author is conscious of the necessity of doing 
 every justice to his work, that it may pass war- 
 rant. Lord Byron was also a traveller, a man 
 whose ideas were fired by having seen, in dis- 
 tant scenes of difficulty and danger, the places 
 whose very names are recorded in our bosoms 
 as the shrines of ancient poetry. For his own 
 misfortune, perhaps, but certainly to the high 
 increase of his poetical character, nature had 
 mixed in Lord Byron's system those passions 
 which agitate the human heart with most vio- 
 lence, and which may be said to have hurried 
 his bright career to an early close. There would 
 have been but little wisdom in measuring my 
 force with so formidable an antagonist ; and I 
 was as likely to tire of playing the second fiddle 
 in the concert, as my audience of hearing me. 
 Age also was advancing. I was growing in- 
 sensible to those subjects of excitation of which 
 youth is agitated. I had around me the most 
 pleasant but least exciting of all society, that 
 of kind friends and an affectionate family. My 
 circle of employments was a narrow one ; it oc- 
 cupied me constantly, and it became daily more 
 difficult for me to interest myself in poetical 
 composition : — 
 
 " How happily the days of Thalaba went by ! " 
 Yet, though conscious that I must be, in the 
 opinion of good judges, inferior to the place I 
 had for four or five years held in letters, and 
 feeling alike that the latter was one to which I 
 had only a temporary right, I could not brook 
 the idea of relinquishing literary occupation, 
 which had been so long my chief employment. 
 Neither was I disposed to choose the alternative 
 of sinking into a mere editor and commentator, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SCO 
 
 514 
 
 SCO 
 
 though that was a species of labor which I had 
 practised, and to which I was attached. But I 
 could uot endure to think that I might not, 
 whether known or concealed, do something of 
 more importance. My inmost thoughts were 
 those of the Trojan captain in the galley race : 
 Non jam prima peto Mnestheus, neque vincere certo : 
 Q,uanquam O,— Sed superent, quibus hoc, Neptune, de- 
 
 disti : 
 Extremos pudeat rediisse : hoc vincite, cives, 
 Et prohibete nefas." 
 
 " Waverly, or ' Tis Sixty Years Since," a 
 novel published in 1814, established the reputa- 
 tion of the author, and was followed in rapid 
 succession by many others. The authorship 
 was acknowledged by Sir Walter Scott, at a 
 public dinner in 1897. These Waverly novels 
 exhibit a profound knowledge of human nature, 
 an intimate acquaintance with history, national 
 traditions, and manners, and a most surprising 
 versatility. Ivanhoe, which appeared in 1820, 
 without being the most finished of his works, 
 presents the learning and powers of its author 
 in a striking light. 
 
 Never were the long gathered stores of most 
 extensive erudition applied to the purposes of 
 imaginative genius with so much easy, lavish, 
 and luxurious power — never was the illusion 
 of fancy so complete — made up of so many min- 
 ute elements, — and yet producing such entire- 
 ness of effect. It is as if the veil of ages had 
 been, in truth, swept back, and we ourselves 
 had been, for a time, living, breathing, and mov- 
 ing in the days of Coeur de Lion — days how dif- 
 ferent from our own ! the hot, tempestuous, 
 chivalrous, passionate, fierce youth of Christen- 
 dom. Every line in the picture is true to the 
 life — every thing in the words, in the gesture — 
 every thing in the very faces of the personages 
 called up before us, speaks of times of energetic 
 volition — uncontrolled action— disturbance — 
 tumult — the storms and whirlwinds of restless 
 soul-5 and ungoverned passions. It seems as if 
 the atmosphere around them were all alive with 
 the breath of trumpets, and the neighing of 
 chargers, and the echo of war-cries. And yet, 
 with a true and beautiful skilfulness, the author, 
 has rested the main interest of his story , not upon 
 these fiery externals, in themselves so full of 
 attraction, and every way so characteristic of 
 the age to which the story refers, but on the 
 workings of that most poetical of passions which 
 is ever deepest where it is most calm, quiet, and 
 delicate, and which, less than any other is chang- 
 ed, even in its modes of manifestation, in con- 
 formity with the changes of time, manners, and 
 circumstances. For the true interest of this 
 
 romance of the days of Richard is placed nei- 
 ther in Richard himself, nor in the Knight of 
 Ivanhoe, the nominal hero, — nor in any of the 
 haughty Templars or barons who occupy along 
 with them, the front of the scene, but in the still, 
 devoted, sad, and unrequited tenderness of a 
 Jewish damsel — by far the most fine, and at the 
 same time most romantic creation of female 
 character the author has ever formed — and se- 
 cond, we suspect, to none that is to be found in 
 the whole annals of poetry and romance. 
 
 Besides writing his novels, Sir Walter Scott 
 edited various works, and produced some vol- 
 umes of history, and a life of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, to which, however, his party prejudices 
 and hurried composition prevented him from 
 doing justice. The failure of his bookseller, an 
 unforeseen misfortune, darkened the close of Sir 
 Walter's life by pecuniary embarrassment. His 
 health suffered by the assiduity with which he 
 labored to relieve his fortunes. Shocks of paraly- 
 sis warned him of his approaching fate, and, after 
 having travelled without benefit to his health, 
 this truly great and good man died at his seat at 
 Abbotsford, in the year 1832. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott was beloved by all who 
 knew him, for, in private life, he had none of 
 that affectation of eccentricity and haughtiness, 
 which disfigures so many men of superior ge- 
 nius. He was ever a welcome visiter in the 
 dwellings of the poor and old, and in many of his 
 lonely wanderings acquired that traditional in- 
 formation which he reproduced in his immortal 
 works. An old woman, it is said, with whom 
 Sir Walter was intimate, having recognised 
 some of her own lore in one of his earlier ro- 
 mances, charged him with being the author. 
 When Sir Walter denied the fact, the old lady 
 exclaimed : ' ; I'm no daft ! Do ye think 1 dinna 
 ken by ain kail, amang ither folks broth ? " 
 
 Hogg, the poet, the friend of Sir Walter Scott, 
 relates the following anecdote, illustrative of 
 his benevolence. Although so shy of his name 
 and literary assistance, which, indeed, he would 
 not grant to any one, on any account, save to 
 Lockhart, yet to poor men of literary merit his 
 purse strings were always open, and as far as it 
 was in his power to assist them. I actually 
 knew several unsuccessful authors who depend- 
 ed on his bounty for their daily bread. And 
 then there was a delicacy in his way of doing it 
 which was quite admirable. He gave them some 
 old papers or old ballads to copy for him, pre- 
 tending to be greatly interested in them, for 
 which he sent them a supply every week, mak- 
 ing them believe that they were reaping the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SCY 
 
 515 
 
 scr 
 
 genuine fruit of their own labors. There was one 
 day, when I was chatting with Ballantyne in 
 his office, where I was generally a daily visiter, 
 as well as my illustrious friend, I chanced to 
 3ay,that I never in my life, knew a man like 
 Scott, for I knew to a certainty he was at that 
 time feeling himself a successful author, lend- 
 ing pecuniary assistance to unsuccessful ones, 
 and the best thing of all, he never let his left 
 hand know what his right hand was doing. Bal- 
 lantyne's face glowed with delight, and the tear 
 stood in his eye. " You were never more right 
 in your life," said he, " you never were more 
 right in your life ! and I am glad that you know 
 and so duly appreciate the merits of our noble, 
 our invaluable friend. Look here," and with that 
 he turned up his day-book, and added, "some 
 word, it seems, had reached Scott, that Maturin, 
 the Irish poet, was lying in prison for a small 
 debt, and here have I. by Mr. Scott's orders, 
 been obliged to transmit him a bill of exchange 
 for sixty pounds, and Maturin is never to know 
 from whom or whence it came." I have said 
 it oft, and now say it again for the last time, 
 that those who knew Scott only from the few 
 hundreds or, I might say, hundreds of thousands 
 of volumes to which he has -given birth and cir- 
 culation through the world, knew only one half 
 of the man, and that not the best half either. 
 As a friend, he was sometimes stern, but always 
 candid and sincere, and I always found his coun- 
 sels of the highest value, if I could have follow- 
 ed them. 
 
 SCYTHIANS, inhabitants of the southern 
 parts of Siberia, north-east of the Caspian Sea, 
 whose tribes have in different ages overrun Asia 
 and Europe. According to the chronicles of 
 Eri, there existed a race of Scythian monarchs 
 during 1011 years; after which they moved 
 southward, and occupied Mesopotamia, till then 
 inhabited by an Arab race 293 years, and then 
 extended their conquests over all nations, main- 
 taining their dominion 1809 years, when their 
 empire was divided by Assyrians from the east, 
 who overran Media, Parthia, and Bactria like a 
 mighty flood, about the epoch of the Hebrew 
 deluge, led by Bel, who founded Babylon and the 
 Assyrian empire on the ruins of the Scythian. 
 
 The same chronicles, — describe Noah as a 
 Scythian chief, who fled to Armenia after his 
 defeat ; and Bel, as the Nimrod of the Hebrews. 
 The empire of the Scythians, by these chroni- 
 cles, extended from the Indus, where they were 
 called Indo-Scythians, to the confines of Europe, 
 where they were called Celto-Scythians : the 
 Scythians Arabs, and Egyptians, being the most 
 44 
 
 powerful known nations, till the former were lost 
 in the Assyrians; or, according to the Hebrew 
 historians, the people of Ashur. By the same 
 authority we learn, that about 2000, B. C, the 
 Scythians overran Thrace and Greece, founding 
 the kingdoms of Sicyon, Argos, Athens, Co- 
 rinth, and Thebes ; their original irruption into 
 Thessaly giving rise to the fable of the flood of 
 Deucalien. 
 
 According to Mr. O'Connor, the chief of the 
 Scythians who conducted the first colony into 
 Thrace, was Japan, or Oavan, the son of Jaforth, 
 the son of Ardfier, the same as the Hebrew No- 
 ah, who, according to him, was the last supreme 
 chief of the Scythian empire ; this Japan left 
 Armenia in the second year of the reign of his 
 brother Og, with a colony called the Og-eag-eis ; 
 while another colony landed in the south from 
 Egypt, built Athens, &c, and were called Pelas- 
 goi. Cadmus, a Phoenician, afterwards brought 
 a colony of Sidonian Scythians, and settled in 
 Bceotia, about 1000 B. C. The Pelasgoi settled 
 in Italy, and Saturn conducted another colony 
 from Crete, to which country Evander emi- 
 grated in 940, and ^Eneas, from Troy, in 883. 
 Hence Greece was of Scythian origin, and Italy 
 was peopled with their descendants. 
 
 Scythes, who is the first king of this nation 
 mentioned in history, is fabled by the Greeks 
 to have been the offspring of Hercules and a 
 monster. Sagillus is said to have sent his son 
 Panasagorus, to assist the Amazons against 
 Theseus, king of Athens; but the heroines in- 
 spiring the prince with disgust, he left them to 
 the mercy of their enemies, by whom they were 
 defeated. Maydes was a warlike prince, under 
 whose conduct the Scythians invaded Media, 
 and held the greater part of Upper Asia in sub- 
 jection for the space of twenty -eight years. 
 They also made an incursion into the land of 
 the Philistines, and thence marched into Egypt ; 
 but Psammeticus, king of that country, prevail- 
 ed on them to return, and thus saved his domin- 
 ions from plunder and desolation. 
 
 Tomyris was a Scythian heroine, whom Cy- 
 rus the Great demanded in marriage ; but she 
 refusing him, that prince led his army against 
 the Massagetes, who were under her dominion, 
 and lost his life. Jancyrus was a haughty and 
 magnanimous prince, who, when the Persian 
 heralds demanded of him earth and water, sent 
 to Darius a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five ar- 
 rows, without any farther reply. 
 
 The Persian monarch immediately supposed 
 that this present was sent in token of submis- 
 sion : but Gobrias, who knew the Scythians bet- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SEB 
 
 516 
 
 SEJ 
 
 ter than his master, interpreted it to denote, that 
 the Persians must not expect to elude the effects 
 of Scythian valor, unless they could fly like 
 birds, plunge under water like frogs, or bury 
 themselves in the earth like mice. 
 
 This explanation was soon justified, and the 
 Scythians obtained a signal victory over the 
 Persian army. Saulius is said to have killed 
 Anacharsis, a prince of the blood, for presuming 
 to introduce the nocturnal rites of the mother of 
 the gods into Scythia. Aripithes had a numer- 
 ous progeny, and in particular a son named Scy- 
 thes, whose mother had caused him to be in- 
 structed in all the Grecian customs. 
 
 When Scythes, therefore, ascended the throne, 
 he appeared to possess so great a predilection 
 for the effeminate luxuries of the Greeks, that 
 his subjects, irritated at this preference, dethron- 
 ed him, and elected his brother Octamasades 
 king in his stead. Ariantes is said to have or- 
 dered all his soldiers to appear before him, and 
 every one to throw the tip of an arrow into a 
 common heap, which amounted to so great a 
 bulk, that he caused it to be melted down and 
 cast into a large vessel, as a monument of the 
 transaction. Atheas obtained from Philip, king 
 of Macedon, considerable succor against an in- 
 vasion with which he was threatened ; and when 
 the enemy, terrified by the preparations of Phil- 
 ip, desisted from their design, he pretended that 
 he owed him no recompense, because a war had 
 not taken place. In consequence of this, an ob- 
 stinate battle ensued, in which the Scythians 
 were vanquished, and twenty thousand women 
 and children were made prisoners. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, Don, king of Portugal, the son 
 of John II, was born in 1554. He succeeded John 
 HI, and was a man of great zeal for religion, and 
 of extraordinary courage, which inspired him 
 with the design of making an expedition into 
 Africa against the Moors in 1574. Taking with 
 him the principal nobility and gentry of Portu- 
 gal, he landed at Tangier on the 9th of July, 
 1578, and gave battle to Abdemelech at Alcacer, 
 the 4th of August the same year, where his army 
 was defeated. Abdemelech, who was sick, died 
 in a litter, Mahomet perished in a bog, and the 
 report was, that Sebastian himself was killed 
 there in the 25th year of his age. Notwithstand- 
 ing this, in 1598, a man at Venice declared him- 
 self to be king Sebastian ; he resembled him so 
 exactly in face, stature, and voice, that the Por- 
 tuguese that were in that city, and amongst them 
 one of his servants, owned him for their king. 
 Some days after he was seized, and conveyed 
 before judges, before whom he always maintain- 
 
 ed himself to be king Sebastian ; he told them 
 that the Moors who took him prisoner did not 
 know him to be the king ; that the sorrow and 
 repentance which seized him for having so rash- 
 ly undertaken that expedition, had nearly caus- 
 ed his death ; and that now after having suffered 
 in a strange country, he came to re-demand the 
 crown. He showed upon his body the same 
 marks which several had seen formerly on the 
 body of the king of Portugal, and discovered to 
 the Venetians some secrets they had formerly 
 proposed to him by their ambassadors, to prove 
 he was king Sebastian. The Spaniards, who 
 had upon the report of his death invaded the 
 crown of Portugal, treated him as a madman and 
 imposter, and obliged the Venetians to expel 
 him from their dominions ; he was seized again 
 in Tuscany, and brought to Naples, where they 
 set him upon an ass, and led him through all 
 the streets of the city, exposing him to the abuses 
 of the rabble. Some time after they shaved his 
 head, and placed him to row like a slave in a 
 galley ; and afterwards being brought to Spain, 
 he died in a prison, at the same time that the 
 Portuguese, abhorring and detesting these bar- 
 barous dealings of the Spaniards, wished to have 
 him whom they knew to be their king, restored 
 to them. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, St., a considerable town of the 
 north-east of Spain, containing 12,000 inhabi- 
 tants. It has been repeatedly taken by the 
 French ; it fell into their hands in the short war 
 of 1719; in the revolutionary contest of 1794; 
 and in Bonaparte's invasion in 1808. On the 
 last occasion it remained five years in their pos- 
 session, and when the victory of Vittoria, by 
 the British, (21st June, 1813) opened a prospect 
 of its recapture, the French had time to throw 
 into it a garrison capable of making a very ob- 
 stinate defence. An attempt on the part of the 
 British, to take it by assault, on the 25th of 
 July, was repulsed with heavy loss. It became 
 necessary to make approaches with great cau 
 tion, and even to incur a severe sacrifice of live." 
 in the final attack, on the 31st of August, when 
 it fell into the hands of the British. 
 
 SEJANUS, the favorite of Tiberius a native 
 of Vulsinum in Tuscany, who distinguished 
 himself in the court of Tiberius. His father's 
 name was Servius Strabo, a Roman knight, com- 
 mander of the praetorian guards. His mother 
 was descended from the Junian family. Seja- 
 nus first gained the favor of Caius Caesar, the 
 grandson of Augustus, but afterwards he attach- 
 ed himself to the interest and the views of Ti- 
 berius, who then sat on the imperial throne. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SEJ 
 
 517 
 
 SEL 
 
 The emperor, who was naturally of a suspicious 
 temper, was free and open with Sejanus, and 
 while he distrusted others, he communicated 
 his greatest secrets to this fawning favorite. 
 
 As commander of the praetorian guards, he 
 was the second man in Rome, and in that im- 
 portant office he made use of insinuation, and 
 every mean artifice to make himself beloved 
 and revered. His affability and condescension 
 gained him the hearts of the common soldiers, 
 and by appointing his own favorites and adhe- 
 rents to places of trust and honor, all the officers 
 and centurions of the army became devoted to 
 his interest. The views of Sejanus in this were 
 well known ; yet to advance them with more 
 success, he attempted to gain the affections of 
 the senators. In this he met with no opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 A man who has the disposal of places of hon- 
 or and dignity, and who has the command of 
 the public money, cannot but be the favorite of 
 those who are in need of his assistance. It is 
 even said, that Sejanus gained to his views all 
 the wives of the senators, by a private and most 
 secret promise of marriage to each of them, 
 whenever he had made himself independent and 
 sovereign of Rome. Yet, however successful 
 with the best and noblest families in the empire, 
 Sejanus had to combat numbers in the house of 
 the emperor ; but these seeming obstacles were 
 soon removed. 
 
 All the children and grandchildren of Tiberius 
 were sacrificed to the ambition of the favorite 
 under various pretences ; and Drusus the son of 
 the emperor, by striking Sejanus, made his de- 
 struction sure and inevitable. Livia, the wife 
 of Drusus, was gained by Sejanus, and though 
 mother of many children, she was prevailed 
 upon to assist her adulterer in the murder of her 
 husband, and she consented to marry him when 
 Drusus was dead. No sooner was Drusus poi- 
 soned, than Sejanus openly declared his wish to 
 marry Livia. This was strongly opposed by 
 Tiberius ; and the emperor, by recommending 
 Germanicus to the senators for his successor, 
 rendered Sejanus bold and determined. 
 
 He was more urgent in his demands ; and 
 when he could not gain the consent of the em- 
 peror, he persuaded him to retire to solitude from 
 the noise of Rome and the troubles of the gov- 
 ernment. Tiberius, naturally fond of ease and 
 luxury, yielded to his representations, and retir- 
 ed to Campania, leaving Sejanus at the head of 
 the empire. This was highly gratifying to the 
 favorite, and he was now without a master. Pru- 
 dence and moderation might have made him 
 
 what he wished to be ; but Sejanus offended the 
 whole empire when he declared that he was em- 
 peror of Rome, and Tiberius only the dependent 
 prince of the island of Capreae, where he had 
 retired. 
 
 Tiberius was, upon this, fully convinced of 
 the designs of Sejanus ; and when he had been 
 informed that his favorite had had the meanness 
 and audacity to ridicule him, by introducing 
 him on the stage, the emperor ordered him to be 
 accused before the senate. Sejanus was deserted 
 by all his pretended friends, as soon as by for- 
 tune ; and the man who aspired to the empire, 
 and who called himself the favorite of the peo- 
 ple, the darling of the praetorian guards, and the 
 companion of Tiberius, was seized without re- 
 sistance, and the same day strangled in prison, 
 A. D. 31. 
 
 SELEUCUS I, one of the captains of Alex- 
 ander the Great, surnamed Nicator, or Victori- 
 ous, was son of Antiochus. After the king's 
 death he received Babylon as his province ; but 
 his ambitious views, and his attempt to destroy 
 Eumenes as he passed through his territories, 
 rendered him so unpopular, that he fled for 
 safety to the court of his friend Ptolemy, king 
 of Egypt. He was soon after enabled to recov- 
 er Babylon, which Antigonus had seized in his 
 absence, and he increased his dominions by the 
 immediate conquest of Media, and some of the 
 neighboring provinces. When he had strength- 
 ened himself in his empire, Seleucus imitated 
 the example of the rest of the generals of Alex- 
 ander, and assumed the title of independent 
 monarch. He afterwards made war against 
 Antigonus, with the united forces of Ptolemy, 
 Cassander, and Lysimachus ; and after this 
 monarch had been conquered and slain, his ter- 
 ritories were divided among his victorious ene- 
 mies. 
 
 When Seleucus became master of Syria, he 
 built a city there, which he called Antioch, in 
 honor of his father, and made it the capital of 
 his dominions. He also made war against De- 
 metrius and Lysimachus, though he had origi- 
 nally married Stratonice, the daughter of the 
 former, and had lived in the closest friendship 
 with the latter. Seleucus was at last murdered 
 by one of his servants called Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
 a man on whom he had bestowed the greatest 
 favors, and whom he had distinguished by acts 
 of the most unbounded confidence. 
 
 According to Arrian, Seleucus was the great- 
 est and most powerful of the princes who in- 
 herited the Macedonian empire after the death 
 of Alexander. His benevolence has been com- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 SEL 
 
 518 
 
 SEM 
 
 mended ; and it has been observed, that he con- 
 quered not to enslave nations, but to make them 
 more happy. He founded no less than thirty- 
 four cities in different parts of his empire, which 
 he peopled with Greek colonies, whose national 
 industry, learning, religion, and spirit, w T ere 
 communicated to the indolent and luxurious 
 inhabitants of Asia. 
 
 Seleucus was a great benefactor to the Greeks ; 
 he restored to the Athenians the library and 
 statues which Xerxes had carried away from their 
 city when he invaded Greece, and among the 
 latter were those of Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 Seleucus was murdered 280 years before the 
 Christian era, in the 32d year of his reign, and 
 the 78th, or according to others, the 73d year 
 of his age, as he was going to conquer Macedo- 
 nia, where he intended to finish his days in 
 peace and tranquillity in that province where 
 he was born. 
 
 SELEUCUS II, surnamed Callinicus, suc- 
 ceeded his father Antiochus The us on the throne 
 of Syria. He attempted to make war against 
 Ptolemy, king of Egj^pt, but his fleet was ship- 
 wrecked in a violent storm, and his armies soon 
 after conquered by his enemy. He was at last 
 taken prisoner by Arsaces, an officer who made 
 himself powerful by the dissensions which 
 reigned in the house of the Seleucidce, between 
 the two brothers, Seleucus and Antiochus ; and 
 after he had been a prisoner for some time in 
 Parthia, he died of a fall from his horse, B. C. 
 226, after a reign of 20 years. Seleucus re- 
 ceived the surname of Pogon, from his long 
 beard, and that of Callinicus, ironically to ex- 
 press his very unfortunate reign. He mar- 
 ried Laodice, the sister of one of his generals, 
 by whom he had two sons, Seleucus and Anti- 
 ochus, and a daughter whom he gave in mar- 
 riage to Mithridates, king of Pontus. 
 
 SELEUCUS III, succeeded his father Seleu- 
 cus II, on the throne of Syria, and received the 
 surname ofCeraunus, by antiphrasis, as he was 
 a very weak, timid, and irresolute monarch. He 
 was murdered by two of his officers after a 
 reign of three years, B. C. 223, and his brother 
 Antiochus, though only 15 years old, ascended 
 the throne, and rendered himself so celebrated 
 that he acquired the name of the Great. 
 
 SELEUCUS IV, succeeded his father Antio- 
 chus the Great, on the throne of Syria. He 
 was surnamed Philopater, or, according to Jo- 
 sephus, Soter. His empire had been weakened 
 by the Romans when he became monarch, and 
 the yearly tribute of a thousand talents to those 
 victorious enemies, concurred in lessening his 
 
 power and consequence among nations. Seleu- 
 cus was poisoned after a reign of 12 years, B. C. 
 175. His son Demetrius had been sent to Rom?, 
 there to receive his education, and he became a 
 prince of great abilities. 
 
 SELEUCUS V, succeeded his father Deme- 
 trius Nicator, on the throne of Syria, in the 20th 
 year of his age. He was put to death in the 
 first year of his reign by Cleopatra his mother, 
 who had also sacrificed her husband to her am- 
 bition. He is not reckoned by many historians 
 in the number of the Syrian monarchs. 
 
 SELEUCUS Vf, one of the Seleucidae, sen 
 of Antiochus Gryphus, killed his uncle Antio- 
 chus Cyzicenus, who wished to obtain the crown 
 of Syria. He was some time after banished 
 from his kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son of 
 Cyzicenus, and fled to Cilicia, where he was 
 burnt in a palace by the inhabitants, B. C. 93. 
 
 SELEUCUS, a prince of Syria, to whom the 
 Egyptians offered the crown of which they had 
 robbed Auletes. Seleucus accepted it, but he 
 soon disgusted his subjects, and received the 
 surname of Cybiosactes, or Scullion, for his 
 meanness and avarice. He was at last murdered 
 by Berenice; whom he had married. 
 
 SELEUCIA, a city in Mesopotamia, upon 
 the river Tigris, built by king Seleucus Nica- 
 nor, supposed to be Bagdad. There is also 
 another Seleucia surnamed Pieria, and called 
 by the Turks Kepse, near the mouth of the 
 river Orontes. Besides these, there is yet 
 another Seleucia, a city of Pisidia, upon the 
 borders of Pamphylia, situated between Antioch 
 on the north, and the city of Pamphylia on the 
 south. Also another city called Seleucia, or 
 rather Seleucos, situated in Syria, upon the riv- 
 er Belus, near Apamea, built also by the king 
 Seleucus. 
 
 SEMIR AMIS, a celebrated queen of Assyria. 
 Semiramis, when grown up, married Menones, 
 the governor of Nineveh, and accompanied him 
 to the siege of Bactria, where by her advice and 
 prudent directions, she hastened the king's 
 operations and took the city. These eminent 
 services, but chiefly her uncommon beauty, en- 
 deared her to Ninus. The monarch asked her 
 of her husband, and offered him instead his 
 daughter Sosana; but Menones, who tenderly 
 loved Semiramis, refused, and when iNinushad 
 added threats to intreaties, he hung himself. 
 No sooner was Menones dead, than Semiramis,. 
 who was of an aspiring soul, married Ninus, by 
 whom she had a son called Ninyas. 
 
 Ninus was so fond of Semiramis, that at her 
 request he resigned the crown to her, and com- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SEN 
 
 519 
 
 SEN 
 
 manded her to be proclaimed queen and sole 
 empress of Assyria. Of this, however, he had 
 cause to repent ; Semiramis put him to death, 
 the better to establish herself on the throne, and 
 when she had no enemies to fear at home, she 
 began to repair the capital of her empire, and by 
 her means Babylon became the most superb and 
 magnificent city in the world. She visited 
 every part of her dominions, and left every 
 where immortal monuments of her greatness 
 and benevolence. 
 
 To render the roads passable and communi- 
 cation easy, she hollowed mountains and filled 
 up valleys ; and water was conveyed at a great 
 expense, by large and convenient aqueducts, to 
 barren deserts and unfruitful plains. She was 
 not less distinguished as a warrior ; many of 
 the neighboring nations were conquered ; and 
 when Semiramis was once told, as she was 
 dressing her hair, that Babylon had revolt- 
 ed, she left her toilet with precipitation, and 
 though only half dressed, she refused to have 
 the rest of her head adorned before the sedition 
 was quelled, and tranquillity re-established. 
 
 Semiramis has been accused of licentiousness, 
 and modern authors have drawn a parallel be- 
 tween her and Catharine of Russia, there being 
 a great resemblance between them in the princi- 
 pal events of their lives, their masculine talents, 
 and private immorality of conduct. The reign 
 of Semiramis was at last terminated by a con- 
 spiracy of her own son Ninyas, who is said to 
 have put her to death with his own hand. Her 
 fame was very great throughout the East. Af- 
 ter her death she received immortal honors in 
 Assyria. It is supposed that she lived about 
 1965 years before the Christian era, and that 
 she died in the sixty-second year of her age, 
 and the twenty-fifth of her reign. 
 
 SENATE, (see Rome.) 
 
 SENECA, M. Annaeus, a native of Corduba 
 in Spain, who married Helvia, a woman of 
 Spain, by whom he had three sons, Seneca the 
 philosopher, Annaeus Novatus, and Annaeus 
 Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. Seneca 
 made himself known by some declamations, of 
 which he made a collection from the most cele- 
 brated orators of the age ; and from that cir- 
 cumstance, and for distinction, he obtained the 
 appellation of dedamator. He left Corduba, 
 and went to Rome, where he became a Roman 
 knight. 
 
 His son L. Annaeus Seneca, who was born 
 about six years after Christ, was early distin- 
 guished by his extraordinary talents. He was 
 taught eloquence by his father, and received 
 44* 
 
 lessons in philosophy from the best and most 
 celebrated stoics of the age. As one of the 
 followers of the Pythagorean doctrines, Seneca 
 observed the utmost abstinence, and in his meals 
 never ate the flesh of animals ; but this he aban- 
 doned at the representation of his father, when 
 Tiberius threatened to punish some Jews and 
 Egyptians who abstained from certain meats. 
 
 In the character of a pleader, Seneca appear- 
 ed with great advantage ; but the fear of Cali- 
 gula, who aspired to the name of an eloquent 
 speaker, and who consequently was jealous of 
 his fame, deterred him from pursuing his fa- 
 vorite study, and he sought a safer employment 
 in canvassing for the honors and offices of the 
 state. He was made quaestor, but the asper- 
 sions which were thrown upon him on account 
 of a shameful amour with Julia Livilla, removed 
 him from Rome, and the emperor banished him 
 for some time into Corsica. During his banish- 
 ment, the philosopher wrote some spirited epis- 
 tles to his mother, remarkable for elegance of 
 language and for sublimity ; but he soon forgot 
 his philosophy, and disgraced himself by his 
 flatteries to the emperor, and in wishing to be 
 recalled, even at the expense of his innocence 
 and character. 
 
 The disgrace of Messalina at Rome, and the 
 marriage of Agrippina with Claudius proved 
 favorable to Seneca ; and after he had remained 
 five years in Corsica, he was recalled by the 
 empress to take care of the education of her son 
 Nero, who was destined to succeed to the em- 
 pire. In the honorable duty of preceptor, Sen- 
 eca gained applause ; and as long as Nero fol- 
 lowed his advice, Rome enjoyed tranquillity, 
 and believed herself safe and happy under the 
 administration of the son of Agrippina. 
 
 In the corrupt age of Nero, the preceptor had 
 to withstand the clamors of many wicked and 
 profligate ministers ; and if he had been the fa- 
 vorite of the emperor, and shared his pleasures, 
 his debauchery, and extravagance, Nero would 
 not perhaps have been so anxious to destroy a 
 man whose example, from vicious inclinations, 
 he could not follow, and whose salutary pre- 
 cepts his licentious associates forbade him to 
 obey. Seneca was too well acquainted with 
 the natural disposition of Nero to think himself 
 secure ; he had been accused of having amassed 
 the most ample riches, and of having built 
 sumptuous houses, and adorned beautiful gar- 
 dens, during the four years in which he had 
 attended Nero as a preceptor ; and therefore he 
 desired his imperial pupil to accept of the rich- 
 es, and the possessions which his attendance on 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY 
 
 SEN 
 
 520 
 
 SER 
 
 his person had procured, and to permit him to 
 retire to solitude and study. 
 
 Nero refused, with artful duplicity, and Sen- 
 eca, to avoid further suspicions, kept himself at 
 home for some time, as if laboring under a 
 disease. In the conspiracy of Piso, which hap- 
 pened some time after, and in which some of 
 the most noble of the Roman senators were con- 
 cerned, Seneca's name was mentioned by JNata- 
 lis ; and Nero, who was glad of an opportunity 
 of sacrificing him to his secret jealousy, ordered 
 him to destroy himself. Seneca, very probably, 
 was not accessory to the conspiracy ; and the 
 only thing which could be produced against him 
 as a crimination, was trivial and unsatisfactory. 
 
 Piso, as Natalis declared, had complained that 
 he never saw Seneca, and the philosopher had 
 observed in answer, that it was not proper or 
 conducive to their common interest, to see one 
 another often. He further pleaded indisposi- 
 tion, and said that his own life depended upon 
 the safety of Piso's person. Seneca was at ta- 
 ble with his wife Paulina and two of his friends, 
 when the messenger from Nero arrived. He 
 heard the words which commanded him to de- 
 stroy himself, with philosophical firmness, and 
 even with joy ; and observed, that such a man- 
 date might have long been expected from a man 
 who had murdered his own mother, and assas- 
 sinated all his friends. He wished to dispose of 
 his possessions as he pleased, but this was re- 
 fused ; and when he heard this, he turned to his 
 friends, who were weeping at his melancholy 
 fate, and told them, that since he could not leave 
 them what he believed his own, he would leave 
 them at least his own life for an example, — an 
 innocent conduct which they might imitate, and 
 by which they might acquire immortal fame. 
 Against their tears and wailings he exclaimed 
 with firmness, and asked them whether they had 
 not learnt better to withstand the attacks of for- 
 tune, and the violence of tyranny ? 
 
 As for his wife, he attempted to calm her 
 emotions ; and when she seemed resolved to die 
 with him, he said he was glad to find his exam- 
 , pie followed with so much constancy. Their 
 veins were opened at the same moment ; but 
 the life of Paulina was preserved, and Nero, 
 who was partial to her, ordered the blood to be 
 stopped, and from that moment, according to 
 some authors, the philosopher's wife seemed to 
 rejoice that she could still enjoy the comforts 
 of life. 
 
 Seneca's veins bled but slowly ; and it has 
 been observed, that the sensible and animated 
 conversation of his dying moments was collect- 
 
 ed by his friends, and that it has been preserved 
 among his works. To hasten his death, he 
 drank a dose of poison, but it had no effect ; and 
 therefore he ordered himself to be carried into a 
 hot bath, to accelerate the operation of the 
 draught, and to make the blood flow more free- 
 ly. This was attended with no better success ; 
 and as the soldiers were clamorous, he was 
 carried into a stove, and suffocated by the 
 steam, in the Goth year of the Christian era. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM, a celebrated city of the 
 south of India. In the month of February, 1792, 
 it was invested by the British and allied armies 
 under Lord Cornwallis, amounting to 400,000 
 men. Terrified by such a host, Tippoo Sultan 
 relinquished half his dominions, and paid three 
 and a half millions sterling to the conquerors. 
 Seringapatam was again invested in 1799, by 
 the British and Nizam's forces, and was stormed 
 on the 4th of May. By the conquest which 
 was thus made, it became the property of the 
 British, and is the residence of a judge, col- 
 lector, &c. 
 
 SERTORIUS. Quintus.aRoman general, son 
 of Quinlus and Rhea, born at Nursia. His first 
 campaign was under the great Marius. against 
 the Teutones and Cimbri. Fie visited the ene- 
 my's camp as a spy, and had the misfortune to 
 lose one eye in the first battle he fought. When 
 Marius and Cinna entered Rome and slaugh- 
 tered all their enemies, Sertorius accompanied 
 them, but he expressed his sorrow and concern 
 at the melancholy death of so many of his coun- 
 trymen. He afterwards fled for safety into 
 Spain, when Sylla had proscribed hirn, and in 
 this distant province he behaved himself with 
 so much address and valor that he was looked 
 upon as the prince of the country. 
 
 The Lusilanians universally revered and loved 
 him, and the Roman general did not show him- 
 self less attentive to their interest, by "establish- 
 ing public schools, and educating the children 
 of the country in the polite arts, and the litera- 
 ture of Greece and Rome. He had established 
 a senate, over which he presided with consular 
 authority and the Romans who followed his 
 standard, paid equal reverence to his person. 
 They were experimentally convinced of his va- 
 lor and magnanimity as a general, and the art- 
 ful manner in which he imposed upon the cre- 
 dulity of his adherents in the garb of religion, 
 did not diminish his reputation. The success 
 of Sertorius in Spain, and his popularity among 
 the natives, alarmed the Romans. 
 
 They sent some troops to oppose him, but 
 with little success. Four armies were found 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SER 
 
 521 
 
 SEV 
 
 insufficient to crush or even hurt Sertorius ; 
 and Pompey and Metellus, who never engaged 
 an enemy without obtaining the victory, were 
 driven with dishonor from the field. But the 
 favorite of the Lusitanians was exposed to the 
 dangers which usually attend greatness. 
 
 Perpenna, one of his officers, who was jealous 
 of his fame and tired of a superior, conspired 
 against him. At a banquet the conspirators 
 began to open their intentions by speaking with 
 freedom and licentiousness in the presence of 
 Sertorius, whose age and character had hith- 
 erto claimed deference from others. Perpenna 
 overturned a glass of wine, as a signal for the 
 rest of the conspirators, and immediately Anto- 
 nius, one of his officers, stabbed Sertorius, and 
 the example was followed by all the rest, 73 
 years before Christ. 
 
 Sertorius has been commended for his love 
 of justice and moderation. The flattering de- 
 scription which he heard of the Fortunate Is- 
 lands when he passed into the west of Africa, 
 almost tempted him to bid adieu to the world, 
 and perhaps he would have retired from the 
 noise of war, and the clamors of envy, to end 
 his days in the bosom of a peaceful and solitary 
 island, had not the stronger calls of ambition 
 and the love of fame prevailed over the intruding 
 reflections of a moment. It has been observed, 
 that in his latter days Sertorius became indo- 
 lent, and fond of luxury and wanton cruelty ; 
 yet in affability, clemency, complaisance, gen- 
 erosity, and military valor, he not only surpass- 
 ed his contemporaries, but the rest of the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 SERVIA, a province of European Turkey, 
 containing 19,000 square miles, and 960,000 in- 
 habitants. It was subjugated by the Turks in 
 1365. The implacable hatred which the Ser- 
 vians entertained towards their rulers led to 
 an insurrection in the year 1801. In December, 
 1806, Czerni Georges, the Servian chieftain, 
 besieged Belgrade, took it after an obstinate re- 
 sistance, and in a great measure expelled the 
 Turks from the country, which he ruled with 
 the authority of a sovereign. The forces which 
 were brought against him, he resisted with va- 
 rious success until 1814, when he withdrew 
 into Russia, and by a convention concluded be- 
 tween his country and the Porte in 1815, the 
 Servians acknowledged the sovereignty of the 
 Sultan. 
 
 SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of 
 Rome, was son of Ocrisia, a slave of Corniculum, 
 by Tullius, a man slain in the defence of his 
 country against the Romans. Ocrisia was 
 
 given by Tarquin to Tanaquil his wife, and she 
 brought up her son in the king's family, and 
 added the name of Servius to that which he had 
 inherited from his father, to denote his slavery. 
 Young Servius was educated in the palace of 
 the monarch with great care, and though oritr- 
 inally a slave, he raised himself to so much 
 consequence, that Tarquin gave him his daugh- 
 ter in marriage. His own private merit and 
 virtues recommended him to notice not less 
 than the royal favors, and Servius became the 
 favorite of the people and the darling of the sol- 
 diers, by his liberality and complaisance, and 
 was easily raised to the throne on the death of 
 his father-in-law. Rome had no reason to re- 
 pent of her choice. 
 
 Servius endeared himself still more as a war- 
 rior and as a legislator. He defeated the Veien- 
 tes and the Tuscans, and by a proper act of pol- 
 icy he established the census, which told him 
 that Rome contained about eighty-four thousand 
 inhabitants. He increased the number of the 
 tribes, he beautified and adorned the city, and 
 enlarged its boundaries by taking within its 
 walls the hills Quirinalis, Viminalis, and Esqui- 
 linus. 
 
 He also divided the Roman people into tribes, 
 and that he might not seem to neglect the wor- 
 ship of the gods, he built several temples to the 
 goddess of Fortune, to whom he deemed him- 
 self particularly indebted for obtaining the 
 kingdom. He also built a temple to Diana on 
 mount Aventine, and raised himself a palace 
 on the hill Esquilinus. Servius married his 
 two daughters to the grand-sons of his father- 
 in-law; the elder to Tarquin, and the younger 
 to Aruns. This union, it might be supposed, 
 tended to insure the peace of his family ; but if 
 such were his expectations, he was unhappily 
 deceived. 
 
 The wife of Aruns, naturally fierce and im- 
 petuous, murdered her own husband to unite 
 herself to Tarquin, who had likewise assassina- 
 ted his wife. These bloody measures were no 
 sooner pursued, than Servius was murdered by 
 his own son-in-law, and his daughter Tullia 
 showed herself so destitute of filial gratitude 
 and piety, that she ordered her chariot to be 
 driven over the mangled body of her father, B. 
 C. 534. 
 
 SEVERUS, Lucius Septimius, a Roman 
 emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, of a noble 
 family. He gradually exercised all the offices 
 of the state and recommended himself to the 
 notice of the world by an ambitious mind and 
 a restless activity, that could, for the gratification 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SEV 
 
 522 
 
 SEV 
 
 of avarice, endure the most complicated hard- 
 ships. After the murder of Pertinax, Severus 
 resolved to remove Didius Julianus, who had 
 bought the imperial purple when exposed to 
 sale by the licentiousness of the praetorians, and 
 therefore he proclaimed himself emperor on the 
 borders of Illyricum, where he was stationed 
 against the barbarians. To support himself in 
 this bold measure, he took, as his partner in 
 the empire, Albinus, who was at the head of 
 the Roman forces in Britain, and immediately 
 marched towards Rome to crush Didius and 
 all his partisans. 
 
 He was received, as he advanced through 
 the country, with universal acclamations, and 
 Julianus himself was soon deserted by his favo- 
 rites, and assassinated by his own soldiers. The 
 reception of Severus at Rome, was sufficient 
 to gratify his pride ; the streets were strewed 
 with flowers, and the submissive senate were 
 ever ready to grant whatever honors or titles 
 the conqueror claimed. In professing that he 
 had assumed the purple only to revenge the 
 death of the virtuous Pertinax, Severus gained 
 many adherents, and was enabled not only to 
 disarm, but to banish the pro3torians, whose 
 insolence and avarice were become alarming, 
 not only to the citizens but to the emperor. 
 
 But while he was victorious at Rome, Seve- 
 rus did not forget that there was another compe- 
 titor for the imperial purple. Pescennius Niger 
 was in the east at the head of a powerful army, 
 and with the name and ensigns of Augustus. 
 Many obstinate battles were fought between 
 the troops and officers of the imperial rivals, till 
 on the plains of Issus, which had been above 
 five centuries before covered with the blood of 
 the Persian soldiers of Darius, Niger was totally 
 ruined by the loss of 20,000 men. The head 
 of Niger was cut off and sent to the conqueror, 
 who punished in a most cruel manner, all the 
 partisans of his unfortunate rival. Severus 
 afterwards pillaged Byzantium, which had shut 
 her gates against him ; and after he had con- 
 quered several nations in the east, he returned 
 to Rome, resolved to destroy Albinus, with 
 whom he had hitherto reluctantly shared the 
 imperial power. He attempted to assassinate 
 him by his emissaries ; but when this had failed 
 of success, Severus had recourse to arms, and 
 the fate of the empire was again decided on the 
 plains of Gaul. 
 
 Albinus was defeated, and the conqueror was 
 so elated with the recollection that he had now 
 no longer a competitor for the purple, that he 
 insulted the dead body of his rival, and ordered 
 
 it to be thrown into the Rhone, after he had 
 suffered it to putrefy before the door of his tent, 
 and to be torn to pieces by his dogs. The 
 family and the adherents of Albinus shared his 
 fate ; and the return of Severus to the capital 
 exhibited the bloody triumphs of Marius and 
 Sylla. The richest of the citizens were sacri- 
 ficed, and their money became the property of 
 the emperor. The wicked Commodus received 
 divine honors, and his murderers were punished 
 in the most wanton manner. 
 
 Tired of the inactive life which he led in 
 Rome, Severus marched into the east, with his 
 two sons Caracalla and Geta, and with uncom- 
 mon success made himself master of Seleucia, 
 Babylon, and Ctesiphon ; and advanced without 
 opposition, far into the Parthian territories. 
 From Parthia, the emperor marched towards 
 the more southern provinces of Asia ; he entered 
 Alexandria, and after he had granted a senate 
 to that celebrated city, viewed with the most 
 criticising and inquisitive curiosity, the monu- 
 ments and ruins of Egypt. The revolt of Bri- 
 tain recalled him from the east. After he had 
 reduced it under his power, he built a wall 
 across the northern part of the island, to defend 
 it against the frequent invasions of the Caledo 
 nians. Hitherto successful against his enemies, 
 Severus now found the peace of his family dis- 
 turbed. Caracalla attempted to murder his 
 father as he was concluding a treaty of peace 
 with the Britons ; and the emperor was so shock- 
 ed at the undutifulness of his son, that oo his 
 return home he called him into his presence, 
 and after he had upbraided him for his ingrati- 
 tude and perfidy, he offered him a drawn sword, 
 adding, " If you are so ambitious of reigning 
 alone, now imbrue your hands in the blood of 
 your father, and let not the eyes of the world 
 be witnesses of your want of filial tenderness." 
 If these words checked Caracalla, yet he did 
 not show himself concerned, and Severus, worn 
 out with infirmities, which the gout and the 
 uneasiness of his mind increased, soon after 
 died, exclaiming he had been every thing man 
 could wish, but that he was then nothing. 
 
 Some say that he wished to poison himself, 
 but that when this was denied, he eat to great 
 excess, and soon after expired at York, in the 
 21 1th year of the Christian era, in the CGth year 
 of his age, after a reign of seventeen years, 
 eight months, and three days. Severus has 
 been so much admired for his military talents, 
 that some have called him the most warlike of 
 the Roman emperors. 
 
 As a monarch, he was cruel, and it has been 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SEV 
 
 523 
 
 SFO 
 
 observed that he never did an act of humanity, 
 or forgave a fault. In his diet he was tempe- 
 rate, and he always showed himself an open 
 enemy to pomp and splendor. He loved the 
 appellation of a man of letters, and he even 
 composed a history of his own reign, which 
 some have praised for*its correctness and verac- 
 ity. However cruel Severus may appear in 
 his punishments and in his revenge, many have 
 endeavored to exculpate him, and observed that 
 there was need of severity in an empire whose 
 morals were so corrupt. Of him, as of Augus- 
 tus, some were found to say, that it would have 
 been better for the world if he had never been 
 born, or had never died. 
 
 SEVERUS, Alexander Marcus Aurelius, a 
 native of Phoenicia, adopted by Heliogabalus. 
 His father's name was Genesius Marcianus, 
 and his mother's Julia Mammasa, and he receiv- 
 ed the surname of Alexander, because he was 
 born in a temple sacred to Alexander the Great. 
 He was carefully educated, and his mother, by 
 paying particular attention to his morals and 
 the character of his preceptors, preserved him 
 fiom the vices and licentiousness of youth. At 
 the death of Heliogabalus, who had been jealous 
 of his virtues, Alexander, though only in the 
 14th year of his age, was proclaimed emperor, 
 and his nomination was approved by the uni- 
 versal shouts of the army, and the congratula- 
 tions of the senate. He had not long been on 
 the throne before the peace of the empire was 
 disturbed by the incursions of the Persians. 
 Alexander marched into the east without delay, 
 and soon obtained a decisive victory over the 
 barbarians. 
 
 At his return to Rome, he was honored with 
 a triumph, but the revolt of the Germans soon 
 after called him away from the indolence of the 
 capital. His expedition in Germany was at- 
 tended with some success, but the virtues and 
 the amiable qualities of Alexander, were forgot- 
 ten in the stern strictness of the disciplinarian. 
 His soldiers, fond of repose, murmured against 
 his severity ; their clamors were fomented by 
 the artifice of Maximinus, and Alexander was 
 murdered in his tent, in the midst of his camp, 
 after a reign of thirteen years and nine days, 
 on the 18th of March, A. D. 235. His mother 
 Mammsea, shared his fate with all his friends ; 
 but this was no sooner known than the soldiers 
 punished with immediate death, all such as had 
 been concerned in the murder, except Maxi- 
 minus. 
 
 SEVILLE, SEVILLA, anciently Hispalis, 
 a city of Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadal- 
 
 quivir, capital of a province of the same name, 
 containing 94,000 inhabitants. It is built in 
 the Moorish stjle. It opened its gates to the 
 Moors, in 711, and continued in their possession 
 more than five centuries. It was taken by the 
 Christians in 1247, after one of the most obsti- 
 nate sieges mentioned in Spanish history. In 
 1729, a treaty was concluded here between 
 Spain, England, France, and Holland. On the 
 invasion of Spain by Bonaparte, in 1808, Sev- 
 ille asserted the national independence, and re- 
 ceived the junta when driven from Madrid. It 
 surrendered, however, to the French, on the 
 1st February, 1810, and remained in their hands 
 till 27th of August, 1812, when they were com- 
 pelled to leave it in consequence, not of insur- 
 rection on the part of the inhabitants, but of the 
 general evacuation of the south of Spain, con- 
 sequent on their defeat at Salamanca. 
 
 SEYMOUR Edward, duke of Somerset, was 
 the eldest son of Sir John Seymour, by Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Sir Henry Wentwoith. In 
 1533, he accompanied the duke of Suffolk to 
 France, and was knighted the same year. In 
 1544, he was appointed lieutenant-general of the 
 north, and commanded an expedition against 
 the Scots. The same year he was at the siege 
 of Boulogne, where he defeated the French, 
 who lay encamped before the place. By the 
 king's will, he was nominated one of his exec- 
 utors and governor of his son ; but Seymour 
 soon after was declared protector of the king- 
 dom. In 1548 he was appointed lord treasurer, 
 created duke of Somerset, and made earl mar- 
 shal of England. The same year he marched 
 into Scotland, and gained the victory of Mus- 
 selburgh ; but though this raised his reputation, 
 his fate was now fast approaching, to which 
 the execution of his brother, the admiral, greatly- 
 contributed. His greatest enemy was the earl 
 of Warwick, and though a marriage had been 
 effected between their children, yet when that 
 nobleman became duke of Northumberland, he 
 accused Seymour of treason, and the latter was 
 executed on Tower-hill, Jan. 22, 1552. 
 
 SFORZA, James, called the Great, was born 
 of mean parents, at Cotignola, in 1309. He 
 entered the army as a common soldier, and by 
 his good conduct rose to the rank of general, 
 and afterwards was made constable of the king- 
 dom of Naples. Pope John XXIII also ap- 
 pointed him gonfalineer of the church, and 
 created him a count. He compelled Alphonso 
 of Arragon to raise the siege of Naples; but in 
 pursuing the flying enemy, he fell into the 
 river near Pescara, and was drowned, in 1424 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SHE 
 
 524 
 
 SHE 
 
 His natural son, Francis Sforza, commanded 
 with distinction in the service of Naples ; after 
 which he married the daughter of the duke of 
 Milan, on whose death he was chosen general 
 of the duchy ; but abused that trust, and usurped 
 the sovereignty. He also made himself master 
 of Genoa, and died in 1466. 
 
 SHAKSFEARE, William, the greatest dra- 
 matic poet that ever lived, was born at Stratford- 
 upon-Avon, a market-town of Warwickshire, 
 England, in 1564. His father was a dealer in 
 wool. He was the youngest of eight children, 
 and received but a common school education. 
 He knew little Latin and less Greek, but pos- 
 sessed some acquaintance with French and 
 Italian. In his eighteenth year he married 
 Anne Hathaway, who bore him several children. 
 He came to London and became an actor and 
 author, and was patronised by the earl of South- 
 ampton and queen Elizabeth, who properly ap- 
 preciated his merits. He finally became pro- 
 prietor and manager of the Globe Theatre in 
 Southwark. and retired on a small fortune. The 
 date of his death is unknown. Aubrey calls 
 him " a handsome, well-shaped man, verie good 
 company, and of a verie pleasant, reddie, and 
 smooth witt." 
 
 SHEFFIELD, John, duke of Buckingham- 
 shire, was the son of Edward, earl of Mulgrave, 
 and born in 1649. At the age of seventeen he 
 served in the fleet, and afterwards had the com- 
 mand of a troop of horse. In 1680, being then 
 lord Mulgrave, he was sent to the relief of Tan- 
 gier, which service he accomplished. He com- 
 plied very much with the measures of James 
 II, and yet concurred in the Revolution, for 
 which he was created marquis of Normanby, 
 and duke of Buckinghamshire. He died in 
 1720, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 SHELBY, Isaac, was born Dec. 11, 1750, 
 near Hagerstown, Maryland. In 1776 he com- 
 manded a company raised by the committee of 
 safety of Virginia, and marched against the 
 hostile Indians. After the conclusion of the 
 revolutionary war, throughout which he be- 
 haved with courage, he settled in Kentucky, 
 of which he was chosen governer in 1792. In 
 1813 he emerged from private life and joined 
 Gen. Harrison, on the frontier of Ohio with 
 4000 men. He died of apoplexy. July 18, 1826. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, a celebrated 
 wit, author, and statesman, was the son of 
 Thomas Sheridan, and was born in Dublin, Oct 
 30, 1751. Having quitted the Dublin school, he 
 was placed at Harrow, which he left in his 
 eighteenth year. While yet at school his wit 
 
 and humor began to appear. At an early age 
 he married Miss Linley, a beautiful young lady, 
 who, at the concerts and theatre of Bath, at- 
 tracted universal admiration. He did not obtain 
 her without difficulty, for he was forced to fight 
 two duels with a Captain Matthews, which 
 stand unequalled in the history of single com- 
 bats for ferocity and determination. In 1775 
 his comedy of the Rivals was produced with 
 success at Covent Garden Theatre. Although 
 this comedy has not the wit of the School for 
 Scandal, it always elicits rapturous applause. 
 In 1780 Mr. Sheridan was returned to parlia- 
 ment for Stafford, and soon became distinguish- 
 ed as a powerful speaker on the side of the 
 opposition. When the Rockingham party came 
 into power, he was made one of the under sec- 
 retaries ; and, in the coalition administration, 
 was appointed to the Treasury. That post, 
 however, he did not hold long, and during the 
 whole of Mr. Pitt's ascendency, the talents of 
 Sheridan were displayed in combatting that 
 statesman. On the trial of Mr. Hastings he 
 acted a prominent part, and his eloquence had 
 an electrifying effect upon his auditors. 
 
 On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech 
 on the Begum charge, on the impeachment of 
 Mr. Hastings, the whole assembly, members, 
 peers, and strangers, involuntarily joined in a 
 tumult of applause, and adopted a mode of ex- 
 pressing their approbation new and irregular in 
 Westminster hall, by loudly and repeatedly 
 clapping their hands. A motion was immedi- 
 ately made and carried for an adjournment, that 
 the members, who were in a state of delirious 
 insensibility, from the talismanic influence of 
 such powerful eloquence, might have time to 
 collect their scattered senses for the exercise 
 of a sober judgment. The motion was made by 
 Mr. Pitt, who declared that this speech " sur- 
 passed all the eloquence of ancient and modern 
 times, and possessed every thing that genius or 
 art could furnish, to agitate and control the 
 human mind." 
 
 " He has this day," said Mr. Burke, " sur- 
 prised the thousands who hung with rapture on 
 his accents, by such an array of talents, such 
 an exhibition of capacity, such a display of 
 powers, as are unparalleled in the annals of 
 oratory ! a display that reflects the highest honor 
 upon himself — a lustre upon letters — renown 
 upon parliament — glory upon the country. Of 
 all species of rhetoric, of every kind of elo- 
 quence that has been witnessed or recorded, 
 either in ancient or modern times : whatever 
 the acuteness of the bar, the dignity of the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 SHE 
 
 525 
 
 SHE 
 
 senate, the solidity of the judgment seat, and 
 the sacred morality of the pulpit, have hitherto 
 furnished, nothing has surpassed, nothing has 
 equalled what we have this day heard in West- 
 minster-hall. No holy seer of religion, no 
 statesman, no orator, no man of any literary 
 description whatever, has come up, in one in- 
 stance, to the pure sentiments of morality ; or, 
 in the other, to the variety of knowledge, force 
 of imagination, propriety and vivacity of allu- 
 sion, beauty and elegance of diction, strength 
 and copiousness of style, pathos and sublimity 
 of conception, to which we have this day list- 
 ened with ardor and admiration. From poetry 
 up to eloquence, there is not a species of com- 
 position of which a complete and perfect speci- 
 men might not from that single speech be culled 
 and collected." 
 
 A faint idea of the power of this speech may 
 be formed from the following brief extract : 
 
 " The Majesty of Justice, in the eyes of Mr. 
 Hastings, is a being of terrific horror— a dread- 
 ful idol, placed in the gloom of graves, accessible 
 only to cringing supplication, and which must 
 be approached with offerings, and worshipped 
 by sacrifice. The Majesty of Mr. Hastings is a 
 being, whose decrees are written with blood, 
 and whose oracles are at once secure and terri- 
 ble. From such an idol I turn mine eyes with 
 horror — I turn them here to this dignified and 
 high tribunal, where the Majesty of Justice 
 really sits enthroned. Here I perceive the 
 Majesty of Justice in her proper robes of truth 
 and mercy — chaste and simple — accessible and 
 patient — awful without severity, — inquisitive 
 without meanness. I see here enthroned and 
 sitting in judgment on a great and momentous 
 cause, in which the happiness of millions is in- 
 volved. — Pardon me, my lords, if I presume to 
 say, that in the decision of this great cause, you 
 are to be envied as well as venerated. You 
 possess the highest distinction of the human 
 character ; for when you render your ultimate 
 voice on this cause, illustrating the dignity of 
 the ancestors from whom you spring — justifying 
 the solemn asseveration which you make — vin- 
 dicating the people of whom you are a part — 
 and manifesting the intelligence of the times in 
 which you live — you will do an act of mercy, 
 and blessing to man, as no men but yourselves 
 are able to grant." 
 
 In 1792 Mr. Sheridan had the misfortune to 
 lose his wife, who left one son, Thomas Sheri- 
 dan. Three years afterwards he married Miss 
 Ogle, daughter of the dean of Winchester. But 
 neither the large fortune which this lady brought 
 
 him, nor the receiver generalship of Cornwall, 
 nor his interest in Drury Lane theatre, were able 
 to supply Sheridan's extravagances, and put 
 him beyond the reach of pecuniary embarrass- 
 ment. After the death of Mr. Fox, She* idan 
 was deprived of office. His intemperate habits 
 and indolence completed the ruin which the 
 burning of Drury Lane theatre began. Yet this 
 calamity was borne with equanimity. Some 
 of his companions found Sheridan at a neigh- 
 boring ale-house quietly surveying the raging 
 flames which were rapidly consuming his pro- 
 perty. On observing their astonishment, She- 
 ridan coolly observed, " Why shouldn't a man 
 enjoy his pot and pipe by his own fire-side." 
 
 Intemperance had undermined his constitu- 
 tion, and he died in miserable circumstances, 
 July 7, 1816. His plays are the Rivals, Du- 
 enna, School for Scandal, St. Patrick's Day, or 
 the Scheming Lieutenant, a Trip to Scarbo- 
 rough, the Camp, the Critic, or Tragedy Re- 
 hearsed, Robinson Crusoe, or Harlequin Friday, 
 and Pizarro, a tragedy translated from the Ger- 
 man. Byron's monody on Sheridan concludes 
 thus : 
 
 Ye orators ! whom yet our councils lead, 
 Mourn for the veteran hero of your field ! 
 The worthy rival of the wond'rous three ! 
 Whose words were sparks of immortality ! 
 Ye bards ! to whom the drama's muse is dear. 
 He was your master — emulate him here .' 
 Ye men of wit and social eloquence ! 
 He was your brother— bear his ashes hence ! 
 While powers of mind almost of boundless 
 
 range, 
 Complete in kind— as various in their change ; 
 While eloquence — wit — poesy — and mirth, 
 (That humbler harmonist of care on earth), 
 Survive within our souls — while lives our sense 
 Of pride in merit's proud preeminence, 
 Long shall we seek his likeness — long in vain, 
 And turn to all of him which may remain, 
 Sighing that nature formed but one such man, 
 And broke the die — in moulding Sheridan ! 
 
 Some of Sheridan's bon mots will be long re- 
 membered for their uncommon brilliancy. He 
 once remarked that the tax upon mile-stones was 
 unconstitutional ; " because," said he, " they 
 are a race that cannot meet to remonstrate." 
 
 Young Tom Sheridan once said to his father; 
 " If ever I get into parliament, I mean to set up 
 a sign on my head— inscribed To let." ^ Ay" 
 said Sheridan, " and add— unfurnished." 
 
 Sheridan was fond of practical jokes— one of 
 which he played off upon the duke of Devon 
 shire. Sheridan was in the habit of frequenting 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SHO 
 
 526 
 
 Si A 
 
 Dolly's Chop-house, where he generally called 
 for a devilled shin-bone of beef. One day, 
 coming in rather later than usual, he was told 
 that the only shin-bone in the larder was being 
 cooked for his grace the duke of Devonshire. 
 Sheridan, who was unacquainted with the duke, 
 took a seat within ear-shot of him, and began 
 a conversation with a friend in a loud tone of 
 voice. "I always imagined," said he, "that 
 Dolly's chop-house, was one of the neatest es- 
 tablishments in London, but I made a discove- 
 ry this morning which has convinced me that 
 I was mistaken." Here the duke listened very 
 attentively. " As I was passing the kitchen 
 window," continued Sheridan, " I observed a 
 turnspit-boy greedily gnawing a shin-bone of 
 beef. Presently one of the cooks ran up to him, 
 and giving him a blow on the neck, compelled 
 him to drop his prize. ' You dirty little rascal,' 
 said the cook, ' could'nt you find nothing else 
 to eat — here I ' ve got to cook this bone for the 
 duke of Devonshire ! ' " Soon after the conclu- 
 sion of this tale, a waiter entered the room, and 
 advanced to his grace, with a covered dish. 
 "Your bone, sir ! " " Take it away ! " roared the 
 duke, with a face of great disgust, " I can't touch 
 a morsel of it." " Stay, waiter ! " said Sheridan ; 
 " bring it to me. If his grace can ' t eat it, I 
 can. Fetch me a bottle of claret — I don't wish 
 a better luncheon." 
 
 Two young sprigs of nobility once accosted 
 Sheridan in Bond-street. " Sherry," said one 
 of them familiarly, " my friend and I have been 
 discussing the question whether you are knave 
 or fool." " Why," said the wit, taking an arm 
 of each and smiling, u I believe I am between 
 both." 
 
 SHERMAN, Roger, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born at Newton, 
 Massachusetts, April 19, 1721, and was appren- 
 ticed to a shoemaker. In 1743 the family re- 
 moved to N. Milford in Connecticut, where he 
 entered upon trade as a country merchant. 
 Having, however, always displayed a desire for 
 knowledge, he studied with diligence, and in 
 1754 was admitted to the bar. In 1759 he was 
 appointed judge of the court of common pleas 
 in Litchfield. Two years afterwards he remov- 
 ed to New Haven, and in 1765, was appointed 
 judge of the court of common pleas and treasurer 
 of Yale college. After holding a seat in the 
 general assembly of Connecticut, he was sent to 
 congress in 1774. After discharging several im- 
 portant duties, and being made senator, he died 
 July 23, 1793, in the sevenjy-thirdyearofhisage. 
 SHORE, (Jane), mistress of Edward IV° a 
 
 woman of exquisite beauty and good sense, but 
 who had not virtue enough to resist the tempta- 
 tions of a beautiful man and a monarch. She 
 was fated to incur the indignation of the duke 
 of Gloucester, who had been made protector of 
 the realm on the death of Edward. This un- 
 fortunate woman was an enemy too humble to 
 excite the protector's jealousy ; yet as he had 
 accused her of witchcraft, of which she was 
 innocent, he thought proper to make her an ex- 
 ample for those faults of which she was really 
 guilty. Jane Shore had been formerly deluded 
 from her husband, who was a goldsmith in 
 Lombard-street, and continued to live with Ed- 
 ward, the most guiltless mistress in his aban- 
 doned court. The charge against her was too 
 notorious to be denied ; she pleaded guilty, and 
 was accordingly condemned to walk bare-foot 
 through the city, and do penance in St. Paul's 
 church, in a white sheet, with a wax taper in 
 her hand, before thousands of spectators. She 
 lived above forty years after this sentence, and 
 was reduced to the most extreme indigence. 
 
 SHOVEL, Sir* Cloudesley, an admiral, was 
 born near Clay, in Norfolk, about 1650. In 
 1674 he was a lieutenant under Sir John Nar- 
 borough, who sent Mr. Shovel to the dey of 
 Tripoli with a requisition, which the 5loor 
 treated with contempt Sir John then despatch- 
 ed the lieutenant on shore again, when the dey 
 behaved much worse than before. On his re- 
 turn, Shovel stated to the admiral the practica- 
 bility of destroying the enemy's shipping, which 
 service he performed the same night without 
 the loss of a man. For this exploit he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of a ship. 
 
 After the Revolution he was knighted, and 
 made a rear-admiral, in which capacity he had 
 a share in the victory of La Hogue. In 1703 
 he commanded a fleet in the Mediterranean, 
 and the year following partook in the victory 
 off Malaga. In 1705 he sailed for England, 
 and in the night of October 22, fell by mistake 
 upon the rocks of Scilly, where his ship was 
 totally lost, with some others, and all on board 
 perished. His body being found by the fisher- 
 men, was stripped and buried; but the fact 
 becoming known, the remains were brought to 
 London, and interred in Westminster Abbey, 
 where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SI AM, a country in the peninsula of Chin- 
 India containing 190,000 square miles, and 
 3,700,000 inhabitants. The country is moun- 
 tainous but the soil fertile. The inhabitants 
 are slothful, indolent, vain, and deceitful. Their 
 religion is Buddhism. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SIC 
 
 52" 
 
 SIC 
 
 SIBERIA, a vast territory of Asia, including 
 'the whole northern part of that continent. 
 The exploration of Siberia may be dated from 
 the period when Russia emancipated herself 
 from the yoke of the Tartar conquerors. At 
 length the czars of Muscovy having acquired 
 a knowledge of the country, began the system 
 of colonizing it, by making it a place of banish- 
 ment for public criminals, till the settlement 
 being formed, the aversion to migrate thither 
 was greatly abated. A body of wandering 
 Russian troops having sought refuge from the 
 Cossacks, whom they were sent to extirpate, in 
 the eastern regions of this country, they there 
 found established, a Tartar kingdom, of which 
 Sibir was the capital. 
 
 The khan or ruler having been totally defeat- 
 ed, Germack, the conqueror, took possession of 
 the kingdom but was afterwards surprised and 
 cut off by an ambuscade of Tartars. In the 
 course of fifty years, a few Cossacks and hun- 
 ters had, by their intrepid exertions, added to 
 Russia a territory larger in extent than all Eu- 
 rope. However, in extending their conquest, 
 they came in contact with the Chinese empire, 
 the military force of which defeated the Rus- 
 sians on the banks of the Amour, where they 
 were obliged to terminate their progress, and 
 which river forms the line of demarcation be- 
 tween the two empires. 
 
 SICILY. This island, which is part of the 
 kingdom of Naples, is separated from Italy by 
 the straits of Messina. It is 60 leagues long, 
 and 36 broad, and contains 1,787,771 inhabi- 
 tants. The principal cities are Palermo, Mazara, 
 Syracuse, Messina, and Catania. The country 
 is rich and fertile, and was formerly the granary 
 of Italy ; but is no longer so well cultivated. 
 It produces grain, silk, wines, excellent fruits, 
 wax, and honey. The Sicilians are polished, 
 and fond of the fine arts, but fickle and revenge- 
 ful. They profess the Roman Catholic religion. 
 
 This island was anciently known by the 
 names of Sicania, Sicilia, and Trinacria, from 
 its triangular form It is situated between Italy 
 and Africa, lying between 36° 30' and 38° 20' 
 of north latitude, and extending from the 13th 
 to the 16th degree of east longitude. JEtna,, 
 now mount Gibello, emits flames, throws up 
 stones and ashes, and alarms the inhabitants by 
 its roaring , and its convulsions have frequently 
 overturned cities, and covered the island with 
 ruins. In the Tuscan Sea, near Sicily, lie the 
 ^Eolian and Vulcanian isles, in which Vulcan 
 is fabled to have had his forges, and iEolus to 
 have confined the winds subject to his com- 
 
 mand. Sicily was peopled by Greeks from 
 Chalcia, Achaia, Doris, and from Crete, Rhodes, 
 and other islands, and by some colonies from 
 Italy. At length, Syracuse, which was found- 
 ed by a Corinthian, usurped the chief power, 
 and continued for a long time the metropolis 
 of Sicily. It was at first governed by kings ; 
 and afterwards a democracy was established. 
 It exhibits a perpetual alternation of slavery 
 under tyrants, and of liberty under a popular 
 government. Gelon is said to have introduced 
 himself into Syracuse by his address, and to 
 have gained the favor of the people, who in- 
 vested him with absolute power, B. C. 483. 
 He laid the foundation of that immense com- 
 merce, which rendered Syracuse strong and 
 opulent. He proposed to assist the Greeks 
 against Xerxes, when the Carthaginians land- 
 ed in Sicily an army of 300,000 men under the 
 command of Hamilcar. 
 
 However, Gelon, by means of an intercepted 
 letter was enabled to send a body of cavalry, 
 that put Hamilcar to death, dispersed the troops, 
 and burnt the ships, while he attacked the other 
 camp. An assembly of the Syracusans being 
 convened, Gelon was invited to assume the 
 title of king, and invested with supreme au- 
 thority. The people also passed a decree, set- 
 tling the crown, after his death, on his two 
 brothers, Hiero and Thrasybulus. Gelon was 
 succeeded by his elder brother, Hiero, B. C. 
 471, whom some represent as an excellent 
 prince, and others as a covetous, obstinate, and 
 cruel tyrant. 
 
 Hiero was succeeded by his brother Thrasy- 
 bulus, B. C. 459, a cruel and sanguinary tyrant, 
 who massacred all those subjects who gave him 
 the least cause of offence. Incensed at this 
 oppressive conduct, the people took up arms, 
 and expelled the tyrant, who retired to Italy. 
 The Syracusans, attempting to subdue the 
 neighboring cities, the latter requested the as- 
 sistance of the Athenians, who had long wished 
 to form an establishment in Sicily. Nicias, a 
 prudent general, endeavored to dissuade the 
 Athenians from such an undertaking ; but the 
 senate and the people were hurried on by en- 
 thusiasm, and determined to sell the Syracu- 
 sans and their allies as slaves, and oblige the 
 other cities of Sicily to pay an annual tribute 
 to Athens. Accordingly, the Athenians set sail 
 and arrived before Syracuse, which they be- 
 sieged both by sea and land, B. C. 416. The 
 Syracusans were about to surrender, when Gy- 
 lippus, a Spartan general, arrived with assistance 
 from Lacedeemon. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SIC 
 
 528 
 
 SIC 
 
 Nicias found himself under the necessity of 
 demanding a reinforcement from Athens, which 
 despatched another fleet, commanded by De- 
 mosthenes ; that eterprising general, induced 
 Nicias to make an assault, which was not suc- 
 cessful. At length the Athenian and Syracusan 
 armaments met, and an engagement ensued, 
 when the Athenians were completely defeated. 
 Finding no other resource left than to endeavor 
 to reach some towns in alliance with them, they 
 began their march. However, the dead and the 
 dying retarded their progress ; and the enemy 
 briskly pursued, and allowed them scarcely a 
 moment of rest. Nicias and Demosthenes were 
 made prisoners, and after being publicly scourg- 
 ed, were thrown from a precipice. The soldiers 
 were shut up in the quarries, where they received 
 a scanty allowance of food, and were infected 
 with the putrid bodies of their dead companions. 
 Such was the issue of this war, after it had con- 
 tinued nearly three years. 
 
 Sicily was soon engaged in a new contest. 
 The Egestines, who had invited the Athenians 
 into Sicily, dreading the resentment of the Sy- 
 racusans, offered to put their city into the hands 
 of the Carthaginians, from whom they request- 
 ed assistance against the inhabitants of Seli- 
 nuntum. The Carthaginians committed the 
 management of the war to Hannibal , the grand- 
 son of Hamilcar, who landed in Sicily with an 
 army of 300,000 men. The Selinuntines de- 
 fended their walls, their streets, their public 
 squares, and even their houses, but were every 
 where overpowered by numbers. Two thou- 
 sand six hundred of them escaped to Agrigen- 
 tum, and the rest were cut to pieces by the 
 Carthaginians, who committed dreadful cruel- 
 ties and atrocities The conquerors then march- 
 ed to Himera, before which Hamilcar had been 
 killed by Gelon, and which shared the same 
 fate as Selinuntum. Hannibal ordered 3000 
 Himerians to be barbarously massacred on the 
 spot where his grandfather had been defeated 
 and killed ; and after thus terminating the cam- 
 paign, he embarked his troops, and set sail for 
 Africa. The Carthaginians now returned to 
 Sicily with 300,000 men, and attacked Agri- 
 gentum. In the first sally, the besieged burnt 
 the machines, and made a prodigious slaughter 
 of the enemy. 
 
 At length, Agrigentum being greatly distress- 
 ed for want of provisions, the inhabitants resolv- 
 ed to leave the city, which was taken possession 
 of by the Carthaginians. The Agrigentines, 
 who took refuge in Syracuse, filled that city 
 with complaints against the Syracusan com- 
 
 manders, as if they had betrayed Agrigentum 
 into the hands of the enemy. This raised such dis- 
 turbances in Syracuse, as afforded to Dionysius, 
 a bold, eloquent, and aspiring man, an opportu- 
 nity of seizing on the sovereign power. After 
 procuring a guard of 1000 men, and being join- 
 ed by part of the garrison in Gela, he possessed 
 himself of the citadel, and publicly declared 
 himself king of Syracuse, B. C. 404. But on 
 the first defeat he experienced from the Cartha- 
 ginians, the people revolted, and united with 
 his enemies. Dionysius, however, found means 
 not only to appease the revolt, but to conclude 
 a peace with the Carthaginians. 
 
 Dionysius again declared war with the Car- 
 thaginians, from whom he took the most im- 
 portant of the towns which they possessed in 
 Sicily ; but who, nevertheless, appeared before 
 Syracuse, to which they laid siege. The Car- 
 thaginians being exhausted by a plague, were 
 obliged to raise the siege, and Dionysius suffer- 
 ed them to retire unmolested, on condition that 
 they paid him a large sum of money. He then 
 turned his arms against Italy, and took Rhegium, 
 the inhabitants of which he treated with his 
 usual inhumanity. He was succeeded by his 
 son Dionysius, who was surnamed the younger, 
 B. C. 366, and who was a weak and irresolute 
 prince. Dion, the brother of Aristomache, the 
 wife of Dionysius the elder, a friend and disciple 
 of Plato, induced the young prince to banish the 
 accomplices of his debaucheries and to recall 
 Plato. Through a cabal of courtiers, Dion and 
 Plato were disgraced, and obliged to retire to 
 Athens. Dionysius not only refused to Dion the 
 revenue arising from his property, but compelled 
 his wife Arete, who was much beloved by her 
 husband, to espouse Tiinocrates one of his cour- 
 tiers. These provocations incensed Dion, who 
 collected a small band, and arriving at Syracuse 
 whilst Dionysius was engaged with the war in 
 Italy, declared that he came not to avenge his 
 own private wrongs, but to emancipate Syra- 
 cuse and Sicily from the yoke of the tyrant. 
 Under this standard of liberty , Dion obtained 
 possession of the greater part of the city ; and 
 having defeated Dionysius in an engagement, 
 compelled the tyrant to flee into Italy. Dion, 
 having murdered one of his generals, was as- 
 sassinated in his own house by his guest and 
 friend Calippus. 
 
 The death of Dion, and the flight of Calip- 
 pus, recalled Dionysius, B. C. 350, who again 
 reinstated himself in the possession of his do- 
 minions, which he retained until he was again 
 expelled by an army under Timoleon. This 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SIC 
 
 529 
 
 SIC 
 
 general overran Sicily as a conqueror, subdued 
 the tyrants of several cities, whom he sent to 
 Corinth to be companions of Dionysius, and de- 
 feated the Carthaginians, who again appeared 
 in the island. 
 
 For the space of twenty years, the Syracu- 
 sans enjoyed the fruits of Timoleon's services. 
 About that time, Syracuse groaned under the 
 tyranny of Agathocles, who exceeded all his 
 predecessors in cruelty and other vices. He 
 was soon expelled from that city by Sosistratus, 
 who had usurped the supreme power. He then 
 retired into Italy; and during his abode in that 
 country, Sosistratus was obliged to abdicate the 
 sovereignty, and quit Syracuse. Sosistratus 
 and the other exiles had recourse to the Car- 
 thaginians, who readily espoused their cause. 
 
 Upon this, the Syracusans recalled Agatho- 
 cles, whom they appointed commander-in-chief, 
 and he defeated the combined armies of Sosis- 
 tratus and the Carthaginians. Agathocles, 
 therefore, began to exercise a sovereign power 
 over his fellow-citizens, and took such measures 
 as plainly showed that he aimed at monarchy. 
 On discovering his design, the people transfer- 
 red the command of their forces to a Corinthi- 
 an; and Agathocles saved his life only by 
 stratagem. 
 
 Agathocles re-appeared under the walls of 
 Syracuse, at the head of a strong army, and, 
 under pretence of a war with Erbita, a neigh- 
 boring city, he collected a great number of sol- 
 diers, whom he induced to pillage Syracuse, 
 and to massacre the whole body of the nobility. 
 In a few hours more than four thousand per- 
 sons fell a sacrifice ; and the streets were cov- 
 ered with slain. He ordered the pillage and 
 massacre to be continued two days longer, after 
 which he was proclaimed king by the few sur- 
 vivors. 
 
 The success of Agathocles gave uneasiness to 
 the Carthaginians, who sent against him an ar- 
 my under the command of Hamilcar. This 
 general gained over him a complete victory, 
 which obliged Agathocles to confine himself 
 within Syracuse. Whilst the Carthaginians 
 besieged that city, Agathocles embarked some 
 of his best troops, B. C. 307, and, landing in 
 Africa, burned the vessels which had conveyed 
 his army. An engagement took place between 
 the Syracusans and the Carthaginians, the lat- 
 ter of whom were defeated with the loss of 
 Hanno, their general. 
 
 Syracuse was now reduced to great extremi- 
 ty , but Agathocles having sent to the inhabit- 
 ants of that city the head of Hanno. the sight 
 
 of it encouraged them to support with success a 
 last assault. They afterwards attacked and en- 
 tirely routed the Carthaginian army, took Ha- 
 milcar prisoner, and sent his head to Agatho- 
 cles. As the war was prolonged, Agathocles 
 resolved to return to Sicily ; and having given 
 the necessary orders during his absence, em- 
 barked with him two thousand chosen men, and 
 arrived at Syracuse. After restoring order to 
 the government, and destroying a league which 
 had been formed against him, he set out once 
 more for Africa. But finding his affairs despe- 
 rate in that country, he determined to abandon 
 his troops, and making his escape put to sea. 
 In the first transports of their fury, the soldiers 
 massacred two of his sons whom he had left be- 
 hind, and, having elected chiefs for themselves, 
 concluded with the Carthaginians a peace, by 
 which they were to be transported to Sicily, 
 and put in possession of the city of Selinuntum. 
 At length, after a series of cruelties, Agatho 
 cles was burnt on the funeral pile, B. C. 289. 
 
 The government was next assumed by Moe- 
 non, who was expelled by Hycetas. The latter 
 took the modest title of praetor, but was deprived 
 of the sovereign power by Toenion, who was op- 
 posed by Sosistratus. But being attacked by 
 the Carthaginians, these chiefs united and call- 
 ed into their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
 who was then carrying on war against the Ro- 
 mans. Pyrrhus re-conquered those cities which 
 had thrown off the yoke. Hiero was appointed 
 to command the Syracusan forces against the 
 Carthaginians, B. C. 275, who had regained 
 most of the places which they possessed before 
 the arrival of the Epirots. He concluded a 
 treaty with the Romans, the conditions of which 
 were faithfully performed on both sides. The 
 defeats which the Romans sustained at the lake 
 Thrasymene and at Cannae, could not shake his 
 constancy. He died at the age of ninety. 
 
 Hiero appointed his grandson Hieronymus 
 king, B. C, 211, with a council of fifteen per- 
 sons, called tutors. His vices and cruelty were 
 such, that a conspiracy was formed against him. 
 He was assassinated while passing through a 
 narrow street, in 208 B. C, and the people 
 showed so little concern for his person, that 
 they suffered the body to rot in the place where 
 it had fallen. Hieronymus was no sooner dead, 
 than two of the conspirators hastened to pre 
 vent the attempts of Andranodorus, and of 
 others of the king's faction. However, he soon 
 after, in concert with Themistus, the husband 
 of Harmonia, sister of the deceased king, formed 
 a plot to exterminate the chief citizens of Syra- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SIC 
 
 530 
 
 SID 
 
 case. This being disclosed to the senate, An- 
 dranodorus and Themistus were condemned, 
 though absent, and put to death as they were 
 entering the senate-house. Soon after this the 
 guardians and tutors of the late king, and all 
 the royal family, were put to death. 
 
 The Carthaginians now obtained an ascen- 
 dency in Syracuse. Two of the generals, Hip- 
 pocrates and Epysides, caused the number of 
 the prastors to be reduced to two, and made the 
 choice fall on themselves. Marcellus, the Ro- 
 man consul, appeared at the gates of Syracuse, 
 B. C. 202, and demanded that the authors of the 
 late massacre should be delivered into his hands ; 
 but finding his demand treated with ridicule, he 
 commenced hostilities, and attempted a general 
 assault on the city. However, by the genius of 
 Archimedes, an able mathematician, without 
 employing the sword, two Roman armies were 
 repulsed on this occasion. Marcellus was, 
 therefore, obliged to convert the siege into a 
 blockade : and, at length, he obtained posses- 
 sion of the city by an escalade. The soldiers 
 entered the houses of the Syracusans, seized all 
 the valuables, but offered no violence to the 
 persons of the inhabitants. Acradina, the 
 strongest quarter of the city, held out some time 
 longer, but was at length taken by means of an 
 officer, who gave up to Marcellus one of the 
 gates, B. C. 200. 
 
 After the capture of Syracuse, Agrigentum 
 was besieged and taken. By order of the con- 
 sul Lcevinus, the chiefs of the latter city were 
 scourged and beheaded, and the people reduced 
 to slavery and sold by auction. After this ter- 
 rible example, no more cities resisted, and Sici- 
 ly was converted into a province of Rome, B. C. 
 198. Sicily remained in the hands of the Ro- 
 mans during many centuries. At length, in the 
 8th and 9th centuries, the Saracens conquered 
 Sicily, and the island remained in their posses- 
 sion 200 years. In the 11th century the Nor- 
 mans made the conquest of this country, and in 
 1266, it submitted to Charles of Anjou, a French 
 prince. 
 
 In 1282, the massacre of the French, called 
 the Sicilian Vespers, took place here, and after 
 this catastrophe, the inhabitants transferred the 
 sovereignty of their island to Spain, with whom 
 it long remained, as well as that of the Neapo- 
 litan territory, to which Sicily became united in 
 1430. Both were subject to the crown of Spain 
 in 1700. In 1707 the Austrians obtained pos- 
 session of Naples and Sicily ; and by the peace 
 of Utrecht, in 1713, while Naples was confirmed 
 to them, Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, 
 
 with the title of king. In 1720, the Austrians 
 prevailed on the new possessor of Sicily to ex- 
 change it for Sardinia, and added the former to 
 the kingdom of Naples. The war of 1 734 , how- 
 ever transferred the crown of the two Sicilies to 
 a branch of the royal family of Spain, and it re- 
 mained in their hands till 1799, when the royal 
 family were expelled from Naples. The latter 
 took refuge in Sicily, were afterwards restored 
 to Naples, but again compelled to take refuge 
 in Sicily. 
 
 The acquisition of Sicily is said to have been 
 a primary object with Napoleon, but an attempt 
 at invasion in 1810 was baffled by the British 
 troops. In 1815, the overthrow of Murat led to 
 the restoration of the legitimate family to the 
 throne of Naples, which they now possess. — See 
 Naples. 
 
 SIDNEY, Algernon, a republican, was the 
 second son of Robert earl of Leicester, by Dor- 
 othy, daughter of the earl of Northumberland, 
 and was born about 1620. In the rebellion, he 
 became a colonel in the army of the parliament, 
 a member of the house of commons, and was 
 nominated one of the king's judges, but did not 
 sign the warrant for his execution. The same 
 principles, however, which led him to oppose 
 Charles, made him hostile to Cromwell and his 
 son Richard. In 1659 he was one of the com- 
 missioners sent to mediate between Denmark 
 and Sweden. On the Restoration, Sidney re- 
 mained abroad till 1677, when he received a 
 conditional pardon ; but in 1683. being implica- 
 ted in what was called the Rye-House plot, he 
 was arraigned before the chief justice, Jefferies, 
 and found guilty, though the evidence was de- 
 fective, and in every sense illegal. He suffered 
 death with great firmness upon Tower Hill, on 
 the seventh of December the same year. 
 
 SIDNEY, Sir Philip, the author 6f the Arca- 
 dia, Defence of Poesy, Astrophel and Stella, 
 &c, was born Nov. 29, 1554, at Penshurst, in 
 Kent, the seat of his father, Sir Henry Sidney, 
 who was the friend of Edward VI, and, in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, became lord deputy of Ire- 
 land. The mother of Sir Philip was Mary, 
 daughter of the duke of Northumberland. While 
 at Paris, the French king made him gentleman 
 of his bed-chamber ; but the distinction was 
 rendered offensive by the massacre of the Pro- 
 testants, which took place while Sidney resided 
 there, in the house of the English ambassador. 
 
 When the danger was over, he went to Frank- 
 fort, and next to Vienna, where he distinguish 
 ed himself by his skill in martial exercises. lit 
 157li he was sent ambassador to Vienna, osten 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SIL 
 
 531 
 
 SIX 
 
 •sibly to condole with the emperor, on the death 
 of his father; but secretly to promote a league 
 among the protestant states against Spain, which 
 object he achieved. 
 
 In 1580 a tournament was held at court, where, 
 though Sidney displayed his prowess to great 
 advantage, the victory was adjudged to the earl 
 of Oxford, which produced a challenge ; but the 
 duel being prevented by the queen's commands, 
 our hero retired to Wilton, the seat of his bro- 
 ther-in-law, the earl of Pembroke. In .1585 
 Sidney was named as a candidate for the king- 
 dom of Poland, but the queen interposed her au- 
 thority against it, " refusing," says an historian, 
 * to further his advancement, out of fear that 
 she should lose the jewel of her times." 
 
 The Protestants of the Netherlands, having 
 solicited the assistance of England to relieve 
 them from the Spanish yoke, a military force 
 was sent over under the command of sir Philip, 
 who on his arrival at Flushing, was appointed 
 colonel of all the Dutch regiments. Not long 
 after, the earl of Leicester joined him with ad- 
 ditional troops, and Sidney was promoted to the 
 rank of general of the horse. 
 
 On the 22d of September, 1586, he fell in 
 with a convoy sent by the enemy to Zutphen, 
 and though the English troops were inferior to 
 the enemy, they gained the victory ; but it was 
 dearly purchased by the loss of their commander, 
 who, after one horse was shot under him, 
 mounted another, and continued the fight, till 
 he received a ball in the left thigh, which proved, 
 fatal. As he was borne from the field, languid 
 with the loss of blood, he asked for water, but 
 just as the bottle was put to his lips, seeing a 
 dying soldier looking wistfully at it, he resign- 
 ed it, saying " this man's necessity is greater 
 than mine." He died on the 15th October, and 
 his body was brought over and interred in St. 
 Paul's cathedral. 
 
 SILESIA, formerly a duchy of Bohemia, but 
 now divided into two parts, belonging to Prus- 
 sia and Austria. The geographical division is 
 into Upper and Lower Silesia. Prussian Sile- 
 sia contains 12.264 square miles, and 2,396,551 
 inhabitants. Austrian Silesia contains 350,000 
 inhabitants, and 2500 square miles. The abori- 
 gines of Silesia appear to have been the Quadi 
 and Lygii. It was ceded to the sons of Boles- 
 laus fl in the eleventh century ; and was sub- 
 dued by the kings of Bohemia in the fourteenth 
 century. Silesia passed with Bohemia to the 
 house of Austria in the sixteenth century, and 
 continued in its undisturbed possession until the 
 death of Charles VI in 1740, led to a general 
 45* S 
 
 attack on dominions considered comparatively 
 defenceless when transmitted to a female. Fre 
 derick II endeavored to obtain the western part 
 of Silesia. Austria, with the aid of England, 
 took up arms. The contest terminated in the 
 cession of part of Silesia to Prussia. The peace 
 of Hubertsburg, in 1763, left Silesia conclusive- 
 ly in the hands of Frederick. In 1807, it was 
 overrun by the French ; but it was not separa- 
 ted at the peace of Tilsit from the Prussian ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 SIXTUS V, Pope, was born in 1521, in the 
 signory of Montalto, where his father, Francis 
 Peretti, was a gardener. At the age of four- 
 teen, he was allowed to make his profession, 
 and in 1545 he received priest's orders, and took 
 the name of Father Montalto. His popularity 
 as a preacher procured him many friends, and 
 in 1555 he was appointed inquisitor-general at 
 Venice ; where, however, he gave so much of- 
 fence by his severity, as to be obliged to return 
 to Rome. Pius V made him general of his or- 
 der, next bishop to St. Agatha, and in 1570 
 raised him to the purple. Hitherto Montalto 
 had been remarked for his haughty demeanor, 
 but now he assumed quite an opposite charac- 
 ter, and appeared all humility, meekness, and 
 condescension. He carried this rrvpocrisy so 
 far, as to treat his family with neglect, telling 
 them, " that he was dead to his relations and the 
 world." He took no part in political conten- 
 tions, and the other cardinals were so complete- 
 ly imposed upon by him, that they called him 
 " The ass of La Marca." In this way he went 
 on several years, adding to his deceit, the pre- 
 tence of bodily infirmities. At length Gregory 
 XIII died, in 1585, and the election of a new 
 pope was contested between three cardinals, 
 whose respective interests were so equal, that 
 they agreed to choose Montalto ; but when they 
 informed him of their intention, he fell into such 
 a fit of coughing, that they thought he would 
 have expired. The election, however, took 
 place, and no sooner was it announced, than 
 the pope threw his staff into the middle of the 
 chapel, and began the " Te Deum " with a loud 
 voice, to the astonishment of all who heard him. 
 He took the name of Sixtus V, and though he 
 administered justice with rigorous severity, the 
 relaxed state of manners called for it, and no 
 one could tax him with partiality. Among 
 other things, he caused the Vulgate edition of 
 the Bible to be revised, and he even went so far 
 as to have an Italian version of it printed, which 
 excited great alarm among the bigoted catho- 
 lics. Towards foreign powers he behaved with 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SMI 
 
 532 
 
 SMI 
 
 spirit, and took away from their ambassadors 
 the liberty of granting protections, saying, 
 " That he was determined no one should reign 
 at Rome but himself." His private character 
 was free from reproach, and the only faults 
 charged upon him were, the hypocritical course 
 he took to gain the papacy, and the inexorable 
 rigor with which he acted while he enjoyed it. 
 He died August 27, 1590. 
 
 SMITH, John, was born at Willoughby, in 
 Lincolnshire, England, in 1579. He early dis- 
 played a roving disposition, and was fond of 
 feats of daring. On the death of his father, he 
 was apprenticed to a merchant of Lynn, whom 
 he soon quitted to enter the service of a noble- 
 man who was going to the continent. At Or- 
 leans he was discharged with money to defray 
 the expenses of his voyage home, but meeting 
 with a Scotchman in the Low Countries where 
 he had enlisted as a soldier, he was persuaded 
 to go to Scotland, and promised the counte- 
 nance of king James. Disappointed in his ex- 
 pectations he returned to his native town, but 
 finding no agreeable companions, he built him- 
 self a hut in the woods, and studied works on 
 the military art, occasionally amusing himself 
 with his horse and lance. 
 
 In 1596, he again set out on his travels, going 
 first to Flanders and thence to France, where 
 he fell in with some pilgrims at Marseilles, and 
 set sail in their company for Italy. The pil- 
 grims, however, attributing the storm which 
 overtook them to the presence of a heretic, threw 
 overboard Smith, who saved his life by swim- 
 ming to the island of St. Mary, off Nice. He was 
 now befriended by a master of a vessel who took 
 him to Alexandria whence he coasted the Le- 
 vant, and assisted in the capture of a Venetian 
 ship. With his share of the prize-money, he 
 made the tour of Italy, and then entered the 
 Austrian service, having command of a compa- 
 ny, with which he accompanied the Transylva- 
 nian army against the Turks. 
 
 At the siege of Regal, the lord Turbisha, 
 challenged any Christian commander to fight 
 with him in presence of the ladies for their par- 
 ticular amusement. The duty of encountering 
 this champion devolved by lot upon Smith, who 
 killed him, struck off his head and bore it in tri- 
 umph to the general of the Transylvanian army. 
 A friend of Turbisha now sent Smith a chal- 
 lenge which he accepted. They fought, as be- 
 fore, in the presence of the ladies who witness- 
 ed the defeat of the Turk, and his decapitation 
 by Smith. The latter now sent word to the 
 Ottomans, that, for the further gratification of 
 
 their ladies, he would encounter any champion 
 whom they might select. One Bonomalgro ac- 
 cepted the challenge, and, in the combat which 
 took place, Smith, although stricken to the 
 ground, regained his saddle at a fortunate mo- 
 ment, and severed the infidel's head from his 
 body. These brilliant exploits procured him a 
 sort of military triumph, after the manner of the 
 Romans, a splendid horse and sabre, and a ma- 
 jor's commission. On the capture of Regal the 
 prince of Transylvania gave Smith his minia- 
 ture set in gold, a pension, and a coat of arms 
 with three Turks' heads in a shield. 
 
 After this he was taken prisoner, and made 
 the slave of the mistress of a pacha w T ho resided 
 at Constantinople. This lady, who fell in love 
 with the Christian hero, sent him to her bro- 
 ther, a pacha on the borders of the sea of Azoph. 
 This dignitary, suspecting the passion of the 
 lady, treated Smith with great severity, but the 
 latter found an opportunity to kill his tyrant, 
 and, mounting the fine charger of his fallen 
 foe, he made his way into Russia, whence he 
 travelled through Germany, France, Spain, and 
 Morocco, from which latter place he returned to 
 England. On the 19th of December, 1G06, he 
 sailed for America, with Gosnold's expedition, 
 letters patent having been obtained and a coun- 
 cil nominated for the colony of Virginia. After 
 some time the weight of the administration 
 of the Jamestown settlement devolved upon 
 Smith, who was ever active and energetic. But 
 while exploring James river, he was taken pri- 
 soner by the Indian chief Powhatan, and doomed 
 to death ; from which he was only saved by the 
 courageous interposition of Pocahontas, Pow- 
 hatan's daughter, who procured his liberation. 
 
 Smith, having been elected president of the 
 colony, abty discharged the arduous duties im- 
 posed upon him, although its inevitable difficul- 
 ties were increased by mutiny, and the hostility 
 of the Indians. In 1GU9 he returned to Eng- 
 land ; but in 1G14 he commanded an expedition 
 of discovery to North Virginia, now New Eng- 
 land. The next two vessels belonging to the 
 council of Plymouth, of which he had obtained 
 the command, were driven to England by stress 
 of weather. He next took command of a small 
 vessel which was seized by some French men- 
 of-war under pretence of piracy ; but was re 
 leased after being detained some time. He now 
 travelled about endeavoring to enlist men of 
 note in his schemes for colonizing America, but 
 without success. He urged upon Queen Anne 
 the propriety of rewarding Pocahontas, who had 
 been brought to England ; and he published a 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SOB 
 
 533 
 
 SOB 
 
 History of Virginia and an account of his va- 
 rious voyages and hardships. He died in Lon- 
 don, in 1631, in the 52d year of his age. 
 
 SMITH, James, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, born in Ireland between 1715 
 and 1720. He was educated at the college of 
 Philadelphia, studied law, and eventually settled 
 at York. In 1774 he was a member of an as- 
 sembly of delegates from all the counties of 
 Pennsylvania, and, in Jan. 1775, of the Penn- 
 sylvanian convention. Being elected a member 
 of congress, he retained his seat in that body 
 until Nov. 1778. He died in 1806. 
 
 SMOLENSKO, a considerable town of Eu- 
 ropean Russia, and capital of the government 
 of the same name. The Russians made, here, 
 their first serious opposition to the advance of 
 the French, in the campaign of 1812. An ob- 
 stinate conflict took place on the 16th and 17th 
 of August, in which the town was bombarded, 
 and set on fire. The Russians were compelled 
 to fall back, and the French extinguished the 
 flames ; on quitting it in their disastrous retreat 
 in November following, they blew up part of 
 the works. 
 
 SMYRNA, in Turkish, Ismir, a city on the 
 western coast of Natolia, situated at the foot 
 of a gulf, about 50 miles from the sea, contain- 
 ing 130,000 inhabitants. It was originally a 
 colony from Ephesus, and soon attained such 
 celebrity, that it was received as the thirteenth 
 city of Ionia. This original city was destroy- 
 ed by the Lydians ; and Antigonus and Lysirn- 
 achus rebuilt the city, though not on the same 
 spot. It has since been considered as the em- 
 porium of the Levant, but has been much in- 
 jured by earthquakes, plagues, and fires. In 
 April, 1730, it was nearly destroyed by an earth- 
 quake, and by a fire, June 20, 1742 ; had the 
 plague, 1743, 1752; the Armenian quarter was 
 burnt, May 14. 1753; had the plague, 1758, 
 1760; dreadful' fires, in 1763 and 1772; and 
 earthquakes and fire, in 1778; in March, 1796, 
 4000 shops, two large mosques, two public 
 baths, and all the magazines and provisions 
 were destroyed by fire ; and in 1814. the plague 
 swept off from 50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants. 
 
 SOBIESKI, John, was elected king of Po- 
 land in 1674. To him Europe owes a series of 
 splendid victories which checked the progress 
 and broke the iron power of the Moslem. To him 
 at the battle of Vienna Austria was indebted for 
 her deliverance at the hour of her extremity. 
 With what abominable ingratitude has she re- 
 paid her debt to Poland ! We cannot withhold 
 from the reader a sketch of this momentous battle. 
 
 The Turks offered not the least opposition to 
 the Poles as the}' crossed the bridge, and all 
 the imperial troops were safely assembled on 
 the western side of the Danube by the 7th of 
 September, and amounted to about 70,000 men. 
 
 They could hear from Tuln the roar of the 
 Turkish cannon. Vienna was, in fact, reduced 
 almost to its last gasp. Most of the garrison 
 were either killed or wounded, and disease was 
 making even greater ravages than the enemy's 
 balls. " The grave continued open without ever 
 closing its mouth." As early as the 22d of Au- 
 gust the officers had estimated that they could 
 not withstand a general attack three days. If 
 the vizier had pursued his advantage, Vienna 
 must have fallen into his hands. But it was 
 his object to avoid taking it by storm, in which 
 case the plunder would be carried off by the 
 soldiers, whereas, if he could oblige it to sur- 
 render, he might appropriate its spoil to his own 
 use. So careless was he, too, in his confidence, 
 that he had not yet ascertained that the Poles 
 were arrived, till they were in his immediate 
 vicinity; and when the news was afterward 
 brought to him that the King of Poland was 
 advancing, "The King of Poland!" said he, 
 laughing, " I know, indeed, that he has sent 
 Lubomirski with a few squadrons." 
 
 The governor, Starembourg, who had assured 
 the Duke of Lorraine that " he would not sur- 
 render the place but with the last drop of his 
 blood," began himself to despair of being longer 
 able to hold out. A letter which he wrote at 
 this period contained only these words : " No 
 more time to lose, my lord, no more time to 
 lose." 
 
 The imperial army set out on the 9th of Sep- 
 tember for Vienna, but they had a march of 
 fourteen miles to make across a ridge of moun- 
 tains over which the Germans could not drag 
 their cannon, and were therefore obliged to 
 leave them behind. The Poles were more per- 
 severing, for they succeeded in getting over 
 twenty -eight pieces, which were all they had 
 to oppose to the 300 of the enemy. 
 
 On the 11th of September they reached Mount 
 Calemberg, the last which separated them from 
 the Turks. From this hill, the Christians were 
 presented with one of the finest and most dread- 
 ful prospects of the greatness of human power; 
 an immense plain and all the islands of the Dan- 
 ube covered with pavilions, whose magnificence 
 seemed rather calculated for an encampment 
 of pleasure than the hardships of war; an innu- 
 merable multitude of horses, camels, and buffa- 
 loes ; 200,000 men all in motion; swarms of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SOB 
 
 534 
 
 SOB 
 
 Tartars dispersed along the foot of the mountain 
 in their usual confusion ; the fire of the besiegers 
 incessant and terrible, and that of the besieged 
 such as they could contrive to make ; in fine, 
 a great city, distinguishable only by the tops of 
 the steeples and the fire and smoke that covered 
 it. But Sobieski was not imposed on by this 
 formidable sight. " This man," said he, " is 
 badly encamped ; he knows nothing of war ; we 
 shall certainly beat him." — The eagle eye of 
 the experienced warrior was not mistaken. 
 
 On the eve of the battle, he wrote to the queen 
 in these words : " We can easily see that the 
 general of an army who has neither thought 
 of intrenching himself nor concentrating his 
 forces, but lies encamped there as if we were a 
 hundred miles from him, is predestined to be 
 beaten." 
 
 Sunday, the 12th of September, 1683, was 
 the important day, " big with the fate," of Leo- 
 pold, that was to decide whether the Turkish 
 crescent was to wave on the turrets of Vienna. 
 The cannonade on the city began at the break 
 of day, for which purpose the vizier on his part 
 had withdrawn from his army the janizaries, 
 all his infantry, and nearly all his artillery. 
 The light cavalry, the Spahis, the Tartars, and 
 other irregular troops, were the forces destined 
 to encounter the enemy ; so egregiously did 
 Kara Mustapha miscalculate the strength of his 
 opponents. They were commanded by Ibrahim 
 Pacha, who was regarded by the Turks as one 
 of the greatest generals of the age; but, unfor- 
 tunately for them, he was one of those who dis- 
 approved the war, and particularly the present 
 plan of it. At eight in the morning there was 
 some skirmishing ; at eleven the Christian army 
 was drawn up in array in the plain ; and Kara 
 Mustapha, beginning to apprehend that the al- 
 lies were more formidable than he anticipated, 
 had changed his design, and came to command 
 his troops in person. He was stationed in the 
 centre, and Sobieski occupied the same situa- 
 tion in his army. 
 
 It was nearly five in the evening, and the 
 engagement had only been partial ; for Sobies- 
 ki's infantry had not come up, and the vizier 
 was to be seen under a superb crimson tent, 
 quietly sipping coffee, while the King of Poland 
 was before him. At length the infantry arriv- 
 ed, and Sobieski ordered them to seize an emi- 
 nence which commanded the vizier's position. 
 The promptitude and gallantry with which this 
 manoeuvre was executed decided the fate of the 
 day. Kara Mustapha, taken by surprise at this 
 unexpected attack, ordered all his infantry to 
 
 his right wing, and the movement put all the 
 line in confusion. The king cried out that they 
 were lost men ; he ordered the Duke of Lor- 
 raine to attack the centre, which was now ex- 
 posed and weakened, while he himself made 
 his way through the confused Turks straight 
 for the vizier's tent. He was instantly recog- 
 nised by the streamers which adorned the lances 
 of his guard, " By Allah!" exclaimed the chain 
 of the Tartars, " the king is with them!" An 
 eclipse of the moon added to the consternation 
 of the superstitious Moslems. At this moment 
 the Polish cavalry made a grand charge, and 
 at the same time the Duke of Lorraine with his 
 troops added to the confusion ; and the rout of 
 the Turks became general. The vizier in vain 
 tried to rally them. " And you," said he to 
 the chain of the Tartars, who passed him among 
 the fugitives, "cannot you help me?" "I 
 know the King of Poland !" was the answer. 
 "I told you that if we had to deal with him, 
 all we could do would be to run away. Look 
 at the sky ; see if God is not against us." The 
 immense Turkish army was wholly broken up, 
 and Vienna was saved. 
 
 So sudden and general was the panic among 
 the Turks, that by six o'clock Sobieski had 
 taken possession of their camp One of the 
 vizier's stirrups, finely enamelled, was brought 
 to him. ' ; Take this stirrup," said he, " to the 
 queen, and tell her, that the person to whom it 
 belonged is defeated." Having strictly forbid- 
 den his soldiers from plundering, they rested 
 under the Turkish tents. 
 
 Such were the events of the famous deliver- 
 ance of Vienna as they were seen by a looker- 
 on ; and the outline of the narrative is filled up 
 by one who was the best informed, and not the 
 least impartial, no less than the great hero him- 
 self. " The victory has been so sudden and 
 extraordinary," he writes to the queen, " that 
 the city, as well as the camp, was in continual 
 alarm, expecting to see the enemy return every 
 moment. — Ni^ht put an end to the pursuit, and 
 besides, the Turks defended themselves with 
 fury in their flight. — All the troops have done 
 their duty well; they attribute the victory to 
 God and us. At the moment when the enemy 
 began to give ground (and the greatest shock 
 was where I was stationed, opposite the vizier), 
 all the cavalry of the rest of the army advanced 
 towards me on the right wing, the centre and 
 the left wing having as yet but little to do. — 
 The emperor is about a mile and a half distant. 
 He is coming down the Danube in a chaloupe ; 
 but I perceive he has no great wish to see me, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SOL 
 
 535 
 
 SOM 
 
 perhaps on account of the etiquette. I am very- 
 glad to avoid these ceremonies ; we have been 
 treated with nothing else up to this time. Our 
 darling is brave in the highest degree." 
 
 On the following day John made his entrance 
 into Vienna. The breach made by the Turks, 
 and through which they expected to march to 
 the destruction of the city, was the road which 
 admitted its deliverer. The citizens received 
 him with undisguised expressions of gratitude; 
 and even the stern warrior Sobieski shed a tear 
 of joy at receiving the thanks and acclama- 
 tions of the victims whom he had rescued 
 from destruction. " Never," said he, " did the 
 crown yield me pleasure like this !'' The peo- 
 ple could not help comparing him with their 
 own disgraceful sovereign, and exclaiming, 
 " Ah ! why is not. this our master?" With dif- 
 ficulty could the stern looks of the emperor's 
 officers check these natural expressions of feel- 
 ing. But Sobieski did not arrogate to himself 
 only the glory of the victory ; he went to the 
 cathedral to return thanks, and began to sing 
 the Te Deum himself. A sermon was after- 
 wards delivered, and the preacher, in the taste 
 of that age of conceits and far-fetched puerili- 
 ties, chose the following text for the occasion : 
 — " There was a man sent from God, whose 
 name was John." 
 
 He died of apoplexy after a reign of twenty- 
 two years ; and was justly considered the most 
 accomplished sovereign that ever sat on the 
 throne of Poland. 
 
 SOCRATES, the most celebrated philosopher 
 of all antiquity, was a native of Athens. Phi- 
 losophy soon became the study of Socrates ; and 
 under Archelaus and Anaxagoras he laid the 
 foundation of that exemplary virtue which suc- 
 ceeding ages have ever loved and venerated. 
 He appeared like the rest of his countrymen in 
 the field of battle ; he fought with boldness and 
 intrepidity ; and to his courage two of his friends 
 and disciples, Xenophon and Alcibiades, owed 
 the preservation of their lives. But the char- 
 acter of Socrates appears more conspicuous and 
 dignified as a philosopher and moralist, than as 
 a warrior. His principles were enforced by 
 the unparalleled example of an affectionate hus- 
 band, a tender parent, a warlike soldier, and a 
 patriotic citizen in his own person. He was 
 born 470 B. C. and died B. C. 400, being un- 
 justly condemned to death. 
 
 SOLOMON, one of the most illustrious kings 
 of Israel, was born A. M. 2071, and succeeded 
 his father David. In the fourth year of his 
 reign, he commenced building his celebrated 
 
 temple, which he completed in seven years. 
 He also built the walls of Jerusalem, fortified 
 several other cities, and contributed much to 
 the prosperity of his dominions. He died in 
 3029, after forty years' reign. 
 
 SOLON, one of the seven wise men of Greece, 
 was born at Salamis, and educated at Athens 
 After he had devoted part of his time to philo- 
 sophical and political studies, Solon travelled 
 over the greatest part of Greece, but at his re- 
 turn home he was distressed with the dissen- 
 sions which were kindled among his country 
 men. All fixed their eyes upon Solon as a de- 
 liverer, and he was unanimously elected archon 
 and sovereign legislator. He flourished about 
 600 B. C. 
 
 SO LYMAN II succeeded his father Selim I 
 in 1520. Gazelles, governor of Syria, rebelling 
 after the death of Selim, and having made him- 
 self master of a part of Egypt, was defeated by 
 Solyman's generals, who himself resolved to 
 turn his arms against the Christians. Accord- 
 ingly, in 1521 he took Belgrade, and the next 
 year Rhodes. This victory was followed by 
 the revolt of the Egyptians and some other na- 
 tions, which were defeated by Ibraim Bassa; 
 and Solyman,in the meantime, being advanced 
 with his army into Hungary, won the battle of 
 Mohacs, in 1526, where Lewis II king of Hun- 
 gary , lost his life in a morass. He made several 
 other expeditions into this kingdom, where he 
 took Buda, Pest, Gran, and some other places, 
 and died there himself at the siege of Zigeth or 
 Sigeth, the 4th of September, 1566, being sev- 
 enty-two years of age. In 1529 Solyman be- 
 sieged Vienna, but without success; and in 
 1535, he, took and plundered Tauris ; and his 
 generals subdued several cities and provinces in 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 
 SOMERS, John, Lord, a lawyer and states- 
 man, was born at Worcester, March 4, 1650 
 In 1683, he was one of the counsel for the seven 
 bishops ; and being chosen a member of the con- 
 vention parliament, he distinguished himself at 
 the conference of the two houses, on the question 
 about the abdication of the throne. When the 
 new government was established, he became, 
 successively, solicitor and attorney-general, and 
 in 1693, lord-keeper. He was next raised to 
 the peerage, appointed chancellor, and rewarded 
 with lands in the county of Surrey. In 1700 
 he was deprived of the seals, and soon after im- 
 peached by the commons ; but a misunderstand- 
 ing arising between the two houses, the lords 
 pronounced a verdict of acquittal. Lord Somers 
 projected the union between England and Scot- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SPA 
 
 536 
 
 SPA 
 
 land, and was one of the managers appointed established an extensive commerce in Spain 
 
 to carry that measure into effect. In 1708, he 
 was made president of the council ; but went 
 out of office again in 1710 : after which he led 
 a retired life, and died April 26, 1716. 
 
 SONORA, one of the states of the Mexican 
 confederacy, lying on the Pacific ocean, rich in 
 the precious metals. It contains 188,000 inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 SPAIN, an extensive country of Europe, se- 
 parated by the Pyrenees from France, and sur- 
 rounded by the Mediterranean and the Atlantic 
 seas, and the Bay of Biscay, contains 185,000 
 square miles and about 13,900,000 inhabitants. 
 Spain is one of the most fertile countries in the 
 world. Its wines, silks, oil, wool, metals, and 
 minerals ; various fruits, as citrons, lemons, 
 oranges, pomegranates, almonds and figs, and its 
 famous horses, are as valuable as they are cele- 
 brated. The principal mountains are the Pyre- 
 nees between France and Spain ; Montserrat in 
 Catalonia; the mountains of the Asturias, those 
 of the kingdom of Leon and New Castile ; and 
 the Sierra Morena in Andalusia. The principal 
 rivers are the Duero, which rises in Old Castile, 
 the Tagus,the Guadiana,and the Guadalquivir, 
 all flowing into the ocean. The Ebro, whose 
 sources are in the frontiers of Arragon, dis- 
 charges itself into the Mediterranean. The 
 general divisions of the kingdom are as follows: 
 1. the kingdom of Navarre ; 2. the Vascongados, 
 or Biscay ; 3. the principality of the Asturias ; 
 4. the kingdom of Galicia ; 5. the kingdom of 
 Arragon; 6. the principality of Catalonia; 7. 
 the kingdom of Leon ; 8. Old Castile ; 9. Es- 
 tremadura; 10. New Castile ; 11. the kingdom 
 of Valencia ; 12. Andalusia (including the king- 
 doms of Cordova, Seville, and Granada); 13. 
 the kingdom of Murcia; 14. the Balearic isles. 
 
 The clouds which cover the primitive history 
 
 d founded several cities, among the rest 
 Ampurias and the unfortunate Saguntum; but 
 the Carthaginians, possessing still greater skill 
 and power, soon made themselves masters of 
 the whole peninsula ; and such they would have 
 remained, had not the Romans, who alone were 
 able to dispute with them this brilliant conquest, 
 at length succeeded in their efforts to wrest it 
 from them. In the hope of escaping from serv- 
 itude, the Spaniards sometimes endeavored to 
 defend themselves ; but more frequently deceiv- 
 ed by the phantom of a generous alliance, they 
 faithfully promoted the views of their different 
 oppressors. 
 
 Thus, three cities chose rather to perish than 
 to surrender; Saguntum, from attachment to 
 the Romans ; Astapa in Bcetica, to the Cartha- 
 ginians, and Numantia for the sake of liberty. 
 Exhausted by all these calamities, Spain at 
 length began to breathe, and by degrees to re- 
 cruit her strength under the peaceable domin- 
 ion of the Romans. Induced by the fertility of 
 her soil, and the richness and variety of her 
 productions, that people founded numerous col- 
 onies in Spain ; military roads were opened in 
 every quarter; aqueducts conveyed to the cities 
 the tribute of the waters; triumphal arches re- 
 minded the conquerors of their glory ; theatres 
 and circuses effaced from the minds of the van- 
 quished, the memory of their misfortunes. Sa- 
 guntum saw its walls reared once more ; Meri- 
 da, Tarragona, Cordova, Salamanca, Segovia, 
 and other towns, admired the splendor of their 
 new edifices, the glorious testimonies of the 
 predilection of Rome for this country, the rival 
 of Italy. 
 
 This happy administration did not last long. 
 Rome, when mistress of the world, soon became 
 as odious as Carthage. Spain had its Clodius 
 
 of Spain, do not begin to be dissipated, till the and its Verres ; and the most beautiful province 
 
 period when the Phoenicians arrived, and form- 
 ed establishments in the country, before unciv- 
 ilized and unknown. It is supposed that they 
 landed in the island of St. Peter, where they 
 constructed the temple of Hercules, the remains 
 of which are still to be seen when the sea ebbs 
 more than usual. Soon afterwards, the town 
 of Gades, or tjadir, was erected ; Calpe and 
 Abyla became renowned for the two columns 
 denominated the pillars of Hercules, on which 
 the Phoenicians engraved the inscription, Non 
 plus ultra. 
 
 of the empire of the Caesars was also the most 
 wretched. The Asturians and Cantabrians 
 alone preserved their independence, amid their 
 mountains. Augustus undertook their subjuga- 
 tion ; they defended themselves, and most of 
 them perished sword in hand. The poets of 
 Rome celebrated this cruel victory, but posterity 
 admires only its victims. 
 
 Spain was subject to the Romans till toward 
 the conclusion of the fourth century. The 
 northern nations, after having ravaged the other 
 countries of Europe, penetrated into Spain dur- 
 
 The Greeks, the pupils of the Phoenicians in ing the reign of Honorius : the Suevi made 
 the art of navigation, did not fail to share with themselves masters of Galicia, and part of Por- 
 them the advantages of this discovery. They tugal ; the Alani and Vandals of Bcetica. The 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SPA 
 
 537 
 
 SPA 
 
 Goths, following at the heels of these ferocious 
 conquerors, compelled the Alani and Vandals 
 to retire to Africa; the Suevi made a longer re- 
 sistance, but, being at length conquered by 
 Leovigildus, they ceased to be a distinct people, 
 and all Spain received law from the Goths. 
 
 This invasion of barbarous nations gave a 
 mortal blow to the fine arts in a country cover- 
 ed with their master-pieces : yet what numis- 
 matic riches, how many monuments have es- 
 caped the devastation ! The Goths, tranquil 
 possessors of Spain, and enlightened by the 
 gospel, began to be civilized ; but the climate 
 which softened their character, repose which 
 enervated their courage, prepared an easy vic- 
 tory for new conquerors. 
 
 The cruelty of king Vitiza, who died in 711, 
 and the weakness of Roderic, his successor, 
 accelerated the fatal moment, and Spain fell a 
 prey to enemies till then unknown. The 
 Arabs, an ancient, wandering people, inhabiting 
 the deserts, joining the Moors, so called from 
 their native country, Mauritania, made an irrup- 
 tion into the south of Spain, as the Goths had 
 previously done in the north. 
 
 The fate of Spain was decided in the unfor- 
 tunate battle of Xerxes de la Frontera, where 
 Roderic lost his throne and his life. The con- 
 querors, finding no other obstacles, took posses- 
 sion of all Spain, except those same Pyrenees 
 which had so long preserved their ancient in- 
 habitants from the Roman yoke. These moun- 
 tains, and their caverns, afforded a refuge to 
 such of the Spanish Goths as, collected by Pe- 
 lagius, a prince of the blood-royal of that nation, 
 were able to avoid the yoke of the Mussulmen. 
 This second invasion, which might naturally 
 be supposed to have left the native Spaniards 
 no trace of their laws, their customs, and na- 
 tional qualities, produced a contrary effect: so 
 amply have the blessings bestowed on this hap- 
 py country seemed always to compensate the 
 inhabitants for the severity of fortune. 
 
 The Moors were not long before they felt 
 that influence which had softened the manners 
 of the Goths, and taught them to relish the 
 charms of a tranquil life. No sooner were the 
 new conquerors happy, than they ceased to be 
 barbarous. The principle of civilization was 
 developed among them with extraordinary ra- 
 pidity ; the love of letters ennobled their ideas, 
 and purified their taste, without diminishing 
 their courage. At Seville, at Grenada, at Cor- 
 dova, schools and public libraries were opened ; 
 and while Christian Europe was covered with 
 the clouds of ignorance, the genius of Averroes, 
 
 and a multitude of learned men, enlightened 
 the civilized Mussulmans. Not content with 
 patronizing the sciences, the Moorish kings, 
 themselves, cultivated them. How brilliant 
 were the reigns of the Abdarhamans and the 
 Mahomets ! 
 
 Those princes united the private virtues with 
 military qualities ; they were poets, historians, 
 mathematicians, philosophers, and great cap- 
 tains ; and many of them deserved a still more 
 honorable appellation, that of the best of kings. 
 At this new epoch of the history of Spain, a 
 new taste was introduced into the arts and gave 
 a direction to architecture in particular. The 
 ancient structures of the Goths did not harmo- 
 nize with the customs and the religion of the 
 Moors. 
 
 The latter, indifferent to external decorations, 
 reserved all their ingenuity for the interior of 
 their edifices. There they lavished whatever 
 was calculated to delight the senses and to 
 accord with a sedentary and voluptuous life. 
 Hence the singular magnificence of their pala- 
 ces and their mosques, that richness in their 
 ornaments, that finish in the smallest details, 
 which far surpass Jthe beauty of the whole. The 
 arts were thus developing themselves among 
 the Moors, when a spark concealed in the As- 
 turias, produced a new conflagration, which 
 extended to all Spain, about 718. 
 
 Pelagius having fled to the mountains, not 
 only defended himself there with courage, but 
 under the banners of the cross, ventured to 
 conduct his troops into the countries contiguous 
 to his retreat. This illustrious man, concerning 
 whom we have, unfortunately, but few particu- 
 lars, had collected all the nobles of the Asturias 
 and the rest of Spain. This force, which long 
 proved invincible, was the instrument of the 
 conquests of different chiefs, the ablest of whom 
 made themselves sovereigns. By them were 
 founded the kingdoms of Castile, Leon, Arra- 
 gon, and Navarre, successively conquered from 
 the Moors. 
 
 This war, which continued several centuries, 
 has, alternately, the air of history and of ro- 
 mance. It consists of battles, sieges, assaults, 
 and still more frequently of tournaments, ban- 
 quets, and challenges, given and accepted with 
 equal audacity. In these celebrated lists, tri- 
 umphed the heroes whose exploits are recorded 
 in the Spanish romances, and of these, Rodrigo 
 de Bivar, surnamed the Cid, particularly dis- 
 tinguished himself. Equal in virtue, and supe- 
 rior in power, to Bayard, he was, like him, the 
 object of the veneration not only of his brethren 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SPA 
 
 538 
 
 SPA 
 
 in arms, but also of the enemies of his country. 
 
 Reduced to the single kingdom of Grenada, 
 the Moors there maintained themselves for sev- 
 eral centurie?; but, at length, expelled from 
 their last asylum, they were obliged to with- 
 draw to Africa in 1492. This important event 
 was reserved to crown the felicity of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, and the arms of Gonsalvo de Cor- 
 dova, seconded by other chiefs of equal celeb- 
 rity. Sovereigns of Spain and of the New 
 World, Ferdinand and Isabella, after having 
 attained the pinnacle of prosperity, had the mis- 
 fortune to leave their immense possessions to a 
 foreign dynasty. They formed the dowry of 
 their daughter Joan, wife of Philip the fair, 
 archduke of Austria, and mother of Charles V. 
 
 Fortune, by her extraordinary favors, and 
 Cardinal Ximenes, by a wise administration, 
 hrew a lustre upon the reign of Charles V, at 
 ^ ne and the same time emperor of Germany 
 a ad king of Spain. The talents and genius of 
 this prince, seemed to have destined him for 
 universal monarchy ; and, to his own misfortune 
 and that of the world, he aspired to it. Palled, 
 however, with the pomp and pageantries of 
 grandeur, he chose to end his days in retire- 
 ment, and resigned the crown to his son Philip, 
 in 1556. 
 
 Don Philip concluded a truce with the crown 
 of France, for five years, but was compelled to 
 take up arms at the moment when most of the 
 European states were rejoicing in the prospect 
 of a durable repose. Soon after a most sanguin- 
 ary war ensued, which lasted between two and 
 three years, and depopulated some of the finest 
 provinces of Spain. 
 
 At length, the Christians obtained a decisive 
 victory ; and, upon the death of the Moorish 
 prince, the public tranquillity was restored. In 
 15S8, in consequence of some depredations 
 committed in Europe and America, by the Eng- 
 lish, Philip resolved to take ample revenge on 
 queen Elizabeth, and ordered the whole mari- 
 time force of Spain to be assembled for a de- 
 scent upon her dominions. (See Armada.) 
 
 Philip III ascended the throne in 1597. After 
 the death of Elizabeth, peace was concluded 
 between England and Spain. During this 
 reign, the Moors were, at several times, trans- 
 ported into Africa ; and Spain sustained a loss 
 of about 600,000 useful subjects. Philip IV 
 possessed good natural abilities; and though 
 the greatest part of his reign was clouded by 
 misfortunes or disappointments, he certainly 
 was desirous of increasing the grandeur of the 
 Spanish monarchy. The young king, Charles 
 
 II, was inaugurated in 1666, and displayed pro- 
 mising abilities. Charles II was twice married ; 
 but he had the mortification of seeing himself 
 without offspring. At length, he resolved to 
 make a will in favor of the electoral house of 
 Bavaria; but the young prince whom he had 
 destined for his successor died soon after the 
 arrangement. Upon hearing that the different 
 powers of Europe had actually made a partition 
 of his territories, in order, as they said, to avoid 
 a general war, the king was so incensed, that 
 he left his crown, by a new will, to Philip, duke 
 of Anjou, grandson of his eldest sister and of 
 Louis XIV. He expired in the thirty-ninth 
 year of his age, and the thirty -fifth of his reign ; 
 and in him ended a branch of Austria which 
 had given five sovereigns to the Spanish nation. 
 
 Philip of Anjou was solemnly proclaimed on 
 the 24th of November, 1700. During the ab- 
 sence of the king in Italy with the French 
 troops, a league was formed against the house 
 af Bourbon, the object of which was to wrest 
 the crown of Spain from Philip V, and to place 
 it on the head of Charles, archduke of Austria, 
 who was also descended from a princess of 
 Spain. This competitor arrived in Portugal, 
 which had also joined the league, and assumed 
 the name of Charles III in 1704, and, being 
 supported by the English, he immediately com- 
 menced the campaign. The fate of these two 
 princes, during the course of the war, was as 
 various as singular; they expelled each other 
 alternately from the capital. 
 
 Philip V died after a turbulent reign of forty- 
 three years. Ferdinand VI succeeded him, in 
 1744. He died after a reign of fifteen years. 
 As Ferdinand died without issue, the Spanish 
 crown devolved on his brother Charles III in 
 1759, then king of Naples and the Two Sicilies, 
 who transferred his Italian possessions to his 
 third son, and hastened to Madrid, to receive 
 the homage of his new subjects. Charles seem- 
 ed to devote his whole attention to the internal 
 economy of his dominions ; but his zeal for the 
 family compact soon roused him into action, 
 and induced him to proclaim war against Great 
 Britain and Portugal in 1761. However, this 
 war was unsuccessful, and on the tenth of Feb- 
 ruary, 1763, a treaty of peace was concluded 
 between the courts of Madrid, Lisbon, and Lon- 
 don. When the war between Great Britain 
 and her American colonies had subsisted for 
 some time, and France had taken part with the 
 latter, Spain was also induced to commence 
 hostilities with England. 
 
 Accordingly, they laid siege to Gibraltar, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 SPA 
 
 539 
 
 SPA 
 
 and made some great naval preparations in 
 1782 ; but all their exertions proved vain and 
 ineffectual. (See Gibraltar.) The sad catas- 
 trophe of their armada before Gibraltar, the re- 
 peated frustration of all their designs upon Ja- 
 maica, and the very embarrassed state of their 
 finances, induced the Spaniards to terminate so 
 long, expensive, and sanguinary a war, and to 
 conclude a peace with Great Britain in 1783. 
 
 Charles IV ascended the throne of Spain in 
 1789, and declared war against France in 1793. 
 After making every effort, his catholic majesty 
 concluded a treaty. Spain was afterwards 
 drawn into an alliance with the French republic, 
 and persuaded to commence hostilities against 
 Great Britain. In the summer of 1797, a Spa- 
 nish fleet, of twenty-seven sail of the line, was 
 appointed to form a junction with the French 
 fleet at Brest ; and, after being reinforced by a 
 numerous squadron of Dutch vessels, an at- 
 tempt was to be made on some part of the Bri- 
 tish dominions. However, before the intended 
 junction could be effected, the Spanish fleet 
 was met by admiral Jarvis, near cape St. Vin- 
 cent, and an engagement ensued, in which, 
 notwithstanding the great inequality, the En- 
 glish captured four of the enemy's vessels. 
 In 1801 the Spaniards declared war against 
 Portugal, and entered Alentejo from different 
 points, with an army of nearly 40,000 men. 
 
 However, his catholic majesty embraced the 
 earliest opportunity of terminating this affair. 
 In 1804, the court of Madrid issued a declara- 
 tion of war against England, and made great pre- 
 parations for prosecuting hostilities with vigor 
 and effect. After the junction of the French 
 Brest fleet with that of Spain, at Ferrol, the 
 united armament experienced several signal 
 defeats from the victorious British navy, which 
 terminated with the ever memorable battle of 
 Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805. 
 
 In 1807, a treaty was concluded between the 
 sovereigns of France and Spain, the object of 
 which was a partition of the kingdom of Por- 
 tugal. After obtaining possesion of the capital 
 of Portugal, and securing free access for his 
 troops to every part of the peninsula, the em- 
 peror of France waited for a favorable oppor- 
 tunity of rendering himself master of the whole. 
 
 In 1808, Charles IV formed the design of re- 
 moving the seat of government to Mexico, in 
 America. No sooner had this transpired, than 
 an attack was made on the palace of" Godoy at 
 Aranjuez ; and though the prince of peace ef- 
 fected his escape, the king found it necessary 
 to dismiss him from all his employments. The 
 46 
 
 populace, however, still remaining in a state of 
 insurrection at Aranjuez and Madrid, and the 
 king being deprived of his prime minister, 
 Charles published another decree, in which he 
 announced that he had abdicated the throne in 
 favor of his son, the prince of Asturias. 
 
 The first act of Ferdinand VII was to issue an 
 edict, in which he declared his intention of con- 
 fiscating the property of the prince of peace. 
 Murat, to whom the command of the French 
 forces in Spain had been confided, no sooner 
 heard of the occurrences at Aranjuez, than he 
 hastened the march of his army towards the 
 capital. Anxious to conciliate the favor of Bo- 
 naparte, and allured by the promises of his ge- 
 nerals, Murat and Savary, Ferdinand was in- 
 duced to quit Madrid, and to repair to Bayonne. 
 the place chosen by the emperor of France for 
 the accomplishment of his designs. 
 
 Murat employed every artifice to persuade 
 Charles and his queen to depart for Bayonne ; 
 and, after liberating the prince of peace, the 
 royal party left the Spanish capital, and repair 
 ed to the frontier of France. Although Ferdi- 
 nand was induced, by the threat of death, to 
 sign a resignation of the throne in favor of his 
 father, by. whom all its rights were transferred 
 to the emperor Napoleon, in 1808. 
 
 At Madrid the whole armed populace of the 
 capital of Spain now rose against 10,000 French 
 troops, with Murat at their head. A dreadful 
 carnage took place, and terminated in the de- 
 feat of the insurgents, and the disarming of the 
 whole city. A junta was summoned to meet 
 at Bayonne, where a new constitution for Spain 
 was laid before them for their acceptance ; Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte, the new king, transferred from 
 the throne of Naples to that of Spain, appeared 
 in royal state. 
 
 Thus was effected one of the most singular 
 and unprincipled revolutions in a powerful 
 kingdom, of which history affords a record. No 
 sooner, however, was the French usurpation 
 known, than an explosion of indignant patriot- 
 ism burst forth from one extremity of Spain to 
 the other. Provincial juntas were established, 
 which gave a regular organization to the popu- 
 lar efforts ; and the junta at Seville was the first 
 to proclaim Ferdinand VII and war against 
 France. The friendship and assistance of Great 
 Britain were solicited, and immediately granted. 
 A most desperate warfare now commenced. 
 
 The success of the Spaniards was various, 
 but the French, with king Joseph at their head, 
 in a short time found themselves obliged to 
 evacuate Madrid. A supreme junta was form- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SPA 
 
 540 
 
 SPA 
 
 ed from the juntas of the different provinces ; 
 and the solemn installation of this body took 
 place at the palace of Aranjuez. The first act 
 of the supreme junta was to appoint a new 
 council of war, consisting of five members ; and 
 the national force was divided into three great 
 bodies, for the purpose of acting in the east, in 
 the west, and in the centre of the kingdom. 
 
 Napoleon now determined in person to change 
 the fortune of the war ; and having put his 
 veteran troops in motion for Spain, he proceed- 
 ed to Bayonne, and thence to the head-quarters 
 of the French army at Vittoria. 
 
 The military force of Spain was wholly una- 
 ble to meet, upon equal terms, French armies 
 commanded by the most consummate generals ; 
 and the campaign which followed the arrival of 
 Napoleon, was a series of victories to the one, 
 and of defeats to the other. The French ap- 
 peared intent on subjugating the whole coun- 
 try ;. but Napoleon was obliged to leave Spain, 
 in consequence of a breach between France and 
 Austria. His generals, however, conducted the 
 war in Spain with so much ability, that the cause 
 of Spanish independence was rendered almost 
 desperate ; and in 1810, king Joseph issued a 
 manifesto, in which he affected to consider the 
 contest as decided. 
 
 The cortes of Spain assembled at Cadiz. 
 This body of national representatives was elect- 
 ed by the provinces, cities, and provincial jun- 
 tas ; and they were termed the General or Ex- 
 traordinary Cortes, and to them was intrusted 
 the sovereign power. They swore fealty to 
 king Ferdinand VII, and declared the renuncia- 
 tions at Bayonne null and void. They took the 
 title of majesty till the arrival of Ferdinand, 
 and assumed the legislative power of the state. 
 
 The war was still prosecuted by the Span- 
 iards, but not with sufficient vigor ; and the 
 French actively employed their superiority of 
 force in extending their conquests through a 
 considerable part of Spain. In the course of 
 two months, the Spaniards lost the fortresses 
 of Tortosa, Olivenca, and Badajos, without any 
 sufficient reason. The reduction of these places 
 was followed by that of Tarragona, in which 
 every outrage and cruelty suffered in a town 
 taken by storm, was inflicted upon the in- 
 habitants ; and, by this conquest, the French 
 became possessed of the whole coast of Cata- 
 lonia. 
 
 However, Lord Wellington, with the British 
 and Portuguese forces, recovered possession of 
 Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos, in 1812; and he 
 soon after gave marshal Marmont a signal 
 
 defeat at Salamanca. The effects of this great 
 victory were felt in different parts of Spain : 
 king Joseph, with the central French army, 
 found himself obliged again to leave Madrid; 
 and the French deserted the long continued 
 blockade of Cadiz. The Spanish cortes pre- 
 sented the august spectacle of a public signa- 
 ture of the articles of that constitution which 
 had so long been the object of their labors. 
 
 Deputies from all parts of the monarchy were 
 present in this solemnity. A commission was 
 appointed to carry the constitution to the regen- 
 cy. The deputies swore to obey the constitu- 
 tion ; the regency took the oath of office ; and 
 the constitution was solemnly proclaimed. 
 
 The next important event was the battle of 
 Vittoria, in 1813. The French retired by Pam- 
 peluna ; and being driven from all their strong 
 posts, they at length crossed the Bidassoa, and 
 re-entered France. The allied forces took the 
 strong castle of St. Sebastian, in the operations 
 against which the British navy gave effectual 
 assistance. The progress of the allies in France 
 afterwards, produced the capitulation of most 
 of the French garrisons remaining in Spain ; 
 and at length the state of affairs would no longer 
 permit the detention of Ferdinand. 
 
 The king proceeded to Valencia in 1814, 
 where he was joined by most of the grandees, 
 and many prelates. At this place, Ferdinand 
 issued a royal proclamation, in which he declar- 
 ed his intention not only not to swear or accede 
 to the constitution, or to any decree of the cortes 
 derogating from his prerogatives as sovereign, 
 but to pronounce that constitution and those 
 decrees null and of no effect. The decree for 
 dissolving that body was received with enthu- 
 siasm by the people of Madrid. A great num- 
 ber of persons were arrested, whose names 
 comprised almost all those who had rendered 
 themselves conspicuous during the reign of the 
 cortes in favor of public liberty. Ferdinand 
 was received in Madrid with every demonstra- 
 tion of loyalty. 
 
 The court of inquisition was re-established, 
 though, it is said, in a milder and more equita- 
 ble form ; arrests and prosecutions were multi- 
 plied ; and Spain was effectually thrown back 
 to that degraded state among nations from 
 which she seemed about to emerge. During the 
 captivity of Ferdinand in France, the inhabi- 
 tants of Mexico and South America were divid- 
 ed into two parties ; the loyalists, who submit- 
 ed to the regency, and the independents, who 
 aimed to govern themselves. Ferdinand had 
 no sooner been reseated on his throne than he 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SPI 
 
 541 
 
 STA 
 
 played his hatred of liberal principles, and 
 declared the proceedings of the cortes, uncon- 
 stitutional. The struggles of the Spaniards for 
 freedom were long quieted. But since the 
 death of Ferdinand in 1833, the queen regent 
 has thrown herself into the army of the con- 
 stitutionalists. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF KINGS FROM FERDINAND THE 
 GREAT. 
 
 i eidinand the Great, under whom Castile and Leon were united, 
 from 10'27 to 1035; Sancho the Strong 1065: Alphonso the Valiant 
 1072: Alphonso VII. 1109; Alphonso Vlll. 1132; Sancho III. 1157 ; 
 Ferdinand IT. 1158 ; Alphonso IX. 1158 ; Henry I. 1214 ; Ferdinand 
 
 III. 1216 ; Alphonso X. 1252 ; Sancho IV. 1284 ; Ferdinand IV. 1294; 
 Alphonso XI. 1312 : 1 eter the Cruel 1350: Henry II. 1368: John 1. 
 the Bastard 1379: Henry 111. 1390: John II. 1406: Henry IV. 
 1454 : Ferdinand and Isabella, the first styled Catholic 1474: Philip 
 I. 15U4 : Charles I. 1516: Philip II. 1555: Philip III. 1591 : Philip 
 
 IV. 1621: Charles II. 1665: Philip V. resigned 1700: Lewis 1724 : 
 Philip V. re-assumed, died 1725: Ferdinand VI. 1745 : Charles III. 
 1759 : Charles IV. 1788 : who resigned the crown to his sou Ferdi- 
 nand VII. 1808 : Maria Isabella 1833. 
 
 SPARTA or LACEDvEMON was one of 
 the seven original principalities or kingdoms of 
 Greece. Laconia, the country of which Sparta 
 was the capital, was bounded N. by Arcadia, E. 
 by the Argolic Gulf, S. by the Ionian Sea, and 
 W. by Messenia. The city of Sparta was found- 
 ed by Lelex, an Egyptian, B. C. 1520. The 
 Heraclidse, when possessed of Greece, founded 
 four kingdoms,of which Sparta (or Lacedaemon, 
 as it was called from its fourth king) and Co- 
 rinth were the most distinguished. For 900 
 years the Heraclidae furnished kings to Sparta. 
 Lycurgus gave the Spartans their celebrated 
 laws (See Lycurgus.) The helots were enslaved 
 Messenians whose country fell into the hands 
 of the Spartans. The bravery of the Spartans 
 was displayed against the Persians, and, unfor- 
 tunately, against their own countrymen, in their 
 civil wars. They were, however, unable to 
 contend successfully against the Thebans under 
 Epaminondas, and were defeated by him in the 
 battles of Leuctra and Mantinea, the last of 
 which was fatal to the victor. Like the rest of 
 their countrymen, they fell beneath the power 
 of Macedon. They were distinguished by 
 fierceness, fortitude, austerity, and contempt 
 of luxury. 
 
 SPINOLA, Ambrose, a famous general, was 
 born in Spain, of a noble Genoese family, in 
 1509. He commanded an army in Flanders, 
 and in 1004 took Ostend ; for which he was 
 made general of all the Spanish troops in the 
 Low Countries, where he was opposed by 
 Maurice of Nassau. In the war occasioned by 
 the disputed succession to the duchy of Cleves 
 and Juliers, Spinola took Aix-la-Chapelle, We- 
 sel, and Breda. He died in 1630. 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Anne Louisa Ger- 
 maine Necker, baroness de, the most distin- 
 guished female of her age, was the daughter of 
 Necker, the minister of finance, and was born in 
 Paris, in 1706. Her earliest productions were 
 Sophia, a comedy, written in 1780, and the 
 tragedies of Lady Jane Grey and Montmorency. 
 In 1780 she married the Baron de Stael-Holstein, 
 the Swedish ambassador. During the reign of 
 terror, she left Paris, but on the recognition of 
 the French republic by Sweden, her husband 
 returned to France in his official capacity, bring- 
 ing his wife with him. He died in 1798. At 
 Paris, Madam de Stael first beheld Napoleon 
 on hisreturn after the treaty of Campo-Formio. 
 But her early feelings of admiration for him 
 were soon changed into those of aversion and 
 hatred. She was banished from France by 
 Bonaparte. In her exile she published various 
 works, among them two novels, Delphine and 
 Corinne ou Italic, the last the fruits of her tour 
 in Italy. She visited Germany and Russia, 
 and produced a work upon the former. At 
 Geneva she married a young French officer by 
 the name of de Rocca, but did not acknowledge 
 the union until her death. In 1 814 she returned 
 to Paris, but Napoleon's return from Elba drove 
 her to Coppet. She died July 14, 1817. 
 
 STANHOPE, Charles, the third Earl, was 
 born August 3, 1753. In 1774 he stood candi- 
 date for Westminster, but without success. By 
 the interest of the earl of Shelburne, however, he 
 was brought into parliament for the borough of 
 Wycombe, which he represented, till the death 
 of his father, in 1786, called him to the Upper 
 House. He distinguished himself at an early 
 period of the French Revolution, by an open 
 avowal of republican sentiments, and went so 
 far as to lay aside the external ornaments of the 
 peerage. He was also a frequent speaker, and 
 on some occasions was left single in a minority. 
 He died December 10, 1810. 
 
 STARK, John, a brigadier-general in the 
 revolutionary war, was born at Londonderry, 
 New Hampshire, Aug. 17, 1728. In the French 
 war of 1755 he served with distinction, and 
 at the battle of Breed's hill, fought at the head 
 of the New Hampshire troops. At Trenton and 
 Princeton his voice was heard, but at Benning- 
 ton he covered himself with glory. Previous to 
 the battle, he addressed his troops in a style 
 calculated to win their attention. " We must 
 beat them, my boys," concluded he, " or this 
 night Molly Stark is a widow !" He died May 8, 
 1822. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 STE 
 
 542 
 
 STO 
 
 STATEN ISLAND, situated S. of the 
 city of New York, is 14 miles long, and con- 
 tained, in 1830, 7,084 inhabitants. It constitutes 
 the county of Richmond, N. Y. 
 
 STEPHEN, king of England, usurped the 
 throne on tne death of Henry I in the year 
 1135. In order to secure himself, he passed a 
 charter, granting several privileges to the diffe- 
 rent orders of the state. To the nobility, a 
 permission to hunt in their own forests ; to the 
 clergy, a speedy filling of all vacant benefices ; 
 and to the people, restoration of the laws of 
 Edward the Confessor. Matilda, however, as- 
 serting her claim to the crown, landed upon the 
 coast of Sussex, assisted by Robert, earl of 
 Gloucester. The whole of Matilda's retinue, 
 amounted to no more than one hundred and 
 forty knights, who immediately took possession 
 of Arundel castle ; but her forces every day 
 seemed to gain ground. Meantime Stephen 
 flew to besiege Arundel, where she had taken 
 refuge, and where she was protected by the 
 queen dowager, who secretly favored her pre- 
 tensions. This fortress was too feeble to pro- 
 mise a long defence, and would have been soon 
 taken, had it not been represented to the king, 
 that as it was a castle belonging to the queen 
 dowager, it would be an infringement on the 
 respect due to her to attempt taking it by force. 
 Stephen, therefore, permitted Matilda to come 
 forth in safety, and had her conveyed with se- 
 curity to Bristol, another fortress equally strong 
 with that from whence he permitted her to 
 retire. Matilda's forces increased every day ; 
 and a victory gained by the queen, threw Ste- 
 phen from the throne and exalted Matilda in 
 his room. Matilda, however, affected to treat 
 the nobility with a degree of disdain, to which 
 they had long been unaccustomed ; so that the 
 fickle nation once more began to pity their de- 
 posed king. The bishop of Winchester foment- 
 ed these discontents ; and when he found the 
 people ripe for a tumult, detached a party of 
 his friends and vassals to block up the city of 
 London, where the queen then resided, and 
 measures were taken to instigate the Londoners 
 to a revolt, and to seize her person. Matilda 
 having timely notice of this conspiracy, fled to 
 Winchester, whither the bishop followed her. 
 His part)' was soon sufficient to bid the queen 
 open defiance ; and to besiege her in the very 
 place where she first received his benediction. 
 There she continued for some time, but the 
 town being pressed by famine, she was obliged 
 to escape, while her brother, the earl of Glou- 
 cester, endeavoring to follow, was taken prison- 
 
 er, and exchanged for Stephen, who still con- 
 tinued a captive. Thus a sudden revolution 
 once more took place ; Matilda was deposed, 
 while Stephen was again recognised as king. 
 His reign, however, was soon terminated by 
 his death, which happened about a year after 
 the treaty at Canterbury, when Henry, Matil- 
 da's son, succeeded. 
 
 STEUBEN, Frederic William Augustus, 
 baron von ; a Prussian officer who entered the 
 American service during our revolution, and in 
 1778 was appointed by Congress inspector-gen- 
 eral of the forces, with the rank of major-gene- 
 ral. He was in the trenches at Yorktown where 
 he received the first offer of Cornwallis to cap- 
 itulate. Baron von Steuben was generous and 
 hospitable, and introduced the strictest disci- 
 pline into our army. He settled in Oneida 
 county, New York, where he had received a 
 grant of land, and, by the exertions of Wash- 
 ington and Hamilton obtained an annuity of 
 $2500 from the general government. He died 
 in 1705 of apoplexy. 
 
 STEVENS, Edward, a native of Virginia, 
 commanded a battalion of riflemen, in the battle 
 of great bridge, near Norfolk, and behaved with 
 gallantry at Brandy wine, Germantown, Camden, 
 Guilford Court-house, and Yorktown. After 
 the war he was elected a senator of Virginia. 
 He died in 1820. 
 
 STEWART, Gilbert, a celebrated American 
 portrait-painter, born at Newport, R. I., in 1757, 
 died in Boston, July, 1828. He studied in Lon- 
 don where he pursued his profession with great 
 success. 
 
 STOCKHOLM, a handsome city, the capital 
 of Sweden, situated at the junction of lake Ma- 
 lar with an inlet of the Baltic, containing 79,526 
 inhabitants. It is built chiefly on three islands, 
 and has numerous fine buildings. Stockholm 
 was the scene of a dreadful crime perpetrated 
 by Christian II. He determined to destroy at 
 once all the Swedish nobility, in order to re- 
 venge the troubles they had occasioned, and to 
 prevent the people from revolting in future, by 
 depriving them of proper persons to conduct 
 their operations. He cut off the chief men of 
 the nation with the axe of the executioner. The 
 entire senate were conducted to death before the 
 eyes of the citizens of Stockholm, who beheld 
 the bloody scene with apathy and unconcern. 
 The peasantry viewed this massacre in no other 
 light than as a just retribution for the oppres- 
 sive conduct of the nobles, who had converted 
 the monarchy into a kind of aristocracy. The 
 cruelty of Christian is almost inconceivable ; he 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 STO 
 
 543 
 
 STO 
 
 indiscriminately pillaged all ranks of people, 
 erected every where scaffolds and gibbets, and 
 brandished the scythe of death over every head. 
 He did not consider it as a sufficient gratifica- 
 tion to deprive his victims of life ; he took a 
 pleasure in prolonging the duration of their suf- 
 ferings by the sight of the preparations which 
 preceded the execution, and he wished to give 
 them as it were a full relish of all the bitterness 
 of death. Among other instances of cruelty 
 and barbarity, he obliged women to sew with 
 their own hands the sacks in which they were 
 to be tied up and drowned. 
 
 STOCKTON, Richard, a signer of the Amer- 
 ican Declaration of Independence, was born 
 near Princeton, Oct. 1, 1730. Having gradua- 
 ted at New Jersey college, he made the tour of 
 Great Britain, and returned to New Jersey in 
 1768. June 21, 1776, he was chosen by the 
 provincial congress a delegate to the general 
 congress assembled at Philadelphia. On Nov. 
 30 of the same year, he was seized in the night by 
 the British and conveyed to New York, where 
 he was treated with such severity that his con- 
 stitution was broken, and after languishing a 
 long time, he died at Princeton, Feb. 28, 1781, 
 in the 51st year of his age. 
 
 STONE, Thomas, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, studied law at Frederick- 
 town, Maryland, and took his seat in the gene- 
 ral congress in May, 1775. He died on the 5th 
 of October, 1787. 
 
 STONY POINT. The following account of 
 this interesting place is from the pen of the Rev. 
 J. N. Maffitt. 
 
 " The scenery of the Hudson river bears na- 
 ture's grandest imprint. The hand that framed 
 an universe of worlds has thrown together along 
 the banks of this noble stream a wild assem- 
 blage of rocks and mountains. The Palisades, 
 as they are called, commence on the western 
 side of the Hudson, just above Weehawk or 
 Weehawken, and extend about twelve miles up 
 the river. They are bold, abrupt demonstra- 
 tions of omnipotence, moulded by Him whose 
 power is not bounded by time or circumstance. 
 The cannon of a thousand armies might roar 
 out their ineffectual vengeance against this na- 
 tural battery, which frowns over the broad bright 
 stream at an elevation of from sixty to one hun- 
 dred and fifty feet ; and the parapet would laugh 
 in scorn at the power of battle. 
 
 After the Palisades terminate, a country of 
 
 hills and vales succeeds ; the former rounded up 
 
 like loaves of sugar, and the latter indented like 
 
 dimples on the cheek of beauty. Occasionally. 
 
 46* 
 
 however, nature has projected into the stream 
 one of her bold fronts — a miniature formation 
 of those " hills of fear," which cast their sombre 
 shadows across the pass of the Highlands. One 
 of these projections is Stony Point. It stands out 
 in bold relief from the rural scenery just below, 
 and challenges the attention of the passenger 
 who has been relieved from the sublimity of 
 the basaltic rocks of the Palisades only to pre- 
 pare him for a wilder development of nature's 
 craniology. But the impressions which crowd 
 into the spectator's mind in this region are not 
 all derived from river, mountain, or valley, — 
 tradition and history lend a melancholy glory to 
 this revolutionary ground. On the right or 
 eastern bank stretches away the celebrated 
 " neutral ground " throughout the entire extent 
 of West Chester county, where regulars, cow- 
 boys, Virginia horse, and continentals, Whigs 
 and Tories, appeared and disappeared like the 
 actors of a wild and bloody tragedy. On the 
 left, Stony Point is allied to associations of mili- 
 tary achievements of unfading renown — while 
 farther up, the memory of Arnold's treason, 
 Andre's capture, and untimely although merited 
 fate, twines around the memorable rocks of West 
 Point. 
 
 Stony Point is about forty miles above New 
 York and ten or fourteen below West Point. 
 It is a rounded, gravelly hill, of small extent, 
 jutting into the stream, and connected with the 
 main land by a low morass which is partially 
 overflowed with the tide waters. It was forti- 
 fied in the revolutionary war, and, occupied by 
 a small force, might have been considered as a 
 remote outpost to the strong fortress of West 
 Point. It was captured by the British in the 
 year 1779, and strongly repaired and garrisoned 
 by more than six hundred soldiers commanded 
 by the brave Lieut. Col. Johnson. 
 
 A few days before the sixteenth of July, in 
 the same year, a tall, commanding personage, 
 mounted on a strong charger, was seen on the 
 eminences above Stony Point. — He had a glass 
 in his hand, aud appeared to study the charac- 
 ter of the defences with an intensity of interest. 
 Johnson, who was returning the gaze of the 
 horseman with his spy-glass, turned to one of 
 his staff and remarked that the apparition on the 
 hill portended no good. Rumors were afloat 
 about the intrenchments that the same tall fig- 
 ure had been seen across the river on the high- 
 est opposite eminence the day before, like a 
 horseman painted against the sky. A cow-boy 
 said that this figure was the apparition of Wash- 
 ington, and that it never was seen excepting 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 STO 
 
 544 
 
 SUE 
 
 just before a battle or a thunder storm. But 
 while these idle rumors floated around the at- 
 mosphere of the camp, the real Washington, 
 from observations made with his own eyes, was 
 concerting a soldier-like plan for its surprise. 
 
 On the night oi the sixteenth of July, by the 
 twinkling light of the stars that broke over and 
 through the clouds, two columns of soldiers 
 might have been seen under the brow of the 
 eminence in the rear of the fort. They were 
 stern men — the silent, thoughtful men of New- 
 England. The eagle-eyed Wayne was at their 
 head, and his heart was like that of the lion. 
 The regiments of Febigez and Meigs, with the 
 youthful Major Hull's detachment formed the 
 right column ;, Butler's regiment, with two 
 companies under Major Murphy, formed the 
 left. The van of the right was formed of one 
 hundred and fifty volunteers at whose head 
 stood the brave Fleury ; one hundred volun- 
 teers under Hewart composed the van of the 
 left. And still further advanced, the noblest 
 post of all, stood two " forlorn hopes " of twen- 
 ty men each — one commanded by Lieut. Gib- 
 bins, and the other by Lieut. Knox. Wayne 
 stepped from man to man through the van- 
 guards, saw them take their flints from their 
 pieces and fix the death-bayonet. At twenty 
 minutes past eleven, the two columns moved to 
 the bloody work before them, one going to the 
 left and the other to the right to make their at- 
 tack on opposite sides. 
 
 The inhabitants on the eastern side of the riv- 
 er first heard a sharp crashing as the forlorn 
 hope on either side broke in the double row of 
 abattis ; the muskets of the sentinels flashed 
 suddenly amidst the darkness, and in a moment 
 the fortress vomited out flame and thunder as if 
 a volcano had been ignited, and was tossing its 
 lava upwards. The cry of battle not to be mis- 
 taken, shrill, wild and fearful, broke upon the 
 dull ear of night. But all was in vain for the 
 fortress. Under the showers of grape, and full 
 in the red eye of battle, the two gloomy, still, 
 unwavering columns moved on, and the two 
 vanguards met in the centre of the work. The 
 British made an instant surrender to avoid the 
 extermination which awaited the deploy of the 
 columns upon the intrenchments. Sixty-three 
 British soldiers lay dead at their guns ; five 
 hundred and forty -three were made prisoners, 
 and the spoils were two standards, two flags, 
 fifteen pieces of ordnance, and other materials 
 of war. Of the sons of New England, ninety- 
 eight were killed or wounded. Of Lieut. Gib- 
 bin's forlorn hope seventeen were no more. Of 
 
 Lieut. Knox's about the same number were 
 slain. 
 
 These spots, where the life-blood of the free 
 has been poured out like water, and where the 
 traces of the revolutionary ditch and mound still 
 remain, are altars sacred to the high recollec- 
 tions of freedom. Green be the turf over these 
 departed patriots. The bold bluff of Stony 
 Point is classic ground. Hither in future time 
 shall the poet and the sentimentalist come to 
 pay their tribute of affection and honor, where 
 
 ' our fathers knelt 
 
 In prayer and battle for a world.' " 
 
 STRAFFORD, Earl of, Thomas Wentworth, 
 eldest son of sir William Wentworth, of York- 
 shire, was born in Chancery-lane, London, 
 April 13, 1593. In 1614, he succeeded to the 
 baronetcy, and the following year was nomina- 
 ted keeper of the archives for the West Riding, 
 in the room of sir John Saville. He was made 
 president of the council of York, and next lord 
 deputy of Ireland. In 1639 he was created earl 
 of Strafford, made knight of the garter, and ap- 
 pointed lord-lieutenant. All this increased the 
 number and malignity of his enemies in the 
 house of commons ; who, when the earl return- 
 ed to take his seat in the house of lords, carried 
 up an impeachment against him, and he was 
 sent to the Tower. But though the prosecu- 
 tors took four months to prepare their case, and 
 pursued it with virulence, no evidence could be 
 found to support the charges. Determined, 
 however, not to let their victim escape, Pym 
 and his associates brought in a bill of attainder, 
 which, by exciting the mob to acts of outrage, 
 they forced the peers to pass. The king like- 
 wise yielded to his fears, against his conscience, 
 and gave the royal assent to this illegal measure. 
 He suffered on*Tower-hill, May 12, 1641. 
 
 STRONG, Caleb, L. L. D. a governor of 
 Massachusetts, was born in Northampton, 
 Mass., in 1744 ; and was educated at Harvard 
 college. In 1775 he was a member of the com- 
 mittee of safety, and afterwards served in the 
 legislature. In 18U0 he was elected governor 
 of his native state, and held the office for seven 
 successive years. In 1812 he was reelected, 
 and held the office till 1816. He died in 1820. 
 He was upright, patriotic, and learned. 
 
 SUE YT. In the time of Caesar, the Suevi 
 were numbered among the most warlike na- 
 tions of Germany, and agreed in customs and 
 manners with the other inhabitants of that ex- 
 tensive country . Their situation is said to have 
 been between the Elbe and the Vistula. Tibe- 
 rius transported some thousands of them into 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SUL 
 
 545 
 
 suw 
 
 Gaul, and assigned lands to others beyond the 
 Danube. They formed a kingdom in the vi- 
 cinity of the towns of Merida, Seville, and Car- 
 thagena, which, in the year 585, was reduced to 
 a province of the Gothic monarchy, by Leovi- 
 gild, king of the Visigoths, after it had subsist- 
 ed one hundred and seventy-four years. 
 
 SULLIVAN, John, for a few years before the 
 revolution, practised law in New Hampshire, 
 and resigned his seat in the Congress of 1774, 
 to enter the army, in which he was appointed 
 brigadier-general in 1775. In the battle of 
 Long-Island he was taken prisoner but soon 
 exchanged, and entrusted with the command 
 of the right division in the battle of Trenton. 
 He also commanded the right wing at the bat- 
 tles of Brandywine and Germantown. The 
 differences between Count d' Estaing and Sul- 
 / livan caused the failure of the siege of Newport 
 M in August, 1777. In 1779 he defeated the Six 
 Nations of Indians in New York. His exten- 
 sive calls for military stores, and strictures on 
 the conduct of Congress with regard to him, 
 were followed by his resignation of his com- 
 mand on the 9th of November. After the close 
 of the war, in 1786, he was elected president of 
 New Hampshire and held the office for three 
 years. In Oct. 1789, he was appointed judge 
 of New Hampshire, and died, Jan. 23, 1795. 
 
 SULLIVAN, James, brother of the prece- 
 ding, was born at Berwick, Maine, April 22, 
 1744, and studied law under his brother. He 
 was for several years governor of Massachu- 
 setts, and held some high judicial offices. He 
 died Dec. 10, 1808, in the (35th year of his age. 
 
 SULLY, Maximilian de Bethune, baron de 
 Rosni, and duke of, was born at the castle of 
 Rosni in 1559. At the age of eleven, the ba- 
 ron, his father, presented him to the queen of 
 Navarre, who gave him an appointment about 
 the person of her son Henry, with whom Sully 
 was educated. Soon after this the queen, on 
 the invitation of Charles IX went to Paris, and 
 died there, not without suspicion of poison ; 
 which opinion received confirmation when the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew occurred soon af- 
 terwards. In that carnage, Sully escaped by 
 passing through the crowd as a student, to the 
 college of Burgundy, where the principal lock- 
 ed him up in a closet for three days. In 1576, 
 the king of Navarre eluded the vigilance of his 
 guards, and arrived at Tours, accompanied by 
 Sully, who, in the war that ensued, carried his 
 valor almost to excess, which made Henry say 
 to him one day, " I admire your courage, but 
 wish you to reserve it for better occasions." In 
 
 all the battles and sieges that followed, he bore 
 a prominent part. Henry IV made him gov- 
 ernor of Poitou, grand master of the ports and 
 harbors of France, and erected, in his favor, the 
 lands of Sully upon the Loire, into a duchy. 
 On the murder of that great monarch, in 1610, 
 the duke retired from court, and employed him- 
 self in writing his memoirs. He died at his cas- 
 tle at Villabon, Dec. 22, 1641. 
 
 SUMATRA, an island in the eastern seas, 
 the largest of the Sunda Isles, is divided ob- 
 liquely by the equator, and contains about 160,000 
 square miles ; it is fertile, but the interior is 
 little known. 
 
 SUMTER, Thomas, a distinguished partisan 
 officer, during the American revolutionary war, 
 whose operations were principally confined to 
 South Carolina, where he died in his ninety- 
 eighth year, June 1, 1832. In the halls of con- 
 gress he served his country, as well as in the 
 field. " Sumter," says Lee, " was younger than 
 Marion, who was about forty-eight years of age, 
 larger in frame, better fitted, in strength of 
 body, for the toils of war, and, like his compeer, 
 devoted to the freedom of his country. His as- 
 pect was manly and stern, denoting insupera- 
 ble firmness and lofty courage. Determined to 
 deserve success, he risked his own life and the 
 lives of his associates without reserve." 
 
 SUWAROFF - RIMNITZKOLY, Peter 
 Alexis Wasiliowitsch, Count of, prince Italin- 
 ski, field-marshal and generalissimo of the Rus- 
 sian armies, better known by the name of Su- 
 warrow, was born of a Swedish family, about 
 1730. He made his first campaign in the seven 
 years' war, and distinguished himself so much, 
 that in 1762 he was appointed colonel of infan- 
 try. In 1768 he was made brigadier ; soon af- 
 ter which he was raised to the rank of major- 
 general, and for his services in Poland, received 
 the orders of St. Anne, St. George, and Alex- 
 ander. In 1773 he had a command against, the 
 Turks, whom he defeated at Turtukey ; on 
 which occasion he wrote to marshal Roman- 
 zow, as follows : — " Honor and glory to God ! 
 Glory to you, Romanzow ! We are in posses- 
 sion of Turtukey, and I am in it." On the re- 
 newal of the war in 1787, Suwarrow defended 
 Kinburn, and was wounded at the siege of Oc- 
 zakow. September 22, 1789, he gained, in con- 
 junction with the Austrian general, Saxe Co- 
 burg, the victory of Rymnik, though the Turks 
 mustered four to one against the allies. This 
 achievement was followed by the taking of Ben- 
 der and Belgrade, for his share in which, Su- 
 warrow was created, by the emperor Joseph, a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SWE 
 
 546 
 
 SWI 
 
 count of the Roman empire, and by his own 
 sovereign, a count of the empire of Russia, with 
 the title of Rymnikski. In 1790, he took Ismai- 
 low, where, though the plunder was immense, 
 Suwarrow would" not take a single article for 
 himself. On this conquest he wrote to prince 
 Potemkin the following letter : " The Russian 
 colors wave on the ramparts of Ismailow." Af- 
 ter this, Suwarrow had a principal concern in 
 the operations which produced the partition of 
 Poland, for which he was made a field-marshal, 
 and presented with an estate. When the em- 
 peror Paul embarked in the confederacy against 
 France, Suwarrow was appointed commander 
 of the combined army in Italy, where he gained 
 many advantages, particularly the battle of No- 
 vi. After this he crossed the Alps, and march- 
 ed into Switzerland, but being disappointed of 
 reinforcements, he was obliged to retreat towards 
 the lake of Constance. He was then recalled, 
 and died of chagrin, May IS, 1300. 
 
 SWEDEN, united with Norway, and some- 
 times styled Scandinavia, comprises 291,224 
 square miles. Sweden itself contains 168,303 
 square miles, and 3,000,000 inhabitants. Some 
 of the largest lakes are Wenner, and Wetter. 
 The winters are long and cold ; the summers 
 short and hot. The wealth of Sweden is prin- 
 cipally derived from its mines of iron and cop- 
 per; the principal exports being iron, copper, 
 alum, timber, and tar. The Swedes are viva- 
 cious and intelligent, honest, temperate, and 
 hospitable. The Goths, the ancient inhabitants 
 of this country, joined by the Normans, Danes, 
 Saxons, Vandals, &c. subdued the Roman em- 
 pire, and all the southern nations of Europe. 
 The introduction of Christianity, however, by 
 Ansgarius, bishop of Bremen, in 829, seems to 
 present the first certain period of the Swedish 
 history. The history of Sweden, and indeed 
 of all the northern nations, even during the first 
 ages of Christianity, is confused and uninter- 
 esting, and often doubtful, but sufficiently re- 
 plete with murders, massacres, and ravages. 
 That of Sweden is void of consistency, till about 
 the middle of the fourteenth century, when it 
 assumes an appearance more regular and con- 
 sistent. The Swedes perished in the dissen- 
 sions between their prelates and lay-barons, or 
 between those and their sovereigns ; they were 
 drained of the little riches they possessed, to 
 support the indolent pomp of a few magnificent 
 bishops ; ai*J, what was still more fatal, the un- 
 lucky situation of their internal affairs exposed 
 them to the inroads and oppression of a foreign 
 enemy. These were the Danes, who, by their 
 
 neighborhood and power, were always able to 
 avail themselves of the dissensions in Sweden. 
 In this deplorable situation, Sweden remained 
 for more than two centuries ; sometimes under 
 the nominal subjection of its own princes, some- 
 times united to the kingdom of Denmark. 
 Denmark negotiated a treaty of peace with 
 Sweden and Great Britain, in 1814. By this 
 treaty Norway was surrendered to Sweden, in 
 return for which Denmark received Swedish 
 Pomerania, and the isle of Rugen. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF KINGS FROM SlGISMUND I. 
 
 Sigismund I. a. d. 1592 
 
 Charles IX. —1606 
 
 Gustavus II (Adolphus). — 1011 
 
 Christina, (aged 6) — 1633 
 
 Charles X. — 1G54 
 
 Charles XI. — 1660 
 
 Charles XII. (aged 15) . — 1699 
 
 Ulrica, sister to Charles, (aged 15) — 1718 
 Adolphus of Holstein — 1751 
 
 Gustavus III. — 1771 
 
 Gustavus IV. — 1792 
 
 Charles XIII. — 1809 
 
 Charles XIV (Marshal Bernadotte,) — 1818 
 
 SWIFT, Jonathan, an eminent English au- 
 thor, was born at Cashel, in the county of Tip- 
 perary, November 30, 1667. He studied at 
 Trinity college, Dublin, but neglecting the 
 academical course, was refused the degree of 
 Arts at the usual time, and only obtained it 
 some years after as an especial favor. Having 
 studied theology, he took orders, and in 1713 
 was appointed to the deanery of St. Patrick's. 
 In 1716 he privately married Miss Johnson, the 
 Stella of his poems, whom he treated with great 
 coldness, refusing to acknowledge the union 
 publicly. When he found her dying, he offered 
 to acknowledge her as his wife : but she repli- 
 ed, " It is too late." While this lady was liv- 
 ing, he engaged the attentions of his pupil, Miss 
 Vanhomrigh, who died in 1723, on learning his 
 marriage with Miss Johnson. In 1742 the mind 
 of Swift was completely decayed, and he died in 
 1745, in his 78th year. Besides his political 
 writings, his most popular works are Tale of a 
 Tub, Battle of the Books, Gulliver's Travels, 
 &c. 
 
 Without much conscience, or much consist- 
 ency, Swift possessed a ready wit — a sarcastic 
 humor — a thorough knowledge of the baser 
 parts of human nature — and a complete famili- 
 arity with every thing that is low, homely, and 
 familiar in language. These were his gifts ;— 
 and he soon felt for what end they were given. 
 Almost all his works are libels; generally upon 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SWI 
 
 547 
 
 SWI 
 
 individuals, sometimes upon sects and parties, 
 sometimes upon human nature. Whatever be 
 his end, however, personal abuse, direct, vehe- 
 ment, unsparing invective, is his means. It is 
 his sword and his shield, his panoply, and his 
 chariot of war. In all his writings, according- 
 ly, there is nothing to raise or exalt our notions 
 of human nature, — but there is every thing to 
 vilify and degrade them. We may learn from 
 them, perhaps, to dread the consequence of base 
 actions, but never to love the feelings that lead 
 to generous ones. There is no spirit, indeed, 
 of love or honor in any part of them ; but an 
 unvaried and harassing display of insolence 
 and animosity in the writer, and villany and 
 folly in those of whom he is writing. Though 
 a great polemic, he makes no use of general 
 principles, nor enlarges his views to a wide or 
 comprehensive conclusion. Every thing is par- 
 ticular with him, and, for the most part, strictly 
 personal. To make amends, however, he is 
 quite without a competitor in personalities. 
 With a quick and sagacious spirit, and a bold 
 and popular manner, he joins an exact know- 
 ledge of all the strong and weak parts of the 
 cause he has to manage ; and, without the least 
 restraint of delicacy, either of taste or of feel- 
 ing, he seems always to think the most effectu- 
 al blows the most advisable, and no advantage 
 unlawful that is likely to be successful for the 
 moment. Disregarding all the laws of polished 
 hostility, he uses, atone and the same moment, 
 his sword and his poisoned dagger — his hands 
 and his teeth and his envenomed breath, — and 
 does not even scruple, upon occasion, to imi- 
 tate his own yahoos, by discharging on his un- 
 happy victims a shower of filth, from which 
 neither courage nor dexterity can afford any 
 protection. 
 
 Against such an antagonist it was, of course 
 at no time, very easy to make head; and ac 
 cordingly his invective seems, for the most part 
 to have been as much dreaded, and as tremen- 
 dous as the personal ridicule of Voltaire. Both 
 were inexhaustible, well directed, and unspar- 
 ing : but even when Voltaire drew blood, he did 
 not mangle the victim, and was only mischiev 
 ous when Swift was brutal. 
 
 Swift had a quarrel with a pompous, prag 
 matical attorney, on whom 'he determined U 
 have satisfaction by his pen. Accordingly he 
 turned yEsop's fable of the apples and the ordure 
 into verse — and when he came to the address 
 of the latter to the former, 
 
 " How we apples swim," 
 he subjoined — 
 
 " Thus at the bar, that booby Bettsworth, 
 Tho' half a crown outpays his sweat's worth, 
 Who knows of law, nor text, nor margeant, 
 Calls Singleton his brother Sergeant." 
 
 Singleton was a first-rate lawyer. 
 
 Bettsworth, stung to the quick, went very 
 pompously to Swift, and holding out the paper, 
 asked him, with a menacing voice and gesture 
 — " ( Sir, are you the author of this infamous at- 
 tack on me?" "Sit down, sir," says Swift, 
 very calmly — " do not be in a passion, but let 
 me tell you a short story. When I was young, 
 my dear father — heaven rest his soul ! — seeing 
 that I had a turn for scribbling, and fearful of 
 the consequences, one day told me that he was 
 afraid that propensity would some time or other 
 bring me into trouble. ' And, my dear son,' 
 added he, ' let me give you a piece of advice. 
 Should any libellous matter appear in any news- 
 paper, and any fool or knave call on you to de- 
 mand whether or not you are the writer — say 
 no;' — and therefore, sir, I say no to you." 
 Bettsworth had no remedy, and went off 
 grumbling — saying Swift was like one of his 
 own vile Yahoos, besmearing people with his 
 filth, and out of the reach of punishment. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. The Swiss confedera- 
 cy, as its limits were determined by the con- 
 gress of Vienna, contains an area of 15,000 
 square miles, and 2,037,030 persons. 
 
 Zurich, 
 
 Berne, 
 
 Lucerne. 
 
 Uri, 
 
 Schweitz, 
 
 Underwalden, 
 
 Glarus, 
 
 Zug, 
 
 Friburg, 
 
 Soleure, 
 
 Neufchatel, 
 
 Basle, 
 
 Schaffhausen, 
 
 Appenzell, 
 
 St. Gall, 
 
 Grisons, 
 
 Aargau, 
 
 Thurgau, 
 
 Tessin, 
 
 Pays de Vaud, 
 
 Valais, 
 
 Geneva. 
 
 The rivers, mountains, and lakes of Switzer- 
 land, present the most sublime scenes in na- 
 ture. In a cavern near the lake of Lucerne, 
 the three founders of the Helvetic confederacy, 
 are said, in Swiss traditions, to sleep. The 
 herdsmen call them the three Tell's, and say 
 hat they lie there, in their antique garb, in 
 .juiet slumber ; and when Switzerland is in het 
 utmost need, they will awaken and regain the 
 liberties of the land. 
 
 When Uri's beechen-woods wave red 
 
 In the burninu hamlet's lieht, 
 Then from the caverns of the dead, 
 Shall the sleepers wake in might ! 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SWI 
 
 548 
 
 SWI 
 
 AVith a leap, like Tell's proud leap, 
 When away the helm he flung, 
 
 And boldly up the steep 
 
 From the flashing billow sprung ! 
 
 They shall wake beside their forest-sea 
 
 In the ancient garb they wore, 
 When they linked the hands that made us free, 
 On the Grutli's moonlight shore ; 
 And their voices shall be heard, 
 
 And be answered with a shout, 
 Till the echoing Alps are stirred, 
 Arfd the signal-fires blaze out ! 
 
 And the land shall see such deeds again, 
 
 As those of that proud day, 
 When Winkelried, on Sempack's plain, 
 Through the serried spears made way! 
 And when the rocks came down 
 
 On the dark Morgartin dell, 
 And the crowned helms o'erthrown 
 Before our fathers fell! 
 
 For the Kuhreihen's* notes must never sound 
 
 In a land that wears the chain, 
 And the vines on Freedom's holy ground 
 Untrampled must remain. 
 And the yellow harvests wave, 
 
 For no stranger's hand to reap, . 
 While within their silent cave 
 The men of Grutli sleep! 
 
 Nearly two thirds of the Swiss are Protes- 
 tants. Common schools are well supported, 
 and there are universities at Basle and Geneva. 
 The Swiss are hardy, industrious, temperate, 
 and ardently attached to liberty. 
 
 The exaggerated accounts given of the riches 
 and milder climate of Italy, occasioned the suc- 
 cessive inroads of the Camomani, the Lseves, 
 and Ananes, and the various troops of barbari- 
 ans who gloried in the name of Gauls. In all 
 these expeditions, the Helvetians took a consid- 
 erable share, and afterwards joined the Cimbri 
 and the Teutones against the Romans. How- 
 ever, their want of discipline finally proved fa- 
 tal to them ; and the arms of Marius and Sylla 
 obtained over the combined forces of Germany 
 the most complete and decisive victory. From 
 this era, the Helvetians lived in friendship and 
 alliance with the Romans, till the arts of Orge- 
 torix, one of their chieftains, involved them in 
 that unfortunate expedition, which ended in 
 their being deprived of liberty and independ- 
 ence, by Julius Csesar, in 57 B. C. Helvetia 
 thus became a province of Rome. The decline 
 of the Roman power, and the irruption of the 
 Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other northern 
 
 * The Kuhreihen is the melody known bv the name 
 of the Ranz des Vaches, which was forbidden to be 
 played by the royal bands in Paris, because it caused 
 the Swiss guards to desert, and return to their native 
 mountains, of which it powerfully reminded them. 
 
 tribes, hastened the dovvnfal of the unhappy 
 Helvetians. Of those who settled in Helvetia, 
 the chief were the Burgundians and the Ale- 
 manni, a German nation, who made their first 
 appearance in 214, and settled in the duchy of 
 Wirtemberg. On the downfal of the western 
 nation, the Alemanni overran that part of Gaul 
 since known by the name of Alsace; and being 
 joined by their countrymen in Germany, they 
 entered the territories of the Ripuarian Franks, 
 and put all to fire and sword. This unprovoked 
 attack, summoning Clovis king of the Salian 
 Franks to the defence of his allies, the Aleman- 
 ni were entirely defeated in a general engage- 
 ment, with the loss of their king ; and this na- 
 tion acknowledged the sovereignty of Clovis, in 
 496, who gradually subdued, and afterwards 
 civilized the greatest part of Helvetia. Under 
 the Franks, it remained till 888, when, upon the 
 death of Charles the Gross, it was seized by 
 Raoul, and became part of the kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy, which was given by Rodolf, the last 
 king of Burgundy, to Conrad II emperor of 
 Germany, in 1032; from which time it was es- 
 teemed a part of the empire ; but being unjust- 
 ly treated by Albert, duke of Austria, the in- 
 habitants revolted in 1308. In 1315, the seve- 
 ral states of which this country was composed 
 made their league perpetual ; and in 1649, their 
 liberty was absolutely fixed by treaty. The 
 peace of Arau,in 1712, terminated the intestine 
 struggles of the Swiss, which long rent in sun- 
 der the bonds of their union. Under the pro- 
 tection of the Helvetic league, the whole terri- 
 tory of Switzerland became, and for ages con- 
 tinued, an industrious, a free, a blameless, and 
 a happy nation, until they were attacked by 
 their neighbors the French. In 1798, the direc- 
 tory of France, having become daring by the 
 peace which they had dictated to the emperor, 
 suddenly declared war against Switzerland. At 
 length, the French, partly by force, and partly 
 by treachery, succeeded in their attempt, and 
 the directory, after changing the government 
 from a federal into an united republic, continu- 
 ed to levy contributions, and impose exactions, 
 with the most unpardonable severity. Thus, 
 after enjoying the sweets of independence since 
 the commencement of the fourteenth century, 
 the republics of Switzerland were overcome by 
 a foreign enemy, and obliged to change the form 
 of their government. The treaties of Luneville 
 and of Amiens, held out to the Helvetic con- 
 federacy a guarantee of her ancient freedom 
 and independence, which were never fully real- 
 ized. By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, the in- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SYL 
 
 549 
 
 SYR 
 
 tegrity of the nineteen cantons, as they existed 
 in a political body, was recognised as the basis 
 of the Helvetic system. To Switzerland were 
 united the Valais, the territory of Geneva, and 
 the principality of Neufchatel, which form three 
 new cantons ; and to the Helvetic confederation 
 were added the bishopric of Basle, and the city 
 and territory of Bienne, which form part of the 
 canton of Berne. 
 
 SYLLA, L. Cornelius a celebrated Roman, 
 of a noble family. He first entered the army 
 under the great Marius, whom he accompanied 
 in Numidia, in the capacity of quaestor. He 
 rendered himself conspicuous in military affairs, 
 and Bocchus, one of the princes of Numidia, 
 delivered Jugurtha into his hands for the Ro- 
 man consul. The rising fame of Sylla gave 
 umbrage to Marius, who was always jealous of 
 an equal, as well as of a superior ; but the ill 
 language which he made use of, rather inflamed 
 than extinguished the ambition of Sylla. He 
 left the conqueror of Jugurtha, and carried arms 
 under Catullus. Sometime after he obtained 
 the praetorship, and was appointed by the Ro- 
 man senate to place Ariobarzanes on the throne 
 of Cappadocia, against the views and interest 
 of Mithridates, king of Pontus. This he easily 
 effected, one battle leaving him victorious; and 
 before he quitted the plains of Asia, the Roman 
 praetor had the satisfaction to receive in his 
 camp the ambassadors of the king of Parthia, 
 who wished to make a treaty of alliance with 
 the Romans. At his return to Rome, he was 
 commissioned to finish the war with the Marsi, 
 and when this was successfully ended, he was 
 rewarded with the consulship, in the fiftieth 
 year of his age. In this capacity he wished to 
 have the administration of the Mithridatic war ; 
 but he found an obstinate adversary in Marius, 
 and he attained the summit of his wishes only 
 when he had entered Rome sword in hand. 
 After he had slaughtered all his enemies, set 
 a price upon the head of Marius, and put to 
 death the tribune Sulpitius, who had continually 
 opposed his views, he marched towards Asia, 
 and disregarded the flames of discord which he 
 left behind him unextinguished. Mithridates 
 was already master of the greatest part of 
 Greece, and Sylla, when he reached the coast 
 of Peloponnesus, was delayed by the siege of 
 Athens, and of the Piraeus." His boldness suc- 
 ceeded, the Piraeus surrendered, and the con- 
 queror spared the city of Athens. Two cele- 
 brated battles, at Cheroncea and Orchomenos, 
 rendered him master of Greece. He crossed 
 the Hellespont, and attacked Mithridates in the 
 
 very heart of his kingdom. The artful mon- 
 arch, who well knew the valor and persever- 
 ance of his adversary, made proposals of peace, 
 and Sylla did not hesitate to put an end to a 
 war which had rendered him master of so much 
 territory, and which enabled him to return to 
 Rome like a conqueror. Muraena was left at 
 the head of the Roman forces in Asia, and Sylla 
 hastened to Italy. In the plains of Campania, 
 he was met by a few of his adherents, and he 
 was soon informed, that if he wished to contend 
 with Marius, he must encounter fifteen gene- 
 rals, followed by twenty-five well disciplined 
 legions. Pompey v embraced his cause, and 
 marched to his camp with three legions. Soon 
 after he appeared in the field to advantage ; the 
 confidence of Marius decayed with his power, 
 and Sylla entered Rome like a tyrant and a 
 conqueror. The streets were daily filled with 
 dead bodies, and seven thousand citizens, to 
 whom the conqueror had promised pardon, 
 were suddenly massacred in the circus. The 
 slaughter was continued, and no less than four 
 thousand seven hundred of the most powerful 
 and opulent were slain. Sylla at last died, in 
 the greatest torments, of loathsome disease, 
 about seventy-eight years, B. C, in the sixtieth 
 year of his age. 
 
 SYPHAX, a king of the Masaesyli in Libya, 
 married Sophonisba, the daughter of Asdrubal, 
 and forsook the alliance of the Romans to join 
 himself to the interest of his father-in-law, and 
 of Carthage. He was conquered in a battle by 
 Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and given to Sci- 
 pio the Roman general. The conqueror carried 
 him to Rome, where he adorned his triumph. 
 Syphax died in prison, two hundred and one 
 years B. C, and his possessions were given to 
 Masinissa. 
 
 SYRACUSE, now Siragosa, containing 
 13,800 souls; a celebrated city of Sicily, found- 
 ed about seven hundred and thirty-two years 
 before the Christian era, by Archias, a Corin- 
 thian, and one of the Heraclidae. It was under 
 different governments; and after being freed 
 from the tyranny of Thrasibulus, B. C. 446, it 
 enjoyed security for sixty-one years, till the 
 usurpation of the Dionysii, who were expelled 
 by Timoleon, B. C. 343. In the age of the 
 elder Dionysius, an army of one hundred thou- 
 sand foot and ten thousand horse, and four 
 hundred ships, were kept in constant pay. It 
 fell into the hands of the Romans, under the 
 consul Marcellus, after a siege of three years, 
 B. C. 212. 
 
 SYRIA, a country of Western Asia, border 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 TAL 
 
 550 
 
 TAL 
 
 ing on the Mediterranean sea, forming part 
 of the Ottoman empire, and containing about 
 50,U00 square miles, and 2,400,000 inhabitants. 
 It was subjected to the monarchs of Persia, but 
 after the death of Alexander the Great, Seleu- 
 cus, surnamed Nicator, raised it into an empire, 
 known in history by the name of the kingdom 
 of Syria, or Babylon, B. C. 312. Seleucus died 
 after a reign of thirty -two years, and his succes- 
 sors, named the Seleucidae, ascended the throne 
 in the following order : — Antiochus, surnamed 
 Soter, 280, B. C.; Antiochus Theos, 261 ; Se- 
 leucus Callinicus, 246; Seleucus Ceraunus, 
 22G ; Antiochus the Great, 223 ; Seleucus Phil- 
 opator, 187; Antiochus Epipnanes, 175; Antio- 
 chus Eupator, 164; Demetrius Soter, 162; 
 Alexander Balas, 150; Demetrius Nicator, 146; 
 Antiochus the Sixth 144; Diodotus Tryphon, 
 147; Antiochus Sidetes, 139; Demetrius Nica- 
 tor restored, 130; Alexander Zebina, 127, who 
 was dethroned by Antiochus Grypus, 123; 
 Antiochus Cyzicenus, 112, who takes part of 
 Syria, which he calls Ccelesyria; Philip and 
 Demetrius Eucerus, 93 ; and in Ccelesyria, An- 
 tiochus Pius; Aretas was king of Ccelesyria, 
 85 ; Tigranes, king of Armenia, 83; and Anti- 
 ochus Asiaticus, 69, who was dethroned by 
 Pompey, B. C. 65; in consequence of which 
 Syria became a Roman province. In August, 
 1822, Syria was greatly damaged by an exten- 
 sive earthquake, when several cities were over- 
 thrown, and above 20,000 persons were killed 
 in a few seconds. 
 
 TALAVERA, a town of Spain, situated on 
 the Tagus, 35 miles W. of Toledo, famous for 
 the battle fought here July 28, 1809, between 
 the French under Soult, and the English under 
 Wellington. The French army, amounted to 
 47,000 men, and the allied force, to 19,000 Brit- 
 ish, and 33,000 Spaniards. In the afternoon 
 of the 27th, the French opened a cannonade on 
 the left of the British position, while their cav- 
 alry attacked the Spanish infantry, and attempt- 
 ed to win the town of Talavera; they were 
 finally repulsed. At nine in the evening, the 
 action ceased, but Soult, the French general, 
 ordered a night attack to be made on the height 
 occupied by general Hill, which he considered 
 the key of the English position. Of this height 
 the enemy gained a momentary possession, but 
 the gallant general recovered it at the point of 
 the bayonet. At day -break, the 23th, the French 
 again attacked general Hill's position, and were 
 
 repulsed, failing also in their other attempts, 
 they rested about eleven, and, it is said, cooked 
 their dinners on the field. Some refreshments 
 were then served out to the British troops. At 
 noon, Soult ordered a general attack along the 
 whole line, and directed his own three divisions 
 against general Hill's position. They were 
 driven back, and their retrograde movement 
 exposed Sebastiani's right, which suffered se- 
 verely. Their general at length rallied them, 
 and some columns under Vilatte advanced to 
 their support. General Anson's brigade, con- 
 sisting of the 1st German light dragoons, and 
 the 23d dragoons, with general Fane's brigade 
 of heavy cavalry, were ordered to charge them. 
 In this charge the British suffered dreadfully, 
 and the 23d were almost annihilated ; they, 
 however, deterred the enemy from any farther 
 attempts against the hill. The attack upon the 
 centre, which commenced at the same time, 
 was gallantly resisted by general Campbell, 
 supported by the Spaniards, who turned the 
 flank of the assailants, while the English took 
 their cannon. General Sherbroke repelled the 
 force opposed to him by a charge of bayonets 
 from the whole division; but the brigade of 
 guards, advancing too far, exposed themselves 
 to the fire of the hostile batteries and retiring 
 columns. At this moment, when the fate of 
 the battle appeared worse than doubtful, sir 
 Arthur Wellesley secured the victory, by mov- 
 ing from the heights a battalion of the 48th, 
 which, with the assistance of Cotton's brigade 
 of cavalry, enabled the guards to retreat under 
 cover. At the close of the day, the enemy 
 were repulsed at all points, and effectually de- 
 
 TALBOT, lord, born at Blechmore, in Shrop- 
 shire, in 1373. In the first year of Henry V, 
 he was appointed lieutenant of Ireland, where 
 he suppressed a rebellion, and brought the chief, 
 Donald M'Guire, to England. He next served 
 in France, to the conquest of which he greatly 
 contributed. In the next reign he laid siege 
 to Orleans, where his name struck terror into 
 the French soldiers, till the appearance of Joan 
 of Arc, as a supernatural being, turned the 
 scale, and the English army retreated. The 
 battle of Patay completed the disaster, and lord 
 Talbot fell wounded into the hands of the en- 
 emy. At the end of three years and a half, he 
 was exchanged ; and again led the English to 
 victory. He took a number of strong places, 
 and carried his arms to the walls of Paris, for 
 which he was created earl of Shrewsbury. In 
 1443 he concluded a treaty with the French 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TAL 
 
 551 
 
 TAR 
 
 king; and the following year went again to 
 Ireland as lord lieutenant; but in 1450 he was 
 recalled to serve in France, where he fell at 
 the battle of Chastillon, in his eightieth year, 
 July, 1453. 
 
 TALLART Camille d'Hostum, count and 
 duke de, marshal of France, was born in 1652, 
 in Dauphiny. He served under Louis XIV in 
 Holland, in 1672. In 1693, he was made lieu- 
 tenant-general, and in 1697, was sent ambas- 
 sador to England. The war being renewed, 
 he assumed the command on the Rhine in 1702, 
 and the year following made himself master of 
 Landau, after defeating the prince of Hesse ; 
 but in 1704 he lost the battle of Hochstet, and 
 was taken prisoner by Marlborough, to whom 
 he said, " Your grace has beaten the finest troops 
 in Europe." The duke replied, " You will ex- 
 cept, I hope, those who defeated them." Mar- 
 shal Tallart remained in England till 1712, 
 when he returned to Paris, and was created a 
 duke. In 1726, he was made secretary of state. 
 He died in 1728. 
 
 TALNERE, a celebrated town and fortress 
 of Hindostan, province of Khandeish. At the 
 conclusion of the late war with Holcar, it was 
 stipulated that this fortress should be ceded to 
 the British ; but when the troops were sent to 
 take possession, the governor refused to deliver 
 it up ; in consequence of which, a large force, 
 under the command of sir Thomas Hislop, in- 
 vested the fortress, in February, 1818. Soon 
 after the batteries had opened, the governor sent 
 to solicit terms, but was told he must yield un- 
 conditionally ; a punishment for having dis- 
 obeyed the orders of his chief, and refusing to 
 acknowledge the British authority. No further 
 submission having been offered, some guns 
 were brought to the outer gate, and blew it 
 open, after which a corps of Europeans entered ; 
 the second gate was found open, and when the 
 troops arrived at the third gate, the governor 
 came out, and delivered himself up to the adju- 
 tant-general Conway. The troops continued 
 to advance, and having passed the third and 
 fourth gates without opposition, reached the 
 gate of the citadel. Here they were opposed 
 by the garrison, consisting of Arabs, who re- 
 fused to yield, unless paid the arrears due to 
 them. After some discussion, the wicket of 
 the gate was opened, and lieutenant-colonel 
 Macgregor, majors Macgregor and Gordon, 
 with several other officers, and twelve grena- 
 diers, were permitted to enter, but were imme- 
 diately after attacked by the Arabs, who killed 
 the two majors, and wounded colonel Macgre- 
 
 gor, with several other officers. During this 
 time one of the other gates was blown open by 
 the troops under colonel Conway, and the 
 storming party having entered, put the whole 
 garrison, consisting of three hundred men, to 
 the sword ; shortly after which the governor, 
 a Hindoo, was hung on one of the bastions as 
 a punishment for his rebellion, and for having 
 been the cause of the loss of so many brave 
 officers and men. 
 
 TARQUINIUS Lucius, surnamed Priscus, 
 the 5th king of Rome. He distinguished him- 
 self so much by his liberality and engaging 
 manners, that Ancus Martius, the reigning 
 monarch, nominated him the guardian of his 
 children. Tarquin reigned with moderation 
 and popularity. He increased the number of 
 the senate, and made himself friends by electing 
 one hundred new senators from the plebeians. 
 The glory of the Roman arms, which was sup- 
 ported with so much dignity by the former 
 monarchs, was not neglected in this reign, and 
 Tarquin showed that he possessed vigor and 
 military prudence in the victories which he ob- 
 tained over the united forces of the Latins and 
 Sabines, and in the conquest of the twelve na- 
 tions of Etruria. He laid the foundations of 
 the capitol , and to the industry and the public 
 spirit of this monarch, the Romans were indebt- 
 ed for their aqueducts and subterranean sewers, 
 which supplied the city with fresh and whole- 
 some water, and removed all the filth and or- 
 dure, which, in a great capital, too often breed 
 pestilence and diseases. Tarquin was the first 
 who introduced among the Romans the custom 
 to canvass for offices of trust and honor ; he 
 distinguished the monarch, the senators, and 
 other inferior magistrates, with particular robes 
 and ornaments, with ivory chairs at spectacles, 
 and the hatchets carried before the public mag 
 istrates, were, by his order, surrounded with 
 bundles of sticks, to strike more terror, and to 
 be viewed with greater reverence. Tarquin 
 was assassinated by the two sons of his prede- 
 cessor, in the 80th year of his age, thirty-eight 
 of which he had sat on the throne, 578 years 
 before Christ. 
 
 The second Tarquin, surnamed Superbus, 
 was grandson of Tarquinius Priscus. He as- 
 cended the throne of Rome after his father-in- 
 law Servius Tullius, and was the seventh and 
 last king of Rome. He murdered his father- 
 in-law, and seized the kingdom. The crown 
 which he had obtained with violence, he en- 
 deavored to keep by a continuation ot tyranny. 
 He paid no regard to the decisions of the sen 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 TAR 
 
 552 
 
 TEM 
 
 ate, or the approbation of the public assemblies, 
 and by wishing Li disregard both, he incurred 
 the jealousy of the one, and the odium of the 
 other. He was successful in his military ope- 
 rations, and the neighboring cities submitted ; 
 but while the siege of Ardea was continued, 
 the wantonness of the son of Tarquin at Rome, 
 for ever stopped the progress of his arms; and 
 the Romans, whom a series of barbarity and 
 oppression had hitherto provoked, no sooner 
 saw the virtuous Lucretia stab herself, not to 
 survive the loss of her honor, than the whole 
 city and camp arose with indignation against 
 the monarch. The gates of Rome were shut 
 against him, and Tarquin was for ever banished 
 from his throne, in the year of Rome 244. Tar- 
 quin died in the 90th year of his age, about 
 fourteen years after his expulsion from Rome. 
 
 TARQU1NIUS Sextus, the eldest of the 
 sons of Tarquin the proud, rendered himself 
 known by a variety of adventures. When his 
 father besieged Gabii, young Tarquin publicly 
 declared that he was at variance with the mon- 
 arch, and the report was the more easily believed 
 when he came before Gabii with his body all 
 mangled and bloody with stripes. This was 
 an agreement between the father and the son, 
 and Tarquin had no sooner declared that this 
 proceeded from the tyranny and oppression of 
 his father, than the people of Gabii entrusted 
 him with the command of their armies, fully 
 convinced that Rome could never have a more 
 inveterate enemy. When he had thus succeed- 
 ed, he despatched a private messenger to his 
 father, but the monarch gave no answer to be 
 returned to his son. Sextus inquired more 
 particularly about his father, and when he 
 heard from the messenger that when the mes- 
 sage was delivered, Tarquin cut off with a stick 
 the tallest poppies in his garden, the son follow- 
 ed the example by putting to death the most 
 noble and powerful citizens of Gabii. The 
 town soon fell into the hands of the Romans. 
 Sextus was at last killed, bravely fighting in a 
 battle during a war which the Latins sustained 
 against Rome in the attempt of re-esf ablishing 
 the Tarquins on their throne. 
 
 TARTARY. Nothing is known concerning 
 the ancient state of this country. Some time 
 before 1200, we find Ung Khan, prince of the 
 tribe of the Koraits, a very powerful sovereign 
 and the greatest part of Tartary tributary to 
 him; but in 1202 he was defeated and put to 
 death by Genghis Khan, of the tribe of the 
 Mongols in the Mogulestan. This great man 
 was acknowledged sovereign of this country, 
 
 and of all the rest of Tartary in 1206 : after 
 which he extended his conquests into most of 
 the southern parts of Asia. In 15d2 the Mon- 
 gols revolted from the descendants of Genghis 
 Khan, and became subject to the Manchew 
 Tartars, who now reign in China. At what 
 time the Khalkas became independent is not 
 known, but they were conquered by the Chinese 
 Tartars in 1696. The Eluths became a separate 
 state about 1400, and continue independent to 
 this day. 
 
 TEKELI, Emeric, Count of, who went into 
 Transylvania in 1671, and with some others 
 soon distinguished himself at Prince Abafti's 
 court, where he became, in a little time, first 
 minister of state, and afterwards generalissimo 
 of the troops sent to assist the malcontents, 
 with which he made himself master of several 
 places in Upper and Lower Hungary. 
 
 TELL, William, a Swiss patriot, was an in- 
 habitant of Burgelm in Uri. In 1307, Herman 
 Gesler, the Austrian governor of that province, 
 set his cap on a pole, to which all who passed 
 were required to pay obeisance. This order 
 Tell disobeyed, for which Gesler commanded 
 him, on pain of death, to shoot an arrow at an 
 apple placed upon the head of his own son. 
 Tell, who was an excellent marksman, cleft the 
 apple without hurting the child ; after which he 
 declared, that if he had missed his aim, it was 
 his intention to have directed another arrow 
 through the heart of the tyrant. Gesler then 
 caused Tell to be taken into a boat, for the pur- 
 pose of conveying him out of the province ; but 
 in crossing the lake a storm arose, and as the 
 prisoner was an experienced steersman, he was 
 entrusted with the helm, of which he was no 
 sooner possessed than he steered close to a rock, 
 leapt on shore, and soon afterwards shot Gesler 
 near Kusnacht. He then retired to Stauffacher, 
 and on new year's day following, the Austrian 
 government was overthrown. Tell perished 
 in an inundation in 1354. 
 
 TEMPLARS and other orders of Knight- 
 hood. The Knights Templars formed one of 
 the most celebrated orders of Knighthood, and 
 originated in the following manner. In the 
 year 1119, Hugh de Paganes and Godfrey de 
 St. Amor, with seven gentlemen, went to 
 the Holy Land, where they determined to erect 
 and enter into a brotherhood ; and being at 
 Jerusalem they consulted what they should do, 
 that might be a service acceptable to God; 
 and being informed that in the town of Zaff, 
 there resided many thieves that used to rob the 
 pilgrims that resorted to the Holy Sepulchre, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 TEM 
 
 553 
 
 TEM 
 
 they resolved to make the passage more free by 
 dispersing these robbers ; and for the encourage- 
 ment of these gentlemen in so good an under- 
 taking, the king of Jerusalem assigned them 
 lodgings in his palace adjoining to Solomon's 
 palace, from which place they were called 
 Knights Templars. 
 
 King Baldwin the second, third king of Je- 
 rusalem, and Guarimond the Patriarch, finding 
 their actions successful, furnished them with 
 necessary 'provisions; and though their charita- 
 ble services made them acceptable unto all, yet 
 for the first nine years they were in so great 
 distress, they were forced to accept the charity 
 of well disposed people. But many Christians 
 resorted to them, and increased their numbers 
 greatly. When at war, their banner was one 
 half black, the other half white, signifying that 
 they were white and fair to Christians, but 
 black and terrible to their enemies. Pope 
 Honorius, at the request of Stephen, patriarch 
 of Jerusalem, prescribed unto them an order 
 of life, whereby they were to wear a white gar- 
 ment, to which Pope Eugenius added a red 
 cross. They made their vows, in the presence 
 of the before mentioned patriarch, of obedience, 
 poverty, and chastity, and to live under the 
 rule of the regular canons of St. Augustin. 
 
 The Knights Templars (according to Dug- 
 dale), wore linen coifs and red caps close over 
 them : on their bodies shirts of mail, and swords 
 girded on with abroad belt : over all they had a 
 white cloak reaching to the ground, with a 
 cross on their left shoulder. They used to 
 wear their beards of great length, whereas most 
 of the other orders shaved. 
 
 The Templars being numerous and famous 
 for their enterprises, not only for securing the 
 passages, but for fighting both by sea and land 
 against the infidels, they became highly favored 
 by the Christian princes, who assigned to them 
 
 freat revenues to be spent in God's service. 
 n process of time, they became exceedingly 
 wealthy and powerful, so that they grew proud, 
 and withdrew themselves from their obedience 
 to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and attached 
 themselves to the Pope. But in the end they 
 did not receive that favor they expected from 
 the Pope, for by him or through his consent, 
 upon some infamous crimes charged against 
 them, their lands and possessions were seized 
 upon, and otherwise disposed of, their order sup- 
 pressed, and they themselves imprisoned, con- 
 demned, and cruelly executed. According to 
 the opinions of many authors, they were un- 
 justly accused by subornation of witnesses, 
 
 merely to gain their revenues, which, according 
 to Dr. Heylin, were exceedingly great, having 
 no less than sixteen thousand lordships in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 The first settlement of this order in England 
 (according to Dugdale) was in Holborn in Lon- 
 don, but their chief residence, in the reign of 
 king Henry II, was the Temple in Fleet-street 
 which was erected by them, and the church, 
 (built after the form of the Temple at Jerusalem) 
 dedicated to God and our Blessed Lady, by 
 Heraclius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, in the year 
 1185. 
 
 On Wednesday after the feast of the Epipha- 
 ny, in the year 1387, the first of Edward II, by 
 the king's special command, and a bull from 
 the Pope, the Knights Templars generally, 
 throughout England, were seized and cast into 
 prison ; and in a general council held at London, 
 being convicted of various impieties, all their 
 possessions were confiscated by the crown. 
 
 This order was condemned in a general 
 council at Vienna under Pope Clement V, in 
 1311, and by a general decree of the said Cle- 
 ment, in the seventh year of his papacy, they 
 were incorporated with the Knights Hospital- 
 lers. The badge of the order was a patriarchal 
 cross, enamelled red, and edged with gold, 
 worn on the breast pendent to a ribbon. 
 
 Having given the above notice of a celebrat- 
 ed order, it will not be inappropriate briefly to 
 review the other important orders which gave 
 a lustre to the institution of knighthood. 
 
 As regards those knights who, without any 
 other addition, are thus styled, they are of the 
 greatest antiquity. For according to the cus- 
 tom of the Romans (a gowned nation), who 
 bestowed on each entering upon man's estate 
 a virile and plain, the Germans bestowed upon 
 their young men, when fit to handle arms, ar- 
 mor and weapons. Cornelius Tacitus speaks 
 of this custom in the following words, which 
 we copy from the Britannia. " The manner 
 was not for any one to take arms in hand, before 
 the state allowed him as sufficient for martial 
 service. And then in the very assembly of 
 Counsell either some one of the princes, or the 
 father of the young man, or one of his kins 
 folke, furnish him with a shield and a javelin. 
 This with them standeth instead of a virile 
 gowne, this is the first honor done to youth ■ 
 before this they seeme to be but part of a pri- 
 vate house, but now within a while members 
 of the commonweale." 
 
 Hence the origin of knights, or, as they are 
 termed in the German language, Knects ; which 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TEM 
 
 554 
 
 TEM 
 
 was the simple form of creating a knight, used 
 also in former times by the Lombards, the 
 Franks, and the English, who are descended 
 from the Germans. Paulas Diaconus says that 
 among the Lombards, " It is the custom for the 
 king's son not to dine with his father, unless 
 he have previously received arms from some 
 foreign king." 
 
 It is also recorded in the annals of the French 
 nation, that the kings of the Franks gave arms 
 to their sons and others, and girded them with 
 a sword. King Alfred of England, when he 
 dubbed his nephew Athelstane a knight, gave 
 him a scarlet mantle set with precious stones, 
 and a Saxon sword with a golden scabbard. 
 
 In the course of time, the English, before 
 the arrival of the Normans, received their 
 knightly arms with religious ceremonies. In- 
 gulphus says : " He that was to be consecrated 
 unto lawful warfare, should the evening before, 
 with a contrite heart, make confession of his 
 sins unto the Bishop, Abbot, Monk, or Priest, 
 and being absolved, give himself to prayer, and 
 lodge all night in the church, and on his going 
 to hear divine service the next day, to offer his 
 sword upon the altar : and after the gospel, the 
 priest was to put the sword, being previously 
 blessed, upon the knight's neck, with his bene- 
 diction, and thus after he had heard mass again, 
 or received the sacrament, he became a lawful 
 knight." This custom did not become absolute 
 among the Normans. 
 
 Kings were afterward accustomed to send 
 their sons to neighboring courts to receive 
 the honors of knighthood. Thus Henry II 
 sent to David, king of Scots ; and Malcolm, 
 king of Scots, to Henry II ; and Edward I of 
 England to the king of Castile. It was at this 
 time also that to the sword and girdle, already 
 in use, gilt spurs were added as an extra orna- 
 ment, whence to this day they are called in 
 Latin Equltes aw ate. Moreover, they had the 
 privilege of wearing and using a signet. 
 
 In the succeeding age, knights were created 
 from their wealth. Concerning the creation of 
 knights, Matthew Floreligas, in the time of Ed- 
 ward I, has written as follows : 
 
 " The king for to augment and make goodly 
 show of his expedition into Scotland, caused 
 public proclamation to be made throughout 
 England, that whosoever were to be made 
 knights by hereditary succession, and had 
 wherewith to maintain that degree, should pre- 
 sent themselves in Westminster, at the feast 
 of Witsuntide there to receive every one, the 
 ornaments of a knight (saving the equipage or 
 
 furniture that belongeth to horses) out of the 
 king's wardrobe. When as therefore there flock- 
 ed thitherto the number of three hundred gallant 
 youths, the sons of Earls, Barons, and Knights, 
 purple liveries, fine silk scarfs, robes most richly 
 embroidered with gold, were plentifully bestow- 
 ed among them, according as was befitting each 
 one : and because the king's palace (large though 
 it were) was ' streited ' of room for so great a 
 multitude assembled, they cut down the apple- 
 trees about the new temple in London, laid the 
 walls along, and there set up pavilions and 
 tents, wherein these noble young gallants might 
 array and set out themselves one by one in their 
 gorgeous and golden garments. All the night 
 long also, these foresaid youths, as many as the 
 place would receive, watched and prayed in the 
 said temple. But the Prince of Wales, by com- 
 mandment of the king his father, held his wake, 
 together with the principal and goodliest men of 
 this company, within the church of Westmin- 
 ster. Now such sound was there of trumpets, 
 so loud a noise of minstrelsy, so mighty an ap- 
 plause and cry of those that for joy shouted, 
 that the chanting of the convent could be heard 
 from one side of the quire to the other. 
 
 "Well, the morrow after, the king dubbed 
 his son knight, and gave him the girdle, of 
 knighthood in his own palace, and therewith 
 bestowed upon him the Duchy of Aquitaine. 
 The prince then, thus created knight, went 
 directly into Westminster church for to grace 
 with the like glorious dignity his peers and 
 companions. But so great was the press of 
 people thronging from the high altar, that two 
 knights were thronged to death, and very many 
 of them fainted, and were ready to swoon, yea, 
 although every one of them had three soldiers 
 at least to lead and protect him : the Prince 
 himself, by reason of" the multitude pressing 
 upon him, having divided the people by means 
 of steeds of service, no otherwise than upon 
 the high altar girt his foresaid companions with 
 the orders of knighthood." 
 
 At present, those on whom the title of knight 
 is conferred, kneel down, when the king, with 
 his drawn sword, slightly taps him on the 
 shoulder, saying to him in French " sois cheva- 
 lier au nom de Dieu" that is, be thou a knight 
 in the name of God ; afterwards his majesty 
 adds, " Avauces, Chevalier" Arise, Sir Knight. 
 
 The honor of knighthood was formerly so 
 highly and sacredly prized, that if any thing 
 was promised on the faith and honor of a 
 knight, it was always performed in the most 
 scrupulous and punctilious manner, at whatever 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
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 555 
 
 TEM 
 
 risk it was undertaken. When a knight was 
 disgraced for having offended the laws, and 
 sentenced to suffer death, he was first despoiled 
 of his ensigns of knighthood, by taking off his 
 military girdle, taking away his sword, cutting 
 his spurs off with a hatchet, his gauntlets or 
 gloves were then torn from him, and the es- 
 cutcheon of his arms reversed. 
 
 The first account (according to Sir William 
 Segar) that we have of ceremonies in making 
 a knight in England, was in the year 506, in 
 the following manner : viz. a stage was erected 
 in some cathedral, or spacious place near it, to 
 which the gentleman was conducted to receive 
 the honor of knighthood. Being seated on a chair 
 decorated with green silk, it was demanded of 
 him, if he were of good constitution, and able 
 to undergo the fatigue required of a soldier ; 
 also, whether he was a man of good morals, 
 and what credible witnesses he could produce 
 to affirm the same. 
 
 Then the bishop, or chief prelate of the 
 church, administered the following oath : " Sir, 
 you that desire to receive the honor of knight- 
 hood, swear, before God and this holy book, 
 that you will not fight against his majesty, that 
 now bestoweth the honor of knighthood upon 
 you ; you shall also swear to maintain and 
 defend all ladies, gentlemen, widows, and or- 
 phans ; and you shall shun no adventure of 
 your person in any way where you shall hap- 
 pen to be." 
 
 The oath being taken, two lords led him to the 
 king, who drew his sword, and laid it upon his 
 head, saying " God, and Saint George (or what- 
 ever other saint the king pleased to name) make 
 thee a good knight." After this, seven ladies 
 dressed in white, came and girt a sword to his 
 side, and four knights put on his spurs. These 
 ceremonies being over, the queen took him by 
 the right hand, and a duchess by the left, and 
 led him to a rich seat, placed on an ascent, 
 where they seated him, the king sitting on his 
 right hand, and the queen on his left. Then 
 the lords and ladies sat down upon other seats, 
 three descents under the king ; and being all 
 thus seated, were entertained with a delicate 
 collation ; and so the ceremony ended. 
 
 If any knight absented himself dishonorably 
 from his king's service, leaving his colors, 
 going over to the enemy, betraying castles, 
 forts, &c, for such crimes he was apprehended, 
 and caused to be armed, and then seated on a 
 scaffold erected in the church, where, after the 
 king had sung some funeral psalms, as though 
 he had been dead, they first took off the knight's 
 47* 
 
 helmet to show his face, then his military gir- 
 dle, broke his sword, cut off his spurs from 
 his heels with a hatchet, pulled off his gauntlets, 
 and afterwards his whole armor, and then re- 
 versed his coat of arms. After this the heralds 
 cried out, " this is a disloyal miscreant," and, 
 with many other ignoble ceremonies, he was 
 thrown down the stage with a rope. 
 
 The famous order of the garter was instituted 
 by king Edward III, Jan. 19, 1344. King Ed- 
 ward, being of a military genius, and engaged 
 in a war for recovering France, made it his 
 business to draw the best soldiers of Europe 
 into his interest. With this view he projected 
 a restoration of king Arthur's round table ; and 
 proclaimed a solemn tilting to invite foreigners 
 of quality and courage to the exercise. The 
 place for the solemnity being fixed at Windsor, 
 he published his royal letters of protection for 
 the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
 knights as intended to venture their reputation 
 at those Justs and Tournaments which were to 
 be held on the 19th of January, 1344. 
 
 He provided a great supper to begin the so- 
 lemnity, and then ordering this feast to be anu- 
 ally kept at Whitsuntide, he for that purpose 
 erected a particular building in the castle, 
 wherein he placed a round table, of two hun- 
 dred feet diameter, in imitation of king Authur's 
 at Winchester, and thereat entertained the 
 knights at his own expense of ahundred pounds 
 per week. 
 
 The prince (Edward) commended himself 
 and his companions, to the patronage of St. 
 George, who suffered martyrdom under the 
 emperor Diocletian, and was a person of greater 
 eminence both in the Eastern and Western 
 churches, than any other military saint ; and 
 that his memory might be still continued, he 
 gave them, for part of their daily dress, the 
 image of the saint (sitting on horseback, attack- 
 ing the dragon with a spear) hung to a blue 
 ribbon, to be worn all the time about their necks. 
 
 The said king issuing out his garter for the 
 signal of a battle that was crowned with suc- 
 cess, he instituted this order, giving the garter 
 pre-eminence among its ensigns, whence the 
 select number, whom he incorporated into a 
 fraternity, were styled Equites Aurea. Perisceli- 
 dis, viz. the knights of the Golden Garter. 
 
 The habits and ensigns of this order, and the 
 forms of investiture, are thus: 
 
 They consist of the Garter, Surcoat, Mantle, 
 Hood, George, Collar, Cap, and Feathers; the 
 four first were assigned by the founder, and the 
 rest by king Henry VIII. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
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 556 
 
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 The garter, appointed to be worn by the 
 knights on the left leg between the knee and 
 calf, was instituted by the founder, as a tie of 
 association, honor and military virtue, to bind 
 the knights strictly to himself and each other 
 in friendship, and as an ensign of unity and 
 combination, to promote the honor of God, and 
 the interest of their prince and sovereign. He 
 also caused to be wrought in gold letters this 
 motto, Honi soit qui mal y pease; declaring 
 thereby the equity of his intention, retorting 
 shame and defiance upon him who should dare 
 to think ill of the just enterprise in which he 
 had engaged, for the support of his right to the 
 crown. The garter is of blue velvet bordered with 
 gold (having the letters of the motto of the same), 
 and is buckled on at the time of the election. 
 
 The knight's pantaloons are of pearl-colored 
 silk. On the outside of the right knee is fixed 
 a knot of open silver lace and ribbons inter- 
 mixed, in the form of a large rose ; and, a little 
 below the knee, is placed the garter. His shoes, 
 which are of white shammy, with red heels, 
 have each a knot on the exterior side. His 
 doublet is cloth of silver, adorned before and 
 behind, and down the sleeves, with several 
 guards or rows of silver lace, each having a row 
 of small buttons set down the middle. The 
 cuffs are open and adorned with the before 
 mentioned lace and ribbons set in small loops. 
 At the bottom of the upper seam of each cuff, 
 is fixed a knot of silver ribbons that fall over 
 his gloves, which are of kid, laced at the top 
 with silver, and adorned at the opening with 
 a knot, like that on the cuff. His surcoat is of 
 crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta. His 
 cap is of black velvet adorned with a diamond 
 band, and a plume of white feathers, with a 
 heron sprig in the middle. The mantle is of 
 sky-colored velvet, adorned on the left shoul- 
 der with St. George's cross encircled with the 
 garter, wreathed on the edges with blue and 
 gold. The hood is of crimson velvet and lined 
 with white taffeta. The collar, which weighs 
 thirty ounces troy, of gold, was introduced by 
 Henry VIII, and contains twenty-six garters 
 enamelled, and as many knots, alluding to 
 the sovereign of the order, to which is pendent 
 the figure of St. George and the dragon, which 
 is a gold medal, and may be enriched with 
 jewels at the pleasure of the owner. The offi- 
 cers of the order are the prelate of the garter, 
 the chancellor of the garter, the register of the 
 garter, and black rod, the last officer being 
 instituted by the founder. 
 
 Another famous order was that of the Knights 
 of the Bath, so called from the ceremony of 
 
 bathing, that the knights underwent previous 
 to their inauguration. This order took its origin 
 in France, and its antiquity in England is traced 
 back to the time of Henry IV, who on the day he 
 was at the tower of London, dubbed forty-six 
 esquires knights, who had watched and bathed 
 the preceding night. To each of these he 
 gave green side-coats reaching down to their 
 ancles, with straight sleeves, and furred with 
 minivere ; they also wore upon their left shoulder 
 two cordons of white silk, with tassels hanging 
 down. 
 
 It was usual in former times to create knights 
 of this order from the flower of the nobility, 
 who had not previously received the order of 
 knighthood, at the coronation of kings and 
 queens, and at their marriages, sometimes also, 
 when their sons were invested prince of Wales, 
 or dukes, or when they solemnly received the 
 cincture or military girdle of knighthood, and 
 that accompanied with many ceremonies, which 
 at present are for the most part disused. 
 
 By statute January 2d, 1815, it was ordained 
 that, " for the purpose of commemorating the 
 auspicious termination of the long and arduous 
 contest in which this empire (Great Britain) has 
 been engaged," the order should be composed 
 of these classes, viz. 
 
 1st. Class. — To consist of Knights Grand 
 Crosses; number not to exceed seventy-two, 
 exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the 
 blood royal ; one-sixth of which may be ap- 
 pointed for civil and diplomatic purposes. The 
 remainder must have attained the rank of ma- 
 jor-general in the army, or rear-admiral in the 
 navy ; and must have been previously appointed 
 to the Second Class. 
 
 2d. Class. — Knights Commanders ; number 
 not to exceed, upon the first institution, one 
 hundred and eighty, exclusive of foreign offi- 
 cers, holding British commissions, of which not 
 exceeding ten may be admitted as honorary 
 knights commanders. In the event of actions 
 of signal distinction, or of future wars, the num- 
 ber of this class may be increased. To be en- 
 titled to the distinctive appellation of knight- 
 hood ; to have the same rights and privileges 
 as Knights Bachelors, but to take precedence 
 of them; to wear the badge, &c. pendent by a 
 ribbon round the neck, the star embroidered on 
 the left side. 
 
 No officer can be nominated, unless he shall 
 have received a medal or other badge of honor, 
 or shall have been especially mentioned in des- 
 patches in the London Gazette, as having dis- 
 tinguished himself in action. 
 
 No person is now eligible to this class under 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TEM 
 
 557 
 
 TEM 
 
 the rank of major-general in the army, or rear- 
 admiral of the navy. 
 
 3d. Class. — Companions of the Order; notlim- 
 ited in order ; not limited in number ; they are 
 to takp precedence of Esquires, but not entitled 
 to the appellation, style, &c. of Knights Bach- 
 elors. To wear the badge assigned to the Third 
 Class, pendent by a narrow red ribbon to the 
 button-hole. 
 
 Motto of the Order — Triajuncta in uno — 
 the Trinity. 
 
 The Knights of the Thistle is a Scotch order. 
 As to the origin of this ancient order, John Les- 
 ly, bishop of Ross, in his History of Scotland, 
 says, it took its beginning from a bright cross in 
 Heaven, like that whereon St. Andrew the apos- 
 tle suffered martyrdom, which appeared to 
 Achaius, king of Scots, and Hungus, king of 
 the Picts, the night before the battle was fought 
 betwixt them and Athelstane, king of England, 
 as they were on their knees at prayer ; when 
 St. Andrew, their tutelary saint, is said also to 
 have appeared, and promised to these kings that 
 they should always be victorious when that sign 
 appeared ; and the next day these kings pre- 
 vailing over king Athelstane in battle, they 
 went in solemn procession, bare footed, to the 
 kirk of St. Andrew, to return thanks to God 
 and his apostle for their victory, vowing that 
 they and their posterity would ever wear the 
 figure of that cross in their ensigns and banners ; 
 the place where this battle was fought retains 
 to this day the name of Athelstane's Ford, in 
 Northumberland. 
 
 James the Fifth, king of Scotland, in 1534, 
 received the order of the Golden Fleece from the 
 Emperor Charles V, as also that of St. Michael 
 from Francis the First, king of France, in 1535, 
 and that of the Garter in 1536, from Henry VIII, 
 king of England ; and in memory of the recep- 
 tion of these orders, keeping open court, he sol- 
 emnized the several feasts of St. Andrew, the 
 Golden Fleece, St. Michael, and St. George of 
 England, that the several princes might know 
 how much he honored their orders ; he set the 
 arms of the princes (encircled with their or- 
 ders) over the gate of his palace at Linlithgow, 
 with the order of St. Andrew. 
 
 About the time of the Reformation this order 
 was scarcely used, the knights then being so 
 zealous for the reformed religion, that they left 
 their order} and it was not resumed till the 
 reign of king James VII, who created eight 
 knights, and for their better regulation, signed 
 a body of statutes, and appointed the royal chap- 
 el at Holy rood House to be the chapel of the or- 
 
 der as it still continues. Queen Anne restored 
 this order to its ancient magnificence. 
 
 The order of Knights of St. Patrick was in- 
 stituted by king Ceorge III, Feb. 5, 1783, con- 
 sisting of the sovereign, a grand master, a prince 
 of the blood royal, thirteen knights, and seven 
 officers. The first investiture of knights of this 
 order was performed the 11th of March, 1783, 
 with much ceremony. 
 
 Motto — Quis separabit? — Who shall part us ? 
 
 The order of knights of St. Michael and St. 
 George was instituted April 27, 1818, for the 
 United States of the Ionian Islands, and for the 
 ancient sovereignty of Malta and its dependen- 
 cies, consisting of eight knights grand crosses, 
 twelve knights commanders, and twenty-four 
 knights, exclusive of* British subjects holding 
 high and confidential employ in the Ionian 
 islands, and in the government of Malta and its 
 dependencies. 
 
 Motto. Auspicium melioris tevi. Ribbon. 
 Red with blue edges. 
 
 The order of knights Bachelors is the most 
 ancient, though the lowest order of knights in 
 England. It was accounted the first of all mil- 
 itary dignity, and the foundation of all honors. 
 The word Bachelor was added by king Henry 
 III, and so styled, because this title of honor 
 dies with the person to whom it is given, and 
 descends not to his posterity. 
 
 This title, which was anciently in high es- 
 teem, is now conferred indiscriminately upon 
 gownsmen, physicians, burghers, and artists, 
 but it is still accounted a respectable degree of 
 honor both in England and foreign countries. 
 A knight may be made as soon as a child is 
 baptized, the ceremony now in use being no 
 other than kneeling down before the king, who, 
 with a drawn sword, lightly touches him on the 
 right shoulder, with these words, Sois chevalier 
 au nom de Dien ; and then, Avancez, chevalier. 
 
 We shall now give an account of the Knights 
 of the Round Taele. Arthur, king of the 
 Britons, succeeded his father, Uther Pendra- 
 gon, who was brother to Aurelius Ambrosius, 
 the third son of Constantine ; he married Igren, 
 duchess of Cornwall, by whom he had this son 
 Arthur (born at Tindagal in Cornwall), who 
 was the eleventh king of England from the de- 
 parture of the Romans, and was crowned about 
 the year 516. 
 
 King Arthur, having expelled the Saxons 
 from England, conquered Norway, Scotland, 
 and the greatest part of France, where he was 
 crowned at Paris; and, returning home, lived 
 with such splendor, that many princes and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
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 553 
 
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 knights came from all parts to his court, to give 
 proof of their valor in the exercise of arms. 
 Upon this he erected a Fraternity of knights, 
 which consisted of four and twenty; of whom 
 he was chief; and to avoid controversies about 
 precedency, he caused a Round Table to be 
 made, from which they were denominated 
 Knights of the Round Table. The said table, 
 according to tradition, hangs up in the castle of 
 Winchester, where they used to meet, and the 
 time of their meeting was at Whitsuntide. 
 
 None were admitted but those who gave suf- 
 ficient proofs of their valor and dexterity in 
 arms. They were to be always well armed for 
 horse or foot; " they were to protect and de- 
 fend widows, maidens, and children, relieve the 
 distressed, maintain the Christian faith, contri- 
 bute to the Church, to protect pilgrims, advance 
 honor, and suppress vice. To bury soldiers 
 that wanted sepulchres, to ransom captives, 
 deliver prisoners, and administer to the cure of 
 wounded soldiers, hurt in the service of their 
 country. To record all noble enterprises, that 
 the fame thereof may ever live to their honor 
 and the renown of the noble order." 
 
 That upon any complaint made to the king 
 of injury or oppression, one of these knights, 
 whom the king should appoint, was to revenge 
 the same. If any foreign knight came to court, 
 with desire to show his prowess, some one of 
 these knights was to be ready in arms to answer 
 him. If any lady, gentlewoman, or other op- 
 pressed and injured person, did present a peti- 
 tion, declaring the same, whether the injury 
 was done here, or beyond sea, he or she should 
 be graciously heard, and, without delay, one or 
 more knights should be sent to take revenge. 
 Every knight, for the advancement of chivalry, 
 should be ready to inform and instruct young 
 lords and gentlemen in the exercises of arms. 
 According to Guillim, there was no robe or 
 habit prescribed unto these knights, nor could 
 he find with what ceremony they were made, 
 neither what offices belonged to the said order, 
 except a register to record their noble enterprises. 
 
 The Ordo Equestris, (Equestrian order) of the 
 German empire is of considerable antiquity and 
 highly honorable, being composed of persons of 
 the most ancient and illustrious families in Ger- 
 many, and in point of rank takes place next to 
 the barons. It is supposed to have been de- 
 rived from the ancient Roman Equestrian Or- 
 der, which ranked next to the Senate. 
 
 Formerly all those who were admitted into 
 Ordo Equestris, wore round their neck a golden 
 chain, with a medal pendent thereto, and which 
 
 is still painted on the helmet placed over each 
 coat of arms. But since a great number of so- 
 cial and regular orders of knighthood have been 
 introduced all over Europe, the chain has in 
 general been laid aside, and is now only worn 
 by the principal officers of the districts of the 
 empire belonging to those Equites, and where 
 they are formed into corporations as a free state, 
 holding immediately under the emperor. Here, 
 however, it is necessary to observe, that the im- 
 perial patent is not sufficient to enable the 
 Grantee to belong to this body corporate, un- 
 less he holds a fee of the empire ; on the con- 
 trary, without such a holding, the patent gives 
 him only personal honor and precedency in 
 courts of justice and all other places indiscrimi- 
 nately, and that free from all hindrance or mo- 
 lestation whatsoever. The Ordo Equestris are 
 not under any particular restraint, or governed 
 by any laws, statutes, or ordinances, other than 
 such as concern the empire in general. The 
 title is hereditary to all the children and de- 
 scendants, in a right line of the grantee, both 
 male and female, and is entirely patrimonial 
 and feudal ; a circumstance elucidated and fully 
 confirmed by an established rule of Empire, 
 already mentioned, viz. That such grantee 
 cannot belong to the body corporate of the Ordo 
 Equestris, unless he holds a fee of the empire ; 
 and if he doth not hold such a fee, that he gains 
 nothing farther by his patent than personal 
 honor and precedency. 
 
 In June, 1757, the empress queen of Germa- 
 ny instituted the Military Order of Maria 
 Theresa, which was at first composed of an 
 unlimited number of knights, divided into two 
 classes ; the first of which wear the badge of 
 the order pendent to a broad striped watered 
 ribbon, of which two fifths are black and three 
 fifths yellow, sashways over the right shoulder, 
 and a cross or star embroidered in silver on the 
 left breast of their outer garment. 
 
 The second class wear the badge pendent to 
 a narrow striped ribbon at the button-hole. This 
 order continued from its first institution until 
 the year 1765, when the emperor added an in- 
 termediate class, styled Knights Commanders, 
 who wear the ribbon sash- ways, but without 
 any star on the outer garment. The badge of 
 the order is a cross of gold enamelled white, 
 edged with gold, on the centre are the arms of 
 Austria encircled with the word Fortitudine, 
 and on the reverse is a cipher of the letter M. 
 T. F. (Maria Theresa Fundator) in gold, on an 
 enamelled ground. This order is conferred on 
 military men only. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
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 559 
 
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 The ladies' order in honor of the Cross, is 
 another German order. A conflagration, which 
 happened at the emperor's palace in the year 
 1GG8, was the occasion of the foundation of this 
 order. The badge of the order is a golden 
 medal chased and pierced ; in the centre the 
 imperial eagle, over all a cross surmounted 
 with the letters I. H. S. and a small cross over 
 the H, with this motto, Salus et Gloria — Safety 
 and Glory. 
 
 Eleonora Di Gonzaga, widow of the emperor 
 Ferdinand III instituted the order of Ladies 
 Slaves to Virtue in 1GG2, and declared herself 
 sovereign of it. The number that compose it 
 is limited to thirty, all to be of the Romish re- 
 ligion, and of the best nobility. The badge 
 worn by the ladies of this order is a golden sun, 
 encircled with a chaplet of laurel, enamelled 
 green, with this motto over it, Sola ubiquc tri- 
 umphal. It is worn pendent at the breast to a 
 small chain of gold, or a plain narrow black 
 ribbon. 
 
 The order of the Bear was instituted at the 
 Abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland, by the em- 
 peror Frederic II, in the year 1213. St. Ursus, 
 being the patron of it, communicated their name 
 to the same ; it flourished from its institution 
 until the revolution by which the House of 
 Austria lost the Swiss cantons, when it was 
 abolished. The order having been upwards of 
 three centuries extinct, it is unnecessary to say 
 any thing farther of it. The collar was a gold 
 chain interlaced with oak leaves, to which hung 
 the figure of a black bear on a medallion, hav- 
 ing under it a hillock enamelled vest. 
 
 The order of the Elephant is a Danish order 
 of great celebrity. It was instituted by Chris- 
 tian the First, on the marriage of his son John 
 with Christina of Saxony, in the year 1748, 
 since which time it has subsisted without inter- 
 ruption or degradation. It is now conferred 
 only on princes of the blood, foreign princes, or 
 noblemen of the first rank. The knights of it 
 are addressed by the title of Excellency. On 
 ordinary occasions they wear the badge of the 
 order pendent to a sky-blue watered ribbon, 
 worn sashways over the right shoulder, and a 
 star of eight points embroidered in silver on the 
 left side of their outer garments. But on days 
 of ceremony they wear it pendent to a collar of 
 gold composed of Elephants and Towers. The 
 badge is an elephant, on his back a castle en- 
 amelled, and on the side of the elephant a cross 
 of Danehrog in diamonds. 
 
 The Order of the Holy Ghost is the most il- 
 lustrious order of knighthood in France. It was 
 
 instituted by Henry the Third, in the year 1579, 
 on Whitsunday, the festival on which he was 
 born in the year 1551, elected king of Poland 
 1573, and called to the throne of France in the 
 year 1574. The number of persons that com- 
 pose it is limited by the statutes to one hundred, 
 exclusive of the Sovereign or Grand Master. 
 Of these, four cardinals, five prelates, the chan- 
 cellor, the master of the ceremonies, the trea- 
 surer, the register, and the provost, are styled 
 commanders, without being considered as 
 knights, though they usually wear the badges 
 or insignia of the order. All are to profess the 
 Roman Catholic religion ; and the knights are 
 to prove the nobility of their descent for a hun- 
 dred years and upwards ; but no proofs of this 
 kind are required of the commanders whose 
 offices or honors are commonly sold at a regu- 
 lated price. The king of France is sovereign 
 or grand master of it ; and by the statutes this 
 office is inalienably annexed to the crown, but 
 he cannot exercise its functions until after his 
 coronation, when he is installed, with much 
 ceremony, as sovereign of the order. To be a 
 knight of it, it is necessary for all except prin- 
 ces of the blood, to have attained the age of 
 thirty-three, and to have been admitted into the 
 order of St. Michael, into which even the prin 
 ces must enter at sixteen years old. The Dau 
 phin only is excepted from this rule, he being 
 received into both orders on the day of his birth. 
 The commanders are not knights of the order 
 of St. Michael, and here arises the difference 
 between their styles and titles and those by 
 which the knights are distinguished; the 
 knights being called Chevaliers des Ordres du 
 Roy; and the commanders, if ecclesiastics, 
 Commandeur de U Ordre du St. Esprit ; if lay- 
 men, Commandeur des Ordres du Roy. 
 
 The Royal and Military Order of St. Louis 
 was instituted by Louis XIV, in the year 1693, 
 and by the statutes of it the office of the Sove- 
 reign or Grand Master is annexed to the crown. 
 It is conferred on naval and military officers, 
 who have distinguished themselves in the ser- 
 vice at any age, or at any time, but, unless they 
 have done so, they do not obtain it until they 
 have served five and twenty years as commis- 
 sioned officers : after that period, they expect it 
 as a matter of right, more than of favor ; hence 
 it happens that the number of knights is great 
 and unlimited. In this order are three classes ; 
 the first consists of forty knights, who are styled 
 Chevaliers Grand Croix— Knights Grand Cross. 
 They wore a flame-colored watered ribbon sash- 
 ways, to which is pendent a cross of eight points 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 TEM 
 
 560 
 
 TEM 
 
 enamelled white, edged with gold ; in the an- 
 gles four Fleurs de Lys, and on the middle a 
 • circle, within which on one side is the image of 
 St. Louis in armor, with the royal mantle over 
 it, holding in his left hand a crown of thorns, 
 and in his right hand a crown of laurel, and the 
 three passion nails all proper, with this inscrip- 
 tion Ludovicus Magnus institute anno 1693. On 
 the reverse a sword erect, the point through a 
 chaplet of laurel, bound with a white ribbon, 
 enamelled with this motto, Bellicaz virtutis pre- 
 mium ; besides which they wear, embroidered 
 on the left side of their outer garment, a gold 
 star of eight points with Fleur de Lys at the an- 
 gles and the figures of St. Louis, with the motto 
 on the centre. The second class are eighty in 
 number, and are styled Chevaliers Comman- 
 deurs, &c. These wear the ribbon and badge 
 in the same manner as the knights of the former 
 class, but have no star embroidered on their 
 outer garment. The third class is not limited 
 to any number : and the knights of it are styled 
 simply Chevaliers de Vordrc Royale et Militaire 
 de St. Louis. These wear the badge of the or- 
 der pendent to a flame-colored watered ribbon, 
 at the button-hole of their outer garment. The 
 knights of the first class have pensions of from 
 four to six thousand livres a year, and when a 
 vacancy happens among them, it is rilled by 
 the next seniority of the second class. The 
 knights of the second class have pensions of 
 from three to four thousand livres a year, and 
 the vacancies that happen among them are 
 filbd up by the king, from among the most fa- 
 vored and deserving of the third class. The 
 knights of the third class have no pensions of 
 right, but it frequently happens that the poorest 
 and the most distinguished of them obtain small 
 pecuniary favors, which they term Gratification. 
 It is not necessary to be of a noble family to be 
 admitted into this order; nor does it ennoble 
 the family of the person who obtains it, though 
 it gives him the privileges of the Noblesse; and 
 if there be three knights of it, in regular suc- 
 cession, in a plebeian family, it ennobles all the 
 branches of it. All knights of this order must 
 be Roman Catholics. 
 
 The knights of the order of Bourbon were 
 sometimes called knights of the Thistle, and 
 knights of our Lady. They were in number 
 twenty-six, were instituted by Louis the Good, 
 Duke of Bourbon, in honor of the Virgin Mary, 
 in the year 1370, and became extinct soon after. 
 Their motto was Mien or Mlons, and on the 
 collar of their order the word Esperance. 
 
 The collar was of gold, weighing ten marks, 
 
 fastened with a golden buckle ; it consisted of 
 whole lozenges, and a double role of half lozen- 
 ges, enamelled green, and filled with Fleurs- 
 de-Lis of gold, in the whole lozenges the word 
 Esperance, each letter within a lozenge, enam- 
 elled red; and pendent to the collar was an 
 oval, enamelled green and red, thereon the 
 image of the Blessed Virgin, crowned with 
 twelve stars of silver, a crescent of the same 
 under her feet, her garments enamelled purple 
 and sky-color, and at the bottom of the oval a 
 Thistle Green. 
 
 The order of the Death's Head was first in- 
 stituted by the Duke of Wirtemberg, in the 
 year ] 652, and both sexes were equally admitted 
 to it, but, having soon fallen into disuse, it was 
 revived again in the year 1709, by Louise Eliz- 
 abeth, widow of Philip, Duke of Saxe Mers- 
 burg, and daughter of the original founder. 
 The badge of this order is a Death's head, 
 enamelled white, surmounted with a cross pattee 
 black; above the cross pattee another cross 
 composed of five large jewels, by which it hangs 
 to a black ribbon edged with white, and on the 
 ribbon these words, Memento Morii, worn at the 
 breast. But on the death of any of the order, 
 the survivors wear the badge pendent to a black 
 ribbon over a white one, on which is the name 
 of the deceased. 
 
 Some of the orders of knighthood in Palestine 
 and other parts of Asia were very celebrated. 
 The order of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, 
 according to Favin, was instituted by Baldwin 
 I, king of Jerusalem, who made the regular 
 canons (which then resided in a convent adjoin- 
 ing to the Holy Sepulchre) knights of the said 
 order; they were to guard the Holy Sepulchre, 
 to relieve and protect prilgrims. The Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem was appointed their Grand Mas- 
 ter, with power for conferring the order, and 
 receiving the vow made by the knights, which 
 was of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Their 
 habit was white, and on their breast a gold cross 
 potent, cantoned with four crosses of the same 
 without enamel, pendent to a black ribbon. 
 They wore the cross of yellow embroidery on 
 the left side of their robe. When the city of Je- 
 rusalem was taken by the Saracens, the knights 
 retired to Italy, and settled at Pemgia, and were 
 afterwards united to the knights of St. John of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Certain Christian merchants of Malfis in the 
 kingdom of Naples, who traded to Palestine, 
 obtained leave from the Caliph of Egypt to 
 dwell near the Holy Sepulchre of Christ, and 
 to erect a small house for the entertainment of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TEM 
 
 561 
 
 TEM 
 
 themselves and pilgrims, which they named the 
 Hospital of Christians, with a small oratory 
 dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Their number 
 increasing, they built another house for women, 
 and dedicated it to St. Mary Magdalen. Their 
 number still increasing, they built a more con- 
 venient house, the others being too small, and 
 dedicated it to St. John the Baptist. They enter- 
 tained all pilgrims that came for devotion, and 
 cured the diseased among them. They became 
 eminent for their devotion, chanty, and hospi- 
 tality. St. John Baptist, being their patron, 
 they were called Brethren Hospitallers of St. 
 John Baptist of Jerusalem, to distinguish them 
 from the knights of the Holy Sepulchre; they 
 took the black habit of the Hermits of St. Au- 
 gustin, and on the left side of the breast, they 
 wore a cross of white cloth, with eight points. 
 In war they wore crimson, with a white cross, 
 but in their monasteries and on the day of their 
 profession the black garment only. This order 
 increased in wealth after the suppression of the 
 Templars, most of whose lands were given to 
 them. They had in several parts of Christen- 
 dom 20,000 manors ; in England the Lord Prior 
 of the order was accounted the prime baron of 
 the realm. 
 
 Their first Great Master was Gerard de Sainct 
 Didier, by whom they were founded ; the last 
 master that had his residence in the Holy Land 
 was John de Villers,in whose time, being driven 
 out of Palestine, they removed to Cyprus, and 
 then to the isle of Rhodes, which they possessed 
 till the year 1523, when they were expelled by 
 Solyman the Magnificent, who took it by force, 
 through want of succor by the Christian princes. 
 The city was admirably defended by the knights, 
 under the conduct of their Great Master, Philip 
 de Villiers. 
 
 After the loss of the isle of Rhodes, they re- 
 moved to the island of Malta, which with Tri- 
 poli and Gaza were granted to them in fee by 
 the emperor Charles V., A. D. 1530, under the 
 tender of one falcon yearly to the viceroy of 
 Sicily, and to acknowledge the king of Spain 
 and Sicily for their protectors. In this isle 
 they continued a bulwark to those parts, and 
 from this their settlement, were called Knights 
 of Malta. 
 
 In May, 1563, they were besieged by Soly- 
 man, with a navy of 160 galleys full of Turkish 
 soldiers, and 100 vessels with provisions. The 
 siege was sustained for four months by the bra- 
 very of the knights, and the conduct of their 
 Great Master, John de Velete,so that the Turks 
 were obliged to raise the siege, and leave 3000 
 
 of their men behind, and the greater part of 
 their artillery, on the 8th of September in the 
 same year. Upon which day there is annually 
 a procession at Malta, in memory of their deliv- 
 erance. 
 
 These knights were in number 1000; 500 to 
 reside in the island of Malta, the remainder dis- 
 persed at their seminaries in Spain, Germany, 
 Italy , and France, and at any summons to make 
 their personal appearance. A seminary they 
 had in England till the suppression of it by 
 Henry VIII ; yet they continued to appoint one 
 to whom they gave the title of the Grand Prior 
 of England. Out of the following nations, they 
 chose their officers, viz. Provence, the Grand 
 Prior; Auvergne, the Marshal of the Order; 
 Italy, the Admiral of the Order; Arragon, the 
 Conservator of the Order ; England they used 
 to appoint the Great Colonel of the cavalry ; 
 Germany, the High Bailiff of the Order; Cas- 
 tile, the High Chancellor of the Order. 
 
 None were admitted into this order, but such 
 as could prove their gentility for six descents : 
 they swore to defend the church, to obey their 
 superiors, and to live upon the revenues of their 
 order only. There were sixteen called the 
 Great Crosses, out of whom the officers of their 
 order, as the Marshal, Admiral, Chancellor, 
 &c. were chosen, who, together with the Mas- 
 ter, punished such as were convicted of any 
 crime. 
 
 When the Grand Master died, they suffered 
 no vessel to go out of the island till another 
 was chosen, lest the pope should interfere in 
 their election, which was as follows : the several 
 seminaries named two knights each, allowing 
 also two for the English; and those sixteen 
 from among themselves chose eight ; those eight 
 chose a knight, a Priest, and a Friar Servant; 
 and these three, out of the sixteen Great Crosses, 
 elected the Great Master, who, being chosen, 
 was styled, ' The most illustrious and most rev- 
 erend Prince, the Lord Friar N. N. Great Mas- 
 ter of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 Prince of Malta and Gaza.' 
 
 The badge of the order was a gold cross of 
 eight points, enamelled white, pendent to a 
 black watered ribbon, worn at the breast. This 
 order having been composed of persons of dif- 
 ferent countries, the badge was decorated so as 
 to distinguish the country of the bearer, viz. 
 Germany, by an Imperial crown and eagle; 
 France, the crown and Fleurs-de-lis, &c. 
 
 In 1798, the knights of Malta yielded their 
 dominion to the French power, from whom it 
 was soon after wrested by the British, in which 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TEM 
 
 562 
 
 TEM 
 
 crown it was finally vested by the peace of 
 
 When the Holy land began to grow famous 
 by the expeditions of Christian princes, the 
 Order of the knights Hospitallers had its begin- 
 ning, or rather its restoration, by Girardus; for 
 the origin is attributed to Schannes Hircanus 
 Machabeus, or John, Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 who, for his liberality to the poor, was surnamed 
 Eleemosynarius. These knights, having their 
 chief seat at first in the Hospital of St. John 
 Baptist at Jerusalem, which was re-edified by 
 the same Girard, took that Saint for their pa- 
 tron, but their rule from Pope Gelasius II ; and 
 Honorious II assigned them a black mantle, 
 with a white cross. Raimundus de Po'dis, the 
 first Master, devised the statutes of their order, 
 and entitles himself Scrvus pavperum Christi, 
 et Hospitalis thierosolomitani Custodem. 
 
 The Polish order of the White Eagle was 
 first instituted in the year 1325, by Uladislaus 
 
 V, but having soon fallen into disuse, it lay in 
 oblivion till the year 1705, when Augustus, 
 Elector of Saxony and king of Poland, revived 
 it as an instrument to attach to his own interest 
 and person several of the Polish nobility, who, 
 he feared, were inclined to Stanislaus, his com- 
 petitor. Motto, Pro fide, rege, lege. 
 
 Alphonso Henriquez, king of Portugal, insti- 
 tuted the Order of the Wing of St. Michael, in 
 the year 1172, in commemoration of a victory 
 obtained by him over the Moors, whom he 
 imagined he overcame by the direct interposi- 
 tion of St. Michael, who, according to the le- 
 gend, appeared fighting in the king's right 
 wing. 
 
 The Order of St. George in Rome was insti- 
 tuted, according to some, by pope Alexander 
 
 VI, in the year 1498, or, according to Michaeli, 
 by pope Paul HI, to encourage naval men to 
 defend the coast of the Adriatic against pirates. 
 The badge of it was a cross of gold within a 
 circle of the same, like an open crown. 
 
 The Order of St- Peter and St. Paul was in- 
 stituted by Leo the Tenth, in the year 1520, 
 to defend the sea-coasts of his territories against 
 the Turks who threatened them. 
 
 The Prussian Order of the Black Eagle was 
 instituted by Frederick I. at his coronation in 
 the year 1701. By the statutes of it, the num- 
 ber of knights, exclusive of the Princes of the 
 blood, is limited to thirty, who must all be ad- 
 mitted into the order of Generosity previous to 
 their receiving this, unless they be sovereign 
 princes ; the knights to prove their nobility by 
 sixteen descents. The kings of Prussia are 
 
 perpetual Grand Masters of it. There belong 
 to it a Chancellor, who is also a knight, a Mas- 
 ter of the Ceremonies, and a Treasurer. The 
 ensign of the order is a gold cross of eight points 
 enamelled blue, having at each angle a spread 
 eagle enamelled black, and charged with a ci- 
 pher of the letters F. R. This each knight 
 w r ears commonly pendent to a broad orange rib- 
 bon, worn sash- wise over the left shoulder, and 
 a silver star embroidered on the left side of their 
 outer garment, whereon is an escutcheon con- 
 taining a spread eagle, holding in one claw a 
 chaplet of laurel, and in the other a thunderbolt, 
 with this motto in gold letter round it, Suum 
 cuique. The king chose the Black Eagle, being 
 the arms of Prussia ; and the color of the ribbon, 
 on account of his mother, a Princess of Orange. 
 
 First among the Russian orders is that of St. 
 Andrew. Peter the Great instituted this order 
 in the year 1098, and chose for its patron St. 
 Andrew, (on account of this Apostle's having 
 been, according to tradition, the founder of 
 Christianity among the Muscovites). His mo- 
 tive for instituting this order was to animate 
 his nobles and chief officers in their wars against 
 the Turks ; and he conferred it on those who 
 had signalized themselves in his service. 
 
 The Order of the Sivord in Cyprus was insti- 
 tuted by Guy de Lusignan, about the end of 
 the twelfth century, soon after he had acquired 
 the kingdom of Cyprus by purchase from Rich- 
 ard Cceur de Lion. This order was on its insti- 
 tution conferred on three hundred Barons, who 
 were then created : it continued to flourish 
 until it became extinct, on the Turks conquer- 
 ing the island of Cyprus. Motto, Securitas 
 Regni. 
 
 The most celebrated Spanish order, was the 
 Order of the Golden Fleece. This order was 
 instituted at Bruges, in Flanders, the 10th of 
 January, 1492 [the day of his marriage with his 
 third wife, Isabella of Portugal,] by Philip, 
 Duke of Burgundy. The occasion of its insti- 
 tution is a subject of controversy among anti- 
 quaries : but it appears most probable, that, 
 having determined to institute an order of 
 knighthood, he chose for the badge of it the 
 material of the staple manufactories of his coun- 
 try, which was the fleece ; and this emblem 
 might have been the more agreeable to him from 
 the figure it made in the heroic ages of the 
 world, when the Argonautic expedition was 
 undertaken for it. However this may be, it at 
 first consisted of thirty knights, including the 
 sovereign, who were of the first families in the 
 Low Countries ; and though it has undergone 
 
o 
 
 I 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TEN 
 
 563 
 
 TEN 
 
 some changes since its foundation, it has ever 
 been ranked among the most illustrious and 
 distinguished orders of knighthood in Europe. 
 
 At present there are two different branches 
 <of this order ; of one of which the emperor is 
 sovereign ; and the king of Spain of the other, 
 of which we now speak. The number of knights 
 is not limited, though it seldom exceeds seventy 
 or eighty, of which there are generally a good 
 many of the French and Italian nobility ; but 
 all must prove their noble descent from the 
 twelfth century. They wear usually a Golden 
 fleece Cross, pendent to abroad plain red ribbon 
 round their necks; but on days of ceremony 
 they wear the collar of the order, which is com- 
 posed of double steels, interwoven with flint 
 stone, emitting sparks of fire, the whole enam- 
 elled in their proper colors, at the end whereof 
 hangs on the breast the golden fleece. The fu- 
 sils are joined two and two together, as if they 
 were double BB's, the cipher of Burgundj', and 
 the flint stones the ancient arms of the Sove- 
 reigns of Burgundy of the first race; with their 
 motto, Antcferit quam flamvia mlcet. The mot- 
 to of the order, is Prcetium non vile laborcm. 
 There are four officers, viz. the chancellor, the 
 treasurer, the register, and a king at arms, call- 
 ed Toison a" or. 
 
 The Order of St. Mark, was conferred by 
 the duke of Venice, and by the senate, upon 
 persons of eminent quality, or such as had de- 
 served well of the State. In the year 828, the 
 body of St. Mark was removed from Alexandria 
 in Egypt (where it was buried) to the city of 
 Venice. This saint has been taken for their tu- 
 telar saint and guardian. His picture was an- 
 ciently painted upon their ensigns and banners. 
 Motto, Pax tibi, Marce Evangelista Meus. 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir William, a celebrated states- 
 man, born in London in 1628. In 1665, he went 
 on a secret mission to Munster ; after which he 
 was employed in forming the triple alliance be- 
 tween England, Sweden, and Holland. He 
 next became the resident minister at the Hague, 
 and in that capacity promoted the marriage of 
 the prince of Orange and the princess Mary. 
 In 1679 he was appointed secretary of state ; 
 but the next year he resigned that situation, and 
 retired to his country seat in Surrey, where he 
 was often visited by Charles II, James II, and 
 William III. He died in 1700. 
 
 TENNESSEE, one of the United States, 
 
 bounded N. by Kentucky and Virginia ; E. by 
 
 North Carolina, S. by Alabama, and Mississippi, 
 
 and W. bv Mississippi river. It contains 40,000 
 
 43 
 
 square miles, and had, in 1830, 829,510 inhabit- 
 ants, of whom 183,359 were slaves. 
 
 The Cumberland mountains divide this state 
 into East and West Tennessee. 
 
 The western part of this state is level or gen- 
 tly undulating, the middle is broken by hills, 
 and the eastern part is mountainous. Of this 
 variety, Mr. Flint says, " There can be nothing 
 of grand and imposing in scenery, nothing 
 striking and picturesque in cascades and pre- 
 cipitous sides of mountains covered with woods, 
 nothing romantic and delightful in deep and 
 sheltered valleys, through which wind still and 
 clear streams, which is not found in this state." 
 The articles which are sent to the New Or- 
 leans' market are cotton, indigo, corn, whiskey, 
 hogs, horses, cattle, flour, gunpowder, salt-petre, 
 poultry, bacon, lard, butter, apples, pork, coarse 
 linen, tobacco, &c. 
 
 The chief towns are Murfreesborough, Nash- 
 ville, Knoxville, Franklin, Fayetteville, Shel- 
 byville, Columbia, Clarksville, Carthage, and 
 Gallatin. Colleges have been established at 
 Greenville, Knoxville, Nashville, and in Wash- 
 ington county . The first permanent settlement 
 of the whites was made by emigrants from Vir- 
 ginia and North Carolina, in 1757 and 1758. 
 The settlers were annoyed by the Indians, Cher- 
 okees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Shawnees, 
 whose hostilities for a long time retarded the 
 progress of the settlements. Tennessee formed 
 part of North Carolina until 1790, and in 1796, it 
 was erected into a state. 
 
 TEWKESBURY, a market town of Glou 
 cestershire. It was at this place that the last 
 battle was fought between the adherents of the 
 houses of York and Lancaster. This battle, it 
 is well known, proved fatal to the Lancastrians 
 The field in which it was fought is still called 
 the Bloody Meadow, and is situated about half 
 a mile from the town. In the civil war in the 
 reign of Charles I, Tewkesbury was the scene 
 of many severe contests between the contend 
 ing forces. 
 
 TEXAS, formerly belonging to Mexico, since 
 1836, an independent republic; is bounded by 
 the Red river on the north, by the Sabine on the 
 east, and the Gulf of Mexico on the South, 
 The western boundary is still unsettled, between 
 it and Mexico. It has a gulf coast of 250 
 miles, but no good harbors for large ships ; the 
 bays being shallow, and the mouths of the rivers 
 obstructed by sand bars. The main channel 
 through Galveston bar, however, has 13 feet 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 THE 
 
 .64 
 
 THE 
 
 water. The principal rivers are the Sabine, 
 Trinidad, San Jacinto, Brazos, de Dios, Colorado, 
 Varca, Guadaloupe, San Antonio, and Neuces. 
 There are no large towns. Houston, Goliad, 
 Bexar, Gonzales, Montezuma, Matagorda, Vic- 
 toria, Washington, San Felipe de Austin, Bra- 
 zoria, Colombia, and Bolivar are the principal. 
 Austin is now the capital of Texas. Gal- 
 veston promises to be the most important sea- 
 port, though it is liable to be overflowed by high 
 tides, when the sea is driven in by storms. Na- 
 cogdoches, an old Spanish town, contains 1000 
 inhabitants It is generally a prairie country, 
 flat near the coast, and undulating in the inte- 
 rior. There are few trees except on the banks 
 of the streams, and in clusters on the prairies, 
 which also afford excellent pasturage. The cli- 
 mate is fine, and the soil productive. The in- 
 habitants are generally from the United States. 
 
 THEBES, a celebrated city, capital of Bceo- 
 tia, situated on the banks of the river Isme- 
 nus. The manner of its foundation is not pre- 
 cisely known. Cadmus is supposed to have 
 first begun to found it by building the citadel 
 Cadmea. It was afterwards finished by Amphi- 
 on and Zethus ; but, according to Varro, it owed 
 its origin to Ogyges. The government of 
 Thebes was monarchical, and many of the sove- 
 reigns are celebrated for their misfortunes, such 
 as Lais, QEdipus, Polynices,Eteocles,&c. The 
 war which Thebes supported against the Ar- 
 rives, is famous as well as that of the Epigoni. 
 Under Epaminondas, the Thebans, though be- 
 fore dependent, became masters of Greece, and 
 every thing was done according to their will 
 and pleasure. When Alexander invaded 
 Greece, he ordered Thebes to be totally demol- 
 ished, because it had revolted against him, ex- 
 cept the house where the poet Pindar had been 
 born and educated. In this dreadful period, 
 6,000 of its inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 
 sold for slaves. Thebes was afterwards repair- 
 ed by Cassander, the son of Antipater, but it 
 never rose to its original consequence, and Stra- 
 bo, in his age, mentions it merely as an incon- 
 siderable village. The monarchical govern- 
 ment was abolished there at the death of Xan- 
 thus, about 1 190 years before Christ, and Thebes 
 became a republic. 
 
 THEBES, an ancient celebrated city of The- 
 bais, in Egypt, called also Hecatonipylos on ac- 
 count of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as 
 being sacred to Jupiter. It was ruined by Catn- 
 oyses, king of Persia. Its most magnificent ru- 
 ins are those of Luxor and Karnac, of which an 
 
 account is subjoined. Although there is a same- 
 ness in the character of the Egyptian scenery, 
 it is such as is to be seen in no other land. The 
 Libyan and Arabian chains of mountains, per- 
 fectly naked, stretch on each side of the Nile 
 nearly to the first cataract, generally within a 
 few miles of the river, and sometimes close to 
 it, or forming its bank. At the foot of these 
 naked masses of a light color, often appear 
 groups of the most vivid and beautiful verdure, 
 the palm and sycamore spreading over some 
 lonely cottage, a herd of goats and buffaloes 
 winding their way, or a camel silently grazing. 
 The utter barrenness and desolation that often 
 encompass scenes and spots of exquisite fruitful- 
 ness and beauty, the tomb of the San ton with 
 its scanty shade, and the white minaret with ita 
 palm and cypress placed on the very verge of a 
 boundless desert, or amidst a burning expanse 
 of sand, are almost peculiar to Egypt. Then 
 you often pass from the rich banks of the Nile, 
 covered with lime and orange-trees, where 
 groups of Orientals are seated luxuriously in 
 the shade, into a wild and howling waste, where 
 all, even the broken monuments of past ages, 
 only inspire feelings of sadness and regret. 
 
 " It was evening ere we arrived at Luxor, a 
 poor yet populous village, erected partly amidst 
 the ruins of the great temple. This edifice is 
 near the water's edge, and its lofty yellow pil- 
 lars, each thirty feet in circumference, and 
 rano-ed in lona colonnades, instantly arrest the 
 attention. On landing, we found on the sand a 
 dozen grim Egyptian statues, large as life, cut 
 in coarse granite, after the fashion of the great 
 Memnon, and in a sitting posture, close to the 
 edge of the water, that rippled at their feet. 
 The weight of each statue was enormous, and 
 would render the removal difficult; or else a 
 traveller might well be tempted to ship one of 
 them, as they seemed to be no man's property. 
 There are two most beautiful obelisks fronting 
 the gateway, seventy feet high, or in reality 
 much loftier, as a considerable part is buried in 
 rubbish. Their hieroglyphics are cut deeper, and 
 with greater delicacy, than those on any other 
 obelisks in Egypt. A Frenchman, in the em 
 ployment of Drovetti the consul, resided here, 
 who showed us much politeness ; he was an in- 
 telligent man, dressed in the Arab costume, and 
 had resided sixteen years in various parts of this 
 country. His companion, Moris Bonnet, had 
 gone to Cairo for a supply of wine and other 
 comforts, and he felt solitary and impatient for 
 his return : he possessed a small collection of 
 minerals and other curiosities, and had mariu- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 THE 
 
 565 
 
 THE 
 
 factured a cool and delightful sort of palm-wine 
 out of the juice of the tree, which was very 
 grateful to us in the sultry heat of the day. 
 Sixteen years' residence in Upper Egypt is really 
 a trial of a man's patience and enthusiasm, and 
 for two Frenchmen above all beings. Suleiman 
 Aga, commander of the Pacha's Mamelukes at 
 Esneh, a town two days' sail further, w r as not 
 so resigned : this man was one of Bonaparte's 
 colonels, and on the ruin of his master's fortunes 
 he came to Egypt, and offered his services to 
 the Pacha, protesting at the same time he would' 
 never consent to change his religion. Mah- 
 moud laughed, and said, he cared nothing about 
 his religion, if he only served him well; but he 
 must allow himself to be called by a Turkish 
 name, and wear the costume. Suleiman Aga 
 now lives in style as commandant at Esneh, and 
 receives travellers very hospitably ; but his soul 
 pines, amidst Egyptian beauty, for a suitable 
 companion, and he implored a fellow traveller 
 and friend of mine, to send him out an English 
 or Italian wife : he swore he would pay implicit 
 deference to his friend's advice, and marry the 
 lady the moment she arrived. The women 
 around him, he said, were so insipid; and he 
 would live there contented could he be but 
 blessed with one whom he could converse with, 
 and whose vivacity and intelligence would 
 brighten his solitary hours. 
 
 " It is difficult to describe the stupendous and 
 noble ruins of Thebes. Beyond all others they 
 give you the idea of a ruined, yet imperishable 
 city ; so vast is their extent, that you wander a 
 long time confused and perplexed, and discover 
 at every step some new object of interest. From 
 the temple of Luxor to that of Karnac, the dis- 
 tance is a mile and a half, and they were for- 
 merly connected by a long avenue of sphinxes, 
 the mutilated remains of which, the heads being 
 broken off the greater part, still line the whole 
 path. Arrived at the end of this avenue, you 
 first pass under a very elegant arched gateway, 
 seventy feet high, and quite isolated. About 
 fifty yards farther you enter a temple of inferior 
 dimensions, which Drovetti has been busy in 
 excavating; you then advance into a spacious 
 area, strewed with broken pillars, and surround- 
 ed with vast and lofty masses of ruins, — all parts 
 of the great temple : a little on your right is the 
 magnificent portico of Karnac, the vivid remem- 
 brance of which will never leave him who has 
 once gazed on it. Its numerous colonnades of 
 pillars, of gigantic form and height, are in ex- 
 cellent preservation, but without ornament; the 
 ceiling and walks of the portico are gone ; the 
 
 plat-stone still connects one of the rows of pil- 
 lars, and is ornamented ; and viewed from be- 
 low, with a slender remain of the edifice still 
 attached to it, it seems almost to hang in the 
 sky. Passing hence, you wander amidst obe 
 lisks, porticoes, and statues, the latter without 
 grace or beauty, but of a most colossal kind. If 
 you ascend one of the hills of rubbish, and look 
 around, you see a gateway standing afar, con- 
 ducting only to solitude ; detached and roofless 
 pillars, while others lie broken at their feet, the 
 busts of gigantic statues appearing above the 
 earth, while the rest of the body is yet buried, 
 or the head torn away, while others lie pros 
 trate or broken into useless fragments. On the 
 left spread the dreary deserts of the Thebais, to 
 the edge of which the city extends. In front is 
 a pointed and barren range of mountains ; the 
 Nile flows at the feet of the temple of Luxor; 
 but the ruins extend far on the other side of the 
 river, to the very feet of those formidable preci- 
 pices, and into the wastes of sand ; the natural 
 scenery around Thebes is as fine as can possibly 
 be conceived. The remainder of the statue is 
 still here, the beautiful bust of which Belzoni 
 sent to the British Museum ; it was fallen and 
 broken off long since. Drovetti is quite inex- 
 cusable in causing one of the two beautiful obe- 
 lisks at the entrance of the temple of Karnac to 
 be thrown down and broken, that he might car- 
 ry off the upper part: such an act is absolute 
 sacrilege. One cannot help imagining that a 
 vast deal yet remains to be discovered beneath 
 this world of ruins, on both sides of the river ; 
 but the pursuit requires incessant and undivided 
 attention A traveller must lay his account to 
 spend six months in excavating here, with a 
 body of Arabs, who work very cheaply, and 
 must put up with many privations, before he 
 could expect to be richly compensated for his 
 pains. 
 
 " The second visit we paid to Karnac was still 
 more interesting. The moon had risen, and 
 we passed through one or two Arab villages in 
 the way, where fires were lighted in the open 
 air, and the men, after the labors of the day, 
 were seated in groups round them, smoking and 
 conversing with great cheerfulness. It is sin- 
 gular that in the most burning climates of the 
 East, the inhabitants always love a good fire at 
 night, and a traveller soon catches the habit ; 
 yet the air was still very warm. There was no 
 fear of interruption in exploring the ruins, as 
 the Arabs dread to come here after daylight, as 
 they often say these places were built by Afrit, 
 the devil ; and the belief in apparitions prevails 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 THE 
 
 566 
 
 THE 
 
 among most of the Orientals. We again en- 
 tered with delight the grand portico. It was a 
 night of uncommon beauty, without a breath 
 of wind stirring, and the moonlight fell vividly 
 on some parts of the colonnades, while others 
 were shaded so as to add to, rather than dimin- 
 ish their grandeur. The obelisks, the statues, 
 the lonely columns on the plain without, threw 
 their long shadows on the mass of ruins around 
 them, and the scene*was in truth exquisitely 
 mournful and beautiful." 
 
 TH EMISTOCLES, a celebrated general born 
 at Athens. When Xerxes invaded Greece, 
 Themistocles was at the head of the Athenian 
 republic, and in this capacity the fleet wes en- 
 trusted to his care. While the Lacedcomonians 
 under Leonidas were opposing the Persians at 
 Thermopylae, the naval operations of Themis- 
 tocles, and of the combined fleet of the Pelopon- 
 nesians were directed to destroy the armament 
 of Xerxes, and to ruin his maritime power. 
 This battle, which was fought near the island 
 of Salamis, B. C. 480, was decisive ; the Greeks 
 obtained the victory, and Themistocles the 
 honor of having destroyed the formidable navy 
 of Xerxes. Further to ensure the peace of his 
 country, Themistocles informed the Asiatic 
 monarch, that the Greeks had conspired to cut 
 the bridge which he had built across the Helles- 
 pont, and to prevent his retreat into Asia. This 
 met with equal success, Xerxes hastened away 
 from Greece, and while he believed on the 
 word of Themistocles, that his return would be 
 disputed, he left his forces without a general, 
 and his fleets an easy conquest to the victorious 
 Greeks. These signal services to his country, 
 endeared Themistocles to the Athenians, and 
 he was universally called the most warlike and 
 most courageous of all the Greeks who fought 
 against the Persians. He was received with the 
 most distinguished honors ; and by his prudent 
 administration,*Athens was soon fortified with 
 strong walls, the Pireus was rebuilt, and her 
 harbors were filled with a numerous and power- 
 ful navy, which rendered her the mistress of 
 Greece. Yet in the midst of that glory, the 
 conqueror of Xerxes incurred the displeasure of 
 his countrymen, which had proved so fatal to 
 many of his illustrious predecessors. He was 
 banished from the city, and after he had sought 
 in vain a safe retreat among the republics of 
 Greece, and the barbarians of Thrace, he threw 
 himself into the arms of a monarch, whose fleets 
 he had defeated, and whose father he had ruin- 
 ed. Artaxerxes, the successor of Xerxes, re- 
 ceived the illustrious Athenian with kindness. 
 
 Themistocles died in the G5th year of his age 7 
 about 449 years before the Christian era. 
 
 THEODORIC I, king of the Visigoths, in 
 Spain, succeeded Vallia, in 419. He laid siege 
 to Aries, but was repulsed by Aetius; some 
 time after he defeated Litorius, general of the 
 Roman army, and led him prisoner to Toulouse. 
 But when the formidable forces of Attila, king 
 of the Huns, put all the princes of the Gauls into 
 a great consternation, he united his forces with 
 Merovee, king of France, Aetius, and Gundi- 
 caire, king of the Burgundians, and fought and 
 defeated Attila. Theodoric was killed in the 
 battle, in 451. 
 
 THEODORIC II, son of the first, murdered 
 his eldest brother Thorismond, in 453, and made 
 himself master of the town of Narbonne, which 
 was surrendered to him by Count Agrippin, in 
 4G2. Advancing into Spain, Rechaire, king of 
 the Suevi, his brother-in-law, gave him battle ; 
 but having worsted, and taken Rechaire in his 
 retreat, Theodoric sentenced him to death, and 
 was himself killed soon after by the contrivance 
 of one of his brothers called Evaric, who as- 
 cended the throne in 466. 
 
 THEODOSIUS FLAVIUS, a Roman empe- 
 ror, surnamed Magnus, from the greatness of 
 his exploits. He was invested with the impe- 
 rial purple by Gratian, and appointed over 
 Thrace and the eastern provinces, which had 
 been in the possession of Y^alentinian. The 
 first years of his reign were marked by different 
 conquests over the barbarians. The Goths were 
 defeated in Thrace, and 4000 of their chariots, 
 with an immense number of prisoners of both 
 sexes, were the reward of the victory. Some 
 conspiracies were formed against the emperor, 
 but Theodosius totally disregarded them ; and 
 while he punished his competitors for the impe- 
 rial purple, he thought himself sufficiently se- 
 cure in the love and the affection of his sub- 
 jects. He triumphed over the barbarians, and 
 restored peace in every part of the empire. He 
 died of a dropsy at Milan, in the 60th year of 
 his age, after a reign of 16 years, the 17th of 
 January, A. D. 395. Theodosius was the last 
 of the emperors who was the sole master of the 
 whole Roman empire. His want of clemency, 
 however, in one instance, was too openly be- 
 trayed, and when the people of Thessalonica 
 had unmeaningly, perhaps, killed one of his 
 officers, the emperor ordered his soldiers to put 
 all the inhabitants to the sword, and no less than 
 60U0 persons, without distinction of rank, age, 
 or sex, were cruelly butchered in that town in 
 the space of three hours. This violence irrita- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 THE 
 
 567 
 
 THE 
 
 ted the ecclesiastics, and Theodosius was com- 
 pelled by St. Ambrose to do open penance in 
 the church, and publicly to make atonement for 
 an act of barbarity which had excluded him from 
 the bosom of the church, and the communion of 
 the faithful. In his private character Theodo- 
 sius was an example of soberness and temper- 
 ance, his palace displayed becoming grandeur, 
 but still with moderation. He never indulged 
 luxury, or countenanced superfluities. He was 
 fond of bodily exercise, and never gave himself 
 up to pleasure and enervating enjoyments. The 
 laws and regulations which he introduced in the 
 Roman empire, were of the most salutary nature. 
 
 THEODOSIUS Second, succeeded his 
 father Arcadius, as emperor of the western Ro- 
 man empire, though only in the eighth year of 
 his age. The territories of Theodosius were 
 invaded by the Persians, but the emperor soon 
 appeared at the head of a numerous force, and 
 the two hostile armies met on the frontiers of 
 the empire. The consternation was universal 
 on both sides ; without even a battle, the Per- 
 sians fled, and no less than 100,000 were lost in 
 the waters of the Euphrates. Theodosius raised 
 the siege of Nisibis, where his operations failed 
 of success, and he averted the fury of the Huns 
 and Vandals by bribes and promises. He died 
 on the 2 ( Jth of July, in the 4'Jth year of his age, 
 A. D. 450. *' J t ' ' 
 
 THERAMENES, an Athenian philosopher 
 and general in the age of Alcibiades. He was 
 one of the thirty tyrants of Athens, but he had 
 no sbare in the cruelties and oppression which 
 disgraced their administration He was accused 
 by Critias, one of his colleagues, because he op- 
 posed their views, and he was condemned to 
 drink hemlock, though defended by his own in- 
 nocence, and the friendly intercession of the 
 philosopher Socrates. He drank the poison 
 with great composure, and poured some of it on 
 the ground, with the sarcastical exclamation of, 
 " This is to the health of Critias." This hap- 
 pened about 404 years before the Christian era. 
 
 THERMOPYL^, a small pass leading from 
 Thessaly into Locris and Phocis. It has a large 
 ridge of mountains on the west, and the sea on 
 the east, with deep and dangerous marshes, be- 
 ing in the narrowest part only twenty-five feet 
 in breadth. It is celebrated for a battle which 
 was fought there, B. C. 460, on the 7th of Au- 
 gust, between Xerxes, and the Greeks under 
 Leonidas. Xerxes assembled his troops and 
 encamped on the plains of Trachis. Xerxes 
 having no particular quarrel with the Spartans, 
 «»ent messengers to desire them to lay down their 
 48* 
 
 arms ; to which the Lacedaemonians boldly re- 
 plied " Let Xerxes come and take them." On 
 the evening of the seventh day after Xerxes had 
 ai rived at the straits of Thermopylae, twenty 
 thousand chosen men, commanded by Hydarnes, 
 and conducted by the traitor Epialtes, who had 
 offered to lead them through another passage in 
 the mountains, left the Persian camp. The 
 next morning they perceived a thousand Pho- 
 cians, whom Leonidas had sent to defend this 
 important, but generally unknown, pass. The 
 immense shower of darts from the Persians, 
 compelled the Phocians to abandon the passage 
 they had been sent to guard ; and they retired 
 to the highest part of the mountain. This gave 
 the Persians an opportunity of seizing the pass 
 through which they marched, with the greatest 
 expedition. In the dead of the night the Spar- 
 tans, headed by Leonidas, and full of resent- 
 ment and despair, marched in close battalion to 
 surprise the Persian camp. Dreadful was the 
 fury of the Greeks ; and on account of want of 
 discipline,there being no advance guard or watch, 
 greatly destructive to the Persians. Numbers 
 fell by the Grecian spears, but far more perished 
 by the mistakes of their own troops, who, in the 
 confusion that prevailed, could not distinguish 
 friends from foes. Wearied with slaughter, the 
 Greeks penetrated to the royal tent ; but Xerxes 
 with his favorites, had fled to the extremity of 
 the encampments. The dawn of day discover- 
 ed to the Persians a dreadful scene of carnage, 
 and the handful of Greeks by whom this terri- 
 ble slaughter had been made. The Spartans 
 now retreated to the straits of Thermopylae ; and 
 the Persians, by menaces, stripes, and blows, 
 could scarcely be compelled to advance against 
 them. The Greeks halted where the pass was 
 widest, to receive the charge of the enemy. 
 The shock was dreadful. After the Greeks had 
 blunted or broken their spears, they attacked 
 with sword in hand, and made an incredible- 
 havoc. Four times they dispelled the thickest 
 ranks of the enemy, in order to obtain the sa- 
 cred remains of their king Leonidas, who had 
 fallen in the engagement. At this crisis, when 
 their unexampled valor was about to carry off 
 the inestimable prize, the hostile battalions un- 
 der the conduct of Epialtes, were seen descend- 
 ing the hill. All hopes were now dispersed, 
 and nothing remained to be attempted but the 
 last effort of a generous despair. Collecting 
 themselves into a phalanx, the Greeks retired 
 to the narrowest part of the strait ; and on a 
 rising ground, took post behind the Phocian 
 wall. As they made this movement, the Tbtv 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 THO 
 
 568 
 
 TIB 
 
 bans, whom fear had hitherto restrained from de- 
 fection, revolted to the Persians ; declaring that 
 their republic had sent earth and water in token 
 of their submission to Xerxes ; and that they 
 had been reluctantly compelled to resist the pro- 
 gress of his arms. In the meantime, the Lace- 
 daemonians and Thespians were assaulted on 
 every side ; the wall was beaten down, and the 
 enemy entered the breaches. But instant death 
 befell the Persians that entered. In this last 
 struggle, the most heroic and determined cour- 
 age was displayed by every Grecian. It being 
 observed to Diocenes,the Spartan, that the Per- 
 sian arrows were so numerous as to intercept 
 the light of the sun, he replied this was a favor- 
 able circumstance, because the Greeks thereby 
 fought in the shade. At length it became im- 
 possible for the Greeks to resist the impetuosity 
 and weight of the darts and other missiles con- 
 tinually poured upon them. They therefore 
 fell, not conquered, but buried under a trophy 
 of Persian arms. In this dreadful conflict, the 
 Persians lost 20,001 men, and according to some 
 historians, the whole of the Persian army 
 amounted to five millions ! 
 
 THESSALY. The boundaries of Thessaly 
 varied, but it had the Egean sea on the east, and 
 the northern parts of Greece on the south. It 
 contained four provinces, mostly surrounded 
 with mountains. In the centre of Thessaly, on 
 the river Enipeus, were the city and plain of 
 Pharsalus, famous for the battle fought there 
 between Caesar and Pompey. The greater part 
 ofPompey's army was cut in pieces, or made 
 prisoners by the conqueror. Thessaly was gov- 
 erned by its own kings till it became subject to 
 Macedon. 
 
 THISTLEWOOD, Arthur, a disappointed 
 man and desperate politician, who, in 1619, 
 planned a conspiracy to assassinate the king's 
 ministers, at a cabinet dinner in Grosvenor- 
 square. He, and his confederates, fifteen or 
 sixteen in number, assembled in a stable-loft in 
 Cato-street, Mary-!a-bonne, on the evening on 
 which they pi oposed to effect their purpose, but 
 the police having notice, they were surround- 
 ed, and most of them captured. Thistlewood 
 and four others were tried at the Old Bailey, 
 and being convicted, were executed in the usual 
 manner in which death is inflicted for high 
 treason. 
 
 THOMPSON, Charles, secretary of the con- 
 tinental Congress, was born in Ireland, Nov. 
 1729, and came to America at the age of eleven. 
 He went into business in Philadelphia, where 
 he distinguished himself by his early opposition 
 
 to the obnoxious measures of the British minis- 
 try. He retired afier the organization of the 
 constitution, and died in 1824. 
 
 THRACE, a large country of Europe, sout' 
 of Scythia, bounded by Mount Hoemus. It ha. 
 the jEgean sea on the south, on the west, Ma- 
 cedonia and the river Strymon, and on the east 
 the Euxine sea, the Propontis, and the Helles- 
 pont. Its northern boundaries extended as far 
 as the Ister, according to Pliny and others. The 
 Thracians were looked upon as a cruel and bar- 
 barous nation ; they were naturally brave and 
 warlike, addicted to drinking and licentious plea- 
 sures, and they sacrificed, without the smallest 
 humanitv, their enemies, on the altars of their 
 gods. Their government was originally mon- 
 archical, and divided among a number of inde- 
 pendent princes. Thrace is barren as to its soil. 
 It received its name from Thrax, the son of 
 Mars, the chief deity of the country. The first 
 inhabitants lived upon plunder, and on the milk 
 and flesh of sheep. It forms now the province 
 of Romania. 
 
 THRASYBULUS, a famous general of 
 Athens, who began the expulsion of the thirty 
 tyrants of his country, though he was only as- 
 sisted by thirty of his friends. His efforts were 
 attended with success, B. C. 401, and the only 
 reward he received for this patriotic action, was 
 acrown made with two twigs of an olive branch ; 
 a proof of his own disinterestedness and of the 
 virtues of his countrymen. The Athenians 
 employed a man whose abilities and humani- 
 ty were so conspicuous, and Thrasybulus was 
 sent with a powerful fleet to recover their lost 
 power in the jEgean, and on the coast of 
 Asia. After he had gained many advantages, 
 this great man was killed in his camp by the in- 
 habitants of Aspendns, whom his soldiers had 
 plundered without his knowledge, B. C. 391. 
 
 THRASYMENUS, a lake of Italy near Pe- 
 rusia, celebrated for a battle fought there be- 
 tween Hannibal and the Romans, under Flami- 
 nius, B. C. 217. No less than 15,000 Romans 
 were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 
 taken prisoners, or, according to Livy, 6000, or 
 Polybius 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was 
 about 1500 men. About 10,000 Romans made 
 their escape all covered with wounds. This 
 lake is now called the lake of Perugia. 
 
 TIBERIUS, Claudius Nero, a Roman empe 
 ror after the death of Augustus, was descended 
 from the family of the Claudii. His first ap- 
 pearance in the Roman armies was under Au- 
 gustus, in the war against the Cantabri ; and 
 afterwards in the capacity of general, he obtain- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TIB 
 
 569 
 
 TIL 
 
 ed victories in different parts of the empire, 
 and was rewarded with a triumph. He had the 
 command of the Roman armies in Illyricum, 
 Ifannonia, and Dalmatia, and seemed to divide 
 ^he sovereign power with Augustus. At the 
 death of this celebrated emperor. Tiberius, who 
 had been adopted, assumed the reins of govern- 
 ment. The beginning of his reign seemed to 
 promise tranquillity to the world ; Tiberius was 
 a watchful guardian of the public peace ; he 
 was the friend of justice ; and never assumed 
 the sounding titles which must disgust a free 
 nation, but he was satisfied to say of himself 
 that he was the master of his slaves, the gene- 
 ral of his soldiers, and the father of the citizens 
 of Rome That seeming moderation, however, 
 which was but the fruit of the deepest policy, 
 soon disappeared, and Tiberius was viewed in 
 his real character. The armies mutinied in 
 Pannonia and Germany, but the tumults were 
 silenced by the prudence of the generals and the 
 fidelity of the officers, and the factious dema- 
 gogues were abandoned to their condign pun- 
 ishment. This acted as a check upon Tiberius 
 in Rome ; he knew from thence, as his succes- 
 sors had experienced, that his power was pre- 
 carious, and his very existence in perpetual 
 danger. He continued, as he had begun, to 
 pay the greatest deference to the senate ; all li- 
 bels against him he disregarded, and he observ- 
 ed, that, in a free city, the thoughts and the 
 tongue of every man should be free. While 
 Rome exhibited a scene of peace and public 
 tranquillity, the barbarians were severally de- 
 feated on the borders of the empire, and Tibe- 
 rius gained new honors, by the activity and va- 
 lor of Germanicus and his other faithful lieu- 
 tenants. He at last retired to the island of 
 Capreae on the coast of Campania, where he 
 buried himself in unlawful pleasures. The care 
 of the empire was entrusted to favorites, among 
 whom Sejanus for awhile shone with uncom- 
 mon splendor. In this solitary retreat, the em- 
 peror proposed rewards to such as invented new 
 pleasures, or could produce fresh luxuries. 
 While the emperor was lost to himself and the 
 world, the provinces were harassed on every 
 side by the barbarians, and Tiberius found him- 
 self insulted by those enemies whom hitherto 
 he had seen fall prostrate at his feet with every 
 mark of submissive adulation. At last grown 
 weak and helpless through infirmities, he 
 thought of his approaching dissolution ; and as 
 he well knew that Rome could not exist with- 
 out a head, he nominated, as his successor, 
 Caius Caligula. Tiberius died at Misenum, 
 
 the 16th of March, A. D. 37, in the 78th year 
 of his age, after a reign of twenty-two years, 
 six months, and twenty-six days. It has been 
 wittily observed by Seneca, that he never was 
 intoxicated but once all his life, for he continued 
 in a perpetual state of intoxication from the 
 time he ga've himself to drinking, till the last 
 moment of his life. 
 
 T1CONDEROGA, a post-town of Essex 
 county, N. Y., on the west side of the E. end 
 of lake Champlain,and at the north end of lake 
 George. Population 2169. The fort at the 
 north of the outlet from lake George into lake 
 Champlain is in a ruinous condition. 
 
 TIGRANES, a king of Armenia, who made 
 himself master of Assyria and Cappadocia. By 
 the advice of his father-in-law, he declared war 
 against the Romans. He despised these distant 
 enemies, and even ordered the head of the mes- 
 senger to be cut off who first told him that the 
 Roman general was boldly advancing towards 
 his capital. His pride, however, was soon 
 abated, and though he ordered the Roman con- 
 sul Lucullus to be brought alive into his pre- 
 sence, he fled with precipitation from his capi- 
 tal, and was soon after defeated near mount 
 Taurus. This totally disheartened him; he re- 
 fused to receive Mithridates into his palace, 
 and even set a price upon his head. His mean 
 submission to Pompey, the successor of Lu- 
 cullus in Asia, and a bribe of 60,000 talents, in- 
 sured him on his throne, and he received a gar- 
 rison in his capital, and continued at peace with 
 the Romans. His second son, of the same 
 name, revolted against him, and attempted to 
 dethrone him with the assistance of the king 
 of Parthia, whose daughter he had married. 
 This did not succeed, and the son had recourse 
 to the Romans, by whom he was put in posses- 
 sion of Sophene, while the father remained 
 quiet on the throne of Armenia. The son was 
 afterwards sent in chains to Rome, for his inso- 
 lence to Pompey. 
 
 TILLY, John Tzerklas, count de, a celebrated 
 general, was born near Brussels, and is said to 
 have been originally a Jesuit, which order he 
 quitted for the army. He commanded the Ba- 
 varian troops under duke Maximilian, and had 
 a great share in the battle of Prague, Nov. 8, 
 1620. At that of Lutter, in Lunenburg, in 
 1626, he defeated the king of Denmark, with 
 whom he afterwards concluded a treaty. In 
 1631 he took the city of Magdeburg, where he 
 committed a horrible massacre. The same 
 year he was routed by Gustavus Adolphus ; and 
 while defending the passage of the Lech against 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 TIM 
 
 570 
 
 TIM 
 
 the Swede, he received a mortal wound, April 
 30, 1632. 
 
 TI MO LEON, a celebrated Corinthian, who 
 slew his own brother. When the Syracusans, 
 oppressed with the tyranny of Dionysius the 
 younger, and of the Carthaginians, had solicited 
 the assistance of the Corinthians, all looked 
 upon Timoleon as a proper deliverer ; but all 
 applications would have been disregarded, if 
 one of the magistrates had not awakened in 
 him the sense of natural liberty. " Timoleon," 
 says he, " if you accept of the command of this 
 expedition, we will believe that you have killed 
 a tyrant; but if not, we cannot but call you 
 your brother's murderer." This had due effect; 
 and Timoleon sailed for Syracuse in ten ships, 
 accompanied by about 1000 men. The Cartha- 
 ginians attempted to oppose him, but Timoleon 
 eluded their vigilance. Icetas, who had the 
 possession of the city, was defeated, and Di- 
 onysius, who despaired of success, gave himself 
 up into the hands of the Corinthian general. 
 This success gained Timoleon adherents in Si- 
 cily ; many cities which hitherto had looked 
 upon him as an imposter, claimed his protec- 
 tion ; and when he was at last master of Syra- 
 cuse, by the total overthrow of Icetas, and of 
 the Carthaginians, he razed the citadel which 
 had been the seat of tyranny, and erected on 
 the spot a common hall. When Syracuse was 
 thus delivered from tyranny, the conqueror ex- 
 tended his benevolence to the other states of 
 Sicily, and all the petty tyrants were reduced 
 and banished from the island. A code of salu- 
 tary laws was framed for the Syracusans ; and 
 the armies of Carthage, which had attempted 
 again to raise commotions in Sicily, were de- 
 feated, and peace was at last re-established. 
 The gratitude of the Sicilians was shown every 
 where to their deliverer. Timoleon was re- 
 ceived with repeated applause in the public 
 assemblies ; and though a private man, uncon- 
 nected with the government, he continued to 
 enjoy his former influence at Syracuse ; his ad- 
 vice was consulted on matters of importance, 
 and his authority respected. He ridiculed the 
 accusations of malevolence; and when some 
 informers had charged him with oppression, 
 he rebuked the Syracusans, who were going to 
 put the accusers to immediate death. Timoleon 
 died at Syracuse, about 337 years before the 
 Christian era. His body received an honorable 
 burial, in a public place, called, from him, Ti- 
 moleonteum; but the tears of a grateful nation 
 were more convincing proofs of the public re- 
 gret, than the institution of festivals and games 
 
 yearly to be observed on the day of his death. 
 TIMOUR, called also Timour Lenk (the 
 lame) by corruption, Tamerlane, was, according 
 to some authorities, the son of a shepherd, and 
 to others, of royal descent. He was born in 
 1335, at Kesch, in the ancient Sogdiana. His 
 first conquest was that of Balck, the capital of 
 Khorassan, on the frontiers of Persia. He next 
 made himself master of Kandahar, and after re- 
 ducing all ancient Persia under his dominion, 
 he turned back in order to subdue the people 
 of Transoxana. Thence he marched to lay 
 siege to Bagdad, which he took, and proceeding 
 with his victorious army into India, he subdued 
 the whole of that nation, and entered Delhi, the 
 capital of the empire. After Tamerlane had 
 completed the conquest of India, he marched 
 his army back, and falling upon Syria, he took 
 Damascus. From thence, he suddenly returned 
 to Bagdad, in 1401, which had partly shaken 
 off the yoke. He soon became master of it 
 again, and gave it up to the fury of the soldiers, 
 on which occasion eight hundred thousand in- 
 habitants are said to have been destroyed, and 
 the city was razed to the ground. About this 
 time, five Mahometan princes, who had been 
 dispossessed by Bajazet of their dominions, sit- 
 uated on the borders of the Euxine sea, implored 
 Tamerlane's assistance ; and at length he was 
 prevailed on to march his army into Asia Minor. 
 He began with sending ambassadors to Bajazet, 
 who were ordered to insist on his raising the 
 siege of Constantinople, and doing justice to 
 the five Mahometan princes, whom he had 
 stripped of their dominions. Bajazet disdaining 
 these proposals, Tamerlane declared war against 
 him, and put his troops in motion. Bajazet 
 raised the siege of Constantinople, and July 28, 
 1402, the ever memorable battle took place, be- 
 tween Csesarea and Angora. After an obstinate 
 contest Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner. 
 Tamerlane, who had hitherto fought with the 
 sevmitar and with arrows, employed several 
 field-pieces in this engagement, and the Turks 
 employed cannon and the ancient Greek fire. 
 Tamerlane's splendid victory did not, however, 
 deprive the Turkish empire of a single city. 
 Musa, the son of Bajazet, became sultan, but 
 notwithstanding the protection of Tamerlane, 
 he was unable to oppose his brothers; and a 
 civil war rawed thirteen years among the family. 
 Soon after this, Tamerlane ravaged Syria, and 
 from thence he repassed the Euphrates, and re- 
 turned to Samarcand. He conquered nearly 
 as great an extent of territory as Jenghis Khan. 
 He was scarcely settled in his newly acquired 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 TOL 
 
 571 
 
 TOU 
 
 empire, India, when he began to plan the con- 
 quest of China, but he died in the midst of his 
 glorious career, April 1, 1405. 
 
 TIPPOO SAIB, the son of Hyder Ali, and 
 equally distinguished for his vigilance and brav- 
 ery, in resisting the British during the war in 
 India. — See India. 
 
 TITUS Vespasian, son of Vespasian and 
 Flavia Domitilla, became known by his valor 
 in the Roman armies, particularly at the siege 
 of Jerusalem. In the 79th year of the Christian 
 era, he was invested with the imperial purple, 
 and the Roman people had every reason to ex- 
 pect in him the barbarities of a Tiberius, and 
 the debaucheries of a Nero. When raised to 
 the throne, he thought himself bound to be the 
 father of his people, the guardian of virtue, and 
 the patron of liberty ; and Titus is, perhaps, the 
 only monarch who, when invested with uncon- 
 trollable power, bade adieu to those vices, those 
 luxuries, and indulgences, which, as a private 
 man, he never ceased to gratify. All informers 
 were banished from his presence, and even se- 
 verely punished. A reform was made in the 
 judicial proceedings, and trials were no longer 
 permitted to be postponed for years. To do good 
 to his subjects was the ambition of Titus ; and 
 it was at the recollection that he had done no 
 service, or granted no favor one day, that he 
 exclaimed in the memorable words of, " My 
 friends, I have lost a day !" Two of the sen- 
 ators conspired against his life, but the emperor 
 disregarded their attempts. He made them his 
 friends by kindness, and, like another Nerva, 
 presented them with a sword to destroy him. 
 During his reign, Rome was three days on fire ; 
 the towns of Campania were destroyed by an 
 eruption of Vesuvius; and the empire was visi- 
 ted by a pestilence, which carried off an infinite 
 number of inhabitants. In this time of public 
 calamity, the emperor's benevolence and phi- 
 lanthrophy were conspicuous. The R.omans, 
 however, had not long to enjoy the favors of 
 this magnificent prince. Titus was taken ill; 
 and as he retired into the country of the Sabines, 
 to his father's house, his indisposition was in- 
 creased by a burning fever. He died the 13th 
 of September, A. D. 81, in the 41st year of his 
 age, after a reign of two years, two months, 
 and twenty days. 
 
 TLA SC ALA, a territory of the Mexican re- 
 public, containing 60,000 inhabitants. At the 
 time of the conquest by the Spaniards, the city 
 of Tlascala alone contained 300,000. 
 
 TOLEDO, anciently Tolelum, a handsome 
 city of Spain, in New Castile, capital of a pro- 
 
 vince of the same name, situated on the Tagus. 
 32 miles S. W. of Madrid. It was successively 
 the seat of government under the Goths, the 
 Moors, and the kings of Castile. In the year 
 1085, this ancient capital fell into the hands of 
 the Christians, and became the residence of 
 their kings. It was besieged in 1109, 1114, and 
 1227, but without success. At a subsequent 
 date it was less fortunate, having been besieged 
 and taken in 14G7, and in 1041. Great part of 
 the town was burnt on each occasion, which, 
 with the removal of the government to Madrid, 
 has been the cause of its decline. 
 
 TOULON, a sea-port in the south-east of 
 France. The most remarkable event in its his- 
 tory is the occupation of the town and harbor 
 by the British, in the autumn of 1793, the sub- 
 sequent siege by the republican troops of France, 
 and the precipitate abandonment of the place 
 byfcthe British troops, on the 19th of December, 
 1793, after burning and carrying off about half 
 the squadron contained in the port. Bonaparte 
 commanded part of the besieging artillery, and 
 directed it with great judgment. 
 
 TOULOUSE ; a city of France, capital of 
 Upper Garonne, containing 55,319 inhabitants. 
 In a historical light, it acquired an unfortunate 
 title to notice, by an obstinate battle fought on 
 the 10th of April, 1814, between the British, 
 under lord Wellington, and the Fiench, under 
 Soult ; neither commander having been apprised 
 of the abdication of Bonaparte. The British 
 troops w T ere successful, but suffered severely; 
 their loss, in killed and wounded, was between 
 four and five thousand men. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS. The following sketch 
 of the origin and manner of constructing a tour- 
 nament, from the History of Chivalry, we hope 
 will not prove uninteresting to our readers. 
 
 The first authentic mention of a tournament 
 is to be found in the Chronicle of Tours, which 
 records the death of Geoffrey de Friuli in 1066; 
 adding the words qui turneumenta invenit — who 
 invented tournaments. From the appearance 
 of these exercises in Germany about the same 
 time, we may conclude that this date is pretty 
 nearly correct ; and that if tournaments were 
 not absolutely invented at that precise period, 
 they were then first regulated by distinct laws. 
 
 In England they did not appear till several 
 years later, when the Norman manners intro- 
 duced after the conquest had completely super- 
 seded the customs of the Saxons. 
 
 Thus much has seemed necessary to me to 
 say concerning the origin of tournaments, as 
 there are so many common fables on the sub 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 TOU 
 
 572 
 
 TOU 
 
 iect which give far greater antiquity to the ex- 
 ercise than that which it is entitled to claim. 
 
 The ceremonies and the splendor of the tour- 
 nament of course differed in different ages and 
 different countries; but the general principle 
 was the same. It was a chivalrous game, orig- 
 inally instituted for practising those exercises, 
 and acquiring that skill which was likely to be 
 useful in knightly warfare. 
 
 A tournament was usually given upon the 
 occasion of any great meeting, for either mili- 
 tary or political purposes. Sometimes it was 
 the king himself who sent his heralds through 
 the land to announce to all noblemen and ladies, 
 that on a certain day he would hold a grand 
 tournament, where all brave knights might try 
 their prowess. At other times a tournament 
 was determined on by a body of independent 
 knights ; and messengers were often sent into 
 distant countries to invite all gallant gentle m^pi 
 to honor the passage of arms. 
 
 The spot fixed upon for the lists was usually 
 in the immediate neighborhood of some abbey 
 or castle, where the shields of the various cava- 
 liers who purposed combatting, were exposed 
 to view for several days previous to the meeting. 
 A herald was also placed beneath the cloisters 
 to answer all questions concerning the cham- 
 pions, and to receive all complaints against any 
 individual knight. If, upon investigation, the 
 kings of arms and judges of the field found that 
 a just accusation was laid against one of the 
 knights proposing to appear, a peremptory com- 
 mand excluded him from the lists ; and if he 
 dared in despite thereof to present himself, he 
 was driven forth with blows and ignominy. 
 
 Round about the field appointed for the spec- 
 tacle were raised galleries, scaffoldings, tents, 
 and pavilions, decorated with all the magnifi- 
 cence of a luxurious age. Banners and scutch- 
 eons, and bandrols, silks and cloth of gold, cov- 
 ered the galleries and floated round the field ; 
 while all that rich garments and precious stones, 
 beauty and youth, could do to outshine the 
 inanimate part of the scene, was to be found 
 among the spectators. Here too was seen the 
 venerable age of Chivalry— all those old knights 
 whose limbs were no longer competent to bear 
 the weight of arms, surrounding the field to 
 view the prowess of their children, and judge 
 the deeds of the day. Heralds and pursuivants, 
 in the gay and many-colored garments which 
 they peculiarly affected, fluttered over the field, 
 and bands of warlike music were stationed near 
 to animate the contest and to salute the victors. 
 
 The knights, as they appeared in the lists, 
 
 were greeted by the heralds and the people ac- 
 cording to their renown ; but the approbation 
 of the female part of the spectators was the 
 great stimulous to all the Chivalry of the field. 
 Each knight, as a part of his duty, either felt 
 or feigned himself in love; and it was upon 
 these occasions that his lady might descend 
 from the high state to which the mystic adora- 
 tion of the day had raised her, and bestow upon 
 her favored champion a glove, a riband, a brace- 
 let, a jewel, which borne on his crest through 
 the hard-contested field, was the chief object of 
 his care, and the great excitement to his valor. 
 
 Often, too, in the midst of the combat, if ac- 
 cident or misfortune deprived the favored knight 
 of the gage of his lady's affection, her admira- 
 tion or her pity won her to supply another 
 token, sent by a page or squire, to raise again 
 her lover's resolution, and animate him to new 
 exertions. 
 
 The old romance of Perce-forest gives a curious 
 picture of the effects visible after a tournament, 
 by the eagerness with which the fair spectators 
 had encouraged the knights. " At the close of 
 the tournament," says the writer, " the ladies 
 were so stripped of their ornaments, that the 
 greater part of them were bareheaded. Thus 
 they went their ways with their hair floating 
 on their shoulders more glossy than fine gold : 
 and with their robes without the sleeves, for 
 they had given to the knights to decorate them- 
 selves, wimples and hoods, mantles and shifts, 
 sleeves and bodies. When they found them- 
 selves undressed to such a pitch, they were at 
 first quite ashamed ; but as soon as they saw 
 every one was in the same slate, they began to 
 laugh at the whole adventure, for they had all 
 bestowed their jewels and their clothes upon 
 the knights with so good a will, that they had 
 not perceived that they uncovered themselves." 
 
 This is probably an exaggerated account of 
 the enthusiasm which the events of a tourna- 
 ment excited in the bosom of the fair ladies of 
 that day ; but still, no doubt can be entertained, 
 that they not only decorated their knights be- 
 fore the tournament with some token of their 
 approbation, but in the case of its loss, often 
 sent him even a part of their dress in the midst 
 of the conflict. 
 
 The other spectators, also, though animated 
 by less thrilling interests, took no small share 
 in the feelings and hopes of the different parties. 
 Each blow of the lance or sword, struck well 
 and home, was greeted with loud acclamations; 
 and valor met both its incitement and its reward, 
 in the expecting silence and the thundering 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TOU 
 
 573 
 
 TOU 
 
 plaudits with with each good champion's move- 
 ments were waited for and seen. 
 
 In the mean while, without giving encour- 
 agement to any particular knight, the heralds 
 strove to animate all by various quaint and 
 characteristic exclamations, such as " The love 
 of ladies!" " Death to the horses !" "Honor 
 to the brave !" " Glory to be won by blood 
 and sweat !" " Praise to the sons of the brave !" 
 
 It would occupy too much space to enter into 
 all the details of the tournament, or to notice 
 all the laws by which it was governed. Every 
 care was taken that the various knights should 
 meet upon equal terms, and many a precaution 
 was made use of to prevent accidents, and to 
 render the sport both innocent and useful. But 
 no regulations could be found sufficient to guard 
 against the dangerous consequences of such fu- 
 rious amusements ; and Ducange gives a long 
 list of princes and nobles who lost their lives 
 in these fatal exercises. The church often in- 
 terfered, though in vain, to put them down; 
 and many monarchs forbade them in their do- 
 minions ; but the pomp with which they were 
 accompanied, and the excitement they afforded 
 to a people fond of every mental stimulus, ren- 
 dered them far more permanent than might 
 have been expected. 
 
 The weapons in tournaments were, in almost 
 all cases, restrained to blunted swords and head- 
 less spears, daggers and battle-axes; but, as 
 may well be imagined, these were not to be used 
 without danger ; so that even those festivals that 
 passed by without the absolute death of any of 
 the champions, left, nevertheless, many to drag 
 out a maimed and miserable existence, or to 
 die after a long and weary sickness. And yet 
 the very peril of the sport gave to it an all-pow- 
 erful interest, which we can best conceive, at 
 present, from our feelings at some deep and 
 thrilling tragedy. 
 
 After the excitement, and the expectation, 
 and the suspense, and the eagerness, came the 
 triumph and the prize — and the chosen queen 
 of the field bestowed upon the champion whose 
 feats were counted best, that reward, the value 
 of which consisted more in the honor than the 
 thing itself. Sometimes it was a jewel, some- 
 times a coronet of flowers or of laurel ; but in 
 all cases the award implied a right to one kiss 
 from the lips of the lady appointed to bestow 
 the prize. It seems to have been as frequent 
 a practice to assign this prize on the field, as in 
 the chateau or palace whither the court retired 
 after the sports were concluded ; and we often 
 find that the female part of the spectators were 
 
 called to decide upon the merits of the several 
 champions, and to declare the victor as well as 
 confer the reward. Mirth and festivity ever 
 closed the day of the tournament, and song and 
 sports brought in the night. 
 
 Every thing that could interest or amuse a 
 barbarous age was collected on the spot where 
 one of these meetings was held. The minstrel 
 or menestrier, the juggler, the saltimbank, the 
 story-teller, were present in the hall to soothe 
 or to entertain; but still the foundation of tale 
 and song was chivalry ; — the objects of all praise 
 were noble deeds and heroic actions ; and the 
 very voice of love and tenderness, instead of 
 seducing to sloth and effeminacy, was heard 
 prompting to activity, to enterprise, and to 
 honor — to the defence of virtue, and the search 
 for glory. 
 
 It may be here necessary to remark, that 
 there were several sorts of tournaments, which 
 differed essentially from each other ; but I shall 
 not pause upon these any longer than merely 
 to point out the particular differences between 
 them. The joust, which was certainly a kind 
 of tournament, was always confined to two per- 
 sons, though these persons encountered each 
 other with blunted arms. 
 
 The combat at outrance was, in fact, a duel, 
 and only differed from the trial by battle in 
 being voluntary, while the other was enforced 
 by law. This contest was often the event of 
 private quarrels, but was, by no means, always 
 so; and, to use the language of Ducange, 
 " though mortal, it took place ordinarily between 
 two persons who most frequently did not know 
 each other, or, at least, had no particular mis- 
 understanding, but who sought alone to show 
 forth their courage, generosity, and skill in 
 arms." Sometimes, however, the combat at 
 outrance was undertaken by a number of knights 
 together, and often much blood was thus shed, 
 without cause. 
 
 The pas d'armes, or passage of arms, differed 
 from general tournaments, inasmuch as a cer- 
 tain number of knights fixed their shields and 
 tents in a particular pass, or spot of ground, 
 which they declared their intention to defend 
 against all comers. The space before their 
 tents was generally listed in, as for a tourna- 
 ment ; and during the time fixed for the defence 
 of the passage, the same concourse of spectators, 
 heralds, and minstrels was assembled. 
 
 The round table was another distinct sort of 
 tournament, held in a circular amphitheatre, 
 wherein the knights invited jousted against 
 each other. The origin of this festival, which 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TRA 
 
 574 
 
 TRA 
 
 was held, I believe, for the last time by Edward 
 III, is attributed to Roger Mortimer, who, 
 on receiving knighthood, feasted a hundred 
 knights and a hundred ladies at a round table. 
 The mornings were spent in chivalrous games, 
 the prize of which was a golden lion, and the 
 evenings in banquets and festivities. This course 
 of entertainments continued three days, with 
 the most princely splendor ; after which Mor- 
 timer, having won the prize himself, conducted 
 his guests to Warwick, and dismissed them. 
 
 From this account, taken from the history of 
 the Priory of Wigmore, Monestrier deduces 
 that those exercises called " round tables" were 
 only tournaments, during which the lord or 
 sovereign giving the festival, entertained his 
 guests at a table which, to prevent all ceremony 
 in respect to precedence, was in the form of a 
 circle. Perhaps, however, this institution may 
 have had a different and an earlier origin, though 
 I find it mentioned in no author previous to the 
 year 1279. 
 
 Chivalry, which, in its pristine purity, knew 
 no reward but honor, soon — as it became com- 
 bined with power — appropriated to itself various 
 privileges, which, injuring its simplicity, in the 
 end brought about its fall. In the first place, 
 the knight was, by the fact of his chivalry, the 
 
 J'udge of all his equals, and consequently of all 
 lis inferiors. He was also, in most cases, the 
 executor of his own decree, and it would indeed 
 have required a different nature from humanity 
 to secure such a jurisdiction from frequent per- 
 version. The knight also took precedence of 
 all persons who had not received chivalry, a 
 distinction well calculated to do away with that 
 humility which was one of knighthood's strict- 
 est laws. Added to this was the right of wear- 
 ing particular dresses and colors, gold and jew- 
 els, which were restrained to the knightly class, 
 by very severe ordinances. Scarlet and green 
 were particularly reserved for the order of 
 knighthood, as well as ermine, minever, and 
 some other furs. Knights also possessed what 
 was called privilege of clergy, that is to say, in 
 case of accusation, they could claim to be tried 
 before the ecclesiastical judge. Their arms 
 were legally forbidden to all other classes, and 
 the title of Sire, Monseigneur, Sir, Don, &c. 
 were applied to them alone, till the distinction 
 was lost in the course of time. 
 
 TRAFALGAR, battle of, between the Brit- 
 ish fleet, under lord Nelson, and the combined 
 fleet of France and Spain, on the 21st of Octo- 
 ber, 1805. On the 19th, it was communicated 
 to his lordship that this fleet had put to sea, and 
 
 as he concluded that their destination was the 
 Mediterranean, he immediately made all sail for 
 the entrance of the Straits with the British 
 squadron consisting of twenty-seven ships, three 
 of them sixty-fours. On Monday, the 21st, at 
 day-light, the enemy was discovered off Cape 
 Trafalgar. The commander-in-chief immedi- 
 ately made the signal for the fleet to bear up in 
 two columns, as they formed in order of sail- 
 ing; a mode of attack which he had previously 
 directed, to avoid the inconvenience and delay, 
 in forming a line of battle in the usual manner, 
 while he gave out, as the signal, " England ex- 
 pects every man to do his duty." Never was 
 expectation more amply fulfilled, nor orders 
 obeyed with more perfect regularity and effect. 
 The enemy's line consisted of thirty-three ships, 
 of which eighteen were French and fifteen Span- 
 ish ; the French under admiral Villeneuve, who 
 was also commander-in-chief, and the Spaniards 
 under admiral Gravina. The action began at 
 twelve o'clock, by the leading ships of the col- 
 umns breaking through the enemy's line; the 
 commander-in-chief about the tenth ship from 
 the van, and admiral Collingwood about the 
 twelfth from the rear, leaving the van of the 
 enemy unoccupied, the succeeding ships break- 
 ing through, in all parts, astern of their leaders, 
 ar\d engaging the enemy at the muzzles of their 
 guns. The conflict was severe, and the enemy 
 fought with acknowledged bravery, but the im- 
 pulse of British skill and courage was irresisti- 
 ble. About three in the afternoon, many of the 
 French and Spanish ships having struck their 
 colors, their line gave way. Admiral Gravina, 
 with ten ships, joining their frigates to leeward, 
 stood towards Cadiz. The five headmost ships 
 in their van tacked, and standing to the south- 
 ward, to windward of the British line, were en 
 gaged, and the sternmost of them taken ; the 
 others went off, leaving to the English nineteen 
 ships of the line, of which two were first rates, 
 with Villeneuve, commander-in-chief, and two 
 other flag officers. Such a battle could not 
 have been fought without sustaining great loss 
 of men. The number of killed, however, did 
 not exceed four hundred and twenty-three, nor 
 that of the wounded eleven hundred and sixty- 
 four. The gallant Nelson, however, already 
 immortalized by the battle of Aboukir, fell in 
 the arms of victory, just as he had achieved the 
 present more extensive and memorable defeat 
 of the enemy. About the middle of the action, 
 his lordship received a musket-ball in his left 
 breast, which was aimed at him from the top 
 of the ship with which he was engaged. On 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TRA 
 
 575 
 
 TRI 
 
 his being carried below, he complained of acute 
 pain in the breast, and of privation of sense and 
 motion of the body and inferior extremities : 
 his respiration became short and difficult ; his 
 pulse small, weak, and irregular : he frequently 
 declared that his back seemed shot through ; 
 that he felt every instant a gush of blood within 
 his breast, and that he had sensations which 
 indicated to him the approach of death. In the 
 course of an hour his pulse became indistinct, 
 his extremities and forehead cold, but he retain- 
 ed his wonted energy of mind, and exercise 
 of his faculties, to the latest moment of his 
 existence : and when victory, as signal as de- 
 cisive, was announced to him, he expressed his 
 heart-felt satisfaction at the glorious event, in 
 the most emphatic language. He delivered his 
 last orders with his usual precision, and in a 
 few minutes after expired without a struggle. 
 
 TRAJAN, Marcus Ulpius, a Roman emperor, 
 born at Italica, in Spain. After Nerva died, the 
 election of Trajan to the vacant throne was con- 
 firmed by the unanimous rejoicings of the peo- 
 ple, and the free concurrence of the armies on 
 the confines of Germany and the banks of the 
 Danube. The barbarians continued quiet, and 
 the hostilities which they generally displayed at 
 the election of a new emperor whose military 
 abilities they distrusted, were now few. Trajan, 
 however, could not behold with satisfaction and 
 unconcern the insolence of the Dacians, who 
 claimed from the Roman people a tribute which 
 the cowardice of Domitian had offered. Dece- 
 balus, their warlike monarch, soon began hosti- 
 lities, by violating the treaty. The emperor 
 entered the enemy's country, by throwing a 
 bridge across the rapid stream of the Danube, 
 and a battle was fought, in which the slaughter 
 was so great, that in the Roman camp, linen 
 was wanted to dress the wounds of the soldiers. 
 Trajan obtained the victory; Decebalus, de- 
 spairing of success, destroyed himself, and 
 Dacia became a province of Rome. An expe- 
 dition was now undertaken into the east, and 
 Parthia threatened with immediate war. Tra- 
 jan passed through the submissive kingdom of 
 Armenia, and by his well directed operations, 
 made himself master of the provinces of Assy- 
 ria and Mesopotamia. He extended his con- 
 quests in the east, obtained victories over un- 
 known nations; and when on the extremity of 
 India, he lamented that he possessed not the 
 vigor and youth of an Alexander, that he 
 might add unexplored provinces and kingdoms 
 to the Roman empire. Trajan had no sooner 
 signified his intentions of returning to Italy, 
 49 
 
 than the conquered barbarians appeared again 
 in arms, and the Roman empire did not acquire 
 one single acre of territory from the conquests 
 of her sovereign in the east. Ti.e return of 
 the emperor towards Rome was hastened by 
 indisposition. He expired in the beginning of 
 August, A. D. 117, after a reign of nineteen 
 years, six months, and fifteen days, in the sixty- 
 fourth year of his age. Under this emperor 
 the Romans enjoyed tranquillity, and for a 
 short time supposed that their prosperity was 
 complete under a good and virtuous sovereign. 
 TRENCK, Frederic, baron von der, a Prus- 
 sian officer, born at Koningsberg, in 1726, 
 aide-de-camp of Frederic the Great, served 
 with distinction in the Seven Years' War; 
 but, in consequence of an intrigue with the 
 sister of Frederic, was imprisoned in the for- 
 tress of Glatz from which he contrived to make 
 his escape, entering the Austrian service. In 
 1758, having gone to Dantzic for the purpose of 
 arranging the disposition of his mother's prop- 
 erty, he was arrested and imprisoned in the 
 fortress of Magdeburg, from which he was 
 freed in 1763 by the interference of the prin- 
 cess Amelia. He next went to Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle, where he married the daughter of a 
 burgomaster of the city in 1765. Here he 
 engaged in literature, politics, and commerce. 
 On the failure of his wine-trade he returned to 
 Germany, where he was received with favor 
 and employed in various missions. In 1787, 
 he revisited his native country and was favor- 
 ably received by the successor of Frederic and 
 the princess Amelia. In 1791, he went to 
 France, but falling under suspicion, was guillo- 
 tined, July 25, 1794. 
 
 TREJNTON, the metropolis of New Jersey, 
 in Hunterdon county, on the eastern bank of 
 the Delaware river, 30 miles N. E. of Philadel- 
 phia, contains 4,035 inhabitants. Here was 
 fought a memorable battle on the 26th of De- 
 cember, 1776. On the night of the 25th, the 
 American army, under the command of general 
 Washington, crossed the Delaware, during the 
 fury of a winter storm, and attacked the enemy, 
 defeating them completely. Of the British, 20 
 men were killed, and 1,000 taken prisoners; of 
 the Americans, 2 were killed, 2 frozen to death, 
 and 5 wounded. 
 
 TRIPOLI, the most easterly of the Barbary 
 States, is bounded north by the Mediterranean, 
 east by Barca, south by Fezzan and the Desert, 
 and west by Tripoli. It contains 280,000 square 
 miles, and 800,000 inhabitants. The pacha is 
 only nominally dependent on the Porte, exer 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TR1 
 
 576 
 
 TRI 
 
 cising in himself a despotic authority. After 
 the Vandals, Tripoli was under the dominion of 
 kings, natives of the country, but afterwards 
 fell into the hands of the Arabs, who came 
 from Egypt, and who carried away a great 
 number of slaves, both from the kingdom and 
 the capital. The sceptre was then assumed by 
 pirates or adventurers, from whom it was wrest- 
 ed by the Spaniards. The latter resigned it to 
 the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who 
 were obliged to yield it to three famous cor- 
 sairs, Salha Rais, Sinan Dassat, and Dragut, 
 who were assisted with troops furnished by the 
 grand seignior, for this purpose, and who fully 
 established the authority of the Turks. How- 
 ever, the oppressive and intolerant conduct of 
 the Turks, occasioned several revolts, which 
 gave rise to the mixed form of government that 
 still apparently exists; for it is really absolute 
 and despotic. Though the bey is chosen by the 
 militia, and seems to be the chief of a body of 
 republicans, he is entirely arbitrary, and never 
 has recourse to the divan, except on difficult 
 occasions. 
 
 TRIUMPH. The triumphal military pro- 
 cession of a victorious Roman general was a 
 spectacle of great splendor and interest. When 
 a general gained a considerable victory, he de- 
 manded a triumph of the senate. It was the 
 highest military honor which could be obtained 
 in the Roman state ; and was reserved for those 
 generals who, by hard-earned victories and glo- 
 rious achievements, had added to the territories 
 of the commonwealth, or delivered the state 
 from threatened danger. The triumphal pro- 
 cession began from the Campus Martius, with- 
 out the city, and passed through the most public 
 places of the city to the capitol ; the streets being 
 strewed with flowers, and the altars smoking 
 with incense. First went musicians of various 
 kinds; the oxen destined for the sacrifice next 
 followed, having their horns gilt, and their 
 heads adorned with garlands ; then in carriages 
 were brought the spoils taken from the enemy, 
 statues, pictures, plate, armor, &c. with the 
 titles of the vanquished nations, and their im- 
 ages or representation. The spoils were suc- 
 ceeded by the captive kings or leaders, with 
 their children and attendants ; after the captives 
 came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed 
 with laurel, followed by a great company of 
 musicians and dancers, dressed like satyrs, and 
 wearing golden crowns ; and next came a long 
 train of persons carrying perfumes. After these 
 came the triumphant general, dressed in purple 
 embroidered with gold, with a crown of laurel 
 
 upon his head, a branch of laurel in his right 
 hand, and in his left an ivory sceptre witli an 
 eagle on the top; the general's face was painted 
 with vermilion, and a gold ball hung from his 
 neck on his breast. The chariot in which the 
 triumphant general stood was gilt, adorned with 
 ivory, and drawn by four white horses abreast, 
 or sometimes by elephants; that he might not 
 be too much elated, a slave stood behind him, 
 who frequently whispered in his ear — Remember 
 that thou art a man. The general was attended 
 by his relations and a great crowd of citizens 
 all in white ; after his car followed the consuls 
 and senators ; and last came the victorious 
 army crowned with laurel, decorated with the 
 gifts which they had received for their valor, 
 and singing the general's praises, in which the 
 citizens as they passed along also joined. 
 
 TRIUMVIRI, were three magistrates ap- 
 pointed equally to govern the Roman state 
 with absolute power. The first triumvirate, 
 B. C. 60, was in the hands of Julius Cassar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus, who, at the expiration 
 of their office, kindled a civil war. The second 
 and last triumvirate, B. C. 43, was under Au- 
 gustus, M. Antony, and Lepidus, and through 
 them the Romans totally lost their liberty. The 
 triumvirate was in full force at Rome for the 
 space of about twelve years. There were also 
 officers who were called triumviri capitales, 
 created A. U. C 464. They took cognizance 
 of murders and robberies, and every thing in 
 which slaves were concerned. Criminals un- 
 der sentence of death were entrusted to their 
 care, and they had them executed according to 
 the commands of the prcetors. The triumviri 
 nocturni watched over the safety of Rome in 
 the night time, and in case of fire, were ever 
 ready to take the most effectual measures to 
 extinguish it. The triumviri agrarii, had the 
 care of colonies, that were sent to settle in 
 different parts of the empire. They made a 
 fair division of the lands among the citizens, 
 and exercised over the new colony, all the 
 power which was placed in the hands of the 
 consuls at Rome. The triumviri monetales, 
 were masters of the mint, and had the care of 
 the coin, hence their office was generally inti- 
 mated by the following letters often seen on 
 ancient coins and medals : — 1IIVIR. A. A. A. 
 F. F. i. e. Triumviri auro, argento, aere flando, 
 feriendo. The triumviri valetudinis, were 
 chosen when Rome was visited by a phgue or 
 some pestiferous distemper, and they took par- 
 ticular care of the temples of health and virtue. 
 The triumviri senatus legendi, were appointed 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 TRO 
 
 577 
 
 TUN 
 
 to name those that were most worthy to be 
 made senators from among the plebeians. The 
 triumviri mensarii, were chosen in the second 
 Punic war, to take care of the coin and prices 
 of exchange. 
 
 TROMP, Martin Harpertzoon, a Dutch naval 
 commander, was born at the Brill, in Holland, 
 in 1579. He rose from the lowest station to 
 the rank of admiral; and in 1630 defeated a 
 large Spanish fleet. When the war broke out 
 between England and the United Provinces, 
 Van Tromp fought five desperate engagements, 
 in the last of which, July 2'J, 1G53, he was killed 
 by a musket shot. The states-general struck 
 medals to his honor; but his biographers, in 
 celebrating his modesty, have passed over the 
 circumstance of his carrying a broom at the 
 mast-head, to imply that he would sweep the 
 seas of all opponents. 
 
 TROY, a city, the capital of Troas, or .ac- 
 cording to others, a country of which Ilium 
 was the capital. Of all the wars which have 
 been carried on among the ancients, that of 
 Troy is the most famous. The Trojan war 
 was undertaken by the Greeks, to recover 
 Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, king of 
 Troy, had carried away from the house of Mene- 
 laus. The armament of the Greeks amounted 
 to 1000 ships. Agamemnon was chosen general 
 of all the forces ; but the princes and kings of 
 Greece were admitted among his counsellors, 
 and by them all the operations of the war were 
 directed. The Grecian army was opposed by a 
 more numerous force. The king of Troy re- 
 ceived assistance from the neighboring princes 
 in Asia Minor, and reckoned among his most 
 active generals, Rhesus, king of Thrace, and 
 Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 
 Assyrians and ^Ethiopians. The army of the 
 Greeks was visited by a plague, and the opera- 
 tions were not less retarded by the quarrel of 
 Agamemnon and Achilles. After the siege 
 had been carried on for ten years, some of the 
 Trojans, among whom were ./Eneas and Ante- 
 nor, betrayed the city into the hands of the 
 enemy, and Troy was reduced to ashes. The 
 poets, however, maintain, that the Greeks made 
 themselves masters of the plaGe by artifice. 
 The greatest part of the inhabitants were put 
 to the sword, and the others carried away by 
 the conquerors. This happened, according to 
 the Arundelian marbles, about 1184 years before 
 the Christian era. Some time after, a new city 
 was raised, about 30 stadia from the ruins of 
 the old Troy : but though it bore the ancient 
 name, and received ample donations from Alex- 
 
 ander the Great, when he visited it in his Asiatic 
 expedition, yet it continued to be small, and in 
 the age of Strabo it was nearly in ruins. 
 
 TRUMBULL, John, was born in Water- 
 town, Connecticut in 1750, and educated at 
 Yale college of which he became a tutor in 
 1770. He subsequently studied law in the 
 office of John Adams, in Boston, and became 
 acquainted with the leading patriots of Massa- 
 chusetts. In 1775 was published the first Part. 
 of Mc' Fingal, a political satirical poem in the. 
 style of Hudibras, which passed through thirty 
 editions. For many years Mr. Trumbull was 
 a member of the legislature of Connecticut, and 
 was appointed a judge of the Superior Court in 
 1801, and afterwards of the Court of Errors. 
 In 1825 he removed to Detroit, Michigan, 
 where he died May 12, 1831. 
 
 TRUXTON, Thomas, a captain in the United 
 States' navy, was born on Long island, New- 
 York, Feb. 17, 1755. Being impressed, he 
 served a short time on board the President, a 
 British 64. In 1775 he brought some powder 
 to the colonies, and was afterwards captured, 
 but escaped. He was then appointed lieutenant 
 on board the Congress, a private armed ship, 
 and, sailing in company with another vessel in 
 1776, took several valuable prizes. While in 
 command of the St. James of 20 guns he beat 
 off a British vessel of 32 guns. In the war with 
 France he commanded the frigate Constellation, 
 and captured the French frigate L' Insurgente 
 of 54 guns. In 1800 he retired from the service. 
 In 1816 he was elected high sheriff of Phila- 
 delphia. He died May 5, 1822, in his 67th year. 
 
 TUNIS, one of the Barbary states, consists 
 chiefly of a large peninsula, stretching into the 
 Mediterranean in a north-easterly direction. It 
 contains about 53,000 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 1,500,000, of which 100,000 are said 
 to be Jews. The eastern part of the country 
 possesses the most luxuriant fertility, but the 
 western part is less favored by nature and 
 contains a scanty population. Rich in mines of 
 silver, lead, and copper, the Tunisian mountains 
 have never been properly explored. The prin- 
 cipal articles of export are grain, olive oil, wool, 
 soap, sponge, orchilla weed; gold dust, ivory, 
 and ostrich feathers. Tunis, the capital, an 
 irregularly built city, about 10 miles south-west 
 of the site of ancient Carthage, contains from 
 100.000, to 150,000 inhabitants, of whom about 
 30,000 are Jews. It is strongly fortified. 
 
 The city which the Romans erected on the 
 site of ancient Carthage, was in a flourishing 
 condition, when the Saracens conquered ana 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TUR 
 
 578 
 
 TUS 
 
 destroyed it ; and Tunis arose with considerable 
 magnificence. The Normans of Sicily con- 
 quered the Tunisians, but were forced to give 
 way, in turn, to Abdalmamum of Morocco. In 
 1530 Charles V. invaded Africa, and defeated 
 the Turks who, under Barbarossa had gained 
 
 Possession of Tunis. In .1574 the Algerine 
 'urks seized upon it, and established a govern- 
 ment at the head of which was a pacha, subject 
 to the grand seignior. The head of the govern- 
 ment is now styled bey, and pays an annual 
 tribute to the grand seignior of whom he is 
 otherwise independent. 
 
 TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, 
 viscomte de, a famous general, was the second 
 son of Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de 
 Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in 1611. He 
 first served under his uncles, the princes Mau- 
 rice and Henry of Nassau; and in 1G34 was 
 made major-general. In 1644 he became mare- 
 chal of France ; and though he lost the battle 
 of Mariendal, in 1645, he soon after gained that 
 of Nordlingen, which restored the elector of 
 Treves to his dominions ; and the next year he 
 formed a junction with the Swedish army, 
 which compelled the duke of Bavaria to sue 
 for peace. But the same prince soon afterwards 
 broke the treaty, on which Turenne made him- 
 self master of his territories. In the civil wars 
 of France, he joined the discontented party; 
 but was shortly after brought over to the king's 
 side. In 1654 he compelled the Spaniards to 
 raise the siege of Arras; and in 1655, he took 
 Conde, and gained the battle of the Downs, 
 which produced the subjugation of Flanders. 
 In 1667 Turenne renounced the Protestant reli- 
 gion ; which measure is rather supposed to have 
 proceeded from ambitious than pious motives. 
 On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 
 1672, he took forty towns in less than a month ; 
 drove the elector of Brandenburg to Berlin, and 
 compelled the imperial army to re-cross the 
 Rhine. In the midst of this career of victory, 
 he was killed by a cannon ball, near Acheren, 
 July 27, 1675. 
 
 TURGOT, M. prime minister of Louis 
 XVI., whose first measure was to re-establish 
 the unrestrained commerce of corn in the inte- 
 rior of France. This measure gave rise to vio- 
 lent tumults, which obliged the king to hold a 
 bed of justice at Versailles. Died 17dl, ao-ed 49. 
 
 TURKESTAN, or Turkistan answers to 
 the Independent Tartary of geographers. It 
 is divided into Turcomania, Turkistan, Osbek- 
 istan, or Bucharia, and the country of the Kirg- 
 hisea. It is extremely fertile. 
 
 TURKEY. Prior to its recent losses of ter- 
 ritory this empire contained 900,000 square 
 miles, and 22,800,000 inhabitants. Its history 
 has been narrated under the head of Ottoman 
 empire. The Turks themselves, masters of 
 the richest portions of the globe despise agri- 
 culture, and neglect mining. They are proud, 
 indolent, brave, and sensual. 
 
 TUSCANY, a grand duchy of central Italy, 
 bounded north by Modena, and the States of the 
 Church, east by the States of the Church, and 
 south west by the Tuscan Sea, a part of the 
 Mediterranean. It includes Elba and a few 
 smaller islands, and is divided into Florence, 
 Pisa, and Sienna, containing 9,500 square miles, 
 and 1,300,530 inhabitants. The face of the 
 country is agreeably diversified, and the well- 
 watered soil produces wheat, maize, beans, peas, 
 clover, vines, mulberries, olives, oranges, lem- 
 ons, figs, and rice. The minerals are copper, 
 lead, quicksilver, marble, &c. The Tuscan dia- 
 lect is considered the purest Italian. The great 
 duchy of Tuscany belonged to the emperors of 
 Germany, who governed it by deputies till the 
 year 1240, when the famous distinctions of the 
 Guelphs, who were the partisans of the pope, 
 and the Ghibellines, who were in the emperor's 
 interest, took place. The popes then persuaded 
 the imperial governors in Tuscany, to put them- 
 selves under the protection of the church ; but 
 the Florentines, in a short time, formed them 
 selves into a free commonwealth, and bravely 
 defended their liberties against both parties by 
 turns. Faction at last shook their freedom ; and 
 the family of Medici, long before they were de- 
 clared either princes or dukes, in fact governed 
 Florence, though the rights and privileges of 
 the people seemed still to exist. The Medici, 
 particularly Cosmo, who was deservedly called 
 the Father of his Country, being in the secret, 
 shared with the Venetians in the immense 
 profits of the East India trade, before the dis- 
 coveries made by the Portuguese. His reve- 
 nue, in ready money, which exceeded that of 
 any sovereign prince in Europe, enabled his 
 successors to rise to sovereign power ; and pope 
 Pius V gave one of his descendants, Cosmo, 
 (the great patron of the arts), the title of great 
 duke of Tuscany, in 1570, which continued in 
 his family to the death of Gaston de Medicis, 
 in 1737, without issue. The great duchy was 
 then claimed by the emperor Charles VI as a 
 fief of the empire, and given to his son-in-law, 
 the duke of Lorrain, in lieu of the duchy of 
 Lorrain, which was ceded to France by treaty. 
 Leopold, his second son, became grand duke, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 TYR 
 
 579 
 
 TYR 
 
 from whom the government of Tuscany de- 
 scended to the grand duke Ferdinand, brother 
 of Francis II, emperor of Austria. By the 
 treaty of Luneville, (February, 1801), the grand 
 duchy of Tuscany received the title of kingdom 
 of Etruria, and was transferred to the hereditary 
 prince of Parma. In the subsequent incorpora- 
 tions of Bonaparte, it was declared an integral 
 part of the French empire ; but on his down- 
 fal, in 1814, it was restored to the archduke 
 Ferdinand, and resumed its proper designation 
 of grand duchy. 
 
 TYLER, Wat, a celebrated insurgent, by 
 trade a blacksmith, who was the first to resist the 
 imposition of the poll tax, in the commencement 
 of the reign of Richard II. He led his men 
 into Smithfield, where he was met by the king, 
 who invited him to declare his grievances. 
 Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till he 
 should give them a signal, boldly ventured to 
 meet the king in the midst of his retinue, and 
 accordingly began the conference. He required 
 that all slaves should be set free ; that all com- 
 monages should be open to the poor as well as 
 rich ; and that a general pardon should be passed 
 for the late outrages. Whilst he made these 
 demands, he occasionally lifted up his sword in 
 a menacing manner ; which insolence so raised 
 the indignation of William Walworth, then 
 mayor of London, attending on the king, that 
 he stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, 
 while one of the king's knights, riding up, des- 
 patched him with his sword. 
 
 TYRANTS, Thirty, an aristocratical coun- 
 cil, who usurped 4 ,and conquered the government 
 of the Athenians, B. C. 404. Critias was at 
 the head of this council, who condemned to 
 death Niceratus, the son of Nicias, Leon, and 
 Antiphon, and banished Thrasybulus and Any- 
 tus. After committing innumerable atrocities, 
 they were deposed by the people, and ten de- 
 cemvirs elected in their stead. 
 
 TYRE, a city of Phoenicia, the site of which 
 is now occupied by the insignificant village of 
 Tour, 18 miles S. W. of Sidon. This city was 
 built in 1048, B. C. by the Sidonians, who fled 
 from the Edomiles when they conquered Sidon, 
 after having been expelled from their own 
 country by David. It was taken by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar in 572, after a siege of thirteen years. 
 In 538 it came under the power of the Persians. 
 In 332 it was taken, after a siege of six months, 
 by Alexander the Great, and continued subject 
 to the Seleucidae, the Macedonian kings of 
 Syria, till the Romans took possession of it in 
 the year 65, B. C. After this it underwent the 
 49* 
 
 revolutions of Syria till 1099, when it was 
 taken by the Franks. In 1123, the sultan 
 of Egypt took it from them, but they soon re- 
 covered it, and kept it till 1259, when the Tar- 
 tars, under Hulaku, took it, together with the 
 rest of Syria ; but not keeping it long, it re- 
 turned to the dominion of Egypt, till it was re- 
 covered by the Christians, in 1263; but in 1292 
 it was finally conquered by the sultans of Egypt, 
 with the fate of which it has since been con- 
 nected. 
 
 TYROL or TIROL an Austrian province 
 bordering on Bavaria, lllyria, Austria, the Lom- 
 bardo- Venetian kingdom, Switzerland and lake 
 Constance, containing 1,650 square miles, and 
 774,457 inhabitants. It is mountainous, and, in 
 most respects, resembles Switzerland. The in- 
 habitants have the same invincible attachment 
 to their country, sterile as it is, and though 
 many of them gain their little wealth in foreign 
 countries, they return to get rid of it at home. 
 They are hardy, brave, honest, and cheerful. 
 This country was conquered by the Romans, 
 from whose hands it passed into those of the 
 Franks, and afterwards belonged to the dukes 
 of Bavaria. In 1359 it was attached to Austria, 
 and, with the exception of the period from 1805 
 to 1814, has remained in her possession. 
 
 TYRONE, earl of, a celebrated leader in the 
 Irish rebellion, who, in 1596 assumed the title 
 of King of Ulster, and entered into a corres- 
 pondence with Spain, whence he received a 
 supply of arms and ammunition. During the 
 violent contentions between Tyrone and the 
 forces of the earl of Essex, then deputy of Ire- 
 land, every enormity was committed by both 
 parties; but at length, in 1603, Tyrone's fol- 
 lowers being reduced, he surrendered himself 
 to the royal power. Thus the rebellion closed; 
 but the reduction of Ireland, through the gloomy 
 tracks of famine, pestilence, and blood, cost 
 England no less a sum than 1,198,717 £. 
 
 TYRREL, Walter, a French gentleman, 
 who, when hunting in the New Forest with 
 William Rufus, let fly an arrow, which, glanc- 
 ing from a tree, struck the king in the breast, 
 and instantly killed him. Tyrrel, fearful of 
 suspicions, gained the sea shore, embarked for 
 France and joined the crusade, as a penance for 
 his involuntary crime. 
 
 TYRREL, Sir James, employed by Richard, 
 duke of Gloucester, to murder his two nephews 
 in the Tower. Tyrrel chose three associates, 
 who, finding the young princes in bed, in a 
 profound sleep, suffocated them with the bolster 
 and pillows, and showed their naked bodies to 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 UNI 
 
 580 
 
 UNI 
 
 Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the 
 foot of the stairs, under a heap of stones. In 
 the reign of Charles II the bones of two per- 
 sons were found in the place indicated, which 
 corresponded, by their size, to the ages of Ed- 
 ward V and his brother; and being judged the 
 undoubted remains of thpse unhappy princes, 
 were deposited in Westminster Abbey, under a 
 marble tomb. 
 
 U. 
 
 UKRAINE, i. e. the Frontier of an extensive 
 country in the southern part of Russia, now 
 forming the governments of Kiev, Podolia, 
 Charkow, and Poltava. The surface is level 
 and it is extremely fertile. 
 
 ULM, formerly a free imperial city, is situat- 
 ed at the confluence of the Danube with the 
 Iller and Blau, and contains 11,888 inhabitants. 
 After the battle of Blenheim, (in 1704), it sus- 
 tained a siege. In 1800, it was the scene of 
 military manoeuvres, conducted, on the part of 
 Moreau, with great skill ; and it was here that 
 in 1805, the errors of Mack, and the combina- 
 tions of Bonaparte, led to the surrender of an 
 Austrian army. In 1810, it was transferred 
 from Bavaria to Wirtemberg, to which govern- 
 ment it continues subject. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF NORTH AME- 
 RICA, The, originally colonies of Great Bri- 
 tain, declared themselves independent in 1776. 
 Brief historical notices of the different states 
 have been given under separate heads, but a 
 more extended historical view is requisite in 
 the present article. 
 
 The following dates of the settlement of the 
 colonies, are given for reference. 
 Virginia, 1607. 
 New York, by the Dutch, 1614 ; occupied by 
 
 the English, 1664. 
 Plymouth, 1620 ; incorporated with Massachu- 
 setts in 1692. 
 Massachusetts, 16*28. 
 New Hampshire, 1623. 
 New Jersey, by the Dutch, 1624 ; occupied by 
 
 the English in 1664. 
 Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627, occupied by the 
 
 English in 1664. 
 Maine, 1630 ; united with Massachusetts in 1677. 
 Maryland, 1633. 
 Connecticut, 1635. 
 
 New Haven, 1637 ; united with Connecticut in 
 1662. 
 
 N. Carolina, 1650. 
 S. Carolina, 1670. 
 Pennsylvania, 1682. 
 Georgia, 1733 
 
 The English settlers in the northern parts of 
 America, were influenced by different motives 
 from those which actuated the Spaniards who 
 quitted their native country for the shores of 
 the New World. The latter were urged on- 
 ward by a reckless spirit of adventure, by the 
 promptings of heated imaginations, and by the 
 most insatiable cupidity. The former were im- 
 pelled by far worthier motives. Many causes 
 operated together in the mother country, to 
 favor emigration among the resolute and hardy 
 
 The people of England had been led to 
 examine into the nature of the power to which 
 they were subjected, and the monstrous doc- 
 trines of prerogative and religious intolerance, 
 were denounced by many who had courage to 
 think and speak for themselves upon the sub- 
 jects. The friends of republican institutions 
 multiplied with great rapidity, the natural result 
 of the progress of literature, and the increase 
 of wealth with the commons. In 1628 the 
 wealth of the house of commons far exceed- 
 ed that of the house of lords. At the same 
 time, the reformation which had been carried 
 into effect by Henry VIII, while it had purged 
 the country of the abuses of the Romish church, 
 had established a form of worship which was 
 regarded by many as little better than that 
 which had given way before it. Those who 
 refused to conform to the established form, 
 contemptuously termed Puritans by their op- 
 ponents, anxiously sought scope for the exercise 
 of religious rights, and, since the immunities 
 they demanded were not granted them at home, 
 determined to seek refuge from persecution in 
 a remote quarter of the globe. 
 
 King James granted, in 1606, letters patent 
 to two companies, called the London and 
 Plymouth companies, by which possession was 
 given them of the territories lying between the 
 34th and 45th degrees of N. latitude ; the S. part 
 to the London, and the Northern part to the 
 Plymouth company: the king himself having 
 undertaken to frame for them a code of laws. 
 Three ships were provided by the London com- 
 pany, on board of which were 105 persons, who 
 were expected to remain at Roanoke, which 
 was the place of their destination. The com 
 mand of this squadron was given to captain 
 Christopher Newport, who sailed from London 
 on the 20th of December, 1606 ; and after a 
 tedious and disastrous passage of four months, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 UNI 
 
 581 
 
 UNI 
 
 by the circuitous route of the West Indies, on 
 the 20th of April, discovered Cape Henry, the 
 southern cape of the Chesapeake, a storm having 
 driven him in a northerly direction from his 
 place of destination. He soon after discovered 
 cape Charles, and entered Chesapeake bay. 
 Charmed with the appearance of the country, 
 the company determined to commence a settle- 
 ment, and soon explored the neighborhood. 
 Passing above Old Point Comfort, a party pro- 
 ceeded up a beautiful river, called by the Indians 
 Powhatan, and by the colonists, in honor of 
 James I, James river. They made a settlement 
 on a peninsula, and called it Jamestown. This 
 was the first permanent settlement made by the 
 English in Virginia. 
 
 Shortly after, the company received supplies 
 from England, and an accession to their num- 
 bers, swelling the amount to 200. Two vessels 
 were freighted for England ; one loaded with a 
 yellow and brilliant sand, common in many 
 places in the vicinity, but supposed by the colo- 
 nists to contain a large proportion of gold : the 
 other vessel was loaded with tobacco. The 
 most efficient member of the council was cap- 
 tain Smith (see Smith) who was taken by the 
 Indians while on an exploring expedition. He 
 was led to the place of execution, and his head 
 placed upon a stone, while Powhatan, the In- 
 dian chieftain, stood over him with uplifted 
 club, regardless of the earnest solicitations of 
 his daughter Pocahontas, then about 13 years 
 of age. The princess, finding her entreaties 
 unavailing, fell upon Smith, folded him in her 
 arms, and laid her face upon his, determined to 
 meet death with him she could not save. Moved 
 by this touching devotion, Powhatan relented, 
 and, two days afterwards, sent Smith to James- 
 town. 
 
 In 1609, the destruction of the whole colony 
 was planned by the Indians, but their plans 
 were defeated by the exertions of the princess 
 Pocahontas, who, in a dark night, went to 
 Jamestown, and put the president upon his 
 guard. Pocahontas married an English gentle- 
 man by the name of Rolfe, embraced the Chris- 
 tian religion, and was baptized by the. name of 
 Rebecca. She died four yeais after at Graves- 
 end, on her return with her husband from Eng- 
 land. In 1019, 150 young women, " handsome 
 and uncorrupt," were sent to Virginia and 
 sold to the planters for 100, and 150 pounds of 
 tobacco each ; tobacco being then valued at 
 about three shillings the pound. At the same 
 time 20 negroes were brought to Virginia in a 
 Dutch vessel, and sold to the colonists, whence 
 
 one may date the commencement of the slave- 
 holding system. 
 
 In 1014 captain Smith was sent from England 
 to explore North Virginia. He ranged the coast 
 from Penobscot to Cape Cod, making observa- 
 tions on the shores, harbors, islands, and head- 
 lands ; and made a map of the country, which 
 on his return to England, he showed to prince 
 Charles (afterwards Charles I), who gave it the 
 name of New England. The Rev. Mr. Robin- 
 son with his flock, of the reformed church of 
 the north of England, removed to Amsterdam 
 in 1606, and soon after to Leyden. A variety of 
 motives led his congregation to turn their atten- 
 tion to the New World : the principal were, the 
 enjoyment of perfect liberty of conscience ; " the 
 preservation of ecclesiastical affairs distinct from 
 those of the state; ■' and a hope of laying the 
 foundation of an extensive empire, that should 
 be purged from all religious impurities. Having 
 made an arrangement with the Virginia com- 
 pany, they sailed from Plymouth, Eng., on the 
 6th of September 1620, and on the 10th of 
 November, anchored in Cape Cod harbor. 
 Perceiving that they were so far north as to be 
 without the territory of the south Virginia com- 
 pany, some hesitation arose : but the winter 
 was at hand, and it was now too late to go in 
 search of a settlement within the jurisdiction 
 of that company. Previous to their landing, 
 after prayer and thanksgiving, they formed 
 themselves into a body politic, binding them- 
 selves by a written covenant to be governed by 
 the decisions of a majority. This instrument, 
 was subscribed by 41 persons, who with their 
 children and domestics, composed a company 
 of 101 persons. Mr. John Carver was chosen, 
 without one dissentient voice, governor for one 
 year. 
 
 Parties were sent on shore to make discove- 
 ries. Some Indians were seen but could not be 
 overtaken. A considerable quantity of corn 
 was found in heaps of sand, secured in baskets, 
 which served for seed the ensuing spring, and 
 tended to save the adventurers from famine. 
 On the 6th of December, Carver, Standish, 
 Winslow, Bradford, and others, sailed to various 
 places, to discover a suitable situation for a set- 
 tlement. Monday, Dec. 11, O. S. they landed 
 at what was afterwards called Plymouth, and 
 from the excellence of the harbour, and the 
 favorable appearance of the land, resolved to 
 commence a settlement here. In 1628 the 
 council for New England, sold to Roswell 
 Young and others, a patent for all that part of 
 New England, lying between 3 miles N. of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 UNI 
 
 5S2 
 
 UNI 
 
 Merrimac, and 3 miles S. of Charles river. In 
 1629 king Charles incorporated " the governor 
 and company of Massachusetts bay in New 
 England." 
 
 In 1637 the troops of Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut had several engagements with the 
 Pequot Indians, and finally subdued them. 
 This year was made famous by a great theolo- 
 gical disturbance caused by Ann Hutchinson. 
 a woman of considerable talents, who was ac- 
 cused of maintaining heresies, and supporting 
 them by lectures frequently given to large 
 audiences. The result was a synod of the 
 ministers, elders, and messengers of the church- 
 es, who, after three weeks deliberation, con- 
 demned as heretical eighty -two opinions which 
 had been disseminated in New England, and 
 some banishments took place, among which 
 was that of Mrs. Hutchinson, her husband and 
 children, who removed to Rhode Island. In 
 1640, one hundred laws, entitled " The Body 
 of Liberties " were established for the govern- 
 ment of the colony. 
 
 In 1750, a number of noblemen, merchants, 
 and others of London, together with some in- 
 fluential Virginia planters, formed a society 
 under the name of the Ohio company, and ob- 
 tained from the crown a charter grant of six 
 hundred thousand acres, on and near the river 
 Ohio; and soon after made preparations for 
 commencing establishments on the Ohio, for 
 the purpose of commerce with the Indians, as 
 well as with a view to the settlement of the 
 country. Information of their proceeding soon 
 reached the French governor in Canada, who 
 immediately apprehended that, if the company 
 could not be interrupted in their plan, a great 
 part of their valuable fur trade of the French 
 would be destroyed, and all communication cut 
 off* between Canada and Louisiana. France 
 laid claim, by right of discovering the Missis- 
 sippi, to all the territory bordering on that river, 
 and on its tributary streams. The possessions 
 of the Ohio company were infringed upon by 
 the French governor of Canada, and their trade 
 menaced with annihilation. They therefore laid 
 their grievances before Dinwiddie, lieutenant- 
 governor of Virginia. 
 
 Dinwiddie, laid the subject before the assem- 
 bly, who determined to demand, in the name 
 of the king, that the French should desist. 
 Gemrge Washington, then in bis 22d year, was 
 despatched to the French commandant on the 
 Ohio, who assured him that he had acted ac- 
 cording to orders. After his return the British 
 determined to attack Fort du Quesne (now 
 
 Pittsburg), and Washington, now raised to the 
 rank of colonel, commanded. The conduct, of 
 the expedition, although it was unsuccessful re- 
 flected great credit upon the commander. 
 
 On the arrival of Braddock, in the spring of 
 1775, various military operations were planned. 
 An expedition against Canada was successful, 
 but the conquered territory was speedily relin- 
 quished by the victors. General Braddock's 
 expedition against Fort du Quesne was disas- 
 trous in the extreme. Heedless of the advice 
 of Washington, who cautioned him against an 
 ambush, he pressed forward, and was surprised 
 by the Indians. Instead of retreating or scour- 
 ing the woods, Braddock vainly endeavored to 
 form his men ; and continued with wanton bra- 
 very on the spot where he was first attacked, 
 till three horses were shot under him ; when he 
 received a shot through the lungs and fell. The 
 remains of the army immediately fled, bearing 
 away the body of their rash and unfortunate com- 
 mander. Every mounted officer except Wash- 
 ington, was either killed or wounded, and he 
 was providentially preserved, for an Indian had 
 marked him as a victim, and fired at him several 
 times with a rifle that had never before deceived 
 him. 64 out of 85 officers, and half the privates 
 were killed. But Washington bore off the 
 wreck of the forces with consummate skill and 
 undaunted courage. The war was continued 
 until 1763, and, although the military operations 
 were occasionally unsuccessful, the bravery of 
 the British and provincial troops prevailed, and 
 the fall of Quebec gave a death blow to the 
 hopes of the French. 
 
 We now come to the commencement of those 
 acts which created that patriotic feeling in the 
 colonies, which resulted in the Declaration of 
 their Independence. 
 
 In 1674 the parliament of Great Britain pass- 
 ed an act, the preamble to which ran thus : 
 "Whereas it is just and necessary that a.revcnue 
 be raised in America, for defraying the ex- 
 penses of defending, protecting, and securing 
 the same, &c." The act then proceeds to lay a 
 duty on clayed sugar, indigo, coffee, silk, mo- 
 lasses, calicoes, &c, being the produce of a 
 colony not under the dominion of his majesty. 
 To this the colonistssubmitted ; though not with- 
 out complaint and remonstrance. Before this 
 the subject of taxing the American colonies had 
 been in agitation. " There is something curi- 
 ous,*' siys Fox, " in discovering that even at 
 this early period (1685) a question relative to 
 North American liberty, and even to North 
 American taxation, was' considered as the test 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 UNI 
 
 583 
 
 UNI 
 
 of principles friendly or adverse to arbitrary 
 power at home. But the truth is, that, among' 
 the several controversies which have arisen, 
 there is no other where the natural rights of 
 man, on the one hand, and the authority of ar- 
 tificial institutions, on the other, as applied res- 
 pectively by the whigs and tories to the English 
 constitution, are so fairly put in issue, nor by 
 which the line of separation between the tw r o 
 parties is so strongly and distinctly marked." 
 
 When a scheme for taxing the colonies was 
 proposed to Sir Robert Walpole, he replied : " I 
 will leave that for some of my successors who 
 may have more courage than I have, and be 
 less a friend to commerce than I am. It has 
 been a maxim with me, during my administra- 
 tion, to encourage the trade of the American 
 colonies in the utmost latitude. Nay, it has 
 been necessary to pass over some irregularities 
 in their trade with Europe ; for, by encouraging 
 them to an extensive, growing foreign com- 
 merce, if they gain £500,000, I am convinced 
 that, in two years afterwards, full £ 250,000 of 
 their gains will be in his majesty's exchequer, 
 by the labor and product of this kingdom. 
 This is taxing them more agreeably to their 
 constitution and ours." 
 
 Instead of a repeal of the act imposing the 
 first tax, parliament, the next year, imposed a 
 duty on stamps. Resolutions were passed by 
 the popular branches of most of the colonial 
 legislatures, against this duty. Massachusetts 
 recommended a colonial congress, to consult for 
 the general welfare. A congress from most of 
 the colonies, consisting of twenty-eight mem- 
 bers, met at New York; remonstrated against 
 the act of parliament ; petitioned for its repeal ; 
 and made a declaration of the rights of the colo- 
 nies ; declaring that taxation and representation 
 were inseparable ; and that parliament had no 
 right to take their money without their consent. 
 Disturbances arose throughout the country. 
 Business was conducted without stamped paper, 
 and the validity of obligations was established 
 by the courts. Meanwhile the colonists enter- 
 ed into associations, to prevent the importation 
 of British goods, till the stamp act should be re- 
 pealed. 
 
 When information of the almost universal 
 opposition of the Americans to the stamp act, 
 reached the ears of parliament, great agitation 
 arose. Mr. Pitt said, " You have no right to 
 tax America. I rejoice that America has resist- 
 ed. Three millions of our fellow subjects so 
 lost to every sense of virtue, as tamely to give 
 up their liberties, would be fit instruments to 
 
 make slaves of the rest " The act was repealed, 
 but the repealing act had this sweeping sen- 
 tence, " that the parliament had, and of right 
 ought to have power to bind the colonies in all 
 cases whatsoever."' 
 
 In 1767, the chancellor of the exchequer 
 brought into parliament a bill for imposing a 
 duty to be collected in the colonies on glass, 
 paper, painter's colors and tea. The bill having 
 passed, was, the next year, sent to the colonies. 
 A bill was also passed for establishing at Boston 
 a board of commissioners, to manage the reve- 
 nue arising from the duties. An act was also 
 passed to compel the colonies to provide for the 
 British troops and support them at their own 
 expense. These various acts of parliament re- 
 suscitated the flames of resentment and oppo- 
 sition, which had been almost extinguished. 
 The most spirited resolutions were passed by 
 the colonies, among which the non -importation 
 resolutions were the most important. 
 
 On the 5th of March 1770, some British sol- 
 diers, being insulted and pressed upon by a 
 mob in King's now State street, Boston, fired 
 upon the populace, killed three, and wounded 
 six. Captain Preston, who commanded the 
 party, and his men, were tried and acquitted 
 with the exception of two who were brought in 
 guilty of manslaughter. In 1773, but little tea 
 having been imported into America, parliament 
 enjoyed her supposed right without benefit, and 
 the Americans denied it without injury. Affairs 
 therefore remained in the same state, till the 
 East India company, who had on hand about 
 seventeen million pounds of tea, were allowed 
 by parliament to export their tea into any part 
 of the world, free of duty : hence to the colo- 
 nists, tea, though with a duty of three pence, 
 would be cheaper than before. 
 
 The colonists were again violently excited 
 The corresponding committees, which had been 
 forming throughout the colonies for the last two 
 years, excited resistance, declaring such as aided 
 directly or indirectly in these violations of liber- 
 ty, enemies to their country. The consequence 
 was that the cargoes of tea, sent to New York 
 and Philadelphia, were sent back : and those sent 
 to Charleston, stored, but not offered for sale. 
 The tea ships, intended for the supply of Boston, 
 after the inhabitants had tried in vain to have 
 them returned, they being consigned to the re- 
 lations of governor Hutchinson, were entered 
 by about 17 persons in the disguise of Indians, 
 and three hundred and forty-two chests of tea 
 were thrown into the dock, no other damage 
 being done. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 UNI 
 
 584 
 
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 In 1774, parliament, receiving information of 
 the treatment of the East Indian companj' with 
 respect to their tea, were much exasperated. 
 Though the opposition was general, the pro- 
 vince of Massachusetts, and especially the town 
 of Boston, were considered the fomenters of dis- 
 obedience to their authority. Boston was there- 
 fore selected as the mark against which to direct 
 their vengeance. Hence a bill was passed, by 
 which the port of Boston was precluded from 
 the privilege of landing and discharging, or of 
 lading and shipping, wares and merchandise. 
 Another bill was also passed, essentially alter- 
 ing the charter of the province, making the 
 appointment of the council, justices, judges, 
 sheriffs, &c. dependent on the crown, or its 
 immediate agent. Another act directed the 
 governor to send to another colony or to Great 
 Britain for trial, any person indicted for murder 
 or any other capital offence. When these acts 
 arrived in America, they were circulated with 
 rapidity throughout the continent. But one sen- 
 timent of indignation and opposition governed 
 the people. The town of Boston recommended 
 an universal association to stop importations. 
 
 The house of burgesses in Virginia, which 
 colony had ever been forward in seconding the 
 spirit and measures of Massachusetts, ordered 
 that the day on which the Boston port bill 
 was to go into operation should be kept as a 
 day of fasting and prayer. Pamphlets, news- 
 paper discussions, addresses and essays, were 
 multiplied without number, proving' the wick- 
 edness of the acts of parliament, and urging an 
 union of the colonies for resistance. Massa- 
 chusetts recommended a meeting of delegates 
 from all the eolonies, the assembly electing five 
 for that purpose. On the fourth of September, 
 the deputies of eleven colonies appeared at 
 Philadelphia, organized themselves by choosing 
 Peyton Randolph president, and Charles Thomp- 
 son secretary, and agreed to vote by states. A 
 non-importation, and non-consumption agree- 
 ment were made ; an address to the king, a 
 memorial to the inhabitants of British America, 
 and an address to the people of Gieat Britain 
 were also made. After a few weeks they dis- 
 solved ; recommending the 10th of the succeed- 
 ing May, if their grievances should remain un- 
 redressed, for another session of congress. 
 
 Oct. 5, general Gage, the governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, as well as commander-in-chief of all 
 the royal forces in North America, issued writs 
 for holding a general assembly in Salem. He 
 afterwards countermanded the writs. Ninety 
 members met, formed themselves into a provin- 
 cial congress, adjourned to Concord, and chose 
 
 John Hancock president. They afterwards ad- 
 journed to Cambridge, and drew up a plan for 
 placing the province in a posture of defence, by 
 enlisting men, choosing general officers, &c. 
 
 In January, 1775, the earl of Chatham brought 
 forward a conciliatory bill in the house of peers, 
 which was rejected, two to one. Lord North, the 
 prime minister, introduced a bill for restraining 
 the trade of the New England colonies. Receiv- 
 ing information of the general opposition in the 
 southern colonies, he introduced another bill, 
 equally restraining their trade, but excepting 
 North Carolina, Delaware, and New York. 
 The time had now come for testing the nerve 
 of the colonists. An attempt was made by the 
 British troops to seize the military stores at 
 Concord, April 19, but they had to encounter 
 the armed opposition of the militia at Concord 
 and Lexington. Boston, was now blockaded. 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken. The 
 battle of Bunker's Hill followed, and an unsuc- 
 cessful expedition against Canada preceded the 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 On May 10th, 1775, the continental congress 
 met at Philadelphia, and on the 15th of June 
 unanimously elected George Washington, then 
 a member from Virginia, commander-in-chief 
 of the forces raised, and to be raised, for the 
 defence of the colonies. June 7, 1776, Richard 
 Henry Lee of Virginia, made a motion in con- 
 gress, for declaring the colonies free and inde- 
 pendent. After much debate, on the Fourth 
 of July, the thirteen colonies were declared 
 Free and Independent, under the title of 
 The United States of America. 
 
 An attempt was made in June and July, with 
 3000 British troops, under the command of 
 general Clinton and sir Peter Parker, to destroy 
 the fort on Sullivan's island, near Charleston 
 (S. C.) The fort was defended by col. Moultrie, 
 with about 400 men. After an action of 10 
 hours, the British were forced to retire with a 
 loss of about 200 men. 10 Americans were 
 killed, and 20 w r ounded. 
 
 Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the 
 British troops (March 17), Washington made 
 his head quarters at the city of New York, with 
 the principal part of his army. British troops, 
 to the amount of 24,000 men under lord Howe, 
 and his brother, sir Win. Howe, landed (August 
 22) on Long Island, near the Narrows, about 
 nine miles from the city. The American forces, 
 at this time, amounted to upwards of 17,000 
 men, and those principally raw recruits. A 
 battle was fought on Long Island (Aug. 27) in 
 which the Americans were defeated. The bat- 
 tle of White Plains took place on the 26th of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 UNI 
 
 585 
 
 UNI 
 
 October. The retreat of the American forces 
 through the Jerseys and across the Delaware 
 followed ; the battles of Trenton (Dec. 26) and 
 Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777) were also among the 
 events of this period- 
 
 The campaign of 1777 closed under better cir- 
 cumstances. General Burgoyne surrendered at 
 Saratoga, Oct. 17. In 1778 a treaty of commerce 
 and alliance was made between Louis XVI and 
 the commissioners of the U. States, on the 6th 
 of February. French troops soon after arrived. 
 Various military operations ensued. In the 
 southern states, where there was no regular 
 American army, the partisan warfare kept up by 
 Marion, Sumter, Morgan, and Greene, thinned 
 the ranks of their enemies. On the 19th of Oc- 
 tober, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered at York- 
 town. The fall of this large British army may 
 be considered as the closing of the war. Gen. 
 Washington ordered divine service in the diffe- 
 rent divisions and brigades. Congress went in 
 solemn procession to the Dutch Lutheran church 
 in Philadelphia, returned thanks to Almigh- 
 ty God for the success of the combined armies, 
 and recommended a day of general thanksgiv- 
 ing and prayer throughout the United States. 
 
 Savannah was evacuated in July (1782) and 
 Charleston in December. Great Britain ac- 
 Knowledged our independence Nov. 30, 1782. 
 Holland acknowledged the independence of the 
 United States in April; Sweden in February, 
 1783 ; Denmark in the same month ; Spain in 
 March ; Russia in July. 
 
 The debt of the U. States, at the close of the 
 war, was about 40 millions of dollars. Congress 
 had power to make war, and to create debts, 
 but no power to carry on the war, nor ability to 
 pay debts, but by appeals or recommendations 
 to thirteen independent sovereignties, whose 
 unanimity alone, seldom to be expected, could 
 support public credit, or give efficacy to the 
 proceedings of congress. For the payment of 
 the public debt, a proposal was made by con- 
 gress to the several states to lay a duty of five 
 per cent., on all goods imported from foreign 
 countries, till the national debt should be paid. 
 This plan failed : some states adopting it alto- 
 gether, some agreeing to it in part, and some 
 totally rejecting it. Thus, no efficient funds 
 being provided, the evidences of the public debt 
 began to decrease in value, till they were sold at 
 length for two shillings in the pound. 
 
 The new Federal government was establish- 
 in 1789. Washington was unanimously chosen 
 the first president, and John Adams vice-presi- 
 dent. Mr. Jefferson was selected for the de- 
 
 partment of state ; col. Hamilton was appointed 
 secretary of the treasury ; Gen. Knox secreta- 
 ry of war, and Mr. Edmund Randolph attorney- 
 general of the United States. John Jay was 
 made chief justice of the supreme court of the 
 U. States; John Rutledge, James Wilson, 
 William Cushing, Robert Harrison and John 
 Blair were named associate judges. The Indi- 
 an war and an insurrection in the western part 
 of Pennsylvania, on account of the tax on do- 
 mestic spirits were favorably terminated. The 
 insults and maritime depredations committed 
 by the French, induced America to take up 
 arms in defence of her rights, but a change of 
 rulers in France prevented the effusion of blood. 
 On the retirement of Washington, John Adams 
 was elected to succeed him, and in 1801, Tho- 
 mas Jefferson was chosen the third president of 
 the U. States. The claim of searching Ameri- 
 can vessels, and impressing from them British 
 seamen, and the British orders in council prohi- 
 biting the exportation of the U. States, together 
 with other outrages committed by the British, 
 produced a declaration of war against Great 
 Britain in June, 1812. The successes of the 
 British were but few and trifling, while the 
 American navy triumphed in a series of bril- 
 liant exploits, and the gallant defence of New 
 Orleans by general Andrew Jackson, crowned 
 the American arms with laurels. Peace was 
 concluded at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. The bat- 
 tle of New Orleans was fought the 8th of Jan. 
 1815. before the news of peace reached the Uni- 
 ted States. Gen. Andrew Jackson commanded 
 the American, and Sir Edward Packenham the 
 British troops. The latter fell in the engage- 
 ment, which ended in the entire defeat of the in- 
 vaders. Since that period the country has en- 
 joyed peace with all foreign powers. Difficul- 
 ties with several Indian tribes have arisen, in 
 consequence of their being compelled to retire 
 beyond the Mississippi, and the Seminoles of 
 Florida, have resisted with more energy than 
 any other. Though their master spirit, Osceola, 
 lived but a short time after his capture, his pro- 
 phecy has been fulfilled, that " the Seminoles 
 would keep the United States at bay for six 
 years. During those years,' Florida has been the 
 cemetery of our small, but brave army. 
 
 The Presidents of the United States have 
 been George Washington; John Adams; Thomas 
 Jefferson; James Madison; James Monroe; John 
 Q. Adams; Andrew Jackson; Martin Van Buren; 
 William Henry Harrison; who survived his m- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 UNI 
 
 586 
 
 UNI 
 
 auguration but one month; and Joan Tyler; 
 chosen Vice President; but (by the Constitution;) 
 President; in consequence of Gen. Harrison's 
 death. 
 
 "I appeal to History!" says Philips. "Tell me, 
 thou reverend chronicler of the grave, can all 
 the illusions of ambition realized, can all the 
 wealth of a universal commerce, can all the 
 achievements of successful heroism, or all the 
 establishments of this world's wisdom, secure 
 to empire the permanency of its possessions? 
 Alas ! Troy thought so once ; yet the land of 
 Priam lives only in song! Thebes thought so 
 once ; yet her hundred gates have crumbled, 
 and her very tombs are but as the dust they 
 were vainly intended to commemorate ! So 
 thought Palmyra — where is she ? So thought 
 the countries of Demosthenes and the Spartan ; 
 yet LeonidaS is trampled by the timid slave, and 
 Athens insulted by the servile, mindless, and 
 enervate Ottoman ! In his hurried march, Time 
 has but looked at their imagined immortality; 
 and all its vanities, from the palace to the tomb, 
 have, with their ruins, erased the very impres- 
 sion of his footsteps ! The days of their glory 
 are as if they had never been ; and the island, 
 that was then a speck, rude and neglected in 
 the barren ocean, now rivals the ubiquity of 
 their commerce, the glory of their arms, the 
 fame of their philosophy, the eloquence of their 
 senate, and the inspiration of their bards ! Who 
 shall say, then, contemplating the past, that 
 England, proud and potent as she appears, may 
 not, one day, be what Athens is, and the young 
 America yet soar to be what Athens was ! Who 
 shall say, that, when the European column shall 
 have mouldered, and the night of barbarism 
 obscured its very ruins, that mighty continent 
 may not emerge from the horizon, to rule, for 
 its time, sovereign of the ascendant! 
 
 "There lives in the bosom a feeling sublime, 
 
 Of all, 'tis the strongest tie ; 
 Unvarying through every change of lime, 
 
 And only with life does it die. 
 ♦T is the love that is borne for that lovely land, 
 
 That smiled at the hour of our birth ; 
 ' T is the love, thai is planted by nature's hand, 
 
 For our sacred native earth. 
 ' T was this that the patriot victor inspired, 
 
 Was strong in the'strength of his arm, 
 With the holiest zeal his brave bosom fired, 
 
 And to danger and death gave a charm. 
 'T was this that the dying hero blest, 
 
 And hallowed the hour when he fell, 
 That throbbed in the final throb of his breast, 
 
 And heaved iu his bosom's last swell. 
 
 When a thousand swords, in a thousand hands, 
 To the sunbeams of heaven shone bright ; 
 
 When the glowing hearts of Columbia's bands, 
 
 Were firm in Columbia's right: 
 When the blood of the West in the battle was poured, 
 
 In defence of the rights of the West; 
 When the blood of the East, stained the point of the 
 sword, 
 
 At the Eastern king's behest : 
 Till the angel form of returning peace, 
 
 O'er the plain and the mountain smiled — 
 Bade the rude blast of war from its ravage to cease, 
 
 And the sweet gale of plenty breathe mild. 
 She smiled — and the nation's mighty woes 
 
 Ceased to stream from the nation's eyes ; 
 She smiled — and a fabric of wisdom arose, 
 
 And exalted its fame to the skies. 
 
 Then firm be its base as the giant rock 
 
 ' Midst the ocean waves alone, 
 That the beating rain and the tempest shock 
 
 For numberless years has borne. 
 And blasted the parricide arm that shall plan 
 
 That glorious structure's fall, 
 But still may it sanction the rights of man; 
 
 And liberty, guardian to all. 
 Then sweet be the song that the minstrel should raise 
 
 To the patriot victor's fame, 
 And lively the tones of the heart-gendered praise, 
 
 That should wake from the harp at his name. 
 Then holy the dirge that the minstrel should pour, 
 
 O'er the fallen hero's grave, 
 Whose hand wields the sword for his country no more, 
 
 Who has died the death of the brave." 
 
 UNITED STATES, (or Provinces) of ths 
 Plata; or the Argentine Republic. Buenos 
 Ayres, or the confederacy of the Plata, is bound- 
 ed north by Bolivia, east by Paraguay, Uruguay, 
 and the Atlantic ocean; south by Patagonia, and 
 west by Chili and Bolivia. It extends from 20° 
 to 41° S. Lat., and from 57° to 70° W. Lon., hav- 
 ing an area of 900,000 square miles, with about 
 800,000 inhabitants, a large proportion of whom 
 are Indians. The territories lying within the 
 limits above described, formerly composed a part 
 of the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, 
 to which Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay also 
 belonged. In 1810 the intendancy of Buenos 
 Ayres broke out into an insurrection, and its 
 example was followed by the other intendancies 
 of the vice-royalty. In 1817, they declared 
 themselves independent, under the name of 
 the United States of South America, which 
 was afterwards changed into that of the Ar- 
 gentine Republic or United Provinces of the 
 Plata. This republic consisted of 14 states or 
 provinces. (See Bvenos Ayres). 
 
 UNITED STATES OF MEXICO, or United 
 Mexican States. The Mexican confederacy, or, 
 as it is generally called, Mexico, is bounded on 
 the north by the United States; east by the Uni- 
 ted States and the Gulf of Mexico; south by the 
 Republic of Central America, and west by the 
 Pacific Ocean. It extends from Lat. 16° to 42° 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 UNI 
 
 587 
 
 UTR 
 
 N. and from Lon. 87° to 124° W. being about 
 2,000 miles in length from N. to S., and from 
 150 to 1,200 in breadth, with an area estimated 
 at about 1,600,000 square miles. This confed- 
 eracy consists of 10 states 5 territories and the 
 federal dislrict which contains the capital. The 
 states are fubdivided into districts as follows : — 
 
 'lates Sf Territories. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Chiapas 
 
 93,750 
 
 Chiapas 
 
 3,000 
 
 Yucatan 
 
 500,000 
 
 Merida 
 
 10,000 
 
 Tabasco 
 
 75,000 
 
 Tab = o, He r.| 5>00(1 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 600,000 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 40,000 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 233,700 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 30,000 
 
 Puebla 
 
 680,000 
 
 Puebla 
 
 70,000 
 
 Mexico 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Tlalpan 
 
 6,000 
 
 Mechoacan 
 
 450,000 
 
 Valladolid 
 
 25,000 
 
 Queretaro 
 
 200,000 
 
 Queretaro 
 
 40,000 
 
 Guanaxuato 
 
 450,000 
 
 Guanaxuato 
 
 60,000 
 
 Xalisco 
 
 800,000 
 
 Guadalaxara 
 
 60,000 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 272,900 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 25,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi 
 
 250,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi 40,000 
 
 New Leon 
 
 100,000 
 
 Monterey 
 
 15,000 
 
 Tamaulipas 
 
 150,000 
 
 Aguayo 
 
 6,000 
 
 Cohahuila 
 
 125,000 
 
 Monclova 
 
 3,000 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 112,694 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 30,000 
 
 Durango 
 
 175,000 
 
 Durango 
 
 25,000 
 
 Sonora and ) 
 Cinaloa \ 
 
 180,000 
 
 Villa Fuerte 
 
 4,000 
 
 Federal District 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 180,000 
 
 Territory of ) 
 Tlascala \ 
 
 
 Tlascala 
 
 small town 
 
 of New Mex- 
 ico 
 
 J 150,000 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 3,500 
 
 of Colima 
 
 150,000 
 
 Colima 
 
 small town 
 
 of Upper Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 I 25,000 
 j 15,000 
 
 Monterey 
 
 2,500 
 
 of Lower Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 Loreto 
 
 
 This part of North America was discovered 
 by Fernando Cortez, a Spaniard, in 1519. He 
 soon conquered the Aztecs, who were ignorant 
 of the use of fire-arms, and the country became 
 a Spanish province under the name of New 
 Spain. It continued to be governed by a Span- 
 ish viceroy until 1810, when the revolution 
 began ; in 1813 the Mexican provinces declared 
 themselves independent. The war continued 
 with some interruptions and various success, 
 until 1819, when the insurgents were complete- 
 ly reduced. The struggle was renewed a few 
 years afterwards, and Iturbide, a Creole, who 
 had been in the Spanish or royal interest, join- 
 ing the patriots, the latter proved successful. 
 In 1822 Iturbide caused himself to be proclaim- 
 ed emperor, but he was soon after dethroned 
 and banished, and in 1824, a constitution was 
 adopted on.the plan of that of the United States. 
 The states of the confederacy, have each a 
 50 
 
 separate government, which manages its in- 
 ternal concerns. The general government is 
 administered by a president, chosen for four 
 years by the legislatures of the states, and a 
 congress, which is composed of a senate and a 
 house of deputies, the former elected by the 
 state legislatures, and the latter by the people, 
 as in the United States. The official style of the 
 republic is the United Mexican States (Estados 
 Unidos Mexicanos). (See Mexico and Cortez). 
 
 United States of Central America. (See Cen- 
 tral America). 
 
 URUGUAY. The republic of the Uruguay 
 is bounded on the north and east by Brazil; 
 south by the Atlantic, and west by the Uru- 
 guay, which divides it from the states of Corri- 
 entes and Entre Rios. It has an area of 80,000 
 square miles, and a population of 70,000 souls. 
 This territory formerly belonged to the Spanish 
 vice-royalty of the Plata, and was called the 
 Banda Oriental (Eastern Frontier) from its geo- 
 graphical position. It was afterwards claimed 
 by Brazil, but in 1828, after a bloody war be- 
 tween the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans, the 
 two parties agreed to its being erected into an 
 independent state. 
 
 Monte Video, the capital of the republic, is 
 situated on the Plata, and is regularly built, but 
 the houses are low and the streets are not paved. 
 It has a good harbor, and formerly enjoyed an 
 extensive commerce. The prosperity of the 
 city has been much affected by the wars be- 
 tween the neighboring states, and its population 
 has much diminished. It now contains about 
 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Maldonado and Colonia, are small towns on 
 the Plata, with good harbors. 
 
 UTRECHT, a city of the Netherlands, 
 capital of a province of the same name, con- 
 taining 3G,000 inhabitants. The treaty of 
 Utrecht was concluded in 1713, between the 
 allies and the French. The first stipulation of 
 this famous treaty was, that Philip, acknow- 
 ledged king of Spain, should renounce all right 
 to the crown of France, the union of two such 
 powerful kingdoms being thought dangerous to 
 the liberties of Europe. It was agreed that the 
 duke of Berry, Philip's brother, and after him 
 in succession, should also renounce his right to 
 the crown of Spain, in case he became king of 
 France. It was stipulated, that the duke of 
 Savoy should possess the island of Sicily, with 
 the title of king, together with Fenestrelles, and 
 other places on the continent, which increase 
 of dominion was in some measure made out of 
 the spoils of the French monarchy. The 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 VAL 
 
 588 
 
 VAL 
 
 Dutch had that barrier granted them, which 
 they so long sought after ; and if the crown of 
 France was deprived of some dominions to en- 
 rich the duke of Savoy, on the other hand the 
 house of Austria was taxed to supply the wants 
 of the Hollanders, who were put in possession 
 of the strongest towns in Flanders. With regard 
 to England, its glory and its interests were se- 
 cured. The fortifications of Dunkirk, a harbor 
 that might be dangerous to their trade in time 
 of war, were ordered to be demolished, and its 
 port destroyed. Spain gave up all right to 
 Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca. France 
 resigned her pretensions to Hudson's bay, Nova 
 Scotia, and Newfoundland : but was left in pos- 
 session of Cape Breton, and the liberty of dry- 
 ing fish upon the shore. Among these articles, 
 glorious to the English nation, their setting free 
 the French Protestants confined in the pri- 
 sons and galleys for their religion, was not the 
 least meritorious. For the emperor, it was 
 stipulated, that he should possess the kingdom 
 of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the Spanish 
 Netherlands. The king of Prussia was to have 
 Upper Guelders ; and a time was fixed for the 
 emperor's acceding to those articles, as he had 
 for some time obstinately refused to assist at the 
 negotiation. 
 
 V. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, a fortified city of France, 
 on the Scheldt, containing 16,918 inhabitants. 
 In 1793, this town formed one of the first ob- 
 jects of attack by the allies, after the defeat of 
 I)umourier. The siege conducted under the 
 eommand of the duke of York, was long and 
 obstinate, and part of the town was laid in ashes 
 before the capitulation. It was retaken by the 
 French in 1794, escaped attack in the invasion 
 by the allied powers in 1814 and 1815, and was 
 definitively confirmed to France by the treaties 
 of these years. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, a son of Gratian, born 
 in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian, took 
 him as his colleague on the throne, and ap- 
 pointed him over the eastern parts of the Roman 
 empire. By perseverance, Valens was enabled 
 to distinguish himself in his wars against the 
 northern barbarians. But his lenity to these 
 6avage intruders, proved fatal to the Roman 
 power; and by permitting some of the Goths 
 to settle in the provinces of Thrace, and to 
 have free access to every part of the country, 
 Valens encouraged them to make depredations 
 on his subjects, and to disturb their tranquillity. 
 
 His eyes were opened too late ; he attempted to 
 repel them, but he failed in the attempt. A 
 bloody battle was fought, in which the barbarians 
 obtained some advantage, and Valens was hur- 
 ried away into a lonely house, which the Goths 
 set on fire. Valens, unable to make ^is escape, 
 was burnt alive in the 50th year of his age, after 
 a reign of 13 years, A. D. 378. 
 
 VALENTINIAN I, a son of Gratian, raised 
 to the imperial throne by his merit and valor. 
 He kept the western part of the empire for 
 himself, and appointed over the east, his brother 
 Valens. He gave the most convincing proof 
 of his military valor in the victories which he 
 obtained over the barbarians in the provinces of 
 Gaul, the deserts of Africa, and on the banks 
 of the Rhine and Danube. The insolence of 
 the Quadi he punished with great severity ; and 
 when these desperate and indigent barbarians 
 had deprecated the conqueror's vengeance, Va- 
 lentinian treated them with contempt, and up- 
 braided them with every mark of resentment. 
 While he spoke with such warmth, he broke a 
 blood-vessel, and fell lifeless on the ground. He 
 was conveyed into his palace by his attendants, 
 and soon after died, after suffering the greatest 
 agonies, from violent fits and contortions of his 
 limbs, on the 17th of November, A. D. 375. He 
 was then in the 55th year of his age, and had 
 reigned twelve years. 
 
 VALENTINIAN II. About six days after 
 the death of Valentinian, his second son, Valen- 
 tinian II, was proclaimed emperor, though only 
 five years old. He succeeded his brother, Gra- 
 tian, A. D. 3S3, but his youth seemed to favor 
 dissension, and the attempts and the usurpations 
 of rebels. He was robbed of his throne by Max- 
 imus, four years after the death of Gratian ; and 
 in this helpless situation he had recourse to Theo- 
 dosius, who was then emperor of the east. He 
 was successful in his applications; Maximus 
 was conquered by Theodosius, and Valentinian 
 entered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his 
 benefactor. He was some time after strangled 
 by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called 
 Arbogastes. Valentinian reigned nine years. 
 He was fond of imitating the virtues and exem- 
 plary life of his friend and patron Theodosius, 
 and if he had lived longer, the Romans might 
 have enjoyed peace and security. 
 
 VALENTINIAN III, was son of Conslan- 
 tius and Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius 
 the Great, and therefore, as related to the impe- 
 rial family, he was saluted emperor in his youth, 
 and publicly acknowledged as such, at Rome, 
 the 3d of October, A. D. 423, about the Gth year 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 VAL 
 
 539 
 
 VAN 
 
 of his age. He was at first governed by his 
 mother, and the intrigues of his generals and 
 courtiers ; and when he came to years of dis- 
 cretion, he disgraced himself by violence, op- 
 pression, and incontinence. He was murdered 
 in the midst of Rome, A. D. 454, in the 3Gth 
 year of his age, and thirty-first of his reign, by 
 Petronius Maximus, to whose wife he had 
 offered violence. 
 
 VALERIANUS, Publius Licinius, a Roman, 
 proclaimed emperor by the armies in Rhaetia, 
 A. D. 254. He took his son Gallienus, as his 
 colleague in the empire, and showed the malevo- 
 lence of his heart by persecuting the Christians 
 whom he had for a while tolerated. He also 
 made war against the Goths and Scythians ; but 
 in an expedition which he undertook against 
 Sapor, king of Persia, his arms were attended 
 with ill success. He was conquered in Meso- 
 potamia, and when he wished to have a private 
 conference with Sapor, the conqueror seized his 
 person, carried him in triumph to his capital, 
 and exposed him in all the cities of his empire, 
 to the ridicule and insolence of his subjects. 
 When the Persian monarch mounted on horse- 
 back, Valerian served as a footstool, and the 
 many other insults which he suffered, excited 
 indignation even among the courtiers of Sapor. 
 The monarch, at last, ordered him to be flayed 
 alive, and salt to be thrown over his mangled 
 body, so that he died in the greatest torments. 
 His skin was tanned, and painted in red; and 
 that the ignominy of the Roman empire might 
 be lasting, it was nailed in one of the temples 
 of Persia. Valerian died in the 71st year of 
 his age, A. 1). 260, after a reign of seven years. 
 
 VALERIUS, Publius, a celebrated Roman, 
 surnamed Poplicola, from his popularity. He 
 was very active in assisting Brutus to expel the 
 Tarquins, and he was the first that took an oath 
 to support the liberty and independence of his 
 country. He was honored with the consul- 
 ship, on the expulsion of Collatinus, and he 
 triumphed over the Etrurians, after he had 
 gained the victory in the battle in which Brutus 
 and the sons of Tarquin had fallen. Valerius 
 died after he had been four times consul, and 
 enjoyed the popularity, and received the thanks 
 and the gratitude, which people redeemed from 
 slavery and oppression usually pay to their de- 
 liverers. To do him honor, his body was buried 
 at the public expense. The Roman matrons 
 mourned his death a whole year. 
 
 VALERIUS, Cnrvinus, a tribune of the sol- 
 diers under Camillus. When the Roman army 
 was challenged by one of the Senones, re- 
 
 markable for his strength and stature, Valerius 
 undertook to engage him, and obtained an easy- 
 victory, by means of a crow that assisted him, 
 and attacked the face of the Gaul, — whence his 
 surname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed over 
 the Etrurians, and the neighboring states that 
 made war against Rome, and was six times hon- 
 ored with the consulship. He died in the 100th 
 year of his age, admired and regretted for many- 
 public and private virtues. 
 
 VALETTE, John Parisot, the 48th grand 
 Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 During his reign the knight's galleys took above 
 fifty Turkish ships in less than five years, which 
 so enraged Soliman II, that he resolved to lay 
 siege to Malta, and drive the knights thence. 
 He appointed Mustapha Bassa, general of the 
 land, and Piali Bassa, commander of the sea 
 forces, which set out from Constantinople in 
 April, 1565, and arrived at Navarin, the 11th 
 of May. The fleet consisted of one hundred 
 and fifty galleys, nine men of war, &c. On the 
 20th of May, the Turks built two forts at the 
 mouth of the port of Malta, and placed fourteen 
 pieces of cannon in them. After a few skir- 
 mishes, they were forced to retire to la Marte, 
 where they encamped the 27th of May ; the 
 Bassa battered the fort of St. Elme, and after 
 five assaults, took the castle on the 23d of June, 
 but with the loss of 4000 of his best men. On 
 the 28th, Mustapha laid siege to the isle of St 
 Michel, or city of Sengle, and the next day 
 raised his batteries against the borough, which 
 the grand Master had reinforced with 600 men. 
 The°Turks continued their batteries, and made 
 a general assault the 21st of August, gained the 
 walls, and planted seven standards over the gate 
 de Bonne Enseigne : but the knights defeated 
 them with great slaughter. Mustapha made 
 several other efforts, until the 13th of Septem- 
 ber, when forty-nine Christian galleys arrived 
 with succor, and he then embarked with great 
 precipitation and escaped by night. During the 
 sieo-e, most of the fortifications were ruined- 
 The Turks lost 20.000 men, and about 9000 
 Christians died of their wounds. Valette re- 
 built the city, which he called by his own name. 
 He died in 1568. 
 
 VALMY, a village in the north-east of 
 France, department of the Marne. An action 
 was fought here in September, 1792, between 
 the French and Prussians. Kellerman con- 
 ducted it on the part of the French, and re- 
 ceived from it, at a future date, the title of 
 duke of Valmy. 
 
 VANDALS, The, according to the most 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 VEN 
 
 590 
 
 VEN 
 
 credible historians, were originally a Gothic 
 nation, who came out of Scandinavia witli the 
 other Goths, and settled in the countries now 
 known by the names of Mecklenburg and Bran- 
 denburg. Afterwards, another colony fixed 
 their habitations in Pomerania ; and, in process 
 of time, they extended themselves into Dal- 
 matia, Illyricum, and Dacia. They attacked 
 Greece, whence they went even to Spain; and 
 from that country, under the famous Genseric, 
 passed over into Africa, where, for some time, 
 they fixed the throne of their power. This 
 prince reduced Carthage, Sardinia, Sicily, and 
 all the islands between Italy and Africa. In 
 475, Genseric concluded a peace with the em- 
 peror Zeno, whom he compelled to renounce all 
 claim to the provinces of Africa. Justinian 
 afterwards gained a complete victory over the 
 Vandals, and re-united the provinces of Africa 
 to the Greek empire. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, a statesman, was born in 
 Kent, in 1589. In 1639, he was made treasurer 
 of the house-hold, and soon after, principal 
 secretary of state ; but, on joining in the prose- 
 cution of the earl of Strafford, he was removed 
 from all his places. He died in 1654. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, eldest son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1612. He became governor of 
 Massachusetts, but his conduct was so fanatical, 
 that the settlement would have been ruined had 
 he not been compelled to quit the country. In 
 1640 he was elected into parliament, where he 
 was the principal mover of the solemn league 
 and covenant, and also of the self-denying ordi- 
 nance ; but he took no part in the king's trial, 
 and he resisted Cromwell to such a degree, that 
 the usurper sent him to Carisbrooke castle. On 
 the death of Oliver, he labored to institute a 
 perfect commonwealth, but the nation had al- 
 ready suffered too much by such speculations, 
 and the ancient order being restored, he was 
 brought to trial for treason, and condemned to 
 be beheaded, which was put in execution on 
 Tower- hill, June 14, 1662. 
 
 VARUS, Quintilius, a Roman pro-consul, 
 descended from an illustrious family. He was 
 appointed governor of Syria, and afterwards 
 made commander of the armies in Germany. 
 He' was surprised by the enemy, under Armi- 
 nius, a crafty and dissimulating chief, and his 
 army was cut to pieces. When he saw that 
 every thing was lost, he killed himself, A. D. 
 10, and his example was followed by some of 
 his officers. 
 
 VENDEE, a department in the west of 
 France. It will be for ever memorable in the 
 
 history of the French revolution, for the re- 
 sistance made to the republican army in 1793, 
 1794, and 1795. It was attended for a time with 
 great success, though commenced without any 
 concert with the other royalists of France, and 
 carried on for a season with very limited support 
 from England. La Vendee was also the scene 
 of some sharp fighting in 1815. 
 
 VENEZUELA, a new republic of South 
 America, bounded north and east by the Carib- 
 bean sea and the Atlantic ocean, south by Brazil, 
 and west by New Granada. The northern part 
 is mountainous, and the climate of the plains hot. 
 The soil produces sugar, coffee, indigo, cotton 
 and tobacco. It was formerly a part of Colombia. 
 
 VENICE, capital of the government of 
 Venice, in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, is 
 built on small islands, intersected with canals, 
 on which the long, black gondolas are propelled 
 by an oar in the stern. Its public buildings 
 are numerous and splendid, but decayed. The 
 number of inhabitants is 110,000 ; but the former 
 spirit of the place is gone. With respect to 
 the first establishment of the Venetian govern- 
 ment, A. D. 421, it is said, that this multitude 
 of people might have been thought a numerous 
 seminary of philosophers, cultivating the duties 
 of religion and virtue, and enjoying a perfect 
 tranquillity. At this period the government 
 seems to have been consular. It was afterwards 
 changed into the tribunitian form, in 697, in 
 which it continued for nearly three hundred 
 years ; but the tribunes, abusing their power 
 the ducal government was established. The 
 first doge was Paulatis, who made the nation 
 happy, powerful, and wealthy, and who was 
 succeeded by Marcello, Hypato, Theodato, 
 Galla, Domesco. Monegaria, and Mauritio Gal- 
 baio. During the dogeship of Mauritio, the 
 Venetians declared themselves a free and inde- 
 pendent people, acknowledging neither the 
 eastern nor the western empire. To him suc- 
 ceeded Giovanni and Obelerio, the ninth doge, 
 under whom Venice was besieged and attacked 
 by Pepin, in 764, who, struck with the intrepid- 
 ity of the Venetians, raised the siege, abandoned 
 the enterprise, and concluded a peace with the 
 republic. Under Pietro Tribuno, the seven- 
 teenth doge, in 903, the Huns having defeated 
 Berengarius, entered Italy, and, induced by the 
 wealth of the Venetian republic, resolved to 
 sack and pillage the city. However, the doge 
 was so bravely seconded by his troops, that the 
 barbarians were completely broken and defeated, 
 and the reputation of Venice for arms became 
 famous over the world. Under the government 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 VEN 
 
 591 
 
 VEN 
 
 of Ordelapho, the thirty-fourth doge, the Vene- 
 tians subdued Croatia, in consequence of which, 
 the republic assumed the title of lords of Croatia; 
 but the Hungarians entering Dalmatia, in 1089, 
 attacked and defeated the Venetians, and cruelly 
 butchered their wounded and prisoners. Ziani, 
 the thirty -ninth doge, was no sooner elected, 
 than the republic was involved in a war with 
 Frederic Barbarossa, from whose persecution 
 the pope Alexander had retired to Venice. 
 However, the doge engaged the enemy at sea, 
 in 1173, and took, sunk, and destroyed, forty- 
 eight of their ships, and returned in triumph to 
 Venice. Under the doge-ship of Pietro Grado- 
 nico, the forty-ninth of the Venetian princes, a 
 war took place with the Genoese, in 1291, who 
 defeated the Venetian fleet at sea, and took 
 Dandolo, the commander, prisoner; who, in 
 the agony of despair, dashed out his brains 
 against the side of the cabin where he was 
 confined. After Bartolomeo Gradonico, the 
 fifty-third Venetian prince, Andrea Dandolo 
 next succeeded to the ducal chair, and war 
 commenced with Genoa. The two hostile fleets 
 met and engaged on the Sardinian coast, in 
 1347, and the whole Genoese armament was 
 taken or destroyed, with the exception of the 
 admiral's ship alone. This defeat caused the 
 utmost consternation at Genoa ; and the Geno- 
 ese, in their despair, requested that the duke of 
 Milan would accept of the sovereignty of their 
 dominions. Marino Faliero, the fifty-fifth doge, 
 in 1353, formed the project of restoring the 
 power to the people, through hatred of the 
 nobles; but his design being discovered, he 
 was tried in due form, and after acknowledging 
 his crime, was beheaded in the hall of the great 
 council. Thus the aristocracy of Venice was 
 continued. During the sovereignty of Andrea 
 Contarini, the sixtieth doge, war again occurred 
 with Genoa, in 1378, and an obstinate naval 
 engagement ensued, in which the Genoese 
 were obliged to yield to the bravery of the 
 Venetians, who captured the whole of their 
 fleet. Andrea Contarini was succeeded by 
 Michael Morosini, and, from this period, the 
 meridian power and prosperity of Venice may 
 be dated. During the government of Michael 
 Steno, war was declared against Genoa, in 1403, 
 and a dreadful battle took place between the 
 hostile fleets, in which the Genoese lost seven 
 ships, and nearly three thousand men. Under 
 the government of Thomaso Moncenigo, the 
 Venetians successfully exerted themselves 
 against the Turks in the Morea, and against 
 several petty sovereigns whose states they in-* 
 50* 
 
 vaded in Dalmatia and Friuli. They also 
 bought Corinth, in addition to Patras and Zara, 
 which they had already purchased. Under 
 Francisco Foscari, the sixty-fifth duke of 
 Venice, in 1423, the Venetians waged war 
 against Milan, Florence, Genoa, or rather 
 against all Italy ; and their general, Carmag- 
 nola, being convicted of a treasonable corres- 
 pondence with the enemy, was beheaded. 
 Foscari ruled the state in peace, and even 
 with applause, during thirty-four years; but, 
 at the expiration of that period, his son hap- 
 pening to die in exile, he became extremely 
 melancholy, and unfit for the discharge of busi- 
 ness. It was therefore determined, by a giunta 
 of twenty-seven senators, that he should vacate 
 the ducal chair, that a new doge should be 
 elected to succeed him, and that a pension and 
 certain honors should be allowed him in his 
 retreat. Foscari died soon after of a broken 
 heart, in consequence of this ungrateful treat- 
 ment. He was succeeded by Pasquil Malipiero, 
 in 14G2, and Christophoro Mora, under whose 
 government hostilities were carried on against 
 the Turks in the Morea ; but, though the Vene- 
 tians were assisted by an army of crusaders, the 
 war proved unsuccessful. Mora was succeed- 
 ed by Nicolao Trono, Nicola Marcello, Pietro 
 Moncenigo, Andrea Vendramino, and Giovanni 
 Moncenigo, during all of whose reigns a vigor- 
 ous war was carried on with the Turks. After 
 Marco Barbarico, his brother Agostino succeed- 
 ed to the ducal chair, in I486, during whose 
 sovereignty, Cyprus was annexed to the repub- 
 lic, and the wealth, grandeur, and power of 
 Venice, continued to increase. A league was 
 now formed between the emperor, Spam, the 
 pope, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan^ 
 against the king of Fiance. Under the doge- 
 ship of Leonardo Loretano, the league of Cam- 
 bray was formed, in which the pope, king of 
 France, as duke of Milan, the king of Arragon 
 and Naples, the republic of Florence, and the 
 dukes of Ferrara and Savoy, agreed to a parti- 
 tion of the Venetian states. At length, war 
 was declared by France against Venice, in 
 1508; the progress of the confederates was 
 rapid, and the republic was plunged into the 
 deepest distress. However, in 1511, the siege 
 of Padua was raised ; and after some time, a 
 treaty was entered into between the pope and 
 the Venetians, and the league was broken. The 
 next year, the Venetians also took Cremona 
 Bastia, and Brescia ; the emperor now secretly 
 signed the treaty with them, and Louis offeied 
 terms of peace. Upon the death of Louis, in 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 VEN 
 
 592 
 
 VER 
 
 1515, Francis I renewed the treaty with the 
 Venetians; and the emperor, the pope, Ferdi- 
 nand king of Arragon, the Swiss, and Sforza, 
 entered into another. However, after some 
 advantages gained on each side, peace was re- 
 established. Loretano was succeeded by An- 
 tonio Grimani, Andrea Gritti, Pietro Lando, 
 Francisco Donato, Marco Antonio Trevisiano, 
 Francisco Veniero, Lorenzo Priuli, Jeronimo 
 Priuli, and Pietro Loretano, during whose 
 government, in 1569, Selim, empeior of Con- 
 stantinople, formed designs upon Cyprus. A 
 treaty was soon after formed between Spain, 
 the Pope, and the Venetians. On the death 
 of Loretano, Ludovico Moncenigo, the eighty- 
 fifth doge, succeeded to the government, in 
 1570. In the following August, the Turkish 
 troops landed without resistance at Port Salina, 
 in Cyprus, of which they at length made them- 
 selves masters. A treaty was set on foot, host- 
 ages were exchanged, and a capitulation was 
 effected on honorable terms. Bragadino, the 
 Venetian commander, after having his ears, 
 nose, and lips cut off, was flayed alive, by 
 order of Mustapha, the Turkish general. The 
 republic of Venice had enjoyed but a short 
 respite from the horrors of war, when it was 
 visited by the pestilence, in 1576, which cut 
 off twenty-two thousand men, thirty thousand 
 women, and eleven thousand chddren. Mon- 
 cenigo was succeeded by Sebastiano Veniero, 
 Nicola da Ponti, Pasquali Cicogna, Marino 
 Grimani, and Leonardo Denato, during whose 
 government a rupture, and consequent paci- 
 fication, with the pope took place. Leonardo 
 Donato was succeeded by Marcantonio Munio, 
 Giovanni Bembo, Nicolo Donato, and Antonio 
 Priuli, the ninety-fourth doge. Antonio Priuli 
 was succeeded by Francesco Contarino, Giovan- 
 ni Cornaro, Francesco Erizzo, and Francesco 
 Molino, the ninety-ninth doge, during whose 
 government the first siege of Candia took 
 place, and the Venetians gained several naval 
 victories. This was likewise the case during 
 the dogeships of Carlo Contarino, Francesco 
 Cornaro, Bertuccio Valiero, Giovanni Pesaro, 
 and Dominico Contarino, the hundred and 
 fourth doge, during whose government the 
 memorable siege and capture of Candia took 
 place. His successors were Nicolo Secredo, 
 Luigi Contarino, and Murcontiniano Guistini- 
 anio, the hundred and seventh doge, durincr 
 whose government the Morea was subdued by 
 the Venetians, in 1687. Giustinianio was suc- 
 ceeded by Fr;tncesco Morosino, and Sylvestro 
 Vahero, the hundred and ninth doge, in I01J8, 
 during whose sovereignty the porte concluded 
 
 peace with Venice, and left the republic in full 
 possession of all her conquests. Under his suc- 
 cessor, Giovanni Cornaro, war broke out be- 
 tween the republic and the Turks, and was 
 brought to a conclusion by Sebastiano Monce- 
 nigo, who, after the death of Cornaro, in 1725, 
 was rewarded with the ducal crown. He was 
 succeeded by Carlo Razzini, whose successors 
 were Luigi Pisani, Pietro Grimaldi, Francesco 
 Loretano, Marco Foscarini, and Alvisio Monce- 
 nigo. Under the government of Paulo Riniero, 
 the republic engaged in an expensive and un- 
 profitable war with the regency of Tunis, in 
 1789. Riniero was succeeded in the ducal 
 ehair by Luigo Manino, the last doge, during 
 whose government nothing important occurred, 
 till the invasion of Italy Dy tlie French. The 
 Venetians, in order to check the progress of 
 the republican forces, put r'esciiieia into the 
 hands of the imperialists, in I7D0; but Bona- 
 parte quickly becoming master of all Italy, 
 they endeavored to conciliate the iavor of 
 France, by warning out of their territories the 
 unfortunate brother of the late king, whom 
 they treated with indignity and insult. At 
 length, the hatred of the Venetians burst forth 
 in tJie most outrageous manner. On the roads 
 from Mantua to .Leguano, and from Cassano to 
 Verona, upwards oi two hundred French were 
 assassinated ; and at Verona all the French in 
 that city were murdered. These and other 
 outrages, of a similar nature, induced Bona- 
 parte to issue a proclamation, in consequence 
 of which the French troops over-ran and sub 
 jugated, in a lew days, all the Venetian domin- 
 ions ; and the senate toimally submitted to 
 the French oominawder, in I7i>7, and consented 
 to deliver up those persons who had been instru- 
 mental in the late atrocities. On the loth of 
 May, the French took possession of the city of 
 Venice, and established a provincial govern- 
 ment on the republican plan, iiy the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, Venice, with most of its depen- 
 dencies, was ceded to the emperor of Germany; 
 and the treaty of Fresburg united it to the king- 
 dom of Italy. After the abdication by Bona- 
 parte of the thrones of France aud Italy, Venice 
 was united by the congress of Vienna to the 
 territories of the house of Austria. Thus the 
 ancient republic of Venice, so long mistress of 
 the Adriatic, finally terminated in a complete 
 dependency of Austria, in 1814. 
 
 VERA CRUZ, a state of the Mexican Con- 
 federacy, bounded east by the Gulf ol Mexico, 
 north by the state of Tainaulipas, and west by 
 Puebla. and Mexico. The soil is fertile but the 
 State is thinly peopled, containing but £53,000 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 VER 
 
 593 
 
 VER 
 
 souls. The climate is unhealthy. The chief 
 productions are tobacco, coffee, cotton, &c. 
 
 VERE, Francis, an English general, was the 
 grandson of John Vere,earl of Oxford, and was 
 born in 1554. He served first in the Nether- 
 lands, under the earl of Leicester, and next un- 
 der lord Willoughby, who, fur his conduct in 
 the defence of Bergen-op-Zoom, conferred on 
 him the honor of knighthood. After this he 
 threw supplies into the town of Berg, on the 
 Rhine, in which hazardous service he received 
 many wounds. In 1591 he took a fort near 
 Zutphen by stratagem, and was chiefly instru- 
 mental in the capture of Deventer. In 1596 he 
 was recalled from the Netherlands, and em- 
 ployed in the expedition against Cadiz, with the 
 title of lord marshal. The last great action of 
 this gallant commander was the defence of Os- 
 tend, where he succeeded in repelling, with a 
 small garrison of twelve hundred men, an army 
 of ten thousand. Sir Francis died Aug. 28, 
 1608, and was buried in Westminster abbey. 
 
 VERE, Sir Horace, Baron of Tilbury, young- 
 er brother of the preceding, was born at Kirby- 
 hall in Essex, in 1565. He served with his 
 brother in the Netherlands, and had a consid- 
 erable share in the victory near Nieuport ; as he 
 afterwards had in the defence of Ostend. In 
 the reign of James 1, he commanded the forces 
 sent to the assistance of the elector Palatine ; 
 on which occasion he effected a memorable re- 
 treat from Spinola, the Spanish general. He 
 was the first person raised to the peerage by 
 Charles I. He died in 1635. 
 
 VERGENNES, Charles Gravier, count de, 
 an eminent statesman, was born at Dijon in 
 1717. On the accession of Louis XVI to the 
 throne he was made secretary of state for for- 
 eign affairs. In this situation, he distinguished 
 himself by what he, no doubt, considered a mas- 
 ter-stroke of policy, that of separating England 
 and her colonies ; but in this he only accelera- 
 ted a more fatal blow to his own country. He 
 died at Versailles, Feb. 13, 1787. 
 
 VERMONT, one of the United States of 
 America, bounded N. by Lower Canada, E. by 
 Connecticut river, separating it from New 
 Hampshire, S. by Massachusetts, and W. by 
 New York. It is 157 miles in length, and the 
 greatest breadth is 90 miles. Pop. 291,948. 
 
 Countiks. Addison, Bennington, Caledo- 
 nia, Chittenden, Essex, Franklin, Grand Isle, 
 Orange, Orleans, Rutland, Washington, Wind- 
 ham, Windsor. 
 
 The piincipal rivers are the Connecticut, La- 
 moile, Onion, Otter Creek, Missisque, Deerfield, 
 
 &c. The Green Mountains extend through this 
 state. The chief towns are Montpelier, the seat 
 of government, Burlington, Windsor, Biattlebo- 
 rough. Middlebury and Bennington. Vermont 
 university at Burlington, the college at Middle- 
 bury, and a literary, scientific, and military aca- 
 demy at Norwich, are flourishing institutions. 
 
 Fort Duinmer was built by Massachusetts on 
 Connecticut river in 1724, and in 1731 a fort 
 was built at Crown Point by the French from 
 Canada, within the present limits of Vermont. 
 In 1741 a boundary line was run between Mas- 
 sachusetts and New Hampshire. In 1749, Ben- 
 ning Wentworth, governor of New Hampshire, 
 concluding that the boundary of that colony ex- 
 tended as far west as .that of Massachusetts, 
 that is, to within 20 miles of the Hudson, made 
 a grant of a township of land, six miles square, 
 which from his own first name was called Ben- 
 nington. Other grants were subsequently made, 
 and several towns planted on the west side of 
 Connecticut river. In the year 1764 the king 
 annexed the territory west of the Connecticut 
 river to the colony of New York ; the govern- 
 ment of which demanded new grants from the 
 settlers. This was refused : and the next year 
 several of the officers in attempting to exe- 
 cute the judgments of the courts of New York, 
 were resisted and wounded. At the head of 
 this opposition were Ethan Allen and Col. War- 
 ner, men of coolness, and resolution. 
 
 In 1774 the government of New York passed 
 a law demanding the surrender of all offenders 
 under severe penalties, and offering a bounty 
 of £50 per head, on the apprehension of eight 
 of the most obnoxious settlers. While prepar- 
 ing for civil war, the revolution commenced, 
 the importance of which absorbed all minor con- 
 siderations. In 1777 the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence having left the settlers in a critical 
 situation, a convention of representatives from 
 the towns on both sides of the mountains, was 
 held at Westminster, and the District was de- 
 clared a free and independent state. It received 
 its name from the French words Verd nwnt., cr 
 green mountain, which name had been conferred 
 by Ethan Allen on the mountains, and was af- 
 terwards transferred to the state. In 17!J0 the 
 dispute between New York and Vermont was 
 adjusted, the latter giving 20,000 dollars for the 
 quitclaim of the former. The next year Ver- 
 mont was admitted into the union. The pres- 
 ent constitution was adopted in 1793. 
 
 VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, was 
 born in Westminster, of a Staffordshire family, 
 Nov. 12 ; 1684. His father was secretary of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 VER 
 
 594 
 
 VIE 
 
 state to king William, and reluctantly suffered 
 dm to enter into the sea service under admiral 
 Hopson. In 1704 he was with sir George 
 Rooke, at the battle of Malaga. After a variety 
 of service under different commanders, he was 
 made vice-admiral of the blue in 173;), and sent 
 with a squadron to Spanisli America, where he 
 took Porto Bello, and desLroyed the fortifica- 
 tions ; but in 1741, he proved unsuccessful in 
 an attack upon Cirtingena. On his return 
 home, he was employed in guarding the coasts 
 of Kent and Sussex during the rebellion ; but 
 soon after he was superseded, and even struck 
 off the list of admirals fur acting in opposition to 
 the ministry. He died Oct. 20, 1757. 
 
 VErlONA, an ancient European city, former- 
 ly belonging t) Venice, now to the Austrian 
 Lombardo Venetian kingdom, situated on the 
 Adige, GJ miles west of Venice. Population 
 55,00.). Its splendid antique monuments ren- 
 dered it attractive to every scholar. It was 
 taken by Charlemagne in 774 ; became subse- 
 quently a free town; fell, in the course of time, 
 under the sway of leading families ; and in 1405, 
 was united to the territorial possessions of Ven- 
 ice. It enjoyed peace and tranquillity till the 
 year 1706, when Italy was invaded by the 
 French. It was then added to the kingdom of 
 Italy. In 1814, it again fell into the hands of 
 Austria. 
 
 VERllES.CaiusLicinius.aRoman who gov- 
 erned the province of Sicily as praetor. The op- 
 pression and rapine of which he was guilty, 
 while in office, so offended the Sicilians, that 
 they brought an accusation against him before 
 the Run in senate. Cicero undertook the cause 
 of the Sicilhns. Verres was defended by Hor- 
 tensius, but as he despaired of the success of 
 his defence, he left Rome without waiting for 
 his sentence, and lived in great affluence in one 
 of the provinces. He was at last killed by the 
 soldiers of Antony the triumvir, about 20 years 
 after his voluntary exile from the capital. 
 
 VE11ULAM. an ancient Roman city and 
 colony in Hertfordshire, the royal city of Cas- 
 sibellanus. It was taken by Julius Caesar, 52 
 years, B. C. in his second expedition into Bri- 
 tain, and under Dioclesian had one famous 
 martyr called Albanus. In 420 a British synod 
 was held here by St. Germ in, bishop of Auxerre 
 in France, against the Pelagians. Soon after 
 it fell into the hands of the Sixons about 405, 
 but was re-taken by Uther Pendragon, who be- 
 gan his reign in 4.;d, and reigned Id years. It 
 was re-tak-n by the Saxons, and entirely ruined. 
 In 075, Offa, a king of the Mercians, built on 
 
 the other side of the little river which washed 
 the walls of it, a monastery in honor of St. Al- 
 ban. It became a great town, and is now called 
 St. Albans. King James 1 revived the memory 
 of this place, when he made sir Francis Bacon, 
 then l.ird chancellor of England, lord Verulam 
 in 10'20. The venerable abbey is esteemed by 
 antiquarians as one of the finest in England. 
 Part of it is, however, in a dilapidated state, 
 owing to the want of funds for repairs. 
 
 VESPASIAN US, Titus Flavius, a Roman 
 emperor, descended from an obscure family at 
 Reate. He was honored with the consulship, 
 not so much by the influence of the imperial 
 courtiers, as by his own private merit, and his 
 public services. He accompanied Nero into 
 Greece, but he offended the prince by falling 
 asleep while he repeated one of his poetical 
 compositions. This momentary resentment of 
 the emperor did not prevent Vespasian from 
 being sent to carry on a war against the Jews. 
 His operations were crowned with success; 
 many of the cities of Palestine surrendered, and 
 Vespasian began the siege of Jerusalem. This 
 was, however, achieved by the hands of his son 
 Titus. After the death of Otho, he was induced 
 by his army to become emperor; and he easily 
 overcame Vitelliu-s. The choice of the army 
 was approved by every province of the empire; 
 but Vespasian did not betray any signs of pride 
 at so sudden and so unexpected an exaltation, 
 and he behaved, when invested with the impe- 
 rial purple, with all the dignity and greatness 
 which became a successor of Augustus. In 
 the beginning of his reign, Vespasian attempted 
 to reform the manners of the Romans, and he 
 took away an appointment which he had a few 
 days before granted to a young nobleman who 
 approached him to return him thanks, all smell- 
 ing of perfumes, and covered with ointment; 
 adding, I had rather you had smelt of garlic. 
 Alter he had reigned with great popularity for 
 ten years, Vespasian died of a complaint in his 
 bowels, A. D. 70, in the 70th year of his age, to 
 the great grief of all the empire. He was the 
 first of the Roman emperors who was succeeded 
 by his own son on the throne. Vespasian has 
 been admired for his great virtues. 
 
 VIENNA, one of the oldest cities of Germa- 
 ny, the capital of the Austrian monarchy, situ- 
 ated on the south bank of the Danube, and con- 
 taining 300,000 inhabitants. Its palaces, church- 
 es, charitable and literary institutions, as well 
 as the g ayety of its society make it one of the 
 most noted of European cities. Vienna was 
 captured in 1484, by the Hungarians, but after 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 VIL 
 
 595 
 
 VIL 
 
 the death of their king was restored to Austria. 
 In 1529, the Turks destroyed its suburbs. In 
 1619, the Bohemian insurgents, supported by a 
 party in Austria, penetrated into the city. But 
 the attack most generally known to the readers 
 of history was that of 1G83, made by a Turkish 
 army, supported by disaffected chiefs in Hun- 
 gary, but repulsed by Sobieski, king of Poland. 
 In the present age it was threatened by Bona- 
 parte in 1797, and occupied by him in 1805 and 
 1809. On both occasions proper discipline was 
 observed by the invaders, and little injury was 
 done. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaty of, between Austria and 
 France, in 1809. The decisive battle of Wa- 
 gram led to an armistice, which the emperor of 
 Germany was compelled to sue for, and which, 
 after a protracted negotiation, was followed by 
 a treaty of peace. According to the terms of 
 this treaty Austria ceded a great portion of her 
 territory ; agreed to a contribution to indemnify 
 France for the expenses of the war, and acknow- 
 ledged Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. To the 
 king of Bavaria she gave up Saltzburg, and a 
 tract of country along the banks of the Danube, 
 from Passau to Lintz. To the king of Saxony 
 she yielded the whole of western Gallicia. To 
 Russia so much of the eastern part of that pro- 
 vince as contained a population of 40,000 souls. 
 To France she ceded Fiume and Trieste, with 
 the whole of the country south of the Saave, to 
 where that river enters Bosnia. She also gave 
 up the inhabitants of the Tyrol, on condition of 
 their receiving from Bonaparte a full and free 
 pardon. Such was the fatal effects of the battle 
 of Wagram, of which the Austrians gave so fa- 
 vorable an account, and which they claimed as 
 a victory. 
 
 VILLARS, Louis Hector, duke of, a French 
 general, was born at Moulins, in 1653. After a 
 variety of services, he gained the battle of Frie- 
 dlingen in 1762 ; for which he was made mar- 
 shal of France. The following year he took 
 the fortress of Kehl, and put an end to the in- 
 surrection in the Cevennes, for which he was 
 created duke of Villars. In 1707 he forced the 
 lines at Stolhoffen ; but in 1709 he lost the bat- 
 tle of Malplaquet, and was wounded. In 1712 
 he acquired glory by forcing the intrenchments 
 of Denain on the Scheldt, which exploit was 
 succeeded by the capture of Marchiennes, 
 Douay, Bouchain, Landau, and Friburg. The 
 peace of Rastadt followed ; after which marshal 
 Villars was made president of the council of 
 war, and minister of state. In 1733 he com- 
 manded in Italy, with the title of marshal-gen- 
 
 eral of the French camps and armies. He died 
 at Turin, June 17,1734 
 
 V1LLIERS, George, duke of Buckingham, 
 was the son of sir George Villiers, of Brookes- 
 by in Leicestershire, and was born there in 1592. 
 He attracted the notice of James I at the per- 
 formance of the play of Ignoramus, in 1615; 
 soon after which he was successively appointed 
 cup-bearer to the king, gentleman of the bed- 
 chamber, and knight of the garter. He also 
 rose to the rank of marquis, and became lord ad- 
 miral of England, warden of the Cinque Ports, 
 and master of the horse. But in 1623 he lost 
 the royal favor, in a great degree, by persuading 
 prince Charles to visit the court of Spain, for 
 the purpose of paying his addresses in person to 
 the Infanta. Though Buckingham was created 
 a duke in his absence, it was supposed that if 
 the king had lived, his fall would have been as 
 rapid as his rise. The accession of Charles in 
 1625 increased the power of the favorite, but it 
 also multiplied his enemies and injured his mas- 
 ter. The nation hated Buckingham, and two 
 parliaments; for impeaching him, were dissolved. 
 At this period the duke involved the kingdom 
 in a disgraceful war with France, and went 
 himself on an expedition to the Isle of Rhe, 
 where he lost the flower of his army. He then 
 returned to repair his fleet, and was about to 
 sail for Rochelle, when he was assassinated, at 
 Portsmouth, by Felton, a fanatical lieutenant, 
 August 23, 1628. 
 
 VILLIERS, George, the second duke of 
 Buckingham, was the son of the preceding, and 
 was born in 1627. After studying at Cambridge, 
 he went abroad, and on his return entered into 
 the royal army, for which he was deprived of 
 his estate by the parliament, but recovered a 
 great part of it in 1657, by marrying the daugh- 
 ter of lord Fairfax. At the restoration he was 
 made one of the lords of the bed-chamber, lord- 
 lieutenant of Yorkshire, and master of the horse. 
 Of these honors, however, he was deprived in 
 1606, for being concerned in a plot to effect a 
 change of government. Notwithstanding this, 
 he recovered the royal favor, and retained it, af- 
 ter perpetrating some shocking crimes ; one of 
 which was the killing lord Shrewsbury in a 
 duel, and debauching his countess; and ano- 
 ther, the hiring of Blood to seize the duke of 
 Ormond in his coach. In 1676, the duke, with 
 the earls of Shaftesbury and Salisbury, and lord 
 Wharton, were sent to the Tower, by order of 
 the house of peers, for contempt. On a petition 
 to the king, however, they were all released. 
 This profligate nobleman died at an obscure 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 VIR 
 
 596 
 
 VIT 
 
 house at Kirkby Moorside, of a fever, April 16, 
 
 iobs. 
 
 V1MEIRA. a village of Portuguese Estrema- 
 dura, 3 miles from Torres Vedras, and 28 miles 
 N.W. of Lisbon. It is remarkable for a battle be- 
 tween the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
 and the French, under Junot, 21st August, 1808. 
 The French commenced the attack on various 
 points with their usual impetuosity, and met 
 with a resistance to which they had long been 
 unaccustomed. The flower of their troops made 
 a charge against general Ferguson's division, 
 who received them with a tremendous volley, 
 which brought them to the bayonet, and in one 
 moment their front rank fell like grass before 
 the mower's scythe. They gave way, and 
 abandoned six pieces of cannon in their flight. 
 Having failed in their other attacks, they com- 
 menced a retreat, after sustaining a loss of 
 3000 men, and thirteen pieces of cannon. In 
 this decisive victory not more than half the 
 British army was engaged. 
 
 VINCENT, Cape St., the south-west point of 
 Portugal, noted for the naval victory gained off" 
 it, on the 14th February , 1797, by sir John Jervis. 
 
 VIRGINIA, one of' the U. States, bounded 
 N. and N. E by Pennsylvania, E. by Maryland 
 and the Atlantic ocean, S. by North Carolina 
 and Tennessee, and W. by Kentucky and Ohio. 
 It contains 1,239,796 inhabitants, of whom 
 240,987 are slaves. The principal rivers are the 
 Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, York, 
 James, Appomattox. Elizabeth, Staunton, Ken- 
 awha, Ohio, Sandy, and Monongahela. The 
 Blue Ridge extends through the central part of 
 the State from S. W. to N. E. There are other 
 ranges of mountains in the State. Iron, lime- 
 stone, lead, coal, and chalk are found in abun- 
 dance. The chief towns are Richmond, Nor- 
 folk, Petersburg, Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, 
 Winchester, Portsmouth, Williamsburg, and 
 Sheperdstown. The university of Virginia is 
 established at Charlottesville, besides which 
 there are several other colleges. 
 
 Of the earlier occurrences in the history of 
 Virginia we have taken notice in the article 
 United States. Though Charles the Second 
 was highly gratified with a formal act of the 
 Virginia assembly, declaring; " that they were 
 born under monarchy, and would never degen- 
 erate from the condition of their births, by beino- 
 subject to any other government;" and though 
 he had given the fullest assurance that their 
 form of government should never be chano-ed ; 
 none of the colonies suffered more than Vir- 
 ginia from the despotism of a royal government. 
 
 In violation of chartered rights, the colony was 
 divided into parts, and conveyed away by pro- 
 prietary grants ; not grants of uncultivated 
 woodlands, but of plantations that had long been 
 cultivated according to the encouragement and 
 laws of kings and charters. 
 
 Col. Nathaniel Bacon, having procured forces 
 under pretext of chastising the hostile Indians, 
 commenced a civil war, in the course of which 
 great outrages were committed and Jamestown 
 was burned. This rebellion forms a remarka- 
 ble era in the history of Virginia. The death 
 of Bacon was followed by the dispersion of his 
 followers. In 1712 Virginia was divided into 
 49 parishes, and an act was passed determining 
 the salary of each clergyman. The next year, 
 Col. Alexander Spottswood, lieutenant governor 
 of Virginia, made the first discovery of the pas- 
 sage over the Appalachian mountains. The 
 constitution of Virginia was adopted the day 
 after the Declaration of Independence, but was 
 recently revised and amended. Four presidents 
 of the United States have been Virginians. 
 
 VIRGINIA, a Roman maiden, whom her 
 father, the centurion Virginius slew, when he 
 found that he could in no other way, preserve 
 her from the dishonorable designs of the decem- 
 vir, Appius Claudius. The Roman people, rous- 
 ed by the injustice of the decemvir, abolished 
 the decemvirate and Appius put an end to his 
 own life. 
 
 VITELLIUS Aulus, a Roman raised by his 
 vices to the throne. He was descended from 
 one of the most illustrious families of Rome, and 
 as such he gained an easy admission to the pal- 
 ace of the emperors. He passed through all the 
 offices of the state, and gained over the soldiery 
 by donations and liberal promises. He was at 
 the head of the Roman legions in Germany 
 when Otho was proclaimed emperor, and the 
 exaltation of his rival was no sooner heard in 
 the camp, than he was likewise invested with 
 the purple by his soldiers. He accepted with 
 pleasure the dangerous office, and instantly 
 marched against Otho. Three battles were 
 fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. A 
 fourth, however, in the plains between Mantua 
 and Cremona, left him master of the field, and 
 of the Roman empire. He feasted his eyes in 
 viewing the bodies of the slain and the ground 
 covered with blood, and regardless of the insa- 
 lubrity of the air, proceeding from so many car- 
 casses, *he told his attendants that the smell of a 
 dead enemy was always sweet. His first care 
 was not like that of a true conqueror, to allevi- 
 ate the distresses of the conquered, or patronise 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 VIT 
 
 597 
 
 VOR 
 
 the friends of the dead, but it was to insult their 
 misfortunes, and to intoxicate himself with the 
 companions of his debauchery in the field of 
 battle. Each successive day exhibited a scene 
 of greater extravagance, which, though it de- 
 lighted his favorites, soon raised the indignation 
 of the people. Vespasian was proclaimed em- 
 peror by the army, and his minister Primus was 
 sent to destroy the imperial glutton. Vitellius 
 concealed himself under the bed of the porter of 
 his palace, but this obscure retreat betrayed 
 him, he was dragged naked through the streets, 
 his hands were tied behind his back, and a 
 drawi^ sword" w:$ placed under his chin to make 
 him lift his head. After suffering the greatest 
 insults from the populace, he was at last carried 
 to the place of execution, and put to death with 
 repeated blows. His head was cut off and fixed 
 to a pole, and his mutilated body dragged with 
 a hook and thrown into the Tiber, A. D. 69, af- 
 ter a reign of one year, except twelve days. 
 
 VITTORIA, battle of, was fought on the 21st 
 of June, 1813, between the army of lord Well- 
 ington, and that of the French general Jourdan, 
 in which the latter was defeated. On the 19th, 
 the French rear-guard was driven back toward 
 Vittoria ; and on the 21st a general engagement 
 took place, in which the French forces, com- 
 manded by Joseph Bonaparte, having marshal 
 Jourdan as his major-general, were so com- 
 pletely defeated, that they were under the ne- 
 cessity of abandoning all their artillery, ammu- 
 nition, baggage, and cattle. One hundred and 
 fifty-one pieces of cannon, and four hundred 
 and fifteen ammunition wagons were taken on 
 the field ; and among the trophies was the baton 
 of marshal Jourdan. The loss of the allies was 
 about seven hundred killed, and four thousand 
 wounded, but that of the French was considera- 
 bly greater. The operations commenced with 
 a successful movement of sir Rowland Hill, to 
 obtain the heights of Puebla, which the enemy 
 had neglected to strengthen, and which they 
 made strenuous but fruitless efforts to retake. 
 Under cover of these heights, general Hill pass- 
 ed the Zadora at La Puebla, and took a village 
 in front of the enemy's line. The fourth and 
 light division passed the Zadora immediately 
 after general Hill had occupied the village Sa- 
 bijana ; and almost as soon as these divisions 
 had crossed, the earl of Dalhousie's column ar- 
 rived at Mendonza ; and the third division, un- 
 der sir Thomas Picton, crossed the bridge high- 
 er up, followed by the 7th division. These four 
 divisions, forming the centre of the army, were 
 destined to attack the right of the enemy's cen- 
 
 tre, while general Hill moved forward to attack 
 the left. The enemy abandoned his position in 
 the valley, and retreated in good order towards 
 Vittoria, but was soon obliged to leave the whole 
 artillery, ammunition, and baggage to the con- 
 querors. 
 
 VOLSCI,or Volci, a people of Latium, whose 
 territories were bounded on the south by the 
 Tyrrhene sea, north, by the country of the Her- 
 nici and Marsi, west, by the Latins and Rutu- 
 lians, and east, by Campania. Their chief 
 cities were Antium, Circeii, Anxur, Corioli, 
 Fregellse, Arpinum, &c. Ancus, king of 
 Rome, made war against them; and in the 
 time of the republic they became formidable 
 enemies, till they were at last conquered with 
 the rest of the Latins. 
 
 VORTIGERN, the chief of Britain, upon 
 the Romans quitting that island, about 447. 
 The Britons being threatened with an invasion 
 from the Scots and Picts, they addressed him 
 from all parts for relief, and at last made him 
 summon a general council of the nation, to pro- 
 vide against their approaching ruin. King Vor- 
 tigern, in the name of all the Britains, sent am- 
 bassadors to the Saxons, who, having first con- 
 sulted their gods, readily complied with his de- 
 sire. All things being fairly agreed on, and 
 the isle of Thanetin Kent bestowed upon them, 
 for their encouragement, they landed in the 
 island in 450, under the command of Hengist 
 and Horsa, who shortly after encountered the 
 Picts, then advanced as far as Stamford in Lin- 
 colnshire, and put them to flight. Thus the 
 Britons, under king Vortigern, defeated the 
 Picts, by the help of the Saxons. They soon 
 quarrelled with the Britons, and wars ensued, 
 which ended at last in the total overthrow and 
 ruin of the natives. Vortigern now retired into 
 Wales, and built a strong castle in Radnorshire. 
 His son Vortimer reigned in his stead, who bore 
 a strong hand against the Saxons ; but he dying 
 before his father, Vortigern resumed the gov- 
 ernment. He had two wives ; one of them 
 daughter of Hengist. On being restored to the 
 crown, he was disposed to conclude a new trea- 
 ty with his father-in-law ; and both parties met 
 without weapons. But Hengist's design being 
 to murder, he ordered his men to be secretly 
 armed, and gave them the watchword for execu- 
 tion ; so that a quarrel being designedly raised, 
 his men, upon the signal, stabbed each his next 
 man; and no less than 300 perished by this 
 treachery. They spared the life of Vortigern, 
 but they kept him in custody till he granted 
 Hengist, for his ransom, these provinces which 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 WAG 
 
 598 
 
 WAL 
 
 were afterwards called Essex, Sussex, and 
 Middlesex. 
 
 W 
 
 WAGRAM, battle of, fought between the 
 French and Austrians 1 , in 1809. By the 4th 
 of July, the French had completed the new 
 bridge from the Isle of Lobau across a branch 
 of the Danube, in which they were much favor- 
 ed both by the ground and by an immense 
 number of artillery. The Austrian arury was 
 drawn up on the eminence behind the river 
 Russ, extending its right wing beyond Susses- 
 brunn and Kagrau, and its left beyond Mark- 
 grafen Neusiedel. The centre was posted near 
 Wagram. The French, in the night between 
 the 4th and 5th, crossed over to the left bank 
 of the Danube, and large masses appeared very 
 early in the morning in the plain. Not long 
 before noon they attacked the line of the Aus- 
 trian army on all its points ; but their greatest 
 exertions were directed against the centre, pro- 
 bably with a view of forcing it. These attacks, 
 though repeated with the greatest impetuosity, 
 and supported by an immense train of artil- 
 lery, among which were many batteries of the 
 heaviest calibre, proved this day abortive. The 
 firing ceased at ten o'clock at night. The Aus- 
 trian army had, on the whole of its line, main- 
 tained its positions, and made a considerable 
 number of prisoners, among whom were many 
 Saxon, Badenese, Italian, and Portuguese sol- 
 diers. On the 6th, in the morning, at four 
 o'clock, the French renewed their attacks with 
 still larger masses, and greater impetuosity than 
 on the preceding day. Even thus their efforts 
 against the centre and the right wing were at- 
 tended with so little success, and the latter had 
 even gained such advantages as to justify the 
 expectation of the completest victory, when the 
 French, with fresh divisions, and great superi- 
 ority, suddenly penetrated the left wing, near 
 Markgrafen Neusiedel, and succeeded, after an 
 obstinate engagement, in compelling it to re- 
 treat. One of the wings of the Austrian army 
 being thereby exposed, the archduke Charles 
 directed the army to retreat by the way of 
 Siammersdorf and the Bisamhill ; in conse- 
 quence of which, the army now occupied a 
 new position, covering the communication with 
 Bohemia. This retreat was made in good 
 order, and without material loss. In the cen- 
 tre, as well as in the right wing, the French 
 suffered very considerably, 6000 prisoners were 
 taken from them, among whom were three 
 
 generals. They likewise lost twelve cannon, 
 with ammunition, and were in every respect 
 so much weakened, that they did not attempt 
 to pursue the Austrian army any farther. Gen- 
 eral Lasalle was amongst the dead. Though 
 the preceding account of this battle, given offi- 
 cially by the Austrians, may appear in some 
 degree of a favorable nature, yet the results 
 were very humiliating to Austria. 
 
 WALCHEREN, an island of the Nether- 
 lands. With a view to occasion a diversion 
 on behalf of the Austrians, and also to attempt 
 the capture or destruction of the French ves- 
 sels lying in the Scheldt, a British army of 
 fifty thousand men was landed in 1809, on the 
 island of Walcheren ; but a considerable time 
 having elapsed prior to the reduction of Flush- 
 ing, the enemy collected a numerous force, 
 raised several formidable batteries, and convey- 
 ed their ships up the river, beyond fort Lillo. 
 That part of the country also, where the Eng- 
 lish might have landed, was completely inun- 
 dated. Walcheren, the only fruit of this ex- 
 pensive and unfortunate expedition, was to have 
 been retained by the conquerors, for the purpose 
 of shutting up the mouth of the Scheldt, and of 
 facilitating the introduction of British manufac- 
 tures into Holland. This design, however, 
 was rendered abortive by the unhealthiness of 
 the climate ; and after great numbers of the 
 troops had fallen a sacrifice, the British army 
 evacuated the island on the 9th of December, 
 having previously destroyed the fortifications, 
 arsenal, docks, and basin. Some old ships filled 
 with stores were also sunk at the entrance of 
 the Scheldt, to preclude an escape of the French 
 fleet from the place of its retreat. 
 
 WALES, a principality in the west of Great 
 Britain from 130 to 180 miles long, and from 50 
 to 80 broad, with an area of 8125 square miles, 
 and 805,236 inhabitants. It is very mountain- 
 ous. The ancient history of Wales is uncer- 
 tain, on account of the number of petty princes 
 who governed it. It was formerly inhabited 
 by three different tribes of the Britons; the Si- 
 lures, the Dimetae, and the Ordovices. These 
 people do not appear ever to have been entirely 
 subdued by the Romans ; though part of their 
 country, as appears from the ruins of castles, 
 was bridled by garrisons. Though the Saxons 
 conquered the counties of Monmouth and Here- 
 ford, yet they never penetrated farther, and the 
 Welsh remained an independent people, gov- 
 erned by their own princes and their own laws. 
 About the year 870, Roderic, king of Wales, 
 divided his dominions among his three sons; 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 WAL 
 
 599 
 
 WAL 
 
 and the names of these divisions were, Demetia, 
 or South Wales; Povesia, or Po wis- land; and 
 Venedotia, or North Wales. This division 
 gave a mortal blow to the independency of 
 Wales. About the year 1112, Henry I of Eng- 
 land planted a colony of Flemings on the fron- 
 tiers of Wales, to serve as a barrier to England, 
 none of the Welsh princes being powerful 
 enough to oppose them. They made, however, 
 many vigorous and brave attempts against the 
 Norman kings of England, to maintain their 
 liberties. In 1237, the crown of England was 
 first supplied with a handle for the future con- 
 quest of Wales ; their old and infirm prince 
 Llewellin, having put himself under subjection 
 and homage to king Henry III. But no capitu- 
 lation could satisfy the ambition of Edward I, 
 who resolved to annex Wales to the crown of 
 England ; and Llewellin, prince of Wales, dis- 
 daining the subjection to which old Llewellin 
 had submitted, was opposed by the army of 
 Edward, which penetrated as far as Flint, and 
 taking possession of the isle of Anglesey, drove 
 the YVelsh to the mountains of Snowdon, and 
 obliged them to submit to pay a tribute. The 
 Welsh, however, made several efforts under 
 young Llewellin ; but at last, in 1285, he was 
 killed in battle. He was succeeded by his 
 brother David, the last independent prince of 
 Wales, who, falling into Edward's hands through 
 treachery, was by him most barbarously and 
 unjustly hanged; and Edward, from that time, 
 pretended that Wales was annexed to the crown 
 of England. It was about this time, probably, 
 that Edward perpetrated the inhuman massacre 
 of the Welsh bards. Perceiving that his cru- 
 elty was not sufficient to complete his conquest, 
 he sent his queen to be delivered in Caernarvon 
 castle, that the Welsh, having a prince born 
 among themselves, might the more readily re- 
 cognise his authority. This prince was the 
 unhappy Edward II, and from him the title of 
 prince of Wales has always since descended to 
 the eldest sons of the English kings. 
 
 WALL OF CHINA. One of the greatest 
 curiosities of the artificial kind which China 
 affords, and which may be reckoned one of the 
 most astonishing remains of antiquity now in 
 the world, is that prodigious wall which was 
 built by the Chinese, to prevent the frequent 
 incursions of the Tartars. This wall, Du Halde 
 informs us, is higher and broader than the com- 
 mon walls of the cities of China, being about 
 25 feet in height and broad enough for six horse- 
 men to ride abreast upon the top of it, and is 
 fortified all along with strong square towers, 
 51 
 
 at distances of about 200 paces, to the number 
 of 3000, which, in the time of the Chinese mon- 
 archs, before the Tartars subdued the country, 
 were guarded by a million of soldiers. It tra- 
 verses high mountains, deep valleys, and, by 
 means of arches, wide rivers, from the province 
 of Shen Si to Wanghay or the Yellow sea, a 
 distance of 1500 miles. The foundation and 
 corners are of granite, but the principal part is 
 of blue bricks, cemented with pure white mor- 
 tar, and although it has now stood above 2000 
 years, exposed to all winds and weathers, it is 
 very little decayed, and the terrace on the top 
 seems still as firm as ever. This amazing wall 
 was built by the emperor Chiholamt, according 
 to some authors, above 200 years before the 
 birth of our Saviour ; and though of such stu- 
 pendous length and bulk, and carried over moun- 
 tains and valleys, it was completed in five years, 
 if we may credit the Chinese tradition. 
 
 WALLACE, Sir William, and BRUCE, 
 Robert, were two distinguished heroes in Scot- 
 tish history, who achieved the independence of 
 their country in opposition to the unprincipled 
 invasion of Edward I and II of England. Sir 
 William Wallace was the son of a small land- 
 holder, who possessed the estate of Ellerslie. 
 near Paisley. It is probable that he had not 
 greatly exceeded the age of opening manhood, 
 at the time when his country was subdued by 
 the English. Many of his first deeds of hero- 
 ism, although imperfectly commemorated, in 
 the rude and often doubtful tale of Henry, the 
 blind minstrel, have unluckily been preserved, 
 by no records upon the evidence of which they 
 might be received into the pages of authentic 
 history. Within less than a year after the con- 
 quest of Edward, when the whole country 
 seemed to have acquiesced in his fate, he un- 
 dertook the desperate enterprise of breaking 
 her fetters, and by the success of his enterprises, 
 made himself known so advantageously to his 
 countrymen, that he was joined by many who 
 were desirous to partake of his renown ; amongst 
 the rest, by sir William Douglas, and some 
 others of considerable rank. In May, 1297, he 
 led his followers to attack Ormesby,the English 
 justiciary, who was holding his court at Scone. 
 Ormesby, with difficulty, made, his escape into 
 England, and the other officers followed his ex- 
 ample. From the north-east, Wallace passed 
 into the west, where his glory, and hatred of 
 the English, procured him many adherents, 
 amongst others, Robert Bruce, the grandson of 
 him who had been competitor with Baliol for 
 the crown. King Edward was then abroad, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WAL 
 
 600 
 
 WAL 
 
 carrying on war in Guienne : but Warrene, 
 who had been left governor of Scotland, col- 
 lecting an army of forty thousand men, and 
 determined to re-establish his authority, sent 
 them forward, under the command of sir Henry 
 Piercy and sir Robert Clifford. When the 
 English army came up, many of the adherents 
 of Wallace made submissions ; but he himself, 
 with his chosen followers, retired into the north. 
 Finding his forces increasing, he laid siege to 
 Dundee, which he relinquished on hearing of 
 the approach of the English army to the Forth, 
 and hastened to oppose their passage, which 
 they attempted at the bridge of Stirling. The 
 English, under Cressingham, first crossed the 
 river, when Wallace attacked them, and put 
 them to the sword or drove them into the 
 stream. Those on the other side, burning their 
 tents and leaving their baggage, fled to Ber- 
 wick. Wallace having gained this victory, 
 hastened back to Dundee, which now surren- 
 dered at his approach. He was then chosen 
 regent by his followers, and all Scotland was 
 cleared of the English. King Edward, return- 
 ing from France, led a powerful army into 
 Scotland, and advanced to Falkirk. Bruce was 
 now serving in the Scottish army , and was not, 
 as has been fabulously stated, in the army of 
 Edward. Both armies engaged at Falkirk, 
 July 22, 1293, and the English gained the vic- 
 tory, from their superiority of numbers and mil- 
 itary skill, and the dissensions of their oppo- 
 nents. Wallace, seeing all hope lost, rallied 
 the broken remnants of his forces, and retreated 
 beyond the Forth. All Scotland submitted to 
 Edward ; but the dauntless spirit of Wallace 
 never would surrender his country's indepen- 
 dence. Whether he went abroad for a short 
 time to France, or wandered in the fastnesses 
 of the Highlands, cannot be certainly known ; 
 but in 1304, he was in Scotland, and Edward 
 could never believe he had secure possession 
 till Wallace was in his power. This was ef- 
 fected by the treachery of sir John Monteith ; 
 and Wallace was conducted to London, ar- 
 raigned, and tried as a traitor, and condemned, 
 as guilty of high treason against Edward, al- 
 though he had never acknowledged him as his 
 king, nor owed him allegiance. Wallace, still 
 undaunted, during and after his trial, asserted 
 the rights of his country, and bore his fate, 
 which was inflicted with every circumstance 
 of ignominy and cruelty, with the magnanimity 
 with which he had lived. His head was placed 
 on London-bridge, and his mangled limbs were 
 distributed over the kingdom. It was reserved 
 
 for Robert Bruce to accomplish what Wallace 
 had so nobly attempted. In his youth he had 
 acted upon apparently no regular plan ; and 
 although he had at times served against Ed- 
 ward, when the Scottish forces were able to 
 make a successful resistance, he soon made 
 submissions after their defeat, and thus avoided 
 drawing down upon himself the implacable re- 
 sentment of Edward. He appeared to have 
 stifled his pretensions to the crown ; but imme- 
 diately after the death of Wallace he determin- 
 ed at once to assert his own rights and his 
 country's independence. Arriving at Dum- 
 fries, from England, in February, 1306, he had 
 a quarrel with Comyn, of Badenoch, and stabbed 
 him in the church of the Minorites, because he 
 opposed his views. He now claimed the crown ; 
 and resentment of the treachery of Edward, 
 and of the death of Wallace, procured him nu- 
 merous followers. He was accordingly crowned 
 king of Scotland, at Scone, on the 25th of 
 March, the-same year. An army, sent by king 
 Edward, soon arrived at Perth; and in a battle 
 fought on the 19th of June, Bruce was defeated. 
 He took refuge at Aberdeen, and afterwards 
 went towards Argyle, and was so hard pressed 
 by the English and their adherents, that he re- 
 tired to the island of Rachrin, in the north of 
 Ireland, and was supposed to be dead ; but early 
 in the next spring, he again displayed his ban- 
 ner in the west of Scotland, and gained many 
 advantages over the English, of which, the vic- 
 tory at Loudon-hill was the most remarkable ; 
 whilst his brother, sir Edward, and sir James 
 Douglas, were equally active and successful. 
 Bruce came north in the end of the same year, 
 and on account of the unfavorable state of his 
 health, which had been injured by unceasing 
 hardships and privations, he remained some 
 time inactive. On the 22d of May, 1308, he 
 gained the battle of Inverary, over the earl of 
 Buchan and sir John Mowbray, which was the 
 commencement of a career of success, which 
 established him as king of Scotland. The 
 whole of the fortresses of the kingdom were 
 recovered, excepting Stirling, which was be- 
 leagured by his brother Edward, who entered 
 into a treaty with the governor, by which it 
 was agreed that it should be surrendered if not 
 relieved before the 24th of June, 1314. This 
 led to the attempt of Edward II to relieve it by 
 a powerful army, and brought on the battle of 
 Bannockburn. Bruce's army consisted of thirty 
 thousand veterans, distinguished by their valor, 
 the skill of their leaders, and animated by every 
 motive which can promote heroic enterprise, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 WAL 
 
 601 
 
 WAR 
 
 He drew them up with a hill on his right flank, 
 and a morass on his left, to prevent being sur- 
 rounded by the numerous army of Edward. 
 Having a rivulet in front, he commanded deep 
 pits to be dug along its banks, and sharp stakes 
 to be planted in them, and caused the whole to 
 be carefully covered with turf. The English 
 arrived in the evening, when Bruce was riding 
 in the front of his army. Sir Henry Bohun, 
 who rode up to charge him with his spear, was 
 brought to the ground by his battleaxe. Early 
 next morning the action commenced. Sir Rob- 
 ert Keith, at the head of the men-at-arms, de- 
 stroyed the English archers. The English 
 horse, under the earl of Gloucester, rushing on 
 to the charge, fell into the pits Bruce had pre- 
 pared for them. Sir James Douglas, who com- 
 manded the Scottish cavalry, gave them no 
 time to rally, but pushed them off the field. 
 Whilst the infantry continued the fight, dis- 
 couraged by these unfavorable events, they 
 were thrown into a panic by the appearance of 
 what they supposed another army advancing to 
 surround them. This was a number of wag- 
 oners and sumpter boys, whom- king Robert 
 had collected and supplied with military stand- 
 ards, which gave them the appearance of an 
 army at a distance. The stratagem was decis- 
 ive, and an universal rout and immense slaugh- 
 ter ensued. This great and decisive battle se- 
 cured the independence of Scotland, and fixed 
 Bruce on the throne. He afterwards invaded 
 England, and laid waste the northern counties. 
 He also led an expedition into Ireland, in sup- 
 port of his brother Edward, who had been 
 crowned king of that country, in the course of 
 which he gained several victories. Peace was 
 at last concluded between England and Scot- 
 land, at Northampton, in 1328, and on the 7th 
 of June, 1320, king Robert died, in the fifty- 
 fifth year of his age, and was buried at Dum- 
 fermline, where his tomb has lately been dis- 
 covered. His heroic enterprises have been cel- 
 ebrated by Barbour, who wrote his poetical his- 
 tory in 1375, and have recently been the subject 
 of one of the poems of sir Walter Scott. His 
 grand-daughter was the wife of Robert the sec- 
 ond, the first king of the house of Stuart, and 
 from the issue of that marriage the present roy- 
 al family is descended. 
 
 WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, was 
 born in 1676. In 1700 he married the daughter 
 of sir John Shorter, and soon after became 
 member for Castle Rising; but in 1702 he was 
 chosen for King's Lynn, which he represented 
 in several parliaments. In 1708 he was made 
 
 secretary at war, and the year following trea- 
 surer of the navy. He was one of the managers 
 of the trial of Sacheverel ; but on the change 
 of ministry, was committed to the Tower, and 
 expelled the house, for breach of trust and cor- 
 ruption. The borough of Lynn, however, re- 
 elected him, and he took an active part against 
 ministers during the remainder of queen Ann's 
 reign. Early in that of George I he became 
 prime minister, but some difference arising be- 
 tween him and his colleagues, he resigned, and 
 joined the opposition. In 1720, he accepted 
 the paymastership of the forces, and not long 
 after was appointed first lord of the treasury, 
 and chancellor of the exchequer. In 1723, he 
 was sworn sole secretary of state. In 1725, he 
 received the Order of the Bath ; and the year 
 following that of the Garter. He continued in 
 power, though assailed by powerful enemies, 
 till 1742, when he resigned, and was created 
 earl of Orford. He died in 1745. His brother, 
 Horatio Walpole, lord Walpole, was born in 
 1078. He filled several offices under govern- 
 ment, and in 1756, was created a peer, but died 
 the year following. 
 
 WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, a statesman, 
 was born in 1536, at Chiselhurst, in Kent. In 
 1573, he was appointed one of the secretaries 
 of state, and knighted. In 1583 he went on an 
 embassy to James, king of Scotland, and three 
 years afterwards sat as one of the commissioners 
 on the trial of that monarch's unfortunate mo- 
 ther. Sir Francis was next made chancellor of 
 the duchy of Lancaster ; and he was also hon 
 ored with the Order of the Garter. But with 
 all these distinctions and services he died poor, 
 April 6, 1500, and was buried in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. 
 
 WALTON, George, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born in Frederic 
 county, Virginia, about the year 1740. He re- 
 moved to Georgia, studied law, and was admit- 
 ted to the bar in 1774. He took a prominent 
 part in the affairs of the revolution, and was 
 wounded in the defence of Savannah. He was 
 twice chosen governor of the state, held a seat 
 in the senate of the United States, and filled a 
 judicial station for several years. He died Feb. 
 '2, 1804. 
 
 WARBECK, Perkin, a renegado Jew of 
 Tournay, who was persuaded to personate the 
 duke of York, in the reign of Henry VII. His 
 cause was warmlv espoused by several men of 
 rank, all of whom were arraigned and tried for 
 high treason, and three were executed. His 
 followers, at one period, amounted to 7000; but 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 WAR 
 
 602 
 
 WAS 
 
 after a series of disastrous adventures, he was 
 induced by Henry to surrender himself, and 
 confess the whole of the imposture, on promise 
 of pardon. After attempting once or twice to 
 escape from custody, he was hanged at Tyburn, 
 and several of his adherents suffered the same 
 ignominious death. 
 
 WARD, Artemas, a major-general in the 
 American army, who commanded at Cambridge 
 when Washington arrived. In 1786 he was 
 speaker of the house of representatives of Mas- 
 sachusetts, and was afterwards elected to Con- 
 gress. He died Oct. 28, 1800. 
 
 WARREN, Joseph, a major-general in the 
 American army, was born at Roxbury, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1740, and graduated at Harvard Uni- 
 versity in 1759. Having studied medicine he 
 commenced the practice of it in Boston with 
 great success. Four days before the battle of 
 Bunker-hill he received his military command, 
 and on the retreat from the redoubt, was shot 
 in the trenches, and expired at the age of thirty- 
 five. 
 
 WARSAW, capital of the kingdom of Po- 
 land, on the west bank of the Vistula, contained, 
 in 1830, 140,000 inhabitants, but owing to the 
 siege of Warsaw in 1831, and the subsequent 
 banishment of many of its patriotic citizens, its 
 population is at present reduced to about 00,000. 
 In the war with the Swedes, in the middle of 
 the seventeenth century, Warsaw was occupied 
 by these invaders, who made it the depot of 
 their spoUs. When Charles XII advanced, at a 
 subsequent period, to Warsaw, it surrendered 
 to him without opposition. It was defended by 
 Kosciusko against the Prussians, in 1794, who 
 were obliged to raise the siege. Warsaw at 
 length submitted to Suwarrow and the Rus- 
 sians. On the final partition of Poland, in 1795, 
 this part of the country fell to the share of Prus- 
 sia, and Warsaw had no other rank than that of 
 a capital of a province, until the end of 1806, 
 when the overthrow of the power of Prussia led 
 to the formation, by Bonaparte, of the inde- 
 pendent state, called the Duchy of Warsaw. 
 
 WARWICK, earl of, known by the appella- 
 tion of the king-maker , was one of the most 
 celebrated generals of his age. He put himself 
 at the head of the Yorkists, and gave battle to 
 the Lancasterians at St. Albans, in which he 
 was defeated, in 1461 . He afterwards harangued 
 the citizens of London, assembled in St. John's 
 Fields, setting forth the title of Edward, the 
 eldest son of the duke of York, and inveighing 
 against the tyranny and usurpation of the house 
 of Lancaster. After the decisive battle of Tou- 
 ton, and Edward was safely fixed on the throne, 
 
 Warwick advised him to marry, and with his 
 consent went over to France, to procure Bona 
 of Savoy as queen. But while the earl was 
 hastening the negotiation in France, the king 
 married Elizabeth Woodville. Having thus 
 given Warwick real cause of offence, he widen- 
 ed the breach, by driving him from the council. 
 Warwick, whose prudence was equal to his 
 bravery, soon made use of both to assist his re- 
 venge ; and formed such a combination against 
 Edward, that he was, in turn, obliged to fly the 
 kingdom, and king Henry was released from 
 prison, to be placed upon a dangerous throne 
 A parliament was called, which confirmed Hen- 
 ry's title, with great solemnity, and Warwick 
 was himself received among the people, under 
 the title of the king-maker. Edward, how- 
 ever, did not long remain abroad ; and, having 
 made a descent at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, he 
 proceeded with an increasing army towards 
 London. Nothing now, therefore, remained to 
 Warwick, but to cut short a state of anxious 
 suspense, by hazarding a battle. Edward's for- 
 tune prevailed. They met at Barnet, and the 
 Lancasterians were defeated, while Warwick 
 himself, leading a chosen body of troops into 
 the thickest of the fight, fell in the midst of his 
 enemies, covered with wounds. 
 
 WASHINGTON, capital of the United 
 States, in the District of Columbia, is situated 
 on the left bank of the Potomac, and contains 
 23,203 inhabitants. Its natural situation is plea- 
 sant and healthy, and it is laid out on a plan, 
 which, when completed, will render it one of 
 the handsomest and most commodious cities in 
 the world. Among the public edifices of the 
 city are the Capitol, the President's House, the 
 General Post Office, and four buildings for the 
 executive departments of the national govern- 
 ment. Columbian college is pleasantly situated 
 a mile north of the President's house. The 
 District of Columbia, in which Washington is 
 situated., was ceded to the government by the 
 states of Maryland and Virginia, and it became 
 the seat of government in 1800. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, the third son of 
 Augustine Washington, was born Feb. 22, 1732, 
 on the banks of the Potomac, in the county of 
 Westmoreland, Virginia. His father died when 
 he was but 10 years old, and the care of his 
 education devolved upon his mother. That a 
 mother should love such a son as George proved 
 himself to be, and that a son should love such a 
 mother as Mrs. Washington certainly was, is 
 not at all surprising. From his earliest days she 
 had exerted her whole influence to imbue him 
 with a love of" whatever was lovely and of good 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 WAS 
 
 603 
 
 WAS 
 
 report," and her exertions had not been in vain. 
 How well he repaid her for her care, may be 
 seen in the following story. When about four- 
 teen years of age he became strongly inclined 
 to go to sea, w T ith a view of enlisting in the 
 service of the mother country, at that time en- 
 gaged in a war with France and Spain. 
 
 It was surprising that a youth so young, and 
 who had been abroad so little, should have had 
 the moral courage to quit country and friends 
 on a purpose so full of danger. But so it was. 
 He was resolved to go. Preparation had been 
 made. A midshipman's birth had been pro- 
 cured for him on board a British man-of-war, 
 then lying in sight of his mother's house ; and 
 even his trunk was on board. When the pre- 
 cise time arrived that he was to go, he passed 
 into the sitting-room of his mother, to take leave 
 of her. She was sitting in tears. He approach- 
 ed her, and putting his arms about her neck, 
 affectionately kissed her. He was about to bid 
 her " farewell ;" but he hesitated. Her affec- 
 tion and affliction unmanned him. He was 
 young and ambitious ; and at that early day the 
 spirit of patriotism, which so nobly characterised 
 him in after life, in respect to his country, was 
 stirring within him. Yet, the feelings of his 
 heart were stronger than any other ties ; and 
 here, nobly sacrificing his pride and ambition, 
 he relinquished his purpose, and stayed to com- 
 fort her who gave him birth. 
 
 His elder brother having married a connexion 
 of lord Fairfax, his lordship gave George Wash- 
 ington, in his eighteenth year, the appointment 
 of surveyor. In 1751 he was appointed one of 
 the adjutant-generals of Virginia, with the rank 
 of major. Soon afterwards he was sent by the 
 governor of Virginia to carry a letter to the 
 French commander on the Ohio, forbidding his 
 encroachment on the lands belonging to Vir- 
 ginia. The journey was about 400 miles, 200 
 of which lay through a trackless wilderness, 
 inhabited by Indians. He left Williamsburg 
 on the 31st of October, and delivered his letter 
 on the 12th of December. Having received an 
 answer he set out immediately on his return 
 which proved dangerous and toilsome. The 
 following is his own account of it : 
 
 " As I was uneasy to get back, to make a re- 
 port of my proceeding to his honor the gov- 
 ernor, I determined to prosecute my journey 
 the nearest way, through the woods, and on 
 foot. I took my necessary papers, pulled off 
 my clothes, and tied myself up in a watch-coat. 
 Then, with a gun in my hand, and pack on my 
 back, in which were my papers and provisions, 
 51* 
 
 I set out with Mr. Gist, fitted in the same man- 
 ner. We fell in with a party of Indians, who 
 had lain in wait for us. One of them fired not 
 fifteen steps off, but fortunately missed; we 
 walked on the remaining part of the night, 
 without making any stop, that we might get the 
 start so far as to be out of the reach of their pur- 
 suit the next day, as we were well assured that 
 they would follow our track as soon as it was 
 light. The next day we continued travelling 
 until quite dark and got to the river. We ex- 
 pected to have found the river frozen, but it was 
 not more than fifty yards from each shore. The 
 ice, I suppose, had been broken up, for it was 
 driving in vast quantities. There was no way 
 of getting over but on a raft, which we set 
 about making with one poor hatchet, and fin- 
 ished just after sun-setting: this was one day's 
 work. We got it launched, then went on board 
 of it, and set off; but before we were halfway 
 over, we were jammed in the ice, in such a 
 manner that we expected every moment our 
 raft to sink and ourselves to perish. I put out 
 my setting pole to endeavor to stop the raft, that 
 the ice might pass by, when the rapidity of the 
 stream threw it with so much violence against 
 the pole, that it jerked me out into ten feet wa- 
 ter." At length, on the 16th of January, he 
 arrived at Williamsburg ; and delivered the im- 
 portant letter to the governor. 
 
 Having been appointed Colonel of a regiment 
 raised to defend the rights of the colonists 
 against the encroachments of the French, Wash- 
 ington distinguished himself greatly by his de- 
 fence of Fort Necessity, although he was finally 
 forced to capitulate. Having resigned his com- 
 mission, he retired in 1754, to Mount Vernon, on 
 the Potomac, a country-seat which had been 
 bequeathed him by his brother. In 1755 he ac- 
 cepted the invitation of general Braddock to 
 enter his family as a volunteer aid-de-camp, and 
 accompanied him in the memorable and unfor- 
 tunate expedition to the Ohio, the result of 
 which would probably have been very different 
 from what it was, had Braddock followed the 
 prudent advice of his aid. When the troops 
 fell into the Indian ambuscade, the officers were 
 singled out by their savage foes and deliberate- 
 ly shot, Washington being the only aid that was 
 unwounded, and on him devolved the whole 
 duty of carrying the orders of the commander- 
 in-chief. Though he had two horses killed 
 under him, and four balls through his coat, 
 he escaped unhurt, while every other officer on 
 horseback was either killed or wounded. Dr. 
 Craik, the physician who attended him in his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 WAS 
 
 604 
 
 WAS 
 
 last sickness, was present at this battle, and 
 says, " I expected every moment to see him 
 fall. Nothing but the superintending care of 
 Providence could have saved him from the fate 
 of all around him." 
 
 After an action of three hours, the troops gave 
 way in all directions, and Col. Washington and 
 two others brought off Braddock who had been 
 mortally wounded. Washington attempted to 
 rally the retreating troops; but, as he said him- 
 self, it was like attempting to stop the wild 
 bears of the mountains. The conduct of the 
 regular troops was most cowardly. The enemy 
 were few in numbers, and had no expectation 
 of victory. The preservation of Washington 
 during this battle was almost miraculous. He 
 was exposed more than any other officer, and 
 was particularly the object of savage attacks 
 on account of his superior bravery. After the 
 defeat, a famous Indian warrior, who acted a 
 distinguished part in that bloody tragedy, was 
 heard to say that Washington was never born 
 to be killed by a bullet; " for," said he, " I had 
 seventeen fair shots at him with my rifle, and 
 yet I could not bring him to the ground." 
 
 After the expulsion of the French from Ohio, 
 and the cessation of hostilities on the part of 
 the Indians, Washington retired to his farm, 
 and soon after married Mrs. Custis, a lady of 
 large fortune, and many accomplishments. He 
 continued to be an active member of the gene- 
 ral assembly, and on the approach of hostilities 
 with Great Britain, was chosen to the first Con- 
 gress. On the 14th of June, 1775, he was cho- 
 sen commander-in-chief of the armies of the 
 United Colonies. He repaired immediately to 
 the head-quarters of the American army at Cam- 
 bridge, Massachusetts, and having forced the 
 British to evacuate Boston, led his army to New 
 York, where he was doomed to witness the de- 
 feat of the Americans on Long Island, on the 
 27th of August, but the retreat of the army was 
 conducted in a masterly manner. After the 
 battle of White Plains, the prospects of the 
 Americans appeared hopeless, but the successes 
 of Trenton and Princeton inspired the army 
 with fresh courage. By these, Philadelphia was 
 saved and New Jersey regained. On the 25th 
 of August 1777, the British forces under lord 
 Howe, which had sailed from New York, dis- 
 embarked at the ferry of Elk river, and on the- 
 10th of September, the battle of Brandywine 
 was fought and the Americans defeated. In 
 this battle, the young marquis de la Fayette 
 displayed great courage, and though severely 
 wounded, continued many hours on foot and 
 
 horseback, endeavoring to rally and encourage 
 the troops. 
 
 Major Ferguson, who commanded a rifle corps 
 a day or two previous to this battle, was the 
 hero of a very singular adventure which he thus 
 describes in a letter to a friend. 
 
 " We had not lain long, when a rebel officer, 
 remarkable by a hussar dress, pressed toward 
 our army, within a hundred yards of my right 
 flank, not perceiving us. He was followed by 
 another, dressed in dark green and blue, mount- 
 ed on a bay horse, with a remarkably high 
 cocked hat. I ordered three good shots to stand 
 near, and fire at them ; but the idea disgusting 
 me, I recalled the order. The hussar, in re- 
 turning, made a circuit, but he passed within a 
 hundred yards of us ; upon which I advanced 
 from the woods towards him. Upon my call 
 ing, he stopped ; but, after looking at me, again 
 proceeded. I again drew his attention, and 
 made signs to him to stop, levelling my piece at 
 him; but he slowly cantered away. By quick 
 firing, I could have lodged half a dozen balls in 
 or about him, before he was out of my reach. I 
 had only to determine ; but it was not pleasant 
 to fire at the back of an unoffending individual, 
 who was very coolly acquitting himself of his 
 duty ; so I let it alone. 
 
 The next day, the surgeon told me that the 
 wounded rebel officers informed him that gen- 
 eral Washington was all the morning with the 
 light troops, and only attended by a French 
 officer in the hussar dress, he himself dressed 
 and mounted as I have before described. I am 
 not sorry I did not know who it was at the 
 time." 
 
 The battle of Brandywine opened the way to 
 Philadelphia for the British, who entered it on 
 the 26th of September. After the unsatisfac- 
 tory engagement at Germantown, the Ameri- 
 can troops were quartered for the winter at 
 Valley Forge, where their sufferings were ex- 
 treme. One day , a quaker by the name of Potts 
 had occasion to go to a certain place, which led 
 him through a large grove at no great distance 
 from head-quarters. As he was proceeding 
 along, he thought he heard a noise. He stopped 
 and listened. 
 
 He did hear the sound of a human voice at 
 some distance, but quite indistinctly. As it was 
 in the direct course he was pursuing, he went 
 on, but with some caution. At length he came 
 within sight of a man whose back was turned 
 towards him on his knees, in the attitude of 
 prayer. Potts now stopped, and soon saw Wash- 
 ington himself, the commander of the American 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 WAS 
 
 605 
 
 WAS 
 
 armies, returning from bending before the God 
 of hosts above. 
 
 Potts himself was a pious man, and no sooner 
 had he reached home, that in the fulness of his 
 faith, he broke forth to his wife Sarah : 
 
 "All's well! all's well! Yes, — George 
 Washington is sure to beat the British — sure ! " 
 " What's the matter with thee, Isaac ? " replied 
 the startled Sarah. " Thee seems to be much 
 moved about something." 
 
 " Well ! what if I am moved ? Who would 
 not be moved at such a sight as I have seen to- 
 day ? " " And what hast thou seen, Isaac ? " 
 
 " Seen ! I ' ve seen a man at prayer ! — in the 
 woods! — George Washington himself! And 
 now I say, — just what I have said, — 'All's 
 well ! George Washington is sure to beat the 
 British ! — sure ! ' " 
 
 In June, 1778, the British evacuated Phila- 
 delphia, and retreated upon New York closely 
 followed by Washington, who attacked them 
 at Monmouth on the 24th, and fought them with 
 advantage, although without gaining a decided 
 victory. Washington having given his orders 
 to La Fayette, was personally engaged in form- 
 ing the line of the main body near the court 
 house, and was speaking with col. Hartly of the 
 Pennsylvania line, when a cannon ball struck 
 just at his horse's feet, throwing the dirt in his 
 face and over his clothes. The general contin- 
 ued giving orders without noticing the derang- 
 ment of his toilette. "Never," says La Fayette, 
 " was general Washington greater in war than 
 in this conflict : his presence stopped the retreat, 
 his dispositions fixed the victory. His fine ap- 
 pearance on horseback, his calm courage, roused 
 by the animation produced by the vexation of 
 the morning, gave him the air best calculated 
 to excite enthusiasm." 
 
 In 1781 Washington, in conjunction with 
 count Rochambeau, planned an expedition 
 against New York, which was abandoned with 
 a view of directing their operations to the 
 south. Demonstrations, however, were made 
 against the city, and sir Henry Clinton was not 
 aware of the change in his intentions. The 
 siege of Yorktown commenced on the 28th of 
 September, and lord Cornwallis was compelled 
 to surrender after much hard fighting, on the 
 19th. If we are called upon to admire the con- 
 duct and successes of Washington in action, 
 our admiration is no less due to his behavior 
 in those intervals of repose when the American 
 forces had time to reflect upon their wants, and 
 brood over their supposed grievances. He 
 quelled mutiny, but he pitied the sufferings that 
 
 produced it ; and while he was resolved to en- 
 force subordination, he was no less determined 
 to administer all the comfort which it was in 
 his power to bestow. 
 
 On the 25th of November, 1783, Washington 
 made his public entry into the city of New 
 York. On the 4th of December, the principal 
 officers of the army assembled at Francis' tavern 
 in New York, to take a final leave of their be- 
 loved commander-in-chief. Soon after his ex- 
 cellency entered the room. His emotions were 
 too strong to be concealed. Filling a glass, and 
 turning to them he said ; " with a heart full of 
 love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. 
 I most devoutly wish that your latter days may 
 be as prosperous and happy as your former onea 
 have been glorious and honorable." Having 
 drank, he added, " I cannot come to each of 
 you, but shall be obliged to you if each of you 
 will come and take me by the hand." General 
 Knox, being nearest, turned to him. Incapable 
 of utterance, Washington in tears grasped his 
 hand, embraced and kissed him. In the same 
 affectionate manner, he took leave of each 
 succeeding officer. 
 
 Leaving the room, he passed through the 
 corps of light infantry, and walked to White 
 Hall, where a barge waited to convey him to 
 Paulus' Hook. The whole company followed 
 in mute and solemn procession, with dejected 
 countenances, testifying feelings of melancholy 
 which no pen can describe. Having entered 
 the barge, he turned to the company , and wav- 
 ing hisliat, he bade them a silent adieu. They 
 paid him the same affectionate compliment, and 
 after the barge had left them they returned in 
 the same solemn manner, to the place where 
 they had assembled. 
 
 On the 23d of December, 1783, general Wash- 
 ington resigned his commission to congress, 
 then sitting at Annapolis. On this interesting 
 and solemn occasion he appeared in the hall of 
 congress. As he rose to speak, every eye wa3 
 fixed upon him. He began by expressing his 
 humble joy at the accomplishment of his wish- 
 es and exertions, in the independence of his 
 country. Next, he recommended to congress 
 and to the country the companions of his toils 
 and trials, and concluded as follows : 
 
 " I consider it an indispensable duty to close 
 the last solemn act of my official life, by com- 
 mending the interests of our dearest country to 
 the protection of Almighty God, and those who 
 have the superintendence of them to his holy 
 keeping. 
 
 " Having now finished the work assigned 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WAS 
 
 606 
 
 WAS 
 
 me, I retire from the great theatre of action, 
 and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this 
 august body, under whose orders I have long 
 acted, I here offer my commission, and take 
 my leave of all the employments of public life." 
 
 Upon accepting his commission, congress, 
 through their president, expressed in glowing 
 language to Washington their high sense of his 
 wisdom and energy, in conducting the war to 
 30 happy a termination, and invoked the choicest 
 blessings on his future life. 
 
 President Mifflin concluded as follows : — 
 " We join you in commending the interests of 
 our dearest country to Almighty God, beseech- 
 ing him to dispose the hearts and minds of its 
 citizens to improve the opportunity afforded 
 them of becoming a happy and respectable na- 
 tion. And as for you, we address to Him our 
 earnest prayers, that the life so beloved, may be 
 fostered with all his care ; that your days may 
 be as happy as they have been illustrious ; and 
 that he will finally give you that reward which 
 the world cannot give." 
 
 A profound stillness now pervaded the assem- 
 bly. The grandeur of the scene, the recollec- 
 tion of the past, the felicity of the present, the 
 hopes of the future, crowded fast upon all, while 
 they united in invoking blessings upon the man 
 who, under God, had achieved so much, and 
 who now, in the character of a mere citizen, was 
 hastening to a long desired repose, at his seat 
 at Mount Vernon in Virginia. Congress voted 
 the victorious general an equestrian statue, and 
 the legislature of Virginia decreed to him " a sta- 
 tue of the finest marble and best workmanship." 
 
 But Washington was not permitted to remain 
 in his dignified retirement ; for the nation, aware 
 of the importance of securing his wisdom and 
 influence, chose him the first president, under 
 the new constitution of 1789. His feelings 
 on this occasion are expressed in a letter to°a 
 friend, of which the following is an extract : " I 
 am unwilling in the evening of a life almost 
 consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful 
 abode for an ocean of difficulties, without the 
 competency of political skill, abilities and incli- 
 nation, which are necessary to manage the 
 helm. I am sensible that I am embarking on a 
 hazardous voyage, but what returns will be 
 made Heaven alone can foretell. Integrity and 
 firmness are all I can promise ; these, be the 
 voyage long or short, shall never forsake me, 
 although I may be deserted by all men, for of all 
 consolations which are to be derived from these, 
 under any circumstances, the world cannot de- 
 orive me." 
 
 In the first presidency, the door of the presi- 
 dent's house gathered but little rust on its hin- 
 ges, while often was its latch lifted by the 
 " broken soldier." Scarce a day passed that 
 some veteran of the heroic time did not present 
 himself at head quarters. The most battered of 
 these types of the days of privation and trial 
 was " kindly bid to stay," was offered refresh- 
 ment, and a glass of something to the old gene- 
 ral's health, and then dismissed with lighter 
 hearts and heavier pouches. 
 
 So passed the many ; but not so with one of 
 Erin''s sons. It was about the hour of the 
 Thuesday levee, when German John, the por- 
 ter, opened to a hearty rap, expecting to admit 
 at least a dignitary of the land, or foreign am- 
 bassador, when who should march into the hall, 
 but an old fellow, whose weather beaten coun- 
 tenance, and well-worn apparel showed him to 
 be no " carpet knight." His introduction was 
 short, but to the purpose. He had come to head- 
 quarters to see his honor's excellence, God bless 
 him ! He was an old soldier. In vain the por- 
 ter assured him that it would be impossible to 
 see the president at that time ; a great company 
 was momently expected ; the hall was not a 
 fitting place ; would he not go to the stewards 
 apartment and get something to drink ? To all 
 which Pat replied he was in no hurry ; that he 
 would wait his honor's leisure ; — and taking a 
 chair composed and made himself comfortable. 
 
 And now passed ministers of state, and foreign 
 ministers, senators, judges, the great and the 
 gay ; meanwhile poor Pat stoutly maintained 
 his post, gazing on the crowd till the levee 
 ended. The president, about to retire to his 
 library, was informed that an obstinate Irish- 
 man had taken possession of the hall, and 
 would be satisfied with nothing short of an in- 
 terview with the president himself. 
 
 The chief good-naturedly turned into the 
 hall. So soon as the old veteran saw his old 
 commander, he roared out, " long life to your 
 honor's excellency ! " at the same time hurling 
 his hat to the ground, and erecting himself 
 with military precision. " Your honor will not 
 remember me ; though many is the day that 
 I have marched under your orders, and many's 
 the hard knock I ' ve had too. I belonged to 
 Wayne's brigade — Mad Antony, the British 
 called him, and, by the powers, he was always 
 mad enough for them, I was wounded in the 
 battle of Germantown. Hurrah for America • 
 and it does my heart good to see your honor, and 
 how is the dear lady and the little ones ? " 
 
 Here the usually grave temperament of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 WAS 
 
 607 
 
 WAS 
 
 Washington gave way, as with a smile he re- 
 plied that he was well, as was Mrs. Washing- 
 ton ; but they were unfortunate in having no 
 children ; then pressing a token into the soldier's 
 hand, he ascended the staircase to his library. 
 The Irishman followed with his eyes the retiring 
 general, then looked again and again upon the 
 token which he had received from his honor s 
 own hand, pouched it, recovered his hat, which 
 he placed with military exactness a little on one 
 side, then took up his line of march, and as he 
 passed the porter, he cried out, " there now, 
 you Hessian fellow, you see his honor's excel- 
 lence has not forgotten an old soldier." 
 
 Throughout the eight years of his presiden- 
 tial career, Washington did nothing to forfeit 
 the esteem of his fellow citizens, who acknow- 
 ledged him, " first in peace, first in war, and 
 first in the hearts of his countrymen." An 
 Englishman in Philadelphia, speaking of the 
 presidency of Washington, was expressing a 
 desire to see him. While this conversation 
 passed, " there he goes," cried the American, 
 pointing to a tall, erect, dignified personage, 
 passing on the other side of the street. " That 
 general Washington ! " exclaimed the English- 
 man ; " where is his guard ? " " Here ! '* replied 
 the American, striking on his breast with em- 
 phasis. 
 
 On Friday, the 13th of December, 1799, ex- 
 posure to wet produced an inflammatory disor- 
 der of the throat, which terminated fatally on 
 the night of Saturday. The deep and wide- 
 spreading grief occasioned by this melancholy 
 event, assembled a great concourse of people 
 for the purpose of paying the last tribute of 
 respect to the first of Americans. On Wednes- 
 day, the 18th of December, attended by milita- 
 ray honors and the ceremonies of religion, his 
 body was deposited in the family vault at Mount 
 Vernon. 
 
 So short was his illness, that, at the seat of 
 government, the intelligence of his death pre- 
 ceded that of his indisposition. It was first 
 communicated by a passenger in the stage to an 
 acquaintance whom he met in the street, and 
 the report quickly reached the house of repre- 
 sentatives which was then in session. A solemn 
 silence prevailed for several minutes ; judge 
 Marshal, then a member of the house, stated in 
 his place the melancholy information which had 
 been received. This informatian, he said, was 
 not certain, but there was too much reason to 
 believe it true. 
 
 "After receiving intelligence," he added, 
 •* of a national calamity so heavy and afflicting, 
 
 the house of representatives can be but ill fitted 
 for public business." He therefore moved an 
 adjournment, and the house adjourned. 
 
 The expression of Washington's countenance 
 was serious, but very pleasing : his eyes were 
 a mild blue ; and the flush of health gave a 
 glow to his cheeks. His step was always firm ; 
 but after the toils of the long war, his body 
 was a little bent as he walked, and his once 
 smooth forehead and cheeks were marked with 
 care-worn furrows. General Washington, in 
 the prime of life, stood six feet two inches, and 
 measured precisely six feet when attired for the 
 grave. 
 
 To a majestic height was added correspond- 
 ing breadth and firmness ; and his whole per- 
 son was so cast in nature's finest mould, as to 
 resemble the classic remains of ancient statuary, 
 where all the parts contribute to the purity 
 and perfection of the whole. Bred in the 
 vigorous school of the frontier warfare, " the 
 earth his bed, his canopy the heavens," he ex- 
 celled the hunter and the woodsman in their 
 athletic habits, and in those trials of manhood 
 which distinguished the hardy days of his early 
 life : he was amazingly swift of foot, and could 
 climb the mountain steep, and " not a sob his 
 toil confess." 
 
 It matters very little, says Phillips, what im- 
 mediate spot may have been the birth-place of 
 such a man as Washington. No people can 
 claim, no country can appropriate him. The 
 boon of Providence to the human race, his fame 
 is eternity, and his residence creation. Though 
 it was the defeat of our arms, and the disgrace 
 of our policy, I almost bless the convulsion in 
 which he had his origin. If the heavens thun- 
 dered, and the earth rocked, yet, when the 
 storm had passed, how pure was the climate 
 that it cleared ! how bright, in the brow of the 
 firmament, was the planet which it revealed to 
 us ! In the production of Washington, it does 
 really appear as if Nature was endeavoring to 
 improve upon herself, and that all the virtues 
 of the ancient world were but so many studies 
 preparatory to the patriot of the new. Indi- 
 vidual instances, no doubt, there were, splendid 
 exemplifications of some singular qualification : 
 Caesar was merciful, Scipio was continent, 
 Hannibal was patient; but it was reserved for 
 Washington to blend them all in one, and, like 
 the lovely masterpiece of the Grecian artist, to 
 exhibit, in one glow of associated beauty, the 
 pride of every model, and the perfection of 
 every master. As a general, he marshalled the 
 peasant into a veteran, Mid supplied by disci 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WAT 
 
 608 
 
 WAT 
 
 phnethe absence of experience; as a statesman, 
 he enlarged the policy of the cabinet into the 
 most comprehensive system of general advan- 
 tage ; and such was the wisdom of his views, 
 and the philosophy of his councils, that, to the 
 soldier and the statesman he almost added 
 the character of the sage ! A conqueror, he was 
 untainted with the crime of blood ; a revolu- 
 tionist, he was free from every stain of treason ; 
 for aggression commenced the contest, and his 
 country called him to the command. Liberty 
 unsheathed his sword, necessity stained, victory 
 returned it. If he had paused here, history 
 might have doubted what station to assign him ; 
 whether at the head of her citizens, or her sol- 
 diers, her heroes, or her patriots. But the last 
 glorious act crowns his career, and banishes all 
 hesitation. Who like Washington, after having 
 emancipated a hemisphere, resigned its crown, 
 and preferred the retirement of domestic life to 
 the adoration of a land he might be almost said 
 to have created ! 
 
 Happy, proud America! The lightning of 
 heaven yielded to your philosophy ! The temp- 
 tations of earth could not seduce your patriot- 
 ism ! '' 
 
 WASHINGTON, William Augustine, a dis- 
 tinguished cavalry officer in the American re- 
 volution, was born in Virginia. He distinguish- 
 ed himself particularly at Guilford, and Eutaw, 
 where, however, he was made prisoner, and 
 detained until the close of the war. During the 
 the presidency of Adams, general Washington 
 attached his relative to his staff with the rank 
 of brigadier-general. He died in 1810. 
 
 WATERLOO, a Belgic village on the road 
 from Charleroi to Brussels, 10 miles from the lat- 
 ter city, at the entrance of the forest of Soignies. 
 
 WATERLOO, battle of, by French writers 
 called Mont St. Jean, near which village it 
 was fought in the spring of 1815. The Eu- 
 ropean confederates having outlawed Napo- 
 leon by a declaration at Vienna, assembled their 
 forces to invade France by the east and north. 
 A Prussian army of 60,000 was collected near 
 Charleroie, under Blucher, and an English, 
 Hanoverian, Dutch, and Flemish army of 
 100,000, under Wellington, in advance of Brus- 
 sels. On the 13th of June, the French army 
 of 110,000 men, under Napoleon, debouched 
 from Givette and Charleroi, attacked the Prus- 
 sians at Ligny, and drove them back with oreat 
 slaughter, making from ten to fifteen thousand 
 prisoners. In the meantime the left wine- of 
 the French army on the 15th, attacked the Eng- 
 lish position at Quatre Bras, cut to pieces some 
 
 Scotch regiments, and compelled the remainder 
 of the allies to retreat on Brussels. Marshal 
 Wellington now assembled all his forces in the 
 strong position of Waterloo, the right of which 
 was defended by the chateau of Hougomont ; 
 the left and centre by acclivities of ground, and 
 his rear protected by the immense forest of 
 Soigny. After the affair of Ligny, Napoleon 
 divided his force into two divisions, sending his 
 right wing, of 30,000 men, under Grouchy, in 
 pursuit of the Prussians, who made a stand at 
 Wavre ; while with the left and centre he fol- 
 lowed the English in the direction of Waterloo 
 and Brussels, and finding Wellington in posi- 
 tion at Mont St. Jean, he bivouacked on the 
 17th on the grounds on the other side of the 
 valley, while the English and allies were pre- 
 paring for attack on the opposite side. At noon 
 on the 18th, the French commenced their attack 
 on the chateau of Hougomont, and endeavored 
 by that position to gain the heights, and turn 
 the right of the English army ; and here a scene 
 of bloody contest was maintained for some hours, 
 in which many thousands of the combatants 
 lost their lives. Another attack was commenced 
 in the centre in the bottom, beneath which is 
 situated a farm called La Haye Sainte. Here 
 likewise a dreadful slaughter took place, chiefly 
 of Hanoverians, and the French carried the po- 
 sition. In the right the French ascended the 
 acclivity, and advanced on the plain, but were 
 checked by a charge, in which Sir Thomas Pic- 
 ton was killed. On their left they advanced 
 from Hougomont, within half a mile of the vil- 
 lage of Mont St. Jean, but were here arrested 
 by other charges, in which the prince of Orange 
 was wounded. The enthusiastic courage of the 
 French was every where opposed by the cool 
 resolution of the English regiments, who formed 
 themselves into squares, and received and re- 
 pelled the attacks of the French cavalry. In 
 this position the two armies remained, with va- 
 rious local success, till about four in the after- 
 noon, when a body of Prussians under marshal 
 Bulow approached from Wavre, and secured 
 the English position on the left. At six in the 
 evening the issue remained, doubtful ; the 
 French considered the victory as their own, and 
 an Hanoverian regiment actually fled from the 
 field, and passed through Brussels. But mar- 
 shal Wellington, assured of the speedy approach 
 of marshal Blucher with a body of Prussian 
 cavalry on the French right flank, maintained 
 his principal position with inflexible determina- 
 tion; and about eight o'clock the Prussian cav- 
 alry, under Blucher, debouched from the woods 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 WES 
 
 609 
 
 WHI 
 
 on the left, overthrew and captured the French 
 right wing, and advanced along the valley, and 
 passed the centre of the French position, carry- 
 ing all before them. The French on the heights 
 and on their left wing, perceiving themselves 
 thus surrounded, were seized with a general 
 panic, a cry of sauve qui peat ran through their 
 ranks ; the confusion was increased by a gene- 
 ral charge of the British, and they fled in com- 
 plete rout towards the French frontiers, leaving 
 all their cannon and baggage in the hands of 
 the victors. The loss of killed and wounded on 
 both sides has been variously computed, but it 
 cannot have been less than 60,000. This battle 
 was followed by the most important political 
 consequences. The main French army was 
 thus dispersed without cannon and without am- 
 munition. Grouchy, who, with his division, re- 
 mained immovable during the battle atWavre, 
 about nine miles distant, on hearing of its re- 
 sult, retreated towards Paris, and Napoleon, to 
 diminish the effects of his disaster, repaired in- 
 stantly to the same city, where the intrigues 
 and conflicts of parties determined him to re- 
 sign the crown in favor of his son and embark 
 for America. In the mean time, the Prussians 
 advanced briskly in pursuit of the disordered 
 French, and marshal Wellington having dis- 
 posed of his wounded, followed without inter- 
 ruption to the walls of Paris, where, after some 
 negotiation, the Bourbons were restored. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, a general in the Ameri- 
 can revolution, born in Pennsylvania, Jan. 1, 
 1745. He was educated at a Philadelphia aca- 
 demy. Having served his country in a civil 
 capacity, he raised a company of volunteers in 
 1775, and was elected colonel. In the retreat 
 from Canada he behaved with great prudence, 
 and on Feb. 12, 1777 was made brigadier-gene- 
 ral by the continental congress. He distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Brandywine, 
 and succeeded in carrying Stony Point by as- 
 sault. He was in continual service throughout 
 the war, and, in 1792 was appointed by Wash- 
 ington to succeed general St. Clair in the com- 
 mand of the army employed against the Indians 
 on the western frontier. Aug. 20, 1794, he 
 gained a victory near Miami on the lakes, and 
 successfully ended the war. He died in 1796. 
 
 WEST POINT, a village of New York, and 
 military post on the West bank of the Hudson, 
 53 miles above New York. It is the scene of 
 the treachery of Arnold. Its military academy 
 enjoys high repute. 
 
 WEST INDIES, the great Archipelago 
 which lies between North and South America, 
 
 commonly divided into The Bahamas, Great 
 Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Caribbee islands, Vir- 
 gin islands, Leeward islands, and Windward 
 islands. 
 
 Population of the West India Islands. 
 
 Islands. Whites. Slaves. Total. 
 
 Hayti, 800,000 
 
 Spanish Islands. 
 
 Cuba, 311,051 286,942 704,487 
 
 Porto Rico, 133,100 31,874 323,838 
 
 English Islands. 
 
 Antigua, 1,980 29,839 35,714 
 
 Anguilla, 365 2,388 3,080 
 
 Barbadoes, 14,959 81,902 102,007 
 
 Dominica, 840 15,392 19,838 
 
 Grenada, &c 801 24,145 28,783 
 
 Jamaica, 37,000 322,421 414,421 
 
 Montserrat, 330 6,262 . 7,406 
 
 Nevis, 700 9,259 11,959 
 
 St. Kitts, 1,612 19,310 23,922 
 
 St. Lucia, 972 13,348 18,051 
 
 St. Vincent, 1,301 23,000 27,114 
 
 Tobago, 322 12,000 14,042 
 
 Tortola, &c. 477 5,399 7,172 
 
 Trinidad, 4,201 24,006 44,163 
 
 Bahamas, 4,240 9,268 16,499 
 
 Bermudas, 3,905 4,370 9,250 
 
 French Islands- 
 Martinique, 10,000 81,142 101,865 
 Guadeloupe, with Mario 
 
 egalante, Desirade, [ 12,800 88,000 111,000 
 
 Saintes, &c. ) 
 
 Dutch Islands. 
 
 St. Eustatius, with Saba, ? 12,000 18,000 
 
 Curasao, ? 6,500 11,000 
 
 ^ncl), ,(inParUO | ? 4 > 000 6 > 000 
 
 Danish Islands. 
 Santa Cruz or St. Croix, 2,500 29,500 34,000 
 
 St. Thomas, 800 5,500 7,000 
 
 St. John, 150 2,600 3,000 
 
 Swedish Islands. 
 St. Bartholomew, ? 6,000 12,000 
 
 WHIPPLE, William, a signer of the De- 
 claration of Independence, born in Maine, in 
 1730. Having followed the sea for some time, 
 he abandoned it in 1759, and commenced busi- 
 ness in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, from 
 which state he was sent to Congress, in 1776. 
 He was placed at the head of one of the brigades 
 of New Hampshire in the revolutionary war, 
 after the close of which, he held several civil 
 offices, and died in 1785. 
 
 WHITFIELD, James, Archbishop of Balti- 
 more, was born at Liverpool in England on the 
 3d of Nov. 1770, and died at Baltimore on the 
 19th of Oct. 1834. At the age of 17 he was be- 
 reaved of his father and became the protector of 
 his mother. To assuage her grief, and to restore 
 her sinking health, he accompanied her to Italy. 
 On his return from that country where he had 
 been for some time engaged in mercantile pur- 
 suits, he found himself in France at the time 
 when Napoleon had decreed that every Eng- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WIC 
 
 610 
 
 WIL 
 
 lishman in France was a prisoner. He spent 
 the greatest part of his exile in Lyons, where he 
 became acquainted with Ambrose Marechal, the 
 late archbishop of Baltimore, who was then pro- 
 fessor of theology in the seminary in that city. 
 The piety of his youth inclined his mind to the 
 sacerdotal state, and he commenced the study 
 of divinity under the direction of his learned 
 and pious friend. He distinguished himself by 
 his solid judgment and persevering industry. 
 In the year 1809 he was ordained priest in the 
 city of Lyons. After the death of his mother, 
 he returned to England, and was employed in 
 the discharge of parochial duties in the town of 
 Crosby. 
 
 When Dr. Marechal was elevated to the archi- 
 episcopal see of Baltimore, he wrote to Mr. 
 Whitfield, earnestly soliciting him to give his 
 assistance to the flock which Providence had 
 placed under his charge. He complied with 
 the request of his former friend, and landed on 
 our shores on the 8th of September, 1817. In 
 1825 he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity 
 from the court of Rome. At the death of the 
 Rev. Archbishop Marechal, his name was on 
 the list which was first sent to Rome to receive 
 the sanction of his Holiness, and he was soon 
 after consecrated Archbishop of Baltimore in 
 the Cathedral in that city. 
 
 WHITFIELD, George, founder of the sect 
 of Calvinistic Methodists, born 1714, and died 
 at Newburyport, Massachusetts, 1770, where he 
 lies interred. His eloquence in the pulpit was 
 very remarkable. He was in early life associ- 
 ated with the still more celebrated John Wes- 
 ley, (born 1703, and died 1791,) but in after life 
 they were separated by difference of opinion. 
 
 WICKLIFFE, orWycliffe, John, the " Morn- 
 ing Star of the Reformation," was born at a vil- 
 lage of the same name, in Yorkshire, in 1'324. 
 He was nominated one of the king's commis- 
 sioners, to require of the pope that he would not 
 interfere in ecclesiastical benefices. This trea- 
 ty was carried on at Bruges ; but nothing was 
 concluded, upon which the parliament passed 
 an act against the papal usurpations. This en- 
 couraged Wickliffe to go on in exposing the 
 tyranny of the pope, who, in 1377, denounced 
 the reformer as a heretic, and required the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, 
 to proceed in judgment upon him. Wickliffe, 
 however, was supported by the duke of Lan- 
 caster and earl Percy, who appeared with him 
 at St. Paul's, Feb. 19, 1378. High words en- 
 sued on that occasion between the bishop of 
 London and the temporal lords ; in consequence 
 
 of which, the populace took the bishop's part, 
 and plundered the duke's house in the Savoy. 
 Wickliffe, being thus countenanced at court, 
 undertook a translation of the Scriptures into 
 English, which work he accomplished, and 
 thereby increased th©' number of his enemies. 
 Of this version, which was made from the Vul- 
 gate, several copies are extant; but only the 
 New Testament has been yet. printed. In 1381 
 Wickliffe ventured to attack the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation, in apiece entitled " De Blas- 
 phemia," which being condemned at Oxford, 
 he went thither and made a declaration of his 
 faith, and professing his resolution to defend it 
 with his blood. The marriage of the king with 
 Anne of Luxemburg, proved very advantageous 
 to Wickliffe ; for she was a most exemplary 
 princess, and a great friend to scriptural know- 
 ledge. By her means, the writings of the Eng- 
 lish reformer, were sent to Germany, where the}' 
 afterwards produced an abundant harvest. On 
 leaving Oxford, Wickliffe received a citation 
 from the pope to appear at Rome ; but he an- 
 swered, that " Christ had taught him to obey 
 God rather than man." He died of the palsy, 
 at Lutterworth, in 1384. 
 
 WILKES, John, a political character, was 
 born in Clerkenwell, where his father was a dis- 
 tiller, in 1727. He obtained the rank of colonel 
 of the Buckinghamshire militia, and a seat in 
 parliament for Aylesbury ; but, on publishing a 
 virulent papercalled the " North Briton," he was 
 expelled the House of Commons ; and convict- 
 ed in the court of King's Bench. Previous to 
 this, however, he had gained a verdict in the 
 Common Pleas against the secretary of state, 
 for an illegal seizure of his papers by a general 
 warrant. In the meantime, Wilkes incurred 
 another prosecution for printing an obscene 
 poem, called an " Essay on Woman ;" and for 
 not appearing to receive judgment, was out- 
 lawed. He then went to France, where he re- 
 sided till 1768, when he was elected for Mid- 
 dlesex ; but was prevented from taking his seat, 
 and committed to the King's Bench prison, 
 which occasioned dreadful riots in St. George's 
 Fields. Upon this, Wilkes published another 
 libel, for which he was again expelled the House 
 of Commons ; but was rechosen, and the elec- 
 tion as repeatedly declared void. His popular- 
 ity was now at its height, and a large subscrip- 
 tion was made for the payment of his debts. In 
 1770 he was chosen an alderman of London, and 
 in 1774 lord mayor. The same year he was re- 
 turned again for Middlesex, when he was per- 
 mitted to take his seat without farther opposi- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 WIL 
 
 611 
 
 WOL 
 
 "don. In 1779, after three unsuccessful at- 
 tempts, he was elected chamberlain of London. 
 He died, Dec. 26, 1797. 
 
 WILLIAM I, king of England, a descendant 
 of Canute, was born 1027. In 1051 he paid a 
 visit to Edward the Confessor, in England, and 
 in 1058 he betrothed his daughter to Harold II. 
 In 1066 he made a claim to the crown of Eng- 
 land, invaded England, landed at Pevensey, in 
 Sussex, defeated the English troops at Hastings, 
 October 14, when Harold was slain, and Wil- 
 liam assumed the title of Conqueror. He was 
 crowned at Westminster, December 29, 1066. 
 In 1072 he repelled the attack of Malcolm, king 
 of Scotland, in Northumberland. In 1079 he 
 was wounded by his son Robert, at Gerberot, 
 in Normandy, and in 1086 he invaded France. 
 He soon after fell from his horse, and contracted 
 a rupture : he died at Hermentrude, near Rou- 
 en, in Normandy, 1087. He was buried at 
 Caen, and was succeeded in Normandy by his 
 eldest son, Robert, and in England by his sec- 
 ond son. 
 
 WILLIAM II, was born 1057, and crowned 
 at Westminster, September 27, 1087. In 1090 
 he invaded Normandy with success. William 
 was killed by accident, while hunting in the 
 New Forest, in 1100. 
 
 WILLIAM III, originally prince of Orange, 
 landed at Torbay, Nov. 4, 1688, the epoch of 
 the English revolution. He was crowned with 
 his consort Mary, Feb. 16, 1689. William, 
 being a Presbyterian , began his reign by repeal- 
 ing those laws that enjoined uniformity of wor- 
 ship ; and though he could not entirely succeed, 
 a tolerrtion was granted to such dissenters as 
 should take the oaths of allegiance, and hold 
 no private conventicles. In the mean time, 
 James, whose authority was still acknowledged 
 in Ireland, embarked at Brest for that country, 
 and arrived at Kinsale. He soon made a pub- 
 lic entry into Dublin, and was well received. 
 After the unsuccessful siege of Londonderry, 
 his army encountered the royal forces, com- 
 manded by William in person, on the banks of 
 the Boyne, in 1690, when the latter gained a 
 splendid victory. At length, after a series of 
 disasters, James died Sept. 16, 1700. William, 
 in the mean time, became fatigued with oppo- 
 sing the laws which parliament were every day 
 laying round his authority, and thus gave up 
 the contest. He admitted every restraint upon 
 the perogative in England, upon condition of 
 being properly supplied with the means of 
 humbling the power of France. For the pro- 
 secution of the war with France, the nation 
 52 
 
 mortgaged the taxes, and involved themselves 
 in what is now called the national debt Eng- 
 land received in return, the empty reward of 
 military glory in Flanders, and the conscious- 
 ness of having given their allies, particularly 
 the Dutch, frequent opportunities of being un- 
 grateful. The war with France continued 
 during the greatest part of William's reign, but 
 was at length concluded by the treaty of Rys- 
 wick, in 1697. William was thrown from his 
 horse, Feb. 21, 1702, when his collar-bone was 
 fractured; and this hastened his dissolution. 
 He died in the following month, of an asthma 
 and fever, in the 13th year of his reign. 
 
 WILLIAMS Roger, was born in Wales in 
 1598, and having completed his collegiate edu- 
 cation at Oxford, took orders in the established 
 church, but soon embraced the doctrines of the 
 Puritans in consequence of which he was obliged 
 to come to America in 1631. His religious 
 principles drew down upon him the indignation 
 of the authorities of Massachusetts Bay, and he 
 was banished. He settled at Providence, Rhode 
 Island, where he founded a community in 
 which intolerance was unknown. He died in 
 April, J683. 
 
 WILLIAMS, William, a signer of the De- 
 claration of Independence, was born at Lebanon 
 in Connecticut, April 8, 1731, and died Aug, 2, 
 1811. He was educated at Harvard college. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Otho Holland, a brigadier- 
 general in the American army, born in Prince 
 George's county Maryland, in 1748, and died 
 in July, 1794. 
 
 WILSON, James, a signer of the American 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in Scot- 
 land, in 1742, and came to Philadelphia in 1766. 
 In 1789 he was appointed judge of the supreme 
 court of the United States, and died Aug. 1798, 
 
 WISCONSIN, see Northwest Territory. 
 
 WOLCOTT, Oliver, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born in 1726, at 
 Windsor, in Connecticut, and graduated at 
 Yale college. He studied law, commenced its 
 practice with success, and in 1776 was elected 
 to the national congress. He served at the 
 head of a volunteer corps in the army which 
 forced Burgoyne to surrender. After serving 
 ten years as lieutenant-governor, he was chosen 
 governor of the state. He died Dec. 1, 1797. 
 
 WOLFE, James, was the son of lieutenant- 
 general Edward Wolfe, born at Westerham, 
 in Kent, in 1725. He entered early into the 
 army, and before he was twenty, distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Lafeldt. At that of 
 Minden, he gained additional laurels as lieu 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WOL 
 
 612 
 
 WOT 
 
 tenant-colonel of Kingsley's regiment, as he 
 afterwards did at Louisbourg, frum whence he 
 had but just returned, when he was appointed 
 ,o command the expedition against Quebec. 
 The enterprise was hazardous, but general 
 Wolfe surmounted all obstacles, and on the 
 heights of Abraham encountered the enemy ; 
 when, in the moment of victory, he received a 
 ball in the wrist and another in the body, which 
 obliged him to be carried into the rear. In his 
 last agonies he was roused by the shout, " They 
 run !" on which he eagerly asked, " Who run ?" 
 and being told the French, he said, "I thank 
 God: I die contented," and expired Sept. 13, 
 1759. 
 
 WOLSEY, Thomas, a cardinal and states- 
 man, was born in 1471 at Ipswich, where his 
 father was a butcher. In 1508, being then 
 chaplain to Henry VII, he was made dean of 
 Lincoln ; and in the next reign he gained an 
 absolute ascendency over the young monarch 
 by flattering his passions and sharing in his 
 amusements. He was accordingly made al- 
 moner to the king, a privy councillor, canon of 
 Windsor, registrar of the garter, and dean of 
 York. Soon after this accumulation of humors, 
 he was appointed chancellor of the garter, and 
 rewarded with the grant of the revenues of the 
 bishopric of Tournay in Flanders. In 1514 he 
 was consecrated bishop of Lincoln, and within 
 a few months afterwards was elevated to the 
 see of York and the dignity of a cardinal. In 
 1516 he was appointed legate with the fullest 
 powers, and at the same time was made lord 
 chancellor. In 1519 he obtained the temporal- 
 ities of the see of Bath and Wells, to which 
 were added those of Worcester and Hereford, 
 with the rich abbey of St. Alban's. Wolsey 
 now aspired to the papacy, and on being disap- 
 pointed of it, received, as a compensation from 
 the emperor, a pension of nine thousand crowns 
 of gold, while his own sovereign gave him the 
 bishopric of Durham. On the death of Adrian 
 VI he made another effort to gain the tiara, but 
 without success. In 1528 heexchanged Dur- 
 ham for Winchester ; but a cloud now arose, 
 occasioned by the king's dissatisfaction with 
 his conduct in the business of the divorce. Ac- 
 cordingly while the cardinal sat in the court of 
 chancery, an indictment was preferred against 
 him in the king's bench, on the statute of pro- 
 visoes, in consequence of which the great seal 
 was taken from him, all his goods were seized, 
 and articles of impeachment were soon exhibited 
 in parliament. The prosecution, however, was 
 stayed, and he received the king's pardon ; but 
 
 while he was endeavoring to reconcile himself 
 to his fallen state at Cawood castle, his capri- 
 cious master caused him to be arrested for high 
 treason, and hurried from Yorkshire towards 
 London. The agitation and fatigue brought 
 on a disorder, of which he died at the abbey of 
 Leicester, Nov. 28, 1530. 
 
 All who know any thing of his history, know 
 that he was proud and ostentatious, and accus- 
 tomed to the use of gorgeous costume, in which 
 he piqued himself in outshining all the other 
 courtiers of Henry VIII. One day, a prodigal 
 nobleman, who was deeply in debt, and paid 
 nobody, came into court in a dress, the splen- 
 dor of which outshone that of Wolsey, who 
 being piqued, addressed the nobleman, and 
 said, " My lord, it would be more commendable 
 in you to pay your debts, than to lavish so 
 much money on your dress." " May it please 
 your reverence," replied the nobleman, " you 
 are perfectly right: I humbly thank you for the 
 hint, and now make a beginning, to show how 
 I value your kind admonition. My father 
 owed your deceased father a groat for a calf's 
 head : here is sixpence — let me have the change." 
 
 WORCESTER, the chief town of Worces- 
 tershire, England. It suffered much during the 
 wars between the -houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter; but the most remarkable event here was 
 the famous battle between the English army 
 under Cromwell, and the Scotch in the cause of 
 Charles II, in 1650; when the royalists had 2,000 
 killed and 8,000 taken prisoners, most of whom 
 were sold as slaves to the American colonies. 
 
 WORCESTER, a handsome town of Wor- 
 cester county, Mass. The third permanent set- 
 tlement was commenced in 1713. The town 
 was incorporated in 1722, and on the erection 
 of Worcester county, in 1732, became the cap- 
 ital. Population in 1830, 4,271. 
 
 WOTTON, sir Henry, a statesman, was born 
 at Boughton-hall, in Kent, in 1568. He be- 
 came secretary to the earl of Essex, on whose 
 fall he went abroad, and while at Florence was 
 honored with the confidence of the grand duke: 
 who sent him on a secret mission to James VI 
 of Scotland. He died in 1639. 
 
 WOTTON, Nicholas, a statesman, was un- 
 cle to the preceding, and born in Kent, about 
 1497. During the reign of Henry VIII he was 
 employed on different embassies ; and in that 
 of Edward he was made secretary of state. In 
 1551, he went on a mission to the emperor of 
 Germany ; after which he became resident at 
 the court of France. He died in London, in 
 1566 ; and was buried at Canterbury. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 WYN 
 
 613 
 
 XEN 
 
 WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismund, count, 
 an Austrian general, was born in Alsace in 
 1724. In his youth lie served in the French 
 army, and next in that of the emperor, where 
 he rose to the highest honors. In the revolu- 
 tionary war he drove the republicans out of 
 Alsace ; but at last was obliged to retreat before 
 superior numbers. In 1794, however, he took 
 Manheim ; and in 1796, defeated the French in 
 Italy. At last being obliged to throw himself 
 into Mantua, he was forced to capitulate. He 
 died in Hungary in 1797. 
 
 WURTEMBERG, or Wirtemberg, a king- 
 dom in the western part of Germany, contain- 
 ing 1 ,562,033 inhabitants. In the wars of the 
 French revolution, Wirtemberg was repeatedly 
 traversed by the hostile armies ; its territory 
 was, in 1796, the ground chosen for conflicts 
 in the advance, as well as in the celebrated re- 
 treat of Moreau. In 1799, it was the scene of 
 the defeat of the French under Jourdan ; in 
 1800, of their renewed success under Moreau. 
 
 WYATT, sir Thomas, a statesman, was born 
 at Allington-castle, in Kent, in 1503. His fa- 
 ther, sir Henry Wyatt, was imprisoned in the 
 Tower in the reign of Richard III, where he is 
 said to have been preserved by a cat that fed 
 him daily, for which reason all the portraits of 
 him are painted with that animal in his arms 
 or by his side. On the accession of Henry VII 
 he was knighted ; and in the next reign made 
 master of the Jewel-office. He died in 1533. 
 Thomas became a great favorite with Henry 
 VIII, and by one of his jests hastened on the 
 reformation. The king having complained of 
 the delay of the court of Rome in granting the 
 divorce, sir Thomas exclaimed, " Lord ! that a 
 man cannot repent him of his sin without the 
 pope's leave !" This witticism hastened the 
 king's resolution, and he soon afterwards acted 
 upon it as a maxim of sound reason. Wyatt, 
 however, fell into some trouble afterwards by 
 his freedom of speech, and was twice tried for 
 sedition, but acquitted. He died at Sherbourne, 
 in Dorsetshire, in 1541. 
 
 WYNDHAM, sir William, a statesman, was 
 born at Orchard Wyndham, in Somersetshire, 
 in 1637. In 1710, he was made secretary at 
 war; and in 1713, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 On the accession of George I he was dismissed 
 from office ; and when the rebellion broke out 
 in Scotland, he was sent to the Tower, but 
 never brought to trial. He continued to act in 
 opposition till his death, which happened at 
 Wells, in 1740 ; when he was succeeded in his 
 title and estate by his eldest son, Charles 
 
 Wyndham, who became earl of Egremont, and 
 died in 1763. 
 
 WYTHE, George, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born in Elizabeth 
 county, Virginia, in 1726. Until 30 he lived a 
 life of continual dissipation, but at that age ap- 
 plied himself assiduously to the study of the 
 law, and commenced its practice with great dis- 
 tinction. His labors in the cause of indepen- 
 dence were strenuous and continued. He died, 
 June 8, 1806, having filled the office of chan- 
 cellor of the state of Virginia for several years. 
 
 XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general who 
 assisted the Carthaginians in the first Punic 
 war. He defeated the Romans, 256, B. C. and 
 took the celebrated Regulus prisoner. Such 
 signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the 
 Carthaginians looked with envious jealousy 
 upon Xantippus, and he retired to Corinth after 
 he had saved them from destruction. Some 
 authors support that the Carthaginians ordered 
 him to be assassinated, and his body to be thrown 
 into the sea as he was returning home ; while 
 others say that they had prepared a leaky ship 
 to convey him to Corinth, which he artfully 
 avoided. 
 
 XENOPHON, an Athenian, son of Gryllus, 
 celebrated as a general, an historian, and a phi- 
 losopher. He was invited by Proxenus, one of 
 his intimate friends, to accompany Cyrus the 
 younger in an expedition against his brother 
 Artaxerxes, king of Persia ; but he refused to 
 comply without previously consulting his ven- 
 erable master, and inquiring into the propriety 
 of such a measure. Socrates strongly opposed 
 it, and observed, that it might raise the resent- 
 ment of his countrymen, as Sparta had made 
 an alliance with the Persian monarch ; but, 
 however, before he proceeded further, he advis- 
 ed him to consult the oracle of Apollo. Xeno- 
 phon paid due deference to the injunctions of 
 Socrates, but as he was ambitious of glory, and 
 eager to engage in a distant expedition, he 
 hastened with precipitation to Sardis, where he 
 was introduced to the young prince, and treated 
 with great attention. In the army of Cyrus, 
 Xenophon showed that he was a true disciple 
 of Socrates, and that he had been educated in 
 the warlike city of Athens. After the decisive 
 battle in the plains of Cunaxa, and the fall of 
 young Cyrus, the prudence and vigor of his 
 mind were called into action. The ten thou- 
 sand Greeks who had followed the standard of 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, 
 
 XER 
 
 G14 
 
 XIM 
 
 an ambitious prince, were now at the distance 
 of above six hundred leagues from their native 
 home, in a country surrounded on every side 
 by a victorious enemy, without money, without 
 provisions, and without a leader. Xenophon 
 was selected from among the officers, to super- 
 intend the retreat of his countrymen, and though 
 he was often opposed by malevolence and envy, 
 yet his persuasive eloquence and his activity, 
 convinced the Greeks that no general could 
 extricate them from every difficulty, better than 
 the disciple of Socrates. He rose superior to 
 danger, and though under continual alarms 
 from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was 
 enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through 
 vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he 
 could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his 
 tired companions. This celebrated retreat was, 
 at last, happily effected, the Greeks returned 
 home after a march of two hundred and fifteen 
 days, and an absence of fifteen months. Xeno- 
 phon was no sooner returned from Cunaxa, 
 than he sought new honors, in following the 
 fortune of Agesilaus in Asia. He enjoyed his 
 confidence, he fought under his standard, and 
 conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, 
 as well as at the battle of Coronssa. His fame, 
 however, did not escape the aspersions of jeal- 
 ousy, he was publicly banished from Athens 
 for accompanying Cyrus against his brother, 
 and being now without a home, he retired to 
 Scillus, a small town in the neighborhood of 
 Olympia. He died at Corinth in the 90th year 
 of his age, 359 years before the Christian era. 
 XERXES I, succeeded his father Darius on 
 il\e throne of Persia, and though but the second 
 son of the monarch, he was preferred to his 
 elder brother Artabazanes. Xerxes continued 
 the warlike preparations of his father, and 
 added the revolted kingdom of Egypt to Ids 
 extensive possessions. He afterwards invaded 
 Europe, and entered Greece with an army, the 
 most numerous which had ever been collected 
 together in one expedition; but badly armed 
 and disciplined, and encumbered with an useless 
 attendance of servants, women, and eunuchs, 
 it was stopped at Thermopylae, by the valor of 
 three hundred Spartans, and their allies, under 
 king Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such 
 a handful of men should dare to oppose his pro- 
 gress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them 
 alive into his presence ; but for three successive 
 days the most valiant of the Persian troops were 
 repeatedly defeated in attempting to execute 
 the monarch's injunctions, and the courage of 
 the Spartans might perhaps have triuinphed 
 
 longer, if a Trachinian had not led a detach- 
 ment to the top of the mountain, which sudden- 
 ly fell upon the devoted Leonidas. The king, 
 himself, nearly perished on this occasion, and it 
 has been reported, that in the night, the des- 
 perate Spartans sought, for awhile, the royal 
 tent, which they found deserted, and wandered 
 through the Persian army, slaughtering thou- 
 sands before them. The battle of Thermopylae 
 was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes ; 
 the more he advanced, it was to experience new 
 disappointments ; his fleet was defeated at Ar- 
 temisiumand Salamis, and though he burnt the 
 deserted city of Athens, and trusted to the art- 
 ful insinuations of Themistocles, yet he found 
 his myriads unable to conquer a nation that was 
 superior to him in the knowledge of war and 
 maritime affairs. Mortified with the ill success 
 of his expedition, and apprehensive of imminent 
 danger in an enemy's country, Xerxes hastened 
 to Persia, and in thirty days he marched over all 
 that territory which before he had passed with 
 much pomp and parade in the space of six 
 months. Mardonius, the best of his generals, 
 was left behind with an army of 300,000 men, 
 and the rest that had survived the ravages of 
 war, of famine, and pestilence, followed their 
 timid monarch into Thrace, where his steps 
 were marked by the numerous birds of prey that. 
 hovered round him, and fed upon the dead car- 
 casses of the Persians. When he reached the 
 Hellespont, Xerxes found the bridge of boats 
 which he had erected there, totally destroyed 
 by the storms, and he crossed the straits in a 
 small fishing vessel. Restored to his kingdom 
 and safety, he forgot his dangers, his losses and 
 his defeats, and gave himself up to riot and de- 
 bauchery. His indolence and luxurious volup- 
 tuousness offended his subjects, and Artabanus, 
 the captain of his guards, conspired against him, 
 and murdered him in his bed, in the 21st year 
 of his reign, about 404 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 XIMENES, Francis, a Spanish cardinal, was 
 born in 1437, at Torrelaguna, in Old Castille 
 In 1507, the pope gave him a cardinal's hat, ana 
 soon after the king appointed him prime minis- 
 ter, which office he discharged with the great- 
 est honor. He wg.s very successful in the con- 
 version of the Moors, three thousand of whom 
 were baptized in one day at Grenada. On the 
 death of Ferdinand, in 1516, the cardinal was 
 appointed regent of the kingdom ; and one of 
 his first acts was to introduce a reformation in 
 the government. He died, Nov. 8, 1517. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ZEN 
 
 615 
 
 ZEN 
 
 Y. 
 
 YORK ; a city of England. It is an ancient 
 city, and was the seat of several of the Roman 
 emperors. The cathedral is a splendid speci- 
 men of Gothic architecture, and was a century 
 and a half in building. York in 1831 contained 
 28,359 inhabitants, and is regarded as the capi- 
 tal of the north of England. 
 
 YORKTOWN ; a post-town, capital of York 
 county, Virginia, on the south side of York riv- 
 er, 29 miles N. W. of Norfolk, memorable for 
 the capture of Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781. 
 
 YPRES, a city of Belgium. In 1793 and 
 1794, this town was exposed to bombardment, 
 from both French and allies ; it fell eventually 
 into the power of the former, and remained in 
 their hands until the downfal of Napoleon, in 
 1814. 
 
 YUCATAN, the most easterly state of the 
 Mexican confederacy, very fertile and valuable, 
 and containing 496,000 inhabitants. It is in the 
 form of a peninsula, jutting out into the gulf of 
 Mexico. The English have a small settlement 
 there for procuring logwood, which is the prin- 
 cipal article of commerce. 
 
 YVERDUN, a town of Switzerland, popula- 
 tion 4,000. Here is the school of the celebrated 
 Pestalozzi, which was established in the year 
 J 804. 
 
 ZACATECAS,astate of Mexico, containing 
 2,353 square leagues, and 272,901 inhabitants. 
 It is mountainous and arid, but famous for its 
 rich silver mines. 
 
 ZAMOSK, a strong fortress in the south-east 
 of Poland. In 1G56 it was unsuccessfully be- 
 sieged by the Swedes ; in 1715 it was surprised 
 by the Saxons; and in the civil contests of 
 1771, the Poles were defeated in its vicinity, by 
 the Prussians. In 1812 it was one of the few 
 towns in which the French left a garrison, after 
 their retreat from Russia. 
 
 ZAMOSKI, John, great chancellor of Poland, 
 and general of the army of that kingdom. He 
 was sent ambassador into France for the duke 
 of Anjou, whom the Polanders had chosen king. 
 This prince being recalled to take possession of 
 the kingdom of France, Stephen Bathori, prince 
 of Transylvania, was chosen king of Poland, 
 who had so great a consideration for Zamoski, 
 that he gave his niece to him in marriage, made 
 him chancellor of the kingdom, and first gave 
 him the command of eight thousand men in the 
 52* 
 
 war of Muscovy, and afterwards of all the army 
 of Poland. Zamoski acquitted himself in all 
 these employments w T ith much courage and 
 great success. 
 
 ZANGUEBAR, a large territory in the east- 
 ern part of Africa. Its name means " the coast 
 of the negroes," all the inhabitants being blacks. 
 
 ZANTE, (anciently Zacynthus;) one of the 
 seven Ionian islands in the Mediterranean Sea ; 
 population 40,000. Zante, the capital, has a 
 population of 20,000. Its harbor is spacious, and 
 its environs are pleasant and picturesque. In 
 1820, several hundred houses were overthrown 
 by an earthquake. The island was in posses- 
 sion of the Venetians from the end of the four- 
 teenth to the end of the eighteenth century. In 
 1797, it was taken by the French, and in 1799, 
 by the Russians. In 1815, it became one of 
 the members of the Ionian Republic. 
 
 ZEALAND, a province of the Netherlands. 
 Population in 1829, 123,184. ZEALAND, the 
 largest of the Danish islands, between the Cat- 
 tegat and the Baltic. It contains the fortress of 
 Elsinore, and its capital is Copenhagen. 
 
 ZEALAND, NEW; two islands in the South 
 Pacific Ocean, separated by Cookls Straits. 
 They have recently become the theatre of an 
 active commerce with the British colonies. 
 
 ZENOBIA, Septimia, a celebrated princess 
 of Palmyra, who married Odenatus, whom Gal- 
 lienus acknowledged as his partner on the Ro- 
 man throne. After the death of her husband, 
 which, according to some authors, she is said 
 to have hastened, Zenobia reigned in the east 
 as regent of her infant children, who were hon- 
 ored with the title of Caesars. She assumed the 
 name of Augusta, and she appeared in imperial 
 robes, and ordered herself to be styled the queen 
 of the east. The troubles which at that time 
 agitated the western parts of the empire, pre 
 vented the emperor from checking the inso- 
 lence and ambition of this princess, who boasted 
 to be sprung from the Ptolemies of Egypt. Au- 
 relian was no sooner invested with the imperial 
 purple, than he marched into the east, deter- 
 mined to punish the pride of Zenobia. He well 
 knew her valor, and he was not ignorant that 
 in her wars against the Persians, she had dis- 
 tinguished herself no less than Odenatus. She 
 was the mistress of the east ; Egypt acknow- 
 ledged her power, and all the provinces of Asia 
 Minor were subject to her command. When 
 Aurelian approached the plains of Syria, the 
 Palmyrean queen appeared at the head of seven 
 hundred thousand men. She bore the labors of 
 the field like the meanest of her soldiers, and 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 ZOP 
 
 616 
 
 ZUT 
 
 walked on foot fearless of danger. Two battles 
 were fought, the courage of the queen gained 
 the superiority, but an imprudent evolution of 
 the Palmyrean cavalry ruined her cause ; and 
 while they pursued with spirit the flying ene- 
 my, the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon the 
 main body of Zenobia's army, and the defeat 
 was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, 
 determined to support a siege. Aurelian fol- 
 lowed her, and after he had almost exhausted 
 his stores, he proposed terms of accommoda- 
 tion, which were rejected with disdain by the 
 warlike princess. Her hopes of victory, how- 
 ever, soon vanished, and though she harassed 
 the Romans night and day by continual sallies 
 from her walls, and the working of her military 
 engines, she despaired of success when she 
 heard that the armies which were marching to 
 her relief from Armenia, Persia, and the east, 
 had partly been defeated and partly bribed from 
 her allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in the 
 night ; but Aurelian, who was apprized of her 
 escape, pursued her, and she was caught as she 
 was crossing the river Euphrates She was 
 brought into the presence of Aurelian, and 
 though the soldiers were clamorous for her 
 death, she was reserved to adorn the triumph of 
 the conqueror. She was treated with great hu- 
 manity, and Aurelian gave her large possessions 
 near Tibur, where she was permitted to live the 
 rest of her days in peace, with all the grandeur 
 and majesty which became a queen of the east, 
 and a warlike princess. Her children were pa- 
 tronized by the emperor, and married to per- 
 sons of the first distinction at Rome. Zenobia 
 has been admired not only for her military abil- 
 ities, but also for her literary talents. She has 
 been praised for her great chastity and con- 
 stancy, though she betrayed too often her pro- 
 pensities to cruelty and intoxication when in the 
 midst of her officers. She fell into the hands of 
 Aurelian about the two hundred and seventy- 
 third year of the Christian era. 
 
 Z1ETEN, John Joachim Van, a Prussian 
 general, was born in 161)9. He distinguished 
 himself greatly in the seven years' war, particu- 
 larly at the battle of Prague, and the storming 
 of the heights of Torgau. He died in 1785. 
 
 Z1MISCES, John, a noble Armenian, who 
 contributed to the elevation of Nicephorus, but 
 who, instead of being rewarded for his services, 
 was sent into disgraceful exile. He afterwards 
 conspired with the empress, who in person 
 opened the chamber-door of Nicephorus to the 
 conspirators, who massacred him without op- 
 position. Zimisces was then proclaimed empe- 
 
 ror of the East, and afterwards signalized him- 
 self in many engagements, but was at length 
 taken off by poison, in the ninth year of hi3 
 reign. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, John George, chevalier 
 von, an eminent physician and miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Brug, in the canton of Berne, in 
 1728. Having made choice of the medical profes- 
 sion, he was appointed public physician to his 
 native town, employing his leisure hours in writ- 
 ing many pieces in prose and verse, the most 
 popular of which is his work on Solitude. 
 
 ZISCA, John, a courageous German general, 
 who headed the Hussites, and obtained an im- 
 portant victory, but being slain, his skin waa 
 made into a drum, to animate the Hussites with 
 the remembrance of his valor. 
 
 ZOPYRUS, a Persian, son of Megabyzus, 
 who, to show his attachment to Darius, the son 
 of Hystaspes, while he besieged Babylon, cut 
 off his ears and nose, and fled to the enemy, 
 telling them that he had received such a treat- 
 ment from his royal master because he had ad- 
 vised him to raise the siege, as the city was im- 
 pregnable. This was credited by the Babylo- 
 nians, and Zopyrus was appointed commander 
 of all their forces. When he had totally gained 
 their confidence, he betrayed the city into the 
 hands of Darius, for which he was liberally re- 
 warded. The regard of Darius for Zopyrus 
 could never be more strongly expressed than in 
 what he used often to say, " that he had rather 
 have Zop)rrus not mutilated than tw r enty Ba- 
 bylons." 
 
 ZOROASTER, a king of Bactria, supposed 
 to have lived in the age of Ninus, king of As- 
 syria, some time before the Trojan war. He 
 was respected by his subjects and contempora- 
 ries for his abilities as a monarch, a lawgiver, 
 and a philosopher, and though many of his doc- 
 trines are puerile and ridiculous, yet his follow- 
 ers are still found in numbers in the wilds of 
 Persia, and the extensive provinces of India. 
 
 ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland. ZU- 
 RICH a city of Switzerland. Population 14,000. 
 In recent times, Zurich has been the theatre of 
 many interesting political events, and the scene 
 of many conflicts. Massena defeated here the 
 allied forces of Russia and Austria. 
 
 ZUTPHEN, an inland town of the Nether- 
 lands, province of Gelderland. In the wars of 
 Philip II, Zutphen was besieged in 1572, by the 
 Spaniards, who refusing the citizens a capitu- 
 lation, entered the town by storm, and commit- 
 ted frightful ravages. It was retaken in 1591, 
 and in this siege sir Philip Sidney was killed. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW. 
 
 INCLUDING AMBASSADORS, ALLIANCES, ARCHITECTURE, BATTLES AND SIEGES, COM- 
 MERCE, CONSPIRACIES, DISCOVERIES, EARTHQJJAKES AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, 
 EMINENT PERSONS, ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA, FAMINES, FIRES, FROSTS, LAWS, 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE, LIVING CHARACTERS OF EMINENCE, LONGEVITY, MASSACRES, 
 MILITARY AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS, MUSIC, REBELLIONS, RIOTS, SEA FIGHTS, SCULP- 
 TURE, STORMS, TAXATION, TREATIES, &c. &c. 
 
 AGR 
 
 ABDICATIONS : of Sylla as perpetual dic- 
 tator of Rome, ante C : 79 ; of the emperor 
 Dioclesian, A. D. 304 ; of Chevaline king of 
 the West Saxons, 593; Amurath II emperor 
 of the Turks, 1447 ; of Charles V as emperor 
 of Germany, and as Charles I of Spain, 1556 ; 
 Christiana, queen of Sweden, 1654 ; Cassimer 
 V, king of Poland, 1668 ; James II of England, 
 but really dethroned, 1688 ; Philip V of Spain, 
 1724, January 15th, but resumed the sceptre in 
 about fourteen months afterwards, on the death 
 of his son Louis, in whose favor he had abdi- 
 cated ; Victor Amadeus king of Sardinia, 1730 ; 
 Francis II resigns his title as emperor of Ger- 
 many, August 6th, 1806 ; Charles IV of Spain, 
 March 19th, 1808; Gustavus Adolphus IV, 
 king of Sweden, March 19th, 1809; Napoleon 
 deposed, 1814, and ao-ain in 1815. 
 
 AFFIRMATION of the Quakers first ac- 
 cepted as an oath, 1702 — alteration made in 
 it, December 13th, 1721. Made legally equal 
 to an oath in most, if not all the states of the 
 United States. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL Societies formed in 
 Great Britain, 1787. Many societies now exist 
 in the United States. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. The first mention of 
 agriculture is found in the writings of Moses. 
 From them we learn that Cain was a " tiller of 
 the ground," and that Noah " began to be a 
 husbandman and planted a vineyard." 
 
 The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, Egyp- 
 tians, and Phoenicians, appear to have held 
 husbandry in high estimation, in the earliest 
 
 ages. The Cartha 
 
 were sensible of its 
 
 blessings, and carried the art to a high degree 
 of perfection. The implements of Grecian ar- 
 chitecture were very few and simple ; the Ro- 
 mans used a great many implements, but par- 
 ticularly venerated the plough. 
 
 AGR 
 
 The agriculture of Great Britain was much 
 improved, after its conquest by the Normans, 
 who were celebrated for their skill in agricul- 
 ture. The implements then used were very 
 similar to those of modern times. Many works 
 on agriculture have been written in England 
 at different periods, which have been of great 
 importance both to the British nation and all 
 the world. The establishment of a national 
 board of agriculture, by Sir John Sinclair, has 
 been of eminent service to British husbandry. 
 
 French agriculture began to flourish early in 
 the 17th century, under Henry IV. Many 
 agricultural societies were established, and 
 Bonaparte instituted professorships and gardens 
 for the exhibition of the different modes of cul- 
 ture and the dissemination of plants. He also 
 enlarged and enriched the National Garden. 
 The implements of agriculture in France are 
 generally rude and unwieldy, and the opera- 
 tions of husbandry unskilfully performed. 
 
 No books on agriculture were written in 
 Germany till the 17th century. The agricul- 
 ture is there every where improving. Gov- 
 ernment, as well as individuals, have formed 
 institutions for the instruction of young people 
 in the arts of husbandry. The culture of forests 
 receives particular attention in Germany. Some 
 of the implements of Great Britain have been 
 introduced ; but generally speaking the agricul- 
 tural tools are unwieldy and inefficient. 
 
 In 1788, Arthur Young wrote a treatise upon 
 rural economy in Italy. There is a great vari- 
 ety in the culture of land, as the climate, soil, 
 and surface of Italy are so various. Only one fifth 
 of the surface is considered sterile. The im- 
 plements and operations of agriculture in Lom- 
 bardy are both imperfect. The irrigation of 
 lands is a remarkable feature in Italian hus- 
 bandry. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ALL 
 
 618 
 
 ALM 
 
 The agriculture of the United States em- 
 braces all the products of European cultivation, 
 together with some, such as sugar and indigo, 
 which are rarely ever cultivated in any part of 
 Europe. The agricultural implements and 
 farming operations of the United States are 
 very similar to those of Great Britain. 
 
 AIRGUNS, invented 1646. 
 
 AIRPUMPS, invented by Otto Gnirick, in 
 1654. 
 
 A JAX, British ship of the line, burnt near the 
 Island of Tenedos, and more than 350 men per- 
 ished, Feb. 14th, 1807. 
 
 ALIEN LAW of the United States, passed 
 June 25th, 1798 ; repealed, 1800. 
 
 ALIENS, British, ordered by the United 
 States' Government, to report themselves to the 
 marshals of the district where they respectively 
 reside, July 10th, 1812. 
 
 ALLIANCES, the most remarkable were — 
 between the confederate Greeks, against Troy, 
 B. C. 1194 — 84. Between the Romans and the 
 Carthaginians B. C. 508. Between the Athe- 
 nians, Thebans, Corinthians and Argives, 
 against the Lacedemonians, B. C. 395. It is 
 not a little remarkable, that in the long course 
 of Roman conquest, not one well arranged and 
 conducted alliance was formed and contributed 
 to restrain her power. In modern ages, alliances 
 in the true sense of the term, are recent. The 
 Crusades were really a species of alliance, but 
 with very little of the system of modern allian- 
 ces. The League of Cambray, formed Dec. 10th, 
 1508, between Louis XII, king of France, the 
 emperor of Germany, Maximilian I, and the 
 Pope, Julius II, against the Venetians, was the 
 first of those coalitions so disastrous or benefi- 
 cial, as the case may be, which have so deeply 
 influenced modern European policy. Those 
 of most importance after the league of Cham- 
 bray, have been, a league between Henry 
 VIII of England, and the emperor Charles 
 V against Francis I, king of France. In 1523, 
 by the Pope, the emperor and the Venetians, 
 against the king of France. Of the present 
 states of Germany, at Smalcalde, December 
 22d, 1530, to maintain the reformed religion; 
 between Francis I, king of France, and Sultan 
 Solyman, against the emperor Charles V, 1536. 
 The latter confederation renewed, 1542 ; be- 
 tween the emperor Charles V, and Pope Paul 
 III, against the Protestants, 1546; between 
 Spain, Venice, and Pope Pius V, against Tur- 
 key, 1570; between England, and the States 
 General of Holland, 1578, against the Span- 
 iards; union of Utrecht, 1579, which begins 
 
 the republic of the Seven United Provinces; 
 the Evangelical League, formed 1626, between 
 the Protestant princes of Germany and Den- 
 mark, to which Sweden afterwards acceded, 
 against the emperor Ferdinand I, — this was a 
 very important compact, which, in 1648, pro- 
 duced the treaty of Westphalia ; triple alliance 
 between Britain, Sweden, and the States Gen- 
 eral, against France 1668; of the empire and 
 Holland, against France, July 15, 1672; league 
 of Augsburg against France, July 11, 1686; 
 the grand alliance between the emperor Leo- 
 pold I, the States General of Holland, and 
 William III, king of England, against France, 
 May 12th, 1689 ; first treaty of partition, be- 
 tween France, England and Holland, August 
 19, 1698, second treaty of partition, 1700, March 
 3d, at Landen, and 25th at the Hague : alli- 
 ance of Germany, England and Holland, on one 
 side, and France, Spain and Portugal, on the 
 other, 1701 ; barrier treaty of Antwerp, Nov. 
 15th, 1715, between Germany and Holland; 
 quadruple alliance between Great Britain, 
 France, Germany and Holland, August 2d, 
 1718 ; defensive alliance between Great Britain 
 and Prussia, 1742; quadruple alliance of War- 
 saw, January 8, 1745, between Great Britain, 
 Austria, Holland, Poland; defensive alliance 
 of Stockholm, May 29th, 1747, between Prus- 
 sia, Poland and Sweden ; between Great Brit- 
 ain and Prussia, February 16, 1756; renewed 
 April 11, 1758 — without any regular compact, 
 France, Austria, Russia and Sweden, were at 
 the epoch of the last mentioned alliance be- 
 tween Great Britain and Prussia, actually in 
 the field against Prussia. To the United States, 
 if not the world, the most important of all alli- 
 ances or confederations was that of the British 
 North American colonies. This great union, 
 not for war, but defence, after many incipient 
 steps, was formed in 1775 ; announced to the 
 world as free and independent, July 4th, 1776; 
 received the general name of United States, 
 by a resolution of Congress, Sept. 1776, and 
 consummated by the adoption of a Federal con- 
 stitution of government, March 3d, 1789. First 
 coalition against France, by Great Britain, Prus- 
 sia, Austria, Sardinia, &c. 1793 ; second coali 
 tion, April 8th, 1799 ; third, 1805. Holy Alii 
 ance between Francis I, emperor of Austria, 
 Alexander emperor of Russia, and the king of 
 Prussia, and to which Denmark, Sweden and 
 the Netherlands, afterwards acceded, formed 
 1815. 
 
 ALMANACS, first published by Martin II- 
 kus at Buda 1470. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 AMB 
 
 619 
 
 ARC 
 
 ALPHABETIC WRITING introduced into 
 Europe by Cadmus, A. C. 1493. 
 
 ALUM, first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, 
 A. D. 1300; in Tuscany 1460; first made to 
 perfection in England, 1608, discovered in 
 Ireland, October 22d, 1757; in Anglesea, 1790. 
 ALTAR, a place on which sacrifices were 
 offered in ancient times, but in Christian 
 churches the place where the communion is 
 administered — first used in the latter A. D. 135 ; 
 consecrated 271 ; first in Britain, 634. A Ro- 
 man altar dug up near Carlisle, England, April, 
 1803. 
 
 AMBASSADORS and ministers plenipo- 
 tentiary, have been from time immemorial, 
 considered in some measure, privileged char- 
 acters. Those of king David, about 1030, B. 
 C. being insulted by the king of the Ammonites, 
 led to a war destructive to the aggressors. 
 The Roman ambassadors at Clusium B. C. 390, 
 mixing with the inhabitants in battle with the 
 Gauls, Brennus, king of the latter, considered 
 their conduct an act of hostility on the part of 
 their country, raised the siege of Clusium, 
 marched towards Rome, defeated the Romans at 
 Allia, and took, plundered and burned Rome. 
 In modern times the privileges of ambassadors 
 have been more distinctly defined. In Eng- 
 land during the protectorship of Oliver Crom- 
 well, Don Pantaleon Sa, brother to the Portu- 
 guese ambassador in London, committed a 
 murder in open day, and sought refuge in his 
 brother's house ; but the Protector refused to 
 sanction such an asylum in a case of murder, 
 and Sa was seized, confined, tried and hanged, 
 1653. About twenty years afterwards, the 
 prince of Furstenburg was arrested at the diet 
 of Ratisbon, for murder, by order of the emperor 
 of Germany, and the case of Sa, given as a 
 justification. In 1709, in England, the Russian 
 ambassador was arrested for debt by a lace 
 merchant, which led to an act of parliament 
 exempting ambassadors, or their immediate suit, 
 from arrest in civil cases. The following table 
 shows the respective salaries paid to the British, 
 and United States' ambassadors, at the principal 
 states of Europe, amount reduced to dollars, 
 and even numbers : 
 
 English Ambassadors. U. States Ambassadors. 
 
 France . . $48,000 . . . $9,000 
 Spain . . . 52,000 .... 9,000 
 Holland . . 52,000 .... 4,500 
 Russia . . . 52,000 .... 9,000 
 British in U. S. 26,000 U.S. in Eng. 9,000 
 The first ambassador from Russia to Eno-land. 
 arrived m London 1556. First from India to 
 
 any part of Europe, was from Tippo Saib to 
 France, 1778. First from the United States was 
 Silas Deane to France, 1776. First from the 
 Ottoman emperor to Great Britain, 1793. First 
 from the new Spanish states of America, were 
 received by the United States, and recipro- 
 cated by ministers sent to Buenos Ay res, Mex- 
 ico &/C. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE at Rome, built A. D. 
 69. Fourteen modern chapels erected within its 
 walls — that of Verona next in size ; and that 
 of Nismes next — at Fidonia fell, and killed 
 50,000 people. Its ruins still exist at Castel 
 Gimbelio. 
 
 AMPHYCTIONIC COUNCIL, or General 
 Assembly of Greece, established B. C. 1497. 
 This is the first instance on record, of a free 
 representation of independent states, meeting 
 to deliberate and settle their concerns by the 
 force of reason, in place of arms. 
 
 ANATHEMA, first used by the Christians 
 as a punishment, A. D. 387. 
 
 ANATOMY as a science, restored about 
 1550 ; anatomy of plants observed 1680. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM, an imposture 
 that made its appearance in France, 1788, but 
 soon disappeared there, and broke out in Eng- 
 land, 1789. It has since been revived and has 
 some believers in Europe. 
 
 ANNUITIES or Pensions first granted in 
 England, 1512, when 20/. was given to a lady 
 of the court for services done ; and in 1536, 6/. 
 13s. Ad. thought sufficient to maintain a gentle- 
 woman : again in 1554, 13/. 6$. 8d. deemed a 
 competent sum to support a student at law. 
 Annuities for life were regulated by law, 1777. 
 
 APOTHECARIES, first mentioned in pro- 
 fane history, ate. C. 1345; by Solomon in Ec- 
 clesiastes, ate. C. 977. Exempted from civil 
 offices in England, 1702 ; act for better regulat- 
 ing the practice of, passed 1815. 
 
 APRICOTS first planted in England 1540. 
 This fruit originally came from Epirus. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. The first habitations 
 of man were such as nature afforded, just suf- 
 ficient to satisfy his simple wants, huts, grottos 
 and tents. As civilization advanced, men began 
 to build more durable and commodious habita- 
 tions. They fitted the stones or bricks together 
 more neatly, but at first without any cement. 
 After they had learned how to build houses, 
 they began to erect temples for their gods, 
 which were much larger, and better made than 
 their own habitations. 
 
 Architecture appears to have been one of the 
 earliest inventions, and its works have been 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 ARC 
 
 620 
 
 ARU 
 
 regulated by hereditary imitation. Whatever 
 rude structure the climate or materials of any 
 country had forced the earlier inhabitants to 
 construct, the same form has been kept up in 
 after years by their more refined posterity. 
 
 Thus the Egyptian style of building derived 
 its origin from the cavern and mound; the 
 Chinese from the tent; the Grecian from the 
 wooden cabin, and the Gothic from the bower 
 of trees. Architecture at length became a 
 fine art, and much pains was bestowed upon 
 temples and palaces. Colonnades, halls and 
 courts soon appeared, the rough trunk was 
 transformed into the lofty column, and the nat- 
 tural vault of a cavern into the splendid Pan- 
 theon. 
 
 The first nations who paid attention to archi- 
 tecture were the Babylonians, who built the 
 temple of Belus and the hanging gardens ; the 
 Assyrians, who filled Nineveh with splendid 
 buildings; the Phoenicians, whose cities were 
 adorned with magnificent structures, and the 
 Israelites, whose temple was considered won- 
 derful. Of the Persian and Egyptian architec- 
 ture, we have some remains, and they are all 
 in a style of prodigal splendor and gigantic 
 height. | 
 
 The Greeks first introduced a more simple 
 and dignified style of building, called the Doric 
 order. The Ionic and Corinthian columns 
 were soon added to the Doric. After the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, this noble simplicity had again 
 given place to excess of ornament, and after 
 the death of Alexander, 323, B. C, the art de- 
 clined, and was afterwards but little cultivated 
 in Greece. 
 
 The Romans had paid some attention to 
 architecture, but did not equal the Greeks, till 
 the time of Augustus, who encouraged Greek 
 artists to erect splendid buildings in Rome. 
 But when the seat of government was removed 
 to Constantinople, the art declined in Rome. 
 About this time, the Roman or Composite col- 
 umn originated, which was employed in tem- 
 ples and splendid buildings. 
 
 These beautiful works of art were almost 
 entirely destroyed by the Goths and Vandals ; 
 but Theodoric, a friend of the arts, endeavored 
 to restore them and even erected several new 
 ones. This is the era of the origin of modern 
 art. and the style of building it introduced is 
 called Gothic architecture. 
 
 Architecture has experienced different desti- 
 nies in different countries. It has risen and 
 declined at different periods. In America, the 
 Grecian architecture is prevailing, as it is better 
 
 adapted than the Gothic to small buildings, and 
 does not require splendid edifices to display its 
 beauty. 
 
 ARITHMETIC, by the Arabian figures, 
 introduced into Europe by the Saracens of 
 Spain, in the ninth and tenth centuries of the 
 Christian era. 
 
 ARMISTICE, or suspension of arms, be- 
 tween two or more belligerent states, but with 
 an agreement, that all things shall remain in 
 statu quo, to the termination of the agreement. 
 The first armistice or provisional articles of 
 peace between the United States and Great 
 Britain, was signed November 30th, 1782; 
 between Naples and the French general Cham- 
 pionet, January 7th, 1799 ; at Steyer in Austria, 
 between the Austrian government and general 
 Moreau, December 2oth, 1800 ; of Treviso, 
 January 16th, 1801 ; at Tilsit, June 21st, 1807, 
 between France, Russia, and Prussia. 
 
 ARMS, or armorial ensigns, were of great 
 antiquity, and in some form very general, but 
 as now understood, coats of arms originated 
 with the northern nations who overturned the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 ARMY, standing, a body of men exclusively 
 set apart and employed in the profession of 
 arms, as distinguished from militia. (See militia). 
 Philip II, king of Macedonia, formed the first 
 regular standing army on record, and the effects 
 were to change the political aspect of the world. 
 The second standing army was that of Car- 
 thage, from B. C. about 260— 202, under Ham- 
 ilear, Asdrubal and Hannibal. The Cartha- 
 ginian army forced the more steady Romans to 
 resist them by another standing army; the battle 
 of Zama, B. C. 202, Oct. 19th, annihilated the 
 former, and left the latter master of the world. 
 There is nothing in history so remarkable, as 
 that from the battle of Zama, except in the 
 instance of Parthia, no regular force which 
 deserved the name, was raised to resist the 
 Roman arms. Those terrific legions, however, 
 yielded to time, and were not followed by 
 another attempt to form a system of organized 
 armies, until under Charles VII, king of 
 France, 1445. Since that epoch, the whole 
 features of war have changed ; most nations 
 have now a regular standing military force. 
 The proportion between the troops in service 
 and men able to bear arms in modern times, 
 has been assumed as one to a hundred. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. These cele- 
 brated chronological tables were brought from 
 Greece to England, in 1627, by Thomas, earl 
 of Arundel. They were composed of a large 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 AST 
 
 621 
 
 AST 
 
 number of marble slabs or blocks, which were, 
 however, mutilated, and in part lost during the 
 civil wars in England, in the middle of the 
 17th century. Fortunately they have been at 
 different times, and partly whilst the collection 
 was complete, edited by Seldon, Iredeaux, Mat- 
 taire, Chandler, &c. and though by some, their 
 genuineness has been doubted, they are now 
 by the best critics, considered real and invalu- 
 able remains of the literature of ancient Greece. 
 They contain a connected chronology in Greek 
 capital letters, from the reign of Cecrops,king 
 of Athens, B. C. 1582, to the archonship of 
 Astyanax in Poros, and of Diognetus at Ath- 
 ens, B. C. 264. What remains entire "are in the 
 possession of the university of Oxford. 
 
 ASPARAGUS first introduced into Eng- 
 land, 1608. 
 
 ASTRONOMY, the science of the Heavens, 
 the history of which dates backward into the 
 morning of time. Observations on the appa- 
 rent jind real revolutions of the stars must have 
 been made, and a really great advance in the 
 science, long before any form of record pre- 
 served the fruits of discovery. Some of the 
 principal constellations, as they are now named, 
 are mentioned in the book of Job. The Chal- 
 deans observed and recorded eclipses, both 
 lunar and solar, B. C. 719 — 20, and then knew 
 the Luni — Solar period of 223 lunations, or 
 6585 days 8 hours nearly. It is probable, 
 as far backwards in time as eight or nine cen- 
 turies before the Christian era, that the real 
 length of the tropical or solar year, was known 
 in China, Indostan, Chaldea, and Egypt; and 
 in China and Indostan, their authenticated 
 records reach to B. C. 3102. The following 
 brief tabular history of this noble science, was 
 compiled from Rees' Cyclopedia, art. Astron- 
 omy, and will save much reference. 
 
 B. C. 721, March 19th, 8 h. 40 min. p. m. 1st 
 lunar eclipse on record ; 720, March 5, 11 h. 
 
 I m. p. m. 2d do. ; September 1,7 h. 40 m. p. m. 
 3d do. ; 648 the Thoth of the era of Nabonassar, 
 was on February 1st, having shifted 25 days in 
 one hundred years; 621, April 22d, 3 hours 
 after midnight; the fourth eclipse of the moon 
 on record; 585, May 28th, an eclipse of the 
 moon predicted by Thales, and brought the 
 Lydian war to an end ; 502, November 19th, 
 
 II h. 36 min. p. m. the sixth lunar eclipse on 
 record, observed at Babylon ; 491, April 25th, 
 seventh lunar eclipse on record observed at 
 Babylon; 359, obliquity of the ecliptic, found, 
 23° 49' 10"; 310, August 15th, solar eclipse, 11 
 digits 10', observed between Sicily and Africa, 
 
 by the fleet of Agathocles. Comet seen in 
 China same year ; 294, March 9th, conjunction 
 of the moon with Spica Virginis, 8° W. from 
 the equinoctial point, observed by Timocharis ; 
 285, Dionysius of Alexandria, began his sera 
 June 26th, being the first who determined the 
 real length of the solar year to be 365 days, 5 
 hours and 49 minutes; 282, Timocharis ob- 
 served another conjunction of the moon with 
 Spica Virginis, November 9th, 3£ hours after 
 midnight ; 262, transit pf Mercury over the 
 Bull's Horn observed ; Mercury 23° in Taurus, 
 and the Sun 29° 30' in Aries; 241, September 
 3d, Jupiter observed in 7° 33' Virgo; 230, Era- 
 tosthenes, observed the obliquity of the ecliptic 
 to be 23° 51' 20"; 162, Hipparchus began his 
 astronomical observations at Rhodes, and con- 
 tinued them to 128, or 34 years ; 146, this 
 astronomer observed the vernal equinox. March 
 24th, at mid-day. A remarkable comet appeared 
 in Greece ; 143, Hipparchus observed the au- 
 tumnal equinox, September 26th, about sunset. 
 From the new moon of September 28th, he 
 began his new lunar cycle; 141, January 17th, 
 2 hours before midnight an eclipse of the moon 
 at Alexandria; 128, Hipparchus observed the 
 vernal equinox to be on Thursday, March 23d, 
 about sunset ; and the star Cor Leonis, 20° 50* 
 from the summer solstitial colune ; 127, May 
 2d, about sunrise, Hipparchus observed the sun 
 7° 35' in Taurus, the moon 21° 40' in Pisces, 
 and their mean distance, to be 312° 32'; and 
 Spica Virginis 6° W. of the autumnal equinoc- 
 tial point; 49, comet appeared in China; 44, 
 great comet, supposed the same which appeared 
 again A. D. 531, 1106, and in 1680; 25, the 
 Egyptians adopt the Julian year, and fix their 
 Thoth, or New Year day, August 29th. 
 
 A. D. 13, a comet appeared in China; 39, 
 conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars ; 55, 
 comet appeared in China; 92, Agrippa observes 
 in Armenia, a conjunction of the moon with 
 the pleiades, November 29th, 5 hours before 
 midnight ; 130, Ptolemy observed Mars in op- 
 position, December 14th, 3 hours p. m. ; 132, 
 September 25th, 2 h. p. m. Ptolemy observed the 
 autumnal equinox ; 133, May 6th, 11 h. 45 
 m. p. m. Ptolemy at Alexandria, observed an 
 eclipse of the moon. May 17th 11 h. p. m. he 
 observed Jupiter in 13° 15' Taurus ; and Saturn 
 in 9° 40' Sagitarius on June 4th, 4 h. p. m. ; 
 134, February 16, in the morning, Ptolemy ob- 
 served Venus, 21° 05' in Capricorn, and on Oct. 
 3d in the morning, Mercury in 20° 12' of Virgo ; 
 138, Ptolemy observed Cor Leonis 2° 30' of this 
 sign, and 32° 40' from the summer solstice ; 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 AST 
 
 622 
 
 AST 
 
 140, Ptolemy observed Venus on July 18th, to 
 be in 16° 30' of Gemini, and 47° 15' from the 
 mean place of the sun. Observed the vernal 
 equinox at Alexandria, March 22, 1° p. m. ; 212, 
 a comet appeared in China ; 222, August 29th, 
 a conjunction of some of the planets observed 
 at Alexandria ; 373, a comet appeared in China ; 
 400, a comet appeared in China ; 729, 2 comets 
 appeared, one before sunrise, the other after 
 sunset. This was no doubt a deception ; it was 
 one comet apparently in different parts of the 
 Heavens; 807, January 31st, 3 h. after mid- 
 night, Jupiter was eclipsed by the moon. March 
 I7ih, a spot observed on the sun ; 816, astron- 
 omy revived under the Caliph Almamun, and 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic found 23° 34' ; 819, 
 degree of the meridian measured on the plains 
 of Sinjar, near Babylon, and found to be 56| 
 Arabian miles ; 825, Benimula observed the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, to be 23° 35'; 837, a 
 comet appeared in China and in Europe, which 
 moved in 25 days through IJ Zo Si, and disap- 
 peared in y ; 880, September 19th, 11 h. 45' 
 a. m. Albategnius, or Mahomet of Aractus, an 
 Arabian astronomer, observes the obliquity of 
 the ecliptic to be 23° 35'; 882, Sept. 19th, 1 h. 
 15' after midnight Albategnius observes the 
 autumnal equinox ; and in 883, the sun's apo- 
 
 §ee in 22° 27' of Gemini ; the first star of Aries 
 istant from the equinoctial point 18° 02'; 911, 
 Thebit ben Chora, found the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, to be 23° 33' 30" ; 999, Aboul Wafi, and' 
 Abu Hamed, found the obliquity of the eclip- 
 tic, 23° 35'; 1070, Arzachel, found the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic to be 23° 34'; 1076, the 
 same astronomer found the sun's apogee, 17° 50' 
 in Gemini ; 1079, March 14th, 2 h. 9' p. m. the 
 vernal equinox observed by Arzachel; 1186, 
 September 16th, great conjunction of all the 
 planets in Libra, about sunrise, Mercury 4° 10'; 
 Venus 3° 49' ; Mars 9° 08' Jupiter 2° 03' ; Sat- 
 urn 8° 06'; 1252, Alphonso X, had those astro- 
 nomical tables, which bear his name, published. 
 In this school the sun's apogee was found 28° 
 40' in Gemini ; 1264, July 6th, a comet reached 
 its perihelion, inclination of its orbit to the 
 ecliptic, 36° 30'; 1269, Cosah Nasirodni ob- 
 served the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23° 30' ; 
 1273, Cheouching in China, found the obliquity 
 of the ecliptic, 23° 33' 39" ; 1299, a comet 
 reached its perihelion in February, ascending 
 node 25° in Gemini, inclination 20°; 1337, 
 first comet, whose course was observed and 
 recorded with astronomical exactness, reached 
 its perihelion, June 2d, 6h. 25' a. m. ascending 
 node 24° 21' in Gemini, inclination 32° 11'; 
 
 1341, a comet in Libra, first seen near Spica 
 Virginis, and disappeared near SI Leo; 1437, 
 Ulugh Beigh, observed the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, 23° 30' 17"; 1460, Regiomontanus, 
 found the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23° 29'; 
 1472, February 29th, 10 h. 23' a. m. comet 
 reaches its perihelion, ascending node 11° 46' 
 20" in Capricorn; inclination of its orbit 5° 20'; 
 1476, Waltherus found the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, 23° 30'; 1478, Waltherus found the 
 vernal equinox on March 11th, 8 h. 05' a. m. ; 
 1503, Waltherus found the summer solstice to 
 be on June 12th, 12 h. 46° 34' at Nuremberg, 
 and the sun's apogee 4° 09' in Cancer; 1510, 
 Wernerus found the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 23° 28' 30"; 1515, Copernicus observed the 
 vernal equinox, March 11, 4 h. 30' a. m. at 
 Frauenburg. He observed Spica Virginis in 
 17° 03' ( 2" in Libra, and the sun's apogee, 6° 
 40' in Cancer ; 1530, Copernicus completed his 
 immortal work, " Astronomia Instaurata," 
 &c. but it was not published until the year of 
 his death, 1543. This work alone did more 
 for astronomy than was ever done for any other 
 science by a single production ; 1540, September 
 27th, Copernicus found the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic 23° 28' 08" ; 1556, April 22d, 8 h. 3' a. 
 m. a comet reached its perihelion, ascending 
 node 25° 42" in Libra ; inclination of its orbit 
 32° 06' 30" ; 1577, October 27th, 6 h. a. m. a 
 comet reached its perihelion ; 1582, Calendar 
 reformed by pope Gregory XIII; 1584, Tycho 
 Brahe found the vernal equinox, March 10th, 
 1 h. 56' p. m. at Urianiburg; 1588, Tycho ob- 
 served the summer solstice, June 11th, 1 h. 36' 
 p. m. at Urianiburg ; the sun's apogee 5° 30' 
 in Cancer ; 1595, Tycho Brahe found the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic, 23° 29' 25"; 1610, teles- 
 copes introduced into use by Gallileo ; 1626, 
 Kepler published his Rudolphine tables, and 
 formed an asra in the history of man. Coper- 
 nicus had shown near a century before, that 
 the planets moved round the sun, and now 
 Kepler in his" Astronomia Nova Celestis," 
 &c. showed in what manner, and by what 
 laws they moved, and paved the way for New- 
 ton to show why they moved ; 1631, November 
 17th, 9 h. 37' a. m. Gassendi first observed a 
 transit of Mercury over the sun's disc ; 1639, 
 November 24th, old style, or December 4th, 
 new style, 3 h. 15' p. m. Mr. Horrox, an Eng- 
 lishman, was the first who ever observed a 
 transit of Venus over the sun's disc; 1670, 
 Mengoli observed the obliquity of the ecliptic 
 to be 23° 28' 24"; 1672, Richer found the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic, 23° 28' 54" ; 1676, rings of 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 AST 
 
 623 
 
 BAN 
 
 Saturn discovered by Haygens, 1687, Newton's 
 " Principia" were published, and consum- 
 mated what Copernicus and Keppler had begun ; 
 1680, December 18th, h. 6' p. m. a comet 
 reached its perihelion, ascending node 2° 02' in 
 Capricorn, inclination of its orbit 61° 22' 55". 
 This is supposed to be the same comet which 
 reached its perihelion B. C. 44, and A. D. 531 
 and 1105, and to have a periodic time of 575 
 years. In its perihelion it almost touches the 
 sun's surface, being only about 570,000 miles 
 from its centre, and moves in that part of the 
 orbit, above 880,000 miles hourly ; 1682, Sep- 
 tember 22d, 6 h. 34' a. m. autumnal equinox 
 observed at Paris ; 1691, Flamstead found the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, 23° 28' 32" ; 1703, Bi- 
 anchini, found the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23° 
 28' 15" ; 1732, the summer solstice observed at 
 Paris, June 21st, 7 h. 28' 30" a. m. ; 1752, new 
 style introduced into England, Sept. 3d called 
 the 13th ; 1759, March 13th, 1 h. 50 7 a. m. a 
 comet reaches its perihelion. The elements of 
 the orbit of this cometary body are much more 
 accurately known than that of any other of 
 those erratic masses. Ascending node 23° 45' 
 35" in Taurus — inclination of its orbit 17° 40' 
 15". The same comet reached its perihelion 
 1531,1607, 1682, and 1759— periodic times 76 
 years 63 days ; 74 years 322 days, and 76 years 
 178 days, and may be expected again in the 
 latter part of the year 1835 ; 1761, June 5th, 
 transit of Venus over the sun's disc, extensively 
 observed ; 1769, June 3d, transit of Venus over 
 the sun's disc, still more extensively and accu- 
 rately observed than that of 1761. The next 
 transit will be, December 8th, 1874: 1781, 
 March 13th, Dr. Herschel discovered the most 
 distant, and third largest planet in the solar 
 system, to which he gave the name of Geor- 
 gium Sidus, it is, however, more commonly in 
 the United States, called " the Herschel," and 
 on the continent of Europe, Uranus; 1801, 
 January 1st, Mr. Piazzi, at Palermo, discovered 
 a primary planet, which he named Ceres ; 
 1802, March 28th, Dr. Olbers of Bremen, dis- 
 covered a primary planet to which he gave the 
 name of Pallas. Obliquity of the ecliptic found 
 this year at Paris, 23° 28' 06" ; 1804, Sept. 1st, 
 Mr. Harding at Lilienthal, near Bremen, dis- 
 covered a primary planet, to which he gave the 
 name of Juno ; 1807, March 29th, Dr. Olbers 
 of Bremen, discovered a primary planet, to 
 which he gave the name of Vesta. These four 
 planets revolve in interfering orbits, between 
 Mars and Jupiter, and as far as observation 
 has exposed its parts to human view, the dis- 
 53 
 
 covery of Vesta completed our knowledge of 
 the solar system. 
 
 The " Mechanise Celeste" of La Place, 
 published. This immortal monument of hu- 
 man genius, has, it may be safely said, com- 
 pleted the science, rendered astronomy the 
 most perfect, as it is the most sublime, of all the 
 sciences. The translation of this work by Dr. 
 Bowditch of Boston, has been recently com- 
 pleted, and in part published, and reflects upon 
 him the highest honor. 
 
 AURORA BOREALIS, first recorded to be 
 seen March 6th, 1716 ; it had been no doubt 
 occasionally observed from time immemorial. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION, first intro- 
 duced, 1215. 
 
 BAFFIN'S BAY, separating Greenland from 
 North America, discovered by captain Baffin, 
 in 1622. 
 
 BAIZE MANUFACTURE first introduced 
 into England, at Colchester, 1660. 
 
 BALL of fire fell during a thunder storm, 
 upon a public house in Wapping, which set fire 
 to it, and the house adjoining, July 4th, 1803. 
 
 BALLOONS, said to have been invented by 
 Gusmac, a Jesuit, 1729, but probably invented 
 much earlier, and first used in France by Mont- 
 golfier, who ascended in one, attended by the 
 marquis d'Allande, and M. Rozier, November 
 23d, 1782; another ascent was made the same 
 year, by Messrs. Charles and Roberts, on De- 
 cember first, at Paris. Mr. Lunardi, at London, 
 Sept. 15th, 1784, rose from Moorfields, being 
 the first ascent in England. First experiment 
 with balloons in this country, were made by 
 Dr. Rittenhouse and Francis Hopkinson, Dec. 
 1783. They connected several small balloons 
 together, and thus enabled a man to ascend to 
 the height of one hundred feet, and to float to 
 a considerable distance. Afterwards an ascent 
 was made by Blanchard, at Philadelphia, Jan- 
 uary 9, 1793. More recently, ascensions have 
 become very common. 
 
 BANKS. In the United States they com- 
 menced in the early part of the revolutionary 
 war. The first by a number of gentlemen in 
 Philadelphia, June 17th, 1780, with a capital 
 of $839,160; instituted for the purpose of sup- 
 plying the American army with provisions. 
 
 Bank of North America, incorporated by 
 Congress, Dec. 31, 1781— the first at Boston, 
 began 1784, and the bank of New York com 
 menced the same year. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BAT 
 
 624 
 
 BAT 
 
 Bank of the United States, incorporated 
 March 2, 1791. Capital, 10,000,000, in 25,000 
 shares, of $400, each; 2,000,000 held by the 
 United States, and paid in ten equal annual 
 instalments. 2,493 shares sold by the United 
 States, in 1796-7, at advance of 25 per cent. : 
 287 more in 1799, at 20 per cent, advance; 
 and 2,220 in 1802, at 45 advance; making, 
 exclusive of dividends, a profit of 671,860 
 dollars to the United States. The charter ex-, 
 pired 11th of March, 1811, and was not renewed, 
 but the events and necessities of the last war 
 with Great Britain, superinduced the creation 
 of a similar institution. "The United States' 
 Bank," with a capital of 35,000,000 of dollars, 
 was chartered for twenty years, April 1816, and 
 with power to form branches. The mother 
 bank at Philadelphia, went into operation Jan. 
 1, 1817. 
 
 BANKERS, the first were Lombard Jews, 
 about A. D. 808. In England, the mint was 
 used by merchants to lodge their money in, till 
 the king made free with it in 1640 ; after which 
 they trusted to servants, till too many of them 
 ran to the army ; they then lodged it with gold- 
 smiths, whose business was to buy and sell 
 plate, and foreign coins ; they at first paid 4d. 
 per cent, per diem, but lent it to others at higher 
 interest, and so became the first bankers, 1645. 
 
 BANKRUPTS, literally, "seat or bench 
 broker," in England first regulated by law, 
 1543. In 1812, enacted that members of the 
 house of commons becoming bankrupts, and 
 not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
 seats. 
 
 BARK, Jesuit, virtue of discovered 1500 ; 
 brought to Europe 1650. 
 
 BAROMETERS invented 1626 ; wheel ba- 
 rometers contrived, 1668; phosphoric, 1675; 
 pendant, 1695; marine, 1700. 
 BATTLES, SIEGES, &c. B. C. 1360 Ar- 
 , gonautic Expedition. 
 1317 War of the Seven against Thebes. 
 1280-70 Siege, capture, and destruction of Troy 
 
 by the Greeks. 
 742-722 First Messenian war. 
 882-688 Second Messenian war. 
 490 Battle of Marathon ; Persians defeated by 
 
 the Greeks. 
 480 Battles of Thermopylae, Artemisium, Sala- 
 mis, and Himera ; defeat of the Persians by 
 the Greeks. 
 479 Naval victory gained by the Greeks at 
 
 Mycale ; victory of Plataeae. 
 469 Battles of the Eurymedon by land and by 
 sea, gained by Cimon. 
 
 465-455 Third Messenian war. 
 
 431-404 Peloponnesian war between Athens 
 
 and her allies, and the Peloponnesian states ; 
 
 414, expedition of the Athenians against 
 
 Syracuse. 
 406, battle of iEgospotamos. 
 390 Battle of Allia : Rome taken by the Gauls 
 371-362 War between Thebes and Sparta; 
 
 371 Battle of Leuctra; 362, battle of Manti- 
 
 nea and death of Epaminondas. 
 357 Social war. Delphian sacred war. 
 338 Amphissian sacred war. Battle of Chero- 
 
 nae ; Macedonian ascendency. 
 334 Alexander invades the Persian empire : 
 
 battle of the Granicus; 333, battle of Issus ; 
 
 331, battle of Arbela; 323, death of Alex- 
 ander and division of his empire. 
 265-241 First Punic war ; 280, Duilius gains 
 
 a naval victory. 
 218-201 Second Punic war; Hannibal enters 
 
 Italy ; gains the battles of Ticinus and Tre- 
 
 bia. 218: of Trasymene, 217; of Cannae. 
 
 216; defeated at Zama, 202. 
 201-197 First Macedonian war. 
 189 Battle of Magnesia ; Antiochus defeated 
 
 by the Romans. 
 172-168 Second Macedonian war; battle of 
 
 Pydna, 168. 
 149-146 third Punic war; Carthage destroyed, 
 
 111-106 Jugurthine war. 
 101 Marius defeats a Cimbrian horde. 
 91 Marsic Social war. 
 88-81 Mithridatic war. 
 73-71 Servile war conducted by Spartacus. 
 48 Battle of Pharsalia ; death of Pompey. 
 42 Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius 
 
 defeated. 
 31 Naval battle of Actium ; Augustus con- 
 quers Antony. 
 A. D. 70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 263 Irruption of Franks into Gaul. 
 300 Constantine embraces Christianity. 
 395 Division of the Roman empire ; Honorius 
 
 in the west ; Arcadius in the east. 
 401 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, devastates 
 
 Italy ; 410, Captures Rome. 
 433-452 Devastations of Attila and the Huns ; 
 451, Defeat of Attila at Chalons. 
 476 the Roman empire of the west overturned. 
 1066 Battle of Hastings, gained by William the 
 
 Conqueror. 
 1096 First Crusade ; 1099, Capture of Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 1147 Second Crusade. 
 1189 Third Crusade under Philip II, of France, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 BAT 
 
 625 
 
 BAT 
 
 aad Richard Coeur de Lion ; 1191, Capture 
 of Ptolemais ; 1192 Victory of Ascalon over 
 Saladin. 
 
 1202 Fourth Crusade ; Capture of Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 1206 Victories of Genghis Khan ; Mongul Em- 
 pire. 
 
 1217 Fifth Crusade; 1228, Sixth Crusade led 
 by the emperor Frederic II. 
 
 1248 Seventh Crusade under St. Louis. 
 
 1282 Sicilian Vespers ; massacre of the French 
 in Sicily. 
 
 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. 
 
 1315 Battle of Morgarten won by the Swiss. 
 1346 Battle of Cressy, won by the English over 
 
 the French. 
 1356 Battle of Poictiers; capture of the French 
 
 king by the Black Prince. 
 1361 Capture of Adrianople by the Turks, who 
 
 establish themselves in Europe. 
 1369-1405 Victories and Empire of Timour or 
 
 Tamerlane. 
 1388 Battle of Otterburn between Percy and 
 
 Douglas. 
 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury ; 1405, of Monmouth. 
 1415 Battle of Agincourt won by Henry V, of 
 
 England- 
 1445-85 Wars of the Red and White Roses in 
 
 England; 1455, battle of St. Albans ; 1463, 
 
 of Hexham; 1471, of Tewksbury ; 1485, of 
 
 Bosworth field. 
 1476 Battles of Granson and Morat won by the 
 
 Swiss over Charles the Bold. 
 1513 Battle of Flodden field ; Scots defeated by 
 
 the English. 
 1515 Francis I of France, defeats the Swiss at 
 
 Marignan. 
 1521 Conquest of Mexico by Cortes. 
 
 1525 Francis I of France defeated and made 
 prisoner by Charles V, at Pavia. 
 
 1526 Battle of Mohacz ; Moldavia and Walachia 
 conquered by the Turks. 
 
 1528 Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 
 
 1529 First siege of Vienna by the Turks. 
 
 1546 Religious war in Germany ; Smalcaldic 
 league ; Protestants defeated at Muhlberg. 
 
 1560 Religious wars in France ; 1569 Battles of 
 Jarnac and Moncontour. 
 
 1566 Beginning of the insurrection of the Neth- 
 erlands ; 1581, the United Provinces declare 
 their independence on Spain. 
 
 1571 Battle of Lepanto ; the Turkish fleet de- 
 feated. 
 
 1588 Defeat and destruction of the Spanish Ar- 
 mada. 
 
 1618-48 Thirty years' war; 1631, battle of Leip- 
 
 sic, won by Gustavus Adolphus over the 
 Imperialists; 1632 battle of Lutzen, death 
 of Gustavus. 
 
 1642 Civil war in England; battle of Edgehill ; 
 1644 of Marston Moor; 1645, of Naseby; 
 1651 , of Worcester. 
 
 1658 Battle of Gravelines. 
 
 1660 Restoration of the monarchy in England, 
 and recall of the Stuarts. 
 
 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Turks ; raised by 
 Sobieski. 
 
 1688 Descent of the prince of Orange upon 
 England ; revolution ; 1690, battle of the 
 Boyne. 
 
 1690 Battle of Fleurus. 1692, Battle of Stein- 
 kirk ; 1693, Battle of Nerwinden. 
 
 1692 Battle of La Hogue ; French fleet destroy- 
 ed by the English. 
 
 1702 Spanish succession war; 1704, Battle of 
 Blenheim; 1706, of Ramilies; 1708, of Ou- 
 denarde ; 1709, of Malplaquet. 
 
 1709 Battle of Pultowa won by Peter the Great 
 over Charles XII ; rise of Russia. 
 
 1715 Rebellion in Scotland ; battle of Preston 
 Pans. 
 
 1716 Battle of Peterwardin gained by Eugene 
 over the Turks. 
 
 1740-48 War of the Austrian Succession ; 1743, 
 
 Battle of Dettengen ; 1745, Battle of Fon- 
 
 tenoy. 
 1745 Battle of Preston Pans ; 1746, of Falkirk ; 
 
 and Culloden. 
 1756-63 Seven years' war; 1757, Battle of 
 
 Prague ; of Rosbach ; of Breslan ; 1758, of 
 
 Crevelt; 1759 of Minden; of Cunersdorf ; 
 
 capture of Quebec by the English. 
 1775 Battle of Bunker's hill; 1776, Battle of 
 
 Long Island. 
 1777 Battle of Brandy wine; of Germantown; 
 
 of Saratoga. 
 
 1781 Battle of the Cowpens; of Guilford; of 
 Eutaw Springs ; Cornwallis surrenders at 
 York town. 
 
 1782 Attack on Gibraltar by the French and 
 Spanish. 
 
 1792 Battle of Jemappes (Dumouriez). '93 of 
 Fleury (Jourdan). 
 
 1794 Battle of Praga ; Suwarroff butchers thirty 
 thousand Poles. 
 
 1796 Bonaparte's Italian campaign ; battles of 
 Montenotte ; Millesimo ; Lodi ; Roveredo ; 
 Areola, &c. '97 of Rivoli; Tagliamento. 
 
 1798 Campaign in Egypt ; battle of the Pyra- 
 mids ; Nelson's victory at Aboukir. 
 
 1800 Battles of Montebello ; Marengo ; Hohen 
 linden. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 BIB 
 
 626 
 
 BLA 
 
 1S02 Servile war in St. Domingo. 
 
 1805 Battles of Elchingen ; Trafalgar ; Auster- 
 litz. 
 
 1806 Battle of Jena. 
 
 1807 Bombardment of Copenhagen ; battles of 
 Eylau and Friedland. 
 
 1809 Battles of Eckmuhl ; Wagram ; Talavera. 
 
 1810 Battle of Busaco ; 1811, Fuente dOnoro. 
 
 1812 Battle of Smolensk; capture of Mos- 
 cow. 
 
 1813 Battles of Lutzen; Vittoria; Dresden; 
 Culm ; Leipsic. 
 
 1814 Battles of Brienne ; Montmirail ; Monte- 
 reau ; of Lake Erie ; of Lake Champlain 
 and Plattsburgh ; Baltimore. 
 
 1815 Battle of New Orleans; of Waterloo. 
 181 7 Battle of Chacabuco ; of Maypa. 
 
 1820 Battle of Carabobo; 1821, Insurrection in 
 
 Greece. 
 1822 Battle of Pichincha. 
 1824 Battle of Junin ; of Ayacucho. 
 1827 Battle of Navarino ; destruction of the 
 
 Turco — Egyptian fleet. 
 1833 Naval victory off Cape St. Vincent won by 
 Napier over the Miguelite fleet. 
 
 BAYONETS invented atBayonne,in France, 
 1670 ; first used in England September 24th, 
 1693. 
 
 BELLOWS invented B. C. 554. 
 
 BELLS invented by Paulinius, Bishop of 
 Nola in Campania, about 400 ; first known in 
 France, 550; first used in the Greek empire, 
 864 ; were introduced into monasteries in the 
 seventh or eighth century. Pope Stephen III, 
 placed three bells in a tower on St. Peter's at 
 Rome. In the churches of Europe they were 
 introduced in 900. They were first introduced 
 into Switzerland 1020. The first tunable set 
 in England were hung up in Croyland Abbey, 
 in Lincolnshire, 960 ; baptized in churches, 
 1020. Bells of the church of Notre Dame bap- 
 tized and received the names of duke and 
 dutchess d'Angouleme, the prince de Foix and 
 duchess de Damas being proxies, Nov. 15th, 
 1816. 5 
 
 BIBLE HISTORY ceases 340 years before 
 Christ. Septuagint version made 284 ; first 
 divided into chapters, 1253.. The first English 
 edition was in 1536 ; the first authorized edition 
 in England was in 1539 ; the second translation 
 was ordered to be read in churches, 1549 ; the 
 present translation finished, September, 1611 ; 
 permitted by the pope to be translated into all 
 the languages of the Catholic states, February 
 28th, 1759 ; the following is a dissection of the 
 Old and New Testaments : 
 
 In the Old Testament. In the JVew. Total. 
 
 Books 39 27 66 
 
 Chapters 929 260 1,189 
 
 Verses 23,214 7.959 31,173 
 
 Words 592,493 181/253 773,746 
 
 Letters 2,728,100 838,380 3,566,480 
 
 The Apocrypha has 183 chapters 6081 verses, 
 
 and 125,185 words. The middle chapter, and 
 
 the least in the Bible, is the 117th Psalm ; the 
 
 middle verse is the 8th of 118th Psalm; the 
 
 middle line is the 2d book of the Chronicles, 
 
 4th chapter, and 16th verse ; the word and 
 
 occurs in the Old Testament 35,535 times ; the 
 
 same word in the New Testament occurs 
 
 10,684 times ; the word Jehovah occurs 6,855 
 
 times. 
 
 Old Testament. — The middle book is Prov- 
 erbs, the middle chapter is the 29th of Job ; the 
 middle verse is in the 2d book of Chronicles, 
 20th chap, and 18th verse ; the least verse is the 
 1st book of Chronicles, 1st chap., and 1st verse. 
 JYeic Testament. — The middle is the Thessa- 
 lonians, 2d ; the middle chapter is between the 
 13th and 14th of the Romans ; the middle verse 
 is the 17th of the 17th chapter of the Acts ; the 
 least verse is the 35th verse of the 11th chapter 
 of the Gospel by St. John. 
 
 The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra has 
 all the letters of the alphabet in it. 
 
 The 19th chapter of the 2d book of Kings, 
 and the 37th chapter of Isaiah, are alike. 
 
 The book of Esther has 10 chapters, but 
 neither the words Lord nor God in it. 
 
 The following is a chronological list of differ- 
 ent versions and editions of the scriptures : 
 First translated into the Saxon language 939. 
 Hebrew — first printed Hebrew Bible done at 
 Soncinum in Italy, at Naples, 1487; complete 
 of the whole Bible, at Soncinum, 1488 ; at Ven- 
 ice, by Bomberg, 1518 — and at the same epoch 
 in Spain, under Cardinal Ximenes ; in 1526-28, 
 the first edition of B. Chaim ; Basil, 1534; in 
 1549, by B. Chaim; in 1572, the Royal or 
 Spanish Polyglott, 8 vols, at Antwerp ; third 
 edition of B. Chaim's Bible, 1618 ; in 1623, at 
 Venice; Amsterdam, 1724— 27 ; Paris 1641, 10 
 fol. vols. Polyfflott ; London Polyglott, 1757. 
 
 BILLS OV EXCHANGE first mentioned. 
 1160; used in England, 1307; the only mode 
 of sending money from England by law, 1381. 
 BIRTH, remarkable— Ellen Ellis, at Beuma- 
 ris, in Anglesy, aged 72, was brought to bed 
 May 10th, 1776 ; she had been married 46 
 years, and her eldest was 45 years old. She 
 had not had a child for 25 years before. 
 BLANKETS first made in England 1340. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 BUI 
 
 627 
 
 CAN 
 
 BLISTER PLASTERS, invented B. C. 60. 
 
 BLUE, Prussian, discovered at Berlin, 1704. 
 
 BLOOD, circulation of, through the lungs, 
 first made public by Michael Servetus, a French 
 physician, in 1553 ; Cisalpinus published an 
 account of the general circulation, of which he 
 had some confused ideas, and improved it af- 
 terwards by experiments, 1569; but it was fully 
 confirmed by Harvey, 1623. 
 
 BOMBS, first invented at Venloo, and used 
 in the siege of Wachtendonch, 1588 ; first used 
 in the service of France, 1634. 
 
 BOMB-VESSELS, first invented in France, 
 1681. 
 
 BOOKS in the present form, were invented 
 by Attalus, king of Pergamus, 887; the first 
 supposed to be written in Job s time ; 30,000 
 burnt by order of Leo, 761 ; a very large estate 
 given for one on Cosmography , by king Alfred ; 
 were sold from 10/. to 30/. a piece, about 1400 ; 
 the first printed one was the Vulgate edition 
 of the Bible, 1462 ; the second was Cicero de 
 Ofnciis, 1466; Cornelius Nepos published at 
 Moscow, being the first classical book printed 
 in Russia, April 29th, 1762; books to the num- 
 ber of 200,000, burnt at Constantinople, by the 
 order of Leo I, 476; above 4,194,412 volumes 
 were in the suppressed monasteries of France, 
 in 1790 ; 2,000,000 were on theology, the man- 
 uscripts were 26,000; in the city of Paris alone 
 were 808,120 vols. 
 
 BREAD, made from the flower of gramine- 
 ous fruits, discovered in very early ages, but 
 not made with yeast bv the English, until 1650. 
 
 BREADFRUIT, first introduced into the 
 West Indies, by captain Bligh, January 1793. 
 
 BREECHES first introduced into England, 
 1654. 
 
 BREVIARIES first introduced in 1080. 
 
 BRIBERY first used in England, 1554. 
 
 BRICKS first used in England by the Ro- 
 mans — the size ordered 1625, by Charles I. 
 
 BRIDGE, the first stone, in England, was at 
 Bow, near Stratford, 1087. 
 
 BUCKLES were invented about 1680. 
 
 BUILDING with stone brought into Eng- 
 land by Bennet, a monk, 670 ; with brick, first 
 introduced by the Romans into their provinces ; 
 first in England about 886 ; introduced into 
 London, by the earl of Arundel 1600, being then 
 almost built with wood, it was a very ugly city. 
 The increase of buildings in London prohibit- 
 ed, within three miles of the city gates, by 
 queen Elizabeth, and that only one family- 
 should dwell in one house, 1580. The build- 
 ings from High Holborn, north and south, and 
 53* 
 
 Great Queen-street, built nearly on the spot 
 where stood the Elms or the ancient Tyburn, 
 in the reign of Edward III, were erected be- 
 tween 1607 and 1631 The number of houses 
 in London and its suburbs, in 1772, were com- 
 puted at 122,930 ; but in 1791, they amounted 
 to above 200,000. In St. George's fields, near 
 7000 have been erected within the above pe- 
 riod. 
 
 BULL-BAITING, first at Stamford, Lin- 
 colnshire, 1209; atTutbury, Staffordshire, 1374 ; 
 bull-fights in Spain, first used, 1560 ; bull-run- 
 ning, at Tutbury ; in Staffordshire, instituted 
 1374. 
 
 BULLETS of stone used instead of iron ones, 
 1514 ; of iron first mentioned in the Faedra, 
 1550. 
 
 BULLION of gold and silver, first method of 
 assaying, 1354. 
 
 BURGESSES were first constituted in Scot- 
 land, 1326. 
 
 BURIAL-PLACE, the first Christian one in 
 Britain, 596 ; burials, first permitted in conse- 
 crated places, 750 ; in church yards, 758 ; bury- 
 ing in woollen in England, first began, 1666. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS and common mirrors, 
 the discovery attributed to Tshernhausen, a 
 Lusatian baron, 1680. 
 
 CABLES, a method of making them in- 
 vented, by which 20 men are enabled to do the 
 work of 200. The machine is set in motion by 
 sixteen horses, for the cable is of the dimen- 
 sions of the largest ships, 1792. 
 
 CALICO, first imported into England, 1631 ; 
 first made in Lancashire, 1772; calico-printing 
 and the Dutch loom, first used in England, 
 1676. 
 
 CANALS. The first regular chain of artifi- 
 cial water inter-communication, of which his- 
 tory has transmitted to us the record, was that 
 between the Nile and Red Sea. This canal 
 route was examined with great care by the 
 French engineers, and several portions found 
 in 1798, in such a state of preservation as only 
 to demand cleansing. 
 
 The system of modern canal improvement 
 may be stated to have commenced in Italy, at 
 Viterbo, 1481, when sluices with double doors 
 were invented, and first used on a large scale, 
 near Milan, by Leonardi de Vinci. The canals 
 of the Delta of the Rhine commenced, it is true, 
 in the dark ages, but it was not before the end 
 of the fifteenth century, that they were planned 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 CHA 
 
 628 
 
 CHO 
 
 and constructed with scientific regularity of 
 design. 
 
 CANARY ISLES discovered, 1344; explor- 
 ed 1393. 
 
 CANDLES, of tallow, so expensive a luxury 
 in England, that splinters of wood were used 
 for light, A. D. 1300 — no idea of wax candles 
 until long afterwards. 
 
 CANDLE LIGHT introduced into churches 
 on the continent of Europe, 274. 
 
 CANON LAW first introduced into En- 
 gland, 1140. 
 
 CANONIZATION first used by papal au- 
 thority, A. D. 993. 
 
 CAPE BLANCO, on the coast of Africa, 
 discovered, 1441. 
 
 CAPE BRETON discovered by the English, 
 1584; yielded to France, 1632; taken by En- 
 gland, 1745; restored, 1748; again taken and 
 kept, J 758. 
 
 CAPE DE VERD islands discovered, 1447. 
 
 CARDS invented in France, first used for 
 Charles VI amusement, 1380 ; they were forbid 
 the use of in Castile in 1387; 128,000 packs 
 were stamped in England in 1775. 
 
 CARDINALS were originally the parish 
 priests at Rome; title began to be used, 308; 
 college of, founded by Pope Pascal I, 817; did 
 not elect the popes till 1160 ; wore the red hat, 
 to remind them that they ought to shed their 
 blood, if required, for religion, and were declar- 
 ed princes of the church, 1222 ; the cardinals 
 set fire to the conclave, and separated, and a 
 vacancy in the papal chair for two years, 1314 ; 
 cardinal Carassa was hanged by order of Pius 
 IV, 1560; as was cardinal Poli, under Leo X; 
 the title of eminence first given them by Pope 
 Urban VIII, about 1630. 
 
 CARRIAGES first introduced into Vienna, 
 1515; into London, 1580. 
 
 CARVING in marble invented, B. C. 772. 
 
 CAST-IRON, Leicester square, London .pav- 
 ed with, 1817. 
 
 CATALOGUES of English printed books, 
 were first published 1595 ; in Ireland, 1632. 
 
 CELERY first introduced into England, by 
 Marshal Tallard, during his captivity there, 
 after the battle of Blenheim, in 1704. 
 
 CELESTIAL SPHERE brought into Greece 
 from Egypt, by Eudoxus of Cnicfus, 368. 
 
 CHAIN SHOT invented by admiral de Witt, 
 1666. 
 
 CHAIRS, sedan, first used in London; a 
 fourteen years patent for selling them granted 
 to Duncombe, 1634. 
 
 CHANCERY, court of, established in En- 
 
 gland, 605; present one by William I, 1066. 
 The first person qualified for chancellor, by edu- 
 cation, was sir Thomas More, 1530, the office 
 before being rather that of a secretary of state, 
 than the president of a court of justice ; first 
 reference to a master in, owing to the ignorance 
 of the chancellor, sir Christopher Hatton, 1588. 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOLS first began in En- 
 gland, March 25, 1688 ; 6000 children met at 
 St. Paul's, May 2, 1782; 160 schools within 
 London, Westminster, and the bills of mortality, 
 established between 1688 and 1767, inclusive. 
 
 CHERRIES brought to Rome, by Lucullus, 
 70; apricots were first introduced intoEngland 7 
 from Epirus; peaches from Persia; the finest 
 plums from Damascus and Armenia ; pears and 
 figs from Greece and Egypt ; citrons from Me- 
 dia; pomegranates from Carthage, about 114 
 vears before Christ. 
 
 CHERRY TREES first planted in Britain, 
 100 before Christ; brought from Flanders and 
 planted in Kent, with such success, that an 
 orchard of 32 acres, produced in one year, 
 £1000.1540. 
 
 CHESS, the game of, invented 608, before 
 Christ. 
 
 CHEST, at Chatham, for the relief of sea- 
 men, instituted, 1588. 
 
 CHIARO-OBSCURO, the art of printing in, 
 with three plates, to imitate drawings, first used, 
 1500. 
 
 CHIMNIES first introduced into buildings 
 in England, 1200: only in the kitchen, or large 
 hall, smoky ; where the family sat round a large 
 stove, the funnel of which passed through the 
 ceiling, 1300. 
 
 CHIN A WARE, made in England, at Chel- 
 sea, in 1752 ; and in several parts of England, 
 in 1760 ; by Mr. Wedgewood, 1762 ; at Dres- 
 den, in Saxony, 1706. 
 
 CHINA, first voyage to, from the United 
 States, 1784 ; China porcelain first spoken of in 
 history, 159]'. 
 
 CHOCOLATE, introduced into Europe, from 
 Mexico, 1520. 
 
 CHOLERA, progress of the. The severe 
 epidemic, which under the name of the Cholera, 
 Asiatic Cholera, Malignant Cholera, or Cholera 
 Asphyxia, has within a few years afflicted many 
 parts of the world, is reputed to have originated 
 in August, 1817, at Jessore, the capital of a dis- 
 trict in Bengal, lying to the northeast of Cal- 
 cutta. In the following September it invaded 
 Calcutta, soon after many other cities of Hin- 
 dostan ; and in a short time it extended its rav- 
 ages into various other countries of Asia. It 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 CHO 
 
 629 
 
 CIR 
 
 has been estimated that during the 14 years 
 from its commencement at Jessore, it carried 
 off no less than 18 millions of the inhabitants of 
 Hindostan ; and its ravages are said to have 
 been still greater in China. See the " Revue 
 Encyclopedique " for June, 1831. In 1830, it 
 invaded Etiropean Russia, and afterwards Po- 
 land, Hungary, Germany, Austria, and other 
 countries of Europe. In 1831, in October, it 
 broke out at Sunderland, in England ; in Feb- 
 ruary, 1832, in London ; soon afterwards in 
 various places in the British Empire; in Paris, 
 near the last of March ; at Quebec and Montreal 
 in June ; and at New York in July. The mor- 
 tality in Paris was very great, but the official 
 reports after the first fortnight embraced only a 
 part of the deaths. The number of deaths, as 
 reported, from the 26th of March to the 15th of 
 April, was 8,198: and in France, to the 1st of 
 August, 69,159. The number of cases in En- 
 gland and Scotland, as reported, from the com- 
 mencement of the disease to the 1st of Septem- 
 ber, was 47,874 ; deaths, 17,684; in Ireland, to 
 the 19th of August, 22,865 cases, and 7,119 
 deaths. During its second appearance in Lon- 
 don, no reports were published. The number 
 of cases in Hungary has been stated at 435,330, 
 and of deaths, at 188,000. 
 
 The following table exhibits the number of 
 cases of the Cholera and of deaths in various 
 places which have been visited by it, as report- 
 ed, and stated in different Journals. 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Cases. Deaths. 
 
 Dublin, 9,252 2,775 
 
 Glasgow, to Aug. 15, 4,164 1,993 
 
 Liverpool, " 31, 4,646 1,397 
 
 London, to April 28, 2,532 1,334 
 
 Cork, 3,305 843 
 
 Limerick, 2,497 843 
 
 Drogheda, to July 28, 1,202 488 
 
 Edinburgh, " 25, 796 467 
 
 Paisley, " 25, 638 368 
 
 Belfast, 2,559 303 
 
 Greenock, to July 25, 534 275 
 
 Hull, " 26, 726 250 
 
 Leeds, " 26, 544 212 
 
 York, " 25, 384 152 
 
 Plymouth, " 26, 354 147 
 
 Leith, « 25, 194 112 
 
 Warrington, » 26, 248 109 
 
 Carlisle, « 25, 214 109 
 
 Continent of Europe. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 9,247 4,757 
 
 Moscow. 8,576 4,690 
 
 Lemberg, 4,922 2,589 
 
 Vienna, 3,984 1,893 
 
 Warsaw, 3,912 1,460 
 
 Berlin, 2,220 1,401 
 
 Prague, 3,234 1,333 
 
 Konigsberg, 2,188 1,314 
 
 Niznei Novgorod, 1,897 982 
 
 Kazan, 
 
 Breslau, 
 
 Brunn, 
 
 Hamburg, 
 
 Mandeburg, 
 
 Elbing, 
 
 Stettin, 
 
 Halle, 
 
 America. 
 to Sept. 1, 
 " 2, 
 
 Cases. Deaths. 
 
 1,487 857 
 
 1,276 671 
 
 1,540 604 
 
 874 455 
 
 576 346 
 
 434 283 
 
 366 250 
 
 303 152 
 
 Quebec, to Sept. 1, 2,218 
 
 Montreal, " 2, 4,385 1,843 
 
 New York, " 8, 5,842 3,197 
 
 Do. Oct. 12, 3,471 
 
 Philadelphia, Sept. 1, 2,240 740 
 
 Baltimore, " 29, 710 
 
 Albany, " 8, 1,146 418 
 
 Norfolk, "11, 400 
 
 Rochester, " 3, 389 107 
 
 CHRISTIANITY was propagated in Spain 
 in 36; in Britain, 60 ; or as others say, in the 
 5th century ; in Franconia and Flanders, in the 
 7th century ; in Lombardy, Thuringia, and 
 Hesse, in the 8th century; in Sweden, Den- 
 mark, Poland and Russia, in the 9th century; 
 in Hungary and Sclavonia, in the 10th century; 
 in Vandalia and Prussia, in the 11 th century ; 
 in Pomerania and Norway, in the 12th century ; 
 in Livonia, Lithuania and part of Tartary, in 
 the 13th century ; in Sclavonia, part of Turkey, 
 and the Canary isles, in the 14th century ; in 
 Africa, at Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 
 15th century ; made great progress in Prussia, 
 both the Indies, and in China, by the Protestant 
 faith, in the 16th century ; reinstated in Greece, 
 &c. &c. in the 17th century. 
 
 CHRISTMAS- DA Y first observed as a fes- 
 tival, 98. 
 
 CHURCH MUSIC introduced into worship, 
 350; choral service first used in England, at 
 Canterbury, 677; changed throughout England, 
 from the use of St. Paul's to that of Sarum, 
 1418 ; first performed in English, May 8, 1559. 
 CHURCH YARDS first consecrated, 317; 
 admitted into cities, 740. 
 
 CINNAMON TRADE first began by the 
 Dutch 1506 ; but had been known in the time 
 of Auo-ustus Caesar, and long before. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. The first was 
 Magellan, or rather by his fleet, as he was him- 
 self slain on the voyage, 1520; Groalva, 1527; 
 Alvaradi, 1537; Mendana, 1567; sir Francis 
 Drake, 1577; Cavendish, 1586; Lemaire,1615; 
 Quiros, 1625; Tassman, 1642; Cowley, 1683; 
 Dampier, 1689; Cooke, 1708; Clipperton and 
 Sherlock, 1719; Anson, 1740; Byron, 1764; 
 Wallis, 1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776; contin- 
 ued by King, 1780; and since by Portlocke, 
 1788; Bougainville, 1766; La Peyrouse, 1782 
 D'Entrecasteux, 1791. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 COL 
 
 630 
 
 COM 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS of the U. States, 
 the first ship with which this was performed, 
 returned to Boston, in December, 1790. 
 
 CLOCK MAKERS, three from Delft, first 
 in England, 15G8. 
 
 CLOCKS, called water clocks, first used in 
 Rome, 158 years before Christ ; clocks and dials 
 first set up in churches, 913; clocks made to 
 strike by the Arabians, 801 ; by the Italians, 
 1300; a striking clock in Westminster, 1368; 
 the first portable one made 1530; none in En- 
 gland that went tolerably, till that dated 1540, 
 maker's name, N. O. now at Hampton court 
 palace ; clocks with pendulums, &c. invented 
 by one Fromantil, a Dutchman, about 1G5G ; 
 repeating clocks and watches invented by one 
 Barlow, 1676. Till about 1631, neither clocks 
 nor watches were general. 
 
 CLOTH, coarse woollen, introduced into En- 
 gland, 1191; first made at Kendal, 1390; med- 
 leys first made, 1614. 
 
 COACHES first used in England, 1580 ; an 
 act passed to prevent men riding in coaches as 
 effeminate, in 1601. Began to be common in 
 London, 1605. Hackney chariots, not to ex- 
 ceed 200, licensed 1814. 
 
 COALS discovered near Newcastle, 1234; 
 first dug at Newcastle, by a charter granted the 
 town, by Henry III; first used, 1280; dyers, 
 brewers, &c. in the reign of Edward I, began 
 to use sea coal for fire, in 1350 ; in general use 
 in London, 1400. 
 
 Coal, in the United States, is found in great 
 abundance on both sides of the Appalachian 
 mountains. A coal mine near Pittsburg, took 
 fire, and burned many years ; the fire was final- 
 ly extinguished by the incumbent earth and 
 rocks falling into the cavity. 
 
 COFFEE, first brought into England by Na- 
 thaniel Conopius, a Cretan, who made it his 
 common beverage, at Baliol college, Oxford, in 
 1641 ; first brought to Marseilles, 1644. 
 
 COFFEE TREES were conveyed from Mo- 
 cha to Holland, in 1616; and carried to the 
 West Indies in the year 1726 ; first cultivated 
 at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718; its culture 
 encouraged in the plantations, 1732. 
 
 COIN, silver, coined at Rome, 269 before 
 Christ ; before then brass money was only used ; 
 coin first used in Britain, 25 years before Christ'. 
 The Mint of the United States of America, es- 
 tablished 1793. issued gold and silver coin ; the 
 copper had been delivered before. 
 
 COINING with a die first invented, 1617; 
 first used in England, 1620. 
 
 COLLEGES, as places of public instruction 
 
 in which acapemical degrees were granted, 
 were first known at Paris, A. D. 1215, and were 
 completely established there 1231. 
 
 The following list shows the names of the 
 principal colleges and universities in Europe : — 
 Cambridge began 626, according to some others, 
 900; revived, 1110; Dublin, 1591; Edinburgh, 
 founded by James VI, 1580 ; Frankfort on the 
 Oder, 1506 ; Geneva, 1365 ; Glasgow, Scotland, 
 1450 ; Gcetingen, Hanover, 1734 ; Leipsic, Sax- 
 ony, 1409 ; Moscow, 1754 ; Oxford, in England, 
 886 ; Padua, Italy, 1197 ; Paris, 792 ; Petersburg, 
 Russia, 1747; Sorbonne, France, 1253; Stras- 
 burg, Germany, 1588; Venice, 1592; Vienna, 
 1236; Utrecht, Holland, 1636; Wurtemburg, 
 Saxony, 1502. 
 
 COMEDY, the first acted in Athens, on a 
 scaffold, by Susarian and Dalon, 562 B. C. ; 
 those of Terence first acted 154 B. C. ; the first 
 in England 1551. 
 
 COMMERCE. The first mention made of 
 nations trading one with another appears in the 
 book of Genesis, chap, xxxviii. 25, when Jo- 
 seph's brethren sold him to a caravan of Ishma- 
 elites, who were conveying spices, balm and 
 myrrh into Egypt. The balm was from Gilead, 
 and the myrrh was the produce of Arabia. 
 They were going through the land of Canaan 
 to Egypt, which was then a highly cultivated 
 kingdom. 
 
 The central situation of Egypt has always 
 made it the emporium of commerce. By cara- 
 vans, the treasures of Asia and Africa were 
 brought thither. Trade was always held in 
 esteem, because of the wealth it brought. Of 
 the maritime trade of the Egyptians, we have 
 no regular account, for they superstitiously 
 neglected the sea for many ages. 
 
 Tyre and Sidon, cities of Phoenicia, are next 
 found rising into notice. Their country was 
 not rich in its productions ; industry alone made 
 their rocks productive ; they conveyed their 
 merchandise from port to port, and commerce 
 by feeding industry was itself enriched. 
 
 About eleven hundred years before Christ, in 
 the time of David, the Phoenicians, in the true 
 spirit of commerce, continually extended their 
 voyages, and finding plenty of gold in Spain, 
 they formed a settlement for the purpose of 
 trade, called Gadir, now Cadiz. 
 
 Solomon saw the advantage of commerce, 
 and caused ships to be built, which he sent to 
 Ophir, and which brought back gold, silver, 
 ivory, birds and other things. He had also 
 great traffic with Egypt, whence he obtained 
 horses and fine linen. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL- 
 
 COM 
 
 631 
 
 COM 
 
 About 869 years before Christ, Carthage was 
 built, and became famous for her commerce 
 throughout the civilized world. In 700 B. C. 
 Corinth became distinguished as a maritime 
 power, and made great improvements in the 
 building of ships. 
 
 In 588 B. C. Tyre became famous. We read 
 an interesting account of her commerce and 
 splendor in the 26th, 27th, and 28th chapters of 
 Ezekiel. But the Tyrians drew upon them- 
 selves the vengeance of God, and they were 
 subdued first by Nebuchadnezzar, and after- 
 wards more completely by Alexander 332. B. C. 
 
 The Phoenicians, after the destruction of 
 Tyre, still pursued and enlarged the sphere 
 of commerce, by means of Carthage, till that 
 city was destroyed by the Romans 146 B. C. 
 At this time, the Grecian states came into view 
 by their attention to naval affairs. Athens and 
 Sparta in turn became famous, and remained so 
 till their overthrow. 
 
 Alexander paid great attention to commercial 
 affairs, and built the cities of Alexandria and 
 Berenice, at which places he carried on an ex- 
 tensive trade with the west by means of the 
 Mediterranean Sea; with the richer provinces 
 of the east by the Red Sea ; and with the central 
 countries of Asia, by the isthmus of Suez. He 
 kept up large fleets, and his revenues were im- 
 mense. 
 
 The Romans w*e ignorant of the value of 
 commerce, and as if they were determined to 
 root it out, destroyed Corinth, which was one 
 of the most commercial cities of Greece. Great 
 stagnation of commerce now followed, which 
 was felt by all the surrounding countries, till the 
 time of Julius Caesar, who determined to revive 
 it, and restored in one year both Corinth and 
 Carthage . 
 
 As the Romans were now masters of all 
 around the Mediterranean, they began to favor 
 commerce for their own sake. They therefore 
 obtained supplies from all the regions round 
 about, to minister either to their necessities or 
 their luxuries. The return they made for these 
 various and choice articles was in money, and 
 therefore this interchange can hardly be called 
 commerce. Indeed the Romans have never 
 been a commercial people, they despised the 
 character of a merchant, and wished to rule and 
 obtain riches only by the sword. 
 
 After the seat of government was removed to 
 Constantinople, Theodoric became king of Italy, 
 and under his wise and peaceful reign, com- 
 merce began again to flourish, though in a re- 
 duced state. In the east, silk began to be a 
 
 great article of commerce, and the Persians en- 
 riched themselves very much in their trade with 
 ships from India, which stopped at their ports. 
 
 In the middle of the 5th century, the Turkish 
 power began to rise and carried on trade be- 
 tween China and Constantinople. In 732 Ven- 
 ice began to pay attention to commerce, and 
 carried on extensive traffic with the east. Many 
 other states in Italy also carried on a large trade 
 with different countries. In 1063, Pisa and Ge- 
 noa, became distinguished as commercial cities. 
 
 At the accession of William the Conqueror to 
 the throne of England, 1066, we date the com- 
 mencement of commerce in that country ; as 
 much intercourse took place between Normandy 
 and England. 
 
 The Crusade we find giving the next spur to 
 commerce. The Crusaders, finding in the east, 
 luxuries that they could not procure at home, 
 determined to supply themselves with these 
 foreign elegances, conveniences and necessi- 
 ties. Commerce therefore began to extend 
 itself with rapidity. 
 
 The discovery of the polarity of the loadstone 
 gave new wings to commerce; it was applied 
 to navigation about the year 1200. In the time 
 of king John, 1216, England became very rich 
 and populous by trade, and the people flourished 
 accordingly. 
 
 In 1241, the German towns began to engage 
 in commerce, and entered into a league for mu- 
 tual defence. They were called the Hanse 
 towns. They made themselves very rich and 
 powerful. Edward I of England allowed them 
 great privileges in trade, which were however 
 curtailed under Edward VI. In the time of 
 Elizabeth, another blow was struck at their 
 commerce ; but in spite of all, they became s© 
 formidable that the governments of several states 
 entered into a league against them, which result- 
 ed in their power being weakened, and finally 
 sunk, in 1622. 
 
 About the year 1251, we find Florence rising 
 into notice, in a commercial point of view. Its 
 trade was immense, and its fabrics beautiful and 
 costly. The merchants amassed great wealth, 
 and became the bankers of all Europe. This 
 state of splendor continued for centuries. 
 
 Flanders was for some time the seat of the 
 principal manufactories of Europe. As far back 
 as the year 960, we find the Flemish trading to 
 great advantage. In 1253, they were famous 
 for their linens, and they continued eminent for 
 their manufactures till 1584. wnen Antwerp 
 was destroyed by the duke of rarma. This put 
 an end to the prosperity of the country, and her 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 COM 
 
 632 
 
 COM 
 
 fine manufactures were dispersed among other 
 nations. 
 
 Hitherto, the trade with India had been car- 
 ried on by caravans, but in 1497, a passage being 
 found round the Cape of Good Hope, the way 
 was now open to wealth and luxury. 
 
 In the year 1500, the Portuguese began to 
 make settlements in Africa, and soon after Por- 
 tugal became the centre of commerce, till 1580, 
 when the kingdom was seized by the king of 
 Spain. 
 
 From the reign of John in 1216 to 1317, com- 
 merce flourished in England. But at that time, 
 quarrels between the English and Flemish were 
 so fierce, that all commercial intercourse were 
 suspended. In 1331, it was again revived under 
 Edward HI who introduced the manufacture of 
 woollen cloth. 
 
 In the reign of Henry VIII, the reformation 
 was of great service to commerce, and in the 
 time of Edward VI, a trade was entered into 
 with Russia. Queen Elizabeth greatly encour- 
 aged commerce. She formed several trading 
 companies, one to Russia, and another to Tur- 
 key and the Levant. The East India Company 
 began during her reign in 1660. Under her 
 patronage also, settlements were first made in 
 North America. These settlements soon be- 
 came new channels for commerce and outlets 
 for the manufactures of England. 
 
 The East India Company was dissolved in 
 1655, but the injury to commerce was so great, 
 that it was reestablished in 1657. Holland, at 
 this time was gaining great power, and her peo- 
 ple were famous for their trade. In 1689, the 
 East India Company founded Calcutta, their 
 principal settlement in Hindostan. The other 
 two are Madras and Bombay. 
 
 Under the house of Brunswick, the commerce 
 of England increased with great rapidity. Many 
 places of small importance sprang up and be- 
 came rich and flourishing. 
 
 The East India trade has been very success- 
 ful, and has flourished notwithstanding the 
 opposition it has encountered. The Company 
 have not only had great mercantile transactions, 
 but they also possess territory as large as half 
 Europe. Their trade is great with the Spice 
 Islands and with China. 
 
 As for the commerce of our own country, 
 after independence was declared, our commer- 
 cial resources began to develope themselves. 
 Our ships penetrated to the most distant seas, 
 and brought home with them the produce of 
 every clime. Our commercial prosperity is now 
 established on an enduring basis. 
 
 COMPANIES, SOCIETIES, &c. African 
 Colonization Society, originated at Washing 
 ton city, December 21st, 1816 ; Auxiliary So 
 cieties, soon after formed in many parts of 
 the United States. 
 
 Agricultural Society of New York, 1797. 
 
 Agricultural Society of Philadelphia, formed 
 1785; revived, 1804; incorporated, 1809. 
 
 Antiquarian Society in Massachusetts, 1792. 
 
 Bank of England, established, 1693. An ac- 
 count of the liabilities and assets of the Bank 
 of England, on the average of the quarter 
 from the 23d of Sept. to the 16th of Dec. 1834, 
 both inclusive. 
 
 Liabilities. 
 Circulation £18,304,000 
 Deposits 12,256,000 
 
 Assets. 
 Securities £26,362,000 
 Bullion 6,720,000 
 
 £33,082,000 
 
 £30,560,000 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam, founded 1609. 
 
 Bank of Venice, 1157. 
 
 Bank of Rotterdam, 1635. For other Banks, 
 see art. Banks. 
 
 Bible Societies. — Bible Society of Philadelphia, 
 formed May 7th, 1808; first in New York, 
 December 4, 1809 ; Salem in Massachusetts, 
 instituted May 15, 1811 ; of Baltimore, 1810; 
 the American Bible Society in New York, 
 established May 8th, 1815. 
 
 Boston Athenaeum, incorporated, 1807; Boston 
 Episcopal Charitable Society, incorporated, 
 1724 ; Boston Female Asylum, incorporated 
 1800; Boston Library, 1794. 
 
 British Museum, established 1753. 
 
 Companies first established in London, 1198; 
 cooks' company London, incorporated, 1481 ; 
 coopers' company, London, incorporated, 
 1501; cordwainers' company, London, in- 
 corporated, 1410 ; curriers' company, London, 
 incorporated, 1605; cutlers' company, Lon- 
 don, incorporated, 1417. 
 
 Deaf and dumb society, for the instruction of, 
 instituted at Hartford. Connecticut, June 24, 
 1816. 
 
 East India company, in England, established, 
 1600 ; their stock then consisting of £ 72000, 
 when they fitted out four ships ; and, meet- 
 ing with success, they have continued ever 
 since ; India stock sold from 360 to 500 per 
 cent. 1683; a new company established, 1698; 
 the old one reestablished, and the two united, 
 1700 ; agreed to give government £400,000 
 per annum for four years, on condition that 
 they might continue unmolested, 1769; in 
 great confusion, and applied to parliament for 
 assistance, 1773; judges sent from England, 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CON 
 
 633 
 
 CON 
 
 by government, faithfully to administer the 
 laws there, to the company's servants, April 
 2, 1774 ; board of control instituted, 1784 ; 
 charter of renewed, 1813; modified lately. 
 East India company, of Sweden, erected March, 
 
 1731. 
 South Sea company began, May C, 1710; its 
 bubble, 1720 ; its directors' estates to the value 
 of £2,000,000, seized 1721 ; compounded with 
 Mr. Knight, their cashier, for £ 10,000, who 
 had absconded with £100,000, in 1720 ; and 
 he returned to England, 1743. 
 COMPASS, or the polarity of magnetised 
 iron, one of the greatest, and as to the date of 
 its discovery, most uncertain of human improve- 
 ments. There is, however, good evidence to 
 prove that the mariner's compass was in use in 
 Europe as early as A. D. 1180 ; variation first 
 observed by Columbus and his companions, 
 1492 ; its dip, about 157G. 
 
 CONGRESS, continental, first met in Phila- 
 delphia, September 5th, 1774 ; Oct. 8th, resolve 
 to support Massachusetts. Second congress 
 assembled May 10th, in Philadelphia; June 7, 
 style the colonies " The Twelve United Colo- 
 nies," Georgia not having yet acceded to the 
 Union; June 22, 1775, appoint eight major 
 generals ; May 5, 1776, declare the authority of 
 England abolished ;. July 4, declare independ- 
 ence ; December 12, 1776, adjourn from Phila- 
 delphia to meet at Baltimore ; 30th, resolve to 
 send commissioners to Prussia, Austria, Spain, 
 &c. ; September 18, 1777, on the approach of 
 the British army, adjourn to meet in Lancaster, 
 from where they again adjourn on the 30th of 
 the same month to meet in Little York. Sep- 
 tember 14th, 1778, appoint Benjamin Franklin 
 minister to France, who was the first regularly 
 constituted ambassador from the United States, 
 the former foreign agents being styled commis- 
 sioners; October 4th, 1782, resolve against a 
 separate peace; June 26th, 1783, adjourn to 
 Princeton, and from thence to Annapolis, where 
 they met November 26th ; April 1st, 1789, first 
 assembled under the federal constitution ; Sep- 
 tember 22, 1790, pass an act to remove to Wash- 
 ington city in 1800. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES and insurrections, the 
 most remarkable in ancient or modern history. 
 A conspiracy was formed against the infant 
 republic of Rome, to restore the banished Sex- 
 tus Tarquin, and the regal government, in 
 which the two sons of Junius Brutus, the first 
 consul, being concerned, were publicly con- 
 demned and put to death by their father, 507, 
 B. C. Another by the Tarquin faction against 
 
 the Roman senators ; Publius and Marcus dis- 
 cover it ; the other conspirators are put to death, 
 496. Of Catiline and his associates, to murder 
 the consuls and senate, and to burn the city of 
 Rome, discovered by Cicero, consul for the year 
 62. An insurrection in Spain cost the lives of 
 30,000 Spaniards, and double that number of 
 Moors, A. D. 1560. At Malta, to destroy the 
 whole order, for which 125 slaves suffered death, 
 June 26th, 1749. At Lisbon, by several of the 
 nobility, who shot the king, 1758. At St. Do- 
 mingo and the other French West India Isl- 
 lands, where near 16,000 negroes were slain, 
 and 400 whites, and 550 plantations destroyed, 
 1794. Of the prince of Asturias against his 
 father, 1807. Of the inhabitants of Madrid 
 against the Freneh, in which many persons 
 were killed, 1808. In Paris, for which the con- 
 spirators, three ex-generals and eleven officers 
 were executed, October 30th, 1812. At Traven- 
 core, to massacre the European officers at an 
 entertainment, 1812. At Lisbon ; to overturn 
 the Portuguese government. May, 1817. 
 
 Conspiracies and insurrections in England. 
 Of the barons against Henry III, 1258. Of the 
 duke of Exeter and others, against the life of 
 Henry IV, discovered by dropping a paper acci- 
 dentally, 1400. Of Richard, duke of Glouces- 
 ter, against his nephews Edward V, and his 
 brother, whom he caused to be murdered, 1483. 
 Of the earl of Suffolk and others against Henry 
 VII, 1506. Insurrection of the London appren- 
 tices, 7 Henry VIII, 1527. Against queen Eliz- 
 abeth, by Dr. Story, 1571 ; by Anthony Bab- 
 bington and others, 1586; by Lopez, a Jew, 
 and others, 1593 ; by Patrick York, an Irish fen- 
 cing master, employed by the Spaniards to kill 
 the queen, 1594 ; of Walpole, a Jesuit, who 
 engaged one Squire to poison the queen's sad- 
 dle, 1598 ; all the conspirators were executed. 
 Against James I, by the marchioness de Ver- 
 neuil, his mistress, and others, 1605. The Gun- 
 powder plot discovered, Nov. 5th, 1605. Of 
 Sindercomb and others to assassinate Oliver 
 Cromwell ; discovered by his associates ; Sin- 
 dercomb was condemned, and poisoned himself 
 the day before he was to have been executed, 
 1656. An insurrection of the Puritans, 1657. 
 An insurrection of the fifth -monarchy men 
 against Charles II, 1660. A conspiracy of 
 Blood and his associates, who seized the duke 
 of Ormond, wounded him, and would have 
 hanged him if he had not escaped ; they after- 
 wards stole the crown, 1670 and 71. Of the 
 French, Spanish and English Jesuits, counte- 
 nanced by the pope, to assassinate Charles II dis 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 COU 
 
 634 
 
 DIA 
 
 covered by Dr. Tongue and Titus Oates, 1668; 
 another to assassinate him at the Rye-house 
 farm, near Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, in his 
 way from New Market, called the Rye-house- 
 Plot, 1683. Of Lord Preston, the bishop of 
 Ely, and others, to restore king James, 1691. 
 Of Granvil, a French chevalier and his associ- 
 ates, to assassinate king William in Flanders, 
 1692. A conspiracy by the earl of Aylesbury 
 and others, to kill the king near Richmond, as 
 he came from hunting, discovered by Pender- 
 grass, called the Assassination Plot, 1635. Of 
 Simon Frazer, lord Lovat, in favor of the Pre- 
 tender, against queen Anne, 1703. Of the 
 marquis Guiscard, 1710. To assassinate George 
 I. by James Sheppard, an enthusiastic youth, 
 who had been taught to consider the king as an 
 usurper, 1718. Of counsellor Layer and 'oth- 
 ers to bring in the Pretender, 1722. Of colo- 
 nel Despard and his associates to assassinate 
 George III and overturn the government, 
 1803. 
 
 COPPER MONEY first coined in Scotland 
 by order of parliament, 1466; in Ireland, 1399 ; 
 in France, 1580; in England, the first legal, 
 1689. Tradesmen's tokens, or half pence, were 
 coined in 1672 ; penny pieces first issued July 
 26th, 1797 ; half pence on the same principle, 
 issued January, 1800. 
 
 COPPER MINES first discovered in Swe- 
 den, 13!>6; in England. 1561 ; revived in Eng- 
 land, 1689 ; found in New York, 1722. The 
 Paris copper mine in Anglesea has a bed of 
 copper ore forty feet thick, and supplies be- 
 tween 29 and 30,000 tons annually. 
 
 COUNCILS— That at Jerusalem, when the 
 first controversy was discussed, 48 ; at Antioch, 
 269; at Aries, 314, at which three English 
 bishops were present; the first Nicene one, 
 when 328 fathers attended, against Arius, 325; 
 the first at Constantinople, when Pope Damasus 
 presided, and 150 fathers attended, 381 ; that at 
 Sardis, when 376 fathers attended, 400; the 
 first at Ephesus,when Pope Celestine presided, 
 and 200 fathers attended, 431 ; that at Chalce- 
 don.when Pope Leo presided, and 600 fathers at- 
 tended, 451 ; the second at Constantinople, when 
 Pope Virgilius presided, and 165 fathers attend- 
 ed, 552; one called the Milevetan council, 568; 
 at Constantinople, in 600; at Rome in 649; the 
 third at Constantinople, when Pope Agatho 
 presided, and 289 fathers attended, 680 ; the 
 second at Nice, when Pope Adrian presided, 
 and 350 fathers attended, 787; the fourth at 
 Constantinople, when Pope Adrian presided, 
 and 101 fathers attended, 869; that at Vercel- 
 
 lus, when Pope Leo IX presided, 1053 ; the 
 Lateran one, when Pope Calixtus II presided, 
 and 300 fathers attended, 1112 ; the second 
 Lateran one, when Pope innocent II presided, 
 and 1000 fathers attended, 1139; the third La- 
 teran one, when Pope Alexander III presided, 
 and 300 fathers attended, 1175; the fourth La- 
 teran one, when Pope Innocent HI presided, 
 and 1185 fathers attended, 1215 and 1217; at 
 Lyons, 1255 and 1274 ; that at Vienna, when 
 Pope Clement V presided, and 300 fathers at- 
 tended, 1311 ; one at Constance, when Pope 
 John XXII, and Martin V presided, 1414 ; the 
 sixth Lateran one, when Pope Julian III and 
 Pius IV presided against Luther, 1546. There 
 have been several other provincial councils, 
 and others, as that of Avignon, in France, and 
 at Bituria, in Tuscany, 1431 ; at Tours, in 
 France, 1448; at Florence, in Italy, 1449; at 
 Toledo, in Spain, 1473 ; at Aspurgh, in Ger- 
 many, 1548 ; at Cologne in Germany, 1548; at 
 Treves, in Germany, 1548 ; at Cologne, in Ger- 
 many 1549; at Mentz, in Almaine, 1549; and 
 at Numantia. in Spain. 1550. 
 
 COUNTIES first division of, in England. 
 A. D. 900. 
 
 CROWN, the first Roman that wore one, 
 was Tarquin, 616 B. C. ; first used in England, 
 872 ; the first tiara, or Tripple one, used by the 
 popes, 1364 ; the first single one used by them 
 was in 553; the first double one in 1303. 
 
 CUSTOM HOUSE, London, first built, 
 1559; burnt down 1814; rebuilt and opened 
 for business, 1817. 
 
 CYPHER, or the Arabic numerical figures, 
 introduced into Europe by the Moors of Spain, 
 in 813. 
 
 D. 
 
 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC introduced into 
 common use in Europe, about 1600. 
 
 DEGREES academical first granted at Paris 
 1213. 
 
 DELPHOS, temple of, burnt, 548 before 
 Christ. 
 
 DELFT earthenware first made at Faenza 
 1450. 
 
 DE LA PLATA, river of, discovered 1512. 
 
 DIAMONDS first polished and cut at Bru- 
 ges, 1489. 
 
 DIAMOND MINES discovered in Brazil, 
 1730 ; that at Coulour in the East Indies, 1640 ; 
 that at Golconda, in 1584 ; one sent from Bra- 
 zil for the court of Portugal, weighed 1680 
 carats, or twelve ounces and a half, valued at 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 DIS 
 
 635 
 
 DIS 
 
 224 millions sterling. Governor Pitt's weighed 
 127 carats, and 106 after cutting, and sold for 
 £135,000, to the king of France. That which 
 belonged to Aurung Zebe weighed 793 carats, 
 in a rough state, and when cut 279 carats, worth 
 £779,244. The grand duke of Tuscany's weigh- 
 ed 139 carats. A diamond of immense value 
 is in the possession of the Rajah of Mattan in 
 Borneo. He refused an offer made for it by the 
 Governor of Batavia, of $150,000, and two large 
 brigs of war, with their guns and ammunition. 
 It is said to be shaped like an egg. 
 
 DISCOVERIES, Geographical, in modern 
 times. 
 861. Feroe Islands — discovered about this time 
 
 by a Scandinavian vessel. 
 871. Iceland — discovered by some Norwegian 
 chiefs, who were compelled to leave their na- 
 tive country. According to some accounts it 
 had been visited before this, by a Scandina- 
 vian pirate, Naddodd. 
 950. Greenland — discovered by the Icelanders 
 about this period. The first colony estab- 
 lished there was destroyed by a pestilence in 
 the 14th century, and by the accumulation of 
 ice which prevented all communication be- 
 tween Iceland and Greenland. 
 1001. Winenland — a part of the continent of 
 America, is supposed to have been discovered 
 by the Icelanders. It was called Winenland, 
 or Vinland, from the abundance of a species 
 of vine found there. The Icelandic chroni- 
 cles are full and minute respecting this dis- 
 covery. 
 
 1344. Madeira — The discovery of this island, 
 attributed to an Englishman, Robert Ma- 
 cham ; it was revisited, in 1419 by Juan Gon- 
 zalez, and Tristan Vaz, Portuguese. 
 
 1345. Canary Isles — discovered by some Geon- 
 ese and Spanish seamen, having been known 
 to the ancients. 
 
 1364. Guinea — the coast of, discovered by some 
 seamen of Dieppe, about this period. 
 
 1418. Porto Santo — discovered by Vaz and Zar- 
 co, Portuguese. 
 
 1419. Madeira — discovered by the same naviga- 
 tors. It was first called St. Lawrence, after 
 the Saint's day on which it was seen : — and 
 subsequently Madeira, on account of its 
 woods. 
 
 1434. Cape Bojador or Nun — doubled for the 
 first time by the Portuguese. 
 
 1440 ) Senegal River — discovered by the Portu- 
 
 1445 ) guese. 
 
 1446. Cape Verd — discovered by Denis Fernan- 
 dez, a Portuguese. 
 54 
 
 1448. Azores Islands — discovered by Gonzallo 
 Velio, a Portuguese. 
 
 1449. Cape Verde Islands — discovered by An- 
 tonio de Noli, a Genoese in the service of 
 Portugal. 
 
 1471 . Island of St. Tltomas, under the Equator, 
 discovered. 
 
 1484. Congo — discovered by the Portuguese, 
 under Diego Cam. 
 
 1486 Cape of Good Hope — discovered by Bar- 
 tholomew Diaz. It was originally called 
 " The Cape of Tempests," and was also nam- 
 ed " The Lion of the Sea," and" The Head of 
 Africa." The appellation was changed by 
 John II, King of Portugal, who augured fa- 
 vorably of future discoveries from Diaz hav- 
 ing reached the extremity of Africa. 
 
 1492. Lucayos (or Bahama) Islands. — These 
 were the first points of discovery by Colum- 
 bus. San Salvador, one of these Islands, was 
 first seen by this great navigator, on the 
 night of the 11th or 12th of October, in this 
 year. 
 
 1493. 
 
 Cuba, Island of) 
 
 Hispaniola, or, > 
 
 St. Domingo, j 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 St. Christopher's 
 
 Dominica 
 
 discovered by Columbus 
 in his first voyage. 
 
 discovered by Colum 
 bus in his second voy 
 age. 
 
 1497. Cape of Good Hope — doubled by Vasco 
 di Gama, and the passage to India discovered. 
 
 1497. Newfoundland — discovered by John Ca- 
 bot, who first called it Prima Vista and Bac- 
 calaos. The title of Prima Vista still belongs 
 to one of its capes, and an adjacent island is 
 still called Baccalao. 
 
 1498. Continent of America — discovered by Co- 
 lumbus. 
 
 Malabar, Coast of — discovered by Vasco di 
 Gama. 
 
 Mozambique, Island of— discovered by Vas- 
 co di Gama. 
 
 1499. America, Eastern Coasts of — discovered 
 by Ojede and Amerigo Vespucci. (It is con- 
 tended by some that this preceded by a year 
 the discovery of the American Continent by 
 Columbus.) 
 
 1500. Brazil — discovered 24th April by Alva- 
 rez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven 
 on its coast by a tempest. He called it the 
 Land of the Holy Cross. It was subsequently 
 called Brazil, on account of its red wood , and 
 was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, 
 from 1500 to 1504. 
 
 1501. Labrador and River St. Lawrence — dis- 
 covered by Cortereal, who sailed from Lis- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 DIS 
 
 636 
 
 DIS 
 
 bon on a voyage of discovery for the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 1502. Gulf of Mexico.— -Some of the shores of 
 this Gulf explored by Columbus on his last 
 voyage. 
 
 St. Helena, the Island of— discovered by 
 Jean de Nova, a Portuguese. 
 
 1506. Ceylon— discovered by the Portuguese. 
 Ceylon was known to the Romans in the 
 time of Claudius. 
 
 1506. Madagascar, Island of — discovered by 
 Tristan da Cunha, and revisited by the Por- 
 tuguese navigator Fernandez Pereira, in 1508. 
 This island was first called St. Lawrence, 
 having been discovered on the day of that 
 saint. 
 
 J508. Canada — visited by Thomas Aubert. 
 Known before to fishermen who had been 
 thrown there by a tempest. 
 
 Ascension Isle — discovered by Tristan da 
 Cunha. 
 
 Sumatra, Island of— discovered by Siquey- 
 ra, a Portuguese. 
 
 1511. Sumatra — more accurately examined by 
 the Portuguese. 
 
 Molucca Isles — discovered by the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 Sunda Isles — discovered by Abreu, a Por- 
 tuguese. 
 
 1512. Maldives. — A Portuguese navigator, who 
 was wrecked on these islands, found them in 
 occasional possession of the Arabians. 
 
 Florida — discovered by Ponce de Leon, a 
 Spanish navigator. 
 
 1513. Borneo and Java. — The Portuguese be- 
 came acquainted with these islands. 
 
 1513. South Sea. — The Great Ocean was discov- 
 ered this year from the mountains of Darien, 
 by Nunez de Balboa, and subsequently navi- 
 gated by Magellan. The supposition of the 
 New World being part of India now ceased. 
 
 1515. Peru — discovered by Perez de la Rua. 
 
 1516. Rio Janeiro — discovered by Dias de Solis. 
 
 1516. Rio de la Plata — discovered by the same. 
 
 1517. China, discovery of — by sea, by Fernand 
 Perez d'Andrada. 
 
 1517. Bengal — discovered by some Portuguese 
 thrown on the coast by a tempest. 
 
 1518. Mexico — discovered by the Spaniards. 
 Conquered by Cortes, in 1519. 
 
 1519. Magellan, Straits of— passed by Magellan 
 with a fleet of discovery, fitted out by the 
 Emperor Charles V. The first voyage round 
 the world was undertaken by this navigator; 
 and his vessel performed the enterprise, al- 
 though the commander perished. 
 
 1520. Terra del Fuego — discovered by Magellan, 
 
 1521. Ladrone Islands — discovered by Magellan. 
 1521. Philippines. — This archipelago discovered 
 
 by Magellan, who lost his life here in a 
 skirmish. 
 1524. New France. — The first voyage of discov- 
 ery made by the French under Francis the 
 First, one of whose ships, after reaching Flor- 
 ida, coasted along as far as 50 degrees north 
 latitude, and gave to this part the name of 
 New France. 
 
 1524. North America — travelled over from Flor- 
 ida to Newfoundland by Verazzani, a Floren- 
 tine, in the service of France. 
 
 1525. New Holland — discovered by the Portu- 
 guese about this time : this immense tract 
 was for some time neglected by Europeans, 
 but was visited by the Dutch, at various peri- 
 ods, from 1619 to 1644. This fine country is 
 now colonized by the English, and every year 
 adds something to our knowledge of its ex- 
 tent and its peculiarities. 
 
 1527. New Guinea — discovered by Saavedra, a 
 Spaniard, sent from Mexico, by Cortez. 
 
 1530. Guinea, the first voyage to — made by an 
 English ship for elephants' teeth. 
 
 1534. Canada— visited by Cartier, of St. Malo ; 
 a settlement having previously been made in 
 1523, by Verazzani, who took possession in 
 the name of Francis I of France. 
 
 1535. California — discovered by Cortez. 
 
 1537. Chile — discovered by Diego de Almagro, 
 one of the conquerors of Peru. 
 
 1541. Labrador — discovered by a French engi- 
 neer, Alphonze. 
 
 1541. India — the first English ship sailed to, for 
 the purpose of attacking the Portuguese. 
 
 1542. Japan — discovered by the Portuguese, 
 Antonio de Meta and Antonio de Peyxoto, 
 who were cast by a tempest on its coasts. 
 
 1545. Potosi, Mines of— discovered by the Span- 
 iards. 
 
 1552. Spitzbergen — observed by the English, but 
 • mistaken for part of Greenland. Visited by 
 
 Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in search of a 
 northeast passage, in 1596. 
 
 1553. White Sea. — This sea, which had not been 
 visited since the time of Alfred, was now sup- 
 posed to be discovered by Chancellor, the 
 English navigator. 
 
 Nova Zembla — discovered by Willoughby, 
 an English seaman. 
 
 1575. Solomons Isles — discovered by Mendana, 
 a Spaniard, sent by the Governor of Peru. 
 
 1576. Frobisher's Strait — discovered by the Ed 
 glish navigator whose name it bears. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DIS 
 
 637 
 
 DIS 
 
 Greenland — further explored by Frobisher, 
 who also penetrated further between this 
 country and Labrador. 
 
 1577. Neio Albion — discovered by Drake, who 
 was the second to attempt a voyage round the 
 world, which he performed in three years. 
 
 1580. Siberia — discovered by Yermak Timophe- 
 ievitch, Chief of Cossacks. 
 
 1587. Davis's Strait — discovered by the English 
 navigator whose name it bears, in his voyage 
 for the discovery of a northwest passage. 
 
 1594. Falkland Islands — discovered by the En- 
 glish navigator, Hawkins. 
 
 1595. Marquesas — discovered by Mendana, a 
 Spaniard, on his voyage from Peru to found a 
 colony in the Solomon Isles. 
 
 Solitary Island — discovered by Mendana on 
 the above-named voyage. 
 
 1606. Archipelago del Espirittt Santo — discover- 
 ed by Q,uiros, a Portuguese, sent from Peru. 
 These islands are the Cyclades of Bougain- 
 ville, and the New Hebrides of Cook*. 
 
 Otaheite — supposed to be discovered by 
 Quiros, who named it Sagittaria. 
 
 1607. ) Hudson's Bay — discovered by the cel- 
 1610. ) ebrated English navigator, Hudson, on 
 
 his third voyage. Venturing to pass the win- 
 ter in this Bay on his fourth voyage, he was, 
 with four others, thrown by his sailors into a 
 boat, and left to perish. 
 1607. Chesapeake Bay — discovered by John 
 Smith. 
 
 1615. Straits of Le Maire — discovered, with the 
 island of Staten on the east, by Le Maire, a 
 merchant of Amsterdam, and Schouten, a 
 merchant of Horn. 
 
 1616. Cape Horn — doubled by Le Maire and 
 Schouten, Dutch navigators, who called it 
 after the town of which Schouten was a na- 
 tive. These enterprising men performed a 
 voyage round the world in about two years. 
 
 1616. Van Dicman's Land — discovered by the 
 Dutch. 
 
 1616. Baffin's Bay — discovered by William Baf- 
 fin, an Englishman. The nature and extent 
 of this discovery were much doubted, till the 
 expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that 
 Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
 ment. 
 
 1636. Frozen Ocean. — In this year the Russians 
 discovered that this ocean washed and bound- 
 ed the north of Asia. The first Russian ship 
 sailed down the Lena into this sea. 
 
 1642. Neio Zealand — with the southern part of 
 Van Dieman's Land, discovered by Tasman, 
 a Dutch navigator. 
 
 1654. Bourbon, Isle of — occupied by the French. 
 
 1673. Louisiana — discovered by the French. 
 This country received its name from La Salle, 
 a Frenchman, who explored the Mississippi, 
 in 1682. 
 
 1686. Easter Island — discovered by Roggewein, 
 a Dutch navigator. 
 
 1690. Kamschatka — the principal settlement of 
 the Russians on the coast of Asia, discovered 
 by a Cossack chief, Morosko. This country 
 was taken possession of by the Russians in 
 1697. 
 
 1692. Japan. — Carefully visited by Kampfer, a 
 German. 
 
 1699. Ncio Britain. — This island, and the strait* 
 which separate it from New Guinea, discov- 
 ered by Dampier. This enterprising seaman 
 made a voyage round the world at the period 
 of this discovery. 
 
 1711. Kurile Isles — occupied by the Russians. 
 The people of these islands, which are 21 in 
 number, still pay tribute to Russia. They 
 are principally volcanic. 
 
 1728. Behring' s Strait — explored and designated 
 by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
 sia, whose name it bears. Behring thus es- 
 tablished that the continents of Asia and 
 America are not united, but are distant from 
 each other about 39 miles. 
 
 1728. Kamschatka — ascertained by Behxing to 
 be a peninsula. 
 
 1741. Aleutian Isles — on the coast of North 
 America, discovered by Behring. A more 
 accurate survey of these islands was made 
 under the Russian Government, by Captains 
 Billing and Sarytchef, from 1781 to 1798. 
 
 1765. Duke of York's Island — discovered by 
 Byron. 
 
 Isles of Danger — discovered by Byron. 
 
 1767. Otaheite — discovered by Wallis. 
 
 1768. Cook's Strait — discovered by Capt Cook 
 on his first voyage round the world, which 
 occupied from 1768 to 1771. 
 
 1770. New South Wales — discovered by Captain 
 
 Cook. 
 1772. Island of Desolation — the first land south 
 
 of India, discovered by Kerguelen, and called 
 
 by his name. Subsequently called the Island 
 
 of Desolation by Captain Cook. 
 1774. New Caledonia — discovered by Cook in 
 
 his second voyage, 1772-1775. 
 1778. Icy Cape — discovered by Captain Cook. 
 1778. Sandwich Islands— discovered by Cook in 
 
 his third voyage, which commenced in 1776 
 
 He lost his life in 1779. 
 1797. Bass's Straits.— Mr. Bass, Surgeon of H 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 DUE 
 
 638 
 
 EAR 
 
 B. MLS. Reliance, penetrated as far as West- 
 ern Port, in a small open boat, from Port 
 Jackson, and was of opinion that a Strait ex- 
 isted between New South Wales and Van 
 Dieman's Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders 
 circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land, and 
 named the Strait after Mr. Bass. 
 
 1804,5, 6. Missouri — explored to its sources by 
 Captains Lewis and Clarke, and the origin 
 and source of the Columbia ascertained. 
 
 1819. Barrow's Straits — discovered by Lieut. 
 Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville 
 Island, in lat. 74°26'N., and long. 113° 47' W. 
 The Strait was entered on the 3d of August. 
 The lowest state of the thermometer was 55 
 degrees below zero of Fahrenheit. 
 
 1819. New South Shetland— discovered by Mr. 
 Smith, of the brig William, bound to Valpa- 
 raiso. 
 
 1819. > North America, The northern limits of— 
 
 1822. ) determined by Capt. Franklin, from the 
 mouth of the Coppermine river to Cape 'Turn- 
 again. 
 
 1821. Asia, The northern limits of— determined 
 by Baron Wrangel. 
 
 1825-6. North America — Franklin's second ex- 
 pedition, in which the coast between the 
 mouths of the Coppermine and M'Kenzie's 
 rivers, and the coast from the mouth of the 
 latter to 149^ W. Long, were discovered. 
 
 1827. North America. — In August of this year, 
 Captain Beechey, in H. B. M. S. Blossom^ 
 discovered the coast from Icy Cape to Point 
 Barrow, leaving about 140 miles of coast 
 unexplored between this Point and Point 
 Beechey. Point Barrow is in 156£ degrees 
 West longitude. 
 
 1830. Africa — Lander descends the Quorra or 
 Niger from Boussa, to the Gulf of Guinea, 
 determining the long agitated question of the 
 termination of that river. 
 
 1830-32. North America — Capt. Ross examines 
 the northeastern coast, and proves that the 
 continent reaches to Lancaster Sound. 
 DISTAFF spinning, first introduced into 
 
 England by Bonavera, an Italian, 1505. 
 
 DISTILLATION of spirituous liquors began 
 
 in the 12th century. In Ireland in 1590. 
 
 DISTILLING first practised in Spain by the 
 
 Moors, 1150. 
 
 DRURY LANE THEATRE built 1662; 
 
 destroyed by fire 1672; rebuilt 1674; pulled 
 
 down 1791; rebuilt 1794; burnt 1809; rebuilt 
 
 and opened to the public, November 10, 1812. 
 DUELLING introduced into Europe as a 
 
 public mode of trial, A. D. 1096; became com- 
 
 mon as a manner of settling points of honor, 
 about 1520. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES and VOLCANIC ERUP- 
 TIONS. B. C. 427 Eruption of Etna and 
 Earthquake ravaged environs of Catania. 
 373 Helice and Bura destroyed by an earth- 
 quake, attended by a frightful inundation. 
 144 Isle of Hiera rose from the JEgean Sea 
 
 during an earthquake. 
 A. D. 79 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Her- 
 
 culaneum and Pompeii. 
 115 Antioch destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 1137 Catania swallowed up by an earthquake. 
 
 1138 Ninth eruption of Vesuvius, after which 
 it is quiescent for 168 years. 
 
 1302 Ischia ravaged by a volcanic eruption pre- 
 ceded by violent earthquakes. 
 
 1538 Monte Nuovo, a hill 440 feet high, form- 
 ed near Naples. 
 
 1573 Island of little Kameni rises near Hiera. 
 
 1631 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Torre del 
 Greco with 3,000 persons. 
 
 1666 New eruption of Vesuvius after a pause 
 of 35 years ; since this period in constant ac- 
 tivity with rarely an interval exceeding ten 
 years. 
 
 1669 Eruption of Etna ; Mount Rossi, 450 feet 
 high, formed; 14 villages and towns, and 
 part of Catania destroyed. 
 
 1692 Jamaica ravaged by an earthquake, and 
 many of the inhabitants swallowed up by 
 rents in the ground ; three quarters of the 
 houses of Port Royal with the ground they 
 occupied sank with their tenants under water. 
 
 1693 Shocks of earthquake in Sicily, which 
 levelled Catania, and 49 other places to the 
 ground, and destroyed 100,000 persons. 
 
 1699 Earthquakes in Java, when no less than 
 208 severe shocks were counted ; the fish kill- 
 ed in the rivers by the mud which filled them, 
 and great numbers of wild animals destroyed. 
 
 1706 Eruption of Teneriffe, attended by shocks 
 which caused many springs to disappear and 
 hills to rise up from the plains. 
 
 1725 Eruption of the volcano Leirhnukur, in 
 Iceland, during which a tract of high land 
 sank down and formed a lake, and a hill rose 
 from the bed of a lake. 
 
 1730-36 Five years' convulsion of Lancerote ; 
 the earth was rent, and discharged pestilen- 
 tial vapors ; smoke and flames rose from the 
 sea with loud explosions ; fiery streams of 
 lava of great extent devastated the land, chok- 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EAR 
 
 639 
 
 ECL 
 
 ed up rivers, and running into the sea, killed 
 great nu mbers of fish ; 30 volcanic cones from 
 300 to 600 ft. high from their base were formed. 
 
 1737 Earthquake in Kamschatka, which caused 
 an inundation of the sea, formed new hills, 
 lakes, and bays. 
 
 1746 Earthquake in Peru ; 200 shocks expe- 
 rienced in the first 24 hours ; Lima destroyed ; 
 several new bays formed ; nineteen ships 
 sunk and four carried a great distance up the 
 country by the rise of the sea: several volca- 
 noes burst forth in the vicinity, and poured 
 forth torrents of water, which overflowed ex- 
 tensive tracts. 
 
 1750 Conception or Fenco in Chili destroyed 
 by an earthquake, and overwhelmed by the 
 sea. 
 
 1755 Earthquake destroyed Lisbon (Nov. 1), 
 and 60,000 persons perished in six minutes. 
 The sea first retired, and then rolled in, rising 
 50 ft. above its usual level ; the largest moun- 
 tains in Portugal rocked and split asunder, 
 and sent forth flames and clouds of dust. The 
 shock was felt nearly all over Europe, in the 
 north part of Africa, in the Atlantic, and even 
 in the West Indies ; a vast wave swept over 
 the coast of Spain, in some places, 60 feet in 
 height, and near Morocco the earth opened, 
 swallowed up about 10,000 persons with their 
 herds, and then closed over them. 
 
 1759 The volcano of Jorullo in Mexico rose 
 during an earthquake from the plain of Mal- 
 pais, forming a hill 1600 feet high. 
 
 1766 Violent shocks agitate Venezuela occurring 
 hourly for above a year. 
 
 1772 Eruption of the volcano Papandayang in 
 Java ; a tract of country 15 miles long by six 
 broad was engulfed, 40 villages swallowed up 
 or overwhelmed, and the cone of the volcano 
 was reduced in height 4,000 feet. 
 
 1777 During the eruption of the volcano on the 
 side of which the city of Guatimala was built, 
 the ground gaped open and swallowed the 
 whole city with its 8,000 families. 
 
 1783 Earthquake in Calabria destroyed all the 
 towns and villages, 20 miles round Oppido, 
 and 40.000 persons were swallowed up or 
 overwhelmed ; the shocks continued for four 
 years. 
 
 1783 Eruption of the volcano Asamayama in 
 Niphon, preceded by an earthquake, during 
 which the earth yawned and swallowed many 
 towns. 
 
 1797 Earthquake in Quito destroyed many 
 towns and villages. 
 
 1806 An island 60 miles in circuit with several 
 54* 
 
 low conical hills upon it rose from the sea 
 among the Aleutian islands. 
 1811 Earthquake in South Carolina, and in the 
 valley of the Mississippi; the latter was con- 
 vulsed to such a degree between the mouths 
 of the Ohio and the St. Francis as to create 
 lakes and islands ; and deep chasms were 
 formed in the ground, from which vast vol- 
 umes of water, sand, and coal were thrown 
 up to the height of 60 or 70 feet. 
 1812, The city of Caraccas destroyed by an 
 earthquake, and 10,000 persons buried under 
 its ruins. 
 1815 Eruption of the volcano Tomboro in Sum- 
 bava, attended by whirlwinds, which com- 
 mitted great ravages, and by a sudden rising 
 of the sea, which submerged towns and con- 
 siderable tracts. Of 12,000 inhabitants of the 
 island only 26 survived. 
 1819 An earthquake in Cutch destroyed many 
 towns and villages; deepened the eastern arm 
 of the Indus from one to eighteen feet ; sub- 
 merged some tracts and elevated others. 
 1822 Aleppo destroyed by an earthquake. 
 1822 Chili ravaged by an earthquake, the shock 
 of which was felt for a distance of 1200 miles ; 
 the coast in the neighborhood of Valparaiso 
 for a distance of 100 miles was raised above 
 its former level from two to four, and even 
 six or eight feet : the whole tract thus raised 
 had an area of about 100,000 square miles. 
 1827 Earthquake commits great ravages around 
 
 Bogota. 
 1831 The island of Sciacca rose from the sea 
 near the southern coast of Sicily : the depth 
 of the sea at this spot was 630 feet, and the 
 island was 100 feet above the surface : circuit 
 3,240 feet : in the winter of 1831, the island 
 was swept away by the waves, leaving only 
 a shoal. 
 
 ECLIPSES, the most remarkable, of the sun, 
 observed at Sardis, and predicted by Thales, 
 585 B. C. At Athens, 424 B. C. At Rome, 
 caused a total darkness at noon-day, A. D. 201. 
 At Constantinople, 968. In France, June 29, 
 1033, dark at noon-day. In England, March 
 21, 1140, occasioned a total darkness. Another 
 June 22, 1191, entire darkness, and the stars 
 very visible at ten in the morning. In the same 
 year the true sun, and the appearance of anoth- 
 er, so that astronomers alone could distinguish 
 the difference by their glasses. Another, 1331. 
 A total eclipse of the sun in England, when 
 the darkness was so great, that the stars faintly 
 appeared, and the birds went to roost in the 
 morning about ten, April 22d, 1715. Great 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 EMI 
 
 640 
 
 EMI 
 
 Eclipse in the United States 1S0G; another 1811; 
 another 1331. One occurred in 1334. and three 
 more will take place in the course of five years. 
 During the present century about 25 more will 
 occur. 
 
 Eclipses of the moon, total, observed by the 
 Chaldeans at Babylon, 721 B. C. At Syracuse, 
 413 B. C. In Asia Minor, 219 B. C. At Rome; 
 predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus, 163 B. C. 
 Another, which terrified the Roman troops, and 
 prevented their revolt, A. D. 14. Eclipses of 
 the moon are of frequent occurrence. 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, near Ply- 
 mouth, England, first built, 1696; blown down, 
 November 26, 1703 ; rebuilt 1706 ; burnt down, 
 December, 1755; rebuilt October, 1759; again 
 burnt down 1770 ; rebuilt 1774. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, first idea of, given by two 
 globes of brimstone, 1467; electric spark dis- 
 covered at Ley den, 174(5 ; first known it would 
 fire spirits, 1756 ; that of the aurora borealis and 
 of lightning in 1769. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES purchased by the Eng- 
 lish government at £ 35,000, and added to the 
 British Museum, 1815. 
 
 EMINENT PERSONS. Aben, Ezra, learn- 
 ed Jewish rabbi, of Toledo in Spain, born 1099, 
 died 1174. 
 
 Abernethy, John, eminent Irish Protestant 
 divine, born 1680, died 1740, aged 60. 
 
 Ainsworth, Robert, eminent English lexicog- 
 rapher, born 1660, died 1743. 
 
 Alberoni, cardinal, celebrated statesman, born 
 at Placentia, in Italy, 1664, died 1752, aged 86. 
 He was the son of a gardener. 
 
 Alcibiades, Athenian o-eneral, born B. C. 443. 
 died 403. 
 
 Alcuin, or Albinus Flaccus, philosopher, 
 flourished in the eighth century. He was a 
 light in the dark ages, and famous for encour- 
 aging learning and science ; a native of Eng- 
 land. He founded the university of Paris, by 
 order of Chailemagne. 
 
 Aldrovandi, Ulysses, eminent naturalist, born 
 at Bologna, 1522,' died 1605, aged 83. 
 
 Alfred, son of Ethelred II king of England, 
 had his eyes put out by earl Godwin, and 600 
 of his train murdered at Guilford : he died soon 
 after at Ely. 
 
 Allen, Rev. Moses, born Sept. 14, 1748. He 
 zealously joined the cause of his country ; was 
 taken prisoner at Savannah. December, 1778 ; 
 and was drowned Feb. 8, 1779, in an attempt to 
 escape from a British prison ship. 
 
 Allen, Paul, American poet, historian and 
 editur, born at Rhode Island, and died in Balti- 
 
 more, August 19th, 1826, in the 55th year of his 
 age. 
 
 Allen, William Henry, born id Rhode Island, 
 1784 ; a gallant officer of the United States navy 7 
 killed in battle on board the Argus, Aug. 1813. 
 
 Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher who re- 
 sided most part of his life in Greece, where he 
 flourished, B C. 600. 
 
 Anderson, Jas. writer on commerce, died 1764, 
 
 Andrews, John, D. D. provost of the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania, born in Cecil county, 
 Maryland, 1746, died in Philadelphia. 
 
 Anthony ,Mark, Roman general and triumviri, 
 born B. C" 86, killed himself in Egypt after the 
 battle of Actium, 30 B. C. 
 
 Anthony, Francis, English physician, born 
 1550, died 1623 ; he was the inventor, and made 
 a fortune by vending a panacea, called Axirum 
 potabile. 
 
 Arbaces, founder of the Median monarchy, 
 B. C. 820. 
 
 Arc, Joan of, a much celebrated French 
 woman, born in Lorraine about A. D. 1400, 
 ruined the English cause in France, was finally 
 taken prisoner by them, and burned to death bv 
 the English at Rowen, 1431. 
 Arius, founder of the Arian sect, died A.D. 336. 
 
 Armstrong, John, Scots physician and poet, 
 born at Castleton, Scotland, 1709, died 1779. 
 
 Arne, Thomas Augustus, musician, flourished 
 from about 1736, to his death, 1778. 
 
 Arnold, Samuel, musical composer of emi- 
 nence, born 1739, died 1802. 
 
 Arundel, earl of, who brought the Arundelian 
 marbles, from Greece to England ; died 1645. 
 
 Asaph, St. bishop of Llan Elvy, in North 
 Wales, to which he gave his own name, flour- 
 ished A. D. 590. 
 
 Aspasia, a Greek courtezan, one of those very 
 rare" examples of mental power and moral weak- 
 ness, became the wife of Pericles, flourished at 
 Athens, B. C. 430. 
 
 Aspasia of Phocaea, successively wife to Cy- 
 rus the younger, and of his brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon.has been confounded with Aspasia of 
 Athens, though different in country and char- 
 acter. 
 
 Athanasius, St. a very celebrated Christian 
 bishop, born it is supposed, about 296. He was 
 the Catholic champion in the Arian controver- 
 sy ; ordained bishop of Alexandria, A. D. 327, 
 which he held 46 years to his death, 373. 
 
 Atticus, Pomponius, the friend of Cicero, and 
 an example amid blood and violence, of the best 
 effects of stoical philosophy, born B. C. 100, 
 died 33. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EMI 
 
 641 
 
 EMI 
 
 Atterbury, Francis, eminent English prelate, 
 born 166*2, made bishop of Rochester, 1713 ; but 
 in 1722 deprived and banished by act of parlia- 
 ment ; died at Paris, 1731. 
 
 Bainbridge, Commodore William, a distin- 
 guished commander in the American navy. He 
 was born at Princeton, N. J. on the 7th of May, 
 1774 ; died at Philadelphia, July 27, 1833, in 
 his 6(Jth year. 
 
 Banks, sir Joseph, English philosopher, a 
 most distinguished man in science and litera- 
 ture, and president of the royal society, born 
 1740. 
 
 Baranzano Redemptus, deserves a place in 
 history, as one of the founders of inductive 
 science, was contemporary and correspondent 
 of chancellor Bacon ; born in Piedmont, 1590, 
 died at Montargis, 1622. 
 
 Barberac, John, eminent jurisconsult, and 
 writer on the laws of nations, born at Beziers, 
 1674, died 1747. 
 
 Barclay, Robert, apologist for the quakers, 
 born 1648. died 1690, aged only 42. 
 
 Baretti, Italian lexicographer, author of an 
 esteemed English and Italian Dictionary, was 
 born at Turin, 1716; came to England and be- 
 came one of the companions of Johnson, Burke, 
 &c. died 1789, aged 73. 
 
 Barneveldt, John Olden, grand pensionary of 
 Holland, born 1547, became one of the greatest 
 diplomatists of his age, but by adopting the 
 opinions of Arminius, was involved in the relig- 
 ious controversies which then distracted his 
 country. By his influence in great part, Spain, 
 in 1609, acknowledged the independence of the 
 seven united provinces ; under frivolous charg- 
 es he was beheaded, 1619, aged 72. 
 
 Barrow, Isaac, eminent English divine and 
 mathematician, born in London 1630, died 1677. 
 
 Barthelemy, John James, eminent French 
 writer, author of " the travels of the younger 
 Anacharsis," born at Cassis in Provence 1716, 
 died April 30th, 1795, in his 80th year. 
 
 Basil, St. bishop of Ancyra, died 378, aged 51. 
 
 Bass, Edward, first bishop of Massachusetts, 
 bom 1726, died 1803, aged 77. 
 
 Bassi, Laura, an Italian lady of great literary 
 acquirements, flourished 1732, to her death at 
 Bologna, 1778. 
 
 Baxter, Richard, eminent English non-con- 
 formist divine, and religious writer, born 1615, 
 died 1691, aged 76. 
 
 Bayard, John, eminent patriot in our revolu- 
 tion, born in Maryland, 1738, died 1807, aged 
 68 years. 
 
 Beatty, William, captain in the Maryland line 
 
 under colonel Howard ; was particularly dis- 
 tinguished in the battle of the Cowpens, and in 
 other battles of the revolution, and tell in battle. 
 
 Beccaria, Csesar, marquis of Bonesana, author 
 of the " treatise on crimes and punishments," 
 born 1720, died November, 1794, aged 74. 
 
 Behmen, Jacob, called by his followers " the 
 German Theosophist ;" born 1577, died 1624, 
 aged 49. 
 
 Bentham, Jeremy, a celebrated jurist, died 
 in London, June 6, 1832, aged 85. He was 
 born February 15, (old style) 1747-8, in Lon- 
 don, was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, 
 attained the degree of A. M. in 1767, attended 
 the lectures of Sir William Blackstone, after- 
 wards entered at Lincoln's Inn, and was called 
 to the bar, but soon abandoned the profession, 
 and devoted himself to the composition of his 
 voluminous writings on jurisprudence, govern- 
 ment, and various branches of political and 
 moral science. Mr. Bentham had a high repu- 
 tation for talents, and held a correspondence 
 with many of the most distinguished statesmen 
 of Europe. As a writer, he was very obscure, 
 but he had able friends who attempted to render 
 some of his numerous works intelligible. A part 
 of them have been arranged and translated into 
 French, by his friend and admirer M. Etienne 
 Dumont. of Geneva, and printed partly in Paris, 
 and partly in London. This eccentric man, 
 who made utility the basis of his philosophy, 
 bequeathed his body to the dissectors, in ordei 
 to benefit the science of anatomy. 
 
 Bernard, of Menthon, founder of two monas- 
 teries in the Alps on Mountjoux, since called 
 from him, Great and Little St. Bernard. These 
 mountain monasteries are hospitals, in which 
 poor travellers are received, fed, lodged, and if 
 sick or wounded, treated with the utmost care. 
 Though subjected to the changes of nine hun- 
 dred years, these hospitable institutions still 
 subsist; their illustrious founder was born in 
 the Genevois, A. D. 903, and died at Novara, 
 988, aged 85. 
 
 Bernoulli, Daniel, a great mathematician, 
 born at Groningen, February 9, 1700, and died 
 at Basil, March 17, 1782, aged 82 years. 
 
 Bertholdus, to whom the discovery of gun- 
 powder has been ascribed, died A. D. 1340. 
 
 Biddle, Nicholas, captain in the U. States' 
 navy, during the revolutionary war, born in 
 Philadelphia, in 1750. On the night of March 
 7lh, 1778, he was blown up with his ship, the 
 U. States frigate Randolph, of 36 guns, and 315 
 men, in an action off Barbadoes, with the Brit- 
 ish ship Yarmouth, of 64 guns, Capt. Vincent. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EMI 
 
 642 
 
 EMI 
 
 Black, Joseph, Scots chemist and physician, 
 died 1799, aged 71. 
 
 Blackmore, sir Richard, English poet and 
 physician, born 1650, and died October 8, 1721), 
 aged 79. 
 
 Blair, James, a Scots Episcopalian divine, 
 founder of the college of William and Mary, 
 Virginia. Mr. Blair was born in Scotland, about 
 1600; in 1083, he was sent out to America, as 
 a missionary, by Dr. Compton, bishop of Lon- 
 don ; and by the same prelate, was appointed 
 in 1685, his commissary in Virginia. It was 
 at the latter epoch, that he conceived the plan, 
 and by unwearied exertions, succeeded in 
 founding a college at Williamsburg. The pa- 
 tent for the college was granted by William and 
 Mary, about 1693, and from its founders named 
 " William and Mary College," of which Mr. 
 Blair was first president ; and having filled the 
 ministry sixty, and the presidency of the col- 
 lege fifty years, died 1743, aged about 83 years. 
 
 Bland, Theodoric, M. D. served as colonel in 
 the revolutionary army, in the Virginia line, 
 with much reputation ; died a member of Con- 
 gress, from Virginia, June 1st, 179U, in his 49th 
 year. 
 
 Blount, sir Charles, born 1654, died 1693, 
 aged 39. 
 
 Bodmer, "the Father of German Literature," 
 was born at Zurich, 1698, died 1783, aged 85. 
 
 Bonaparte, Madame Letitia, mother of the 
 emperor Napoleon, died at Rome, October, 1832, 
 aged 82. Her maiden name was Letitia Ram- 
 olini. She was born at Ajaccio, Aug. 24, 1750 ; 
 was one of the most beautiful young women of 
 Corsica, was married in the midst of civil dis- 
 cord and contention to Charles Bonaparte, an 
 officer who fought with Paoli ; was possessed 
 of great firmness of character ; and was left a 
 widow in 1785, having borne 13 children, of 
 whom five sons and three daughters survived 
 their father; all of whom became celebrated. 
 
 Botzaris. Mark, one of the gallant defenders 
 of liberty in modern Greece, was born in Alba- 
 nia, in 1780, and is said to have been, at an early 
 period of his life, in the French service. When 
 the Greeks rose to throw off the Ottoman yoke, 
 he ardently espoused the cause of his country, 
 and was chosen stratarch of Western Greece. 
 The Turks having invaded Etolia with a large 
 army, he, at the head of two hundred and fifty 
 volunteers, made a nocturnal attack on the en- 
 emy's camp, and put great numbers of them to 
 the sword ; but towards the close of the contest 
 ne received a mortal wound. His companions 
 in arms, by a desperate effort succeeded in 
 
 bearing him from the field, and he expired at 
 Missolonghi on the following day, August 23, 
 1823. 
 
 Boydell, John, patron of the arts and engraver 
 by profession; born at Donington, England, 
 January 19, 1719; came to London on foot, 
 bound himself an apprentice to an engraver; 
 began to publish 1745-6, and in 1790, had ex- 
 pended in the promotion of the arts in general, 
 and the Shakespeare Gallery in particular, 
 £350,000 sterling, or 1,554,000 dollars. Died 
 in London, December 7, 1804, having nearly 
 reached the age of eighty-six years. 
 
 Boyle, Charles, fourth earl of Orrery, gene- 
 rally supposed the inventor of the noble astro- 
 logical instrument, which bears his title, born 
 1676, died 1731 , aged 55. He patronised Row- 
 ley, the real inventor of the Planetarium, called 
 the Orrery. 
 
 Bracton, Henry, eminent English law writer, 
 flourished 1244. 
 
 Bradford, William, eminent lawyer of Penn- 
 sylvania; born in Philadelphia, September 14, 
 1755, died August 23, 1795, aged 40. 
 
 Bradford, William, one of the first printers in 
 English America, born 1658, died 1752, aged 94. 
 
 Bradford, William, printer and editor of one 
 of the first public papers in Philadelphia, called 
 the Pennsylvania Journal, died 1791, aged 73. 
 
 Bradley, James, eminent English astronomer, 
 born 1692 ; succeeded Dr. John Keil, as Savii- 
 lian professor of astronomy, at Oxford, in 1721 ; 
 discovered the aberration of the fixed stars, and 
 mutation of the earth's axis ; was appointed as- 
 tronomer royal, February, 1741-2, died July 13, 
 1762, aged 70. 
 
 Braho, Tycho, eminent astronomer, born in 
 Sweden, December Kith, 1646, died at Prague, 
 October 22d, 1601, aged 55. 
 
 Braxter, Carter, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence, born in Virginia, 
 Sept. 10, 1736, died in Richmond, Oct. 10, 1797. 
 
 Briggs, Henry, English mathematician, in- 
 ventor of Logarithmic numbers, born 1556, 
 died 1630, aged 74. 
 
 Briggs, Isaac, eminent mathematician, died 
 at Sandy Spring, Maryland, January, 1625, 
 aged 02 years. 
 
 Brindley, James, self taught English mecha- 
 nician, and the very able coadjutor of the duke 
 of Bridge water, in the construction of canals, 
 locks, bridges, aqueducts, &c. born 1716, died 
 September"27th, 1772, aged 55. 
 
 Brooke, eminent English law writer, flourish 
 ed 1550-58. 
 
 Brooke, Henry, author of" The Fool of Qual 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EMI 
 
 643 
 
 EMI 
 
 ity," an excellent novel, born in Ireland, 1700, 
 died October, 18U3, aged 77. 
 
 Brooke, Robert, born at London, June 3d, 
 1602; an early emigrant to Maryland, arrived 
 June 29th, 1650; "he was the first who did 
 seat Patuxent, about 20 miles up the river, at 
 Delia Brooke." He died, July 20th, 1655. 
 Battel creek, in Calvert county, Maryland, is 
 so named from the town of Battel, in Sussex, 
 whence Mr. Brooke removed, when he set out 
 for America. 
 
 Browne, John, Scots M. D. author of the 
 " Elements of Medicine," born 1735, died 1788, 
 aged 53. 
 
 Bruno, founder of the Carthusians, died A. 
 D. 1101, aged 71. 
 
 Buchan, Dr. William, author of " Domestic 
 Medicine," &c. died Feb. 25th, 1805, aged 76. 
 
 Buchanan, George. Scots poet and historian, 
 born 1506, died 1582,' aged 76. 
 
 Buchanan, George, M. D. one of the founders 
 and first commissioners engaged in 1729, tc set- 
 tle and purchase the land of the city of Balti- 
 more, died 1745. 
 
 Buchanan, Claudius, eminent missionary to 
 the East Indies, died Feb. 9th, 1815. 
 
 Burgh, James, author of " The dignity of 
 Human Nature," died 1775, aged 61. 
 
 Burrows, William, born October 6, 1785; a 
 gallant officer in the United States navy, who 
 fell a victim in the moment of his glory, 6th 
 Sept. 1813, commanding the Enterprize, which 
 engaged the Boxer ; he received a mortal 
 wound early in the action, and when the 
 sword of the enemy was presented to him, he 
 exclaimed. " I am satisfied — I die content;" 
 and soon after expired. Action forty-five min- 
 utes. 
 
 Burkitt, William, English divine, and author 
 of " A Commentary on the New Testament," 
 born in England 1650, died 1703, aged 53. 
 
 Burlamaqui, John James, author of principles 
 of Natural Laws ; born at Geneva, 1694, died 
 there 1750, aged 56. 
 
 Burleigh, lord Exeter, made minister of staie 
 to queen Elizabeth, 1560, died 1598. 
 
 Burnet, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, and 
 author of" the History of the Reformation of 
 the Church of England ;" " History of his own 
 Times," &c. born in Scotland 1643; died 
 March 17th, 1715, aged 72. 
 
 Burton, Robert, author of" the Anatomy of 
 Melancholy," died 1639, aged 63. 
 
 Butler, Joseph, bishop of Durham, and author 
 of " the Analogy of Religion," &c. born in 
 England 1692, died 1752, aged 60. 
 
 Butler, Samuel, English poet, author of Hu- 
 dibras, born in 1600, died 1630, aged 80. 
 
 Butler, Richard, officer of the revolutionary 
 war, colonel of Morgan's rifle corps, and shared 
 at Saratoga, and many other places, the renown 
 of that admirable body. After a life of honor, 
 colonel Butler fell, in the defeat of St. Clair's 
 army, by the Indians, November 4, 1791. 
 
 Butler, Thomas, brother of Richard, and a 
 brave United States' officer, joined the army in 
 1776 ; was at Brandy wine battle on the 11th of 
 September of that year; served through the 
 war, and was very severely wounded in the 
 war with the Indians, at the battle where his 
 brother fell. His latter years were imbittered 
 by disputes with general Wilkinson, which was 
 closed by death, Sept. 7th, 1805, aged 51. He 
 would not yield to the general order, which re- 
 quired officers and soldiers to cut the hair close 
 to the head. 
 
 Butler, Zebulon, was born at Lyme in Mas- 
 sachusetts, 1731 ; entered into military service 
 early in life, and served through the French 
 war, from 1755 to 1763. When the revolution- 
 ary war commenced, he was appointed colonel 
 in the Connecticut line. Died July 28th, 1795, 
 in his 64th year. 
 
 Cadwallader, John, an early patriot of the 
 American revolution, was born in Philadelphia, 
 1743 ; appointed brigadier general and had a 
 share in the operations at Trenton and Prince- 
 ton in the winter of 1776 — 7 ; died February 
 10th, 1786 in his 44th year. 
 
 Calmet, a learned Benedictme, died in France 
 October 25, 1757, aged 86. 
 
 Calvert, George, baron of Baltimore, founder 
 of Maryland, was of Flemish descent, born at 
 Kipling, in Yorkshire, England, 1582, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford; in 1619, he was made by 
 Charles I, king of England, one of the principal 
 secretaries of state ; resigned that office, 1624, 
 made baron of Baltimore, 1625, obtained a pa- 
 tent for Maryland, June 20th 1632, and died at 
 London the same year. 
 
 Camper, Adrian Gilles, revived Craniology, 
 and was eminent as a comparative anatomist, 
 flourished 1789. 
 
 Canning, George, eminent English states- 
 man, and late premier of England, died August 
 8th, 1827, aged 57. 
 
 Carey, Wm., D.D. of the English Baptist mis- 
 sion at Serampore, was born Aug. 17, 1761. He 
 was the son of a poor man, and commenced bu- 
 siness in life as a shoemaker. By industry and 
 application he acquainted himself with Hebrew 
 and various other languages. In 1793, he left 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EMI 
 
 644 
 
 EMI 
 
 England for India. He translated the Scriptures 
 into Bengalee, and into all the principal langua- 
 ges of Northern Hindostan, and compiled also 
 a voluminous Bengalee Dictionary; died 1834. 
 
 Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, the last sur- 
 viving signer of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. He was born at Annapolis, on the 20th 
 of September, 1737 ; was descended from a re- 
 spectable Irish family; was of the Catholic reli- 
 gion, and inherited a very large estate ; died 
 Nov. 14, 1832 
 
 Cassini de Thury, Caeser Francois, 2nd son of 
 James, director of the royal observatory after 
 his father, born at Paris, June 17, 1714, died 
 September 4th, 1784. aged 70. The family hav- 
 ing been at the head of the royal observatory, 
 at Paris, 113 years. 
 
 Cato, the Censor, born B. C. 235, died 149, 
 aged 86. 
 
 Catullus, Latin poet, died B. C. 16, aged 71. 
 
 Cave, Edward, editor of the first periodical 
 Magazine in England, born 1691, died 1754, 
 aged 63. 
 
 Caverly, sir Hugh, the first who used gun- 
 powder in the service of England, died 1389. 
 
 Caxton, William, the first who introduced 
 printing into England, born 1412, died 1491, 
 aged 79. 
 
 Chaise, Francis de la, French Jesuit, and con- 
 fessor to Louis XIV, king of France, from 1675, 
 to his death, 1709. It is supposed with every 
 rational probability that Father de la Chaise, in- 
 stigated the revocation of the edict of Nantz. 
 
 Chambers, Ephraim, the first person, who in 
 England, undertook a work in the form now 
 known as a Cyclopaedia, or Encyclopaedia; his 
 dictionary was the origin of what is now term- 
 ed Rees' Cyclopaedia. He was born about 1680, 
 died May loth, 1740. 
 
 Chastellux, marquis of, French general in the 
 revolutionary war,, and who published travels 
 in America, born 1734. 
 
 Chew, Benjamin, born in Maryland, Novem- 
 ber 29, 1722; eminent lawyer, member of con- 
 gress, 1776, who preferred reform rather than 
 revolution, and retired from public concerns; 
 died 20th January, 1810. 
 
 Churchill, John, duke of Marlborough, cele- 
 brated English general, born in Devonshire, 
 1750, died at Windsor Lodge, 1722, aged 7:2. 
 
 Clark, Rev. Adam, LL. D., F. S. A., &c, a 
 distinguished Methodist preacher and divine, a 
 man of great talents and extensive learning, 
 particularly in the oriental languages and bibli- 
 cal literature, and author of a well known and 
 learned commentary on the Scriptures, and va- 
 
 rious other publications. He was born in 1763, 
 in the county of Londonderry, in Ireland, his 
 father being of an English family, and his mo- 
 ther a Scotchwoman. By invitation of Mr. John 
 Wesley he became a pupil in Kingswood school 
 then recently established, and was sent out by 
 Mr. Wesley, an itinerant preacher, in 1782, at 
 the early age of 19. He was greatly admired 
 as a preacher : at first his youth attracted great 
 numbers of hearers ; but afterwards the extent 
 of his resources, from the gifts of nature and 
 the fruits of study, commanded attention wher- 
 ever he went; and hardly any man ever drew 
 so large congregations, or of so mixed a charac- 
 ter. He continued to travel in various circuits, 
 till 1805, when he took up his residence in Lon- 
 don, where he passed a considerable part of his 
 subsequent life. To his great talents and learn- 
 ing he united the virtues of the humble Chris- 
 tian ; was greatly respected by all denomina- 
 tions; and though catholic in his feelings, he 
 was strongly attached to the body of Christians 
 with which he was connected ; died, August 
 26, 1834, at Bayswater, near London, of the 
 cholera, aged 72. 
 
 Clark, Abraham, one of the signers of the de- 
 claration of independence, born in New Jersey, 
 15th February, 1726; died by a stroke of the 
 sun, 1794, in the 69th year of his age. 
 
 Clayton, John, an eminent English botanist, 
 author of " The Flora Virginica," was born in 
 England, about 1685 ; came an infant with his 
 father to America, and in 1722, became clerk of 
 the county of Gloucester, Virginia, which office 
 he held 51 years, to his death, 1773, aged 88. 
 
 Clerke, Charles, able English naval comman- 
 der, the companion, friend and successor of cap- 
 tain James Cook, died on the coast of Kams- 
 chatka, August 22d, 1779, aged 39. 
 
 Clinton, Charles, was born in the county of 
 Longford, Ireland, 1690; came to America, 
 1729 ; died 1773, aged nearly 83. 
 
 Clori vie re, Joseph Peter Picot, director of the 
 monastery of the Visitation in George-Town, D. 
 C. born at Broons, in Brittany, France, 4th No- 
 vember, 1768. In the French Revolution, he 
 sided with the royal party; reputed inventor of 
 the famous infernal machine, and in conse- 
 quence was compelled to leave his country ; be- 
 came subsequently a priest in Baltimore and 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in the former of 
 which places he took orders from aichbishop 
 Carroll, in 1812; and in 181!) was appointed 
 over the monastery in George-Town, where he 
 closed his life, on September 30th, 1826, aged 
 57 ; a distinguished and respectable man. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EMI 
 
 645 
 
 EMI 
 
 Clum, Mrs. near Litchfield, England, died 
 Jan. 28th, 1772, aged 138, and had lived 103 
 years in one house. 
 
 Golden, Cadwallader, mathematician and phi- 
 losopher, born at Demse, in Scotland, February 
 17th, 1688; came to America, 1708, and to 
 which he removed his family 171(5, settled in 
 New- York. He died, September 28th, 1776, on 
 the day of the conflagration of New-York, aged 
 88. 
 
 Cole, William, a great botanist, born in Eng- 
 land, 1626, died 1662, aged 36 
 
 Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, French meta- 
 physician, died 1780. 
 
 Confucius, Chinese philosopher, born, B. C. 
 555. 
 
 Copernicus, Nicholas, restorer of the Pytha- 
 gorean, or true system of the Universe, born at 
 Thorn, in Prussia, February 19, 1473 ; he com- 
 pleted his astronomical system, in 1530 ; not 
 published until 1543, and then only under the 
 authority, and at the expense of cardinal Ni- 
 cholas Schoenburg. A copy of this treatise, the 
 " Astronomla Instaurata, sive de Revolutionibus 
 Orbium Celestrum" reached the hand of its il- 
 lustrious author, only a few hours before his 
 death, May 22d, 1543, in his 71st year. 
 
 Corneille, Thomas, brother to the more fa- 
 mous Peter Corneille, French dramatist and his- 
 torian, died 1709. 
 
 Correa, de Serra Abbe, eminent Portuguese 
 naturalist and statesman, was born at Serpa, in 
 Portugal, 1754, several years ambassador from 
 Portugal to the United States, returned to his 
 native country, about 1818, and died. 
 
 Correlli, signora, received the triumph of a 
 coronation at Rome, July 1776. 
 
 Cosmo de Medicis, died 1464, aged 75. 
 
 Crabbe, Rev. George, LL. B„, a distinguished 
 poet. He was born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, 
 December 24, 1754 ; and, after having received 
 a very limited classical education, he was ap- 
 prenticed to the business of a surgeon and apo- 
 thecary; but he had little fondness for his pro- 
 fession ; and having cultivated a taste for poetry, 
 he repaired to London, at about the age of 24, 
 as a literary adventurer. After having attempt- 
 ed in vain to gain the favorable notice of the 
 public, the " youth to fortune and to fame un- 
 known" ventured, without an introduction, to 
 make application to the celebrated Edmund 
 Burke, and committed to him a large quantity of 
 miscellaneous composition. Mr. Burke received 
 him with kindness; selected from among other 
 poems " The Library" aud " The Village," (the 
 former of which was soon afterwards published, 
 
 and the latter in 1783); and introduced him to the 
 acquaintance of Mr. Fox, and Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds. Sir Joshua submitted to Dr. Johnson 
 the manuscript of " The Village," " which," 
 said the famous critic, in his letter on returning 
 the poem, " I read with great delight; it is ori- 
 ginal, vigorous, and elegant." After a short 
 preparation, in which he was assisted by Mr. 
 Burke, Mr. Crabbe was ordained a deacon in 
 1781. " The Newspaper" was published in 
 1785 ; " The Parish Register" in 1807 ; " The 
 Borough" in 1810; "Tales in Verse" in 1812; 
 and " Tales of the Hall" in 1819. Mr. Crabbe 
 has been characterized by the Edinburgh Re- 
 view as " the satirist of low life." " He is a 
 writer," says Mr. Hazlitt, " of great power, but 
 of a perverse and morbid taste. — His poems are 
 a sort of funeral dirge over human life, but 
 without pity, without hope. He has neither 
 smiles nor tears for his readers." He died at 
 Trowbridge, in Wiltshire, Feb. 8th, 1832, aged 
 77. 
 
 Crebillon, the elder, French traffic poet, died 
 1762, aged 88. 
 
 Cropper, John, a gallant officer in the revolu- 
 tionary war, and personally distinguished by 
 general Washington, died January 15th, 1822, 
 aged 66. 
 
 Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance 
 to the Bible, born in Scotland, 1701, died in 
 London, 1770, aged 69. 
 
 Ctebius, supposed inventor of the pump, 
 flourished B. C. 120. 
 
 Cudworth, Ralph, author of " The Intellec- 
 tual System," died 1688, aged 71. 
 
 Cuflen, Dr. William, of Edinburgh, died 
 February 5, 1790, aged 80. 
 
 Cuvier, Baron, a Peer of France, Perpetual 
 Secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Profes- 
 sor of Natural History in the College of France, 
 and the greatest naturalist of the age ; be was 
 born at Montbelliard, in Upper Rhine, in Au- 
 gust, 1769, and died at Paris, May 13, 1832. 
 
 Dacier, Andrew, French, classical translator, 
 died 1722, aged 7.1. 
 
 Dalton, John, English M. D. who adapted 
 Milton's Mask of Comus to the stage, and gave 
 the benefit to the grandaughter of the p'oet; 
 died 1763, aged 54. 
 
 Darke, William, usually called major Darke, 
 a brave veteran officer, born in Philadelphia 
 county, 1736, served in the war of 1755-63; 
 again in the revolutionary war, and finally in 
 the Indian war, under general St. Clair, on No- 
 vember 4th, 1791, died November 26th, 1801 
 aged 66. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EMI 
 
 646 
 
 EMI 
 
 Darnley , lord, king of Scotland, and father of 
 James VI, murdered February 10, 1567. 
 
 Davenant, Charles, English statistical writer, 
 and amongst the first of that class in that king- 
 dom, died 1714, aged 58. 
 
 Davidson, William, a native of Lancaster 
 county, Pennsylvania, born 1746, and in 1750, 
 removed by his parents to Mecklenburg, North 
 Carolina. At the opening of the revolutionary 
 war, he entered the army, in which he rose to 
 the rank of general, and fell defending the pas- 
 sage of Catawba River against Lord Corn- 
 wallis, February 1st, 1781. 
 
 Daun, Leopold count, marshal of the German 
 empire, and during the seven years' war, the 
 most successful opponent of Frederic the great, 
 died 17(56, aged 61. 
 
 Day, John, printer, the first who introduced 
 the Greek and Saxon characters into England, 
 died 1584. 
 
 Deane, Silas, member of congress, died in 
 extreme poverty in England, 1781. 
 
 Defoe, Daniel, author of Robinson Crusoe, 
 died 1731. 
 
 De l'lsle, Joseph Nicholas, French astrono- 
 mer, died 1772. 
 
 De l'lsle, Wm., French geographer, died 1726. 
 
 De Lima, John Taverra. a native of Portugal, 
 died 1738, aged 198. 
 
 Denham, Sir John, poet, born in Dublin 1615, 
 died 1668, aged 53. 
 
 Derham, William, English divine and ma- 
 thematician, died in 1735, aged 78. 
 
 Dickenson, John, distinguished American 
 statesman and patriot, entered public office 1764, 
 died in 1808. 
 
 Didot, Francis Ambrose, eminent French 
 printer, died July 10, 1804, aged 74. 
 
 Digges, Dudley, English statesman, died 
 1639, aged 56. 
 
 Doddridge, Philips, eminent English divine, 
 died 1751, aged 49. 
 
 Domat, John, eminent French judge and ju- 
 rist, born 1625, died at Paris 1696, aged 71. 
 
 Dow, Rev. Lorenzo, a celebrated but eccen- 
 tric Methodist preacher. He was a native of 
 Connecticut; and in his course of 30 years' 
 preaching, he travelled over England and Ire- 
 land, and visited almost every part of the United 
 States. He is supposed to have preached to 
 more persons than any other man of his time. 
 He died at Georgetown, D. C. Feb. 2d, 1834. 
 
 Draco, the lawgiver, flourished B. C. 624. 
 
 Drake, sir Francis, born 1545; set sail on 
 his voyage round the world 1577 ; died 1595, 
 aged 50. 
 
 Drayton, Michael. English poet, died 1631, 
 aged 58. 
 
 Drayton, William Henry, an American pat- 
 riot and political writer, author of " Freeman" 
 born 1742, died a member of Congress, 1779, 
 aged 37. 
 
 Drelincourt, Charles, French Protestant di- 
 vine, died 1669, aged 74. 
 
 Drummond, William, poet, died 1649, aged 
 63. 
 
 Dryden, John, eminent English poet, died 
 1700, aged 69. 
 
 -Dlucos, Charles Dineau, French historian 
 and didactic writer, died 1772, aged 57. 
 
 Duncan, king of Scotland, murdered by Mac- 
 beth, A. D. 1054. 
 
 Duncan, William, author of " Logic," died 
 1760 aged 43. 
 
 Dunstan, St. archbishop of Canterbury, from 
 959 to 988, was one of the violent apostles of 
 clerical celibacy. 
 
 Dyer, John, English poet, born 1700, died 
 1758, aged 58. 
 
 Edward, the black prince, English hero, son 
 of Edward III, died in France, 1376, aged 46. 
 
 Ellwood, Thomas, an eminent member of the 
 society of Friends; at 21 he joined the society, 
 and became as a preacher and writer, one of 
 their most efficient members to his death, 1713, 
 in his 74th year. 
 
 Elstol, William, a Saxon scholar, died 1714. 
 
 Epicurus, founder of the sect which bore his 
 name; born at Athens, B. C. 342, died 271, 
 aged 71 . 
 
 Epimenides, a Cretan philosopher, contem 
 porary with Solon, said to have lived 157 years 
 
 Erastothenes, one of the greatest mathema- 
 ticians, of antiquity ; the first in Europe who 
 measured a degree of the meridian, and the 
 first who accurately determined the inclination 
 of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic, 
 died B. C. 195, aged 80. 
 
 Eumenes of Pergamos, one of the generals 
 of Alexander the Great, put to death B. C. 315. 
 
 Euripides, one of the most ancient and great- 
 est Greek tragic poets, died B. C. 405, aged 75. 
 
 Eusebius, Pamphylus bishop Ccssarea, flour- 
 ished A. D. 270-340. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, an Arian, 
 flourished 338-41. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Emessa, theological wri- 
 ter, flourished 340-60. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Verceil, theological wri- 
 ter, flourished 354-70. 
 
 These bishops of the same name and age are 
 almost invariably confounded. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
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 647 
 
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 Evelyn, John, English historian and poet, 
 died 1698, aged 44. 
 
 Evelyn, John, English natural philosopher, 
 died 1706, aged 77. 
 
 Evremont, Saint, died September 9th, 1703, 
 aged 90. 
 
 Farenheit, Gabriel Daniel, inventor of the 
 Thermometer which bears his name, born at 
 Hamburg, flourished 1720. 
 
 Fancourt, Samuel, the first who opened a 
 circulating library in London ; he came to that 
 city about 1740, and set up his library ; died in 
 poverty 1763, aged 90. 
 
 Farinello, eminent Italian opera singer, died 
 in England, about 1780. 
 
 Farquhar, George, dramatic writer, died 1707, 
 aged 29. 
 
 Falstolf, Sir John, celebrated English general, 
 flourished under the Henries IV, V and VI, 
 and died about 1460. 
 
 Fayette, Mary Magdalen Proche de la Vergne, 
 countess of, dramatic, historical and biographi- 
 cal writer, flourished at the court of Louis XIV 
 1670-93. 
 
 Ferdinando, Marc de Paleotti, hanged in 
 England for murder, February 28th, 1718; he 
 was brother to the duchess of Shrewsbury. 
 
 Ferarr, Lawrence, Earl, committed to the 
 tower of London for murdering his steward, 
 Feb. 13, 1760; tried, found guilty April 18, and 
 hanged at Tyburn May 5, 1760. 
 
 Fletcher, Andrew, commonly called Fletcher 
 of Salton, Scots political writer, died 1716, 
 aged 63. 
 
 Fleury, Claude, French ecclesiastical writer, 
 and coadjutor of Fenelon, as preceptors, died 
 1723, aged 83. 
 
 Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, author of 
 Plurality of Worlds, born 1657, and lived to 
 Jan. 1757, or to nearly 100 years. 
 
 Fordyce, James, brother of David, eminent 
 Scots divine, and author of Sermons to Young 
 Women, died 1796, aged 76. 
 
 Forrest, Uriah, a brave officer of the Mary- 
 land line, in the American revolutionary war, 
 born in St. Mary's county, 1756 ; losing a leg 
 in the battle of German town, was forced to re- 
 tire from service. 
 
 Forster, John Reinhold, author of Northern 
 Voyages, born in Polish Prussia 1729 ; circum- 
 navigated the earth with captain Cook ; died 
 January 9, 1779, aged 70. 
 
 Fortescue, sir John, English law writer, flour- 
 ished about 1460. 
 
 Foster, sir Michael, eminent English crown 
 lawyer, died 1763, aged 74. 
 55 
 
 Fothergill, Dr. John, born in Yorkshire, Eng- 
 land, 1712, in 1748, published his treatise on 
 putrid sore throat ; died 1780, aged 68. 
 
 Fox, Richard, bishop of Exeter, eminent 
 English statesman, died 1528, aged 66. 
 
 Freneau, Philip, a poet of the American rev- 
 olution ; died at Freehold, N. J., Dec. 18th, 
 1832, aged about 80. 
 
 Frith, John, an early martyr to the reforma- 
 tion in England, was burned about 1533; 
 Frith's work on the Eucharist, is supposed to 
 have been the first English treatise on the side 
 of the reformed doctrines. 
 
 Froisart, John, early French historian, died 
 1402, aged 69. 
 
 Fromage, Peter, eminent French Catholic mis- 
 sionary, born at Laon, 1678, died 1740, aged 62. 
 
 Fuller, Rev. Dr. Thomas, eminent English 
 divine and ecclesiastical writer, born 1608, died 
 1661, aged 53. 
 
 Fust, or Faustus of Mentz, one of the earliest 
 printers in Europe, died about 1466. 
 
 Gallilei, Galhleo,one of the greatest revivers 
 of modern science, born at Pisa, 1564 ; made 
 professor of mathematics in the university of 
 Pisa, 1590; removed to Venice 1592, where he 
 exercised the duties of a similar office, till 1611 ; 
 in 1609, he had made the first Telescope, died 
 1642, in his 78th year. 
 
 Ganesvoort, Gen. Peter, was born in Albany, 
 N. Y. July 16th, 1749; joined the American 
 army as a major, 1775, but raised to the rank of 
 colonel the ensuing year; on August 2d, 1777, 
 he was besieged with his command in fort Stan- 
 wix, where Rome in Oneida county now stands, 
 by Colonel St. Leger, with a body of British 
 tories and Indians, who after a most gallant de- 
 fence, were repelled and forced to retreat, on 
 August 22d. He continued in the army to the 
 close of the war, though from March 1782 in 
 the immediate service of New York ; he was 
 appointed by president Madison, a brigadier 
 general, in which service he continued to his 
 death, July 2d, 1812, aged 63. 
 
 Garden, Alexander, eminent botanist, born 
 in Scotland, 1730, removed to Charleston, S. 
 Carolina, 1752, died in London 1791, aged 61. 
 
 Garth, Dr. Samuel, English poet, flourished 
 1691-1719. 
 
 Gascoigne, sir William, eminent English 
 lawyer and judge, born 1350, died 1413, aged 63. 
 
 Gassendi, Peter, eminent French astrono- 
 mer and philosopher, one of the great restorers 
 of inductive philosophy, died 1655, aged 63. 
 
 Gay, John, eminent English poet, died 1732 
 aged 44. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
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 648 
 
 EMI 
 
 Gebhard, Rev. John G. born Feb. 2d, 1750, 
 at Waldorf, in Germany ; educated at the uni- 
 versity of Heidelberg, emigrated to America, 
 1771, died in the state of New York, August 
 17th, 1826, in the 77th year of his age, and the 
 55th of his ministry. 
 
 Gebee, Claude, usually called Claude de Lor- 
 raine, eminent landscape painter, died 1682, 
 aged 82. 
 
 Gerard, French nobleman, and first grand 
 master of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 flourished A. D. 1 LOO. 
 
 Gessner, John Mathias, eminent German 
 philologist, died 1761, aged 70. 
 
 Gessner, Solomon, German philologist, died 
 1605, aged 46. 
 
 Gibson, Col. John, an officer of the revolu- 
 tionary war, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 
 May 23d, 1740, served under Gen. Forbes when 
 that officer took Fort du Quesne ; entered the 
 army as a colonel early in the war, and contin- 
 ued through it; died at Braddock's Field, near 
 Pittsburg, April 10th, 1822, aged nearly 82. 
 
 Gibson, Col. George, an officer of the revo- 
 lutionary army, a native of Lancaster, Pennsyl- 
 vania, settled early in life at Pittsburg, joined 
 the army as a colonel, and served to the end of 
 1778. In the war with the Indian tribes, Col. 
 Gibson again commanded a regiment, and shar- 
 ed the fatal dangers of St. Clair's campaign and 
 defeat, in the latter of which he received a mor- 
 tal wound, which terminated an honorable and 
 eventful life at Fort Jefferson, Dec. 11th, 1794. 
 
 Gilbert, sir Humphrey, half brother to sir 
 Walter Raleigh, and one of the earliest English 
 adventurers, who attempted to form a colony in 
 America, born 1539; in 1576, published "A 
 treatise to prove a passage by the north-west to 
 the East Indies/' In 1578, he obtained a patent 
 to make a settlement in North America, and in 
 that year made a voyage to Newfoundland, re- 
 turned to Europe, and in 1583, on his homeward 
 bound voyage, from another trip to America, 
 was lost with all his crew. 
 
 Gill, Dr. John, eminent scriptural commen- 
 tator, died 1771, aged 74. 
 
 Glanvil, Joseph, eminent English philosopher, 
 di-d 1680, aired 44. 
 
 Glauber, John Rodolph, from whom the well 
 known salt takes its name, flourished 1640-60. 
 
 Glisson, Francis, eminent English M. D. 
 President of the College of Physicians, London, 
 died 1677, aged 80. The man who was one of 
 the founders of the Royal Society, and eulo- 
 gized by Boerhaave and Haller. 
 
 Glover, Richard,Eng. poet, died 1785, aged 73. 
 
 Gluck, le Chevalier Christopher, eminent 
 German musical composer, died at Vienna, 
 1787, aged 71 . 
 
 Godfrey, Thomas, inventor of the Quadrant 
 commonly called Hadley's. By the latter he 
 was cheated out of the credit of the invention ; 
 bom in Philadelphia, where he died in Decem- 
 ber, 1749. 
 
 Godeau, eminent French ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian, died 1672, aged 67. 
 
 Goethe, John Wolfgang von, died at Weimar, 
 Germany] March 22, 1832, aged 82. He was 
 an eminent author and a romantic poet, held in 
 -great repute by his countrymen and admirers; 
 and styled " the patriarch of German litera- 
 ture ;" according to a writer in " The Foreign 
 Quarterly Review," " the first man of his na- 
 tion and time ; " and according to Prince Puck- 
 ler MuAau, " the third in the great triumvi- 
 rate with Homer and Shakspeare." 
 
 He was born on the 28th of August, 1749, at 
 Frankfort on the Maine. At the age of 15, he 
 went to the University of Leipsic ; and after 
 passing four years there, he resided awhile in 
 Alsace, and then returned to his native city. 
 About the year 1776, on the invitation of the 
 Grand Duke, he went to Weimar, where he 
 passed the remainder of his life, loaded by his 
 patron with honors, ennobled, made a privy 
 counsellor, and for many years prime minister. 
 Owing in part to the liberal patronage of the 
 Grand Duke, the little court of Weimar was a 
 distinguished focus of German literature ; and 
 in the early years of the present century, this 
 place reckoned among its residents more than 
 twenty writers of note, at the head of whom 
 were Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, Herder, and 
 for a time, Kotzebue. Some of the most cele- 
 brated of the productions of Goethe are the 
 "Sorrows of Werther," "Faust," and " Wilhelm 
 Meister's Apprenticeship." The edition of 'his 
 works published at Stuttgard and Tubingen, in 
 1830, comprises 40 volumes. He left his MSS. 
 to the care of Dr. Eckermann, whom he ap- 
 pointed editor of his posthumous productions; 
 and an edition of his whole works now publish- 
 ing, will comprise fifty-five volumes. — He main- 
 tained for many years a tranquil empire over, 
 the literature of his country, which was implic- 
 itly acquiesced in by the candidates for literary 
 fame ; yet his works have been much complain- 
 ed of as characterized by unintelligible mysti- 
 cism, and as of irreligious and immoral ten- 
 dency. 
 
 Gordon, Lord George, died in Newgate, Nov 
 1, 1793. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
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 649 
 
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 Gore, Capl. John, the friend and companion 
 of Capt. Cook, was born in Virginia, 1735 ; early 
 in life he entered the British navy, and made 
 his first voyage round the world with Commo- 
 dore Byron. In 17G3, he was appointed second 
 lieutenant of the Endeavour, under Captain 
 Cook, and again circumnavigated the earth. 
 In 177G, he was appointed first lieutenant of the 
 Resolution, and by the successive deaths of 
 Captains Cook and Gierke, returned to Europe, 
 October, 1730, commander of the squadron. 
 Ended his days as one of the captains of Green- 
 wich Hospital, Aug. 10th, 1790, aged 55. 
 
 Granville, Geo., Eng. poet, died 1735, aged 68. 
 
 Greene, Col. Christopher, a relation of Gen. 
 Nathaniel Greene, and a native of Warwick, 
 Rhode Island, was born 1737, and in May, 1775, 
 entered the service as a lieutenant. He was 
 with Montgomery at Quebec, where he became 
 a prisoner. Soon after his exchange, he joined 
 his regiment, to the command of which he rose 
 in 1777. He fell May 22d, 1781, in an action 
 with some tories near New York. 
 
 Greenville, Sir Richard, commander of the 
 first English colony sent to North America, was 
 born 1540; in June, 1558, landed on the shores 
 of the Roanoke, and left a small colony which 
 was subsequently, it is probable, destroyed by 
 the savages, as no trace of them could be ever 
 afterwards discovered. Greenville shared with 
 Howard, Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins and Frobi- 
 gher, the renown of defeating the Spanish Ar- 
 mada. In 1591, he was made Vice Admiral of 
 a squadron sent out to the West Indies. In 
 this expedition he fell in with a superior force, 
 and in the action his ship was taken and him- 
 self mortally wounded. 
 
 Greenville, Sir Bevil, grandson of Admiral 
 Greenville, was born 1596, and slain in the bat- 
 tle of Lansdown, near Bath, 1643. 
 
 Grenville, Lord William Wyndham, was a 
 distinguished statesman and powerful debater, 
 born Oct. 25, 1759, the third son of George 
 Grenville, Prime Minister of England in 1763- 
 5. The secret of the authorship of " Junius " 
 is said to have been entrusted to Lord Gren- 
 ville, and that it would be disclosed after his 
 death; and the office of making the disclosure, 
 some have supposed, has been confided to his 
 nephew, Lord Nugent. He died at his seat, 
 Dropmore, in Buckinghamshire, on the 12th of 
 January, 1834, aged 74. 
 
 Grimston, sir Harbottle, English law writer, 
 died 1683. 
 
 Guido of Arezzo, musical composer, of the 
 11th century. 
 
 Guise, Francis de Lorraine, duke of, celebrat- 
 ed French general, murdered at Orleans, 1563 4 
 aged 44. 
 
 Guise, Henry de Lorraine, duke of, son of 
 Francis, who with his brother Cardinal de Lor- 
 raine, was murdered 1588, at the instigation of 
 Henry III king of France. 
 
 Gunter, Edmund, eminent English mathe- 
 matician, author of the scale and chain which 
 bears his name, died 1626, aged 45. 
 
 Hale, sir Matthew, eminent English Judge, 
 died 1676, aged 67. 
 
 Hammond, James, eminent English elegiac 
 poet, died 1740, aged 30. 
 
 Harris, John, the first compiler of a dictionary 
 of arts and sciences in England, died a beggar, 
 1719, aged 49. 
 
 Hartley, David, eminent. English metaphysi- 
 cian, died 1757, aged 53. 
 
 Harvey, Dr. William, who discovered the 
 circulation of the blood, died June 3d, 1658. 
 aged 80. 
 
 Hauser, Caspar, a personage whose history 
 is enveloped in mystery, died at Anspach, 
 Bavaria, of wounds inflicted by an unknown 
 assassin, Dec. 17th, 1833. On the 26th of May, 
 1828, a youth, apparently about 16 or 17 years 
 of age, was found at one of the gates of Nurem- 
 berg ; but he was unable to give any account 
 of himself, nor could it be discovered who 
 brought him there, whence he came, or who he 
 was. He was 4 feet and 9 inches in height ; 
 was very pale ; had a short delicate beard on 
 his chin and upper lip ; his limbs were slender ; 
 his feet bore no marks of having been confined 
 in shoes ; he scarcely knew how to use his 
 fingers or hands ; and his attempts to walk re- 
 sembled the first efforts of a child. When 
 spoken to he understood nothing that was said 
 to him, and only replied in a few words of un- 
 intelligible gibberish ; and his countenance was 
 expressive of gross stupidity. He held in his 
 hand a letter addressed to the captain of one of 
 the cavalry companies of Nuremberg, dated 
 " Bavarian Frontiers ; place nameless." Its 
 purport was that the bearer had been left with 
 the writer, who was a poor laborer, in October, 
 1812, and who, not knowing his parents, had 
 brought him up in his house, without allowing 
 him to stir out of it. A note accompanying the 
 letter contained these words :— " His father was 
 one of the light cavalry : send him, when he is 
 17 years old, to Nuremberg, for his father was 
 stationed there. He was born April 30, 1812 
 I am a poor girl, and cannot support him : his 
 father is dead." A pen being put into his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 em: 
 
 650 
 
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 hands, he wrote in plain letters Caspar Hauser. 
 He appeared to be hungry and thirsty, but man- 
 ifested great aversion to eating or drinking any 
 thing that was offered to him except bread and 
 water. 
 
 He fell into the hands of persons who treated 
 him kindly, and taught him the use of language ; 
 and he manifested the most amiable and grate- 
 ful disposition. But he could give no account 
 of himself, except that, as far back as he could 
 remember, he had always inhabited a small cell, 
 continually seated on the ground, with his feet 
 naked, and having no covering except a shirt 
 and trousers, and he had never seen the sky. 
 When he awoke from sleep he was accustomed 
 to find near him some bread and a pitcher of 
 water ; but he never saw the face of the person 
 who brought them; and it was at Nuremberg 
 that he first learnt there were other living crea- 
 tures besides himself and the man with whom 
 he had always been. — Previous to his death 
 Hauser resided at Anspach, where he had a 
 little employment in the registrar-office, and 
 Lord Stanhope had also provided for his sup- 
 port. Some time before his assassination, an 
 ineffectual attempt had been made upon his life 
 by the same assassin, as is supposed, that finally 
 inflicted the fatal blow with a dagger. 
 
 Heath, Gen. William, born at Roxbury, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1737, and died in his native place, 
 Jan. 24th, 1814, aged 77. Amongst the first to 
 take up arms in favor of his insulted country, 
 was appointed by the provincial congress of 
 Massachusetts, in 1775, a brigadier general; 
 was by the continental congress, in 177(3, raised 
 to the rank of major general, and served through 
 the war. 
 
 Hedwig, John, eminent botanist, died 1797, 
 aged 67. 
 
 Herodotus, the father of history, born at Hal- 
 icarnassus in Caria, B. C. 481, flourished B. C. 
 440 ; time of his death unknown. His history 
 includes a period of 234 years, from B. C. 713 
 to 479. 
 
 Hervey, James, English divine and poet, au- 
 thor of" Meditations," &c. died 1758, aged 44. 
 
 Hay ward, Thomas, one of the signers°of the 
 declaration of independence, born in South 
 Carolina, 1746; died March, 1809. 
 
 Hill^Aaron, dramatic English poet, died 1750, 
 aged 65. 
 
 Hillhouse, James, a man very highly respect- 
 ed for his private virtues and his great and long 
 continued public services ; was born at Mont- 
 ville, Conn., Oct. 21, 1754, and died at New 
 Haven, Dec. 29, 1832, in his 79th year. 
 
 Hoadley, Benjamin, eminent English divine 
 and bishop of Winchester, died 1761, aged 85. 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas, celebrated English writer, 
 died 1679, aged 91. 
 
 Hogarth, William, eminent English painter, 
 died 1764, aged 67. 
 
 Holbein, Hans, eminent Swiss painter, died 
 1554, aged 56. 
 
 Holt, sir John, eminent English lawyer and 
 judge, died 1709, aged 67. 
 
 Holwell, John Zephaniah, commander, and 
 one of the few survivors of a party of 146 En- 
 glish, who were confined by the Nabob of Ben- 
 gal in 1756, in what was called, " The Black 
 Hole " at Calcutta. Mr. Holwell wrote an ac- 
 count of this dreadful affair, which he survived 
 42 years, dying in 1798, aged 89. 
 
 Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, eminent critic, 
 born in Scotland, 1696, died 1782, aged 86. 
 
 Hooker, Rev. Richard, author of Ecclesias- 
 tical Polity, died 1600, aged 47. 
 
 Hoole, John, English poet, translator of the 
 Orlando Furioso, and Jerusalem Delivered, died 
 1803, aged 76. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, eminent naval commander 
 and discoverer in North America, flourished 
 from 1607 to 1610. In the latter year, whilst 
 navigating the bay which now bears his name, 
 his crew mutinied, and put him, his son, and 
 seven others on shore, where they no doubt 
 perished. 
 
 Hume, David, philosopher and historian, died 
 August 25th, 1776, aged 65. 
 
 Humphrey, Col. David, patriot of the Ameri- 
 can revolution, born in Connecticut, 1752; in 
 1780 was appointed one of the aids to Gen. 
 Washington, with whom he remained through 
 the residue of the war, and at its termination 
 accompanied him to Virginia. Col. Humphrey 
 was distinguished for his gallantry and military 
 skill at the siege of York. He remained with 
 Gen. Washington, 'until 1790, with the excep- 
 tion of two years residence in France. In 1790, 
 he was appointed minister to Portugal, and for 
 the residue of his life was alternately in public 
 and private life. He died, Feb. 21st, 1818, 
 aged 66. 
 
 Hunter, John, eminent surgeon, died very 
 suddenly in St. George's hospital, 1793, aged 65. 
 Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon, grand- 
 father to Queens Mary II and Anne, and author 
 of a history of the grand rebellion, died at 
 Rouen, 1074, aged 66. 
 
 Jane, the insane, daughter of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, became mother of the emperors Charles 
 V and Ferdinand I. The death of her husband 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EMI 
 
 651 
 
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 affected her reason ; she became insane in 1506, 
 and remained so to her death, 1555, 49 years. 
 
 Jasper, sergeant, distinguished for gallantry 
 in the revolutionary war; June 28th, 1776, in 
 the celebrated attack of sir Peter Parker, on 
 Fort Moultrie, he replaced the American flag 
 after it was shot away by a cannon ball. He 
 with the aid of sergeant Newton, waylaid, sur- 
 prised and captured, a British guard of ten men, 
 releasing an American or * the name of Jones, 
 whom they were conducting to certain de*ath at 
 Savannah. This extraordinary exploit was 
 performed within about two miles from the 
 British lines; killed in the attack on Savannah 
 Oct. 9, 1779. 
 
 Jerome. St. died A. D. 420, aged 80. 
 
 John, eminent Swiss naturalist, born at Zu- 
 rich, 1709, died 1790, aged 81. 
 
 Jones, sir William, English poet, statesman, 
 and oriental scholar, born in London, 1746, died 
 in Indostan, April 27th, 1794, aged 47. 
 
 Julius Caesar, much celebrated Roman gen- 
 eral, born B. C. July 10th, 100; murdered 
 March 15th, 44, aged 56. 
 
 Justin, a Latin historian, flourished it is sup- 
 posed under Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Kaufman, Angelica, eminent female painter; 
 died 1807, aged 67. 
 
 Kenri tk, William, dramatic writer, died 1777. 
 
 Klopstock, Frederick Theophilus, eminent 
 German poet, born 1724, died 1803, aged 79. 
 
 Kneller, sir Godfrey Theophilus, eminent 
 German poet, aged 75. 
 
 Laud, Archbishop, beheaded, 1645, aged 71. 
 
 La Place, marquis, Peter Simon, author of the 
 ** Mechanique Celiste," born 1749, died 1827. 
 
 Lavater, the physiognomist, died in his native 
 city, Zurich. 
 
 Lawrence, sir Henry, a celebrated portrait 
 painter, born at Bristol, England, 1769, died 
 Jan. 9, 1830. 
 
 Lee, Francis Lightfoot, one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, born Oct. 14, 
 1734. 
 
 Lenox, Earl of, Regent of Scotland, murder- 
 ed 1571. 
 
 Leo IX, the first Pope who kept an army. 
 1054. 
 
 Lever, sir Ashton, collector of a museum, 
 died 1788. 
 
 L'Enclos, Ninon de, died 1706, aged 80. 
 
 Linnreus, Charles Von, eminent botanist, died 
 at Upsal in Sweden, January 10, 1778, aged 71. 
 
 Liverpool, Lord, distinguished premier of 
 England, born June 17th, 1769, died December 
 18th, 1828 
 
 Livius, Titus, eminent Roman historian, died 
 A. D. 18, aged 76. 
 
 Long, Gabriel, the last of Gen. Morgan's 
 captains, died at his residence in Culpepper 
 county, Virginia, Feb. 3d, 1827. It is said that 
 this intrepid soldier fought in eighteen battles. 
 
 Longinus, eminent critic, put to death by the 
 Roman emperor Aurelian, A. D. 273. 
 
 Loyala, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits, died 
 1556, aged 65. 
 
 Lucan. Latin epic poet, born at Corduba, in 
 Spain, A. D. 37; put to death by Nero, 64, 
 aged 27. 
 
 Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, 
 reigned 77 years, founded the first church in 
 London, which was made the see of an arch- 
 bishop, afterwards removed to Canterbury, 
 A. D. 179. 
 
 Lucretius, Latin poet, born at Rome, B. C. 
 95, died 52, aged 43. 
 Lyttleton, Lord,Eng. poet, died 1773, aged 73. 
 
 Mackintosh, sir James, Kt„, M. P., D. L. C, 
 &c, was born October, 24, 1765, at Alldowrie 
 in the county of Inverness, Scotland, and was 
 educated at King's College, Aberdeen, where 
 he had for a fellow-student the celebrated Rob- 
 ert Hall. He died in London, May 30th, 1832. 
 
 Macklin, Charles, famous comedian, died 
 July 11th, 1797, aged 97. 
 
 Magellan, Ferdinand, whose ship was the first 
 which was navigated round the world ; killed 
 on the voyage, 1520. 
 
 Malbone, Edward G, an eminent miniature 
 painter, died 1807. 
 
 Malebranche, Nicholas, philosopher, born at 
 Paris 1638, died 1715, aged 77. 
 
 Malherbe, Francis, French poet and critic, 
 died 1628, aged 72. 
 
 Malthus, celebrated English writer on politi- 
 cal statistics, died Dec. 30, 1834. 
 
 Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, 
 mother of king Henry VII, died June 29, 1509. 
 
 Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, daughter 
 of the duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV ; 
 beheaded May 27th, 1541 , aged 70. 
 
 Marechal, Ambrose, Catholic archbishop of 
 Baltimore, born at Orleans, France, 1768; died 
 in Baltimore January 29th, 1828, aged 60. 
 
 Maria Theresa, empress of Germany, mother 
 of the unfortunate Maria Antoinette, queen of 
 France, born 1717 ; married the duke of Lor- 
 raine, 1736; succeeded her father, 1740; died 
 1780, aged 63. 
 
 Marion, Gen. Francis, a brave and active 
 officer in the southern war of the revolution, 
 died in South Carolina, 1795. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
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 652 
 
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 Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, cele- 
 brated English general, born at Ashe, in Dev- 
 onshire, 1650; died 1723, aged 73. 
 
 Martial. Marcus Valerius, Latin satiric poet, 
 died A. D. 104, aged 75. 
 
 Martin, Luther, eminent lawyer, first attor- 
 ney general of Maryland, which office he held 
 during the war, and nearly forty years ; became 
 a chief justice of the city court of Baltimore ; 
 died July 10th, 1826, in his 82d year. He was 
 one of the Convention that formed the Consti- 
 tution of the United States. 
 
 Mary I, Queen of England, daughter of Hen- 
 ry VIII and Catharine of Arragon, born 1516; 
 succeeded her brother Edward VI, 1553; di^d 
 November, 1558, aged 42, leaving the dreadful 
 character of " The Bloody Mary." 
 
 Mary, of Medicis, queen of Henry IV, of 
 France, died 1642, aged 69. 
 
 Mason, George, member of the Convention 
 which framed the Constitution, which he refus- 
 ed to sign ; member of Congress from Virginia, 
 died 1792, aged 67. 
 
 Massinger, Philip, English dramatic writer, 
 died 1640, aged 56. 
 
 Mather, Increase, eminent American divine, 
 born at Dorchester, Massachusetts. 1635; died 
 1723, aged 84. 
 
 Mather, Cotton, son of Increase Mather, also 
 eminent divine and writer, born 1662; died 
 1727, aged 65. 
 
 Maurice, elector of Saxony, and successful 
 supporter of the Protestant cause in Germany, 
 killed in the battle of Sievenhausen, 1553, aged 
 32 years. 
 
 Maurice, of Nassau, prince of Orange, and 
 grandson by his mother, to Maurice of Saxony, 
 pre-eminent Dutch general, died 1625, aged 58. 
 
 McKean, Thomas, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of American Independence ; colonel 
 in the army of the revolution; he prepared the 
 constitution of the state of Delaware, which was 
 adopted unanimously, July 28th, 1777; he re- 
 ceived from the executive council of Pennsyl- 
 vania his commission as chief justice, which 
 office he held twenty-two years, and at the time 
 of this appointment, he was speaker of the 
 house of assembly in Pennsylvania, president 
 of Delaware, and a member of the con cress, 
 and soon after was elected president of that dis- 
 tinguished body ; October 23d, 1781 , he address- 
 ed a letter to congress resigning his office of 
 president; congress next day unanimously re- 
 solved that Thomas McKean be requested to 
 resume the chair, and act as president. To 
 this he acceded. He was governor of Pennsyl- 
 
 vania nine years; born March 19th, 1734, died 
 June 24th, 1817, in his 84lh year, being one of 
 four survivors of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence. 
 
 Medici, John de, Pope Leo X, born at Flor- 
 ence 1475, died 1521, a lover and patron of 
 learned men. 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo, grandson of Cosmo, and the 
 most eminent of his family, born 1448. died 
 1492, aged 44. 
 
 Melancthon, Philip, illustrious reformer, and 
 coadjutor of Luther, born 1495; died 1560, 
 aged 65. 
 
 Melmoth, William, eminent English lawyer 
 and religious writer, died 174:5, aged 77. 
 
 Melmoth, William, son of the preceding, ele- 
 gant English writer, born 1710, died 1799, aged 
 89 years. 
 
 Menasseh, Ben Israel, a very learned and 
 eminent Jewish rabbi, and wiiter. flourished 
 1720-59. 
 
 Mercator, Gerard, improver of a method of 
 projecting maps which bears his name, died 
 1594, aged 82. 
 
 Mercer, Gen. Hugh, a most respectable and 
 valuable officer in the revolutionary war ; killed 
 in the battle of Princeton, January, 1777. He 
 was a native of Scotland. 
 
 Metastasio, l'Abate Pietro, eminent Italian 
 poet, born 1698, died at Vienna, 1782. 
 
 Metius, James, died 1612, inventor of tele- 
 scopes. 
 
 Meton, astronomer of Athens, inventor of 
 the Cycle which bears his name, flourished 
 B.C. 432-10. 
 
 Mickle, William Julius, Scotch poet, and 
 translator of the Lusiad, born 1734, died 1789, 
 aged 55. 
 
 Mifflin, Thomas, major general in the revo- 
 lutionary war ; president of congress; and in 
 that character received the resignation of Wash- 
 ington in a public audience at Annapolis; was 
 nine years governor of Pennsylvania, died Jan. 
 20, 1800, in the 57th year of his age. 
 
 Milton, John, was born in London, Dec. 9th, 
 1608, died November 8th, 1674. 
 
 Moliere, John Baptist, much celebrated 
 French dramatic writer, born at Paris, 1620, 
 died 1673, aged 53. 
 
 Monro, Dr. Alexander, entitled the father of 
 the medical school of Edinburgh, died 1787, 
 aged 70. 
 
 Montague, Michael de, French essayist, died 
 1592, aged 59. 
 
 Montague, lady Marv Wortlev, writer, born 
 1690, died 1762, aged 72. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
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 653 
 
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 Montcalm, Louis Joseph D. killed on the 
 plains of Abraham 1759 ; he was commander of 
 the French army. 
 
 Montecuculi, Raymond de, great Italian gen- 
 eral, died 1681, aged 73. 
 
 Montesquieu, author of the Spirit of Laws, 
 born 1089, died 1755. 
 
 Montgolfier, inventor of air balloons, born 
 1747, died 1799. 
 
 Mooie, Dr. John, author, born 1730, died 
 1802. 
 
 More, Hannah, a deservedly celebrated lady, 
 who was born at Stapleton, in Gloucestershire 
 in 1744. She was one of the five daughters of 
 a village schoolmaster, whose means were not 
 sufficient to give his children many of the ad- 
 vantages of education ; but this deficiency was 
 supplied by their own talents and perseverance. 
 The literary abilities of Hannah early attracted 
 notice, and a subscription was formed for estab- 
 lishing her and her sisters in a school of their 
 own. 
 
 Her first literary production, " The Search 
 after Happiness, a pastoral drama," was written 
 when she was only 18 years of age, though not 
 published till 1773. By the encouragement of 
 Mr. Garrick, she tried her strength in tragic 
 composition, and wrote " The Inflexible Cap- 
 tive, a Tragedy,*' which was printed in 1704. 
 Her tragedy of " Percy," the most popular of 
 her dramatic compositions, was brought out in 
 1778, and ran 14 nights successively ; and her 
 last tragedy, " The Fatal Falsehood," was pro- 
 duced in 1779. Shortly after, her opinions on 
 public theatres underwent a change, and, as 
 she has stated in the preface to the third vol- 
 ume of her works, " she did not consider the 
 stage, in its present state, as becoming the 
 appearance or countenance of a Christian." 
 " Early in life she attracted general notice by 
 a brilliant display of literary talent, and was 
 honored by the intimate acquaintance of John- 
 son and Burke, of Reynolds and Garrick, and 
 of many other highly eminent individuals, who 
 equally appreciated her amiable qualities, and 
 her superior intellect. But, under a deep con- 
 viction, that to live to the glory of God. and to 
 the good of our fellow creatures, is the great 
 object of human existence, and the only one 
 which can bring peace at the last, she quitted 
 in the prime of her days, the bright circles of 
 fashion and literature, and, retiring into the 
 neighborhood of Bristol, devoted herself to a 
 life of active Christian benevolence, and to the 
 composition of various works, having for their 
 object the religious improvement of mankind. 
 
 Her practical conduct beautifully exemplified 
 the moral energy of her Christian principles." 
 
 Her first prose publication was " 1 noughts 
 on the Manners of the Great," printed in 1788; 
 followed in 1791, by her " Estimate of the Re- 
 ligion of the Fashionable World." In 1795, 
 she commenced at Bath, in monthly numbers, 
 " The Cheap Repository," a series of admirable 
 tales for the common people, one of which 
 is the well-known " Shepherd of Salisbury 
 Plain." The success of this seasonable publi- 
 cation was extraordinary ; and within a year 
 the sale reached the number of 1,000,000 cop- 
 ies. Her " Strictures on the Modern System 
 of Female Education" appeared in 1799 ; "Hints 
 towards Forming the Character of a Young 
 Princess," in 1805; " Ccelebs in search of a 
 Wife," in 1809, (which passed through at least 
 six editions in less than a year;) "Practical 
 Piety," in 1811 ; " ChristianMorals," in 1812; 
 " Essay on the Character and Writings of St. 
 Paul," in 1815; and " Moral Sketches of the 
 Prevailing Opinions and Manners, Foreign and 
 Domestic, with Reflections on Prayer." The 
 collection of her works comprises 11 volumes 
 octavo. 
 
 Near the beginning of the present century, 
 Mrs. More left Bath and retired to Barley 
 Wood, a cvttagt delightedly situated in the 
 village of Wrington, the native place of John 
 Locke. In 1810, she lost her last surviving 
 sister Martha, and some years after being con- 
 fined to her room, she quitted Barley Wood, for 
 Clifton, where, and at Bristol, she had some val- 
 uable friends, though not a single relation of 
 whom she had any knowledge in the world. 
 She is said to have realized upwards of £30,000 
 by her writings ; and her charitable bequests 
 exceeded i^I 0,000. She died at Windsor-terrace, 
 Clifton, in the year 1833, aged 88. 
 
 Morgan, John, M. D. F. R. S. a learned phy- 
 sician, born in 1735. In prosecuting his pro- 
 fessional studies, he visited many of the most 
 eminent universities of Europe, and while there, 
 though very young, was so distinguished as to 
 be elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Be- . 
 fore his return home, he projected the plan of 
 the medical school of Philadelphia to be con- 
 nected with the college, which was effected 
 (himself the first professor), and the first com- 
 mencement was held in 1709; he was active in 
 establishing the American Philosophical Soci- 
 ety in 1769; was director general of hospitals 
 in the army of the United States ; he published 
 several scientific tracts, died Oct. 15, 1789, in 
 the 54th year of his age. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
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 654 
 
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 Morris, Robert, born in January 1733-4 O. 
 S. in Lancashire, arrived in this country at the 
 age of 13 years ; one of the signers of the dec- 
 laration of independence, and during the war 
 of the revolution, supported the credit of the 
 United States ; established the first bank in 
 Philadelphia, the bank of North America, 1781, 
 which lent for the public service of the govern- 
 ment within the first six months after its organ- 
 ization, $480,000 ; without the financial talents 
 and services of this distinguished man, it is 
 probable all the physical force of the country 
 would have proved unavailing to establish the 
 independence of the United States; when the 
 paper of the congress of United America was 
 worth nothing, the paper of Robert Morris sup- 
 plied the deficiency ; his personal credit was 
 decidedly better than the credit of the U. States 
 government; he was one of the convention 
 which framed the constitution of the U. States; 
 a member of the first senate of the United States ; 
 his most intimate friends were Washington, 
 Hamilton, and Governor Morris. When offered 
 the appointment of first secretary of the treas- 
 ury by Washington, he declined, but recom- 
 mended his friend Alexander Hamilton. His 
 unfortunate land speculations imbittered his 
 aid age, which ought to have been surrounded 
 with all the ease and happiness that earthly 
 gratitude could bestow ; died 8th May, ItiOG. 
 
 Morris, Lewis, one of the signers of the dec- 
 laration of independence, born at Morrisania, 
 1726; had three brothers, all distinguished; 
 Staats, a number of parliament; Richard, judge 
 of the admiralty, and chief justice of New York, 
 and governor ; an orator, statesman and mem- 
 ber of congress, died Jan. 1798, in the 72dyear 
 of his age. 
 
 Morrison, Robert, LL. U. senior member of 
 the Chinese mission, died Aug. 1st, 1834. He 
 translated portions of the scriptures into Chi- 
 nese, and was the author of a Chinese grammar 
 and dictionary. 
 
 Mozart, musical composer, born January 27, 
 1756, died December 1702. 
 
 Murray, William Vans, born in Maryland 
 1701, died 1803, aged 42; he was a distinguished 
 and eloquent member of congress; minister to 
 the Batavian Republic, and with Chief Justice 
 Ellsworth, and Mr. Davie, as envoy extraodi- 
 nary, he assisted in negotiating the treaty of 
 Paris, of 1800. 
 
 Murray, William, earl of Mansfield, born in 
 1705, died in 1793, chief justice of the king's 
 bench of England, which he held with great 
 reputation upwards of 30 years. 
 
 Murray, Lindley, a grammarian, was born at 
 Pennsylvania in 1745, and died in 1826. 
 
 Napier, John, inventor of logarithms for the 
 use of navigators, born in 1550, died in 1617. 
 
 Nash, Francis, brigadier general in the Amer- 
 ican revolution, killed at the battle of German- 
 town, in 1777. 
 
 Nayler, James, enthusiastic convert to qua- 
 kerism, born in 1616; sentenced to be whipped 
 and imprisoned for life, by parliament, for blas- 
 phemy, but in two years was liberated, and 
 died in 1666. 
 
 Necker, James, French financier, died in 1804, 
 aged 72, a native of Geneva. 
 
 Nelson, Robert, author of " The Companion 
 for the Festival and Fasts," born in 1656, and 
 died in 1715. 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius, a Latin historian, who 
 flourished in the time of Julius Cresar. 
 
 Newton, sir Thomas, author of " Disserta- 
 tions on the prophecies,'' born 1703, and died 
 in 1782. 
 
 Nisbet, Charles, D. D. of Scotland, presi- 
 dent of the College of Carlisle in Pennsylvania, 
 held that office with reputation until his death 
 in 1804. 
 
 Nonius, inventor of the angles of 45 degrees 
 in every meridian, died 1577. 
 
 Norwood. Richard, measured a degree in 
 England 1632, which was the first accurate 
 measure. 
 
 Nugent, Thomas, L. L. D. author of a French 
 Dictionary, died May 27, 1779. 
 
 Occum Sampson, A. Mohegan Indian, con- 
 verted to Christianity; a missionary among the 
 Western Indians ; died 1792. 
 
 Oglethorpe, James, an able British general, 
 and distinguished philanthropist, served under 
 Prince Eugene, founder of the state of Georgia, 
 and died in 1785, aged 97. 
 
 O'Leary, Arthur, of Ireland, distinguished by 
 his writings, religious and political ; a friend 
 to freedom and toleration, died in 1802, aged 
 73 years. 
 
 Origen, born at Alexandria, and died in 254. 
 
 Orleans, Duke of, son of Charles V, mur- 
 dered by his uncle the Duke of Burgundy, in 
 1407. 
 
 Orono, chief of the Penobscot tribe, labored 
 to promote Christianity, died in 1801, aged 113 
 years ; his wife died in 1809, aged 115. 
 
 Orpheus, ancient Greek poet, flourished be- 
 fore Homer, a distinguished musician, poet and 
 physician. 
 
 Ossian, a Gaelic poet, supposed to have flour- 
 ished in the 3d century. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EMI 
 
 655 
 
 EMI 
 
 Otway, Thomas, poet, and dramatic writer, 
 oorn in 1651, and died in 1685. 
 
 Page, John, governor of the colony of Vir- 
 ginia, an ardent patriot, member of congress 
 after the adoption of the federal constitution, and 
 governor of the state of Virginia, died in 1808. 
 
 Paine, Robert Treat, a distinguished poet, 
 born in 1773, died in 1811. 
 
 Paley, Dr. William, elegant writer on Ethics, 
 Dorn in 1743, died in 1805. 
 
 Parr, Thomas, died in 1675, aged ]52 years, 
 and lived in ten reigns. 
 
 Parhurst, John, a learned divine, born in 
 1728, and died 1797, author of a Hebrew and 
 English Lexicon. 
 
 Parnell, Thomas, poet, born 1679, died 1717, 
 author of the " Hermit." 
 
 Pascal, Blaize, author of " Provincial Let- 
 ters," born in 1623, died in 1662. 
 
 Patrick, Saint, apostle and saint of Ireland, 
 supposed a native of Wales, died in 460. 
 
 Patterson, William, senator of the United 
 States, governor of New Jersey, and afterwards 
 judge of the supreme court of the U. States, 
 died in 1806. 
 
 Paul, Saint, of Tarsus, put to death by Nero, 
 A. D. 66. 
 
 Pendleton, Edmund, eminent lawyer and 
 statesman of Virginia, member of congress in 
 1774, died in 1803. 
 
 Penn, John, one of the signers of the decla- 
 ration of independence, born in Virginia, May 
 7, 1741, died Oct. 26, 1803, in the 83d year of 
 his age, a great and distinguished man. 
 
 Pennant. Thomas, wrote a number of valua- 
 ble books, and died in 1798, aged 72. 
 
 Perouse, De La, celebrated French navigator, 
 lost in 1788. 
 
 Perrault, Charles, died in 1783, aged 77. 
 
 Perrier, M. Casimir, Prime Minister of France ; 
 the son of a rich merchant ; born Oct. 12, 1777, 
 at Grenoble, and died at Paris, of cholera, May 
 16, 1832, aged 54. 
 
 Perry, Oliver Hazard, a distinguished captain 
 in the American navy, gained a signal victory 
 over the British naval forces on Lake Erie in 
 1813, died in lo20. 
 
 Peter, Saint, chief of the apostles, son of John 
 and brother of Andrew, a bold and powerful 
 preacher. Nero caused him to be crucified, 
 with his head down, A. D. 66. 
 
 Petronius, Arbiter, writer of antiquity, bled 
 to death by order of Nero, A. D. 65. 
 
 Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, brigadier gen- 
 eral of the United States, killed at York, in Up- 
 per Canada, 1813. 
 
 Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea, 
 hanged himself A. D. 37. 
 
 Piles, Roger de, eminent painter, born 1635, 
 and died in 1709. 
 
 Pindar, poet, died 435 B. C, aged 80. 
 
 Piron, Alexis, French poet and satirist, died 
 in 1773,' aged 84. 
 
 Pitt, William, earl of Chatham, illustrious 
 English statesman, born in 1708, died in 1778. 
 
 Plato, died at Athens 347, B. C. 
 
 Playfair, John, D. D. of Scotland, born 1749, 
 professor of mathematics at Edinburgh, and 
 died 1819. 
 
 Pliny, the elder, the most learned of ancient 
 writers, died in 79, A. D. 
 
 Pliny, the younger, born 62, died 116. 
 
 Plutarch, philosopher and historian, born in 
 Greece, died A. D. 140. 
 
 Pocahontas, an Indian princess, celebrated in 
 the annals of Virginia, married Mr. Rolfe, and 
 from them descended families in Virginia; died 
 in England in 1616. 
 
 Porson, Richard, professor of the Greek lan- 
 guage, in the University of Cambridge, had the 
 reputation of being the best Greek scholar in 
 England, yet his learning scarcely produced 
 him a living ; born in 1759, and died in 1808. 
 
 Porta, John Baptist, invented the Camera 
 Obscura, died in 1515. 
 
 Portuguese, ambassador's brother, beheaded 
 in England for murder, in 1654. 
 
 Powhatan, a powerful Indian chief in Vir- 
 ginia, hostile to the English ; he was the father 
 of Pocahontas, and on her marriage became 
 reconciled to the whites, and died in 1618. 
 
 Pratt, Charles, earl of Camden, eminent Eng- 
 lish lawyer and statesman, born in 1713, died 
 1794. 
 
 Pratt, Ephraim, of Plymouth, Mass., died in 
 1804, aged 116; he could then number nearly 
 1500 descendants. 
 
 Price, Dr. Richard, divine and politician, 
 died in 1791, aged 68. 
 
 Priestly, Dr. Joseph, a very celebrated dis- 
 senting clergyman and philosopher ; he died 
 in 1804 in Pennsylvania, aged 71. 
 
 Prior, Matthew, English poet and statesman, 
 born 1664, and died in 1731. 
 
 Prynne, William, eminent English lawyer 
 and writer, under Charles I, born in 1600, tried 
 by the star chamber 1633, stood in the pillory, 
 May 1634; again 1637; took his seat in the 
 long parliament, Nov. 28, 1640; died Oct. 24, 
 1669. 
 
 Puffendorf, Samuel, German civilian, born 
 1631, died 1694. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 EMI 
 
 656 
 
 EMI 
 
 Pulaski, count, a noble and distinguished 
 Pole, who after making great efforts for the 
 freedom of his own country, offered his servi- 
 ces to the United States during the revolution ; 
 was a brigadier general, wounded at Savannah, 
 and died soon after in 1779. 
 
 Pythagoras, died 407, A. C. aged 71. 
 
 Quarles, Francis, author of" Emblems," born 
 in 1592, died 1644. 
 
 Quevido, an eminent Spanish author, born in 
 1570, died in 1645. 
 
 Quin, James, famous English comedian, born 
 in 1693, died 1766. 
 
 Quincey, Edmund, a judge of the supreme 
 court of Massachusetts, and agent for the 
 colony at the court of St. James ; died in Oct., 
 1738. 
 
 Quintus, Curtius, Roman historian ; lived A. 
 D. 380. 
 
 Rabeleis, Francis, a celebrated French phy- 
 sician and satirist. 
 
 Racine, French dramatic writer, died 1699, 
 aged 60. 
 
 Ratcliffe, Dr. John, an English physician of 
 uncommon eminence, born in 1650, and died in 
 1714. 
 
 Reikes, Robert, born in 1735, in 1781 he plan- 
 ned the institution of Sunday schools ; died at 
 Gloucester, his native place, in 1811. 
 
 Ramsay, Allan. Scots poet, born 1606, died 
 1763. 
 
 Ramsay, David, M.D. eminent physician, his- 
 torian and statesman of S. Carolina, died 1815. 
 
 Ramsay, Martha L. wife of the preceding ; 
 daughter of Henry Laurence, president of con- 
 gress, died in 1811. 
 
 Randolph, Edmund, eminent lawyer of Vir- 
 ginia, member of congress in 1779, afterwards 
 governor of Virginia ; first attorney general of 
 the United States ; second secretary of state of 
 the United States, died in 1813. 
 
 Randolph, John, or, as he himself wrote his 
 name, John Randolph of Roanoke, a man distin- 
 guished for genius, eloquence, and eccentricity. 
 He arrived in Philadelphia a few days before his 
 death, in a state of extreme debility, purposing 
 to proceed to Europe, with the hope of a partial 
 restoration of his health. 
 
 He was born in Virginia, on the 2d of June, 
 1773 ; and was descended from Pocahontas, the 
 daughter of Powhatan, a great Indian chief, 
 through his grandmother, whose maiden name 
 was Jane Bulling, the great grandaughter of 
 Jane Rolfe (married to Robert Boiling), the 
 daughter of John Rolfe and Pocahontas; so that 
 he was of the 7th generation from Pocahontas. 
 
 His father died in 1775, leaving three sons and a 
 large estate ; and his mother was married in 
 1783, to St. George Tucker, who was the guar- 
 dian to Randolph during his minority. Mr. 
 Randolph's early life was spent at different pla- 
 ces under different instructers,of most of whom 
 he said he " never learned any thing." He 
 passed a short time at Princeton College, at 
 Columbia College, and at William and Mary 
 College, and was a little while a student at law 
 under Edmund Randolph. Of himself he re- 
 marks, " With a superficial and defective edu- 
 cation, I commenced politician." He was 
 elected a member of Congress in 1799, and 
 continued a member of the House of Represen- 
 tatives, with the exception of three intervals of 
 two years each, (during one of these intervals 
 he was in the U. S. Senate) till 1829; and he 
 was afterwards appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to Russia. Mr. Randolph was never mar- 
 ried. He was possessed of a large and valua 
 ble estate on the Roanoke, and had, at the time 
 of his death, 318 slaves, and 180 horses, of which 
 about 120 were blood horses. He died at Phi- 
 ladelphia, May 24, 1833, aged 60. 
 
 Raphael, Sanzio, an illustrious painter, often 
 styled the " divine Raphael," born in 1483, died 
 in 1520. 
 
 Rapin, an eminent historian, born in Langue 
 doc, in 1661 , died in 1725. 
 
 Raynal, historian, died March 1796, aged 84 
 
 Redman, first president of the college of phy- 
 sicians in Philadelphia, died in 1808. 
 
 Reichstadt, Duke of. Napoleon Charles 
 Francis-Joseph, Duke of Reichstadt son of Na 
 poleon, Emperor of France, was born at Paris 
 March 20, 1811, the only offspring of the mar- 
 riage of INapoleon with the Archduchess Maria 
 Louisa; and immediately upon his birth he 
 received the title of King of Rome ; but the 
 downfall of the father entirely changed the con- 
 dition and prospects of the son. He died at 
 the palace of Schoenbrunn, near Vienna, of con- 
 sumption, July 22, 1832, aged 21. 
 
 Reid, Dr. Thomas, distinguished metaphysi- 
 cian, born in 1709, died in 1796. 
 
 Rembrandt, famous Flemish painter, born in 
 1606, died in 1668. 
 
 Richardson, Samuel, eminent English writer, 
 born in 1689, died in 1761. 
 
 Richlieu, cardinal, died 1642, aged 57. 
 
 Rittenhouse, David, of Pennsylvania, emi- 
 nent and self-taught philosopher, invented an 
 orrery, died 1706, aged 65. 
 
 Robertson, Doctor William, historiographer 
 of Scotland, born in 1721, died 1793. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EMI 
 
 657 
 
 EMI 
 
 Robespierre, a revolutionary monster, born in 
 1759, and executed in July, 1794. 
 
 Robin Hood, famous robber, died in 1247. 
 
 Rochefbucault, duke of, French writer, born 
 in 1613, and died in 1680. 
 
 Rochester, licentious wit and poet, died 1680, 
 aged 32. 
 
 Rollin, French author, born in 1661, died 
 1741. 
 
 Romayn, John B., D. D. of New York, died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, born in Geneva in 
 17.11, died in 1778. 
 
 Rowe, Nicholas, dramatic poet, died in 1718. 
 
 Rowe, Elizabeth, authoress in verse and 
 prose, born in 1664, and died in 1737. 
 
 Roy, Rajah Rammohun, died at Stapleton 
 Park, the residence of Dr. Lant Carpenter, near 
 Bristol, England, on the 27th of Sept. 1833. 
 This learned Bramin, who has for several years 
 attracted much attention, was the son of Ram 
 Hant Roy, and was born in the province of 
 Burdwan, in Bengal, his paternal ancestors 
 being Bramins of a high order He studied 
 several years at the celebrated seminary of Be- 
 nares, and travelled in Persia and other oriental 
 countries. His literary attainments were ex- 
 tensive. " He was acquainted," says Mr. Arnot, 
 " more or less, with ten languages, — Sanscrit, 
 Arabic, Persian, Hindostanee, Bengalee, En- 
 glish, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French. The 
 two first he knew critically, as a scholar ; the 3d, 
 4th, 5th, and 6th, he spoke, and wrote fluently : 
 in the eighth perhaps his studies did not extend 
 much beyond the originals of the Christian 
 Scriptures ; and in the latter two, his knowledge 
 was apparently limited. He has published works 
 in Sanscrit, Arabic, Persian, Bengalee, and 
 English." 
 
 Rammohun Roy was about six feet high, and 
 large in proportion, but his person, though not 
 wanting in apparent symmetry, was unwieldy 
 and without activity. His features were large, 
 manly, and fine ; his countenance very dark, 
 with a sallow tinge of ill health ; but his eye 
 was full of Asiatic fire. — In politics he was a 
 zealous republican ; expressed warmly his 
 hearty approbation of all liberal institutions ; 
 associated chiefly with the liberal portion of the 
 community ; and took a very deep interest in 
 the progress of the measure of English parlia- 
 mentary reform. — He has left two sons in India, 
 one thirty and the other fifteen years of age. 
 
 Rubens, sir Peter Paul, famous Flemish 
 painter, born in 1577, and died in 1640. 
 
 Rumford, count, real name Benjamin Thomp- 
 56 
 
 son, born in the state of New Hampshire, was 
 a colonel in the British army ; a lieutenant gen- 
 eral in the Bavarian service ; member of many 
 scientific institutions ; author upon mechanical 
 and philosophical subjects ; died near Paris in 
 1814. 
 
 Rumsey, an ingenious mechanic of Virginia, 
 original inventor of the mode of propelling boats 
 by steam, in 1782; he died in London sudden- 
 ly, in 1790 
 
 Rush, Benjamin, M. D. distinguished physi- 
 cian, professor and statesman, member of con- 
 gress, and one of the signers of the declaration 
 of independence, born Dec. 24th, 1745; died 
 April 17th, 1813, in the 68th year of his age. 
 
 Rushworth, editor of " Historical Collec- 
 tions," died in 1690, aged 83. 
 
 St. Clair, Arthur, served under Gen. Wolfe, 
 major general in the army of the revolution, 
 served with great reputation, was president of 
 congress ; died in great poverty in 1818 ; he 
 was a native of Scotland, and came to Ameiica 
 in 1755. 
 
 St. Pierre, author of " Studies of Nature," 
 died in 1814, aged 77. 
 
 Sancho, Ignatius, the African, born in 1729, 
 and died in 1780 ; intimate with Garrick and 
 Sterne. 
 
 Sappho, famous poetess, born at Myttelene, 
 in the island of Lesbos, 610 B. C. 
 
 Saurin, James, eminent divine, died in 1730. 
 
 Savage, Richard, English poet, died in jail in 
 1743 ; son of the countess of Macclesfield, by 
 the earl of Pavers. 
 
 Schrevelius, lexicographer, from Holland, 
 died 1667, aged 52. 
 
 Scott. Thomas, commentator on the bible, 
 died 1821. 
 
 Seabury, Samuel, the first bishop in the 
 United States, died 1796. 
 
 Seeker. Thomas, archbishop, born in 1693, 
 died in 1768. 
 
 Sesostris, or Rameses the Great, was a Pha- 
 raoh of the Diospolitan family under whom 
 Egypt rose to its greatest height of political 
 power and internal splendor. This greatest of 
 the Egyptian kings extended his conquests, and 
 retained dominion from the Indus to the Niger, 
 from the Persian Gulf to the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 He enriched Egypt with the spoils of these 
 many powerful kingdoms and the commerce of 
 India, and employed his treasures in building 
 cities, raising banks about others, or elevating 
 with immense cost the whole surface of their 
 soil, to defend them from the inundations of the 
 Nile. He built palaces more magnificent than 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EMI 
 
 658 
 
 EMI 
 
 have ever before or since been erected by the 
 hand of man. Champollion remarks that these 
 constructions seem to be the conceptions of men 
 one hundred feet high ! Lost in admiration, he 
 dares not attempt to describe his feelings before 
 these structures of unequalled majesty and 
 beauty.> But the highest glory of Rameses the 
 Great, remains to be told. He voluntarily re- 
 signed the power his ancestors had wrested 
 from a savage race of tyrants from whom the 
 founder of their dynasty had delivered their 
 native country ; and gave to the people the in- 
 valuable right of possessing property in the soil. 
 He published a written code oflaws more than 
 1500 years B. C. and the wisdom of his institu- 
 tions was so great, that his vast, empire long 
 enjoyed the benefits of a wisely administered 
 government. Many portraits of this monarch 
 exist. One of these was taken by Cham- 
 pollion with the greatest care from a colossal 
 statue erected by him at Memphis, thirty-four 
 and a half feet high ; it had fallen with its face 
 to the earth, and thus each lineament has been 
 admirably preserved — presenting to our view 
 certainly one of the greatest curiosities of the age. 
 
 Sevvall, LL. D. eminent lawyer, member of 
 congress, and chief justice of Massachusetts. 
 
 Sharp, Granville, advocate for the abolition 
 of slavery, died in 1813. 
 
 Shenstone, William, died in 1763, aged 49. 
 
 Shippen, William, professor of anatomy in 
 the Pennsylvania University, from the estab- 
 lishment of the medical school until his death, 
 in 1808. 
 
 Shore, Rt. Hon. John, Lord Teignmouth, in 
 the peerage of Ireland, president of the British 
 and Foreign Bible Society, died in London, on 
 the 14th of February, 1834, aged 82. 
 
 Simonides, Greek poet, nourished about 500 
 years, B. C. 
 
 Simpson, Robert, writer and professor of 
 mathematics ; died in 17G5. 
 
 Sloane, Sir Hance, eminent physician and 
 naturalist, born in Ireland, in 1660, died in 1752. 
 
 Smith ,Adam, author of ''Wealth of Nations," 
 died 179D, aged 67. 
 
 Smith. Isaac, patriot officer of the revolution, 
 member of congress: judge of the supreme 
 court of New Jersey, and died in 1807, aged 68. 
 
 Smith, William, D. D. eminent for eloquence 
 and the advancement of literature ; for many 
 years provost of the college of Philadelphia, 
 and died in 1803. 
 
 Smith, Samuel Stanhope, D. D., LL. D. an 
 eminent Presbyterian clergyman, and president 
 of Princeton college ; he died in 1819. 
 
 Smollet, Dr., physician, historian, naturalist, 
 and poet, born in 1720, died in 1791. 
 
 Socinus, founder of the Socinian sect, born 
 1525, died in 15G2. 
 
 Sophocles, Greek tragic poet, died 410 B. C. 
 
 Sotheby, William, F. R. S. and S. A. a gen- 
 tleman of considerable fortune and liberal edu- 
 cation, a respectable poet, and distinguished as 
 a translator. Some of his principal works are 
 the Battle of the Nile, Saul, several tragedies, 
 Oberon (a faithful translation from the German 
 of Wieland), the Georgics of Virgil translated 
 into English verse, and the translation of the 
 Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, in four volumes 
 octavo, with the designs of Flaxman. Mr. 
 Sotheby was the oldest English poet. He died 
 in London, Dec. 30th, 1833, aged 76. 
 
 Spurzheim, John Caspar, M. D., the celebrat- 
 ed phrenologist, and author of various works on 
 the science of phrenology. He was born on 
 the 31st of December, 1776, at the village of 
 Longvich near Treves, on the Moselle, in Ger- 
 many, was educated at the university of Treves, 
 became acquainted, about the year 1800, with 
 Dr. Gall, the founder of the doctrine of craniol- 
 ogy, as it was then called, and afterwards be- 
 came an associate and fellow laborer in defend- 
 ing and propagating their opinions in different 
 countries of Europe. After having given lec- 
 tures in various cities on the continent of Eu- 
 rope, and in Great Britain and Ireland, he sail- 
 ed to America, and on the 17th of September 
 commenced a course of lectures on phrenology 
 at Boston, and soon after another course at 
 Cambridge ; he died after an illness of about 
 three weeks, in Boston, Mass. Nov. 10th, 1832, 
 much lamented by those who had made his ac- 
 quaintance. 
 
 Stanhope, Earl of Chesterfield, eminent 
 statesman, &c. &c. died 1773, aged 79. 
 
 Statius, Roman poet, died about 102, A. D. 
 aged 91. 
 
 Steele, sir Richard, English writer, died in 
 1729. 
 
 Stewart, Dugald, celebrated philosophical 
 writer, born in Scotland, 1753; died 1828. 
 
 Sterne, Lawrence, born in 1713, died 1768. 
 
 Stuart, Robert, Lord Castlereagh, marquis of 
 Londonderry, eminent statesman and minister, 
 died by suicide in 1822. 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert, eminent American portrait 
 painter, born 1755, died 1828. 
 
 Suetonius, born at Rome, and flourished 110. 
 
 Summerfield, John, a very popular preacher 
 of the Methodist church, died at New York, in 
 1825, aged 27. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 EM! 
 
 659 
 
 EMl 
 
 Swedenborg Emanuel, an eminent mathe- 
 matical, philosophical, and mystical writer, died 
 m 177'J, aged 84. 
 
 Tacitus, born A. D. 56. 
 
 Tasso, an Italian poet, died in 1595, aged 51. 
 
 Taylor, Doctor Jeremy, eminent theological 
 writer, died in 1667, aged 54. 
 
 Taylor, George, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence from Pennsylva- 
 nia, born in Ireland in 1716; signed the dec- 
 laration of independence August 2d, 1776, be- 
 fore which time no member of congress had 
 affixed his name to that instrument ; died Feb. 
 23d, 1781, aged 65. 
 
 Teniers, Flemish painter, died in 1649. 
 
 Terence, born at Carthage, a slave in Rome ; 
 his master Terentius Nucanus gave him a good 
 education and his liberty, in the year of Rome 
 560 ; he was drowned 159 B. C. 
 
 Theocritus, Greek pastoral poet, flourished 
 260 B.C. 
 
 Thespis, famous Greek tragic poet, and first 
 representer of tragedy at Athens ; carried his 
 company in a wagon, from which he perform- 
 ed his pieces ; flourished 536 B. C. 
 
 Thomson, James, English pastoral poet, born 
 in 1700, died 1748. 
 
 Thornton, Matthew, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence, from New Hamp- 
 shire, born in Ireland about the year 1714; ed- 
 ucated a physician, and practised medicine in 
 Londonderry, New Hampshire ; he died in 
 Massachusetts, June 24th, 1803, in the 89th 
 year of his age. 
 
 Thucydides, historian, died 391 B. C. 
 
 Thurlow, Lord, eminent chancellor of Eng- 
 land, died in 1806. 
 
 Tilghman, William, a great and good man, 
 an eminent and learned lawyer, was born in 
 Talbot county, on the eastern shore of Mary- 
 land, about a mile from Easton, Aug. 12, 1756. 
 He died in Philadelphia, April 30, 1827. 
 
 Tibullus, poet, died A. D. 17. 
 
 Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury, died in 
 1694. 
 
 Titian, Tiziano Vecelli, the greatest painter 
 of the Venetian school, died in 1576, aged 96. 
 
 Todd, Eli, M. D., physician of the Retreat 
 for the Insane in Hartford. He was born in 
 New Haven about the year 1769 ; graduated at 
 Yale College in 1787; established himself in 
 his profession at Farmington, Conn, in 1819, 
 removed to Hartford, and took the lead in 
 founding the Retreat for the Insane. He was 
 a man of superior talents and extensive acquire- 
 ments, and greatly respected and beloved as a 
 
 physician, a philanthropist, and a Christian 
 He died at Hartford, Connecticut, November 
 7th, 1833. 
 
 Tooke, Thomas, a learned English writer, 
 author of the " Pantheon," died in 1721. 
 
 Toussaint, Louverture, a mulatto of St. Do- 
 mingo, rose to the command of the blacks of 
 that island, formed a constitution, adopted the 
 wisest and most humane regulations ; treacher- 
 ously betrayed and imprisoned by the French, 
 and died in Paris, not without suspicion of vio- 
 lence, in 1803. 
 
 Trumbull, Jonathan, eminent lawyer of Con- 
 necticut, patriot of the revolution, chief justice 
 of the supreme court of Connecticut, and gov- 
 ernor of that state, died in 1785. 
 
 Vandyck, sir Anthony, illustrious painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1599 ; died in England in 
 1641. P * 
 
 Varro, born 28 B. C. ; he was 80 years old 
 when he wrote his " De Re Rustica." 
 
 Vattel, native of Switzerland, author of valu- 
 able writings on jurisprudence, and on natural 
 law, died in 1770. 
 
 Viner, Charles, author of the " Abridgement 
 of English Law," died 1757. 
 
 Volney, a distinguished French writer, died 
 in 1802. 
 
 Voltaire, Marie Francis Avonet, born Feb. 20, 
 1694; died May 30, 1778. 
 
 Wakefield, Mrs. Priscilla, author of many 
 popular and useful works for children and 
 young persons, and one of the earliest promot- 
 ers of those provident institutions, called Sav- 
 ings Banks. She died in London, Sept. 12th, 
 1832, in her 82d year. 
 
 Walker, John, writer of a pronouncing die-- 
 tionary of the English language, died in 1807. 
 
 Waller, English poet, died in 1687. 
 
 Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author of 
 numerous publications, died in 1797. 
 
 Walton, Izaak, author of the " Complete An- 
 gler," died in 1683. 
 
 Washington, William, a distinguished officer 
 of the revolution, died in 1810. 
 
 Watts, Isaac, poet and author, died 1748. 
 
 Wayne, Anthony, distinguished major gene- 
 ral during the revolution, and afterwards in a 
 contest with the Indians, gained a great victory ; 
 died in 1796. 
 
 Wesley, Samuel, an English divine and poet, 
 author of a folio volume entitled the Life of 
 Christ, an heroic poem, printed in 1697, embel- 
 lished with sixty handsome engravings ; he died 
 1735. 
 
 Wesley, John, son of the preceding, founder 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EMI 
 
 660 
 
 EMI 
 
 of the sect called Methodists, died 179], at a 
 very advanced age. 
 
 West, Benjamin, a very eminent painter, 
 born in Pennsylvania, in 1738, of the Quaker 
 society ; went to Rome, thence to England, 
 where he became successor to sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, the President of the Royal Academy ; he 
 died in 1820. 
 
 Whipple, William, one of the signers of the 
 declaration of independence, from JNew Hamp- 
 shire, born in 1730, died in 17fc5. 
 
 White, Henry Kirke, born in Nottingham, 
 March 21st, 1785, died October 19th, 1806, aged 
 21. His parents were in humble life. In early 
 childhood he gave promise of great genius. His 
 first distinguished composition, a tale of a Swiss 
 emigrant, was written at seven years of age ; 
 and at eleven, he in one day wrote twelve sep- 
 arate themes, one for each boy in his class ; at 
 the age of fourteen, he was placed at a stocking 
 loom, but his soaring genius could not be hap- 
 py there ; to all kinds of trade he had an ex- 
 treme aversion. His temper and tone of mind 
 at this period, are displayed in an address to 
 Contemplation. About a year after this, he 
 entered upon the study of the law. He applied 
 himself to the study of Latin during his leisure 
 hours, in which language he received only some 
 trifling instruction, yet in ten months he ena- 
 bled himself to read Horace with facility, and 
 had made some progress in Greek, studying at 
 the same time the Italian, Spanish, and Portu- 
 guese languages, in all which he became a tol- 
 erable proficient. Chemistry, astronomy, and 
 electricity, were among his studies ; he paid 
 some attention to drawing and music, and had 
 a turn for mechanics ; close application to study, 
 and the stridings of a Herculean intellect, wore 
 out a constitution naturally feeble. Rigidly 
 correct in morals, and amiable in all the rela- 
 tions of life, his feelings inclined towards deism ; 
 but an inquiring mind, open to conviction, 
 could not resist the sublime truths of the holy 
 scriptures ; he read, and believed, and from this 
 moment religion engaged all his anxiety, as of 
 all concerns the most important. The proofs 
 of his indefatigable industry, which his papers 
 evinced, were astonishing ; law, electricity, 
 chemistry, the Latin and Greek languages, to 
 the highest branches of critical knowledge, his- 
 tory, chronology, divinity, the Fathers, poetry, 
 tragedies, &c. &c. had been studied, under- 
 stood, and commented upon, by a youth, who 
 died at the age of 21 years, though borne down 
 by poverty and ill health. 
 
 Wilberforce, William, one of the most cele- 
 
 brated philanthropists of modern times, and 
 whose able, zealous, long-continued, and ulti- 
 mately successful exertions in favor of the abo- 
 lition of the slave-trade, have given him a high 
 rank among the benefactors of the human race. 
 He was born Aug. 24,1759, at Hull ; was edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Cambridge, where 
 he formed an intimacy with William Pitt; was 
 elected a member of parliament for Hull in 
 1780; for the county of York in 1784 ; and in 
 1787, he brought forward a motion for the abo- 
 lition of the slave trade, and the question, after 
 a long and laborious struggle, was finally car- 
 ried during the ministry of Mr. Fox, June 10, 
 1806. In 1797, Mr. Wilberforce published his 
 celebrated " Practical View," a work which has 
 been translated into most European languages, 
 and of which about fifty editions have been 
 printed in Great Britain and America. He died 
 in London, July 28th, 1833, in his 74th year. 
 His remains were consigned to the sanctuary 
 of the illustrious dead in Westminster Abbey ; 
 and his " funeral train included the great and 
 the good of all parties." 
 
 Wilson, Thomas, LL. D. bishop of Sodor and 
 Mann, a most excellent prelate, and an eminent 
 writer in theology; he died in 1755. 
 
 Wilson, Alexander, a distinguished natural- 
 ist ; author of the " American Ornithology ;" 
 he died in 1813, aged about 40. 
 
 Windham, William, celebrated English ora- 
 tor and statesman ; secretary of war, member 
 of parliament, died in 1810. 
 
 Winder, William H. eminent lawyer of Ma- 
 ryland, brigadier general in the army of the 
 United States during the second war with Great 
 Britain, died in 1824. 
 
 Winthrop, John, first governor of Massachu- 
 setts, emigrated with the first colonists, and 
 died in 1649. 
 
 Winthrop, John, F. R. S. son of the preced- 
 ing, governor of the colony of Connecticut, died 
 in 1()76 ; a man of great learning and talents. 
 
 Winthrop, Fitz John, F. R. S. son of the pre- 
 ceding, and distinguished, like his father, for 
 learning and piety; governor of Connecticut; 
 died in 1707. 
 
 Winthrop, John, LL. D., F. R. S , professor 
 of mathematics and natural philosophy in the 
 Harvard college, died 1779. 
 
 Winthrop, James, LL. D., son of the preced- 
 ing, distinguished for his devotion to literary 
 pursuits; died in 1821. 
 
 Wister, Caspar, M.D. an eminent physician, 
 and professor of anatomy and surgery in the 
 University at Philadelphia, died in 1818. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 EMI 
 
 661 
 
 ENC 
 
 Wirt, Hon. William, was born at Bladens- 
 burg, Md., on the 8th of November, 1772, and 
 was the youngest of six children. In 1795, he 
 married the eldest daughter of Dr. George Gil- 
 mer, a distinguished physician, and took up his 
 residence at Pen Park, the seat of his father-in- 
 law, near Charlottesville, and here he was in- 
 troduced to the acquaintance of Jefferson, Mad- 
 ison, Monroe, and other persons of celebrity ; 
 but he soon contracted habits of great dissipa- 
 tion, from which he is said to have been recov- 
 ered by a sermon which he heard from a blind 
 preacher, James Waddell, whom he has cele- 
 brated in his " British Spy." In 1799. his wife 
 died, and he was soon after elected clerk of the 
 House of Delegates. Having performed the 
 duties of this office two years, he was, in 1802, 
 appointed chancellor of the Eastern District of 
 Virginia, and then took up his residence at 
 Williamsburg ; and in the same year he married 
 the daughter of Colonel Gamble of Richmond. 
 He soon after resigned his chancellorship, and 
 at the close of the year 18U3, removed to Nor- 
 folk, and entered upon the assiduous practice 
 of his profession. Just before he removed to 
 Norfolk, he wrote the letters published in the 
 Richmond Argus, under the title of" The Brit- 
 ish Spy," which were afterwards collected into 
 a small volume, and have passed through ten 
 editions. In 1806, he took up his residence at 
 Richmond, and, in the following year, he 
 greatly distinguished himself in the trial of Col. 
 Burr. In 1812, he wrote the greater part of a 
 series of essays, which were originally pub- 
 lished in the Richmond Enquirer under the 
 title of" The Old Bachelor," and have since, 
 in a collected form, passed through several edi- 
 tions. The " Life of Patrick" Henry," his 
 largest literary production, was first published 
 in 1817. 
 
 In 1816, he was appointed by Mr. Madison 
 the United States' Attorney for the District of 
 Virginia; and in 1817, by Mr. Monroe, Attor- 
 ney General of the United States, a post which 
 he occupied with distinguished reputation till 
 1819, through the entire administrations of Mon- 
 roe and Adams. In 1830, he took up his resi- 
 dence at Baltimore, for the remainder of his life. 
 As a public and professional man, Mr. Wirt 
 was ranked among the first of his time. He 
 died at Washington City, Feb. 18, 1834, aged 62. 
 
 Wistier, Benjamin B., a distinguished calvin- 
 istic clergyman, of Boston; died Feb. 9, 1835, 
 aged 40 years. He was several years Secretary 
 of the American Board of Commissioners for 
 Foreign Missions. 
 
 Witherspoon, John, D. D. LL. D. distin- 
 guished Scotch clergyman, one of the signers 
 of the declaration of independence ; for many 
 years president of Princeton college, both be- 
 fore and after the revolution, which he retained 
 until his death in 1784 ; ben 5th Feb. 1722. 
 
 Woollett, William, a most eminent engraver^ 
 the first in his profession, died in 1785. 
 
 Wooster, David, major general in the Amer- 
 ican revolutionary army ; killed in 1777. 
 
 Wooverman, Dutch landscape painter, died 
 in 1688, aged 68. 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, illustrious English 
 architect, and builder of the Cathedral of St 
 Pauls, died 1723, aged 91. 
 
 Yorke, Philip, Earl of Hardwick, chancellor 
 of England, died in 1764, aged 74. 
 
 Yorke, Charles, son of the preceding, chan- 
 cellor of England, and died suddenly Thursday 
 after, in 1770 ; he was an elegant and profound 
 scholar. 
 
 Young, Edward, an English poet and divine f 
 author of "Night Thoughts," died in 1765. 
 
 Zeno, stoic philosopher, strangled himself 
 364 B. C. aged 98. 
 
 Zimmerman, eminent plrvsician and philoso- 
 pher, author of a work on Solitude, died 1795. 
 EMPEROR OF GERMANY, made elec- 
 tive 996, renounced that title and assumed that 
 of emperor of Austria, August II, 1804. 
 ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA. 950 
 The islands of Ammiano and Costanziaco in 
 the Gulf of Venice swept away by the sea. 
 1044-1309 Irruptions of the sea on the coast of 
 Pomerania cause terrible ravages, and give 
 rise to the popular story of the submersion of 
 Vineta. 
 1106 Malamacco, a large town in the Venetian 
 
 lagoons, engulfed by the sea. 
 1218 The gulf of Jahde near the mouth of the- 
 
 Weser formed by inundations. 
 1219-20-21-46 & 51. A succession of violent 
 storms separated the island of Wieringen 
 from the continent, and prepared the rupture 
 of the isthmus which connected North Hoi- 
 . land with Friesland. 
 
 1277-78-80-87 The fertile canton of Reiderland, 
 with the town of Torum, and fifty market 
 towns, villages, and monasteries, swallowed 
 up by the sea, which formed the gulf of Dol- 
 lart over their site. 
 1282 The Zuider Zee formed by the rupture of 
 the isthmus uniting North Holland and Fries- 
 land and many towns swept away. 
 1240 The island of Northstrand separated from 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 EPS 
 
 662 
 
 EXC 
 
 the continent, and a tract of the coast of 
 
 Sleswic swallowed up. 
 1300-1500-1649 Violent storms carry off three- 
 fourths of Heligoland. 
 1300 The town of Ciparum in Istria swallowed 
 
 up by the sea. 
 1!k3 A large part of the island of Rugen, and 
 
 several villages on the coast of Pomerania 
 
 engulfed by the waves. 
 1337 Fourteen villages on Kadsand in Zeeland 
 
 destroyed by an inundation. 
 1421 The sea engulfs the district of Bergse- 
 
 weld, and overflows 22 villages, forming the 
 
 large gulph of Biesbosch. 
 1475 A strip of land at the mouth of the Hum- 
 
 ber with several villages carried away by the 
 
 sea. 
 1510 The Baltic forms the mouth of the Frisch 
 
 Haff 3600 yards wide. 
 1530-32 A part of the islands of North and 
 
 South Beveland with several towns and many 
 
 villages swallowed up. 
 1634 An inundation of the sea engulfs the island 
 
 of Northstrand, destroying 1338 houses, tow- 
 ers, and churches, and swallowing up 50,000 
 
 head of cattle, and 6,400 human beings. 
 1926 A violent storm changed the salt-pans of 
 
 Araya in Cumana, into a large gulf. 
 1770-1785 Heligoland divided into two isles by 
 
 the encroachments of the sea. 
 1784 The lake of Aboukir on the coast of 
 
 Egypt formed by a storm. 
 1803 The sea carried off the ruins of the priory 
 
 at Crail in Scotland. 
 
 ENGRAVING on metal plates, first known 
 in Europe B. C. 504, by a map on brass brought 
 from Quoniaby Anazagoras of Samos ; and yet 
 it was not until A. D. 1423, that impressions were 
 taken on paper from engraved plates ; the art 
 of taking impressions from engravings on cop- 
 per as now used, 1511 ; in mezzotinto, and im- 
 proved by prince Rupert, of Palatine, 1648 ; to 
 represent wash, invented by Barable, a French- 
 man, 1761 ; crayon engraving invented at Pa- 
 ris by Bonnet, 1769. 
 
 Engraving on wood invented in Flanders, 
 1423; revived by Alb. Durer, 1511; on glass 
 invented 1799, at Paris, by Boudier. 
 
 Engraving on steel became common about 
 1830. It is now preferred for fine work, to 
 copper. 
 
 Engraving, Lithographic, invented by Sene- 
 felder, a German, about 1796. 
 
 EPSOM MINERAL SPRING first discov- 
 ered 1630. 
 
 ERA, that of Nabonassar, was 747 B. C. } 
 Phillipic, or death of Alexander, 324, B. C. ; of 
 Seleucidae, 312 B. C. ; the Christians made their 
 era the birth of Christ, which was A. M. 4004, 
 but did not use this reckoning till the year 600, 
 using in the mean time the civil account of the 
 empire ; the Mahometans began their Hegira 
 (for so they term their computation) from the 
 flight of their prophet from Mecca, when he 
 was driven thence by the Philarcha?, A.D. 622; 
 the Grecians reckon by Olympiads, the first of 
 which is placed in the year of the world 3187 ; 
 but this account perishing under the Constan- 
 tinopolitan emperors, they reckoned by induc- 
 tions, every indiction containing fifteen years, 
 and the first beginning A. D. 313, which among 
 chronologers are still used ; the Romans reck- 
 oned first from the building of their city, which 
 was A. M 3251, and afterwards from the 16th 
 year of the emperor Augustus, A. M. 3936, 
 which reckoning was used among the Span- 
 iards till the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic ; 
 the Jews had divers epocha ; as 1st, from the 
 creation of the world in the beginning of time; 
 2d, from the universal deluge, A.M. 1656; 3d, 
 from the confusion of tongues, A. M. 1771 ; 4th, 
 from Abraham's journey out of Chaldea into 
 Canaan, A. M. 2l)08 ; 5th, from the departure 
 of the children of Israel out of Egypt, A. M. 
 2515; 6th, from the year of the jubilee, A. M. 
 2540 ; 7th, from the building of Solomon's tem- 
 ple, A. M. 2999; and 8th, from the captivity 
 of Babylon, A, M. 3397; but in historical com- 
 putation of time, are used only the two most 
 ordinary epochs, the world's creation, and 
 Christ appearance in the flesh ; the Christian 
 era began to be used in Italy, &c. in 525, and 
 in England in 816. 
 
 ETCHING on copper invented with aqua 
 fortis, 1512. 
 
 ETNA, celebrated volcanic mountain in the 
 island of Sicily, rising to 10,936 English feet, 
 which, on that parallel, is above the region of 
 perpetual snow. The irruptions of this remark- 
 able mountain reach beyond history ; in mod- 
 ern times, beside many of lesser note, there 
 were eruptions in 1169, 1408, 1444, 1535, 1669, 
 and 16!'4, when the city of Catanea, with the 
 adjacent country was destroyed, and 18,000 
 people perished ; again in 1699 and 1787. 
 
 EXCISE, the first used in England, 1643. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, court of, instituted on the 
 model of the JNormans, 1074; exchequer bills 
 invented, 1695; first circulated by the bank, 
 1706. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FIR 
 
 663 
 
 FIR 
 
 FAIRS and markets first instituted in Eng- 
 land by Alfred, about 886. The first fairs took 
 their rise from wakes ; when the number of 
 people then assembled brought together a vari- 
 ety of traders annually on these days. From 
 these holidays they were called ferioze, or fair. 
 
 FANS, muffs, masks and false hair, first de- 
 vised by the harlots in Italy, and brought into 
 England from France, 1572. 
 
 FAMINE which lasted seven years, 1708 B. 
 C ; at Rome, when many persons threw them- 
 selves into the Tiber, 440 B. C. ; in Britain, so 
 that the inhabitants ate the barks of trees, 272 
 A. C. ; one in Scotland, where thousands were 
 starved, 306 ; in England and Wales, where 
 40,000 were starved, 310; all over Britain, 325; 
 at Constantinople, 446 ; in Italy, where parents 
 ate their children, 450; in Scotland, 576 ; all 
 over England, Wales and Scotland, 739 ; an- 
 other in Wales, 747; in Wales and Scotland, 
 792 ; again in Scotland, 803 ; again in Scotland, 
 when thousands were starved, 823; a severe 
 one in Wales, 836; in Scotland, which lasted 
 four years, 954 ; famines in England, 864, 974, 
 976, 1005 ; in Scotland, which lasted two years, 
 1047; in England, 1050, J 087; in England and 
 France, from 1193 to 1195; in England 1251, 
 1315, 1318, 13:35, 1348; in England and France, 
 called the dear summer, 1358; in England 1389 
 and 1438, so great that bread was made of fern 
 root ; in 1565 two millions were expended on 
 the importation of corn ; one in 1748 ; another 
 in 1798; in the province of Vellore, in 1810, 
 by which 6000 people perished ; in the diocess 
 of Drontheim, in Norway, in consequence of 
 the intercepting of supplies by Sweden, 5000 
 persons perished, 1813. 
 
 FESTIVALS of Christmas, Easter, Ascen- 
 sion, and the Pentecost, or Whitsuntide, first 
 ordered to be observed by all Christians, 68. 
 Rogation days appointed 469 ; jubilees in the 
 Romish church instituted by pope Boniface VIII 
 1300; (at first they were observed every hun- 
 dred years, but future popes reduced them to 
 50. and then to every period of 25 years.) 
 
 FEUDAL LAW'S, the tenure of land, by 
 suit and service, to the lord or owner of it, in- 
 troduced into England by the Saxons, about 600 ; 
 the slavery of this tenure increased under Wil- 
 liam I, 1068. This was dividing the kingdom 
 into baronies, giving them to certain persons, 
 and requiring those persons to furnish the king 
 with money, and a stated number of soldiers. 
 
 FIRES. Ajax, a British ship of the line, 
 56* 
 
 burned off Tenedos, Feb. 14th, 1807, when 350 
 men perished. 
 
 Alexandria, Jan. 18th, 1827, a most distress- 
 ing conflagration in a most inclement season. 
 Congress made the sufferers a donation of 
 $20,000. 
 
 Bombay in the East Indies, Feb. 27th, 1803, 
 when the city was almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 Boston. March 21, 1673, castle at the harbor 
 burned ; August 8th, 1679, 80 houses, 70 ware- 
 houses, and a number of vessels destroyed; 
 Feb. 2, 1798 theatre in Federal street destroyed; 
 Nov. 3d, 1818, the fine and spacious exchange 
 consumed. 
 
 Casan, in Russia, almost totally destroyed, 
 Sept. 8th, 1815. 
 
 Charleston, South Carolina, 200 houses of, 
 consumed July 15th, 1778. 
 
 Constantinople, Sept. 4th, 1778, 2,000 houses 
 consumed ; Oct. 22, 1782, 10,000 houses and 50 
 mosques destroyed ; July 8, 1783, 7,000 houses 
 destroyed; 1791, upwards of 30,000 houses in 
 the course of the year ; Sept. 22d, 1818, great 
 injury and many thousand houses consumed; 
 Jan. 28th, 1820, destructive conflagration and 
 insurrection. 
 
 Copenhagen, one third of destroyed, June 9 f 
 1795. 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica, Feb. 8th, 1782, confla- 
 gration at, when property was destroyed to the 
 amount of £500 ,000. 
 
 London, 982, a fire which destroyed great 
 part of the city; July 10, 1212, London Bridge, 
 when 2000 people perished ; Sept 2, 1666, a fire 
 broke out near the monument and burnt fout 
 days and four nights, destroying 113,000 houses, 
 the city gates, Guild Hall, &c; 86 churches, 
 amongst which was St. Paul's cathedral, and 
 400 streets ; the ruins of this city were 436 
 acres; in 1676, 600 houses were burnt ; Dec. 4, 
 1716, 150 houses were burnt down at Wapping ; 
 Dec. 23d, 1759, 50 houses were destroyed, dam- 
 age estimated at £70,000 ; Sept. 18th, 1790, 20 
 persons lost their lives by fire ; Sept. 14, 1791, 
 several vessels and sixty houses destroyed ; 
 July 22d, and 23d, 1794, 680 houses were con- 
 sumed, with an East India warehouse, in which 
 35,000 bags of saltpetre w r ere consumed, and 
 £40,000 worth of sugar were destroyed in one 
 sugarhouse. The whole loss was estimated at 
 above £1,000,000 sterling ; Aug. 17, 1794, Ast- 
 ley's theatre and 19 houses were burnt ; Feb 
 11, 1800, three large warehouses of West India 
 Goods, valued at £300,000 were destroyed; 
 Oct. 6th, same year, 30 houses and goods to the 
 amount of £ 80,000 were burnt, and many lives 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 FOU 
 
 664 
 
 FOU 
 
 were lost; Feb. 12th 1814, the custom-house, 
 and a whole range of buildings destroyed ; 
 May 23d, 1817, extensive damage done in Fleet 
 street ; 1834, hoth houses of Parliament burned. 
 New Orleans, March 21st, 17 W 'H, a most ruin- 
 ous conflagration, by which far the greater part 
 of the city was reduced to ashes. 
 
 New York, Dec. 29, 1773, government house 
 destroyed ; September 21st, 1776, a great fire by 
 which about 1000 houses were consumed with 
 Trinity Church, the Charity School, Lutheran 
 Church, &c. ; Aug 7, 1778, 300 houses destroy- 
 ed ; Dec. 9th, 1706, destructive fire in Maiden 
 Lane, between 60 and 70 houses were destroyed ; 
 Dec. 18, same year, about 40 houses were con- 
 sumed ; loss estimated at $106,700; Mayl9,in 
 1811, 100 houses destroyed; Aug. 31st, 1816, 
 21 houses destroyed. It appears that from the 
 2d of Jan. to the 3d Dec. 1828, property was de- 
 stroyed by fires to the amount of $(580,402. 
 
 Philadelphia, Dec 26th 1704, German Luthe- 
 ran or Zion church; Jan. 27th, 1707, fire in 
 the printing office and dwelling house of An- 
 drew Brown, in Chesnut-street — his wife and 
 three children perished, and he lingered until 
 the 4th of Feb. when he expired; Dec. 17th, 
 1790, Rickett's circus, &c, destroyed; April 
 11th, 1811, a destructive fire in Locust-street ; 
 May 8th, 1816, a very destructive fire in Coates- 
 street. The most lamentable fire that ever oc- 
 curred in Philadelphia was that of the Orphan 
 Asylum, Jan. 23d, 1822, in which twenty-three 
 of the orphans perished. 
 
 Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 300 houses de- 
 stroyed Dec. 26th, 1802. 
 
 Venice, destructive fire at, Jan. 14, 1789. 
 
 Washington City, Aug. 24th, 1814, the Capi- 
 tol. President's House, many private houses, the 
 bridge over the Potomac, dockyard, &c. by the 
 British troops. 
 
 FIRE ENGINE, to force water, invented 
 1663. 
 
 FONTS for baptism, instituted, A. D. 167. 
 
 FORT St. GEORGE, in India, first settled 
 by the English East India Company, 1620. 
 
 FORTIFICATION, the present mode intro- 
 duced, about 1500. 
 
 FOUNDING OF CITIES,TOWNS, KING- 
 DOMS, STATES, &c. Aix la Chapelle built, 
 795. ^ 
 
 Albany, city, capital of New York, in Albany 
 county: next to Jamestown, Virginia, the old- 
 est town in the United States. Settled by the 
 Dutch about 1614. 
 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, built in 17 days, the 
 walls whereof were six miles in circuit, 332 B.C. 
 
 Amsterdam first settled, 1203; walled, 1482; 
 taken possession of by the French, January 18, 
 1795. 
 
 Annapolis, Virginia: made a post town in 
 1694; created from the village of Severn. 
 
 Antioch built, 3()0 B. C. 
 
 Antwerp first mentioned in history, 517; 
 walled, 1256; pillaged by its garrison, 1576; 
 ruined, 1585; declared a free port, 1784 ; sur- 
 rendered to the French, 1794. 
 
 Areopagus first erected at Athens, 1272 B. C. 
 
 Argos, the kingdom of, began 1586 B. C. 
 
 Arragon, erected into a kindom, 912. 
 
 Ashford, post town, Windham county, Con- 
 necticut; incorporated in 1714. 
 
 Assyria, kingdom of, began under Ninus, 
 2059 B. C ; lasted above 1264 years, ended with 
 Sardanapalus ; out of its ruins were formed the 
 Assyrians of Babylon, those of Nineveh, and 
 the Medes. 
 
 Athens, kingdom of, began 1556 B. C. 
 
 Attleborough, post town, Bristol county, 
 Massachusetts ; incorporated in 1694. 
 
 Babylon, the city of, founded by Nimrod, 
 2640; walled. 1243"; taken by Cyrus, 588; by 
 Darius, after 19 months siege, 51 1 B. C. 
 
 Babylonish monarchy founded 2217 B. C. 
 
 Bagdad built, 762. 
 
 Balbec built 144 ; totally obliterated by an 
 earthquake, 1759. 
 
 Baltimore, city and port of entry in Baltimore 
 county, Maryland. Founded in 1729. In 1765 
 contained but fifty houses. Erected into a city 
 in 1797. Its medical college was founded in 
 1807. St. Mary's college, a Catholic institution, 
 incorporated in 1806. Battle of Baltimore 
 fought the 13th and 14th of September, 1814. 
 
 Barnstable, seaport and capital of Barnstable 
 county, Mass., on Barnstable bay. Settled by 
 the Rev. John Lathrop, October 11, 1639. 
 
 Bavaria, dukedom of, founded 1180 ; made an 
 electorate, 1028; erected into a kingdom by 
 Bonaparte, 1805. 
 
 Beaufort, town, North Carolina, incorporated 
 in 1723. 
 
 Bennington, a post town in the county of 
 Bennington, Vermont, founded in 1749. As 
 the grant of the township was made by Gov. 
 Wentworth of New Hampshire, it was called 
 from his christian name, Benning. Stark's 
 victory gained here, August 16, 1777. 
 
 Berne, in Switzerland, made an imperial city, 
 1204); ancient government of, overturned by 
 the French, re-established, Dec. 24, 1813 
 
 Bethlehem, borough and post town, North- 
 hampton county, Pennsylvania. Commenced 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FOU 
 
 665 
 
 FOU 
 
 in 1741 by the Moravians, who removed hither 
 from Savannah, because the inhabitants com- 
 pelled them to bear arms. 
 
 Beverly, post town and seaport, Essex coun- 
 ty, Massachusetts. This town was incorporat- 
 ed in 1668, and the early settlers gathered to- 
 gether and erected a church in 1657. 
 
 Billenca, post town, Middlesex county, Mass. 
 Founded in 1656. 
 
 Bohemia, kingdom of, founded, 550. 
 
 Biadenburgh created a marquisate, 925 ; cre- 
 ated a dukedom, 1526. 
 
 Braintree, town, Norfolk county, Massachu- 
 setts. First church was gathered in 1639. It 
 originally belonged to Boston, and was called 
 Mount Wollaston. 
 
 Bridgewater, post town, Plymouth county, 
 Massachusetts. Settled 1651. Attacked by 
 Indians and injured severely, May 8, 1676. 
 
 Britanny, founded as a kingdom, 383 ; made 
 a duchy, 374 ; annexed to the crown of France, 
 1150. 
 
 British isles ; they were inhabited originally 
 by a people called Britons, of the same stock 
 with the ancient Gauls or Celta? The Ro- 
 mans first invaded them under Julius Capsar, 
 54 B. C but made no conquests. The emperor 
 Claudius, and his generals Plautius, Vespasian, 
 and Titus, subdued several provinces after 30 
 pitched battles with the natives, A. D. 43 and 
 44. The conquest was completed by Agricola 
 in the reign of Domitian, 85. 
 
 Brookfield, post town, Worcester county, 
 Massachusetts. Settled in 1660. Township 
 
 granted in 1667. August 2, 1675, two or three 
 undred ambuscaded Indians attacked a partv 
 of inhabitants, ai>d kiUed several Burnt by 
 the Indians in 1675. Incorporated 1718. 
 
 Brookline, town, Norfolk county, Massachu- 
 setts. Incorporated 1705. 
 
 Bruges founded, 700 ; fortified, 890. 
 
 Brunswick built. 361. 
 
 Burgundy, the dukedom of, established, 890 ; 
 the kingdom founded, 413 ; again in 814 ; unit- 
 ed to the German empire, 1035 ; disunited bv a 
 revolt, and divided into four sovereignties, 1074. 
 
 Byzantium, now Constantinople, founded 
 715 B.C. 
 
 Calcutta seized and settled by the English, 
 1689. 
 
 Cambridge, England, once a city called Gran- 
 ta, built by Carsiurus ; university chartered, 
 538; founded, 900; the town burnt by the 
 Danes, 1010; university revived. 1110. 
 
 Cambridge, post town, Middlesex county, 
 Massachusetts. Name changed from Newtown 
 
 to Cambridge in 1638, when Harvard Universi- 
 ty was founded. 
 
 Canterbury built, 912 B. C. ; paved, 1477. 
 
 Carthage founded by the Tyrians, 1259 ; built 
 by queen Dido, 1233 ; destroyed, 146 ; rebuilt, 
 123 B. C. 
 
 Castile and Arragon kingdom begun, 1035. 
 
 Charlestown, Middlesex county Massachu- 
 setts. Founded in 1620 by a company of one 
 hundred persons. Burned by the British, June 
 17, 1775. 
 
 Chelmsford, now Lowell, post town, Middle- 
 sex county, Massachusetts. Incorporated in 
 1655. It was attacked by Indians in 1676. 
 
 Chelsea, Massachusetts, formerly a ward of 
 Boston, under the name of Winnesimmet or 
 Romney Marsh. Incorporated in 1738. 
 
 Chichester built by Ciffa, 516; paved, 1576. 
 
 China empire founded, 2100 B. C; but its 
 history does not extend above the Greek Olym- 
 piads ; the first dynasty, when prince Yu reign- 
 ed, 2207 B. C. ; before this time the Chinese 
 chronology is imperfect. 
 
 Cologne made an imperial city, 959; made 
 archiepiscopal, 742 ; electoral, 1021. 
 
 Concord, post town, Middlesex county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Settled in 1635. 
 
 Constantinople changed its name from By- 
 zantium, 329 ; was made the seat of an emperor, 
 1268 ; Cadies or justices introduced, to decide 
 the disputes between the Greeks and Turks, 
 1390 ; taken by Mahomet II May 29, 1452, who 
 put an end to the eastern empire, 1453 ; walled 
 twenty miles round, 413. 
 
 Copenhagen founded, 1169; made a city, 
 1310 ; made the capital of Denmark, 1443. 
 
 Corinth, kingdom of, established, 1355 B. C. 
 
 Cork, in Ireland, built, 1170. 
 
 Corsica dependent on Genoa till 1730 ; ceded 
 to France, 1770; offered to Germany for 
 £ 150,000 in 1781 ; surrendered its sovereignty 
 to Great Britain, 1794 ; relinquished, in 1796. 
 
 Cracow, in Poland, founded, 700. 
 
 Cronstadt built by Peter the Great, of Russia, 
 1704. 
 
 Danbury, post town, Fairfield county, Con- 
 necticut. Founded about 1693. 
 
 .Dmtzick founded, 1169; first walled in, 1398; 
 admitted to a suffrage in the election of kings 
 of Poland, 1632 ; putthemselves under the pro- 
 tection of Prussia, 1703 ; compelled to acknow- 
 ledge Stanislaus king of Poland, 1707 ; the king 
 of Prussia seized upon the territory round the 
 city, 1789. 
 
 Dauphiny annexed to the kingdom of France 
 1349. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FOU 
 
 666 
 
 FOU 
 
 Dedham, post town, and capital of Norfolk 
 county, Massachusetts. Commenced in 1G37. 
 
 Delft city founded, 1072. 
 
 Denmark united to Norway, 1412 ; separated 
 from it. 1 3*2 1 ; crown made hereditary, 16G0; 
 Pomeraniit and the isle of Rugen annexed to it 
 in exchange for Norway, by treaty, Jan. 14, 
 
 Domingo, St. given up by the French gover- 
 nor, Rochambeau, to the black troops, Nov. 19, 
 1803. 
 
 Dorchester, town, Norfolk cou»nty, Massachu- 
 setts. Settled 1030. Church gathered 1G36. 
 
 Dover castle built by Julius Caesar ; town 
 fortified. 1525. 
 
 Dresden founded, 808. 
 
 Dublin city walls built about 838 ; its first 
 charter granted, 1173; its castle built, 1220; 
 university founded, 1591 ; students admitted to 
 its university, January, 1594. 
 
 Dunkirk founded, 966. 
 
 East Indies were discovered by the Romans, 
 but authors ditfer as to the time ; but with 
 certainty we know, that Alexander the Great 
 made extensive conquests in this country, 327 
 B. C. ; by the Portuguese, 1497 ; conquered 
 in 1500, and settled by them in 150G.— The first 
 settlement was Goa. 
 
 Edinburgh built, 950; fortified, and castle 
 erected, 1074 ; made the metropolis of Scotland 
 by' James III, 1482: James II was the first 
 king crowned there, 1437. 
 
 Egypt, the kingdom of, began, 2188 B.C., and 
 lasted 1633 years; reduced to a province, 31 
 A. D. ; and subdued by the Turks, in 1525 ; the 
 French amy entered it in 1798, and overthrew 
 it, but were'expelled by the English in 1801. 
 
 Elbing. in Prussia, founded, 1240. 
 
 Elsineur, in Denmark, built 2 B. C. 
 
 Exeter, post town, Rockingham county, New 
 Hampshire. Church and town founded in 1G38. 
 
 Falmouth, town. Cumberland county, Maine. 
 Incorporated in 1718. Burned by the British, 
 October 18, 1775, when one hundred and thirty 
 nine dwelling houses, and two hundred and 
 thirty-eight stores were destroyed. 
 
 Fayetteville, post town, Cumberland county, 
 North Carolina. Founded in 1785. 
 
 Flanders erected into an eaildom, 793 ; made 
 part of France, 1795; annexed to Holland, 
 1813. 
 
 Florence founded, 1408 B. C. 
 
 Fribourg, in Switzerland, founded, 1179. 
 
 Gallipolis, post town and capital of Gallia 
 county, Ohio. Land granted to French settlers 
 in 1795. 
 
 Geneva republic founded, 1512. 
 
 Genoese republic founded, 101)6. — Genoa an- 
 nexed to the French empire, 1805. — Transferred 
 to the king of Sardinia, 1814. 
 
 Georgetown, post town, Lincoln county, 
 Maine. Incorporated in 1718. 
 
 Georgia colony settled, June 22, 1732 ; incor- 
 porated, July 31, 1752. 
 
 Germany was divided anciently into several 
 independent states, which made no figure in 
 history till 25 B. C, when they withstood the 
 attempts of the Romans to subdue them, who 
 conquered some parts ; but by the repeated ef- 
 forts of the Germans were entirely expelled 
 about A. D. 290 —In 432, the Huns, driven 
 from China, conquered the greatest part of this 
 extensive country ; but it was not totally sub- 
 dued till Charlemagne became master of the 
 whole, A. D. 802. 
 
 Goree Isle first planted by the Dutch, 1617. 
 
 Grand Cairo built by the Saracens, 969. 
 
 Gravesend erected to protect the river 
 Thames, 1513. 
 
 Grecian empire founded by Alexander, 331 ; 
 commenced, 81 1. 
 
 Croningen built, 433 B. C. 
 
 Guilford, borough, post town and seaport,New 
 Haven county, Connecticut. Settled in 1639. 
 
 Haddam, post town, Middlesex county, Con- 
 necticut. Incorporated 1G68. 
 
 Hadley, post town, Hampshire county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Settled in 1658. On September 
 1st, 1658, the town was attacked by Indians 
 during the services of the Sabbath. The sava- 
 ges were repelled by an aged man, who sudden 
 ly appeared and headed the inhabitants, artt 
 disappeared as suddenly after the victory. This 
 man, regarded as an angel at the time, was 
 afterwards discovered to be Goffe, one of the 
 regicide judges. 
 
 Hamburgh founded, 804; walled, 811; dis- 
 franchised, and incorporated with France, Jan. 
 1810; restored to independence by the allied 
 sovereigns, 1814. 
 
 Hanover, hitherto but a village, walled, 1556; 
 obtained the privileges of a city, 1578; made 
 the ninth electorate, 1692; annexed to West- 
 phalia, by Bonaparte, March 18, 1810 ; regained 
 to England, Nov. 6, ltl3; principality of Hil- 
 desheim annexed to it, 1813; erected into a 
 kingdom, 1814 ; assembly of the states of the 
 new kingdom opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
 Dec. 15, 1814 ; East Friesland and Harlingen 
 added to it, 1815. 
 
 Harrisburg, the metropolis of Pennsylvania, 
 founded in 1786. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 FOU 
 
 667 
 
 FOU 
 
 Harwich, post town, Barnstable county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Its Indian name was Satucket. 
 Incorporated 1694. 
 
 Heptarchy, in England, commenced, 455; 
 ended, 824. 
 
 Hingham, post town, Plymouth county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Settled in 11335. 
 
 Holland, originally part of the territory of the 
 Be\gas, conquered by the Romans, 47 B. C. — A 
 sovereignty founded by Thierry, first count of 
 Holland, A. D. 80S; continued till 1417, when 
 it passed by surrender to the duke of Burgundy, 
 A. D. 1534; being oppressed by the bishop of 
 Utrecht, the people ceded the country to Spain. 
 The Spanish tyranny being insupportable, they 
 revolted and formed the republic, now called the 
 United Provinces, by the union of Utrecht, 1579. 
 The office of stadtholder, or captain general of 
 the United Provinces, made hereditary in the 
 Prince of Orange's family, not excepting fe- 
 males, 1747. — A revolt formed, but prevented 
 by the Prussians, 1787. — Invaded by the French 
 in 1793, who took possession of it, Jan. 1795, 
 and expelled the stadtholder. — Erected into a 
 kingdom by the command of Bonaparte, and 
 the title of king given to his brother Louis, 
 June 5, 1806. The throne abdicated by Louis, 
 July 1, 1810. United to France by a decree of 
 Bonaparte, July 9, 1810. 
 
 Holliston, post town, Middlesex county, 
 Massachusetts. Settled in 1710. Incorporated 
 1724. Visited in 1753 by a malignant fever, 
 which carried off fifty-three persons out of a 
 population of 400. 
 
 Hull founded, 1296; incorporated by the 
 name of Kingston. 1299. 
 
 Ilium built, 1359 B. C. 
 
 Ionian islands ceded to Britain, as a free and 
 independent state, by the allied sovereigns in 
 congress, Nov. 5, 18J5. 
 
 Ipswich, post town, and port of entry, Essex 
 county, Massachusetts. Settled 1634. 
 
 Ireland ; the original inhabitants of this coun- 
 try are supposed to have been of the Celtic 
 stock ; it was divided formerly among a num- 
 ber of petty sovereigns. 
 
 Italy, kingdom of, began, 476 ; ended, 964 ; 
 began again, 1805 ; and Bonaparte the Corsican 
 crowned king, May 26. 
 
 Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, and Alderney, were 
 appendages of the duchy of Normandy, and 
 united to the crown of England, by the first 
 prince of the Norman line. 
 
 Jerusalem built 1800 B. C. ; destroyed by 
 Titus, 70; rebuilt by Adrian, 130; again de- 
 stroyed, 136 ; taken by the Saracens, 637 ; taken 
 
 by the Crusaders, July 14, 1099, when 70,000 
 infidels are said to have been massacred ; taken 
 from the Christians by Saladin, 1190. 
 
 Kent, kingdom of, began, 455 ; ended, 823. 
 
 Liverpool was incorporated, 1299. 
 
 London fortified by the Romans, 50 ; walled, 
 and a palace built, 2,44 ; made a bishopric, 653 ; 
 repaired by Alfred, 885 ; greatly damaged by a 
 fire, 982, 1027, and 1130; not paved, 1090; 
 houses of timber thatched with straw, but to 
 prevent fire, ordered to be built with stone, and 
 covered with slates, 1192, but the order not ob- 
 served ; a charter by king John to the London- 
 ers to choose a mayor out of their own body, 
 annually (this office formerly was for life,) to 
 elect and remove their sheriffs at pleasure, and 
 their common-councilmen annually, 1208; a 
 common hunt first appointed, 1226 ; aldermen 
 first appointed, 1242; the houses still thatched 
 with straw, Cheapside lay out of the city, 1246 ; 
 all built of wood, 1300 ; their privileges taken 
 away, but restored on submission, 1366; the 
 first lord mayor sworn at Westminster that went 
 by water, 1433 ; the lord mayor's show instituted, 
 1453; a sheriff fined £50 for kneeling too near 
 the lord mayor, when at prayers in St. Paul's 
 cathedral, 1486; the Thames water first con- 
 veyed into the city, 1582 ; the city chiefly built 
 of wood, and in every respect very irregular, 
 1600 ; the New River brought to London, 1613 ; 
 the lord mayor and sheriffs arrested at the suit 
 of two pretended sheriffs, April 24, 1652; the 
 greatest part of the city destroyed by fire, 1666 ; 
 Pilkington and Shute, the city sheriffs, sent 
 prisoners to the Tower, for continuing a poll 
 after the lord mayor had adjourned it, 1682; 
 the charter of the city declared forfeited to the 
 crown, June 12, 1682; privileges taken away, 
 but restored, 1688; builta mansion house, 1737; 
 furnished and inhabited the same, 1752; repair- 
 ed London bridge, 1758, when government 
 granted them £ 15,000 and permitted them to 
 pull down the gates. 1760; began Blackfriars 
 bridge, Oct. 31, 1760; the common council or 
 dered to wear blue mazarine gowns, Sept. 14, 
 1761 ; lost their cause against the dissenters 
 serving sheriffs, July 5, 1762; the city remon- 
 strated on the king's paying no attention to their 
 petition for a redress of grievances, and was 
 censured, March, 1770; Brass Crosby, Esq. 
 lr>rd mayor, and alderman Oliver, sent to the 
 Tower by the house of commons, for committing 
 their messenger, March, 1771 ; trade greatly 
 injured by bankruptcies, 1772; regulation of 
 admitting the livery at Guildhall, by Mr. Stone's 
 scheme, 1774 ; the common councilmen discon 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FOU 
 
 668 
 
 FOU 
 
 tinued the wearing of their mazarine gowns in 
 court, in 1775; the city abandoned to the mercy 
 of an ungoverned mob, July 3, 1780; rebuilt 
 the compters near Newgate, J 789; from the 
 year 17b'8 to the year 1776, the corporation of 
 London expended the following sums for public 
 uses, which show the opulence of the city : in 
 new paving, repairing old pavements, lighting, 
 cleansing, and purchasing old houses to widen 
 streets, £200.000 ; £200,000 for the new bridge 
 at Blackfriars ; several large sums for new roads, 
 embanking the river, and other contingencies ; 
 £200,000 for repairing the royal exchange ; the 
 jail of Newgate cost £ 100,000. London is now 
 supposed to contain 160,000 houses. 7000 streets, 
 to cover 3000 acres, and to be in circumference 
 23 miles, and its population 1 ,200,000. 
 
 Londonderry, post town, Rockingham coun- 
 ty. New Hampshire. Settled by one hundred 
 Scotch families, (who came from Londonderry, 
 Ireland, their temporary residence.) in 1719. 
 
 Lubec was founded, 1140. 
 
 Lucca republic founded, 100. 
 
 Lyons, in France, founded 43 B. C; opposed 
 the national convention, by whom it was be- 
 sieged, 1793. 
 
 Macedon, kingdom of, began, 814 B. C. 
 
 Madrid built, 936 B. C, but remained an ob- 
 scure village in 1515. 
 
 Man, isle of, formerly subject to Norway; 
 then to John and Henry III of England, and 
 afterwards to Scotland ; governed by its lords, 
 from 1043 ; conquered by Henry IV 1341. 
 
 Medford, post town, Middlesex county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Settled in 1630. A ship of thirty 
 tons built here in 1633. 
 
 Michilimaekinack. A fort built here by the 
 French in 1673. 
 
 Middletown, city, port of entry, and capital 
 of Middlesex county, Connecticut, commenced 
 1651 . 
 
 Milan, the capital of thi". celebrated dukedom 
 is reputed to have been built by the Gauls, 
 about 408 B. C. 
 
 Modena made a duchy, 1451. 
 
 Mogul empire — The first conqueror was Jen- 
 ghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died, 1236. 
 
 Morocco, empire of, anciently Mauritania, 
 first known, 1008. — Possess* d by the Romans, 
 25 B. C, and reduced by them to a province, 
 50. — From this time it underwent various revo- 
 lutions, till the establishment of the Almova- 
 rides. — The second emperor of this family built 
 the capital, Morocco.— About 1 1 16, Abdallah, 
 the leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded the 
 dynasty of Almahides, which ended in the last 
 
 sovereign's total defeat in Spain, 1312. — At this 
 period Fez and Tremecen, then provinces of 
 the empire, shook off their dependence. — Mo- 
 rocco was afterwards seized by the king of Fez ; 
 but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1550, 
 subdued and united again the three kingdoms, 
 and formed what is at present the empire of 
 Morocco. 
 
 Moscow founded, 1156. 
 
 Munich, in Bavaria, founded, 962; walled, 
 1157. 
 
 Nantucket, island of, Massachusetts. First 
 settlement commenced at Madakit harbor, 1659. 
 
 Naples founded, 323 B. C. 
 
 Naples, anciently Capua and Campania, 
 kingdom of, began, 1020. — Great part of the 
 country was inhabited, in ancient times, by the 
 Etruscans, who built Nola and Capua. 
 
 Netherlands declared themselves a free state, 
 1565 and 1789; became a province to France in 
 1794 ; placed under the sovereignty of the house 
 of Orange, 1814. 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne built, 1079; incorpo- 
 rated by king John, 1213. 
 
 New Haven, city, seaport, and semi-metrop- 
 olis of Connecticut. Built 1638. Its college 
 was projected in 1654. Plundered by the Brit- 
 ish, July 5, 1779. Made a city 1784. 
 
 New London, city and port of entry, New 
 London county, Connecticut. Settled in 1648. 
 Burnt by Benedict Arnold, after his treason, 
 Sept. 6, 1781. Made a city 1784. 
 
 New Orleans, city, port of entry and capital 
 of Louisiana. Founded in 1717. Dreadful 
 hurricane occurred in 1722. 
 
 Newtown, Massachusetts, originally intended 
 as a fortified place, and commenced in 1631. 
 (See Cambridge.) 
 
 Normandy erected into a dukedom, 876. 
 
 Northumberland kingdom began, 547 ; ended, 
 828. 
 
 Norwalk, post town, Fairfield county, Con- 
 necticut. Settled in 1651. Burnt by the Brit- 
 ish, July 12, 1779. 
 
 Norway attached to Sweden, and Charles 
 XIII of Sweden proclaimed king of, November 
 4,1814. 
 
 Norwich, city, New London county, Connec- 
 ticut. Settled in 1660. Made a city in 1784. 
 
 Nottingham built, 924. 
 
 Ottoman empire begun, 1293. 
 
 Oxford university, founded by Alfred, 886; 
 its castle built, 1071 ; archdeaconry erected, 
 1092; Beaumont place finished, about 1128; 
 chancellor's court established, 1244 ; bishoprick 
 taken from Lincoln, and founded, 1541 ; firs* 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 FOU 
 
 66$ 
 
 FOU 
 
 public lecture in Arabic read there, 1636; new 
 theatre built, 1660 ; a terrible fire at, 1644 ; again, 
 1671 ; library built, 1745 ; hospital begun, May 1 , 
 1772 ; observatory built, 1772 ; visited by Geo. 
 Ill, &c. Oct. 12, 1785. 
 
 Padua built, 126!) B. C; surrounded with a 
 wall, &c. by the Venetians, 1019. 
 
 Paris founded, 357 ; made the capital of 
 France, 510 ; the city of, consumed by fire, 588 ; 
 first paved with stories, 1186; barricadoes of, 
 1588, to oppose the entry of the duke of Guise ; 
 again, Aug. 27, 1748, in opposition to the re- 
 gency ; first parliament there, 1302. 
 
 Persian empire founded, 536 B. C. 
 
 Petersburgh, in Muscovy, built by the czar, 
 Peter 1, 1703. 
 
 Pisa republic founded, 1403. 
 
 Plymouth, seaport and capital of Plymouth 
 county, Massachusetts. First company of Pil- 
 grims landed Dec. 23, 1620. First house built 
 Dec. 25, of the same year. 
 
 Poland, once the country of the Vandals, who 
 left it to invade the Roman empire ; it was 
 made a duchy, 694 ; kingdom of, began, by the 
 favor of Otho III, emperor of Germany, under 
 Boleslaus, 999. 
 
 Portland, city and port of entry, Cumberland 
 county, Maine. Incorporated 1786. 
 
 Portugal, kingdom of. began, 1139 ; united to 
 Spain in 1580, and continued so till 1640, when 
 they shook off the Spanish yoke. 
 
 Providence, city and port of entry, Provi- 
 dence county, Rhode Island. Settled by Roger 
 Williams in 1636. Thirty houses destroyed by 
 the Indians, March 29, 1676. 
 
 Prussia, anciently possessed by the Venedi, 
 whose kings were descended from Athirius, first 
 king of the Heruli, on the Baltic, 320 B. C. 
 
 Ratisbon built, 1187 B. C. 
 
 Riga, founded in 1128, by a colony of Bre- 
 meners. 
 
 Roman empire began, 44 B. C; ended, 63 
 A. D.; began in the west, 74 ; ended, 92 ; began 
 in the east. 364 ; ended, 1553 ; it was 2000 miles 
 broad, and 3000 in length. 
 
 Rome, its foundation laid by Romulus, its 
 first king, 753 B. C. according to most chronol- 
 ogers; by sir Isaac Newton's chronology, 627, 
 B.C. 
 
 Rostock founded, 1169. 
 
 Roxbury, town, Norfolk county, Massachu- 
 setts. Settled in 1630. 
 
 Russia, or Muscovy, anciently Sarmatia, and 
 inhabited by the Scythians ; not renowned till 
 the natives attempted to take Constantinople, 
 A. D. 864 
 
 Salem, seaport and capital of Essex county. 
 Massachusetts. In 1678 contained but eighty- 
 five houses. The first pavement finished, 1773. 
 
 Sardinia conquered by the Spaniards. 1303, 
 in whose possession it was till 1708, when it 
 was taken by an English fleet, and given to the 
 duke of Savoy, with the title of king. 
 
 Savoy, part of Gallia Narbonensis, which 
 submitted to the Romans, 118 B. C. 
 
 Saybrook, post town, Middlesex county, 
 Connecticut. Fort erected in 1635. An eccle- 
 siastical constitution, called the " Saybrook 
 Platform," adopted by the Synod, Sept. 1708. 
 
 Scotland, anciently Caledonia, history of, be- 
 gan, 328 B. C, when Fergus I was sent over by 
 the people of Ireland ; received the Christian 
 faith, A. D. 203. 
 
 Sicily first peopled from Italy, 1262 B. C. 
 
 Southwark annexed to London, 1550. 
 
 Spain, New, established, 1520. 
 
 Spain was first civilized by the Phoenicians, 
 who possessed great part of it; these called in 
 the Carthaginians ; it was afterwards invaded 
 by the Rhodians ; the Carthaginians however 
 made new conquests, 209 ; and after the de- 
 struction of ancient Tyre, became the most pow- 
 erful in this country. — Conquered by the Ro- 
 mans, 216 B. C. 
 
 Springfield, post town and capital of Hamp- 
 den county, Massachusetts. Settled in 1636. 
 Burnt by the Indians in 1675. 
 
 Stockholm built, 1253. 
 
 Sweden, anciently Scandinavia, kingdom of, 
 began, 481. 
 
 Switzerland inhabited formerly by the Hel- 
 vettii, who were subdued by Cassar, 57 B. C. 
 
 Syracuse, in the isle of Sicily, founded, 709 
 B. C. 
 
 Thebes built by Cadmus, 493 B. C. 
 
 Trenton, the metropolis of New Jersey. 
 Founded by William Trent in 1724. 
 
 Troy built, 1480 ; the kingdom of, began 
 1446 B. C. 
 
 Vandals began their kingdom in Spain, 412; 
 ended, 534. 
 
 Venice. — The first inhabitants of this country, 
 were the Veneti ; conquered by the Gauls, and 
 made a kingdom, about 356; conquered for the 
 Romans, by Maicellus, 221 B. C. 
 
 Vienna was very obscure till 1151 ; it was 
 walled and enlarged by Henry I, of Austria, 
 1122, with the ransom of king Richard I, of 
 England. 
 
 Wallachia, incorporated with Russia, 1810. 
 
 Wales first inhabited by Britons, on their 
 being expelled England by the Saxons, 685 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 FRO 
 
 670 
 
 GAR 
 
 divided into North Wales, South Wales, and 
 Powis Land, 970; conquered and divided by 
 William I, among the conquerors, 1091 ; Grif- 
 fith the last king died, 1137; the sovereign, 
 from that time, was a prince only. 
 
 Washington city, in America, founded, 1791. 
 Waterford, in Ireland, built 1102. 
 Wirtemberg erected into a county in 1078; 
 into a duchy, at the diet of Worms, 1495: into 
 a kingdom, 1803. 
 
 Woburn, post town, Middlesex county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Settled in 1642. 
 York built, 1223 B. C. 
 
 FROST, in Britain, lasted five months, 220. 
 The Pontus sea was entirely frozen ov^r for the 
 space of 20 days, and the sea between Constan- 
 tinople and the Scutari, 401 ; so severe a frost 
 all over Britain, that the rivers were frozen up 
 for above two months, 508 ; one so great that 
 the Danube was quite frozen over, 558 ; the 
 Thames frozen for six weeks, when booths were 
 built on it, 095 ; one that continued from Oct. 
 1, to February 26, 760; one in England which 
 lasted nine weeks, 827; carriages were used on 
 the Adriatic sea, 859; the Mediterranean sea 
 was frozen over, and passable in carts, 860 ; 
 most of the rivers in England frozen for two 
 months, 908; the Thames frozen thirteen 
 weeks, 923 ; one that lasted 120 days, which 
 began December 22,987; the Thames frozen 
 five weeks. 998 ; a frost on midsummerdav, so 
 vehement, that the corn and fruits were destroy- 
 ed, 1035; the Thames frozen fourteen weeks, 
 1063 ; a frost in England from November to 
 April, 1076; several bridges in England being 
 then of timber, broken down by a frost. 1114; 
 a frost from January 14 to March 22, 1205 ; 
 one of fifteen weeks, 1207 ; the Mediterranean 
 sea was frozen over, and the merchants passed 
 H with their merchandise in carts, in 1234; the 
 Cattegatt, or sea between Norway and Den- 
 mark, was frozen, and that from Oxslo, in Nor- 
 way, they travelled on the ice to Jutland, in 
 1294 ; the sea between Norway and the prom- 
 ontory of Scagernit frozen over, and from Swe- 
 den to Gothland, 1296; the Baltic was covered 
 with ice fourteen weeks, between the Danish 
 and Swedish islands, in 1306 ; the Baltic was 
 passable for foot passengers and horsemen, for 
 six weeks, in 1323 ; the sea was frozen over, 
 and passable from Stralsund to Denmark, in 
 1349 ; the Baltic was quite frozen over from 
 Pomerania to Denmark, in 1402; the whole sea 
 between Gothland and Geland was frozen, and 
 from Restock to Gezoer, in 1408 ; the ice bore 
 riding on from Lubec to Prussia, and the Bal- 
 
 tic was covered with ice from Mecklenburgh 
 to Denmark, in 1423, 1426, and in 1459; the 
 sea between Constantinople and Iskodar, was 
 passable on ice in 1420 ; in 1709, the Adriatic 
 sea was frozen and the olive trees killed in the 
 south of Europe ; in 1779-80, the ice was driven 
 out of the mouth of the Mississippi into the 
 Mexican gulf— a circumstance never known 
 before or since ; in 1788, which lasted only 
 from November to January, 1789, when the 
 Thames was crossed opposite the custom house, 
 the tower Execution dock, Putney, Brentford, 
 &c. ; it was general throughout Europe, partic- 
 ularly in Holland, at the same time ; the most 
 severe on Dec. 25th, 1796, that had been felt in 
 the memory of man ; severe one in January, 
 1814, when booths were erected on various 
 parts of the Thames, and the antiquarian soci- 
 ety of Newcastle recorded, that the rapid river 
 Tyne was frozen to the depth of twenty inches; 
 severe frost at Quebec, Aug. 7, 1815. In the 
 United States, lat. 42, January, 1835, thermom- 
 eter 30 degrees below zero. In Maine, 40 de- 
 grees below. 
 
 FRUITS of foreign countries first brought 
 into Italy, 70 B. C, and flowers, sundry sorts 
 before unknown, were brought into England in 
 the reigns of Henry VII, and VIII, from about 
 1500 to 1578. Among others of less note, the 
 musk and damask roses, of great use in medi- 
 cine, and tulips. Several sorts of plum trees 
 and currant plants; also saffron, woad, and 
 other drugs for dyeing, attempted to be culti- 
 vated, but without success. 
 
 GAMUT in music invented by Guy L'Are 
 tin, 1025. 
 
 GANSEVOORT FORT, built 1812. 
 
 GARDENING introduced into England from 
 the Netherlands, from whence vegetables were 
 imported, till 1509; the pale gooseberry, with 
 salads, garden roots, cabbages, &c. brought 
 from Flanders, and hops from Artois 1520; rye 
 and wheat, from Tartary and Siberia, where 
 they are yet indigenous; barley and oats un- 
 known, but certainly not indigenous in Eng- 
 land ; rice from Ethiopia; buckwheat, Asia; 
 borage, Syria ; cresses, Crete ; cauliflower, Cy- 
 prus ; asparagus, Asia; chervil, Italy ; fennel, 
 Canary Islands; annise and parsley, Egypt; 
 garlic, the East; shallots, Siberia; horserad- 
 ish, China; kidney beans, East Indies; gourds, 
 Astracan; lentils, France; potatoes, Brazil; 
 tobacco, America; cabbage, lettuce, &c. Hoi 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL, 
 
 GRI 
 
 671 
 
 HAN 
 
 land. Jassamine comes from the East Indies ; 
 the elder tree from Persia ; the tulip from 
 Cappadocia ; the daffodil, from Italy; the lily, 
 from Syria ; the tube rose from Java and Cey- 
 lon ; the carnation and pink, from Italy, &c. ; 
 rananculus, from the Alps ; apples, from Syria ; 
 apricots, from Epirus ; artichokes, from Hol- 
 land ; celery, from Flanders; cherries, from 
 Pontus ; currants, from Zante ; damask and 
 musk roses, from Damascus, as well as plums ; 
 hops, from Artois and France ; gooseberries 
 from Flanders ; gilliflowers, carnations, the 
 Provence rose, &c. from Thoulouse, in France ; 
 oranges and lemons from Spain ; beans and peas 
 from Spain. 
 
 GAS, use of, introduced in London, for 
 lighting shops and streets, 1814 ; first into the 
 United^States, at Baltimore, 1821. 
 
 GAUZE, lawn, and thread manufactures, 
 began at Paislev, in Scotland, in 1759, which in 
 1784 yielded £575,185, and employed 26,664 
 hands. In gauze alone, £350,900. 
 
 GAZETTES, of Venetian origin, and so 
 called from the price being gazetta, a small 
 piece of money ; the first published in England, 
 was at Oxford, Nov. 7, 1665. 
 
 GEORGIUM SIDUS discovered by Hersch- 
 el, 1781. 
 
 GILDING with leaf gold on bole ammoniac, 
 art of, invented by Margaritone, 1273 ; on wood, 
 1680. 
 
 GIPSIES quitted Egypt when attacked by 
 the Turks in 1515, and wandered over almost 
 all Europe. 
 
 GLASS, the art of making it, known to the 
 Romans at least before 79 ; known to the Chi- 
 nese about 200; introduced into England by 
 Benedict, a monk, 674; glass windows began 
 to be used in private houses in England, 1180 ; 
 glass first made in England into bottles and 
 vessels, 1557 ; the first plate glass for looking 
 glasses and coach windows, made at Lambeth, 
 1673 ; in Lancashire, 1773 ; window glass first 
 made in England, 1557. 
 
 GLOBE of the earth, the first voyage round 
 it was by sir Francis Drake, 1580 ; the second 
 by Magellan, 1591 ; the third by sir Thomas 
 Cavendish, 1586 ; by lord Anson in 1740 ; by 
 captain Cook in 1768; and by Peyrouse in 
 1793-4. 
 
 GRAPES brought to England and planted 
 first at Blaxhall,in Suffolk, 1552 ; cultivated in 
 Flanders 1276. 
 
 GREEN DYE for cotton, invented by Dr. R. 
 Williams, 1777. 
 
 GRISTMILLS invented in Ireland, 214. 
 57 
 
 GUINEAS were first coined, 1673, from gold 
 brought from the coast of Guinea. 
 
 GUNPOWDER invented, 1330 ; first made 
 in England, 1418; first used in Spain, 1344. 
 
 GUNS, great, invented, 1330 ; used by the 
 Moors at the siege of Algesiras, in Spain, in 
 1344 ; used at the battle of Cressy , in 1346 ; when 
 Edward had 4 pieces of cannon, which gained 
 him the battle ; they were used at the siege of 
 Calais, in 1347; in Denmark, 1354; at sea by 
 Venice against Genoa, 1377; first used in Spain, 
 1406; first made in England of brass, 1635 ; 
 of iron, 1547 ; invented to shoot whales, 1731 ; 
 first used in England, at the siege of Berwick, 
 1405 ; bombs and mortars invented, 1634. 
 
 If. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS ACT in England, pass- 
 ed, 1641 , and May 27, 1679 ; attempt made in the 
 senate of the United States to suspend it, but 
 rejected by the house of representatives, 1806. 
 
 HACKNEY COACHES first used, 20 in 
 number, in London, 1625. 
 
 HAIR POWDER in use, 1590; a guinea per 
 year tax on those who wear it, 1795. 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS first manufactured at 
 Paisley, in Scotland, 1748, when £15,886 worth 
 were made ; in 1784 the manufacture yielded 
 above £ 164,385. 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE. In the middle 
 of the thirteenth century, the sea and land were 
 infested with pirates and robbers. The German 
 trade being exposed to accidents by land and 
 sea, Hamburg and Lubeck in the year 1241, en- 
 tered into a confederacy, in which they agreed 
 to defend each other from all attacks and from 
 every act of violence. This league was soon 
 after joined by Brunswick ; it was named by 
 way of eminence, the Hanse, meaning a league 
 for mutual defence. Many other towns joined 
 and in a short time, became so numerous that 
 in 1260, a meeting of the members was held at 
 Lubeck, and continued to meet there every 
 three years. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, this league attain- 
 ed every where a high political importance, and 
 enjoyed extensive and uncommon privileges, 
 till at last it became the mistress of lands and 
 seas and crowns. So it continued for a length 
 of time, till the travelling becoming more se- 
 cure, and the circumstances that gave it rise 
 being changed, the Hanseatic League began to 
 fall, and in 1630, the last diet was held at Lu- 
 beck. The largest number of the Hanse towns 
 was eighty-five. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 HIE 
 
 672 
 
 HIE 
 
 HATS invented at Paris, 1404 ; first made in 
 London, 1510. 
 
 HEMP and flax first planted in England, 
 1533. There are 180,0001b. of rough hemp used 
 in the cordage and sails of a first rate man of 
 war. 
 
 HERALDRY had its rise, 1100. 
 
 HERRING FISHERY, first practised by 
 the Hollanders, 1164; herring pickling first 
 invented 1397. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS : Or sacred engraving, 
 was the name given first to the sculptures and 
 inscriptions on the monuments of Egypt — it is 
 now often used to denote simply picture writ- 
 ing, which is seen in its rudest state, upon the 
 buffalo skins of our North American Indians, 
 &c. But a new charm has been given to sim- 
 ilar sculptures, and indeed to the study of anti- 
 quity in general by Champollion's discovery of 
 the key to these so long inexplicable mysteries. 
 
 This indefatigable scholar, after many years 
 of toil has at last succeeded in deciphering 
 every inscription presented to him ! He discov- 
 ers that these hieroglyphics were usually em- 
 ployed as mere alphabetic letters; that when 
 thus read, they give us regular composition in 
 the Coptic or old Egyptian language. As the 
 Coptic is understood by many learned men, we 
 are in a fair way of knowing all that the Egyp- 
 tian records so formed can teach. These monu- 
 mental records of the earliest ages are of two 
 kinds. 
 
 A. The com- fdemotica and demode by Herodotus and 
 mon, I Diodorus. 
 called •< enchoria by the Rosetta inscription. 
 
 epistolographica by Clement of Alexan- 
 dria. 
 . Hieratic, or sacerdotal writing, 
 which may be called hierographic. 
 
 B.The sacred, 
 divided by 
 Clement of 
 Alexandria 
 into 
 
 b. Hiero 
 glyphic, 
 
 compos- 
 ed of 
 
 Cyriologic, by means of 
 the first letters of the al- 
 phabet. 
 
 Symbol- p. Cyriologic, 
 ical, com- I by imita- 
 prising j tion. 
 the ) 2. Tropical or 
 metaphor- 
 ical. 
 (^.Enigmatical. 
 
 The hieroglyphic writing is eminently monu- 
 mental. It is from the nature of the signs which 
 it employs a species of painting, and it presents 
 a various and picturesque aspect, which distin- 
 guishes it essentially from every other method 
 of writing. The hieroglyphic characters do in 
 fact exhibit images of almost every material 
 object in creation. But the whole number of 
 those used alphabetically, observed by Cham- 
 pollion, after more than 20 years' study, was 
 
 only 864, viz. celestial bodies, 10 ; human fig- 
 gures in various positions 120; human limbs, 
 taken separately, 60 ; wild quadrupeds, 24 ; do- 
 mestic quadrupeds, 10; limbs of animals, 22; 
 birds, whole or in parts, 50 ; fishes, 10 ; reptiles, 
 whole or in parts, 30; insects, 14; vegetables, 
 plants, flowers and fruits, 60; buildings, 24; 
 furniture, 100 ; coverings for feet and legs, 
 head-dresses, weapons, ornaments and sceptres, 
 80 ; tools and instruments of various sorts, 150 ; 
 vases, cups and the like, 30 ; geometrical figures, 
 20; fantastic forms, 50. The figures are ar- 
 ranged in cplumns, vertical or horizontal, and 
 grouped together, as circumstances required, so 
 as to leave no spaces unnecessarily vacant. 
 We cannot go into a larger detail of the other 
 methods of Egyptian writing, which may be 
 understood by an attentive examination of the 
 table above, but give a familiar specimen of the 
 phonetic and alphabetic. To write the name 
 Boston, (See cut fig. A.) for B. the Egyptians 
 would look for some familiar object, the name 
 of which began with B. say a censer, which is 
 called in Egyptian Berbe, and the engraving 
 would be the more appropriate to use, from the 
 church-going character of the inhabitants of 
 Boston, &c. ; in looking round for an object 
 whose name begins with O. the literary char- 
 acter of the city would suggest the reed, an 
 instrument of writing, anciently, and now so 
 used in the East ; this, in Egyptian, is Oke; for 
 S. take a star ; Sion, for T. a hand, tot, for O, 
 again, to have a variety, instead of the Egyptian 
 tufted reed, as above, they might take an abbre- 
 viation of it, the curled line ; for N. we have the 
 vulture, noure, or, better, the sign for inunda- 
 tion, neph. Fig. B. gives a perfectly Egyptian 
 specimen of the symbolical style, in what is 
 generally called an anaglyph. It is a female 
 winged sphinx found upon a block of black gran- 
 ite. The sphynx was an emblem of strength, and 
 wisdom, the body being that of a lion, and the 
 head human. The name Tma,uhmot, (daugh- 
 ter of Horus, a king of the eighteenth dynasty 
 of Egypt,) is read in the oval. This then is a 
 symbolical image of the queen herself; and 
 the flowers of lotus, uuderneath, are evidently, 
 though emblematically, taken for the Nile, and 
 for the whole country of Egypt. The sphynx 
 instead of a paw, has a hand, raised in the atti- 
 tude of protection. The whole then seems to 
 be in praise of a monarch, and to signify " a 
 monument raised to the memory of queen 
 Tmauhmot, styled the Guardian and Protec- 
 tress of the land of Egypt, by her wisdom and 
 strength." 
 
<? 
 
 • r* * 
 
 V^V^SJJU^J^SJ^S] 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 M/wMvwwl 
 
 V 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 v 
 
 mMmmmiiw 
 
 \J 
 
 Hieroglyphics, or Sacred Engraving. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 JUD 
 
 673 
 
 LAB 
 
 HOUR GLASSES were invented in Alex- 
 andria, 240, and introduced at Rome, 158 years 
 B.C. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY discovered by captain 
 Hudson, 1607. 
 
 HUGUENOTS murdered at Paris, Aug. 24, 
 1672. 
 
 HURRICANE, violent winds, particularly 
 in the torrid zone, and in a manner particularly 
 destructive in the West Indies : The following 
 is a list of the most remarkable of these pheno- 
 mena. 1670, 1674, 1675, Barbados ; 1691, An- 
 tigua; 1700, 1702, Barbados; 1707, Caribbee 
 Islands in general; 1712, Jamaica; 1720, Bar- 
 bados ; 1722, Jamaica, August 31 ; 1733, Carib- 
 bee Islands in general; 1744, Jamaica; 1764, 
 Martinico, Carthagena, and particularly over 
 some of the Caribbee Islands ; 1772, most of the 
 Caribbee Islands ; 1780, October 3d, Jamaica, 
 .1828, February 18, violent gale at St. Ubes, 
 Portugal, British ship Terror, and 100 men lost. 
 
 INDIGO, first produced in Carolina 1747; 
 cultivated in the open air at Vaucluse, in 
 France, 1808. 
 
 INOCULATION first tried on criminals, 
 1721. 
 INSURANCE on shipping began in England, 
 
 INSURANCE OFFICES established in 
 London, and its vicinity, 1696. 
 
 INSURANCE POLICIES were first used in 
 Florence in 1523 ; first society established at 
 Hanover, 1530; that at Paris, 1740. 
 
 INTEREST first mentioned as legal, 1199, 
 at 10 per cent.; in 1300, at 20 per cent. ; in 
 1558, at 12 per cent. ; in 1571, at 10 per cent. ; 
 in 1625, at 8 per cent. ; in 1749, the funds were 
 reduced from 4 to 3.^ and 3 per cent. 
 
 IRON discovered by the burning of mount 
 Ida, 1406 B. C. ; first, cast in England at Back- 
 stead, Sussex, 1544 ; first discovered in Amer- 
 ica, in Virginia, 1715 ; bullets first used in Eng- 
 land, 1550. 
 
 ITALIAN method of book-keeping, pub- 
 lished in England, 1569. 
 
 JEREMIAH wrote his Lamentations, 610 
 B.C. 
 
 JOSHUA, book of, written 1415 B. C. 
 
 JUDE, St. wrote his epistle, 71 ; festival in- 
 stituted, 1030. 
 
 JUPITER'S SATELLITES discovered by 
 Jansen, 1590. 
 
 JURIES first instituted by Ethelred, 979; 
 the plaintiff and defendant in those times used 
 to feed them ; whence the common law of de- 
 nying sustenance to a jury after hearing evi- 
 dence. 
 
 JUSTINIAN published his codex of the 
 civil law, 529 ; and four years after, his work 
 of the same kind, called the digest. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA discovered by the Rus- 
 sians, 1739. 
 
 KING of the Romans in Germany, first in- 
 stituted. 1096. 
 
 KINGDOMS, origin of, by Nimrod, at Bab- 
 ylon, 2233 years B. C. 
 
 KING'S SPEECH, the first delivered, 1107, 
 by Henry I. 
 
 KING'S EVIL, supposed to be cured by the 
 touch of the kings of England. The first who 
 touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. 
 It was dropped by George 1. 
 
 KISSING the pope's foot first practised, 709. 
 
 KNEE ordered to be bent at the name of 
 Jesus, 1275. 
 
 KNITTING stockings invented in Spain, 
 about 1550. 
 
 KNIVES first made in England, 1563. 
 
 LABOR, price of— A. D. 1352, 25 Edward 
 III, wages paid to haymakers, was but one pen- 
 ny a day. A mower of meadows 5d. per day, or 
 6d. an acre ; reapers of corn, in the first week 
 of August, 2d. in the second 3d. per day, and 
 so till the end of August, without meat, drink, 
 or other allowance, finding their own tools ; a 
 master carpenter 3d. a day, other carpenters 2d. 
 per day, a master mason 4d. per day; other 
 masons 3d. per day ; and their servants \\d. per 
 day. By the 34th of Edward III, 1361, chief 
 masters of carpenters and masons Ad. a day, 
 and the others 3d. or 2d. as they are worth ; 
 13th Richard II, 1389, the wages of a bailiff of 
 husbandry 13s. 4d. per year, and his clothing 
 once a year at most ; the carter 10s.; shepherd 
 10s.; oxherd 6s. 8d.; cowherd 6s. 8d.; swine- 
 herd 6s. ; a woman laborer 6s. ; driver of 
 plough 7s. From this up to the time of 23d of 
 Henry VI, the price of labor was fixed by the 
 justices by proclamation. In time of harvest, a 
 mower 4d. a day ; without meat and drink 6d.; 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LAW 
 
 674 
 
 LAW 
 
 reaper or carter 3rf. a day ; without meat and 
 drink 5r/. ; woman laborer, and other laborers, 
 2d. a day ; without meat and drink 4? 2 d. per day. 
 By the 11th Henry VII, 1496, there was a like 
 rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, 
 for instance, a freemason, master carpenter, 
 rough mason, bricklayer, master tiler, plumber, 
 glazier, carver, joiner, was allowed from Easter 
 to Michaelmas to take Cd. a day, without meat 
 and drink, or with meat and drink Ad. from 
 Michaelmas to Easter to abate a Id. ; a master, 
 having under him six men, was allowed a Id. a 
 day extra. By the 6th of Henry VIII, 1515, 
 the wages of shipwrights were fixed as follows : 
 a master ship carpenter, taking charge of the 
 work, having men under him, od. a day in the 
 summer season, with meat and drink ; other 
 ship carpenter, called an hewer, Ad.; an able 
 clincher, od.; holder 2d.; master caulker Ad.; a 
 mean caulker 3d.; a day laborer, by the tide, Ad. 
 
 LACE, Flanders, more valuable than gold — 
 one ounce of fine Flanders thread has been sold 
 in London for £4. Such an ounce made into 
 lace may be sold for £40, which is ten times 
 the price of standard gold, weight for weight. 
 
 LACTEALS, the, discovered by chance, in 
 opening a dog, b}' Asellius, July 23, 1662; in 
 birds, fish, &c. by Mr. Hewson, surgeon, of 
 London, 1770. 
 
 LAKE OF HARANTOREEN, in the coun- 
 ty of Kerry, Ireland, a mile in circuit, sunk into 
 the ground with all its fish, March 25, 1792. 
 
 LAMP for preventing explosion by fire-damp 
 in coal mines, invented by sir Humphrey Davy, 
 1815. 
 
 LAND CARRIAGE, fish first brought to 
 London by, 17G1. 
 
 LAND, piece of, in Findland, 4000 square 
 ells in extent, sunk fifteen fathoms, but most 
 of the inhabitants escaped, February, 1793. A 
 tract of, amounting to 120 English acres, and 
 of the depth of sixty feet, slid, with a tremend- 
 ous crash, into the river Nid, near Drontheim 
 in Norway, March 7, 181 G. 
 
 LANCASTRIAN SCHOOLS of education 
 established in most of the principal towns of 
 England. 1810. 
 
 LANTERNS invented by king Alfred, 890. 
 
 LAWNS AND THREAD GAUZE were 
 in 17S4, manufactured at Paisley to the value of 
 £164,385 16s. <i.5rf. 
 
 LAWS, COURTS OF JUSTICE. OATHS, 
 TAXES, &c. 
 
 Abjuration oath, first required, 1701. 
 
 Admiralty, court of, erected 1357; incorpo- 
 rated June 22, 1768. 
 
 Adultery punished by cutting off the nose 
 and ears, 1031 ; made capital, 1650. 
 
 Affirmation of the Quakers first accepted as 
 an oath. 1702; alteration made in it, December 
 13, 1721. 
 
 African bill, to supply that trade with cali- 
 coes, 1765. 
 
 Agrarian law introduced at Rome, 486 B. C. 
 By this law the public lands were divided be- 
 tween all the citizens. 
 
 Ale and ale-houses in England made mention 
 of in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex ; first 
 licensed, 1551. 
 
 Aliens forbidden to hold church livings, and 
 juries for their trials to be half foreigners, 1430, 
 prevented from exercising any trade or handi- 
 craft by retail, 1483. 
 
 Allegiance, oath of, first administered, 1606. 
 
 Almanack stamps increased, 1781. 
 
 Ambassadors first protected by a law, 1709, 
 their protection restrained, 1773. 
 
 American duties, act passed, 1764 ; on tea, 
 1767. 
 
 Arbitration act passed in England, 1698. 
 
 Armorial bearings introduced into England, 
 to distinguish nobles, 1100; taxed, 1798, 1808.' 
 
 Arrest, vexatious ones, prevented by an act ? 
 May 17, 1733; for less than £10 forbidden, 
 1779; for less than £20, or on a bill of ex- 
 change for £15, June 14, 1810. 
 
 Artificers' bill, to prevent their seduction, 
 1787. 
 
 Assaying of gold and silver, legally establish- 
 ed, 1354. 
 
 Assize of bread and ale in England establish- 
 ed, 1260; again, legally, 1710. 
 
 Auction and sales tax began, 1779. 
 
 Bachelors' tax, 1695 and 1796. 
 
 Bankrupts in England first regulated by law, 
 1543. Enacted that members of the house of 
 commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying 
 their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. 
 
 Birth of children-taxed, 1695, 1783. 
 
 Boston port bill, for its removal, 1775. 
 
 Bread orderednot to be sold, till 24 hours old, 
 to lessen its consumption, March, 1800. 
 
 Brokers regulated in London, by law, 1697. 
 
 Buckingham house bought for the queen of 
 England, J 775. 
 
 Bonaparte, bill for detaining him in custody 
 in the island of St. Helena, passed April 9, 1816. 
 
 Burials taxed in England, 1695, 1783. 
 
 Buttons and button holes of cloth prohibited 
 by law, 1721. 
 
 Canon law first introduced into England, 
 1140. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 LAW 
 
 675 
 
 LAW 
 
 Caps. — A law enacted that every person 
 above seven years of age, should wear on Sun- 
 days and holidays, a cap of wool, knit made, 
 thickened and dressed in England, by some of 
 the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of 
 three farthings for every day's neglect, except- 
 ing maids, ladies and gentlewomen, and every 
 lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks 
 of land, and their heirs, and such as have borne 
 office of worship in any city, town, or place, 
 and the wardens of the London companies, 
 1571. 
 
 Chancery, court of, in England, established 
 605. The first person qualified for chancellor 
 by education, was sir Thomas More, 1530, the 
 office before being rather that of a secretary of 
 state, than the president of a court of justice. 
 
 Christenings taxed in England, 1783. 
 
 Circuits, justiciary, established, 1176 ; in 
 Scotland, 1712. 
 
 Clergy forbidden drunkenness by law, in En- 
 gland, 741. 
 
 Clocks and watches taxed, 1797} repealed, 
 1798. 
 
 Common pleas in England, court of, estab- 
 lished 1215. 
 
 Copy-right secured, by an act passed 1710; 
 farther secured, in England, by an act passed 
 in 1814. 
 
 Corn, bill to permit the exportation of, passed 
 1814, to permit the importation when British 
 wheat shall be at 80s. per quarter, 1815. 
 
 Courts of justice instituted at Athens, 1272 
 B.C. 
 
 Criminals ordered for transportation instead 
 of execution, 1590 ; Henry VIII executed 72,000 
 during his reign. 
 
 Curfew be!i established by William the con- 
 queror, 1068; abolished in 1100. 
 
 East-India company's act in England, passed, 
 1718. 
 
 Exchequer chamber, court of, erected by Ed- 
 ward III, 1359 ; improved by Elizabeth, 1584. 
 
 Feodal or feudal laws, the tenure of land by 
 suit and service to the iord or owner of it, in- 
 troduced into England by the Saxons about 600. 
 The slavery of this tenure increased under 
 William I, 1068. This was dividing the king- 
 dom into baronies, giving them to certain per- 
 sons, and requiring those persons to furnish the 
 king with money, and a stated number of sol- 
 diers. It was discountenanced in France by 
 Louis XI, about 1470; restored, and limited by 
 Henry VII, 1495; abolished by statute, 12 
 Charles II, 1662. 
 
 Fiery ordeal enforced in England, 1042. 
 
 Forgery first punished with death in England, 
 1634. 
 
 French tongue abolished in the English courts 
 of justice, 1362. 
 
 Game acts passed in England, 1496, 1670, 
 1753, 1784, 1785, and 1808. 
 
 Gipsies expelled out of England, 1563. 
 
 Gladiators, the combats of. abolished, 325. 
 
 Hackney coaches established by act of parlia- 
 ment, June 24, 1694 ; regulated 1784, 1786, 
 1800, 1815. 
 
 Hanover succession established by law, 1701. 
 
 Harlots obliged to wear striped hoods of party 
 colors, and their garments the wrong side out- 
 wards, 27 Edward III, 1355. 
 
 Hat tax commenced, October 1, 1784 ; stamps 
 for ditto, 1796 ; repealed, 1811. 
 
 Juries first instituted, 970; trial by, in civil 
 causes, in Scotland, passed into a law, March, 
 1815. 
 
 Justices of the peace first appointed in Eng- 
 land, 1076. 
 
 Justinian published his codex of the civil 
 law, 529 ; and four years after, his work of the 
 same kind, called the Digest. 
 
 Land tax, the first in England, 991 , amount- 
 ed annually to £ 82,000, in 1018 ; every hide 
 of land taxed 3s. in 1109. 
 
 Laws primitive. — The laws of Moses were 
 given, B. C. 1452; those of Minos in Crete, 
 1406; of Lycurgus, at Sparta, 884; those of 
 Draco, and Solon at Athens, the former 623, the 
 latter 580 ; of the Twelve Tables at Rome, 451 ; 
 of Locri by Dalericus, 450 ; and of Thurium, in 
 Italy, by Charondas, 446. 
 
 Latin tongue abolished in courts of law, 1731. 
 
 Laws of the land first translated into Saxon, 
 590 , published, 610. 
 
 Laws of Edward the confessor composed, 
 1065. 
 
 Legacies taxed, 1780 ; advanced, 1796, 1808. 
 
 Licenses for public houses first granted, 1551; 
 for brewers and exciseable articles enforced, 
 1784. 
 
 Longitude, a reward promised by parliament 
 for the discovery of, 1714. 
 
 Lords lieutenants of counties instituted, July 
 24, 1549. 
 
 Luxury restricted by an English law, where- 
 in the prelates and nobility were confined to 
 two courses every meal, and two kinds of food 
 in every course, except on great festivals; it 
 also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free es- 
 tate of £100 per annum, from wearing furs, 
 skins or silk ; and the use of foreign cloth was 
 confined to the royal family alone, to all others 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 LAW 
 
 676 
 
 LEA 
 
 it was prohibited, 1337. An edict was issued 
 by Charles VI, of France, which says, " Let no 
 one presume to treat with more than a soup 
 and two dishes," 1340. 
 
 Magna charta granted by king John, June 
 12, 1215. 
 
 Mail coaches first established to Bristol, 1784 ; 
 to other parts of England, and an act to regu- 
 late and encourage them, 1785, and exempt 
 them from tolls. 
 
 Maiming and wounding made capital, 1670. 
 
 Marriages taxed, 1695, 1784. 
 
 Marriage act passed, June, 1753; amended 
 1781. 
 
 Marriages of the royal family restrained by 
 an act passed 1772. 
 
 Mortmain act passed, in 1279; and another, 
 May 20, 1736. 
 
 Mutiny act first passed, in 1689. 
 
 Nantz, edict of, passed by Henry IV, by 
 which Protestants enjoyed toleration in France, 
 1598; revoked by Louis XIV, 1685; by this 
 infamous policy 50,000 French Protestants left 
 France, and came to England, and other parts 
 of Europe. 
 
 Naturalization, first law for in England, 1437 
 and 1709. 
 
 Naturalization of Jews, bill passed 1753; re- 
 pealed December following. 
 
 Navigation act first passed, 1381 ; again 1541 ; 
 again for the colonies, 1646, 1651 ; which secur- 
 ed the trade of the British colonies, 1660 and 
 1778. 
 
 New style act passed 1752. 
 
 Notes and bills first stamped, 1782 ; advanced 
 1796, 1808, 1815. 
 
 Ordeal by fire and water, abolished 1261. 
 
 Papal authority abolished by law, 1391. 
 
 Papists excluded the throne'of England, 1689 ; 
 their estates valued at £ 375,284 15s. %d. per 
 annum, in 1719; taxed £100,000, November 
 23, 1722. 
 
 Parliament of England, began under the 
 Saxon government; the first regular one was 
 in king John's reign, 1204; the epoch of the 
 house of commons, January 23, 1265; peer's 
 eldest son, Francis Russell, son of the earl of 
 Bedford, was the first who sat in the house of 
 commons, 1549 ; the lord mayor and an alder- 
 man of London committed to the Tower, by the 
 house of commons, 1771. 
 
 Pleading introduced 786; changed from 
 French to English, 1362. 
 
 Polygamy forbidden by the Romans, in 393. 
 
 Poor, the first act for the relief of, in Eng- 
 land, 1597. * 
 
 Popery abolished in England, by law, 1536. 
 
 Registers, parochial, first appointed in Eng- 
 land, 1530. 
 
 Registers of births, baptisms, marriages, and 
 burials, law for the better regulation of, passed 
 July 28, 1813. 
 
 Roman Catholics in England relieved by an 
 act passed 1776, and 1791. 
 
 Roman Catholics in Ireland, relieved by an 
 act passed 1792. 
 
 Salic law first quoted 1327. 
 
 Secretaries of state first appointed in England; 
 lord Cromwell was so made by Cardinal Wool- 
 sey, 1529. 
 
 Septennial parliament, act passed 1716, 
 
 Shoes — the people had a w 7 ay of adorning 
 their feet; they wore the beaks or points of 
 their shoes so long, that they encumbered 
 themselves in their walking, and were forced 
 to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentle- 
 men fastened theirs with chains of silver, or 
 silver gilt, and others with laces. This ridicu- 
 lous custom was in vogue from the year 1382, 
 but was prohibited; on the forfeiture of 20s. and 
 the pain of cursing by the clergy, 1467. 
 
 Slave — a statute made in England, enacting 
 that a runagate servant, or any one who lives 
 idly for three days, be brought before two jus- 
 tices of the peace, and marked V. with a hot 
 iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of 
 him who brought him for two years ; he was to 
 take the said slave, and give him bread, water, 
 or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him 
 to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise; 
 and if, within that space, he absented himself 
 fourteen days, was to be marked on the fore- 
 head or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S. and be 
 his master's slave for ever ; second desertion, 
 felony ; lawful to put a ring of iron round his 
 neck, arm or leg ; a beggar's child might be 
 put apprentice, and on running away, a slave 
 to his master, 1547; obtained their freedom by 
 arrival in England, 1772. 
 
 Stamp act in America, passed 1764 ; repealed 
 March 18. 1766. 
 
 Swearing on the Gospel, first used in Eng- 
 land, 528. 
 
 Tithes first granted in 854. 
 
 Transportation of felons introduced 1590. 
 
 Treason requiring two witnesses, in England, 
 1552. 
 
 Tribute of wolves' heads paid in England, 
 971 ; paid bv the English to the Danes in one 
 year, 48,000l 997. 
 
 LEADxJN PIPES for conveying water in- 
 vented, 1236. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 LIV 
 
 677 
 
 LIV 
 
 LETTERS invented by Meranon,the Egyp- 
 tian, 1822 B. C. 
 
 LIBRARY, the first private one, the prop- 
 erty of Aristotle, 334 B. C. ; the first public 
 library in history was founded at Athens, by 
 Hipparchus, 526 B. C. ; the second of any note 
 was founded at Alexandria, by Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphia, 284. It was burnt when Julius Ctesar 
 set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. C. (400,000 valuable 
 books in MS. are said to have been lost by this 
 catastrophy.) The first library at Rome was 
 established, 167; at Constantinople, founded 
 by Constantine the Great, about A. D. 335 ; 
 destroyed, 477; a second library formed from 
 the remains of the first at Alexandria, by Ptole- 
 my's successors, and reputed to have consisted 
 of 700,000 volumes, was totally destroyed by 
 the Saracens, who heated the water of their 
 baths for six months, by burning books instead 
 of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the 
 Saracens, 642; the Vatican at Rome, by pope 
 Nicholas V, 1446; rebuilt and the library con- 
 siderably improved by Sixtus V, 1588 ; the im- 
 perial of Vienna, by Maximilian I, about 1500; 
 the royal of Paris, by Francis I, about 1520; 
 the escurial at Madrid, by Philip II, 1557; of 
 Florence, by Cosmo de Medicis, 1560; the Bod- 
 leian at Oxford, founded 40 Eliz, 1598; the 
 Cottonian, formerly kept at Cottonhouse, West- 
 minster, founded by sir Robert Cotton, about 
 1600 ; appropriated to the public use and bene- 
 fit, 13 William III, 1701 ; partly destroyed by 
 fire, 1731; removed to the British museum, 
 1753 ; the Radcliffeian, at Oxford, founded by 
 the will of Dr. Radclifte, who left £40,000 to 
 the university for that purpose, 1714 ; at Cam- 
 bridge, 1720, to which George I gave £5,000 
 to purchase Dr. Moore's collection. 
 
 LINEN first made in England, 1253; the 
 luxurious wore linen, but the generality woollen 
 shirts. Table linen very scarce in England, 
 1386. 
 
 LIVING CHARACTERS. Allston, Wash- 
 ington, American painter. 
 
 Baillie, Joanna, a single lady, native of Scot- 
 land, distinguished for her writings. 
 
 Beecher, Dr. Lyman, an eloquent calvinistic 
 preacher, native of New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Bernadotte, king of Sweden, born in 1764, at 
 Pau, at the foot of the Pyrenees, in France. 
 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel, celebrated mathemati- 
 cian, and translator of the Mechanique Celeste, 
 of La Place, native of Salem, Mass. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, an American poet 
 of high reputation, native of Cornington, Mass. 
 
 Bulwer, Edward Lytton, novelist. 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph, brother to Napoleon, born 
 in 1768, at Ajaccio, in Corsica. 
 
 Calhoun, John, native of South Carolina, 
 born in 1781. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, poet, born at Glasgow. 
 Sept. 7, 1777. 
 
 Canterbury, archbishop of, born in 1755. 
 
 Cass, Lewis, born 1782, at Exeter, New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 Charles X, late king of France, born in 1757. 
 
 Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste, Viscount 
 de, born in Combourg in Britany, 1769. 
 
 Clay, Henry, born in Hanover Co. Virginia, 
 in 1770. 
 
 Cobbett, William, native of Surrey, England. 
 
 Constantine, Grand Duke of Russia and vi- 
 ceroy of Poland. 
 
 Cooper, James Fennimore, novelist, born at 
 Bordentown, N. J. 1789. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria, native of Edgeworthtown, 
 Ireland. 
 
 Gallatin, Albert, native of Geneva. 
 
 Gait, John, novelist and traveller, born at 
 Greenock, 1779. 
 
 Greenough, Horatio, American sculptor, born 
 at Boston, in 1800. 
 
 Hogg, James, the Ettrick Shepherd, native 
 of Ettrick, Scotland. 
 
 Humboldt, baron Frederick, traveller, born 
 at Berlin, Prussia, 1769. 
 
 Hunt, Leigh, born in England, 1784. 
 
 Hyde de Neuville, count, native of France — 
 minister to the United States. 
 
 Irving, Washington, native of the city of 
 New York, born about 1783. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, President of the United 
 States, born at Wraxaw, S. C. in 1767. 
 
 Jerlery, Francis, ceiebrated lawyer, now Lord 
 of Session — born at Edinburgh, in 1773. 
 
 Kemble, Charles, an actor of some merit, born 
 in Wales, 1775. 
 
 Livingston, Edward, born at Clermont, N. 
 Y. in 1764. 
 
 Lockhart, John G. native of Scotland, born 
 about 1794, son in law of Sir Walter Scott, and 
 editor of London Quarterly Review. 
 
 Louis Philippe, king of the French, born at 
 Paris, Oct. 6, 1773. 
 
 Lyndhurst, Lord John Singleton Copley, born 
 at Boston, 1773. 
 
 Macomb, Alexander, major general, born at 
 Detroit, 1782. 
 
 Madison, James, born in Virginia, March 5, 
 1750, (old style,) where he now resides ; edu- 
 cated at Princeton College, N. J. member of 
 the Virginia Legislature, 1775 ; one of the coun- 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 LIV 
 
 678 
 
 LON 
 
 cil of Virginia, 1776 ; elected a member of the 
 congress of the revolution ; prominent member 
 of the convention which framed the constitution 
 of the United States. With Alexander Hamil- 
 ton and John Jay, wrote the Federalist, being 
 an able defence of the constitution ; elected a 
 member of the first congress under the consti- 
 tution, and remained many years a distinguish- 
 ed member of that body ; became Secretary of 
 State March 5, 1801, and President of the U. 
 States March 4, 1809, and remained in that 
 office eight years. 
 
 Marshall, John, Chief Justice of the United 
 States, native of Virginia, born 1755. 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, popular writer on politi- 
 cal economy, and the improvement of society ; 
 native of England. 
 
 Mc Lane, Louis, born in Delaware, 1786. 
 
 Metternich-Winebourg, prince, born in Aus- 
 tria, in 1775. 
 
 Montgomery, James, poet, born in Ayrshire, 
 in 1771. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, celebrated poet, native of 
 Dublin. 
 
 Opie, Mrs., born at Norwich, 1771. 
 
 Peele, Sir Robert, Eng. statesman, born 17S7. 
 
 Percival, James G., a poet and scholar, born 
 at Berlin, Conn. 1795. 
 
 Rossini, Gioachimo, the first living musical 
 composer, born in Romagna, in 1792. 
 
 Sedgwick, Catherine, daughter of Hon. The- 
 odore Sedgwick, a native of Stockbridge, Mas- 
 sachusetts. 
 
 Southey, Robert, a celebrated writer, born at 
 Bristol, England, in 1774. 
 
 Talleyrand, Perigord, prince de, a celebrated 
 politician, born in France, 1754. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Albert, the first living sculp- 
 tor, born at Copenhagen, in 1772. 
 
 Trumbull, John, painter, born at Lebanon, 
 Conn., in 1756. 
 
 Van Buren, Martin, born at Kinderhook, N. 
 Y. 1782. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, born at Salisbury, N. H., 
 1782. 
 
 Wellington, Duke of, Arthur Wellesley, 
 born in Ireland, May 1769. 
 
 Wilkie, David, painter, born in Fifeshire, 
 Scotland in 1785. 
 
 William, IV, king of England, born August, 
 21,1765. B 
 
 Wilson, John, professor at Edinburgh, born 
 at Paisley, 1789. 
 
 Wordsworth, William, poet, born in 1770. 
 
 LOADSTONE, polar attraction of, known 
 Ji France before 1180. 
 
 LOCUSTS, the country of Palestine infested 
 with such swarms of, that they darkened the 
 air, and after devouring the fruits of the earth, 
 they died, and their intolerable stench caused a 
 pestilential fever, 406. A similar circumstance 
 occurred in France, 873; a large swarm of, 
 flew over the city of Warsaw, June 17, 1816; 
 swarms of, made their appearance near Aschers- 
 leben, June 24, 1816. 
 
 LOGLINE in navigation used, 1570. 
 
 LOGWOOD first cut in the bay of Hondu- 
 ras and Campeachy by the English, 1662. 
 
 LONGEVITY. Jane Simonds, 119, 1772, 
 in Fishmonger's almshouse. 
 
 Clun, widow 138, 1772, near Litchfield Eng. 
 
 McFindley, Charles, of Tipperary, 143, a cap- 
 tain in reign of Charles I, 1773. 
 
 Bealey, Win. 130, 1774, in Londonderry, Ire- 
 land. 
 
 Gordon, Peter, 131, 1775, at Aucterless N. 
 Britain. 
 
 Movet, Mr., surgeon, 139, 1796, near Dum- 
 fries. 
 
 Brookman, Sarah, 166, 1776, Glastonbury, 
 England. 
 
 Cockey, Thomas, 132, 1778, Surrey, Eng. 
 
 Horton, Mary Brook, 148, 1787, Stafford- 
 shire, England. 
 
 Scot, Judith, 162, 1792, Islington, Eng. 
 
 Lopez, Catharine, 134, 1806, at Jamaica, W. 
 Indies. 
 
 LONGEVITY OF THE LEARNED. Greek 
 — Zenophilus, 169 years of age, died — B. C.J 
 Theophrastus, 106, 288; Zenophanes, 100, 
 500; Democritus, 100, — ; Isocrates, 98, 338, 
 Thales, 92, 348; Carneades, 90, — ; Pyrrho. 
 90/284 ; Sophocles, 91 , 406 ; Simonides, 90, 468 ; 
 Zeno, 97, 264, Pythagoras, 90, 510, Hyppo- 
 crates, 80, — ; Chrysippus, 83,204 ; Diogenes, 
 
 88, — ; Pharycides, 85, — ; Solon, 82, 558; 
 Periander, 87, 579; Plato, 81, 348; Thucydi- 
 des, 80, 391 ; Zenocrates, 81, 314; Zenephon, 
 
 89, 359; Polybius, 81, 124; Socrates, poisoned, 
 70, 400; Anaxagoras, 72, 428; Euripides, 76, 
 407; .Eschylus, 70, 456; Aristotle, 63, 322; 
 Anaximander, 64, 547 ; Pindar, 69, 452 — 
 Greek authors 30— died above 100, 4; 90,8; 
 80, 11 ; 60, 7. Roman— Varro, 87 years of age, 
 died 28 years B. C. ; Lucian, 80, — ; Epicurus, 
 73, 168; Cicero, 63, 43; Livy, by a violent 
 death, 67, A. D. 17; Pliny, the elder, 56, 79, 
 Pliny, the younger, by a violent death, 52, 113 ; 
 Ovid, 59, 17 ; Horace, 57, — ; Virgil, 51, B. C. 
 19. 
 
 LONGEVITY OF MODERN AUTHORS. 
 Adams, John, died July 4, 1826, aged 91 years 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 MAR 
 
 679 
 
 MAS 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 1294, 80; Bacon, chancellor, 
 1625, 57; Boerhaave. 1738, 70; Boyle, 1691, 
 65; Brahe Tycho, 1601, 55; Burnet, 1725,85; 
 Camden, 1623,72; Copernicus, 1543, 71 ; Eras- 
 mus, 1536, 69; Fontenelle, 1557, 100; Fother- 
 gill, 1780, 68; Franklin, Benjamin, 1790,84; 
 Frederick II, 1786, 74; Gallileo, 1623, 76; 
 Grotius, 1645, 62; Hale, sir Matthew, 1676, 
 67 ; Haller, 1777, 69 ; Hales, 1761 , 84 ; Halley, 
 1742, 85; Hoadley, 1761, 83; Hobbes, 1679, 
 92; Jefferson, Thomas, July 4th, 1826, 84; 
 Johnson, Samuel, 1784, 75; Locke, 1704,73; 
 Liebnitz, 1715, 69; Milton, 1074. 00 ; Murray, 
 Lindley, 1826, 80; Newton, 1727, 84 ; Puffen- 
 dorff, 1693, 62; Robertson, 1793, 72; Scaliger, 
 J. J. 1609, 69 ; Scaliger, J. C. 1558, 74 ; Selden, 
 1654,70; Sherlocke, 1762, 84; Sloane, Hans, 
 1752, 92 ; Swedenborg, 1772. 83 ; Voltaire, 1779, 
 35 ; Vossius, J. Gerard, 1649, 72; Vossius, Isaac, 
 1633, 70 ; Whiston, 1762, 95. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASSES made only at Ven- 
 ice, 1300. 
 
 LOOMS, the power-loom invented by the 
 Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, in 
 England, 1787. 
 
 LOTTERIES, the first mentioned by histori- 
 ans for sums of money, 1630; established 1693. 
 
 M. 
 
 MAGNIFYING GLASSES invented by 
 Roger Bacon, 1260. 
 
 MALT LIQUOR used in Egypt 450 B. C. 
 
 MAMMOTH, a complete one discovered on 
 the boarders of the Frozen Ocean, 1799; the 
 skeleton of one found in the ice at the mouth 
 of the river Lena, in Siberia, 1809; the skele- 
 ton of an enormous one discovered in erecting 
 a causeway in the county of Hout in Germany, 
 1814. 
 
 MANUFACTURES OF ENGLAND, at 
 the close of the last century, were computed at 
 82 millions. In the statistical researches pub- 
 lished by the prefect of the Seine in 1823, the 
 shawls and fancy tissues made at Paris are val- 
 ued in round numbers at £15,000,000; the 
 goldsmiths work and jewelry at £27,000,000; 
 the clock and watch making at £19,000,000; 
 the gilt bronzes at £50,000,000; and on these 
 goods alone, the mere wages paid to workmen 
 in the city, amount annually to £22,000,000 or 
 $97,680,000. 
 
 MARK, St. wrote his gospel, 44. 
 
 MARRIAGE in Lent forbidden, 354 ; forbid- 
 den the priests, 1015 ; first celebrated in church- 
 es, 1226; banns of, first published in churches, 
 
 about 1200 ; act of solemnizing it by justices of 
 the peace, 1653 ; first celebration of a marriage 
 in Virginia, 1608. 
 
 MASSACRES, of all the Carthaginians in 
 Sicily, 397 B. C. ; 2,000 Tyrians crucified, and 
 8,000 put to the sword for not surrendering 
 Tyre to Alexander, 331 B. C. The Jews of 
 Antioch fall upon the other inhabitants and 
 massacre 100,000, for refusing to surrender their 
 arms to Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 
 154; a dreadful slaughter of the Tuetones and 
 Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius the Roman 
 general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 
 102 ; the Romans throughout Asia, women and 
 children not excepted, cruelly massacred in one 
 day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
 89 ; a great number of Roman senators massa- 
 cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, and sev 
 eral of the patricians despatched themselves to 
 'avoid their horrid butcheries, 86; again, under 
 Sylla, and Catiline his minister of vengeance, 
 82 and 79 ; at Praeneste, Octavianus Caesar 
 ordered 300 Roman senators, and other persons 
 of distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of 
 Julius Cessar, 44 ; at the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem, 1,000,000 Jews w T ere put to the sword, A. 
 D. 70 ; Cassius, a Roman general, under the 
 emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 37,000 of the 
 inhabitants of Seleucia, 197; at Alexandria, of 
 many thousand citizens, by order of Antoninus 
 213; the emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
 of the inhabitants upon his reduction of Gaul, 
 277; of eighty christian fathers, by order of the 
 emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they were put 
 into a ship, which was set on fire, and driven 
 out to sea, 370 ; of Tbessalonica, when upwards 
 of 7,000 persons, invited into the circus, were 
 put to the sword by order of Theodosius, 390 ; 
 Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens of 
 Constantinople for a revolt, on account of two 
 rapacious ministers set over them by Justinian, 
 532; of the Latins, by Andronicus, 1184 (at 
 Constantinople) ; the Sicilians massacred the 
 French throughout the whole island, without 
 distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, the 
 first bell for vespers being the signal ; this hor- 
 rid affair is known in history by the name of 
 the Sicilian vespers, 1282 ; at Paris 1418; of 
 the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of 
 Christian II, 1520; of 70,000 Huguenots, or 
 French protestants, throughout the kingdom of 
 France, attended with circumstances of the 
 most horrid treachery and cruelty ; it began at 
 Paris in the night of the festival of St. Barthol- 
 omew, August 25, 1572, by secret orders from 
 Charles IX, king of France, at the instigation 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 MAS 
 
 680 
 
 MET 
 
 of the queen dowager, Catharine de Medicis, 
 his mother, which is styled in history the mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew ; of the christians in 
 Croatia, by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, 
 1592 ; of a great n umber of protestants at Thorn, 
 who were put to death under a pretended legal 
 sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being 
 concerned in a tumult occasioned by a popish 
 procession, 1724 ; at Batavia, where 12,000 
 Chinese were killed by the natives, Oct., 1740 ; 
 in England, 300 English nobles, by Hengist, 
 A. D. 475 ; of the Danes, in the southern coun- 
 ties of England, in the night of November 13, 
 1002, and the 23d Etheldred II, at London; it 
 was the most bloody, the churches being no 
 sanctuary ; amongst the rest Gunilda, sister of 
 Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the 
 performance of a treaty but newly concluded ; 
 of the Jews, (some few pressing into Westmin- 
 ster Hall, at Richard I's cornation, were put to 
 death by the people, and a false alarm being 
 given, that the king had ordered a general mas- 
 sacre of them, the people in many parts of En- 
 gland, from an aversion to them, slew all they 
 met : in York, 500, who had taken shelter in 
 the castle, killed themselves, rather than fall 
 into the hands of the people,) 1189; of the En- 
 glish, by the Dutch at Amboyna, 1624 ; of the 
 protestants in Ireland, when 40,000 were killed, 
 1641 ; of the Macdonalds at Glencoe, in Scot- 
 land, for not surrendering in time according to 
 king William's proclamation, though without 
 the king's knowledge, 1692; several dreadful 
 massacres in France during the revolution, 
 from 1789 to 1794 ; massacre of 600 negroes, by 
 the French at St. Mark's, 1802 ; massacre at 
 Algiers, March 10, 1806; insurrection and 
 dreadful massacre at Madrid, May 2, 1808; 
 dreadful massacre of the Mamelukes in the 
 citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 
 
 MASSACRES IN THE U. STATES, of 
 the first settlers of Virginia, of whom 347 were 
 murdered in one night, 1622, by the savages; 
 at WHJvesbarre by the British and savages, July 
 3d, 1778; by the British and savages at Cherry 
 Valley, in New York, November 11th, 1778— 
 both these sanguinary acts were done under 
 the direction of colonel John Butler; of the 
 Moravian Indians, by a party from the western 
 part of Pennsylvania, headed by colonel Wil- 
 liamson, June, 1782; American garrison of 
 Chicago, on their retreat from the place, by the 
 savages, August 15th, 1812; of the American 
 wounded prisoners at Frenchtown, on the river 
 Raisin, January 22d, 1813, by the Indians, with 
 the privity of the British. 
 
 MASSACRE OF THE GREEKS in the 
 
 island of Scio, to the number of 20 or 30,000, 
 June, 1822, by the Turks ; and again of the 
 Greek garrison and inhabitants of the island of 
 Hydra, 1824, which was, however, most severe- 
 ly retaliated upon the Turks in a few days, a 
 body of Greek troops landing and putting the 
 whole Turkish force to the sword; April 23d, 
 1826, the inhabitants and garrison of" Missi- 
 longhi, were murdered under circumstances of 
 accumulated horrors. 
 
 MATTHEW, ST. wrote his gospel, 44. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHART invented, 1556. 
 
 METEORS.— A very extraordinary exhibi- 
 tion of these, called " Falling Stars," took place 
 in America, November 13th, 1833. It is thus 
 described by an eyewitness : 
 
 We were about five miles southwest of Bos- 
 ton, and a little before five in the morning, on 
 looking out of the window saw several stars 
 shooting downward, leaving behind a long 
 shining train. This excited our attention and 
 calling up a learned friend who was sleeping in 
 an adjacent room, we sallied forth. 
 
 The scene was indeed beautiful, and almost 
 fearful. On all sides of us, nearly without ces- 
 sation, the meteors were streaming through 
 the heavens; sometimes one alone, sometimes 
 two or three or more together. Some of them 
 were small and soon disappeared ; others were 
 more brilliant, and had a longer and more glori- 
 ous career. We were standing among some 
 trees, the strong shadows of which were often 
 thrown upon the ground, as the meteors hurried 
 by. 
 
 There was a boy with us whose exclamations 
 were amusing and descriptive. " See there, 
 see, see!" said he, " there goes a whole hand- 
 ful ! there 's one, cracked all to pieces ! Look 
 up there ; that one 's made a mark on the sky 
 like a piece of chalk !" 
 
 It may well be believed that our feelings be- 
 came deeply interested, and that an exhibition 
 so wonderful, produced emotions amounting to 
 awe. It seemed as if the very stars were leap- 
 ing from their places, and after a rapid flight, 
 vanishing into air. If philosophy taught us 
 better, still the imagination could not be re 
 strained, and the mind pressed forward to that 
 predicted hour when the heavenly bodies shall 
 vanish like a scroll, and the glittering vault 
 above, like a vesture, be finally rolled up. 
 
 This phenomenon was seen nearly over the 
 whole of North America, and far out to sea. 
 
 Other similar phenomena have been observed 
 from time to time, in different countries. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 MET 
 
 681 
 
 MIL 
 
 METEORIC STONES.— A shower of them 
 fell in Connecticut, December 14th, 1807. It 
 was observed about a quarter past six. The day 
 had just dawned, and there was little light ex- 
 cept from the moon, which was just setting. It 
 seemed to be half the diameter of the full moon ; 
 and passed, like a globe of fire, across the north- 
 ern margin of the sky. It passed behind some 
 clouds, and when it came out it flashed like 
 heat lightning. It had a train of light, and ap- 
 peared like a burning firebrand carried against 
 the wind. It continued in sight about half a 
 minute, and, in about an equal space after it 
 faded, three loud and distinct reports, like those 
 of a four pounder near at hand, were heard. 
 Then followed a quick succession of smaller re- 
 ports, seeming like what soldiers call a running 
 fire. The appearance of the meteor was as if 
 it took three successive throes, or leaps, and at 
 each explosion a rushing of stones was heard 
 through the air, some of which struck the 
 ground with a heavy fall. 
 
 The first fall was in the town of Huntington, 
 near the house of Mr. Merwin Burr. He was 
 standing in the road, in front of his house, when 
 the stone fell, and struck a rock of granite about 
 fifty feet from him, with a loud noise. The 
 rock was stained a dark lead color, and the 
 stone was principally shivered into very small 
 fragments, which were thrown around to a 
 distance of twenty feet. The largest piece was 
 about the size of a goose egg, and was still 
 warm. 
 
 The stones of the second explosion fell about 
 five miles distant, near Mr William Prince's 
 residence, in Weston. He and his family were 
 in bed, when they heard the explosion, and also 
 heard a heavy body fall to the earth. They 
 afterwards found a hole in the earth, about 
 twenty-five feet from the house, like a newly 
 dug post-hole, about one foot in diameter, and 
 two feet deep, in which they found a meteoric 
 stone buried, which weighed thirty -five pounds. 
 Another mass fell half a mile distant, upon a 
 rock, which it split in two, and was itself shiv- 
 ered to pieces. Another piece, weighing thir- 
 teen pounds, fell half a mile to the northeast, 
 into a ploughed field. 
 
 At the last explosion, a mass of Itone fell in 
 a field belonging to Mr. Elijah Seely, about 
 thirty rods from his house. This stone falling 
 on a ledge, was shivered to pieces. It ploughed 
 up a large portion of the ground, and scattered 
 the earth and stones to the distance of fifty or a 
 hundred feet. Some cattle that were near, were 
 very much frightened, and jumped into an en- 
 
 closure. It was concluded that this last stone, 
 before being broken, must have weighed about 
 two hundred weight. These stones were all of 
 a similar nature, and different from any com- 
 monly found on this globe. When first found, 
 they were easily reduced to powder by the fin- 
 gers, but by exposure to the air they gradually 
 hardened. 
 
 Other showers of meteoric stones have been 
 known, but this is one of the most remarkable. 
 It is supposed that the meteor was more than 
 a mile in diameter. 
 
 MICROSCOPES first used, 1621 ; the double 
 ones, 1624; solar microscopes invented, 1740. 
 
 MILITARY and RELIGIOUS KNIGHTS, 
 and TITLES OF HONOR. 
 
 Admiral, the first in England, 1297. 
 
 ^diles first created at Rome, 971 B. C. 
 
 Alexander, St. knighthood began in Russia, 
 1700. 
 
 Aldermen of London first appointed, 1242. 
 
 Andrew, St. order of knighthood instituted in 
 Scotland, 80) ; renewed in Scotland, 1452, 
 1605 ; in Russia, 1698. 
 
 Baron,the title first by patent in England,1388 
 
 Baronets first created in England, 1011. 
 
 Bath, order of knighthood, instituted in Eng- 
 land at the coronation of Henry IV, 1399 ; re- 
 newed, 1725. 
 
 Cincinnatus order began in America, 1783. 
 
 Common council of London first appointed, 
 1208. 
 
 Consuls first made at Rome, 307 B. C. 
 
 Creation by patents to titles first used by Ed 
 ward III, 1344. 
 
 Decemviri, first creation of, 450 B. C. 
 
 Defender of the Faith, the title of, given to 
 the king of England, 1520. 
 
 Dennis, St. order began in France, 1267. 
 
 Dey of Tunis first appointed, 1570. 
 
 Dictators began at Rome, 498 B. C. 
 
 Duke, title of, first given in England to Ed- 
 ward, son of Edward III, March 17, 1336. 
 
 Earl first used by king Alfred in 920, as a 
 substitute for that of king. 
 
 Earl, the first created in England, October 
 14, 1066. 
 
 Electors of Germany began, 1298. 
 
 Eminence, the title of, first given to cardinals, 
 1644. 
 
 Esquire, first used to persons of fortune, not 
 attendants on knights, 1345. 
 
 Garter, order began, April 23, 1349; altera- 
 tion in, 1557, and 1788. It is remarkable, that 
 this is the only order which has been granted 
 to foreign princes. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 MOU 
 
 682 
 
 MUS 
 
 Golden Fleece, order of knighthood, began 
 in Flanders, 1492. 
 
 King of England, the title first used, 820 ; of 
 Ireland, 1542; of Great Britain, 1605. 
 
 King of France, the title assumed by the 
 king of England, and his arms quartered with 
 the English, and the motto "Dieu et mon Droit," 
 first used, Feb. 21, 1340; relinquished Jan. 1, 
 1801. 
 
 King of the French began, 1791 ; abolished, 
 1792. 
 
 Knighthood first used in England, 897. 
 
 Legion of Honor, instituted by Bonaparte, 
 confirmed by Louis XVIII, 1814. 
 
 Lord mayors of London first appointed annu- 
 ally, 1208. 
 
 Louis, St. order of knighthood, began May 
 10,1698; abolished, 1791. 
 
 Majesty, the title used to Henry VIII, of 
 England. 
 
 Poet Laureat, the first in England, 1487. 
 
 Pope, the title first assumed, 154. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE, in France, ceased 
 June 27, 1720, when its amount was one hun- 
 dred million pounds sterling. 
 
 MONASTERY, the first founded, where the 
 sister of St. Anthony retired, 270 ; the first 
 founded in France, near Poictiers, by St. Mar- 
 tin, 360 ; Constantine IV sends for a great 
 number of friars and nuns to Ephesus, orders 
 them" to change their black habits for white, 
 and to destroy their images; on their refusal, 
 he orders their eyes to be put out, banishes 
 them, and sells several monasteries, appropriat- 
 ing the produce, 770 ; they were totally sup- 
 pressed by act of parliament in 1539. 
 
 MONEY, first mentioned as a medium of 
 commerce in the twenty-third chapter of Gen- 
 esis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sep- 
 ulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world, 
 2139; first made at Argos, 894 B. C; has in- 
 creased eighteen times its value from 1290 to 
 1640; and twelve times its value from 1530 to 
 1800. 
 
 MOUNT AUBURN. A retired and orna- 
 mented place of sepulture, about four miles 
 from Boston, was publicly dedicated, as a cem- 
 etery, Sept. 24, 1831. There are upwards of 
 fifty acres enclosed, and the whole is under the 
 direction of the Massachusetts Horticultural 
 Society, which was incorporated for the pur- 
 pose by the Massachusetts Legislature, June, 
 1831. The lots however are purchased by in- 
 dividuals and are permanently secured to them, 
 and their legal representatives. The grounds 
 are planted with shrubbery, flowers and trees, 
 
 and are laid out in walks. Various- monuments, 
 tombs and cenotaphs have been erected, and it 
 is probably as a " city of the dead " destined to 
 rival the far famed Pere la Chaise of Paris. 
 
 MULBERRY TREES first planted in Eng- 
 land, 1609; in the English provinces of North 
 America, about 1750, for cultivating silk. 
 
 MUSIC. According to Mosaic records, Jubal 
 the son of Lamech, played on musical instru- 
 ments even before the deluge. At a later period, 
 we find mention made of the harp, the trumpet 
 and the drum. The oldest song, is that which 
 Meriam sang after the passage of the Red Sea. 
 Music reached its highest perfection among the 
 Hebrews, at the time of David and Solomon. 
 
 The Greeks are said to have received the art 
 of music from Lydia and Arcadia. But it was 
 not till the 6th century that much of the science 
 of music was understood. Labus, a Greek, who 
 lived about 546 B. C, wrote something on the 
 theory of music. In the time of Pericles, Da- 
 mon is said to have been a distinguished teacher 
 of music. 
 
 In the time of Plato and Aristotle, many im 
 provements in music were made ; these philos- 
 ophers considering music useful as a means of 
 education. At the time of Alexander, Aristox- 
 enus distinguished himself as a writer on music. 
 He composed many treatises, and made many 
 great changes and improvements. He intro- 
 duced the chromatic scale. We have on the 
 whole but little light on the subject of the mu- 
 sic of the ancients, as the existing writings are 
 very obscure and unintelligible. 
 
 The Romans seem to have received their sa- 
 cred music from the Etruscans, and their war- 
 like music from the Greeks. Stringed instru- 
 ments were introduced into Rome, 186 B. C. 
 Under Nero, music was cultivated as a luxury. 
 After his death, five hundred singers and musi- 
 cians were dismissed. 
 
 In the middle ages, the progress of music was 
 promoted by its being consecrated to the service 
 of religion, and education was not thought com- 
 plete without some knowledge of music. Guido, 
 of Arezzo, made great improvements in the 
 manner of writing the notes in music, and in 
 the fifteentlucentury still farther improvement 
 was made by Johannes de Muris. 
 
 At the same period, music was treated scien- 
 tifically in the Netherlands, France and Spain. 
 The invention of the opera in the sixteenth 
 century, has chiefly contributed to the splendor 
 and variety of modern vocal music, and in the 
 eighteenth century, there were immense im- 
 provements made in musical instruments. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 NIA 
 
 683 
 
 NIA 
 
 The merit of the advancement of vocal music 
 us claimed by the Italians; that of instrumental 
 music by the Germans and French. 
 
 MUSICAL NOTES as now used, 1330. 
 
 MUSKETS first used in France at the siege 
 of Arras, 1414; in general use, 1521. 
 
 MUSLlNS from India, first in England, 
 1670 ; first manufactured there, 1781. 
 
 N. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT in England, first con- 
 tracted in Henry VII's reign, £14,301. 
 
 NEEDLES were first made in England by a 
 native of India, 1545, the art lost at his death ; 
 recovered by Christopher Greening, in 1560, 
 who was settled with his three children, Eliza- 
 beth, John, and Thomas, by Mr. Darner, ances- 
 tor of the present earl of Dorchester, at Long 
 Gredon, in Bucks, where the manufactory has 
 been carried on from that time to the present 
 day. 
 
 NEW STYLE first introduced into Europe, 
 1582 ; into Holland and the Protestant states, 
 1700 ; in England, 1752. 
 
 NEWSPAPER, first published in England, 
 entitled the " English Mercury," July 28, 1588 ; 
 after the revolution, first daily paper was called 
 the " Orange Intelligencer," and from that time 
 to 1692, there were twenty-six newspapers ; in 
 1709, there were eighteen weekly and one daily 
 paper, the " London Courant; " in 1795, there 
 were published in London, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, one hundred and fifty- eight papers; in 
 1809, there were two hundred and seventeen 
 newspapers in the United Kingdom ; the num- 
 ber conveyed by post in England, in 1794, 
 amounted to near 12,000,000 per annum. 
 
 The first printing press in North America, 
 opened at Cambridge, 1639. Among the first 
 books printed were an Indian version of the 
 Bible, and Sandy's translation of Ovid. Two 
 licensers were appointed in Massachusetts, 
 1662 ; presses were forbidden in Virginia, 1683 ; 
 the first printer in Connecticut, 1709. 
 
 NIAGARA FALLS. It is said that the 
 best station for viewing this magnificent natu- 
 ral curiosity is on the Canada side of the river, 
 though a greater variety of interest is said to be 
 on the American side. The surface of the 
 country about the Falls is flat and uninteresting, 
 and from one side gives little indication of the 
 approach to any remarkable scene ; the noise of 
 the fall of waters, gradually increases, and the 
 mist rises in dense volumes, forming clouds in 
 the air. The illustrative engraving was drawn 
 58 
 
 upon the spot by Mr. Bakewell, to whom we 
 are indebted for the description ; a strict regard 
 to pictorial proportion has been dispensed with, 
 in order to present all the leading features in 
 one view. From the hotel (A) there is a gra- 
 dual descent to a very steep bank (B) about 
 140 feet high, which caps the limestone rock ; 
 having descended, you walk over planks 
 laid on the marshy ground, to the extent of 
 200 yards, which leads to the brink of the pre- 
 cipice (c), where the whole scene bursts at 
 once on the sight. You are here on a level 
 with the river immediately before it rushes 
 down the dreadful abyss. The loud, solemn, 
 all-pervading roar of the waters is indescribably 
 awful. The water from violent agitation is per- 
 fectly white for some distance below the Falls, 
 producing a thick cream colored foam which is 
 seen floating down the stream in large apparent 
 masses. The sublimity of the scene cannot be 
 exceeded. We find ourselves suddenly in the 
 presence of a Superior Power, and feel an im 
 pressive consciousness of our own nothingness. 
 This Fall (from its concave form called the 
 Horse-shoe Fall) is 600 yards wide, and 158 feet 
 perpendicular. The descent of the rapids im- 
 mediately above the Falls ( d ) is 58 feet, making 
 the whole 216 feet. Goat's Island (e) which 
 divides the American and Canada Falls, pre- 
 sents a bare face of perpendicular rock (h), 
 which extends about 500 yards north and south. 
 The American Falls are about 200 yards in 
 width, and 164 feet in height. A spiral stair- 
 case (f) is erected, by which a descent can be 
 made nearly to the bottom of the Falls. The 
 ferry ( g ) is rather more than a quarter of a 
 mile from the Falls, in a direct line. The small 
 town of Manchester ( i ) is situated about half a 
 mile above the Falls, and several large mills 
 give a cheerful appearance to this part of the 
 picture. Such is the comparative tranquillity 
 of the water at the ferry, that you may be taken 
 across by a boy to the landing place on the 
 side immediately below the American Falls. 
 The waters which expand to form the Ameri- 
 can and Canada Falls, after uniting, are here 
 contracted into a stream not more than 160 yards 
 broad. The river is confined between perpen- 
 dicular rocks, and the quantity of water that 
 falls is estimated to be 100,000,000 tons in an 
 hour! A railed platform (m) has been con- 
 structed on the rocks extending over the water 
 from the island to the commencement of the 
 curve, which forms the concave central part of 
 the Horse-shoe. In regard to the History of the 
 Falls, we copy the following from an eloquent 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 PAT 
 
 684 
 
 PAI 
 
 article by the Rev. Mr. Greenwood, of Boston, 
 written upon visiting the Falls in 1831. " These 
 Falls are not without their history ; but like 
 their depths, it is enveloped with clouds. Geolo- 
 gists suppose, and with good apparent reason, 
 that time was when the Niagara fell over the 
 abrupt bank at Queenstown, between six and 
 seven miles below the place of the present Falls, 
 and that it has, in the lapse of unknown and 
 incalculable years, been wearing away the gulf 
 in the intermediate distance, and toiling and 
 travelling through the rock, back to its parent 
 
 NINEVEH destroyed by the Medes, 612 B.C. 
 
 NON-IMPORTATION law, March, 1811. 
 
 NON-INTERCOURSE law conditionally 
 repealing the embargo, March, 1809; against 
 England and France, passed by congress, May 
 3, 1810; repealed as to France, Nov .'1810. 
 
 NOOTKA, in the northwest of America, dis- 
 covered, 1778; settled by the English, 1789 ; 
 captured by the Spaniards, 1790, but afterwards 
 confirmed to the English by treaty. 
 
 NORTHEAST PASSAGE to Russia dis- 
 covered, 1553. 
 
 NOTARY PUBLIC, began in the first cen- 
 tury. 
 
 NOTES and bills first stamped, 1782. 
 
 NOVA ZEMBLA discovered, 1553. 
 
 O. 
 
 OPERA, first in London, 1692; by Handel, 
 1735; opera house burnt, 1789; new one built, 
 1790 ; another in the strand, 1816 ; opera house 
 in Rome, roof fell in, January 18, 1762. 
 
 ORATORIO, the first in London, was per- 
 formed in Lincoln's-inn play-house, Portugal 
 street, in 1732. 
 
 ORGANS brought to Europe from the Greek 
 empire, were first invented and applied to relig- 
 ious devotion in churches, 758. 
 
 ORRERY invented, 1670. 
 
 OTAHEITE, or George Hi's island, discov- 
 ered June 18, 1765. 
 
 OWHYHE island discovered, 1778, where 
 captain Cooke was killed. 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY, founded by Al- 
 fred, 886. 
 
 PADLOCKS invented at Nuremburg, 1540. 
 
 PAINTING. The earliest account we have 
 of the existence of painting is in the reign of 
 Ninus, about 2000 B. C. Egypt was decidedly 
 
 the birthplace of the arts and sciences, though 
 but few of its paintings remain, and their date 
 is uncertain. The Greeks were very little ad- 
 vanced in the art of painting at the time of the 
 Trojan war. 
 
 The first important fact in the history of 
 painting is, that 700 years B. C, a king of Lydia 
 purchased a picture of a Greek artist, and paid 
 him its weight in gold. In the year 400, Zeu- 
 xis introduced a new style of painting into 
 Greece, and at this period much progress was 
 made in the art. About the year 328 B. C. 
 Apelles commenced a new era in painting, 
 and many distinguished painters were his con- 
 temporaries. 
 
 Before Greece was taken by the Romans, 
 the art of painting had arrived at a high degree 
 of perfection, but at that time the spirit which 
 had animated her arts had departed, and with 
 her liberty, her arts perished. 
 
 The first name worthy of record in the annals 
 of Italian painting is Cimabue, a native of 
 Florence, who painted in fresco 1300 A. D. 
 
 In 1445, Leonardo de Vinci was born at Flor- 
 ence. Many subsequent painters are indebted 
 to this great artist for his improvements in the 
 art. .During his time, the use of oil in painting 
 was discovered. 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti was born in the 
 year 1474. He erected an academy of painting 
 and sculpture at Florence, and is considered as 
 the founder of the Florentine School. Raph- 
 ael, born 1483, was the founder of the Roman 
 School. Titian, born 1477, was the founder of 
 the Venetian School. Corregio, born 1494, 
 founded the Lombard School. The establish- 
 ment of these four schools embraces the golden 
 age of painting. 
 
 Of the German schools there are three dis- 
 tinct ones, the German, Flemish and Dutch 
 The Gothic style of painting originated in Ger- 
 many, and terminated at the beginning of the 
 15th century. 
 
 Albert Durer, born in 1471, was the prince 
 of German artists, and the De Vinci of his 
 country. The head of the Flemish School was 
 sir Peter Paul Reubens, born at Antwerp in 
 1577. What Reubens did for the Flemish 
 School, Rembrandt did for the Dutch, he gave 
 it a character. He died in 1674. 
 
 There seems to have been no regular Span- 
 ish school of painting, although many Spanish 
 artists have distinguished themselves, particu- 
 larly Velasquez and Murillo. The Spanish 
 style holds an intermediate rank between the 
 Venetian and Flemish. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 PAT 
 
 685 
 
 PED 
 
 It is difficult to assign a decided era to the 
 oeginning of painting in France. The first 
 name worthy of particular mention, is Jaques 
 Blanchard, who was born in Paris, A. D. 1600. 
 His paintings were very popular, and one of 
 them is still preserved in the church of Notre 
 Dame. Poussin flourished about the same time, 
 and painted many pictures for the Gallery of 
 the Louvre. 
 
 Louis XIII founded the first school of France. 
 Of this, the great master is Le Brun, born in 
 1690. His best performances, are five large 
 pictures from the life of Alexander. At this 
 period, Claude Lorraine flourished. 
 
 In the 18th century, French painters were 
 numerous, but the art gradually sunk into me- 
 diocrity. The name of Vernet, however, de- 
 serves to be mentioned. He excelled in marine 
 pieces. 
 
 The founder of the modern school of paint- 
 ing in France was David, who was born in 
 1750. He remedied many of the defects of his 
 contemporaries, and produced many fine pic- 
 tures. 
 
 Painting did not begin to flourish in England 
 till the reign of Henry VIII. Before that pe- 
 riod, nothing like genius was observable in the 
 rude productions of the artists. During this 
 reign, Hans Holbein, under the patronage of 
 the monarch, settled in England as a portrait 
 painter. 
 
 During the reign of Charles I, a gallery of 
 pictures by the great masters, was established 
 at White Hall. Vandyke and Jamesone flour- 
 ished at this time. In 1697, Wm. Hogarth was 
 born. His style was one in which he acquired 
 lasting celebrity, and was wholly his own. 
 
 A royal academy was planned in England in 
 1768, of which sir Joshua Reynolds was made 
 president. He was born in 1723, and very 
 early in life gave proofs of his future genius. 
 His influence on the taste of Great Britain was 
 great, and will be lasting. 
 
 Gainsborough and Wilson laid the founda- 
 tion of the English school of landscapes. Barry 
 was an historical painter of great eminence. 
 The close of the 18th century produced many 
 names worthy of record. Fuseli was made 
 keeper of the Royal Academy. Among other 
 pictures, he painted 47 pictures from Milton's 
 works, in the year 1790. Sir Thomas Lawrence 
 was considered the first portrait painter in Eu- 
 rope. He was president of the Royal Academy 
 at the time of his death in 1830. The celebrated 
 living artist John Martin, was born in 1789. 
 All his pictures have been engraved by himself. 
 
 The United States has produced many artists 
 of reputation ; among others, Benjamin Wcut, 
 who died 1820, aged tt2 ; also Gilbert C. Stuart, 
 born 1755, who was one of the first portrait 
 painters of his time. Among living artists, 
 Allston approaches the old masters in his style ; 
 Leslie has great fame ; Newton has executed 
 several clever things. There are several others 
 of some note. 
 
 PALMYRA, ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, 
 discovered 1678. 
 
 PAPER CURRENCY established in Amer- 
 ica, May 15, 1775. 
 
 PAPER MONEY first used in America, 
 1740. 
 
 PAPER made of cotton was in use in 1000 ; 
 that of linen rags, in 1319; the manufacture of, 
 introduced into England at Dartford, in Kent, 
 1588; scarcely any but brown paper made in 
 England, till 1690; white paper first made in 
 England, 1690. 
 
 PARCHMENT invented by king Attalus. 
 887. 
 
 PARROT, an extraordinary one belonging 
 to Colonel Kelly, died at the age of 30, at his 
 house in Piccadilly, October 9th, 1802. This 
 bird appeared to possess in some degree the 
 faculty of reason, for when it made a mistake 
 in either words or tune of the numberless songs 
 it was master of, it would correct itself and 
 begin the song again. 
 
 PATENT granted for titles, first used 1344 ; 
 first granted for the exclusive privilege of pub- 
 lishing books, 1591. 
 
 PEARL ASHES manufactory first set ud in 
 Ireland, 1783. 
 
 PEARLS, artificial, were invented, 1686. 
 
 PEDESTRIANS— Powell, a lawyer, walked 
 from London to York and back again in six 
 days, being a distance of above 402 miles, Nov. 
 27, 1773 ; walked it again when of the age of 
 57 years, June 20th, 1788; Captain Barcley 
 finished at Newmarket, the task of walking a 
 thousand miles in a thousand successive hours, 
 walking one mile in each hour, April 1809 ; 
 Thomas Standen, near Silver Hill barracks, 
 completed a similar, but more arduous task, by 
 walking eleven hundred miles in as many suc- 
 cessive hours, July 14, 1811 ; Aiken, Mr. started 
 from Westminster to go to a spot near Ashford 
 in Kent, and return, the distance being 108 
 miles, which he performed in nine minutes 
 less than 24 hours, July 31st, 1813; Baker, of 
 Rochester, a thousand and one miles and three 
 quarters in twenty dsijs, November 20, 1815; 
 Eaton completed the task of walking eleven 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY. 
 
 PLA 
 
 686 
 
 POM 
 
 hundred miles in eleven hundred successive 
 hours, walking a mile in each hour, upon Black- 
 heath, December 27, 1815. 
 
 PENDULUMS for clocks invented, 1056. 
 PENN\POST set up in London and sub- 
 urbs, by one Murray, an upholsterer, 1681, who 
 afterwards assigned the same to one Dockwra ; 
 afterwards claimed by the government, who 
 allowed the latter a pension of £200 a year, in 
 1711 ; first set up in Dublin, 1774 ; it was im- 
 proved considerably in and round London, July, 
 1794 ; made a two-penny post in 1801. 
 
 PENS for writing were first made from quills 
 in 635. 
 
 PERGAMOS (now Bergamo) a city of My- 
 sia, in Asia Minor, and referred to in Rev. ii. 
 12, is situated on a river, which was formerly 
 called Caycus, now Gremakli, with a harbor, 
 about fifteen miles from the sea. Pergamos 
 was anciently a kingdom, which began in the 
 year 470 from the building of Rome, and con- 
 tinued 153 years, when the last king, Attalus 
 III, dying without children, made the Roman 
 people his heir. In this city was a celebrated 
 library, by Plutarch, said to contain 200,000 
 volumes. It was transported to Alexandria by 
 Anthony and Cleopatra. In 1820, the popula- 
 tion of Bergamo was estimated at 15,000. The 
 streets are wider and cleaner than in most other 
 cities of Natolia. 
 
 PERSIA, king of, Feeth Ali Schah, died 
 1834 ; succeeded by Abbas Mirza. 
 
 PETER, St., wrote his first epistle, 60.; his 
 second epistle, 66. 
 
 PHYSIC, the practice of, was confined to ec- 
 clesiastics, from about 1206 to about 1500. 
 PIAZZA PLANET, discovered 1801. 
 PISTOLS first used by the cavalry, 1544. 
 PITCH and tar made from pit-coal, discov- 
 ered at Bristol, 1779. 
 
 PLAGUE — the whole world visited by one, 
 767 B. C. ; in Rome, when 10,000 persons died 
 in a day, 78 ; in Chichester, when 34,000 died, 
 1772 ; in Scotland, which swept away 40,000 
 inhabitants. 954 ; in England, 1025, 1247, and 
 1347, when 50,000 died in London, 1500 in Lei- 
 cester, &c. ; in Germany, which cut off 90,000 
 people, 1348 ; in Paris and London very dread- 
 ful, 1367; again 1379; in London, which killed 
 30,000 persons, 1407; again, when more were 
 destroyed than in fifteen years war before, 1477 ; 
 again, when 30,001) died in London, 1499 ; again, 
 1548 ; again, 1594 ; which carried off in London, 
 a fourth part of its inhabitants, 1604 ; at Con- 
 stantinople, when 2(10,000 persons died, 1611 ; 
 at London, when 35,417 died, 1625, and 1631 ; 
 
 at Lyons, in France, died 60,000, 1632 ; again 
 at London, which destroyed 68,000 persons, in 
 1665; at Messina, February, 1743; at Algiers, 
 1755 ; in Persia, when 80,000 persons perished 
 at Bassorah, 1773 ; at Smyrna, that carried off 
 about 20.000 inhabitants, 1784 ; and at Tunis. 
 32,000, 1784 ; in the Levant, 1786 ; at Alexan- 
 dria, Smyrna, &c. 1791 ; in Egypt, in 1792, 
 where nearly 800,000 died ; the yellow fever 
 destroyed 2,000 at Philadelphia, in 1793; on 
 the coast of Africa, particularly at Barbary. 
 3,000 died daily ; at Fez, 247,000 died in June, 
 1799} 1,800 died at Morocco, in 1800, in one 
 day ; in Spain and at Gibraltar, where great 
 .numbers died in 1804 and 1805 ; at Malta, 
 where it committed great ravages, 1813; in 
 lesser Asia, Syria, and the adjacent islands, by 
 which Smyrna is computed to have lost 30,000 
 persons, 1814 ; in the kingdom of Naples, where 
 it committed considerable ravages, 1816. (See 
 Cholera.) 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS, the way first found 
 out for taking a likeness in, 1470. 
 
 PLATE GLASS MANUFACTORY estab- 
 lished at Lancashire, in 1773; first in France, 
 1688. 
 
 PLAYS first performed in England, 1378; 
 that by the parish clerks, in 1390. Suppressed 
 by parliament, in 1647; restored 1659. 
 
 POET LAUREAT, the first was Bernard 
 Andrews, 1486; John Kay, 1490; Rev. John 
 Skelton, died June 21st, 1529; Edmund Spen- 
 cer died, 1598; Samuel Daniel, died 1619; 
 Ben Johnson, 1619, died August 6th, 1637 ; sir 
 Willian Davenant, died April 7th, 1G68 ; John 
 Dry den, esq. 1668, dismissed as a papist. 1688 : 
 Thomas' Shadwell, died December 1692; Na- 
 hum Tate died August 12th, 1715; Nicholas 
 Rowe, died December 6, 1718 ; Rev. Laurence 
 Eusden, died December 27th, 1757; William 
 Whitehead, died April 14th, 1785 ; Reverend 
 Thomas Wharton, K. D. died May 21st, 1790; 
 Henry James Pye, Esq. his successor. 
 
 POLICY of insurance in writing first used at 
 Florence, 1569. 
 
 POLIGAMY forbid by the Romans in 393. 
 POMPEII, ruins of. — By recent accounts 
 from Naples it appears that the excavations are 
 still carried on at Pompeii with activity. Dur- 
 ing the last month, (November, 1834) the whole 
 of the street leading from the Temple of For- 
 tune to the gate of lsis, and which crosses the 
 centre of the city, has been discovered. Great 
 progress has also been made in the traverse 
 streets, one of which leads to the theatre, and 
 the other to the temple of Augustin. At the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 POP 
 
 687 
 
 PYR 
 
 extremity of the first, an altar has been found, 
 richly decorated with the protecting genius, 
 represented hi the form of a serpent. Two 
 houses in the street of Fortune have, at length, 
 been entirely excavated, and a great many very 
 curious articles in bronze, iron, and ivory have 
 been discovered. 
 
 POPE, the title of, formerly given to all bish- 
 ops. The emperor, in COG, confined it to the 
 bishops of Rome ; Hygenus was the first bishop 
 of Rome that took the title, 154 ; the pope's 
 supremacy over the Christian church established 
 by Boniface III, 607; custom of kissing the 
 pope's toe began 708 ; pope Stephen III, was 
 the first who was carried to the Lateran on 
 men's shoulders, 752 ; the pope's temporal gran- 
 deur commenced, 755 ; Sergius II, was the 
 first pope that changed his name on his elec- 
 tion, 844 ; John XIX, a layman, made pope by 
 dint of money, 1024 ; the first pope that kept an 
 army was Leo IX, 1054. Their assumed au- 
 thority carried to such excesses as to excom- 
 municate and depose sovereigns, and to claim 
 the presentation of all church benefices, by 
 Gregory VII, and his successors, from 1073 to 
 1500 ; pope Gregory obliged Henry IV, empe- 
 ror of Germany, to stand three days in the 
 depth of winter, barefooted at his castle-gate, to 
 implore his pardon, 1077 ; pope Celestine III, 
 kicked the emperor Henry IV's crown off his 
 head, while kneeling, to show his prerogative 
 of making and unmaking kings, 1191 ; the 
 pope's authority first introduced into England, 
 1079 ; the pope demanded an annual sum for 
 every cathedral and monastery in Christendom, 
 but refused, 1226 ; collected the tenths of the 
 whole kingdom of England, 1226 ; residence of 
 tne pope removed tc Avignon, where It con- 
 tinued 70 years, 1308; their demand on Eng- 
 land refused by parliament, 1363; three at one 
 time in 1414 ; Leo X made a cardinal at four- 
 teen years old; elected pope, March 11,1513, 
 aged 3K; died 1521; Clement VII began to 
 reign, who brought pluralities to their consum- 
 mation, making his nephew, Hippolito, Cardi- 
 nal de Medicis, commendatory universal, grant- 
 ing to him all the vacant benefices in the world, 
 for six months, and appointing him usu-fructu- 
 ary from the first day of his possession, 1523 ; 
 Rome sacked and Clement imprisoned, 1527; 
 moved their residence to Avignon, 1531 ; kiss- 
 ing the pope's toe, and some other ridiculous 
 ceremonies abolished, and the order of Jesuits 
 suppressed by the late pope Clement XIV, 
 1773; visited Vienna to solicit the emperor in 
 favor of the church, March 1782 ; suppressed 
 
 monasteries, 1782 ; destitute of all political in- 
 fluence in Europe 1787. 
 
 POST HORSES and stages established in 
 England, 1483. 
 
 POST OFFICES first established in Paris 
 1462 ; in England, 1581 ; the mail conveyed in 
 stage coaches in England, began in 1785. 
 
 POTATOES first brought to England from 
 America, by Hawkins, in 1563; introduced into 
 Ireland by sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586, and 
 were not known in Flanders till 1650. 
 
 POTTERY, great discoveries made in it by 
 Mr. Wedge wood, 1763. 
 
 PRESBYTERIAN MEETING HOUSE, 
 the first in England at Wandsworth, in Sur- 
 rey, Nov. 20, 1572. 
 
 PRESSING SEAMEN commenced in 1355. 
 
 PRINCE OF WALES, the title of, first 
 given to the king's eldest son, 1286. 
 
 PRINTING invented by J. Faust, 1441 ; first 
 made public by John Gottenburgh, of Mentz, 
 1458; wooden types first used, 1470 ; brought 
 into England by William Caxton, 1471, who 
 had a press in Westminster Abbey till 1494 : 
 first patent granted for it, 1591 ; first introduced 
 into Scotland, 1509 ; first used at Lyons, 1488 ; 
 first set up at Constantinople, in 1784 ; printing 
 in colors invented, 1626. 
 
 PROMETHEUS struck fire from flints about 
 1715 ; he being the first person is said to have 
 stolen it from heaven. 
 
 PUMPS invented 1425. 
 
 PYRAMIDS, colossal structures of the an- 
 cient Egyptians. The cause of their erection 
 is unknown. Some maintain that they were 
 consecrated to the sun ; others, that they served 
 as a kind of gnomon for astronomical observa- 
 tions, according tc Diderot, for the preserva- 
 tion and transmission of historical information : 
 according to others, and this was the prevailing 
 opinion among the ancients, that they were 
 designed as sepulchres, or chambers for mum- 
 mies. Among the most renowned are those of 
 Cheops and Cephrenes ; in building the former, 
 100,000 men were employed 20 years. There 
 have been various statements regarding the 
 size of these immense structures. Herodotus 
 gives 800 feet as the height of the largest one, 
 and says that this also is the length of its base 
 on each side. Strabo makes it 625, Diodorus 
 600 feet. The French ascertained it to be 480 
 feet wide. The largest was built by Cheops, 
 and is supposed to contain the bones of that 
 king. 
 
 The Egyptian Pyramids are quadrangular 
 and hollow, having a broad base, contracting 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 REB 
 
 688 
 
 REL 
 
 gradually towards the top, sometimes terminat- 
 ing in a point, sometimes in a plain surface. 
 They are built of large though not very hard 
 limestone. There are about 40 of them all ; 
 these are included within the space of a few 
 miles in the vicinity of Memphis. The group 
 near Gises, are the most remarkable. That of 
 Cheops, before mentioned, is one of them, and 
 is the largest. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUADRANT, solar, introduced 290 B. C. 
 QUICKSILVER, use of, discovered in refin- 
 ing silver ore, 1540. 
 
 QUILLS were first used for pens in 635. 
 
 RAILROADS, first used near Newcastle 
 upon Tyne, about 1650. 
 
 RAIN, violent in Scotland, for five months, 
 553 ; a continual rain in Scotland, for 5 months, 
 918; so violent in England the harvest did not 
 begin till Michaelmas, 1330; so heavy that the 
 corn was spoiled, 1335 ; from the beginning of 
 October to December, 1338 ; from midsummer 
 to Christmas, so that there was not one day or 
 night dry together, 1348; in Wales, which de- 
 stroyed 10,000 sheep, September 19, 1752; in 
 Languedoc, which destroyed the village of Bar 
 le Due, April 26, 1776; in the island of Cuba, 
 on the 21st of June, 179], when 3,000 persons 
 and 11,700 cattle of various kinds perished, by 
 the torrents occasioned by the rain. Quantity 
 of rain which fell at Philadelphia in 1827 and 
 1828, as indicated by the rain guage, was. in 
 1827, 38.50 inches ; in 1828, 37.39 inches. 
 
 REBELLIONS remarkable in British his- 
 tory : against William I, in favor of Edward 
 Atheling, by the Scots and Danes, A. D. 1069 ; 
 against William II in favor of his brother Robert, 
 1083 ; of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans 
 and English, 1095; in England, in favor of the 
 empress Maude, 1139; prince Richard against 
 his father Henry II, 1189 ; of the barons, April 
 1215; compromised by the grant of magna 
 charta, June 15, following ; of the lords spiritual 
 and temporal against Edward II, on account of 
 his favorites the Gavestons, 1312; and again on 
 account of the Spensers, 1321 ; of Walter, the 
 tiler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat Tiler, 
 occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a tax- 
 gatherer, to his daughter — having killed the 
 collector in his rage, he raised a party to oppose 
 the tax itself, which was a grievous poll-tax, 
 
 1381 ; of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused 
 Richard II to be deposed, 1399 ; in Ireland, 
 when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 
 presumptive heir to the crown, was slain, 1399; 
 against Henry IV. by confederated lords, 1403; 
 under the earl of Northumberland, who was 
 defeated at Bramham More, and slain, 1458 ; of 
 Jack Cade, in favor of the duke of York, 1450; 
 in favor of the house of York, 1452, which 
 ended in the imprisonment of Henry VI, and 
 seating Edward IV, of York, on the throne, 
 1466; under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, 
 which ended with the expulsion of Edward IV, 
 and the restoration of Henry VI the same year; 
 under. Edward IV, 1471, which ended with the 
 death of Henry VI ; of the earl of Richmond, 
 against Richard III, 1485, which ended with 
 the death of Richard ; under Lambert Simnel, 
 who pretended to be Richard Ill's nephew. 
 1486, which ended the same year, in discover- 
 ing that Simnel was a baker's son : he was par- 
 doned ; under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which 
 ended in the execution of Warbeck, 1499 ; under 
 Flamoc, 1497, owing to taxes, which ended 
 with the battle of Blackheath ; of the English, 
 on account of destroying the monasteries, J 536, 
 ended the same year; in favor of lady Jane 
 Grey, against queen Mary, 1553, which ended 
 in the death of lady Jane ; of the Roman Cath- 
 olics against queen Elizabeth. 1559; under the 
 earl of Essex, against Elizabeth, 1600, which 
 ended in his death, 1601; against Charles I, 
 1639, which ended, with his death, 1659; of 
 the Scotch, 1666; under the duke of Mon 
 mouth, 1685, which ended in his death; of the 
 Scotch, under the old pretender, 1715 ; of the 
 Scotch, under the young pretender, 1745. 
 
 REFLECTING TELESCOPES invented. 
 1657. 
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS, SECTS, &c. Albi- 
 genses had their origin 1160 ; Anabaptists began 
 1525, arrived in England 1549 ; Anchorites be- 
 gan 1255; Angelites 494; Antinomian sect began 
 1538 ; Antonines began 329 ; Arian sect began 
 290; Armenian began 1229 ; Augustines began 
 389, first appeared in England 1350 ; Barthol- 
 inites sect founded at Genoa 1307 ; Begging fri- 
 ars established in France 1587 ; Beguines began 
 1208 ; Benedictines founded 548 ; Bethlehem- 
 ites began 1248 ; Bohemian brethren, the sect 
 of, began in Bohemia, 1467 ; Brigantines began 
 1370; Brownists sect began 1660 ; Calvinists 
 sect began 1546; Canons, regular, began 400; 
 Capuchins began 1525 ; Cardinals began 853, 
 red hats given them 1242, the purple 1464, the 
 title of eminence 1644 ; Carmelites began 1141 ; 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 REV 
 
 689 
 
 RIO 
 
 Carthusians began 1084 ; St. Catharine's began 
 1373; Celestines began 1272 ; Chaplines began 
 1248; Dominicans began 1215; Flagellantes, 
 the sect of, arose 1259 ; Franciscans began 
 1206; settled in England, 1217; Gray friars 
 began 1122 ; Hermits began 1257, revived 
 1425; Holy Trinity began 1211 ; Jacobites be- 
 gan 1108'; Jesuits' society began 1536; expel- 
 led England 1604; Venice, 1606; Portugal, 
 September, 1759 ; France, May 5, 1602 ; Spain, 
 1767; Naples, 1768; Rome and Prussia, 1773; 
 order abolished, August 17, 1773 ; in Prussia 
 and other states, 1776 ; revived in Russia, 1784 ; 
 restored in Rome and other states, 1814 ; all 
 monks of the order of, banished from St. Peters- 
 burg, January 2, 1816 ; Jesus, the sisters of, so- 
 ciety began 1626; Lutheran sect began 1517; 
 Mahometan sect began 622 ; Manichees' sect 
 began 343; Methodism commenced 1734; Mi- 
 nors began 1009; Monks first associated 328; 
 Moravians, or Unitas Fratrum, appeared in Bo- 
 hemia 1457; in England 1737; Predestinarian 
 sect began 371 ; Protestants began 1529 ; Puri- 
 tans began 1545 ; Quakers' sect began 1650 ; 
 Quietists began 1685 ; Swedenborgians' sect 
 began 1780 ; Trappists order of monks solemnly 
 installed at Port Ringeard, department of May - 
 enne, January 21, 1815 ; Trinitarians, order of, 
 instituted 1198 ; Unitarians began 1553 ; Ursu- 
 lines established 1198. 
 
 REPRISALS AT SEA were first granted, 
 1295. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS remarkable in ancient his- 
 tory. The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that 
 of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus 
 the Great, 546 B. C.'; the Macedonian empire 
 founded on the destruction of the Persian, on 
 the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander 
 the Great, 331 B. C; the Roman empire estab- 
 lished on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek 
 monarchy, by Julius Caesar, 47 B. C; the east- 
 ern empire founded by Constantine the Great, 
 on the final overthrow of the Romans, A. D. 
 306; the empire of the Western Franks began 
 under Charlemagne, A. D. 302; this empire 
 underwent a new revolution, and became the 
 German empire, under Rodolph of Augsburg, 
 the head of the house of Austria, A. D. 1273, 
 from whom it is also called the monarchy of the 
 Austrians ; the eastern empire passed into the 
 hands of the Turks, A. D. 1300.^ 
 
 Revolution in England, in 1668; Poland, in 
 1704, 1709 and 1795; Turkey, in 1730 and 
 1808; Persia, in 1748 and 1753; Russia, 1682, 
 1740 and 1762 ; Sweden, in 1772 and 1809 ; 
 America, in 1775; France, in 1789; Holland, 
 
 1795; Venice, May 17, 1797; Rome , February 
 26, 1797; South America, April 19, 1810. 
 
 RICE was cultivated in Ireland in 1585 ; in 
 England 1600 ; had its first cultivation in South 
 Carolina, by chance, 1702. 
 
 RIOTS in British History. — Some rioters, 
 citizens of London, demolished the convent be- 
 longing to Westminster Abbey ; the ringleaders 
 were hanged, and the rest had their hands and 
 feet cut off, 6 Henry III, A. D. 1221.— The 
 goldsmiths' and tailors' company fought in the 
 streets of London ; several were killed on each 
 side : the sheriffs quelled it, and thirteen were 
 hanged, 1262. A riot at Norwich ; the rioters 
 burnt the cathedral and monastery ; the king 
 went thither, and saw the ringleaders executed, 
 1271. A riot in London in June, 1628, and Dr. 
 Lamb killed by the mob. Another, under pre- 
 tence of pulling down bawdy houses ; four of 
 the ringleaders hanged, 1688. Another at 
 Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs, 1682; sev- 
 eral considerable persons were concerned ; they 
 seized the lord mayor; but the city-lieutenancy 
 raised the militia and released him; at Edin- 
 burgh and Dumfries, on account of the union, 
 1707; in London on account of Dr. Sacheverel's 
 trial ; several dissenting meeting houses broke 
 open, the pulpit of one pulled down, and with 
 the pews burnt in Lincoln's-inn fields, 1709; 
 riots of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Or- 
 mond and Newcastle mobs, 2 George I, 1715 ; 
 the riot act passed the same year, great mischief 
 having been done by both parties in London ; 
 the Mug-house riot in Salisbury court, between 
 the Whigs and Tories, one person shot dead by 
 the master of the house ; quelled by the guards, 
 1716. Rioters in Herefordshire demolished the 
 turnpike : quelled after a smart engagement 
 with the posse comitatus, 1735. Of the Spital- 
 fields weavers, on account of employing work- 
 men come over from Ireland, 1736. Between 
 Irish, Welsh and English haymakers, 1736. At 
 Edinburgh the mob rose, set fire to the prison 
 door, took out captain Porteus (who had been 
 pardoned for letting his soldiers fire and kill one 
 of the mob at a former riot) and hanged him 
 upon a sign-post, and then dispersed, 1736. Of 
 the nailers in Worcestershire ; they marched to 
 Birmingham, and obliged all the ironmongers 
 to sign a paper allowing them an advanced price 
 on nails, 1737. Of the Spitalfields weavers, 
 1765. Of the people in all parts of England, on 
 account of the dearness of provisions, 1766 and 
 1767. A mob in St. George's fields, to see Mr. 
 Wilkes in the King's Bench Prison, 1768. 
 Damage of £20,000 done to the public prisons 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 RIO 
 
 690 
 
 ROS 
 
 and private buildings in London, June 6, 1780, 
 for which many were hanged. At Glasgow, 
 among the cotton manufacturers, when several 
 were killed by the soldiers, September 4, 1767. 
 A riot at Maidstone, at the trial of A. O'Connor 
 and others, May 22, 1793, at which the earl of 
 Thanet, Mr. Ferguson and others, were active 
 in endeavoring to rescue O'Connor, and for 
 which they were tried and convicted, April 25, 
 1799. In different parts of England, owing to 
 the high price of bread, September, 1800. Of 
 weavers, near Manchester, May 24, 1808. At 
 Liverpool, occasioned by a party of the 19th 
 regiment of light dragoons having quarrelled 
 with a press-gang, June 27, 1809. O. P. riot 
 at Covent Garden Theatre, September, 1809, 
 for old prices ; terminated January 4, 1810. In 
 Piccadilly, in consequence of the warrant of 
 the speaker of the house of commons to commit 
 sir Francis Burdett to the Tower, April 0-9, 
 1810. At the Liverpool theatre, in imitation of 
 the O. P. at Covent Garden, July, 1810. At 
 Bridport, on account of the price of bread, which 
 was quelled by the exertions of the principal in- 
 habitants, May 6, 1816. At Biddefbrd, to pre- 
 vent the exportation of a cargo of potatoes, May 
 20, 1816. At Bury, to destroy a machine called 
 a spinning jenny, in which the rioters were de- 
 feated by the magistrates and principal inhabi- 
 tants, May 22, 1816. At Littleton and Ely, by 
 a body of insurgent fenmen,on the same day — 
 quelled by the military, after bloodshed, May 
 24. At Halstead, Essex, to liberate four per- 
 sons who had been taken up for destroying ma- 
 chinery, May 26, 1816. At Preston, on account 
 <>f a diminution of wages, August 17, 1816. 
 Among the convicts in Newgate, which was 
 quelled by threats of withholding from them 
 their allowance of food, August 26, 1816. At 
 Nottingham, by the Luddites, who destroyed 
 more than thirty frames, October 12, 1816. At 
 Merthys-Tydvil, in Glamorganshire, by the 
 workmen in the iron works, on account of a 
 reduction of wages, October 18, 1816. By the 
 colliers, at Calder iron works, near Glasgow, 
 on account of a suspension of wages, in conse- 
 quence of arrests for debt, which continued for 
 several days, October 19, 1816. In the town of 
 Birmingham, October 28, 1816. In London, in 
 consequence of a popular meeting in Spa fields, 
 for the purpose of presenting a petition to the 
 prince regent, from the distressed manufactur- 
 ers and mechanics ; the shops of several gun- 
 smiths were attacked for arms, and in that of 
 Mr. Beckwith on Snowhill, a Mr. Piatt, who 
 happened to be in the shop, was shot in the 
 
 body by one of the rioters, December 2, 1816. 
 Several of the rioters were apprehended, and 
 one of the name of Watson was tried for high 
 treason and acquitted, June 16, 1817. At Dun- 
 dee, on account of the sudden rise in the price 
 of meal ; upwards of one hundred shops of va- 
 rious "descriptions were plundered, and the 
 house of Mr. Lindsey, an extensive corn dealer, 
 set on fire, December 7, 1816. At Preston, by 
 the unemployed and distressed workmen, Sep- 
 tember, 1816. At Almwick in Wales, to pre- 
 vent a vessel laden with flour from leaving the 
 wharf, March, 1817. 
 
 ROADS in the Highlands of Scotland were 
 begun by Gen. Wade, in 1726, and finished 
 in 1737 ; in England first repaired by act of 
 parliament, 1524. 
 
 ROSARY, or beads, first used in Romish 
 prayers, 1093. 
 
 ROSBACH, in the upper circle of Saxony, 
 totally disappeared, in October, 1792, supposed 
 by an earthquake. 
 
 ROSS'S EXPEDITION.— The following 
 account of this expedition is condensed from an 
 excellent article upon the subject, which ap- 
 peared in the People's Magazine in 1834. 
 
 The news of the safe return of Captain Ross 
 has been received both in Great Britain and the 
 United States with unfeigned sensations of joy. 
 The hardy navigator with his nephew, Com- 
 mander Ross, and the whole of his party except 
 three, two of whom died on the passage out, 
 and one at a later period, arrived at Hull on 
 Friday morning, the 18th of October, 1833. 
 
 It was in 1829 that Captain Ross fitted out 
 his expedition to determine the practicability of 
 a new passage, which had been confidently 
 stated to exist, particularly bv Prince Regent's 
 Inlet, but in consequence of the loss of the fore- 
 mast of his vessel, the Victory, he was obliged 
 to refit' at Wideford, in Greenland. The ac- 
 counts of his departure from thence on the 27th 
 July, 1829, formed the last authentic intelli- 
 gence received of the expedition By the sub- 
 sequent details it will be perceived that he was 
 picked up by the Isabelle of Hull, — the very 
 ship — by a singular coincidence, in which he 
 made his first voyage to the Arctic regions. 
 
 By Captain Ross's account it appears, that 
 the first season (that of 1829,) was the mildest 
 that had ever been recorded, and the sea was 
 more clear of ice than had been experienced 
 during any preceding voyages. On the 13th 
 of August, Captain Ross reached the spot where 
 the stores of his majesty's late ship, the Fury, 
 were landed. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 SAP 
 
 691 
 
 SCU 
 
 On the 1st of September, 1832, he visited 
 Leopold South Island, now established to be 
 the north-east point of America, in latitude 73, 
 56, and longitude 90 west. From the summit 
 of the lofty mountain on the promontory he 
 could see Prince Regent's Inlet, Barrow's 
 Strait, and Lancaster Sound, which presented 
 one impenetrable mass of ice, just as it had ap- 
 peared in 1818. 
 
 The circumstance that Captain Ross was res- 
 cued by the ship he commanded in 1818, is a 
 curious and happy conclusion of the voyage, 
 the result of which has established that there is 
 no new north-west passage south of seventy- 
 four degrees. 
 
 The true position of the magnetic pole has 
 been discovered, and much valuable informa- 
 tion obtained for the improvement of geograph- 
 ical and philosophical knowledge. Captain 
 Ross had a good opportunity of verifying his 
 former survey of the coast of Baffin's Bay, 
 which every master of a Greenland ship can 
 testify to be most correct. 
 
 On the whole it may be said that this expedi- 
 tion has done more than any that preceded it ; 
 and let it be remembered that Captain Ross and 
 his nephew were volunteers, serving without 
 pay, for the attainment of a great national ob- 
 ject, in prosecuting which they have lost their 
 all. 
 
 RUM imported into England in 1789, was 
 3,300,000 gallons ; in 179G there were import- 
 ed 4,196,198 gallons. 
 
 S. 
 
 SAILCLOTH first made in England, 1590; 
 cotton sailcloth made at Baltimore and at Pat- 
 terson, N. J. and brought into use in the United 
 States, 1S24. 
 
 SAINT HELENA first possessed by the 
 English, 1G00. 
 
 SAINT LAWRENCE river discovered and 
 explored by the French, 1508. 
 
 SALT MINES in Staffordshire discovered, 
 1670; rock salt was discovered about 950; in 
 Poland, in 1289. 
 
 SALTPETRE first made in England, 1625. 
 
 SANCTUARIES, or cities of refuge, were 
 instituted by tbe Jews immediately after their 
 establishment in Palestine about 1400 B. C. ; 
 such use, or rather abuse, was made of the 
 heathen temples, particularly those of Hercules; 
 Christian churches commenced to be used as 
 such, A. O. 617; abolished in England, 1534. 
 
 SAPPHO, a Greek poetess, who after the 
 
 death of her husband, is said to have become 
 enamoured of Phaon,and, in consequence of hits 
 neglect, to have thrown herself into the sea. 
 
 SATELLITE, moon or secondary planets . 
 of which there is known to exist, attending the 
 Earth one, Jupiter four, Saturn nine, if his two 
 rings are included, and the Herschel six, mak- 
 ing twenty in all — eighteen globular, and the 
 two rings of Saturn circular. Of these bodies, 
 except the moon of the earth, the attendants of 
 Jupiter were first discovered. Simon Marius, 
 astronomer to the elector of Brandenburg, in 
 November, 1609, observed three little stars 
 moving round the body of Jupiter, and in 1610 
 discovered a fourth ; similar observations were 
 made at the same time in Italy by Galileo. 
 
 Satellite of Saturn, the fourth, was first dis- 
 covered by Huygens, March 25th, 1655; four 
 more were discovered by Cassini, between 1671- 
 84; and Dr. Herschel, 1787-89, discovered two 
 more, and completed the list of the attendants 
 of Saturn. 
 
 Satellite of the Herschel, or Georgian planets, 
 six in number, were all discovered by Dr. Her- 
 schel, from January 11th, 1787, to March 26th, 
 1794. The existence of these satellites of the 
 Georgian planet, rests upon the authority of 
 Dr. Herschel alone. 
 
 SAXON GREEN, in dying, invented 1744. 
 
 SCARCITY-ROOT, a kind of parsnep, in- 
 troduced and propagated in England, 1787. 
 
 SCENES first introduced into theatres, 1533. 
 
 SCULPTURE. The antiquity of sculpture 
 is proved by referring to the Bible. In the 
 book of Exodus, we read of Laban's images, of 
 the golden calf made by Aaron, and of the stat- 
 ues of the cherubim. Herodotus tells us that 
 the Egyptians first carved figures of animals in 
 stone. Almost all the sculpture of Egypt was 
 employed for sacred purposes ; it was of stu- 
 pendous magnitude. The pyramids, colossal 
 statues, and sphynx are gigantic works of art, 
 and strike those who behold them with aston- 
 ishment. The eras of Egyptian sculpture ex- 
 tend through the dominion of the Greeks and 
 Romans. Under the latter, much improvement 
 was made in the art. 
 
 Hindoo sculpture strongly resembles that of 
 Egypt, but is generally very inferior. Chinese 
 sculpture also slightly resembles the Egyptian. 
 Daedalus may be considered the first sculptor in 
 Greece, as before his time, the attempts at the 
 art were rude and imperfect, though there were 
 schools established at Sicyon, Egina, Corinth 
 and Athens. Daedalus was born 1234 B. C. 
 He formed something like a school of sculpture 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 3CU 
 
 692 
 
 SCU 
 
 at Athens The first statues were formed of 
 wood, and metal was also used in various parts 
 fnr sculpture. 
 
 About 646 B.C. statues in marble were exe- 
 cuted, and a school called the Chian School, 
 was founded by Malas. The marble was pro- 
 cured from the Ionian islands, where a school 
 was also established called the Ionian School. 
 In 517 B. C, great improvements were intro- 
 duced in the art of sculpture in marble. 
 
 After the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., sculp- 
 ture flourished and the schools produced many 
 eminent artists, among- whom was Phidias. He 
 executed statues in bronze, marble, and a com- 
 position mostly of ivory. His works were nu- 
 merous and splendid, and he stands without a 
 rival among the ancient masters. From this 
 period till the fall of Greece, many eminent 
 sculptors appeared, but after the death of Alex- 
 ander, the arts began to decline, and continued 
 in this state for nearly two hundred years, when 
 Greece became a Roman province. 
 
 Italian sculpture may be divided into two 
 distinct classes, the Etruscan and the Roman. 
 The sculptors were mostly Greeks, as the Ro- 
 mans possessed only sufficient knowledge to 
 value the genius of others. After Constantine, 
 the annals of ancient art may be considered as 
 closed. 
 
 Schools for sculpture were formed in Italy 
 in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and 
 before the close of the thirteenth, a school was 
 founded by Nicolas Pisano, a native of Pisa. 
 Before the close of the next century, sculpture 
 was successfully practised throughout Italy. 
 Donatello, born in 13S3, was a very eminent 
 sculptor, and executed many magnificent stat- 
 ues. His pupils were the chief masters of the 
 fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, 
 Michael Angelo commenced his career. Many 
 eminent sculptors were his contemporaries, 
 among whom was Torrigiani. After Bernini 
 in 1610, the art rapidly declined in Italy, till it 
 was again revived by Canova. This distin- 
 guished artist was born in Possagno, in the 
 Venetian territory in 1757. His statues, mon- 
 umental works, and tablets in relievo, are emi- 
 nently beautiful. He died in 1823, lamented by 
 all who knew him. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, the Dane, is the chief master 
 of the modern school of sculpture. He was 
 born at Copenhagen, in 1772. His designs are 
 very original, and his taste and execution very 
 fine. 
 
 The first eminent French sculptor appears to 
 
 have been Jean Goujon. At the conclusion of the 
 sixteenth century, John of Bologna established 
 a school for sculpture in France. At the head 
 of this school stood Girardon and Puget. The 
 former was an artist of great merit, but the lat- 
 ter was a favorite with his countrymen, who 
 compared him with Michael Angelo. He was 
 born at Marseilles, in 1662. The succeeding 
 artists imitated his style. 
 
 The French sculptors of the present day are 
 more distinguished for science, than for feeling 
 or invention. Their statues have correct pro- 
 portions, but no sentiment nor expression. 
 
 Berruguete, a pupil of Michael Angelo, found- 
 ed the first regular school in Spain, of which 
 Paul de Cespides was the chief ornament. He 
 was very eminent. In the seventeenth century , 
 Hernandez executed many noble works. Pujol 
 and Montaguez, were also celebrated artists. In 
 the eighteenth century, Salvador and Philip di 
 Castro contributed greatly to the improvement 
 of sculpture in Spain. 
 
 Before the seventeenth century, we find little 
 said of German sculpture, and even subsequent- 
 ly to that period, there are not many distin- 
 guished artists. The art in Germany rather 
 languishes, though there were some artists of 
 great eminence at the commencement of the 
 last century. 
 
 When the Romans conquered Great Britain, 
 the natives learned the art of sculpture from 
 their conquerors, and for two hundred years 
 after, continued to cast great works in bronze. 
 In 1242, many statues of kings, queens and 
 saints were executed for the adornment of a 
 cathedral at Wells, but they are ill designed, 
 and rude. 
 
 Edward III encouraged sculpture and archi- 
 tecture, and the cathedrals were filled with 
 splendid monuments and statues. Westminster 
 Abbey has many specimens of English art at 
 this period. 
 
 The first name of eminence in British art, is 
 that of Gibbons about 1652. Charles I, em- 
 ployed him in ornamenting his palaces, and his 
 chapel at Windsor. His chief excellence lay in 
 ornamental carving, of which there are exqui- 
 site specimens at Chatsworth, the seat of the 
 Duke of Devonshire. Cibber, born in 1630, at 
 Holstein, rose to great eminence. Roubilliac, 
 though a Frenchman, is ranked among British 
 sculptors, as all his celebrated works were exe- 
 cuted in England. 
 
 Thomas Banks was born in 1735. He studi- 
 ed the art at Rome, and after practising there 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SEA 
 
 693 
 
 SEA 
 
 seven years, he returned to fill his own coun- 
 try with his noble works. Joseph Nollekins 
 flourished at the same time. He was famous 
 for his busts, of which he executed great num- 
 bers, from distinguished persons. John Bacon, 
 born in 1740, was another eminent sculptor; 
 his works are very numerous. 
 
 Mrs. Darner born in 1748 deserves mention 
 among the artists of the eighteenth century. 
 Flaxman, born in 1755, is distinguished as a 
 sculptor in modern days. He successfully 
 awoke the dormant energies of sculpture, and 
 restored the simple and grand style of antiquity. 
 The school of sculpture now in England, 
 headed by the celebrated Chantrey, is based 
 upon sound principles, and will soon attain a 
 high degree of excellence. 
 
 Greenough, an American artist now in Ttaly, 
 promises to add the name of an American, to 
 those of other countries, renowned in the annals 
 of sculpture. 
 
 SEA FIGHTS IN MODERN TIMES. 
 
 898 Fight between England and the Danes, 
 
 when Alfred defeated 120 ships of Dorsetshire. 
 
 1389 Eighty French ships taken by the English. 
 
 1416 The Duke of Bedford took 500 French 
 
 and 3 Genoese vessels. 
 1449 The French fleet taken by the Earl of 
 
 Warwick. 
 1571 Oct. 7, between the Christian powers and 
 the Turks, in which the latter lost 25,000, 
 with 4000 prisoners and 335 vessels. 
 1588 Between the English fleet and Spanish 
 
 Armada. 
 1653 July 29th, the Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, 
 
 and Admiral Tromp was killed. 
 1664 Dec. 4th, the Duke of York took 130 of 
 
 the Bourdeaux fleet. 
 1692 May 19th, the French fleet entirely de- 
 feated, and 21 large men of war destroyed. 
 1702 Oct. 12, the Vigo fleet taken by the 
 
 Dutch and English. 
 1704 Aug. 24 th, the French are beaten by the 
 English and entirely relinquish to them the 
 dominion of the sea. 
 1775 A British vessel captured by the Ameri- 
 cans ; the first capture in the war of the rev- 
 olution. 
 1779 Sept. 23, Paul Jones captured the British 
 
 frigate Serapis. 
 1782 April 12, Admiral Rodney defeated the 
 
 French going to attack Jamaica. 
 1794 June l,Lord Howe totally defeated the 
 
 French fleet. 
 1797 Oct. 11, the Dutch fleet defeated by Ad- 
 miral Duncan on the coast of Holland. 
 
 1798 Aug. 1, the famous battle of the Nile. 
 
 The French fleet of 17 ships totally defeated 
 
 by Nelson. 
 1801 April 2, the Danish fleet of 28 sail taken 
 
 by Lord Nelson off Copenhagen. 
 
 1804 Stephen Decatur succeeded in obtaining 
 possession of the frigate Philadelphia from 
 the harbor of Tripoli. He then set fire to 
 her, and 20 of the enemy were destroyed. 
 Lieutenant Decatur did not lose a man. The 
 same year in August and September, Com- 
 modore Preble made several famous attacks 
 upon the town, fortress and naval forces of 
 Tripoli. 
 
 1805 Oct. 21, French and Spanish fleets totally 
 defeated off Cape Trafalgar, and Lord Nelson 
 was killed in the action. 
 
 1808 June 14, French squadron in the harbor 
 of Cadiz surrendered to the Spanish patriots. 
 
 1811 May 16, rencontre between the British 
 sloop of war Little Belt, and the United 
 States frigate President, Commodore Rodgers. 
 
 1812 August 13, the British sloop of war Alert, 
 taken by the United States frigate Essex, 
 Captain Porter. 
 
 Aug. 19, the British frigate Guerriere taken 
 by the United States frigate Constitution, 
 Captain Hull. 
 
 Oct. 18, the British brig Frolic, by the 
 United States sloop Wasp, Captain Jones; 
 same day, the Wasp and Frolic were captured 
 by the British 74 Poictiers, Capt. Beresford. 
 
 Oct. 25, British frigate Macedonian, cap- 
 tured by the frigate United States, Commo- 
 dore Decatur. 
 
 Dec. 29, British frigate Java, captured by 
 the United States ship Constitution, Captain 
 Bainb ridge. 
 
 1813 Feb. 25, Peacock, British sloop of war, 
 captured by the United States ship of war 
 Hornet, of inferior force. The Peacock sunk 
 with a great part of her crew. 
 
 June 1, United States frigate Chesapeake, 
 captured by the British ship Shannon; a 
 most distinguished action in the naval history 
 of the United States, in which the gallant 
 commander, James Lawrence, fell. 
 
 June 3, United States armed vessels Growl- 
 er and Eagle, taken after a smart action, by 
 the British gun-boats. 
 
 Aug. 14, United States sloop of war Argus, 
 taken by the sloop of war Pelican. 
 
 Sept. 4, British ship Boxer taken by the 
 Enterprize. 
 
 Sept. 13, Commodore Oliver Perry, in a 
 gallant action of the United States squadron 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 SIG 
 
 694 
 
 SOU 
 
 under his command, captured the British 
 fleet on Lake Erie. 
 
 1814 March 20, the United States frigate Essex, 
 taken by the British frigate PliGebe, and sloop 
 of war Cherub, after a desperate and sanguin- 
 ary defence. 
 
 April 21, United States ship Frolic, taken 
 by a British squadron. 
 
 April 21), British ship Epervier, taken by 
 the United States ship Wasp. 
 
 Sept. 1, British ship Avon, taken by the 
 Wasp. 
 
 1815 Jan. 15, United States frigate President. 
 Decatur commander, captured by a British 
 squadron, consisting of the Endymion, Tene- 
 dos and Pomone frigates, and the Majestic 
 razee — a distinguished and gallant action on 
 the part of Decatur, who, after being captur- 
 ed, refused indignantly to deliver his sword to 
 any other than the commander of the squad- 
 ron. 
 
 Feb. 20, the British ships Cyane and Le- 
 vant, taken by the United States frigate 
 Constitution. 
 
 March 23, the United States ship Hornet 
 captures the British ship Penguin. 
 1627 Famous battle of Navarina ; the Turkish 
 navy annihilated, by the combined English, 
 French, and Russian fleets, under command 
 of Admiral Sir E. Codrington. 
 SEXTANT invented by Tycho Brahe, in 
 1550. 
 
 SHIP. — The first seen in Greece arrived at 
 Rhodes from Egypt, 1485 B. C; the first double 
 decked one built in England was of 1000 tons 
 burden, by order of Henry VII, 1509; it was 
 called the Great Harry, and cost £14,000 ; be- 
 fore this, twenty-four gun ships were the largest 
 in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the 
 guns being on the upper decks only. Port-holes 
 and other improvements were invented by De- 
 charges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign 
 of Louis XII, 1500: there were not above four 
 merchant ships of 120 tons burden, before 1551. 
 . SHIP BUILDING, the art of, attributed to 
 the Egyptians, as the first inventors, the first 
 ship being brought from Egypt to Greece by 
 Danaus, 1485 B. C. The first ship of the bur- 
 den of 800 tons was built in England in 1597. 
 SHOEING OF HORSES introduced, 481 
 SHOES of the present fashion first worn in 
 England, 1633; but the buckle was not intro- 
 duced till 1670. 
 SIDE-SADDLES first used in England, 13S0. 
 SIGNALS at sea first devised by James II, 
 1665. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE coast discovered, 1460, 
 nearly destroyed by a French frigate in 1795. 
 
 SILK, wrought, brought from Persia to 
 Greece, 325 B.C. From India, A. D. 274: 
 known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law 
 passed forbidding men to debase themselves by 
 wearing silk, fit only for women; Heliogabulus 
 first wore a garment all of silk, 220; silkworms 
 were brought to Europe 300 years later ; in 
 1130, Greek manufacturers of silk brought by 
 Roger, king of Sicily, to Europe, settled at Pa- 
 lermo, where they taught the Sicilians, not only 
 to breed up the silk-worms, but to spin and to 
 weave silk ; which art was carried afterwards 
 to Italy and to the south of France ; Venice in- 
 veigled silk weavers from Greece and Palermo, 
 in Sicily, 1207; silk mantles worn by some no- 
 blemen's ladies at a ball, at Kennelworth castle, 
 in 1286; silk manufactured in England, 1604; 
 first silk manufacture in France, 1521 ; silk 
 worms and mulberry trees propagated by Henry 
 IV through all France, 1559; broad silk manu- 
 facture from raw silk introduced into England, 
 1620 ; Lombe's famous silk throwing machine, 
 erected at Derby, in 1719. 
 
 SILVER first coined at Rome, 269 B. C. 
 
 SILVER PLATE, or vessels, first made use 
 of in England, by Welfred, a Northumbrian 
 bishop, 709 ; silver knives and forks, spoons 
 and cups, 1300. 
 
 SINCAPORE is an island with a town of 
 the same name, near the south coast of Malacca, 
 which gives name to the narrow sea called the 
 Straits of Sincapoura,long. 103, 30 east, lat. 1, 
 12 noith. This town which a few years since 
 had only about 2G0 inhabitants, was stated in 
 1820 to have about 10,000, and to have become 
 a place of considerable commerce. It belongs 
 to the English. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE from Congo and Angola, 
 begun by the Portuguese in 1482: begun with 
 England, 15G3 ; in South America, 1550 ; abol- 
 ished by the Quakers, 1784 ; by the French 
 convention, 1794; by the British parliament, 
 1807 ; by the Prince of the United Netherlands, 
 1814 ; in France by Bonaparte, March 29, 1815 , 
 abolished in Pennsylvania, 1784 ; in 1768, there 
 were 104,000 brought in the West Indies, at 
 £15 each, amounting to £ 1 ,582,000, sterling, 
 chiefly by barter ; by the French convention, 
 February 4, 1794. 
 
 SOAP first made at London and Bristol, 
 1524. 
 
 SOUTH SEA ACT passed, May 6, 1716; 
 its bubble, 1720, by which many thousands were 
 ruined. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 SOV 
 
 695 
 
 SOV 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF FRANCE. 
 
 Charlemagne began ad. 768 
 
 Louis 1 814 
 
 Charles the Bald 843 
 
 Louis II, the Stammerer 877 
 
 Louis III, Carloman 879 
 
 Charles the Fat 884 
 
 Hugh 888 
 
 Charles the Simple 898 
 
 Robert 922 
 
 Ralph 923 
 
 Louis IV 926 
 
 Lotharius 954 
 
 Louis V 986 
 
 Hugh Capet „ 987 
 
 Robert the Pious 997 
 
 Henry I.... 1031 
 
 Philip I 1060 
 
 Louis VI, the Gross 1108 
 
 Louis VII 1137 
 
 Philip II (Augustus) 1180 
 
 Louis VIII 1223 
 
 Louis IX (St. Louis) 1226 
 
 Philip III, the Bold 1270 
 
 Philip IV, the Fair 1285 
 
 Louis X, King of Navarre .... 1314 
 
 Philip, King of Navarre 1316 
 
 Charles IV, the Fair, King of 
 
 Navarre 1322 
 
 Philip VI, the Fortunate 1328 
 
 John I, the Good 1350 
 
 Charles V, the Wise 1364 
 
 Charles VI 1380 
 
 Charles VII, the Victor 1422 
 
 Louis XI, the Prudent 1461 
 
 Charles VIII, the Affable .... 1483 
 
 Louis XII 1498 
 
 Francis I 1515 
 
 Henry II 1547 
 
 Francis II 1559 
 
 Charles IX 1560 
 
 Henry III 1574 
 
 Henry IV, the Great 1589 
 
 Louis XIII 1610 
 
 Louis XIV, the Great 1643 
 
 Louis XV 1715 
 
 Louis XVI 1774 
 
 Republick 1792 
 
 Napoleon, Emperor of the 
 
 French 1804 
 
 Louis XVIII 1814 
 
 CharlesX 1824 
 
 Louis Philippe I, King of the 
 
 French 1830 
 
 OF GERMANY. 
 
 Charlemagne began a. d. 800 
 
 Louis I 814 
 
 Louis II 843 
 
 Carloman 876 
 
 Louis III, the Younger 876 
 
 Charles the Fat 876 
 
 Arnold 887 
 
 Louis IV, the Infant 899 
 
 Conrad I f 911 
 
 Henry I, the Fowler 919 
 
 Otho the Great 936 
 
 OthoII 973 
 
 Otho III 983 
 
 Henry II, the Saint 1002 
 
 Conrad II, the Salick 1024 
 
 59 
 
 Henry III began a. d. 1039 
 
 Henry IV 1056 
 
 Henry V 1106 
 
 Lotharius II, the Saxon 1125 
 
 Conrad III 1138 
 
 Frederick I (Barbarossa) . 1152 
 
 Henry VI... 1190 
 
 Philip and Otho IV 1198 
 
 Frederick II 1212 
 
 Conrad IV 1250 
 
 William of Holland 1254 
 
 Richard, D. of Cornwall 1257 
 
 Rodolph of Hapsburgh 1273 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau 1292 
 
 Albert I, of Austria 1298 
 
 Henry VII 1308 
 
 Louis of Bavaria, and Fred- 
 erick of Austria 1314 
 
 Charles IV 1346 
 
 Winceslaus 1378 
 
 Robert 1400 
 
 Siaismund 1411 
 
 Albert II, of Austria 1437 
 
 Frederick III 1440 
 
 Maximilian I 1493 
 
 Charles V 1519 
 
 Ferdinandl 1558 
 
 Maximilian II 1564 
 
 Rodolph II 1576 
 
 Matthias 1612 
 
 Ferdinand II 1619 
 
 Ferdinand III 1637 
 
 Leopold I 1658 
 
 Joseph I 1705 
 
 Charles VI 1711 
 
 Charles VII, of Bavaria 1742 
 
 Francis I, of Lorrain 1745 
 
 Maria Theresa 1745 
 
 Joseph II 1765 
 
 Leopold II 1790 
 
 Francis II * 1792 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine .. 1806 
 Germanic Confederation 1815 
 
 * Upon the establishment of the Confede- 
 ration of the Rhine, in 1806, Francis ceased to 
 be Emperor of Germany, and became Em- 
 peror of Austria, under the title of Francis I. 
 In 1815, he was declared hereditary head of 
 the Germanic Confederation. 
 
 OF PAPAL STATES. 
 
 Adrian I began a. d. 772 
 
 Leo III 795 
 
 Stephen V 816 
 
 Paschall 817 
 
 Eugene II 820 
 
 Valentine 824 
 
 Gregory IV 827 
 
 Sergius II 843 
 
 LeoIV 847 
 
 Benedictlll 855 
 
 Nicholasl 858 
 
 Adrianll 868 
 
 John VIII 873 
 
 Martini 883 
 
 Adrian III 884 
 
 Stephen VI 885 
 
 Formosus 891 
 
 Stephen VII 897 
 
 Romanus Formosus 901 
 
 John IX 901 
 
 BenedictIV 905 
 
 Leo V began a., d. §06 
 
 Christopher 906 
 
 Sergius III 907 
 
 Anastatius 910 
 
 Lando 912 
 
 John X 912 
 
 Leo VI 928 
 
 Stephen VIII 929 
 
 John XI 931 
 
 Leo VII 936 
 
 Stephen IX 940 
 
 Martin II 943 
 
 Agapetll 946 
 
 JohnXII 956 
 
 Benedict V 965 
 
 John XIII 966 
 
 Domne II 973 
 
 Benedict VI 973 
 
 Benedict VII 974 
 
 John XIV 984 
 
 John XV 985 
 
 John XVI 986 
 
 Gregory V 996 
 
 Silvester II 999 
 
 John XVII 1003 
 
 John XVIII 1003 
 
 Sergius IV 1009 
 
 Benedict VIII 1012 
 
 John XIX 1024 
 
 Benedict IX 1033 
 
 Gregory VI 1044 
 
 Clement II 1047 
 
 Damasia II 1048 
 
 Leo IX 1049 
 
 Victor II 1055 
 
 Stephen X 1057 
 
 Nicholas II 1058 
 
 Alexander II 1061 
 
 Gregory VII 1073 
 
 Victor III 1085 
 
 Urban II 1087 
 
 Pascal II 1099 
 
 GelasiusII 1118 
 
 CalixtusII 1119 
 
 Honoriusll 1125 
 
 Innocent II 1130 
 
 Celestinell 1143 
 
 Lucius II 1144 
 
 Eugene III , 1145 
 
 Anastasius IV 1154 
 
 Adrian IV 1155 
 
 Alexander III 1459 
 
 Lucius III 1181 
 
 Urban III 1185 
 
 Gregory VIII 1187 
 
 Clement III 1187 
 
 CelestineHI 1190 
 
 Innocent III 1196 
 
 HonoriuslII 1217 
 
 Gregory IX 1227 
 
 CelestinelV 1241 
 
 Innocent IV 1243 
 
 Alexander IV 1254 
 
 Urban IV 1262 
 
 GregoryX 1264 
 
 Clement IV 1265 
 
 Innocent V 1276 
 
 Adrian V. 1276 
 
 JohnXX 1276 
 
 Nicholas III 1277 
 
 Martin IV 1281 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 SOV 
 
 696 
 
 SOV 
 
 Honorius IV began a. d. 1285 
 
 Nicholas IV 1268 
 
 Celestine V 1294 
 
 Boniface VIII 1295 
 
 Benedict X 1303 
 
 Clement V 1305 
 
 John XXI 1316 
 
 Alexander II 1327 
 
 Benedict XI 1334 
 
 Clement VI 1342 
 
 Innocent VI 1353 
 
 Urban V 1363 
 
 Gregory XI 1371 
 
 Urban VI 1378 
 
 Boniface IX 1390 
 
 Innocent VII 1404 
 
 Gregory XII 1406 
 
 Alexander V 1409 
 
 John XXII 1410 
 
 Martin V 1417 
 
 Eugene IV 1431 
 
 Nicholas V 1447 
 
 Calixtus III 1455 
 
 PiusII 1458 
 
 Paul II 1464 
 
 SixtuslV 1471 
 
 Innocent VIII 1484 
 
 Alexander VI 1492 
 
 PiusIII 1503 
 
 Julius II 1503 
 
 LeoX 1513 
 
 Adrian VI 1522 
 
 Clement VII 1523 
 
 Paul III 1534 
 
 Julius III 1550 
 
 Marcellinus II 1555 
 
 Paul IV 1556 
 
 Pius IV 1559 
 
 Pius V 1566 
 
 Gregory XIII 1572 
 
 Sixtus V 1585 
 
 Urban VII 1590 
 
 Gregory XIV 1590 
 
 Innocent IX 1591 
 
 Clement VIII 1592 
 
 Leo XI 1605 
 
 Paul V 1605 
 
 Gregory XV 1621 
 
 Urban "VIII 1623 
 
 Innocent X 1644 
 
 Alexander VII 1655 
 
 Clement IX 1667 
 
 Clement X 1670 
 
 Innocent XI 1676 
 
 Alexander VIII 1689 
 
 Innocent XII 1691 
 
 Clement XI 1700 
 
 Innocent XIII 1721 
 
 Benedict XIII 1724 
 
 Clement XII 1730 
 
 Benedict XIV 1740 
 
 Clement XIII 1758 
 
 Clement XIV 1769 
 
 Pius VI 1775 
 
 Pius VII 1800 
 
 Leo XII 1823 
 
 Pius VIII 1829 
 
 OF RUSSIA. 
 
 Rivick began a. d. 862 
 
 Oleg 879 
 
 Ighor I began, a. d. 913 
 
 Swatoslaw I 945 
 
 Jaropolk I 972 
 
 Waldimir the Great 980 
 
 Swatopolk 1015 
 
 Jaroslaw I, of Kiew 1018 
 
 Isaslaw 1 1051 
 
 Swatoslaw II 1073 
 
 WsewolodI 1078 
 
 Swatopolk II 1093 
 
 Waldimir II 1113 
 
 Mistislaw 1125 
 
 Jaropolk II 1132 
 
 Wsewolodll 1138 
 
 Isaslaw II 1146 
 
 Jurje I, Duke 1149 
 
 Andrej 1157 
 
 Michel I 1175 
 
 Wsewolod III 1177 
 
 Jurje II 1213 
 
 Constantine 1217 
 
 Jaroslaw II 1238 
 
 Alexander Newskoi 1245 
 
 Jaroslaw III 1262 
 
 Wasilej 1 1270 
 
 Dimitrej 1275 
 
 Andrej II 1281 
 
 Danilo 1294 
 
 Michailow 1305 
 
 Jurje III 1317 
 
 Iwan I, of Moscow 1328 
 
 Semen 1340 
 
 Iwan II 1353 
 
 Dimitrej II 1359 
 
 Dimitrej Til 1363 
 
 Wasilej II 1389 
 
 Wasilej III 1425 
 
 Iwan Wasilej I 1462 
 
 Wasilej IV 1505 
 
 Iwan Wasilejevitch 1533 
 
 Feodore I 1584 
 
 Boris Godunow 1598 
 
 Wasilej Schuiskoi 1606 
 
 Michel Fedrowitsch 1613 
 
 Alexej Michel 1645 
 
 Feodore II 1676 
 
 Iwan Alexander 1682 
 
 Peter the Great 1685 
 
 Catharine I 1725 
 
 Peter II 1727 
 
 Anne 1730 
 
 Iwan III 1740 
 
 Elizabeth 1741 
 
 Peter III 1762 
 
 Catharine II 1762 
 
 Paull 1796 
 
 Alexander 1801 
 
 Nicholas 1825 
 
 OF SWEDEN. 
 Regnard Lobrock .. . began a. d. 825 
 
 Eric the Victor 966 
 
 OlafSckotkong 994 
 
 Edmund Jacobson 1026 
 
 Edmundlll 1051 
 
 Stenkill 1056 
 
 Eric VII 1066 
 
 Eric VIII 1066 
 
 Hacon Rcede 1067 
 
 Ingo and Haldstan 1080 
 
 Philip and Ingo II 1112 
 
 Swerker began a.d. 1133 
 
 Eric IX 1155 
 
 Charles Swerkerson 1161 
 
 Canute Erickson 1167 
 
 Swerker II 1199 
 
 EricX 1210 
 
 John I 1216 
 
 Eric XI 1222 
 
 Waldamar I 1250 
 
 Magnus Ladulos 1275 
 
 Birger 1290 
 
 Magnus II 1319 
 
 Albert of Mecklen 1363 
 
 Margaret 1389 
 
 Eric XIII 1412 
 
 Christopher III 1440 
 
 Chailes VIII 1448 
 
 John II* 1483 
 
 Christian II 1520 
 
 Gustavus Vasa 1523 
 
 Eric XIV 1560 
 
 John III 1569 
 
 Sigismund 1592 
 
 Charles IX 1604 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus 1611 
 
 Christiana 1632 
 
 Charles X 1654 
 
 Charles XI 1660 
 
 Charles XII 1697 
 
 Ulrica Eleanora 1719 
 
 Frederick 1720 
 
 Adolphus Frederick 1758 
 
 Gustavus III 1771 
 
 Gustavus IV. Adolphus 1792 
 
 Charles XIII' 1809 
 
 Charles John XIV(Bernadotte) 1818 
 
 OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Othman I began a. d. 1300 
 
 Orcan I 1326 
 
 Amu rath I 1359 
 
 Bajazetl 1390 
 
 Mohammed I 1413 
 
 Amurathll 1421 
 
 Mohammed II * 1451 
 
 Bajazetll 1481 
 
 SelimI 1512 
 
 Bolymanl 1520 
 
 Selim II 1566 
 
 Amurath III 1574 
 
 Mohammed III 1595 
 
 Achmet 1 1604 
 
 Mustapha 1 1617 
 
 Othman II 1618 
 
 Amurath IV 1623 
 
 Ibrahim I 1640 
 
 Mohammed IV 1648 
 
 Solvman II 1687 
 
 Achmet II 1691 
 
 Mustapha II 1695 
 
 Achmet III 1703 
 
 Mahmoudl.... 1730 
 
 Othman III 1754 
 
 Mustapha III 1757 
 
 Abdul Hamed 1774 
 
 Selim III 1789 
 
 Mustapha IV 1807 
 
 Mahmoudll 1808 
 
 * Mohammed 11 the first Turkish Emperor 
 of Constantinople, which city he conquered 
 in A. D. 1453. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 STO 
 
 697 
 
 STO 
 
 OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Frederick I be<ran a. d 1701 
 
 Frederick William I 1713 
 
 Frederick If, the Great 1740 
 
 Frederick William II 1788 
 
 Frederick William III 1797 
 
 OF SARDINIA. 
 
 Victor Am. II began a. d. 1720 
 
 Charles Emanuel III 1730 
 
 Victor Amadeus III 1773 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV 1796 
 
 Victor Emanuel 1802 
 
 Charles Felix 1821 
 
 Charles Amadeus 1831 
 
 OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 John V began & 
 
 Joseph Emanuel 
 
 Maria 
 
 John VI 
 
 Pedro IV 
 
 Donna Maria 
 
 Don Miguel 
 
 1706 
 1750 
 1777 
 1799 
 1826 
 1828 
 1828 
 Donna Maria 1834 
 
 OF DENMARK. 
 
 Frederick IV began a. d. 1699 
 
 Christian VI 1730 
 
 Frederick V began a. d. 1746 
 
 Christian VII 176(3 
 
 Frederick VI 1808 
 
 OF NAPLES. 
 
 Charles II began a. d. 1713 
 
 Charles III 1735 
 
 Ferdinand IV 1759 
 
 Joseph Napoleon 1806 
 
 Joachim I, (Murat) 1808 
 
 Ferdinand I* -. 1815 
 
 Francis I 1825 
 
 * Of the United Kingdom of the Two Sici- 
 lies, furmerly Ferdinand IV, of Naples, and 
 intermediately Ferdinand III of Sicily. 
 
 OF BELGIUM. 
 
 Leopold I began a. d. 1831 
 
 OF POLAND. a. d. 
 
 Stanislaus (Lescinsky) began 1704 
 
 Augustus II 1709 
 
 Augustus III 1733 
 
 Stanislaus (Poniatowski) .... 1764 
 
 1st Partition 1772 
 
 2d Partition 1793 
 
 3d Partition 1795 
 
 Dutchy of Warsaw formed by 
 Napoleon, and the King of 
 
 Saxony made Grand Duke 1807 
 
 Alexander began a. d. 1815 
 
 Nicholas 1825 
 
 OF BAVARIA. 
 Maximilian Joseph began a. d. 1805 
 Louis 1825 
 
 OF W'IRTEMBURG. 
 
 Frederick began a. d. 1806 
 
 William 1816 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 
 Louis Napoleon .. began a. d. 1806 
 
 United to France 1810 
 
 William I, (lately King of the 
 Netherlands) 1815 
 
 OF SAXONY. 
 Frederick Augustus began a. d. 1806 
 
 Anthony 1827 
 
 Frederick, Regent 1831 
 
 OF GREECE. ' 
 Otho I began a. d. 1832 
 
 OF HANOVER. 
 George I (George III of Great 
 
 Britain) began a. d. 1814 
 
 George II (George IV) 1820 
 
 W T illiam I (William IV) 1830 
 
 SPEAKER of the House of Commons first 
 chosen, 1340. 
 
 SPEAKING TRUMPETS invented by Kir- 
 cher, a Jesuit, 1652. 
 
 SPECTACLES invented by Spina, a monk 
 of Pisa, 1299. 
 
 SPHERE invented by Archimedes, of Syra- 
 cuse, 209 B. C. 
 
 SPINNING WHEEL invented at Bruns- 
 wick, 1530 , another invented by Mr. Swindell, 
 at Stockport in Yorkshire, which finishes, on 
 each spindle, three lays of thirty hanks to the 
 pound in an hour, 1785. 
 
 SPURS in use before 1400. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE invented by Savary, for 
 taking ballast or gravel out of rivers, and for 
 raising great quantities of water, and patents 
 granted for, 1618. 
 
 STEAMBOAT, Rumsey's, succeeded in 
 North River, New York, October, 1807. 
 
 STEAM applied to the purpose of inland 
 navigation in America, 1810. 
 
 STEREOTYPE PRINTING invented by 
 William Ged, a goldsmith, of Edinburgh, 1725. 
 
 STIRRUPS first used in the sixth century. 
 
 STOCKINGS, silk, first worn by Henry "II, 
 of France, 1547; Howell says, that in 1560 
 queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of 
 black silk knit stockings by her silk woman, 
 and she never wore cloth ones any more ; he 
 adds that Henry VIII wore ordinarily cloth 
 hose, except there came from Spain by great 
 
 chance a pair of silk stockings, for Spain very 
 early abounded in silk; his son, Edward VI, 
 was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stock- 
 ings by sir Thomas Gresham, and the present 
 was then much taken notice of — consequently 
 the invention of knit silk stockings came from 
 Spain ; the weaving of them was invented by 
 the Rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge. 1589. 
 
 STONE BUILDINGS first introduced into 
 England, 674. 
 
 STONE BULLETS in use in England so 
 late as 1514. 
 
 STONE, artificial, for statutes, &c. discover 
 ed by a Neapolitan, 1776; introduced into Eng- 
 land by Mrs. Coade, near London. 
 
 STOPS in literature, introduced 1520; the 
 colon 1580 ; semicolon 1599. 
 
 STORMS. 234 A storm in Canterbury threw 
 
 down 200 houses and killed several families. 
 
 344 Hailstones fell that were larger than hen's 
 
 eggs. 
 701 Storm at Lincoln, which threw down 100 
 
 houses. 
 944 1500 houses blown down at London. 
 1194 A violent storm almost desolated a great 
 
 part of Germany and Denmark. 
 1359 When Edv/ard III was on his march with- 
 in two leagues of Chartres, a storm of pierc- 
 ing wind, rain, and hail killed 6000 of his 
 horses, and 1000 of his best troops. 
 1479 A storm of hail, when the hailstones 
 measured eighteen inches round. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 STO 
 
 69b 
 
 TAV 
 
 • 510 A violent hailstorm in Italy is said to 
 have destroyed nearly all the beasts, birds 
 and fishes in the country. 
 515 A hurricane in Denmark rooted up whole 
 forests, and blew down the steeple of the 
 great church, at Copenhagen. 
 
 1658 Sept. 3, the day that Cromwell died, a 
 violent and terrible storm extended all over 
 Europe. 
 
 1697 April 29, a storm of hail in Cheshire and 
 Lancashire did great damage ; some of the 
 hailstones weighing half a pound. 
 
 1703 Nov. 27, the most terrible hurricane that 
 ever happened in England, attended with 
 lightning. Whole groves of trees were torn 
 up by the roots, many houses and churches 
 were unroofed, many ships were cast away 
 and 1500 seamen lost their lives. 
 737 Oct. 11, a storm took place in India, when 
 20,000 vessels were cast away, 300,000 people 
 were lost, and the water rose 40 feet higher 
 than usual. 
 
 1751 Aug. 10, a storm at Jamaica occasioned 
 £300,000 damage. 
 
 1772 July 16, a hailstorm at St. Jago, where 
 the hailstones were as large as oranges. 
 
 1773 A most terrible storm near Boston. 
 
 1782 April 22, a storm in the East Indies, which 
 
 destroyed 7000 inhabitants. 
 1784 Great damage done by a storm in New 
 
 England. 
 1786 July 17, a hurricane in Devonshire, Eng- 
 land, removed 13 elm trees 200 yards, where 
 
 they remained and took root. 
 1791 A storm of thunder and lightning, which 
 
 melted the bells of a church in Kent and did 
 
 great damage. 
 1798 Sept. 25, £100,000 damage done by a 
 
 storm at Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
 1810 Nov. 10, a tremendous storm at Boston, 
 
 which deluged the country all around. 
 
 1814 Dec. 17, a violent gale prevailed through 
 Great Britain and Ireland, by which great 
 damage was done. 
 
 1815 September, a tremendous gale from the 
 southeast swept the Atlantic coast of North 
 America, and did great damage, particularly 
 in New England. The sea water was carried 
 in the form of spray 25 miles inland. It is 
 called the Great September Gale. 
 
 1816 A tremendous gale of wind which did 
 much damage to the shipping on the English 
 coast. 
 
 1818 A most destructive storm raged at Hin- 
 
 dostan. 
 1620 A severe gale in September from the 
 
 southeast, in New England, and the middle 
 states, along the coast. 
 
 STUCCO WORK revived by D'Udine, about 
 1500. 
 
 STYLE altered by pope Gregory, who took 
 twelve days off the calendar in 1582; the Gre- 
 gorian style received at Paris, by taking off ten 
 da} r s, December 15, 1582; received at London, 
 by taking eleven days off the calendar, Sept. 2, 
 1752. See article Dominical Letter. 
 
 SUGAR first mentioned by Paul Eginetta, a 
 physician, 625 ; produced in Sicily, 1148 ; first 
 produced in Madeira, 1419; in the Canary 
 islands, 1503 ; carried to the West Indies, by 
 the Portuguese and Spaniards, 1510 ; cultivated 
 at Barbados, 1641 ; sugar refining first discov- 
 ered by a Venetian, 1503; practised first in 
 England, in 1569. 
 
 SUN, spots seen in, for the first time, 1611 : 
 spot observed in 1779; several spots observed 
 that in the centre of the apparent size of the 
 earth's diameter. June, 1816. 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS first established in 
 Yorkshire, 1784 ; became general in England 
 and Scotland, in 1789. 
 
 SUNDIALS invented 558 B. C; the first 
 erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, 
 when time was divided into hours, 308 B. C; 
 first set up against churches. 613. 
 
 SUPREMACY OF THE POPE above the 
 emperor introduced, 607 ; the first prince that 
 shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the 
 supremacy in himself, was Henry VIII, 1533. 
 
 SURNAMES first introduced into England 
 by the Normans, 1102; became common, 1200. 
 
 SURVEY OF ENGLAND made, at first, 
 by order of Alfred, 900; by William the Con- 
 queror. 1080 ; by Charles II, 1668. 
 
 SWEARING on the holy gospel first used 
 A. D. 528. 
 
 SYDNEY. The principal town in New Hol- 
 land, founded in 1788, as a British settlement 
 for the colony of convicts originally intended 
 for Botany Bay. It is well built and is a flour 
 ishing town. 
 
 T. 
 
 TANNING LEATHER, a ne\v and expe- 
 ditious method invented, 1795. 
 
 TAPESTRY invented by sir Francis Crane, 
 1619 ; for the encouragement of which king 
 James I gave £2000 to build a hou§e at Mort- 
 lake, in Surrey. 1619. 
 
 TAVERNS restrained by an act of Edward 
 VI, 1552, to forty in London. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 TAX 
 
 699 
 
 TO A 
 
 TAXATION of England from William I, to 
 William III. 
 
 Reigns. 
 William I 
 William II 
 Henry 1 
 Stephen 
 Henry II 
 Richard 
 John 
 
 Henry III 
 Edward I 
 Edward II 
 Edward III 
 Richard II 
 Henry IV 
 Henry V 
 Henry VI 
 
 Taxation. 
 £400,000 
 350,000 
 300,000 
 250,000 
 200,000 
 150,000 
 100,000 
 80,000 
 150,000 
 100,000 
 154,139 
 130,000 
 100,000 
 76,643 
 64,976 
 
 Reigns. 
 
 Taxation. 
 
 Edward IV ) 
 
 
 Edward V S 
 
 £100,000 
 
 Richard III ) 
 
 
 Henry VII 
 
 400,000 
 
 Henry VIII 
 
 800,000 
 
 Edward VI 
 
 400,000 
 
 Mary 
 
 450,000 
 
 Elizabeth . 
 
 500,000 
 
 James 
 
 600 ,000 
 
 Charles 
 
 895,819 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 1,517,247 
 
 Charles II 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 James II 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 William III 
 
 3,895,205 
 
 Anne 
 
 4,691,803 
 
 00O000OO00i*O000O0^J^J^l<!^!^J~4~4^J^J^'. Vfa r« 
 
 »Mooiooiowoa\oooooooooal 
 
 Taxes in 
 
 Great 
 Britain. 
 
 £ 2,000,000 
 
 5,020,000 
 
 5,620,000 
 
 5,545,000 
 
 5,915,000 
 
 8,525,540 
 
 7,025,000 
 
 9,014,285 
 
 10,265,405 
 
 16,815,895 
 
 18,506,045 
 
 34,069,457 
 
 50^555,190 
 
 67,825,595 
 
 71,153,142 
 
 55,063,693 
 
 52,919,280 
 
 50,414,928 
 
 46,414,514 
 
 46,000.000 
 
 None ! ! ! 
 
 £50,000,000 
 54,272,000 
 47,705,100 
 44,072,024 
 72,178,898 
 88,341,268 
 126,963,267 
 142,113,264 
 228,231,228 
 
 451,699,919 
 
 549,137,068 
 631,369,168 
 848,284,000 
 848,394,804 
 843,391,875 
 
 No data. 
 
 3 
 
 OS 
 a, _. 
 o-o 
 
 P 
 
 £ 600,000 
 
 640,000 
 
 689,971 
 
 1,520,732 
 1,900,000 
 2,000,637 
 
 No 
 
 data. 
 
 5,418,846 
 7,330,254 
 3,786,989 
 6,829,042 
 6,798,888 
 7,036,968 
 
 Poor ex- 
 penditure, 
 England 
 & Wales. 
 
 No 
 data. 
 
 4,605 
 5,146 
 7,818 
 13,701 
 14,437 
 18,107 
 19,647 
 20,829 
 
 Assize 
 
 Committs. 
 
 for Crime. 
 
 No. 
 
 c&a;qsa5CT>3iooo^<j*.eo.*>.coto,&.c<:co.b.to' j= <?_ ^ 
 ©Ol^.wencoCO-JOtO'-'lnWtO to oo to tocccoi p p-a ^ 
 
 o*.coo)ooouMWM*oooyioomS*.>- ^ j p 
 
 No 
 data. 
 
 6,341,600 
 11,433,340 
 10,862,200 
 13,448,540 
 11,862,740 
 17,570,780 
 17,766,140 
 17,600,730 
 19,002,500 
 21,151,390 
 18,236,250 
 18,523,880 
 
 *>* 
 en o 
 
 C P 
 "O 3 
 
 *»■ 
 
 £? u 
 
 ? 3T 
 
 > 
 
 a 
 era 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 — 
 
 
 i-h 
 
 W 
 3 
 ora 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 No 
 data. 
 
 1,598,640 
 
 4,525,660 
 
 7,223,210 
 
 9,482,530 
 
 6,698,610 
 
 396,340 
 
 313,310 
 
 302,390 
 
 295.120 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 a> 
 
 Hi 
 
 en 
 
 No 
 data. 
 
 4,179,330 
 8,386,330 
 5,136,350 
 5,150,450 
 7,624,500 
 3,191,850 
 3,409,040 
 8,211,080 
 3,634,320 
 11,150,480 
 6,439,760' 
 7,154,000; 
 
 S3 
 
 o'p 
 
 3 3 
 
 • a. 
 
 59* 
 
 TAXES were raised arbitrarily in England, 
 1100 ; amounted to £ 7,513.340 in 1754 ; and to 
 £16,500,000 in 1797. 
 
 TEA first brought into Europe by the Dutch 
 East India Company, early in 1591 ; destroyed 
 at Boston by the inhabitants, 1773. 
 
 TELEGRAPHS invented, 1637; put into 
 practice by the French, in 1794; by the Eng- 
 lish, Jan. 28, 1796. 
 
 TELESCOPES invented by Z. Jansen, a 
 spectacle maker at Middleburgh.,1590; the first 
 reflecting one made on the principles of sir 
 Isaac Newton, 1692. 
 
 THEATRE ; that of Bacchus at Athens, the 
 first ever erected, built by Philos, 420 B. C. ; 
 the ruins still exist ; first introduced into Eng- 
 land, 1566 ; the first royal license for one in 
 England was in 1574, to James Burbage and 
 four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to 
 act plays at the Globe Bankside, or in any part of 
 England ; plays were opposed by the Puritans, 
 1633, and suspended till 1660, when Charles II 
 licensed two companies, Killigrew's and Da- 
 venant's ; till this time boys performed wo- 
 men's parts; Italian opera first introduced in 
 the United States, at the Park Theatre in New 
 York, with great success, 1825. 
 
 THERMOMETERS first invented by Dre- 
 bel,a Dutchman, 1620 ; improved by Reaumur, 
 1730, and Fahrenheit, 1749. 
 
 THREAD first made at Paisley, in Scotland, 
 in 1722. 
 
 THU1LLERIES in Paris, built, 1677. 
 
 TIDES, the first theory of, by Kepler, 1598. 
 
 TILES first used in England, 1246. 
 
 TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS instituted 
 in Germany, 919. 
 
 TIME-MEASURE BAROMETER intro- 
 duced by Scipio Nasica, 159 ; king Alfred's 
 time-keeper, was six large wax tapers, each 12 
 inches long ; as they burnt unequally, owing 
 to the wind, he invented a lantern made of 
 wood and thin scraped plates of ox horns, 
 glass being a great rarity, 887. The ancients 
 had three sorts of time measures, hour glasses, 
 sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole 
 in its bottom. 
 
 TIN found in Germany, 1241 ; in no place 
 before but in Devonshire and Cornwall, in Bar- 
 bary, 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 
 1782. 
 
 TOAD, a live one found in a block of stone, 
 at Newark, April 15th, 1806; another found 
 alive in the heart of an oak tree, about thirty 
 inches in diameter, at Rainford, Lancashire, 
 January 1810. 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 TRE 
 
 700 
 
 TRE 
 
 TOBACCO first discovered in St. Domingo, 
 in 1496; afterwards by the Spaniards in Yuca- 
 tan, 1520; first brought into England, 1583; 
 allowed to be cultivated in Ireland, 1779. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS began in 170 ; instituted 
 by Henry, emperor of Germany, 919. 
 
 TOWERS, high, first erected to churches, 
 in 1000. 
 
 TRAGEDY, the first acted at Athens, on a 
 wagon, by Thespis, 585 B. C. 
 
 TREATIES. Abo, peace of, 1743. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 1668. 
 
 do. 1748. 
 
 Akermann, peace of, 1826. 
 Alt Ranstadt, peace of, 1706. 
 Amiens, peace of, 1802. 
 Armed, neutrality, treaty of, 1800. 
 Arras, treat v of, 1435. 
 
 do: 1482. 
 
 Augsburg, league of, 1686. 
 Baden, peace of, 1714. 
 Barrier Treaty, 1715. 
 Basle, peace of, 1795. 
 Bayonne, treaty of, 1808. 
 Belgrade, peace of, 1739. 
 Berlin, peace of, 1742. 
 
 decree, 1806. 
 
 convention of, 1808. 
 
 Breda, peace of 1667. 
 Cambray, league of, 1508. 
 
 peace of, 1529. 
 
 Campo Formio, treaty of, 1797. 
 Carlo witz, peace of, 1699. 
 Carlsbad, congress of, 1319. 
 Cateau Cambresis, peace of, 1559. 
 Chambord, treaty of, 1552. 
 Chaumont, treaty of, 1814. 
 Chierasco, treaty of, 1631. 
 Cintra, convention of, 1808. 
 Closterseven, convention of, 1757. 
 Coalition, first, against France, 1792. 
 
 second do. 1799. 
 
 third do. 1805. 
 
 fourth do. 1806. 
 
 fifth do. 1809. 
 
 sixth do. 1813. 
 
 Concordat 1801. 
 
 Conflans, treaty of, 1465. 
 
 Constantinople, peace of, 1712, 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of, 1660. 
 
 Definitive treaty of peace between Great Brit- 
 tain and America, 1783. 
 
 Definitive treaty of peace between Great Brit- 
 ain and Holland 1784. 
 
 Dresden, peace of, 1745. 
 
 Family Compact, 1761. Falczi, peace of, 1711 . 
 
 Fontainbleau, peace of, 1679. 
 
 treaty of, 1785. 
 
 concordat at, 1813. 
 
 Friedwald, treaty of, 1551. 
 Fuessen, peace of, 1745. 
 Ghent, pacification of, 1576. 
 
 peace of. 1814. 
 
 Golden Bull, 1356. 
 Grand Alliance, 1689. 
 Hague, treaty of the, 1659. 
 
 do. 1669. 
 
 Halle, treaty of, 1610. 
 
 Hamburg, peace of 1762. 
 
 Hanover treaty, 1725. 
 
 Heilbron, treaty of, 1633. 
 
 Holy Alliance, 1815. 
 
 Hubertsberg, peace of, 1763. 
 
 Interim, 1548. Kiel, treaty of, 1814. 
 
 Kutchuk Kainarji, peace of 1774. 
 
 Laybach, congress of, 1821. League, 1676 
 
 Leipsick, alliance of, 1631. 
 
 Leoben, peace of, 1797. 
 
 Liebau, treaty of, 1656. 
 
 Lisbon, peace of, 1668. 
 
 London, treaty of, 1829. 
 
 Lubeck, peace of, 1629. 
 
 Luneville, peace of, 1801. 
 
 Methuen treaty, 1703. Milan decree, 1807.. 
 
 Munster, peace of, 1648. 
 
 Naumberg, treaty of, 1554. 
 
 Nice, treaty of, 1518. 
 
 Nimeguen, peace of, 1678. 
 
 Nipchoo, treaty of, 1727. 
 
 Noyou, treaty of, 1516. 
 
 Nuremburg, treaty of, 1532. 
 
 Nystett, peace of, 1721. Oliva, peace of, 1660. 
 
 Pacquigni, peace of, 1475. 
 
 Paris, peace of, 1763. do. treaty of, 1796. 
 
 Paris, peace of, 1810. do. capitulation of, 1814. 
 
 Paris, treaty of, 1814. do. peace of, 1814. 
 
 Paris, peace of, 1815. do. treaty of, 1815 
 
 Paris, treaty of, 1817. 
 
 Partition, first treaty of, 1698. 
 
 second treaty of, 1700. 
 
 Passarow T itz, peace of, 1718. 
 Passau, treaty of, 1552. 
 Petersburg, peace of, 1762. 
 treaty of 1772. 
 
 do. 1805. 
 
 Peterswalden, convention of, 1813. 
 Pilnitz, convention of, 1791. 
 Poland, partition of, 1795. 
 Pragmatick Sanction, 1439. do. 1713. 
 Prague, peace of, 1653. 
 
 Presburg, peace of 1805. 
 
 Public Good, league for the, 1464. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TUR 
 
 701 
 
 WAN 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the, 1659. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, 1718. 
 
 Radstadt, peace of, 1714. do. congress of, 1797. 
 
 Ratisbon, peace of, 1630. 
 
 Religion, peace of, 1555. 
 
 Rhine, confederation of, 1806. 
 
 Ryswick, peace of, 1697. 
 
 St. Germain, peace of, 1570. 
 
 St. Germain en Laye, peace of, 1679. 
 
 St. Ildefonso, alliance of, 1796. 
 
 Seville, peace of, 1792. 
 
 Siorod, peace of, 1613. 
 
 Smalcald, league of, 1529. 
 
 Stettin, peace of, 1570. 
 
 Stockholm, peace of, 1719. 
 
 treaty of, 1724. 
 
 do. 1813. 
 
 Temeswar. truce of, 1664. 
 Teschen, peace of, 1779. 
 Teusin, peace of, 1595. 
 Tilsit, peace of, 1807. 
 Tolentino, treaty of, 1793. 
 Toplitz, treaty of, 1817. 
 Tripple Alliance, 1717. 
 
 of the Hague, 1668. 
 
 Troppau, congress of, 1820. 
 Troyes, treaty of, 1420. 
 Turkmauchay, peace of, 1828. 
 Ulm, peace of, 1620. 
 
 Utrecht, union of, 1579. do. peace of, 1713. 
 Valencay, treaty of, 1813. 
 Verona, congress of, 1822. 
 Versailles, peace of, 1783. 
 Vienna treaty, 1725. 
 
 treaty of alliance of, 1731. 
 
 definitive peace of, 1737. 
 
 peace of, 1809. 
 
 treaty of March 23d, 1815- 
 
 May 31st, 1815. 
 
 June 4th, 1815. 
 
 Vossem, peace of, 1673. 
 Warsaw, treaty of, 1768. 
 
 alliance of, 1683. 
 
 Westminster, peace of, 1674. 
 Westphalia, peace of, 1648. 
 Wilna, treaty of, 1561. 
 Worms, edict of, 1521. 
 Wurzbourg, treaty of, 1610. 
 
 TRUMPETS first sounded before the kings 
 of England, by order of OfFa, king of Mercia, 
 790. 
 
 TULIPS first brought into England, 1578. 
 
 TURKEYS came into England, 1523. 
 
 TURNPIKES first legally erected in Eng- 
 land, 1663 ; yielded in 1783 about £508,000. 
 
 IT. 
 
 UNION of the crowns of England and Scot- 
 land, 1603 ; of the two kingdoms attempted, 
 1604, but failed ; again ditto, 1670 ; carried into 
 effect, May 1st, 17l)7, and thence the island is 
 called Great Britain ; union of Britain and 
 Ireland took place, January 1, 1801. 
 
 VACCINE inoculation, introduced 1799, by 
 Dr. Jenner, who received £10,000 for the dis- 
 covery, from parliament, 1802. 
 
 VATICAN LIBRARY founded, 1448. 
 
 VENEREAL DISEASE was brought into 
 Europe in the first voyage of Columbus, and 
 broke out in the French army at Naples, 1494 ; 
 whence the French term, mal de Naples; in 
 the Netherlands and England it obtained the 
 appellation of mal de France, though in the 
 latter country it was known so early as the 
 12th century ; about the same period, too, at 
 Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. 
 
 VESUVIUS, Mount, threw out such a quan- 
 tity of flame and smoke, that the air was dark- 
 ened, and the cities of Pompeii and Hercula- 
 neum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, 
 with 250,000 people, A. D. 79. Herculaneum 
 was discovered in 1737, and several curiosities 
 have been dug out of it ever since ; but every 
 thing combustible had the marks of being burnt 
 by fire. 
 
 VINES planted in Germany and North Gaul 
 276. 
 
 VIOLINS invented about 1477; and intro- 
 duced here by Charles II. 
 
 VOLCANO, in the isle of Ferro, broke out 
 September 13th, 1777, which threw out an im- 
 mense quantity of red water, that discolored 
 the sea for several leagues ; a new volcano 
 appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1st. 
 1808 ; volcano in the sea, near St. Michaels, 
 broke out February, 1811; Volcano at Albay, 
 in Manilla, burst forth February 1st, 1814, the 
 eruption lasted ten days ; five populous towns, 
 and the greater part of Albay, were destroyed, 
 1200 persons killed, and many more dreadfully 
 burnt ; Tomboro mountain, in the island of 
 Sambaron, burst forth, by which much ship 
 ping and many lives were lost, May, 1815. 
 
 W. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. This poetical per- 
 sonage owes his existence to the story of our 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WAR 
 
 702 
 
 WAR 
 
 Saviour's resting upon a stone before the house 
 of a Jew, when bearing his cross. Upon this 
 Jew's driving our Saviour away, Jesus turned 
 to him and said, " Thou shalt wander on the 
 earth till I return." Driven by fear and re- 
 morse, the Jew has since wandered from place 
 to place, and has never yet found a grave. 
 This story has furnished materials for many 
 writers. 
 
 WARS of England, France, Spain, &c, from 
 1068. With Scotland, 1068; peace with Scot- 
 land, 1091 ; peace with France, 1113 ; war with 
 France, 1116; peace with France, 1118; peace 
 with Scotland, 1139; war with France, 1161 ; 
 peace with France, 1186 ; war with France, 
 with success, 1194; peace with France, 1195; 
 war with France, 1201 ; war, civil, renewed, 
 1215 ; war ended, 1216 ; war with France, 1224 ; 
 war ended, 1243; war, civil, 1262; war, civil, 
 ended, 1267 ; war with France, 1294 ; war with 
 Scotland, 1296 ; peace with France, 1299 ; peace 
 with Scotland, March 30, 1323; war again with 
 Scotland,1327 ; war ended,1328 ; war again with 
 Scotland, 1333; war with France, 1339; peace 
 with France, May 8th, 1360 ; war with France, 
 1368 ; war, civil, 1400 ; war with Scotland, 1400; 
 peace with France, May 31st, 1420; war with 
 France, 1422 ; civil war between York and Lan- 
 caster, 1452; peace with France, October, 1471; 
 war, civil, 1486 ; war with France October 6th, 
 1492 ; peace with France, November 3d, follow- 
 ing; peace with Scotland, 1502; war with 
 France, February 4th, 1512 ; war with Scotland, 
 1513; peace with France, August 7th, 1514; 
 war with France, 1522; war with Scotland, 
 1522; peace with France, 1527; peace with 
 Scotland, 1542; war with Scotland directly 
 after ; peace with France and Scotland, June 
 7,1546; war with Scotland, 1547; war with 
 France, 1549; peace with both, March 6th, 
 1550; war, civil, 1553; war with Scotland, 
 June, 1557; war with France, 1557; peace 
 with France, 1559; peace with Scotland, 1560; 
 war with France, 1562; peace with France, 
 1564 ; war with Scotland, 1570 ; war with Spain, 
 1588; peace with Spain, August 18, 1604; war 
 with Spain, 1624 ; war with France, 1627 ; 
 peace with Spain and France, April 14, 1629; 
 war, civil, 1642; war with the Dutch, 1651; 
 peach with the Dutch, April 5th, 1654 ; war 
 with Spain, 1655; peace with Spain, Septem- 
 ber 10th, 1660; war with France, January 26th, 
 1666 ; war with Denmark, 19th October follow- 
 ing ; peace with the French, Danes and Dutch, 
 August 24th, 1667 ; peace with Spain, Feb. 13, 
 1668 ; war with the Algerines, September 6th. 
 
 1669; peace with the Algerines, November 19, 
 1671 ; war with the Dutch, March, 1672 ; peace 
 with the Dutch, February 28, 1674 ; war with 
 France, May 7, 1679; peace, general, Septem- 
 ber 20, 1689; war with France, May 4th, 1702; 
 peace of Utrecht, July 13th, 1713; war with 
 Spain, Dec. 1718 ; peace with Spain, 1721 ; war 
 with Spain, October 19, 1739 ; war with France, 
 March 31, 1744; peace with France, &c. Octo- 
 ber 18th, 1748; war with France, 1756; war 
 with Spain, January 4, 1762 ; peace with France 
 and Spain, February 10, 1763; peace between 
 Russia and the Turks, 1773 ; war, civil, in 
 America, commenced June 14, 1774 ; war with 
 France, February 6, 1778; war with Spain, April 
 17th, 1780; war with Holland, December 21st, 
 1780 ; peace with France, Spain, Holland and 
 America, 1783 ; war with France, 1793, by the 
 English, Prussians, Austrians, Sardinians, and 
 Italian states ; peace between Prussia and 
 France, 1795 ; peace between France and Spain, 
 1795 ; peace between France and Naples, 1796 ; 
 peace between the French and Sardinians, 
 1796; war between England and Spain, Nov. 
 11, 1796; war between France, Naples and 
 Sardinia, November, 1798 ; peace between Aus- 
 tria and France, February 9, 1801 ; war between 
 Spain and Portugal, February 28th, 1801 ; peace 
 between Naples and France, March, 1801 ; peace 
 between Portugal and Spain, June 10th, 1801; 
 peace between France and Portugal, September 
 29, 1801 ; peace between France and the Porte, 
 October 17th, 1801 ; peace between England, 
 France, Spain and Holland, March 27th, 1802, 
 war between England and France, April 29th. 
 1803; war between England and Spain, Dec. 
 14th, 1804; war between France, Russia and 
 Austria, Sept., 1805 ; peace between France and 
 Austria, December 27th, 1805; war between 
 Sweden and France, October 31st, 1805 ; war 
 between England and Prussia, April, 1806; war 
 between Prussia and France, October, 1806; 
 peace between France and the elector of Sax- 
 ony, December 11, 1806; peace between Eng- 
 land and Prussia, January 28, 1807 ; peace be- 
 tween France and Russia, July 19th, 1807 ; war 
 between England and Denmark, November 4, 
 1807 ; war between Russia and Sweden, Feb. 
 10, 1808; war between Denmark and Sweden, 
 Feb. 29, 1808 ; war between Prussia and Swe- 
 den. March 6th, 1808; war between Spain and 
 France, June 6, 1808; peace between England 
 and Spain, June 6,1808; peace between Swe- 
 den and Russia, Sep., 17th, 1809; peace be- 
 tween France and Austria, October 15th, 1809 ; 
 peace between France and Sweden, January 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 WAV 
 
 703 
 
 WAV 
 
 6,1810; peace between England and Russia, 
 August 1, 1812 ; peace between England and 
 Sweden, August 4-17th, 1812; war between 
 England and America, June 18th, 1812; war 
 between Sweden and Denmark, September 13, 
 1813 ; peace between Sweden and Denmark, 
 January 14, 1814 ; peace between France and 
 the allies (England, Russia and Prussia) May 
 30th, 1814; peace between France and Spain, 
 July 20th, 1814; peace between England and 
 America, December 24th, 1814 ; peace between 
 Saxony and Prussia, May 18th, 1815 ; wars with 
 Spain, ^between 1589 and 1593, cost queen Eliz- 
 abeth £ 1,300,000, besides the double subsidy of 
 £230,000 granted by parliament. In the Irish 
 rebellion, she spent £3,400,000 in ten years; 
 the expenses of the war of 1756, cost England 
 £90,000,000. 
 
 The following is a list of wars between Eng- 
 land and France, with the terms, of their dura- 
 tion, since the one which commenced in 1116 : 
 1116, lasted twenty-five years; 1141, one year; 
 1201, fifteen ; 1224, nineteen ; 1294, five ; 1339, 
 twenty -one ; 1368, fifty-two ; 1422, forty-nine ; 
 1492, one month ; 1512, two years ; 1521, six ; 
 1549, one ; 1557, two ; 1562, two ; 1627, two ; 
 1666, one ; 1689, ten ; 1702, eleven ; 1744, four ; 
 1756, seven; 1778, five; 1793, which termi- 
 nated March 27, 1802 ; 1803, which terminated 
 May, 1814. 
 
 WATCHES invented at Nuremberg, in 
 Germany, 1477 ; first used in astronomical ob- 
 servations, 1500. The emperor Charles V, was 
 the first who had any thing that might be called 
 a watch, though some call it a small table-clock, 
 1530. Watches first brought to England from 
 Germany, 1577. Spring pocket ones invented 
 by Hooke, 1658. 
 
 WATER first conveyed to London by leaden 
 pipes, 21st Henry III, 1237; it took nearly fifty 
 years to complete it. 
 
 VVATERMILLS for grinding corn were in- 
 vented by Behsarius, while besieged in Rome 
 by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched their 
 corn, and pounded it in mortars; afterwards 
 mills were invented, which were turned by 
 men and beasts with great labor ; and yet Pliny 
 mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 WAVERLEY, Author of In a former part 
 of this work we have given the life of Sir Walter 
 Scott. We now add the chronology of his vari- 
 ous works, showing the date of their publication. 
 
 1799. Goetz de Berlichigen, a tragedy, trans- 
 lated from Goethe, 1 volume. 
 
 1802. Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 3 
 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 1804. Sir Tristam, 1 volume, 8vo. 
 
 1805. The Lay of the Last Minstrel, 1 vol 
 ume, 8vo. 
 
 1806. Ballads and Lyrical Poetry, 1 volume, 
 8vo. 
 
 1807. Marmion,! volume, 8vo. The Works 
 of Dryden, 18 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 1809. Papers and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler, 
 
 2 volumes, 8vo. Collection of Papers of Lord 
 Somers, 13 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 1810. The Poetical Works of Miss Seaward, 
 
 3 volumes, 8vo. The Lady of the Lake, 1 vol- 
 ume, 8vo. 
 
 1811. The Vision of Don Roderick, 1 volume, 
 8vo. 
 
 1813. Rokeby, 1 volume, 8 vo. 
 
 1814. The Works of Swift, 19 volumes, 8vo. 
 The Bridal of Triermain, 1 volume, 8vo. Mon- 
 umental Antiquities on the Frontier of England 
 and Scotland, 2 volumes 4to. Waverley, 3 vol- 
 umes, 12mo. 
 
 1815. Letters of Paul, 1 volume, 8vo. The 
 Battle of Waterloo, 2 volumes, 8vo. Guy Man- 
 nering, 8 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1816. The Antiquary, 5 volumes,12mo. Tales 
 of My Landlord, 1st series. The Black Dwarf 
 and Old Mortality, 4 volumes, 12 mo. 
 
 1817. Rob Roy, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1818. Tales of My Landlord, 2d series. The 
 Heart of Mid Lothian, 4 volumes. 8vo. 
 
 1819. Tales of My Landlord, 3d series. The 
 Bride of Lamermuir, and the Legend of Mon- 
 trose, 4 volumes. Provincial Antiquities and 
 Picturesque Views of Scotland, 4 volumes, 
 12mo. Poems, &c. of P. Corey, 1 volume, 8vo. 
 
 1820. Ivanhoe, 2 volumes, 12mo. The Mo- 
 nastery, 3 volumes, 12mo. The Abbot, 3 vol- 
 umes, 12 mo. 
 
 1821. Kenilworth, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1822. The Pirate, 3 volumes, 12mo. Nigel, 
 3 volumes, l2ino. Halidown Hill, 1 volume, 8vo. 
 
 1823. Peverel of the Peak, 4 volumes, 12mo. 
 Quentin Durward, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1824. St. Ronan's Well, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 Redgauntlet, 3 volumes, l2mo. 
 
 1825. Tales of the Crusaders ; the Betrothed 
 and Talisman, 4 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1826. Woodstock, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 
 1827. Chronicles of the Canongate, 1st series, 
 2 volumes, 12mo. Life of Napoleon, 3 volumes, 
 8vo. 
 
 1828. Anne of Geirstein. Third series of the 
 Chronicles of the 'Canongate, translated under 
 the title of Charles the Bold, 3 volumes, 12mo. 
 Memoirs of Madame la Rochejacquelin, 1 vol- 
 ume, 8vo. Letters from Malchi Malgrowther 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 WOO 
 
 704 
 
 ZOD 
 
 on Public Funds, 1 volume, 8vo. Tales of a 
 Grandfather, on the History of Scotland, 1st 
 series, 3 volumes, 18mo. 
 
 1829. Tales of a Grandfather, on the History 
 of Scotland, 2d series, 3 volumes, 18mo. Ser- 
 mon by a Layman, &c. 3 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 1830. The Airshyre Tragedy, 1 volume, 8vo. 
 Tales of a Grandfather, 3d series, 3 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 1831. Tales of a Grandfather, 4th series, 3 
 volumes, 8vo. Letters on Demonology, 1 vol- 
 ume, 8vo. Last series of the Chronicles of the 
 Canon gate, 4 volumes, 8vo. 
 
 To these may be added about four volumes in 
 prose, comprising biographical notices, essays, 
 &c. inserted originally in the Supplement to 
 the Encyclopedia Britanica. The articles fur- 
 nished also by Sir Walter Scott to the different 
 Reviews, &c. would besides make up not less 
 than 4 volumes, 8vo. ; and during the last four 
 years he has a revision of his works, added to 
 the amount of 6 volumes, 8vo. in notes and 
 prefaces. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES invented, 
 869 B. C; fixed to a standard in England, 1257 ; 
 regulated, 1492. See art. money, weights and 
 measures. 
 
 WHALE FISHERY, the first by the Dutch, 
 1596; by the English at Spitzbergen, 1598. 
 
 WHALEBONE found by the English ships 
 at Cape Breton, 1521; first mentioned brought 
 home with oil, 1617. 
 
 WHALES killed at Newfoundland and Ice- 
 land for their oil only, 1578; the use of their 
 bones and fins not then known, consequently 
 no stays worn by ladies. 
 
 WHIG AND" TORY factions took their rise 
 about 1649, and were at their greatest height 
 about 1704. 
 
 WIGS, full bottom, were first worn by the 
 judges, in 1674. 
 
 WINDMILLS invented 1299. 
 
 WINES sold by apothecaries as a cordial, 
 1300 ; in England, sold at 20s. per ton ; and the 
 second sort at 13s. Ad., 1389. In 1790 there 
 were 140,000 pipes of wine made in Portugal. 
 
 WINE from raisins first made in England, in 
 1635. 
 
 WOOD CUTS invented. 1460. 
 
 WOOLLEN CLOTH, manufacturers of, in 
 all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, 
 and probably of linen also. Diodorus Sicilus, 
 who wrote in Augustus Csesar's time, 21 B. C. 
 relates that in the isle of Malta, several mercan- 
 tile wares were made, particularly very fine 
 cloth. Strabo, speaking of Turtetania, in Lusi- 
 tania, says, in 34, that cloths were formerly the 
 
 exports of that country, but that they have now 
 another woollen manufacture of most excellent 
 beauty, such as that of the Corai, a people of 
 Asia, from whence the rams were brought at a 
 talent each, or £ 100. 
 
 Woollen cloth manufactories commenced at 
 Sedan in France, 1646 ; the first made in Eng- 
 land in 1331; medley cloths first made, 1614; 
 greatly improved by the Walloons, 1688 ; first 
 dyed and dressed in England, in 1667. Its ex- 
 port from Great Britain in 1787 was £3,687,795 
 12s. 2d. value. In 1779, 272,755 pieces of broad 
 cloth, containing 8,806,688 yards, and 180,168 
 pieces of narrow cloth, containing 6,377,277 
 yards, were manufactured in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, being an increase on the year 
 1778, a produce of 48,596 pieces, or 1,672,574 
 yards of broad cloth, and 315,602 pieces, or 
 1,196.964 yards of narrow cloth. 
 
 WORSHIPPING IMAGES introduced into 
 England, 763 ; forbidden in Hungary, 1785. 
 
 YEAR, the Julian, regulated by Julius Cassar, 
 45 B. C. The Solar Year, found to consist of 
 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, 285; intro- 
 duced by Caesar, 45 B. C. 
 
 YORK, Upper Canada, capitulated to the 
 Americans, April 27, 1813. 
 
 YORK, Cathedral of, set on fire and greatly 
 damaged, by Martin a maniac in 1829. It has 
 since been repaired. 
 
 YORK, NEW, City and State; chronol- 
 ogy of, 
 
 Discovery of Cabot 1497 
 
 Hudson's discovery of the bay and ) ,-qq 
 
 First buildings in the city 1621 
 
 First Dutch governor 1629 
 
 City taken by the English . 1664 
 
 Retaken by the Dutch 1673 
 
 Fell into the hands of the English 1674 
 First Colonial legislature 1683 
 
 Seventeen chests of tea thrown into 
 
 the river by the citizens 
 City taken by the British 1776, > -j^qo 
 
 evacuated 25th November $ 
 
 First congress under the constitu- > -,~qq 
 
 tion met at the city $ 
 
 Population of the city 200,000) 1835 
 
 probably 
 
 1773 
 
 ZODIAC, sign of the, invented by Anaxi- 
 mander, 547 B. C. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 705 
 
 REVIEW OF THE NINETEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 In France, at the commencement of the cen- 
 tury, there existed a consular government — Bo- 
 naparte being first consul — a government raised 
 upon the ruins of a sad and memorable revolu- 
 tion ; in 1802, Bonaparte became consul for 
 life ; in 1804, Emperor ; in 1808, he deprived the 
 Pope, who crowned him, of his territories; in 
 1809, he divorced his wife ; in 1810, he married 
 Marie Louise. Between the commencement of 
 his career and its close, he created three king- 
 doms, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg. He 
 made his brother Joseph, King of Spain ; his 
 brother Louis, King of Holland ; his brother Je- 
 rome, King of Westphalia; his brother-in-law 
 Murat, King of Naples; and his son-in-law Eu- 
 gene Viceroy of Italy. Facts astounding in 
 themselves, not more strongly illustrative of the 
 revolutions of the present century as connected 
 with France and its Emperor, than as exhibiting 
 the generality of revolutions as to the other na- 
 tions in which those family promotions were 
 made. 
 
 Keeping our eye then upon France, we see in 
 1814 the exiled and denounced Bourbons re- 
 stored to their throne— Russian cossacks bivouac 
 in the Champs Elysees, and English soldiers 
 mount guard at the Tuileries — Bonaparte is 
 banished to Elba — his family are dethroned and 
 degraded — from Elba he escapes, returns to 
 Paris, is again in the ascendant; reigns for his 
 Hundred Days, and then, by a series of victories 
 crowned and consummated by that of Waterloo, 
 is beaten down never to rise again : unable to es- 
 cape, he makes a merit of surrendering to Eng- 
 land, and for the sake of peace in Europe, is 
 sent to St. Helena, where he dies. On his de- 
 parture, the Bourbons again succeed ; Louis 
 XVIII, dies at a good old age in his palace ; and 
 is succeeded by Charles X. The son of the Due 
 de Berri, murdered before his infant's birth, is 
 heir presumptive to the throne — a new revolu- 
 tion breaks out — Charles X. abdicates — his mi- 
 nisters are tried and imprisoned for life — the 
 throne is occupied by his nephew, as Citizen 
 King of the French — the son of Bonaparte dies 
 — the widow of the Due de Berri is imprisoned — 
 marries a second husband — has another child, — 
 and France, altogether in the strictest alliance 
 with England, her oldest and most inveterate en- 
 emy, is only kept from a revolution, by the un- 
 flinching severity of the " liberal" king, who was 
 forced upon the throne by the last one. All these 
 events have occurred during this century 
 
 In Portugal, after the measures of the French 
 
 had driven the prince Regent and his family to 
 the Brazils, the English rescued that country 
 from French tyranny. In 1821, the King (as he 
 had then become by the death of his father) re- 
 turned to his throne ; in 1820, his eldest son, Don 
 Pedro, having formally dissolved the union be- 
 tween Brazil and Portugal, caused himself to be 
 proclaimed Emperor of Brazil; Don John VI, 
 died in 1826, when Don Pedro claimed the crown 
 of Portugal for his daughter, Donna Maria ; Don 
 Miguel, second son of Don John, claimed the 
 throne, as the law of the land and the decree of 
 Lamego warranted. In the meantime, a revolu- 
 tion occurred in Brazil, and the emperor took to 
 flight — his son, a child, is now the emperor. The 
 struggle between the brothers is too familiar to 
 need a word of remark; the claim of Don Pedro 
 for his daughter is at present successful, and 
 Donna Maria, a child, occupies the Portuguese 
 throne. 
 
 Spain, on the renewal of the war in 1803, was 
 compelled by France to take active measures 
 against England ; in 1804, she declared war 
 against England ; in 1805, Nelson, with his 
 hearts-blood, bought the glorious victory of Tra- 
 falgar, in which the Spanish fleet, combined with 
 that of France, was destroyed ; in 1808, Bona- 
 parte threw off the mask as to Spanish affairs; 
 Charles IV, abdicated, and Ferdinand VII, was 
 proclaimed. At this period, Charles IV, having 
 been induced to declare his abdication a com- 
 pulsory act, was also induced to throw himself 
 for safety on Bonaparte's kindness. Then it 
 was that Bonaparte invited Ferdinand to come 
 and meet him on his road to Madrid — the king 
 was deceived and went — he arrived at Vittoria, 
 where he was surrounded by French troops, and 
 where he received a letter from Bonaparte, ad- 
 dressed him, not as King but as Prince of Aus- 
 trias, assuring him that he, Bonaparte, not only 
 as his friend, but as the general protector and 
 benefactor of Europe, was visiting Spain merely 
 with a view to make such reforms as might be 
 most agreeable to the popular feeling, and best 
 tend to the pacification of the country. 
 
 Upon the receipt of this friendly communica- 
 tion Ferdinand continued his journey to Bay- 
 onne where he dined with his illustrious friend 
 and patron; and, after dinner, heard from his 
 imperial host, that he thought it good to fill the 
 throne of Spain by placing one of his own bro- 
 thers on it. Ferdinand found himself in fact a 
 prisoner, and was shortly after compelled to re- 
 nounce his crown at the desire of his father, ex- 
 pressed in the presence of Bonaparte himself, 
 to whom that father had the day before sold his 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 706 
 
 kingdom and his birth-right for a stipulated sum. 
 This compulsory step caused the patriotic re- 
 volution in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte arrived 
 at Madrid to assume the iegal power; but the 
 inherent force of the nation was irresistible, and 
 he was driven from his precarious dignity. Then 
 came the Peninsular war with all its glories, and 
 its expenditure of blood and treasure. In 1814, 
 Ferdinand returned to his country. He married 
 four times; and by his last wife had one daugh- 
 ter, which daughter he proclaimed heir to the 
 throne, to the exclusion of his brother Don Car- 
 los. This declaration he subsequently annulled, 
 but, eventually, confirmed. Don Carlos, at his 
 brother's death, asserted his claims to the sov- 
 reignty, with, as it is said, the support and con- 
 currence of a great majority of the people. Fo- 
 reign interference has hitherto thwarted the 
 views of Don Carlos, whose consort, harassed 
 by misfortunes, privations, and anxieties, has 
 fallen a victim to persecution, and died in the 
 parsonage house of a village near Gosport. The 
 success of the widow of Don Ferdinand, has 
 enabled her to proclaim her daughter as Queen 
 of Spain, she herself assuming the title and 
 character of Regent. By this revolution, for 
 such it is, the Spanish throne is occupied by a 
 child. 
 
 Belgium and Holland have been separated ; 
 Antwerp has been besieged by the French ; the 
 Prince of Saxe Coburg, widower of the Princess 
 Charlotte of Wales, has been made King of the 
 Belgians, and married a daughter of the occupier 
 of the French throne. The affairs of Greece, 
 which have been so long unsettled, are as unset- 
 tled still, with this difference, that England has 
 furnished her with a King, in the person of 
 Prince Otho of Bavaria, whose revenue is de- 
 rived from that country, but whose period of 
 domination is fortunately not to be calculated 
 upon with any degree of certainty. 
 
 In Russia, after the murder of Paul, Alexander 
 succeeded, and did not die without some suspi- 
 cion of foul play. He was succeeded by his 
 brother, Nicholas the First, whose elder brother, 
 Constantine, with a most remarkable diffidence, 
 or indifference to imperial sway, declined the 
 throne in his favor. 
 
 It must be evident that, if the extent, or pre- 
 tensions of this article would admit of our taking 
 a review of the public affairs of all the nations 
 in the world during the period to which it refers, 
 it would exhibit a series of mutations calculated 
 equally to justify our opinion of the eventful- 
 ness of the last thirty-four years, with those we 
 have hastily touched. Let us, however, be par- 
 
 ticular in looking at results relating to England, 
 In England the circumstances connected with 
 the succession have been complicated and ex- 
 traordinary. In 1820, George the Third died, 
 having survived his fifth son, the Duke of Kent, 
 six days. The Princess Charlotte died, with her 
 infant, in 1818; Queen Charlotte in 1818; the 
 Duchess of York in 1820; in 1821, Queen Caro 
 line ; in 1827, the lamented Duke of York ; in 
 1S28, the Queen of Wirtemberg, princess royal 
 of England ; and in 1830, his late majesty. The 
 present king has no surviving issue ; and the 
 crown hereafter devolves upon the daughter of 
 his late majesty's fifth son — a child. 
 
 In 1814, the electorate of Hanover was erect- 
 ed into a kingdom, the crown of which belongs 
 to the King of England, but is separated from 
 it whenever a queen governs that empire ; con- 
 sequently upon the accession of the princess 
 Victoria to the British throne, the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, as next heir to the crown, becomes 
 King of Hanover — the Salic law in that king- 
 dom excluding females. 
 
 There are peculiarities of circumstance in the 
 mortality of the royal family of England (which 
 it would neither be right, nor indeed have we 
 space to enter into them,) which render the 
 cause and order of these events more remark- 
 able. Not less so have been the casualties by 
 which the ministers of the crown and mam 
 eminent men have been removed from their sta* 
 tions during the period to which these observe 
 tions refer. After the death of Pitt, avowedly 
 accelerated, if not actually caused, by his devo- 
 tion to his country, how soon died his great op- 
 ponent, Fox? Lord Granville is dead: Percival 
 was murdered; Lord Liverpool stricken by a 
 calamity which left his body living after the 
 mind was dead ; Windham and Huskisson, both 
 victims of accidents : Canning prematurely lost ; 
 and Lord Londonderry fallen by his own hand ; 
 Nelson, and Moore, and Abercrombie in battle; 
 with a host of heroes equally deserving the tears 
 and praises of their countrymen. 
 
 Remember that such men as Thurlow, Ersk- 
 ine, Gifford, Law, Kenyon, Grattan, Curran, 
 have lived and died within this century. In lite- 
 rature, and wit, and poetry, can we forget She- 
 ridan, Murphy, Cumberland, Cowper, Byron, 
 and Scott ! in science, Banks and Davy ; in 
 art, West and Lawrence ; or the stage, Siddons 
 and Kemble. — All these are gone, — faded from 
 the scenes which they exalted and adorned . We 
 mention but the very leaders, but taking every 
 branch of art and science into calculation, the 
 aggregate amount of loss within the last thirty 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 707 
 
 four years will, hereafter, when time and reflec- 
 tion shall have overcome jealousy and envy, be 
 found vastly to exceed that which England has 
 sustained during any other period of equal du- 
 ration. 
 
 But now let us look at things less questionable. 
 In the present century, the bright career of the 
 Duke of Wellington may be said to have been 
 run ; for although his services before and up to 
 the capture of Seringapatam, in 1799, had raised 
 his character and spread his fame, it was in this 
 century that his celebrated battle of Assaye was 
 fought. From his arrival in Europe, until the 
 year 1815, he gained that series of victories 
 which have immortalized him. But that is not 
 all that we have to illustrate our point ; besides 
 the splendid days of Oporto, Vimiera, Talavera, 
 Buzaco, Salamanca, Badajos, Vittoria, Nice, 
 Toulouse, St. Jean de Luz, the Pyrenees, and 
 Waterloo, we are able to show that more 
 general actions were fought, and more lives lost 
 by the fortune of war from 1800 to 1815 than 
 ever were fought in a period of ten times the 
 same extent ; — among them, Marengo, Alexan- 
 dria, Austerlitz, Corunna, Aspen and Essling, 
 Wagram, Borossa, Elbuera, Borodino, Lutzen, 
 Toplitz, Leipzic, Orthes, Ligny, besides others, 
 amounting to nearly two hundred general actions. 
 
 3ut, then, let us see what has taken place in 
 civil life. England has been united with Ireland} 
 the test and corporation acts have been repealed; 
 thirty millions of taxes have been removed; the 
 Roman Catholics have been emancipated ; sla- 
 very has been abolished ; parliament has been 
 reformed ; the poor-laws have been changed ; the 
 constitution of the church of Ireland has been 
 altered ; several bishops have been reduced ; the 
 East India Company's privileges have been ab- 
 rogated ; the bank has resumed cash payments ; 
 bank notes are now a legal tender ; the game 
 laws have been repealed, since which time 
 poaching has increased in a ten-fold degree; beer 
 houses have been permitted in order to better 
 the morals of the lower classes, which are said 
 to have produced drunkenness to an unparal- 
 leled extent; for humanity's sake, forgery has 
 been made punishable with transportation and 
 not death, since which forgery has increased 
 very much in the same ratio as drunkenness and 
 poaching. It would, however, greatly exceed 
 our limits, as we have already said, to enter into 
 minute details of the wonderful alterations 
 which have been worked during the century ; 
 we shall, therefore, select a few of those which 
 strikes the senses most forcibly, and which, from 
 circumstances and localities, are most familiar. 
 60 
 
 Well then, say we, this introduction of steam, 
 or rather its adaptation to vessels and locomo- 
 tive carriages, has been — and it is in its infancy 
 yet — one of the greatest strides ever made in so 
 short a space of time. Next comes gas. Let 
 any body read Mr. Davies Giddy 's, now Mr. 
 Davies Gilbert's, formal denunciation in the 
 House of Commons of the bare idea of obtaining 
 light and profit from gas, and the case will be 
 made as strong as we can wish it. Not only is 
 the use of gas as a light universal, but if any 
 body will take the trouble, or rather give them- 
 selves the pleasure, of visiting the gallery of 
 national sciences, in the Lowther arcade, they 
 will find cookery performed by gas in the most 
 perfect and satisfactory manner. 
 
 During this century England has acquired the 
 Cape, Ceylon, Curacoa, Demarara, St. Eusta- 
 tius, Mauritius, Bourbon, Maderia, Malta, Mar- 
 tinique, Senegal, and Surinam — several of 
 which have been ceded, but what are these? — 
 what are her conquests in Egypt ? — what her 
 successful warfare at Nepaul or in the Burmese 
 country ? — what her wonderful extension of ter- 
 ritory in India ? — what her sovereignty of the 
 Ionian Islands ? — what the recollections of the 
 share she has borne in the actions of the world, 
 under Providence, compared with the strides 
 she has made in art, science, and mechanism 
 since 1800? 
 
 In 1800 would any man have believed — and 
 in 1800 men fancied they travelled at a most ex- 
 traordinary pace — would any man have believed 
 that he could leave London in a stage-coach in 
 the morning and eat his supper by eleven o'clock 
 at night in Manchester ? or if his credulity could 
 have been stretched so as to admit of such a 
 possibility, would he have suffered himself to 
 be told with impunity that if he chose, instead 
 of supping at Manchester, he might proceed to 
 Liverpool in one hour and three-quarters — a 
 distance of upwards of thirty miles — that he 
 might steam himself over to Dublin in time for 
 breakfast the next morning, all of which he may 
 now do, supposing the conveyance ready ? but, 
 as it is, and without any hurry or trouble, a man 
 breakfasts at the Bull and Mouth in London on 
 the Monday, and breakfasts in Dublin on the 
 Wednesday, according to the ordinary and es- 
 tablished rules of stage coach, rail-road, and 
 steam travelling. 
 
 Within the present century, vaccination has 
 superseded, nay, annihilated, that tremendous 
 affliction the small-pox — an event to which the 
 wonderful decrease in the mortality of all classes, 
 proportionably to the general increase of the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY 
 
 708 
 
 population, may, in a great degree, be attributed, 
 despite the evidence to the contrary afforded 
 in the report of the parliamentary committee. 
 Again, reducing as we must, our sphere of ob- 
 servation, for want of room, let us look at the 
 metropolis within the present century ; hovels 
 and alleys have disappeared, and palaces and ter- 
 races risen in their places. Look at those splen- 
 did bridges, Waterloo and London — the vast 
 iron bridge across the Thames in the city, and the 
 extremely useful one at Vauxhall — see those 
 stupendous works, the West India Docks, East 
 India Docks, St. Catherine Docks, Surry Canal 
 Docks, all erected within this century — the mag- 
 nificent Custom-house, the healthy and spacious 
 Bedlam, the London University, the King's Col- 
 lege. — Within this century Ranelagh has van- 
 ished from the earth, the Pantheon has become 
 a bazaar, every theatre in London, except the 
 opera house, which had just risen from a confla- 
 gration, has been either burned or pulled down 
 — Covent garden, Drury lane, the English Opera 
 House, the Surry theatre once, and Astley's 
 twice, been burned and rebuilt — the Haymarket 
 pulled down, the Royalt}' pulled down, both re- 
 built, and the latter, under the title of the Bruns- 
 wick, destroyed in the twinkling of an eye. 
 
 Carlton House, with all its splendor and 
 gaieties, and all the associations of wit and 
 mirth has, with the noble and joyous company 
 which made its walls ring with festivitv, van- 
 ished. The Prince ! Fox, Sheridan, Fitzpatrick, 
 Hanger, Erskine, the Duke of Norfolk, and fifty 
 others, are in their graves, the scene of their 
 revels exists no more, splendid terraces and 
 magnificent squares occupy ita site. The 
 wretched streets between Pall Mall and Oxford 
 street have given place to grand and commodi- 
 ous drives and promenades. 
 
 The interior of St. James's Park, which was 
 a swampy meadow for the dull diversion of 
 smoke dried cows, has become a beautiful gar- 
 den ; and Buckingham House, built in thelfull 
 uniform of bad taste—" red with white facings" 
 — has given place to a palace much censured 
 originally, and lately much disfigured ; but 
 which still is a palace worthy of the country. In 
 the Regent's Park, groves, canals, villas, par- 
 ades, dioramas, (what did we know of dioramas 
 in 1800?) crescents, and terraces, ranges of 
 eplendid buildings, occupy a space previously 
 monopolized by grazing cattle; while a naviga- 
 ble canal, which circumvents London, and forms 
 a military ditch round her assailable parts, in 
 case of rebellion, brings all the commodities of 
 
 the world floating to the very doors of ware 
 houses in the most inland part of the me- 
 tropolis. 
 
 Of greater things, look at the Breakwater at 
 Plymouth, at the Tunnel under the Thames, — 
 even unfinished as it is, and unprofitable as it 
 ever will be, it is a triumph of science and per- 
 severance — look at those bridges hanging, as it 
 were, in air, spanning arms of the sea, which, in 
 1800, no man would have thought possible by 
 such means. That pretty toy, the chain pier at 
 Brighton, is a toy that no man would have im- 
 agined in 1800. Who, in 1800, would have ex- 
 pected to find water without digging for it? — 
 Who would have engraved upon stone ? Who 
 would have thought of calculating sums by ma- 
 chinery ? Who would have thought of stuffing 
 cushions with iron for softness ? Who would 
 have worn a caoutchouc cloak or Indian rubber 
 shoes to keep them from the wet ? 
 
 We pass by the revolution in Greece, the war 
 in Poland ; we omit the discoveries in Africa, 
 which have let in the light to the very heart of 
 that vast peninsula, and displayed the entire 
 course of the mysterious Niger ; we omit the 
 changes and discoveries in Asia, and pause for 
 a moment to contemplate the great strides of 
 revolution in this Western Hemisphere. 
 
 The peninsula of South America, within this 
 present century has passed from colonial vas- 
 salage, to a state of independence, with the ex- 
 ception of Brazil, and the small possessions 
 of two European powers in Guiana. Mexico 
 and Guatimala have also thrown off the yoke : 
 and thus the continental portions of the new 
 world, have become separated forever from that 
 kingdom to which they owed their discovery, 
 and under whose sway they existed for three 
 entire centuries. 
 
 If we look to the United States, the revolu- 
 tions have been even greater and more aston- 
 ishing than in any other country. It is true that 
 our form of government is the same ; but our 
 territory is more than doubled ; our population 
 is almost tripled, and our station among nations 
 has risen to that of the most commanding eleva- 
 tion. Steam navigation, canals, and railroads, 
 have their entire history within the present cen- 
 tury ; our large cities are doubled in their pop- 
 ulation ; and thousands of towns and villages 
 have sprung up, studding to a vast extent what 
 was before a wilderness, and seeming to the dis- 
 tant spectator to come into existence as the stars 
 emerge from the grey mist of twilight, and 
 sparkle in the sky. 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 709 
 
 ADDITION TO THE REVIEW FROM 1835 
 TO 1811. 
 
 FRANCE, still continues under the sway of 
 Louis Phillipe, though the elements of commo- 
 tion occasionally display themselves Louis Na 
 poleon, the youngest son of Louis Bonaparte, and 
 Hortense Beauharmois, daughter of Josephine, 
 has twice attempted to raise a revolt in his own 
 favor, both distinguished by their utter folly and 
 hopelessness. On the second occasion, he char- 
 tered a steamboat in England, to take him to 
 the coast of France, without informing the cap- 
 tain of his intentions, and even leaving several of 
 his devoted attendants, among whom was Count 
 Montholon, ignorant of them. On landing, this 
 infatuated young man proclaimed himself ruler 
 of France, as the successor of Napoleon. An 
 eagle had been trained to perch upon the head of 
 Louis Napoleon, by placing the bird's food upon 
 it, and this stage trick, seems to have been his 
 main dependence for rousing the enthusiasm of 
 the French nation. The prepared omen, how- 
 ever, failed of its effect ; and he was seized, 
 tried, and condemned to imprisonment f or life, in 
 the fortress of Ham, where Polignac and the other 
 ministers of Charles X. were confined. Within 
 a few months after, the great pageant of remov- 
 ing the remains of Napoleon from St. Helena to 
 Paris, took place, presenting the singular spec- 
 tacle, of the political canonization of the head of 
 the Bonaparte family, while the nephew was in- 
 carcerated for life, for urging his claim as heir to 
 the very man to whose bones all France was pay- 
 ing homage. 
 
 The French government has permitted, at 
 least, if not ordered, a ship of war, bearing their 
 flag, to outrage the law of nations, and of human- 
 ity, by forcing upon the defenceless inhabitants 
 of the Society and Sandwich Islands, at the can- 
 non's month, French missionaries and French 
 brandy. As both groups of Islands are under 
 British protection, it is astonishing that the gov- 
 ernment of that nation has patiently suffered this 
 outrage on their unoffending dependents to re- 
 main unresented. 
 
 To a native of France, M. Daguerre, the world 
 is indebted for the wonderful discovery of the 
 method by which a reflected image may be im- 
 pressed in such a manner on metallic plates, as 
 to be transferred from them to paper, rendering 
 the process of engraving unnecessary, in order 
 to secure representations of objects of sight. — 
 
 The instrument by which this result is produced, 
 is called, from its discoverer, the Daguerreotype. 
 
 The French still retain possession of Algiers, 
 though their conquest is disputed by the Arabs 
 on its borders. It is a striking remark of the 
 British Quarterly Review, in a late number, that 
 while the French capital excels all other cities in 
 the world for the perfection to which every re- 
 finement of luxury is carried, the provinces have 
 been stationary, if not retrograding for many 
 years. While Turks, Egyptians, Hindoos, Cos- 
 sacs of the Don, and Siamese are travelling by 
 steam, the provincial roads of France are unim- 
 proved, and almost impassable, and the peasantry 
 in the remote provinces are as destitute of edu- 
 cation, and of comforts, as they were two cen- 
 turies ago. 
 
 Don Miguel has abandoned, at least for the 
 present, his pretensions to the throne of Por- 
 tugal, and it is quietly occupied by Maria De 
 Gloria, daughter of Pedro II. Though born in 
 1819, she has been twice married, both times to 
 German princes. Her present husband is one of 
 the house of Saxe Cobourg. They have two 
 children. 
 
 The Queen Regent of Spain following the 
 example of her sister, the Duchesse De Berri, 
 and her cousin, the Empress Maria Louisa, has 
 married a man of very inferior birth. Becoming 
 enamored with the personal appearance of a 
 soldier of her guards, she has abandoned the Re- 
 gency, Spain, and her daughter, the Queen, then 
 not ten years of age, leaving Espartero, a 
 soldier of fortune, sole regent, who occupies the 
 place of the kings of Spain in all ceremonies and 
 processions. 
 
 BELGIUM is in a state of repose under the 
 sceptre of Leopold I. " the most fortunate of the 
 fortunate house of Cobourg." 
 
 HOLLAND has recently presented a very 
 singular spectacle. Its King, William the first, 
 born 1772, resigned his throne to his son, the 
 Prince of Orange, in 1840, in order to marry a 
 woman whose birth was too unequal to entitle 
 her to share it. Since Mars has been out of 
 business on the Continent, Cupid seems to have 
 had his time fully occupied among the royal 
 families. Besides this uncommon specimen of 
 antiquated attachment, Constantino waived his 
 right to the throne of the Czars, rather than 
 give up his plebeian wife. Nicholas, and his 
 son, the Grand Duke Alexander, the Princess 
 Charlotte, and her cousin, Queen Victoria, have 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 710 
 
 ail made love matches, not to recur again to the 
 cases cited under the head of Spain. 
 
 The King of Prussia, Frederick William the 
 3rd, has died and been succeeded by his son 
 William the 4th, born in 1795, who is already 
 patronising literature and science by filling the 
 professorships of his universities with the most 
 celebrated scholars. 
 
 The following statement will shew the number 
 of inhabitants in most of the German States : 
 
 States. Population. 
 
 The kingdom of Prussia, 14,271,530 
 
 The kingdom of Bavaria, 4,315,469 
 
 The kingdom of Wurtemburg, 1,649,839 
 
 The kingdom of Saxony , 1,652,114 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Baden, 1,277,403 
 
 Electorate of Hesse, 704,700 
 
 Grand Duchy of Hesse (with Homburg) 807,671 
 Duchy of Nassau, 386,221 
 
 The Thuringian Unibn, 908,478 
 
 Free city of Frankfort on Maine, 54,000 
 
 The Hanseatic cities of Lubeck, Ham- 
 burg and Bremen, 245,500 
 
 Total, 
 
 26,027,425 
 
 It is understood that Brunswick has exhibited 
 an inclination to separate from the Northwestern 
 Union, of which she is now a member, and to 
 join the association, and the accession of the 
 Grand Duchy of Luxemburg is likely soon to 
 swell still higher the total population of the 
 States thus united, which constitutes already the 
 most industrious, enlightened, and prosperous 
 people of Germany. 
 
 Three of the German States have not yet ac- 
 ceded to the association, but have formed a 
 separate Commercial and Customs Union, viz : 
 
 States. Population. 
 
 The kingdom of Hanover, 1,772,107 
 
 The Grand Duchv of Oldenburg, 266,536 
 
 The Duchy of Brunswick, 251 ,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 2,289,648 
 
 And a few of the States of Germany have 
 
 neither acceded to the association, nor formed 
 
 any special union among themselves — these are, 
 
 States. Population. 
 
 The Duchies of Holstein and Lunenburg 
 
 (belonging to the King of Denmark,) 471,276 
 The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg 
 
 Schwerin, 4S2,925 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Stre- 
 
 litz, 89,528 
 
 Total, 
 
 1,289,229 
 
 RUSSIA has made no active demonstrations of 
 late, except an ineffectual attempt to subdue the 
 inhabitants of Caucasus, which has-been repelled 
 by efforts of valor which border on the marvel- 
 lous. Forts, defended most desperately by the 
 Russians, have been scaled, and carried by storm, 
 without the aid of cannon, and by the sword and 
 musket alone, and it seems very uncertain 
 whether Nicholas, with his immense power, will 
 be able to conquer these wild, but brave patriots. 
 In Italy, there has not been much change. 
 The Grand Duke of Lucca has turned Protestant, 
 to the great sorrow of his Holiness Pope Gre- 
 gory the 16th, whose power seems to be on the 
 decline in Catholic countries, and increasing only 
 in Protestant ones. It is certainly strange, that 
 while no new convents are endowed on the Con- 
 tinent, and old ones are in many places abolished, 
 they should be increasing every year in Great 
 Britain and the United States. 
 
 In sketches of Turkey in 1831 and 18f2, by 
 Dr. DeKay, the following singular circumstance 
 is related, immediately after a description of the 
 ceremonies with which the present Sultan, then 
 a child of nine years of age, was consigned to the 
 care of his instructors. 
 
 " We have seen how near the present royal 
 dynasty was to becoming extinct in the person of 
 the present Sultan," (the late Mahmoud 2nd.) 
 "To some enquiries touching the succes?ion, in 
 case of failure in the present reigning family, we 
 learned, to our great astonishment, that the near- 
 est heir to the throne, and the validity of whose 
 claim would be acknowledged by the Turks them- 
 selves, was an old class mate in Edinburgh. 
 Among the odd characters assembled in 1818 
 and 1819, within the gloomy lecture rooms of 
 that venerable university, from various quarters 
 of the globe, was a queer fish, familiarly known 
 under the name of Kitty. He sported on his 
 cards " Sultan Gerry, Krim Gerry, Kitty Gerry 
 and of Caucasus," and was remarkable for the 
 astounding English with which he clothed his 
 oriental ideas. He was represented to us as 
 having been a Mussulman converted to Chris- 
 tianity, and sent at the expense of the Emperor oi 
 Russia, to be initiated into the learning of tne 
 West." 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 711 
 
 "I have since learned that he married a 
 Scotch lassie, much against the wishes of her 
 family, and took her with him to Russia, where 
 he now resides. He is a lineal descendant of 
 the ancient Khans of the Crimea, and we were 
 informed by one of the officers of government 
 here, that in default of male issue in the present 
 royal line, he will certainly be called to the Otto- 
 man throne. His immediate predecessor sold 
 the sovereignty of the Crimea to Russia, and he 
 is now a dependant upon its bounty. That gov- 
 ernment with its usual long sighted policy, 
 doubtless reserve him or some of his descendants, 
 in order to make a claim upon the Turkish 
 throne, and fill it with one of their own vassals." 
 
 Mahmoud 2nd, has been succeeded by Abdool 
 Metzib, the child alluded to above, who though 
 but nineteen, is in a deep decline. If Dr. De 
 Kay was correct in the singular story quoted 
 from his book, a short time may witness a 
 Christian Emperor of Constantinople. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA is still in commotion. 
 Scarcely a single province remains undisturbed 
 by political convulsions. New Grenada, Peru, 
 and the Equador are rent by civil wars, promoted 
 by the priests, who, in the former, particularly, 
 are striving to re-establish monastic institutions, 
 which had been abolished, at the request of the 
 diocesan prelate, and by almost the unanimous 
 vote of the legislature. The President, Mar- 
 quez, says, that the remoter cause of these ca- 
 lamities is to be found in the ignorance of the 
 masses, &c, and recommends popular education 
 as the remedy. 
 
 Among the wonders of the age may be men- 
 tioned the strong desire lately manifested in the 
 Island of Cuba to repress the slave trade. 
 
 William the 4th of Great Britain has de- 
 scended to the grave, and the daughter of his 
 brother, the Duke of Kent, has succeeded him 
 by the title of Queen Victoria the 1st, while the 
 Duke of Cumberland, a younger brother, became 
 King of Hanover, females not being eligible to 
 the crown of that kingdom. Her Majesty mar- 
 ried her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe Cobourg, 
 and a Princess Royal is at present the heiress 
 apparent of Great Britain. 
 
 Her reign thus far has been distinguished by 
 great events. The power of Great Britain has 
 been exerted in a manner to produce effects to 
 the end of the world. By the conquests ob- 
 tained over the Pacha of Egypt at Beyrout and 
 Acre, in Syria, the name of Great Britain is 
 60* 
 
 known and respected throughout, the East, and 
 through its influence, toleration is extended to 
 Europeans and Americans, and the whole 
 Christian world seem to unite in demanding pro- 
 tection for the persecuted children of Israel. 
 Communications have taken place between the 
 different Christian Potentates, having for their 
 object the restoration to the Jews of the equality 
 of rights which has been for many ages denied 
 them. 
 
 In Persia, too, English influence is strong, and 
 in India, she is constantly extending her posses- 
 sions. But the most wonderful event of* latter 
 days, is the war with China. Some English 
 sailors, during a frolic in the neighborhood of 
 Canton, became involved in a quarrel, and in the 
 course of it a Chinese was killed. The English- 
 men took refuge in their ships, and it being im- 
 possible to ascertain who among them had dealt 
 the chance blow which had proved fatal, their 
 commander refused to deliver up to certain death, 
 persons who might have been entirely innocent 
 of even accidentally producing the catastrophe. 
 The port of Canton was immediately closed, all 
 trade with foreigners forbidden, and various 
 hardships and indignities offered to British sub- 
 jects. This is stated by Dr. Parker, the Amer- 
 ican Missionary Physician, who has had greater 
 access to the Chinese than any other man, to 
 be the origin of the quarrel, and not the opium 
 trade, though that afterwards became involved 
 with it. Steam ships, and other vessels of war, 
 were sent by England to defend her subjects, and 
 the result, thus far is, that the Island of Chusan 
 has been taken, and occupied, though since 
 abandoned on account of its unhealthiness ; all 
 the defences of the great commercial emporium, 
 Canton, destroyed, and the city itself entirely in 
 the power of the invaders, and this important 
 result has been achieved without the loss of a 
 single man on the side of the English. Thus the 
 barrier which has so long existed to the intro- 
 duction of Christianity among the millions of 
 China, is broken down. 
 
 The improvements in steam vessels and the 
 extended voyages which have been made with 
 them since 1835, has formed a new era in the 
 world ; steam ships of war appear destined to 
 supersede all other classes of armed vessels, and 
 even coast fortifications. England has now 
 regular steam packets to Portugal, to Boston, 
 and New York, and a line to India by the way 
 of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and a 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OP HISTORY 
 
 712 
 
 late account mentions that a sleam vessel is 
 navigating the waters of Siam. There is also 
 a regular line of steam packets from England to 
 Brazil, Montevideo, and Buenos Ayres, and an- 
 other to the West Indies. 
 
 The time which has elapsed since the former 
 edition of this work was published in 1835, has 
 brought many changes, and some improvements 
 to the United States. Within that period, Ar- 
 kansas, and Michigan Territories have been ad- 
 ded to the Union, as States, and Iowa and Wis- 
 consin Territories created from what remained 
 of the North Western Territory. The census, 
 ordered by Congress, has been nearly completed, 
 and as far as the result has transpired, is here 
 given. 
 
 Population of the United States. — The 
 following table is the first official account of the 
 census of 1840, yet published. It was furnished 
 to the Senate by the Secretary of State, in 
 obedience to a resolution of that body, and or- 
 dered to be printed : 
 
 States and White Free Col. All other 
 
 Territories, population, persons, persons. Total. 
 Maine, 500,438 1,355 501,793 
 
 New Hampshire, 284,036 537 1 284,754 
 
 Massachusetts, 729,030 8,668 1 737,699 
 
 Rhode Island, 105,5^7 3,238 6 108,830 
 
 Connecticut, 301,856 8,105 17 309,948 
 
 Vermont, 291,218 730 291,948 
 
 New York, 2,378,890 50,027 4 2.428,921 
 
 New Jersey, 351,588 21,044 674 373.308 
 
 Pennsylvania, 1,676.115 47,854 64 1,724,033 
 
 Delaware, 58,561 16.919 2,605 78,085 
 
 Maryland, 317,717 62,020 29,495 469,232 
 
 \ irginia, 740,968 49,842 448,987 1,239,797 
 
 Nonh Carolina, 484.870 22,732 245,817 753,419 
 South Carolina, 359,084 8,276 327,038 594,398 
 Georgia, 407,695 2,753 280,844 691,392 
 
 Alabama, 335,185 2,039 253,532 500,756 
 
 Mississippi, 179,074 1,366 195.211 375,651 
 
 Louisiana, 153,983 24,368 165,219 344,590 
 
 Tennessee, 640,627 5,524 183.059 829,510 
 
 Kentucky, 587,542 7,309 182,072 776.923 
 
 Ohio, 1,502,122 17,342 3 1,519,467 
 
 Indiana, 678,698 7.165 3 685,866 
 
 Illinois, 471,354 3,598 331 476 183 
 
 Missouri, 323.888 1,574 58,240 383 702 
 
 Arkansas, 77,174 466 19,935 97,574 
 
 Michigan, 211,500 707 212 267 
 
 Florida Territory, 27,728 830 25,599 54'l07 
 
 Wisconsin Tern. 30,560 178 8 30759 
 
 Iowa Territory, 42,864 153 18 43035 
 
 Dist. of Columbia, 30,657 4,361 4,694 43J12 
 
 14,181,575 386,069 2,483,536 17,051,180 
 Lafayette Parish. La., not included in the above, 7,832 
 Estimated Popula. of Carter Co. Ky. not returned, 3,000 
 
 . t 17,062,012 
 
 Seamen in the service of the U. S., Junel, 1840, 6,100 
 
 17,068,112 
 
 Total population of the United States, 
 
 On the evening of December 16th, 1835, the 
 business portion of the city of New York was 
 swept by the most destructive conflagration 
 which has ever occurred in the country. Five 
 hundred and twenty-nine buildings were con- 
 sumed, including the South Dutch Church, and 
 the Merchants Exchange. Loss in buildings, 
 $4,000,000. Loss in merchandize, 13,000,000. 
 Total $17,000,000. New York, however, re- 
 covered sufficiently from this great disaster to 
 rebuild the large space which the fire had made 
 a heap of ruins. 
 
 The number of buildings in the compact part 
 of the city is 32,116 ; of which there are used 
 as breweries, distilleries, tanneries, and the like, 
 46 ; as dwelling houses exclusively, 16,458 ; as 
 dwellings with shops, 6,614 ; as stores and offices 
 exclusively, 3,855 ; as taverns and private board- 
 ing houses, 736 ; as baths, 9 ; as factories, with en- 
 gines equal to 1100 horse power, 74; as large fac- 
 tories with labor-saving power, 172; as private 
 stables, 2,603 ; as livery stables, 137 ; as dairy 
 stables, 57; churches, 155; miscellaneous, 1,200. 
 The valuation of the real estate in the city, as 
 corrected by the Board of Supervisors in 1840, 
 is $187,222,714; and of personal estate, $65,- 
 023,801. Aggregate, $252,235,515. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great enterprize of the 
 citizens of New York in thus recovering so soon 
 from the effects of such an appalling calamity, a 
 series of adversity has paralized its energies for 
 several years past. The financial and commer- 
 cial embarrassments of the country, have fallen 
 most heavily upon it, and the great number of 
 persons thrown out of employment, is truly la- 
 mentable. To add to the distress, Europe is 
 emptying her almshouses and prisons, on the 
 wharves of N. Y. ; thus adding, every day, to 
 the number of those whom destitution and vice 
 impel to criminal actions. From 1st of January, 
 to 1st of July, 1841, the arrivals at New York 
 from foreign ports, exceeded 21,000. The evil 
 has become so intolerable as to call loudly on 
 our Government, to put a stop to the deluge of 
 vice and poverty which is threatening the 
 country. It is singular, that while Austria, 
 Italy, and France, are doing nothing to instruct 
 their own grossly ignorant population, they have 
 all established societies to enlighten a commu- 
 nity, which, bevond any other, possess schools 
 and bibles. While they croud our seaports 
 with their paupers, and criminals, and we are 
 taxed to support them, either in hospitals or 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 713 
 
 prisons, their sovereigns including the Pope, are 
 raising money from even the poorest of their mis- 
 erable vassals, to make converts to the Romish 
 faith, in the United States. And yet, Ameri- 
 cans cannot be taught to fear such machinations. 
 They must be in danger, when they do not re- 
 sent with indignation, the audacity with which 
 aliens demand that the laws of the country shall 
 be altered to suit their views. The persons who 
 make this modest request, it should be remem- 
 bered, are not even naturalized citizens of the 
 United States. The leaders are priests, who 
 hold jointly with their American diocese, an 
 European one, and designate themselves by 
 both. These persons voluntarily come to this 
 country, and while they professedly believe it 
 the " iand of liberty," quarrel with its laws and 
 habits. They found institutions, literary and 
 monastic, surround them with high walls, and 
 place gratings on the windows, like those on 
 prisons, for the greatest criminals, and establish 
 within them a discipline, entirely subversive of 
 the freedom of action enjoyed by all others in 
 the country, and entirely independent of the laws 
 of .the land. No magistrate ever exercises su- 
 pervision over the inmates of these prisons. No 
 one knows when they die, or from what cause — 
 and yet, the people of this country see nothing 
 suspicious, in building up walls to prevent re- 
 cluses from running away from the happy life 
 they are said to prefer to all others ! In addi- 
 tion to this, these unpresuming foreigners de- 
 mand, that our laws and our legislative acts 
 should be altered, at their dictation, as if the laws 
 which satisfy Americans were not good enough 
 for those who chose to leave their own country 
 for this, without being invited. The friend of 
 Washington, and of the United States, La 
 Fayette, warned us with the utmost solem- 
 nity, that " if the liberties of the United States 
 were ever subverted, it would be by Jesuites." 
 And yet when " the Inquisitor General 
 kor the United States," for such is the office 
 of John England, Bishop of Charleston, &c, 
 (the name of his foreign bishopric not being re- 
 membered,) visits Rome almost every year, to 
 report the progress he is making, and encourage 
 the heart of the Pope to persevere — Americans 
 see no danger ! 
 
 Steam power is, in this country as well as in 
 Europe, affording most wonderful facilities for 
 transportation, manufactories, and defence. — 
 The improvements in steam ships of war, in 
 
 mortars, rockets, and fire arms, are so great, 
 as to probably deter nations from quarrelling 
 on slight grounds of offence, because the con- 
 sequences of collision become more and more 
 tremendous. Since steam ships are only from 
 sixteen to twelve and a half days in coming from 
 England to the United States, it becomes doubly 
 important to the inhabitants of both countries to 
 be upon terms of friendship. 
 
 The village of Waterford, N. Y. was nearly 
 destroyed by fire on Sunday the 11th of July, 
 1841. 128 buildings; constituting the most val- 
 uable part of the town, and including the Mansion 
 House Hotel, Episcopal Church, and Bank, were 
 consumed. The proportion of property burned 
 in comparison with that saved, was greater than 
 at any other fire in the United States. 
 
 The most striking circumstances which have 
 occurred in our country for many years, and are 
 altogether unparalleled in its annals, is the elec- 
 tion of General Harrison to the office of Presi- 
 dent, by the unprecedented vote of nineteen 
 States out of twenty-six, and his death, just one 
 month after his inauguration. A brief sketch of 
 the principal events of his life, will form a very 
 appropriate conclusion to this review of the nine- 
 teenth century. William Henry, the youngest 
 son of Benjamin Harrison, was born on the 9th 
 of February, 1773, at Berkeley in Charles City 
 county, Virginia, about twenty-five miles below 
 Richmond. His father, who was one of the 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence, 
 speaker of the house of delegates in Virginia, 
 and governor of that State, was a descendent of 
 the General Harrison who held a commission 
 under Cromwell. His mother was Elizabeth 
 Bassett, a niece of the wife of General Wash- 
 ington. At the time of Benjamin Harrison's 
 death, in 1782, his estate having become em- 
 barrassed in the public service, William Henry 
 was at Hampden Sidney College, qualifying him- 
 self for the study of medicine, but when the news 
 of the Indian outrages on the frontiers reached 
 Virginia, he determined to enter the army. This 
 resolution, which was opposed by his guardian, 
 the celebrated financier Robert Morris, was 
 warmly approved by the illustrious Washington, 
 who gave him the commission of ensign in the 
 1st regiment of United States artillery, then 
 stationed at Fort Washington, on the Ohio, near 
 the spot where Cincinnati now stands. Just 
 after he arrived at the post, the news of Gen. St. 
 Clair's defeat by the Indians, on the Wabash, 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 714 
 
 reached it, and though he was urged to relin- 
 quish his new profession, on the grounds of the 
 extreme hardships and deprivations of the ser- 
 vice, and his youth, and apparently slender con- 
 stitution, he promptly and decidedly rejected 
 the advice. Soon after, he was entrusted with 
 the command of the escort of a train of pack 
 horses, destined to furnish supplies to Fort Ham- 
 ilton, on the Miami, twenty or thirty miles north 
 of Fort W. This service required especial pru- 
 dence and sagacity, and was performed by him, 
 though a mere youth, in such a manner as to 
 obtain the warm commendation of Gen. St. 
 Clair. 
 
 Judge Burnet, in his " Transactions of the 
 Historical Society of Ohio," speaks thus of this 
 circumstance. " Soon after the battle and de- 
 feat of St. Clair, which was on the 4th of Nov. 
 1791, General Harrison, then a subaltern, was 
 sent in command of a small detachment from 
 Fort Washington to Forts Hamilton and Jeffer- 
 son. It was in the midst of one of the severest 
 winters ever known in this country. Subalterns, 
 as you know, were not permitted to march on 
 horseback. Of course this youthful hero, not 
 then twenty years of age, marched on foot, 
 through the snow, at the head of his detachment, 
 with his knapsack on his back ; and although 
 the woods were swarming with Indians, who had 
 been released from the necessity of watching 
 the army, he marched to the place of his desti- 
 nation in safety, after as severe an exposure to 
 frost, fatigue and danger, as was endured at any 
 time during the war." 
 
 But a still more remarkable trait of his char- 
 acter was thus early developed, in the extraordi- 
 nary self-control he exercised in avoiding the 
 vice of intemperance, which, in the absence of 
 the restraints of society, and friends, had made 
 fearful progress in the western army. Young 
 Harrison saw the depth of the precipice, and 
 would not even approach the brink. 
 
 From this time forward, the best years of his 
 life were devoted to his country. A list of his 
 public acts is all that the limits of this work will 
 allow. In 1792 he was made a lieutenant, and 
 in 1793, he joined the army under Gen. Wayne, 
 at Fort Washington, who soon after appointed 
 him one of his aides de camp, which he continued 
 to be, during the war. In October of that year, 
 the troops fortified themselves at a place on the 
 Miami, about 40 miles north of Fort Washington, 
 which they named Greenville. On the 23d of 
 
 December, he went with a party detached to the 
 field of St. Clair's defeat, to bury the bones of 
 the slain, and to construct a fortification which 
 was called Fort Recovery. In the general or- 
 ders, Lieutenant Harrison is particularly praised 
 for his " voluntary aid and services." The next 
 summer, the Fort was several times attacked by 
 the Indians, who were at last compelled to retreat 
 with great loss. 
 
 On the 20th August, 1794, in marching down 
 the Maumee, Gen. Wayne, with 900 men, was 
 attacked by the Indians, to the number of 2000, 
 and put them to flight. In his official account 
 he mentions that his "faithful and gallant Aid, 
 Lieutenant Harrison, rendered most essential 
 service, by communicating orders in every direc- 
 tion, and by his conduct and bravery, exciting 
 the troops to press for victory." In August, 
 1795, peace was concluded at Greenville. Soon 
 after, he was promoted to the rank oi Captain, 
 and placed in command of Fort Washington. 
 About the same period he married Anna, daugh- 
 ter of John Cleves Symmes, the founder of the 
 Miami settlements, a most estimable lady, and 
 one who truly appreciated his admirable trait9 
 of character. 
 
 When Gen. Wayne died, in 1797, Capt. Har- 
 rison resigned his commission, and was made 
 Secretary of the North Western Territory, and 
 ex-officio, Lieutenant Governor, Gen. St. Clair 
 being Governor ; which office he filled with so 
 much approbation, that he was chosen by the in- 
 habitants their first delegate to Congress. His 
 popularity was increased by his wish that the pub- 
 lic lands should be sold in small quantities, to 
 actual settlers, instead of permitting speculators 
 to purchase them in large ones, which object he 
 accomplished, as well as a reform in the method 
 of locating military land warrants. The N. W. 
 Territory being divided into two, Ohio and Indi- 
 ana, he was made Governor of the latter in 1799, 
 in which office his power was very extended, in- 
 cluding that of Superintendent of Indian affairs, 
 and Commissioner for treating with the Indians ; 
 yet he never was suspected of violating in any 
 instance the strictest integrity and honor, not 
 even owning an acre of the thousands, of which 
 he had the sole disposal, nor benefitting himself 
 a dollar, by the vast sums which passed through 
 his hands. In 1804, he made a treaty with the 
 Sac and Fox Indians, by which, the nation gained 
 the tract on the Mississippi, including the whole 
 region between that river and the Illinois, the 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 715 
 
 largest ever ceded at one time by the Indians. 
 Beside this, he obtained all the tract between 
 the Ohio and the Wabash, as far north as the 
 road from Louisville to Vincennes, &c. 
 
 In 1805, Indiana was raised to the second rank 
 of Territorial government, and he was made 
 Governor. While holding this office, he mana- 
 ged the public lands in the most judicious man- 
 ner, and would never accept any fees, which 
 other Governors had been in the habit of doing. 
 
 In 1806, Tecumthe, a Shawne.se chief, began 
 his plan of an union among the different tribes of 
 Indians on our borders, to resist the whites, and 
 regain a portion of the territory they had ceded, 
 and, with his twin brother, the Prophet, he suc- 
 ceeded in keeping them united. At first, Gov. 
 Harrison could not believe that they had the te- 
 merity to meditate a war with the whites ; but to 
 ascertain their real intentions, he invited the 
 brothers to meet him at Vincennes. Governor 
 H. had requested them not to bring more than 
 30 warriors, but he brought 400, armed. About 
 40 were present at the council, which consisted 
 of the Governor, Judges of the Supreme Court, 
 several officers of the army, Winnemac, a friendly 
 chief of the Pottawatamies, and a considerable 
 number of unarmed citizens. During the meet- 
 ing, Tecumthe made a movement which showed 
 an intention of making a personal attack upon 
 Gov. Harrison, which induced him, the chief, 
 and the officers, to seize their arms, while the 
 citizens laid hold on any thing they could reach 
 to defend themselves. The guard rushed in, but 
 Harrison would not suffer them to fire. Tecum- 
 the the next day apologized, but still continuing 
 hostile, the Governor received orders to march 
 against him. He gave him a most signal defeat 
 at Tippecanoe, north of the upper Wabash, Nov. 
 6th, 1811, both parties fighting most desperately ; 
 Gov Harrison narrowly escaped death, the hair 
 of his head being cut off by a rifle ball. For his 
 conduct on this occasion, he received the thanks 
 of the States of Kentucky and Indiana. Presi- 
 dent Madison, in his message to the next Con- 
 gress, particularly commended him. This battle 
 so humbled the Indians, that they were wishing 
 for peace, when the war with Great Britain, in 
 1812, again encouraged them. Soon after the 
 commencement of hostilities, Gen. H. was ap- 
 pointed to the command of a portion of the Ken- 
 tucky militia, which was ordered to march for 
 the protection of the Territory of which he was 
 Governor. The remainder was sent to reinforce 
 
 Gen. Hull, who was already in difficulty. While 
 getting his troops ready for Vincennes, Gen. H. 
 heard from officers of the army at Detroit, that 
 they had no confidence in Hull, their apprehen- 
 sions of disaster and disgrace, and their wishes 
 that he might be placed in command of the army 
 in which the Kentuckians most warmly concur- 
 red. But the authority he had received, did not 
 allow him to act, except for the defence of In- 
 diana and Illinois. The emergency was so great, 
 however, as to induce Gov. Scott, of Kentucky, 
 to consult Shelby, the Governor elect, Henry 
 Clay, Judge Todd, and others, and they unani- 
 mously advised him to give a brevet commission 
 of Major General in the Kentucky militia, to 
 Gen. H. and authorise him to command the de- 
 tachment marching to Detroit. Just at this 
 time, the news of Hull's surrender reached them, 
 and Gen. H. received the commission of Briga- 
 dier General in the U. S. army, which he de- 
 clined, being desirous that the appointment he 
 had received from Gov. Scott, should be known 
 at Washington. In the latter part of September, 
 
 1812, he was appointed by the President to 
 command the North West army. In January, 
 
 1813, Winchester's defeat and the subsequent 
 massacre of the wounded, at the river Raisin, 
 took place, but the state of the roads, lakes, &c. 
 made it impossible to transport troops to De- 
 troit, in time to have prevented those calamities. 
 Gen. H. expecting the British would attack Fort 
 Meigs, reached there the 10th of April, and did 
 every thing possible to put it in a state of de- 
 fence. April 28th, the British ascended the 
 Maumee, and the Indians reached the vicinity of 
 the Fort by land. On the night of the 4th of 
 May, an attack was made by the Americans, 
 which would undoubtedly have been entirely 
 successful, as the besiegers were taken by sur- 
 prise, but for a blunder of the officer who led the 
 troops, which caused the loss of half the de- 
 tachment, but their batteries being taken by the 
 remaining troops, under Gen. H., the British 
 and their allies returned to Maiden. On the 
 25th of July, he received authority to call on the 
 Ohio and Kentucky militia. On the 5th of Oct. 
 he gained a splendid victory over the British and 
 Indians on the river Thames, in Upper Canada. 
 During the engagement Tecumthe was slain. 
 This battle gave peace to Upper Canada, and 
 our North Western and Western borders. 
 
 In 1814, General Armstrong, Secretary of 
 War, submitted a plan to the President for the 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. 
 
 716 
 
 campaign for that year, which intentionally lim- 
 ited Gen. Harrison's command to the 8th military 
 section, and he, feeling that he could not retain 
 his commission with propriety, under what he 
 considered a studied act of injustice, resigned it, 
 which resignation, Gen. Armstrong, in the ab- 
 sence of the President, accepted, to the great 
 regret of Mr. Madison. In 1814, with General 
 Cass, and Governor Shelby, he made a treaty 
 with the Indians. In 1815, he made one with 
 other tribes at Detroit. In 1816, he was elected 
 representative to Congress, and at his request, 
 a committee, the chairman of which was Richard 
 M. Johnson, late Vice President of the Union, 
 investigated the charges formerly made against 
 his management of the commissariat during 
 some of his campaigns, which slanders had pre- 
 vented a vote of thanks from Congress for his 
 great services. After the fullest examination, 
 the committee pronounced the charges entirely 
 false, and a gold medal was voted him unani- 
 mously in the Senate, and with but one dissent- 
 ing voice in the House. It may be as well to 
 mention here an instance of his magnanimity. 
 Having been traduced by a Scotchman, by the 
 name of Mcintosh, with respect to his treaties 
 with the Indians, and it being alluded to in Con- 
 gress when he was not a member of either house, 
 he felt it due to his character that the truth 
 should be made known. He therefore instituted 
 a suit for defamation against Mcintosh, and his 
 counsel promoted the closest investigation into 
 his acts, not only in regard to those transactions, 
 but all others. Extraordinary pains were taken 
 to ensure the accused an impartial trial, which, 
 notwithstanding, resulted in his conviction, and a 
 sentence of $4000 damages, which in a new coun- 
 try was very large. During the absence of 
 Harrison, a tract of Mcintosh's land was set up 
 for sale, to pay the verdict, and bought by the 
 General's agent. Harrison returned two thirds 
 to Mcintosh, and divided the other among the 
 orphan children of several persons who had fallen 
 during the war of 1812. In 1819, he was elect- 
 ed to the Ohio Senate for two years. In 1824, 
 he was chosen a Senator of the United States. 
 In 1828, he was appointed minister to Colombia, 
 and landed at Maracaybo on the 22d of Dec. and 
 proceeded to Bogota. But Bolivar, who intend- 
 ed to assume despotic powers, was displeased 
 with his republican plainness, and made his situ- 
 ation not only unpleasant, but unsafe. Gen. 
 Jackson, however, recalled him the very day of 
 
 his own inauguration. Before he left Colombia, 
 Gen. H. wrote a letter to Bolivar, worthy of the 
 pen of Washington. One sentence alone will 
 suffice for a specimen. " I contend that the 
 strongest government is that which is the most 
 free." 
 
 From the time of his return from South Amer- 
 ica, Gen. Harrison lived on his farm at North 
 Bend, laboring with his own hands for the sup- 
 port of his numerous family. Called from his 
 honorable retirement to the head of the govern- 
 ment by the almost unanimous voice of the 
 country he had so many years faithfully served 
 in council, and the battle-field, his sudden and 
 untimely death was as much lamented as his life 
 had been patriotic and virtuous. 
 
 On the reception of the news of President Har- 
 rison's death, minute guns were fired, bells tolled, 
 and resolutions expressive of the most profound 
 regret adopted in almost every town and village 
 throughout the Union. It being the first in- 
 stance of the death of a chief magistrate while oc- 
 cupying the Presidential chair, the impression 
 made was doubly strong. The funeral ceremo- 
 nies at Washington were very impressive. — 
 President Tyler, who was Vice President, suc- 
 ceeded to the office of Chief Magistrate, issued a 
 recommendation to the people of the Union to 
 observe the 14th of May as a day of fasting and 
 humiliation, in consequence of the affliction the 
 nation had sustained. It was almost unanimously 
 observed, and very few clergymen in the country 
 failed to improve the opportunity to impress upon 
 the minds of their hearers the weight of our 
 national sins, and the solemn lesson given them 
 of the vanity of all earthly distinctions and 
 honors. 
 
 But the State of Ohio could not relinquish 
 her claim to the remains of one, who, from the 
 age of nineteen, had been devoted to her best 
 interests. A committee of her most respectable 
 inhabitants went on to Washington, and were 
 permitted to convey them to North Bend, where, 
 on the mound under which they are deposited, is 
 to be erected a monument which shall point to 
 the eye of the traveller as he navigates the Ohio, 
 the spot, where rests the Patriot, Hero, and 
 Christian, William Henry Harrison. 
 
 Population of the United States. — The 
 following tables, will be found interesting, as they 
 show the progress of population in this country 
 for six different periods, embracing fifty years. 
 It will be seen that the white population is now 
 
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 717 
 
 more than four times the number that it was in 
 1790, while the ratio of increase of the slaves, 
 although great, is rather less than that of the 
 whites. It will surprise some, we have no doubt, 
 to observe that more than half of the free colored 
 inhabitants are in the slave States. 
 Comparative view of the Population of the United 
 States in 1830, and 1840. 
 
 Census 1830. Census 1S40. 
 Whites, 10.526,248 14,186,575 
 
 Free colored, 319,599 386,069 
 
 Slaves, 2,009,043 2,486,368 
 
 Naval service, 5,318 6,100 
 
 17,068,112 
 
 Total, 
 
 Whites, 
 Free colored, 
 
 12,866,920 
 Increase in 10 Years. 
 
 3,659,327, or about 35 per cent. 
 67,470, « 21 
 477,325, " 23? " 
 White Population. 
 
 1830. 1840.1ncr.p.ct. 
 
 Free States and Territories, 6,865,700 9,555,922 39 
 Slave States and Territories, 3,660,548 4,630,653 26 
 
 Free colored. 
 Free States, &c. 137,329 170,704 
 
 Slave States, <fcc. 182,270 215,365 
 
 243 
 IS 
 Progress of Population in the U. S. since 1790. 
 Census. Whites. Free colored. Slaves. 
 
 1790 3,172.118 59,511 697,697 
 
 1800 4,312,841 110,072 896,840 
 
 1810 5,862,093 186,446 1,191,364 
 
 1820 7,861,906 238.161 1,539,064 
 
 1830 10,526,248 319,599 2,009,043 
 
 *1840 114,186,575 286,069 2,486,368 
 
 Notes. *In the census for 1840, the county of Carter, 
 in Kentucky, and the Parish of La Fayette, in Louisiana, 
 are estimated. 
 
 f The white population of the U. S. is now greater 
 than that of England and Wales in 1831— the latter was 
 then 13,894,574. 
 
 Public Works in Ohio. — The loan effected 
 by the Fund Commissioners of the State has 
 been distributed among its public works as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Wabash and Erie Canal, $130,500 00 
 
 Miami Extension Canal, 125,000 00 
 
 Waihounding Canal, 25,000 00 
 
 Hocking Valley Canal, 90,000 00 
 
 Muskingum Improvement, 120,000 00 
 
 Western Reserve and Maumee Road, 15,500 00 
 Urbana, Troy and Granville Road, 5,000 00 
 
 $581,000 00 
 New Jersey Rail Road. — The following 
 table shows the number of passengers who travel- 
 led upon this road during the first six months of 
 
 the present year. In the corresponding months 
 of 1839, the number of travellers was 109,217 ; 
 in 1840, 118,005. 
 
 From January 1st to July 1st, 1841. 
 Between New York and Newark. 123,966 
 
 " Elizabethtown, 11,674* 
 
 Between New York and Rahway, 9,750^ 
 
 " " New Brunswick, 15,1 44f 
 
 Between Newark and Elizabethtown, 6,093 \ 
 Rahway, 2,156 
 
 " New Brunswick, 2,452 
 
 Way passengers to and from places be- 
 tween Elizabethtown and N. Brunswick, 3,846 
 
 Total passengers, 175,083 
 
 The number of passengers carried in the Phila- 
 delphia lines, for which a transit duty of 8 cents 
 each is paid to the State of New Jersey : 
 1839— January 1st to July 1st, 35,320i 
 1840— January 1st to July 1st, 36,477^ 
 1841— January 1st to July 1st, 44,299! 
 Comparison of New York with the Prin- 
 cipal Cities of Europe. — The population of 
 the city of New York, by the census of 1840, is 
 312,932. Only six of the European cities now 
 surpass it, as follows 
 
 1. London and suburbs, 
 
 2. Paris, 
 
 3. Constantinople, 
 
 4. St. Petersburgh, 
 
 5. Naples, 
 
 6. Vienna, 
 The cities next in 
 
 Lisbon, 
 
 Moscow, 
 
 Berlin, 
 
 ^Dublin, 
 
 -Glasgow, 
 
 Amsterdam, 
 
 Madrid, 
 
 *Manchester, 
 
 ^Liverpool, 
 
 Palermo, 
 
 Lyons, 
 
 ♦Edinburgh, 
 
 *Rome, 
 
 population are- 
 
 1,650,000 
 900,000 
 600,000 
 450,000 
 364,000 
 333,000 
 
 260,000 
 250,000 
 240,000 
 204,000 
 202,000 
 201,000 
 201,000 
 187,000 
 185,000 
 173,000 
 165.000 
 162,000 
 154,000 
 
 * By the census of 1831, this was about the population 
 of these cities. The census of Great Britain for 1841, 
 now being taken, will show a great increase. 
 

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