EXAMINERS I COMPANION LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. l^^:"^^ §i}n^.yr. iiJMnBit l?^ Shelf.TA-fc. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. TH0MPS0R'S Teacher's=* *=Exaininer. STILL MORE POPULAR THAN EVER. REVIS ED and EMLA RGED. THE TEACHER'S EXAMINER, giving a general review of the Common and High School Studies, in a series of ques- tions and answers, is a work consisting of hearly four hundred pages, neatly printed and elegantly bound, having been prepared for the use of Teachers and Students in making preparation for examinations, and also for use in Common and High Schools, for daily, weekly, and monthly reviews. THE EXAMINER em- braces the following branches: 1 History. «• Physical Geography, lO. Arithmetic, 2. Grammar. 7. Reading, 11. Philosophy, 3. Civil Government, 8. Physiology, J*. Astronomy, 4. Geography, 9. Writing, 13. Botany. 5. Orthography, 1. No Teacher should be without a copy of the EXAMINER. 2. It contains over 5,000 questions and answers systematically arranged. . 3. The work is endorsed by the best educational men of the country. ^ ^ ., ^ , 4. Over 75,000 copies have been sold m the U. S. and Canada. 5. Nothing like it for reviews and test-work, and it is being used in many schools. 6. If you are dreading an examination, purchase a copy of the EXAMINER ; it will guide you safely through. 7. The price of the EXAMINER is not exorbitant, but within the reach of all. 8. The EXAMINER has already had a greater sale than manv first-class text-books. 9. " Please exhibit this advertisement to some teacher friend who may also desire to purchase a copy of the EXAMINER. 10. The TEACHER'S EXAMINER will be mailed to any address, postpaid, on receipt of the reduced price, $1.50. Please address, ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, 54 METROPOLITAN BLOCK, - CHICAGO, ILL, ATTENTION, TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. SKETCHES OF ENGLISH /qNDflMDRIC/lN LITERATORS Is an excellent work recently published. la alphabetical order jt mentions the time of birth and death (if dead) of each English and American writer ; his birthplace ; where he died ; where educated ; his family connections, whether good or bad ; his career in life, whether moral or immoral ; and the most important works he has written. This book embraces numerous modern writers, and impor- tant men of our day, such as can not be found in any other work on Literature, as well as all of the noteworthy Literators of ancient times. This popular, durable, and reasonable in price treatise, will be mailed to any address, postpaid, on receipt of price, SI. 50. SEND FOR CIRCULAR. Please address, ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, 86 LaSalle St, CHICAGO, ILL, Albert H. ThompsoNc THE EXAMINER'S Companion, -A- GENERAL REVIEW OF QUESTIONS^>ANSWERS COMMON AND HIGH SCHOOL BRANCHES. EMBRACING THOSE STUDIES NOT INCLUDED IN THE TEACHER'S EXAMINER. TO BE USED BY TEACHERS AND THOSE FITTING THEMSELVES FOR TEACHERS. TO AID THE STUDENT, STUDYING FOR ANY PROFESSION, IN HIS HIGHER GRADES OF STUDY. '"V JlIN 8 1887/ V Prof. ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, Author of "The Teaohek's Examineb," "Sketches of English and Amekican Literators," Etc. CHICAGO, ILL, 1887. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, BY PROF. ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. After meeting with unparalleled success in the sales of a former publication entitled The Teacher's Examiner, the author decided to write and dedicate the present volume to Teachers and Students as a Companion to the ExAAfiNER, embracing all of those subjects of importance not taken up in the last named woi'k. The book consists of questions and answers on nearly all of the branches herein contained, and is designed as an aid to Teachers, Students, and those desirous of reviewing the higher grades of study. A few objections have been raised by would-be critics detrimental to the use of Question Books by Teachers and Students; but the writer, after several years' experience as a Teacher, believes them to be a help to the above-mentioned persons rather than a hinderance. It is further stated that in reviewing his studies preparatory to an examination, etc., it would be more advantageous for the Student to peruse his text-books, instead of resorting to a Question Book. To this assertion doubts may arise. To be sure there are those fully capable of selecting from the text-books the subjects of importance, and questions which should be retained in their minds, while others are as equally incapable of performing this task, and the Question Book acts as a guide. Another feature of this work is brevity, the author deeming it much better to take up a part of science and be able to use it, than to be continually studying the whole and fail to retain in the mind any portion of the subject. Thanking my patrons for the appreciation of former literary productions, and trusting that the present work will give equally as good satisfaction, the author remains as ever. Yours with respect, A. H. Thompson. Theory and Practice of Teachiof. QUESTIONS. 1. What manner of spirit should a teacher possess? 2. Are teachers found in our schools who lack the spirit for their work? 3. What may be said of other professions? 4. How should the teacher perform his duty? 5. Is the teacher alone responsible for the results of education? 6. Is the teacher responsible for the bodily health of the child? 7. Is the teacher responsible for the intellectual growth of the child? 8. Name one of the branches which the child should first become acquainted with, 9. Name another branch which the child should first be able to comprehend. 10. What subject would you present after Mental Arithmetic? 11. What subject should accompany Geography? 12. How soon would you have the child commence Writing? (9) 10 THE examiner's COMPANION. 13. At what age would you instruct the child to com- mence using the Pen? 14. What subject may succeed Mental Arithmetic? 15. Should Composition be commenced by the child early in life, or late? 16. When should Grammar be commenced? 17. What can you say of the manner of study? 18. What may be said of Collateral study? 19. Should the teacher be a judge of human nature? 20. Would you place an unprincipled man in the school- room ? 21. Is the teacher responsible for the Religious Train- ing of the young? 22. May there be a common ground which the teacher can occupy, and to which no reasonable man can object? 23. Should the teacher aim to be a model for his pupils to follow? 24. How may the teacher improve the community in which he moves? 25. What can you say of the neatness and cleanliness of the teacher? 26. Should any attention be paid to the teeth? 27. What is here said of the nails? 28. What can you say of the dress of the teacher? 29. On the use of tobacco by the teacher? 30. Is the order system desirable in every teacher? 31. What may be said regarding the courtesy of the teacher? 32. For punctuality, what should be the teacher's rule? 33. What may be said of the teacher's habits of study? 34. In mentioning the literary qualifications of the teacher, what can you say of Orthography? 35. What may be said of the teacher's reading qualifi- cations? 36. Of his writing qualifications? THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING QUESTIONS. 11 37. What may be said of the teacher's knowledge of Geography? 38. Should the teacher have a knowledge of History? 39. A knowledge of Mental Arithmetic? 40. What may be said of Written Arithmetic? 41. Is it often a teacher is found without some knowl- edge of English Grammar? 42. What may be said of Algebra? 43. What may be said of Geometry? 44. Are the branches Plane Trigonometry and Survey- ing taught in our schools? 45. Should the teacher acquire a knowledge of Natural Philosophy? 46. Should the teacher be behind the age in the de- partment of Chemistry? 47. What is the importance of Human Physiology? 48. What may be said ,of Intellectual and Moral Phi- losophy? 49. What may be said of Rhetoric and Logic? 50. Is Book-keeping essential to the teacher? 51. Are teachers, in general, well versed in Book-keep- ing? 52. What may be said of the Science of Government? 53. Do you consider Drawing an essential part of the teacher's learning? 54. Is Vocal Music essential to the teacher? 55. Upon what should the size of a school-house de- pend? 56. What is the best form for school-houses? 57. How should a school-house be warmed? 58. How should a school-room be ventilated? 59. Of what use are school records? 60. What is meant by the organization of a school? 61. What advantages will be gained by forming acquaintances of parents and pupils before the opening of the school? 12 THE examiner's COMPANION. 62. On the first day of school, what should be the principal business of the teacher? 63. What directions should be closely observed during the first day of school? 64. Should school officers be present on the opening of a school? 65. Would you make an opening address to your pupils on the first day of school? 66. Would you, on each morning, open school with some general exercise? 67. What are some of the advantages of a program in school? 68. Name some incentives to study which are of doubt- ful propriety. 69. What are some of the proper incentives to study? "70. What are some of the objects of education? 71. Name some of the objects of a recitation. 72. What are some of the" moral objects of a recita- tion? 73. What preparation should the teacher make for the recitation? 74. What is your definition of school government? 75. What may be considered as some of the most im- portant qualifications of the teacher? 76. Define the term "discipline." 77. What is education? Physical education? 78. What can you say of Intellectual education? Moral education? 79. In what divisions are the faculties of the mind comprised? 80. What does education do for the individual? 81. What does education do for a people? 82. Name some of the most common evils of our schools. 83. Would you require your pupils to sit, or stand, while reading and answering questions? THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING QUESTIONS. ■ 13 84. Is it advisable to allow a pupil to leave his seat without permission? 85. Would you omit yard supervision over your pupils? 86. Should whispering be allowed in school on the plea of "allowing pupils to assist each other" ? 87. Would you deem it a mistake to allow disorder in the school-room during recess? 88. Would you dispute with an angry parent in pres- ence of your pupils? 89. In case a parent comes for an explanation of any misunderstanding in regard to school management, what course should the teacher pursue? 90. Do children like to have their own way at school? 91. Would you try to startle or scare a class into being orderly? 92. Would you make rules in your school to be followed by the pupils? 93. Is it advisable to use a bell in school as a signal for order? 94. Sliould the teacher avoid excitement on his j^art in SL'llOol? 'Jo. Do you believe in whipping pupils for disciplinary purposes merely? 90. Would you call upon a pupil to answer a question before the question has been given? 97. Would you avoid being a slave of any text-book? 98. Would you talk much while teaching? 99. In teaching, would you adopt the use of many long words? 100. Do you deem it advisable to be cold and formal while teaching? Theory and Practice of TeachlDf, ANSWERS. 1. A spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth, and seeks that highest of all rewards, an approving conscience and an approving God; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is right, and that dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God in every child, and that burns with the desire to be instrumental in training it to the highest attainment of which it is capable. 2. Yes. There are too many teachers f oi;nd in our schools without the spirit for their work which necessity requires. They not only have not given attention to any preparation for their work, but resort to it from motives of personal convenience, and in many instances from a consciousness of being unfit for everything else. 3. In other pi'ofessions this is not so. The lawyer is not admitted to the bar till he has passed a course of thorough preparation, and even then but warily employed. The physician goes through his course of reading and his course of lectui'es, before he is called in to heal the mala- dies of the body. (14) THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 15 4. The teacher should go to his duty full of his work. He should be impressed with its overwhelming impor- tance. He should feel that his mistakes, though they may not speedily ruin him, may permanently injure his pupils. 5. He is not. The parent has an overwhelming respon- sibility, which he can never part with or transfer to another while he holds the relation of parent. But the teacher is responsible in a very high degree. An important interest is committed to his charge whenever a human being is placed under his guidance. 6. The teacher is in a degree responsible for the bodily health of the child. The foundation of many serious dis- eases is laid in the school-room. These diseases come sometimes from a neglect of exercise; sometimes from too long confinement in one position; sometimes from over- excitement and over-study, etc. Now, the teacher should be an intelligent physiologist. He is bound to bo ever- watchful to guard against all those abuses from which our children so often suffer. 7. The teacher is mainly responsible for the intellect- ual STovvth of the child. There is a natural order in the education of the child. If the teacher presents the sub- jects out of this order, he is responsible for the injury. Those simple branches which the child first comprehends, should first be presented. 8. The subject of reading should be one of the first. And the day is now at hand when an enlightened com- munity will not condemn the teachei', if, while teaching reading, he should call the child's attention by oral instruc- tions to such objects about him as he can comprehend. 9. Mental Arithmetic is a study which I would recom- mend. The idea of Number is one of the earliest in the mind of the child. He can be early taught to count, and quite early to perform those operations which we call adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. 10. Geography may come next to Mental Arithmetic. 16 THE examiner's COMPANION. The child should have an idea of the relations of size, form, and space, as well as number, before commencing Geography. A map is a picture, and hence a child wel- comes it. If it can be a map of some familiar object, as of his school-room, of his father's orchard or farm, it becomes an object of great interest. 11. History should go hand in hand with Geography. No greater mistake is made than that of deferring History till one of the last things in the child's course. 12. The subject of writing may be early commenced with the pencil upon the slate, because it is a very useful exercise to the child in prosecuting many of his other studies. 13. Writing with a pen may well be deferred till the child is ten years of age, when the muscles shall have acquired sufficient strength to grasp and guide it. 14. Written Arithmetic may succeed the Mental; in- deed, it may be practiced along with it. 15. Composition should be early commenced and very frequently practiced. The child can be early interested in this, and he probably in this Avay acquires a better knowledge of practical grammar than in any other. 16. Believing as some others do. Grammar, I think, as a study, should be one of the last of the common school branches to be taken up. It requires more maturity of mind to understand its relations and dependencies than any other; and that which is taught of grammar without such an understanding, is a mere smattering of technical terms. 17. It is of quite as much importance hotc we study, as what we study. I believe that much of the difference among men can be traced to their different habits of study, formed in youth. A large portion of our scholars study for the sake of preparing to recite the lesson. They seem to have no idea of any object beyond recitation. The con- sequence is, they study mecbaDically. They endeavor to THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 17 remember phraseology rather than principles; they study the hook^ not the subject. 18. There is much for the teacher to do toward the growth of the mind, which is not to be found in the school- books; and it is the practical recognition of this fact which constitutes the great difference in teachers. Truths in whatever department, is open to the faithful teacher. And there is such a thing, even in the present generation, as "opening the eyes of the blind," to discover things new and old, in nature, in the arts, in history, in the relation of things. 19. Yes, he should be well versed in human nature. He should know the power of conscience and the means of reaching it. His example in everything before his school, should be pure, flowing out from the purity of his soul. He should ever manifest the tenderest regard to the law of right and of love. He should never violate his own sense of justice, nor outrage that of his pupils. 20. The school-room is no place for a man without principle. Let such a man seek a livelihood anywhere else; or, failing to gain it by other means, let starvation seize the body, and send the soul back to its Maker as it is, rather than he should incur the fearful guilt of poison- ing youthful minds and dragging them" down to his own pitiable level. If there can be one sin greater than another on which heaven frowns with more awful dis- pleasure, it is that of leading the young into principles of error and the debasing practices of vice. 21. The teacher is to some extent responsible for the religious training of the young. When I say religious training, I do not mean sectarianism. In our public schools, supported at the public expense, and in which the children of all denominations meet for instruction, I do not think that any man has a right to crowd his own peculiar notions of theology upon all, whether they are acceptable or not. 18 THE examiner's COMPANION. 22. Yes. He can teach a reverence for the Supreme Being, a reverence for His Holy Word, for the influences of His Spirit, for the character and teachings of the Savior, and for the momentous concerns of eternity. He can teach the evil of sin in the sight ot God, and the awful conse- quences of it upon the individual. He can teach the duty of repentance, and the privilege of forgiveness. He can teach our duty to worship God, to obey His laws, to seek the guidance of His spirit, and the salvation by His Son. He can illustrate the blessedness of the divine life, the beauty of holiness, and the joyful hope of heaven; — and to all this no reasonable man will be found to object, so long as it is done in a truly Christian spirit. 23. The influence of the teacher is so great upon the children under his care, either for good or evil, that it is of the utmost importance to them as well as to himself that his habits should be unexceptionable. 24. It is the teacher's sphere to improve the commu- nity in which he moves, not only in learning, but in morals and manners; in every thing that is lovely and of good report. This he may do partly by precept, — but very much by example. He teaches^, wherever he is. His man- ners, his appearance, his character, are all the subject of observation, and to a great extent of imitation, by the young in his district. 25. The neatness and cleanliness of his person should be strictly attended to. The morning ablution should never be omitted, and the comb for the hair and brush for the clothes should always be called into requisition before he presents himself to the family, or to his school. Every teacher would very much promote his own health by washing the whole surface of the body every morning in cold water. \Vhen physiology is better understood, this practice will be far more general. To no class of persons is it more §S6§pti3.1 than to the teacher, on account THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 19 of his close confinement in the school-room. His only safety is in a healthy action of the skin. 26. Without doubt, the teeth should be carefully at- tended to. A brush and clean water have saved many a set of teeth. It is bad enough to witness the deplorable neglect of these important organs so prevalent in the com- munity; but it is extremely mortifying to see a filthy set of teeth in the mouth of the teacher of our youth. 27. The "nails are often neglected by some of our teachers, till their ebony tips are anything but ornamental. The matter is made worse, when, in the presence of the family or of the school, the penknife is brought into requisition to remove that which should have received attention at the time of washing in the morning. The teacher should remember that it is a vulgar habit to pare or clean the nails while in the presence of others, and especially during conversation with them, 28. The teacher should be neat in his dress. He need not dress expensively, for in most cases his income will not admit of this. His clothing should be in good taste, and always clean. A slovenly dress, covered with dust, or spotted with grease, is never so much out of its proper place, as when it clothes the teacher. 29. It is somewhat strange to me why any man but a Turk, who may lawfully dream away half his existence over the fumes of this filthy narcotic, should ever use tobacco. Even if there were nothing wrong in the use of unnatural stimulants themselves, the filthiness of tobacco is enough to condemn it among teachers, especially in the form of chewing. It is certainly worth while to ask whether there is not some moral delinquency in teaching this practice to the young, while it is admitted by nearly all who have fallen into the habit, to be an evil, and one from which they would desire to be delivered. 30. Yes. He should practice order in his room at his boarding-house. Every thing should have its place. His 20 THE examiner's COMPANION. books and his clothing should all be arranged with regard to this principle, and to the school-room should this same habit go with him. Practicing order himself, he may with propriety insist upon it in his pupils. 31. The teacher should ever be courteous, both in his language and in his manners. His language should be pxire and accurate. Pure as distinguished from all those cant phrases and provincialisms which amuse the vulgar in certain localities; and accurate as to the terras used to express his meaning. A courtesy of manner should also characterize the teacher. It maybe termed true politeness. This is founded in benevolence. It is the exercise of real kindness. It entertains a just regard for the feelings of others, and seeks to do for them what would make them really happy. 32. The teacher should be punctual in everything. He should always be present at or before the time for open- ing his school, and should be punctual in dismissing his school at the proper time. At all engagements he should be punctual; and studiously so in all the detail of school exercises; he should be so at his meals, at his private studies, at his hour of retiring at night and of I'isinginthe morning, and also at his exercise and recreation. 83. The teacher should take care to furnish his own mind, or he will soon find his present stock of knowledge, however liberal that may be, fading from his memory and becoming unavailable. To prevent this, and to keep along with every improvement, he should regularly pursue a course of study. By strict system in all his arrangements, he may find time to do so. 84. Orthography implies something more than mere spelling. Spelling is certainly indispensable. No person should ever think of teaching, who is not an accurate speller. But the nature and /cowers of letters should also be mastered. We have in our language about forty ele- mentary sounds; yet we have but twenty-six characters to 'rHEOHY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 21 represent them. Our alphabet is therefore imperfect. It were much to be desired that we might have a jicrfect alphabet, that is, as many characters as we have elementary soimds, and that each letter should have but one sound. For the present this can not be; and the present genera- tion of teachers, at least, will have to teach our present orthography. 35. Every teacher should be a good reader; but, I am sorry to say that, in my estimation, not more than ten in every thousand can now be called a good reader. To be able to read well, implies a quick perception of the mean- ing as well as a proper enunciation of the words. It is a branch but poorly taught in most of our schools. Many of the older pupils get above reading before they have learned to read well; and, unfortunately, many of our teachers can not awaken an interest in the subject, because very likely they can not read any better than their scholars. 36. A teacher should thoroughly master the principles of writing, before attempting to teach this branch with much hope of success. It is not respectable for the teacher of the young to be a bad writer; nor can it ever become so, even should the majority of bad writers continue to increase. The teacher should take great pains to write a plain, legible hand. This is an essential qualification. 37. That the teacher should have a knowledge of the principles of Geography is essential. This implies an acquaintance with the use of globes, and the art of map- drawing. He should be so well versed in geography, that with an outline map of any country before him, he could give an intelligent account of its surface, people, resources, history, etc.; and if the outline map were not at hand, he ought to be able to draw one from memory — at least, of each of the grand divisions of the earth, and of the United States. 38. Yes. The teacher should have a fair knowledge of the history of foreign countries, as well as a good knowl- 22 THE examiner's COMPANION. edge of the history of the United States. He can hardly teach geography successfully without a competent knowl- edge of both ancient and modern history. It should, in the main, be taught in our common Schools in connection with geography. 39. Every teacher should be thoroughly versed in some good work on Mental Arithmetic. Prof. Davies' Intellect- ual Arithmetic is probably the best that has been prepared. It is not enough that the teacher is able in some way to ohtain the answers to the questions proposed. He should be able to give, in a clear and concise manner, the reason for every step in the process he takes to obtain them. It is this which constitutes the value of this branch as a dis- cipline for the mind. 40. Everybody demands Written Arithmetic of the teacher; and he is scarcely in danger of being without fair pretensions in this branch. He should, however, know it by its principles, rather than by its rules and facts. He should so understand it, that if every arithmetic in the world should be burned, he could still make another, con- structing its rules and explaining their principles. He should understand arithmetic so well, that he could teach it thoroughly, though all text-books should be excluded from his school-room. 41. Quite rare indeed it is that, a teacher is found without some pretensions to English Grammar; yet it is deplorable to observe how very few have any liberal or philosophical acquaintance with it. The teacher studies owe book, and too often takes that as his creed. In no science is it more necessary to be acquainted with several authors. The person who has studied but one text-book on grammar, even if that be the best one extant, is but poorly qualified to teach this branch. There is a philoso- phy of language which the teacher should carefully study, and if within his power, he should have some acquaint- ance with the peculiar structure of other languages THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 23 besides his own. He should spare no pains to master this subject. 42. Algebra is now required to be taught in many of our schools, and the teacher should have a thorough acquaintance with it. The subject so much improves the mind of the teacher that he will be still better qualified to teach simple Arithmetic by knowing the principles of Alge- bra. I consider an acquaintance with it indispensable to the thorough teacher, even of the common school. 43. Nearly the same may be said of this branch that has been said of Algebra. There is, perhaps, no branch of study which disciplines the mind more effectually than the study of Geometry. By pursuing it the teacher will be able to teach other things the better for having had this discipline, to say nothing of the advantage which a knowledge of the principles of Geometry will give him, in understanding and explaining the branches of mathematics. 44. In many of our schools these branches are required to be taught. They are important branches in them- selves, and they also afford good exercise for the mind in their acquisition. The young teacher, especially the male teacher, should make the acquirement. 45. Natural Philosophy is not taught in most of our district schools. The teacher, however, should imder- stand it better than it is presented in many of the simple text-books on this subject. Ha should have studied the philosophy of its principles, and be fully acquainted with their demonstration. If possible, he should have had an opportunity also of seeing the principles illustrated by experiment. 46. As a matter of intelligence, the teacher should have an acquaintance with Chemistry. It is comparatively a new science, but it is almost a science of miracles. It is beginning to be taught in our common schools; and that department of it which relates to agriculture, is destined 24 THE examiner's COMPANION. to be of vast importance to the agricultural interests of our country, 47. The teacher should well understand Human Phys- iology. There is an unpardonable ignorance in the com- munity as to the structure of the human body, and the laws of health, the observance of which is, in general, a condition of longevity, not to say of exemption from dis- ease. There is but little doubt that Aa//the evils of life, and half the deaths that occur among mankind, arise from ignorance of these natural laws; and that a thorough knowledge of them would diminish the sufferings incident to our present state of being in very nearly the same pro- portion. 48. Intellectual Philosophy is necessary for the teacher. His business is with the mind. He, of all men, should know something of its laws and its nature. He can know something, indeed, by observation and introspection; but he should also learn by careful study. His own improve- ment demands it, and his usefulness depends upon it. A knowledge of Moral Philosophy may be insisted on for the same reasons which apply to Intellectual Philosophy. It is so important that the moral nature of the child be rightly dealt with, that he is a presumptuous man who attempts the work without the most careful attention to this subject. 49. Rhetoric and Logic are of great service to the teacher personally, as means of mental discipline and the cultivation of his own taste. Even if he is never to teach these subjects, they will afford him much assistance in other departments of instruction. He certainly should have the advantage of them. 50. Yes. Every teacher should know something of Book-keeping, at least by single entry; and also be con- versant with the ordinary forms of business. It should be a common school study. The teacher should qualify himself not only to understand this subject, but to teach THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 25 it in such a way that it can be easily comprehended by the classes in our common schools. 51. They are not. The profound ignorance among teachers on the subject of Book-keeping, is truly astonish- ing. The following anecdote is worthy of mention, show- ing the extreme want of the most simple rules of Book- keeping: A teacher who had kept a private school, was met in a country store one day by one of his patrons, who paid him for the tuition of his child, asking at the same time for a receipt. The teacher stared vacantly at his patron. "Just give me a bit of paper," said the patron, " to show you've got the money." " Oh, yes, sir," said the teacher; and taking a pen and paper, wrote the following: "J^^ I have got the money. A B ." 52. The teacher should, at least, be well acquainted with the history and genius of our own government, the Constitution of the United States, and of his own State. In a republican government, it is of great importance that the young, who are to take an active part in public meas- ures as soon as they arrive at the age of twenty-one, should before that time be made acquainted with some of their duties and relations as citizens. It is a disgrace to a teacher and to his profession, to be ignorant of the pro- visions of the Constitution for the mode of choosing our rulers. 53. Most assuredly. The good teacher should under- stand the principles of Drawing. He should also be able to practice this art. It is of great consequence to him. Without neglect of other things, children can be very profitably taught this art in the common schools. In the absence of apparatus, it is the teacher's only way of addressing the eye of his pupils, in illustrating his teach- ing. Every teacher should take pains, not only to draw, but to draw well. 64. Vocal Music is not absolutely essential, though it is very desirable, to the good teacher, that he should ^6 THE EXAMINER^S COMPANION. understand it theoretically and practically. Music is already an exercise in many of our best schools; and wherever introduced and judiciously conducted, it is attended with pleasing results. It promotes good reading and speaking by disciplining the ear to distinguish sounds; and it also facilitates the cultivation of the finer feelings of our nature. Martin Luther said: "The school-master who can not sing, I would not look upon." This language is, perhaps, too strong; but it is usually more pleasant to look upon a school where the school-master can sing. 55. The size of a school-house should mainly depend upon the number of pupils it is intended to accommodate. A house designed for an ungraded school, to be taught by a single teacher, should not contain less than nine hundred square feet. A house built to accommodate fifty to eighty pupils, and provide them with a recitation room, should contain not less than fifteen hundred square feet; and one to accommodate from eighty to one hundred and twenty pupils, with two recitation rooms, should have an area of something like two thousand square feet. 56. The best form for school-houses in rural districts is rectangular, the door entering at the south end, and the north end being without windows. The ceiling must be from twelve to sixteen feet high, as it will add to the beauty of the room and to the health and comfort of its occupants. 5*7. The common mode in which our school-houses are heated is very objectionable. If a stove must be placed in the room, it should be surrounded with a tin casing made to extend from the floor to about one foot above the top of the stove. There should.be a door in the casing for putting in fuel; and a trunk for the conveyance of fresh air should start outside of the building, run under the floor, and communicate directly with the stove. 58. To ventilate a school-room all the windows should be hung with pulleys, in order that they may be easily THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIiSTG ANSWERS. . 27 raised or lowered. If windows and doors are skillfully used, a tolerably good degree of ventilation can be secured. 59. School records are of use in aiding the teacher in his work; to give information to parents and school offi- cers; to furnish educational statistics; and to exert a ben- eficial influence upon the pupils. 60. School organization is a. system of arrangement designed to secure constant employment, efficient instruc- tion and moral control. It aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner, and by the most economical expen- diture of time and money. 61. Such visits will convince the people that the teacher takes an interest in his work and desires to do it well. The teacher will be able to ascertain how many children from each family will be likely to attend school, what their ages and advancements are, and what books they have studied. From the children the teacher can learn who were in the several classes, how many classes there were in the school, how the school was organized, and many other matters of detail that will assist him in mak- ing up a complete schedule of classes and studies, ready for use on the opening day. 62. On the first day of school the principal business of the teacher is to win the respect of the pupils, and to establish confidence between them and himself. 63. The teacher should furnish something interesting for every pupil to do, from the commencement, all day long. He should forestall disorder by establishing order at every moment. He, in my estimation, can more readily interest the younger classes by engaging with the older classes first, than by pursuing the opposite course. 64. Yes. School officers should be present and intro- duce the teacher on the first day of school. This gives 28 THE examiner's companion. appearance of moral support to the teacher, and produces salutary effect upon pupils. 65. By all means the teacher should make an appro- priate opening address to his pupils on the fii'st day of school. He should quite fully explain his relations to them, and theirs to him, and do his utmost to make the first impressions pleasant. 66. The teacher should open his school every morning with some appropriate and pleasing general exercise. This exercise may be a familiar song; some vocal exercise, or a responsive reading of the Scriptures. 67. Some of the advantages of a program in school are: (l) It lessens the labor of teaching, and makes the task more effective. (2) It promotes good order, and cul- tivates systematic habits. (3) It promotes the ambition of pupils. 68. The chief incentives to study, about the use of which a difference of opinion exists, are — prizes, merit- marks, emulation, fear of punishment, shame, and ridicule. 69. (1) The approbation of the teacher, along with the approbation of the parents and friends of the pupil. (2) The approbation of society, and the attainment of an honorable position in the school. (3) The pleasure of overcoming difficulties; the gratification of curiosity; and the desire of knowledge. (4) The hope of success in life; the enjoyment of pure ideal creations; and the duty of self-perfection. (5) The satisfaction of doing right; and the prospect of heavenly reward. YO. Some of the objects of education are: (1) The development of the faculties. (2) The acquisition of knowledge. (3) Its wise application to the uses of life. 71. Some of the objects of a recitation are: (!) To cultivate the power of concise and ready expression. (2) To determine the extent and accuracy of the learner's attainments. (3) To increase the attainments of the class, to add to the knowledge that its members have acquired THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 29 in their study hours. (4) To determine the pupils' habits and methods of study, and to correct whatever is faulty either in manner or matter. 12. Some of the moral objects of a recitation are to cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbearance, and courtesy. 73. The teacher should make, at least, a general prep- aration for a recitation — a special one, if possible. He should have a fair knowledge of mental and moral philos- ophy, an abstract of each day's work, and should know how to " use" books, but not abuse them. 74. School government is the proper ordering of both the organic and individual action in the schools, so as to secure in pupils the best possible development of the mind and discipline of the heart. 15. Some of the most important qualifications of the teacher to be considered are, first, a very essential one — Common sense; second, A knowledge of the branches taught; third. Teaching power; fourth. Governing power; fifth, Love of the work. 16. The term " discipline " is often taken in a broad sense, including all the appliances, studies, and exercises of the student's life. In its more contracted sense, it is applied to the correction of particular errors and faults. 11. Education is that which embraces the culture of the whole man, with all his faculties — s.ubjecting his senses, his undei'standing, and his passions to reason, to conscience, and to the evangelical laws of the Christian revelation. Physical education includes all that relates to the organs of sensation and the muscular and nervous system. 78. Intellectual education develops and improves the powers of the understanding. Moral education compre- hends the various modes of cultivating and regulating the affections, and forming right ideas, as to the relation of man to man. 79. The faculties of the mind are comprised in three 30 THE examiner's COMPANIONc general divisions, viz.: the intellect, the sensibility, and the will. 80. Education makes men more industrious; more trustworthy; more active and systematic; more cheerful; more far-sighted; more economical, as producers and pre- servers of property. 81. Education tends to make a people more orderly, and to substitute reflection for passion; to predispose them to respect lawful authority; to render political revolutions gradual and bloodless; to qualify men for the exercise of more and more political power; and to make refinement and civilization universal. 82. Some of the most common evils of our schools are as follows: A want of interest on the part of parents and others; too frequent change of teachers; the excessive mul- tiplication of school districts; a diversity of class-books; teachers not qualified; and defective supervision. 83. Pupils should be required to stand up to read or to answer questions. Common politeness would require this. The change from the sitting posture will be of great phys- ical advantage to the pupils. The vocal organs have freer play when the pupil is standing than while sitting. Standing up should be done promptly. The pupil should not roll up or r/rowj up. 84. No pupil should be allowed to leave his seat without permission. If one has this privilege all must be allowed to do so, and all might choose to do so at the same time. Monitors may have a standing permission to attend to their duties without referring to their teachers every day, 85. No. It is a mistake to omit yard supervision over l)Upils. If not controlled in the yard, they are not easily managed in the school-room. If children learn evil habits or hear impure or profane language at school, they do so chiefly during the recesses. The presence of the teacher in the play ground should restrain what is wrong, without in any way checking the interest in healtUful sports and THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 31 innocent recreation. Rough games which interfere with the comfort of those not engaged in them, or endanger the limbs of those who are playing, would not be indulged in under the eye of the teacher. 86. Whispering during study hours is an unmitigated evil, and those who permit it make a grievous error. There are some who, seeking for a justification of what they are too weak or too indolent to prohibit, defend whis- pering on the plea that " pupils should be allowed to assist each other in their work." This plea is fallacious for tvio reasons — 1. Whispering can not be restricted to the limit named. 2. Children can not teach each other. 87. Most assuredly. Pupils should not be allowed even to remain in the school-room during recess, unless the weather is unfavorable. Old and young, male and female, should take the opportunity of breathing the fresh air, due precaution as to clothing, etc., being taken when the weather is cold. During cold weather, those who have any chest affliction may be permitted to remain in and rest, but they should not be allowed to move around the room, unless they do so in a systematic and orderly man- ner as directed by the teacher. 88. It is not best to do so. If the teacher gets angry, too, the pupils witness an unseemly quarrel; if he does not, some of his class will think he is afraid. In either case the work of the school is interrupted, and the respect of the pupils for the authority of the teacher is lessened. They can not regard his power as very great, if a parent may come and question it in an offensive and contemptuous man- ner. 89. The teacher should receive the parent courteously at the -door, give his class some work to occupy it for a fe'w minutes, and step outside to make the necessary expla- nation. If the parent is exceedingly unreasonable, the teacher should quietly inform him that his time must nov; be devoted to his class, but that if the parent will call again 32 THE examiner's COMPANION. after school, or receive a call from him, he will be able to give the matter further consideration. 90. No greater mistake can be made than to suppose that children desire to have their own way at school. Children like order better than disorder. So would all grown people, if they had been properly trained at school. Children are most joyous and happy, and therefore most thoroughly edu- cated, in those schools where the discipline is strict without being severe. There is no quicker way for a teacher to lose the respect of his pupils than by over-indulging them. 91 . I would not do so. Some teachers strike the desk; stamp on the floor; call "order, order, order"; or ring the bell to cause quietness. A thunder-clap startles us into stillness for a few moments, but even thunder would soon lose its effect, if controlled by some teachers. Disorderly pupils should be subdued, not terrified. It would be a poor way to calm a nervous child by firing a cannon near it. A teacher must be deliberate, not impulsive and explosive. If he wishes to secure good order, he must be orderly himself. Attention gained by making any sudden noise is only of a temporary kind. The noise of the pupils yields for a time, but very soon re-asserts itself. 92. It is a mistake to make too many rules in school. There are teachers who make so many rules, that they can not remember them themselves. Their pupils forget them too, and violate them without intending any wrong. The breaking of the law should be a most serious offence. Children will not be very good citizens, if they regard the violation of laws as a trifling matter. They cannot avoid coming to this conclusion, if a teacher has so many rules that he forgets to punish for neglecting them; or if they are of so unimportant a character, as not to command the respect of the pupils. 93. No. The bell is purely a time or tnovement signal. Even the occasional ringing of the bell for order is a mis- take. It disturbs every pupil, while perhaps only two or THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 66 three are offending, and after a time loses its effect, because it speaks directly to no one, and gives in general terms to a whole class what should be given particularly to certain individuals. The bell is a valuable aid in securing dis- cipline. It may be used Avith great profit instead of the teacher's voice, as a signal for commencing, changing, or closing exercises; or for standing up, sitting down, assem- bling, dismissing, etc., but it never should be used to give a direct command for order. 94. He certainly should. A man opens the gates of his stronghold when he becomes angry. To exercise control a teacher must be calm and patient. The quality of "will power" is of great importance, the quantity of it at a teacher's disposal is of far more consequence. It must wear well. There is a dignity and a majesty in the patient asser- tion of the right and the ability to control, which never fails to command respect. It is well, especially when taking charge of a new class, not to try to compel absokite order too suddenly. So long as pupils are ready to do what the teacher wishes, he will, if a reasonable man, overlook slight offences until good conduct has become a habit. 95. Whipping should be used as a reformatory agent only. It is better for boys than confinement in jail. It should rarely, if ever, be administered to girls. The teacher who resorts to frequent whipping as a means of securing dis- cipline, is either excessively lazy or weak. He can have very little tact or will power. A city superintendent says, " I find that the good order of the classes varies with the amount of whipping done, in inverse ratio. Much whipping, bad order; little whipping, better order; least whipping, best order." This will be found to be the experience of all who have given the question a fair trial. There are some who have relied solely on whipping for many yeai's, and who have, therefore, no other means of control but the cane. They and their pupils are to be pitied. They were never qualified to perform the high duties of teachers. 3 34 THE examiner's COMPANION. 96. No pupil should ever know who is likely to receive a question until it has been given. No name should be mentioned, no motion made or look given to indicate who is to answer, until the question has been asked. Many teachers, while proposing a question, make the mistake of looking steadily at the pupil whom they expect to answer it. This should be so carefully avoided as to leave every pupil completely in the dark as to the intentions of the teacher. Each pupil should know that he may be asked to answer every question. Every one will thus be com- pelled to attend all the time; while if questions are asked in rotation, a pupil, after answering his question, may dis- cuss the circus, or the last lacrosse match, or the next base- ball match, or any other cqypropriate topic that may chance to come into his mind, until his turn is coming again. 97. It is well to do so. The teacher should understand principles, not certain statements, or rules, or examples. The teacher who merely hears recitations of words pre- pared in a text-book has a poor estimate of his true func- tion. The pupils should do considerable independent work in the study of their textbooks, but the teacher should test the results of their study by requiring them to make a practicul use of it. He should not be satisfied with knowing that they can use it vntJi their tongues only. . The text-book can never be a substitute for the teacher. 98. No. Some teachers are very fond of " airing their knowledge of the lesson." If a ti^'dcher talks a great deal he is either too diffuse in the treatment of his subject, or he offers his pupils more thought than they can projDerly digest. It is not possible for a class to attend hour after hour and day after day, to a teacher who gives them no share in the work of learning but as listeners. He is the best teacher who can stimulate his pupils with fewest words to greatest mental activity and interest in their les- sons. Most of the talking should be done by the pupils as guided or led by the teacher. If the teacher talks too THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 35 much he wearies himself as well as his class. Let the talking be reduced to the minimum, and the working increased to the maximum extent possible. 99. A mistake is made by using too many long words in teaching. Great thoughts are best expressed in simple language. Those who teach children must use plain, familiar words or they will be misunderstood. All teach- ers are liable to forget the change that has taken place in their own mental development since they were children. The minds of pupils are frequently confused because their teachers take it for granted that they understand the mean- ing of words with whose use they are unacquainted. The teacher should be as correct a model as possible in his language. It should be simple, carefully chosen, appro- priate, and accurate as regards pronunciation and gram- matical construction. 100. No teacher can succeed without the sympathy of his class. To secure this the teacher must be ever genial and cheerful, as well as straiyhtforward. The sunshine of a teacher's face, and the "song-shine" of his tone and words, can penetrate the darkest recesses of a child's nature, and they often develop germs of power and beauty of character which would have died for lack of nourishment or grown to be but sickly plants in the darkness. The winds of censure, scolding and grumbling, and the barren hills of formality and indifference, only serve to make the timid nature of the child shrink and hide. Kindness in word and manner, a genuine interest in the thoug]its, feel- ings and circumstances of a child, and the warmth of an affectionate nature, will bring out the tender buds of sweetness of temper and purity of heart, and make them grow into the most beautiful flowers of a noble character. A genial manner will enable the teacher to deal with the thousand petty annoyances of the school-room, without allowing them to develop into great difficulties. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. QUESTIONS. 1. What is parliamentary law? 2. Why is it so called? 3. Why do the general rules of parliamentary law apply in all deliberative assemblies? 4. What is a deliberative assembly? 5. What officers are necessary to properly organize a deliberative assembly? 6. What is a quorum? 7. What is said regarding the number constituting a quorum ? 8. Has more than one member aright to present prop- ositions for the action of the assembly? 9. How is business generally introduced? What is a motion? 10. Propositions offered by members, except mere motions in the progress of proceeding, should be reduced to what? 11. Subjects for action inay be how set in motion? 12. What is the technical difference between a memo- rial and a petition? (36) PARLIAMENTARY RULES QUESTIONS. 37 13. How should a petition be presented? 14. How can a proposition or question be acted upon? 15. What must a member first do, before he is entitled to make a motion or present a proposition? 16. When is a motion before the assembly for consid- eration ? 17. After a vote has been taken on a question and the result declared by the presiding officer it becomes what? 18. If any member doubts the result of the vote by dividing the house, what may he do? 19. What is there presumed to be always pending? 20. Motions or questions aside from the principal motion in a deliberative assembly are called what? 21. What is a j)rincipal motion? 22. What are subsidiary questions or motions? 23. What are privileged questions or motions? 24. What are incidental questions? 25. Mention some of the general rules in regard to motions, and manner of proceeding. 26. What is said of subsidiary motions? 27. What is said regarding the previous question? 28. What is said 3^:)0\xt 2:>ostponementf 29. State what is said of a motion to commit. 30. What is said of amending a proposition? 31. State what you can Sihowt filing blanks. 32. What is said of striking out? 33. What is said of an amendment by inserting? 34. What is said of striking out and inserting? 35. What can you say regarding the division of a proposition? 36. What are privileged questions? 37. State what is said of adjournment? 38. What is said of questions of privilege? 39. What is said of orders of the day? 40. Taking up incidental questions, what is said of questions of order? 38 THE examiner's COMPANION. 41. What is said of reading jyapers? 42. State what is said about the withdrawal of a motion? 43. What is said of the suspension of a rxdef 44. What is said of an amendinent to an amendment? 45. What is said of reconsideration? 46. Name the committees in deliberative assemblies. 47. What is said of standing and select committees? 48. State what you can regarding a committee of the whole. 49. State what is said of appeals. 50. State what is said of debate. 51. What is said pertaining to the use of the gavelf ^' PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 1| ANSWERS. 1. Parliamentary law consists of rules which are recog- nized as governing proceedings in deliberative assemblies. 2. It is so called from the rules of order existing from long established usage in the British parliament. 3. It is by custom that the general rules of parliament- ary law apply in all deliberative assemblies without the necessity of being formally adopted. 4. A deliberative assembly is a congregation of people or convention of persons for the consideration of matters in which all are concerned, or in which all have an equal voice. 5. The officers necessary are a president or chairman, and secretary or clerk; other officers may be added as cir- cumstances may dictate. The chairman or president presides, and the secretary or clerk records the proceed- ings of the assembly. 6. A quorum is a majority of the members of the assembly. The business of an assembly can not properly proceed unless a quorum is present. 7. The number constituting a quorum may be other- • (39) 40 THE examiner's COMPANION. wise fixed by the rules of the assembly. All questions are determined by a majority vote of the members pres- ent constituting a quorum. 8. Yes. Every member of a deliberative assembly has the right to present propositions for the action of the assembly. 9. Business is generally introduced by a motion. A motion is a verbal or oral proposition of a member. Prop- ositions may also be submitted by a committee, which is called their report. 10. They should be reduced to writing, and may be required to be put in writing on demand of a member. A proposition when reduced to writing is generally in the form of a resolution, commencing with the word " Resolved." 11. Subjects for action may be set in motion also by a communication to the assembly. Communications for this purpose are of two kinds: First, for information of the assembly in matters of fact, called a memorial; second, those which contain a request for some action on the part of the assembly, called a petition. 12. The technical difference between a memorial and a petition is, that the former is a mere representation of existing facts, whilst the latter is a request that something be done. 13. In presenting a petition the custom is for the member presenting it to state the substance of the same, describing it as the petition of , naming the person first signing it and the number of other signers, thus: " The petition of A. B. and one hundred other signers," or as the case may be. When a petition is presented the custom is to receive it as a matter of course, -without any formal motion to that effect. 14. In general no proposition or question can be acted upon except on motion or at the instance of a member. In case of a resolution offered by a member or report PAELIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 41 from a committee, the question recurs upon concurring in the same, without the necessity of a formal motion to that effect. The offering of a resolution by a member or sub- mitting a report by a committee carries with it or implies a motion that the same be adopted or concurred in. 15. No member is entitled to make a motion or pre- sent a proposition until he has obtained the floor for that purpose. The manner of obtaining the floor is for a mera^ ber to rise in his place and address the presiding ofiicer by his title; on being recognized he has obtained the floor and is entitled to proceed. 16. A motion is not before the assembly for considera- tion until stated by the presiding officer. Where a motion or proposition is in writing it is not properly before the assembly until it has been read. When a proposition is offered or a motion is made and seconded it becomes the property of the assembly, and can not be withdrawn or modified by the mover except by leave of the assembly on motion or by general consent. The presiding officer should rise to put motions or state questions for consider- ation. 17. It becomes final, subject to re-consideration in cer- tain cases. If any member doubts the result of the vote when taken viva voce, before the result is declared he may call for a division of the house. A division of the house on any question, is by those in the affirmative rising and being counted, then by those in the negative rising and being counted. 18. He may call for tellers to ascertain and report the vote taken by them. In appointing tellers it is customary to appoint one person from the affirmative, and another person from the negative side of the question. When a division of the house is desired or tellers are demanded, it must be called for before the result has been finally declared by the presiding officer. 19. There is presumed to be always pending a princi- 42 THE EXAMIJ^Er's companion. pal motion or main question. When a proposition is made it is usually called a motion,' when it is stated to the as- sembly by the presiding officer for consideration it is called a question, and if adopted it becomes the order, resolution or vote of the assembly. 20. They are as follows: 1. Subsidiary motions. 2. Privileged questions. 3. Incidental questions or motions. Fi7'st: Subsidiary motions in common use are, 1. To lie on the table. 2. The previous question. 3. Postponement, either indefinite or to a time certain. 4, Commitment. 5. Amendment. Second: Privileged questions or motions are, 1. Motions to adjourn. 2. Motions or questions relat- ing to rights and privileges of the assembly or to its members individually. 3. Motions for the orders of the day. Third: Incidental questioTis are, 1. Questions of order. 2. Motions for the reading of papers, etc. 3. Leave to withdraw a motion. 4. Suspension of a rule. 5. Amendment of an amendment. 21. A principal motion is a proposition embracing some principle or asserting some fact brought before the assembly for consideration. 22. Subsidiary questions or motions are those which re- late to a principal motion and are made use of to enable the assembly to dispose of the main or principal question in a particular way, as indicated by this class of questions. Subsidiary questions, unlike privileged and incidental questions, can only be pending or moved when there is a principal question pending to which they may be applied. Subsidiary questions are dilatory in their nature, as they are intended, in the absence of special rules to the con- trary, to interrupt or prevent a direct vote on the main question, and dispose of it in some other manner. 23. Privileged questions or motions are in general inde- pendent questions, having no reference to the main ques- tion, but which may be pending while the main proposi- tion and subsidiary motions thereto are pending. PARLIAMENTARY RULES — ANSWERS. 43 24. Incidental questions are in general such as arise out of other questions, and are to be decided before those which give rise to them. 25. 1. A motion is simply a proposition of a member as his individual sentiments, which he desires the assem- bly to adopt. 2, Where a proposition offered is adopted, it becomes the conclusion or sense of the assembly. 3. A proposition by a single member is not considered as suffi- cient to claim attention; it is therefore required that it should be approved or seconded by one other member. 4. When a motion is seconded, the mover is entitled to have it put or disposed of by the assembly. 5. The mode of seconding a motion is by some member other than the one who offers it, announcing his approval of the same by saying that he seconds the motion. 6. All motions are presumed to be seconded, unless the point is made and the contraiy is shown. 7. In good practice a presiding officer does not pause to inquire if a motion is seconded; he will presume that it is seconded and proceed to put the motion, unless the contrary is made to appear. 8. It is not in order for a member when he obtains the floor and makes a principal motion, to follow it up at the same time with a subsidiary or other motion relating to it, as a motion that it lie on the table. 9. Where it is desired to delay or postpone a proposition for further information or reflection and examination, the usual motions under such circumstances are postponement to some future day or time, and to lie on the table. 10. Where it is desired to sup- press a proposition for a time, or altogether, the motions for this purpose are the jyrevious question and indefinite 2)ostpo7ie7nent. 11. Where it is desired to inquire into or perfect a proposition, the proper course is to refer it to a committee, called a motion to commit. 12. Where the general features of a proposition are acceptable, but alter- ations in some particular are desired, the motion for that purpose is a motion to amend. 44 THE examiner's COMPANION. 26. .. Lie on the Table. 1. Where a proposition is laid on the table its consideration can not be resumed without a vote to that effect. 2, A motion to lie on the table is not debatable nor susceptible of amendment. It takes precedence and supersedes all other subsidiary mo- tions. A vote to lay a proposition on the table can not be reconsidered. 3. Where a proposition is ordered to lie on the table, it is removed from before the assembly until taken up by vote. 4. A proposition which has been laid on the table may be taken uj) any time for consideration, by a vote of the assembly. 5. A motion to take a prop- osition from the table is not a privileged motion, so it can not be properly entertained while some particular order of business, or some other particular motion is pending. 6. As a motion to lie on the table is not debatable, so a motion to take a measure from the table is not debatable. 7. A motion to take a measure from the table is in the nature of a principal proposition, and if the motion is lost the vote by which it is lost may be reconsidered. 27. 1. Where a member desires a vote to be taken on a proposition without further debate or delay he may move the previous question. 2. The form of putting the motion for the previous question is: "The previous question is moved; shall the main question be now put? " 3. When a motion for the previous question is sustained whereby the main question is ordered, the main question is the orig- inal proposition with pending amendments, if any, each of which is to be disposed of in its proper order. 4. The previous question stands on equal degree with all other subsidiary motions, excep.t the motion to lie on the table. 28. 1. A motion to postpone indefinitely is to be decided without debate. 2. Where a motion to postpone indefinitely is decided in the affirmative it removes the question before the assembly. 3. A motion to postpone to a day beyond the sitting of the assembly is of the same effect as indefinite postponement. 4. When a motion is PARLIAMKNTARY RULES ANSWERS. 45 postponed to a time fixed, when that time arrives it will be in order to resume its consideration. 5. A motion to postpone is either indefinite, or to a time certain. In both cases it may be amended; in the former by fixing the time, ifi the latter by substituting one time for another. The latter is treated like filling blanks. 29. 1. A motion to refer a proposition to a select com- mittee and a standing committee may be made and pend- ing at the same time. The latter motion takes preced- ence and should be first put. 2. A part or the whole of any subject may be referred to a committee, or portions may be referred to several different committees. 3. After a motion to commit a proposition a motion to amend the proposition is not in order. 4. A motion to commit may itself be amended by substituting another committee from that named in the motion, or by enlarging or diminishing the number of the committee when the motion is to refer to a select committee. 5. When a motion to commit is made, it may also be moved that the committee be in- structed as to their action upon the proposition. 6. When a motion to commit is carried the effect is to remove the subject involved from before the assembly for the time being. 1. A motion to commit stands in the same degree with the previous question and postponement, but it takes precedence of a motion to amend. 30. 1. Amending a proposition is either by adding words or taking words from it, or by transposition of words, or by division of a subject, which is accomplished under different modes, which may be classified thus: 1. Filling blanks; 2. Striking out; 3. By inserting; 4. Strik- ing out and inserting; 5. Division of a proposition. 2. A motion to amend stands in the same degree only with the previous question and indefinite postponement; neither, if first moved, is superseded by the other. It is liable to be superseded by a motion to postpone to a certain day and may be superseded by a motion to commit. 46 THE examiner's COMPANION. 31. 1. Filling blanks in a proposition is in the nature of an original motion, to be made and decided before the principal question. 2. In case of filling blanks "with time and number, motions may be made for that purpose, and the motion taken on each by itself. Several motions for this purpose may be made and pending before any of them are put to the question. 3. In filling blanks, the usual rule is to take the question first on the highest number, the largest sum, and the longest time, to which rule, how- ever, there are some exceptions. 32. If an amendment is proposed by striking out, and it is rejected, it can not be again moved to strike out the same words, nor a part of them; but it may be moved to strike out the same words with others, or a part of the same words with others. 33. 1. If an amendment is proposed by inserting or adding a paragraph or words, and it is rejected, it can not be again moved to insert the same words or part of them. 2. When an amendment is proposed by adding a paragraph or words, and rejected, it may be again moved to insert the same with others, or a part of the same words or paragraph with others, if the coherence makes them different propositions. 34. 1. A motion to strike out and insert may be divided by a vote of the assembly and each put separately. 2. When a proposition to strike out and insert is divided, the question is first to be taken on striking out. On a motion to strike out and insert, the manner of stating the question is first to read the whole passage to be amended, as it stands, then the words proposed to be struck out; next those to be inserted; and lastly the whole passage as it stands when amended. 35. 1. Where a proposition is composed of two or more whole parts which are susceptible of division into several parts, it may be divided by order of the assembly on motion, as in other cases. 2. Where a proposition is PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 47 divided, the question divided takes a series of independent propositions. This may be done by order of the assembly on demand of a member. 3. On demand or motion for division of a proposition, the presiding officer puts the question before tlie assembly for its decision, as in other cases. 4. The presiding officer may decide whether the proposition is susceptible of division and how many parts it may be divided into, subject to appeal, as in other cases. 36. Privileged questions are: 1. Motion to adjourn. 2. Motions or questions relating to the rights and privi- leges of the assembly, or of its members individually. 3. Motions for the orders of the day. 37. 1. A motion to adjourn supersedes all other ques- tions. It is not debatable and generally can not be amended. 2. A motion to adjourn to a time fixed can be amended by offering some other time, and is debatable. 3. An adjournment for a short time on the same day is called a recess. 4. Whilst the general rule relating to a motion to adjourn is stated to be that it is always in order, yet when put and carried in the negative it can not be again put a second time in succession unless some inter- vening motion or proposition has been entertained and acted upon by the assembly. 5. Nor can a privileged motion of this kind be moved by any member while another member has the floor. 6. An adjournmeijt with- out fixing a day or time on which the assembly shall again meet is equivalent to a dissolution of the assembly. 7. When an assembly adjourns while a question is pending the question is removed from further consideration, and will not be pending in the assembly at the time to which^ it adjourned. 8. A motion to adjourn is not debatable and can not be amended, nor can a vote thereon be recon- sidered. 38. Questions of privilege are such as concern the rights and privileges of the assembly or individual mem- bers, as when the proceedings are disturbed or interrupted 48 THE examiner's COMPANION. by strangers or members or where a quarrel arises between individual members, and the like. Questions of privilege take precedence of all others except that of adjournment. 2. Questions of privilege supersede for the time being the pending question, together with all subsidiary and inci- dental questions, and must be first disposed of. 3. When a question of privilege is settled the question interrupted by it is to be resumed at the point at which it was sus- pended. 39. 1. When the consideration of a subject is assigned for a particular day, the matter so assigned is called the order of the day. 2. Where there are several subjects assigned for the same day, they are called the orders of the day. 3. Where a question is made the subject of an order for consideration on a particular day, it thereby becomes the privileged question for that day. 4. A mo- tion for the orders of the day supersedes all other motions except questions of privilege and motion to adjourn, even though a member has the floor. 5. But to entitle this motion to supersede the questions as aforesaid, it must be for the orders generally, if there be more than one, and not for any particular one. 6. If decided in the affirma- tive, the orders are then proceeded with in the order in which they stand. 7. Where an order is assigned for any particular hour of the day, a motion to proceed to it is not a privileged motion until that hour has arrived, but if no time is fixed the order is for the entire day and every part of it. 8. Where there are several orders of the day and one is fixed for a particular hour, if the others are taken up before that hour, they are to be proceeded with as they stand until that hour, and then the subject assigned for that hour is to be next in order. 9. Where a motion for the orders of the day is decided in the affirmative, the question pending at the time is removed from before the assembly the same as if it had been interrupted by an ?idjournment. 10. If the motion is decided in the nega- PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 49 tive it is a discharge of the orders so far as they interfered with the consideration of the subject then pending. 11. Orders of the day, unless proceeded in and disposed of on the day assigned, fall, of course, and must be renewed for some other day, or they will be thereby no longer pending. 12. Where a call for the orders of the day is voted down, the orders of the day stand postponed indefinitely and other business prevails. 13. Where a call for the order of the day prevails, all other business is suspended. 14. A call for the order of the day is not debatable and is not subject to amendment. 40. 1. It is the duty of the presiding officer to enforce the rules and order of the assembly without question, debate or delay. 2. It is the right of every member tak- ing notice of the breach of a rule to insist upon the enforcement of it. 3. Questions frequently arise as to there being a breach of order in a violation of rules; these are called questions of order. 4. When a question of order arises in the course of any other proceeding, it super- sedes the further consideration of the subject out of which it arises until the question of order is disposed of. 5. When a question of order is settled the original motion or proceeding revives and resumes its former position unless it has been disposed of by the question of order. 6. When a question of order is raised by a member it is not stated from the chair and decided by the assembly, but it is stated by the member raising it, and decided in the first instance by the presiding officer without debate. 7. The presiding officer may, before giving his decision on a question of order raised, invite the opinion and advice of experienced members present on the subject. 8. Where a decision of the presiding officer on a question of order is not satisfactory, any one member may object to it and have the question decided by the assembly, called an appeal from the decision of the chair. 9. On an appeal from a decision of the chair on a question of order, the 4 50 THE EXAjVIINER's COMPANION. presiding officer is allowed to take part in the debate, from his place in the chair. 10. Questions of order are those raised by any member as to a breach of any rule. It is the privilege of any member to raise questions of order. 41. 1. Reading of papers brought before an assembly may be. called for by any member. 2. Where papers are brought before the assembly for action, every member has a right to have them read once at the table before he can be compelled to vote on them. 3. But where a member desires the reading of a paper or other matter, not before the assembly for action, or to read his own speech, printed or in writing, if objection is made the reading can not proceed without leave of the assembly. 4. Where in the course of debate or other proceeding the reading of a paper is called for, and a question being made as to its being read, this question is incidental to the former, and must be first decided. 42. 1. A motion regularly made and stated from the chair, or proposition regularly pending, is in possession of the assembly, and can not be withdrawn except by leave or vote of the assembly. 2. Where leave is granted to withdraw a motion, the withdrawing of the same takes with it all pending motions dii-ectly relating to it. 3. A motion for leave to withdraw a motion is not debatable. 43. The suspension of a rule, where special rules are existing, may be ordered by vote of the assembly to con- sider a proposition which would not otherwise be in order. 44. 1. Where a motion to amend an amendment is made, such motion must be first put; if carried in the affirmative, the question then recurs on the amendment as amended. 2. The motion to amend an amendment is incidental to the latter and supersedes it for the time being. 3. It is proper to move to amend a proposed amendment, but a vote to further amend it can not be entertained 45. 1. In the absence of any express rule, a principal question disposed of by vote of the assembly, either in PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 51 the affirmative or negative, may be reconsidered by vote of the majority, on motion, as in other cases. 2. A motion to reconsider being decided in the negative, it is a final disposition of the question and can not be again moved. 3. In the absence of any special rule of the assembly, a motion to reconsider may be made by any member, with- out reference to whether he voted in the affirmative or negative on the original question. 4. Where a motion to reconsider prevails, the question pending will be on the original proposition, the same as it stood before any vote thereon was taken, and in like manner again open to debate. 5. A motion to reconsider applies in general to a princi- pal question, or some material motion. It does not apply to incidental motions, and the like. 46, The committees in deliberative assemblies are: 1. Standing Committees. 2. Select Committees. 3. Com- mittee of the Whole, 47, 1. Standing Committees are those appointed to stand during the term of the assembly. 2. Select Com- mittees are those appointed to consider a particular sub- ject. 3. Committee of the Whole is a committee com- prised of all the members of the assembly, to consider any subject referred to them. 4. Standing and Select Committees in the absence of any express rule or vote of the assembly are appointed by the presiding officer. 5. The first person named on a committee is considered the chairman, but in the absence of any rule or custom to the contrary the committee may appoint one of their number as chairman. 6. It is the duty of a committee to reporc their opinion on the merits of the questions referred to them, either for or against them; but they may forbear an opinion and ask to be discharged from further considera- tion of the subject. V. A committee can not properly in their report recommend dilatory action, as that the subject be laid on the table, postponed, referred to some other committee, and the like, 8. When a report of a committee 52 THE examiner's COMPANIONo is made, it is customary for the assembly to receive the same without any further vote thereon. 9. When the report of a select committee is received the committee are discharged without any action of the assembly. 10. After a report of the committee is received, the question recurs on its adoption, and this without any formal action to that end. 11. After a report is adopted the recommendation of the committee becomes the sense of the assembly. 48. 1. A committee of the whole is comprised of all the members of the assembly, organized as a committee. 2. In committee of the whole the strict rules of order governing the assembly itself in the dispatch of business, are dispensed Avith, and only general necessary rules are observed. 3. If a motion to go into the committee of the whole prevails, it is customary for the presiding officer of the assembly to designate some member to act as chair- man, but in the absence of any special rule to the contrary the committee may disregard such appointment and select their own chairman. 4. In organizing the committee of the whole nothing further is necessary than the selection of a chairman. The selection of a clerk is a matter of discretion of the committee. 6. To constitute a commit- tee of the whole for business, a quorum or majority of the members of the assembly should be present. 6. Where there is not a quorum present the committee should rise and report the fact to the assembly, for its action. V. Where a proposition referred to the committee of the whole consists of several questions or progressions, the same should be considered separately, beginning with the first in number. After reading each it is open to debate. 8. In committee of the whole, privileged, subsidiary, and incidental questions of a dilatory character are, in general, not recognized. 9. The following general rules are laid down: 1. The previous question can not be moved in committee of the Vhole; 2. The committee can not allow other committees to adjourn to some time and place; 3, PARTJAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 53 Every member can speak as often as he can obtain the floor; 4, A committee of the whole can not refer a matter to another committee; 5. A committee of the whole has no authority to punish for a breach of order; matters of this kind should be referred to the assembly for action. 10. Debate on questions may be determined by a motion to close debate on the pending question. 11. As a gen- eral rule, dilatory motions are not practicable in a commit- tee of the whole. 12. When a committee of the whole desire to terminate their session, it is done on motion that the committee rise and report progress. 13. No formal record of the proceedings of the committee of the whole is required to be kept. It is sufficient to preserve a brief memorandum. 49. 1. If the decision of a presiding officer on a ques- tion raised is not satisfactory, any member may except to it and demand that it be decided by the assembly — called an appeal from the decision of the chair. 2. On appeal the question is stated by the presiding officer, thus: "Shall the decision of the chair stand as the decision of the assembly," or "as the decision of the house?" 3. On appeal from the decision of the chair the question is open to debate, and is decided by the assembly the same as any other question. 4. An appeal from a decision of the pre- siding officer may be taken at any time, and moved even while another member has the floor. 5. An appeal may be withdrawn by the member moving it. 0. An appeal may be laid upon the table in the manner of other ques- tions, which is considered a final disposition of the sub- ject. Y. Laying an appeal upon the table has been adopted as a mode of disposing of the subject without expressing an opinion upon it. 50. 1. When any member desires to speak he is to stand up in his place and' address himself to the speaker. 2. When a member stands up to speak, no question as a general rule is to be put to the assembly while he is speak- 54 THE examiner's companion. ing, biat he is to be heard to the end of his remarks, unless the assembly overrule for some breach of order. 3. Where two members rise to address the presiding officer at the same time, the member whose voice is first heard should be accorded the floor, 4. If two or more mem- bers rise to speak at the same time, the presiding officer determines who was first up, subject to appeal, however, in the absence of any special rule to the contrary. 5. Where a decision of the chair in according the floor to a member, in case two or more rise at the same time, is called in question, the question may be decided by taking the sense of the assembly thereon by appeal, as in other cases. 6. In taking the sense of the assembly in the case afore- said, the question should be first taken on the name of the member announced by the presiding officer; if this is lost, then it should be taken upon the member next in order claiming the floor. 7. A member obtaining the floor for a particular purpose, as in case of the chairman of a com- mittee for the purpose of making a report, is not entitled to occupy the floor for any other purpose except by leave of the assembly. 8. Before there can be any debate in a deliberative assembly, there must be some question prop- erly pending, which is debatable. 9. A member who has the floor for any purpose, must yield the same to the pre- siding officer when he rises to give information or state a point of order. 10. When a member who has the floor in debate is called to order, he must cease speaking and yield the floor until the question of order is decided. 11. When a member who has the floor yields it to another, although temporarily, with the understanding between them that he may resume it presently, he loses his right to resume it again, except by leave of the assembly. 12. When a member in debate desires the reading of papers, he should send them to the clerk or secretary to be read. It is not strictly in order for a member to read them himself from his place on the floor. 13. It is a general rule that no PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 55 member can speak more than once on the same proposi- tion, but where amendments are proposed he may speak to each amendment. But a member may be permitted to speak again to clear a matter of fact, or merely explain himself in some material part of his speech. 14. The presiding officer may have a right to speak of matters of order and be first heard, but not otherwise, except by leave of the assembly.- 15. The presiding officer being, a member of the assembly, may call some mem- ber to the chair, and on resuming his place on the floor may speak to a pending question the same as other members. 16. No member is to speak imperti- nently, tediously, or depart from the question pend- ing. 11. Members are not allowed in debate to reflect on any prior determination of the assembly, unless he intends to conclude with a motion to rescind it. 18. While a proposition under consideration is undetermined, although it has been reported by a committee, reflecting on it is no reflection on the assembly. 19. No member in speaking is to mention another member then present by his name. 20. No member is to disturb another in his speech by hissing, coughing, or other like conduct. 21. In case of disorder, if repeated calls do not produce order, the presiding officer may call by his name any member obstinately persisting in irregularity. 22. Dis- orderly words on the part of a member are not to be noticed until he has finished his speech; then the person objecting to them and desiring them to be taken down by the clerk must repeat them. The presiding officer may direct the clerk to take them down in his minutes, but if he thinks them not disorderly he may delay the direction. 23. After disorderly words are taken down by the clerk, the matter is open to the action of the assembly. 24. When a member has spoken, or other business inter- vened after disorderly or offensive words spoken, such words can not then be taken notice of for censure. 25. 56 THE examiner's COMPANION. Disorderly words spoken in a committee must be written down as in the assembly, but the committee can only report them to the assembly for action. It is a breach of order in debate in legislative assemblies to notice what has been said on the same subject in the other house, and the particular votes and majorities in the other. Neither house in legislative assemblies can exercise any authority over a member or officer of the other, but should complain to the house of which he is a member or officer. Penalty for misconduct of a member may be by reprimanding, exclusion from the assembly, a prohibition to vote or speak for a specified time, or expulsion. 51. One rap of the gavel only should be given by the presiding officer in calling the assembly to order. One rap of the gavel is proper in announcing that any particu- lar order of business is closed. One rajD of the gavel may be given in commanding the attention of members for any purpose. One rap of the gavel should be given when declaring the assembly adjourned. C^i^fe'M^ COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. m^ssm'm^^^m^ QUESTIONS. 1. Define Composition. 2. What are prose compositions? 3. What are poetic compositions? 4. Define Rhetoric. 5. What is punctuation? 6. Name the principal points used in punctuation. 7. In regard to the length of the pauses indicated by these marks, can a definite rule be given? 8. As a general rule what is the guide? 9. Where is the comma generally used? 10. Give the special rules, and examples, of the comma. 11. For what purpose is the semicolon used? 12. What is the general rule of the semicolon? 13. Mention the special rules and give examples of the semicolon. 14. For what purpose is the colon used? Mention the special rules and give examples of the 15. colon 16. 17. What can you say of the pei'iod? What can you say of the interrogation point? (57) 58 THE EXAMINER^S COMPANION. 18. What may be said of the dash? 19. What is said of the note of exclamation? 20. What does the parenthesis inchide? 21. For what purpose are brackets used? 22. Define Diction. 23. Would you consider a command of words import- ant? 24. How is a command of words to be obtained? 25. Wliat are the qualities of style most needed? 26. Purity of style consists in what? 2 7. What is the standard of purity? 28. Propriety of language consists in what? 29. Precision consists in what? 30. With respect to sentences what are necessary? 31. What may be said regarding clearness? 32. Unity consists in what? 33. Strength consists in what? 34. A discourse and its parts are how considered? 35. Orations by the ancients were divided into how many parts, and what are they? 36. What is an essay? 37. What is a figure of Rhetoric? 38. How many chief figures of Rhetoric are there? 39. Define a simile. 40. Define a metaphor. 41. What is an allegory? 42. Define metonymy. 43. What are the chief relations on which metonymy is founded? 44. Defin'e synecdoche. 45. What is an hyperbole? 46. What is vision, or imagery? 47. Define apostrophe. 48. What is personification? 49. Define erotesis. 50. Define ecphonesis. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC QUESTIONS. 59 51. Antithesis consists in what? 52. Define climax. 53. Define irony. 54. Define apophasis. 55. Define the parallel. 56. Define paralipsis. 57. Define allusion. 58. What can you say of repetition? 59. Define alHteration. 60. What is euphemism? 61. Define onomatopoeia. 62. Define poetry. 63. What relation has poetry to other arts? 64. Name the different kinds of poetry. 65. What is an epic poem? 66. What may be said of its high character? 67. What can you say of dramatic poetry? 68. What is its likeness to epic poetry? 69. How are modern dramas divided? 70. What two kinds of drama are there? 71. What can you say of tragedy? 72. What can you say of comedy? 73. What is a farce? An opera? 74. What is a melodrama? 75. What can you say of lyric poetry? 76. What can you say of the character of lyric poetry? 77. Does lyric poetry differ from epic poetry? 78. What is the most common form of lyric poetry? 79. What may be said of sacred odes? 80. What may be said of heroic odes? 81. Moral odes include what? 82. Amatory odes are generally known as what? 83. What can you say of comic songs? 84. Bacchanalian songs are to be sung in honor of whom? 85. Define an elegy. 60 THE examiner's COMPANION. 86. What is" the form of an elegy? 87 What is an epitaph? 88. Define pastoral poetry. 89. What were the pastoral poems of Virgil called? 90 What is a didactic poem? Its character. 91. Why do critics object to this line of poetry? 92. What is a satire? A lampoon? 93. Prose is the terra applied to what? 94 What are the chief varieties of prose composition? 95. What is a letter? 96. What are the points in the form of a letter? 97. What is the first thing to be observed in writing a letter? 98. What is said regarding the place? 99. What can you say of the street and number? 100. What is said regarding the state? 101 What is said regarding contractio7is? 102. Should the county be added? 103 What is the reason for particularity? 104 Are these matters important? 105 Is it necessary to mention the time in letters? 106. What is the form of heading? 107. What is said about placing the date of a letter at the bottom? 108. What can you say of the address of a letter in military form? 109. What is said of ordinary letters? 110. How do we begin our letters? 111. What is said regarding the close of a letter? 112. What about business letters? 113. State what is said about the subscription? 114. Do these terms vary? 115. Respecting initials what can you say? 116. In signing one's name to a letter is it best to dis- close the sex? 117. What is said about married women and widows? 118. What is said about terms of endearment? COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC— QUESTIONS. 61 119. What is said of the arrangement of the sub- scription? 120. What is meant by the superscription of a letter? 121. Why is this important? 122. Wliat may be said regarding the penmanship of the superscription of a letter? 123. Of how many parts does the superscription con- sist, and what are they? 124. Wliat is said about the name of the person addressed? • 125. What is said about the titlef 126. State what is said regarding common titles. 127. What is said of professional titles? 128. What may be further said about the title Es<^.? 129. What is said of higher and lov)er titles? 130. What is said of the titles of clergymen? 131. What is said of the^;re/a?, honorable? 132. Regarding the full name what may be said? 133. How is the Governor of a State addressed? 134. In Washington, D. C, what form is prescribed in addressing the President of the United States? 135. What is said of the residence of the person addi'essed? 136. What is said of the name of the State"^ 137. For what reason should the name of the State be written out in full? 138. Give an example where the State was not loritten f>nt ill full. 139. The itejns of residence should be how arranged? 1 40. Where should the name be placed on the envelope ? 14!. For appearance and practical convenience it is better to let th j name and title occupy aline where? J 4 2. Deline a diary. What is said of the subjects recorded ? 143. AVhat is said of the essential character of a diary? 144. What is said regarding dates in a diary? 62 THE examinee's companion. 145. Is it best to register the place "whera each entry is made? 146. In modern times what is considered next to writ- ing letters? 14Y. What is the literary character of the news columns? 148. What are some of the things to be aimed at by the writer of news? 140. What is said of- editorials? 150. What is the order of composition for the editorial columns? 151. Should the editor have an estimate of his own position? 152. Is fame ever attained by writing editorials? 153. What are reviews? 154. The magazine, like the paper, is what? 155. Reviews, like editorials, embrace what? 156. Are essays different from reviews? 157. Does an essay ever base its remarks upon a book? 158. Are there any points of resemblance between essays and reviews? 159. What is the mode of publication of essays? 160. What is a treatise? 161. Do treatises differ from essays? 162. Are treatises plain in style? 163. Is there a difference of subject between essays and treatises? 164. What is said of text-books? 165. What class of books come nearer to diaries than to any other kind of writing? 166. How do books of travel compare with diaries? ] 67. What is said in regard to accuracy? 168. What is said of history? 1 69. What is said regarding the chronological order of history? 1 7o. State what is said about keeping up the conneC' tion in history. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC QUESTIONS. 63 171. How should an historian keep up the interest in his work? 172. What are annals? 173. Define memoirs. 174. What is a biography? 1 75. In what respect does biography differ from me- moirs? 176. What is an autobiography? 177. Define a fiction. 178. How are novels divided? 179. How does the novelist appeal to the curiosity of the reader? 180. What is the general effect of novel reading? 181. Are there novels of a higher aim? 182. In what does a discourse differ from the other kinds of composition heretofore described? 183. What are the principal kinds of discourse? 184. What is an oration? 185. Define an address. 186. What is said of college addresses? 187. What is a sermon? 188. Define a lecture. 189. How many kinds of lectures, and what are they? 190. What is said of speeches? 191. How are speeches usually delivered? 192. A discourse which is to produce a profound im- pression must maintain what? 193. What is said regarding the adaptation of a dis- course to the audience? 1 94. In what respect do discourses differ from treatises ? 195. When is a discourse symmetrical? 196. What are the parts of a discourse? 197. What is said of the introduction? 198. What is said of the statement? 199. Mention what is stated regarding the main discourse. 200. State what you can in reference to the conclusion of a discourse. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 1. Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, prose and poetry. 2. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary- language. 3. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 4. Rhetoric, in the widest sense in wliich the word is occasionally used by modern writers, is the art of prose composition generally; in the most restricted and most etymological sense, the art of oratory, or addressing public assemblies ; in an intermediate sense, in which, perhaps it is most commonly employed, the art of argu- mentative composition. 5. Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into sections by means of points, for the purpose of show- ing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the sense more obvious. (64) COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC ANSWERS. 65 6. The principal marks used in punctuation are the following: The comma ( ,), the semicolon ( ; ), the colon ( : ), the period ( . ), the interrogation point (?), the exclamation point ( ! ), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), the bracket [ ]. 7. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these marks, no very definite rule can be given; the same point in certain kinds of composition, and in certain positions, requiring sometimes a longer and sometimes a shorter pause. 8. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, a pause still longer than that of the colon. 9. The comma is generally used in those parts of a sentence in which a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in closeness to that which is unbroken. 10. Rule 1. — In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used; as, "Hope is necessary in every condition of life." Rule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualify- ing words, to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually inserted before the verb; as, " A steady and undivided attention to one subject, is a sure mark of a supei'ior mind." Rule .3. — In complex and compound sentences, the clauses or members are usually separated by commas; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the comma is not used; as, "Revela- tion tells us how we may attain happiness." Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunction expressed, do not admit a comma between them; as, "The earth and the moon are planets." — "He is a wise and prudent man." But when the conjunction is 66 THE examiner's COMPANION. not expressed, a comma is inserted after each; as, " Reasoii, virtue, answer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, tlie last should not be separated by a comma from its noun; as, " He is 2, plain, honest man." Nor can two adjectiA^es be separated from each other by a comma when used together as a compound adjective; as, " A bright-red color." Rule 5. — More than two words of the same class, con- nected by conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the words connected are adjectives, the last should not be separated from its noun by a comma after it; as, " David was a xoise, brave, and prudent king." Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected with it; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a single noun in apposition with another is not separa- ted by a comma; as, " Paul the apostle." Rule 8. — The nominative independent, and the nomi- native absolute, with the words dependent on them, are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence; as, "My son, hear the instruction of thy father."—" I am, sir, your obedient servant." — "The time of youth being pre- cious, we should devote it to improvement." — "To confess the truth, I was in fault." Rule 9. — Comparative and antithetical clauses are sep- arated by a comma; thus,. "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." — "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." But when the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, the comma is not used; as, ."Wisdom is better than rubies." Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, sec- ondly, etc., when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence, should be separated from COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 67 the context by a comma; as, " Nay, but we will serve the Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or quotation, as in the preceding sentence. Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of its antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of a sen- tence; as, " He who disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, "He must be utterly abandoned, who disregards," etc. But when the relative, with its clause, is restrictive, and the connection so close that it can not be separated, the comma is not used; as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by another clause, usually has a comma before it; as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." But when the clause introduced by that is the subject or the object of the verb in the preceding clause, the comma is not inserted; as, " It is vfeWthat he should know it." — " I said that ye are gods." Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted; as, " Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and writing, an exact man." Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by a comma; as, " Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty." — " No, no, no, it can not be." Rule 1 5. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words out of their regular connection, often require a comma; as, " To God, all things are possible." Not inverted, it would be, " All things are possible to God." — " His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural order, "To assist the distressed was his delight." Rule 16. — A short expression, in the matter of a quo- tation, is separated by commas; as, "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, reply, and the like, with their dependent words introducing a quotation or remark, are usually separated by commas; as, "The book 68 THE examiner's COMPANION. of nature, said he, is open before thee." — "I say unto all, watch." Rule 17. — Adjectives, participles, adverbs, infinitives, etc., when separated from the word on which they depend, or, when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly require commas to be inserted; as, "His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." — "To conclude, I can only say this." — "We must not, hoioever, neglect our duty." 11. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence which are less closely connected than those which are separated by the comma, and more closely than those which are separated by the colon. 12. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon, should contain in themselves a complete and independent proposition, but still having a connection with the other parts. 18. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a complete proposition, but is followed by a clause added as an inference or reason, or to give some explana- tion, the part thus added must be separated by a semi- colon; as, "Perform your duty faithfully; for this will procure you the blessing of heaven." — " The orator makes the truth plain to his hearers; he awakens them; he excites them to action; he shows them their impending danger." Rule 2.— When several short sentences, complete in themselves, but having a slight connection in idea, follow in succession, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, "The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy represents a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural life; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart." Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several members, and these members are comj^lex, and sub-divided by com- mas, the larger divisions of the sentence are sometimes separated by a semicolon; as, "As the desire of approba- COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 69 tion, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in everything that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is gov- erned by vanity and folly."' Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as particulars, in apposition under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a 'semicolon, and the particulars, from each other by commas; as, "Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes: possessive, distrib- utive, demonstrative, and indefinite." But if the word namely be introduced the separation is made by a comma only. 14. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, but not so independent as to require a period. 15. Rule 1. — A colon is used when a sentence is com- plete in itself, in both sense and construction, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, depend- ing upon it in sense, though not in syntax; as, " The brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass: in a few years he has all the endowments of which he is capable." — "Study to acquire a habit of thinking: nothing is more important." Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in suc- cession, each containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a common dependence on some subsequent clause, these sentences are separated from the subsequent clause by a colon, and from each other by a semicolon; as, " That nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inex- haustible resources in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that ail future generations will con- tinue to make discoveries: these are among the assertions of philosophers." Rule 3. — A colon (sometimes a semicolon) maybe used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; 70 THE examiner's COMPANION. as, "Always remember this ancient maxim: ' Know thy- self.'" — "The Scriptures give us an animated represen- tation of the Deity in these words: ' God is love.' " Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the concluding member of a sentence frequently determines the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before the concluding member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as, "Apply yourself to learning: it will redound to your honor." — " Apply yourself to learning; for it will redound to your honor." 16. The period separates sentences which are complete in sense, and not connected in either meaning or gram- matical construction; thus, " Fear God. Have charity toward all men." But when short sentences are connected in meaning, but not in construction, they are separated by a semicolon. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically connected by conjunctions, often insert a period; thus, " He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes that will nar- rowly inspect him in every part." A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, sections, etc.; also, after all abbreviations; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc. — Appendix, XII. 17. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the interrogation point as equal to the period. The note of interrogation is always put at the end of a direct question; as, "What is truth?" But the indirect question does not require the interrogation point; as, " Pilate inquired what is truth 18. The dash is used where the sentence breaks off abruptly; also, to denote a significant pause — an unex- pected turn in the sentiment— or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition. COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC — ANSWERS. 71 19. The note of exclamation is used after expressions of sudden emotion of any kind; also, in invocations or addresses, as, "Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word; as, " Oh! that he would come." But when O is used, the note is placed after some intervening words; as, "O my friends! " 20. The parenthesis includes a clause inserted in the body of a sentence, in order to some useful or necessary information or remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence; as, " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?" In reading, the parenthetic part is distinguished by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is short, and accords with the general tenor of the sentence, commas are now generally used instead, of parentheses; as, "Thou sluggish power, if potoer thou be, All destitute of energy." The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as possible. 21. Brackets are properly used to enclose a word or phrase interpolated for the purpose of explanation, or cor- rection, or to supply a deficiency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to the original composition; thus, "It is said, the wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty." 22. Diction is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the selection and the right use of words. 23. No one can be successful as a writer or speaker, who has not a great number of words at his command, and who has not such a knowledge of the precise mean- ing of each as to be able in all cases to select just that word which expresses most perfectly the idea intended. 24. It is not in the power of rules to give one a com- mand of words. To this end, two things chiefly are 72 THE examiner's companion. necessary: an enlarged course of reading, and a habit of observation in regard to tlie words met with. Linguistic studies are particularly suited to enlarge one's vocabulary. Habitual association with persons of education and re- finement has likewise a tendency to increase one's stock of words; some persons have by nature a special talent for their species of acquistition, and words on almost every subject seem to come at their bidding. Such a talent, whether natural or acquired, is of the greatest importance. 25. The qualities of style most needed, so far as dic- tion is concerned, are purity, propriety, and precision. 26. Purity of style consists in the use of only such words and phrases as belong to the language which we write or speak. 1. Avoid foreign words and modes of ex- pression, as " Fraicheur^'' " hauteur''' ; he repented him- self; it serves to an excellent purpose. 2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words; as, aforetime, judgmatical, albeit. 27. The only standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a barbarism, which word is defined to be an offense against lexicography, 28. Propriety of language consists m the selection and right construction of such words as the best usage has appro- priated to those ideas which we intend to express. 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, " Says I," "Thinks I to myself." 2. In writing j)rose, reject words or phrases that are merely poetical; as, " This morn." "The celestial orbs." 3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write for those who perfectly understand them. 4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses; as, " I want to go and see what he vmnts^'' " His own reason might have suggested better reasons.'''' 5. Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his former services," say, "This action increased the merit q/'his former services." 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous exj^ressions; as, " His memory COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC —ANSWERS. 73 shall be lost on the earth." " I long- since learned to like nothing but what you (/o." V. Avoiil unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, " These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 8. Observe the natural order of things and events and do not put the cart before the horse; as, "He tnmh\Q(\, Jiead over heels, into the water." " The scribes taught and studied the law of Moses." 29. Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words and adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than is intended by the author. 1. Avoid tautology; as, "Wherever I go, he always meets me there." " YLis ^faithfulness awdjidelitt/ were unequaled." 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous. Thus, instead of " Though his actions and intentions were good, he lost his character^'' say, " He lost his reputation^ 30. With respect to sentences, clearness, tinity, strength, and a proper application of the figures of speech, are neces- sary. 31. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such situation as the sense requires. 2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 3. Pro- nouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they stand. 32. Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses and keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. 1 . Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no immediate connection. 2. The princi- pal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most promi- nent, and only one leading subject should be presented. 3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in, without too long suspend- ing the sense of what iroes before. 74 THE examiner's COMPANION. 33. Strength gives to every word and every member its due importance. A concise style is the most favorable to strength. 1. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some resemblance in the language and construction be preserved. 4. It is, in gen- eral, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a prepo- sition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or introduced earlier. 34. A composition in which a proposition is laid down and an attempt made to persuade others that it is true is an argumentative discourse. If it be on religious subjects, it is a sermon; on other subjects, a speech or oration. 35. Orations by the ancients were divided into six parts: 1. The Exordium, or introduction, in which the speaker strove to make his hearers attentive and disposed to receive his arguments. 2. The Division, or plan the speaker intended to preserve in treating the subject. 3. The /Statement, in which the subject and facts connected therewith were laid down. 4. The -Reasoning, in which the arguments were set forth. 5. The Appeal to the feel- ings — a most important division of a discourse. 6. The Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had said and concluded his discourse. 36. An essay is a composition, generally on some abstract subject, devoted rather to an investigation of causes, effects, etc., than to an examination of visible and material peculiarities. Brief descriptions and narrations may be introduced with advantage. 3Y. A Figure of Rhetoric is some deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of expression, with a view of making the meaning more effective. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 75 38. There are twenty-two principal figures of Rhetoric, which are mentioned below and examples given. 39. A simile is a simple and express comparison and is generally introduced by like^ as or so. Ex's. — " The con- demnation of Socrates took him away in his full grandeur and glory, like the setting of a tropical sun." " True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, as those move easiest who have learnt to dance." 40 A metaphor is a figure that expresses the resem- blance of two objects by applying either the name or some attribute, adjunct or action of the one directly to the other. Ex's. — " His eye was morning'' s brightest ray^ " The ves- sel was now full, and this last drop made the waters of bitterness overflow." 41. An allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jexoish nation under the symbol of a viyie; " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it," etc. 42. Metonymy means a change of name. This is a figure in which the name of one object is put for some other object, the two being so related that the mention of one naturally suggests the other. Example.— "The drunk- ard loves his bottle.'''' Now, we know that it is not the bottle, but what it contains, that the drunkard loves. The bottle is put for the liquor, the container for the thing contained, and this change of name is a metonymy, 43. The principal relations on which metonymy is founded are as follows: 1. Cause and effect; as, "Extrava- gance is the ruiri of many " — that is, the cause of ruin. 2. Ancestor and descendants; as, "Then shall Judah triumph" — that is, the descendants of Judah. 3. Attribute and that to which it belongs; as, '■'■ Pride shall be brought low" — that is, the jOT-OMC?. 4. Container and the thing contained; as, '*The^-e?^^e boils" — that \% \)^e, vmter in the kettle. 5. 76 THE examiner's companion. Emblem and thing represented; as, "This Avas offensive to the cro'wn'''' — that is, the king. 6. Material and thing made of it; as " Gold is all-powerful " — that is, vioney. 44. Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for a part, or of a part for the whole; as, "She has seen sixteen sunimers'''' [years]. "This roof [house] protects you." "Now the year [summer] is beautiful." "The colt will be three years old next grass " [spring]. 45. Hyperbole is exaggeration. It consists in repre- senting things to be either greater or less, better or worse, than they really are. The object of hyperbole is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. Example. — When we read of " waves mountain high^'' we know that no waves ever reached that altitude, and yet we get from the expression a better idea of the effect of the storm upon the shipwrecked mariner than if he had stated the exact height of the waA^es in feet and inches. 46. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination as actually before his eyes and present to his senses. Exam- ple. — "I see the dagger-crest of Mar! I see the Moray's silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war That up the lake comes winding far." 47. Apostrophe means a turning away. It is a figure in which we turn from the regular course of thought, and instead of continuing to speak of an object in the third person, speak to it in the second person. Examples. — " O, my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom ! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son! " The above expression was uttered by King David, on hearing of the death of Absalom, his son. Another apos- trophe, more extended, and equally beautiful, is the lament of David over the death of Jonathan, found in 2 Sam. 1: 21-27. 48. Personification is a figure by which in imagination we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSAVERS. 77 beings or abstract qualities. Examples. — The Worm, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent." "Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!" 49. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked. Example. — "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him? " 50. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind. Example. — " O liberty! — O sound once delightful to every Roman ear! — O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship! — once sacred — now tram- pled upon." 51. Antithesis consists in putting two unlike things in juxtaposition, so that each will appear more striking by the contrast. Examples. — " When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that we leave them." " The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself." " If you wish to make a "man rich, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 52. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular. Examples. — "Then virtue became silent, heartsick, pined away and died." 53. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be under- stood; as, " Go on; time is loorth nothing " — meaning that it is very valuable. Another example of irony is con- tained in the Bible where Job says (12: 2), " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you!" Irony is a very effective weapon of attack, the form of the language being such as scarcely to admit of reply. 54. Apophasis is the pretended suppression of what one is all the time actually mentioning; as, " I shall say noth- ing of the immorality prevalent in Paris — immorality 78 THE examiner's COMPANION . which is all the more dangerous because arrayed in the most attractive garbs." 55. The parallel is a figure used to show the resemblance between two characters or writings, to show their con- formity in essential points; as, the parallel between the Old and New Testament. 56. Paralipsis pretends to conceal or omit what is really suggested and enforced. Example.— '' I anil not call him a villain because it would be unparliamentary." 57. Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase in a sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or analogous subject. Example. — " I was sur- rounded with difiiculties, and possessed no clue by which I could effect my escape." 58. JRepetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, and, to mark its importance, makes it occur frequently in the same sentence. Example. — "He san^ Darius, great and good, By too severe a fate, Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, Fallen from his high estate, and weltering in his blood." 59. Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeed- ing each other. Example. — "The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair." 60. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest language. Example. — Cushi did not say to David, "Absa- lom is killed; " but, " May all the enemies of the king be as that young man.'''' 61. Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in such a manner that their sound will suggest the sense; as, buzz., hiss, roar. Example. — " On the ear drops the light drip of the suspended oar." 62. Poetry may be defined to be the product of an COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS, 79 excited and a creative imagination, with a primary object to please, and expressed in the form of verse. 63. Poetry is one of the fine arts, and is thereby allied to music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, in all of which the primary object is to please. 64. The different kinds of poetry may be conveniently included under the heads of epic, dramatic, lyric, elegiac, didactic, satiric, and pastoral. 65. An epic poem is a poetic recital of some great and heroic enterprise. 66. Epic poetry is universally admitted to be the high- est and most difficult kind of poetical composition. The number of successful epics is accordingly very limited. Most civilized nations have one, few have more than one. The three epics of greatest celebrity are Homer's Iliad in Greek, Virgil's uEneid in Latin, and Milton's Paradise Lost in English. 67. Dramatic poetry ranks with the epic in dignity and excellence, and has nearly all its essential character- istics. 68. Like the epic, the drama, at least in its higher forms, must have some great and heroic transaction for its subject; it must, even more than the epic, maintain unity in the action; it must have one leading character or hero; it must have some complication of plot. 69. Modern dramas are by general custom divided into five acts, and each act is usually composed of several scenes. 70. The two principal kinds of drama are tragedy and eomedy. 71. Tragedy is more akin to the epic, being serious and dignified, and having for its subject some great trans- action. It undertakes to delineate the strongest passions, and to move the soul of the spectator in the highest degree. It is especially conversant with scenes of suffer- ing and violence, and ends almost uniformly with the 80 THE examiner's COMPANION. death of the person or persons in whom the spectator is most interested. 72. Comedy, on the other hand, aims to amuse, and seeks chiefly the topics of common life. It deals largely in ridicule and satire, and often ends in the marriage or other good fortune of the principal personages. 73. A farce is a short dramatic composition, having for its object simply 'to excite mirth. It seldom extends to more than two acts, and generally consists of but a sin- gle act. An opera is a drama set to music, the actors singing the parts instead of speaking them. 74. A melodrama is a drama in which some parts are spoken and some are sung. Both in opera and melodrama, the author seeks to produce effects by startling situations and gorgeous scenery and dresses, such as would be out of place in tragedy or comedy. 75. Lyric poetry, as its name denotes, meant original- ly poetry intended to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. 76. Lyric poetry is, in every nation, the oldest form of poetry known to its literature, and contains some of its highest specimens of the poetic art. 77. Lyric poetry is used mainly for the expression of sentiment and emotion, and is thus distinguished from the epic, which narrates facts. It expresses the sentiments and emotions of the author, in his own proper person, and is thus distinguished from the drama, in which the author disappears entirely, the thoughts expressed being those of the persons of the drama. 78. The most common form of lyric poetry is the ode or song. Odes or songs are of six kinds: Sacred, heroic, moral, amatory, comic, and bacchanalian. 79. Sacred odes are usually called psalms or hymns. They are composed on religious subjects, and are for the most part addressed directly to God. 80. Heroic odes are lyric poems celebrating the praises COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 81 of heroes, and are mostly occupied with martial exploits. "Alexander's Feast," by Dryden, is considered the highest specimen of this kind of composition, in the English language. 81. Moral odes include a great variety of subjects, being used to express almost every kind of sentiment sug- gested by friendship, humanity, patriotism, and so forth. Collins's Ode on the Passions and Gray's Ode to Eton Col- lege are familiar to all readers. The above-mentioned persons are the two English writers who have most excelled in this species of composition. 82. Amatory odes, more generally known as love songs, are numerous in all literatures. Thomas Moore probably has contributed more largely than any other writer to this particular branch of our literature. The songs of Robert Burns, though not so numerous as those of Moore, are less artificial, and show greater genius. 83. Comic songs also have become very numerous. Being intended mainly for amusement, they are often written with great license as to their metrical construction, and sometimes with still greater license in regard to morals. 84. Bacchanalian songs, as the name imports, are songs to be sung in honor of Bacchus, In other words, they are drinking songs. They are subject to still greater irregu- larities than the kind last named. Their object is to pro- mote good fellowship in drinking, and they are conse- quently a prolific source of drunkenness. 85. An elegy is a poem, usually of a sad and mournful kind, celebrating the virtues of some one deceased. 86. Elegiac poetry is rarely, if ever, in any other meas- ure than the iambic, and the most celebrated elegies known to our literature, such as Milton's Lycidas, and Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard, are in iambic pentameter. The slow and stately movement of this line is particularly suited to the purposes of elegy. 6 82 THE examiner's COMPANION. 87. An epitaph is a very short elegy, intended to be inscribed on a tomb or monumental tablet. 88. Pastoral poetry means properly that which cele- brates shepherd or rustic life. ■ The term x>astoral is now applied to any poem which describes placid country-life. 89. The pastoral poems of Virgil were called by him eclogues, and this term has been much used for modern poems of the same sort. 90. A didactic poem is one which aims chiefly to give instruction. The poetry of this kind, though useful, is not in itself of so high an order as the others which have been named. Many critics, indeed, deny to compositions of this kind the character of poetry. 91. If, say the critics, it is of the very essence of poetry that it aims to please, why should we assign this name to that which aims only to instruct? It may be good verse, but it is not poetry. Such is the objection, and it is not without some truth. But it is not the whole truth. 92. A satire is a poem intended to hold up the follies of men to ridicule. It aims to reform men by appealing to their sense of shame. Satire is properly impersonal, exposing faults in general, rather than exposing individu- als. A lampoon attacks individuals. 93. Prose is the term applied to all composition which is not in verse. It means the ordinary, straightforward manner of discourse, in distinction from the invented forms so common in poetry. 94. The chief varieties of prose composition are letters, diaries, news, editorials, reviews, essays, treatises, travels, history, fiction, discourses. 95. A letter is a written communication addressed by the writer to some other person or persons. 96. The points in the form of a letter requiring atten- tion are the heading, the address, the subscription, and the superscription. 97. The first thing to be observed in writing a COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 83 letter is the date or heading. This includes two points, namely, the place where, and the time when, the letter is written. 98. In beginning a letter, we put, first of all, at the top of the page, the place at which the letter purports to be written. In this heading, all those particulars should be given which will be needed for addressing the reply. 99. If the letter comes from a city, it is well for the heading to give the street and number, as well as the name of the city. These items are usually arranged in the fol- lowing order: The number of the house, the name of the street, the name of the city; thus, 1828, Pine Street, Phil- adelphia. 100. If the city is a very large one, like New York or Philadelphia, there will be no necessity for adding the name of the state. But in all ordinary cases the name of the state should be added; thus, Easton, Pennsylvania. 101. If the name of the state is contracted, care should be taken to make the contraction in such a way that what is meant for one state can not be mistaken for another; thus, Md. (Maryland) and Me. (Maine), Vt. (Vermont) and Va. (Virginia), in careless manuscript, are often confounded. New York and New Jersey should always be written out in full. N. Y. and N. J. are so much alike in manuscript that hundreds of letters every year go to Trenton, New York, that are meant for Trenton, New Jersey. 102. If the town is quite small, and especially if it is at some distance from the place to which the letter is going, the name of the county should be added. This enables one's correspondent to address his reply in such a way as almost to insure its safe delivery. Sometimes a letter is written from a place where there is no post-oflice, — some small outlying settlement near the post-town. In such a case, if the writer wishes to designate this small place, he should be careful to add the post-town also; thus, Dutch Neck, near Bridgeton, Cumberland County, New Jersey. 84 THE examinee's COMPANION. 103. A correspondent, in replying to a letter, natur- ally casts his eye to the heading to see how his reply shall be addressed. In the forms given above he has all the particulars required for addressing this part of his envel- ope, and in exactly the order needed. 104. These are small matters apparently, and it may seem like trifling to dwell upon them, but the amount of trouble and loss occasioned by inattention to them is incon- ceivable by those not familiar with the subject. 105. It is important in every kind of letter, but espec- ially in business letters, to denote the time of writing, that is, to register the month, the day of the month, and the year. This date is the second thing to be given. It like- wise is put at the top of the page, and immediately after the name of the place, and the particulars are given in the order just named; thus, January 24, 1880. 106. Whether the heading should all be in one line, or whether it should be broken into two lines, the words expressing the place being in one line, and those express- ing the time in another, is a mere matter of fancy. It is, in fact, a question of penmanship. If the heading is long, it is often broken into two lines; if short, it is generally given in one; thus. — Bursonville, Bucks Co., Penna. March 24, 1878. Easton, Maryland, April 1, 1878. 107. Some letter- writers have a fancy for putting the time and place at the bottom of the letter instead of the top, but the custom is not to be recommended. The prac- tical conveniences of the ordinary method are so great that every one engaged in business ought to feel bound to conform to it. 108. In a letter addressed by one military man to another, an exact form is prescribed by law. The person written to is addressed at the beginning of the letter simply bv his title, as General, Captain, Corporal, Private, Composition and rhetoric — answers. 85 or whatever it may be, and without his name. Then, at the end of the letter, on the line below the signature of the writer, the name of the person addressed is given, with his full official title, and his location, just as it is to be on the envelope. 109. The form for addressing individuals, prescribed in the military service, is a good basis for the rules which should guide us in ordinary letters. 110. Wo begin our letters with Sir, Dear Sir, My Dear Sir, Rev. Sir, My Dear Dr. Smith, My Dear Lizzie, etc., etc., according to the relations of respect, intimacy, or affection existing between us and the one addressed. Between relatives and intimate friends these addresses may properly enough often assume a very familiar style, and may afford the opportunity for expressing tender affection and endearment, as well as for playfulness and fun. 111. At the close of the letter, it is well, in all ordi- nary cases, to give the proper address with some formality. The address thus given at the bottom should be the same that is placed on the envelope. It is a safeguard against the letter going at any time by mistake into the wrong hands. The envelope is often lost or destroyed. The letter, therefore, should be self-identifying independently of the envelope. 112. In writing business letters, the military rule above described is often reversed, the full address being placed at the beginning, instead of at the end. This method has many advantages, and in letters on business is to be com- mended. In letters of courtesy or affection, the other method is preferable. 113. In closing a letter, the writer subscribes his name with more or less fullness, and in such terms of respect or affection as the circumstances may seem to warrant. 114. These terms, like those of the address, vary of course according to the varying relations of the parties, 86 THE examixer's rOMPANIO:^^. so that no general rule for them can be given. Business letters veryconiiiionly close with " Your obedient servant," or, if it be a firm, " Your obedient servants." 115. Many persons, in subscribing their name, have a fancy for giving only the initials of their first, or given name; thus, R. E. Jones, J. M. Smith. No one can deter- mine from these signatures whether the writer is Reuben or Rebecca, James or Juliet, and the person addressed, who is often a stranger, is at a loss whether to send his reply to Mr. Jones or Miss Jones, to Mr. Smith or Miss Smith. 116. In signing one's name to a letter, or to any other document, it is advisable that the name should always be so written as to show whether the writer is a man or a woman. This is particularly important in addressing a letter to a stranger. 11 v. A married woman or a widow, in writing to a stranger, should also prefix Mrs. to her name. A married woman generally gives, with the Mrs., the first name of her husband, so long as he lives, but drops it after his death; thus. Yours truly, Mrs. William Southcote; Yours truly, Mrs. Joanna Southcote. Supposing both these to be written by the same person, we infer from the former that the writer is Mr. Southcote's wife; from the latter, that she is his widow. 118. The particular terms of endearment used in the subscription to letters of love and friendship, will vary, of course, with the fancy of the writers. In general it may be remarked, however, that " loving" is abetter word than " affectionate," especially between kin. 119. The arrangement of the subscription, as of the address and the heading, is a matter of penmanship rather than of composition. Still it may not be amiss to observe that the terms of respect or affection usually occupy a line by themselves, sometimes two lines, and the name of the writer occupies another line. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 87 120. By the superscription of a letter is meant the address which is written upon the envelope. 121. Some care in this respect is needed, both because correctness in the superscription is the chief means for securing the safe delivery of the letter, and because any want of propriety in the superscription is sure to attract criticism. What is inside of one's letter may meet the eye of only the most indulgent friendship, and any little inelegance or carelessness is sure to be forgiven. But the outside usually undergoes the scrutiny of many, and it is but a poor compliment to your friend, that what he receives from you through the hands of third parties should give them the impression that his correspondent is an ignoramus or a boor. 122. The superscription of a letter, so far as the pen- manship goes, should be written with entire distinctness and legibility, with neatness and care, and with some attention to elegance, but never with ornamental flourishes. 123. The superscription consists of three parts: the name of the person addressed, the title, and the residence. 124. Intimate friends often have familiar pet names for each other, nicknames, which they use in the free intercourse of friendship. These may be allowable inside of the letter, but never outside. The name on the out- side should be written with formal propriety and correct- ness, as it would be expected to be written by an entire stranger. 125. The greatest difficulty in addressing a letter is to know what title to give. 126. Every one now-a-days, except among the Friends, has some title. A young lad usually has the prefix Master, and any unmarried woman the prefix Miss. Every man-ied woman or widow has the prefix Mrs., and every man who has no higher title is Mr. 127. Medical men have the title M. D. after their names, and legal gentlemen that of Esquire. Others, who OO THE EXAMINEE S COMPANION. belong to neither of these professions, but who are grad- uates of Colleges, have some academic title after their names, as A. M., or Ph. D., etc. In such cases the Mr. before the name should be dropped. It would be ridic- ulous to write Mr. John Peters, Esq., Mr. Thomas Dobbs, M. D. In like manner, it is absurd to write John Bates, A. M., D. D. 128. There is a ridiculous fashion among some ill-in- formed persons of appending Esq. to the name of every one who has no other title. It may be proper sometimes to address in this way a man somewhat advanced in years and of high social standing, who happens to have no special official designation; but to apply the title, as is often done, to boys fresh from school, to clerks and sales- men in stores, and to common day-laborers, is a discourteous and uncivil mockery. 129.- The higher title presupposes the lower. When one reaches D. D., or LL. D., he drops his A. B. or his A. M. It is customary, however, to retain both of the two higher titles, D. D., LL. D., if one happens to reach them both, and the LL. D. in such a case is written last, as James McCosh, D. D., LL. D., not James McCosh, LL. D., D. D. 130. Clergymen always have the prefix Rev., and Bishops that of Rt. Rev., and this is usually retained even where they have D. D., or some other honorary title, as Rev. John Maclean, D. D., LL. D. 131. Judges, Members of Congress, and sonae other high officers of Govei'nment, have the prefix Honorable. This title prefixed to a name extinguishes the title Esquire after it, but not any title of special honor. It would not be right to say Hon. Joel Jones, Esq., but one may with entire propriety say Hon. Joel Jones, LL. J). 132. Where an honorary prefix such as Rev. or Hon. is used, it is more respectful to give the full name, as Rev. William A. Butler, not Rev. Mr. Butler; Hon. Salmon P. Chase, not Hon. Judge Chase. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANS^\^ERS. 8d 133. The Governor of a State is usually addressed as His Excellency, and this is written in a separate line, with the full name in a second line and the official title on a third line. 134. Etiquette in Washington has prescribed the following form in addressing the President of the United States: On the outside of the letter, To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C. Inside: "Mr. President, I have the honor," etc. These forms are the strict etiquette. Not one word more or less is necessary. To write "To the President of the United States,^'' would be surplusage. 185. In writing upon the envelope of a letter the resi- dence of the person addressed, the same general rules should be observed which have already been given for writing one's own residence at the top of the letter. 136. The only additional rule needed is that the name of the State should be written out in full, especially when the letter is to go to some other State than that in which it is written. 137. There are so many towns having the same name, that in the haste of post-office business a letter is often sent to two or three diiferent places before it reaches the right one, and sometimes it is lost altogether. But there are never two post-offices of the same name in the same State, and the postmasters are always familiar with the loca- tion of all the offices in their own State. The name of the State being written in full, in a clear, legible hand, on the face of the letter, it is almost sure to go to the right State, and being once in the State, it is equally sure of reaching the right office, and by the most direct route. 138. At a critcal moment in American affairs, (the time of" John Brown's raid" at Harper's Ferry,) Governor Wise, of Virginia, wrote an important letter to Governor 90 ■ THE examiner's COMPANION. Curtin, of Pennsylvania. The letter was addressed to " Harrisburg, Pa." The country postmaster being natu- rally more familiar with the towns in his own State than with those farther off, and mistaking Pa. for Va., mailed the letter Harris[on]burg, Virginia, and before the mis- take was discovered, the rapid march of events had made the letter too late. 139. It is proper to observe, also, that in writing the residence on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one line, as is done at the head of a letter, each item of the residence forms a separate line. 140. The name and title should occupy the central portion of the envelope. If they are placed higher up than the middle, the appearance is awkward, and besides, a clear space above is needed for the postmark and stamp. If the name is written much below the middle, as young misses have an affected way of doing, it does not leave room below for writing the residence without unsightly crowding. 141. It is better, both for appearance, and for prac- tical convenience, to let the name and title occupy a line that is just about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The name should not be crowded off to the extreme right of the envelope, as inexperienced persons are apt to place it, but should be placed about centrally between the two ends. In this manner the name stands out more distinctly to the eye, and it gives a more symmetrical appearance to the whole, if there is a clear space left at each end. 142. A diary is an account made day by day of the events or transactions of the day. The subjects recorded in a diary vary, of course, with the age, sex, occupation and character of the diarist. It is a form of composition more used, perhaps, than any other for recording religious experience. Travelers record thus their daily adventures and observations. Stitdents, men of business, men of COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 91 pleasure even, are wont to write down from day to day things which interest them, or which they desire partic- ularly to remember. 143. A diary is the least exact and formal of all kinds of composition. The primary and governing idea which should control the writer in its formation is, that its pages are meant for his own eye only. He writes an entry to-day in order that, some years hence, when memory begins to fail, he may see exactly what to-day's thoughts or experiences were. It is a record made for the informa- tion of one's future self. The first quality, therefore, in such a record, is that it be absolutely honest. 144. It is essential to the honesty and truthfulness of a diary that the date of an entry should be that on which the entry is actually made. Inexperienced persons, in keeping a diary, sometimes omit making any record for several days, and then, on some day when they have leis- ure or inclination, make one job of it, and fill up the missing days from memory. This is to make the whole record valueless, either for themselves or for any one else. 145. Persons who keep a diary will likewise find it of great value to themselves to register the place where, as well as the time when, each entry is made. Accuracy and particularity in regard to facts are indeed the essential points in the composition of a diary. 146. Next to writing letters, there is, in modern times, no species of composition of which so much is done as news writing. The innumerable items which fill the news columns of the daily and weekly papers are enormous in amount, and constitute the chief reading of the public — the daily bread of our literary life. 147. The literature of the news columns is not, perhaps, of a very high character; yet that it is a part of the liter- ature of the day can not well be denied, and the rules which should govern it ought not to be entirely ignored in any work professing to treat of the various kinds of com- position in actual use. 9^ THE examiner's COMPANION. 148. The chief excellencies of style to be cultivated by the writer of news are accuracy, condensation, and j9er5^.>/- cuity. The higher graces of style, such as those growing out of the use of rhetorical figures, lie in a different plane. The news writer has not the leisure for such ornaments, nor, if he had, would their use be in accordance with good taste. What the reader requires of him is simply a state- ment of facts, and this statement should aim at the three qualities just named. 149. In the arrangement of a modern newspaper — and the same is true to some extent in magazines — a portion of the space is reserved for the expression of the opinions of the editor or editors, on the current topics of the day. The paragraphs thus written are one of the peculiar products of modern times, and form a noticeable species of prose composition. 150. The style suited for the editorial columns is not only of a high order of composition, but is one peculiar to itself. A first-class editorial admits, indeed, of almost every grace and excellence of style known to rhetoric. But one may have, all these excellencies, may be a first- class writer in many other departments of literature, and yet not succeed as a writer of editorials. 151. Yes. An important requisite, in a writer of edi- torials, is the ability rightly to conceive of himself as being placed in this responsible position of a public teacher. He must know how to use with vigor, and yet with discretion, a certain form of self-assertion. It is not, however, the mere use of "we" that makes a piece of composition an editorial. The best editorials employ this formula very sparingly, and sometimes omit it altogether. But the writer, in penning such articles, conceives himself as one set to teach. His business is to give his opinions, and that for the express purjjose of influencing the opin- ions of others. 152. Fame, in its highest sense is rarely, if ever, COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 93 attained by writing editorials. Yet to write editorials of the best class requires a degree and variety of talent, which, if employed in other kinds of writing, would ensure high and lasting fame. 153. Reviews are of the nature of editorials, only much more extended. A review is a very long editorial. It is an article of many pages, giving the opinions of a monthly or quarterly magazine, instead of an article of a column or part of a column, giving the opinions of a weekly or a daily paper. 154. The magazine, like the paper, is the organ of a certain set of opinions. Its office is to propagate and enforce those opinions, but in doing so it enters more largely into the details of argument and explanation. 155. Reviews, like editorials, embrace almost every variety of subject. They are commonly, though not always, based upon some book. They sometimes examine the book merely, sometimes the subject treated of in the book, and often they discuss first the book and then some subject discussed in the book, or suggested by it. 156. Essays differ in some respects from reviews. A review, like an editorial, expresses the opinions of some acknowledged representative organ, and its utterances have, besides their own inherent value, whatever weight of authority has been acquired by that organ. But an essay stands solely on its own merits. It is in form entirely impersonal, or if the author introduces himself at all, it is in the singular, " I," not Avith the editorial "we." 157. An essay rarely bases its remarks upon a book. On the contrary, it begins usually with a subject, and if books are brought in at all, it is only incidentally, and by way of reference or quotation. Essays treat a subject in a more formal and systematic manner than reviews do, and are divided into regular numbered heads, chapters, sections, and so forth, which is rarely, if ever, the case with reviews. 94 THE examiner's COMPANION. 158. While there are slight differences between essays and reviews, there are between them many more points of resemblance. The difference, indeed, is in form rather than in substance. Substantially, a large part of the best reviews in the language, as for instance a majority of those written by Macaulay, are essays. 159. Essays now usually appear first as contributions to magazines. After publication in this form, they are some- times collected and published in separate volumes. Mr. Whipple and Mr. Tuckerman have published several such volumes, which may be safely commended to the notice of any reader who desires to become acquainted with this class of writings. The best essays, by far, however, which have appeared in our recent literature, are those by Lowell, in a volume entitled " Among My Books." 160. A treatise is a written discourse or composition on some subject, setting forth its principles in a systematic and orderly manner. 161. Treatises differ from essays mainly in being more formal and scientific. They are more frequently divided, than essays are,' into regular chapters, sections, sub-sec- tions, and so on. 162. Treatises are usually plain in style, rarely admit- ting of any kind of figures of speech, or rhetorical orna- ment, while essays abound in ornaments and figures, and give full opportunity for the use of every kind of rhetorical beauty, 163. Yes. Essays more commonly refer to some of the fine arts, or to subjects which are not capable of, or have not yet been reduced to, a scientific classification; treatises are usually upon some definite branch of science, as astronomy, botany, algebra, logic, metaphysics, theology, and the like. 164. Text-books, whether those for scientific reference, or those for study in schools and seminaries of learning, are treatises. This branch of literature, though not COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC ANSWERS. 95 unknown to the ancients, has received an enormous development in modern times, and especially within the last fifty years. 165. Books of travel come nearer to diaries than to any other kind of writing. 166. Books of travel usually contain a record of things seen or done from day to day, and in that respect are like diaries. But, on the other hand, travels are written, not to assist the memory of the writer, but avowedly for the information of others, and this will naturally affect the style. 167. The traveler, like the diarist, is under a special obligation of accuracy in regard to dates, and indeed to facts generally. That which gives the chief value to a book of travel is the information which it contains. It tells the reader things which he can not see for himself. The traveler is in the witness-box, and we look to him for the exact truth. 168. History holds about the same rank in prose com. position that the epic does in poetry. The proper office of the historian is to record important events for the instruc- tion of mankind. The fundamental qualities required of him, therefore, are impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy. 169. The historian must not indeed neglect chrono- logical order, with a view to render his narration agreeable. He must give a distinct account of the dates, and of the coincidence of facts. But he is not under the necessity of breaking off always in the middle of transactions in order to inform us of what was happening elsewhere at the same time. He discovers no art, if he can not form some con- nection among the affairs which he relates, so as to intro- duce them in a proper train. He will soon tire the reader if he goes on recording, in strict chronological order, a multitude of separate transactions, connected by nothing else but their happening at the same time. 170. Nothing tries an historian's abilities more, than so 96 THE examiner's COMPANION. to lay his train beforehand, as to make us pass naturally and agreeably from one part of his subject to another; to employ no clumsy and awkward junctures; and to contrive ways and means of forming some union among transac- tions which seem to be most widely separated from one another. iVl. An historian that would interest us must know when to be concise, and when he ought to enlarge; passing concisely over slight and unimportant events, but dwelling on such as are striking and considerable in their nature, so pregnant with consequences; preparing before- hand our attention to them, and bringing them forth into the most full and conspicuous light. He must also attend to a proper selection of the circumstances belonging to those events which he chooses to relate fully. General facts make a slight impression on the mind. It is by means of circumstances and particulars properly chosen that a narration becomes interesting and affecting to the reader. These give life, body, and coloring to the recital of facts, and enable us to behold them as present and passing before our eyes. It is this employment of circum- stances in narration that is properly termed historical painting. 172, .Annals are an inferior kind of history. A book of annals is a collection of facts arranged in strict chrono- logical order. Annals rather contain the materials of history than constitute history itself. The chief qualities required in a writer of annals are that he be clear, accu- rate, and complete. lYS, Memoirs also are a species of historical writing, though not strictly constituting history. The writer of memoirs does not pretend to give a complete account of transactions, but only to relate such portions of them as he himself had access to, or had something to do with. We do not expect from him the same profound research, or the same varied information, that we expect from the historian. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 97 174. A biography is the history of one individual. Biography is, therefore, a species of historical composition. Biography differs from history proper, not only in being thus limited in its range, but also in being less stately and formal. In this latter respect biography corresponds with memoirs, descending to the particulars of private life and to familiar incidents. 175. Biography differs from memoirs in being com- plete in itself. It is no objection to memoirs that they are fragmentary, containing only selected portions of the transactions commemorated. But a biography of a man is expected to give his whole life, just as the history of a nation or of a period is expected to give its whole history. 176. An autobiography is a memoir or biography of a person written by himself. 177. A fiction is a story made up of incidents invented for the purpose. The names most commonly given to works of fiction are Novels and Romances. These terms are for the most part used indiscriminately, though romances more strictly mean a class of fiction in which the manners, incidents, and sentiments are of a rather extravagant kind. 178. Novels are divided into two leading classes, his- torical and domestic. Historical novels are those in which the events of history are introduced, and historical per- sons are represented as talking and acting. The great mass of novels, however, are of a domestic character, the incidents being such as occur in private life. 179. The novelist relies for the interest of his story, first and mainly, upon the curiosity of the reader. The incidents being of the writer's own creation, he contrives so to arrange them as to conceal from his readers the issue of the affair until the very end of the story. If the nov- elist were to begin his story by acquainting his readers at the outset with the issue of the whole, so that we should Icnow from the first who is to be married or killed, and how 7 98 THE examiner's companion. things generally are to turn out, which is in the main our condition in sitting down to read history or biography, an epic, or a play, it is safe to say that not one novel in a hundred would ever be read. 180. The greater part of the fiction now published and read has no other object than mere pleasure, and that of a very low kind. Novels of this sort have a debasing effect upon the public mind. The reading of them is a mere mental dissipation, unfitting the reader both for reading of a more elevated kind, and for the active duties of life. 181. Yes. A good many novels have a higher aim, being intended by their authors to disseminate theories of life and morals, and even of religion. Dickens' novels, for instance, are aimed mainly at social vices, and so effi- ciently has he propagated his opinions on these subjects, by means of his fictions, that he has created a strong public sentiment in favor of his social views. 182. A discourse differs from the other kinds of com- position which have been described, in that it is intended to be read or spoken to the persons addressed, instead of being read by them. In an essay, a review, or a history, the writer prepares something which others are to read for themselves. In a discourse of any kind he prepares some- thing which he intends himself to read or speak to others. 183. The principal kinds of discourses are ^ orations, addresses, sermons, lectures, and speeches. 184. An oration is a discourse of the most formal and elaborate kind. It is generally in commemoration of some important public event, or in eulogy of some distinguished person, or on an occasion of some kind justifying the most deliberate and careful preparation. 185. An address is a discourse nearly akin to an ora- tion, but somewhat less formal in character, and much less restricted in regard to the occasion and the subject. 186. Perhaps, in the United States, the kind of address which has received the most attention is that of which we COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 99 have annually so many examples at our "College Com- mencements. Not the speeches of the graduating classes are referred to, but those delivered before the literary societies of the College, and on their invitation, by gradu- ates of high standing in the various professions. 187. A sermon is a formal discourse by a cleryman, intended for religious instruction, and founded usually on some passage of Scripture, Sermons are too well known to require further description. ] 88. A lecture is a discourse intended primarily for instruction, and on any subject, secular or religious. lo9. Lectures may be conveniently divided into three different kinds, namely: 1. Those delivered in schools, colleges, and other institutions of learning, for the direct jnn-pose of instructing a class. 2. Those delivered in churches, usually on some week-day evening, for the pur- pose of religious instruction and exhortation, and less formal than a sermon. 3. Those delivered before a popular audience, on some secular subject, and intended partly to entertain, and partly to instruct. 190. Every kind of discourse is in some sense a speech. But the term speech is often used in a special and restricted sense. In this sense it differs from the other kinds of discourse in being always intended to be spoken, while the others are mainly intended to be read; in not being intended for instruction, as the others mostly are; and in not being limited to any particular subject or occasion. 191. Speeches are usually delivered extemporaneously, that is, they are composed at the time and in the act of delivery, though they may be, and often are, composed beforehand and committed to memory. 192. A discourse which is to produce a profound impression must maintain a certain unity of subject. This is as important in a public discourse as it is in an epic poem. 193. In a discourse to be read or spoken to others, we must, both in the subject selected and in the manner of 100 THE examiner's COMPANION. treating it, have reference to the character of the persons addressed. 194. Discourses differ in this respect from ordinary treatises, in which the author has to look at his subject only. A man might with propriety lecture on differential calculus to a company of savans, or to an advanced class in college, but he could hardly do so to a mixed popular assembly. Whoever wishes to succeed as a lecturer, or as a speaker of any kind, must study his audience as well as his subject, and adapt his discourse both to the occasion and the hearers. 195. A discourse is symmetrical when it has all the parts belonging to such a production, and these parts are all in due order and correlation. 1 96. The parts properly belonging to a formal discourse are: 1. The Introduction. 2. The Statement of the Sub- ject. 3. The Main Discourse. 4. The Conclusion. 19Y. A formal introduction or exordium, is not always required. Its object, when used, is, first, to conciliate the good will of the hearers; secondly, to gain their attention; thirdly, to make them open to conviction by removing any prejudices or prepossessions they may have against the topic or the cause which we are about to present. As a good introduction is one of the most important, so it is one of the most difficult parts of a discourse. 198. When by a good introduction a speaker has done what he can to gain for himself and his subject a favorable hearing, his next business is to state the subject of his dis- coin'se. The only rule to be observed in regard to this is that the subject should be stated in few and simple words, and with the utmost possible clearness. 199. Writers on rhetoric have made here many sub- divisions, such as the explication or narration, the division, the argumentative part, and the pathetic part, and under each of these they have laid down almost numberless rules. But the utility of such rules and divisions is very COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 101 much doubted. Each man must of necessity be left to his own judgment and powers of invention as to the best manner of constructing the body of his discourse. No two topics ordinarily are to be handled precisely alike; no two writers handle the same topic exactly in the same way ; no writer himself handles a topic in the same way under different circumstances. 200. The Conclusion or Peroration of a discourse, like the Introduction, requires special care. The object in the conclusion is to leave as strong an impression as possible upon the minds of the audience. Sometimes this is done by reserving to the last the strongest part or head of the discourse and ending with it. Sometimes the speaker gives a brief and striking summary of the whole discourse. The main thing to be observed is to hit upon the precise time for bringing the discourse to a point. If this is done too abruptly, it leaves the hearers expectant and dissat- isfied. If, when the discourse seems ended and the hearers are looking for the close, the speaker continues turning round and round the point, without coming to a pause, the audience becomes restless and tired. There are, indeed, very few speakers that know how, or when, to stop. QUESTIONS. 1. Define abduction. 2. What are the civil remedies? 3. Define abortion. 4. What is an abstract of title? 5. What can you say of an accessary? 6. What is an accessary before the fact f 7. Define an accessary after the fact. 8. What is an accomplice? 9. What is an accumulative judgment? 10. What is an administrator? An administratrix? 11. Define the meaning of admonition. 12. What is an adult? 13. Define adultery. 14. What is an advancement? 15. Define an afiidavit. 16. In what manner does an afiidavit differ from a deposition? 17. What is an affirmation? 18. What is said regarding an affirmation in the United States? (102) LAW — QUESTIONS. 103 19. What is said regarding an affirmation in England? 20. What is said regarding an affirmation in France? 21. What is the form of an affirmation? 22. Define the term agent. 23. What is an agreement? 24. What is an alibi? 25. What can be said regarding the evidence of an alibi? 26. What is an alien? 27. Define the term alimony. 28. What is an ambassador? 29. Define the word arson. 30. What is an assault? 31. What can you say of an assignee 32. What is said regarding an assignment 33. Name the proper technical words of an assignment. 34. What can you say of an assignor? 35. What is an atheist? 36. What is an attachment? 37. What is an attorney? 38. How many kinds of attorneys are there? 39. What is the meaning of the word hailmentf 40. Define the terra battery. 41. Define the term bigamy. 42. What is a bill of exchange? 43. What is a bill of sale? 44. Define the term bribery 45. What are brokers? 46. What is the meaning of the term burden of proof f 47. What is said of criminal cases? 48. Define the term burglary. 49. What is the meaning of the term caveat emptor? 50. What is the meaning of the term certiorari'^ 51. Define the term cAamjoeWy. 52. What is the meaning of the word chattels? 53. How are chattels divided? 54. Define the term client. 104 THE examiner"' S COMPANIOJI. 55. What are the duties of the client towards his counsel? 56. What are the rights of a client? 57. What is a codicil? 58. May there be more than one codicil to a will? 59. What was formerly the difference between a will and a codicil? 60. What is the meaning of collateral security? 61. What is the meaning of collusion? 62. Define the term consanguinity. 63. This relation by blood is of how many kinds? 64. What is lineal consanguinity? 65. What is collateral consanguinity? 66. What is the mode of computing the degrees? 67. What is the method of computing by the civil law? 68. What is the meaning of consequential damages? 69. Define the term consideration. 70. What is a good consideration? 71. What is a valuable consideration? 72. Define the term conspiracy. 73. What is a contract? 74. How are contracts divided? 75. What is an express contract? 76. Of how many sorts are express contracts? 77. Define a parol contract. 78. What is a contract by specialty or under seal? 79. What is said of contracts of record? 80. What are implied contracts? 81. Define a corporation. 82. Are the words corporation and incorporation ever confounded? 83. How are corporations divided? 84. What are public corporations? 85. What are private corporations? 86. How are private corporations divided? 87. What are ecclesiastical corporations? LAW QUESTIONS. 105 88. How are lay corporations divided^ 89. What are eleemosynary corporations? 90. How are corporations considered in another point of view? 91. Define a sole corporation. 92. Can a sole corporation take personal property in succession? 93. Define an aggregate corporation. 94. Define the term covenant 95. What is a crime? 96. What is an estate by the courtesy? 97. Is this estate similar in any of its incidents to dower? 98. Define the term damages. 99. Define the term debt. 100. What is a declaration — in pleading? 101. Define a deed. A deed poll. 102. Is a deed poll an agreement between two persons? 103. What is a defaulter? 104. Define the term demurrer. 105. What is a deposition? 106. What should be done before a deposition is taken? 107. What is the meaning of descent? 108. Define the term detinue. 109. What is the gist of this action? 110. What action has now taken the place of detinue? 111. Define the term c^t'yorce. 112. Why is it so called? 113. What is the meaning of the term domicile? 114. Can a man be without a domicile? 115. Was this so by the Roman law? 116. Can a man have two domiciles at one and the same time? 117. What is a dormant pai'tner? 118. What is the meaning of the word dower? 119. In what way can dower be barred? 106 THE examiner's COMPANION. 120. Define the term easement. 121. What is the meaning of the terra ejectment? 122. Define the term embezzlement. 123. Define the term emblements. 124. What is the meaning of the term embracery? 125. What is the meaning of the term eminent domain? 126. What is a court of equity? 127. What is an equity of redemption? 128. Define an escrow. 129. Define the word estate. 130. What is an estate for life? 131. What is the meaning of the word evidence? 132. What is hearsay evidence? 133. Define circumstantial evidence. 134. What is an executor? 135. Who may be executors? 136. What is an executor de son tort? 137. Define the word felony. 138. What is a fixture? 139. Define the word forgery. 140. What is a gift? 141. How are gifts divided? Define them. 142. What is a grand jmy? 143. What is a writ of habeas corpus? 144. What is an heir? 145. Define the term hereditaments. 146. How are hereditaments divided? 147. Define the term homicide. 148. Define the term indictment. 149. What is an injunction? 150. What is larceny? 151. What is meant by the term "carrying away," in defining larceny? 152. Define the term law 153. What is the meaning of law in its more confined sense? LAW QUESTIONS, 107 154. What is a libel as here expressed? 155. Mention a case which was held to be libelous. 156. What is a lien? 157. What is a writ of mandamus? 158. Define manslaughtei*. 159. What is one of the distinctions between man- slaughter and murder? 160. Define a misdemeanor. 161. What is said of mortgages? 162. In equity what kinds of property may be the sub- ject of a mortgage? 163. Define the word murder. 164. What is the meaning of naturalization? 165. Define a nuisance. 166. How are nuisances divided? 167. Define a public or common nuisance. A private nuisance. 168. What is an oath? 169. Define the term partnership. 170. Define the term perjury. 171. What is a power of attorney? 172. Define the word quit-claim. 173. Define the word quo-warranto 174. What is a receipt? 175. If a receipt be given m full of all demands is it positive evidence of that fact? 176. What is a writ of replevin? 177. Define the term robber)^ 178. What is the meaning of the word sale? 179. What does a valid sale require? 180. What is a search warrant? 181. Define the term seduction. 182. What is the meaning of a set-off, in law? 183. What is said of a sheriff? 184. What are the general duties of the sheriff? 185. Define the word slander. 108 THE examiner's COMPANION. 186. What is the meaning of the term stoppage in transitu? 187. What is a subpcena? 188. If a witness be subpoenaed and fail to attend court as commanded, what may be done? 189. Define a subpoena duces tecum. 190. What is a supersedeas? 191. What is a tort? 192. Define treason. 193. What is the meaning of trespass? 194. Define trover. 195. What is usury? 196. What is a warrant? 197. How should a warrant be made? 198. What is a bench warrant? 199. Define a will or testament. 200. How many essential requisites to make a good will and what are they? 201. How are wills divided, and what is the meaning of a nuncupative will? LAW ANSWERS. 1. Abduction is the carrying away of any person by force or fraud. This is a misdemeanor punishable by indictment. 2. The civil remedies are recaption; by writ of habeas corpus; and an action of tresj^ass. 3. Abortion is the premature birth or exclusion of the human fcetus. It, is doubtful whether the act of causing an abortion is an offense at common law unless the mother 18 quick with child, on the untenable ground that life does not begin until that period. Tlie early statutes took the same distinction. Later legislation in England wholly discards it, and makes it a felony to procure the miscar- riage of a female by unlawful means at any period of her pregnancy. The laws of the various States in this country still maintain to some extent the older rule. 4. An abstract of title is a brief account of all the deeds upon which the title to an estate rests. 5. An accessory is one who is not the chief actor in the perpetration of the offence, nor present at its perform- ance, but is some way concerned therein, either before or after the fact committed. (109) 110 THE examiner's COMPANION. 6. An accessary before the fact, is one who being absent at the time of the crime committed, yet procures, coun- sels, or commands another to commit it. 7. An accessary after the fact, is one who knowing a felony to have been committed, receives, relieves, com- forts, or assists the felon. 8. The term accomplice includes in its meaning, all persons who have been concerned in the commission of a crime, all particepes criminis, whether they are considered in strict legal propriety, as principals in the first or second degree, or merely as accessaries before or after the fact. 9. An accumulative judgment is a second or additional judgment given against one who has been convicted, the execution or effect of which is to commence after the first has expired; as where a man is sentenced to an imprison- ment for six months on conviction of larceny, and, after- wards, he is convicted of burglary, he may be sentenced to undergo an imprisonment for the latter crime, to com- mence after the expiration of the first imprisonment. 10. An administrator is a person lawfully appointed, with his assent, by an officer having jurisdiction, to manage and settle the estate of a deceased person who has left no executor, or one who is for the time incompetent or unable to act. The term administratrix is applied to a woman to whom letters of administration have been granted. 11. It is a reprimand from a judge to a person accused, on being discharged, warning him of the consequences of his conduct, and intimating to him, that should he be guilty of the same fault for which he has been admonished, he will be punished with greater severity. 12. An adult, in the civil law, is an infant who, if a boy, has attained his full age of fourteen years, and if a girl, her full age of twelve. In the common law an adult is considered one of full age. 13. It is a criminal conversation, between a man mar- ried to another woman, and a woman married to another LAW ANSWERS. Ill man, or a married and unmarried person. The married person is guilty of adultery, the unmarried of fornication. 14. That which is given by a father to his child or presumptive heir, by anticipation of what he might inherit. 15. An oath or affirmation reduced to writing, sworn or affirmed to before some officer who has authority to administer it. 16. An affidavit differs from a deposition in this, that in the latter the opposite party has had an opportunity to cross-examine the witness, whereas an affidavit is always taken ex parte. IV. A solemn declaration and asseveration, which a witness makes before an officer competent to administer an oath in a like case, to tell the truth, as if he had been sworn. 18. In the United States, generally, all witnesses who declare themselves conscientiously scrupulous against taking a corporal oath, are permitted to make a solemn affirmation, and this in all cases, as well criminal as civil. 19. In England, laws have been enacted which partially relieve persons who have conscientious scruples against taking an oath, and authorize them to make affirmation. 20. In France, the laws which allow freedom of relig- ious opinion have received the liberal construction that all persons are to be sworn or affirmed according to the dic- tates of their consciences; and a Quaker's affirmation has been received and held of the same effect as an oath. 21. The form is to this effect: " You, A. B., do sol- emnly, sincerely, and truly declare and ^rm," etc. For the violation of the truth in such case, the witness is sub- ject to the punishment of perjury as if he had been sworn. 22. An agent is one who undertakes to manage some affair to be transacted for another, by his authority, on account of the latter, who is called the principal^ and to render an account of it. 23. An agreement is the consent of two or more per- 112 THE examinee's COMPANION. sons concurring, respecting the transmission of some property, right or benefit, with a view of contracting an obligation. 24. This is a Latin word, which signifies eUewhere. When a person, charged with a crime, proves that he was, at the time alleged, in a different place from that in which it was committed, he is said to prove an alibi, the effect of which is to lay a foundation for the necessary inference, that he could not have committed it. 25. It must be admitted that mere alibi evidence lies under a great and general prejudice, and ought to be heard with uncommon caution; but if it appears to be founded in truth, it is the best negative evidence that can be offered; it is really positive evidence, which in the nature of things necessarily implies a negative; and in many cases, it is the only evidence M'hich an innocent man can offer. 26. An alien is one born out of the jurisdiction of the United States, who has not since been naturalized under their constitution and laws. To this there are some excep- tions, as the children of the ministers of the United States at foreign courts. 27. Alimony is the maintenance or support which a husband is bound to give to his wife upon a separation from her; or the support which either father or mother is bound to give to his or her children, though this is more usually called maintenance. 28. A public minister sent abroad by some sovereign state or prince, with a legal commission and authority to transact business'bn behalf of his country with the govern- ment to which he is sent. He is a minister of the highest rank, and represents the person of his sovereign. 29. Arson, at common law, is an offense of the degree of felony; and is defined by Lord Coke to be the malicious and voluntary burning of the house of another, by night or day. 30. An assault is any unlawful attempt or offer with force or violence to do a corporal hurt to another, whether LAW — ANSWERS. 113 from malice or wantonness; for example, by striking at him or even holding up the fist at hira in a threatening or insulting manner, or with other circumstances as denote at the time an intention, coupled with a present ability, of actual violence against bis person, as by pointing a weapon at him when he is within reach of it. 31 An assignee is one to whom an assignment has been made. Assignees are either assignees in fact or assignees in law. An assignee in fact is one to whom an assign- ment has been made in fact by the party having the right. An assignee in law is one in whom the law vests the right, as an executor or administrator. 32. In common parlance an assignment signifies the transfer of all kinds of property, real, personal, and mixed, and whether the same be in possession or in action; as, a general assignment. In a more technical sense it is usually applied to the transfer for a term of years; but it is more properly used to signify a transfer of some partic- ular estate or interest in lands. 33. The proper technical words of an assignment are, assign, transfer, and set over; but the words grant, bar- gain, and sell, or any other words which will show the intent of the parties to make a complete transfer, will amount to an assignment. 34. An assignor is one who makes an assignment; one who transfers property to another. In general the assignor can limit the operation of his assignment, and impose whatever condition he may think proper; but when he makes a general assignment in trust for the use of his creditors, he can impose no condition whatever which will deprive them of any right; nor any condition forbidden by law; as giving preference when the law forbids it. 35. An atheist is one who denies the existence of God. As atheists have not any religion that can bind their con- sciences to speak the truth, they are excluded from beinj^ witnesses. 8 114 THE examiner's COMPANION. 36. A writ issued by a court of competent jurisdiction, commanding the sheriff or other proper officer to seize any property, credit, or right, belonging to the defendant, in whatever hands the same may be found, to satisfy the demand which the plaintiff has against him. 3 "7. An attorney is one who acts for another by virtue of an appointment by the latter. 38. Attorneys are of two kinds — in fact and at law. An attorney in fact is an agent, though the term is com- monly applied to one who is authorized to act for another by a writing called a power of attorney. An attorney at law is one who is authorized by law to act in the place of another in the management or conduct of law proceedings. 39. A bailment, Mr. Justice Blackstone has defined to be a delivery of goods in trust, upon a contract, either ex- pressed or implied, that the trust shall be faithfully execu- ted on the part of the bailee. 40. A battery is the unlawful touching the person of another by the aggressor himself, or any other substance put in motion by him. An injury, be it ever so small, done to the person of another, in an angry, spiteful, rude or in- solent manner, as by spitting in his face, or any way touch- ing him in anger, or violently jostling him, are batteries in the eye of the law. 41. Bigamy is the willful contracting of a second mar- riage when the contracting party knows that the first is still subsisting; or it is the state of a man who has two wives, or of a woman who has two husbands living at the same time. When the man has more than two wives, or the woman more than two husbands living at the same time, then the party is said to have committed polygamy, but the name of bigamy is more frequently given to this offence in legal proceedings. 42. A bill of exchange is defined to be an open letter of request from, and order by, one person on another, to pay a sum of money therein mentioned to a third person, on demand, or at a future time therein specified. LAW ANSWERS. 115 43. A bill of sale i%s an agreement in writing, under seal, by which a man transfers the right or interest he has in goods and chattels, to another. As the law imparts a consideration Avhen an agreement is made by deed, a bill of sale alters the property. 44. Bribery is the receiving or offering any undue reward by or to any person whomsoever, whose ordinary profession or business relates to the administration of pub- lic justice, in order to influence liis behavior in office, and to incline him to act contrary to his duty and the known rules of honesty and integrity. 45. Brokers are those persons who are engaged for others, in the negotiation of contracts, relative to property, with the custody of which they have no concern. 46. This phrase is employed to signify the duty of proving thd facts in dispute on an issue raised between the parties in a cause. The burden of proof always lies on the party who takes the affirmative in pleading. 47. In criminal cases, as every man is presumed to be innocent until the contrary is proved, the burden of proof rests on the prosecutor, unless a different provision is expressly made by statute. 48. Burglary is the breaking and entering the house of another in the night time, with intent to commit a felony therein, whether the, felony be actually committed or not. 49. Let the purchaser take heed; that is, let him see to it, that the title he is buying is good. This is a rule of the common law, applicable to the sale and purchase of lands and other real estate. If the purchaser pay the con- sideration money, he can not, as a general rule, recover it back after the deed has been executed; except in cases of fraud, or by force of some covenant in the deed which has been broken. The purchaser, if he fears a defect of title, has it in his power to protect himself by proper cove- nants, and if he fails to do so, the law provides for bii.i no remedy. 116 THE examiner's COMPANION. 50. This is the name of a writ issued from a superior court directed to one of inferior jurisdiction, commanding the latter to certify and return to the former, the record in the particular case, 51. It is a bargain with a plaintiff or defendant, to divide the land or other matter sued for between them, if they prevail at law, the champertor undertaking to carry on the suit at his own expense. This offence differs from maintenance, in this, that in the latter the person assisting the suitor receives no benefit, while in the former he receives one-half, or other portion, of the thing sued for. 52. This is a term which includes all kinds of property, except the freehold or things which are parcel of it. It is a more extensive terra than goods or effects. Debtors taken in execution, captives, apprentices, are accounted chattels. 53. Chattels are divided into two classes, personal and real. Personal, are such as belong immediately to the person of a man; chattels real, are such as either appertain not immediately to the person, but to something by way of dependency, as a box with the title deeds of lands; or such as are issuing out of some real estate, as a lease of lands, or term of years, which pass like personalty to the executor of the owner. 54. A client is one who employs and retains an attorney or counselor to manage or defend a suit or action in which he is a party, or to advise him about some legal matters. 55. The duties of the client towards his counsel are, 1st, to give him a written authority; 2d, to disclose his case with perfect candor; 3d, to offer spontaneously, advances of money to his attorney; 4th, he should, at the end of the suit, promptly pay his attorney his fees. 56. The rights of a client are, 1st, to be diligently served in the management of his business; 2d, to be informed of its progress; and, 3d, that his counsel shall not disclose what has been professionally confided to him. LAW — ATfSWERS. 117 57. A codicil is an addition or supplement to a will; it must be executed with the same solemnities. A cfxlicil is apart of the will, the two instruments making but one will. 58. Yes, there may be several codicils to one will, and the whole will be taken as one: the codicil does not, con- sequently, revoke the will further than it is in opposition to some of its particular dispositions, unless there be express words of revocation. 69. Formerly, the difference between a will and a cod- icil consisted in this, that in the former an executor was named, while in the latter none was appoint(?d. This is the distinction of the civil law, and adopted by the canon law. 60. It is a separate obligation attached to another con- tract, to guaranty its performance. By this term is also meant the transfer of property or of other contracts to insure the performance of a principal engagement. The property or securities thus conveyed are also called collat- eral securities. 61. An agreement between two or more persons, to defraud a person of his rights by the forms of law, or tc obtain an object forbidden by law; as, for example, where the husband and wife collude to obtain a divorce for a cause not authorized by law. 62. Consanguinity is the relation subsisting among all the different persons descending from the same stock, or common ancestor. Some portion of the blood of the common ancestor flows through the veins of all his descendants, and though mixed with the blood flowing from many other families, yet it constitutes the kindred or alliance by blood between any two of the individuals. 63. This relation by blood is of two kinds, lineal and collateral. 64. Lineal consanguinity is that relation which exists among persons, where one is descended from the other, as between the son and the father, or the grandfather, and so upwards in a direct ascending line; and between the 118 THE EXAMIKEr's COMPANION. father and the son, or the grandson, and so downwards in a direct descending line. Every generation in this direct course makes a degree, computing either in the ascending or descending line. This being the natural mode of com- puting the degrees of lineal consanguinity, it has been adopted by the civil, the canon, and the common law. 65. Collateral consanguinity is the relation subsisting among persons who descend from the same common ances- tor, but not from each other. It is essential to constitute this relation, that they spring from the same common root or stock, but in different branches. 66. The mode of computing the degrees is to discover the common ancestor, to begin with him to reckon down- wards, and the degree the two persons, or the more remote of them, is distant from the ancestor, is the degree of kin- dred subsisting between them. For instance, two brothers are related to each other in the first degree, because from the father to each of them is one degree. An uncle and a nephew are related to each other in the second degree, because the nephew is two degrees distant from the common ancestor, and the rule of computation is extended to the remotest degrees of collateral relationship. This is the mode of computation by the common and canon law. 67. The method of computing by the civil law, is to begin at either of the persons in question, and count up to the common ancestor, and then downwards to the other person, calling it a degree for each person, both ascending and descending, and the degrees they stand from each other is the degree in which they stand related. Thus, from a nephew to his father, is one degree; to the grandfather, two degrees; and then to the uncle, three; which points out the relationship. 68. Those damages or those losses which arise not from the immediate act of the party, but in consequence of such act; as if a man throw a log into the public streets, and another fall upon it and become injured by the fall; or if LAW — ANSWERS. 119 a man should erect a dam over his own ground, and by that means overflow his neighbor's, to his injury. 69. Consideration, in law, is the material cause of a contract, the reason which induces a contracting party to make a contract. The leading distinction respecting con- siderations is, that they are either good or valuable. 70. A good consideration is based upon relationship or natural love, and is of avail only in an executed contract — e. g., a deed of land. 71. A valuable consideration either confers some benefit on the promisor or causes some inconvenience or harm to be sustained by the promisee. Under these rules marriage is a valuable consideration, 72. An agreement between two or more persons to do an unlawful act, or an act which may become by the com- bination injurious to others. 73. Blackstone defines a contract to be an agreement, upon a sufficient consideration, to do or not to do a par- ticular thing. A contract has also been defined to be a compact between two or more persons. 74. Contracts are divided into express or implied. 75. An express contract is one where the terms of the agreement are openly uttered and avowed at the time of making, as to pay a stated price for certain goods. 76. Express contracts are of three sorts: 1. By parol, or in writing, as contradistinguished from specialties. 2. By specialty or under seal. 3. Of record. 77. A parol contract is defined to be a bargain or vol- untary agreement made, either orally or in writing not under seal, upon a good consideration, between two or more persons capable of contracting to do a lawful act, or to omit to do something, the performance whereof is not enjoined by law. 78. Those which are made under seal, as deeds, bonds, and the like; they are not merely written, but delivered over by the party bound. The solemnity and deliberation 120 THE examiner's COMPANION. M'ith which, on account of the ceremonies to be observed, a deed or bond is presumed to be entered into, attach to it an importance and character which do not belong to a simple contract. In the case of a specialty, no consider- ation is necessary to give it validity. 79. The highest kind of express contracts are those of record, such as judgments, recognizances of bail, and in England, statutes merchant and staple, and other securities of the same nature, entered into with the intervention of some public authority. 80. Implied contracts are such as reason and justice dictates, and which, therefore, the law presumes every man undertakes to perform; as if a man employs another to do any business for him, or perform any work, the law implies that the former contracted or undertook to pay the latter as much as his labor is worth; or if one takes up goods from a tradesman, without any agreement of price, the law concludes that he contracts to pay their value. 81. In the case of Dartmouth College against Wood- ward, Chief Justice Marshall describes a corporation to be " an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of law." . 82, The words corporation and incorporation are fre- quently confounded, particularly in the old books. The distinction between them is, however, obvious, the one is the institution itself, the other the act by which the insti- tution is created. 83. Corporations are divided into public and private. 84. Public corporations, which are also called political, and sometimes municipal corporations, are those which have for their object the government of a portion of the State. 85. In the popular meaning of the term, nearly every corporation is public, inasmuch as they are created for the public benefit; but if the whole interest does not belong to the government, or if the corporation is not created for LAW — ANSWERS. 121 the administration of political or municipal power, the corporation is private. 86. Private corporations are divided into ecclesiastical and lay. 87. Ecclesiastical corporations, in the United States, are commonly called religious corporations; they are created to enable religious societies to manage with more facility and advantage, the temporalities belonging to the church or congregation. 88. Lay corporations are divided into civil and eleemos- ynary. Civil corporations are created for an infinite vaj-iety of temporal purposes, such as affording facilities for obtaining loans of money; the making of canals, turn- pike roads, and the like. And also such as are established for the advancement of learning. 89. Eleemosynary corporations are such as are instituted upon a principle of charity, their object being the perpetual distribution of the bounty of the founder of them, to such persons as he has directed. Of this kind are hospitals for the relief of the impotent, indigent and sick, or deaf and dumb. 90. Corporations, considered in another point of view, are either sole or aggregate. 91. A sole corporation, as its name implies, consists of only one person, to whom and his successors belongs that legal perpetuity, the enjoyment of which is denied to all natural persons. Those corporations are not common in the United States. 92. No. A sole corporation cannot take personal property in succession; its corporate capacity of taking property is confined altogether to real estate. 93. An aggregate corporation consists of several per- sons, who are united in one society, which is continued by a succession of members. Of this kind are the mayor or commonalty of a city; the heads and fellows of a college; the members of trading companies and the like. 122 THE examiner's COMPANION. 94. Covenant is the name of an action instituted for the recovery of damages for the breach of a covenant or promise under seal. 95. A crime is any act done in violation of those duties which an individual owes to the community, and for a breach of which the law has provided that the offender shall make satisfaction to the public. 96. This is an estate which a husband takes in the lands of inheritance belonging to his wife in case she dies before him and there was a child born alive during the marriage. It is an estate for his own life, and after his death the land reverts to the wife's lawful heirs. When the child is born the husband is said to have a tenancy by the courtesy initiate^ upon the death of the wife, a tenancy by the courtesy consurnmate. It is not necessary that the child should live if it be once born alive. 97. Yes. This estate is similar in many of its inci- dents to dower, but it differs in this respect, that it per- tains to the whole of the wife's lands in which she had an estate of inheritance during coverture, and not merely to a third thereof, as in dower. No assignment of the lands to the husband is therefore necessary, and he becomes tenant at once upon the wife's death. 98. The indemnity given by law, to be recovered from a wrong-doer by the person who has sustained an injury, either in his person, property, or relative rights, in conse- quence of the acts of another. 99. A sum of money due by certain and express agree- ment. In a less technical sense, it means any claim for money. In a still more enlarged sense, it denotes any kind of a just demand; as, the debts of a bankrupt. 100. A declaration is a specification, in a methodical and logical form, of the circumstances which constitute the plaintiff's cause of action. 101. A deed is a writing or instrument, under seal, containing some contract or agreement, and which has been LAW ANSWERS. 123 delivered by the parties. A deed made by one party only is not indented, but polled or shaved quite even, and is, for this renson, called a deed poll, ox single deed. 102. A deed poll is not, strictly speaking, an agree- ment between two ])ersons; but a declaration of some one particular person, respecting an agreement made by him with some other person. 103. A defaulter is a person who fails to perform a public duty; an office-holder who embezzles public money or fails to account for money entrusted to his keeping. His offence is called defalcation. 104. A demurrer, in pleading, imports, according to its etymology, that the objecting party will not proceed with the pleading, because no sufficient statement has been made on the other side; but will wait the judgment of the court whether he is bound to answer. 105. The testimony of a witness reduced to writing, in due form of law, taken by virtue of a commission or other authority of a competent tribunal. 106. Before a deposition is taken, the witness ought to be sworn or affirmed to declare the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. A deposition should be written by one not interested in the matter in dispute, and who is properly authorized by the commissioner. 107. Descent is the title, whereby a person, upon the death of his ancestor, acquires the estate of the latter, as his heir at law. This manner of acquiring title is directly opposed to that of purchase. 108. Detinue is the name of an action for the recovery of a personal chattel in specie. 109. The gist of the action is the wrongful detainer, and not the original taking. The possession must have been acquired by the defendant by lawful means, as by delivery, bailment, or finding, and not tortiously. 110. The action of detinue has now yielded to the more practical and less technical action of trover. 124 THE examiner's COMPANION. 111. It is the dissolution of a marriage contracted between a man and a woman, by the judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction, or by an act of the legislature. 112. It is so called from the diversity of the minds of those who are married; because such as are divorced go each a different way from the other. 113. Domicile is the place where a person has fixed his ordinary dwelling, without a present intention of removal. 114. No, a man can not be without a domicile, for he is not supposed to have abandoned his last domicile until he has acquired a new one. 115. By the Roman law a man might abandon his domicile, and, until he acquired a new one, he was without, a domicile. 116. By fixing his residence at two different places a man may have two domiciles at one and the same time; as, for example, if a foreigner, coming to this country, should establish two houses, one in New York, and the other in New Orleans, and pass one-half of the year in each; he would for most purposes, have two domiciles. 11 7. A dormant partner is one who is a participant in the profits of a firm, but his name being concealed, his interest is not apparent. 118. Dower, in the common law of England, is an estate for life which a widow has in one-third part of all the lands and tenements of which her husband was seized beneficially, or of an estate of inheritance at any time during the marriage, 119. Dower can in general be barred only by the wife's ojvn act, as by joining in a conveyance with the husband, or by a jointure settled before marriage, etc. The hus- band often in his will, either expressly or by implication, gives his wife property in lieu of dower. In this case she may, after his death, elect to take such property or her iower, but can not take both. LAW — ANSWERS. 125 120. An easement is defined to be a liberty, privilege or advantage, which one man may have in the lands of another, without profit; it may arise by deed or prescription. 121. Ejectment is the name of an action which lies for the recovery of the possession of real property, and of damages for the unlawful detention. In its nature it is entirely different from a real action. 122. Embezzlement is the fraudulently removing and secreting of personal property, with which the party has been entrusted, for the purpose of applying it to his own use. 123. By this term is understood the crops growing upon the land. By crops is here meant the products of the earth which grow yearly and are raised by annual expense and labor, or "great manurance and industry," such as grain; but not fruits which grow on trees which are not to be planted yearly, or grass, and the like, though they are annual. 124. Embracery is an attempt to corrupt or influence a jury, or any way incline them to be more favorable to the one side than to the other, by money, promises, threats, or persuasions; whether the juror on whom such attempt is made give any verdict or not, or whether the verdict be true or false. 125. The right which the people or government retain over the estates of individuals, to resume the same for public use. It belongs to the legislature to decide what improvements are of sufficient importance to justify the exercise of the right of eminent domain. 126. A court of equity is one which administers jus- tice, where there are no legal rights, or legal rights, but courts of law do not afford a complete remedy, and where the complainant has also an equitable right. 127. It is a right which the mortgagee of an estate has of redeeming it, after it has been forfeited at law by the non-payment at the time appointed of the money secured by the mortgage to be paid, by paying the amount of the debt, interest and costs. 126 THE examinee's companion. 128. An escrow is a conditional delivery of a deed to a stranger, and not to the grantee himself, until certain conditions shall be performed, and then it is to be delivered to the grantee; until the condition be performed and the deed delivered over, the estate does not pass, but remains in the grantor. 129. The word estate has several meanings: 1. In its most extensive sense, it is applied to signify everything of which riches or fortune may consist, and includes personal and real property; hence we say personal estate, real estate. 2. In its more limited sense, the word estate is applied to lands. 130. An estate for life is a freehold interest in lands, the duration of which is confined to the life or lives of some particular person or persons, or to the happening or not happening of some uncertain event. 131. Evidence is that which is legally submitted to a jury, to enable them to decide upon the questions in dis- pute or issue, as pointed out by the pleadings and distin- guished from all comment or argument. 132. Hearsay evidence is the evidence of those who relate, not what they know themselves, but what they have heard from othei's. 133. It is the proof of facts which usually attend other facts sought to be proved. For example, when a witness testifies that a man was stabbed with a knife, and that a piece of the blade was found in the Avound, and it is found to tit exactly with another part of the blade found in the possession of the prisoner; the facts are directly attested, but they only prove circumstances, and hence this is called circumstantial evidence. 134. The word execiftor, taken in its largest sense, has several acceptations. As the term is at present accepted, an executor is the person to whom tlie execution of a last will and testament of personal estate is, by the testator's appointment, confided, and who has accepted of the same. LAW ANSWERS. 127 135. Generally speaking, all persons who are capable of making wills may be executors, and some others beside, as infants and married women. 1 36. An executor dc son tort is one who interferes with the goods of a deceased person without lawful authority. He has the trouble of an executor without the advantages. He may be sued as executor if any assets have come into his hands, but cannot bring an action as executor. 137. Felony is an offence which occasions a total for- feiture of either lands or goods, or both, at common law, to which capital or other punishment may be superadded, according to the degree of guilt. 138. A fixture is an article or structure which, in itself personal property, has been made an annexation or become accessory to real estate. Annexations of this nature, when made under certain conditions and circumstances, still continue to be considered chattels, while in a different class of cases they are regarded as constituting a part of the realty, merely as a result of the change that has been effected in their situation and relations. 139. Forgery at common law has been held to be "the fraudulent making and alteration of a writing to the preju- dice of another man's right." 1 40. An act by which the owner of a thing, voluntarily transfers the title and possession of the same, from himself to another person who accepts it, without any consideration. It differs from, a grant, sale, or barter in this, that in each of these cases there must be a consideration, and a gift, as the definition states, must be without consideration. 141. Gifts are divided into gifts inter vivos, and gihs causa mortis. The former is a gift made from one or more persons, without any prospect of immediate death, to one or more others. The latter is a gift bestowed in anticipation of the donor's death. 142. A grand jury is a body of men consisting of not less than twelve nor more than twenty-four, respectively, 128 THE examinee's COMPANION. returned by the sheriff of every county to every session of the peace, oyer and terminer and general gaol delivery, to whom indictments are preferred. 143. A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed by the judge who grants the same, and sealed with the seal of the court of which he is a judge, issued in the name of the sovereign power where it is granted, by such a court or a judge thereof, having lawful authority to issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his custody or under his restraint, commanding him to pro- duce such person at a certain time and place, and to state the reasons why he is held in custody, or under restraint. 144. An heir is one born in lawful matrimony, who succeeds by descent, and right of blood, to lands, tene- ments or hereditaments, being an estate of inheritance. It is an established rule of law, that God alone can make an heir. 145. Hereditaments are anything capable of being inherited, be it corporeal or incorporeal, real, personal, or mixed, and including not only lands and everything thereon, but also heirlooms, and certain furniture which by custom, may descend to the heir, together with the land. 146. Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and incorporeal. Corporeal hereditaments are confined to lands. Incorporeal hereditaments are rights issuing out of, or annexed unto a thing corporeal. 147. According to Sir William Blackstone, homicide is the killing of any human creature. This is the most extensive sense of this word, in which the intention is not considered. But in a more limited sense, it is always understood that the killing is by human agency, and Haw- kins defines it to be the Killing of a man by a man. 148. An indictment is a written accusation of one or more persons of a crime or misdemeanor, presented to, and preferred upon oath or afiirraation, by a grand jury legally convoked. LAW — ans^t:ks. ' 129 149. An injunction is a prohibitory writ, specially prayed for by a bill, in which the plaintiff's title is set forth, restraining a person from committing or doing an act (other than criminal acts) which appear to be against equity and conscience. 150. Larceny is the wrongful and fraudulent taking and carrying away, by one person, of the mere personal goods of another, from any place, with a felonious intent to convert them to his, the taker's use, and make them his property, without the consent of the owner. 151. There must be an «c^«o/ " carrying away," but the slightest removal, if the goods are completely in the power of the thief, is sufficient. To snatch a diamond from a lady's ear, which is instantly dropped among the curls of her hair,is a sufficient asportation or "carrying away." 152. In its most general and comprehensive sense, law signifies a rule of action; and this term is applied indis- criminately to all kinds of action; whether animate or inanimate, rational or irrational. 153. In its more confined sense, law denotes the rule, not of actions in general, but of human actions or conduct. In the civil code of Louisiana, Art. 1, it is defined to be " a solemn expression of the legislative will." 154. It is a malicious defamation expressed either in printing or writing, or by signs or pictures, tending to blacken the memory of one who is dead, with intent to provoke the living; or the reputation of one who is alive, and to expose him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. 155. The case of Villars v. Monsley, 2 Wils., 403, was grounded upon the following verses, which were held to be libelous, namely: — "Old Villars, so strong of brimstone you smell, As if not long since you had got out of hell, But this damnable smell I no longer can bear, Therefore I desire you would come no more here; You old stinking, old nasty, old itchy, old toad. If you come any more you shall pay for your board 9 130 THE examiner's COMPANION. You'll therefore take this as a warning from me, And never enter the doors, while they belong to J. P. Wilncot, Dec. 4, 1767." 156. In its most extensive signification, this term includes every case in which real or personal property is charged with the payment of any debt or duty; every such charge being denominated a lien on the property. In a more limited sense it is defined to be a right of detaining the property of another until some claim be satisfied. 157. It is a command issuing in the name of the sover- eign authority from a superior court having jurisdiction, and is directed to some person, corporation, or inferior court, within the jurisdiction of such superior court, requir- ing them to do some particular thing therein specified, which appertains to their office and duty, and which the superior court has previously determined, or at least sup- poses to be consonant to right and justice. 158. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of another without malice, either express or implied. 159. One of the distinctions between manslaughter and murder is as follows: In the former, though the act which occasions the death be unlawful, or likely to be attended with bodily* mischief, yet the malice, either express or implied, which is the A'ery essence of murder, is presumed to be wanting in manslaughter. 160. A misdemeanor expresses every offence inferior to felony, punishable by indictment, or by particular prescribed proceedings. In its usual acceptation, it is applied to all those crimes and offences for which the law has not provided a particular name; this word is generally used in contradistinction to felony; misdemeanors com- prehending all indictable offenses, which do not amount to felony, as jserjury, battery, libels, conspiracies and public nuisances. 161. Mortgages are of several kinds: as they concern the kind of property mortgaged, they are mortgages LAW ANSWERS. 131 of lands, tenements, and hereditaments, or of goods and chattels; as they affect the title of the thing mortgaged, they are legal and equitable. 162. In equity all kinds of property, real or personal, which are capable of an absolute sale, may be the subject of a mortgage; rights in remainder and reversion, franchises, and choses in action, may, therefore, be mort- gaged. But a mere possibility or expectancy, as that of an heir, can not. 163. Murder, one of the most important crimes that can be committed against individuals, has been defined as follows: Hawkins says it is the willful killing of any sub- ject whatever, with malice aforethought, whether the per- son slain shall be an Englishman or a foreigner. Sir Edwai'd Coke defines, or rather describes this offence to be, " when a person of sound mind and discretion, unlaw- fully killeth any reasonable creature in being, and under the king's peace, with malice aforethought either express or implied." 164. Naturalization is the act by which an alien is made a citizen of the United States of America. 165. This word means literally annoyance; in law, it signifies, according to Blackstone, "anything* that worketh hurt, inconvenience, or damage." 166. Nuisances are divided into either public or com- mon, or private nuisances. 167. A public or common nuisance is such an incon- venience or troublesome offence, as annoys the whole com- munity in general, and not merely some particular jierson. A private nuisance is anything done to the hurt or annoy- ance of the lands, tenements, or hereditaments of another. 168. An oath is a declaration made according to law, before a competent tribunal or officer, to tell the truth; or it is the act of one who, when lawfully required to tell the truth, takes God to witness that what he says is true. It is a religious act by which the party invokes God not 132 THE examinee's COMPANION. only to witness the truth and sincerity of his promise, but also to avenge his imposture or violated faith, or in other words to punish his perjury if he shall be guilty of it. 169. Partnership is an agreement between two or more persons, for joining together their money, goods, labor and skill, or either or all of them, for the purpose of advancing fair trade, and of dividing the profits and losses arising from it, proportionably or otherwise, between them. 1 70. This offence at common law is defined to be a willful false oath, by one Avho being lawfully required to depose the truth in any judicial proceedings, swears abso- lutely in a matter material to the point in question, whether he be believed or not. l^l. A power of attorney is a written instrument by the terms of which the person executing it constitutes another his agent or attorney, and authorizes such agent to perform the act or acts therein named in his name and on his behalf. 172. Quit-claim is a word often employed in deeds in which the grantor or seller undertakes no responsibility in regard to the validity of his own assumed right to the property in question, but merely Conve3^s to the grantee or buyer his own interest, whether valid or the reverse. 173. Quo-warranto is the name of a writ issued in the name of a government against any person or corporation, that usurps any franchise or oflUce, commanding the sheriff of the county to summon the defendant to be and appear before the court whence the writ issued, at a time and place therein named, to show " quo warranto " he claims the franchise or ofiice mentioned in the writ. This writ has become obsolete, having given way to informations in the nature of a quo-warranto at the common law. 174. A receipt is an acknowledgment in writing, that the party giving the same has received from the person therein named, the money or other thing therein specified. 175. No. Although expressed to be in full of all LAW — ANSWERS. 133 demands, It is or\\j prima facie evidence of what it pur- ports to be, and upon satisfactory proof being made that it was obtained by fraud, or given either under a mistake of facts or an ignorance of law, it may be inquired into and corrected in a court of law as well as in equity. 176. A writ of replevin is the name of an action for the recovery of goods and chattels. To support replevin, the property affected must be a personal chattel, and not an injury to the freehold, or to any matter which is annexed to it. lYV. Robbery is the felonious and forcible taking from the person of another, goods or money to any value, by violence or putting him in fear. 178. A sale is a transfer of goods from one person to another for a price in money. It is therefore to be dis- tinguished from barter, which is an exchange of one com- modity for another, and not for money. 179. A valid sale requires all the elements essential in other contracts; there must be parties capable to con- tract, a mutual assent to the terms of the agreement, a sufficient consideration, and a thing or property to be sold. If the transfer be made without a valuable consideration, it is a gift and not a sale. 180. It is a warrant requiring the officer to whom it is addressed, to seai'ch a house or other place therein specified, for property therein alleged to have been stolen; and if the same shall be found upon such search, to bring the goods so found, together with the body of the person occupying the same, who is named, before the justice or other officer granting the warrant, or some other justice of the peace, or other lawfully authorized officer. It should be given under the hand and seal of the justice, and dated. 181. Seduction is the offence of a man who abuses the simplicity, and confidence of a woman to obtain by false promises what she ought not to grant. 182. Set-off is a demand which a defendant makes 134 THE examinee's companion. against the plaintiff in the suit for the purpose of liqui- dating the whole or a part of his claim. A set-off was unknown to the common law, according to which mutual debts were distinct and inextinguishable except by actual payment or release. 183. Sheriff is the name of the chief officer of the county. In Latin he is called vice comes, because in Eng- land he represents the comes or earl. His name is said to be derived from the Saxon seyre, shire or county, and reve, keeper, bailiff, or guardian. ] 84. The general duties of the sheriff are, 1st. To keep the peace within the county; he may apprehend, and com- mit to prison all persons who break the peace or attempt to break it, and bind any one in a recognizance to keep the peace. He is required ex officio, to pursue and take all traitors, murderers, felons, and rioters. He has the keep- ing of the county gaol, and he is bound to defend it against all attacks. He may command the posse com,itatus. 185. Slander is the defaming of a man in his reputa- tion by speaking or writing words which affect his life, office, or trade, or which tend to his loss of preferment in marriage or service, or in his inheritance, or which occa- sion any other particular damage. 186. This is the name of that act of a vendor of goods, upon a credit, who, on learning that the buyer has failed, resumes the possession of the goods, while they are in the hands of a carrier or middle-man, in their transit to the buyer, and before they get into his actual possession. 187. A subposna is a process to cause a witness to appear and give testimony, commanding him to lay aside all pretences and excuses, and appear before a court or magistrate therein named, at a time therein mentioned, to testify for the party named, under a penalty therein men- tioned. This is usually called a suhpwna ad testificandxim,. 188. On proof of service of a subpoena upon the wit- ness, and that he is material, an attachment may be issued LAW ANSWERS. 135 against him for a contempt, if he neglect to attend as commanded. 189. It is a writ or process of the same kind as the mhpmna ad testificandum, including a clause requiring the witness to bring with him and produce to the court, books, papers, etc., in his hands, tending to elucidate the matter in issue. . 190. A supersedeas is the name of a writ containing a command to stay the proceedings at law. It is granted on good cause shown that the party ought not to proceed. There are some writs which though they do not bear this name have the effect to supersede the proceedings, namely, a writ of error, when bail is entered, operates as a super- sedeas, and a writ of certiorari to remove the proceedings of an inferior into a superior court has, in general, the same effect. 191. A tort is an injury; a wrong; hence the expression an executor de son tort, of his own wrong. Torts may be committed with force, as trespasses, which may be an injury to the person, such as assault, battery, imprison- ment; to the property in possession; or they may be com- mitted without force. Torts of this nature are to the absolute or relative rights of persons, or to personal property in possession or reversion, or to real property, corporeal or incorporeal, in possession or reversion; these injuries may be either by nonfeasance, malfeasance, or misfeasance. 192. Treason imports a betraying, treachery, or breach of allegiance. The constitution of the United States defines treason against the United States to consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid or comfort. This offence is punished with death, 193. Trespass is an unlawful act committed with vio- lence, vi et armis, to the person, property or relative rights of another. Every felony includes a trespass; in common 136 THE EXAMINEe''S companion. parlance, such acts are not in general considered as tres- passes, yet they subject the offender to an action of trespass after his conviction or acquittal. 194. Trover signifies finding. The remedy is called an action of trover; it is brought to recover the value of personal chattels, wrongfully converted by another to his own use; the form supposed that the defendant might have acquired the possession of the property lawfully, namely, by finding, but if he did not, by bringing the action the plaintiff waives the trespass; no damages can therefore be recovered for the taking, all must be for the conversion. 195. Usury is the illegal profit which is required and received by the lender of a sum of money from the bor- rower, for its use. In a more extended and improper sense, it is the receipt of any profit whatever for the use of money. 196. A warrant is a writ issued by a justice of the peace or other authorized ofiicer, directed to a constable or other proper person, requiring him to arrest a person therein named, charged with committing some offence, and to bring him before that or some other justice of the peace. 197. A warrant should regularly be made under the hand and seal of the justice, and dated. No warrant ought to be issued except upon the oath or affirmation of a witness charging the defendant with the offence. The reprehensible practice of issuing blank warrants which once prevailed in England, was never adopted here. 198. Bench warrant is the name of a process some- times given to an attachment issued by order of a criminal court, against an individual for some contempt, or for the purpose of arresting a person accused; the latter is seldom granted unless when a true bill has been found. 199. A will or testament is the legal declaration of a man's intentions of what he wills to be performed after his death. The terms will and testament are synonymous, LAW AKSWEKS. 137 and they are used indifferently by eorfiYnoYi lawyers, or one for the other. Civilians use the term testament only. 200. There are five essential requisites to make a good will: ]. The testator must be legally capable of making a will. 2. The testator at the time of making his will must have animuni testandi, or a serious intention to make such will. 8. The mind of the testator in making his will must be free, and not moved by fear, fraud or flattery. 4. There must be a person to take, capable of taking. 5. The will must be put in proper form. 201. Wills are divided into either written or mmcu- pative. A nuncupative will or testament, is a verbal declaration by a testator of his will before a competent number of legal witnesses. Before the statute of tYauds they were very common, but by that statute, which has been substantially adopted in a number of the states, these wills were laid under many restrictions. In New York nuncupative wills have been abolished, except made by a soldier while in actual military service, or by a mariner while at sea. AMERICAN LITERATURE. Poe.— Edgar Allen Poe, a much esteemed poet, was born at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1811, and died in an hos- pital of his native city, after a restless wandering life in 1849, Mr. Poe had fine natural talent, and received a good education, but threw away all his advantages, and shortened his life by his immoral and drunken habits. He has left a volume of Tales and one of Poems, which were contributed to periodicals, and which display singular power of imagination, a quick sense of the beautiful, much humor, and great command of impressive and also musical language. His two short poems. The Raven and The Bells, are unique and unsurpassed in their kind. A tender lament for his dead wife, entitled Annabel Lee, is one of the sweetest lyrics in the language. Wild and absorbing interest abounds in all his prose tales. In an essay on The Rationale of Verse, he describes skillfully and minutely the process of his own mind in the creation of The Raven. Poe's complete works have been published in four volumes. Payne.— John Howard Payne, a~ poet, actor, and dramatist, was born in New York City, in 1792. In his thirteenth year he was a writer for the press, and editor fl38) AMERICAN LITERATURE. 139 of the Thespian Mirror. At sixteen he appeared as Norval in Uouglass, at the Park Theatre, New York. At Boston he appeared, among other characters, in those of Hastings, Holla, Edgar and Hamlet. In 1812 he went to England, and made his debut atDrury Lane, in his twenty- first year. In 1826 he edited a London dramatic paper called The Opera Glass. A great numher of dramas were prepared by him when on the London stage, chiefly adap- tations from the French, and in some of them Charles Kemble appeared. The air of Home, Sweet Home, an exceedingly popular song, and the one by which Payne is best remembered, appeared in his Clari, the Maid of Milan. In his later years he occupied the post of consul of the United States at Tunis, where he died in 1852. In 1883 Payne's remains were removed from Tunis to the United States and interred in Oak Hill Cemetery, George- town, D. C. Whittier.— John Greenleaf Whittier, who may be classed among the poets, was born at Haverhill, Massa- chusetts, in 180*7. Commencing at the age of eighteen, he studied for two years at a local academy. In 1830 he became editor of the JSTew England Review at Hartford, Connecticut, where he wrote a Life of Brainard and Legends of New England. Returning from his literary labors to his farm, he was, in 1835, elected to the Massa- chusetts legislature; and, in 1836, became editor of the Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia. In 1840 he removed to Amesbury, Massachusetts, and has since devoted himself to literature and philanthropy. His chief writings are: Voices of Freedom; Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal; Old Patriots and Modern Sketches; Col. lected Poems; Songs of Labor ; The Chapel of the Hermits; Literary Recreations', The Panorama; HomePallads; and The Tent 07i the Beach. Whittier is frequently called the Quaker Poet. JLongfellow.— Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, LL. D., 140 THE examinee's companion. a distinguished American poet, was born at Portland, Maine, in 1807, and departed this life at Boston, in 1882. Young Henry graduated from Bowdoin College, in his native State, in 1825. After leaving college he entered his father's law office, but after a few months of study he abandoned Blackstone and Kent, and commenced the study of literature. In 1838 he entered upon the chair of languages and the belles lettres at Harvard University. One year later he made his dehiit as an author with his romance called Hyj^erion, and tlie collection of poems bearing the title of Voices of the Night. The latter at once placed him in the front rank of American bards. His literary career thenceforward was a series of triumphs. It would be difficult to praise one thing above another where all are excellent — suffice it that in this sketch men- tion is merely made of his later and chief productions; viz., the drama of the Spanish Student (1843); Evangeline (1847); The Golden Legend (1851); The Song of Hiawatha (1855); The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858); a mas- terly translation of the Divine Co^nedy of Dante (1867); Hanging of the Crane (1874); and lieramos (1878). Bryant.— William Cullen Bryant, an eminent poet and journalist, was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, in 1794, and died in New York City, in 1878. He evinced such precocious talents as to produce in his fourteenth year two poems — the Embargo, a political satire, and the Spanish Revolution, which passed into a second edition in 1809. In his nineteenth year, Thanat02)sis was given to the world, and secured his reputation. In 1826, he asso- ciated himself with the JSfew York Evening Post, of which he eventually became chief editor and proprietor. A complete edition of his poems, published in New York in 1832, was immediately reprinted in England. His Popular History of the United States appeared in 1874. A biography of "William Cullen Bryant, by his son-in-law, Parke Godwin, was published by the Messrs. Appleton in 1883. AMEEICAN LITEKATUKE. 141 Holmes.— Oliver Wendell Holmes, an eminent poet, physician, and man of letters, was born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1V09. After graduating at Harvard College in 1829, he studied law and medicine, receiving his medical degree in 1836. In this last mentioned year Dr. Holmes made his maiden effort in the world of letters, with a volume of Poems, which proved an encouraging venture. He also wrote Currents and Counter- Currents ; Songs in Many Keys; Soundings from the Atlantic; The Guardian Angel; The Medical Profession in Jfassachusetts ; and Mechanism in Thouglvt and Morals. Holmes' Old Ironsides — an indignant protest against the destruction of the frigate Constitution — created a public sentiment that prevented the fulfillment of that ungracious design. His verses on Lending an Old Punch Bowl, are in the happiest vein of that form of writing. Harte.— Francis Bret Harte, a very popular writer, was born in Albany, New York, in 1839. At an early age he went to California, turned miner, school-teacher, journalist, etc., and thus acquired that knowledge of life of which he subsequently made such happy use. In 1868, he became editor of the new magazine. The Overland Monthly , to which he contributed sketches of California life; first, The LucJc of Roaring* Camp; succeeded by The Outcasts of Poker Flat; Miggles; The Heathen Chinee, etc. He resigned from the Overland va. 1871 and settled at Boston and became connected with the Atlantic Monthly. In 1873 he wrote An Episode of Fiddletown, and subse- quently several prose and poetical pieces. In 1878, Mr. Harte was appointed United States Consul to Crefeld, Germany. Woodworth.— Samuel Woodworth was born in 1785, and passed from among the living in 1842. He is the author of the familiar lyric, The Old Oaken Bucket. Mr. Woodworth was a poet of some distinction. Cooper,— James Fenimore Cooper, a distinguished 142 THE examiner's compakion. novelist, was born at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789. In 1821 appeared his first work, Precaution. In quick succession followed The S2^y, a tale which at once secured for him a place in the first rank of novelists; his almost unequaled sea-stories. The Bed Rover; Pilot; and Water- Witch; his famous " Leather Stocking Series" of Indian life and adventure, the Pioneers; Last of the Mohicans; Pathfinder; Deerslayer ; Prairie, etc. After passing some years in Europe, Mr. Cooper met his death in 1851. His works have been translated into every Eui'opean language, and have exhausted numberless editions. Besides his works of fiction. Cooper wrote A History of the Navy of the United States, and Lives of American Naval Officers. Hawthorne.— Nathaniel Hawthorne, a novelist of considerable note, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1804, and departed this life at Plymouth, New Hampshire, in 1864. He was educated at Bowdoin College, Maine, where he had among his fellow-students the poet Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. In 1837 he published his Twice-Told Tales. From 1853 to 1857 he filled the post of American consul at Liverpool, to which he was appointed by his early friend. President Pierce. His chief works are. The Scarlet Letter; The House of the Seven Gables; The Blithedale Romance; The Marble Faun; Life of President Pierce; and Our Old Home. Arthur.— Timothy Shay Arthur was born near Newburgh, Orange county. New York, in 1809. In 1841 he removed to Philadelphia and associated himself as editor of Arthur'' s Magazine and of the Children^ Hoiir, a juvenile monthly, both of which have a high reputation. His popular tales, or novelettes, which are very numerous, have all been directed to the moral improvement of some classes of society, and have attained an immense circula- tion. His Temperance Tales, especially Ten Nights in a Bar-Room; and Six Nights with the Washingtonians : Lights and Shadows of Real Life; Tales for Rich and AMERICAN LITERATURE. 143 Poor; Library for the Household, and Good Time Coming, have been sold by tlie hundred thousand, and many of them reprinted in Europe, and translated into other languages. Adams.— William Taylor Adams, under the name of " Oliver Optic," which is a key to one main element of his popularity, is the most prolific, and the best writer that we have, of story-books for boys. The author himself really enjoys the boyish scenes which he ci'eates, while his long experience as a teacher has undoubtedly aided him on this point. Some of his publications are: Boat Club Series; Wbodville /Series; Army and Navy Series; River dale Stories; Uj)ward and Onward; Young America Abroad; In- Doors and Out; The Way of the World; Our Standard-Bearer ; and A Spelling-Book for Advanced Classes. Mr. Adams was born at Medway, Mass., in ]822. Stoive. — Harriet Beecher Stowe, an American novelist, was born in Litchfield, Conn., in 1814. She was a daugh- ter of Dr. Lyman Beecher, and in 1835 married Prof. C. E, Stowe, of Andover. In 1850 she made a sensation in the literary world by the publication of Uncle Tom^s Cabin, a work of fiction which had quite an astonishing success, and was translated into almost every language of Europe. To this book she added a Key in 1852. Her later produc- tions comprise Bred, a Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856); The Minister' sWoovng (\^b%); Agnes of Sorrento (1861), and Oldtoini Folks (1869). In the latter year she brought out a JrocA^we entitled The True Story of Lady Byron's iJfe, in which she accused Lord Byron of incest. This article evoked a storm of literary criticism, which was by no means allayed by the publication in 1870 of Mrs. Stowe's work, entitled Lady Byron Vindicated. In 1871 appeared: Oldtown Fireside Stories; Pink and White Tyranny; and 3Iy Wife and I, or, Harry HendersorCs History. JLippiiicott.— Mrs. Sara Jane Lippincott, nee Clarke, 144 THE examiner's COMPANION. gained considerable distinction under the name of " Grace Greenwood," as a writer of tales and sketches for the magazines. Her latest efforts have been directed chiefly to writing for the young, and she edits a juvenile maga- zine called The Little Pilgrim. Mrs. Lippincott has pub- lished several volumes of no little merit. Among her most noted ones are: Greenwood Leaves; History of My Pets; Haps and Mishaps of a Tour in Europe; Stories of Many Lands, etc. Mrs. Lippincott was born at Pompey, New York, in 1823. JDickinson.— Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, lecturer, author, political speaker, play-writer and actress, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1842. She has received consider- able praise as an American lecturer. A book entitled What Anstoer, has been published by her; w^iich was well received. About the year 1875 she entered upon the work of play-writing, and assumed the leading characters in her own dramas of Mary Tudor; Anne Poleyn, and other plays. Terlnine.— Mary Virginia Terhune, nee Hawes, was born about the year 1835. In 18'54 she acquired a high reputation by her novel entitled, Alone, which was written under the assumed name of " Marion Harland." Mrs. Terhune has written a great number of other novels since that time, and with a uniformity of excellence that is truly remarkable. The titles to some of them are: Husbands and Homes; Mubyh Husband; Phemie^s Tempt- atio7i; and Hidden Path. Tlioinpson.— Daniel Pierce Thompson was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1795, and met his death in the year of 1868. Mr. Thompson's ablest productions were: The Green Mountain Boys (1840); and Locke Ams- den (1847). Irving.— Washington Irving, an eminent historian and writer of tales and sketches, was born of Scottish descent, in New York, in 1783. He was admitted to the bar early in life, but never practiced his profession, giving AMERICAN LITERATURE. 145 his special attention to literature. In 1809 appeared his History of N'eio York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker — a work which increased his already rising reputation, and earned him the friendship of Sir Walter Scott. In 1818 the Sketch Book raised him to the highest eminence as a prose writer. Next came Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveler; History of the Life.and Voyages of Christopher Columbus; Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada; The Alhainbra; Astoria; Adventures of Captain Bonneville; Oliver Gold- smith, a Biography ; etc., etc. He died at his residence, Sunnyside, on the Hudson River, in 1859, leaving behind him a literaiy reputation of enduring brilliancy. Prescott.— William Hickling Prescott was born at Salem, Mass., in 1796. He graduated at Harvard in 1814, and entered upon the study of the law, which he afterwards abandoned for the pursuits of literature. Although suffering from impaired vision, he entered with ardor upon the study of the Spanish language and litera- ture — studies which gave to the world in course of years, a series of historical works of the highest class, viz.: TJte History of Ferdinand and Isabella; Conquest of Mex- ico; Conquest of Peru; and the History of the Reign of Philip IL, a work he did not live to complete. Mr. Pres- cott died at Boston, with paralysis, in 1859. Bancroft.— George Bancroft was born at Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1800. Graduating at Harvard College in 1813, he then proceeded to Gottingen University, where he took the degree of LL.D., in 1820. In 1845 he became Secretary of the Navy in the Cabinet of Mr. Polk. In 1846 he was sent to Great Britain as minister plenipotentiary, remaining in that country till 1849. In 1867 he received the appointment of minister at the Prussian court. In 1871 Mr. Bancroft was appointed minister to Berlin, which office he resigned in 1874. His chief works are: History of the Colonization of the United States; and History of the Revolution^ of which leu 10 146 THK examiner's COMPANION. volumes have appeared. At the present writing Mr. Bancroft is quite feeble, on account of old age. Tickner. — George Ticknor was born at Boston in 1791. After graduating at Dartmouth College, N. H., and passing some years in Europe, he became professor of the French and Spanish languages and literature at Harvard University. In 1849 he brought out his masterly History of /S2yamsh Literatitre, and in 1863 an excellent Life of William H. Prescott. Mr. Ticknor has also edited The Memains of Nathaniel Appleton Haven, and written a Life of Lafayette, first published in 1825 in the "North American Review." His death took place in 1871. Motley.— John Lothrop Motley was born in Massa- chusetts in 1814, and graduated at Harvard College in 1831, after which he traveled for some years in Europe. In 1 869 Mr. Motley was appointed American minister to the court of St. James, a post from which he was removed in 1871. The three great works upon which Motley has built up one of the foremost literary reputations of the age, are The Mise of the Dutch Republic — a History ^ its sequel, The History of the United Netherlands from' the Death of Willia^n the SilejU to the Synod of Dort; and John of Baryieveld ; all of which have been translated into the French, Dutch, and German languages. Mr. Motley died in England in 1877. liossing. — Benson John Lossing was born in Dutchess county. New York, in 1813. He has produced among others the following popular illustrated works: Tht Pictorial Field-Booh of the Revolution; Mount Vernon and its Associations; Field-Booh of the War of 1812, and a. Pictorial History of the Civil War in the United States. The first named work is one which is destined to find its way to every farmer's hearth and to all the school libraries of our country. Mr. Lossing is, at the present writing, editor of '• The American Historical Record." Hildreth.— ^Richard Hildreth was born at Deerfield, AMERICAN LITERATURE. 147 Mass., in 180*7. In 1834, while sojourning in the South, he produced his anti-slavery novel, Archy Moore, which , was republished in England under the title of the White Slave, and became very popular. In 1840, Hildreth removed to Demerara, British Guiana, where in an editor- ial capacity he became a prominent advocate of free labor. His chief work is t\ie History of the United States. Hildreth has also published Japan as it Was and Is, and has of late years been connected with the editorial staff of' the "New York Tribune." His death took place in 1865, at Florence. ISillimau. — Benjamin Silliman, a scientist of note, was born in the State of Connecticut, in 1779, and died in 1864. Mr. Silliman graduated at Yale College in 1796, and entered upon the professorship of chemistry there in 1804, in which position he gained great celebi'ity, both as an experimentalist and as a popular lecturer. In 1818 he founded The American Journal of Science and Arts, the first of its kind in the United States, and conducted it for more than twenty years with success. He was one of the ablest lecturers on chemistry and geology that his country has produced, and published several text-books and treatises on those sciences. Henry. — Joseph Henry was born in Albany, N. Y., in 1 797, received a common school education, and commenced life as a watchmaker in his native city. He invented the first machine moved by the agency of electro-magnetism, and was the first to demonstrate those principles by which intelligence is conveyed between distant points through the agency of the electric telegraph. In 1846 be was elected First Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, a post he held until his death, in 1878. In 1839, Mr. Henry published Contributions to Electricity and 3Iagnetism, and has contributed several scientific papers to The American Philosojyhical Society, to Silliman'' s Journal , and to the Journal of the FrmiMin Institute, 14:8 THU examinee's companion. Kase. — Elisha Kent Kane, an American Arctic ex- plorer, was born in Philadelphia, in 1S20, and died at Havana, Cuba, in 1857. After graduating as doctor of medicine in the University of Pennsylvania, in 1842, he performed a course of foreign travel, served in the Mexi- can war, and in 1850 went as surgeon to Lieutenant DeHaven's expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. In 1853 he himself took command of a second expedition directed to the same object, and discovered the existence of an open Polar sea. His experiences are narrated in his The United States Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin (1854); and Arctic Explorations (1856). The Royal Geographical Society of London bestowed up'on Dr. Kane its great gold medal. "Worcester. — Joseph Emeraon Worcester, an American lexicographer, was born in Bedford, N. H., in 1784, and met his death at Cambridge, Mass., in 1865. He graduated at Yale College, in 1811, and for several years afterwards taught in Salem. His great work is his Dictionary of the English Language, which has taken its rank among the best works of the kind. Among his other works are: Geographical Dictionary, or Universal Gazetteer, 2 vols., 1817; Gazetteer of the United States, 1818; Elements oj History, Ancient and Modern, 1828. Dr. Worcester was a Fellow of the American Academy of Sciences, a corre- sponding member of the Royal Geographical Society in London, and a member of other learned bodies. Marsh. — George Perkins Marsh was born at Wood- stock, Vt., in 1801, and departed this life in the year 1882. Mr. Marsh graduated at Dartmouth College, N. H., in 1820, and after being called to the bar and elected a mem bfer of the Supreme Executive Council of his State, was elected to Congress 1842-48. He became minister resident at the Ottoman Porte in 1849, to Greece in 1852, and in 1861 was appointed to the Italian court. His published works include a Compendious Grammar- of the old North- AMERICAN LITERATURE. 149 eni or Icelandic Language, compiled and translated from the Grammar of Hask,' The Camel j his Organization, Habits, and Uses/ Lectures on the English Language ; and Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action. Audnbon.— John James Audubon, a distinguished American naturalist, was born of French parents, on a plantation near New Orleans, La., in 1780, and from his earliest years was taught to study nature. He received his education in France, and attained considerable pro- ficiency as a painter under the celebrated David. At the age of seventeen, he returned to the woods of the New World, and began to form a collection of drawings, under the name of jBirds of America. In 1824 he visited Europe for the purpose of obtaining subscribers to the above named work, and was everywhere well received. In 1827, Mr. Audubon returned to America, and established him- self on the banks of the Hudson. There he labored in preparing The Quadrupeds of America, a work published in 1850. Audubon died in 1851. A Life of Audubon, compiled from his journal by his widow, was published in 1869. Webster. — Noah Webster, an eminent American lexi- cographer, was born in 1758, in that part of Hartford, Conn., which now forms the town of West Hartford. He was in the army on the occasion of Burgoyne's expedition to Canada. When peace was restored, Noah continued his studies, and in 1781 was called to the bar. He aban- doned the law, however, became a schoolmaster and author, and published the Eirst Part of a Grammatical Institute; Sketches of American Policy, etc. But the work on which his reputation is founded is his elaborate American Dic- tionary of the English Language, a monument of vast ability, industry, and learning. Dr. Webster is also the author of a Spelling-Hook, by which he is known the world over. There has been sold more than fifty million 150 Thk examiner's companion. copies of tills last-mentioned work. His death occurred at New Haven, Conn., in 1843. Wilson.— Alexander Wilson, an American ornithol- ogist, was born at Paisley, Scotland, in 1766. In 1794 he landed in America, with his fowling-piece in his hand, and only a few shillings in his pocket, without a friend or letter of introduction, or any definite idea in what manner he was to earn his livelihood. For more than eight years he followed the various occupations of a weaver, peddler, and schoolmaster. During this time he labored diligently at self-improvement, and among the acquirements he made were the arts of drawing, coloring, and etching, which afterwards proved of incalculable use to him. His uncom- pleted work, American Ornithology, far exceeded the expectations of the public, and eight volumes successively made their appearance, and procured him great and deserved reputation. Before he could finish his great undertaking, he was seized with a sudden and severe illness, and died in 1813. The work was afterwards continued by Charles Lucien Bonaparte. Agassiz.— Louis John Rudolph Agassiz, an eminent naturalist, was born in 1807, at Motiers, canton of Frey- burg, Switzerland, where his father was a pastor. He studied the medical science at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he graduated in 1830. In 1846, Agassiz arrived in the United States in the furtherance of his scientific researches, accepted in 1847 the professorship of Zoology and Geology at Harvard University, Cambridge, and became, in 1868, a non-resident professor at the Cor- nell University, Ithaca, New York, Some of his chief works are : N^atural History of the Fresh-ioater Fishes of Central Europe; Researches on Fossil Fishes; Monogra- phy of Living and Fossil Echinodermata ; Outlines of Comparative Physiology; Contributions to the Natural History of the United States; and A Journey in Brazil. In 1871, he was appointed Chief of the Scientific Corps AMERICAN LITERATURE. 151 attached to the United States Coast Survey expedition. Prof. Agassiz died in 1873. Gay ot.— Arnold Henry Guyot was born near Neufchatel, Switzerland, in 1807. By his investigations in Physical Geography he has placed himself at the head of that branch of science in the United States. He has given some of the results of his inquiries in an interesting and popular volume, called Earth and 3fan, which work has passed through many editions. Prof. Guyot is also the author of a large number of elaborate Wall Maps of Physical Geography, and of a series of admirable Com- mon School Geographies. His death took place in 1884. Steele.— J. Dorman Steele is one of the progressive men among our younger class of teachers. Prof. Steele has acquired a high reputation as a teacher, and his series of Short Courses in several of the sciences are a marked feature among our latest school-book publications. His birth occurred in the year 1836. The following are some of Prof. Steele's works, which grew out of his own wants in the school-room: Fourteen Weeks in Natural Philoso- phy ; the same in Chemistry ; Astronomy j Geology ; Phys- iology ; Botany and Zoology. McGJnffey.- Williams Holmes McGuffey, D.D., LL.D., was born in 1800, and met his death in 1873. Prof. McGuffey is widely known by his Electric Series of School Readers. He was for a long time Professor of Moral Philosophy and Political Economy in the University of Virginia. Bennett.— James Gordon Bennett, a journalist of note, was born at New Hill, Keith, in Scotland, about 1800. He was educated for the priesthood at a Roman Catholic sem- inary at Aberdeen, but did not follow out the intention of his parents. In April, 1819, during a period of great com- mercial depression, he left his native land for America, where he attempted to earn his living as a teacher, but with very indifferent success. In 1822 he obtained a sit- 152 THE -examiner's COMPANION. nation on a Charleston newspaper, which he did not hold long, and repaired to New York, where he became an active member of the Fourth Estate, The first number of the New York Herald, of which he was the founder, appeared May 5, 1835. This speculation proved most suc- cessful, and Mr. Bennett amassed a very large fortune. He was incontestably a man of great abilities, penetration, and judgment. His death occurred at New York, in 1872. Greeley.— Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., in 1811. In 1831, Horace arrived in New York city, where he secured occasional work as a printer in various oifices. In 1834, he with others, started T'AeiVevo Yorker, a weekly literary journal, which after several years' trial proving unprofitable, was abandoned, and in 1841 Greeley commenced the publication of the New York Tribune, a journal which has been eminently successful. Mr. Greeley is the author of a collection of addresses, essays, etc., pub- lished under the title of Hints towards Reforms, and of A History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension or Mestric- tion in the United States from 1787 to 1856, published in 1856. He ardently supported the Union cause during the civil war, of which he wrote a history entitled The Amer- ican Conflict, published in 1864 and 186*7. He has since written his autobiography, under the title of Recollections of a Rnsy Life, which appeared in 1868. In 1872, Greeley was nominated by the Liberal Republicans, and also by the Democratic party, as their presidential candi- date, in opposition to Gen. Grant, but he failed to be elected. His death took place in 1872. Some more of his chief publications are: Glances at Europe; Art and Industry, as represented in the Exhibition of the Crystal Palace,' Association Discussed; What I Knoio of Farm- ing; and The American Conflict. Raymond. — Plenry Jai-vis Raymond, founder and edi- tor of the Neio York Times, was born in Lima, New York, in 1820 and graduated at the University of Vermont in AMERICAN LITER ATTJREo 153 1840. In 1841 he became managing-editor of the JVeto York Tribune, and afterwards leading editor of the Neio York Courier cmd Enquirer. In 1851, he established the JVew York Times. In 1852, he became a delegate to the Baltimore Convention, and in 1856, a leader of the Repub- lican party, and was chosen Lieut.-Governor of New York. He was a delegate to the Chicago Convention of 1860; and, in 1864, was chosen as representative from New York to the 39th Congress. He, subsequently, in 1866, was the leading spirit of the Wigwam Convention in Philadelphia, the resolutions of which body were from his pen. Mr. Raymond died at New York, in 1869. Harlbnt.— William Henry Hurlbut, once proprietor of the New York World, is probably, of all the living journalists of America, who have made journalism a dis- tinct and exclusive profession, the one most highly edu- cated, as he is the most brilliant and versatile. Besides a thorough classical and academic training, and familiarity with the languages and literature of the leading nations of Europe, he has had large .experience of travel and of intercourse with men in all the great centers of power. These advantages he utilizes to the last degree, and he throws himself into the work of writing, on the exigencies of the hour, with a fulness of resource and an abandon of effort that are marvelous. Mr. Hurlbut has published several volumes, but his principal work is what he has done and is doing, at the present writing, as a journalist. His birth occurred in 1827. <]rodwi!i. — Parke Godwin was born at Patterson, N. J., in 1816, and graduated at Princeton College, in 1834. From 1837 till 1853, he was co-editor of the New York Evening Post, along with his father-in-law, the poet Bry- ant. He has since edited "Putnam's Magazine," and been for some years engaged upon a History of France, of which the first volume appeared in 1870. Mr. Godwin has also published a volume of iDolitical essays, a biogra- 154 THE examiner's companion. phy of his father-in-law, which appeared in 1883, and a collection of miscellaneous writings called Art of the Past. Thompson.— John R. Thompson, long connected with the /Sotfthern Literary Messenger^ and now with the New York Evening Post, has performed excellent service to the periodical literature of the country. Mr. Thompson was born in the year 1823. Ripley.— George Ripley was born at Greenfield, Mass., in 1802, became, in 1849, literary editor of the New York Tribune^ and has since, conjointly with Mr. C. A. Dana, edited Appletovus Neio Americxin Cydopcedia. Among his w^orks are Edited Specimens of Foreign Standard Lit- erature; and Iland-hooh of Literature and the Fine Arts; the latter in conjunction with Bayard Taylor. Also Dis- CG2(rses on the Philosophy of Peligion; and Letters to Andrew Norton on the Latest Form of Infidelity. Dana.— Charles Anderson Dana, editor of the Nev; York Svn, has been prominent as a joiirnalist for more than twenty years past. He was associated with George Ripley in editing Apjyletoji's Cydojxcdia, and he edited the Household Book of Poetry. For a long time he was prominent in the editorial management of the New York Tribune; and after leaving that paper he assumed the editorship of the Nev) York Sun, in which position he, at the present writing, continues. Mr. Dana was born at Hinsdale, N. H., in the year 1819. Townsend.— George Alfred Townsend, the " Gath"of the " Chicago Tribune," has had a large and varied experience as a war correspondent, both in Europe and America, and has written for nearly all of the leading journals, — the New York Herald, World, Cincinnati Commercial, Chicago Tribune, and others of like standing. Since lS68 he has been in the exclusive employment of the Chicago Tribune, the leading newspaper of the North- west, writing both editorial and correspondence, the latter over the signature of " Gath." Of Mr. Townsend's AMERICAN LITERATURE. 155 separate publications, in book form, the following are the chief: Canijjaigus of a J^on- Combatant and his Roniaunt Abroad During the War; the Story of the Conspiracy against the Lives of the Executive Officers of the United States in 1865; The Nexo World compared with the Old; and Lost Abroad. Mr. Townsend was born in 1841. Reid.— Whitelaw Reid, editor-in-chief of the " New York Tribune," first made his mark in literatui-e as a newspaper correspondent, under the signature of "Agate." He has written two books: one, After the War, gives a graphic account of the condition of the South in the years 1865-6; the othei-, Ohio in the War, besides being an eloquent tribute to his native State, was prepared with such painstaking and elaborate research as to form a valuable addition to the history of the epoch. Mr. Reid's birth occurred in 1839. Eggleston.— Edward Eggleston, D.D., formerly editor of the " New York Independent," and, at the present writing, of " Hearth and Home," has shown eminent fitness for the work of journalism, and has been uniformly successful in his various enterprises in that line. Some of his published works are: The Hoosier Schoolmaster; Mr. Blake's Walking Stick, a Christmas Story for Boys and Girls; The Book of Queer Stories; Sunday- School Conventions and Institute; Sunday- School Maiiual. All these books have been very popular, and have sold largely. Mr. Eggleston was born in 1837. Tilton.— Theodore Tiltoa was born in 1835. Mr. Tilton is the author of several volumes which have commanded considerable attention. His principal work, however, thus far, has been in the line of journalism, for many years in the " New York Independent," and, at this writing, in his own paper. The Golden Age. One of his books, entitled Tempest Tossed, has been very popular with the reading public, numerous editions having been sold. Some few years ago Mr. Tilton traveled through the 156 THE examinee's companiok. different States, delivering to large audiences his instructive and well-th(iught-of lecture called The Problem of Life. Cotton.— Rev. John Cotton, a well-known theologian, was born in 1585, and departed this life in 1652. Mr. Cotton is chiefly known by his Milk for Babes; Meat for Strong 3Ie)i, and sundry other publications suited to the times. His work, entitled Milk for Babes, was a catechism for instructing young children in the elements of Christian doctrine. The piece, though small, was of great influence and importance. It was one of the documents which composed the famous New England Primer, and as such was for many generations stored in the memory of almost every New England child. IVilliaius. — Roger Williams, founder of the colony of Rhode Island, was born at Wales in 1606, and died at Providence, in 1683. After being educated at Oxford, he was ordained a minister of the Church of England. After- wards adopting Puritan doctrines, he emigrated to Massa- chusetts in 1631, from which colony he was expelled on account of his peculiar religious views. Thereupon, in 1636, he founded the city of Providence, obtained a charter for the new colony of Rhode Island in 1643, and governed it as its president, 1654-7. George Bancroft, in his " History of the United States," writes of Mr. Williams with the highest admiration and genuine eloquence. Eliot.— John Eliot, commonly called " The Apostle of the Indians," was born in England in 1604, and died at Roxbury, Mass., in 1690. He was educated at Cambridge, but on embracing Puritanism, he, in 1631, emigrated to New England, and became pastor of a congregation of Independents at Roxbury, where he established a grammar- school. In 1646 he began to learn the Indian language, that he might devote himself to the conversion of the natives. In this he met with great success, and obtained a considerable influence over the various tribes. He trans- lated the Bible into their language, and also several pieces AMERICAN LITERATURE. 157 of practical divinity. A handsome memorial to perpetuate his name was erected in the Forest Hills Cemetery, at Roxbury. Mather.— Increase Mather was born at; Dorchester, Mass., in 1039, and was educated at Harvard College, where he took his degree, in 1656. In the following year he went to England, where he obtained preferment, and was greatly distinguished for his urbanity and integrity; but in consequence of his Nonconformist opinions was obliged to return to his native colony, where he was appointed minister at Boston; in 1684, was elected presi- dent of Harvard College, and created D.D. He was the author of many theological works; a History of the Indiwi War; Remarkable Pi^ovidences ; and a JDiscoiirse on Comets and Earthquakes. His death occurred in 1*7 23. Johnson.— Samuel Johnson, D.D., is considered the father of Episcopacy in Connecticut. Mr. Johnson was a man of distinguished attainments and ability, and upon the establishment of King's (now Columbia) College, New York, he was chosen President, — but retired finally to his original charge in Stratford, Conn. He published several works, among them A System of Morality, and various controversial tracts in favor of Episcopacy. His birth occurred in 1696, and he died in 1722. Bnrr.— Aaron Burr, second president of the College of New Jersey, was a man of no little note as a writer. His chief publication was a Treatise on the Supreme Deity of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Mr. Burr was a son-in-law of Jonathan Edwards, and father of the Aaron Burr who figured so largely in political affairs. The subject of our sketch was born in 1710, and met his death in 1757. Edwards.— Jonathan Edwards, an eminent American theologian and metaphysician, was born at Windsor, Conn., in 1 703. He graduated at Yale College in 1 720, and after filling a tutorship in that university, 1724-6, became in the year following pastor of a church of Northampton. In 1751 158 THE examiner's companion. he went as missionary among the Indians, and in 1757 was chosen president of Princeton College, New Jersey, where he died in 1758. Of his numerous writings, the most celebrated is An It^quiry into the Modern Prevailing Nations resjyecting that Freedom of the JVill which is sitp- 2)osed to be Essential to Moral Agency, 1754. Some of his other works with which the public are familiar, are: 7Vie History of Redemption; The End for vMck God Created the World; and The Religious Affections. Mr. Edwards was third president of the College of New Jersey. I>avies. — Samuel Davies, fourth President of the Col- lege of New Jersey, was in his day the most famous preacher in America. The traditions in regard to the power of Mr. Davies as a pulpit orator fully equal those in regard to the popular and forensic eloquence of Patrick Henry. Davies's Sermons are to this day among the most ])opular to be found in that class of literature. He was the author also of a number of excellent Hymns, some of which hold their place in the hymnals of the present day. Mr. Davies was born in 1723, and he died in 1761. Beeclicr. — Lyman Beecher, fatl;ier of the eminent Henry Ward Beecher, was born in New Haven, Conn,, in 1775, and departed this life at Brooklyn, in 1863. After gi'aduating at Yale College in 1797, he studied theology under Prof. Dwight. In 1810, as minister of the Con- gregational Church, at Litchfield, Conn., he acquired great eminence as a preacher. In 1832, he became minister of the Second Presbyterian Church, at Cincinnati, and also President of Lane Theological Seminary in the same city. Among his chief publications are: Sermons on Temper- ance; Political Atheism; Plea for the West; Views in Tibeology ; and Scepticism. Channing.— William Ellery Channing, one of the most elegant writers this country has produced, was born at Newport, R. I., in 1780, and died of typhus fever in AMEKICAX LITERATURE. 159 1842. In 1803, he became pastor of the Federal Street Church, Boston. During the Unitarian controversy, Dr. Channing was the head of the liberal party, and took an active part in its defence. Among his most successful productions are his lectures on Self- Culture, and on the Elevation of the Laboring Classes. His work on slavery, published in 1841, had also a wide circulation. His col- lected works have been published in six 12mo. vols. (Boston, in 1840), and republished in London, in 1855. Campbell.— Alexander Campbell, the founder of toe religious sect called Camphellites or Disciples of Christ, was born in Ireland, in 17s8, and departed this life in 1866. In 1812 he withdrew from the Presbyterian Church, and united himself with the Baptist association; but in 1827 he was excluded from the fellowship of the Baptist Churches. In 1841, Campbell founded Bethany College, at Bethany, Va. He was a man of extraordinary intellectual activity, and the amount of labor, which he performed during the forty-five years of his ministry, bor- ders on the marvelous. As a public disputant on relig- ious topics, he has probably never had his superior. His writings fill nearly sixty volumes, and yet they were but a part, and that not the largest part, of his work. Beeclier." Henry Ward Beecher, an eminent author and divine, was born in 1813, at Litchfield, Conn. Hq graduated at Amherst College in 1834, and studied theol- ogy under his father, at Lane Seminary. He first settled as a Presbyterian minister at Lawrenceburg, Ind., in 1837; removed in 1839 to Indianapolis, and became Pastor of the Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., an organized body of worshipers calling themselves "Orthodox Congrega- tional Believers," in 1847. In 1850 he published Lect- ures to Young Men, and Lndustry and Idleness ' in 1855, The Star Papers, a series of articles contributed to the "New York Independent," and, in 1858, a second series of the same. His Life Thoughts appeared in 1858. In 1871 160 THE examiner's COMPANION. appeared his work entitlHsd a Life of Jesus, and in 1869 a complete edition of Beecher's Sermons was published in New York. Mr. Beecher died at Brooklyn, N. Y,, March 8, ISSV. HopkiRson. — Joseph Hopkinson, an eminent Ameri- can jurist, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1770, became judge of the United States Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, and died in 1S42. He was the author of the well-known national song entitled Hail Columbia. Key.— Francis Scott Key, an American jurist, born in Frederick county, Md., in 1779, became District- Attorney of the Federal District of Columbia. He wrote the popular national song, The Star^ Spangled Banner. Mr. Key died at Baltimore, Md., in 1843. The late James Lick, of San Francisco, Cal., so highly appreciated his genius that in his will he bequeathed f 100,000 for the purpose of erecting a suitable monument to Mr. Key's memory. Wirt.— William Wirt was born at Bladensburg, Md., in 1772. He became a member of the bar of Virginia, was a leading council in the prosecution of Aaron Burr, and from 1817 till 1829 filled the position of attorney- general of the United States. In 1832 he was the unsuc- cessful nominee of the Anti-Masonic party for the Presi- dency. His Life of Patrick Henry, and British Spy, are held in much favor. Mr. Wirt's death took place in 1834. Kent. — James Kent was born in Philippi, New York, in 1763. He was educated at Yale College, entered on the practice of the law in 1785, sat four years in the State Legislature of New York, and in 1794 was chosen professor of law at Columbia College. In 1804 he was appointed chief justice, and about ten years later chancellor, of the State of New York; and on his quitting the latter office on account of his age, he again undertook the professorship of law at Columbia College. In 1826 and the four fol- lowing years appeared his important work, Commentaries on American Jjaw, esteemed an authority in England ag AMERICAN LITERATURE. 161 well as in the United States. Chancellor Kent was no less esteemed for his private virtues than for his professional abilities and his public services. He died in 1847. Story.— Joseph Story was born at Marblehead, Mass., in 1779, studied at Harvard University, where he took his degree in 1798, was called to the bar in 1801, and soon acquired a distinguished reputation as a pleader. He represented Salem in the State legislature four years; was sent to Congress in 1809, and in 1811 was appointed Associ- ate Justice in the Supreme Court of the United States. In this capacity he displayed a thorough knowledge of the most intricate questions relating to international law, and earned such distinction as a jurist that his name has been carried far beyond the limits of this country. His Com- metitaries on the Conflict of IjCiws is looked upon as an authority in every State in Europe. His other chief works are: Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, and treatises upon Equity Jurisprudence; the Law of Bailments ; of Bills of Exchange; of Promissory Notes; and of Partnership. Judge Story died in 1845. Ularshall. — John Marshall was born in Fouquier county, Va., in 1755, and died at Philadelphia, in 1835. Receiving but a limited education, he then took part in the military service of the Revolutionary War. While thus engaged he obtained his first knowledge of law, and was admitted to the bar in 1780, but returned to the army to assist in repelling the invasion of Arnold. In 1782 he was elected to the legislature of his State, where he con- tinued until 1796. In the year 1799, he was elected to Congress, where he displayed remarkable ability, particu- larly in his speeches on theRobbins case, in vindication of the government. He was appointed to the chief-justice- ship of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1801, in which he displayed great legal ability by his decisions. Chief-Justice Marshall connected himself with the general literature of the country by his Life of Washington. 11 162 THE examiner's COMPANION. Hamilton. — Alexander Hamilton, a statesman of note, was born in the Isle of Nevis (West Indies), of Scottish descent, in 1757, and was killed in a duel fought with Aaron Burr, at Hoboken, in 1804. He became a citizen of the United States, and in 1782 a member of the Conti- nental Congress. In 1789 he was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, a position he filled with peculiar ability, since his financial measures restored the public credit, established a national banking system, and generally was productive of prosperity to the country at large. After the death of Washington, Hamilton filled for a short period the office of commander-in-chief, A national treasure entitled The Federalist w as mainly his work. Jay, — John Jay, who may be classed with the statesmen, was born in New York City, in 1 745, where he was admitted to the bar in 1768. In 1777 he was appointed Chief Jus- tice of New York, and in the following year President of Congress. He next took part in negotiating the treaty of peace entered into at Paris, in 1783, between Great Britain and the United States. On his return he was appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and in 1789 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. In 1794 he proceeded on a special mission to England, where he concluded a treaty which met with violent opposition from the Anti-Federalist party. He afterwards held the Governorship of New York State, and, after refusing a second nomination to the Chief Justiceship, died in 1829. Hopkinson,— Francis Hopkinson was born in Phila- delphia, in 1737, and died in 1791. He graduated at the college of his native city, and afterwards made the law his study. He produced many satires and ironical pieces, such as the Prophecy, the Political Catechism, etc. Among his works, the greater part of which are of a political character, there are many sound essays and scientific papers, acute and learned judicial decisions, and a variety of songs possessing much sweetness and delicacy, which AMERICAN LITERATURE. 163 were rendered still more popular by the airs he composed for them. One entitled Battle of the Kegs, set the whole country in a roar of laughter. Everett.— Edward Everett was born at Dorchester, Mass., in 1794, and departed this life in 1865. He was appointed Professor of Greek at Harvard, and after his return from a European tour, became editor of the " North American Review," which he conducted till 1824. In the same year h^ was returned to Congress, where he served, by repeated re-elections, for ten years. In 1834, he was elected Governor of Massachusetts, and in 1840 was nomi- nated Minister to England; on his return in 1845, he was chosen President of Harvard University, and in 1850, Secretary of State under Mr. Fillmore's administration. Throughout his career, Mr. Everett has evinced an ardent attachment to literary pursuits, and has published two vol- umes of orations, delivered by him on various occasions. He has also appended to the works of Daniel Webster, a life of that statesman. Webster. — Daniel Webster, an illustrious American statesman, jurist, and orator, was born at Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, in 1782. After receiving his rudimentary education at Exeter and Boscawen academies, he entered Dartmouth College, in 1797, as a freshman, and after graduating in 1801, entered upon the study of the law at Salisbury and Boston, in which latter city he was called to the bar in 1805. By 1815 Webster had risen to the highest rank in his profession as a constitu- tional lawyer, and also as a consummate leader in criminal causes. In 1813 he was elected to the lower house of Con- gress by the Federal party, and re-elected in 1815. In 1822 he was again elected to Congress, where, as Chair- man of the Judiciary Committee, he rendered eminent assistance in the entire revision of the U. S. criminal code. In 1828 Mr. Webster became Senator, and in 1841 was appointed Secretary of State under President Harrison, 164 THE examiner's COMPANION retaining the office during Mr. Tyler's chief magistracy. The most remarkable event of his official terra was the so-called Ashburton Treaty with England, in settlement of the N. E. Boundary question. Re-elected to the Senate in 1844, he opposed alike the admission of Texas into the Union and the prosecution of the war with Mexico, and supported Henry Clay's "Compromise Measures" of 1850 in relation to the extension of slavery to new territories. In 1850 he again became Secretary of State, this time under Mr. Fillmore, and was unsuccessfully nominated for the Presidency by the National Whig Convention of 1852. Mr. Webster died at Marshfield, Mass., Oct. 24, 1852. Clay. — Henry Clay was born near Richmond, Va., in 1777, and died at Washington, D. C, in 1852. He was admitted to the bar in 1797, and speedily established a brilliant practice in Lexington, Ky. Clay was elected to the State Legislature in 1804, and in 1806, and in 1809 sat as Senator in Congress. In 1816 he supported theU. S. Bank charter; in 1821 he earnestly advocated the "Missouri Compromise," and, in 1824, was an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency of the Union. In 1825, Clay became Secretary of State; in the following year fought a mild duel with Mr. Randolph; was elected U. S. Senator, 1831-37, and in 1832 accepted the Presidential candidature of the anti-Jackson party, only to be again defeated. In ] 844 the National Whig Convention nominated Clay (the third time) for the Presidency, with as little success as before. He strenuously opposed the acquisition of Texas, and, in 1848, having been again elected to the Senate, he then took a prominent part in effecting the Compromise of 1850, which deferred for ten years the impending struggle between the North and South on the question of slavery. Calhoun.— John Caldwell Calhoun graduated with distinction at Yale College, in 1804, and practiced with success at the bar. Entering Congress in 1810, he there became the leader of the Democratic and War party, and AMERICAN LITERATURE. 165 in his first session built up a political reputation. In 1817, he was appointed minister of war, and in 1820 supported the Missouri Compromise Bill. In 1824, he was elected Vice-President of the Union, and re-elected in 1828. In 1832 Calhoun was elected Senator, and retired from this office in 1843, being appointed Secretary of State in the following year. Resuming his senatorial position in 1845, he opposed both the Mexican War and the Wilmot Proviso. His work entitled a Treatise on the Nature of Government, was published after the author's death. Mr. Calhoun was born of Irish parents at Long Cane, S. C, in 1782, and died at Washington, D. C, in 1850. Choate.— Rufus Choate was born at Essex, Mass., in 1799, and departed this life at Halifax, N. S., in 1858. Graduating at Dartmouth College, he entered upon the study of law at Cambridge, and in Washington, In 1841 he was elected to the Senate, which he quitted in 1845. After the death of Daniel Webster, Mr. Choate became the recognized leader of the Massachusetts bar, and acquired a national reputation. As an advocate and orator he may be classed with the most distinguished masters of modern eloquence. His claims to literary notice rest upon his speeches in congress and several addresses on public occasions, which have been printed. Of his speeches, the most noted ones are those on the tariff, the Oregon question, and the annexation of Texas. Sumner.— Charles Sumner was born at Boston, Mass., in . 1811, and filled an honored grave in 1874. He graduated at Harvard College in 1830, and commenced the practice of law in his native city, four years later. In 1850, a combination of Free-soilers and Democrats returned him to congress, as successor to Daniel Webster, and in that body he soon became a man of mark, as the leader of the Abolitionist party. He opposed the Fugitive Slave Bill of 1854, and in 1856 eloquently combated the aggressions made by pro-slavery agitators in Kansas. In 166 THE EXAMINER S COMPANION. 1859, in a speech in which he denounced " the barbarism of slavery," he produced a great sensation; and in the following year supported Mr. Lincoln's candidature for the Presidency. In 1861, he was appointed chairman of the committee on Foreign Relations, a position he retained until 1871. Mr. Sumner's last important speech, 1872, was an elaborate and eloquent, but exceedingly bitter, attack upon the administration of President Grant. His death took place at Washington, D. C. Stephens. — Alexander Hamilton Stephens was born in Wilkes county, Georgia, in 1812, and died in his native state, at Atlanta, in 1883. At the age of twenty he grad- uated from Franklin college at Athens, Ga., and two years later began the practice of law. He afterwards served five terms in his state's legislature, and in 1842 M^as elected to the state senate, and the next year was sent to congress by the Whig party, and served until 1859. Mr. Stephens was a member of the Southern Congress which met at Montgomery, Ala., February, 1861, and was chosen Vice- President of the Confederacy. In 1872 he was elected to congress and held that place until he was chosen governor of Georgia in 1882. He was a man of extraordinary courage, quick, shrewd, and cutting at debate, rather than weighty,yet few men were more feared in congress. In 1869 he published A History of the War of Secession, and in 1870, A Constitutional I'^ieto of the War between the States. Emerson.— Ralph Waldo Emerson was born at Boston in 1803, and died at his native city in 1882. . He graduated at Harvard College in 1821, and afterwards became an essayist and critic of much note. In ] 838, Mr. Emerson published Literary JEthics, an Oration; and in 1839, Nattire, an Essay. In 1841, he published The Method of Nature, Man the Reformer, several lectures, and the first sej-ies of his Essays, the second series of which appeared in 1844. In 1856 appeared a work entitled English Traits, and in 1860, he published The AMEKICAN LITERATURE. 167 Conduct of Life. He delivered, at Concord, an oration on the death of President Lincoln in 1865, and received the degree of LL.D., from Harvard University in 1866. Mr. Emerson was unquestionably one of the most eminent modern philosophers of the Pantheistic school, and one of the most remarkable personifications of American genius. White. — Richard Grant White was born in New York City in 1822, and died at bis birthplace in 1885. He graduated from the University of his native city in 1839, and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Leaving practice of law for the pursuit of literature, he first contributed criticisms of art and literature, and then leading articles to the "New York Courier and Enquirer." Since 1861 Mr. White has been a constant contributor to the editorial columns of the "New York Times." His chief works are, Shakespeare's Scholar; National Hymns; An Essay upon the Authorshi}) of '■'■Henry the Sixth;'''' The Life avd Genins of Shakespeare; The New Gospel of Peace; and Words and their Uses. His Every- Day English appeared in 1880. l¥illard.— Mrs. Emma C. Willard, nee Hart, devoted the greater part of a long and most useful life to the edu- cation of women, in which her efforts, both as a theorist and as a practical teacher, were crowned with signal suc- cess. Her prominence as a writer, however, does not by any means correspond to that assigned to her by common consent as an educator. Still, she found time, in the midst of other duties of a most urgent character, to make sev- eral valuable contributions to the cause of letters. Among her most important works are: A History of the United States, and Universal History. Mrs. Willard was born in 1787, and her death took place in 1870. Phelps.— Mrs. Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps, a sister of Mrs. Emma C. Willard, was born in 1793, and met her death at Baltimore, Md., in 1884, Almira was like her sister Emma, prominently identified with the first move- ments to raise the character of education for women, and 168 THE examiner's companion. like her too made valuable contributions to the literature of instruction. For a long time her text-books, on Botany in particular, were the best in the market. Mann. — Horace Mann was born at Franklin, Mass., in 1796, and died in 1859. Mr. Mann graduated at Brown University at Providence. He was elected in 1827 to the legislature of Massachusetts, and in 1836 to the State Senate, of which he became president. In 1837 he was elected Secretary of the Board of Education, and giving up business and politics, he devoted his whole time to the cause of education, and, in 1843, made a visit to educa- tional establishments in Europe. In 1848 he was elected to congr'ess; and at the end of his term, he accepted the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. His chief works are: Slavery; Letters mid Speeches; and numerous educational rej^orts. Ooodrich. — Samuel Griswold Goodrich, better known as " Peter Parley," was remarkably successful in simplify- ing various kinds of knowledge, chiefly historical, so as to make it easily understood by young readers, and conse- quently useful as a means of education. His birth occur- red at Ridgefield, Conn., in 1793, and he died in 1860. Mr. Goodrich's pen was kept busy to the close of his life; he being either author or editor of one hundred and seventy distinct volumes. He had a special gift for writ- ing in a style suited to the taste and comprehension of children, and he exercised his gift in a way that has brought lasting honor to him, and has been a public benefit to his race. The following are his classified works: Peter Parley Books^ 116 vols., on a great variety of subjects likely to interest children; School Books (Histories, Geog- raphic, Readers, etc.), 27 vols.; Miscellaneous, 27 vols. Sargent.— Epes Sargent is extensively known as the author of an admirable series of Readers and Speakers; as a critical editor of some of the standard English classics; and as the author of numerous original works, of a high AMERICAN I.ITKRATURE. 169 character — both jirose and verse. Mr. Sargent's birth occurred in 1812, and he died at Boston in 18H0. Wickersham.— James Pyle Wickersham, State Supt. of Public Schools of Pa., was born in 1825. Mr. Wick- ersham has been one of the most successful of American educational workers. He has made the training of teachers his chief work, and has himself, been a practical teacher. He has written several volumes on educational matters, and in each department of effort he has been found equal to the occasion. His two books, School JiJconomy, and Methods of Instriictt'on, have had an enormous sale, and have taken their place among the standard works of the profession. He has also furnished numerous printed Addresses, and Contribxtlons to educational journals. Swioton.— William Swinton, Professor of English Literature in the University of California, was born in 18-34, He first acquired general notoriety as a War Correspondent. Returning to literary pursuits after the late war, he soon won fresh laurels. An octavo volume of 500 pages, entitled The Ticelve Decisive Baffles of the War, has been published by Mr. Swinton, and also a series ot educational text-books. Among them may be named two school Histories of the United States • a Word- Hook of Spelling ,' an English Grammar; a Manual of Word Analysis, etc. Hoivells. — William Deane Howells was born at Martinsville, Ohio, in 1837. Brought up as a printer, in 1858 he became co-editor of The Ohio State Jonr-nal; in 1860 he issued, in connection with J. J. Piatt, a small volume of poems, entitled, Poems of Two Friends. Mr. Howells also wrote the lives of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. In 1861 he was appointed United States Consul at Venice, which position he held until 1865. His Venitian Life appeared about this time, followed h J Italian Journeys [\SQ1), JSTo Love Lost (1869), Suburban Sketches (1871), Their Wedding Journey (1812), 170 THE examiner's COMPANION. A Chance Acquaintance (1873), A Woman's Reason, etc. In 1871 he assumed the editorship of the J[^/«?^^^'c i^/b?^^A^y, and has since resided at Cambridge. In 1885 he entered the services of Harper & Bros., New York, upon a liberal salary, and at the present writing maintains that position. Browne.— Charles Farrar Browne, known as "Artemus Ward," was born at Waterford, Maine, in 1S34, and died at Southampton, England, of consumption, in 1867. After some years spent at the printing-press, he became editorially connected with the journalistic profession, and in 1860 one of the promoters of Vanity Fair, a New York comic weekly. Later he traveled over the U. S., as a lecturer, drawing large audiences and achieving pro- portional success. In 1866 he visited England, and there repeated his lectures with profit, and became a contributor to Punch. His works, brimful of a quaint and dry humor, are well known under the titles of Artenms Ward, Sis Book; Artemus Ward Among the Mormons; Artemus Ward, His Panorama; Artemus Ward in London; Artemus Wai'd Amony the Fenians, etc. Shillaber.— Benjamin P. Shillaber, by his conception of the character of "Ruth Partington," has entitled himself to an equal place among genuine humorists. In fact the old lady has become, in the public mind, a living personage, almost as distinctly as "Artemus Ward" himself. Mr. Shillaber's birth occurred in the year 1814. Clemens.— Samuel Langhorne Clemens, whose nam de plume is " Mark Twain," was born at Florida, Mo., in 1835. He was educated for a printer, and afterwards became a pilot on the Mississippi River. In 1861, he removed to Nevada, and in 1862, became editor of the Virginia City "Enterprise." Subsequently he removed East. Mark Twain is a river term, meaning two fathoms of water. His works have had a popular sale. Among them may be named: TJiq Innocents Abroad; TJie Jumping Frog; Houghing It; Nevada and Californian AMERICAN LITERATURE. 171 Experiences; The Gilded Age; The Adventures of HucTcle- berry Finn; Tom j^mnjer; and The Tramp Abroad. The first named work set the whole continent in a roar. It gives a humorous description of a visit to the old world by a ship-load of American excursionists. Shaw.— Henry W.Shaw, better known as "Josh Bil- lings," was born at Lanesborough, Mass., in 1818, and met his death in 1885, at Monterey, California. For twenty- five years he followed farming, and then established him- self in the auction business at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Until he was forty-five years of age Mr. Shaw never wrote a line for publication, unless it was an occasional advertisement, 'his first production, over the name of "Josh Billings," having been written May 25, 1863. His reputation as a humorist was, however, of rapid growth and his popular- ity soon became very great. Under these encouraging circumstances he then largely devoted his talents to writ- ing and public lecturing, with flattering success. His published works comprise several volumes of laughter- provoking sketches, and a series of annual collections of sharp and witty sentences on various topics in social life, under the name of " Josh BiUings''s Farmer's Alminax.'^ He has also published in book form Sayings of Josh Bil- lings; and Josh Billings on Ice. All his works have had an extensive circulation. Liocke.— David Ross Locke, familiar as " Petroleum V. Nasby," was born at Vestal, N. Y., in 1833. Educated as a printer, he became connected with several journals. In 1865 he took editorial charge of the Toledo Blade, and since then became a popular lecturer. Mr. Locke com- menced his Mfsby Betters in 1860, and continued them until the close of the war. In 1868 appeared Sioingin Round the Cirkle, and Letters from Confederit X-Roads. One of his last enterprises is that of play-writing. A pop- ular comedy of his, entitled Wido^c Bedott, has met with good success on the theatrical boards. 172 THE examiner's COMPANIOK. Peck. — George W. Peck, editor of the -well-known humorous journal of Milwaukee, Peck''s Sun, waS born in the village of Henderson, N. Y., in 1840. At the age of fifteen he began his professional career as " devil " (or apprentice lad) in the office of the Whitewater (Wis.) Register, where he remained until fitted for the duties of a journeyman printer. In 1860, with but three cents in his pocket, he purchased a half-interest in the Jefferson County Repuhlican, at Jefferson, Wis., and in company with Mr. J. E. Atwater, who edited the paper, he pub- lished it about a year, when they sold the establishment. In 1863, Mr. Peck joined a Wisconsin cavalry regiment as a private, and, by promotion, rose to a lieutenancy. In 1866, his company was mustered out and he went to Ripon, Wis., where he started the Representative, a news- paper, which he conducted for about two years. In this journal appeared many odd and humorous paragraphs, similar to those which have made Peck'' 8 Sun so immensely popular, Mr. Peck was engaged for some time as editor on the LaCrosse (Wis.) Democrat (a paper published by "Brick" Pomeroy), and in 18*72 he became a half-owner of it, and altered its name to the Liberal Democrat. In 18*74 he started a newspaper called the Sun, at LaCrosse, which even his humorous articles could not make self-sus- taining. Removing the paper to Milwaukee in 1878, he changed its name to PecFs Sun, gave it a new dress, and infused new energy and humor into its columns. Burdette.— Robert J. Burdette, whose writings are a source of continual merriment to their readers, was born at Greensboro, Pa., in 1844, and is of French, Welsh and German descent. Mr. Burdette received his education in the common schools of Peoria, 111., with a course at the high school, from which he graduated in 1861. From 1862 to the close of 1865 he served as private in the late Rebellion, and then for seven years assisted in carrying on the local mail-service. In 1869 he became night-editor of AMERICAN LITERATURE. 173 the Peoria (111.) Transcript. He was married to Miss Carrie Garrett, of Peoria, in 1870, and with that event began his successful carreer as an acknowledged humorist; for in this direction did his gentle wife greatly encourage him to persevere. For a time he continued with the Transcript as its city-editor; hut in 1871 he became one of the editors and part owner of the Peoria JEvening lieview, in which paper lie gave a loose rein to his mirthful pro- clivities, and laid the foundation of his subsequent fame. The newspaper, however, was but short lived, and in 1872, he obtained a situation as city-editor of the Burlington (Iowa) Haiokeye. By rapid promotion he advanced to the several positions of political and managing editor; but in 1876, he relinquished the management of the paper and traveled and lectured to delighted audiences in the central States of the Union. A year later he extended his lecture- field to the East and elsewhere, and since then has devoted a large portion of his energies to that department of humor, while retaining the position of writer in the office of the Hawkeye. He has also published the following witty books: The Rise and Fall of the Moustache; Hawk- eye; and Life of Willia^n Penn. His lectures are respect- ively entitled ■ i?tse and Fall of the Moustache; Home; Pilgrimage of the Fanny-Man; and Advice to a Young Man. ENGLISH LITERATURE. Chancer.— Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, was born in 1328, in London, and studied law. In 1359 the poet served, and was taken prisoner, during the king's invasion of France; and, besides discharging other foreign missions, he was sent to Genoa in 1373, a journey which is supposed to have given him an interview with Petrarch. He received a house in the royal demesne of Woodstock; and there most of his works were written. He died in 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, his chief poem, is replete with a deep insight into the springs and working of human character, intense love of nature, pure and lofty feeling, abundant humor, piercing wit, and that genial tempera- ment which lights up all around with the sunshine of a fine mind and generous disposition. Some of his minor works are: Romaunt of the Rose; The Court of Love; Troilus and Creseide; House of Fame; TJie Flower and the Leaf; Legende of Goode Women, and a prose-work, entitled The Testament of Love. ISpenser.— Edmund Spenser, one of the most eminent of English poets, was born in London, in 1553. His name in English literature ranks second to that of Chaucer. (174) E^JGLISH LITEEATtJKE. 175 After graduating at Cambridge, he produced in 1579 his charming pastoral, Tlie ^hephercVs (7a/e?if?«r, and dedicated it to his friend Sir Philip Sidney. In 1580, he became secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, Viceroy of Ireland, and received a grant of .3,028 acres of forfeited lands in the county of Cork, Avhere he fixed his residence at Kilcolman Castle, and became the friend and associate of Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1598, he served as sheriff of the county, lost his castle and estate during the Earl of Tyrone's Rebellion, and died, all in the same year, his body being buried in Westminster Abbey, near the dust of the honored Chaucer. Spenser has been styled the English " Ariosto," and, as the author of The Faerie Queene, will ever hold his place as one of the world's great poets. Sackville.— Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, and Lord High Treasurer of England, a poet, was born in 1536 at Buckhurst in Sussex, and his death took place in 1608. He was a man of note in letters, as well as in affairs of state. In 155*7, Sackville formed the design of a poem, entitled The Mirror of 3Iagistrates, M^'iting only The Introduction and one Legend, that on the life of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham. In imitation of Dante and some others of his predecessors, Sackville lays the scene of his poem in the infernal regions, to which he descends under the guidance of an allegorical personage named Sorrow. It was his object to make all the great persons of English history, from the Conquest downwards, pass here in review, and each tell his own story, as a warning to existing statesmen. Milton.— John Milton, the most illustrious of the English poets, was born in London, in 1608, and graduated at Cambridge University in 1632. The next few years he passed in rural retirement, engaged in the production of his fine poems, Cotnos, U' Allegro, II Penseroso, and Lycidas. In 1638, while on a tour in Italy, he formed an acquaintance with Galileo. In 1644 appeared his greatest 176 THE examinee's COMPANION. prose work, Areo2yagitica, or a Plea for Unlicensed Print- ing — one of the earliest appeals for the liberty of the press. In 1648-9, after the accession of Cromwell to power, Milton, a rei^ublican in political principles, was appointed Latin secretary to the Council of State, and in this capacity replied to the strictures of Salmasius in the well-known Defence of the EnglUh Peoj^le, written in Latin, in 1650. In 1654 his eyesight left him, and shortly afterward he commenced his immortal epic — the Paradise Lost, the copyright of which he sold in 1667 for the sum of £5 ! Later appeared Samson Agonistes, a tragedy, and Paradise Regained^ a work which is far below the merits of his earlier works, although Milton, it is said, accounted it his masterpiece. He died in London, in 1674. Dryclen.— John Dryden, one of the greatest of English poets, was born of Puritan parents, on the 9th day of August, 1631, at Aldwinckle in Northamptonshire, died and was buried in Westminster Abbey in 1700. He was first educated at Westminster, under the famous Dr. Busby, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. Dryden's plays are twenty-nine in number, running through thirty- two years of his life. Among the chief plays written by him may be mentioned: The Indian Emperor, and The Conquest of the Granada. When the great Oliver died, Dryden created considerable sensation by a copy of verses which he wrote ujjon the sad event. Some time later he celebrated the restoration of Charles Stuart in a poem called Astrcea Redux. Inheriting only a small estate, Dryden was compelled to follow literature as a profession, and devoted his pen at first to the service of the newly- opened theatres. The Wild Gallant being his first play. His earlier plays are written in rhyming verse, his later ones in blank verse. But in all his plays, rhyming or unrhyming, heroic or comic, he is fully open to the charge of immorality. Dryden was an elegant prose writer, as well as poet, and few English authors have writtefi prose ENCiLlSH LITERATURE. 177 SO well. Towards the close of his life he embraced the Catholic religion, and wrote the Hind and Panther in defence of his new opinions. Pope,— Alexander Pope, an eminent English poet and satirist, was born in London in 1G88, and died at Twickenham in 1744. His verse is famous for its easy numbers, its keenness of satire, and its brilliance of polish. As a master of invective and sarcasm, he has scarce a rival. His Essay on Man; Rape of the Lock; Essay on Criticism; Pastorals; Imitations of Horace, The Dunciad, a satire; and the translations of the Iliad and Odyssey, are among his best productions. Pope also excelled as a prose writer, as witness his celebrated letters. Thomson.— James Thomson was born at Ednam in lYOO, and departed this life in 1748. He is one of those minor poets who are read by each successive generation with about equal favor. His fame is as high now, perhaps, as it was during his lifetime, possibly higher. His descriptions of English scenery, because of their faith- fulness to nature, are much read by foreigners, especially by Germans. The Castle of Indolence, an allegorical poem in the Spenserian stanza, and The Seasons, are his finest works. Goldsmith.— Oliver Goldsmith was born at the little village of Pallas, in the county of Longford, Ireland, in 1728, and met his death in 1774. He is classed among the poets, but might as well be named with the novelists, his- torians, or with the ethical writers, for he belongs to each of those classes. After attending Trinity College, Dublin, for a short period of time. Goldsmith was then sent to London to engage upon the study of the law, but while here he spent the money set apart for his traveling expenses, in gambling, and returned home penniless. He next studied for two years at Edinburgh, and a year at Leyden. From the latter place he set out to make the tour of Europe, with " one clean shirt, and no money in his pocket.'" By the aid of his flute he managed to pay his 12 178 THE examiner's COMPANION. way over a great part of the Continent, during which he stayed for half a year at Padua University, where he took his degree of doctor of medicine. On his return to London he devoted himself to literature, and in 1762 produced The Vicar of Wakefield, the most exquisite of all romances in miniature. Two years later, his poem of The Traveler confirmed Goldsmith's reputation. In 1770, The Deserted Village, a poetic idyl whose descriptive force and plaintive tenderness has no rival in English literature, appeared. Among his other works are: She Stoops to Conquer, 2i comedy; dkudi History of the Earth and Animated Nature. Gray. — Thomas Gray first saw the light of day at London in 1716, and died with gout in his stomach in l77l. This poet was educated at Cambridge, in which University he became professor of Modern Literature in 1769. His industry was untiring, and his learning undoubtedly great; for he had pushed his researches far beyond the usual limits of ancient classical philology, and was deeply versed in the romance literature of the Middle Ages, in modern French and Italian, and had studied the then almost unknown departments of Scandi- navian and Celtic poetry. His finest lyric compositions are the Odes entitled The Bard, that on the Progress of Poesy, the Installation Ode on the Duke of Grafton's election to the Chancellorship of the University, and the short but truly noble Ode to Adversity. Gray is best known by his famous Elegy Written in a Country Church- yard. It is one of the most perfect compositions of its kind in the language. Cowper.— William Cowper, a very prominent English poet, was born in Hertfordshire in 1731, and died at "Weston in 1800. Mr. Cowper is eminently the poet of the domestic aft'ections, and the exponent of that strong religious feeling which, towards the end of the eighteenth century, began to penetrate and modify all the relations ENGLISH LITEEATTJEE. 179 of social life. Cowper attended Westminster School, where he served an apprenticeship of seven years to the classics, and then he was apprenticed to an attorney, and with him remained three years, being admitted to the bar in 1754. Soon after he opened a law-office, but gained no clients. Four times during Cowper's life madness assailed him, and for nearly two years he was an inmate of a private asylum at St. Albans. His poetical talent did not flower until he was more than fifty years of age, when his first volume was published. It contained long didactic and satiric poems entitled Table Talk; The Progress of Error; Truth; Expostulation; Ilojye; Char- ity; Conversation^ and Metirement. Some more of Cow- per's favorite works are: John Gilpin, whose comical equestrianism became the subject of a famous ballad; The Task, a work which at once commanded popular favor; The Time-piece; The Garden; The Wi?iter Evening; The Winter Morning Walk; The Winter Walk at Noon; Tirocinium, a review of schools; Translation of Homer into English Verse; and Verses to My Mother''s Picture, there being no more touching and beautiful lines in English poetry or prose than these verses. Burns.— Robert Burns, the greatest poet that Scotland has ever produced, was born at the hamlet of Alloway, in Ayrshire, in 1759, and passed from this earth at Dumfries in 1796. He early became noted among his neighbors for his verses and his social qualities. In 1786, he pub- lished his poems, which at once attained a high and deserved popularity, and secured for him a reputation sur- passing that of any Scottish author before him. The poems and songs of Burns have won enthusiastic admira- tion from all classes of society. His themes are such as all can comprehend, and his speech simple and true; and there is no fear of his fame diminishing. In his poetry, as in his life, alas! there is much that is impure, the utter- ance of sensual passion; nothing mean and ignoble j and 180 THE examiner's COMPANION. some most pathetic penitential breathings that may well abate the severity of censure. Among his writings may be named: The Jolly Beggars; To a Daisy and a Mouse; The Cotter's Saturday Night; Elegy on Captain Mattheic Henderson; and above all, the serio-comic tale of Tain C Shanter. Byron.— George Gordon, Lord Byron, the greatest English poet of his day, was born at London in 1788. He succeeded his grand-uncle in the peerage and estates while still a boy. After studying at Harrow and Cambridge, and while yet a minor, he published his Hours of Idleness, a collection of clever but immature poems. The severe criticism passed upon them by the "Edinburgh Review," brought out their author's real genius in the scathing satire English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Disappointed in his early love, Byron became noted as a man about town, and so impaired his fortune as to compel his retire- ment to the Continent. There he produced one of his grandest works, Childe HaroWs Pilgrimage; others fol- lowed in rapid succession, and the noble poet, as he him- self says, "awoke one day to find himself famous." In 1815, he married, and after a year of infelicity, parted from his wife, and left England, never to return. Abroad he took up his residence in Venice and other cities, and wrote the concluding cantos of his Childe Harold, some minor poems, and Bon Juan, admitted to be his finest work. In 1823, he resolved to devote his person, sword, pen, and fortune to the cause of Greek independence; but contracting a fever soon after his arrival in Greece, he died at Missolonghi, in 1824, to the inexpressible grief of the Greek nation. In 1869, Mrs. H. B. Stowe published: in the "Atlantic Monthly" an article entitled T'he True Story of Lady Byron, in which she alleged against the memory of the great poet a monstrous charge, that was generally received with much disfavor. Moore.— Thomas Moore, a great Irish poet — the " Bard ENGLISH LITERATURE, 181 of Erin," as he is sometimes called — was born at Dublin, in 1779, and died at London in 1852. Having studied at Trinity College, he entered the Middle Temple in London as a student of law, but soon began his long and brilliant career as a poet. His first important literary undertaking was a translation of the Odes of Anacreoji, a work far too brilliant and ornamental in its language to give a correct idea of the manner of the Greek poet. Moore's most important works are Lalla Mookh, a long poem, founded on Eastern legend and gorgeous with oriental imagery, and his Irish llelodies, the latter which are unquestionably his best. His chief prose writings are the three biogra- phies of Sheridan, Byron, and Lord Edward Fitzgerald, and the tale of The Epicurean, the last being a narrative of the first ages of Christianity. Campbell.— Thomas Campbell, a poet of note, who distinguisKed himself by his translations from the Greek poets, was born at Glasgow in 1777, and died at Boulogne in 1844. He was educated at the Glasgow University, and in his twenty-second year published the Pleasures of Hope. This poem was received with hearty enthusiasm, being the one on which his reputation mainly rests. Shortly after-* wards he traveled abroad, where he was a spectator of the battle of Hohenlinden, and commemorated the scene in the brilliant poem with which we are all familiar. While abroad, he wrote two other of his most popular lyrics. Ye Mariners of England, and The Exile of Erin. On return- ing to Scotland, he wrote LochieVs Warning; The Battle of the Baltic; The -Pilgrim of Glencoe, and other poems. In prose, Campbell won considerable praise for the critical notices attached to his Specimens of the British Poets. As a writer of national songs he has never been surpassed. Wordsworth.— William Wordsworth, the founder of the so-called Lake School of poetry, was born at Cocker- mouth, in the north of England, in 1770, died and was buried in the church-yard of Grasmere in 1850. He was 182 THE examiner's COMPANIOlSr. the son of an attorney, and became a student of St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took his B, A. degree in 1791. Wordsworth gave his first poetic effusions to the world in 1793, under the title of An Evening Walk' in 1798, Lyrical Ballads appeared, the joint but uneven pro- duction of Wordsworth, and Coleridge. From this time up to 1815 he published a new edition of Lyrical LaUads, Sonnets, Essays on Epitaphs, The Excursion, The Prelude, Peter Bell, The Waggoner, and many minor pieces. About this time he received the appointment of distributor of stamps, and in 1843 he obtained the office of poet-laureate, vacant by the death of South ey. For many years Words- worth enjoyed that guerdon of love and admiration which are too frequently reserved for departed genius; and thousands of his admirers made a pilgrimage to the poet's home, Rydal Mount. His autobiographical poem, The Prelude, or the Grovth of a Poefs Mind, was a posthumous publication. Memoirs of Wordsworth were published soon after his death by his nephew. Canon Wordsworth. The complete poetical works of Wordsworth, edited by the late Henry Reed, Professor of Literature in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, have been published in Philadel- phia, (T. Ellwood Zell, royal 8vo). Mr. Reed, in return- ing from a pilgrimage to Rydal Mount, was lost in the ill- fated steamer Arctic, September, 1854. Tennyson.— Alfred Tennyson, an English poet-laure- ate, was born at Soraersby in Lincolnshire in 1810, edu- cated at Cambridge, and from there carried off the Eng- lish prize-poem in 1829. Tennyson stands at the head of English poets in the passing generation, and in his own department of literature is the representative man of the age — caressed by the critics, admired by all, and imitated by not a few. He rose by slow degrees into full and com- plete recognition, and nothing is more noteworthy in his career than the calm deliberation and design with which every part of his career as an author has been planned. His ENGLISH LITERATURE. 183 first independent volume apj)eared in 1830, under the title, Poems, principally lyrical. The Princess appeared in 1847, which was atfirst a puzzle to the critics. It is now rec- ognized in its true character, as a profound and artistic handling of a great living question. In 1849 appeared his masterpiece, Li Memoriam, in commemoration of a young friend and schoolmate, Arthur Henry Hallom, who had died sixteen years before. Maud, and other Poems were published by Tennyson in 1855. His poem Mcmd is scarcely so fine a work as many that preceded it from the same pen. Success has crowned him in setting before us the brilliant and the darker sides of that old and well- nigh forgotten life, in the four tales which form The Idylls of the King. In 1864 appeared a work, entitled Enoch Arden, a touching domestic story of humble life, together with Aylnier''s Field, and some minor poems, of which the principal are Tithonus and the Northern Farmer. Tenny- son's style of writing is the most finished since the days of Shakespeare and Milton, Shakespeare. — William Shakespeare is, by the common consent of mankind, the greatest dramatist and writer that the world has ever produced. He was born at Strat- ford-on-Avon, Warwickshire, in 1564, and departed this life at his native town in 1616. Of the incidents of his youth almost nothing is known, excepting that he married in his nineteenth year, and soon afterward resorted to London, where he became an actor of repute at the Globe and Blackfriars' theaters. In 1594 he inaugurated his literary career by the publication of his poem Venus and Adonis; and in the following year his first published play appeared, the precursor of a succession of works which constitute the crowning glory of English dramatic litera- ture. Shakespeare enjoyed the favor of Queen Elizabeth and James I., and the friendship of Southampton, Raleigh, Ben Johnson, and other of the principal of his contempo- raries. After realizing an easy fortune by his contribu- 184 THE examiner's COMPANION. tions to the stage, he retired to Stratford to remain the last few years of his life. His tragedies of Hamlet^ Mac- beth, Othello, Borneo and Juliet, and King Lear, are won- derful examples of his power of expressing the strongest passions of the human soul; while, on the other hand, his comedies, particularly The Merry Wives of Windsor, 3luch Ado aboiit N'othing, Twelfth JSFlght, The Taming of the Shreio, etc., are unsurpassed in the English lan- guage. Of his dramas, strictly so-called, perhaps the finest are. As You Like It, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. Jonson.— Ben Jonson, the friend and contemporary of Shakespeare, was born at London in 1574, and died in 1637. Although compelled by his step-father to follow the trade of a bricklayer, he succeeded in making himself one of the most learned men of the age. He was for a time a pupil of the famous Camden, at the Westminster school, and entered the University, though his stay there was very brief, being taken from his studies, and forced to carry a hod among his father's workmen. The sturdy boy rebelled at this, turned soldier, and soon gained distinction by his manly courage on the battle-grounds of the Low Countries. When but twenty years of age, he entered fully upon the dramatic career, first as an actor, then as an assistant to other dramatists in the composition of plays, and finally as an original dramatist. His first original piece, by which he sprang at once into fame, entitled Every Man in His Humor, is assigned to the year 1596. As first represented it was a failure, and Shakespeare, then at the height of his popularity, is said to have interested himself in behalf of the young aspirant, suggesting changes in the play, securing its acceptance by the mana- gers of the Globe, and himself taking a prominent part, when, two years later, it was brought out with triumphant success. Some more of Jonson's chief works are: Every Man Out of His Humor ; Cynthia! s Revels j The Poetaster ^ ENGLISH LITERATURE. 185 Tlie Tale of a Tub; Sejanusj Catiline; Vblpone; Epicene; and The Alchyinist. Marlowe.— Christopher Marlowe, the greatest of the precursors of Shakespeare, was born at Canterbury in 1564, and died in 1593, by being stabbed in the head with his own dagger, which he had drawn in a quarrel with an antagonist. He received an excellent education, and was graduated at Cambridge. On leaving the University he joined a troop of actors, among whom he was remarkable for vice and debauchery, and was strongly suspected by his contemporaries of being an atheist. Marlowe's works are not numerous; but they show an air of astonishing energy and elevation. His first great play was the tragedy of Tamburlaine the Great, and is thought to have been brought out while the author's name was still on the Cam- bridge books. Then followed his second and best work a drama entitled The Life and Death of Dr. Faiistus. The tragedy of the Jen; of Malta, though inferior to Faustus, is characterized by similar merits and defects. The tragedy of Edward II., was the last of Marlowe's works. He also wrote a very charming poem called The Passionate Shejjherd. Wycliffe.— John Wycliffe, who first gave a complete copy of the Scripture to the English people in the English tongue, was born at Yorkshire in 1324, and died as Rector of Lutterworth, a. Leicestershire parish, of paralysis, in 1384. He is known among Protestants as "The Morning Star of the Reformation," and may be styled the Father of English Prose, as well as Chaucer is the Father of English Poetry. Wycliffe was educated at Merton, which was once considered the most learned college in Oxford. As a writer his great merit lies in having given to England the first English version of the whole Bible, His Latin works are very numerous. One of the principal was called Trialogus, which embodies his opinions in a series of conversations carried on by Truth, Wisdom, and 186 THE examiner's companion. Falsehood. He also wrote many treatises, some leai-ned, addressed to scholars and the higher orders, and some in homely phrase, addressed to the common people. But his chief literary work was A Translation of the Holy Bible. Mandevillo.— Sir John Mandeville, a prose writer, born at St. Albans, in Hertfordshire, in 1300, and dying in 1372, is the earliest notable instance of the genuine English Traveler. Mandeville left home at the age of twenty-seven, and traveled for thirty-four years, going first to Jerusalem, and then on eastward into the remotest parts of Asia. On returning he wrote a book of Voyage and Travel, describing some of the marvelous things that he had seen. This book. was written by him at first in Latin, then in French, then in English, and was translated into Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German. Mandeville was educated for the medical profession, but having an irresistible desire to travel, abandoned his profession, to a great extent, although his knowledge of medicine often stood his friend among the rude tribes he encountered while traveling. He again left England, and after roving around for some time, died, and was buried at Liege. More.— Sir Thomas More, who stands pre-eminent among prose-writers of his period, was born in Milk Street, London, in 1480, and met his death for justly thwarting the will of the king by being beheaded in 1535. More was a man of profound scholarship, of earnest piety, of quick and ready wit, and one of the most conspicuous and shining characters in the reign of Henry VIII. Holding the honorable position of Lord High Chancellor of England, he was considered next to Erasmus and Cardinal Wolsey in eminence and fame. At an early age More devoted himself to law, and at seventeen entered the college at Oxford, where he won the friendship of the eminent Erasmus. More's fame as a writer rests on two works, written during that period of his life, when he was a busy lawyer, enjoying the sunshine of royal favor and the solid ENGLISH LITEKATURE. 187 advantage of a handsome yearly income. These works are: Life ami Reign of Edtcard V., and The Utojyia, the latter being a work of wide fame. Bacon.— Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, and Viscount St. Alban's, a prose writer, and one of the greatest of modern philosophers, was born at London in 1561, and departed this life at Highgate in 1026, Entering parliament in 1593, he was knighted in 1603, and in 1613 became attorney gen- eral and privy councillor. The office of Lord Keeper was given him in 1617, and he was soon afterwards made Lord Chancellor. But from this time dates the beginning of his miserable fall. Complaints were made of his venality as a judge, which on inquiry by a parliamentry committee were verified. Bacon then made full confession, was deprived of his offices, fined, and imprisoned during the royal pleasure. He was ultimately pardoned, but contin- ued to live in retirement, devoting himself to his favorite studies. The great aim of this extraordinary man was to reform the methods of philosophy; he recalls men from blindly following authority to the observation and exami- nation of nature. His Essays were published in 1597, but his greatest works are the Novmn Organum (1603) and the De Augmentis Scientiarum (1620). De Foe.— Daniel De Foe, the son of a London butcher, was born at that place in 1661 and died in 1731. He is chiefly known as the author of that immortal book, Mob- inson Crusoe, which has given him rank among the ablest prose writers of his country. His style is both graphic and concentrated, and as a model of English composition i,4 only surpassed by the prose writings of Addison. Edu- cated for the ministry in a dissenting sect, De Foe chose a mercantile life, at various times carrying on the business of a hosier, a tile-maker, and a woolen draper. For severe political attacks against his nation, he suffered the pillory, imprisonment, and fine. The number of works written by him were many. No English writer has ever excelled 188 THE examiner's companion. De Foe in his power of painting fictitious events in the colors of truth. The Relation of 3Irs. VeaTs Apparition, prefixed to Drelincourt on Death, affords, perhaps, the best specimen of his wonderful power of clothing fiction with the garb of truth. Addison. — Joseph Addison, whose fame rests upon his prose works, was born at Milston, in Wiltshire in 1672, and died at London in 1719. At the age of fifteen years he entered Queen's College, and two years later secured a scholarship at Magdalen College, where he distinguished himself by the style of his scholarship, and by his taste in Latin poetry. His first attempt in English verse was an Address to Dryden, by which the old poet's friendship was won. From the writing of a poem for the Govern- ment entitled The Campaign, the career of Addison was brilliant and prosperous. He was appointed Under Sec- retary of State, and afterwards Chief Secretary of Ireland. The publication of The Campaign, above mentioned, had been followed by that of his Travels in Italy, exhibiting proofs not only of his graceful scholarship, but also of his delicate humor, his benevolent morality, and his deep religious spirit. In 1707 he gave to the world his pleasing and graceful opera of Rosamond, and about this time The Drummer, was also written by him. Addison's best known poems are: The Campaign, and the tragedy of Gato. His chief prose writings are essays contributed to The Father and The Spectator. Swift. — Jonathan Swift, another prose writer, eminent divine and humoristic author, was born at Dublin in 1667, and died in 1745. After graduating at Trinity College, in his native city, he filled for some time the position of Sec- retary to Sir William Temple, and taking his M. A. degree at Oxford in 1692, entered holy orders. Swift changed liis politics as he changed his wig; and, after having pub- lished a pamphlet entitled The Conduct of the Allies, in which he urged the abandonment of the war against ENGLISH LITERATURE. 189 France, was rewarded therefor by government with the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin. Swift's writings deserv- edly hold a high place in literature. His wit and humor, though somewhat coarse after the manner of his day, pos- sess a pungency of flavor that has been compared with that of dry champagne. His powers of description were only equalled by De Foe among his contemporaries. His masterpiece is usually accounted to be The Tale of a Tub, than which nothing can be fuller of dry, quaint, painted humor— not even the pages of Rabelais. Among his other notable productions may be cited The Battle of the Books, and that perennial sermon in burlesque, the Travels of Lemuel Gulliver. JoliiisoBi.— Samuel Johnson, a miscellaneous prose writer, English lexicographer and author, was born at Lichfield in 1109, educated at Oxford, and died at London in 1784. After some years' employment in scholastic labors, he repaired to London in 1737, where he com- menced a literary career, obscure in its opening, glorious ere its close. In 1747 he commenced upon the great work of his life, the Dictionary of the English Language— the first complete publication of the kind. His other produc- tions comprise The Rambler; the Life of Richard Savage, the poet; Rasselas; and the Lives of the English Poets, etc. Dr. Johnson was pre-eminently the literary " lion " of his time and country— the sun, so to speak, around which irradiated Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, Gibbon, and other lesser stars. Hume,— David Hume, who is classed among the mis- cellaneous prose writers, is universally known as the author of the most popular IBstory of England yet writ- ten; said history being esteemed for two generations the ablest work of its class, although claimed by many critics to be open to objection on the score of scepticism and undue i)artiality. After unsuccessfully following several occupations, Hume, at the age of twenty-three, went to 190 THE examiner's COMPANION. France, and passed three years in close attention to philos- ophy and general literature. Then returning to Great Britain he published the first-fruits of his pen, A Treatise on Jl/onan JVciture, which was unsuccessful. In 1742 he published two volumes of Moral and Philosophical Essays which met with a more favorable reception. To Hume's great work the History of England^ formerly mentioned, he afterwards added the earlier history, from the invasion of Julius Csesar to the reign of James I. In philosophy and in religion his views were those of a sceptic. Pie doubted almost everything, and attacked the Christian faith, especially by striving to cut away the foundations on which our belief in miracles rests. Hume was born at Edinburgh in 1 V 1 1, educated at the University of his native city, and died in the beautiful city of his birth in 1776. Burke— Edmund Burke, a miscellaneous prose writer, who stands foremost among English political writers and orators, was a man of such powerful and versatile genius that he has been likened to Bacon. Burke was born in 1730, in a house on Arran Quay, Dublin, graduated at Trinity College in his native city, and died at his home near Beaconsfield in 1797. In early life he went to Eng- land to study law, but his tastes soon led him into literary work, and he became a regular writer for the magazines. His first reputation was gained by The Yindication of Natural Society, an ironical imitation of the style and sen- timents of Lord Bolingbroke; this work being followed by his well-known Essay on the Sublime and Seautiful, which has since been regarded as one of the classics in our literature. Disliking his political career which he now began as secretary to the Chief Secretary of Ireland, he soon received an appointment from the Marquis of Rock- ingham, The Prime Minister, and at once commenced his long public life of honor and activity. He sat in the House of Commons, and was one of the most prominent debaters during the agitated periods of the American and ENGLISH LITERATURE. 191 the French Revolutions, The reign of terror in France was foreseen by Burke, Avhen he wrote his greatest work, called Reflections on the Revolution in France. His Letter to a Kohle Lord ranks high among the products of his pen. But the greatest work of Burke's public life was his Impeachment of Warren Hastings, in which he played the most prominent part. Other works of his last years were Letters on a Regicide Peace and Observations on the Con- duct of tJie Minority. Gibbon. — Edward Gibbon, a miscellaneous prose writer, was born at Putney, near London, in ITST and died at the latter place, of a disease which had long been prey- ing on his strength, in 1794. Much of Gibbon's early education was received from his aunt. In 1752 he became a gentleman commoner of Magdalen College, Oxford. The first-fruits of his pen appeared in French, an essay on the Stadi/ of Literatnre. Between 1763 and 1765 he traveled over France, Italy, and Switzerland. In 1776 he published the fii'st volume of his history. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Kmioire, which work at once caused the author to spring into literary fame. In 1781 the second and third volumes made their appearance; soon after which the historian, disappointed in his hopes of a permanent government post, retired to the house of a literary friend at Lausanne, where he wrote the rest of the work. Walker. — John Walker, an English lexicographer, who may be classed among the miscellaneous prose writers, is widely known from his connection with the English Dictionary. Leaving the stage he engaged himself in teaching school, and in two years abandoned this pro- fession to deliver public lectures on Elocution, which proved a success. His Pronouncing Dictionary became an authority, not on the ground of his dictum, but because he had carefully and judiciously selected for each word or set of words that pronunciation which was used by genteel and educated people. It was an exact exhibit, prepared 192 THE examiner's COMPANION. by an expert, of the actual pronunciation of English words by good society. The work was so well done that it helped greatly to fix what is in itself arbitrary and fluctuating, and Walker's pronunciation has continued accordingly without material change to the present day. He was born in Middlesex in 1732, and died in 1807. Murray.— Lindley Murray, whom we may class as a miscellaneous prose writer, holds about the same relation to English Grammar that Walker holds to the English Dictionary. Murray's Grammar was, to many generations of school-boys and school-girls, the court in the last resort on all questions of correct speaking and writing. Though an American by birth and education, Murray is classed as an English writer, as he became an Englishman by residence, and wrote all his works in England. He was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, in 1745, educated in Phila- delphia, at an academy of the Society of Friends, to which body he belonged, and died near York, England, in 1826. He began as a lawyer; abandoned law for the counting- house; retired early with a competence; and then lived for some years on the Hudson, three miles above New Yoi-k. In 1784, being a little over forty, he removed to England, and lived there the remainder of his days. His principal works were his English G-rammar and his English Header. Murray's English Header, with the Introduction, and the &equel,'\\2i^ an enormous sale both in England and America. Taylor.— Jeremy Taylor was born at Cambridge, in 1613, became chaplain to Charles I., and in 1660 bishop of Down and Connor. He was a thoroughly educated man, and from his early years was conspicuous on account of his talents and his learning. The best known of Taylor's controversial writings is the treatise On the Liberty of Prophesying. His woi-k entitled an Apology for Fixed and Set Forms of Worship, was an elaborate defence of the noble ritual of the Anglican Church. Among his other works may be named, The Life of Christ, or th^ ENGLISH LITER d.TURE. 193 Great Exemplar; On the Rule and Exercises of Holy Living ; On the Rule and Exercise of Holy Dying^ and Ductor Dubitantium. His Sermons are quite numerous, and are among the most eloquent, learned, and powerful in the whole range of Chi'istian literature. His death occurred at Lisburn in 1667. Bnnyaii.— John Bunyan, the master of religious allegory, came from the lowest grade of social life, grew up to manhood with an education so meagre that he barely knew how to read or write, and yet he produced a work which places him foremost among the writers of his class. Bunyan was born at Elstow, a mile from Bedford, in the year 1628, and died at his birth-place of fever in 1688. This celebrated man was the author of a noble work entitled Pilgrims Progress, which was partly written in Bedford Gaol. The 10th edition appeared in 1685. No book but the " Bible, and the Imitation of Jesus Christ," has been translated into so many languages, and it has as long been the delight of the educated and refined, as it was at first of the poor and ignorant. His great work narrates the experience of a Christian in going from a life of sin to everlasting bliss. Bunyan's works are numerous, and entirely of a religious character. The religious autobiography entitled Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, and the religious allegory called the Holy 'War, ai-e two more of his excellent works. Bunyan was evidently a dreamer; and he tells us in this first book that, from his childhood, he has been haunted by fearful visions of the lake of fire. Fox.— George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, was born in county Leicester, England, in 1G24, and departed this life in London, in 1690. He was chiefly distinguished by his apostolic zeal and labors as a preacher. Early adopting the peculiar tenets and manners known as Quakerism, he suffered for many years continual perse- cution. In 1671 he sailed for the West Indies and the 13 194 THE EXAMINER'S COMPANIOX. American colonies, to propagate the doctrines of the sect he had originated; and on his return to England, in 1673, he was again imprisoned, but soon released through the influence of William Penn. After the accession of William III., to the throne, the public worship of the Society of Friends became tolerated and legalized. Among the principal writings of Fox are the following: Journal of his Life and Travels; Collection of Christian ^Jjnstles, Lexers, and Testimonies/ and Gospel Truth Demonstrated in a Col- lection of Doctrinal Jiooks. Penn.— William Penn, a celebrated member of the Society of Friends, and the founder of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, was born in London, in 1644, and met his death in 1718, being buried at the village of Jordan, Buckinghamshire. Entering Oxford College, he early gave evidence of strong religious impulses, and adopted the new doctrines of the so-called Society of Friends. In 1680, Penn, who had inherited from his father a claim against the government of £16,000, obtained from the king in satisfaction therefor a grant of an extensive tract of country lying West of the river Delaware and North of Maryland, in the American plantations, and which in the royal patent was called Pennsylvania (Penn's wooded country), in honor of the late admiral, the father of the grantee. This territory Penn resolved to form into a commonwealth based upon perfect religious toleration, and accordingly set sail thither, arriving in Delaware Bay on the 27th of October, 1682. In November he entered into a league with the Indians, and founded the city of Phila- delphia. Penn's writings were numerous and exerted a powerful influence. The most noteworthy ones are: No Cross, No Crown; The Conduct of Life; Quakerism a New Name for Old Christianity; The Great Lav; of Lib- erty of Conscience Debated and Defended; and A Brief Account of the People called Quakers. Wesley.— John Wesley, an English divine and religious EXGLISH LITERATURE. 195 reformer, was born at Epworth, in Lincolnshire, in 1703, and passed from this earth at London, in 1791. Educated at Oxford, he became a Fellow of Lincoln College, and in 1728 took orders in the Church of England, and held a curacy for two years. On his return to Oxford, he formed, along with his brother Charles, the celebrated George Whitefield, and others, one of a kind of religious brother- hood, who obtained by their strict and austere mode of life the nick-name of Methodists. In 1738, Wesley adopted Moravian views, yet continued to profess the doctrines of the Anglican Church after he had ceased to conform to its discipline. In 1740 he seceded from the Moravian con- nection and differing with Whitefield on the doctrine of predestination, organized a sect of his own and became an itinerant field-preacher, thereby exposing himself to much popular persecution. In 1750 he married a rich widow, from whom he separated in 1771. Wesley's best known works are his Journal and his Hymns; in the latter of which his brother Charles gave him important aid. Whitefield.— George Whitefield, the most celebrated English preacher of his day, was born at Gloucester in 1714, and departed this life at Newburyport, Massachu- setts, in 1770. After entering into fellowship with the Wesley's at Oxford, he, like them, was excluded from the Anglican Church on account of his heterodox views, and in 1739 commenced a career of itinerant preaching in England and her American colonies, and founded the sect of Calvinistic Methodists. The contents of Whitefield's ^VorTxS and Life consist oi Letters, Journals, and Sermons, published in seven volumes. Pry nne.— William Prynne, an English Puritan, politi- cal writer and antiquary, was born in the year 1600, and died in 1609. Prynne was subjected to every cruel treat- ment on account of the publication of a book entitled Histn'o JListLv, A Scourfie for the Players, which first brought him into notice. This work was a grand tirade 196 THE EXAAIINER's COMPANION. against stage-plays, as being " sinful, heathenish, lewd, ungodly spectacles," and against the " profession of play- poets and stage-players" and the " frequenting of stage- plays," as being " unlawful, infamous, and misbeseeming Christians," "besides sundry other particulars concerning dancing, dicing, health-drinking, etc." In writing this furious blast it was no off-hand performance of the author, but a very laborious work on which he spent several years of hard toil. As a punishment to silence so bold a writer of questionable reputation, the Government expelled him from the University, degraded him from the bar, fined him £5,000, set him twice on the pillary, burned his book before his eyes by the common hangman, sentenced him to imprisonment for life, cut off both his ears, and lastly burned upon his cheeks the letters S. L., " Schismatic Libeller," but according to his own version, ^'^ Stigmata Laiidis, Marks of Praise." Mackiiitosli.— Sir James Mackintosh, who may be classed as a politician along with Prynne, British states- man and man of letters, was born near Inverness, Scot- land, in 1765, educated at Aberdeen, and died rather sud- denly in 1832. Sir James must be regarded as one of the most powerful intellects of his time; he excelled most in analytical criticism. At Edinburgh he studied medicine, but afterwards abandoned this profession for the law, and won considerable renown by his defense of Peltier. He early manifested literary talents of the highest order in his Miidicae (TdlUcae, written to refute Burke's "Reflec- tions on the French Revolution." Among his works are. On the Law of Nature and of Nations; A Dissertation on the Progreis of Ethical Philosophy ; a History of Eng- land, written for Lardner's Cyclopaedia; a short Eife of Sir Thomas More; an Unfinished History of the English Revolution of 16S8; and a number of articles for the " Edinburgh Review." Cirladstone.— "William Edward Gladstone, political ENGLISH LITERATtTlE. 197 writer, statesman, orator, and man of letters, was born in Liverpool in 1809, and educated at Oxford, where he grad- uated with more than ordinary distinction. Gladstone has risen by slow but sure degrees through the various stages of advancement, until in 1868 he became the Prime Minister of the Crown. In 18*73 he was succeeded in the premiership by Mr. Disraeli and in the following year published a brochure relating and antagonistic to Roman Catholic allegiance, which created a wide sensa- tion. The following are some of Gladstone's most able and scholarly works: Horner and the Homeric Age; The State in its Relation to the Church; Jnventus 3lHndi, the Gods and Men of the Heroic Age; Vaticanism, and other pam- phlets on the question of Papal Infallihility . Browne. — Sir Thomas Browne, a miscellaneous writer of some note, was born at London in 1605, and departed this life in 1682. He was an exceedingly learned man, and passed the greater part of his life in practicing physic in the ancient city of Norwich. Among the most popular of his works are the treatise on Hgdriotajyhia or Urn-Burial, and Essays on Vulgar Errors, or Pseudodoxia, Epidemica. But his most celebrated production is the Rdlgio Medici, or The Religion of a Physician, a species of confession of faith which gives a minute account of his own religious and philosophical opinions. As a sequel to this work the author wrote Christian Morals, which is also in high repute. Another work in which the author displays his learning and ingenuity is Tlie Garden of Cgrus, or The Quincunxial Lozenge. These writings are the frank out- pourings of one of the most eccentric and original minds that ever existed. Walton.— Izaak Walton was born at Stafford in 1593, passed his early manhood in London as a linen-draper, and died in 1683 at the age of ninety years. Walton's memory is dear to every lover of our literature for the delightful book he has left us, redolent of wild-flowers 198 THE examiner's COMPANION, and sweet country air, entitled Tlie Complete Angler. This work is Walton's best production, being a treatise on his beloved pastime of fishing. Every page is spiced with the quaint thought of the philosopher of the rod. A second part was added to the Complete Angler^ by Charles Cotton, the poet, an adopted son of Walton, who may be classed as a miscellaneous writer. The lAves of Don7ie, Walton, Hooker, George Herbert, and Bishop Sanderson, remain also as fruits of honest Izaak's old age. These biographies stand alone in literature. They are written with such tender grace, with such an unaffected fervor of personal attachment and simple piety, that they will always be regarded as master-pieces. Richardson.— Charles Richardson, an English lexicog- rapher, was author of a high esteemed Dictionary of the English Language. He was born in the year 17*75, and his death took place in 1865. His work is very rich in materials, and altogether unparalleled. Other Dictionaries seem to have been built up by accretion one upon another, or have been developed one from another, as Webster from Johnson, Johnson from Bailey, and so on, going back to Edward Phillip's little book, "The New World of Words; " but Richardson conceived a new idea and boldly pursued this novel course. He adopted as a cardinal principle the dictum of John Home Tooke, that each word has inherently but one meaning, and this one primary meaning, must first be ascertained, not by arbitrary con- jecture, but by etymological and historical research, and that all the secondary and derived meanings should be subordinated to it, and be shown to spring from it, in historical and logical order. The cardinal principles upon which Richardson's work is based, are the true foundations of the science of lexicography. Bnssell. — William Howard Russell, a British journalist, who has acquired great celebrity as Special Correspondent of the London Times, was born in 1821. The London EKOIJSII LITERATURE. 199 Times sent him out as their special correspondent during the Crimean War, and his credentials were such that he Avas placed on intimate terms with the leading British officers, and enabled to collect the materials for that series of brilliant letters which establishe.d his fame. He was again sent out as special correspondent, when the Civil War in America broke out, and followed the Northern army through their disastrous campaigns until the summer of 1862. Russell is a man of culture and education, and possesses the hapjjy faculty of seizing the essential features of a campaign, a battle, a skirmish, or a journey, and presenting them in a clear and vigorous style. The works by which he has chiefly won his fame are: his Letters on the Crimean War; and his Diary in India. IjOcke. — John Locke, an English philosopher and theo- logian, was born at Wrington, in Somersetshire, in 1632, and received his education at Westminster School, and Christ Church, Oxford. After filling a diplomatic and other public positions, he became Commissioner of Appeals in 1688, and died in 1*704. Locke was one of the most accomplished and erudite men of his time, and, among his multifarious writings, one work stands pre-eminent — his well known Essay on the Unman Understanding (pub- lished in 1690,) which mai'ks an epoch in the history of philosophy. Locke's principal minor works, are.* Letters concerning Toleration., written partly in Holland; two Treatises on Civil Government ; Thoughts concerning Edu- cation; and a sequel to this work, entitled Conduct of the Understanding., a small, but admirable little work which was published after his death. Boyle.— Robert Boyle, son of the Great Earl of Cork, was born at Lismore, in 1627, and descended into an hon- ored g7'ave in 1691. He was distinguished for his deep researches in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and was one of the original members of the Royal Society. His favorite subjects were air, and the aii"-pump. He discov- 200 THE examiner's companion. ered the law concerning the elasticity of the air, and was the first to note that the science of chemistry pertains to the atomic constituents of bodies. Boyle's Occasional Reflec- tions on Several Subjects, published in 1665, gave origin to Swift's well known caricature, Meditation of a Brooin-stich. Hamiltou.— Sir William Hamilton, the greatest phi- losopher of his age, was born in Glasgow in 1788, edu- cated at Oxford, and called to the Scottish bar in 1813. In 1821 he became professor of universal history, and in 1836 professor of logic and metaphysics in Edinburgh University. His Essays frotn the Edinhnrgh liemew and his Edition of Dr. HeicVs WorJcs were published during his lifetime. His Lectures edited by Dr. Mansel of Oxford, and Professor Veitch, now of Glasgow, were published after his death. Among his chief published works are: Philoso2)hy of the Absolute (182*7); PhUosojihy of Percep- tion (1830); and Logic (1833). He died in 1856. Mill.— John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher and political economist, was born in London in 1806, and met his death at Avignon, France, in 18*73. Mill established his reputation in 1843, by the publication of A System of Logic, Patiocinative and Lnductive, a work the success of which paved the way for The Principles of Political Econ- omy, with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy (1848). His later works are an Essay on Liberty; An Examination of Sir HViUiain IIamilton''s Philosophy (1865); and the Subjection of Women 1869 in which he avows himself a partisan of what has been popularly termed the "Woman's Rights, movement." Spencer.— Herbert Spencer, one of the most copious writers of the day on philosophical subjects, was born at Derby, in 1820, Spencer maintains that there is no such thing as metaphysics in the ordinary use of that term, no a p)riori (from the cause to the effect) construction of the world of thought out of the philosopher's own conscious ness, but only a science of human life based upon broad ENGLISH LITERATURE. 201 and carefully prepared data, and treated like other induct- ive sciences. Among his chief works may be named: The Principles of Psychology ; First Principles; Social Statics; Education; Principjles of Biology ; Universal Progress; and Classification of the Sciences. Darwin.— Charles Robert Darwin was born at Shrews- bury, England, in 1809, and met his death at London in 1882. Some of his chief works are: Variations of Ani- mals and Plants under Domestication; The Descent of Man; and a charming work Qx\t\l\ediYoyageofa]S'aturalist Pound the JVorld. Darwin's great fame, however, rests principally upon the remarkable ethnological theory embodied in 77ie Origin of Species by Means af JV^fitural Selection, a work which has passed through numberless editions, been translated into all literary languages, and has caused the liveliest controversy in the scientific world. Newton. — Sir Isaac Newton, an illustrious English philosopher and mathematician, was born at Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, in 1642, and departed this life in 1727. Newton graduated at Cambridge University in 1668, and there became professor of mathematics in the following year. Prior to this he discovered the binomial theorem, and of the differential calculus, or method of fluxions, and in 1665 demonstrated his theory of the central force of gravity of the earth. In 1 685-6 appeared the PHncipia, the masterpiece of his genius, a work styled by Laplace, "pre-eminent above all other productions of the human intellect." In this, he embodied the laws of his great discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. From the long list of Newton's works, the principal of which were written in Latin, some English publications may be selected. The first edition of his Optics (1704) appeared in his own tongue. A work entitled. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended, was printed after the author's death. And an interesting theological treatise, styled Observations upon the Proph- 202 THE examiner's companion. ecies of Daniel and the Apocalyijse of St. John, which his executors published iu 1733. Benthani. — Jeremy Beutham, a scientist of consider- able note, was educated at Oxford, called to the bar, but did not pursue it a's a profession. He is the great teacher of Utilitarianism, and as a jurist he set himself in earnest to discover and disclose the defects and faults of the then existing sj'stem and language of jurisprudence, and to establish something truer and better in their place. For nearly half a century Bentham was the center of an influ- ential circle of philosophical writers. Among his most celebrated works are: Introduction to the Princjples and MoraU of Legislation^ Treatise on Civil and Penal Legis- lation; and Tlieory of Rewards and Punishments. Bentham was born in 1748, and died at London in 1832, leaving his "body to be dissected for the benefit of science. Miller. — Hugh Miller was born at Cromarty, Scotland, in 1802, of humble parentage, and committed suicide by shooting himself in 1856. He became early in life a working stone-mason, and in the quarries imbibed a taste for and acquired a profound knowledge of geology. Six years he spent as an accountant in a Cromarty bank, dur- ing which time his chief literary performance was. Scenes and Legends in the North of Scotland, or the Traditional History of Cromarty. Some of his works are: My Schools and Schoolmasters; The Old Ped Sandstone; Footjyrints of the Creator; and The Testimony of the Pocks. Miller's reputation rests upon the three last mentioned works. Tyndall.— John Tyndall, a very distinguished and widely known scientist, was born at Leighlin Bridge, Ire- land, in 1820. Two interesting woi'ks on Switzerland called, The Glaciers of the Alps, and Mouyitaineering in 1861, were written by Tyndall, in which brilliant descrip- tion of hazardous ascensions is skilfully blended with scientific information. Heat as a 3fode of Jifotion, and a work on Sound, are his best and most popular writings. E^rCLISH LITERATTJRE. 203 In 1872 he visited tlie United States and lectured in public, the surplus profits being devoted to the promotion of scientific study in this country. Richardsou. — Samuel Richardson, a novelist of note, was born in Derbyshire in 1689, and died at Parson's Green in 1761, at the ripe age of seventy-two. When more than fifty years of age he began to write, and the result of his undertaking was his first novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, over which so many hearty, honest laughs have been enjoyed. In 1749, Richardson published Clarissa Harlowe, and in 1753 Sir Charles Grandison, both of which attained a popularity equal to that of their predecessor. He acquired a world-wide reputation by his three novels already mentioned, which have run through countless editions, and which are still read. Fielding.— Henry Fielding, the father of English fiction, was born in 1707, at Sharpham Park in Somerset- shire, and died at Lisbon, and was buried there in the cemetery of the British Factory, in 1754. Fielding was of a noble family allied to the imperial house of Austria, His father was a General in the army, and his mother was the daughter of a Judge. Fielding's first novel, Joseph Andreses, was a powerful caricature of the timid and fas- tidious morality, the sentimentalism and the somewhat preaching style of Richardson's Pamela. In rapid succes- sion Fielding produced his Journey from this World to the Next; The Life of Jonathan'Wild the Great; and Tom, Jones. His third great novel is Amelia ; which story was intended to portray Fielding's own follies and irregularities, and to pay a tribute to the virtues and love of his wife. Smollet.— Tobias George SmoUet, an eminent novelist and historian, was born in 1721, at Dalquhurn-house near Renton, in Dumbartonshire, educated at the Grammar School of Dumbarton and the University of Glasgow, and met his death in 1771. In the year 1748, Roderick Random opened his career as a novelist. His second 204 THE examiner's COMPANION. novel, Peregrine Pickle^ followed in three years; and in 1753, The Adventtcres of Ferdinand, Count Fathom, a counterpart to Henry Fielding's "Jonathan Wild," appeared. Turning his pen from fiction to history, he produced, in a little more than one year, a Complete His- tory of Fngland.- At fifty years of age, his health being broken, he traveled to Leghorn, and there finished a novel entitled Humphrey Clinker, which is undoubtedly his masterpiece. Like Fielding, Smollet died and was buried in a foreign land. Scott.— Sir Walter Scott, an illustrious Scottish novelist and poet, was born at Edinburgh in 1771, of an ancient family represented by the Dukes of Buccleuch. During his youth he suffered much from ill-health, and contracted a lameness which never left him. He studied at the High School and University of his native city, and early imbued his mind with a strong predilection for the legends, tradi- tions and antiquities of his country. In 1802 he produced The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, and, in 1805, enrapt- ured the reading-world with the first of his great poems — The Lay of the Last Minstrel — a work which placed him in the front rank of contemporary poets. In 1808 he gave to the public his Marmion, the masterpiece of his poetic genius; and, in 1810, his last great poem. The Lady of the Lake. In 1814, he commenced his career as a novelist by the publication of Waverly, the pioneer of that unique series of works of fiction known to the civilized world as The Waverly Novels,- and his authorship of which he kept secret for many years. In 1831 he left for Italy, there to recruit his health; but, soon feeling that his strength was ra^^idly decreasing, he returned home, and died at Abbotsford in 1832. Inde- pendent of his novels and poems, Scott did much in other departments of literature. His Life of Napoleon alone realized him $00,000. Scott must ever rank as one of the foremost names in literature. Surpassed by Shakespeare ENGLISH LITERATURE. 205 in versatility of power; by Goethe in art; by Fielding in individuality; by Bulwer in sensational vigor; and by Dickens in humor: Scott yet remains the grand-master of the field of chivalrous and historical romance. Bronte.— Charlotte Bronte, better known under her nom-de-plume " Currer Bell," was one of the most original novelists of the day. She achieved a wide repu- tation as the author of the powerful novels, Jane Eyre; Shirley; and VUlette. Miss Bronte was the daughter of an Irish curate; she settled in Yorkshire, and grew up in the wilds of Haworth. Her first novel called, The Pro- fessor, was rejected by the London publishers. The rejection was sweetened by encouragement to try a more salable book. This M''ork was Jane ^yre,which is mentioned above. She was born at Thornton in 1816, married her father's curate, Mr. Nichol, in 1854, and died at Haworth, in 1855, in her thirty-ninth year. Dickens.— Charles Dickens was the most popular novelist of his day. He was born at Landport, Portsmouth, in 1812, and departed this life suddenly, from overwork, at Gadshill, near Rochester, England, in 18V0. Early in life, he abandoned the study of the law for the profession of parliamentary reporting for the London daily newspaper press. His literary career commenced with the publication of /Sketches by Boz, 1 836. In 1 837 he founded his reputation by the Pickwick Papers, a work which, for insight into character and breadth of original humor, is not surpassed by anything in the language. Next followed a series of works which placed him at the head of a new school of novelists: OUmr Twist (1838); Nicholas Nickleby (1839); Master Hum-iphrey'' s Clock (1840-41); Barnahy Pudge (1842); Martin Chuzzleioiit (1843-4); Pombey and Son (1847-8); Pavid Copi^erjleld (1847-8); etc., etc. His last and unfinished work is the Mystery of Edvnn Prood (1870). In 1845, Dickens became for a time editor of the London "Daily News," — a newspaper he himself had 206 THE examiner's companion. founded. In 1850, he brought out Household Words, since merged into All the Year Momid, a periodical which has retained a front place among English magazines. Thackeray.— William Makepeace Thackeray, one of the greatest of modern novelists, was born at Calcutta, in 1811, educated at Cambridge, and died in London on the Christmas Eve of 1863. Under the nom de plume of " Michael Angelo Titraarsh," Thackeray became known as a humoristic writer of the first eminence. Some of his contributions, such as tales, criticism, and poetry, appeared in " Eraser's Magazine." They were, The Hoggarty Diamond; The Paris Sketch-Booh ; The Irish Sketch- Book; The Chronicle of the Drum; and the tale of Barry Lyndon. Soon after appeared Thackeray's first, and, in the eyes of many, his greatest novel. Vanity Fair. The History of Arthur Bendennis, was the immediate successor of Vanity Fair. Then came The History of Henry Esmond, Esq., which is probably the best of Thackeray's writings. In his work entitled The Newcomes, Thackeray's most popular novel, the leading theme or moral of the story is the misery occasioned by forced or ill-assorted marriages. His two courses of lectures On the English Humorists and The Four Georges, are models of style and criticism. As a man and a writer, Thackeray has left, by his death, a void in English letters which will not soon be filled, and a fame second only to that of Scott. Bal wer-Liy ttoa. — Sir Edward George Bulwer- Lytton may be classed with Thackeray and Dickens as the third great writer of the modern novel. He was born in Norfolk, of an ancient family in 1805, educated at Cambridge, and met his death at London in 1873. He was the third son of General Bulwer, of Heyden Hall in Norfolk. Upon inheriting his mother's estates in 1844, he was granted the privilege of adding her family name, Lytton, to his surname. His career as a novelist first commenced in 1827, when a work entitled Falkland ENGLISH LITEEATUKE. 207 appeared. In the year following Pelham appeared — a work which placed hira at once in the first rank of con- temporary writers of fiction. Among his chief novels are: Eugene Aram; The Last Days of Pomj^eii; The Caxtons; The Disotoned; Paul Clifford; The Pilgrims of the Mhine; My Novel; ll^iat loill He do vnthlt; and A Strange Story. He is also author of the successful and favorite plays, 27ie Lady of Lyons; Richelieu; and Money ^ and of the jioems, The JVeio Timon; King Arthur, and Milton; the last named one being considered his best work in English versie. Trollope.— Anthony Trollope stands in the front rank of English novelists; and nowhere are his works more popular than in the United States. At first commencing with Irish stories, he afterwards struck upon a vein but little wrought by former novelists — life among English clergymen. As a delineator of English political, clerical, and middle-class English life, and of Irish characteristics in general, he is without a rival. Some of his best-known productions are : The Warden; Doctor Thome; The ICellys and the O'lCellys; The Bertrams; Phineas Finn, the Irish 3fember; TJie Lost Chronicle of Barset; and The Three Clerks. All his works are clothed in an atmosphere of healthy and robust purity, alike removed from sentimen- tality and extravagance. These qualities, combined with ease of style, have procured for the author an immense popularity which shows no signs of diminution, but rather an increase since his death, which took place in 1882. Trollope was born in 1815. Reade.— Charles Reade, a popular English novelist, was born at London in 1814, and died at his birth-place in 1884. Receiving his education at Oxford, he then estab- lished for himself a reputation by his first novel, Peg Woffington, which appeared in 1852. In true artistic merit, this novel is unsurpassed by any of its more ambi- tious successors. The most important of these are: Never too Late to Mend; Love Me Little Love Me Long; Hard 208 THE examiner's COMPANION. Oashy White Lies; The Cloister and the Hearth; and Put Yourself in His Place. Reade's novel, Never too Late to Mend, was a vigorous protest against the then existing prison-system of England. His intention was to show the evils of Trades-Unions, when he wrote his work called Put Yourself in His Place. Collins. — William Wilkie Collins, a very popular novelist, was born at London in 1824. He wrote his father's Life; a novel called Antonina; The Frozen Peep, a drama; Queen of Hearts; Man and Wife; and The Dead Secret. But his best work is a novel entitled The Woman in White, contributed to "All the Year Round." Plunged in a mystery before the first chapter has closed, we remain dark and breathless almost to the last page of the tale. More recent fictions from his pen are: The Moonstone; No Name; and Arrnadale. Eliot.— Mrs. Marion C. (Evans) Lewes, best known by her assumed name of " George Eliot," has produced some of the most remarkable novels of the day. She was born in Warwickshire in 1820, and died at London in 1880. Beginning her literary career with Scenes of Clerical Life, she afterwards took the reading public by storm, when Adam Bede appeared. Some more of her chief works may be named as. The Mill on the Floss; Silas Warner, the Weaver of Ravelhoe; Roynola; Felix Holt, the Radical; Middlemarch; and a dramatic poem entitled The Spanish Gipsy. Scarcely any works of fiction of the present day show greater originality, or power, or higher artistic finish, than those of " George Eliot." Macaalay. — Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay, an English historian of note, was born at Rothley, England, in 1800; thoroughly educated at the University of Cam- bridge, and died in Kensington, England, in 1859, his remains being buried in Westminster Abbey. The fame of Lord Macaulay mainly rests upon his consummate ability as historian and essayist. His great performance, ENGLISH LITERATURE. 209 A History of England, from the Accession of James the Second to the Death of William III., is a work of pre- eminent excellence. As a poet he wrote those magnificent martial ballads entitled, the Lays of Ancient Rome, which have few parallels, if any, in the English language. Two of Macaulay's most remarkable productions, the Battle of Ivry, and the Essay on Hilton, were published in his youth while a law student. Crrote.— George Grote was born in 1794 at Clay Hill, near Beckenliam in Kent, educated at the Charter-house, and met his death in 18*71. He was a most eminent English writer upon Ancient History, and produced a work entitled The History of Greece froyn the Earliest Period to the Death of Alexander the Great, which is far superior to any existing in European languages. Grote also wrote an important work entitled Plato and the other Companions of Socrates, which is a masterpiece of research, analysis, and scholarship. Hallam.— Henry Hallam was born at Windsor in 1778, received his education at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and passed from this earth in 1859. He has worthily won the praise of being "the most judicial of our great modern historians." Having studied in the Inner Tem- ple, he was called to the bar, and soon became a Commis- sioner of Audit. His greatest works comprise a Viev) of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages; The Con- stitutioncd History of England from the Accession of Henry VII., to the Death of George II., and his master- piece, the Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the XV., XVI, and XVII, Centuries. This distinguished historian was a son of the Dean of Wells, and a valued friend of Sir Walter Scott. Hyde.— Edward Hyde was born at Dinton in Wilt- shire in 1608 educated for the profession of law, but at an early age he quitted the bar, and engaged in the more exciting struggles of political life. After being appointod 14 210 THE examiner's COMPANION. Lord Chancellor of England, he opposed the Church of Rome, and ruined his popularity with the nation. In 1667, he was doomed to perpetual exile by act of Parlia- ment. Hyde's History of the Rebellion is a work of the highest literary merit; and his Essay on an Active and Contemplative Life, another very remarkable work. Born in the same year, Hyde and John Milton stood all their lives apart, towering in rival greatness above their fellows in the grand struggle of their century. Milton wrote most of his great poem in blindness and disgrace; Hyde completed his great history during a painful exile. His death occurred at Rouen, France, in 1674. Hill. — James Mill, a British historian and political economist, was born in 1773, at Logic Pert, near Mont- rose, and died at London in 1836. His great work, a History of British India, which advocated many of the progressive views of Jeremy Bentham, was published in five volumes, 8 vo., in 1817-19. Mr. Mill has written much that is of standard value; as witness the above men- tioned history; the Liberty of the Press, the Law of Nations; Elements of Political Economy; and an Analysis of the Phenomena of the Hwnan Mind. Carlyle.— Thomas Carlyle, an eminent English histo- rian and philosopher, was born in the parish of Middlebie, in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in 1795. Graduating at the University of Edinburgh, he afterwards engaged in teach- ing for a number of years as mathematical master in a Fifeshire school, and then as tutor to Charles Buller, but when about thirty years of age he gave himself up wholly to literature and authorship. Among Carlyle's chief pub. lications may be named: Life of Schiller; Sartor Resartus ; History of the French Revolution; Hero Worship, and other Essays ; Latter Hay Pamphlets; Chartism; Past and Present; T^etters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell; Life of John Sterlimj ; and th Life of Frederick the Great. Mr. Carlyle died at Jiondon in 1881, ENGLISH LITERATURE. 211 Campbell.— John, Lord Campbell, a native of Scot- land, who may be classed among the biographers, attained great eminence as a 'jurist and statesman. Born in 17Y9 he became Lord Chancellor of Ireland in 1841, and Lord Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench in 1850. In 1859, he was appointed Lord Chancellor, under the Palmerston administration. In 1846 he produced his Lives of the Lord Chancellors, etc., in seven volumes, republished in Philadelphia; and in 1^49 the Lives of the Chief Justices, in three volumes. These works are regarded as of great historical value, besides being written in a pleasing and attractive style. Campbell died in 1861. Knight.— Charles Knight an English biographer and man of letters Avas born at Windsor, in 1791. In 1872 he settled in London, where he rapidly acquired reputation as a publisher of works, of a high class, and started Knight's Quarterly Magazine, which contained some of the earlier writings of Lord Macaulay. Knight afterwards estab- lished the Penny Magazine and the Penny Cyclopcedia, the latter on which he expended $200,000 for original con- tributions. He was the editor of the Pictorial Shakespeare, and is the author of William Shakespeare, a Biograpjhy. He also edited the English Cyclopoidia, and was, at the same time, engaged on his Popxdar Ilistory of England, com- l)leted in 1862. Some of Knight's other productions com- prise autobiographical Passages of a Working Ijfe during Half a Century; Half-Hours with the Best Authors; Half-Hours of English History; and Half-Hours vnth the Best Letter- Writers. His death took place in 1874. liamb.— Charles Lamb, the most charming essayist in the English language, was born at London in 1775, and died at Edmundton, near London, in 1834, of erysipelas. He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where the poet Cole- ridge was his schoolfellow. Lamb's genial wit and hospitality drew around his tea-table the poets Coleridge, Lloyd, Southey, Dyer; Godwin the novelist; Hazlitt tl:.; 212 THE examiner's COMPANION. critic; Manning the theologian, and all of that sort. Of his works the most eminent is undoubtedly the Essays of EUa. Lamb was also the author of John Woodvil, a tragedy; Tales Founded on the Plays of Shakespeare; and innumerable essays, poems, etc. Hazlitt.— William Hazlitt, an eminent critic, was born at Maidstone, in 1778, and died of cholera in 1830. Haz- litt was educated for tlie clerical profession, but soon after entered the paths of literature, and in 1805 produced. his Principles of Human Action. This was the germ of a long and successful literary career, during which he gave to the world his Lectures on the Literature of the Eliza, bethan Aye; Table Talk; Lectures on the Enylish Poets; The /Sjnrit of the Age, and his well-known Life of Napo- leon Bonaparte. Mr. Hazlitt was one of the best critics in the earlier part of this century. His paradoxes are a little startling, and sometimes lead him astray; but there is a delicacy of taste, a richness of imagination, and a per- ceptive power, that make him a worthy second to Thomas DeQuincey. De^nincey.— Thomas DeQuincey received a classical education at the Grammar School of Bath, and entered the University of Oxford in 1803, where he remained until 1808. Whilst there he contracted the habit of eating opium, to which he remained a bounden slave for many years. He made German Literature and philosophy his special study, and translated some of the works of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Lessing, and Richter. The consequen- ces of his taking opium were fearful, as he himself relates in his chief work. The Confessions of an English Opium- eater. In 1823 he went to London, where he published his Suspiria de Profundis, his Templar''s Dialogues, and other works. His w^orks evince profound learning and deep speculation, together with great critical powers and terse- ness of diction. This well-known critic was born at Manchester in 1785, and died at Edinburgh in 1859. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 213 Bruce.— James Bruce, an English traveler, was born in Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 1730, and passed from his earthly career in 1794. Till the time of this intrepid explorer of Africa, our knowledge of the interior king- doms and resources of that vast continent was of the most imperfect kind; but Bruce's journey to ■ Abyssinia and the source of the Nile forms an epoch in the annals of discovery. By his travels and researches great acces- sions were made both in the science of geography and that of natural history; and though the marvels he revealed were long and derisively treated as fabrications, a more extensive and perfect knowledge of East Africa has gen- erally confirmed the truth of his assertions. liiTingstone. — David Livingstone, a Scottish traveler and explorer of humble parentage, was born at Blantyre, near Glasgow, in 1815; and died from dysentery at Itaca, Central Africa, in 1873. As an agent of the London Mis- sionary Society, he labored and traveled in the interior of Africa, in 1840-56. In 1858 he again visited that conti- nent and explored the river Zambesi, until then unknown to Europeans. In 1865 he started from England on a third expedition, with a view to explore the countries lying in the far interior beyond Lake Nyassa. In 1871 the "Kew York Herald" dispatched Mr. Stanley, one of its corre- spondents, in search of Livingstone, from whom nothing had been heard since May 13, 1869. Mr. Stanley found him at Ujiji, and left him in March, 1872. His chief dis- coveries have been the Victoria Falls and Lake Nyassa. The labors of Livingstone in African wilds are detailed in his Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (1857); and a Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi, 1854-64. In 1874 Livingstone's remains were brought to England, and interred in Westminster Abbey. His Last Journals were published simultaneously in England and the United States, in 1875. •^ GEOLOGY, -^ llWjHWBS^lK^I QUESTIONS. 1. Define Geology 2. State the origin of the earth according to the nebu- lar hypothesis. 3. Why did the earth assume a globular form? Describe the appearance of the first crust. This crust was constantly rent asunder by what? The surface of the eailh then bristled with what? As the globe continued to cool what happened? 8. What was the result of the crust shrinking and cracking as it hardened? 9. Describe the conflict between fire and water. Where do Astronomy and Geology meet? What is said of the Mosaic account of the creation? What happened on the second day? How thick is the earth's crust? How deep has it been examined? Name the six reasons given to prove that the inte- rior of the earth is a melted mass. 16. What are sedimentary rocks? 17. What are igneous rocks? 18. Define fossils. (214) 4. 5. 6. 7. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. GEOLOGY QUESTIONS. 215 19. What proof is there that an Arctic climate once existed in England and France? 20. What reasons has the geologist for thinking that certain regions were once covered with glaciers or icebergs? 21. How does the geologist know that a race of cave- dwelling men once lived in Europe? 22. How does he know that they were contemporaneous with the hyena? 23. State what has been found in draining old Scottish lake-bottoms. 24. Define lithological geology, and name the three classes into which it is divided. 25. What is found under the soil and the sea? 26. Define the term rock?. 27. What three common substances are rocks, in general, composed of? 28. What are the properties of quartz? 29. Is silica soluble, or insoluble? 30. In what state is silica found? 3 1 . What is rock crystal ? 32. For what was it used in ancient times? 33. What is said of rose, or pink quartz? 34. Describe smoky quartz. Milky quartz. 35. Describe granular quartz and give its uses. 36. What is said of amethyst? 37. What is said of chalcedony? 38. What is said of agate? 39. Name the different varieties of agate. 40. What is a cameo? 41. Describe jasper. 42. Describe other varieties of jasper. 43. What is opal? 44. What gives the color to quartz, pebbles, sand, etc.? 45. Describe flint, and mention its use. 46. Describe hornstone. Buhrstone. 47. Where is buhrstone found? 216 THE EXAjSIINEr's COMPANION. 48. What is the origin of quartz? What are diatoms? 49. Describe alumina. Its tests. 50. The ruby ranks in value next to what mineral? 51. What is the composition of limestone? 52. Define calc-spar. Chalk. 53. What is Oolite? Marl? Dolomite? 54. What is marble? 55. Where is good building marble found? 56. Describe the process of sawing marble. 57. What is gypsum? Its tests? 58. What is plaster? Its uses? 59. What are the forms of crystallized gypsum? 60. Where is there a noted locality for it? 61. Name the three general classes of rocks. 62. Define sedimentary rocks. 63. Name the four divisions of sedimentary rocks. 64. What is sandstone? Conglomerate? 65. What is shale? Limestone? 66. Define igneous rocks. 67. Why are trap-rocks so-called? 68. What are the uses of trap-rocks? 69. What are the varieties of volcanic rocks? 70. Describe trachyte. 71. What is lava? 72. What is scoria? Pumice? Obsidian? 73. Define metamorphic rocks. 74. What is the composition of granite? 75. What is graphic granite? 76. Is the structure of granite uniform? 77. Where is granite quarried? 78. What is the difference between granite and gneiss? 79. What is said of the origin of gneiss? 80. What is mica schist? 81. What is syenite, and why so called? 82. Does syenite possess much strength? 83. Define quartzite. GEOLOGY — QUESTIONS. 217 84. How are rocks classified according to their struct- ure? 85. Which class is the more abundant on the exterior of the earth's crust? On the interior? 86. What does historical geology deal with? 87. Does the earth's crust remain of the same thickness? 88. Define stratum, formation, group, and lamina. 89. How do the unstratified rocks occur? 90. What are veins? 91. What are dikes? What is the meaning of the term dike? 92. How is the history of the earth's crust divided? 93. What are the ages of the four mentioned eras or times? 94. What is said of the Eozoic time? 95. What does the Mosaic account describe? 96. What is said of the Paleozoic time? 97. How many, and what are the different periods of the Silurian age? 98. What is said of the Potsdam period? 99. Draw the parallel between the Mosaic and geo- logic accounts. 100. What is said of the Trenton period? 101. State what is said of the Hudson period. 102. What is the location of the Niagara period? 103. What can you say of the Salina period? 104. What are the kinds of rocks? 105. Give the location of the Lower Helderberg rocks. 106. Mention the kind of rock. 107. What is the location of the Oriskany rocks? 108. What is the character of these rocks? 109. What periods are mentioned in the Devonian age? 110. Give the location of the Upper Helderberg rocks. 111. What is said of the Hamilton rocks? 112. State what is said of the Chemung period. 113. Locate the Catskill rocks. 218 THE examiner's COMPANIOK. 114. What are their characteristics? 115. Name the periods of the Carboniferous age. 116. What is the location of the Subcarboniferous rocks? 117. What are the kinds of rock? 1 IS. What prominent fossils are found in this rock? 119. What is said about caves abounding in this rock? 120. What is said of the Mammoth Cave? 121. What peculiarity of the fish found in the Mam- moth Cave? 122. What is the location of Carboniferous rocks? 123. What are the kinds of rock? 124. Give the location of the Permian period. 125. Name the periods of the Mesozoic time. 126. What is said of the Triassic and Jurassic periods? 127. What is the location of the Cretaceous rocks? 128. Name the periods of the Cenozoic time. 129. What are the epochs of the Tertiary period? 130. What are the epochs of the Post Tertiary period? 131. What are sand-dunes? 132. State what is said of the Mosaic Account. 133. Does Geology give a similar statement? 134. Does Geology tell when man appeared? 135. What do we find in the Post-Tertiary Period? 136. Along with these what else do we find? 137. How has the life of the pre-historic man been classified? 138. Describe the man of the Stone Age in the first epoch. 139. Describe the man of the Stone Age in the second epoch. 1 40. Describe the man of the StoneAge in the third epoch. 141 Mention the influence of the metals in advancing civilization. 142. What is said of gold, copper and tin? 143. What metals were first used? 144. Describe man's progress in the Bronze epoch. 145. Describe man's progress in the Iron epoch. 1. Geology is that science which treats of the structure and mineral constitution of the globe, the causes of its physical features, and its history. 2. Our earth was once, doubtless, a glowing star. In that far off beginning it shone as brilliantly as do now the sun and the fixed stars. In process of time it cooled from a gaseous to a liquid form. 3. The earth then assumed a spherical figure in obedience to the same familiar laws of force which round a drop of dew. Its atmosphere comprised not only the gases that compose our present atmosphere, but all the oxygen and carbon now locked in the rock and coal masses of the earth, vast quantities of mineral matter vaporized by the fierce heat, and, in the form of super- heated steam, all the water which now fills the ocean. The air, thus dense with moisture, and metallic vapors, rested on an ocean of fire. 4. Ages passed, and the earth, cooling as its heat became changed to other forms of force, began to show on its surface patches of solid substance, like the floating films that first appear on water as it passes into ice. (219) 220 THE examiner's COMPANION'. These gradually combining, formed at last a thin crust ovei the entire exterior, 5. This crust was, however, constantly rent asunder by eruptions from the molten mass beneath. Huge crevices were opened, and torrents of liquid lava, ejected from the cracks and seams, were poured in fiery floods over the scarcely solid crust, 6. The surface, arid and burning, bristled with ragged eminences, or was furrowed with enormous clefts and cracks. But the earth had ceased to shine as a star, and henceforth was itself to be lighted and at last heated from other bodies. 7. As the globe continued to cool, a time arrived when the heat was not sufficient to support the water in the form of vapor. Under the tremendous pressure of the dense atmosphere, the steam was precipitated, and boiling hot, upon the heated earth below. Revaporized, it ascended again only to be condensed and returned as rain. This process, long continued, cooled the earth yet more rapidly. 8. The crust, shrinking and cracking as it hardened, became still moi'e uneven with wrinkles and folds, yawning gulfs and fissures. The hot rain falling on the volcanic peaks, the torrents which poured down the mountain sides and through the valleys, all combined to dissolve the rock and sweep the sediment into the deeper hollows. The crust had not yet attained the consistency necessary to resist the pressure of the heated gases and liquids. 9. In the manner described, enormous dislocations were made, whose folds and uplifts with deep gulfs and belching lavas denoted terrific convulsions. Thus a fierce conflict was raging between fire and water. At last the water triumphed, and the ocean became universal. A hot, muddy, shallow sea surged round the earth from pole to pole. The internal heat of the eai'th made the temperature uniform over the entire surface, and hence there were no great oceanic or aerial currents. GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 221 10. Astronomy teaches us the probable origin of our globe. As soon as the crust began to be formed by tlie mingled action of fire and water, Geology steps in to explain the phenomena. In this vague and nebulous border-land, the two sciences meet. From that time we find that the earth entered on a regular series of pro- gressive revolutions which gradually fitted it for the intro- duction of life. 11. The Mosaic account of the creation informs us that "the earth was at first without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep." With the first motion of nebulous matter light was developed; or, in tlie nervous language of Scripture, " God said. Let there be light." Thus ended the work of the first day. 12. On the second day, the firmament, or atmosphere, was formed, separating the clouds above from the sea below, which, as the revelations of both the rock and the book teach us, as yet covered the entire earth. This was the work of the second day, that long area of cooling and consolidation that separated the formless period of chaos from the birth of the continents. 13. The earth's crust is evidently thickening fi-om age to age, as the cooling process goes on. Our examination of it is very superficial, extending downward not more than ten miles. 14. On a terrestrial globe, eighteen inches in diameter, the deepest wells, mines and valleys would be exaggerated by a delicate scratch upon the varnish with a pin. It is generally believed, however, that the solid shell is not over fifty miles in thickness, and that the interior is still a molten mass. 15. The facts upon which this opinion rests are as fol- lows: 1. The temperature increases as we descend. 2. Artesian wells furnish warm water, 3, Hot springs and geysers. 4. Elevations and depressions of the earth's crust. 5. Volcanoes. 6. Earthquakes. 222 THE examiner's companion. 16. Sedimentary rocks are those rocks which have been formed by materials deposited from a state of suspension in water. 17. Igneous rocks is a term applied to all agencies, operations and results, which seem connected with or to have arisen from, subterranean heat; and igijeous rocks include the Volcanic, Trappean and Granitic series, all of which are evidently the products of fusion, either in the interior or at the surface of the crust; geologists, conse- quently, vise the term igneous as synonymous with Plu- tonic, pyrogenous, unstratified, and other similar terms 18. Fossils (fossilis, dug up) is a name applied to all animal or vegetable remains which are found embedded in the rocks of the earth's crust. Fossils are now forming, and have been formed in all time. 19. In certain clay beds of England, shells are found of species now existing only in polar seas. We thence infer that when that clay was deposited, and those shells were inhabited, a climate similar to that in Greenland must have prevailed in British latitudes. Remains of the reindeer and musk ox occur in France. These indicate a former Arctic temperature, unless we are to suppose that the habits of those animals have entirely changed since the time of their existence in Southern Europe. 20. Philosophers have carefully studied the effects of moving masses of ice. They have seen how the glacier pushes its way down the Alpine valley, grinding, rounding, smoothing, and marking the rocks over which it passes, and depositing at the bottom its burden of debris. They have watched the glaciers of polar regions collecting on the sea-shore until at last great mountains of ice breaik loose and float southward. They have seen these icebergs grounding and melting in a more genial clime, where they finally drop their load of rocky fragments on the sea bottom. 21. In certain caves the bones of various animals are GEOLOGY —ANSWERS. 223 found embedded in a calcareous deposit, which has accu- mulated on the floor by water slowly dripping from the roof. Many of the bones have been gnawed, and the hollow ones split lengthwise. The geologist considers the former the work of den-frequenting, carniverous animals, and the latter of a marrow-sucking race of men. 22. This conclusion is still further substantiated by finding traces of the hyena, and also stone hatchets, ashes, and charred sticks of wood. Man, only, lights a fire. Hence we are as sure of the existence of a rude cave- dwelling tribe of men as if we had witnessed their grim countenances lighted up by the fires of which those frag- ments were the latest embers. The hyena and the cave- dwellers lived at the same epoch. 23. In draining old Scottish lake-bottoms the geologist finds below the peat-bog, the bones of horse, pig, deer, dog, and man; deeper still, the Roman eagle or sword; next, the bones of the wild ox, bear, wolf, beaver; then the wooden canoe; below the marl, bones and antlers of the gigantic Irish elk, and tusks of the great mammoth; and at the bottom the solid rock, strewn with ice-borne blocks, the original bed of the lake when its waters were first gathered together. 24. Lithological geology [Uthos, a stone, and logos, a discourse), means, literally, a discourse about stones. It treats of (1) the Composition, (2) the Classification, and (3) the Structure of the rocks which make up the earth's crust. 25. Underneath the soil and the sea there is every- where a rocky foundation which protects us from the fiery interior. Along the sea-shore, river-side, road-cuttings, etc., this solid basement is exposed to view. It is generallji arranged in layers, sometimes loosely, as sand, clay, or gravel, and sometimes partly hafdened into stone. Since it passes thus insensibly from one stage of consolidation into another, the geologist applies the term rock alike to all. 26. Rock is any natural deposit of stony material, 224 THE examiner's companion. whether consolidated or not, thus including sand, earth, or clay, when in natural beds. 27. Rocks are composed, in general, of the three fol- lowing common substances: Quartz, Clay, and Lime- stone. Whenever you stand on the solid ground, in any country of the globe, you may be sure that the rock under you is mainly some form or compound of one or more of these earth-builders. 28. Quartz (silica, silex) is the oxide of silicon, a rare non-metallic substance knoAvn only to the chemist. Silica is the most abundant of all the minerals, comprising one- half of the earth's crust. It is so hard that it strikes fire with steel, scratches glass like a diamond, and can not be cut with a knife. It has no cleavage, and breaks into irregular fragments having a glassy luster. 29. Silica is insoluble in any acid (except hydrofluoric), and melts only in the heat of the compound blow-pipe. On account of its hardness, which resists the action of the elements, it comprises a large part of ordinary pebbles, sand, and much even of the soil. 30. Silica is found in a state of crystallization. When pure, like those of other minerals, the crystals are gener- ally small, and sometimes occur in beautiful clusters. Crystals of great size, though of inferior clearness are occa- sionally seen. Dartmouth College cabinet possesses a group weighing 147 pounds. At Milan is a single crystal 3^ feet long and 5| feet in circumference, estimated to weigh 870 pounds. 31. Rock crystal is the clear crystalline quartz. The name is derived from the Greek word krustallos, meaning ice. The purest specimens are often cut for jewelry, and sold as " white stone" and "California diamonds." They are also used for spectacle glasses. 32. Anciently it was cut into vases and cups, some of which are still preserved as curiosities. It is said that Nero, on learning of the insurrection which led to his fall, GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 225 dashed into pieces two crystal vases, one valued at $3,000. Pure quartz sand is used in large quantities for making glass. 33. Rose, or pink quartz, is rarely found as crystals, but generally as a massive rock. On exposure to the light, the color sometimes fades, but it can be restored by leaving the stone for a time in a damp place. 34. Smoky quartz has a dark-brown, smoky tint. It is often black and opaque, except in thin portions, which are semi-transparent. Milky quartz is a milk-white, opaque, massive variety, looking not unlike porcelain. 35. Granular quartz consists of small grains of quartz cemented into a massive rock. It has a texture similar to that of loaf-sugar, and oftentimes crumbles easily into sand. It is used for hearthstones, furnaces, etc., and when pow- dered, for making sand-paper, glass, or pottery. 36. Amethyst has a beautiful purplish tint from the oxide of manganese, which it contains. The name means " a preservative from intoxication," and was given it from a belief of the ancient Persians, that wine drank from an amethyst cup lost its inebriating properties. 3*7. Chalcedony is distinguished by its waxy, horn-like lustre. It has generally a white or brownish shade. When bright red, it is a cornelian. When brownish red, a sard. When colored apple-green with nickel, a chrysoprase. 38. Agate is a kind of chalcedony, in which the differ- ent shades of color are arranged in parallel lines — the edges of the layers which compose the stone. These layers are very like the coats of an onion, and represent the successive deposits by which the agate was formed. They are often so thin as to number fifty within an inch. 39. When the lines are zigzag, it is termed a fortifica- tion agate, from the resemblance to the irregular outlines of a fortress. When the stripes alternate, an opaque with a transparent band, the stone is termed an onyx {onyx, a nail), from a fancied resemblance to the alternating lines on the finger-nail. When a deep brownish-red stripe (a 16 226 THE examiner's COMPANION. sard) alternates with a white one, the agate is called a sardony.!i'. When a yellowish-brown oxide of iron is dis- seminated through the stone in moss-like forms, it is termed a moss-agate. 40. A diminutive piece of sculpture prepai'ed from chalcedony, onyx, and other precious stones having two strata or layers of different colors, the undermost of which is left to form the background, the object to be represented being cut in the upper one. The art of cutting cameos is of great antiquity, and was brought to perfection by the Greeks. The art of imitating cameos in shell has now attained to such perfection as to rival the delicacy and finish even of antique workmanship. 41. Jasper is a dull, massive variety of quartz, with a little clay. It has shades of red, yellow, brown, and green, owing to the presence of iron in different stages of oxidation. The yellow becomes red by heat, which changes the yellow oxide of iron to red. When the colors are arranged in stripes, it is termed rihhon jasper. It is sus- ceptible of high polish, and is therefore much prized for ornamental purposes. 42. When of a deep green, with dark red spots, it is named bloodstone. At Paris there is a bust of Christ carved from this stone in such a manner that the red spots represent the drops of blood. A hard, velvet black jasper is called the touchstone. It is used for testing the purity of gold alloys. This is done by rubbing the alloy on the stone, and comparing the color with that of some known alloy. 43. Opal is a very beautiful variety of quartz. It con- tains ten per cent of water, which is combined with the silica. It is softer than quartz, and, unlike it, is easily soluble in a hot solution of potash. Its external color is a pure white, but when broken it exhibits a play of rich and delicate internal reflection. A kind called hydrophane is re- markable for becoming transparent when dipped into water. 44. Sand, pebbles, gravel, cobblestones, etc., consist GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 227 largely of quartz, since it resists the action of the water longer than other rock materials. The color is due to the various oxides of iron; although it is sometimes a mere stain produced by vegetable matter. 45. Flint is a compact form of quartz of various colors —white, brown, and even black. It breaks into fragments having a sharp edge and a conchoidal surface. Its use formerly for gun-flints and by the Indians for arrow-heads is well known. 46. Hornstone is an impure variety of flint, so named from its color and appearance. Buhrstone is a kind of flint possessing a cellular texture, which makes its surface very rough. In many of the best stones the cavities equal the solid portions. 47. It is found in various States — Ohio, Massachusetts, Arkansas, Georgia, etc. The buhrstone of Ohio contains some lime, and it has been thought that the cellular char- acter may be due to the partial dissolving of the lime out of the stone. 48. Though quartz is a mineral, probably most of the flint and hornstone which we find is of animal or vegetable origin. Sponges secrete little spicules or points of silica. Diatoms are minute one-celled vegetable organisms, too small to be seen singly by the naked eye. Yet when gathered in countless myriads, they appear as a brown or reddish slime. They have the power of separating the silex from the water in some unknown way. 49. Alumina is the oxide of the metal aluminum, which, on account of its abundance in clay, is called the " clay metal." In hardness, alumina is inferior only to the diamond, and will easily scratch quartz. Pure crystal- lized alumina, when red, constitutes the 7'uby. 50. The ruby ranks in value next to the diamond, and some perfect specimens have sold at even a higher rate. The dull-colored variety is called corundum, andtbs coarse granular kind, combined with magnetic iron are, emery. 228 THE examiner's companion. 51. Limestone is a compound of lime and carbonic acid. It embraces all shades from white and cream color to a dense black. It may be known by its softness — being easily scratched with a knife — and by its effervescing with an acid. Limestone is useful for building purposes, and when the carbonic acid is expelled by heat, quick-lime is produced. 52. Pure crystals of limestone are called calc-spar. They readily cleave into the rhombohedral form. Trans- parent crystals are termed Iceland spar, as the best are brought from that country. They beautifully illustrate double refraction. Chalk is a porous, uncompacted variety of limestone. 53. Oolite [obn, an egg, and lithos, a stone) is a lime- stone consisting of numerous small, rounded grains, resembling the roe of a fish. Marl is a mixture of clay and carbonate of lime. It is loose, friable, and generally full of small shells. It is valuable as a fertilizer. Mag- nesian limestone, or dolomite, contains magnesia. It is harder than limestone, and does not readily effervesce with an acid unless heat is applied. 54. Marble is crystallized limestone. When pure, it is clear and fine-grained, like loaf-sugar. It is of great value in the arts. The finest statuary marble comes from Cai'rara and the island of Paros, whence the term, Parian marble, so famous among the Greek sculptors. 55. An excellent building marble is quarried at Rut- land, Vermont; in Massachusetts; and in Connecticut. Marble often contains mica and other impurities, which give it a clouded and mottled appearance. This detracts from its value, and ruins it for statuary purposes. 56. Marble is sawed into slabs by means of a thin iron plate, a saw without teeth, driven by machinery. The friction is produced by sharp sand and water, which are constantly applied. The saws penetrate very slowly, not more than an inch per hour. GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 229 57. Sulphate of lime, or, as it is generally called, " gyp- sum," is a compound of lime and sulphuric acid. Gypsum is readily distinguished from limestone by its inferior hardness. It may be scratched with the finger-nail, and carved with a knife into any desired shape. It does not effervesce with the acids. 68. Uncrystalline gypsum is commonly known as " plas- ter stone." When the stone is crushed and ground it forms a white powder sold as plaster, and used as a fertilizer. 59. Crystalline gypsum occurs in fibrous masses with a pearly lustre, known as mtin spar; in scales, layers and crystals, pellucid as glass, selenUe; and as a snowy-white solid, alabaster. 60. At Grand Rapids, Mich., a mottled variety is found, which is turned in a lathe into beautiful vases, goblets, and other ornamental objects. In the mammoth cave, Ken- tucky, are found exquisite forms resembling leaves, flowers, and vines. When burned, gypsum is known as " plaster of Paris." 61. Rocks are divided into three different classes according to their mode of formation: Sedimentary, igneoKs, and metamorphic. 62. Sedimentary rocks are those which have been deposited by water. They are arranged in strata or lay- ers, and are hence sometimes called the stratified rocks. 63. The four divisions of sedimentary rocks are: 1. Sandstone. 2. Conglomerate. 3. Shale. 4. Limestone. 64. Sandstone is only consolidated sand, and may be either siliceous or argillaceous (clayey). Conglomerate is only consolidated gravel— the conglomerate taking the name siliceous, calcareous, or ferruginous (ferrum, iron), from the character of the sandy paste which cements together its pebbles. If the conglomerate is compound of rounded pebbles, it is often styled a "pudding stone;" if of angu- lar fragments, a "breccia" (bret-cha). The Potomac mar- 230 THE examiner's COMPANION. ble, seen in the capitol at Wasliington, is a very beautiful calcareous breccia. 65. Shale, or argillaceous rock, is composed mainly of clay, and separates easily into thin, fragile, irregular plates. Limestone consists of shells, coral, etc., pulver- ized by the waves or precipitated from water holding lime in solution. 66. Igneous rocks are those which have been thrown out in a melted state. They are usually not arranged in layerSj'and are hence termed the unstratified rocks. They are divided into two classes trap and volcanic rocks. 67. Trap-rocks are so called from the Swedish word trap2K(, stairs, because they frequently occur in terrace- like bluffs, in the form of massive steps. They are gen- erally black or of a dark color, often with shades of green or brown. 68. The hardness of trap-rocks renders them very ser- viceable in paving and " macadamizing'' roads, for which purjDose they are largely used. Their dull and unattract- ive lives, and the difficulty of dressing them into shape, unfit them for general purposes. They are, however, very appropriate for Gothic edifices on account of the appear- ance of age which they give. There are four common varieties of the trap-rock, viz.: basalt, greenstone, por- phyry and amygdaloid. 69. Volcanic rocks are of two common varieties, viz.: trachyte and lava. 70. Trachyte (trachus, rough) is so named because of its rough, gritty feel. It is porous, has a white, gray, or black color, and is usually porphyritic. It is abundant in South America — the colossal Chimborazo being a lofty trachytic cone — in the extinct volcanic regions of the West, on the banks of the Rhine, and in France. 71. Lava is a term applied to all melted matter observed to flow in streams from volcanoes. It consists almost entirely of augite (pyroxene) and feldspar. The GEOLOOY — AXSWERS. 231 former constitutes dark colored, and the latter light colored lava. When cooled, the upper part of the stream is light and porous as a sponge, from the expansion of the steam bubbles, and will swim in water, while the lower portions are hard and compact like the ancient basalt. 72. The porous lava is called scoria. Pumice is a f eld- spathic scoria with long, slender air-cavities, drawn out by the forward movement of the lava stream; large quantities of it are often found floating in the ocean. It is much used in polishing marble. Obsidian is a glassy-like lava. 73. Metamorphic rocks are those which have been altered by heat, moisture and pressure. Lava penetrating sedimentary rocks would materially modify their character; the clay would be changed to slate, the limestone converted into marble, earthy sandstone and clay rocks into granite- like rocks, and the impurities crystallized into various minerals. The stratification would be destroyed, and the Jossils in part, if not entirely, obliterated. 74. Granite (from granum, a grain, because of its granular structure) consists of feldspar, mica, and quartz. The feldspar shows a smooth surface of cleavage in two directions, and is usually of a white or flesh color; the mica may be readily recognized by its glistening look, and by being easily separated into thin layers; the quartz has a glassy lustre and no cleavage. 75. Graphic granite is a variety in which the quartz is imperfectly crystallized into long, slender crystals. When the rock is broken crosswise, the ends of these crystals present forms somewhat resembling Hebrew characters. 76. No. Sometimes granite has a very coarse structure, the crystals being a foot or more in diameter; at other times it is so fine that one can with diflSculty distinguish the constituent minerals. 77. Granite is quarried in great quantities in the Eastern States for building purposes. New Hampshire 232 THE examiner's companion. and Massachusetts are noted for their extensive beds. They may be called the Granite States of the Union. 78. Gneiss (nice) differs from granite only in being Stratified. Indeed, the two kinds of rock pass into each other so insensibly that they are often difficult to distinguish. 79. The origin of gneiss is therefore doubtless the same as that of granite, both being made from stratified rocks; when the stratification entirely disappeared, granite being the result; and when only partially or not at all, gneiss. Because of the ease with which it divides into thin layers, this rock is much used for flagging. 80. Mica schist is a gneiss rock, consisting mostly of mica.. The dust in the roads of places abounding in this rock is full of the fine glistening particles of mica. 81. Syenite is a granite in which the mica is replaced by hornblende. It is so-called from the city of Syene, Upper Egypt, where the ancient Egyptians quarried it for monumental purposes. The granite found near Aberdeen, Scotland, and extensively imported into this country, is of this class. 82. Yes; it possesses great strength, a half-inch cube requiring to crush it, a pressure of 24,556 pounds. The celebrated Quincy granite is also a syenite. Many public edifices are built of this stone; for example, the Bunker Hill Monument, the custom-houses at Boston and New Orleans, and the Astor House in New York. 83. Quartzite is a rock composed of quartz sand cemented by heat. In a quartz district, because of the slow weathering, the hills present a scenery of savage wildness, but wonderful grandeur. 84. The rocks of the earth's crust are divided accord- ing to their structure into two classes, the stratified and the unstratified rocks. The former are arranged in layers, the latter are not. The former were generally produced by aqueous, the latter by igneous agencies. The former mark GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 233 the periods of rest in the world's history, the latter chron- icle its convulsions. 85, Upon the exterior of the crust the stratified rocks are largely in excess, occupying probably ^l of the sur- face; upon the interior, however, the unstratified comprise the whole mass, and extend to a depth of perhaps fifty miles. 86. Historical geology deals almost entirely with the stratified rocks, and nearly all of its principles are based upon facts which they disclose. BY. As soon as dry land was formed, it began to be worn away by the ceaseless action of the rain and the restless sea, depositing the debris at the bottom of the ocean. Thus, while the earth's crust has been growing from below by the formation of unstratified, it has been growing above by the formation of stratified rocks. These materials are arranged in comparatively flat layers. In this way the. earth would be covered over by successive deposits like the coats of an onion. 88. A stratum includes one or more layers, or laminae, of any particular kind of rock. A formation is composed of several strata which were deposited in the same period. A group is a part of a formation, including such strata as are in any way related to one another. The laminse, or layers, of a group bear the same relation to one another that the groups of a formation do. 89. The unstratified rocks are found as shapeless masses underlying, overlying, and sometimes penetrating the stratified rocks. 90. Veins are fissures in the rock strata; filled with crystallized mineral, such as fluor spar, quartz, etc. They are of all sizes, from an inch to many feet in thickness. We often find rocks, and even pebbles, crowded with veins sometimes not thicker than a sheet of paper. 91. Dikes are wide fissures filled with igneous rocks or recent lava. They are generally larger than veins, have their sides more nearly parallel, ramify less commonly in 284 THE examiner's companion. branching veins, and contain but a single kind of rock. The term dike means a wall. It is derived from the fact that the trap is generally harder than the adjacent rock, and hence disintegrates more slowly when exposed to the elements. 92. The history of the earth's crust is divided into four great eras or times, known as the Eozoic (dawn of life), the Paleozoic (ancient life), the Mesozoic (middle life) and the Cenozoic (recent life). These names indicate the successive stages in the development of life on the globe. 93. I. Eozoic TIME. Age of Protozoans. II. Pale- ozoic TIME. 1. Silurian Age {Age of MollusJcs). 2. Devonian Age {Age of Fishes). 3. Carboniferous Age {Age of Coal-Plants). III. Mesozoic time. Age of Reptiles. IV. Cenozoic time. Age of Mammals. 94. The oldest rocks now known upon the surface of the earth probably represent Eozoic time. The following periods are recognized: 1. Laurentian period. 2. Huro- nian period. 95. The Mosaic account informs us that on the third day the waters were gathered into one place and the dry land appeared, and that vegetation was brought forth as a later creation of the same day. 96. The Paleozoic time is divided into three ages to mark the great life-changes which occurred. These are called the Silurian or Age of mollusks, the Devonian or Age of fishes, and the Carboniferous or Age of coal-plants. 97. There are seven periods of the Silurian age, viz.: 1. Oriskany period. 2. Lower Helderberg period. 3. Salina period. 4. Niagara period, 5. Hudson period. 6. Trenton period. 1. Potsdam period. 98. This period is named from Potsdam, a town in north- ern New York, where the rock is exposed in the quarries to a thickness of seventy feet. The formation is well devel- oped in Pennsylvania, and can be traced westward through Michigan, along the Southern shore of Lake Superior, OEOLOGY -ANSWERS. 235 through Wisconsin and Minnesota to the Black Hills of Dakota, Southward along the Appalachian range from Vermont to Alabama, and is known in Texas. 99. The Mosaic account tells us that the sun and moon were created on the fourth day. Geology shows us that the distinctive feature of the early Silurian age was the partial clearing of the sky after the murky clouds of the Eozoic. 100. The Trenton formation extends along the great Appalachian chain of mountains on the east, thence out- crops at various points Westward to the Mississippi River, and beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is more widely dis- tributed than any similar deposit. 101. This formation is exposed to view along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers, on Lake Michigan and Green Bay, through the Mississippi Valley, and along the Appa- lachian Range to Alabama. 102. This is a continental formation like the Ti-enton. It is found in Canada, and extends south through the Appalachian region, and West through the Mississippi Valley. It takes its name from the fact that the great cataract of Niagara pours over a rocky wall of this period. The peculiar form of the fall is owing to the fact that the soft 'shale below wears away more rapidly than the hard rock above, thus leaving a cavern behind the falling sheet. 103. This period is named from the Salina salt springs, near Syi-acuse, N. Y. The formation runs in a narrow belt^arallel with the Niagara limestone, as far Westward as Milwaukee. 104. The rocks consist mainly of shales, marls, and some limestone. The salif erous beds are about 1 ,000 feet in thickness, showing a long continuance of the peculiar conditions under which they were formed. 105. The Lower Helderberg period takes its name from the Helderberg Mountains, near Albany, N. Y. The rocks gradually disappear in the Western part of the State, but 236 THE examiner's COMPANION. are conspicuous Southward along the Appalachian range, and reappear in Maine. 106. This is also a great limestone formation, but differs from the Trenton and Niagara groups in being thickest on the Eastern border. The lower beds in New York and Virginia are used for hydraulic cement, whence their name — the " Water-Lime Group!''' 107. This formation is named from Oriskany Falls, it crops out at points in Maine, extends Southward along the Appalachian region, and Westward to Missouri. It is the passage-rock from the Silurian to the Devonian. 108. It is mostly a light, rough sandstone, often highly calcareous. Its thickness in New Yorkvai'ies from twenty feet at the typical locality to only a few inches toward the Hudson; in Pennsylvania it is 200 feet thick. Its color is white, passing to a reddish brown where iron is present. 109. In the Devonian age there are four periods, named as follows: 1. Upper Helderberg period. 2. Hamilton period. 3. Chemung period. 4. Catskill period. 110. The lower groujD is found in Eastern New York, and is thickest along the Appalachians; the upper group is a great continental limestone like the Trenton and the Niagara. At the West, in the absence of the Oriskany, the Corniferous often lies directly upon the Niagara lime- stone, except where the Salina rocks intervene. 111. This formation extends across New York, Mich- igan, thence West of the Mississippi River, and Southward through Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Tennessee. 112. The Chemung formation is found in New York, and attains a great thickness in Pennsylvania. This period contains in New York two epochs, (l). The Portage Group receives its name from the celebrated falls in the Genesee River. (2). The Cliemung Group, named from the Narrows in the Chemung River, is composed of coarse shales or shaly sandstones of an olive or a greenish color. 113. This formation constitutes the upper range of the GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 237 mountains after which it is named. It is there j^erhaps 2,500 feet thick, while South, along the Appalachians, it is more than twice that thickness. 114. The beds consist of shales and sandstones, of a greenish or a reddish color, and often times gritty char- acter. The harder strata of the sand-rock sometimes weather in a peculiar way, dividing into thin layers resembling a pile of boards. 115. This age is so named from the abundance of coal found in its time. The periods are, 1. Sub-carboniferous period. 2. Carboniferous j)eriod. 3. Permian period. 116. This formation is so named because it is the base of the great cai'boniferous system of the continent. It is found in the Appalachian region, and Westward through Iowa, Illinois, and Mississippi. 117. In the Appalachians it is a vast deposit of sand- stone and shale, often several thousand feet thick. At the West, it is a compact yellowish or grayish limestone, of great thickness and wide extent. Thin seams of coal sometimes occur, and these beds are known as the False Coal Measures. 118. The limestone abounds in crinoids. Nowhere else are these stone-lilies — the blossoms of the Sub-carboniferous sea— found in such profusion and beauty. There are also many brachiopods and fish-remains. In England this rock is termed the Mountain Limestone. When the stone is worn away by the elements, the round, hard joints of the crinoids are found lying loose in the soil, and are gathered and strung as beads by the children. 119. Several celebrated caves are in this rock; for example, the Mammoth Cave, the Wyandotte Cave, etc. In many places in Indiana and Kentucky, " sink-holes " are abundant, sometimes so numerous as to interfere with plowing. These are openings in the earth where the soil has been washed down probably into subterranean caves never yet seen by man. THE EXAMIiiEE's COMPANION. 120. The Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is the largest in the world. It has been explored to a distance of over thirty miles. Views of the grandest description are here presented. Royal thrones, sparry grottoes, diamond arches, flowers of every zone sparkling with crystalline beauty, here and there reflect the light of the traveler's torch. Halls decorated with fantastic pillars, and marble statues draped with crystal mantles, charm with their magical splendor. 121. At one point in the Mammoth Cave the River Styx rolls its sad waters beneath dark vaults, the windings of which are indented by a thousand rocks. In its dismal depths gropes a kind of fish — the Cyprinodon — which is blind, as it should be, since of what service are eyes where absolute darkness reigns. 122. The great coal-beds of the country lie in six detached areas. They are styled respectively the Rhode Island, Appalachian, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, and Texas coal-fields. The Rhode Island is the smallest, and comprises an area of only 1,000 square miles; the Mis- souri is the largest, and covers 100,000 square miles. 123. The Carboniferous period was inaugurated by the formation of a conglomerate sandstone, the Millstone Grit. During this era the Devonian fishes and ferns were buried beneath vast deposits of sand and gravel. Times of semi-emergence intervened, when, for a brief interval, the land was partially clothed with vegetation. The coal- measures proper present stratified rocks of every kind — sandstone, shales, limestone, etc. 124. This formation is named from the ancient king- om of Permia, in Russia, where it was first recognized. It is wanting in the older States, but is well developed in Kansas, and has been recognized in Nebraska and Texas. 125. The Mesozoic or middle-life of Geologic History comprises but one age, that of reptiles. The periods of the Mesozoic time are: 1. Triassic period. 2. Jurassic period. 3. Cretaceous period, GEOLOGY ANSWERS 239 126. These groups are not fully separated in America. The Triassic (triple) takes its name from the fact that, in Germany it is composed of three distinct groups, viz.: the Bunter Sandstein or colored sandstone, the MuschelJcalk or mussel chalk, and the Keuper, a miner's term, meaning a group of red and green marls and shells. It is some- times termed the Xew Red Sandstone, to distinguish it from the Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian. The Jurassic period is so-called because it is extensively devel- oped in the Jura Mountains, Switzerland. The foreign divisions are the Lias, Oolite, and Wealden. 127. The Cretaceous rocks occur on the Atlantic coast from New York to South Carolina, along the Gulf through Texas, far northward over the slopes of the Rocky Mount- ains, and along the Pacific coast westward of the Sierra Nevada. 128. The Cenozoic or recent life of geologic history comprises only one age, that of mammals. The periods are, 1. Tei'tiary period. 2. Post-Tertiary period. 129 The epochs of the Tertiary period are as follows: 1. Lignitic epoch. 2. Alabama epoch. 3. Yorktown (Va.) epoch. 4. Sumter (S. C.) epoch. 130. The epochs of the Post-Tertiary period may be named as follows: 1. Glacial epoch. 2. Champlain epoch. 3. Terrace epoch. 131. Sand-dunes are hills of sand heaped up along the shore. They are formed by sand drifted inland by the wind, as snow is piled in drifts. The sand is driven with such force as to smooth the surface even of quartz rocks, and to wear holes in window-glass. The sand dunes of Cape Cod, Long Island shore. Lake Michigan, etc., are conspicuous features of the landscape. Sometimes long, narrow sand-ridges, or Osars, extend back from the shore for miles. 132. The Mosaic Account states that on the fifth day the waters brought forth abundantly the moving creature 240 THE examinee's companion. that hath life, the fowl that flies above the earth, and great whales. The sixth day was characterized by two works — the creation of mammals, and lastly of man, to be the lord of aW created things. 133. Geology gives us the same general outline. In the Palaeozoic Age, the seas swarmed with life. In the Mesozoic Age, birds appeared, while reptiles (styled, in i^opular language, great whales or sea-monsters, as the word may be translated) became the dominant life. In the dawn of the Cenozoic, mammals of enormous size and in prodigious numbers covered the earth; while at the close, man appeared to crown the creative work. 134. We have no means of deciding the exact time when the human race first appeared on the earth. The most scientific man is unable to name centuries or years with any degree of accuracy in connection with any geolog- ical event. 135. In the loam (Loess), peat-bog and cave-earth of the Post-Tertiaiy Period, we first find rude stone imple- ments, tree canoes, and the embers of the fire .which man alone can kindle or sustain. 136. Side by side with these are the remains of the mammoth, cave-bear, rhinoceros, Irish elk, etc. It would seem that about the time of the glacial epoch, probably just as the great ice-floats began to melt away, man sud- denly appeared among the mighty quadrajDeds which then covered the earth, to contest the supremacy. 137. The life of the pre-historic man has been classified according to the character of the fossil remains in the fol- lowing manner: (Edward Lartet, Vogt, and others.) First, The Stone Age, with the following epochs: 1. Ejioch of extinct animals, mammoth, cave-bear, etc. 2. Epoch of migrated existing animals, or Reindeer Epoch. 3. Epoch of domesticated animals, or Polished Stone Epoch. Second, The Metal Age, with the following Epochs: 1 The Bronze Epoch. 2. The Iron Epoch. GEOLOGY ANSAVERS. 241 138. The primeval man during this epoch dwelt in caves, dressed in skins, and made weapons chipped out of the rough flint, by means of which he fought the cave- bear, hunted the Irish elk, and speared the mammoth. He was rude and barbarous, perhaps a cannibal, yet he made fire, instruments of offense and defence, articles of pottery- ware for domestic use, sewed skins into garments, adorned his person with strings of rudely-carved shells, wrought out images emblematic of his political or religious views, and buried iiis dead in caves with religious rites and ceremonies. 139. In this epoch man advanced in knowledge, learned to work in bone, ivory, and reindeer-antlers; to catch fish; to make saws, knives, and other tools; to form amulets and charms of bon^; to ornament the instruments of the chase; and in his leisure to sketch on ivory the outlines of the animals he pursued. 140. The third epoch witnessed a still higher condition. Skiffs were made in which the primitive man ventured out on the sea, and caught the fish of deeper waters. He made nets for fishing near the shore. He domesticated the dog. He attempted agriculture; raised corn, ground it, and thus became less dependent on the chances of the chase. He interred his dead in vaults, and erected monu- ments to mark their last resting-place. 141. The Metal Age indicates a great advance in civil- ization. Thenard asserted that we may judge of the civilization of any nation by the degree of perfection it has attained in working iron. We may safely say that, without a knowledge of the metals, man would have remained a barbarian. Iron ores do not readily attract attention, and their reduction is a very difficult process. The method whereby iron becomes utilized in the arts, generally requires chemical knowledge and high progress in science. 142. Gold is found native, and by its glitter attracts 16 242 THE examiner's companion. the eye even of the savage. Copper occurs pure, and its ores are rather widely diffused, as are also those of tin. 143. It is strange that bronze (brass), which is an alloy of copper and tin, should have been the first metal used. We can hardly understand the cause of this, since the metals must have been known before the alloy could be manufactured. 144. Tools of a better character were now made, and life wore an improved aspect. Extensive villages were built on piles driven deep in the lake-bottom, looms were erected, cloth was woven and made into garments. The horse, ass, ox, sheep and goat were domesticated in great numbers. Hatchets, reaping-hooks, mills, pendants, rings, hair-pins, barbed fish-hooks, and numerous articles of orna- ment were manufactured. The clothing became more graceful, and the hair was adorned with the most elaborate taste. Wheat, barley and oats were cultivated. The baker's art was established. Glass was discovered. Mats of bark and cord were made. Apples, pears, berries, and other fruits were stored for winter's use. 145. With the discovery of iron, civilization rapidly advanced. This metal marked the latest period of primeval development. The art of metallurgy had made great progress during the bronze epoch, but now assumed new importance. Extensive smelting works were erected. The potter's wheel was invented. Better tools were made. Silver and lead were discovered. Coined money was intro- duced and commerce flourished. Agriculture was prac- ticed on a large scale. Fruit trees were cultivated. Civil- ization was fairly established. At this point the written records and oral traditions take up the story of the past and the naturalist's labors cease as the historian's begin. •^ ZOOLOGY. ^ Chimpanzee.— A large ape inhabiting the western coast of Africa, from about 10° north to 10° south of the equator. It attains the height of 4 feet, and its body is clothed with long, coarse, black hair, but the hands, face, and large ears are naked. The teeth resemble those of man. The head is flattened above, and has a retiring forehead, and a high bony crest over the high brows. The facial angle is 35°. The fore-fingers, when the animal is upright, do not quite reach the knee. In walking, they tread on the outer edge of the foot. It is said that they live in societies in the Avoods. When domesticated, the Chimpanzee learns to walk, sit, and eat like a human being. It is good tempered when young, but when grown older is said to become ferocious. Cjrorilla.— A large monkey inhabiting the western shores of Africa. It is as large as man, and is remarka- ble for its strength and ferocity. Its heavy frame, large and powerful jaws, wary and ferocious disposition, and muscular strength, render it one of the most formidable of the apes. Orang-Oatang.— The Orang-Outang differs somewhat widely from man, and is adapted to an arboreal life. It inhabits Southern Asia. In the wild state it is frugivor- ous (fruit-feeding), not even eating eggs, though the teeth (243) 244 THE examiner's companion. are adapted to either vegetable or animal food. Matured Orang-Outangs of the same species and sex vary in height from five to over seven feet. Gibbon. — The Gibbon is distinguished by the length of its arms and the slenderness of its form. With a height of three feet, the reach of the extended arms is six feet, enabling it to swing through the air among branches twenty feet apart. It is of a black color, with the excep- tion of the hands and feet and a circle around the face, which are white. This species of monkey has neither tail nor cheek-pouch. Siamang.— An animal of Sumatra, inferior to the Chimpanzee and Orang-outang, both in structure and intel- ligence, and belonging to that division of monkeys called Gibbons. It derives its specific name from the adhesion of the first and second fingers as far as the joint which bears the nail. The posterior callosities of this genus link it to the monkeys proper, which have tails and cheek-pouches, or some equivalent modification of the digestive organs. Sacred Monkey.— The Sacred Monkey receives divine honors from the natives of India, who believe it a metamorphosed prince, and punish its slaughter by death, although a trifling fine, compounds for the murder of a man. It is permitted to ravage their gardens at will. Gnenon.— The Guenon approaches the ape in the shortness of its muzzle. With bushy whiskers and varied colors, it is the fop of the monkeys. Its cheek-pouches will contain two days' food. Driven by famine, it descends into the fields, and commits great havoc. Docile in nature, it is easily tamed, but, is an arrant thief, and while gravely receiving caresses, .will pick the pockets of its confiding admirer. Baboon. — The Baboon, with its dog-like muzzle, is the ugliest and most ferocious of the monkeys. It dwells among craggy rocks, which it climbs with great agility. Its food consists of bulbous roots, eggs, insects, etc. It Zoology. 245 devours scorpions with great dexterity, whipping off their stings so quickly as to give them no chance to strike it. Mandrill,— The Mandrill is of the same tribe as the Baboon, and is conspicuous for its variety of color — its nose being red, with a bright scarlet tip; its cheeks, a brilliant blue; its beard, citron-yellow; its hind-parts, violet; and its body a grayish brown, tinged above with olive. Ateles.— The Ateles, or four-fingered monkey, has no thumb on the anterior extremity. On account of the length, flexibility, and slenderness of its limbs, it is termed the Spider Monkey. The tail is prehensile, and the end being bare and sensitive, can be used as a fifth hand to pick up small objects or to insert into the hollows of trees to hook out eggs. Bear-Howler.— The Bear-Howler has the power of dilating the larynx, so as to render the voice louder than the roar of a lion, having been heard two miles off. The Saki is a striking example of the non-prehensiles, as its tail is short and so covered with hair as to look in some species like a mere knob. Marmoset. — The Marmoset, by its sharp, crooked claws, and the short thumb on its hind feet, stands at the extreme of the monkey tribe in America. Its food is not grasped by the fingers, but held between the forepaws. Several species have tufts of hair projecting from the sides of the head. lieanur.- One of a family of nocturnal mammals allied to the monkeys, but of smaller size, and having a sharp and fox-like muzzle. They feed upon birds, insects, and fruit, and are natives of Madagascar and the neighboring islands. Baffled liCmur.- The Ruffled Lemur is the largest and handsomest of this family. Wrapped up in its long, bushy tail, it passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth at night to search for food. Aye-Aye. — The Aye-Aye has some resemblance to a squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies it to the 246 THE examiner's companion. Lemur. The middle finger of its fore-leg, long, slender and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes in the ground, or in trees. It is classed by some naturalists with the monkey tribe, from the hand-like structure of its hinder feet. It is about the size of a hare, and is called Aye-Aye by the natives of Madagascar (where it is found) from its peculiar cry. Graceful lioris.— The Graceful Loris inhabits Ceylon, Java, etc. Prowling through the darkness, it is almost invisible, save for its round, shiny eyes. Espying a sleeping bird among the branches, it creeps towards it with noiseless, imperceptible movements, until it can place its fingers over its prey, when it seizes it with a spring sudden as a flash. liion. — The Lion is known as the " King of Beasts," more from his majestic appearance than any nobleness of disposition. The tail is tufted, while the neck of the male is ornamented with a flowing mane that in some varieties reaches nearly to the ground. His tawny, uniform color, closely corresponding to that of the desert tracts '\a which he lives, aids his concealment in stealing upon his prey. The pupil of his eye is round, giving as extensive horizontal vision as vertical; and his strength is such that he can carry off a cow with ease, even leaping broad dikes and keeping ahead of pursuing horsemen for miles without dropping it. He naturally feeds at night, so that his apparent magnanimity in sometimes sparing man and beast during the day is only because he is already satiated with food. Like other animals, he has no desire to kill merely for the sake of killing. The lion is found in Asia, and all over Africa. A variety of the lion, remarkable for having no mane, is found in India. Tiger. — The Tiger is a fierce and rapacious animal of the genus Tigris, which includes but a single species, T. regalis [Felis tigris of Linnaeus), found in the warmer parts of Asia, chiefly in India, and the Indian islands. Its ZOOLOGYo 247 ferocity, especially that of the dreaded " man-eater," is fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off a buffalo thrown over its shoulder. The color of the tiger is of a bright orange-yellow ground; the face, throat, and under- side of the belly being nearly white; the whole elegantly striped by a series of transverse black bands or bars. He has no mane, and his whole frame, though less elevated than the lion, is of a more graceful make. In the East the tiger is considered as the emblem of power. Pama. — The Puma inhabits North and South America. Its uniform dun color gives a mimicry for its protection while crouching upon the branches of trees. Having a black tail-tuft and a sameness of color, it has been called the "American Lion," though none of its habits resembles those of its African namesake. In different parts of the continent the puma is styled the "painter," the "panther," the "cougar," and even the "catamount," though there is no panther in America, and the true catamount is the wild cat of Europe. liCopard. — The Leopard, now considered identical with the panther, inhabits Africa, India, and the adjacent islands. Smaller than the tiger, it is as beautiful, and its mimicry as striking — its skin being marked with circles of dark spots instead of stripes, corresponding to the leaves of the trees among which it conceals itself. From the great flexibility of the limbs and spine, it can take surprising leaps, swim, crawl, and ascend trees. Jaguar.— The Jaguar has a body four or five feet long, with fur colored brownish-yellow, and black spots. It haunts the wooded banks of great rivers in the hottest parts of America, and is found from Brazil to Texas. It is a voracious animal, attacking oxen, horses, and any smaller animals that come in its way, but seldom man. It roars much by night. It is usually killed by being driven by dogs up a tree, where it is dispatched by bullets. It is the largest of the American carnivora; and from its size, strength, 248 THE examiner's companion. and ferocity, it is often called the South American Tiger. liynx.— The Lynx is anatomically distinguished by having two less molars in the upper jaw. Only two species are found in North America — the Canada Lynx and the Wild Cat. The former has its ears tipped with pencil-like tufts of black hair, while its prevailing color is gray with a wash of black. It lives upon birds and small mammals, pursuing them among the branches of the trees as well as upon the ground. Its gait is by bounds with all four feet at once, the back being arched. The Wild Cat may be recognized by its lacking long ear-tufts, and by having the inside of the legs banded or spotted. Civet.— The Civet is a carniverous animal, ranking between the weasel and fox, from two to three feet long and ten or twelve inches high; of a brownish-gray color, with transverse black bands or spots on the body and tail. It is a native of North Africa. Oenet. — The Genet is also a carnivorous animal, allied to the civet, of a gray color, spotted and banded with black or brown, and found in the South of Europe and in Africa. It has retractile claws; wages war on rats and mice, and in many parts of the East is domesticated. Hyena. — A carnivorous mammal allied to the dog, from which it differs by having only four toes to each foot, a bristly mane, the hips very much lower than the shoulders, and an odor from a gland under the tail. Its habits are nocturnal, and it generally feeds upon carion. It is found in Africa and Asia. The striped hyena is the hyena striata. The hyena is the true scavenger among the mammals, removing offal which would endanger the health of man. Wolf. — The Wolf, of which there is now considered to be but one species in North America, is the best repre- sentative of the Family. It generally hunts in packs. Unless impelled by hunger, they seldom attack prey larger than themselves, and they are so wary of traps that a trav- eler, when pursued, has frightened them away by merely ZOOLOGY. 249 trailing a cord. Their bite, unlike that of any other ani- mal, is a succession of quick, violent snaps. Their rapacity is such that when impelled by hunger they will make a meal of a harness or even of old shoes that may be within their reach. Jackal.— An animal allied to the wolf, of a yellowish- gray color mixed with tawny, having a very pointed muzzle, and rather short tail. It is gregarious and nocturnal in its habits, and remarkable for its piercing wail. It is a native of India and Persia. Other species are found in Africa. All jackals feed on carrion, but hunt small game, and are known to feed sometimes on fruits. Fox.— The Fox is mostly nocturnal, springing upon its prey as it passes by, or stealing upon it while asleep. Its dentition is calculated for a mixed diet, so that mammals, birds, molluscs, and even grapes, furnish a dainty meal. Its characteristic is craftiness. Its maternal instinct is also highly developed, and it will peril its life to save its young. Different species abound in all parts of the world. So varied, however, are their individual markings accord- ing to age and locality, that naturalists disagree as to the number of species in North America, or whether there is more than one genus. Weasel.— The Weasels are greatly diversified in size, habits, color, etc. All have fine fur, short legs, and slim, flexible bodies, which enable them by gliding movements to pursue their prey through small openings. Nearly all have glands secreting a disagreeable odor. Tliey have a difference in dentition and manner of walking. The weasel, at the north, during summer, is reddish-brown above and white beneath. It changes from brown to white in October and November, and back again in March, except the extremity of the tail, which is always black. At the South, the same species does not vary its fur. These alterations are effected, not by shedding the coat, but by changes in the color of the hair. 250 THE examiner's companion. Mink.— The common Mink, found in North America and Northern parts of Europe, can swim and dive well, and is generally to be found on the banks of rivers, where it preys upon small fish, frogs, rats, mice, etc. Its fur is fine, but not very valuable. When irritated the mink exhales a fetid, musky smell. It is about 1 7 inches long to the tail, which is about half the length of the body. Its general color is dark brownish-chestnut, tail nearly black, and the end of the chin white. JSkank.— Eighteen species are known, eight of which are found in North America, and ten in South America. The genus is specially distinguished by its exceedingly large anal gland, which exhales a putrid and offensive odor, shed by the animal when annoyed or irritated. The - scent is so powerful, that it endures for many years. The fore feet of the skunk are adopted to digging holes, in which it hibernates without becoming torpid — entering its retreat in the fall, fat, and coming out in the spring lean. Badger. — The Badger, inhabiting the northern part of the continent, has long silky hair and short tail. Its stout claws are well adapted for burrowing. Though so peace- able as to resign its nest without a struggle to those much weaker than itself, it can bite more fiercely than any ani- mal of its size. Its skin is so loose and thick, that while the teeth of its assailants can make little impression upon it, the badger can turn itself round in it, so as to bite them in their tenderest parts. It feeds upon small animals, which it digs out of their burrows, leaving dangerous trap- holes for the unwary traveler. WolTerine.— The Wolverine inhabits the northern parts of Europe and America. Extravagant stories are told by trappers of its strength and ferocity, whereas it is harmless to man, and only annoying by devouring ani- mals caught in traps, and by destroying the hunter's hoards. With a sagacity rarely permitting it to be ensnared, it skillfully tears the trap to pieces, and carries off the bait. ZOOLOOY. 251 River Otter. — The River Otter has but one species in North America, though it ranges from Hudson's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Its webbed feet exhibit an approach to the amphibious mammals. The peculiar position of its eye enables it, with a slight motion of the head, to see the iish on which it preys, whether swimming above, below, beside, behind, or before. It burrows in the banks of streams, forming the entrance under water, and providing numerous cells to occupy, according to the height of the stream. Its pastime of sliding in companies into the water, down a snow-bank in winter and a slippery clay-bank in summer, presents a singular feature of animal life. Grizzly Bear.— The Grizzly Bear, so called because of the intermixture in its fur of grayish hairs with black and brown, is the most ferocious of the North American carnivora. Its sharp, powerful claws, often five inches long", move independently of one another, and, when the animal strikes with its paws, cut like so many chisels. Its strength enables it to carry off a bison, and dig a pit in which to bury it. Black Bear.— While the Grizzly Bear is limited to the Rocky Mountain regions, the Black Bear, under a variety of names, is distributed over North America. An expert climber, honey is its favorite food; though its powerful claws are adapted to tearing up young shoots and succu- lent roots. Its mode of attack is to rear upon its back feet, and seizing its victim between its fore legs, either to suffocate it with its embrace, or disembowel it with its hind claws. In the colder latitudes it passes the winter usually in a hollow log, without becoming insensible. Polar Bear.— The Polar Bear is the largest member of this family. It feeds on seals, fish, and walruses, which it pursues in the water, swimming and diving with great skill. To secure firm footing on the ice, the soles of the feet are thickly covered with long hairs. It passes Jan- uary and February in a lethargy, buried in the snow or hidden in the ice-rifts. 252 THE examiner's companton. Raccoon. — The Raccoon is the only representative of its family in the United States. It derives its specific name from its habit of dipping its food in the water before eating. Though its entire foot is naked, yet in walking it does not, like the bear, bring its whole sole to the ground. Omnivorous in its food, it is, according to circumstances, a fisher, a hunter, a trapper, a reaper, or a fly-catcher, having the instinctive cunning of the fox, the inquisitive meddle- someness of the monkey, the greediness of the bear, and the slyness of the cat. £ared Seals. — The Eared Seals are principally found in the Pacific Ocean. The most remarkable species is the Northern Sea Bear, so called from the striking resemblance of its head to that of the Ursidse. It is polygamous, families of over a hundred, with one male chief, keeping entirely separate. Each dam, in returning from a fishing excursion, will pass by thousands of others lying along the shore and bleating like sheep, till it comes to its single cub. The Sea Bear furnishes the choicest seal fur. Conimoii Seal. — The Common Seal abounds upon the Atlantic coast. The different species vary in length from three to twenty feet, and present every variety of marking and color. Their eyes are large and full of intelligence, and the animal is easily tamed. These seals have the sin- gular habit of swallowing stones, as many as four pounds of sharp pebbles having been found in a single stomach, but no satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has been given. Walrus. — The Walrus is an aquatic mammal, resem- bling the seal, and allied to it; — called also Morse and Sea- cow. It has long canine teeth, used for locomotion and defense, and feeds upon sea-weed and smaller marine animals. Its flesh is eaten, and the skin and ivory are highly valued. It is gregarious in its habits. The flesh is highly valued by the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, and its skin makes excellent coach-traces. Camel. — The Camel family, including hornless, rumi- ZOOLOGY. 253 nant animals, are distinguished by the presence of two incis- ors in the upper jaw. The genus Camelus embraces two species, which are known only in the domesticated state. The dromedary, or African camel, has one hunch on the back; the common, or Asiatic camel, has two humps. The camel, by its power of sustaining abstinence from drink for many days, from the peculiar formation of its stomach, and of subsisting on a few coarse shrubs, is peculiarly fitted for the parched and barren lands of Asia and Africa. The Arabians live chiefly on the milk of their camels; and without them they could neither carry on trade, nor travel over their sandy deserts. lilaiua.— The Llama proper, and the Alpaca or Peruvian Sheep, which is entirely confined to Peru, are, according to Cuvier, only domesticated forms of the Guanaco, while Humboldt considers them as distinct species. The Llama is allied to the camel, from which it differs in the separation of its toes, in having claws, in being smaller in size, and having no hump. It is found in South America. Giraffe. — The Giraffe ok Camelopard, is a native of several parts of Africa, living in forests, and feeding on the leaves of trees. It has two straight horns, without branches, six inches long, covered with hair, truncated at the end, and tufted. The shoulders are of such a length as to render the fore part of the animal much higher than the hind part. The neck is very long, the head slender and elegant, and the color of the body is a dusky white, with large rusty spots. It is mild and inoffensive, and in case of danger has recourse to flight for safety, but when obliged to stand on self-defence, it kicks its adversary. llusk-Ox.— A ruminating animal intermediate between the sheep and ox. It inhabits the more northern parts of America. When they are fat, the flesh is well flavored, but smells strongly of musk. The Musk-Ox is about the height of a deer, but of much stouter proportions. The horns are very broad at the base, covering the forehead 254: THE examiner's companion. and crown of the head; and curving downwards between the eye and ear, until about the level of the mouth, when they turn upwards. The color is brownish-black. When pur- sued by the hunter, they seek for safety by instant flight; but the bulls are sometimes dangerously irascible when closely pressed. The Musk-Ox runs nimbly, and climbs hills and rocks with great ease. Bison.— The Bison is the only bovine, except the Musk-Ox, indigenous to America. Having the distinctive hump on the fore-shoulders, it is a true Bison and not a Buffalo, as it is generally called. Originally ranging in immense herds over the most of the United States, it is now found only on the great plain between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and is fast becoming extinct. The old males sometimes weigh a ton, and though so cumbrous in appeai-ance, are very swift. Buffalo. — The Buffa.lo inhabits the Southern part of Asia, and is distinguished by its enormous horns. Their bases are of great strength, while their length exceeds four feet, with tips five feet .apart. In order to use even the tamest buffalo, a ring is put in its nose. The traveler over the Campagna of Rome often sees these wild-looking animals employed in agricultural labor. Yak. — The Yak, or Grunting Ox of Tartary, is about the size of an ordinary ox, which it much resembles in figure of body, head, and legs. It is covei'ed all over, however, with a thick coat of long, silky hair, hanging down like the fleece of a sheep. His white tail resembles that of a horse, and is much prized in the East, where it is used to brush away flies, and also as an emblem of authority. It makes a grunting noise, similar to that of a hog. It is domesticated in Thibet. Zebu. — The Zebu is the beast of burden for the Eastern coast of Africa, the Indian Archipelago, and Southern Asia. It is not a bison, though it has the distinctive hump, for the bison's consists of inuscles that move the head, ZOOLOGY. 255 while the hump of the Zebu is composed of fat, which is valued for food. It is often called the Indian bull, ox, or cow, and is held to be sacred by the Hindoos. Chamois. — The Chamois is found only in high mount- tain regions of Western Europe. It is about the size of a goat, of a deep brown color, and its horns towards the summit are bent abruptly backward like a hook. Their sight, hearing, and smell are so acute, and they are so exceedingly shy, that it is only by the greatest patience and skill that the hunter can approach near enough to shoot them; they are likewise so swift, and leap with such vigor and sureness of foot, that to overtake them in a fair chase is next to impossible; — hence the Chamois hunters of the Alps are obliged to encounter the greatest perils in puriJUit of this favorite game. Moiintaiii Ciroat. — The Mountain Goat is found on the higher slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It has small, jet black, ringed horns, and long white hair. It ranks on a par with the Cashmere goat for the excellence of its fleece. Gazelle. — A beautiful and graceful antelope, about the size of the roebuck, with large, black horns, and of a fawn color above and white beneath, with a brown band along each flank. The beauty and brilliancy of the eye is its most remarkable feature. The Gazelle is found in N^-thern Africa, and has a swiftness so great that the greyhound cannot overtake it. Koodoo.— An ox-like antelope of South Africa, having graceful spiral horns. It is superior to any other antelope for size and height, and for bold and widely-spreading horns. The color of the back and sides is a light brown, with a narrow white band along the spine, and several similar stripes descending obliquely down the sides and hips; The belly and under parts being of a pale hue. The head is large, the ears broad, and the limbs thick and robust. It inhabits the woody parts of Caffraria, along the banks of the rivers; and when pursued takes to the water. 256 THE examiner's companion. Onu.— A species of antelope which is one of the most extraordinary forms of life to be found among the Ruminantia, Its head and horns remind us of the Cape Buffalo; the body, mane, and tail resemble those of a hors6, and its feet are as light as those of a stag. It is a native of South Africa, where these animals feed in large herds. Oryx. — A long-horned and large species of antelope, inhabiting Asia, and Central and Southern Africa. It is as large as the stag, with straight, slender, round, and pointed horns, two or three feet long, with the lower third obliquely annulated. The Oryx is also called Gemsbock and Uni- corn. It is the only anteloije that defends itself against the lion; receiving its enemy on the point of its sharp horns, which serve as natural bayonets. Cashmere Goat. — The Cashmere Goat of ThU)et is the most celebrated of all the goat family for its fine wool. This goat is covered with long, silky hair, under which is a delicate gray wool, about three ounces of which are obtained from a single individual; and it is of this wool that the renowned Cashmere shawls are made. It is allied to the sheep, but is stronger, less timid, and more agile, and is useful, besides the purpose above-mentioned, for its milk and flesh, and for its skin. The male is noted for sala(;ity, and emits a strong stench. Ibex.— The Ibex, called also Stem-bok, inhabits the Northern mountains of Asia, and is also to be met with in the most precipitous and inaccessible parts of the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathians. It has extremely long horns, which bend backwards, are of a blackish color, and annulated on the surface. The body is of a dusky yellow- ish-brown color, and is less in proportion to the height than that of the common goat; it has, indeed, a great resemblance to the deer kind; the legs are also perfectly like those of the deer, straight, elegant, and slender. The hair is harsh, and the male is furnished with a black beard. Angora Goat,— The Angora Goat of Asia Minor, now ZOOLOGY. 257 perfectly acclimatized in this country, is noted for furnish- ing the softest and most silky hair, which is largely man- ufactured by the inhabitants of Angora, no less than 13,000,000 pounds of fabrics and yarns being exported by them annually. Mountain Sheep.— The Mountai^t Sheep, found wild on the Rocky Mountain slopes, differs from the Ibex in having a convex forehead, horns directed backward, then spirally forward, and two kinds of hair, one being crimped. It feeds on grassy knolls surrounded by craggy rocks, to which it retreats when attacked by wolves. Its horns sometimes grow so long and curve so far forward and downward that it can not graze on level ground. Prong-horn Antelope.— The Prong-horn Antelope, found in the Western parts of North America, is allied both to the Antelope and the Goat. It exceeds in size the common sheep, and has longer legs and a longer and more erect neck. The hair is very coarse and thick; the color above yellow-brown, the entire under parts and a square patch on the rump white. About half way up the horns on their interior face, there is a branch or prong, from which the animal gets its popular name. It is active and vigorous, though less enduring in its speed than most other antelopes. Deer. — The Deer Family, of which there are several species, have solid, deciduous horns, which are cast annu- ally, and at each renewal grow larger and more branching. Two cartilaginous prominences first appear on the fore- head. These ossify and form the horns, which are still covered with velvety skin. Soon a ring of bone gathers around the base of each horn, with passages for the arte- ries. These openings narrow, and gradually shut off the blood, that it may not by a sudden stoppage rush to the brain and produce apoplexy. The velvet, now deprived of its nourishment, soon withers and is rubbed off, leaving the white horn beneath. 17 258 THE examiner's COMPANION. Moose.— The Moose, once abundant in the Northern parts of North America, is now becoming extinct. It has a short, thick neck, with a mane, a long, horny muffle, and broad, slouching ears. The males have antlers, branched and broadly palmate. The American moose is Alces Afnericanus, and is the largest deer of America. It is found from the Northern part of the United States to the Arctic Ocean, and is distinct from, though resembling, the elk of Europe; — called also Moose-deer. Reindeer. — The Reindeer inhabits the Northern regions of Europe, Asia, and America. It varies a good deal in size and color, but in winter its coat is always white. It carries a pair of large antlers, which are shed annually. In America this animal is only known as a beast of chase, being hunted for food by the Indians and Esquimaux; but in Lapland and among the Ichukches, a people dwelling in the corner of Asia abutting on Behr- ing's Straits, the reindeer has been domesticated. It serves the Laplanders in place of horse, ox, and sheep, providing them with milk, cheese, flesh-meat, and clothing; whilst yoked to a sledge it draws its master over snow many miles in a day. Its chief food in the wild state is the lichen, called reindeer moss, which grows luxuriantly in cold regions. Wapiti.— The Wapiti, or American Elk, identical with the red deer or stag of Northern Europe, is a native of the northern and northwestern portions of the United States and northward to the 5Vth parallel. It is about the size of the horse. The color of the hair is red-brown, the tail very short, and the horns are round and erect, branch- ing in serpentine curves, measuring six feet from tip to tip, and weighing about 30 lbs. They live in small fami- lies of six to seven individuals, inhabiting clumps of wood, and feeding upon grass and the young shoots of willow and poplar trees, the hips of the wild rose, etc. The Wapiti is described as a stupid animal, and has a ZOOLOGY. 259 peculiar voice not unlike the braying of an ass. The flesh is coarse and not much prized by the natives; but the hide, when made into leather, is said not to turn hard in drying after being wet, and therefore justly to excel that made from the moose or reindeer. Boebnck. — The Roebuck is the most light and hand- some of all the European deer. It is very small, weigh- ing only about sixty pounds, and inhabits the high mount- ains of the temperate parts of Europe, congregating in families. It also has erect cylindrical branched horns, forked at the summit, is of elegant shape and remarkably nimble. Virginia Deer. — The Virginia Deer is common in the United States. It differs in size according to locality, the Southern specimens being smaller. This deer is a great destroyer of rattlesnakes, cutting them to pieces by alighting upon them with all four feet. Its skin is tanned by the Indians by pounding in a solution of its own brains, and is known as "buckskin." Its antlers bend forward, with varying prongs. The males while fighting sometimes interlock their antlers, and unable to release themselves, perish miserably. The spotted young are called Fawns, and may be easily domesticated. The sagacity of the deer is shown in taking to the water when hunted with dogs, its greater height giving it a footing, while they, compelled to swim, are comparatively helpless. FalloM^ l>eer. — The Fallow Deer very much resem- bles the red deer, but is smaller and of more gentle dis- position. Originally a native of Persia, it was brought to Europe, where it is now found in most parts in a domes- ticated state. Its flesh (venison) is rich and delicate, and the skin is unrivaled for durability and softness. A large buck takes the lead of the herd, and suffers none but a few favorites to approach his regal presence. Mnsk-Deer. — A hornless deer, and one or two allied spe- cies, no larger than a calf, of a yellow or red-brown color, with two white stripes down the neck and breast. The male pro- 260 THU examiner's companion. duces the substance known as musk, which it secretes in a kind of pouch. This animal is a native of Thibet and Nepaul . Hippopotamus.— The Hippopotamus of Africa is amphibious, with horizontally-projecting lower incisors and strong vertical canines. A greedy feeder, it sinks to the bed of the sluggish stream, where it can remain six or eight minutes, digs up a quantity of aquatic vegetation, rises to the top, and, washing the moss, devours it while leisurely floating on the surface. It is exactly fitted to dredge the rivers and keep open the channels, so apt to become filled with the luxuriant growth of that tropical region. Its hide is so thick that it is bullet-proof. There is only one living species, and that frequents the rivers of Africa. It is sometimes seen in salt water. The fossil re- mains of several extinct species have been found. Wild Boar.— The Wild Boar is the parent stock of all the varieties of the domestic hog. It has a short and thick body, straight ears, black bristly hair, and angular tusks which curve outwards and upwards. The young are striped black and white. When wounded, the wild boar is ferocious and formidable. These animals defend them- selves from the attacks of wild beasts by forming a circle, and showing a savage front to the enemy. They are indig- enous to Europe, Asia, and Africa, where in the wild regions they are still common. Peccary.— The Peccary of the New World represents the Wild Boar of the Old. There are but two species, the collared and the white-lipped — the former living in families. The whole company of twenty or more are accustomed to back singly into a hollow log to sleep, the last one acting as a sentinel. This one being shot, the others successively take its place, so that, if skillfully managed by the hunter, the whole number may be captured. The white-lipped live in herds, which stretch out for miles in their destructive migrations. They resemble pigs, but have slender tusKS capable of inflicting terrible wounds. ZOOLOGY. 261 Horse.— A hoofed quadruped of the genus Equus [E. calaUus), having one toe to each foot, a mane, and a long, flowing tail. It is exclusively herbivorous, having six broad grinding teeth on each side of each jaw; and six incisors and two canine teeth both above and below. The mares have the canines rudimentary, or entirely wanting. It has all four legs furnished with warts or castors, which distinguishes it from the ass. It is supposed to be originally a native of Central Asia. The horse excels in strength, speed, docility, courage, and nobleness of char- acter, and is used for drawing, carrying, bearing a rider, and like purposes. Ass. — A well-known animal remarkable for its hardi- hood and length of life. It is said to be a descendant of the wild ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tar- tary, etc., celebrated in history for the fiery activity of its disposition, and the fleetness of its course. Its charac- teristics are a long head, long ears, a round body covered with a short and coarse fur, of a pale dun color, with a streak of black running down its back and across the shoulders, and a tail not hairy all the way, as in a horse, but only at the end. The best breed of asses is that originally derived from the hot and dry regions of Asia; but the best to be met with in Europe are the Spanish. It is common in European cities to see these animals driven every morning to the door of the sick to be milked for their use. Zebra.— The Eqims Zebra is an animal of the horse family, and a native of South Africa. It is beautifully marked with stripes, has a short mane, erect ears, and tail like an ass. It is about the size of a mule, and is wild, swift and vicious. The Equus Burchelli, another South African striped species, is still more related to the horse than the last. The Zebra is one of the most elegant of quad- rupeds, but nearly all attempts to domesticate it have failed. Rhinoceros.— A pachydermatous mammal, nearly allied to the elephant, the hippopotamus, the tapir, etc, and char- 262 THE examiner's companion. acterized by having one or two very strong horns upon the nose. It is of great size, and very powerful. The prin- cipal species are the Indian rhinoceros {Rhinoceros Indicus, or Rhinoceros Unicornis)^ having but one horn, and the Afi'ican rhinoceros {Rhinoceros bicornis, or Rhinoceros Africanns), which has two horns. Its skin is in some parts so thick that it is scarcely penetrable by the sharpest sabre or even a musket-ball. The Rhinoceros delights in retired places near lakes and streams, and appears to derive one of his greatest pleasures from rolling in the mud. Hyrax.— The Damans, a curious genus of small pachy- dermatous animals, family Rhinoceridce, inhabiting rocky and mountainous districts in Africa and Syria. They are of the size of a rabbit, and Cuvier calls them rhinoceroses in miniature without the horn. The Syrian Daman, Hyrax Syriacus, which is common in Syria, Arabia, and Abyssinia, is doubtless the Cony or Coney of the Scriptures. Tapir.— A pachydermatous animal, family Rhinoceri- dae, having a bulky form, with moderately long legs; the fore-feet four-toed, the hind-feet three-toed; the skin thick, the hair short; the tail very small; the neck thick; the ears short; the eyes small; the muzzle elongated; the nose pro- longed into a short, flexiJble proboscis, which, however, does not terminate in an organ of touch and prehension, like that of the elephant. The Tapir of South America is about the size of an ass, skin brown and nearly naked, and the neck fleshy, forming a sort of crest on the nape. The Indian Tapir of Sumatra, is larger than the American species. Elephant.— The Elephant is the largest of living quadrupeds, attaining eight to ten feet in height and 10,- 000 pounds in weight. It roams the forest in herds of twenty or more, and is supposed to live over one hundred years. Unlike the horse, it has the metacarpal bones shortened, so that the heel is brought near the ground. The nose is lengthened into a proboscis or trunk contain- ing several thousand muscles, which permit every conceiv- ZOOLOGY. 263 able motion; while a mobile lip at the end is delicate enough to pick up a grain of wheat. Water is also drawn into the trunk by suction, and then, the end being inserted into the mouth, discharged down the throat. The Asiatic species is alone tamed at the present day. It has a con- cave forehead, small eai's, and the enamel of the teeth arranged in transverse bands. The African species has a convex forehead, enormous ears, and the enamel of the teeth lozenge-shaped. Both sexes have tusks, the male's often being eight feet long and weighing a hundred pounds. Manatee.— The Manatee, or Sea Cow of the Florida coast, has, like the elephant, a short neck, dense bones, and the nostril in the end of the snout. It has no hind limbs, and its fore limbs are flippers, with vestiges of nails on the edges, enabling it to crawl on the shore. It feeds upon aquatic plants, whence it is styled an "herbivorous whale." Another species is found on the opposite shores of Africa; also one in the Indian Ocean. It is used for food, and hunted for its fat. Vampire,— The Vampibe of South America has, instead of a stomach, a long pouch for the reception of its food, which requires little digestion. Its teeth make a triple puncture, through which it sucks the blood of its victim till gorged. The bite, however, is rarely serious. Most exaggerated stories have been reported by travelers, as that the Vampire, winging its silent flight in the darkness, poises itself over the exposed toe of an incautious sleeper, and painlessly extracts his life-blood, all the while by gentle fanning inducing a deeper slumber, until its victim expires. Bat.— A class, or one of a class, of true quadrupeds or mammals having a kind of wings made by the extension of the fingers to support a membranous expansion which stretches from the side of the neck, by the toes, to the tail. The smaller species have a skin like a mouse, which they much resemble but for their wings. The bats are called cheiroptersj there are two groups; the first. Carnivorous^ 264 THE examiner's companion. or Insectivorous, comprises the vampire and the cotntnon bats, including all the American; the second are the Frvr givorous or fruit-eating, and belong to tropical Asia. Mole. — A small insect-eating mammal, with minute eyes and very soft fur, belonging to the genera Talpa, Scalops, etc. The common mole of Europe is the Talpa EuropoBa; that of North America is /Scalops aquaticus; the star-nosed mole is the Condylura cristana. From its burrowing hab- its it is called a mold-ioarp or mold-turner. The name is also applied, in North America, to the shrew, a small bur- rowing animal of the genus Sorex. Hedge-Hog,— The Hedge-Hog is not found in America. Mingled with its hair are prickly spines (quills) pinned through the skin from the inside, and retained by the head. They are so bent that when the animal rolls itself into a ball, they project in every direction — a cheval-de-frise which baffles the dog and the fox. If a pool is near, how- ever, the latter will sometimes tumble the curled-up hedge- hog into the water; when the frightened animal, unrolling itself for an instant, will be caught by its crafty enemy before it can close up again. Monse. — A small rodent quadruped (the Miismusculus)^ inhabiting houses. The name is also applied to many other allied species, as the field-mouse, meadow-mouse, rock- mouse, jumping-mouse, deer-mouse, and the like. Jumping Mice are remarkable for their cheek-pouches and long, zig- zag leaps. There is but a single species in North America. The Meadow-Mouse is noticeable for the winding, shallow paths it traces among the grass leading to its nest. The Deer Mouse dwells in the woods and fields in summer, and in granaries in winter. Mnsk-Rat.— A rodent animal, of the genus Ondatra, which includes but one species, allied to the beaver, but about the size of a cat, having a strong, musky smell. It is a native of North America. Its popular name in Amer- ica is musquash, the Indian name. The color of its body ZOOLOGY. 265 is a reddish-brown, the belly and breast of an ash color. The hair is soft and glossy, and beneath is a thick coat, which was once in great demand for hats, but is now chiefly used for cheap furs. Ponched Gopher. — The Pouched Gopher family, comprising Rodents which have large and distinct external cheek-pouches, pelage composed of stiff hairs with no under fur, and the upper lips not cleft. The Pouched Gopher, Pocket Gopher, or Pouched Reat of the North- western States, is eight to ten inches long to the tail, which is one to two inches; the color reddish-brown above, paler beneath, with a plumbeous tinge along the vertebral region. Its cheek-pouches are very large, extending as far back as the shoulders, and lined with short hair, and, as in other mem- bers of this family, are used mainly or wholly to convey food into the. burrows, to be stored up or eaten at leisure. Beaver. — The Beaver was once abundant in North America, but it retires before civilization, and is fast becoming extinct in this country as in Europe. Its scaly tail and M^ebbed hind feet enable it to swim with great ease. The enamel of its incisors is very hard. The Indians, before the introduction of iron among them, were accustomed to use beaver's incisors as chisels for working wood and horn. A tame beaver will take an apple in its fore- paws, and by dextrously turning and pressing it against its in- cisors, pare it as readily as if the work had been done with a knife. It is noted for its ingenuity in building its habitations. Sqoirrel.— The genus Sciurus, the true Squirrels, is characterized by the lower incisors being compressed, and the tail long and bushy. From this latter member being turned over its back when the animal is in a state of rest, the genus has derived its scientific name. They are active animals, ascending the trees with facility. Their beauty and extreme neatness, combined with their light and graceful motions, have made them general favorites. The Gray and the Black Squirrel of the United States east of 266 THE examiner's COMPANION, the Mississippi is nine to eleven inches long to the tail, which is about one inch longer than the head and body. The genus Tamias, the Striped Squirrels, characterized by ample cheek-pouches, tail not bushy, and three to five dark dorsal stripes, is, among other si)ecies, represented in North America by the Chipping or Chipmunk, T. Striatus, of Canada to Virginia, which is five to six inches to the tail, Prairie-Dog.— The Prairie-Dog of the Mississippi region, is about the size of a Fox Squirrel, but heavier, having much the appearance of a miniature woodchuck. Its color is reddish-brown above, and brownish-yellow below. These animals utter a sharp chirp, which is called barking; hence their name. They live in burrows, and large numbers are often found in the same locality, form- ing communities which the hunters call "dog-towns." Rattlesnakes and burrowing owls are often found sharing its home, being tolerated by the rightful owner from necessity. Forcnpine. — A rodent quadruped of the genns ITt/strix of Linnffius, furnished with spines or quills upon the body, covered with sharp prickles, some of which are twelve inches long, and capable of being erected at pleas- ure. When attacked, he rolls his body into a round form, in which position the prickles are presented in every direc- tion to the enemy. This species is a native of Africa and Asia, and is also found in Italy, o, — Example : chlorine combines with oxygen and hydrogen to form a series of acids in regular gradation, 22. Hydrogen by its union with different elements forms acids which contain no O, These combine the names of both elements. — Example: Hydrogen and chlorine form hydrochloric acid, 23. The bases are commonly oxides of the metals. Their termination, as in the acids, indicates the amount of oxygen. Thus mercury has two oxides, HgO and HgjO, termed respectively mercuric oxide and mercurous oxide; iron forms FeO, ferrous, and Fe^O^, ferric oxide. 24. The alkalies are bases which are soluble in water, have a soapy taste and feel, turn red litmus to blue, and red-cabbage solution to green, neutralize the acids and restore the colors changed by them. 25. The property which the acids and bases thus have of uniting with each other and destroying the chemical activity which either possesses alone, is their distinguish- ing trait. 26. The salts are compounds formed by the union of an acid and a base. In naming a salt, the termination of 280 THE examiner's companion. the acid is changed — an ic acid forming an ate compound, and an ous acid an ite compound. 27. The salts of sulphuric acid are called sulphates, and of sulphurous acid, sulphites; of nitric acid, nitrates^ and of nitrous acid, nitrites. Sulphuric acid combining with ferrous oxide forms ferrous sulphate, and with ferric oxide, ferric sulphate. 28. A formula is an algebraic statement of the symbols and relations of several compounds. The sign + indicates a feeble attraction or a mere mixture. The sign = indicates conversion into. The comma or the period denotes a combi- nation. The brackets and coefficients are used as in algebra. 29. There is a Divine law of harmony which runs like a golden thread through all nature, giving always unity and completeness. Its beauty and simplicity are nowhere seen more clearly than in the law of atomic weights. Applying the fourth principle of the atomic theory, already referred to, we see that the atomic weight of any element in a compound, divided by the molecular weight of that com- pound, is the proportion of that element contained in it. — Example: the molecular weight of water,H 2 O, is2-|-16 = 18; hence the proportion of H is ^\ or \, and of O, \^ or ^. In 10 lbs. of H^O, there are therefore lOxf or 8f lbs. of O, and 10 xi or l-i- lbs. of H. 30. The symbol of oxygen is O. Atomic weight, 16. 31. The name oxygen means acid-former, and was given because it was supposed to be the essential principle of all acids; but hydrogen has since been found to be the true acid-maker. 32. Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements — comprising by weight \ of the air, f of the water, | of all animal bodies, and about \ of the crust of the earth. 33. Oxygen has no odor, color, or taste. It combines with every element except fluorine. From some of its compounds it can be set free by the stroke of a hammer, while from others it can be liberated only by the most CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 281 powerful means. Its union with a substance is called oxidation, and the product an oxide. It is a vigorous sup- porter of combustion. 34. Oxygen is the active principle of the atmosphere. Comprising one-fifth of the common air, it is ever-present, and ever-waiting. 35. We gather a basket of peaches and set them aside. In a short time black spots appear, and we say they are decaying. It is only the O corroding them, i. e., breaking up their chemical structure to form new and un- pleasant compounds. To prevent this action, we place the fruit in a can, heat it to expel the O, and seal it tightly. 36. The treatment of a burn as well as a cut consists in the immediate exclusion of the air. It is a mistake to suppose that a salve will " draw out the fire " of a burn, or heal a bruise or cut. The vital force must unite the divided tissue by the deposit of material, and the formation of new cells. 37. As the vessel sets sail from London, the captain fills the water casks with water from the River Thames, foul with the sewage of the city, and containing twenty- three different species of animalcules; yet, in a few days, the O contained in the air dissolved by the HgO, will have cleansed it, and the H^O will be found sweet and whole- some during the voyage. 38. Ozone is an allotropic form, of O- — ^. e., a form in which the element itself is so changed as to have new properties. It is always perceived during the working of an electric machine, and is then called "the electric smell." It has also been detected near objects just struck by light- ning. Electricity is supposed to have something to do with the formation of the ozone in the atmosphere. 39. Ozone is still more corrosive than oxygen. It bleaches powerfully, and is a rapid disinfectant. A piece of tainted meat plunged into a jar of it is instantly deodor- ized, and it is probable that, even in minute quantities, this 282 THE examiner\s companion. gas exercises a powerful influence in purifying the atmos- phere. Its over- abundance in the air is supposed to produce influenzas, diseases of the lungs, etc., and its absence to cause fevers, agues, and kindred diseases. 40. Antozone (the opposite of ozone,) is always formed at the same time as ozone, but returns to ordinary O more readily. 41. Its distinguishing trait is its tendency to form clouds with O. We ^notice it in the oxidation of phos- phorus, as a white mist which remains long after the phos- phorus oxides have been dissolved by the HgO. The gray smoke that lingers around chimneys, steam-engines, etc., is composed of antozone. 42. The symbol of nitrogen is N. Atomic weight, 14. This gas is called nitrogen because it exists in nitre. 43. Nitrogen forms ^ of the atmosphere, and is found abundantly in ammonia, nitric acid, flesh, and in such veg- etables as the mushroom, cabbage, horse-radish, etc. It is an essential constituent of the valuable medicines, quinine and morphine, and of the potent poisons, pi'ussic acid and strychnine. 44. The symbol of hydrogen is H. Atomic weight, 1. Hydrogen means literally a generator of water. 45. When pure, hydrogen is like O, colorless, trans- parent, and odorless. It has the greatest diffusive power of any element; and in attempts made to liquify the gas, it leaked through the pores of the thick iron cylinders in which it was compressed. It is the lightest of all bodies, being only ji^ as heavy as common air. It is not poison- ous, although, like N, it will destroy life or combustion by shutting out the life-sustainer, O. When inhaled, it gives the voice a ludicrously shrill tone. It can be breathed for a few moments with impunity, if it be first passed through lime-water to purify it. Owing to its light- ness, it passes out of the lungs again directly. Its levity suggested its use for filling balloons, and it has been CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 283 employed for that purpose; but coal gas, which contains much H, and is cheaper, is now preferred. 46. The blacksmith decomposes water when he sprinkles it on the hot coals in his forge. The H burns with a pale flame, while the O increases the combustion. Thus, in a fire, if the engines throw on too little water, it may be decomposed, and add to the fury of the flame. To " set the North River on fire,'' is only a poetical exaggeration. 47. The abundance of water very forcibly attracts the attention. It composes perhaps ^ of our flesh and blood. Man has been facetiously described as 12 lbs. of solid matter wet up in six pails of water. All plumpness of flesh, and fairness of the cheek, are given by the juices of the system. A few ounces of water and a little charcoal constitute the principal chemical difference between the round, rosy face of sixteen, and the wrinkled, withered features of three-score and ten. 48. In the vegetable world we find water abundant. Wood is composed of six parts charcoal and five parts water, with a little mineral matter comprising the ashes. Bread is half water; and of the potatoes and turnips cooked for our dinner, it comprises seventy-five parts of one and ninety of the other 49. Bodies in which the water is chemically combined in definite proportions, are often called hydrates. In the image which the Italian peddler carries through our streets for sale, there is nearly 1 lb. of H.^O to every 4 lbs. of plaster of Paris. One-third of the weight of any ordinary soil is this same liquid. Each pound of strong nitric acid contains 2|^ oz. of water, which, if removed, would destroy the acid itself. 50. The symbol of carbon is C; the atomic weight, 12. 51. Carbon is one of the most abundant substances jn nature, forming nearly one-half of the entire vegetable kingdom, and being a prominent constitutent of limestone, corals, marble, raagnesian rocks, etc. 284 THE examinee's COMPANION. 52. We find it in three distinct forms or allotropic conditions — viz., the diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. This last term means without crystalline form, and includes gas-carbon, charcoal, lamp-black, coal, coke, peat, soot, bone-black and ivory-black. In each of these various substances C possesses different properties; yet any impurities it may contain seem entirely incidental, and not at all necessary to its new state. 53. Charcoal is made by burning piles of wood, so covered over with turf as to prevent free access of air. The volatile gases, water, etc., are driven off, and the C left behind. This forms about \ of the bulk of the wood and \ its weight. Charcoal for gunpowder and for medic- inal purposes is prepared by heating willow or poplar wood in iron retorts. 54. Coke is the refuse of gas-works, obtained by dis- tilling the water, tar, and volatile gases from bituminous coal. It is burned in locomotives, blast-furnaces, etc. 55. Peat is an accumulation of half decomposed vege- table matter in swampy places. These peat-beds are of vast extent. ■ One-tenth of Ireland is covered by them. A bed near the mouth of the River Loire, is said to be fifty leagues in circumference. Peat is produced mainly by a kind of moss which gradually dies below as it grows above, and thus forms beds of great thickness. 56. Muck is an impure kind of peat, not so fully car- bonized; though the term is frequently applied to any black swampy soil which contains a large quantity of decaying vegetable matter. Like charcoal, it absorbs moisture and gases, and is therefore used as a fertilizer. 57. Combustion, in general, is the rapid union of a substance with O, and is accompanied by heat and light. There are forms of combustion known to the chemist which are not oxidation. 58. Sometimes chemical changes take place in com- bustible substances, whereby heat enough is generated to CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. . 285 cause ignition. Fresh-burned charcoal has the power of absorbing gases in its pores so rapidly as to become ignited. Heaps of coal take fire from the iron pyrites contained in them, which is decomposed by the moisture of the air. The waste cotton used in mills for wiping oil from the machinery, when thrown into large heaps, often absorbs O from the air so rapidly that it bursts into a blaze. 59. The "air we breathe" consists of N, O, COg, and watery vapor. The first composes |, the second y, the third about ywwoo^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ variable amount. The N and O form so large a part, that they are considered in ordinary calculation to compose the whole atmosphere. 60. A very clear idea of the proportion of these sev- eral constituents may be formed by conceiving the air, not as now dense near the surface of the earth, and gradually becoming rarefied as we ascend to its extreme limit of perhaps 500 miles, but of a density throughout equal to that which it now possesses near the earth. 61. The atmosphere would then be about five miles high. The vapor would form upon the ground a sheet of HgO five inches deep, next to this the C Oj a layer of thir- teen feet, then the O a layer of one mile, and last of all the N one of four miles. 62. In this arrangement we have supposed the gases to be placed in the order of their specific gravity. The atmosphere is not thus composed in fact, the various gases being equally mingled throughout, in accordance with a principle called the " Xmo of the diffusion of Gases.'''' 63. The halogens are: 1. chlorine; symbol, CI; atomic weight, 35.5. 2. iodine; symbol, I; atomic weight, 127, 3. bromine; symbol, Br; atomic weight, 80. 4. fluorine; symbol, F; atomic weight, 19. 64. These four elements are closely allied, and are known as the halogens, from hals, salt, because they form a class of compounds [Haloids) which resemble common salt. 65. Chlorine is named from its green color. It is 286 THE examinee's companion. chiefly found in salt, of which it forms 60 per cent. It also has a peculiarly disagreeable odor, and produces a suffocating cough, which can be relieved by breathing ammonia or ether. 66. Bromine — named from its bad odor — is a poisonous, volatile, deep-red liquid, with the general properties of CI. It is principally found in sea- water, forms bromides with the metals, and is used in photography and medicine. 6T. Fluorine is the only element that will not unite with O. It exists, in small quantities, in the enamel of the teeth. It is found in Derbyshire or fluor spar(CaF2), of which beautiful ornaments are made. It unites with H, forming hydrofluoric acid (HF), noted for its corrosive action on glass. So delicate is the test that by this means the presence of F has been detected in fossil teeth. 68. Iodine is named from its beautiful violet colored vapor. It is made from kelp (the ashes of sea-weed), and is found in sea-water and in some mineral springs. It crystallizes in bluish-black scales, emits a smell resembling that of CI, sublimes slowly, and is deposited in crystals on the sides of the bottle in which it is kept. 69. Boron is found in nature in combination with O, as b"oracic acid. Symbol, B. Atomic weight, 10.9. Boracic acid is abundant in the volcanic districts of Tuscany. Along the sides of the mountains, series of basins are excavated and filled with cold water from the neighboring springs. Into these basins the jets of steam, charged with boracic acid, are conducted. The H^O absorbs the acid, and itself becomes heated to the boiling-point. It is then drawn off into the next lower basin. This process is continued until the bottom one is reached, when the solution runs into leaden pans heated by the steam from the earth; here the HgO is evaporated, and the boracic acid collected. VO. Borax is a salt of this acid. It is a natural produc- tion, formerly obtained by the drying of certain lakes in CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 287 Thibet, but since found abundantly in California and Nevada. When dissolved in alcohol, borax gives to the flame a peculiar green tint. This is an easy test of the presence of this acid, 71. The salt is employed in welding. It dissolves the oxide of the metal, and keeps the surface bright for solder- ing. It softens hard water by uniting with the soluble salts of lime or magnesia, and making insoluble ones which settle and form a thin sediment on the bottom of pitchers in which it is placed. 72. Silicon is found in combination with O as silica, commonly called silex or quartz. So abundant is this oxide that it probably comprises nearly one-half of the earth's crust. It forms beautiful crystals and some of the most precious gems. When pure, it is transparent and col- orless, as in rock crystal. Symbol, Si. Atbraic weight, 28. 73. Silicon is tasteless, odoi'less, and colorless. It seems very strange to call such an inert substance an anhydride; yet it readily unites with the alkalies, neutral- izes their properties, and forms a large class of salts known as the silicates, which are found in the most common rocks. — Examjyle: feldspar, found in granite. 74. Certain springs contain large quantities of some alkaline carbonate; their waters, therefore, dissolve silica abundantly. If we place a bit of wood in them, as fast as it decays, particles of silica will take its place — atom by atom — and thus petrify the wood. The wood has not been changed to stone, but has been replaced by stone. 75. The symbol of sulphur is S. Atomic weight, 32. 76. Sulphur is found native in volcanic regions. It is mined at Mount jEtna in great quantities. United with the metals it forms sulphides, known as cinnabar, iron pyrites, galena, blende, etc. Combined with O it exists in gypsum (plaster), heavy spar, and other sulphates. It is found in the hair, and many dyes contain Pb which unites with the S, and forms a black compound that stains the hair. 288 THE examiner's companion. 77. Sulphur is also contained in eggs, and so tarnishes our spoons by forming a sulphide of silver. It is always present in the flesh, and hence manifests itself in our per- spiration. In commerce it is sold as brimstone, formed by melting S and running it into moulds; also as flowers of sulphur, obtained by sublimation. 78. Sulphuric acid, oil of vitriol, is the king of the acids. It is of the utmost importance to the manufacturer and chemist, as it is used in the preparation of nearly all other acids, and forms many valuable compounds. 79. The name phosphorus signifies light-bearer, given because this substance glows in the dark. It was called by the old alchemists the " Son of Satan." Symbol, P. Atomic w^eight, 31. 80. Phosphorus exists in small quantities in rocks, and by their decay passes into the soil, is taken up by plants, is then stored in their seeds (wheat, corn, oats, etc.), and finally passes into our bodies. As calcium phosphate ("phosphate of lime"), it is a prominent constituent of our bones. Phosphorus is so necessary to the operation of the brain that the alchemists had a saying, "No phosphorus, no brains." 81. The principal use of phosphorus is in the manu- facture of matches. In making the Lucifer Match the bits of wood are first dipped in melted S and dried; then in a paste of phosphorus, nitre, and glue, which completes the process. The object of the nitre is to furnish O to quicken the combustion. Instead of this, potassium chlorate is sometimes used, 82. The Safety Match is made in this manner: The pieces of wood are dipped into melted paraflSne, and dried. They are then capped with a paste of potassium chlorate, sulphide of antimony, powdered glass, and gum-water. They ignite only when rubbed on a surface covered with a mixture of red phosphorus ard powdered glass. 83. The luminous appearance of putrefying fish and CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 289 decayed wood is well known. The latter is sometimes called " fox-fire." The " glow-worm's fitful light " is associated with our memory of beautiful summer evenings. In the West Indies, fire-flies are found that emit a green light when resting, and a red one when flying. They are so brilliant that one will furnish light enough for reading. The natives wear them for ornaments on their bonnets, and illuminate their houses by suspending them as lamps. 84. Arsenic is a brittle, steel-gray metal, commonly sold, when impure, as cobalt. If heated in the open air it gives off the odor of garlic, which is a test of arsenic. Symbol, As. Atomic weight, 75. 85. "Arsenic" is soluble in hot H.^O, and has a slightly sweetish taste. It is a powerful poison, doses of two or three grains being fatal, although an over-dose acts as an emetic. It is an antiseptic, and so in cases of poisoning frequently attracts attention by the preservation of parts of the body-, even twenty or thirty years after the murder has been committed. The antidote is milk or whites of eggs. 86. Potassium is found abundantly in the various rocks, which by their decomposition furnish it to the plants from which we obtain our entire supply. This metal was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, in 1807. Symbol, K. Atomic weight, 39. 87. Potassium is a silvery-white metal, soft enough to be spread with a knife, and light enough to float like cork. Its afflinity for O is so great that it is always kept under the surface of naphtha, which contains no O. K, when thrown on H.^O, decomposes it, sets free one atom of H, and forms KIIO. The heat developed is so great, that the H catches fire and burns with some volatilized K, which tinges the flame with a beautiful purple tint. If the HgO be first colored with red litmus, it will become blue by the alkali formed. 88. Sodium is found principally in common salt. Sym- bol, Na. Atomic weight, 23. Its preparation is similar to 19 290 THE examiner's COMPANIOJSr. that of K, but is more easily managed. It is very like K in appearance, properties, and reaction. When thrown on HgO it rolls over its surface like a tiny silver ball; if the HgO be heated, it bursts into a bright yellow blaze. The test of all the soda salts is the yellow tint which their solution in alcohol gives to flame. 89. This is a compound which has never been separated, but it is generally thought to be the base of the salts formed by the action of the acids upon the alkali ammonia, which in form, color, and lustre closely resemble the cor- responding salts of K. The analogy between its action and that of the simple metals is so very striking that it is considered a compound metal, acting the part of a simple one, as Cy does that of a compound halogen. Symbol, H4N. Molecular weight, 18. 90. Calcium exists abundantly in limestone, gypsum, and in the bones of the body. There are 5 lbs. of phos- phate of lime, one of carbonate of lime, and 3 oz. of fluoride of calcium in the body of an adult weighing 154 lbs. Calcium commonly occurs, in nature, as a sulphate or a carbonate; and, in commerce, as an oxide. Symbol, Ca. Atomic weight, 40. 91. These metals are very much like Ca. The salts of barium give a green tint to a flame and those of strontium a beautiful crimson; and are hence much used in pyro- techny. Barium sulphate, commonly called barytes, is found as a white mineral, noted for its weight, whence it is often termed heavy spar. Indeed, the term barium is derived from a Greek word meaning heavy. This mineral is largely used for adulterating white lead. 92. Magnesium is found in augite, hornblende, meer- schaum, soap-stone, talc, serpentine, dolomite, and other rocks. Its salts give the bitter taste to sea-water. When pure, it has a silvery lustre and appearance. It is very light and flexible. A thin ribbon of the metal will take fire from an ignited match, when it will burn with a bril- CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 291 liant white light, casting dense shadows through an ordinary- flame, and depositing flakes of MgO. 93. This light possesses the actinic or chemical princi- ple so perfectly, that it is used for taking photographs at night, views of coal mines, interiors of dark churches, etc. It has every ray of the spectrum, and so does not, like gas- light, change some of the colors of an object ux)on which it falls. 94. Magnesium lanterns are much used for purposes of illumination. By means of clock-work, the metal, in the form of a narrow ribbon, is fed in front of a concave mir- ror, at the focus of which it bui-ns. It is hoped that the process of manufacture may be cheapened, so that Mg may- be brought within the scope of the arts. Symbol, Mg. Atomic weight, 24.3. 95. Aluminum is named from alum, in which it occurs. It is also called the " clay metal." It is the metallic base of clay, mica, slate, and feldspar rocks. Next to O and Si, it is probably the most abundant element of the earth's crust. It is a bright, silver- white metal; does not oxidize in the air, nor tarnish by H.^S. 960 It gives a clear musical ring; is only one-fourth as heavy as Ag; is ductile, malleable, and tenacious. It readily dissolves in HCl, and in solutions of the alkalies, but with difficulty in HNO3 and H^SO^. On account of its abun- dance (every clay-bank is a mine of it) and useful prop- erties, it must ultimately come into common use in the arts and domestic life. Symbol, Al. Atomic weight, 27.5. 97« Symbol, Fe. Atomic weight, 56. Iron is the sym- bol of civilization. Its value in the arts can be measured only by the progress of the present age. In its adapta- tions and employments it has kept pace with scientific discoveries and improvements, so that the uses of iron may readily indicate the advancement of a nation. It is worth more to the world than all the other metals combined. 98. We could dispense with gold and silver — they 292 THE examiner's companion. largely minister to luxury and refinement, but iron repre- sents solely the results of honest labor. Its use is univer- sal, and it is fitted alike for massive iron cables, and for screws so tiny that they can be seen only by the micro- scope, appearing to the naked eye like grains of black sand. 99, Its abundance everywhere indicates how indispens- able the Creator deemed it to the education and develop- ment of man. There is no "California" of iron. Each nation has its own supply. No other material is so en- hanced in value by labor. 100. Iron is rarely found native, ^. c, in the metallic condition. Meteors, however, containing as high as 93 per cent of Fe associated with Ni and other metals, have fallen to the earth from space. Fe in combination with vari- ous other substances is widely diffused. It is found in the ashes of plants and the blood of animals. Many min- erals contain it in considerable quantities. The ores from which it is extracted are generally oxides or carbonates. 101. Zinc, or "spelter," as it is called in commerce, is found as ZnO, or red oxide, in New Jersey, and as ZnS, or zinc blende, in many places. Symbol, Zn. Atomic weight, 65. 102. Zinc is ordinarily brittle, but when heated to 200® or 300° F., it becomes malleable, and can be rolled out into the sheet Zn in common use. It burns in the air with a magnificent green light, forming flakes of ZnO, sometimes called "Philosopher's Wool." "When exposed to the air, Zn soon oxidizes, and the thin film of white ox- ide formed over the surface protects it from further change. 103. Tin, though one of the metals longest known to man, is found in but few localities. It is reduced from its binoxide by the action of C. Symbol, Sn. Atomic weight, 1 1 8. 104. It is soft and not very ductile, but is quite malle- able, so that tinfoil is not more than -j-oVo" ^^ ^^ ^"^^ in thickness. When quickly bent, it utters a shrill sound, called the "tin cry," caused by the crystals moving upon CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 293 each other. Tin does not oxidize at ordinary tempera- tures. Its tendency to crystallize is remarkable. 105. Copper is found native near Lake Superior, fre- quently in masses of great size. In these mines, stone hammers have been discovered, the tools of a people older than the Indians, who probably occupied this continent, and worked the mines. In the Western mounds, also, cop- per instruments are found. The sulphide, copper pyrites, is a well-known ore. The symbol of copper is Cu. Atomic weight, 63.5. 106. Copper is ductile, malleable, and an excellent con- ductor of heat and electricity. Its vapor gives a charac- teristic and beautiful green color to flame. It is hardened by hammering, and softened by heating and plunging into cold HgO. 107. The symbol of lead is Pb. Atomic weight, 207. The most common ore of Pb is galena, PbS, which is re- duced by roasting in a reverberatory furnace. The S burns and leaves the metal. 108. Lead is malleable, but contracts as it solidifies; so it can not be used for castings. It is poisonous, though not immediately, as "bullets have been swallowed, and then thrown off without any harm except the fright." Its effects seem to accumulate in the system, and finally to manifest themselves in some disease. Persons who work in lead, as painters and plumbers, after a time suffer with colics, paralysis, etc. 109. Lead Acetate, Sugar of Lead, has a sweet, pleas- ant taste, but is a virulent poison. Its antidote is Epsom salt, which forms an insoluble lead sulphate, H^O dissolves sugar of lead readily. If a piece of Zn, cut in small strips, be suspended in a bottle filled with a solution of lead ace- tate, the Pb will be deposited upon it by voltaic action in beautiful metallic spangles, forming the "lead-tree." 110. Gold is found sometimes in masses called nuggets, but generally in scattered grains, or scales. As the rocks 294 THE examiner's OOMPANIOJ^. in which it occurs disintegrate by the action of the elements and form soil, the gold is gradually washed into the valleys below, and thence into the streams and rivers, where, owing to its specific gravity, it settles and collects in the mud and gravel of their beds. 111. The symbol of gold is Au. Atomic weight, 197. 112. As the metal is thus found native, the process is purely mechanical, and consists simply in washing out the dirt and gravel in wash-pans, rockers, sluices, etc., at the bottom of which the Au accumulates. 113. In the quartz-mills, the rook is thrown into troughs of water, where, by heavy stamj^s, the ore is crushed to powder. As the thin liquid mud thus formed splashes up on either side, it runs over broad, metallic tables covered with Hg; or is washed through a fine wire-screen, and car- ried to the "amalgamating pans" by a little stream of water. 114. The Hg unites with the particles of Au and forms with them an amalgam (a compound of mercury and a metal). Gold is easily separated from mercury by dis- tillation, and the latter collected to be used again. 115. Pure gold is nearly as soft as lead. It is extremely malleable and ductile. Its solvent is aqua-regia. It does not oxidize at any temperature, and, on account of its inde- structibility, it was anciently called the king of the metals. 116. Silver is found throughout the West in a great variety of forms — most commonly, however, combined with S, as hlack sulphide, AggS; with CI, forming horn-silver, Ag CI; with S and As or Sb, making ruby-silver, and also associated with Pb in ordinary galena. The symbol of silver is Ag. Atomic weight, 108. 117. The sulphide is refined as follows: The ore is crushed into fine powder and then roasted with common salt. The CI of the salt unites with the Ag, forming silver chloride. This is next put into a revolving cylinder with HgO, Hg, and iron scraps. The Fe removes the CI from the silver, when the Hg takes it up, thus forming au CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 295 amalgam of Hg and Ag. From this the Ag is easily ob- tained, as in gold-washing. From liorn-silver, Ag CI, the process is like the latter part of that just described. 118. From lead the Ag can be profitably obtained when there are only two or three ounces in a ton. The alloy of the two metals is melted and then slowly cooled, Pb solid- ifies much sooner than Ag, and by skimming out the crystals of Pb as fast as formed, it may be almost entirely separated. 119. Silver is the whitest of metals. It is malleable and ductile. It expands at the moment of solidification, and, therefore, can be ca st. It has a powerful attraction for S, forming silver sulphide. Silver spoons and door-knobs are tarnished by the minute quantities of H.^S pi'esent in the air. 120. Platinum is chiefly found in the Ural Mountains, where it occurs in alluvial deposits, usually in small, flat- tened grains. Symbol, Pt. Atomic weight, 197. 121. The "ore," as it is called, is separated from the earthy particles by washing. The grains of Pt remain behind with particles of Au, Fcg O^, and an alloy of Os and Jr. The Au is removed by amalgamation, and the Fe by a magnet. The Pt is then dissolved by melted Pb and afterward recovered from this alloy by cupellation. 122. Platinum resembles Ag in its appearance. It is one of the most ductile metals, wire being made from it so fine as to be invisible to the naked eye. It is soluble in aqua-regia, but not in the simple acids. It does not oxidize in the air, is the most infusible of metals, and can be melted only by the heat of the compound blow-pipe or voltaic battery. In the arts it is fused in the former man- ner. These properties fit it for making crucibles that are invaluable to the chemist. 123. Mercury is also called quicksilver, because it runs about as if it were alive, and was supposed by the alchem- ists to contain silver. It was known very anciently, and the mines of Spain were worked by the Romans. Symbol, Hg. Atomic weight, 200. 296 THE examinee's companion. 124. Cinnabar, HgS, a brilliant red ore, is the prin- cipal source of this metal. "When sublimed with S, Hg forms the pigment known as "vermilion." 125. Mercury is found native in Mexico in very small quantities, where the mines are said to have been discov- ered by a slave, who, in climbing a mountain, came to a very steep ascent. To aid him in surmounting this, he tried to draw himself up by a bush which grew in a crev- ice above. The shrub, however, giving way, was torn up by the roots, and a tiny stream, of what seemed liquid silver, trickled down upon him. 126. Mercury is readily prepared by roasting HgS in the open air. The S jjasses off as SO 2, while the Hg volatilizes and is condensed in earthen pipes. 127. Mercury emits a vapor at all temperatures above 40® F, Its solvent is HNO3. It forms an amalgam with gold or silver. This is its most singular property. A gold leaf dropped upon mercury disappears like a snow-flake in water. Particles of Ag or Au, too fine to be seen by the eye, will be found by Hg and gathered from a mass of ore. 128. Mercury is extensively employed in the manu- facture of thermometers and barometers; for silvering mirrors; and for extracting the precious metals from their ores. When we look in a mirror we rarely realize what it has cost others to thus minister to our comfort. The workmen are short-lived. A paralysis sometimes attacks them within a few weeks after they enter the manufactory, and it is thought remarkable if a man escapes for a year or two. Its effects are similar to those of calomel; the patient dances instead of walking, and can not direct the motion of his arms, nor in some cases even masticate his food. 129. The action of Hg on the human system is too well known to need description. " In its metallic state, Hg has been taken with impunity in quantities of a pound weight" (^American. Cyclopedia), but when finely divided, as in vapor, mercurial ointment, or " blue-pill," its effects CHEMISTRY — ANSWERS. 297 are marked. It renders the patient extremely susceptible to colds; acts, as is generally thought, upon the liver, increasing the secretion of bile, and repeated doses pro- duce " salivation." 130. The alloys are very numerous, and many of them possess properties so different from their elements that they almost seem like new metals. The color and hard- ness are changed, and sometimes the melting point is below that of any one of the constituents. The proportions of the metals used vary. 131. Type-metal contains 3 parts of lead to 1 of anti- mony. Pewter contains 4 parts of Sn and 1 of Pb. Brit- annia consists of 100 parts of Sn, 8 of Sb, 2 of Bi, and 2 of Cu. 132. Brass is 2 parts of Cu and 1 of Zn. German sil- ver contains Cu, Zn, and Ni (brass whitened by nickel). Soft solder, used by tinsmiths, is made by melting Pb and Sn together, the usual proportion being half-and half. Hard solder is composed of Cu and Zn. 133. Fusible metal melts at 201°, and spoons made of it will fuse in hot tea. It can be melted in a paper-crucible over a candle. It consists of Bi, Pb, and Sn. Yet the first metal melts at 507°, the second at 617°, and the third at 442°. Bronze is 95 parts of Cu, 4 of Sn, and 1 of Zn. Oreide is a beautiful alloy of brass resembling gold, but it soon tarnishes by exposure to the air, 134. Gold is soldered with an alloy of itself and Ag. Silver, with itself and Cu. Copper, with itself and Zn; the principle being that the metal of lower fusing point causes the other to melt more easily. Aluminum bronze, or gold, is an alloy of Al and Cu. It is elastic, malleable, and very light. It strikingly resembles gold, and is much used instead of that costly metal. 135. The precious metals, when pure, are too soft for common use. They are therefore hardened by other metals. 136. The gold coin of the United States consists of 9 parts of gold and 1 of alloy. The alloy is composed of 298 THE examiner's COMPANION. 9 parts of Cu, whiteneu by 1 of Ag, so as not to darken the gold coin, 137. Silver coin is 9 parts of Ag and 1 of Cu. The nickel cent is 88 parts of Cu and 12 of Ni. Cu being cheaper than Ni, it is used to make the coin larger. 138. The term carat, applied to the precious metals, means -Jy pai't. Therefore, gold 18 carats fine, contains ^ of gold and ^^ of alloy. 139. Shot is an alloy of about 1 part of As to 100 of Pb. The manufacture is carried on in what are called "shot- towers," some of which are two hundred and fifty feet high. The alloy is melted at the top of the building, and poured through colanders. The metal, in falling, breaks up into drops, which take the spherical form, harden, and are caught at the bottom in a well of water which cools the shot and also prevents their being bruised in striking. 140. The shot are dipped out, dried, and then assorted, by sifting in a revolving cylinder, which is set slightly in- clined and perforated with holes, increasing in size from the top to the bottom. The shot being poured in at the top, the small ones drop through first, next the larger, and so on, till the largest reach the bottom. Each size is re- ceived in its own box. Shot are polished by being agi- tated for several hours with black-lead, in a rapidly revolv- ing wheel. They are finally tested by rolling them down a series of inclined planes placed at a little distance from each other. The spherical shot will jump from one plane to the next, while the imperfect ones will fall short, and drop below; or sometimes, by rolling down a single inclined plane, the spherical ones will go to the bottom, while the imperfect ones roll off at the sides. QUESTIONS. Define logic. How is the object-matter of logic found? What is thinking, or thought, in a loose sense? What is thinking, or thought, in a stricter sense? Strictly speaking, what is thought or thinking? What are the forms of thinking or thought? As thinking is embodied in language, the most com- mon forms of thought may be how learned? 8. What is a syllogism? How are these propositions mentioned,denominated? What is the practical aim of logic? What is practical science or art? How far is logic theoretical and how far practical? Logic has how many fundamental principles? What are these fundamental principles? What is the law of identity, or affirmation? What is the law of contradiction, or negation? What is the law of excluded middle, or exclusion? What is the law of reason and consequent, or suffi- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. cient reason? (299) 300 THE examiner's COMPANION. 19 What are the divisions under which logic should be presented? 20. Define pure logic. 21. What is applied logic? 22. What is the aim of the logic of conception? 23. Define conception, 24. Define observation. 25. What is said of conception proper? 26. Define conception proper. 27. What is said of the second essential element of conception? 28. How may it be defined from another point of view? 29. What is the third essential element in conception? 30. What is the meaning of logical partition? 31. Define logical division. 32. Should the student distinguish between partition and division? 33. What is the meaning of logical definition? 34. What is the aim of the logic of judgment? 35. Define judgment. 36. What is the result of the operation of judging? 37. What is said of the formation of judgments? 38. Define a categorical judgment. 39. Define a hypothetical judgment. 40. The supposition may be what? 41. What is said of the unfolding of judgments? 42. What are the topics mentioned? 43. What is stated regarding the development of con- tained judgments? 44. State what is said regarding the development of implied judgments. 45. What is an inferred judgment? 46. What is the definition of reasoning? 47. Define construction. 48. How does Ueberweg define system? 49. Define rational system. Mechanical system. LOGIC— QUESTIONS. 301 50. How many forms of rational system? 51. What is the aim in scientific system? 52. What is the aim in artistic system? 53. What is the aim in practical system? 54. What is said of constructive thinking? 55. State what is said of the best use of the power of construction in the work of thinking? 56. How may the elements of any system be learned? 57. What should be the last aim of all training in thinking? ♦LOBie. ANSWERS. 1. Logic is the art of directing the reason aright in acquiring the knowledge of things, for the instruction both of ourselves and others. 2. The object-matter of logic is found in the forms of thinking or thought. 3. In a loose sense, any operation of the human soul is sometimes spoken of as thought. The man knows, feels, and purposes or wills; any act of knowing, feeling, or willing may, in this loose sense, be called thinking. The term is evidently not used in this loose sense in the definition of logic. 4. In a stricter sense, thinking or thought is confined to the operations of the intellect or power of knowing. In popular phrase, it is any act of the head as distinguished from the heart and will of the man. In this sense, "thinking" is synonymous with "knowing." 5. Thought or thinking, strictly speaking, is the opera- tion or product of the operation of the third aijd fourth faculties only, that is of the comparative and constructive faculties only. These faculties are the thought faculties; their operation is thinking; and the product of their operation is thought. (302) LOGIC ANSWERS. 303 6. The forms of thinking or thought are the forms in which the discursive or thought faculties act, or the products of that action. 7. They may be learned by an examination of thought expressed in language. Take the following example: Light is opposed to darkness; feathers are light; there- fore, feathers are opposed to darkness. This is in the form of a syllogism. 8. A syllogism embodies an argument, or process of reasoning. In it two propositions are compared and a conclusion reached which is expressed in a third proposi- tion. Example: A plant has not the power of locomotion; an oak is a plant; therefore an oak has not the power of locomotion. 9. These propositions are denominated respectively the major, the minor, and the conclusion. If the premises are not true, and the syllogism is regular, the reasoning is valid, and the conclusion, whether true or false, is correctly derived. 10. The practical aim of logic is to train to correct thinking or thought. 11. Practical science, or art, as it is sometimes called, is a form of science in which the systematic knowledge of the subject treated is subordinate to the training to skill in some activity. 12. Logic is a theoretical science, or science proper, so far as it aims to give a systematic view of the laws of thought; it is a practical science, or art, so far as it subor- dinates this to its aim to train to skill in applying the laws of thought in avoiding error and arriving at truth. 13. Logic, like other sciences, has certain fundamental principles upon which the more special laws rest. These are usually reduced to four. 14. 1. The law of identity, or affirmation; 2, The law of contradiction, or negation; 3. The law of excluded mid- dle, or exclusion; 4. The law of reason and consequent, or sufficient reason. 304 THE examiner's companion. 15. The law of identity may be stated as follows: Everything is identical with itself, or is what it is, and we may affirm this of it. This has been formulated: A is A; or A=A. Whatever is, is. 16. The law of contradiction, negation, or, as Hamil- ton terms it, non-contradiction, may be stated as follows : Everything is not what it is not, and we may affirm this of it. Or, conflicting attributes cannot co-exist in and may not be affirmed of the same object. This has been formu- lated: A is n't not— A. Nothing can both be and not be. 17. It may be stated as follows: Of two contradictories one must be true and the other false. If one is affirmed, the other is thereby denied. One excludes the other, and hence there can be no medium affirmation between the two. This axiom has been formulated; A either is oris not. A either is or is not B. Everything must either be or not be. 18. That all continuous thought must be rationally con- nected. The law has been formulated: Infer nothing with- out a ground or reason. The starting-point in continuous thinking is the affirmation of some knowledge by which the mind is necessitated to affirm or posit something else. This starting-point is called the logical reason, ground, or antecedent, or, as Hamilton suggests, condition; that some- thing else which the mind is necessitated to affirm or posit is called the logical consequent, or the conditioned; the rela- tion between the reason and consequent is called the logical connection or consequence. 19. This question has been variously answered. The most common division is, perhaps, into Pure logic and Applied logic. Hamilton divides it into Pure and Modi- fied. Regarded as a Practical science, it is, perhaps, better to base its divisions on the various Forms of Thought. 20. Pure logicis the science of the necessaryand formal laws of thought as thought. It treats of the necessary laws of thought, in the strict sense of discursive thought, as they are in themselves, whatever may be the object- LOGIC ANSWERS. 305 matter to which they are applied. In this sense logic is a science of abstractions, like pure mathematics or meta- physics. As furnishing the principles implied in and underlying the construction of all other sciences, it has also been called " the sciences of sciences." 21. Applied logic treats of the application of the prin- ciples, or laws of thought, unfolded in pure logic, to the investigation of truth. It assists in ascertaining and fol- lowing right processes of thought and in avoiding wrong processes. 22. The aim of the logic of conception is to train the miud to skill in dealing with the first and fundamental form of thought. 23. Conception is that form of thought in which we compare various acquired knowledges and connect them by resembling marks or attributes, thus forming concepts, classes, and general terms. 24. Observation is the mental process by which we gain a minute and comprehensive knowledge of objects and their make-up. The instruments of observation are the senses and consciousness. 25. Conception proper is the first essential element in the first form of thought. The work of observation makes ready the material for it; Conception proper begins the work of comparing that material, arriving at the thought- connections, and gathering up and combining the results in a thought. 26. Conception proper is the mental process of fixing upon resembling parts, marks, or properties of objects, and grasping them singly or together as attribute thoughts or concepts. 27. The second essential element of conception, in the wide sense, may be defined as grasping in one' thought, called a class, all the objects to which the attributes in- cluded in any concept or notion are common. Hence the process is called classification. 20 306 THE examinee's companion. 28. From another point of view it may be defined as extending the application of the content of a concept or notion to all the objects to which it is applicable. Hence the process is also called generalization. 29. When by the processes of conception, concepts and classes have been formed, they need to be embodied in language in order that they may be fixed and made subject to recall for further use. 30. Logical partition is that form of analysis which takes a concept proper, as a complex of properties or attributes, and unfolds the component properties. In other words, logical partition is the complete and orderly statement of the parts of the content of a concept, or the separation of a complex attribute into its component attributes. 31. Logical division is that form of logical analysis which takes a conception as a genus or class whole and unfolds its component species. In the words of Ueber- v^Q^: "Division is the complete and orderly statement of the parts of the extent of a notion, or the separation of a genus into its species." 32. The student needs to distinguish carefully between partition and division. The former takes a concept proper or attribute whole and separates it into its component properties; the latter takes a genus or class whole and sep- arates it into its component species made up of individuals. 33. Logical definition is the accurate unfolding of the signification of the terms which embody thought. Logical definition separates a conception, as expressed by a word, from all other conceptions by fixing upon and presenting the essential or distinctive property or properties. 34. The aim of the logic of judgment is to train the mind to skill in dealing with the second form of thought. 35. Judgment is that form of thought in which we com- pare two notions, and mentally affirm their union or disun- ion, on the ground of a like union or disunion apprehended in the objects or realities which the notions represent. LOGIC ANSWERS. 307 36. The result of the operation of judging is a complex form of thought known as 2, Judgment, the verbal expression of which is called an Assertion or Proposition. The con- nection between judgment and proposition is so intimate that the two terms are used interchangeably. 37. The formation of judgments is manifestly a most important work of thought. Processes of reasoning and systems of science and philosophy are made up of combi- nations of judgments, and if the judgments are not properly and thoroughly established, i. e., if they are not true, then the arguments and systems cannot be expected to prove true. 38. A categorical judgment is one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject simply and absolutely, or without condition, as, " Captain Jack was a Modoc chief; " " Benedict Arnold was not a patriot." The affirmatives are based on the principle of Identity, the negatives on that of contradiction. 39. A hypothetical judgment is one in which the predication is based upon some circumstance "which must be granted or supposed before the assertion be- comes applicable." 40. The supposition may be either a condition or an alternative, or both these combined; and hypothetical judgments are, therefore, of three kinds conditional, dis- junctive, and dilemmatic. 41. The best use of judgment in the practical work of thinking requires that the thinker should be able to unfold what may be contained in any judgment, or implied in it, or immediately inferred from it. 42. The topics mentioned are, 1. The development of contained judgments. 2. The development of implied judgments. 3.. The development of inferred judgments. 43. That which is contained in any judgment may be brought out by analysis of the content or extent of its terms, the subject and predicate. This form of analysis 308 THE examiner's COMPANION. is of great service in careful thinking, and especially in confirmation of judgments. 44. The implied judgment, according to Davis, " is one that actually exists together with the given judgment, either merely in thought or involved covertly in the expression." 45. An inferred judgment, according to Davis, is "one that only virtually or potentially exists in the given judg- ment, and is derived from it," Its statement contains " something new, there is a step forward, a progress of thought. In the inferred judgment there is always either a different subject, or a different predicate, from that of the premise, and perhaps both." 46. Reasoning is that form of thought in which we compare various judgments and, on the ground of some medium or cause, reach other judgments as inferences or conclusions from them. 41. Construction is that higher form of thought in which we combine mutually related products of the lower forms of thought, according to some rational principle, into one relatively complete whole. The product of con- struction is known as the system. 48. Ueberweg defines system as " the orderly combina- tion of mutually related knowledge into one relatively complete whole." System is either mechanical or rational. 49. Rational system is that in which the combination is a result of the application of some rational principle. Mechanical system is that in which such rational principle is wanting. 60. There are three forms of rational system: scientific system; artistic system; practical system. These all imply orderly arrangement, but they differ in the law by which that arrangement is effected; that of scientific sys- tem being according to the law of the true; that of artis- tic system according to the law of the beautiful; that of practical system according to the law of the good. 51. In scientific system the aim is to combine the LOGIC ANSWERS. 309 related thoughts in such a way that the totality will exactly express the truth and the whole truth. It is, there- fore, said to be governed by the Law of the True. 52. In artistic system the aim is to combine the related truths in such a way as to produce a totality which will express diversity in unity, or beauty. It is, therefore, said to be governed by the Law of the Beautiful. 53. In practical system the aim is to combine forces and agencies as means so as to secure a whole by which some desired end or good may be secured. It is, there- fore, said to be governed by the Law of the Good. 54. Constructive thinking is manifestly the highest act of the human intellect, and should, therefore, be made prominent in the later stages of higher education. 55. The best use of the power of construction in the work of thinking requires that the thinker should be able to grasp and unfold what may be contained in any system, and to test such system by the principles of construction, scientific and practical. 56. The elements of any system may be learned from the laws of construction. In unfolding scientific con- structions three things are embraced: First, the grasping of the totality involved in the system; secondly, the study of the relations of the parts or the articulation of the sys- tem; thirdly, the comparison of the system with the object- ive reality. 57. The last aim of all training in thinking should be to prepare for and lead to constructive thinking. The safe conduct of life, in the largest and best sense, will depend upon the thinker's power to know in system, — that is, to distinguish between true systems and false systems, as pre- sented by others, and to construct two systems scientific and practical for himself. To help to prepare man intel- lectually for such conduct of life should be the aim of the Practical Logic of Construction. W/T^^Z PRACTICAL INFORMATION. QUESTIONS. 1. What can you say of Abraham? 2. State what is said of Adam's-apple. 3. What is an Air-engine? 4. What is the difference between Allopathy and Homeopathy? 5. Define the meaning of All-Saints' Day. All- Souls' Day. 6. How many inhabitants on the earth? 7. What are the number of deaths per annum, day, hour, minute, second? 8. What is the average duration of life throughout the globe? 9. Which live the longer, married or unmarried people? 10. Which is the longest tunnel in the world? 11. To how many grains of water will a grain of strychnine impart a flavor? 12. What is said of the statistics and curiosities of the Bible? 13. What can you say of the Chinese Wall? (310) PRACTICAL INFORMATION-r— QUESTIONS, 311 14. State what is said of the big trees of California. 15. Which is the largest theater in the world? 16. The largest suspension bridge? IV. Which is the loftiest active volcano? 18. Where is the longest span of wire in the world? 19. Which is the largest ship in the world? 20. From a strategical point of view, which is the greatest fortress? 21. Mention the largest library in the world. 22. The largest desert in the world? 23. Mention the greatest pyramid in the world? 24. Which is the largest bell in the world? 25. How many periodicals in Japan? 26. What peculiarity of the Japanese daily newspapers? 27. What can you say of Jumbo, the famous elephant? 28. What was the largest stake ever rowed for? 29. Mention the greatest billiard match ever played in America. 30. What is the fastest time made by a steamer from New York to New Orleans. 31. Name the first steam-propelled vessel that crossed the Atlantic. 32. What is the Ark of the Covenant? 33. What is the meaning of Ash- Wednesday? 34. What can you say of Bacchus? 35. Describe the Banyan-tree. 36. What is the meaning of the term hatteU 37. Define the term Beelzebub. 38. What is the meaning of the word black-deathl 39. Give a short description of Bright's Disease.- 40. What is a carpet-bagger? 41. What is a cartoon? 42. Where is catgut manufactured, and for what is it used? 43. What is the meaning of the word chinchilla? 44. Define the term Christmas. 312 THE examiner's companion. 45. What can you say of the cinnamon-stone? 46. Define the term clearance. 47. What is a clearing-house? 48. State what you can of cod-liver-oil. 49. What are termed the corn-laws? 50. Define the term curfew. 51. What is a dead language? 52. What is said of the Digger Indians? 53. Tell what you can about the Dismal Swamp. 54. What is the meaning of Easter-day? 55. What is further said of Easter-day? 56. What is experimental philosojihy? 57. State what is said of the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." 58. Give a description of the " Fiery Cross." 59. What is the meaning of the Fifth-monarchy Men? 60. Give an illustration of the Gas-meter. 61. State what you can about the " Giant's Causeway." 62. What is the meaning of Good Friday? 63. What is meant by the good will of a business? 64. Tell about the " Gordian Knot." 65. What is said of the village of Gretna Green? 66. What is the meaning of Holy-cross Day? 67. What is the meaning of Holy Water? 68. What is said of The Valley of Jehoshaphat? 69. Define the word journalism. 70. Tell what is said of the Books of Kings. 71. What is said of the Know-Nothing Party? 72. State what is said of the Kukluxklan 73. What is the meaning of Lady-day? 74. Define the term Laetare Sunday. 75. Define the term Lammas-day. 76. Whom was Lazarus? 77. What is the meaning of Lent? 78. State what is said of The Long Parliament. 79. What is the meaning of the terra Love-feast? 80. What is said of the Lower Empire? PRACTICAL INFORMATION QUESTIONS. Sl3 81. What is the meaning of New Year's-Day? 82. What is a Normal School? 83. What is said of the Orangemen? 84. What is here said of Palm Sunday? 85. Describe the term Partridge-wood. 86. Describe the word Passing-bell. 87. State what is said of The Passover. 88. What is the meaning of the Order of St. Patrick? 89. Who was Peter the Hermit? 90. What is the meaning of Photo-sculpture? 91. Define Political Economy. 92. Tell about the Red River country. 93. What is said of Rogation-Days? 94. What can you say of Rosetta-wood? 95. What are Rudolphine Tables? 96. What is the meaning of the term Sacred Heart of Jesus? 97. Where and what is the Sargasso Sea? 98. What is said of the Seventh-Day Baptists? 99. What war is known as the Seven Years' War? 100. What is the meaning of Shrove-Tuesday? 101. What is said of the Sisters of Charity? 102. What can you say of the Star-Chamber? 103. Define the name Terra-Cotta. 104. Define a Trades Union. 105. What is meant by The Truce of God? 106. State what you know of The Union League. 107. What is the meaning of St. Valentine's Day? 108. Define the term Water-brash. 109. What is the meaning of the word Whiteboys? 110. Describe the process of Wire-drawing. PRACTICAL INFORMATION. ANSWERS. 1. Abraham was the progenitor of the Hebrew nation, descendant of Shem, and son of Terah, born in 1996 B. C, in Ur of the Chaldees, in Mesopotamia, was the father of Isaac and Ishmael. Died at the age of 175 years, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, with Sai*ah his wife. 2. It is a popular name for the projection formed by the thyroid cartilage in the neck; — so called from an idle notion that it was occasioned by a piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. 3. A machine somewhat analogous to the steam-engine, in which heated air is the motive power, united by the vapor of water. The advantages of such a machine would be, freedom from the danger of explosion, absence of a boiler and the necessity for water, and a more economical expenditure of heat. But in practice, it is complicated, and has not been found to answer, particularly on a large scale. 4. The difference consists in the allopathists prescrib- ing substances which, of their own nature, are calculated to remove symptoms like those of the disease to be cured; while the homeopathists employ medicines which, in the normal state of the patient, are calculated to produce these symptoms. (314) PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 315 5. A Catholic festival celebrated on the 1st of Novem- ber, in cojnmemoration of all the saints in general. All- Souls' Day is a Catholic festival held on the 2d of Novem- ber, in commemoration of all the faithful deceased. 0. The earth is inhabited by about 1,300,000,000 of inhabitants, viz.: Of the Caucasian race, 360,000,000. Of the Mongolian, 550,000,000. Of the Ethiopian, 190,000,000. Of the Malay, 200,000,000. Of the American Indian, 1,000,000. All these respectively speak 3,064 languages, and possess 1,000 different religions. 1. The number of deaths per annum is 33,333,333, or 91,934 per day, 3,730 per hour, 60 per minute, or 1 per second. This loss is compensated for by an equal amount of births. 8. The average duration of life throughout the globe is thirty-three years. One-fourth of its population dies be- fore the seventh year, and one-half before the seventeenth. Out of 10,000 persons, only one reaches his hundreth year, only one in 500 his eightieth, and only one in 100 his sixty-fifth. 9. Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and a tall man is likely to live longer than a short one. Until the fiftieth year, women have a better chance of life than men; but beyond that period the chances are equal. 10. The longest tunnel in the world is that of Mount St. Gothard, 49,170 feet, being situated on the line of rail- road between Lucerne and Milan. The summit of the tunnel is 900 feet below the surface at Andermatt, and 6,600 feet beneath the peak at Kastlehorn, of the St. Gothard group. The tunnel is 26| feet wide, and is 18 feet 10 inches from the floor to the crown of the arched roof. 11. A grain of strychnine will impart a perceptible flavor to 1,750,000 grains of water, and each of these grains of water, though containing but the 1,750,000th part of a grain of strychnine, the flavor of the strychnine can be distinctly tasted. 316 THE EXA3IIXER's COMPANION. 12. The biblecontains 66 books, 1,189 chapters, 31,173 verses, 773,692 words, 3,586,489 letters. The middle verse is the eighth verse of the 1 18th Psalm. The longest verse is the ninth verse of the eighth chapter of Esther. The shortest verse is the thirty-fifth verse of the eleventh chapter of St. John. Ezra 7: 21 contains all the letters of the alphabet except J. The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord 1,855 times. The word revereyidhwt once, which is in the ninth verse of the 111th Psalm. There are no words or names of more than six syllables. 13. The Chinese Wall is the largest in the world. It was built by the first emperor of the Tain dynasty, about 220 B.C., as a protection against Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and is carried over the highest hills, through the deepest valleys, across rivers, and every other natural obstacle. Its length is 1,250 miles. Including a parapet of five feet, the total height of the wall is 20 feet; thickness at the base, 25 feet, and at the top, 15 feet. 14. The big trees (redwoods) of Calaveras County, California, are niney-two in number, ten being thirty feet in diameter. They range in height from 150 to 237 feet, and in age from 1,000 to 3,500 years. 15. The largest theater in the world is the new Opera- house in Paris. It covers nearly three acres of ground; its cubic mass is 4,287,000 feet; it cost about 100,000,000 francs. 16. The largest suspension bridge is the one between New York City and Brooklyn; the length of the main span is 1,595 ft., 6 in.; the entire length of the bridge is 5,980 ft. 17. The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl — " smoking mountain " — thirty-five miles southwest of Puebla, Mexico; it is 17,748 feet above the sea level, and has a crater three miles in circumference, and 1,000 ft. deep. 18. The longest span of wire in the world is used for a telegraph in India over the River Kistnah. It is more than 6,000 feet in length, and is 1,200 feet high. 19. The largest ship in the world is the Great Eastern. PRACTICAL IJNiOKilATlOX ANSWERS. 317 She is 680 feet long, 83 feet broad, and 60 feet deep, being 28,627 tons burden, 18,915 gross, and 13,334 net register. 20. The greatest fortress, from a strategical point of view, is the famous stronghold of Gibraltar. It occupies a rocky peninsula jutting out into the sea, about three miles long and three-quarters of a mile wide. One central rock rises to a height of 1,435 feet above the sea level. Its northern face is almost perpendicular, while its east side is full of tremendous precipices. On the south it terminates in what is called Europa Point. The west side is less steep than the east, and between its base and the sea is the narrow, almost level span on which the town of Gibraltar is built. The fortress is considered impregnable to military assault. The regular garrison in time of peace numbers about 7,000. 21. The largest library is the Bibliotheque National, in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. It contains 1,400,000 volumes, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. The col- lection of engravings exceeds 1,300,000, contained in some 10,000 volumes. The portraits number about 100,000. 22. The largest desert is that of Sahara, a vast region of Northern Africa, extending from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the valley of the Nile on the east. The length from east to west is about 3,000 miles, its average breath about 900 miles, its area about 2,000,000 square miles. Rain falls in torrents in the Sahara at intervals of five, ten and twenty years. In summer the heat during the day is excessive, but the nights are often cold. In winter the temperature is sometimes below freezing point. 23. The greatest pyramid is that of Cheops, one of the three pyramids forming the Memphis group, situated on a plateau about 137 feet above the level of the highest rise in the Nile. Its dimensions have been reduced by the removal of the outer portions to furnish stone for the City of Cairo. Its masonry consisted originally of 318 THE examiner's companion. 89,028,000 cubic feet, and still amounts to 82,1 11,000 feet. The present vertical height is 450 feet, against 479 feet originally. The total weight of the stone is estimated at 6,316,000 tons. 24. The largest bell in the world is the great bell of Mos- cow, at the foot of the Kremlin. Its circumference at the bottom is nearly sixty-eight feet, and its height more than twenty-one feet. In its stoutest part it is twenty-three inches thick, and its weight has been computed to be 443,- 722 pounds. It has never been hung. 25. There are some 130 periodicals issued weekly, semi-monthly, or monthly, on religion, government, reg- ulations, politics, laws, army and navy, agriculture, trade and commerce, shipping and navigation, literature, educa- tion, science, fine arts, medicines, etc., in Japan. 26. It is a peculiarity of the Japanese daily newspapers that in each of them the editorial article is made about the same length every day. In some papers it covers a col- umn and a half, while in others it is longer. One edito- rial is published in each number, and it is only in very rare cases that two or more editorials are printed. 27. Jumbo, the famous elephant, was bought from a wandering band of Arabs — according to Sir Samuel Baker — when four years of age. Then was brought to the Jar- din des Plantes, Paris, from there he was transferred to the London Zoological Gardens, in 1866, and remained there until purchased by Barnum, Bailey and Hutchinson, in 1882. He was killed by a locomotive at Ontario, Can- ada, in 1885. 28. The largest stake ever rowed for was $6,000, in the four-oared race for the championship, between the Samuel Collyer and the Floyd T. Field, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., July 18, 1865, and won by the Samuel Collyer, The crew of the latter were Denny Leary and the Biglin brothers, while Stevens, Wooden, Burger and Benway rowed the Floyd T. Field, PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 319 29. The greatest billiard match ever played in America was 2,000 points up, four caroms, for $10,000, between Phelan and Sweereiter, at Detroit, Mich., on April 12, 1859, Phelan was the winner, scoring 2,001 points to his oppo- nent's 1,994. 30. The fastest time made by a steamer from New York to New Orleans was made by the Louisiana. On March 7, 1885, at 4:45 P. M. she left Pier 9, passing Sandy Hook at 5:50. and arrived at New Orleans, La., on March 13, 1885, at 2 P. M. She made the trip from wharf to wharf in 5 days, 9 hours and 15 minutes, and from bar to bar in a little less than five days. This is a little faster than the former rapid passage of this steamer, and is the quickest time ever made between New York and New Orleans. 31. The Savannah was the first steam-propelled vessel that crossed the Atlantic. She was American built, 380 tons burden, and in 1819 sailed first to Savannah from New York, thence direct to Liverpool, where she- arrived in eighteen days, seven of which she used steam. From Liv- erpool she proceeded to Copenhagen, and to St. Petersburg, 32. A coffer containing the golden pot of manna, with Aaron's rod and the tables of the covenant placed under the mercy-seat, and serving as the centre of the religious worship of the Jews. It was either carried to Babylon, or destroyed on the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 33. Ash-Wednesday is the first day of Lent; so called from a custom in the Roman Catholic church of sprinkling ashes, that day, on the heads of penitents, then admitted to penance. The ceremony is said to have been introduced into the church by Pope Gregory, the Great. 34. Bacchus, the God of wine, and the same as the Greek Dionysus, was a son of Jupiter and Semele, or, according to other accounts, of Amnion, King of Libya, and of Araalthea. Pie is usually represented as an effemi- nate young man crowned with vine and ivy-leaves, with a thyrsus in bis hand. 320 THE examiner's COMPANION. 35. One of the greatest wonders of the vegetable king- dom, the Ficus Indica (see Ficus), a tree growing in India. Every branch shoots downward, and striking into the ground, takes root, and is then capable of becoming a distinct tree. One of them, the Cubbeer Burr, has 350 stems, equal to large oaks, and more than 3,000 small ones, covering a space for sheltering 7,000 persons. Its branches are crowded with families of monkeys, and with birds of every description, and also with enormous bats, all of which find luxurious subsistence upon the rich scarlet figs that grow upon it. 36. An ancient mode of trial by single combat. The contest took place before the judges on a piece of ground inclosed, and the combatants were bound to fight until the stars appeared, unless the death of one party sooner decided the contest. It is but in comparatively late years that this barbarous practice was abolished in England. 37. "The Prince of the Devils," Matt. xii. 24. An appellation given by the Jews to Satan, as being the orig- inator of all pollutions and abominations of idol-worship. 38. A pestilence which in the 14th century swept away one-quarter of the population of the Old World within 4 years (1347-1350). Altogether it is estimated that 25,000,- 000 died from it in Europe alone. It originated in the East, and being attended with the breaking out of black spots over the body, it received the above name. 39. It is a disease of the kidneys, so called after the English Dr. Bright, who first investigated it in 1827, and characterized by the presence of albumen in the urine in more or less abundance, and general dropsy. This affec- tion, when acute, is not devoid of a certain amount of dan- ger, but, in a large proportion of cases, it ends in com- plete recovery; when chronic, it involves irremediable structural lesions, and sooner or later ends fatally. 40. A terra applied, in the southern pai't of the United States, to a certain class of Northern immigrants, espe- cially to those desiring political preferment. PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 321' 41. A design drawn upon large sheets of paper for the purpose of being traced upon any other material, on which the subject is to be executed. The most celebrated car- toons in existence are those of Raphael. 42. Catgut is the name given to the strings made from the dried and twisted peritoneal coverings of the intes- tines of sheep and other animals. They are used for musical instruments, for lathe-bands, whips, bows, etc., and are largely manufactured at Lyon, Milan, and other cities. 43. A little rodent animal which inhabits the mountain regions of Chili and Peru. It is rarely larger than a rat, has a short tail, and is covered with ashen-colored fur of the finest and softest quality, and extensively used for muffs, tippets, linings of cloaks, trimmings, etc. 44. Christmas is the festival of the birth of Christ, annually commemorated on the 25th day of December, which is called Christmas-day. The day is often cele- brated by a particular Church service. 45. A clear cinnamon-brown colored var, of lime-gar- net, found in Ceylon, and much used for jewelry under the name of hyacinths. It is a silicate of alumina and lead. 46. A voucher or certificate issued at the Custom-house in proof that a ship has cleared^ that is, has received official permission to proceed to sea on her intended voyage. 47. The place where is carried on the operation of clearing off balances and adjusting daily accounts between bankers of the same city; thus avoiding the inconvenience of handling large amounts in currency or convertible paper. Each bank, or banker, dispatches a clerk to the clearing-house, who there draws up an abstract of the checks upon other firms; and effects a clearance by exchanging them against those drawn on the bank to which he belongs. The balance is paid over in cash. The first clearing-house in the United States was established in New York in 1833. In England, the railway companies, as well as the banks, make use of the clearing system. 21 322 THE examinee's COMPANION. 48. It is an oil obtained from the liver of the cod, and which is in great repute for its remedial powers. It is used in the dose of a tablespoonf ul three or four times a day, in pulmonary phthisis, in various scrofulous affections, in chronic gout and rheumatism, and in some skin diseases. 49. A fiscal code which formerly levied a duty on for- eign corn imported into England. It was repealed by Act of Parliament in 1849. 50. The practice which prevailed throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, of ringing bells at sunset in summer, and about eight o'clock in winter, to warn the people to cover up their fires, and retire to rest. The object was to -prevent fires, which, owing to houses being chiefly composed of wood, were then both frequent and destruct- ive. The custom still prevails in some parts of England. 51. A language which is no longer spoken or in com- mon use by a people, and is known only in writings; as the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. 52. It is a name applied to several tribes of miserable and degraded Indians in Oregon and California, who sub- sist on roots which they dig out of the earth, and on insects, lizards, etc. They are believed to be the lowest grade of humanity upon earth. 53. The Dismal Swamp, in North Carolina, and Vir- ginia, is, as its name indicates, a swamp, or morass, cover- ing an area of about 300 square miles. It is 30 miles in length. North to South, and 12 in width. In its centre is Lake Drummond, about six miles in circuit. Much of the heavy timber which formerly made this region an immense forest, has been cut down, and a portion of the surface drained and laid under crops. The Dismal Swamp was, in olden days, the haunt of runaway negroes and lawless characters generally. 54. A church festival commemorating Christ's resur- rection, and occurring on Sunday, the second day after Good Friday. It corresponds to the pascha or passover PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 323 of the Jews, and most nations still give it this name under the various forms oi pa6cha,pasque,paque ox pash. 55. Easter-day, on which the rest of the movable feasts depend, is always the first Sunday after the fourteenth day of the calendar moon which happens upon or next after the 21st of March, according to the rules laid down for the construction of the calendar; so that if the fourteenth day happens on a Sunday, Easter day is the Sunday after. 56. Those branches of science, the deductions in which are founded on experiment, as contrasted with the moral, mathematical, and speculative departments of knowledge. The principal experimental science is chemistry; but there are many others, as Optics, Pneumatics, Hydrostatics, Electricity, Magnetism, etc. 57. The title given to the scene of the interview held between Henry VIII. of England, and Francis I. of France, near Calais, June 7-24, 1520: — so named on account of the extraordinary pomp and magnificence dis- played on both sides on the occasion. 58. A cross of fire, formed by lighted brands, and for- merly used by the Scots Highlanders to rally the clansmen in time of invasion, etc. An admirable description of the Fiery Cross is given in Sir Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. 59. A clique of political fanatics who sided with Crom- well during the Protectorate. They derived their epithet from their entertaining a belief that Cromwell's accession to supreme power was a manifestation of the advent of the fifth monarchy, in which the Savior should reign with the saints on earth for the period of one thousand years. 60. Before the gas is consumed it is usually passed through an instrument called a metet^ in order to ascertain the number of cubic feet which are used in a given time, or in a particular place. The instrument is filled with fluid up to a certain height through an orifice in the side of the vessel, in which a plug is fitted. The gas enters by a pipe at one side, escapes from an orifice into a pipe at 324: THE examiner's COMPANION. the other, and is thence conveyed to the burners. By means of a train of wheel-work in connection with the axis of the drum, an index is turned, which points out on the index-plate how many cubic feet have passed through. 61. The Giant's Causeway, on the north coast of Ire- land, County Antrim, is the name given to a remarkable and phenomenal series of basaltic formations, constituting a natural platform, 600 feet long, 25 feet high, and 350 feet broad, of closely arranged columns, for the most part representing hexagonal or polygon prisms of short uneven lengths piled in vertical order. Its name is derived from the popular tradition that giants constructed it with an intention to cross by it over to Scotland. 62. The Friday before Easter-Day, observed from the earliest times of the Christian Church, as a day of fasting and religious observance, in memory of the Crucifixion of the Saviour. 63. The custom of any business or trade. Under some circumstances it has a very great pecuniary value, and is often bought and sold, and made the subject of arrange- ment in various ways. Along with transferring it, the seller binds himself to do every thing in his power to recommend his successor, and promote his interests in such business. If the seller acts contrary to such agree- ment, he is liable to an action. 64. A knot made by Gordius, king of Phrygia, so intricate that there was no finding where it began or ended. An oracle had declared that he who should un- fasten this knot would become master of Asia. Alexander the Great having undertaken the task, and apprehensive that his inability to untie it might prove an evil omen, cut it asunder with his sword, and thus either accomplished or evaded it; — hence, among the moderns, to cut the Gordian Knot is a phrase used as significatory of a difficulty got over or removed by bold or unusual means. 65. A village of Scotland, 27 miles S. E. of Dumfries, PRACTICAL INFORMATION — ANSWERS. 325 and a fcAv miles from the English border. It was formerly celebrated for the solemnization of irregular marriages contracted by runaway English couples, who traveled thus far on account of the superior facilities afforded them, by reason of the greater laxity and simplicity of the Scottish marriage laws. 66. A festival observed in the Roman Catholic Church on the 14th of Sept., in remembrance of the exaltation of the Cross. 67. In the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, water which has been consecrated by prayers and other ceremo- nies, and is used for sprinkling the faithful and the sacred utensils. It is contained in a particular kind of font at the door of the church, and also within them at certain places; and from them the worshipers sprinkle themselves before prayer. 68. Literally, " The Valley of the Judgment of God," a name given to the valley of the Kidron (q. v.), both Jews and Mohammedans believing that it is to be the scene of the last judgment. The use of this appellation has not been traced higher than the 4th century after Christ. 69. A general terra for the editorial and i-eportorial conduct of public newspapers; in other words, it desig- nates that branch of literature which treats of and narrates public events. 70. The name of two canonical books of the Old Tes- tament, so called because they contain the history of the kings of Israel and Judah, from the beginning of the reign of Solomon down to the Babylonish captivity, for the space of nearly 600 years. 71. The cant appellation under which was formerly known a political faction in the United States, which was inimical to the naturalization and adoption of foreigners as American citizens, and which also entertained principles of strong political hostility to the Roman Catholics. The name arose from the circumstance that its members were 326 THE examiner's COMPANION. wont to answer, " I don't know," when interrogated as to the views and intentions of the party they belonged to. 72. The name assumed by an organized coinmunity of political desperadoes, which, since the termination of the Civil War, has committed numerous acts of wanton outrage. 73. The 25th of March, so called because it is the anni- versary of the annunciation of the Virgin Mary. 74. The fourth Sunday of Lent, so named from the first word of the Introit in the Mass, which is from Isaiah Ixvi. 10. It is also called Mid-lent. 75. A festival celebrated on the first of August by the Roman Catholic Church, in memory of St. Peter's impris- onment. This word has been derived from Larnh'tnass^ on account of the custom, observed in some places, of bringing a lamb alive into the church on this day during mass; also from Loaf -mass, considering it a thanksgiving day for the first-fruits of the corn, etc. 76. One, perhaps the youngest, of a family at Bethany whom Jesus loved. He died, and was buried, and was restored to life by Christ's almighty power, after having been in the grave four days. 77. The forty days' fast, beginning on Ash Wednes- day, and continuing till Easter in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. 78. The name given to a session of the English Par- liament which sat for the unprecedented period of 13 years — 1640 — 53, — until its final dissolution by Cromwell. During its existence occurred the civil war, the death of Charles I., and the inauguration of a brief republican form of government. 79. Among the Methodists, a kind of socio-religious meet- ing held periodically for the encouragement of harmony and kindly feeling among the members of their persuasion. 80. A term applied to the Roman from the beginning of its decline after the death of Constantine, till its fall; and more especially to the Eastern or Greek empire. PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 327 81. The first day of the year; the day on which the year commences; the first day of January; — often colloqui- ally abbreviated to new-year's or new-year. The social observances of the first day of the New Year appear to have been in substance the same in all ages. 82. An institution where teachers are instructed in the principles of their profession, and trained in the practice of it. The first Normal School was organized at Stettin, in Prussia, in 1735; the first in the United States was opened at Lexington, July 3, 1839, and now most of the principal cities in this country have their Normal Schools. 83. The appellation given by the Irish Roman Cath" olics to those of their countrymen who supported William III. It has since designated the members of an association instituted in Ireland, in 1795, to uphold the ascendency of the Protestant religion, and notorious for its hostility towards the Roman Catholic Church. 84. The next Sunday before Easter being the sixth in Lent. In the Roman Catholic Church, it is observed as a festival in commemoration of Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, when palm-branches were strewn on the way. 85. The very pretty hard-wood of certain South Amer- ican and West Indian trees, one of which is supposed to be Andira Inermis. It is usually of a reddish color, in various shades from light to dai'k, the shades being mingled in thin streaks. Its chief use is for cabinet-work. 86. A bell that is tolled immediately after a person's death; it was originally called the soul-bell, because formerly superstitiously sounded to drive away any evil spirit that might seek to take possession of the soul of the moribund. 87. A solemn festival of the Jews, celebrated on the 14th day of the month following the vernal equinox; and instituted in commemoration of their providential deliv- erance on the night before their departure from Egypt, when the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born 328 THE examiner's COMPANION. of the Egyptians, joassecZ over those houses of the Hebrews which were sprinkled with the blood of a lamb. 88. An Irish order of knighthood, instituted by George III., in 1783, being the only one belonging to Ireland. It consists of the sovereign, a prince of the blood, a grand- master (the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and twenty-two knights. 89. Peter the Hermit was a French monk, born at Amiens about the middle of the eleventh century. During a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in 1094, he there witnessed such indignities offered to the pilgrims, that on his return he prevailed upon Pope Urban II., to sanction his preaching a crusade against the Infidels. He died in 1115. 90. A new art, invented recently, by M. Willeme, a Frenchman. It consists in taking likenesses in the form of statuettes and medallions by the aid of photography, and a very ingenious series of accessory contrivances. A building specially adopted for the purpose is absolutely necessary for the successful accomplishment of the process. 91. Political economy is that branch of philosophy which discusses the sources and methods of material wealth and prosperity in a nation. 92. The name formerly given to the new province of Manitoba, a large extent of still little-known territory, lying North of the dividing line between Dakota Territory and the State of Minnesota, at the foot of Lake Winnipeg, and on both sides of the Red River of the North. 93. The Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday imme- diately preceding Ascension-Day: — so named from being times of supplication; — the week in which such days occur, that is the second before Whit-Sunday, takes the title of Rofjation 'Week. 94. An East Indian wood of a close and hard grain, beautifully veined, and of a reddish-orange color. It is imported in logs of from 9 to 14 inches in diameter, and is much used by cabinet-makers, upholsterers, etc. PRACTICAX, INFOKMATION ANSWERS. 329 95. A celebrated set of tables which have served greatly to promote our knowledge of astronomy. They were constructed by Kepler, and named in honor of the Emperor Rodolph (Rudolph) II., who defrayed the cost of their compilation. They appeared in 1627, and were the first ever calculated in the hypothesis that the planets move in elliptical orbits. 96. A festival in the Roman Catholic Church, held on the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi. It derives from a vision which is said to have befallen a certain French nun of the Order of the Visitation, in the l7th century, and which inspired her to perform a special devo- tion to the Heart of the Saviour. 97. The name "given to a large tract of water many hundred miles in extent, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, and West of the Canary and Cape Verd Islands. It is habitually calm, and covered with floating sea-weed [SargassvTn Bacciferum) — whence its name. This vast oceanic meadow— the home of myriads of small crustaceans, and minute orgaiitsms — is avoided by navigators. Colum- bus was the first to sail across it, and he imagined himself to be near land, upon viewing such evidences of vegetation. 98. A religious denomination which, in the United States, originated at Newport R. I., in 1671. They differ from other Baptists only by the observance of the seventh instead of the first day of the week as the Sabbath. They are known in England as Sabbatarians. 99. The name by which is known in history the sangui- nary war carried on between Frederick II. of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, 1756-63. England was the ally of the former; and Germany, France, Russia, and Sweden for sometime assisted the Austrians. It resulted in the cession of Silesia to Prussia, and was terminated by the Treaty of Hubertsburg, Feb. 15, 1763. 100. The Tuesday after Quinquagesima Sunday, or the day immediately preceding the first of Lent; being so called 330 THE examiner's companion. because tlie Roman Catholic Church enjoins confession to be made on that day in preparation for the feast of Lent. 101. A religious community of females, founded by St. Vincent de Paul, in France, 1617. They have since spread their organized system of beneficent usefulness nearly all over the world; there being upwards of 60 houses of them in the United States alone. They devote their whole time to acts of active charity and philanthropy, such as succoring the indigent, visiting the sick, and the like, and are credited with doing an immeasurable amount of good. The American branch of the Congre- gation was established at Emmettsburg, Md., in 1809. 102. A court of criminal jurisdiction formerly held at Westminster, and so named from 'its ceiling being decor- ated with gilt stars. This court took upon itself to decide upon those cases of offence with regard to which the law was silent, admitting for law the proclamations of the king in council. This court became eventually an instru- ment so despotic and unconstitutional in its proceedings, as to bring it into popular odium, and Charles I. was com- pelled to abolish it by special Act of Parliament. 103. The name given to works of art formed of baked clay. Ancient specimens of Terra Cotta work of admir- able design have been discovered in Tuscany and Rome. They consist of lamps and vessels of various kinds, besides entire figures and reliefs, 104. A combination or confederacy entered into by the operatives of a particular branch of manufacture, for the purpose of regulating the scale of wages, duration of period of labor, etc., and, generally, for protecting the interests of the workmen from injury or aggression on the part of employers. 105. A suspension of hostilities, often proclaimed dur- ing the Middle Ages, on the authority of the church. It afforded an interval of peace amid those private hostilities in which every petty baron believed it his right to engage. PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 331 106. The name of apolitical organization formed dur- ing the Civil War in certain Northern cities, New York, Philadelphia, etc., for affording pecuniary and other sup- port for the maintenance of the National cause. 107. St. Valentine's day, a day sacred to St. Valentine; the 14th of February. It was a very old notion, alluded to by Shakespeare, that on this day birds begin to couple. Hence, perhaps, arose the custom of sending on this day letters containing professions of love and affection. 108 An affection consisting of a hot sensation in the stomach, with eructations of an acrid, burning liquid, that causes a distressing sensation in the part over which it passes. Attention to diet, and the use of bitter absorbents, will usually relieve, when the disease is functional. Occa- sonally, it is symptomatic of organic disease of the stomach. 109. A secret body of political marauders which created alarm in the South of Ireland towards the close of the last and beginning of the present century. They committed agrarian and other outrages in the dead of night, or before daybreak, and wore white smocks over their clothes: — whence the name. 110. A very curious art, by which, with the aid of steam, water, or some other power, wire is drawn through orifices successively smaller. Wire may thus be reduced from an inch to the 1000th of an inch in diameter, and gold has been made the 4000th of an inch in diameter. A single grain of gold admits of being drawn out easily into a wire 100 yards long. That property of metals by which they submit to this operation without breaking is called their ductility. Mental Arithmetic. QUESTIONS. 1. A boy bought a ball for 6 cents; for how much must he sell it to gain 4 cents? 2. Frank killed 2 quails, and Samuel killed 1 quail; how many quails did both kill? 3. Gave Y cents for a spool of thread, and 4 cents for a lemon; how much more did the thread cost than the lemon? 4. Sold a firkin of butter for $10, a cheese for $5, and received in part payment a barrel of flour worth $6; how much remains due? 5. A woman bought 11 yards of cloth, and paid for it with butter, giving 9 pounds for a yard; how many pounds of butter did it take to pay for the cloth? How much did the cloth cost, provided the butter was worth 10 cents a pound? 6.- If I earn $12 a month, and pay 25 cents a week for washing, and $2 a week for board, how much will I have at the end of 40 weeks (10 months)? 7, A man bought a horse for $80, paid $2 a week for his keeping,' and received $4 a week for his work; at the expiration of 10 weeks he sold him for $70 dollars; how much did he gain? (332) MENTA.L ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 333 8. Two men are 50 miles ajiart, and approach each other, one at the rate of 2 miles an hour, the other, 3 miles an hour; how far apart will they be at the end of 5 hours? 9. Albert has 9 marbles, Aaron 3 times as many, less 7, and Amos has twice as many as both, less 8; how many has each, and how many have they together? 10. When beef is 5 cts. a pound, and pork 9 cts., how much more will 9 pounds of pork cost than 9 j^ounds of beef? 11. If 10 men accomplish a certain piece of work iu 2 days, how long will it take 1 man to do the same? 12. If 4 men can do a piece of work in 12 days, in how many days can 3 men do the same work? 13. If 2 apples are worth 1 orange, and 2 oranges are worth 1 lemon; how many lemons can be bought for 48 apples? 14. A merchant bought a hogshead of molasses for $20, and sold it at the rate of 15 cents for 3 pints; how much did he gain by the bargain? 15. A man being asked the cost of his hat, replied, two-thirds of $30, is 4 times its cost; required its cost. 16. John had |120; one-third of it he spent for a watch, one-fourth of it for a suit of clothes, and thi'ee- tenths of it for a sleigh; how much had he remaining? 17. A gentleman, being asked his age, answered that his youngest son's age, which was 12 years, was just one- twelfth or 3 times his age; required the father's age. 18. Twelve is two-thirds of what number? 19. A piece of cloth containing 12 yards was sold for $60, which was five-fourths of the cost; how much did it cost, and what was the gain on each yard? 20. A man gave $60 for a suit of clothes, which was ^ of his yearly income; J- of the remainder he spent for a watch, and what then remained was -| of his brother's yearly income. What was the yearly income of each? 21. How many pounds of meat, at 5 cents a pound, can you buy for $3|? 334 THE examinee's companion. 22. If a certain quantity of provision serve a family of 4 persons 1 6 days, how long would it last a family of 8 persons ? 23. Bought 36 yards of cloth, and sold -| of it for $25, which was ^ of what it cost; how much would I have gained by selling the whole at the same rate? 24. If 2 chestnuts are worth ^\ of a cent, and 20 chestnuts are worth |^ of a lemon, how many cents is 1 lemon worth? 25. How many chestnuts will pay for 9 walnuts, if 1 chestnuts are worth 10| walnuts? 26. If 6 orifices fill a vessel in 3|^ hours, how many of the same size will be required to fill it in yig- of an hour? 27. A fox is 40 rods before a hound, and runs 3 rods to the hound 5; how many rods must the hound run to overtake the fox? How far did the fox run? 28. If a pole 8 feet long casts a shadow 4| feet, what will be the length of the shadow of a pole which is 15 feet long, at the same time of day? 29. At a certain time of day, a pole 5 feet long casts a shadow 7-^ feet; what is the length of that pole which at the same time casts a shadow 4^ feet? 30. Three-eighths of an army was killed, ^ taken prison- ers, and 500 escaped; how many were there in the army? 31. A farmer, having lost 12 sheep, had only ^ of his flock remaining; how many sheep had he left? 32. Twelve is ^ of what number? 33. The articles contained in a certain store cost |500, and ^ of their cost is | of three times the amount paid for the silks; how much was the cost of the silks and of the other articles respectively? 34. If 1 horse eat ^ of a bushel of oats in 1 day, how many horses will eat a bushel in the same time? 35. If 4 horses eat 16 bushels of grain in 2 days, how many bushels will 3 horses eat in 12 days? 36. How many men will be required to earn 20 dimes in 4 days, if 4 men in 2|- days earn 11 dimes? 37. If it require 6 days for 2 men to lay 36 rods of wall, MENTAL ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 33A how many men can in ^ of the time build 72 rods of simi- lar wall? 38. If 2 men in J of a day earn ^ of a dollar, in how many days can 3 men earn | of a dollar? 39. If it require i of a bushel of oats to feed 4 horses ^ of a day, how many horses would it require to consume 9 bushels in | of a day? 40. A. and B. were playing cards, A. lost $20, which was -^ of the number of dollars B. then had more than A.; provided this sum was \^ times as much as A. had at first, how much had each when they began to play? 41. Frank had stolen from him |- of his money; the thief was not caught until he had spent ^ of all he had stolen; the remainder, which was |40 less than Frank had remain- ing, was given back; how much money had Frank at first? 42. Two men hired a pasture for $72; one put in 7 horses, and the other 2 horses; what ought each to pay? 43. A. and B. hired a pasture for $24; A. put in 4 sheep for 10 weeks, and B. put in 2 horses for 10 weeks; what ought each to pay, provided 2 sheep in 1 week eat as much as a horse in the same time? 44. A gentleman bought a watch and chain for $80; the chain cost \ as much as the watch; and what was the cost of each? 45 James bought 54 oranges; for | of them he paid 2 cents for 3, and for the remainder, 3 cents for 2; and sold ^ of them, at the rate of 2 cents for 3, and the remainder, at 3 cents for 2. How much did he gain by so doing? 4(3. If C. and D. can, in 1 day, mow j% of a field, how long would it take them to mow the whole field? 47. A. and B. can build a boat in 20 days, and with the assistance of C, they can build it in 8 days. How long would it take C. to build it alone? 48. Three pipes. A, B and C, can fill a cistern in 2 hours, A and B can fill it in 4 hours, and A and C can fill it in 3 hours. How long would it take each to fill it? 336 THE examinee's companion. 49. A., B., and C. can "build a boat in 20 days, A. and B., in 40 days, and A. and C, in 30 days. How long would it take each separately to build it? 50. A. can do a certain piece of work in 4-^ days, and A. and B. together in 3 days. After A. did ^ of the work, B. did the remainder; how long did it take him? 51. If a wolf can eat a sheep in i of an hour, and a bear can eat it in | of an hour, how long would it take them together to eat what remained of a sheep after the wolf had been eating ^ of an hour? 52. A., B., and C, talking of their ages; says A. to B., I am 4 times as old as you; says B. to C, I am ^ as old as you; but says A. to C, I am 40 years older than you. Required the age of each. 53. A man agreed to work 60 days on this condition: that for every day he worked he should receive $1^, and for every day he was idle he should pay $1 for his board. At the expiration of the time, he received $68. How many days did he work? 54. A ship-mast 51 feet in length, was broken off in a storm, and | of the length broken off, equaled | of the length remaining; how much was broken Off, and how much remained? 55. The sura of two numbers is 176, and | of the first -f-4 equals f of the second; required the numbers. 66. A person, being asked the hour of the day, replied, ■| of the time past noon equals | of the time from now to midnight-|-2| hours; what was the time? 67. A pole, the length of which is 78 feet, is in the air and water; f of the length in the air+12 feet, equals 1| times the length in the water; what is the length in the air and water, respectively? 58. The head of a fish is 12 inches long; its tail is 10 inches longer than its head increased by \ the length of the body, and its body is 20 inches longer than its head and tail together; what is the length of the fish? MENTAL ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS. 337 59. Samuel is 20 years old, and Eugene is 4 years old; in how many years will Samuel, who is now 5 times as old as Eugene, be only twice as old? 60. When A. was married, he was 3 times the age of his wife, but 15 years after their marriage his age was only twice her age; how old was each when they were married? 61. When I first met Mr. A., I was \ as old as he was, and in 12 years after that I was | as old as he was; what ■ was each of our ages when we first met? 62. A hound takes 3 leaps to a fox 4, and 3 of the hound's leaps are equal to 6 of the fox's; how many leaps must the hound take to gain 1 on the fox? 63. Alfred is 60 steps before Silas, and takes 9 steps to Silas' 6; and 3 of Silas' steps equal 7 of Alfred's. How many steps, at this rate, will each take before they will be together? 64. A boy bought a certain number of lemons, at 2 cents each, as many more at 4 cents each; and sold them at the rate of 3 for 5 cents; did he gain or lose, and how much? 65. A woman bought a certain number of apples, at the rate of 2 for a cent, as many more at the rate of 3 for a cent; and sold them all at the rate of 5 for 2 cents, and by so doing, lost 4 cents. How many of each kind did she buy? Y' 66. A merchant bought a number of yards of cloth, at ^the rate of 2 yai'ds for |1, and as many more, at the rate of 5 yards for $1 ; and sold all the cloth at the rate of 1 yards for $3; and thereby lost $8. How many yards did he buy? 67. A lady bought a certain number of eggs, at the rate of 3 for a cent, as many more at 4 for a cent; and sold them out at the rate of 8 for 3 cents, and by so doing, gained 4 cents. How many eggs did she buy? 68. Three men agreed to share |510 in the proportion of -|, 1^, and {; how much must each receive? 69. A. and B. started from the same point, and ran in the same direction; B. ran 60 rods; then ^j of the distance A. had run equaled the distance A. was ahead of B. How much did A. gain on B. in running GO rods? 22 338 THE examiner's COMPANION. 70. Two-thirds of A's number of sheep-j-f of B's num- ber, equals 900; how many sheep has each, provided | of B's number is twice f of A's number? Vl. A. and B. dug 100 rods of ditch for |100, A. received 10 shillings a rod, and B. 6 shillings a rod. How many rods did each dig, provided each received $50? 72. If the money B. paid for a sheep, a cow, and a horse, was put on interest for 4 years and 6 months at 4 % it would give $18 interest. What was the cost of all, and of each, provided the sheep cost ^ as much as the cow, and the cow, -1^ as much as the horse? 73. Jane, being asked how much money she had on interest, and at what % replied; the princi2:)al and rate % are such that in 5 years the amount would be $750, and in 7 years, $810. What was the principal and the rate % ? 74. A man sold two horses for $240, losing on the first 20 %, gaining on the other 20%; what was the value of each horse, provided he received for the second 3 times as much as for the first? 75. The amount of Frank's capital for a certain time, at 4%, was $360, and for the same time, at 7%, it was $405; required his principal and the time. 76. In what time will $40, at 6 %, give $12 interest 77. At what rate %, will $50, in 1 year and 6 months (or 1-^ years), give $6 interest? 78. At what rate %, will the interest for 20 years equal a given principal? 79. In what time will a given principal double itself, at 5 % ? 80. David bought a bushel of grass-seed for $5, and sold it for $7; what was his gain % ? 81. A butcher bought a steer for $20; for what must he sell him, to gain 5 % ? 82. What principal will, in 4 yrs., at 5 % ; amount to $60? 83. If I sell cloth at $2.50 a yard, and thereby gain 25 %, what did it cost a yard? MENTAL ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS. 339 84. A horse was sold for |38, which was at a loss of 5%; what did the horse cost? 85. If I sell cloth at $2,50 a yard, and thereby gain 25%, how must I sell it a yard to lose 20%? 86. An individual was orderd to collect 1 190, and his OAvn fee, which was to be five % on all the money col- lected. How much should he receive? 87. The interest of the sum of i of Albert's, | of John's, and ^ of George's fortunes, for 3 years, 1 months, and 6 days, at 10 %, is such as will in the same time, at ^ the rate %, amount to $531. What is the fortune of each, provided 1-^ times George's part of the principal equals 1 of John's, ard -^ of John's uart of the principal equals ^ of Albert's? 88. The interest of the sum of i of A.'s, and | of B.'s fortune, for a certain time, at 2 %, was to this sum as 9 to 250. And the amount of this interest for 25 times as long, at 10 times as great a %, was $180. What was each of their fortunes, provided A.'s fortune was to B.'s as 1 to 3? And how long was the first on interest? 89. Divide 28 into two numbers that shall be to each other as 5 to 2. 90. A laborer in one week dug 5 rods more than ^ the length of a ditch, and the next week he dug the- remain- ing 20 rods; how long was the ditch? 91. John and Orson have $55; ^ of John's money equals 1^ of Orson's; how many dollars has each? 92. Daniel, meeting some beggars, gave each of them 5 cents; had he given them 7 cents apiece, it would have taken 8 cents more, how many beggai's were there? 93. There were 26 apples stolen; -|- of the party get- ting 4 each, the rest 3 apiece, except 2, who obtained but 2 apiece; how many were there in the party? 94. Five times Andrew's age is 3 more than 4 times ^ of it increased by 6 times ^- of it; how old is he? 95. Samuel paid $12.00 for 30 bushels of turnips, giving 340 THE examitster's companion. fifty cents a bushel for good ones, and 20 cents a bushel for poor ones; how many bushels were good? 96. The sum of 2 numbers is 27; their difference 5; what are the numbers? 97. James, having some plums, gave ^ of them to Josej^h, who, after eating 6, gave | of what remained to his sister, and still had 5 left; how many had James? 98. A rope 28 feet in length was broken so that ^ of the longer piece was equal to the shorter; what was the length of each piece? 99. Arthur and Julius have 48 peaches; ~| of Arthur's, plus 6, equal the number Julius has; how many has each? 100. Charles has 15 apples and plums; i of the apples equals ^ of the plums; how many of each has he? 101. A person, being asked the time of day, replied, " The time past noon is equal to | of the time to midnight." What was the hour? 102. A rojDe was cut into 3 pieces; the first piece was 5 feet long, the second was as long as the first plus 1 of the third, and the third was as long as the other two; what was the length of the rope? 103. Two pieces of cloth contain 38 yards; |- of the first piece equals f of the second, plus 4 yards; how many yards in each piece? 104. Frank is 8 years of age, and Robert 25; in how many years will Frank be ^ as old as Robert? 105. Ira played at marbles with Paul, who had 45; Ira won as many as he had to commence with; when they quit, each had the same number; how many had both? 106. James has 10 sheep; Joseph has as many as James and | as many as Daniel, and Daniel has as many as James and Joseph; how many sheep have they all? 107. The hour and minute hands of a watch are together at 12 o'clock; when will they next be together? 108. A hound is in pursuit of a fox that is 10 rods ahead of him, and while the hound runs 10 rods the fox MENTAL ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 341 runs i rod, (y". e.^ while tlie hound runs a certain distance, the fox runs ^^ of that distance). Will the hound overtake the fox? The conditions remaining the same, what is the greatest distance they can run? 109. A boy was sent to a spring with a 5 and a 3-quarJ, measure to procure exactly 4 quarts of water; how did he measure it? 110. A hound is in pursuit of a fox that is 10 rods ahead of him, and while the fox runs 1 rod the hound runs 10 rods; how far will the hound run before he overtakes the fox? 111. A man had 9 pigs, and put them in 4 pens, with an odd number of pigs in each pen; how did he divide them? 112. If from six. you take IX, and from IX you take ten; and if fifty from forty be taken, there will then just half a dozen remain. 1 1 3. Adolphus, Jane, and their mother, went to market. Adolphus had 60 apples, and sold them, at 2 for 1 cent; Jane had 60 apples, and sold them, at 3 for 1 cent. Their mother had 120 apples, and sold them, at the rate of 5 for 2 cents. Which received the most, the children or the mother, and why? 114. A man having a fox, a goose, and a peck of corn, was desirous of crossing a river. He could take only one across at a time, and if he left the fox and goose, while he . took the corn over, the fox would kill the goose; but if he left the goose and corn, the goose would eat the corn. How shall he get them all safely across the river? 115. Place 10 pennies in a row, then carry 1 over 2, leaving it upon the third, and continue doing this until the 10 pennies occupy only 5 places, with 2 in each place. 116. A man purchased a hat for |5, and handed the merchant a |50 bill to pay for it; the merchant being unable to make the change, sent the bill to a broker, got it changed, and then gave the man who bought the hat |45. The broker, after the purchaser of the hat had gone, dis- 342 THE EXAMINER S COMPANION. covered that the bill was counterfeit, and, therefore, returned it to the merchant, and received $50 good money. Hovi^ much did the merchant lose by the operation? 117. Might there be a cause, whereby the water of the Mississippi River would flow northward? Mental Arithmetic. ANSWERS. 1. Since the ball cost him 6 cents, to gain 4 cents he must sell it for as many cents as the sum of 6-f-4 = 10. 10 cents. 6+4 = 10. 2. If Frank killed 2 quails and Samuel 1, they together killed 2 quails and 1 quail, which are 3 quails. 3. The thread cost as much more than the lemon as the difference between 1 and 3. 7 — 3 = 4 = 4 cents. 4. Since the butter and cheese were sold for $15 (10-|-5), and since the flour received in part payment was worth $6, there remained unpaid as many dollars as the difference between 15 and 6. 10 + 5 = 15; 15 — 6 = 9. 5. At 9 lbs. per yard, to pay for 11 yards it took 11X9 = 99 lbs., which, at 10 cents per lb., was worth 99X10 = 990 cents. 6. If I pay $2.25 per week for board and washing, in 4 weeks (or 1 month) they cost me 4 times $2.25 = $9; which, taken from $12, leaves me $3; and if I save $3 in 1 month, in 10 months I shall have 10 times $3 = |30. 7. Since he paid |2 per week for his keeping, and received $4 per week, he gained thereby $2 per week; and in 10 weeks he gained 10 times $2, = $20, which added to $70, for which he sold him, = $90. $90 — $80 = $10, net gain. (343) 344 THE examiner's COMPANION, 8. Since they travel at the rate of 5 miles per hour (2-|-3 = 5), in 5 hours they approach each other 5x5 = 25 (miles); and 50 — 25 = 25 (miles apart). 9. Albert, 9 mar. 9X3 = 27; 27 — 7 = 20, (Aar.). 9+20 = 29; 29X2 = 58; 58 — 8 = 50, (Amos). 9 + 20 + 50 = 79, (all). 10. One lb. of pork costs 4 cents more than 1 lb. of beef; and 9 lbs. will cost 9x4 cents = 36 cents more than 9 lbs. of beef. 11. Since 10 men can do 10 days' work in 1 day, in 2 days they can do 2 X 10 = 20 days' work; and since 1 man can do but 1 day's work in a day, it will take him 20 days to do the same work. 2 days X 10 = 20 days. 12. Four men can do 4 days' work in 1 day, and in 12 days (12 times 4) = 48 days' work. 3 men can do 3 days' work in 1 day; and to do 48 days' work they must work as many days as the number of times 3 is contained in 48,= 16 (days). 13. One lemon is worth 2 oranges, and each orange is worth 2 apples; therefore 1 lemon is worth 4 apples; and as many lemons can be bought for 48 apples as the num- ber of times that 4 is contained in 48 = 12 (lemons). 14. Sixty-three gallons= (63X8) = 504 pints. Fifteen cents^3 = 5 cents. Five cents X 504 = 2520 (cents) = $25.20; $25.20-120 = 15.20. 15. Two-thirds of $30 = $20; and if $20 are 4 times tbe cost of the hat, ^ of $20 = $5 must have been its cost. 16. One hundred and twentyX ^^=40. 120x^=30. 120Xi% = 36. 40 + 30 + 36 = 106. 120 — 106 = 14 (dollars). 17. Twelve=3ij of 12X12 = 144; 144 = 3 times | of 144; I of 144 = 48 (years). 18. If 12 is two-thirds of some number, then one-half of 12, which is 6, must be one-third of the same number; and if 6 is o)ie-third of it, then three-thirds of it must be three times 6 = 18, 19. Sixty dollars-4-|=$48. $60 — 48 = $12; $12-^$12 = $1, Or, since it was sold for | of the cost, the gain must MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 345 have been ^ of the cost; and as $60 was f, i.of |60 = |!12, was |=the gain,.i|12-^'|l:^ = $l =:gain per yard. 20. Sixty dollars X 5 = 1300; $300 — |60 = |240 = 1st remainder. |240 X |= l200 = 2d remainder. |200-^| = |250=:brother's income. 21. Three and f dollars = $3.40 = 340 cents; and I can buy as many pounds of meat at 5 cents per pound as = the number of times 5 cents is contained in 340 cents = 6 8. 68 pounds. 22. FourX 16 = 64 (days' provisions). 8 persons would consume 8 days' provisions in 1 day; therefore 64 days' provisions would last them J of 64 days = 8 days. 23. Five-ninths X 36 yards = 20 yards. |25-^|=$20, cost of 20 yards = $l per yard. 36 yards cost 1^6; and as the gain on 20 yards was ^ of the cost, then on 36 yards, it would have been $36 X ^ = $9. 24. One chestnut is worth J^ cent; and 20 chestnuts 2 0. cents=2 cents; and if | of a lemon are worth 2 cents, then i is worth 1 cent; and a lemon is worth 7 cents. 25. Ten and ^='^j^-. If '^^? walnuts cost 1 chestnuts, i of a walnut costs yL ^^ '^ chestnuts= J_; and 1 walnut must cost '''Xy3=ff of a chestnut; and 9 walnuts 9 times ^= 4J).=6i- (chestnuts). 26. Three and f =-^^ hours. If to fill the vessel in JgS- of an hour it requires 6 orifices, to fill it in |^ of an hour it will require 18 times 6 = 108 orifices; and to fill it in ^^ of an hour it will require 3 times 108, or 324 orifices. 27. Since the hound gains 2 rods by running 5 rods, he will gain 1 rod by running ^ of 5 rods = 2| rods; and to gain 40 rods, he must run 2i rods X 40 = 100 rods; 100 rods — 40 rods = 60 rods = the distance the fox ran. Or, since the hound gains 2 rods in every 5 rods that he runs, the gain is | of all he runs; and since 40 rods are to be gained, it follows that 40 rods are | of all he must run to overtake the fox; and if 40 rods are |, |- of 40 rods ( = 20 rods) must be 1^, and 20 rods X5 (=100 rods)=the whole dis- 346 THE examiner's companion. tance the hound must run to -overtake the fox; and 100 rods — 40 rods = 60 rods =i the distance the fox ran after the hound commenced the pursuit. 28. If 8 feet of pole cast a shadow of 4-| feet (= V) long, 1 foot of pole will cast a shadow ^ of 2^ feet long = I of a foot; and 15 feet of pole, |X15, = 9 feet long; or, -2g* feetX-i/ = 9 feet. 29. Five feet-=--L5.— 2. of a foot = length of pole which casts 1 foot of shadow; and -| of a footxf = 3 feet=:length of the pole casting a shadow 4|- feet long. 30. Three-eighths+|=f|. 1— f|=^\; and if 500 are ^\, then I of 500, = 100, is ■^\ and lOOx '72 = 7200 = the number in the army. 31. '^welve=f; and 12-^|=54; 54 — 12 = 42. Or, as he had lost |^, and had ^ remaining, the number remaining =1 of the number lost. 12^|- = 42. 32. Since 12 is | of some number, | of 12 ( = 4) must be ^ of that number; and 4 times 4=16 = the whole of it. But to divide 12 by 3, and then to multiply that quotient by 4, is equivalent to dividing 12 by |. 33. Five hundred Xt% = $150; $150-^| = |375. $375-^ 3 = $125, amount paid for the silks. $500 — 1125 = $375, amount paid for other articles. 34. Since 1 horse will eat \ of a bushel in 1 day, it will require as many horses to eat 1 bushel in 1 day as the number of times that :|^ of a bushel is contained in 1 bushel = 4 times; therefore, 4 horses, etc. 35. If 4 horses eat 16 bushels in 2 days, 1 horse would eat :^ of 16 bushels, or, 4 bushels; and in 1 day ^ of 4 bushels = 2 bushels; and 3 horses in 1 day, 3x2 = 6 bushels; and in 12 days, 6X12 = 72 bushels. 16-^(4 X2) = 2; 2X (3X12) = 72. Or, 16X3X12 _^^ 4X2 36. Four men in 2| days will perform 11 days' work, and receive 11 dimes, = 1 dime per day's work; and to earn 20 dimes in 4 days will require 5 men. MEXTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 347 Si. Tliirty-six-^(Gx2) = 3 rods per day's work, and one man can build '72 rods in V|=24 days; but to do this in 3 days will require 24-^3 = 8 men. 38. Five-twelfths^ (2 X I) = | = Sf=l man's wages for 1 day. 1^1=1 days for 1 man; |-^3 = | day for three men. 39. One-eighth bushel-^ (4 X|-=)|=^ bushel for 1 horse 1 day; ^-^Xi=Th bushel for 1 horse f of 1 day. 9-^^_=:160 (horses). 40. Twenty-^ 1^=156; $56^1 = 148 =A's money at first. $48-$20 = $28; $28-f-($56-$20 = |36) = |64 = B's money at first. 41. Frank had | of his money remaining, and the thief gavebackfxf=i^. f— H=¥V $40^^\=$490. 42. Seven+2 = 9. ^, |; |72X|=$56. $Y2Xf=ll6; $16 + $56 = |V2. 43. Two horses ( = 4 sheep) x 10 = 20 horses for 1 week. Two horses X 10 = 2^0 horses; 20+20 = 40. |12 each. 44. The chain equals 1 part, and the watch 3 of the same parts; both together, 4 parts. $80-^4 = $20, chain. 160, watch. 45. Thirty-six X| = 24. 18Xf = 27. 24 + 27 = 51c. 18X 1=12. 36Xli=54; 54+12 = G6c.; 66c. — 51c. = 15c., gain. 46. It would take them as many days as equal the number of times that y\ are contained in 1, or f|; f|H- -^^ = 2| days. 47. A+B can build ^V i^ 1 day; A, B, and C, ^; i— ^V =^=what C can do in 1 day; l^^^ = 13i days. 48. A, B, and C can fill i in 1 hour. A and B i, A and C i, in 1 hour. -|-i=i, C can fill in 1 hour, and can fill it in 4 hours. ^-^=^12, A can fill in 1 hour, and the whole in 12 hours. i-^=^, B can fill in 1 hour, and the whole in 6 hours. A, 12; B, 6; C, 4 hours. 49. A,B, and C, ^0 P^i' day; A and B, ^; A and C, '^V io-i^=^^ C, 40 days; ^\-i^=^o^ A, 120 days; ^-Ti^=^'B,60day8. 348 THE examhstee's companion. 50. One-4-4i=|-=what A can do in Iday. i — | = i = what B can do in 1 day. 1— ^=|; 2-^-^=6 days. 51. The wolf in ^ hour can eat a of the sheep, and in 1 hour he can eat | of a sheep. The bear in 1 hour can eat |- of a sheep. Therefore, in 1 hour both can eat f +|- = |2_ of a sheep. Therefore, to eat -f — 4 = ^V '^^ ^ sheep, it will require -^-^ of an hour=10 minutes 23 jL seconds. 52. Let B's age=l, C's = 2 and A's = 4. A is twice as old as C; and as he is also 40 years older; he must be twice 40 = 80 years old; B 20; and C 40. 53. One and one-half dollars X60 = $90; |90 — $68=:|22. $l^+$i = |2. $22^$2 = 11, days idle. 60-11 = 49, days he labored. 54. Two-third s-|-f =38^, ^; and if y%- of the first part — TT ^^ ^^^ second, then the first must be greater than the 94-8 second, or % of it; and the two together '^ of the whole length of the mast. 51 XfV, -^^ = 21, 24. 55. Three-fourths of the lst+4=f of the 2d. Three-eighths " " lst+2=^ " " 2d. ]Srine-eighths " " lst+6 = f " " 2d. 176 — 6 = 1*70; iVOXyV tt=SO, 96. 56. Two-thirds past time=f future time-|-| hours. ^ past time = ^ future tinie-|-|^ hours. | past tirae=^ future time +4 hours, f past tirae = 4 hours. ^ past time = 2 hours, f past time = 6; 6, P. M. 57. Nine-eighths length in air-[-12 feet=| length in water, f length in air-|-4 feet=^ length in water, f length in air+8 feet=length in water. 78 — 8 = 70; 70xf=40, in the air; 40x| = 45; 45 + 12 = 57; -^| = 38, in the water. 58. By a condition of the question, the length of the tail is ^ of the length of the body+ 12-)- 10 inches. Hence, the length of the head and tail of the fish must be equal to ^ of the length of the body-f 12-|-10+12 inches = :^ of the length of the body-}- 34 inches; to this add 20 inches, and the sum, by a condition of the question, must equal -|, MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 349 the length of the body. Therefore, |^— -|=^ of the length of the body, equals 34-|-20 = o4 inches; and |, the length ofthe body, equals 2 times 54 inches=108 inches. The length of the tail equals ^ of the length of the body, which is 54 inches+12-f- 10 inches=76 inches. Hence, the length of the fish is 12 inches, the length of the head, -f- 108 inches, the length of the body,-|-76 inches, the length of the tail = 96 inches. 59. Four years ago Samuel's age was 16 years, and Eugene's 0. 16 years from that time, or 12 years from this time, Samuel's age will be 32, and Eugene's 16. GO. Call his age at that time A, and hers ^ A. His age now is A+ 15 years; hers, ^ A+15 years. Then A+ 15 years =2 (^ A+15 years) = f A+30 years; and A=f A-j- 15; and ^ A =15 = wife's age at the time of marriage; 15 X 3 = 45 = his age then. 45 + 15 = 60 his age now; 15 + 15 = 30 = her age now; 60 = 30X2. 61. I = i A, I+12 = f (A+12) = f A+9. lJ-3 = f A. 3 =i A. 3x4 = 12 = A's age then. 12^2 = 6 = my age then; 6+12 = 18 = my age now; 18 = f+24. 62. Three hound-leaps = 6 fox-leaps. 6 — 4 = 2, fox- leaps, which the hound gains in taking 3 hound-leaps; and to gain 1 fox-leap, the hound must take 4 leaps. 63. Three of Silas's steps = 7 of Alfred's. 6 of Silas's steps= 14 of Alfred's. 14 — 9 = 5, of Alfred's steps, which Silas gains in taking 6; to gain 60 (=12X5), Silas must take 12X6 = 72, steps; f x72 = 108, steps Alfred will take. 64. Two+4 = 6. I cts.X2=yi cts. = 3^ cts. 6 cts.— 3^ cts. = 2f cts.; 2fcents-=-2 = l|- cts., loss on each lemon. 65. One-half cent+^ cent=|- cent= cost of 2 apples. |^ cent^2=y''2 cent=cost of 1 apple. 2 cents-=-5 = -| cent= price for which she sold 1 apple. ^5__ 2;=^i_^ lost on 1 apple. 4 cents4-^V- 240, apples sold. 240^-2= 120, of each kind. 06. Fifty cents +20 cents=70 cents; 70 cents-=-2 = 35 cents = cost of 1 yard; 35 cents — 30 ceiits = 5 cents, lost on 1 yard. 800 cents^5 = 160, yards. 350 THE examiner's COMPANION. 61. One-third+^=:J^; -jL^2=i-2\=cost of 1 egg. 3-^ ==t=2¥; t¥— J¥=2^¥=iV=gain on 1 egg. 4 cents-^ji2 = 48, eggs bought. 68. One-half, |, i = ^, ^, -^%', 6+8+3. $510 X^^^, -jSj., ^ = 1180, 1240, $90. 17 69. If yiy of the distance A ran is the distance he was ahead of B, and B ran 60 rods, it follows that TT~iT=ri of the distance A ran is 60 rods; hence, -^^ of the distance A ran is -^^ of 60 rods, or 6 rods; and \\-, or the distance A ran, is 11 times 6 rods = 66 rods. A, therefore, in running 66 rods, gains on B 66 — 60 = 6 rods; hence, in running 1 rod, he will gain -^^ of 6 rods, or yL- of a rod; and in run- ning 60 rods, he will gain 60 times y^^fo^, or 5^ rods. 70. B's part of the sheep is 2 times A's to which add 07ice A's, and we have 3 times A's part of the sheeji^goo. If 3 times A's part=900 sheep, once A's part is i of 900, or 300 sheep; and 2 times A's part, or B's part, is 2 times 300 = 600, sheep. If |- of A's number of sheep = 300, J- of his number is ^ of 300, or 150; and |, or A's number, is 3 times 150 = 450, sheep. If f of B's number of sheep = 600, I of his number is ^ of 600, or 200; and | or B's number, is 4 times 200 = 800, sheep. 71. (In Pennsylvania or New Jersey currency 7 shil- lings 6 pence make $1.) Each is to receive $50, or 50 times 7-j shillings = 375 shillings. If A digs 1 rod for 10 shil- lings, for 375 shillings, he can dig as many rods as 10 shillings is contained times in 375 shillings, or 37^ rods. If B digs 1 rod for 6 shillings, for 375 shillings he can dig as many rods as 6 shillings is contained times in 375 shillings, or 621^ rods. 72. If the sheep cost ^ as much as the cow, and the cow ^ as much as the horse, the cow must have cost 3 times as much as the sheep, and the horse 2 times as much as the cow, or 6 times as much as the sheep. Once the cost of the sheep+3 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of the cow), +6 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of the horse). MENTAL ABITUMETIC ANSWERS. 351 = 10 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of all), = $100. If 10 times the cost of the sheep is llOO, once the cost of the sheep is ^l of $100 = |10; 3 times $10 = $30, the cost of the cow; and 6 times $10 = |60, the cost of the horse. 73. The interest on the principal for 2 years was |S10 — $750 = 160, and for 1 year it was \ of $60 = |30; and for 5 years it was 5 times $30 = $150. Therefore, the prin- cipal was $750 — $150 = $600. Hence, the % was -^^ or 2V of 100% =5%. 74. If he received 3 times as much for the second as for the first, 4 times what he received for the first=$240; and once what he received for the first was :|- of $240 = $60; and what he received for the second was 3 times $60 = $180. On the first he lost 20%, or ^ of its value, and therefore received ^ of its value =$60, Hence, its value was |- of $60 = $75. On the second he gained 20%, or \ of its value, and therefore received -| of its value = $180. Hence, its value was |- of $180 = $150. 75. The interest on the capital for the given time, at V%— 4%, or 3%, was $405 — $360 = $45, and at 1% it was ^ of $45 = $15; and at 4% it was 4 times $15 = $60. There- fore, the principal was $360 — |6P = $300. The interest of $300 for 1 year, at 4%, is -^V of $300 = $12. If it require 1 year to give $12 interest, to give $60 interest it will require as many years as $12 is contained times in $60, or 5 years. 76. If the interest of $40 is $12, ^|, or^?^, of the prin- cipal equals the interest. If the interest of $1 for 1 year is -^ of a dollar, of $100 it is 100 times $53^, or $30. If it require 1 year for $100 to give $6 interest, to give $30 interest it will require as many years as $6 is contained times in $30, or 5 years. 77. If the interest of $50 for 1^, or |- years, is $6, for ^ of a year it is \ of $6, or $2; and for -|, or 1 year, it is 2 times $2, or $4. Therefore, 3*^, or ^^^ of the j^rincipal equals the annual interest, hence, the rate per cent, is -^^ of 100% = 8%. 352 THE examiner's COMrANION. 78. "With the interest at 100%, it would equal a given principal, or a given principal will double itself in 1 year, at 100 % ; and in 20 years, at 2V of 100 % ; or 5 %. 19. A given principal will double itself in 100 years, atl %; and at 5 %, in \ of 100 years, which is 20 years. 80. Since it was bought for $5, and sold for |7, the gain was $7 — 15, which is |2. Therefore, -| of the cost equals the gain. Hence, the gain % was f of 100 %, which is 40 %. 81. If he gain 5 %, he gains y-^-^, or -J^- of the cost. -2V of |20 is |1, the gain. Therefore, to gain 5 %, he must sell the steer for |20+|1, or $21. 82. If the interest of ll for 1 year is 5 cents, for 4 years it is 4 times 5 cents, or 20 cents. Therefore, y^jL.^ or ^ of the principal equals the interest; to which add |, the principal, and we have | of the principal equal to the amount, or |60. If | of the principal is $60, ^ of the principal is ^ of |G0, which is |10; and |- (the principal), is 5 times $10, which are $50. 83. If I gain 25 %, I gain ^ of the cost; to which add 1^, the cost, and I have f of the cost equal to $2.50. If f of the cost is $2.50, ^ of the cost is | of $2.50, or 50 cents; and | (the cost) is 4 times 50 cents, which are 200 cents, or $2. 84. If I lose 5%, or 2V oi the cost, I receive |g ■^0 = -1-9- of the cost=$38. . • . -jV of the cost is ^ of $38=:$2; and |A or the cost, is 20 times $2 = $40. 85. I gain 25%, or ^ of the cost; . • . I receive |^-f|^ = |- of the cost, which is $2.50. . • . |- of the cost is -^ of $2.50, which is 50 cents; and |, or the cost, is 4 times 50 cents = $2. I am to sell it so as to lose 20%, or -| of the cost; . • . I must sell it for 5_i.= 4 of $2 = $1.60. 86. He is to receive 5 %, or j^--^, or -J^ of all he col- lects, ^ft, all he collects, minus -J^, his fee, equals H- of all he collects, or $1 90, the amount he is to pay his employer. If ^ of what he collects equals $190, ^^ is yV of $190, MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 353 which is $10; and |a (what he collects) is 20 times llO, or $200. Therefore he must receive |200 — $190^$10. 87. Three yrs. 1 months 6 days = ^ yrs; Jg^X-lO^-^^. ^^ Xi=^%. $531-f-f^=$450=: 1st interest. |450H-^g-=$1250. G=l. J = 2, A=7; 1+2 + 7 = 10. $1250 X.l =1125; $125-^ ^ = $300 = G's fortune. $1250 X.2=:$250; $250^1 = 1450=' J's fortune. $1250 X. 7 =$875; $875^| = $l750 = A's fort- une. 88. In this example ^f^X 25 X 10 = 9 times the princi- pal. 9+1 = 10. $180^10 = $18=lst interest. $18-=-^!^ = $500; $500X^, | = $100, $400. $100^^ = $200 = A's fort- une. $400-^f=$600 = B's fortune. ^^^ 15.-9 , 1 . 500V02~~T0 — 3" years = 1 year 9 months 18 days, time * the first was on interest. 69. Since the numbers are to each other as 5 to 2, the given sum must be divided into 7 equal parts, and 5 of those parts will equal one of the numbers, and 2 of them the other; the numbers will be ^ of 28 and ^ of 28, equal to 20 and 8. 90. Since he dug 5 rods more than ^ of the ditch the first week, the remainder, 20 rods, increased by 5 rods, must equal |- the ditch; 20 rods+5 rods = 25 rods, which is -g- of twice 25, or 50 rods. 91. Since ^ of John's money equals f of Orson's, 2 halves, or all of John's, will equal 2 times f , or | of Orson's; then John has 6, and Orson 5 equal parts of the money, and both have 11 parts; Jj- of $55 is $5, or 1 part; 6 times $5 are $30, or John's share; and 5 times $5 are $25, or Orson's share. 92. Since 2 cents was the increase paid to 1 beggar, and 8 cents the increase paid to all, there were as many beggars as 2 is contained times in 8, which is 4 times. 93. Had the last 2 obtained 3 each, there would have been 28 apples; then 4 times -^ of a number, plus 3 times I of the same number, or -I, would equal 28. Since 28 is T of a number, i of 28, or 4, is ^, and 4 is | of 2 times 4, or c. 23 354 THE examiner's COMPANION, 94. Five times Andrew's age equals J^, 4 times f of it, plus 6 times ^ of it, equals ij*, and -igS. less J^ equals -J of it, which, according to the conditions of the question, is 3; and 3 is -^ of 3 times 3, or 9, 95. If all had been good, he would have paid $15 or $2.40 more than he did; each bushel of poor ones made a difference of 30 cents; hence there were as many bushels of poor ones as 30 cents (the difference on 1 bushel) is contained times in |2,40, (the difference on all), which is 8 times, equal to 8 bushels of poor ones; the difference between 30 bushels and 8 bushels is 22 bushels, equal to the good ones. 96. Since 27 is the sum of two numbers whose differ- ence is 5, 27 less 5, or 22, would be twice the less number; ^ of 22 is 11, the less number, which increased by 5 equals 16, or the greater number. 97. If Joseph gave f to his sister, the 5 left was ^', 5 is ^ of 4 times 5, or 20, and 20, plus the 6 he ate, make 26, which is -| of James's, etc. 98. The longer piece is divided into 5 equal parts, 2 of which equal the shorter; the sum of the 2 pieces is 7 equal parts, one of which equals -1 of 28 feet, or 4 feet; 2 parts equal 2 times 4 feet, which are 8 feet, the shorter piece; 5 parts equal 5 times 4 feet, which are 20 feet, the longer piece. 99. Julius has 6 more than f as many as Arthur, which makes the sum 48, 6 greater than if he had but f as many; Arthur's are divided into 4 parts, of which 3 parts plus 6 peaches are equal to Julius's; then 4 parts plus 3 parts, plus 6 peaches, equal 48, 7 parts equal 42, and i of 42, or 6, equals 1 part. 3 parts plus 6 equal 24, the number Julius has, and 4 parts equal 24, the number Arthur has. 100. Since ^ of the apples equals ^ of the plums, |, or all the apples, equal f of the plums; we then have the apples and plums divided into 5 equal parts, 2 parts of which equal the apples, and 3 the plums. 101, The time to midnight is divided into 5 equal parts, MENTAL AKITIIMETIC ANSWERS. 355 one of which equals the time past noon; then 5 parts plus 1 part equals 6 parts; and 12 hours, the time from noon to midnight, must be -| of the time it lacked of being mid- night; since 12 is |, |, which is |- of |, will be ^ of 1 2 hours, which is 2 hours. Therefore the hour was 2 o'clock, P. M. 102. Since the third piece is as long as the other two, it must be ^ of the rope; the second piece, being ^ as long, is ^•, and the 6 feet which the second exceeds ^, with the 5 feet of the first piece, make 10 feet, which must be the other fourth; 4 times 10 is 40. 103. If f equal | +4, ^ will equal ^ of -|+4, which is 1 + 2, this is ^ of 3 times -^+2, or f+6; then we have 1 piece equal to | the other plus 6 yards, or one piece divided into 5 parts, and 3 of these parts plus 6 yards equal the other piece; hence, 5 parts plus 3 parts plus 6 yards equal 38 yards, or 8 parts and 6 yards, equal 38 yards; 38 yards minus 6 yards equal 32 yards, or 8 parts. 104. Eight years since, Robert was 17 years old; in 17 years from that time, or, since Frank is 8 years old, in 17 less 8, or 9 years from this time, Frank will be 17 years of age, and Robert will be twice 17, or 34 years old. 105. Since Ira won as many as he had, he left off play- ing with twice as many as he began with; and Paul, now having the same number, must have had 3 times as many as Ira when they commenced playing. 45 is 3 times ^ of 45, or 15, and 45 + 15 is 60. 106. Since Daniel has as many as James and Joseph, he must have |- of the whole; then 10 sheep, plus 10+f of -^j plus ^, equals 1+20, or the whole number of sheep; hence 20 equals^ the number, and 20 is ^ of 6 times 20, or 120 sheep. 107. Since the minute hand passes the hour hand 11 times in 12 hours, if both are at 12, the minute hand will pass the hour hand the first time in j^j-of 12 hours, or in l-^^ hours, equal to 6^5^. minutes past 1 o'clock. 108. While the hound is running the distance the tox is ahead of him, the fox has advanced yL of this distance, 356 THE examiner's COMPANION. and so on. Hence, the hound, mathematically speaking, can never overtake the fox. The hound can run 11^ rods, and the fox li rods. 109. He filled the 3-quart measure and poured it into the 5-quart measure; again he filled the 3-quart measure and from it filled the 5-quart measure. He then had 1 quart remaining in the 3-quart measure. He emptied the 6-quart measure and placed in it the 1 quart remaining in the 3 quart measure. He now filled the 3-quart measure and emptied it into the 5-quart measure which now con- tains 1 + 3 = 4 quarts. 110. The hound gains on the fox 9 rods in running 10 rods, and to gain 10 rods, the distance the fox is ahead of the hound, he must run i^ of 10 rods= 11-^ rods. 111. He placed 3 pigs in each of 3 pens, and these 3 pens, containing 9 pigs, in another pen. 112. In this question IX taken from SIX leaves S. X taken from IX leaves I. L taken from XL leaves X. And the remainder is SIX, or 6. 113. The children received 2 cents the most. Thechil- dren sold the apples at an average of ^-^, or || of a cent each; and the mother at -|, or |^a of a cent each. 114. He first took over the goose; then the fox, and brought back the goose and left it; then the corn, and then the goose. 115. Let 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 be the pennies. Carry 5 over 3 and 4, V over 8 and 9, 3 over 4 and 6, 1 over 2 and 5, and 9 over 8 and 3. 116. Themerchantlostbythe operation $45 and the hat. 117. Possibly there might. The equatorial diameter of the earth is 26 miles greater than its polar diameter, and should the earth cease its revolution on its axes, then the water of the Mississippi River would flow northward. ALGEBRA. QUESTIONS. 1. Define Algebra. 2. Is Algebra confined merely to questions relating to numbers? 3. How is the reasoning carried on? 4. What are employed for representing quantities or magnitudes?? 5. Define Quantity. 6. How is a quantity measured? 1. What is the assumed standard called? 8. Define Mathematics. 9. How is mathematics divided? 10. Define pure mathematics. 11. Define mixed mathematics. 12. Explain the sign of Addition. 13. Do we ever make use of the same sign to connect several numbers together? 14. Explain the sign of Subtraction. 15. May we have several numbers to subtract from a single one? 16. What can you say of the double sign? 17. Explain the sign of Multiplication. 18. Explain the sign of Division. (357) 358 THE examiner's companion. 1 9. Explain the sign of Equality. 20. Tell about the sign of Inequality. 21. Explain the use of the Parenthesis. 22. What can you say of the Vinculum? 23. Explain the use of the Radical Sign. 24. Define known quantities. Unknown quantities. 25. How are known and unknown quantities represented? 26. Is this a necessary rule? 27. Define literal quantities. 28. How is the multiplication of literal quantities expressed? 29. Define a coefficient. 30. When no coeflScient is expressed what is understood? 3 1 . Must the coefficient always be a figure ? 32. When the coefficient is a number what may it be called? When a letter? 33. Define an exponent. 34. How would you discriminate between a coefficient and an exponent? 35. Define a power. A root. 36. Define an equation and its members. 37. What are the terms of an algebraic quantity? 38. What are positive terms? Negative terms? 39. Define similar terms. Dissimilar terms. 40. Define a monomial. A polynomial. 41. What is a binomial? A residual? 42. What is a trinomial? 43. Define the degree of a term. 44. Define a homogeneous quantity. 45. Define addition in Algebra. 46. Define subtraction in Algebra. 47. Define multiplication in Algebra. 48. Define division in Algebra. 49. Show its relation to Multiplication. 50. What is the reciprocal of a quantity? 61. Give the definition of factors. ALGEBRA QUESTIONS. 359 52. What is a composite quantity? 53. Define a prime quantity. 54. When are several quantities prime to each other? 55. What is a common divisor of two quantities? 56. What is the greatest common divisor of two quanti- ties? 51. When is one quantity a multiple of another quantity? 58. Define a common multiple of two or more quantities. 59. Define the least common multiple of two or more quantities. GO. Define a fraction. 61. Every fraction is composed of how many parts? 62. A fraction is equal to the reciprocal of what? 63. Define an entire quantity. 64. Define a mixed quantity. 65. Define the apparent sign of a fraction. 66. Define the real sign of a fraction. 67. Define the reduction of a quantity. 68. Reduce 5la^b-GSa^b^ ^^ -^^ l^^^^t terms. 36a4^)2_9«5 69. Define an equation. 70. Define the members of an equation. 71. Define an arithmetical equation. 72. Define an algebraical equation. 73. What do algebraic equations serve to express? 74. What is a numeral equation? 75. What is a literal equation? 76. Define an identical equation. 77. Define the degree of an equation. 78. Define a simple equation. 79. Define a quadratic equation. 80. Define a cubic equation. 81. What is the transformation of an equation? 82. What is the reduction of an equation? 83. To reduce an equation what must we do? 84. A. and B. can perform a piece of labor in a days; A. 360 THE examiner's companion. and C. together in I days; and B. and C. together in e days. In what time could they finish it if all work together? 85. Define ratio. 86. A ratio is measured how? 87. Define a compound ratio, 88. Define proportion. 89. Define a problem. 90. Define the solution of a problem, 91 John is 16 years younger than his brother Henry, but 3 times the age of Heni-y is equal to 5 times that of John; what are their ages? 92, A drover had 4 times as many cows as horses, and 5 times as many sheep as cows, and the number of them all was 100; how many horses had he? 93, A school-boy had 120 pins and needles, and he had seven times as many pins as needles; how many had he of each sort? 94, Thomas is now 25 years old, and his youngest brother is 15, How many years must elapse before their ages will be in the proportion of 5 to 4? 95, A mechanic spends |- of his salary for his board, and I of the remainder in clothes, and yet saves |150 a year. What is his salary? 96, A gentleman, who had just come into possession of a fortune, spent | of it the first year, and ^ of the remain- der the next year, when he had $1420 left. What was his fortune? 97, Define independent equations. 98, Independent equations always refer to what? 99, How many equations are required that the values of two unknown quantities may be determined? 100, Define elimination, 101, How many, and what are the three principal methods of elimination? 102, Define a power of a quantity. 103, How are powers indicated? ALGEBRA — QUESTIONS. 361 104. What is the first power of any quantity? 105. What is the square of any quantity? lOG. What would you call the cube of any quantity? 107. Define a perfect power. 108. Define an imperfect power. 109. Define involution. 110. What is the first power? The second power? 111. What is the third power? The fourth power? 112. In the power of a monomial there are how many things to be considered? 113. Please define a root of a quantity. 114. Define evolution. 115. Define the index of the root. 116. What is a surd? 117. When a root of an algebraic quantity which is required cannot be exactly obtained, what is it called? 118. Define a rational quantity. 119. Define an imaginary root. 120. A root which is not imaginary is said to be what? 121. Define a radical quantity. 122. How are radical quantities divided? 123. What is the coefiicient of a radical? 124. Define similar radicals. 125. Define reduction of radical quantities. 126. Define a quadratic equation. 127. Quadratic equations are divided into how many classes, and what are they called? 128. Define a pure quadratic equation. 129. AVhat is an affected quadratic equation? 130. Define the root of an equation. 131. What is an arithmetical progression? 132. What are the extremes? The means? 133. Define a geometrical progression. 134. What is the ratio? 135. A may-pole is 56 feet high. At what distance above the ground must it be broken, in order that the upper part, 362 THE examiner's COMPANION. clinging to the stump, may touch the ground 12 feet from the foot? 130. A man sold a horse for 144 dollars, and gained as much per cent as the horse cost him. What did the horse cost him? 137. Two numbers are in the proportion of 5 to 8, and if 200 be added to the first, and 120 to the second, the sums will be to each other as 5 to 4 ; what are the numbers? 138. A farmer had 8 more cows than horses. He bought 2 more cows and sold 3 horses; and he then had 5 times as many cows as horses. How many had he at first? 139. Some boys on a frolic incurred a bill of $12. If there had been two more in the company each would have been charged 30 cents less. How many were in company? 140. The sum of three numbers in arithmetical progres- sion is 15, and their product is 80. Required the numbers. 1. Algebra is a species of universal arithmetic, founded on the same principles as common arithmetic, and proceed- ing by rules and operations precisely similar. 2. No, it is not confined merely to questions relating to numbers, being applied generally to investigate the rela- tions that subsist among quantities of all kinds, whether arithmetical or geometrical. 3. The reasoning is carried on by general signs or sym- bols, which are of two kinds, — those which denote quantity, and those which denote the affections or relations, or prop- erties of quantities, and operations to be performed on them. 4. The letters of the alphabet are employed for repre- senting quantities or magnitudes. 5. Quantity is any thing that can be increased, diminished, measured or compared; as distance, time, motion and space. 6. A quantity is measured by finding how many times it contains some other quantity of the same kind taken as a standard. 7. The assumed standard is called the unit of measure. 8. Mathematics is that science, or class of sciences, which investigates the consequences which are logically (363) 364 THE examixer's OOlSrPANIOX. deducible from any given or admitted relations between magnitudes or numbers without being descriptive of their subject matter. 9. Mathematics is divided into two classes; namely, pure and mixed. 10. Pure mathematics considers magnitude or quantity abstractly, without relation to matter. It embraces numerous subdivisions, such as Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, etc. 11. Mixed mathematics consider the application of pure mathematics to certain established physical principles; and this branch comprehends all the mathematical sciences which appertain to physics; as mechanics, hydrodynamics, optics, astronomy, acoustics, electricity, and magnetism. 12. The sign of addition is an erect cross, -\-, called 2)lus, and when placed between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be added to the first. Thus Y-)-5 indicates that we must add 5 to the number Y, in which case the result is 12. 13. We do. Thus, D-f-Y+S indicates that to the num- ber 9 we must add 7 and also 3, which make 19. So, also, 10 + 7 + 15 + 13 + 3 + 5 + 12 is equal to 65. 14. The sign of subtraction is a short horizontal line, — , called minus, and when placed between two quantities, it indicates that the second is to be subtracted from the first. Thus, 12 — 9 indicates that the number 9 is to be taken from the number 12, which leaves a remainder of 3. In like manner, 18 — 11 is equal to 7, etc. 15. Yes, at times we may have several numbers to subtract from a single one. Thus, 14 — 7 — 2 indicates that 7 is to be subtracted from 14, and this remainder is to be further diminished by 2, leaving 5 for the result. 16. The double sign + is sometimes written before a quantity to indicate that in certain cases it is to be added, and in others it is to be subtracted. Thus, 4±2 is read, 4 plus or minus 2, and denotes either the sum or the difference of these two quantities. ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 365 17. The sign of multiplication is an inclined cross, X. When placed between two quantities, it indicates that the first is to be multiplied by the second. Thus, 5 X V indicates that 5 is to be multiplied by 1, making 35. 18. The sign of division is a short horizontal line with a point above and one below, -4-. When placed between two quantities it indicates that the first is to be divided by the second. Thus, 20-^4 indicates that 20 is to be divided by 4, making 5. The horizontal line without the points becomes the sign of division when the dividend is written above and the divisor below it; thus, ^ indicates division, the same as 24^8. 19. The sign of equality consists of two short horizontal lines, = . When written between two quantities, it indicates that they are equal to each other. Thus, 9+8 = 17 denotes that the sum of 9 and 8 is equal to 17. 20. The sign of inequality is the angle > or <. When placed between two quantities, it indicates that they are unequal, the opening of the angle being turned toward the greater number. When the opening is toward the left, it is read greater than; when the opening is toward the right, it is read less than. Thus, 9 > 6 denotes that 9 is greater than 6; and 7 < 13 denotes that 7 is less than 13. 21. A parenthesis, ( ), denotes that the several number* or quantities included within it are to be considered together, and subjected to the same operation; thus, (12-f-2) X5 indicates that both 12 and 2, or their sum, is to be multiplied by 5; (12 — 2)x5 indicates that the difference of 12 and 2 is to be multiplied by 5. 22. A horizontal vinculum, , placed over the numbers or quantities, is frequently used instead of the parenthesis; thus, 6+4+5 X9 is equivalent to (6 + 4+5) X 9. 23. The radical sign, \/, indicates that the root of the quantity placed under it is to be extracted. The name or index of the required root is the number written above the radical sign. Thus, -^^9, or simply ,y/9, denotes the 366 THE examiner's companion. square root of 9, which is 3. ^^64 denotes the cube root of 64, which is 4, etc. 24. Known quantities are those quantities whose values are given. Unknown quantities are those quantities whose values are to be determined. 25. Known quantities are generally represented by the first letters of the alphabet, as c/, h, c, c?, etc. Unknown quantities are represented by the final letters of the alpha- bet, as ?/, X, y, z, etc. 26. It is not a necessary rule, and therefore is not always observed. 27. Literal quantities are those numbers or values which are expressed by letters. 28. The multiplication of literal quantities is expressed by simply writing the factors together, without the sign X ; thus, 4 times x is written 4iK; 5 times x is written bx; b times x is written bx; and b times c times z is written bcz- and so on. 29. A coefficient is a number or quantity prefixed to another quantity to denote how many times the latter is taken; thus in the term 'iah'^c, ^ab"^ is the coefficient of c. 2a of 62c, and 2 oiab^c. 30. When no coefficient is expressed, 1 is always to be understood. Thus, la and a denote the same thing. 31. No. The coefficient may be a letter as well as a figure. In the expression 7nz, m may be considered as the coefficient of z, because z is to be taken as many times as there are units in m. If 7n stands for Y, then niz is 7 times z. 32. When the coefficient is a number, it may be called a numerical coefficient; and when it is a letter, a literal coefficient. In bax, 5 may be regarded as the coefficient of ax, or ba may be regarded as the coefficient of x. 33. An exponent is a number, or a symbol representing a number, which, when written above and to the right of any symbol or quantity, indicates that a corresponding ALGEliiU. — A:\ SWEKS. 367 power of that quantity is to be taken. Thus a* is a laconic mode of expressing aXciXaXa, or aaaa. 34. In order to discriminate between a coefficient and an exponent, the two may be contrasted, thus: 5a! indicates that X is multiplied by 5; a;5 indicates that x is multiplied by itself till it is used 5 times as a factor. Again, 5.c is an abbreviation of x-\-x-\-x-\-x-\-x\ x^ is an abbreviation oi xXxXxXxXx, or of xxxxx. 35. A power is the product of any quantity multiplied by itself some number of times. Thus, the second power or square of 5 is 25, or 5 multiplied by 5; the third power or cube of a is the product of three a's multiplied together, briefly expressed by a^, etc. A root is a number or quan- tity which, multiplied by itself a stated number of times, is equal to a given number, or, in other words, produces a higher power. Thus in n^, n is the root which is repeated to form the power n^. 36. An equation is a term given to the symbolic expres- sion of the quality of two quantities. The sign —, placed between the two quantities, signifies that they are equal. Thus, 5.«+10 = 25, is an equation expressing the equality of the quantities bx-\-lQ and 25. The Jirst member of an equation is the quantity on the left side of the sign of equal- ity, and the second member is the quantity on the right of the sign of equality. Thus, Z.t=2ab, Zx is the first mem- ber, and 2ab the second member. 3V. The terms of an algebraic quantity are the divis- ions made by the signs, +and — . Thus, in the quantity bb-\-c'^ — ny, there are three terms, of which bb is the first, -\-c^ is the second, and — ??y is the third. 38. Positive terms are those terms which have the plus sign. As, +^2 or-f-c4(7. The first term of an algebraic quantity, if written without any sign, is positive, the sign -|-being understood. Negative terms are those terms which have the minus sign. As, — 3^, or— 4^^^. The sign of a negative quantity is never omitted. 368 THE examiner's comi'akion. 39. Similar terms are terms containing the same letters, affected with the same exponents. The signs and coeffi- cients may differ, and the terms still be similar. Thus, 56^ and 7^3 are similar terms; 4c2(Zand—'7c2fZ are similar terms. Dissimilar terms are those terras which have different letters or exponents. Thus abc and acd are dissimilar terms; ax'^y^ and a'^xy are dissimilar terms. 40. A monomial is an algebraic expression consisting of but a single term. As 2b, 5ac, or Qd'^y. A polynomial is an algebraic quantity consisting of many terms. Thus, c-\-d; or 5cd—4:y-{-b, are polynomials. 41. A binomial is a quantity composed of two terms connected together by the signs+or— ; thus, a-\-b and c — 5 are binomial quantities. A residual is a binomial composed of two parts or members, connected together by the sign tnimts: as, x — b, or 5 — 3. 42. A trinomial is an algebraical quantity or expression consisting of three terms, connected by the sign plus or minus; as, a^-{-bc'^—d^; or 'Ja—5b-\-d'^. 43. The degree of a term is the magnitude of the greatest sum that can be formed by adding together the exponents of the facients or variables which occur in any single term of an equation or expression; thus, a and Sb are terms of the first degree; a^ and 2ab are terms of the second degree; a^, Ba^b, and 5abc are terms of the third degree. 44. A homogeneous quantity is a quantity whose terms are all of the same degree. Thus, x^ — Sx'^y-\-xyz. 45. Addition, in algebra, is the connecting of quan- tities together by means of their proper signs, and incor- porating such as can be united into one sum. 46. Subtraction, in algebra, is the operation of finding the difference between two quantities or sets of quantities. 47. Multiplication in algebra is the operation of repeat- ing one quantity as many times as there are units in another. 48. Division in algebra is the process of finding how V ALGEBRA ANSWERS, 369 many times one number or quantity is contained in another. 49. Division is the converse of multiplication, the divi- dend answering to the product, and the divisor and quotient to the multiplier and multiplicand. 50. The reciprocal of a quantity is the quotient arising from dividing a unit by that quantity. Thus the reciprocal of 2 is ^; the reciprocal of a is -^, etc. 51. The factors of a quantity are those quantities which, being multiplied together, will produce th3 given quantity. 52. A composite quantity is one that may be produced by the multiplication of two or more factors. A compos- ite quantity is exactly divisible by any of its factors. 53. A prime quantity is one that can not be produced by the multiplication of two or more factors, and is divisi- ble only by itself and unity. 54. Several quantities are prime to each other when they have no common factor, or when no quantity except unity will divide them all. 55. A common divisor of two quantities is a quantity which will divide them both without a remainder. Thus 2a6 is a common divisor of Qa'^h'^x, and lOa^h'^y. 56. The greatest common divisor of two quantities is the greatest quantity which will divide each of them with- out a remainder. 57. One quantity is a multiple of another quantity when it can be divided by it without a remainder. Thus hah is a multiple of 5, also of a and of h. 58. A common multiple of two or more quantities is one which is exactly divisible by each of them. Thus 20a^62 is a common multiple of \ab and 5a2§2. 50. The least common multiple of two or more quan- tities is the least quantity that can be divided by each without a remainder. Thus 12a2 \% the least common multiple of 3a2 and 4a. 60. A fraction is a quotient expressed by writing the 24 370 THE p;xaminer's companion. dividend above a horizontal line, and the divisor below. Thus, — is a fraction, and is read, a divided by b b 61. Every fraction is composed of two parts: the divi- sor, which is called the denominator, and the dividend, which is called the numerator. 62. Since a quantity is divided by dividing any one of its factors, we have — = _iS- = — X «; hence, A fraction is b b b ' equal to the reciprocal of its denominator multiplied by its numerator. 63. An entire quantity is an algebraic expression which has no fractional part, as a^ — 1ab. 64. A mixed quantity is an expression which has both entire and fractional parts. Thus a+ — m.— is a mixed ^ ^ a'^ \-b quantity. 65. The apparent sign of a fraction is the sign written before the dividing line, to indicate whether the fraction is to be added or subtracted. Thus, in m-| , the apparent sign of the fraction is plus, and indicates that the fraction is to be added to m. 66. The real sign of a fraction is the sign of its numer- ical value, when reduced to a monomial, and shows whether the fraction is essentially a positive or a negative quantity. Thus, in the last fraction, ^-, let x= 2 and «'/= 12; then u — x r^2_a^ 4-12x2 __ -20^ _ ^ jjence, the real sign of this a—x ~ 12 — 2 "~ 10 fraction is nii?ius, though its apparent sign is plus. 67. The reduction of a quantity is the operation of changing its form without altering its value. 68. By comparing 9ab, the smallest term, with the other terms, we perceive that 3 is the greatest numeral divisor common to all the terms, and ab is continued in all the terms. Therefore, Sab is the greatest common ,,..-,. , . , . Ila^—2lab . factor, and dividmg by it, we obtain .^ ,. — --, Ana. *^ 12a^o — o ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 371 69. An equation is an expression of equality, between two algebraic quantities; thus, ^x=2ab is an equation denoting that three times the quantity x is equal to twice the product of the quantities a and b. 70. The first member of an equation is the quantity on the left side of the sign of equality, and the second member is the quantity on the right of the sign of equality. Thus, in the equation, a-{-h=1x-y, the quantity, a+ 5, is the first member of the equation, and the quantity, 1x—y, is the second member. V 1 . An arithmetical equation is one which expresses the equality of numbers or sets of numbers; as 20 = 20, 7 + 6 = 10 + 3. 72. An algebraic equation is one which contains one or more literal quantities; as, 5ic=14; c{a-^b) = d. 73. Algebraic equations serve to express the relations between known and unknown quantities, and to determine the values of the unknown quantities by comparing them with some that are known. 74. A numeral equation is one in which all the known quantities are represented by figures; as, 5a-+4cc= 15. 75. A literal equation is one in which the known quantities are represented by letters, or by letters and figures; as, a;4_ 3^^3 + 5^3.2 = 18; «y+cc2 = 60. 76. An identical equation is one in which the two num- bers are the same, or capable of being reduced to the same expression by performing the operations indicated. Thus 2a;— l = 2ic— 1 ) ., . , ' 5x-{-^x=Sx \ ^^6 identical equations. 77. The degree of an equation is denoted by the highest exponent of the unknown quantity in the equation. 78. A simple equation is an equation of the first degree Thus, a;=« ) . . , x-{-bx=ic \ ^^® equations of the first degree. 79. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree. Thus, ic2+aa*=c ) • ,. , ax'^-{-bx — h f ^^® equations of the second degree. 372 THE examiner's companion, 80. A cubic equation is an equation of the third degree. ' 3_l; .— r ^^® equations of the third degree. 81. The transformation of an equation is the process of changing a term from one member of an equation to the other without destroying the equality of the members. 82. The reduction of an equation is the process of find- ing the value of the unknown quantity. 83. To reduce an equation, we must so transform it that the unknown quantity shall stand alone, and constitute one member; the other member will then be the value of the unknown quantity. 84. Let X denote the required time. Then — _|_ — _)_ — — — Hence bcx-{-acx-{-abx=2abc. and x= 2abc ab-\-ac-\-bc Ans. days. 85. Ratio is the relation which one quantity bears to another with respect to magnitude. 86. A ratio is measured by the fractions whose nume- rator is the antecedent and whose denominator is the con- sequent of the ratio. Thus the ratio of a to ft is meas- ured by — 87. A compound ratio is the ratio arising from multi- plying together the corresponding terms of two or more simple ratios. Thus the ratio of a to 6 compounded with the ratio of c to c? becomes ac to bd. 88. Proportion is an equality of ratios. Thus, If ^=,-^ or B =?• A: and -5 =r, or D = r C; then the four quantities, A, B, C, and D, are proportional, and their proportionality is expressed thus: A : B :: C : D, in which A and D are called the extremes, and B and C the means. 89. A problem is a question requiring the values of unknown quantities from given conditions. ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 373 90. The solution of a problem is the process of finding the values of the unknown quantities. 91. Let ic^the age of John; and a;-[-16 = the age of Henry. By the second condition, 6ic=3a;-)-3x 16; 2a;=3X16; and a;=3x8 = 24. Ans. 24 and 40. 92. Let ic=the number of horses; 4a;=the number of cows; and 20a;=the number of sheep. Sum, 25a:= 100, by the last condition. Whence, x=4, Ans. 93. Let a;=the number of needles; and 7cc=the number of pins. Sum, 8a;=120, by first condition. Whence a;=15, needles; and 7.c= 105, pins; Ans. 94. Let the required number of years be represented by x. Then, 25-f-.«: 15+ic::5:4 Whence, 100+4.^= 75-f5.i-; and a;=25, Ans. 95. Let 9ic=:his salary; then, after paying board, he will have 3x left. Paying out f of this, or 2c, for clothes, and he will have ic left. Whence, a; =150; and 150x9 = 1350, Ans. 96. Let 40a; represent his fortune. Then, 15.« was spent the first year, and 25a; was left. The second year, ^ of 25.1', or 20a;, was spent, and 5a; only was left. Hence, 5.i'=1420. Multiply by 8, and 40a;= 11360, his fortune, Ans. 97. Independent equations are such as can not be reduced to the same form, or derived one from the other; as .v-\-3y — a, and 4x-\-57/=b. 98. Independent equations always refer to the same problem, and express different conditions of the problem. 99. Two unknown quantities can be determined from two independent equations. 100. Elimination is the process of combining two or S74 THE examiner's COMPANION. more equations, containing two or more unknown quan- tities, in such a manner as to cause one or more of the unknown quantities contained in them to disappear. 101. There are three; 1st, by substitution; 2d, by com- parison; 3d, by addition and subtraction. 102. A power of a quantity is the product obtained by taking that quantity any number of times as a factor. 103. Powers are indicated by exponents, from which they take their names. 104. The first power of any quantity is the quantity itself. 105. The square of any quantity is its second power. 106. The cube of any quantity is its third power. 107. A perfect power is a quantity that can be exactly produced by taking some other quantity a certain number of times as a factor. Thus, a^-^-^ab-^-b"^ is a perfect power, because it is equal to {a-\-b) X (a-{-b). 108. An imperfect power is a quantity that can not be exactly produced by taking another quantity any number of times as a factor. As, a'^-{-b, x-{-37/, and a'^-\-ab-{-b'^. 109. Involution is the process of raising any quantity to any given power. Involution, in algebra, is performed by successive multiplications, as in arithmetic. lit). The first power is the quantity itself. The second power is the product of the quantity multiplied by itself. 111. The third power is the product of the second power by the quantity. The fourth power is the third power multiplied by the quantity, etc. 112. There are three things to be considered in the power of a monomial: first, the coefficient; second, the exponents; third, the sign. 113. A root of a quantity is one of the equal factors which, multiplied together, will produce that quantity. 114. Evolution is the process of extracting any root of a given quantity. It is the converse of involution, and is indicated by the radical sign, )/. 115. The index of the root is the figure placed above ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 375 the radical sign to denote what root of the quantity under the radical is to be taken. Tims, in 3^ h^ 3 is the index of the root and denotes that the third root of h is to be taken. 116. A surd is the indicated root of an imperfect power; the root thus indicated can not be exactly obtained or expressed. Thus, ^sja^ is called a surd, sj^ is also a surd, because the square root of 3 can not be expressed in numbers with perfect exactness. 117. It is called an irrational quantity or surd quantity. 118. A rational quantity is one which can be expressed in finite terms, and without any radical sign ; as, a, Va^, etc. 119. An imaginary root is one which can not be extracted on account of the sign of the given quantity. Thus the square root of— 4 is impossible, because no quan- tity raised to an even power can produce a negative result. 120. A root which is not imaginary is said to be real. 121. A radical quantity is an indicated root of a quan- tity: as sja, ^sjci, etc. Radical quantities may be either surd or rational. 122. Radical quantities are divided into degrees, the degree being denoted by the index of the root. Thus, »J^ is a radical of the second degree; ^y's ig a radical of the third degree, etc. 12a. The coefficient of a radical is the number or letter prefixed to it, showing how often the radical is to be taken. Thus, in the expression "^sja, 2 is the coefficient of the radical. 124. Similar radicals are those which have the same index and the same quantity under the radical sign. Thus, ^sja and ^i,ja are similar radicals. Also 7 *^6 and 10 ^i^b are similar radicals. 125. Reduction of radical quantities is the process of changing their forms without altering their values. 126. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree, or one which contains the second power of the unknown quantity; as x'^—'d, or x"^ -\-^x=a. 376 THE examiner's companion. 127. Quadratic equations are divided into two classes, called pure and affected. 128. A pure quadratic equation is one which contains the second power only, of the unknown quantity; as, if2 = 25, or x'^-\-Sab = 2c. Note. — A pure equation, in general, is an equation which contains only one power of the unknown quantity. 129. An affected quadratic equation is one which con- tains both the second and the first powers of the unknown quantity; as, £c2-|-3ic=10. 130. The root of an equation is such a value as, when sub- stituted for the unknown quantity, will satisfy the equation. 131. An arithmetical progression is a series of quan- tities which increase or decrease by a common difference. Thus, the following series are in arithmetical progression: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. 20, 17, 14, 11, 8. In the first example the common difference is 2, and the series forms an increasing arithmetical progression; in the second example the com- mon difference is 3, and the series forms a decreasing arithmetical progression. 132. The extremes are the first and last terms of the series. The means are the intermediate terms. 133. A geometrical progression is a series of numbers increasing or decreasing by a constant multiplier. Thus, 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, etc., is a geometrical series, in which the first term is 2, and the multiplier is 3. 134. The ratio is the constant multiplier. 135. Let X represent the distance above the ground; then 56 — ;?:;=: the part broken off, which forms the hypothe- uuse of a right angled triangle; 12 being the base, and x the perpendicular. Whence, (56— a3)2 = 144-fa!2 "56^-112.^=144 1 1 2x= ^ 2 - f^2 = 68 X 44. Dividing by 4, and 28a;= 68X11 7a;=l7xll = 187; a;=26f, Ans. ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 377 136. Let X represent the cost of the horse; and 144 — a-^the gain; But 100, gives X. Therefore, .« : 144 — j; :: 100 : a; a;2 = 14400— lOOx a;2 + 100a;+^2 = 14400 + ^2 = 16900 ic-(-50= ±130; and cc = 80, Ans. 137. Let 5x and 8x, be the numbers. Then, 5.«+200 : 8,^+120 :: 5: 4. Divide the 1st and 3d terms by 5; and the 2d and 4th by 4. Whence, a;+40 : 2j;+30 :: 1 : 1 2a;-f-30 = ic+40;x=10; whence, 5a-=50, and8a;=80. 138. Let a;=the horses; .«-|-3 = the cows. After his purchase and sale he had {x — S) horses, and {x-{-5) cows. x-\-5 „ . ! =a;— 3 5 x+5=z5x—15; 4a;=20; x = 5. 139. Leta;=the number of boys; then the charge to each was — — . If the number had been x-\-2, the charge X to each would have been 1200 x-\-2 Whence, 1200_ 1200 X x-\-S 40 40 }-30 ■fl X x-\-2 40a;+80 = 40.x+a;2 + 2a;; Whence, a;2 ^2*4-1 =81. x-{-l =±9; and x=8. 140. Let (x—y), x, and (x+i/), represent the numbers. Sum, 3a;=15; cc = 5. Product, x{x^-i/^) = 5 (25-2/2) = 80 25—2/2 = 16; 9=t/2j andy=3. INDGX. 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