Gass QSl^ y-J " 
 
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 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DlBECTOR 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY Paper 277 
 
 GROUND WATER 
 
 I JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON COUNTIES 
 
 UTAH 
 
 BY 
 
 OSCAR E. MEINZER 
 
 IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF UTAH 
 CALEB TANNER, STATE ENGINEER 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 1911 
 
 Monograpn 
 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 
 
 Water- StjppIjY Paper 277 
 
 -3 7 ^ 
 
 GROUND WATER - '' 
 
 IN 
 
 JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON COUNTIES 
 
 UTAH 
 
 BY 
 
 OSCAK E. MEINZER 
 
 IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF UTAH 
 CALEB TANNER, STATE ENGINEER 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1911 
 
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CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 Location and extent of area 9 
 
 PuiiDose of investigation 9 
 
 Acknowledgments 10 
 
 Physiography 11 
 
 Units of discussion 11 
 
 Provinces 11 
 
 Stream topography 12 
 
 Lake topography 12 
 
 Wind topography 13 
 
 Minor basins 13 
 
 Geology 15 
 
 Formations 15 
 
 Geologic history 16 
 
 Rainfall IS 
 
 Geographic distribution 18 
 
 Annual variation 21 
 
 Seasonal variation 22 
 
 Relation to dry farming 22 
 
 Soil 23 
 
 Vegetation 24 
 
 Streams 25 
 
 Industrial development . 20 
 
 Occurrence of ground water 29 
 
 Bedrock 29 
 
 Water in sedimentary rocks 29 
 
 Water in igneous rocks : 30 
 
 Confining function of bedrock 32 
 
 Unconsolidated sediments 32 
 
 Character of sediments 32 
 
 Water in stream deposits 33 
 
 Water in lake deposits 33 
 
 Water in low valleys 34 
 
 Water on desert flats 34 
 
 Water on alluvial slopes or "bench lands" 36 
 
 Water in high valleys 37< 
 
 Artesian conditions 37 
 
 Bedrock 37 
 
 Unconsolidated sediments 3S 
 
 Flows in the valleys 38 
 
 Flows in the deserts 40 
 
 3 
 
4 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Springs 41 
 
 Mountain springs. 41 
 
 Seepage from unconsolidated sediments 42 
 
 Springs from lava beds • 43 
 
 Hot springs 43 
 
 Pool and knoll springs 44 
 
 Quality of ground water 45 
 
 Substances contained in water and their effects upon its use 45 
 
 Water from the mountain areas . 47 
 
 Ground water in the valleys ,_ 47 
 
 Ground water in the deserts 47 
 
 Water from springs 48 
 
 Irrigation with ground water 49 
 
 Developments 49 
 
 Prospects 49 
 
 Quantity of water 50 
 
 Quality of water and soil ^ 51 
 
 Cost of pumping 51 
 
 Value of crops j: 53 
 
 Culinary supplies 53 
 
 Supplies for dry farms „ 55 
 
 Supplies for the range 56 
 
 Boiler supplies 57 
 
 Construction of wells 58 
 
 Types of wells in use 58 
 
 Drilled wells on alluvial slopes 59 
 
 " Pit flows" 59 
 
 Irrigation wells 60 
 
 The California or " stovepipe " method of well construction! 60 
 
 Conditions in California 60 
 
 Description of apparatus and methods 61 
 
 Advantages of California method 62 
 
 Cost of the wells 63 
 
 Watering places on routes of travel 64 
 
 Railway stations and their connections 64 
 
 Tintic mining district to Sevier Desert and Joyi 65 
 
 Oasis to Joy, Fish Springs, and Deep Creek 65 
 
 Stage route to Dugway, Fish Springs, and Deep Creek 66 
 
 Oasis to Snake Valley., 66 
 
 Newhouse to Snake Valley 66 
 
 Black Rock and Clear Lake to Snake Valley and Ibex 67 
 
 Juab Valley 67 
 
 Topography and geology 67 
 
 Rainfall ^ : 68 
 
 Streams . 69 
 
 Springs 70 
 
 Flowing wells 70 
 
 Ground water beneath the bench lands _ 72 
 
 Quality of water 73 
 
 Irrigation with ground water 74 
 
 Culinary supplies 74 
 
CONTENTS. 5 
 
 Page. 
 
 Roiiiicl, Little, Sajre, Dog, and Fernow valleys 74 
 
 Topography 74 
 
 Geology 75 
 
 Rainfall 75 
 
 Water supplies K) 
 
 Round Valley 70 
 
 Little Valley 77 
 
 Sage Valley 78 
 
 Dog and Feruow valleys 78 
 
 Tintic Valley 78 
 
 Gen(U"al features 78 
 
 Water resources 79 
 
 Quality of the water 81 
 
 Tintic mining district 81 
 
 Geology 81 
 
 Water in limestone and quartzite 81 
 
 Water in igneous rocks and overlying waste 82 
 
 Springs 82 
 
 Wells 84 
 
 Mines 85 
 
 Domestic and industrial sui)plies 85 
 
 Pavant A^nlley 8G 
 
 Topography 86 
 
 Geology .-_. 88 
 
 Rainfall 88 
 
 Streams and mountain springs 89 
 
 Shallow-water belt 89 
 
 Artesian prospects 90 
 
 Water beneath the bench lands 91 
 
 Quality of ground water 92 
 
 Irrigation with ground water 9.". 
 
 Culinary supplies 93 
 
 Lower Beaver Valley 94 
 
 Topography and geology 94 
 
 Rainfall 95 
 
 Streams 95 
 
 Springs 95 
 
 Black Rock Springs 95 
 
 Clear Lake Springs 90 
 
 Other springs 97 
 
 Wells : 97 
 
 Wells (m the Beaver Bottoms 97 
 
 Goss well 97 
 
 Neels well 99 
 
 Clear Lake well KK) 
 
 Swan Lake farm wells 100 
 
 Shallow wells in the valley below Black Rock 101 
 
 Old River Bed and Cherry Creek region 101 
 
 General features 101 
 
 Water supplies 103 
 
 Ground water prospects 103 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Drum and Swasey Wash region , 104 
 
 Wells at Joy 104 
 
 Other water supplies 105 
 
 Ground-water prospects ^ 106 
 
 Sevier Desert : 106 
 
 Physiography 106 
 
 Rainfall lOS 
 
 Ground-water level 109 
 
 Soil 109 
 
 Vegetation I 110 
 
 Irrigation . 110 
 
 Water-bearing beds 111 
 
 Wells on the Lynn Bench and Canyon Mountain slope 111 
 
 Wells on the low flat 112 
 
 Artesian conditions 114 
 
 Quality of water 115 
 
 Wah Wah Valley 117 
 
 General features 117 
 
 Soil 118 
 
 Rainfall 118 
 
 Water supplies ^ 119 
 
 Ground-water prospects 119 
 
 Sevier Lake bottoms 119 
 
 Fluctuations of the lake level . 119 
 
 Position of the lake 120 
 
 Quality of the lake water 120 
 
 Gromid-water prospects 121 
 
 White Valley - 121 
 
 General features 121 
 
 Springs .- 122 
 
 Ground-water prospects . 128 
 
 Fish Springs Valley 124 
 
 General features 124 
 
 Springs . -. 124 
 
 Water in Utah mine 126 
 
 Ground-water prospects 126 
 
 Snake Valley — 127 . 
 
 General conditions 127 
 
 Rainfall and vegetation 128 
 
 Springs and streams 129 
 
 Big Spring and Lake Creek 129 
 
 Snake Creek 129 
 
 Baker Creek 129 
 
 Knoll Springs 130 
 
 Kell Springs and other supplies 130 
 
 Warm Springs .. 131 
 
 Springs at Foote's ranch: 131 
 
 Springs bordering the Salt Marsh 131 
 
 Springs between Salt Marsh and Trout Creek 131 
 
 Springs at Trout Creek 132 
 
 Springs and streams in Pleasant Valley 132 
 
 Streams from the Deep Creek Range 132 
 
 Willow Springs and similar springs farther north 132 
 
 Character of the springs 132 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 Page. 
 Snake Valley — Continued. 
 
 Wells and ground-water prospects 133 
 
 Burbank 133 
 
 Garrison 134 
 
 Between Garrison and Conger ranch 134 
 
 Between Conger ranch and Trout Creek 134 
 
 Pleasant Valley 135 
 
 Below Trout Creek 135 
 
 Callao 135 
 
 Between Callao and Fish Springs 136 
 
 Irrigation 137 
 
 Parowan Valley 138 
 
 Physiography and geology 138 
 
 Rainfall 1 139 
 
 Streams and mountain springs 139 
 
 Parowan Creek 139 
 
 Red and Little Creeks 139 
 
 Streams north of Little Creek 140 
 
 Streams south of Parowan Creek 140 
 
 Valley springs 140 
 
 Flowing wells 140 
 
 Water beneath the bench lands 142 
 
 Culinary supplies 142 
 
 Rush Lake Valley 142 
 
 Physiography and geology 142 
 
 Rainfall 143 
 
 Streams : 144 
 
 Coal Creek • 144 
 
 Shirts Creek 144 
 
 Kanarra Creek ^ 144 
 
 Streams in the Iron Mountains 144 
 
 Springs 144 
 
 At Ward's ranch 144 
 
 At Enoch 145 
 
 Near Shirts Lake 145 
 
 Iron Springs 145 
 
 Flowing wells 145 
 
 Webster's well 145 
 
 McConnell's well 140 
 
 Thorley's wells 140 
 
 William's wells 147 
 
 Wells at Kanarraville 147 
 
 Nonflowing wells 147 
 
 In northern part of valley 147 
 
 In southern part of valley 148 
 
 Irrigation with ground water 148 
 
 Culinary supplies 149 
 
 Escalante Desert 149 
 
 Physiography and geology 149 
 
 Rainfall 150 
 
 Soil - 150 
 
 Streams 151 
 
 Springs 152 
 
8 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Escalante Desert — Continned. 
 
 Flowing wells 153 
 
 Webster's well 153 
 
 Wells at Sulphur Springs and Lund 153 
 
 Nonflowing wells 153 
 
 Hallway wells at Lund 153 
 
 Railway well at Beryl 154 
 
 State test well near Enterprise 155 
 
 Well of the New Castle Reclamation Co 156 
 
 Other wells : .' 156 
 
 Depth to ground water 156 
 
 Vicinity of Lund 156 
 
 Between Lund and Modena i- 156 
 
 Southeast of Modena 157 
 
 North of Enterprise 157 
 
 Vicinity of New Castle 157 
 
 Eastern part of the desert 157 
 
 Quality of ground water 157 
 
 Utilization of ground water 158 
 
 Index 159 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Plate I. Map of Juab and Millard counties, Utah 10 
 
 11. Map of Iron County, Utah 16 
 
 III. Well sections in Sevier Desert and lower Beaver Valley 36 
 
 IV. Topographic map of Fish Springs quadrangle In pocket. 
 
 V. Diagram showing flow of the springs that supply Silver City 
 
 and the relation of flow to precipitation 78 
 
 Figure 1. Map of Utah, showing areas investigated 10 
 
 2. Map of Juab, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah, show- 
 
 ing areas covered by Lake Bonneville 17 
 
 3. Diagram showing annual precipitation at stations in Juab, 
 
 Millard, and Iron counties, Utah 20 
 
 4. Diagram showing average monthly precipitation at stations 
 
 in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah 21 
 
 5. Diagrammatic cross section of a typical valley 38 
 
 6. Perforator for slitting stovepipe casing 62 
 
 7. Roller type of perforator 62 
 
 8. Common form of California well rig 63 
 
 9. Map of Juab Valley, showing ground-water conditions 68 
 
 10. Map of Tintic mining district, showing the relation of the 
 
 water supply to the igneous rocks 83 
 
 11. Map of Pavant Valley, showing streams, springs, and ground- 
 
 water conditions 87 
 
 12. Map of Holden, showing relation of ground-water table to 
 
 surface 92 
 
 13. Map of a part of the south basin of Rush Lake Valley 146 
 
GROUND WATER IN JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON 
 COUNTIES, UTAH. 
 
 By Oscar E. Metnzer. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Location and extent of area. — Juab, Millard, and Iron counties 
 lie in western Utah, and, with the exception of a small part of Iron 
 County, are entire!}^ within the Great Basin. (See fig. 1.) They com- 
 prise about 13,C)50 square miles, of which approximately 3,500 belong 
 to Juab, C),775 to Millard, and 3,375 to Iron County. Beaver County, 
 which lies between Millard and Iron counties, is not discussed in this 
 paper because its water resources have been described by W. T. Lee, of 
 the United States Geological Survey, in Water-Supply Paper 217. 
 
 Purpose of investigation. — The investigation was begun in the sum- 
 mer of 1908, under cooperative agreement between the Director of the 
 United States Geological Survey and Caleb Tanner, State engineer 
 of Utah, the object of the work being to obtain and disseminate in- 
 formation which should lead to a greater utilization of the ground- 
 water supplies. 
 
 The agricultural development of an arid section, such as this, is 
 primarily dependent on the amount of water available. Large tracts 
 of fertile soil remain idle j^ear after year for lack of water for irriga- 
 tion, Avhile much water that falls as rain and snow sinks into the 
 ground, saturates the porous materials underlying the valleys and 
 deserts, and eventually reappears at the surface in low alkali flats, 
 where it is dissipated by evaporation without producing useful vege- 
 tation. If the water thus lost can be applied to fertile soil it Avill 
 substantially increase the agricultural yield of the region. 
 
 An urgent demand for information in regard to ground-water 
 prospects has been created in recent years by the adoption of dry 
 farming methods in localities where water is not readily obtained. 
 The water required for culinary purposes and for supplying the 
 horses and traction engines used in tilling the soil on some of the dry 
 farms is at present hauled long distances. 
 
 In most of the arid parts of this region watering places of any 
 sort are so scarce that certain sections are accessible for grazing only 
 
 U 
 
10 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN^ WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 in the winter when sheep will depend on snow for their water supply. 
 In some of these sections an intelligent search would probably dis- 
 cover ground-water supplies which would increase greatly the value 
 of the range. 
 
 Area covered in this Area covered in AA^tep Area covered in Water- Area covered in Water- 
 report Supply Paper 217 Supply Paper 199 Supply Paper 157 
 
 Figure 1. — Map of Utah, showing areas investigated. 
 
 Acknowledgments. — Valuable information Avas furnished by the 
 San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad Co. in regard to deep 
 railway wells; and four samples of water were analyzed by the State 
 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 
 
 TOPOGRAPHIC MAING WELLS 
 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE 
 
 
 BEAVERCO 
 
 TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF JUAB AND MILLARD COUNTIES, UTAH, SHOWING AREAS OF FLOWING WELLS 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 Agricultural College at Logan, Utah. Thanks are also due to the 
 inhabitants of the region for their hospitality and generous 
 assistance. 
 
 PHYSIOGRAPHY. 
 
 UNITS OF mSCUSSION. 
 
 In dividing this region into units for convenience of discussion it 
 has been found necessary to draw some rather arbitrary boundaries, 
 to use names that have hitherto been known only locally, and to more 
 definitely restrict recognized names than has heretofore been done. 
 
 The term " Sevier Desert " has long been used to designate a large 
 and indefinitely bounded region ; as used in this paper it refers to an 
 area that is bounded on the north by the Juab-Millard County line, 
 on the east by the Canyon Range, on the south by a line passing 
 through Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain) and the north end 
 of the Cricket Mountains (Beaver Eange), and on the west by the 
 Little Drum Mountains, Swasey Wash, and the Long Ridge. The 
 adjacent region north of the county line is here called the " Cherry 
 Creek and River Bed region." The term " Pavant Valley," which 
 in the past has been used vaguely, is here applied to the lowland tract 
 which extends from Holden to Kanosh and is bounded on the east 
 by the Pavant Range and on the west by Pavant Butte and the lava 
 fields that extend southward from it. The name " Lower Beaver 
 Valley " is used for the valley through which the channel of Beaver 
 Creek passes, from Beaver County to Sevier Desert. 
 
 To that part of the valley of Sevier River wdiich lies in Juab 
 County betAveen the Canyon Range and the northward extension of 
 the Valley Range the name "Little Valley" is locally applied, and 
 this name is used in this paper. For the tract extending from 
 Sevier River to the " Dog Valley " in Juab County the name " Sage 
 Valley " is used. 
 
 The term " Round Valley " has been applied to the upper valley 
 of Ivie Creek, which contains the reservoir, and also to the lower 
 valley, in which Scipio fs situated. To avoid ambiguity, the expres- 
 sions " Upper Round Valley " and " Lower Round Valley " are used 
 in this paper. 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Southwestern Utah belongs to two major physiographic prov- 
 inces — the Plateau province and the Basin province. The former 
 consists of nearly horizontal rock strata that have been lifted to a 
 high altitude and deeply dissected by running water; the latter con- 
 sists of a desert plain, several tliousand feet lower, interrupted by 
 more or less parallel and isolated mountain ranges which are as a 
 
12 GKOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 rule composed of rock strata that have been faulted and tilted. The 
 boundary between these two provinces is an escarpment or series of 
 escarpments, which, viewed from the Basin province, has the aspect 
 of a lofty mountain range. The three counties here considered lie 
 chiefly in the Basin province, and their eastern boundaries are iii 
 general formed by the escarpment of the Plateau province. 
 
 STREAM TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Superimposed on the grand features produced by the diastrophic 
 forces that have lifted the ]Dlateaus and thrust up the Basin ranges 
 are the features produced by running water. The temporary and 
 permanent streams of the region are the agents in two complementary 
 processes that give rise to two shaply contrasted types of topography. 
 In their upper courses on the mountains and plateaus these streams 
 have steep gradients and erode vigorously, thus cutting deep canyons 
 and creating intricately carved surfaces ; but in their lower courses — 
 the low areas intervening between the mountain ranges — they are 
 more sluggish, and their waters disappear by evaporation and down- 
 ward percolation, thus depositing the sediments which they wrested 
 from the mountains and building extensive gently sloping and fea- 
 tureless alluvial fans. Adjacent fans merge with each other to form 
 broad, smooth, alluvial slopes that everywhere surround the rugged 
 mountain ranges. The alluvial slopes of neighboring ranges extend 
 toward each other, and the base of one may nearly touch the base 
 of the other. The entire area between two ranges is in this Region 
 commonly called a " valley." 
 
 If there had been no weathering and no work had been done by 
 the streams, the relief resulting from the deformation of the rocks 
 would be much greater than it is. The plateaus and mountains 
 would be higher ; the basins would be lower. Ever since these topo- 
 graphic irregularities came into existence the streams have been at 
 work obliterating them by tearing down the mountains and filling 
 the intervening basins. The extent to which the basins have thus 
 been filled is known definitely at only a few points where wells of 
 unusual depth have been sunk, but in many places this filling is 
 probably very deep. 
 
 LAKE TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Superimposed on the surface molded by running water are strik- 
 ingly different features produced by the waters of an ancient lake. 
 Along the shores of this ancient lake were formed cliffs, terraces, 
 beach ridges, bars, spits, and deltas such as exist along the shores of 
 modern lakes. Shore features were formed at every level at which 
 the lake stood for some time, but they are the most prominent at two 
 levels known as the Bonneville and Provo levels. (See p. 18.) They 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 have a horizontal arrangement which attracts attention by its con- 
 trast with the oblique lines produced by stream work. 
 
 Since the desiccation of the ancient lake few important topographic 
 changes have taken place. The low areas are sHll undergoing aggiia- 
 dation rather than degradation, but the upper parts of the alluvial 
 slopes are in some places being subjected to stream erosion. 
 
 WIND TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Wind work has been most effective in rehandling the sand that was 
 washed by the waves upon the shores of the ancient lake. The storm 
 winds at the time the lake was in existence seem to have been pre- 
 vailingly from the west, as they are at the present time, and the 
 largest accumulations of sand were consequently made on the eastern 
 shore, where they have given rise to many dunes, especially in the 
 area between Cherry Creek and Holden. 
 
 In the White Valley wind erosion has produced a fantastic hum- 
 mocky topography (see p. 122), and in Snake Valley the wind has 
 helped to build large knolls about some of the principal springs 
 (see pp. 44--i5). 
 
 MINOR BASINS. 
 
 The Basin province contains a number of distinct and independent 
 drainage systems that are separated from each other by divides 
 formed by rocky ridges or low accumulations of alluvium. If a 
 valley has an abundant water supply it may have an outlet through 
 Avhich its streams discharge either continuously or at times of flood. 
 Thus the north basin of Juab Valley discharges into Utah Valley, 
 which discharges into Great Salt Lake. Thus the south basin of 
 Juab Valley discharges into Little Valley and thence, through Sevier 
 River, into Sevier Lake. Thus, too, at times of high water a part of 
 Rush Lake Valley discharges into Escalante Desert. But where the 
 water supply is meager or other conditions are less favorable, over- 
 flow does not take place and the basin has a closed drainage. Such 
 basins are formed, for example, by Parowan Valley, White Valley, 
 and Lower Round Valley. 
 
 The outlets of some of the valleys consist of canyons cut through 
 rock walls, as, for example, Sevier Canyon, Avhicli leads from Little 
 Valley to Sevier Desert; the canyon of Currant Creek, which forms 
 the outlet of the northern part of Juab Valley; and the canyon of 
 Chicken Creek, which forms the outlet of the southern part of Juab 
 Valley. Some of these canyons do not occur at the lowest parts of 
 the inclosing rim, but have been cut boldly through higher moun- 
 tainous parts. They appear to be the work of streams Avhich flowed 
 before the rock barriers were thrown up and Avhich pei*sisted in their 
 
14 GBOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 courses during the deformation by cutting down their channels as 
 rapidly as the rocks w^re lifted. 
 
 Hieroglyph Canyon, which is cut through the barrier between Paro- 
 wan and Rush Lake valleys, and the channel that leads from Lower 
 Round Valley to Little Valley were both obviously formed by run- 
 ning water, though they are no longer occupied by streams, even in 
 times of flood. In some of the other outlets the streams are so small 
 and intermittent that they could scarcely have produced the canyons 
 which they occupy. Doubtless when the climate was sufficiently 
 humid to produce the large ancient lake all these gorges were trav- 
 ersed by vigorous streams, but the date of their origin seems to be 
 earlier. 
 
 The north basin of Juab Valley, a part of the Old River Bed 
 region, the region north and northwest of the McDowell Mountains, 
 Fish Springs Valley, and a part of Snake Valley belong to the Great 
 Salt Lake drainage basin. The south basin of Juab Valley, Little 
 Valley, Tintic Valley and its mountain borders, a part of Sevier 
 Desert, Lower Beaver Valley, a part of Wah Wah Valley and some 
 of the high area farther west, and the Swasey Wash region belong to 
 the Sevier Lake drainage. White Valley and Round Valley each 
 forms a closed drainage basin ; Snake Valley contains several rather 
 distinct drainage basins; and Sevier Desert, though nearly fiat, con- 
 tains several depressions which are more or less independent of each 
 other. Thus the swampy area in the vicinity of the Hot Springs 
 north of Abraham does not normally drain into Sevier Lake, and the 
 same seems to be true of certain ponds and swamps near Pavant 
 Butte, of the swampy tract west of Holden, of Chalk Creek Sink, 
 and of the bottoms farther south.- 
 
 Parowan Valley, Escalante Desert, and parts of Rush Lake Valley 
 form independent drainage basins, but a part of Rush Lake Valley is 
 more or less tributary to Escalante Desert. 
 
 The large number of independent basins is a result of arid condi- 
 tions. In the dry seasons a drainage system becomes dismembered, 
 the water from different parts terminating in insignificant local de- 
 pressions; when more humid conditions return, these local depres- 
 sions quickly fill with water and overflow, thus reuniting the drain- 
 age from different parts into a single system. In the past the over- 
 flowing and uniting process continued until practically all of this 
 area discharged its waters into the ancient lake, and hence belonged 
 to a single drainage basin. At last the ancient lake itself overflowed 
 (pp. 16-18) and for a time the entire region became tributary to the 
 Pacific Ocean. If humid conditions had continued long enough, 
 the outlet would have been cut so low that the lake would have been 
 drained completely, and by a similar process the minor depressions 
 would also have been drained. 
 
GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 15 
 
 GEOLOGY/ 
 
 FORMATIONS. 
 
 The rocks exposed in the large area here considered probably range 
 in age from pre-Cambrian to Eecent. 
 
 The rocks supposed to be pre-Cambrian consist mainly of granite 
 and are found in only a few localities. 
 
 The Paleozoic formations include a great thickness of apparently 
 conformable beds which consist chiefly of quartzites and indurated 
 dark-gra}^ limestones of Cambrian and Carboniferous age. The 
 Basin ranges are composed of these rocks. 
 
 Above the quartzites and limestones are several thousand feet of 
 highly colored clastic beds which belong to the Permian series of the 
 Carboniferous, and to the Triassic and Jurassic systems. They are 
 best exposed in the plateau in eastern Iron County, but are not confined 
 to this region. Above the Jurassic is a succession of Upper Cretaceous 
 shales and sandstones, which have a grayish appearance and aggre- 
 gate several thousand feet in thickness. Like the Jurassic, they are 
 best de\'eloped in eastern Iron Count}^, but are also found farther 
 north. Beds of gypsum occur in the Jurassic and coal in the Cre- 
 taceous. 
 
 At higher horizons are found early Tertiary conglomerates, sand- 
 stones, shales, and limestones of nonmarine origin. In Iron County 
 they rest on the Cretaceous beds ; but in the Canyon Range, in parts 
 of the Pavant Range, and in the low ridges east of these, sand- 
 stones and conglomerates presumably of Tertiary age rest with a 
 pronounced unconformity on Paleozoic quartzites and limestones. 
 
 Stream, lake, and wind deposits, consisting of relatively uncon- 
 solidated gravel, sand, and clay, occur to great depths beneath the 
 valleys and low desert tracts. These sediments were the last to be 
 deposited and are late Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent in age. As 
 there are few outcrops the relative importance of stream and lake 
 sediments is largely a matter of conjecture. At the foot of the lofty 
 mountains and plateaus in the eastern part of this region stream 
 deposits and coarse beach and delta deposits of local origin ])re- 
 dominate, but far out in the deserts fine-grained lake sediments 
 are present in large quantities. The smaller Basin ranges furnish 
 only meager amounts of rock waste. In some places, as at the north 
 end of Fish Springs Range, they are partly buried beneath the lake 
 flat and are nearly devoid of alluvial slopes. The Xeels and Goss rail- 
 road wells, in Lower Beaver Valley, are near the Cricket Mountains, 
 yet they reveal sections consisting almost exclusively of fine sediments 
 
 1 The brief sketch here given is chiefly summarized from the works of the geologists who 
 have studied the region, especially the (Jeology of the High Plateaus of Utah, by C. E. 
 Dutton : U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey Rocky Mtn. Region, 1880. 
 
16 GKOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 such as would settle to the bottom of a lake at some distance from 
 the shore from which they are derived. (See pp. 98-100 and PI. III.) 
 Volcanic rocks are widely distributed over this region. They are 
 all or nearly all younger than the early Tertiary strata, upon which 
 they rest in many places. They belong chiefly to the later epochs of 
 the Tertiary period, but are in part coeval with the ancient lake and 
 in part still more recent. 
 
 GEOLOGIC HISTORY,. 
 
 Paleozoic formations containing marine fossils occur generally in 
 this region, and it is therefore certain that during at least a part of 
 the Paleozoic era the region was covered by the sea. Mesozoic and 
 Tertiary formations are strongly developed in the plateaus and in 
 some of the ranges near the Plateau province, but they are absent 
 over most of the Basin province. It has therefore been inferred that 
 most of the Basin province emerged from the sea before the Mesozoic 
 and Tertiary sediments were deposited. 
 
 Throughout the Basin province the Paleozoic formations have been 
 faulted and tilted to produce the Basin ranges. It is not known at 
 what time these faulting movements began, but fresh scarps on the 
 alluvial slopes of some of the ranges, as, for example, in the vicinity 
 of Fish Springs,^ show that they are still in progress. 
 
 In the Colob Plateau, in eastern Iron County, the great thickness 
 of Permian and Mesozoic strata that intervenes between the earlier 
 Carboniferous and Tertiary rocks indicates sedimentation during 
 much of the interval which they represent, but the fact that in the 
 Canyon Range and adjacent mountains Tertiary deposits rest directly 
 on the eroded and irregular surface of the early Carboniferous or 
 the older Paleozoic rocks indicates that erosion was here taking place 
 during much of the time that sedimentation was in progress in the 
 Colob Plateau region. 
 
 After the early Tertiary sediments had been deposited the Plateau 
 province was lifted bodily with reference to the Basin province, thus 
 producing the escarpments that form the boundary between these 
 two provinces. This relation is best shown in Iron County, where 
 the tabular, though greatly dissected, Markagunt and Colob plateaus 
 tower above the basins and low ranges to the west, separated from 
 them by a profound fault and an imposing fault scarp known as the 
 Hurricane Ledge. Farther north the boundary between the two 
 provinces is less definite. The Pavant Range and the mountain mass 
 east of Juab Valley have some of the characteristics of each province. 
 
 In the Pleistocene epoch western Utah contained a large lake, 
 which has been fully described by G. K. Gilbert,^ who named it Lake 
 
 1 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, p. 353. 
 - Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890. The description of Lake 
 Bonneville in this paper is largely abstracted from Mr. Gilbert's monograph. 
 
T. 33S. T. SA-S. T.35S. T. 36S. T. 37S. T. 36 S. 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 17 
 
 Bonneville.^ At the time of its niMximum extent this lake covered 
 an area of 19,750 square miles and was 340 miles long, measured in a 
 straight line, 145 miles wide, and 1,050 feet in maximum depth. Its 
 surface was about 5,200 feet above the present sea level, or about 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 ®PAR0WAN 
 
 I ' 
 
 Cedar Cityl 
 
 Provo stage 
 
 Additional area in 
 Bonneville stage 
 
 soMiles 
 
 Figure 2. — Map of Juab, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah, showing areas covered 
 by Lake Bonneville. (After G. K. Gilbert, Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890.) 
 
 1,000 feet above the present level of Great Salt Lake. Its shore line 
 had many irregularities, and, exclusive of the islands, had a total 
 length of about 2,550 miles. Promontories, peninsulas, islands, bays, 
 and straits existed in abundance, for the Basin ranges were con- 
 
 lU. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer, [Wheeler Survey], vol. 2, 1875, p. 88. 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 2 
 
18 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 verted into rocky peninsulas and islands, and the intervening low 
 areas into bays and straits. 
 
 The main body of Lake Bonneville Avas north of Juab Countj^, 
 covering Great Salt Lake Desert, but at its highest stage approxi- 
 mately 5,000 square miles, or one-fourth of its total area, lay within 
 the three counties here considered. If the lake existed at present 
 Deseret would be covered by 600 feet of water; Nephi, Oak City, 
 Holden, Fillmore, and Kanosh would be at ,or near the shore, while 
 Joy and Utah Mine would be situated on islands. The outline of 
 the lake when it stood highest (knoAvn as the Bonneville stage) is 
 shown in figure 2. 
 
 When the lake reached the Bonneville stage it found an outlet 
 toward the north at a point where several hundred feet of unce- 
 mented alluvium rested on indurated limestone. The outflowing 
 stream rapidly swept away the alluvium and as rapidly lowered the 
 lake level; but when it reached the limestone downward cutting 
 progressed very slowly and the lake consequently stood at virtually 
 one level for a long period. This long period is known as the Provo 
 stage, and the prominent shore line formed at this time is known as 
 the Provo shore line. At the Provo stage the lake stood about 375 
 feet lower than at the Bonneville stage, but it still covered a large 
 part of Sevier Desert, Fish Springs Valley, and White Valley, as 
 is shown in figure 2. Eventually, when more arid conditions re- 
 turned, the lake fell below the level of its outlet and shrank little by 
 little until it dwindled to its present insignificant dimensions. More 
 or less distinct shore lines were formed at a number of levels, but the 
 two that can generally be recognized in the area here considered, and 
 that are significant in discussing ground water conditions, are those 
 that mark the Bonneville and Provo levels. 
 
 Volcanic activity began on a grand scale in the Tertiary period 
 and has continued almost to the present day. Some of the lava was 
 extruded so recently that it remains almost untouched by the weather. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Rainfall observations have been made for the United States 
 Weather Bureau at the stations in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties as 
 shown in the following table. 
 
 Rainfall data are comparatively abundant for the belt adjacent to 
 the Plateau province, but are meager for the large desert area com- 
 prising the greater part of these counties, and are entirely wanting 
 for the lofty mountain regions. 
 
RAINFALL. 19 
 
 Precipitation {in inchen) in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah. 
 
 
 Station. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ncphi. 
 
 Levan. 
 
 Scipio. 
 
 Oak City. 
 
 Fillmore. 
 
 Black 
 Rock. 
 
 Deseret. 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.47 
 
 1893 
 
 
 15. 75 
 17.73 
 26.12 
 12.37 
 16.79 
 15.67 
 17. 43 
 10.34 
 13. 31 
 12.49 
 12.58 
 16.26 
 
 16. 24 
 23. 84 
 20.09 
 18.22 
 
 ;; ; 
 
 
 15.59 
 13. 37 
 16.36 
 11.16 
 17.04 
 14. 59 
 14.48 
 9: .32 
 12. 8S 
 11.90 
 11.97 
 12.14 
 16. 16 
 21.28 
 17.14 
 18. 43 
 
 
 7 6(' 
 
 1894 . . - 
 
 
 
 8.01 
 
 1895 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 189G 
 
 
 13. 62 
 19.24 
 
 
 1 
 
 1897 
 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1899 
 
 15.52 
 6.92 
 12.69 
 11.75 
 11.01 
 12.58 
 21.13 
 19.99 
 18.03 
 15.97 
 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 38 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 7.61 
 6.38 
 13. 36 
 6.39 
 
 9.01 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 4.85 
 
 1903 
 
 
 
 6 99 
 
 1904 
 
 
 
 7.14 
 
 1905 
 
 14.62 
 22.34 
 18.00 
 16.84 
 
 
 9 76 
 
 ]90() 
 
 19.05 
 14.24 
 
 
 11.77 
 
 1907 
 
 
 9 64 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.58 
 
 14.87 
 
 
 14.61 
 
 8.43 
 
 8.15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Station. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Callao and 
 Trout 
 Creek. 1 
 
 Garrison. 
 
 Parowan. ^edar 
 
 Lund and 
 Enter- 
 prise.2 
 
 Modena. 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 14.24 
 11.00 
 12.80 
 12.97 
 12,07 
 
 9.17 
 18.47 
 13.82 
 10.92 
 
 7.04 
 11.05 
 
 9.02 
 11.89 
 11.32 
 13.47 
 20.87 
 13. 73 
 11.80 
 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1893 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1894 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1895 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1896. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1897 -. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 24 
 
 1902 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.09 
 
 1903. 
 
 
 4.75 
 7.21 
 8.82 
 
 
 9.36 
 
 6 93 
 
 1904 
 
 7.77 
 
 
 9.83 
 
 1905.. . . 
 
 
 12 39 
 
 1906 
 
 12.34 
 8.28 
 
 
 19.06 
 
 1907 
 
 4.35 
 
 16. 16 
 13 73 
 
 
 12 80 
 
 1908. 
 
 Ifi Q7 
 
 16 62 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 6.28 
 
 12.54 
 
 1 
 
 11.50 
 
 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 
 1 Callao in 1904; Trout Creek In 1906 and 1907. 2 Lund in 1903: Enterprise in 1908. 
 
 These records show the heaviest rainfall in the valleys at the foot 
 of the lofty mountains and plateaus along the east margin of the 
 region and much lighter rainfall in the extensive desert area to the 
 west. Thus the average annual precipitation is 16.58 inches at 
 Levan, 14.87 inches at Scipio, and 14.61 inches at Fillmore, but only 
 8.15 and 8.43 inches, respectively, at Deseret and Black Rock, and 
 only 6.28 inches at Garrison. Apparently the semiarid conditions 
 found at Levan, Scipio, and Fillmore exist over a relatively small 
 area, while the truly arid climate indicated at Deseret, Black Rock, 
 and Garrison prevails over the greater part of the region. 
 . Though no observations are recorded for the loft}^ mountains and 
 plateaus, the character of their forests and other vegetation makes it 
 
20 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 evident that they have more precipitation than the lowlands. This 
 is true of the Wasatch Mountains, the San Pitch Mountains, and the 
 Canyon and Pavant ranges, in eastern Juab and Millard counties; 
 
 Annual precipitation (inches) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 J 
 
 / ---^ 
 
 "% 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ,,'"' 
 
 _^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y / 
 
 J> 
 
 ^ / 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 / \ 
 
 \/ 
 
 A 
 /' \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 J 
 
 
 X 
 
 ,^'''^' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^^t 
 
 M 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,^y^ 
 
 2^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 \^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ■-- 
 
 --. 
 
 ~^-^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 
 =^ 
 
 \,^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 ^<^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 K 
 
 
 / / 
 
 
 
 
RAINFALL. 
 
 21 
 
 Average monthly precipitation (inches) 
 
 of the Colob and Markagunt plateaus, in eastern Iron County; of 
 the Deep Creek Eange, in western Juab County; and to some extent 
 of the AVest Tintic 
 and other moun- 
 tains. But the dry 
 and barren condi- 
 tion of most of the 
 lo^Y Basin ranges 
 indicates that these 
 ranges receive little 
 more rainfall than 
 t h c surrounding 
 desert. 
 
 ANNUAL VARIATION. 
 
 The precipitation 
 varies greatly from 
 year to j^ear. Thus 
 the recorded range 
 is between 26.12 
 and 10.34 inches at 
 Levan, between 
 21.13 and 6.92 
 inches at Scipio, 
 between 21.28 and 
 9.32 inches at Fill- 
 more, between 11.77 
 and 4.85 inches at 
 Desert, between 
 20.87 and 7.04 
 inches at Parowan, 
 and between 19.06 
 and 5.09 inches at 
 Mod en a. 
 
 In general these 
 variations are re- 
 gional rather than 
 local, as shown by 
 figure 3, in which 
 there appears a 
 general agreement 
 between the curves 
 of the different sta- 
 tions. At all sta- 
 tions where observations were made the precipitation in 1900 was 
 
22 GKOUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 below the average, and at all but one it was the lowest recorded. In 
 1906 the precipitation was everywhere above the average, and at all 
 but two stations it was the highest ever recorded. For the region 
 as a whole, the precipitation was below the average in 1896 and 
 above the average in 1897, after which it decreased each year until 
 1900. From 1901 to 1904 it was somewhat higher than in 1900, but 
 still below the average. In 1905 it was slightly above the average; 
 in 1906 it was exceptionally high ; and in 1907 and 1908 it was some- 
 what lower than in 1906, but still well above the average. 
 
 Though the variations from year to year are for the most part 
 regional, yet some remarkable local variations occur, as for example, 
 in 1903 the rainfall at Black Eock was heavier than at Levan or any 
 other station. 
 
 SEASONAL VARIATION. 
 
 The precipitation is distributed unequally through the year, as is 
 shown by figure 4, in which, for each station having a sufficiently 
 long record, the average for each month is represented. In Juab and 
 Millard counties the most rain falls in the months of March, April, 
 and May, and the least in June and July. In Iron County (Parowan 
 and Modena) the distribution is somewhat different, the spring rain- 
 fall being relatively less and the late summer rainfall distinctly 
 greater. In this respect climatic conditions in Iron County to some 
 extent resemble those in New Mexico and Arizona, where the princi- 
 pal rainy season is in the latter part of the summer.^ 
 
 RELATION OF RAINFALL TO DRY FARMING. 
 
 Until recentl}^ farmers have relied almost entirely on irrigation, 
 but in the last few years many attempts have been made to raise 
 crops without artificial application of water. Dry farms conducted 
 on a large scale have been established in Juab, Dog, Little, and 
 Pavant valleys, and in the southeastern part of Escalante Desert, 
 and dry farming on a smaller scale has been undertaken in the other 
 valleys along the east side of the region, and even in the vicinity of 
 Deseret and at Ibex, west of Sevier Lake. In Juab Valley good 
 crops of wheat have been raised without irrigation ; ^ in the other 
 localities dry farming was stilh largely in the experimental stage in 
 1908, when the region was visited. The weather data show that 
 Levan,- in Juab Valley, receives a little more rainfall than the sta- 
 tions in the other valleys along the east side, and much more than 
 those in the desert to the west. They also show that the region in 
 
 1 Henry, A. J., Climatology of the United States : U. S. Weather Bureau, Bull. Q, 1906, 
 p. 50. 
 
 2 See Farrell, F. D., Dry-land grains in the Great Basin : Circular 61, Bur. Plant 
 Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910. 
 
RAINFALL. 23 
 
 general received more than an average amount of rainfall during 
 1906, 1907, and 1908. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 This region contains much more arable land than can be irrigated 
 with the suppl}^ of water that is now available or that would be 
 available if all the water resources were fully developed and con- 
 served. Nevertheless, the arable land comprises only a fraction of 
 the total area. It does not include the mountain regions, the lava 
 fields, the gravelly upper portions of the alluvial slopes or bench 
 lands, the sand}^ dune-covered belts, nor the low, swampy tracts. The 
 best agricultural land is found on the middle portions of the alluvial 
 slopes, below the zone of the coarse gravel and above the alkali. 
 
 The soil of the low tracts is almost everywhere impregnated with 
 harmful quantities of alkali. The surface water coming from the 
 higher regions accumulates in these low tracts and the water that 
 sinks into the ground on the higher lands returns to the surface here, 
 both to be disposed of by evaporation. In their contact with the 
 earth both surface and ground waters take up small quantities of 
 soluble mineral matter (alkalies), which they leave behind when 
 they evaporate. Hence, b}^ a slow but long-continued process the 
 soluble substances disseminated through the soil and rocks of the 
 upland regions become concentrated in the lowlands until they exist 
 in amounts injurious to ordinary plants. 
 
 The character of the vegetation and in many places the incrustations 
 at the surface show that the low central axes of nearly all the valleys 
 and the extensive low flats of Great Salt Lake Desert, Sevier Desert, 
 and Escalante Desert have alkali soils. Even in valleys that have 
 outlets, such as Juab Valley, Little Valley, and parts of Rush Lake 
 Valley, the discharge is so sluggish and (except in Little Valley) so 
 intermittent and the evaporation is comparatively so great that alkali 
 has accumulated. The largest tracts of alkali soil are the desert flats 
 which for a long time were covered by the waters of a salt lake and 
 which lie so low that in some places the ground water still comes 
 to the surface and evaporates. In the detailed descriptions of Sevier 
 Desert, Wah Wah Valley, and Escalante Desert analyses of soil from 
 several localities are given. (See pp. 109-110, 118, and 150-151.) 
 
 The fertile land in most localities lies so high that some of the 
 water available for irrigation can not be brought to it without pump- 
 ing. In order to utilize this water, low land is cultivated and 
 consequently the presence of alkali becomes a source of trouble. 
 This trouble is perhaps greatest on the low flat in the vicinity of 
 Deseret, where water from Sevier River is used. Two remedies are 
 here available, both of which are now under consideration. One is 
 to install a drainage system, by means of which the alkali can be 
 
24 GROUND WATEKS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 washed out of the soil ; the other is to divert the water so far upstream 
 that it can be conducted by gravity to higher and better land. 
 
 Outside of Sevier Desert the principal difficulties with alkali are 
 experienced where irrigation is attempted with water from springs 
 or wells. A number of large springs in Snake Valley and Fish 
 Springs Valley, the large springs near Clear Lake, and many smaller 
 springs and seeps in Pavant and other valleys are used for irrigation, 
 but the crops produced are insignificant when compared with the 
 amount of water applied, the difficulty being that the water issues 
 at low levels, where the soil contains alkali. Likewise nearly all the 
 wells in which the water rises to the surface or nearly to the surface 
 are on low ground, and irrigation with well water is generally accom- 
 panied by trouble with alkali. 
 
 VEaETATION. 
 
 The native vegetation is an index to the character of the soil and 
 climate of the region. 
 
 The mountains and plateaus that are high enough to receive a 
 copious fall of rain and snow are covered with forests of yellow pine, 
 fir, quaking asp, birch, maple, cottonwood, scrub oak, and other trees 
 and shrubs ; but the arid Basin ranges and volcanic buttes and mesas 
 support few trees, except stunted conifers such as scrub cedar, juniper, 
 and pihon pine, and the broad valleys and deserts are treeless, except 
 for clumps of cedar and piiion on the upper parts of some of the 
 •alluvial slopes, a few dwarfed willows in the vicinity of springs, and 
 cottonwoods or other species planted in the irrigated oases. 
 
 On the alluvial slopes of the valleys in the eastern part of these 
 counties, large and luxuriant sagebrush {Artemisia tridentat a) pre- 
 dominates, and along dry runs, where it receives a comparatively 
 plentiful water supply, without being subjected to alkali or swampy 
 conditions, this brush grows to treelike proportions. 
 
 Farther west the more arid climate is clearly reflected in the more 
 scanty vegetation, the large sagebrush being replaced by stunted indi- 
 viduals and by smaller species. Here the bush known as shadscale 
 becomes common, and in many localities it is dominant. 
 
 In extensive low tracts, where the climate is arid and the soil con- 
 tains alkali, but where the ground water is near the surface, grease- 
 wood is present almost to the exclusion of other plants. Under 
 favorable conditions the greasewood rivals in size the most luxuriant 
 sagebrush, and where it is well watered its rich green aspect contrasts 
 strongly with the monotonous grayish-green hue which the sage and 
 shadscale give to most of this country. In localities where there is 
 some natural irrigation but where the soil does not contain excessive 
 quantities of alkali greasewood may be supplanted by rabbit brush; 
 in areas having an alkali soil, but greater depth to water, it is likely 
 
STREAMS. 25 
 
 to give way to shadscale; and in swampy districts heavily impreg- 
 nated with alkali it yields to saltbrush. 
 
 Forage grasses grow on the Avell-watered mountains and plateaus 
 and in meager quantities on the more arid Basin ranges and in the 
 valleys and deserts. Swampy areas watered by springs and seeps 
 may produce a large growth of grass, which, however, is poor in 
 quality. Some forage is also supplied by a small plant locally known 
 as black sage and by greasewood and other bushes. The entire region 
 is placed under tribute for grazing, though the number of acres nec- 
 essary to feed one animal is large. Horses and cattle are raised, but 
 most of the range, especially the driest part, is used for sheep. In 
 the summer most of the sheep are kept on the high plateaus, but in 
 the winter they are brought into the desert. 
 
 Cacti occur in this region, but are not abundant. They are found 
 in the largest numbers in southern Iron County. Tules or other 
 rushes grow at the margins of some of the springs, and water-cress 
 thrives in the large springs and their effluent streams, es])ecially in 
 Snake Valley. The Hot Springs near Fish Springs and the Hot 
 Springs in the River Bed region support Alimentary algse of various 
 colors. 
 
 In the low parts of some of the deserts and valleys there are exten- 
 sive alkali clay flats that are destitute of vegetation of any kind. 
 These flats remain intensely dry for long periods, but are occasionally 
 inundated, and it seems that none of the desert plants can adapt 
 themselves to such extremes. 
 
 STREAMS. 
 
 Sevier River is the only large stream that enters this region. It 
 rises on the plateaus of Iron and Kane counties and flows northward 
 a long distance through a structural trough that lies just beyond the 
 eastern boundary of Iron, Beaver, and Millard counties. Eventually 
 it turns to the west, crosses into Juab County, traverses Little Valley, 
 and escapes through Sevier Canyon, at Leamington, into the desert, 
 across which it meanders to Sevier Lake. Much of the water is 
 diverted for irrigation before the river reaches the region described 
 in this paper, but a part is used by the settlements in Sevier Desert 
 and a part still escapes into Sevier Lake, where it evaporates. 
 
 Many small disconnected streams rise in the highlands along the 
 eastern border of these counties, descend with steep gradients through 
 rock-bound canyons, and emerge on the arable alluvial slopes, 
 where their Avaters are used for irrigation. During the spring months 
 they are supplied largely by the melting of snow at high alti- 
 tudes and their flow is therefore relatively copious. Later in the 
 season, when all or nearly all of the snow has disappeared, they 
 shrink greatly and the smallest creeks become dry. The streams that 
 
26 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 head in the highest mountains are fed from melting snow until late 
 in the summer, but those that drain less lofty ranges and plateaus 
 dwindle long before the crops mature. Heavy rains may fall at any 
 time and give rise to swollen, torrential streams that rush down the 
 canyons and across the alluvial slopes. If storage facilities could be 
 provided whereby the flow of these streams could be controlled and 
 the water they discharge each year could be applied to crops when 
 needed, much more land could be irrigated. Unfortunately neither 
 the narrow canyons with their steep grades nor the open alluvial 
 slopes afford good reservoir sites, and little has been accomplished in 
 the way of storing water. 
 
 The areas receiving these small mountain streams are Juab Valley, 
 in Juab County, Round Valley and the areas west of the Canyon and 
 Pavant ranges, in Millard County, and Parowan and Rush Lake val- 
 leys, in Iron County. The Wasatch Mountains and San Pitch Moun- 
 , tains give rise to streams that flow into Juab Valley, the largest of 
 these being Salt Creek, which emerges at Nephi. The Canyon Range 
 is drained chiefly toward the west and on the west side rise sev- 
 eral streams, the largest of which is Oak Creek. The west flank of 
 the Pavant Range is drained by numerous streams, among which 
 Chalk Creek and Corn Creek are the largest. The streams originat- 
 ing on its east flank all flow into Sevier Valley, except Ivie Creek, 
 which rises at the head of Upper Round Valley and furnishes the 
 irrigation water at Scipio. The high plateau in eastern Iron County 
 gives rise to a series of streams that discharge into Parowan and 
 Rush Lake valleys, the largest being Parowan Creek and Coal Creek. 
 Further statements in regard to these streams will be found in the 
 detailed descriptions. 
 
 In the remaining parts of these three counties there are only a few 
 small streams. In Juab County, Cherry Creek, Judd Creek, and sev- 
 er.al still smaller streams rise in the West Tintic and Simpson moun- 
 tains, and a number of creeks flow from both sides of the Deep Creek 
 Range, but in the area intervening between the Simpson and Deep 
 Creek mountains, covering a stretch fully 50 miles long, there are no 
 streams except such as flow from the Fish Springs. In Millard 
 County the only streams between Sevier River and the Nevada line 
 are a few creeks that flow into Snake Valley from the west. The 
 highlands south of Iron County give rise to Shoal, Meadow, and 
 Pinto creeks, which flow toward Escalante Desert, and the Iron 
 Mountains give rise to several small creeks, but the entire north- 
 central and northwestern sections of Iron County are destitute of 
 streams. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The region under consideration supports a population of about 
 20,000 people, or approximately IJ persons per square mile. But the 
 
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 27 
 
 geographic controls of human existence and industrial development 
 are so rigorous that the inhabitants are very unequally distributed, 
 and any statement of average density of population has little sig- 
 nificance. The two impoi-tant controlling factors are (1) water for 
 irrigation and (2) ore deposits. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants live at the foot of the highlands along the 
 east margin of the region and depend on the numerous small streams 
 that issue from these highlands. There is a settlement at the mouth 
 of nearly every canyon that has a stream, and the size of the stream 
 is a good index to the size of the settlement, or vice versa. Rela- 
 tively large streams, such as Salt Creek, Chalk Creek, Corn Creek, 
 Parowan Creek, and Coal Creek, support large settlements, such as 
 Nephi, Fillmore, Kanosh, Parowan, and Cedar. Smaller streams, 
 such as Oak Creek, Summit Creek, Shirts Creek, and Kanarra Creek, 
 support smaller settlements, such as Oak City, Summit, Hamiltons 
 Fort, and Kanarraville. Very small streams, such as Little Salt 
 Creek, Fools Creek, and Cove Creek, support only a few families or 
 a single ranch each. In some places, as at Holden, the water from 
 several streams is led to one settlement, or farmers live in settlements 
 at some distance from their fields and water supply. 
 
 Next m agricultural importance to the settlements just described 
 are the communities and ranches that depend on water from Sevier 
 Kiver, including Leamington, the Mclntyre ranch at the station of 
 Mack, Burtner, Oasis, Deseret, Hinkley , Abraham, and the Swan 
 Lake farm. Next to these in importance are the communities and 
 ranches in Snake Valle}' , including Burbank, Garrison, a series of 
 ranches between Garrison and Trout Creek, two ranches at Trout 
 Creek, and three ranches at Callao. 
 
 The rest of the region, comprising by far the largest area, is so 
 nearly destitute of water supplies that it contains only a few widely 
 scattered ranches, most of Avhich depend, in Avhole or in part, upon 
 live stock raised on the range. Ranches of this kind are Mclntyre's 
 ranch in Tintic Valley ; Rockw^ell's ranch, on Cherry Creek ; Laird's 
 ranch, at Joy; Thomas's ranch, at Fish Springs; James's ranch, at 
 Black Rock; the Clear Lake farm, at Clear Lake station; Ward's 
 ranch, at Rush Lake; and Duncan's ranch, McConnell's ranch, and 
 the Church ranch, in or near the Iron Mountains. 
 
 Agricultural establishments of another type that should be men- 
 tioned, although they include few permanent settlers, are the large 
 dry farms such as the Utah Arid farm in Dog Valley, and the Juab 
 Development Co. farm in Little Valley. 
 
 Approximately one-fourth of the inhabitants of the region are 
 found in mining camps and are dependent in some way on the min- 
 ing industry. The great majority of these are in the Tintic mining 
 
28 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 district, but there are small camps at Pish Springs and Joy, in Juab 
 County, and at Stateline, in Iron County, and prospectors are scat- 
 tered through the region. Ore deposits are of course located without 
 reference to the present occurrence of water, and the problem of pro- 
 viding a water supply for mines and mining communities may be 
 difficult, as it proved to be in the Tintic district. The mining indus- 
 try has an important influence on agriculture by creating a demand 
 for agricultural products. 
 
 The main line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Kail- 
 road passes diagonally through this region. Along its entire course, 
 however, it is at some distance from the villages on the east side, 
 its route having been determined by the location of mines and by 
 engineering considerations. A branch line passes through Juab Val- 
 ley, but the villages in the eastern parts of Millard and Iron counties 
 are remote from any railroad connections. This position of the rail- 
 road has brought a certain amount of human life and activity into 
 a desolate desert tract. Oasis, Clear Lake, Black Rock, Lund, and 
 Modena have only a few inhabitants, but they are the supply points 
 for nearly the entire region except eastern Juab County. Inci- 
 dentally, this position of the railroad required a water supply in the 
 desert tracts and resulted in valuable underground explorations. 
 
 The uninhabited condition of a large portion of these counties can 
 best be shown by an example. In that part of Millard County which 
 lies between Black Rock and the Sevier Desert settlements on the 
 east and Snake Valley on the west the only inhabitants are two men, 
 who are at Ibex a part of the time. Yet this is a region of diversified 
 topography, 50 miles wide and 65 miles long, comprising about one- 
 half of Millard County, and is as large as Rhode Island and Dela- 
 ware combined. Its only product of economic value is a scanty 
 growth of forage plants, which are picked up by flocks of sheep 
 brought thither in the winter season. 
 
 The physical conditions and natural resources of the region are 
 distributed in a way that has resulted in producing three types of 
 communities whose people have important differences in character 
 and mode of life; these are the irrigation settlements, the isolated 
 ranches, and the mining towns. The irrigation settlements were 
 founded long ago by the Mormons, and the inhabitants have been 
 powerfully influenced by geographic conditions. Their sociability 
 and hospitality, their simple habits and elemental morals, and their 
 spirit of contentment and general lack of commercial enterprise have 
 no doubt been in large part engendered by the physical conditions 
 that threw them into small, compact, isolated communities, having a 
 comparatively secure livelihood but rigid limitations to industrial 
 expansion. 
 
GROUND WATERS IN WEiSTERN UTAH. 29 
 
 OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 
 BEDROCK. 
 WATER IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 
 
 The indurated rocks comprise limestone, quartzite, cono^lomerate. 
 sandstone, and shale. The qnartzite and hard ^ray limestone of 
 Paleozoic age are widely distributed, but the conglomerates, sand- 
 stones, and shales of younger systems are found mainly along the 
 east margin — in the mountains east of Juab Valley, in the Valley 
 Range and the ridges on both sides of Chicken Creek, in the Canyon 
 and Pavant ranges, in the high plateaus east of Parowan and Rush 
 Lake valleys, in the low range west of Parowan Valley, in the Iron 
 iMountains, and in the highlands farther southwest. 
 
 The body of the Paleozoic quartzite and limestone is compact and 
 impervious, but small quantities of Avater penetrate these rocks 
 through joints and fracture zones; the sandstones and conglomerates, 
 v/here not too firmly cemented, carry water in the pore spaces; the 
 shale beds contain little water. 
 
 If the indurated sedimentary rocks had a favorable topographic 
 attitude the,y would no doubt furnish moderate supplies of Avater in 
 many localities, but their attitude is almost everywhere unfavorable 
 for recovering water by sinking wells into them. On the uplands 
 the water that seeps into these rocks is likely to be returned to the 
 snrface where the strata outcrop or to penetrate to great depths; on 
 the lowlands the bed rock is buried beneath such thick accumulations 
 of unconsolidated sediments that it can in most places be reached 
 only b}^ very deep drilling. As a result of these conditions little 
 water is obtained from the indurated seclimentar}^ rocks except such 
 as issues in mountain springs, and but few attempts have been made 
 to procure sujDplies by drilling into these formations. 
 
 In the Tintic mining district, in the East Tintic Mountains, a num- 
 ber of shafts have been sunk through Paleozoic limestone to depths 
 of 1,500 to 2,260 feet, or several hundred feet below the water level 
 in the unconsolidated sediments of the adjacent Tintic Valley, with- 
 out finding any water, and one or two deep mines have encountered 
 small amounts of water at levels considerabl}^ below the Avater level 
 in the valley. 
 
 In the Utah mine, Avhich is situated near the north end of the Fish 
 Springs Range and is developed mainly in Paleozoic limestone, no 
 water was found until the workings reached the 800-foot level, which 
 is lower than the Fish Springs and the ground-water table of the 
 plain bordering the mountains. Even at this depth the supply is 
 very small. 
 
 In the valley north of Fillmore there is a low ridge consisting in 
 part of quartzite and in part of deep red and blue shale and sand- 
 
30 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 stone — the same formations as are found in the Pavant Rangfe. It is 
 nearly buried beneath unconsolidated sediments and forms one of 
 the exceptional localities of this region in which the indurated sedi- 
 mentary rocks are near the surface and yet not far above the general 
 ground-water level. Here several wells have been sunk, the first to 
 test for artesian water and the rest in search of oil. It appears that 
 the rocks were found to contain considerable quantities of water 
 which is of satisfactory quality and rises within a short distance of 
 the surface. But even here the rocks apparently do not afford more 
 favorable conditions than the unconsolidated sediments, and drilling 
 in them is more expensive. 
 
 Near the southern boundary of Iron County, in the vicinity of 
 Enterprise, a test well, drilled to a depth of about TOO feet, is re- 
 ported to have entered 400 feet of red rock. The rock here also con- 
 tains water, but according to report it was less in quantity and lower 
 in head than the water in the overlying beds of sand and gravel. 
 
 In the southern part of Juab Valley, near the west ridge, which 
 here consists of eastward dipping conglomerates, sandstones, and 
 other rocks of probable early Tertiary age, a well was drilled to a 
 depth of 620 feet, chiefly in rock. The first satisfactory supply 
 found in this well was near the bottom, from which level the water 
 rose to within 22 feet of the surface. 
 
 WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 
 
 The igneous rocks include ancient granite, Tertiar}^ intrusives and 
 extrusives, largely of acidic or intermediate composition, and more 
 recent volcanic material, chiefly basalt. The ancient granite lies at 
 the surface in only a few mountainous districts, but it has been 
 reached in deep drilling in Lower Beaver Valley and it no doubt 
 exists far below the surface in other localities. Igneous rocks of 
 Tertiary or more recent age occur in large quantities in the East 
 Tintic Mountains, the Thomas Range, the buttes and mesas of Sevier 
 Desert and of the southeastern part of Millard County, the moun- 
 tains of eastern Beaver and Iron counties, the low ranges of western 
 Iron County, and in other localities. 
 
 The railroad wells at Goss and Neels are reported to have pene- 
 trated granite at depths of 1,643 feet and 1,950 feet, respectively, and 
 the Goss well is said to have found great quantities of salty water in 
 crevices of this rock. It is, however, not probable that the granite 
 would generally yield water even where it is within reach of the drill. 
 
 The Tertiary igneous rocks are for the most part compact and im- 
 pervious, but the mining developments in the Tintic district have 
 shown that, at least in that locality, they are ramified by fracture 
 zones which permit a slow seepage to depths of hundreds of feet but 
 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 31 
 
 which are not open enough to allow the water to escape quickly, as 
 in fractures in the limestone of the same district. The mines in the 
 igneous rocks, none of which exceed a few hundred feet in depth, con- 
 tain w^ater, but those in limestone are, dry or do not find water until 
 they reach great depths. Moreover, mines that pass through igneous 
 rocks into underlying limestone seem to lose their Avater when they 
 enter the limestone. 
 
 Near the surface the igneous rock disintegrates to form coarse- 
 grained porous debris into ^vhich the water that falls as rain can 
 penetrate. Since this debris rests on undecomposed igneous rock that 
 is nearly or quite impervious, the ^vater is prevented from escaping 
 downw^ard, and where the topography is such that it can not readily 
 drain awa}^, it may accumulate and give rise to springs or seeps or 
 afford a supply for shalloAv w^ells. 
 
 The quantit}^ of water that can be obtained from the disintegrated 
 mantle of the igneous rock or from the fracture zones that penetrate 
 this rock to greater depths is invariably small, but it is nevertheless 
 of great value in localities where no other water is available. In 
 many places supplies from such a source can be increased by increas- 
 ing the infiltering surface, either by digging more wells of large 
 diameter or by constructing tunnels or infiltration galleries below 
 the water level. Little or nothing can be accomplished by deep 
 drilling. 
 
 The most extensive developments of this kind have been made in 
 the Tintic district, where the public supply for the city of Eureka, 
 the supply for one of the railroads, and the supplies for a number of 
 mines are obtained from pumping plants w^hich draw^ from the partly 
 disintegrated igneous rock and the overlying rock waste. Supplies 
 of this character have also been developed at Joy and elsewhere. 
 
 A number of springs of fair size exist in those parts of the East 
 Tintic Mountains in which the surface formation consists of igneous 
 rock (PI. V), and the w^ater from some of them is conducted through 
 pipe lines to Silver City, Jericho, and the Utah Arid farm. Small 
 springs of similar character found in the low^ mountains of Avestern 
 Iron County, w^here igneous rock underlies the surface debris, pro- 
 vide valuable Avatering places for \i\e stock on the range. 
 
 The more recent basaltic lavas are in ^lany places broken by joints 
 and fissures, through which w^ater can pass freely and through wiiich 
 it may escape at Ioav levels in large springs. Examples of groups of 
 springs that appear to be of this type are the Black Rock Springs, the 
 Clear Lake Springs, the Hot Springs north of Abraham, and the 
 springs at Rush Lake, each of Avhich yields at least a second-foot of 
 water. The Avell at Ward's ranch (near Rush Lake) also derives its 
 water from a crevice in lava rock. 
 
32 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 CONFINING FUNCTION OF BEDROCK, 
 
 For the region as a whole, the indurated rocks, both sedimentary 
 and igneous, are not of much importance as water-bearing formations. 
 Their chief value lies in their confining function in the basins which 
 they form and which are partly filled with unconsolidated water- 
 bearing sediments. The small perched basins may allow of so much 
 leakage that their unconsolidated sediments are entirely drained, but 
 the large basins, which are relatively depressed, although high above 
 the level of the sea^ are sufficiently waterproof to cause the accumu- 
 lation of water in the unconsolidated sediments. In this way the 
 rock basins act as huge reservoirs whose supplies of water can easily 
 be drawn upon in the lowland areas, and are, therefore, of great 
 economic value. As the Tertiary igneous rocks are as a rule less 
 permeable than the Paleozoic limestones, the basins underlain by 
 them are more likely to contain water than those underlain by the 
 limestones. 
 
 UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 
 CHARACTER OF SEDIMENTS. 
 
 The sediments that partly fill the rock basins, thereby forming 
 " valleys " and " deserts," are derived from the mountainous rims of 
 these basins, where the firm rock is subjected to the destructive activi- 
 ties of the weather. Ever since the great deformations which brought 
 the basins into existence the rocks in the uplands have been disinte- 
 grating at the surface and the resulting rock waste has been swept 
 away, chiefly by torrential storm waters, and deposited in the low 
 parts of the basins. Hence the serrate peaks and deep canyons and 
 myriad of gullies with which the uplands are sculptured. Hence 
 also the extensive smooth alluvial slopes and desert plains underlain 
 by thick deposits of clay, sand, and gravel. 
 
 The stream, lake, and wind deposits which fill the basins are here 
 grouped under the collective name of " unconsolidated sediments " 
 in order to differentiate them from the hard igneous rocks and the 
 ancient indurated sedimentary formations which are together called 
 " bedrock." It should, however, be understood that some of the 
 stream, lake, and wind deposits have become firmly cemented, and 
 that a certain amount of cementation has generally taken place, as 
 is shown by the fact that dug wells are usually not cased above the 
 water level. 
 
 The unconsolidated sediments are by far the most valuable water- 
 bearing beds of this region. Nevertheless, they are not good water 
 producers in every locality nor at each horizon, the principal diffi- 
 culties being (1) that they may be drained of their water, (2) that 
 they may consist entirely of fine-grained materials which willnot 
 
OCCUERENCE OF GROUND WATER. 33 
 
 surrender water freely, and (3) that the}^ may contain only salty 
 water. 
 
 WATER IN STREAM DEPOSITS. 
 
 When a stream escapes from its canyon and its carrying power 
 diminishes it drops the coarsest part of its load first and conveys the 
 finest sediments farthest into the valley or desert. Hence the upper 
 parts of the alluvial slopes consist largely of gravel and bowlders, 
 and the parts most remote from the mouths of the canyons are under- 
 lain by beds of clay and fine sand associated with little gravel and no 
 bowlders. 
 
 A swollen stream sweeping rapidly down a steep, narrow canyon 
 can move great quantities of gravel and roll along large bowlders, 
 and even on the alluvial slope it is able to carry the coarse parts of 
 its load much farther than when it has only its normal size, bowlders 
 being transported at times of flood to almost incredible distances 
 from the mountains. Hence coarse sediments come to be superim- 
 posed on fine sediments, and, in sinking a well, successive beds of 
 clay, sand, gravel, and even bowlders will he encountered. 
 
 Since the aggrading streams flowing over the alluvial slopes change 
 their courses frequently, depositing debris now in one locality and 
 now in another, the beds underlying these slopes are not contin- 
 uous, and wells only a short distance apart may show entirely dif- 
 ferent sections. 
 
 In most localities the stream deposits include beds of sand and 
 gravel that are capable of yielding water freely. As the distance 
 from the mountains increases, the number and thickness of these 
 beds decrease, their constituent particles become smaller, and their 
 yield of water becomes correspondingly less copious; but fairly 
 abundant supplies can generally be obtained even in the vallev flats. 
 The principal difficulty in connection with the stream deposits is 
 that in the upper parts of the alluvial slopes the porous beds are 
 drained to great depths, in some places even to the bedrock. 
 
 WATER IN LAKE DEPOSITS. 
 
 Since the conditions of sedimentation are much more uniform at 
 the bottom of a lake than on an alluvial slope, the lake beds are more 
 continuous and regular than the stream deposits, and wells in the 
 same vicinity have nearly the same sections. In the quiet waters of 
 a lake the gravel and sand brought by streams sink near the shore 
 and only very small particles that stay long in suspension reach 
 points remote from the shore. Hence lake deposits are likely to 
 consist so largely of beds of clay and fine-grained quicksand that 
 they will yield only meager supplies of water. Especially is this 
 condition imminent near the center of extensive lake beds such as 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 3 
 
34 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Great Salt Lake Desert and Sevier Desert. Salt is likely to be 
 deposited in lakes that have no outlet, and the ground water found 
 in the lake sediments may therefore be saline. Both of these unfa- 
 vorable conditions are encountered in this region. 
 
 WATER IN LOW VALLEYS. 
 
 A typical valley of this region consists of a rock trough partly 
 filled with sediments so disposed as to form alluvial slopes on each 
 side with a central flat between. Stream deposits underlie the 
 alluvial slopes but lake deposits may occur at the center. In many 
 valleys the sediments are saturated to the level of the central flat. 
 As new supplies of water are poured out from the mountains and 
 absorbed by the porous gravel of the alluvial slopes the amount of 
 ground water is increased and some of it returns to the surface in 
 the lowest parts of the central flat, either in springs or by impercep- 
 tible capillary action, and is removed by evaporation, or, less com- 
 monly, flows out of the valley through a drainage outlet. (See fig. 5.) 
 On the central flat and the lower parts of the alluvial slopes the 
 ground water is therefore near the surface and can easily be ob- 
 tained by sinking wells into the unconsolidated sediments. 
 
 The most favorable location for wells is at the base of an alluvial 
 slope where the surface is not far above the ground-water level but 
 where coarse water-bearing beds are still plentiful, on the side of 
 the valley bordered by the mountains which furnish the most water, 
 and in the vicinity of the largest streams. The wells in the flats 
 generally yield less freely. 
 
 Juab Valley, Parowan Valley, and Kush Lake Valley are typical 
 of the kind of valleys just described. Their sediments are satu- 
 rated to a level controlled by their central flats, and the best wells 
 are obtained near the base of the east slopes, which receive the prin- 
 cipal water supplies. Pavant Valley (Holden to Kanosh), Little 
 Valley, Tintic Valley, and Snake Valley are also of this type, though 
 somewhat modified. Each has one or more low tracts along the 
 central axis, where the ground water is returned to the surface, show- 
 ing the saturated condition of the sediments below the level of these 
 tracts. 
 
 WATER ON DESERT FLATS. 
 
 The deserts, like the valleys, are surrounded by alluvial slopes 
 which descend from the upland borders, but they differ from the 
 valleys in having more extensive central flats with a more important 
 development of lake deposits. At the base of the alluvial slopes the 
 conditions are not unlike those found in the valleys, as is illustrated 
 by the wells at Callao, in western Juab County, and those in the 
 vicinity of Enterprise and New Castle, in Iron County. The des- 
 ert flats, like the valley flats, lie so low that the ground-water level 
 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 35 
 
 is near the surface, but they differ from the valley flats in being un- 
 derlain more largely by non-water-bearing clay and quicksand and by 
 beds that make the water salty. 
 
 Sevier Desert includes the Lynn bench and the adjacent low flat 
 (PL I). The Lynn bench is a relatively level upland tract formed 
 essentially as the delta of Sevier River in the Provo stage of Lake 
 Bonneville. It consists largely of sandy and gravelly material which 
 absorbs much of the rainfall. At Lynn a successful well was drilled 
 by the railroad company, and good wells could probably be obtained 
 on most parts of the bench. As at Lynn, however, the water level is 
 probably everywhere at some distance below the surface. 
 
 At Deseret and the other settlements on the flat near the base of 
 this bench many successful wells have been drilled. Here the sedi- 
 ments consist chiefly of clay and include very little gravel, but there 
 are numerous beds of sand, all of which are charged with water that 
 rises nearly to the surface or a little above the surface. The principal 
 source of supply is evidently the Lynn bench. 
 
 Farther southwest, at greater distances from the bench, conditions 
 rapidly become more unfavorable for ground-water supplies. The 
 proportion of clay becomes greater, the sand becomes finer, and the 
 water becomes meager in quantity and so salty that it is generally 
 not fit to use. At Goss station, remote from the Lynn bench, the 
 railroad company drilled through hundreds of feet of dense clay or 
 shale that is almost totally destitute of water. 
 
 In brief, the sediments underlying Sevier Desert were supplied 
 chiefly by Sevier River, and consequently they become finer as the 
 distance increases from the mouth of the canyon at Leamington, 
 where the river began to deposit its load. This condition is shown 
 in Plate III. Neels and Goss are situated near the Cricket Moun- 
 tains (Beaver Range), and it might have been expected that gravel 
 from this range would be intercalated between beds of clay derived 
 from more distant sources, but, according to the well sections, such 
 local materials are almost entirely wanting. 
 
 Great Salt Lake Desert extends into the northern part of Juab 
 County, forming the Fish Springs Flat and the flat between the 
 Deep Creek Range and the Fish Springs Range. In the vicinity 
 of Callao, at the base of the large alluvial slope of the Deep Creek 
 Range, a number of good wells have been obtained, but in several 
 holes sunk on the flat near the Fish Springs Range only salty water 
 was found. The western part of this flat may have received some 
 contributions of coarse sand from the streams that drain the Deep 
 Creek Range or from water which in more humid periods probably 
 issued from Snake Valley, but the eastern part of this flat and the 
 entire Fish Springs Flat had no important source of local sediments. 
 At its north end the Fish Springs Range is almost devoid of an 
 
36 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 alluvial slope and the lake plain abuts against the rocks. Here con- 
 ditions similar to those at Neels and Goss might be expected. 
 
 White Valley was occupied by an arm of Lake Bonneville during 
 most of the time that the lake existed, but this arm of the lake re- 
 ceived no important streams. The extensive central flat of White 
 Valley is therefore probably underlain to a great extent by fine 
 nonwater-bearing lake sediments. Gravelly beds containing water 
 may exist at the margins. 
 
 In Escalante Desert the sediments are also predominantly fine but 
 some beds of sand yield water of good quality. Satisfactory wells 
 have been obtained at a number of points in this desert. 
 
 WATER ON ALLUVIAL SLOPES OR " BENCH LANDS." 
 
 The broad alluvial slopes which generally lie between the moun- 
 tains and the lowlands comprise a large part of the total area of 
 this region. Near the base of these slopes there are many good wells, 
 as has already been shown, but on the middle and upper parts there 
 are few wells, although many holes have been dug in the quest for 
 ground water. In most of these unsuccessful projects the holes were 
 abandoned before the level was reached at which the normal ground- 
 water table could be expected, and the failure does not indicate the 
 absence of water farther down. The ground-water table slopes up- 
 ward in the direction of the mouths of the canyons whence the prin- 
 cipal supplies of water are derived, but the surface of the land slopes 
 upward much more rapidly. This increase in altitude is seldom 
 taken into full account when a well is sunk. 
 
 In the valleys which receive permanent streams and have satisfac- 
 tory wells in their lower parts the prospects are good for obtaining 
 water by sinking holes some distance farther up the slopes than 
 where the wells now existing are located. But it will generally be 
 necessary to sink to depths of several hundred feet before finding 
 water, and the water will not rise near the surface. Prospecting on 
 the alluvial slopes could be done more effectively with a drilling 
 machine than by digging. (See pp. 58-64.) Springs and crusts of 
 alkali in the low parts of valleys indicate that the water table is near 
 the surface, and hence, like wells, give a basis for estimating the 
 depth to water on the adjacent slopes. 
 
 In the dry valleys in the western part of the region, even where 
 springs or alkali flats are present, the prospects of obtaining water 
 beneath the alluvial slopes is more uncertain, and exploration should 
 be confined more closely to the lower parts of the slopes and to the 
 localities where the largest canyons discharge their storm waters. 
 
 On the side of a range toward which the rock strata of the range 
 dip there is generally a broad and high slope, as, for example, the 
 slopes on the west side of the Thomas Range and on the east sides of 
 
d700 
 3600 
 3500 
 3400 
 
 3100 
 3000 
 
 2700 
 2600 
 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SUR' 
 
 Elevation above 
 aea level 
 Fee£ 
 
 LYNN 
 4800 
 
 4700 
 
 4600 
 4400 
 4300 
 4200 
 4100 
 4000 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE III 
 
 GOSS 
 
 Gravel;: 
 water, 1^ 
 . Analyst - 
 
 ^ Quicksand;^, salty water 
 
 i^ 
 
 Quicksand; Salty water 
 Quicksand; salty water 
 
 Quicksand; salty water 
 
 Fine sand; salty water, 
 
 7:-r.-7:\ 14 gal. per min. 
 Analysis given 
 
 Quicksand; salty water 
 
 Shale and sand; hot 
 water 
 
 Sand, gravel, and bowl- 
 ders; salty water, large 
 yield. Analyses given, 
 
 Clay and sand; salty 
 water, 1 gaL per min. 
 
 Salty water, large yield 
 Analysis given 
 
 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE III 
 
 Elevation above 
 $<ea level 
 Feet 
 
 4800 
 
 LYNN 
 
 l^5\ 
 
 OASIS 
 
 Sandy clay; water 
 
 Gravel; hard but good 
 water, 108 gal., per min. 
 Analysis given 
 
 SWAN LAKE FARM 
 
 |k Several sand strata, 
 ^ yielding hard salty 
 
 Several sand strata, yielding small flows 
 of_s.oft water which contains hydrogen-; 
 sulphide 
 
 Sand; soft water 
 Flowed 30 gal. per min. 
 from 10-inch well 
 ^Sand; water 
 
 Several sand strata 
 which yield water . 
 generously 
 
 Gravel; salty water 
 "Hardpan" with thin' 
 layers of sand; salty 
 water 
 
 "Hardpan " with seven 
 strata of sand, each 
 4 to 6 inches thiclc ; salty - 
 water, small yield 
 
 Quicksand; salty water ■ 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 p^?fs$°S-S5 Gravel and conglomerate 
 Sand and sandstone 
 Clay and aliale 
 Limestone 
 
 Lava, volcanic ash. trap rock, etc. 
 
 Line showing height to which the 
 
 water rises by artesian pressure 
 
 Approximate horizontal scale 
 5 '5 10 Miles 
 
 Sand, gravel, and bowl- 
 ders; salty water, large 
 yield. Analyses given ^ 
 
 Salty water, large yield 
 Analysis given 
 
 WELL SECTIONS IN SEVIER DESERT AND LOWER BEAVER VALLEY . 
 
ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 37 
 
 the House and Confusion ranges. (See PI. TV.) On these large 
 slopes all the sediments above the rock formations are likely to be 
 dry, and the prospects of obtaining water at any practicable depth 
 are very poor. 
 
 In some places where layers of clay alternate with beds of sand 
 and gravel the water is prevented from sinking below the clay layer 
 but percolates along its upper surface. Where such a condition 
 exists small supplies are found unexpectedly near the surface, as, for 
 example, in the wells at Hoi den. (See fig. 12, p. 92.) 
 
 WATER IN HIGH VALLEYS. 
 
 The absence of springs and alkali flats in the lowest part of a valley 
 should be regarded as an unfavorable indication. It shows that the 
 unconsolidated sediments are not saturated to the level of the lowest 
 part of the valley, and it leaves no clue as to whether these sediments 
 contain any ground water or are entirely dry. If the basin is in- 
 closed on all sides and is underlain and bordered by impervious 
 formations, such as the Tertiary igneous rocks, it may contain some 
 water, but if it is only partly inclosed or is underlain by fissured 
 rock, such as the Paleozoic limestones, its water is likely to be drained 
 to lower levels. 
 
 The principal regions containing elevated valleys that have no 
 surface indications of ground water are the high country between 
 Juab Valley and Tintic Valley and the mountainous district between 
 Sevier Lake and Snake Valley. 
 
 ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 
 
 BEDROCK. 
 
 The conditions in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties are unfavor- 
 able for obtaining flowing wells from rock foriAations. In most 
 places the strata in the mountains dip away from the adjacent val- 
 leys or are so much contorted and broken that they preclude all pos- 
 sibility of giving rise to artesian pressures. In some places they 
 dip toward the valleys, but at so great an angle that they are carried 
 to profound depths before they reach the lowlands where they might 
 furnish artesian water. Moreover, the rocks which might bear water 
 are not generally covered by competent confining beds, or the latter 
 are so greatly faulted and fractured that they are ill adapted for 
 holding water under pressure. 
 
 Within this region there is no flowing well that is known to derive 
 its water from bed rock and no locality where the prospects for 
 obtaining flows from rock formations are sufficiently good to war- 
 rant the expensive drilling that is necessary to make a test. There 
 is a common fallacy to the effect that where flows are obtained from 
 
38 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 the unconsolidated sediments much stronger ones could be secured 
 by drilling deep into the bed rock. In fact, however, artesian con- 
 ditions in the unconsolidated valley deposits bear no relation to con- 
 ditions in the deeper lying bed rock, and are not in any sense an indi- 
 cation that flows could be secured by drilling into the deeper solid 
 formations. 
 
 UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. . 
 FLOWS IN THE VALLEYSi 
 
 In order to understand the artesian conditions in the unconsoli- 
 dated sediments it is necessary to recall some of the relations that 
 have already been explained. In many of the vallej^s these sediments 
 are saturated to the level of the low central flats. (See fig. 5.) New 
 supplies of water are poured into these valleys and sink into the 
 
 UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS 
 
 Impervious clay 
 
 Porous sand and 
 gravel above ground- 
 water table 
 
 Porous sand and 
 gravel below ground- 
 water table 
 
 Impervious bedrock 
 
 Figure 5. — Diagrammatic cross section of a typical valley, showing ground-water condi- 
 tions : (a) Dry hole which if sunk deeper would strike bed rock without finding water. 
 (&) Dry hole which woulo find water if sunk deeper, (c) Pump well of moderate depth. 
 (d) Strong flowing well, (e) Weak flowing well. 
 
 gravelly upper p^rts of the alluvial slopes. Thus the water beneath 
 the slopes accumulates till it stands above the level of the central 
 flats, and consequently moves slowly toward these low flats, where it 
 reappears at the surface and is generally disposed of by evaporation, 
 leaving behind the salts that it had taken into solution in the ground, 
 in this way forming the alkali crusts found in low places. 
 
 The unconsolidated sediments consist of gravel, sand, and clay. 
 Beneath the higher parts of the slopes gravel predominates, but far- 
 ther down in the valley it gives way largely to alternating beds of 
 sand and clay. These beds are nearly level where they lie beneath 
 the central flat, but curve upward where they extend beneath the 
 bordering slopes. (See fig. 5.) The gravel and sand are porous and 
 therefore allow water to percolate through them rather readily, but 
 the clay is so dense that it is relatively impervious to water. The 
 water which sinks into the gravel in the higher parts of the slopes 
 
ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 39 
 
 and travels toward the central flat becomes confined below layers of 
 clay, and the water which accumulates back of it places it under 
 pressure. This pressure may become so great that when the clay 
 layers are punctured, as in drilling, the confined water will escape to 
 the surface, forming flowing wells. (See fig. 5.) 
 
 If the clay layers were perfectly impervious the head of water 
 would in many valleys be great enough to produce flows with strong 
 pressure, but in fact they allow the water to penetrate them to such 
 an extent that flowing wells seldom have a head of more than a few 
 feet. For this reason springs, seeps, and alkali flats, by showing that 
 the ground water is under sufficient pressure to escape to the surface, 
 are indicators of artesian conditions. A valley showing no overfloAv 
 in the low places has poor prospects for flowing wells. 
 
 Large, steep alluvial slopes and an abundant water supply from 
 the mountains are also promising conditions for flows. Stronger 
 wells are generally obtained near the base of a slope than farther 
 out on the flat because the slight disadvantage in level is more than 
 counterbalanced by the greater coarseness of the sand and gravel 
 and the closer proximity to the supply. 
 
 It is evident from figure 5 that only a small part of the water now 
 stored in the ground would flow out of wells without pumping. It 
 is also evident that the amount of water that can be recovered from 
 flowing wells each year, though dependent upon the annual incre- 
 ment, is probably indicated pretty closely by the amount that an- 
 nually escapes to the surface in low places. This is far from being 
 the unlimited quantity that is so frequently postulated for artesian 
 basins. Yet it must be remembered that the water that issues in the 
 visible form of springs is probably only a small part of the total 
 amount that escapes. Larger quantities generally come to the sur- 
 face through capillary pores and evaporate unnoticed or with no 
 other indication of their escape than the alkali that they leave behind. 
 
 Flowing wells of the type described are in the north and south 
 basins of Juab Valley, in the north and south basins of Hush Lake 
 Valley, and in Little, Tintic, and Parowan valleys (Pis. I and II). 
 The greatest number are in Parowan Valley and in the north basin 
 of Juab Valley. Nearly all the wells are of small diameter and most 
 of them furnish but little water. Some of the strongest flows are in 
 Parowan Valley, where a few 3-inch wells yield more than 40 gallons 
 per minute each and the total yield in the irrigation season amounts 
 to several second-feet. 
 
 More water could probably be recovered from flowing wells in all 
 of the valleys mentioned. Parowan Valley has been developed most 
 extensively; Juab Valley perhaps presents the best opportunities of 
 further development, and Kush Lake Valley also offers a field for 
 further explorations. Pavant Valley (Holden to Kaiiosh) has been 
 
40 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 rather thoroughly prospected and the results have been disappoint- 
 ing. In the low parts of this valley the water rises nearly to the 
 surface, but nowhere have flowing wells of any consequence been 
 obtained. The large alluvial slopes and abundant water supply on 
 the east side appear promising, but the interrupted lava beds on the 
 west side may introduce an unfavorable structure. The drilling done 
 in Snake Vallej^ abo^^e Trout Creek likewise failed to obtain flows, 
 although in several wells the water rose nearly to the surface. How- 
 ever, this valley has not yet been thoroughly prospected. There is 
 also a chance for flowing wells in Round Valley, where some pros- 
 pecting has been done, and they might possibly be obtained in certain 
 restricted localities in the drier valleys of the region. 
 
 Wells intended to supply water for irrigation should be made 
 larger and should be sunk deeper into the unconsolidated sediments, 
 where they may discover strong water beds that are not now tapped. 
 The casing should be perforated to admit water at all levels where 
 satisfactory water-bearing beds are found. Many believe that very 
 deep expensive drilling would reach water under phenomenal pres- 
 sure sufficient to cause it to flow even on the bench lands, but this 
 belief is without foundation and affords no justification for expend- 
 ing public or private funds in attempting to get flowing wells on the 
 tipper parts of the alluvial slopes. 
 
 FLOWS IN THE DESERTS. 
 
 Over large tracts of the extensive ancient lake bottoms that now 
 form desert flats, such as Great Salt Lake Desert, Sevier Desert, and 
 Escalante Desert, the ground is saturated practically to the surface, 
 and ground water is slowly evaporating. Here wells obtain water 
 under sufficient pressure to rise within a few feet of the surface, or, 
 in certain localities, to flow above the surface. In principle these 
 wells do not differ greatly from the wells in the valleys. Their sup- 
 ply comes from the surrounding alluvial slopes and is imprisoned in 
 beds of sand beneath layers of clay. The areas in which flowing 
 water may be expected as a rule lie close to the base of the large 
 slopes or benches which furnish abundant supplies of water and do 
 not extend to the interior of the deserts, where the surface is slightly 
 lower. However, in the interior areas the sediments are so com- 
 pletely saturated and the water from different horizons comes so near 
 the general desert level that a slight depression in the surface may be 
 sufficient to make weak flows possible. 
 
 f Flowing wells of this type are found in Sevier Desert, at the 
 margin of Great Salt Lake Desert, and in Escalante Desert. The 
 flowing wells on the Beaver Bottoms, south of Black Rock, nearly 
 all of which lie in Beaver County, can also be included in this class. 
 
SPRINGS. 41 
 
 In Sevier Desert flowing waters are found in at least two distinct 
 areas — the Deseret area and the Desert Wells area. The Deseret area 
 which is the largest and most important area of flow in the region 
 under consideration, contains several hundred wells whose water either 
 overflows or rises so near the surface that no pumps are required. 
 The second contains only a small group of flowing wells, several miles 
 north of Sevier River, and has not yet been thoroughly explored. 
 Both areas lie near the base of the Lynn bench, from which they are 
 evidently supplied. Promising localities for further exploration are 
 along the foot of the bench east of Oasis and north of the Desert 
 Wells. The extensive sandy upland that reaches from Sevier River 
 nearly to Cherry Creek can hardly fail to provide a copious supply 
 of ground water to the lowland that borders it on the west. 
 
 The only flowing wells in that part of Grreat Salt Lake Desert 
 which extends into this region are in the vicinity of Callao. They 
 -are situated at the margin of the desert and derive their waters from 
 the large alluvial slope of the Deep Creek Range immediately to the 
 west. Flows can probably not be obtained more than a few miles 
 east of Callao although the surface descends slightly in that direction. 
 
 Two flows have been struck in Escalante Desert. — one near the west 
 margin and the other in a low tract in the interior. Flows with 
 slight pressure can probably be obtained in other parts of this desert. 
 
 In the desert areas, as in the valleys, stronger flows could be 
 obtained by drilling wells of larger diameter to greater depths and by 
 admitting water at more than one level, but no great increase in 
 head is to be expected from deep drilling. 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 MOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 
 
 The springs of this region fall into two general classes : Mountain 
 springs and valley springs. The mountain springs include seepage 
 springs and structural springs. 
 
 Rain or snow falling on the mountain areas may sink into the 
 disintegrated material that in some localities covers the firm rock 
 and may percolate through this loose surficial material until it 
 reaches a place where it is forced back to the surface by an outcrop- 
 ping ledge of rock. These springs, which may be designated moun- 
 tain seepage springs, are sensitive to differences in rainfall, and var}^ 
 greatly in their discharge, as is illustrated by Plate V, in which the 
 flow of a spring of this kind is plotted with the rainfall during the 
 same period. 
 
 In the arid basin ranges the principal formations are Paleozoic 
 limestones and (juartzites and Tertiary igneous rocks. As the igneous 
 
42 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 rocks have fewer fissures and crevices through which the water may 
 escape, and are covered with more rock waste than the limestones and 
 quartzites, most of the seepage springs are found in the areas of 
 igneous rock, as is well illustrated in figure 10 (p. 83). 
 
 The water that falls on the mountain areas may not merely sink 
 into the surficial rock waste, but may penetrate the joints, fissures, 
 bedding planes, solution cavities, or pore spaces of the bedrock and 
 descend far beneath the surface. As the relief of the mountain areas 
 is great and the rocks are much deformed, some of these passages 
 lead to the surface at lower levels, where the water that entered them 
 higher up in the mountains gushes forth in the form of springs. 
 This type, which may be designated structural springs, is most com- 
 mon in the sedimentary formations of the mountains that have 
 abundant precipitation. The discharge of such springs is more 
 nearly uniform than that of seepage springs and constitutes an im- 
 portant part of the low-water flow of the permanent streams of this 
 region. A striking example of this class is the Warm Spring at 
 Gandy, in Snake Valley, where a great volume of warm water issues 
 from the face of a limestone cliff. 
 
 SEEPAGE FROM UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 
 
 It has been fully explained (pp. 34-36) that in most of the large 
 rock basins, known as " valleys " and " deserts," the filling of uncon- 
 solidated sediments is saturated with water to the level of the lowest 
 parts, and that as new supplies are added overflow occurs in these 
 low places. Though much of this overflow is accomplished through 
 minute pores in the soil from which the water is evaporated so 
 promptly that the process is quite unnoticed, some of it is accom- 
 plished by a definite flow of water out of larger openings in the 
 ground, forming springs or seeps. Springs of this character do not 
 give a measure of the amount of overflow of the underground reser- 
 voirs, but they are important in showing that such overflow is taking 
 place. Like the flowing wells, to which they are closely related in 
 origin, they occur most generally at the base of the alluvial slopes 
 that have copious water supplies and are less common in the interior 
 portions of the flats. 
 
 Seepage springs are also likely to occur where the unconsolidated 
 sediments have been eroded, as along stream channels and ancient 
 shore lines. In some such places water is percolating along the upper 
 surface of an impervious layer high above the normal ground- water 
 level, and if the stream or wave erosion has extended down to this 
 layer a line of springs results. 
 
SPRINGS. 43 
 
 SPRINGS FROM LAVA BEDS. 
 
 It has already been pointed out (p. 31) that the basaltic lavas, 
 which are the youngest igneous rocks of the region, contain joint 
 planes and other openings along which water can percolate with 
 relative freedom; and that where these rocks lie at low altitudes they 
 may give rise to large springs. Black Rock Springs, Clear Lake 
 Springs, the Hot Springs north of Abraham, and some of the springs 
 between Enoch and Rush Lake have been cited as examples of large 
 springs of this type. 
 
 HOT SPRINGS. 
 
 Near the surface the temperature of the ground fluctuates with 
 the seasonal changes in the weather, but at a certain depth below the 
 surface the earth and the water which it contains are not affected by 
 these changes but maintain constant temperature, which is approxi- 
 mately the mean annual temperature of the region. The mean annual 
 temperature was found to be 47° F. at Levan (for the period between 
 1890 and 1903, inclusive) and 51° at Fillmore (for the j^eriod be- 
 tween 1892 and 1903, inclusive) .^ At greater depths the rock and the 
 water which it contains become gradually warmer, the increase gener- 
 ally being 1° F. for about 50 to 100 feet of increase in depth. But 
 where hot lava has been brought to the surface or intruded into the 
 older formations the downward increase in temperature is much 
 more rapid, even though the volcanic activity may have occurred 
 many thousands of years ago. Moreover, where the rocks have been 
 deformed heat has been produced by the friction involved, and here 
 the downward increase in temperature may also be rapid. If the 
 temperature of the water that comes from a spring is higher than the 
 mean annual temperature of the region, the spring is, strictly speak- 
 ing, a thermal spring. The high temperature indicates that the water 
 comes from a deep source or from rocks that have been heated by 
 volcanic activity, by deformative movements, or possibly by some 
 other agency. 
 
 This region contains a number of springs whose water is distinctly 
 warmer than normal. The principal ones are the Hot Springs north 
 of Abraham, the Hot Springs, northeast of Fish Springs Range, the 
 Warm Spring near Hatton, the Warm Spring at Gandy, the Big 
 Spring south of Burbank, some of the Fish Springs, and some of the 
 pool and knoll springs of Snake Valley. The Hot Springs north of 
 Abraham and the Warm Spring near Hatton are in close relation 
 to volcanic formations and their water evidently derives its high 
 
 1 Ilonry, A. J., Climatology of the United States: U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau 
 Bull, g, 190G, pp. 833, 834. 
 
44 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 temperature from them ; the others seem to be related to faults in the 
 rocks and their water is probably warm because it comes from great 
 depths or from rocks that have been heated by deformation. 
 
 POOL AND KNOLL SPRINGS. 
 
 Pool and knoll springs include an important class of peculiar 
 springs, typical examples of which are found only in Snake and 
 Fish Springs Valleys, though springs having some of their charac- 
 teristics are found in other parts of the region. In this class belong 
 the Fish Springs, Devil's Hole, Knoll Springs, Kell Springs, Bishop's 
 Springs (at Foote's ranch) , some of the springs between Foote's ranch 
 and Trout Creek, Willow Springs, Redding Springs (in Tooele 
 County), and perhaps the Hot Springs northeast of the Fish Springs 
 Range. The location of most of these springs is shown in Plate lY, 
 and all except Redding Springs are described in the sections of this 
 paper dealing with Fish Springs Valley and Snake Valley (pp. 
 124-126 and 129-133). Many of them yield warm water, and have 
 already been mentioned in the discussion of hot springs. 
 
 They are of two types, which differ completely in their external 
 appearance but occur in close proximity to each other and are evi- 
 dently related in origin. The pool springs are large deep reservoirs 
 filled with clear water, and many of them are inhabited by small 
 fish. At the top the reservoir or pool is bordered by a shelf that 
 extends over the water surface, giving the pool somewhat the shape 
 of a jug or cistern. The shelf appears to be composed largely of a 
 felt- work of vegetable fibers and to be formed by the joint work of 
 plants and wind. The plants at the margin extend inward across 
 the face of the water producing a tangle in which the wind deposits 
 sand and dust. In this manner a soil is formed on which the plants 
 can develop further and close in still more on the water area. Chem- 
 ical precipitates from the water form no important part of these 
 shelves. 
 
 The knoll springs consist of mounds or knolls, in few places more 
 than 10 feet high, from the top or sides of which water flows. The 
 knolls appear to be a development of the shelves of the pool springs. 
 They yield less water than the pool springs in the same locality, evi- 
 dently because the water is under less head. Thus there appears to 
 be a limit to the growth of the knolls, and their construction involves 
 the decline of the springs that have given them origin. 
 
 That these springs are not merely the return to the surface of 
 water that percolates into the sediments of the adjacent alluvial 
 slopes seems to be shown by the following facts : First, the yield of 
 many of them is larger than would be expected if they were sup- 
 plied from local sources; second, their yield is nearly uniform, 
 
QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 45 
 
 though that of ordinary valley springs fiuctuates with the season; 
 third, their location differs from that of ordinary valley springs, 
 the Hot Springs and the Fish Springs, with their copious flow^, being 
 near the end of a narrow and dry range, w^ith almost no alhivial slope, 
 and some of the largest springs of Snake Valley, such as those at 
 Foote's ranch, being on the east side of the valley, where relatively 
 little water is- supplied by the low, dry Confusion Range; fourth, 
 the temperature of many of them is distinctly higher than the mean 
 annual temperature of the region, which is not the case with springs 
 fed from shallow and local sources. All these differences suggest 
 a relation to the rock structui^, and such a relation is further sug- 
 gested by the somewhat linear arrangement of the different groups 
 and by the evidences of recent faulting recorded by Mr. Gilbert near 
 Hot Springs, Fish Springs, Willow Springs, Redding Springs, and 
 Knoll Springs. As the tendency of the pools to become inclosed by 
 a shelf or knoll seems to depend on the encircling vegetation, and as 
 the luxuriance of this vegetation may result from the Avarmth of the 
 w^ater, it may be that the knolls are in this way genetically related 
 to the rock structure. 
 
 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 
 SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS UPON ITS USE. 
 
 The water that falls as rain or snow contains little or no mineral 
 matter, but when it enters the ground and percolates through the 
 earth it gradually takes into solution substances w-ith which it comes 
 into contact. Therefore underground Avater ahvays contains some 
 dissolved mineral matter. As long as this matter is in solution it is 
 invisible, but when the water evaporates, as in a teakettle or a steam 
 boiler or on the surface of a low valley flat, the mineral matter is left 
 behind and forms a crust or scale. Ground waters differ greatly in 
 the total amount of substances contained in solution and also in the 
 proportions of the different substances. The most common of these 
 substances are calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, 
 bicarbonates, sulphates, and chlorine. When, by the evaporation of 
 the water or some other process, these substances are thrown out of 
 solution, they form compounds such as calcium carbonate (limestone), 
 calcium sulphate (gypsum), sodium carbonate (black alkali), sodium 
 sulphate (Glaubers salt), and sodium chloride (common salt). 
 
 Water will also take up organic matter with which it conies into 
 contact, and this organic matter may contain myriads of bacteria 
 that become suspended in the water. 
 
 The character of water and its value for various uses depends 
 largely on the substances it contains in solution or suspension. 
 
46 GEOUKD WATEES IN WESTEBN UTAH. 
 
 Small amounts of the common mineral constituents are not harmful 
 to health. Chlorides are not objectionable in drinking water if only 
 50 to 100 parts per million are present, but amounts clearly per- 
 ceptible to the taste render water unpalatable. Magnesic and sodic 
 sulphated waters are laxative and very high magnesium or sodium 
 content renders water unfit for man or beast. .The worst form of 
 alkali water is that which contains alkali carbonates. 
 
 Most of the bacteria that water may ^contain are probably harmless, 
 but among them may be the germs that produce typhoid fever or 
 other disease. Hence water that is known to contain a large number 
 of bacteria or a large amount of organic matter is regarded with sus- 
 picion, and if some of the bacteria are of the kind that come from the 
 intestines of man or other animals the water is considered unsafe for 
 drinking and general household uses. 
 
 Calcium and magnesium render water hard and therefore poor for 
 toilet and laundry uses. When water is boiled bicarbonates are 
 decomposed and an equivalent amount of calcium and magnesium is 
 removed, but the calcium and magnesium in excess of this amount, 
 such as would be present in gypsiferous waters, can not be precipi- 
 tated by boiling. Sodium and potassium do not consume soap and 
 therefore do not make water hard. 
 
 Calcium and magnesium compounds are the principal constituents 
 of the scale that forms in boilers. Sodium and potassium compounds 
 do not form scale, but when they occur in large quantities they cause 
 foaming and priming in boilers. 
 
 Among the common alkali salts, the least injurious to plants are 
 the sulphates, the most injurious are the carbonates, and the chlorides 
 occupy an intermediate position. Whether water of a certain quality 
 can be successfully used for irrigation usually depends on a number 
 of related conditions, among which may be mentioned the type of 
 crop that is to be raised, the amount of alkali already in the soil, the 
 natural drainage of the land or the ease with which artificial drain- 
 age could be established, and the cost and abundance of the water 
 itself. If the land is poorly drained and water containing consider- 
 able quantities of alkali is applied sparingly, the evaporation of this 
 water results in the gradual accumulation of alkali in the soil ; but if 
 the land is well drained and the same kind of water is applied in 
 large quantities the alkali that would otherwise accumulate in the 
 soil is washed out. T. H. Means ^ states that the limit of concentra- 
 tion for irrigation water has been placed by some authorities at 300 
 parts per million of sodium chloride (common salt) or sodium car- 
 bonate (black alkali) and at from 1,700 to 3,000 parts per million 
 of the less harmful salts ; that these limits are probably high enough 
 
 1 The use of alkaline and saline waters for irrigation ; U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Cir- 
 cular 10. 
 
QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 47 
 
 where water is sparingly used, and that even then all except the most 
 sandy soils or those with exceptionally good natural drainage would 
 ultimately be damaged. But he describes certain gardens in Sahara 
 Desert, in which vegetables considered sensitive to alkali are success- 
 fully irrigated with water that contains as much as 8,000 parts per 
 million of soluble salts of which as much as one-half is sodium 
 chloride. In these gardens a very thorough system of drainage was 
 established and the wat^r was applied frequently in large quantities. 
 
 WATER FROM THE MOUNTAIN AREAS. 
 
 The mountain streams of Avestern Utah are fed parth^ by springs 
 and partly by the run-off from rain and melting snow. The water 
 of these streams is, in general, moderately hard, but not otherwise 
 highly mineralized, most of the dissolved solids probably being con- 
 tributed by the springs. It is used chiefly for irrigation and is nearly 
 everywhere good for this purpose. 
 
 The water derived from the Tertiary igneous rocks and overlying 
 loose waste likewise generally contains only moderate amounts of 
 dissolved solids, as is shown by the analyses given in the section on 
 the Tintic mining district (p. 85). 
 
 GROUND WATER IN THE VALLEYS. 
 
 The water in the beds of sand and gravel beneath the alluvial 
 slopes does not differ greatly in its mineral content from that in the 
 mountain streams, though on the average it is probably somewhat 
 harder. In the central flats, where the soil contains considerable 
 alkali, the water near the surface may be charged with sodium salts, 
 but the deeper ground water is ordinarily of good quality. Most of 
 the springs in low places also furnish good water, though some of 
 them have deposited enough mineral matter to produce alkali flats. 
 
 GROUND WATER IN THE DESERTS. 
 
 On the alluvial slopes bordering the large desert flats and near the 
 base of these slopes the ground water is generally of good quality, 
 being comparable to that in similar situations in the valleys. The 
 flowing wells at Callao serve as an example. But in the interior of 
 the desert areas much of the ground water is saline. 
 
 The mineral character of the ground water in the vicinity of 
 Deseret is especially interesting. The water in the upper beds is so 
 salty that it is not used, but the water in the deeper beds thus far 
 encountered by the drill does not contain enough salt to make it 
 objectionable for drinking and household use, though it contains 
 more than is generally found in the water beneath the alluvial slopes. 
 The water from most of the deeper beds contains hydrogen sulphide 
 
48 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 gas, which imparts a characteristic odor and tends to come out of 
 sohition in small bubbles when the Avater is brought into contact with 
 the air. This deeper water is softer than most of the water of the 
 region. 
 
 Water is made hard by its content of calcium and magnesium, 
 which are derived largely from calcium carbonate and magnesium 
 carbonate. But these carbonates can be dissolved by the water only 
 through the aid of carbon dioxide, and the carbon dioxide is supplied 
 chiefly by decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil. It has been 
 explained that the principal ground-water supply of the region comes 
 from the high mountain areas, which have relatively heavy precipi- 
 tation and abundant vegetation, but that the supply for the vicinity 
 of Deseret comes in large part from the Lynn bench, which has only 
 a scanty desert vegetation. It is possible that this difference in vege- 
 tation, resulting in a difference in the suppl}^ of carbon dioxide, may 
 account for the deficiency of calcium and magnesium, and hence for 
 the softness of the water. This hypothesis accords with the analysis 
 given on page 116. 
 
 The wells on the flat of Sevier Desert that supply good water are 
 all within a few miles of the margin of the Lynn Bench. Deep wells 
 farther southwest yield highly mineralized water. Every water- 
 bearing bed in the railroad wells at Goss and Neels, which are, 
 respectively, 1,775 and 1,998 feet deep, yields salty water. 
 
 Similar conditions exist on the flat between Deep Creek and Fish 
 Springs ranges. The wells at Callao yield good water, but in several 
 wells drilled near Fish Springs Range only salty water has been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 In Escalante Desert more satisfactory water has been found. The 
 drilled wells at Lund and Beryl, Webster's flowing well, a large num- 
 ber of the dug wells, and the deep wells at Milford yield water of 
 fairly good quality, but on the flat between Milford and Black Rock 
 most of the deep wells yield salty water.^ 
 
 WATER FROM SPRINGS. 
 
 The character of the water from the mountain springs and the 
 ordinary lowland seepage springs has already been discussed, but 
 the character of the water from several less common types of springs 
 requires special mention. 
 
 - The Black Rock Springs and most of the other springs from lava 
 beds yield water that is only moderately mineralized, but the water 
 from Clear Lake contains considerable mineral matter, and that of 
 the Hot Springs north of Abraham is very salty. 
 
 1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
 Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 46. 
 
IKRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 49 
 
 With a few exceptions the pool and knoll springs in Snake and 
 Fish Springs Valleys yield water that is good to the taste. The Hot 
 Springs northeast of the Fish Springs Eange and the Warm Spring 
 near Hatton, like the Hot Springs north of Abraham, yield highly 
 mineralized water. 
 
 IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 
 DEVELOPMENTS. 
 
 The total area at present irrigated with water from wells does not 
 exceed a few hundred acres, and nearly all of this Avater comes from 
 flowing wells. The most extensive developments have been made in 
 Parowan Valley, and Juab Valley ranks second in this respect. 
 Small tracts are irrigated with artesian Avater at Callao and in some 
 other areas. 
 
 Pumping for irrigation has been attempted at the Desert Wells 
 (north of Burtner) , on the farm of Edgar AVarton (west of Holden) , 
 and to a slight extent in Juab Valley and elsewhere. The Desert 
 Wells and Warton projects have been abandoned and no specific data 
 in regard to them were obtained. 
 
 At the Desert Wells the water rises to the surface, but pumps were 
 installed, apparently for the purpose of supplying water in larger 
 quantities and of lifting it to a little better land than that on which 
 the wells are located. These wells are so small in diameter and so 
 shallow that they probably did not yield very large quantities of 
 water. Moreover, the soil is heavily charged with alkali (as is shown 
 by the analysis given on p. 110) and the drainage is poor. 
 
 The farm of Edgar Warton is situated on the flat between Holden 
 and Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain), where the ground water 
 is near the surface. Several wells of large diameter were here dug to 
 a depth of 40 feet. The water was lifted first with windmills and 
 later by means of a gasoline engine. 
 
 PROSPECTS. 
 
 More land could be irrigated with artesian water if wells of larger 
 diameter, tapping a greater number of water-bearing beds, were 
 sunk, and if such wells were more widely distributed over the favor- 
 able districts. As the areas of flow do not extend far beyond the 
 limits of the alkali flats only the outer zones are ordinarily available 
 for agriculture, but in order to recover the largest amounts of water 
 the wells should be widely distributed along these zones. It is also 
 important to conserve the water by allowing it to flow only when it 
 can be used. 
 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 4 
 
50 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 At best, however, the amount of land that can be irrigated with 
 flowing wells is small, the difficulty being that the head is every- 
 where so low that the yield is not large and trouble with alkali gen- 
 erally threatens where flows of consequence can be obtained. A short 
 distance up the slope from the margin of a flowing area and at a 
 slightly higher altitude the soil is generally better. Here the water 
 in drilled wells will stand near the surface and a moderate pumping 
 lift will suffice to raise comparatively large quantities to a position 
 where it can be used for irrigation. 
 
 Irrigation by pumping from wells could probably, by wise man- 
 agement, be made successful in Juab, Round, Pavant, Parowan, Rush 
 Lake, and Snake valleys, in parts of Escalante Desert, and on a 
 smaller scale in other areas, such as Tintic Valley. In Sevier Desert, 
 where trouble with alkali menaces, ground water might be success- 
 fully used for irrigation after an efficient system of artificial drainage 
 has been installed. Possibly the water from the large pool springs 
 could also be made available by pumping. 
 
 The principal factors that must be considered in pumping for irri- 
 gation are the quantity of water available, the quality of the water 
 and of the soil, the cost of sinking the wells and installing the pump- 
 ing plants, the cost of pumping, and the value of the crops. 
 
 QUANTITY or WATER. 
 
 The amount of available ground water in a given locality is fre- 
 quently overestimated. Because the existing wells, which are re- 
 quired to furnish only the small supplies needed for domestic or 
 live stock uses, have never shown signs of becoming exhausted, 
 it should not be inferred that any number of wells pumped contin- 
 uously at a rapid rate will likewise be inexhaustible. Ground water 
 is limited in quantity just as surface water is limited, and heavy 
 pumping will soon develop these limitations even where there was 
 not the slightest indication of them before. The quantity of water 
 that a stream will furnish can be estimated with considerable ac- 
 curacy on the basis of a series of definite measurements, but no such 
 precise methods can be employed to determine in advance the avail- 
 able quantity of ground water. For this reason projects based on 
 ground-water supplies must be developed with great caution. It is 
 true that ground-water supplies partake of the nature of huge reser- 
 voirs filled with water, but figure 5 and the accompanying discussion 
 make it evident that only a small part of these large stores can be 
 recovered without pumping from great depths, which would involve 
 greater expense than can be afforded for ordinary irrigation projects. 
 To be permanently successful a project must not draw from the under- 
 ground reservoir at a rate much more rapid than that at which the 
 supply is replenished by nature. 
 
IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 51 
 
 In order to obtain the maximum amount of ground water, it is nec- 
 essary to distribute the wells over the largest area feasible. The 
 amount of water that can be recovered in a given locality is suffi- 
 cient to irrigate only a small part of the total available land, but the 
 aggregate acreage that could be irrigated annually in these three 
 counties with ground water is no doubt large enough to add substan- 
 tially to their total agricultural production. 
 
 QUALITY or WATER AND SOIL. 
 
 "Where water from a stream or spring can be led upon land by 
 means of inexpensive gravity ditches, it may be profitable to use this 
 supply even though the alkali in the Avater or soil interfere seriously 
 with the crops; but where an expensive pumping plant is required 
 and the water must be lifted by means of power that costs money good 
 crops must be assured. If the cost of producing the crops exceeds 
 their value when sold, the project must obviously come to disaster. 
 Before a pumping plant is installed the water that is to be used and 
 the soil to which it is to be applied should be analyzed, and if the 
 results are not favorable the project should not be carried out. The 
 cost of having the quality of the water and soil investigated is small 
 as compared with the cost of installing and operating a pumping 
 plant. 
 
 COST or PUMPING. 
 
 The cost of installation includes the cost of the wells, pumps, 
 engine or other source of power, reservoir and distributing pipes or 
 ditches, and the cost of preparing the land for irrigation. 
 
 AYhere irrigating is done on a small scale windmills can be suc- 
 cessfully used, but the amount of water that they will lift is not 
 great, and they are unreliable because they depend on the caprice of 
 the wind. Where windmills are used reservoirs of considerable size 
 should be constructed, and winter irrigation should as far as is feasi- 
 ble be practiced.^ 
 
 For somewhat larger pumping plants gasoline engines furnish a 
 convenient and rather inexpensive source of power. Nine pumping 
 tests were made by Prof. C. S. Slichter in Arkansas Valley, in Kansas, 
 in which gasoline engines ranging in size between IJ and 10 horse- 
 power were used. In these tests the cost of the gasoline ranged 
 between 12^ and 22 cents per gallon ; the total distance that the water 
 was lifted ranged between 15 and 22 feet; and the cost of fuel for 
 pumping one acre-foot of water ranged between $1.09 and $3.75.- 
 Fourteen similar tests were made by the same investigator in Rio 
 
 1 See Fuller, P. E., The use of windmills in irrigation in the semiarid West : Farmers' 
 Bull. No. 394, U. S. Dcpt. Agr., 1910. 
 
 2 Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley, in western Kansas : Water-Supply 
 Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 153, 1906, pp. 55, 56. 
 
52 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Grande valley with gasoline engines ranging between 5 and 28 
 horsepower. The cost of the gasoline here ranged between 14 and 
 17 cents per gallon ; the total lift ranged between 24 and 46 feet ; 
 the cost of fuel for pumping one acre-foot ranged between $1.04 and 
 $5.80 ; and the total cost for pumping one acre-foot, including labor, 
 interest on investment, and depreciation, ranged, according to the 
 estimates, between $2.21 and $13.20.^ It should be understood that 
 the total lift is considerably greater than the normal depth to water 
 because the water level is inevitably lowered as soon as pumping is 
 begun, and also because it is generally necessary to lift the water a 
 few feet above the surface. In a well in which the water level is 
 normally 20 feet below the surface the water may readily be lowered 
 to a level of 30 or 40 feet below the surface when a large pump is 
 operated.^. 
 
 In a discussion of the cost of pumping in Arkansas Valley the fol- 
 lowing statement is made by Prof. Slichter in regard to gas-producer 
 plants : ^ 
 
 If plants of from 20 to 50 horsepower are constructed, as I believe will 
 inevitably be the case in the near future, the cheapest power will probably be 
 found in the use of coal in small gas-producer plants in connection with gas 
 engines. These small gas-producer plants are largely automatic in action and 
 can be operated by anyone. With hard coal or coke or charcoal at $8 per ton, 
 the cost of power would be less than one-half cent per horsepower for one 
 hour, or only one-fifth of the cost of power from gasoline at 22 cents a gallon. 
 The writer anticipates no diflBculty, therefore, in keeping the cost of water 
 below 60 to 75 cents an acre-foot for fuel, or below $1.25 to $1.50 an acre-foot 
 for total expenses. Hundreds of such plants have been put in use in England 
 during the past ten or more years, and they are in charge of unskilled labor. 
 These gas-producer plants are used in England for a great variety of purposes, 
 such as power for agricultural machinery and for small electric-light plants 
 for country estates, etc. They are used in as small units as 5 horsepower. 
 
 In this country the producer-gas plants have been in use for several years, 
 and at the present moment they are fast taking the place of steam power in 
 new plants. The cost of a producer plant and gas engine is about the same as 
 the cost of a steam engine and boiler of the same size if everything is included, 
 but the cost of power from the producer-gas plant is very much less than that 
 obtained from small steam engines. 
 
 In producer plants, ranging upward from 100 horsepower, a style of plant 
 may be installed in which soft coal or lignite may be successfully used. This 
 still further cuts down the cost of power. In fact, large plants of this type 
 furnish the cheapest artificial power that has yet been devised. The saving is 
 not only in fuel, but also in labor, as one man is capable of running a 300- 
 horsepower plant. 
 
 1 Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande valley : Water-Supply 
 Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 141, 1905, pp. 34, 35. 
 
 2 For further information on pumping plants see Gregory, W. B., The selection and 
 installation of machinery for small pumping plants : U. S. Dept. Agr. Exper. Sta. Circular 
 101, 1910. 
 
 3 Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley, in western Kansas : Water-Supply 
 Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 153, 1906, pp. 57, 58. 
 
CULINARY WATER SUPPLIES. 53 
 
 Coal that could be used for generating power exists in the moun- 
 tains of eastern Iron County/ 
 
 The mountain streams of this region are not large, but have so much 
 fall that they could be used to develop considerable power which 
 could be transmitted by means of electric currents and used for pump- 
 mg ground water. Several small power plants, used chiefly for elec- 
 tric lighting, have already been installed. 
 
 VALUE OF CROPS. 
 
 The staple crops of this region are wheat and alfalfa. If more 
 intensive crops, yielding larger returns per acre, could be raised, the 
 cost of pumping could be better afforded, but it is not safe to base 
 calculations on such crops unless it has been established that they 
 can be successfully produced and that there will be a permanent de- 
 mand for them in the market. As cold air is heavy and therefore 
 tends to sink, the low parts of the valleys and deserts have colder 
 nights than the alluvial slopes or bench lands, and are more liable to 
 have late and early frosts. For this reason fruit raising is not very 
 successful at the lower levels where the ground water is near enough 
 to the surface to be pumped. 
 
 The best use of the ground water is probably to supplement the 
 streams, especially since the flow of the latter is very irregular and 
 their water can not easily be stored. In the sjoring and at other 
 times when the streams are swollen the surplus water, now largely 
 lost, can be applied to fields on the lower parts of the slopes. AA^ien, 
 later in the season, the streams are small and none of their water will 
 reach these fields, the growing crops can be irrigated by pumping 
 from wells. By this combination method the ground water, available 
 at the times when most needed, but used only when necessary, will 
 have more than ordinary value, and small amounts will suffice to 
 reclaim relatively large tracts of desert land. 
 
 CULINARY WATER SUPPLIES. 
 
 Most of the settlements that depend on mountain streams for their 
 irrigation supplies are situated so far up the alluvial slopes that wells 
 can not easily be obtained. Naturally the water for drinking and 
 household use was at flrst also derived from these streams, and in 
 most places it was drawn from open ditches constructed along the 
 streets. Water from the streams is now generally regarded as unsat- 
 isfactory, though it is still used by most of these communities. The 
 domestic animals kept in the settlements roil the water and make it 
 filthy, the flocks of sheep that graze in the mountains impart to it 
 
 iLee, W. T., The Iron County coal field, Utah: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 310, 1906. 
 pp. 359-375. Richardson, (J. B., The Harmony, Colob, and Kanab coal fields : Bull. U. S. 
 Geol. Survey No. 341, pp. 379-401. 
 
54 GROUND 'waters IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 their characteristic odor, and the heavy rains that occasionally fall 
 in the mountains make it muddy. 
 
 The principal danger to health, however, probably does not lie in 
 the pollution from these obvious causes, but in that which results 
 when persons in the mountains become sick with diseases whose germs 
 can be carried by water. It has been demonstrated that in a com- 
 munity using water from a stream an epidemic of typhoid fever can 
 be produced by a single patient suffering with this disease at some 
 point in the drainage basin of the stream. In some localities in this 
 region there have been epidemics of typhoid fever and other enteric 
 diseases, and isolated cases occur after the epidemics are checked. If 
 a person in the mountains is attacked with typhoid fever he is gen- 
 erally ill for some time before he is brought to a settlement and 
 placed in care of a physician. While he is in the mountains his 
 excreta, burdened with typhoid germs, are usually not disinfected 
 and can easily be washed into a stream that furnishes the drinking 
 supply for a settlement below. This disease is no doubt spread by 
 other agencies, a discussion of which is not within the province of 
 this paper, but there is evidence that pollution of the water supplies 
 is an important cause of its prevalence. 
 
 Spring waters sufficient for a public supply and high enough to be 
 led by gravity through pipe lines are found within a few miles of 
 nearly every village situated on an alluvial slope. Waterworks sup- 
 plied from springs have already been installed at Nephi and Holden 
 and are being planned for Cedar City, Fillmore, and other towns. 
 In most places the expense of installing such a system of waterworks 
 is heavy when compared with the financial resources of the commu- 
 nity, but its value in furnishing a convenient, clear, and wholesome 
 supply of water would be great. In general the plans that are being 
 considered do not provide for fire protection, which would involve 
 an additional cost for a reservoir and large mains leading from it. 
 Springs used for public supplies should of course be carefully 
 guarded against contamination of any sort. 
 
 Several of the settlements, such as Scipio, Meadow, and Hatton, 
 are situated on relatively low ground, where water is found by dig- 
 ging to moderate depths. Here open wells furnish most of the sup- 
 plies for drinking and household uses. Their water may be con- 
 taminated by privies near the wells or by other sources of pollution, 
 but it is generally less dangerous to health than the stream water. 
 Safer supplies could be obtained by drilling to deeper water-bearing 
 beds of sand or gravel and finishing the drilled wells with tight iron 
 casings to shut out the surface pollution. 
 
 In the settlements along Sevier Eiver nearly the entire domestic 
 supply is obtained from wells. Most of these wells consist of small 
 drilled holes with iron casings 2 inches or less in diameter. AVhere 
 
SUPPLIES FOR DRY FARMS. 55 
 
 the casing extends to the surface and the water overflows there is little 
 or no chance of pollution. Where the water remains some distance 
 below the surface, as at Abraham and Burtner, but is allowed to dis- 
 charge into a dug pit, there is more chance for pollution unless the 
 pit is made water-tight. Where the casing is large enough and the 
 water is yielded rapidly enough the danger of pollution can be di- 
 minished by extending the casing to the surface and pumping from 
 inside of it. At Leamington there are shallow dug wells, but water 
 from Sevier River is also used. The water in the dug Avells is liable 
 to be somewhat polluted, but it is less dangerous to health than the 
 river water. The latter should not be used for drinking. 
 
 At Silver City, Robinson, and Mammoth the water supplies are 
 brought through pipe lines from distant mountain springs, and with 
 ordinary precautions they ought to be pure and wholesome. The 
 supplies* for Eureka are in part conveyed through pipe lines from 
 shallow wells in the Homansville Basin and in part drawn from 
 shallow^ private wells in the city. Many of the private wells are so 
 situated that they are dangerously exposed to pollution. With 
 proper care the Homansville water can be protected, but contami- 
 nating agencies, such as slaughterhouses, should not be tolerated 
 in this basin. 
 
 SUPPLIES FOR DRY FARMS. 
 
 On the dry farms water is required for culinary purposes and for 
 the horses and traction engines used in tilling the soil and harvesting 
 the crops. Many of these farms have been established high up on the 
 alluvial slopes or on other so-called' bench lands, where large tracts 
 of fertile soil, free from alkali, have hitherto remained unused. 
 Many of these elevated tracts are without water supplies and the 
 water used on the dry farms is hauled long distances. 
 
 The rainfall data indicate that most of the region considered is 
 too arid for agriculture without irrigation and that dry farming will 
 be restricted practically to the eastern valleys. As these valleys have 
 comparatively abundant rainfall and most of them receive mountain 
 streams their ground-water prospects are comparatively good. It 
 seems probable that in most localities where dry farming is practiced 
 adequate supplies of fairly good water can be procured from wells 
 within convenient distances of the fields that are cultivated. 
 
 Where the unconsolidated sediments are known to be saturated to 
 the level of the low areas, such as Juab, Little, Round, Pavant, Paro- 
 wan, Rush Lake, and Tintic valleys, water can generally be ob- 
 tained by sinking wells higher up on the bench lands than has thus 
 far been done, but the holes must be put down to depths of several 
 hundred feet, and the water Avill have to be lifted from considerable 
 depths beneath the surface. Positions not too high and as far as pos- 
 sible from the margins of the mountains, or from any outcropping 
 
56 GROUND WATERS 11^ WESTERI^' UTAH. 
 
 rocks, should be selected for wells, otherwise the water may be 
 reached at depths from which it can not be conveniently lifted, or 
 barren bed rock may be struck before any water is found. 
 
 Prospecting for wells in these localities can be done better with 
 drilling machines than by digging. The type of drill best adapted 
 for this kind of work is discussed on page 69. By ascertaining the 
 difference in altitude between the point where the drilling is to be 
 done and the nearest successful well in the valley, some conception 
 can be obtained of the probable depth to water. Generally, drilling 
 should not be undertaken where this difference is more than several 
 hundred feet. 
 
 If casing not less than 4 inches in diameter is used, there will be no 
 special difficulty in lifting enough water for dry-farm purposes from 
 depths of 200 to 300 feet, or even more. A deep-well pump should 
 be used which is entirely independent of the casing and whose cylin- 
 der and valves are near the bottom of the well. The pump rod will 
 occasionally break, because it will unavoidably wear against the 
 inside of the pump pipe. On account of the high lift the valves must 
 be kept in good condition. Repairing the pump rod or valves in a 
 deep well involves no great expense, but generally requires the labor 
 of several men for a few hours. 
 
 Certain arable tracts, such as lie between Juab and Tintic valleys 
 and in the region southwest of Kanosh, are so elevated and in many 
 places appear to have rock so near the surface that it is doubtful 
 whether available water exists there in the unconsolidated sediments, 
 while drilling into rock is an expensive and uncertain undertaking. 
 
 In Tintic Valley the alluvial slopes are so high and so much dis- 
 sected that only the lower parts of these slopes have good prospects. 
 
 On most of the Lynn bench the conditions are favorable for obtain- 
 ing satisfactory wells by sinking to moderate depths. 
 
 SUPPLIES FOR THE RANGE. 
 
 In the extensive tracts which are too arid for agriculture of any 
 kind, but which have a certain value for grazing, water supplies are 
 needed for live stock, but so great is the aridity that watering places 
 are scarce and even small supplies of poor water are highly prized. 
 Parts of the region are so far from any supply that they can be used 
 for grazing only in winter when there is snow on the ground. 
 
 The prospects of getting wells are of course much poorer here than 
 in the less arid dry-farming districts. In upland areas, such as the 
 country lying between Sevier Lake and Snake Valley or the extensive 
 bench lands east of the Confusion and House ranges and west of the 
 Thomas and Fish Springs ranges, the chances are strongly against 
 finding ground water. 
 
BOILER SUPPLIES. 57 
 
 Wells that would furnish valuable supplies for live stock, however, 
 would probably be successful in certain localities now destitute of 
 water supplies. Such localities exist in Sevier Desert north of the 
 Desert Wells, in the Old River Bed region, in the low parts of White 
 Valley, and possibly in the bottoms adjacent to Sevier Lake and the 
 lowest part of Wah Wah Valley. Wells should not be located either 
 far up on the slopes or far out on the flats, but on intermediate low 
 ground near the base of the slopes. The larger, steeper, and more 
 gravelly the slope or bench and the more extensive the drainage area 
 that pours its freshets over it, the better the chances of obtaining 
 water. In these localities rather thorough explorations for ground 
 water can be made without expensive drilling, for the formations 
 encountered will almost invariably consist of unconsolidated sedi- 
 ments that are not difficult to penetrate, and if bedrock should be 
 struck it would probably be unwise to drill into it. Moreover, if 
 properly located, a hole a few hundred feet deep wdll give a fair test. 
 
 Iron County is better supplied with watering places than Juab and 
 Millard counties, and this fact gives it a distinct advantage in rais- 
 ing live stock. The small springs in the western mountains are uti- 
 lized and a number of stock wells have been sunk in different parts of 
 Escalante De'sert. The value of these wells is great in comparison 
 with their cost. 
 
 BOILER SUPPLIES. 
 
 As this region contains no manufacturing towns, boiler supplies 
 are not of primary importance, but such supplies are needed for the 
 traction engines on the dry farms, for the stationary engines at the 
 mines, and for the locomotives on the railroads. 
 
 In endeavoring to procure locomotive supplies of adequate quan- 
 tity and satisfactory quality at proper intervals along the San Pedro, 
 Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad many difficulties were encountered. 
 On the main line supplies are now provided at Tintic Junction and 
 Jericho (in Juab County), at Lynn, Oasis, Goss, and Black Rock 
 (in Millard County), and at Lund, Beryl, and Modena (in Iron 
 County). At Tintic Junction the supply is taken from the Cherry 
 Creek pipe line; at Jericho it comes through small pipes from a 
 number of springs from 3 to 4^ miles distant; at Lynn it is drawn 
 from a well that furnishes a large amount of good water; at Oasis 
 it is also obtained from a well, but the w\ater is less desirable for 
 boiler use than that at Lynn ; at Black Rock a supply of good water 
 is derived from the springs near the station ; at Lund and Beryl the 
 supply is obtained from wells that furnish water of satisfactory 
 quality; and at Modena the suppl}^ is obtained through a pipe line 
 from springs or wells a short distance from the station. 
 
 The greatest difficulty was experienced between Oasis and Black 
 Rock. An old well at Clear Lake and the more recently drilled wells 
 
58 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 at Neels and Goss all yielded highly mineralized water. The wells 
 at Clear Lake and Neels have been abandoned, but the water from 
 the Goss well is used in locomotives when necessary, although it is 
 salty. 
 
 In addition to being used in locomotives, the railroad supplies are 
 largely relied upon for domestic purposes by the people who live at 
 the stations, there being no other water at several of the inhabited 
 points. At Clear Lake the drinking and culinary supplies are taken 
 from a reservoir into which water is hauled by the railroad company. 
 
 On the branch line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
 Railroad that passes through Juab Valley good locomotive supplies 
 are obtained from a flowing well at Starr and a spring near Juab. 
 
 The Rio Grande Western Railroad Co. has a locomotive supply at 
 Eureka, the water being derived from ishallow wells. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. 
 
 TYPES OF WELLS IN USE. 
 
 Four kinds of wells are found in this region: (1) Ordinary dug 
 wells; (2) small cased wells; (3) large drilled wells; and (4) large 
 open wells with infiltration galleries. 
 
 The dug wells, which are the most common type, are found on the 
 flats and on the lower parts of the alluvial slopes. They are sunk 
 only a few feet below the level at which water is struck and are 
 rarely more than 100 feet deep. Their construction requires con- 
 siderable labor but costs little otherwise, for they are seldom curbed 
 above the water level and the water is generally drawn with a bucket 
 attached to a rope. 
 
 The small cased wells are found in the flowing areas and in parts 
 of Sevier Desert where flows are not obtained but where the shallow 
 ground water is salty while the deeper water is of good quality. They 
 are sunk where 'it is desirable to shut out the first water encountered 
 and to tap deeper horizons — either because the deeper water is under 
 greater pressure or is of better quality. The casing, which consists 
 of iron pipe, is ordinarily between 1 and 2 inches in diameter. Since 
 these wells are sunk only in the low areas where the sediments pene- 
 trated consist of clay and sand with rarely any bowlders or large 
 gravel, they can be drilled rapidly by the jetting or hydraulic process 
 with a light and inexpensive rig. Where the water does not rise to 
 the surface by artesian pressure it is customary to have a so-called 
 " pit flow," a hole being dug to such a depth that the water from the 
 deep stratum, coming up through the casing, will overflow into the 
 hole, from which it is brought to the surface by a pump or other 
 lifting device. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. 59 
 
 A number of deep wells of larger diameter have also been drilled. 
 Some of these Avere put down by the railroad company ; others were 
 test wells sunk by the State of Utah; and still others were oil pros- 
 pects sunk by different concerns. 
 
 The large dug wells with tunnels or infiltration galleries are a 
 special t3^pe adapted to special conditions. They are found chiefly at 
 Eureka and Homansville where it is important to obtain as large 
 supplies as possible from the meager seepage out of the decomposed 
 igneous rock and overlying loose waste. 
 
 DRILLED AVELLS ON ALLUVIAL SLOPES. 
 
 The wells on the alluvial slopes are, almost without exception, of 
 the dug type, but in some respects drilled wells with iron casing 4 
 to G inches in diameter would be better adapted to the conditions. 
 They could easily be sunk to greater depths than the dug Avells and 
 thus they would frequently find water where the dug wells are 
 failures. They would not, like the dug wells, end in the first water- 
 bearing bed encountered, which is generally weak, but could be car- 
 ried to deeper horizons where large supplies would be found. They 
 would also be better protected from pollution and would therefore 
 furnish cleaner and safer water for drinking and culinary use. If 
 the labor required in digging a well is not considered, a dug well is, 
 of course, much less expensive than a drilled one would be, but if the 
 labor were paid for at a fair wage the dug well would probably not be 
 cheaper. Since the digging is frequently done at times when there 
 is no other work, the actual cost of many of the dug wells is not great. 
 For drilling on the bench lands the light jetting rigs used on the 
 flats would not be adequate, but heavy rigs, such as are used in sink- 
 ing oil wells, are not necessary. A portable rig with cable and 4-inch 
 or 6-inch percussion drill, built to go to depths of several hundred 
 feet, will be serviceable for this kind of work. Such a machine can 
 be purchased at a moderate price and operated with only moderate 
 expense. If bowlders too large to be pushed aside by the drill are 
 struck it may be possible to shatter them by the use of explosives, or, 
 if the drilling has not progressed far, a new hole can be started with 
 no ffreat loss of time. 
 
 In the so-called " pit-flow " Avells, the pit must be dug to the sur- 
 ficial ground-water level or somewhat lower. Unless these pits are 
 made water-tight by means of cement curbs, they may admit salty 
 water that in some places occurs near the surface, or bacteria -laden 
 organic matter from nearby privies or other sources of pollution. 
 The iron casing that extends to the deeper water is in most wells of 
 
60 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 SO small diameter that a pump placed inside of it would not give 
 satisfactory service, but if wells with somewhat larger casing (per- 
 haps 4 inches in diameter) were made, the casing could be brought to 
 the surface and "a pump hung inside of it, thus dispensing with the 
 pit. Where the water level is at a considerable distance below the 
 surface these wells of larger diameter would probably not be more 
 expensive than the small wells when the cost of the cement curb for 
 the pit is included. 
 
 IKRIGATION WELLS. 
 
 Wherever irrigation with ground water is undertaken wells of 
 large diameter should be drilled. These wells should be drilled deep 
 enough into the unconsolidated sediments to tap water-bearing beds 
 that have not been reached in ordinary drilling, and they should 
 admit water at as many levels as practicable. Since in the localities 
 where the ground water is near the surface the unconsolidated sedi- 
 ments are easily penetrated with a drill, and since rock drilling is not 
 involved, the difficulty of making these larger irrigation wells will 
 not be as great as might be supposed. With the proper type of 
 machine and with some experience in operating it, the work can be 
 done rapidly and with few mishaps. The adoption of better methods 
 than now prevail will lead to lower costs and to larger yields from 
 both flowing and pumped wells, and may make practicable the 
 development of ground waters in areas where their development is 
 now impracticable. 
 
 In California, where irrigation water is very extensively drawn 
 from unconsolidated valley-fill material similar to that in which most 
 of the valuable Utah ground waters occur, a special type of well has 
 been evolved. In the belief that the California method of well con- 
 struction can be used with advantage in the valleys of Utah, the 
 following description is quoted from a paper by Charles S. Slichter : ^ 
 
 CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The valleys in southern California are filled with deposits of mountain debris, 
 gravels, sands, bowlders, clays, etc., to a depth of several hundred feet, into 
 which a considerable part of the run-off of the mountains sinks. The develop- 
 ment of irrigation upon these valleys soon became so extensive that it was 
 necessary to supplement more and more the perennial flow of the canyon 
 streams by ground water drawn from wells in the gravels. This necessity was 
 greatly accentuated by a series of dry years, so that ground waters became a 
 most valuable source of auxiliary supply for irrigation in the important citrus 
 areas in southern California. The type of well that came to the front and 
 
 1 The California or "stovepipe" method of well construction: Water-Supply Paper 
 U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 32-36. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. , . 61 
 
 developed under these circumstances is locally known as the "stovepipe" well. 
 It seems to suit admirably the conditions prevailing in southern California. In 
 procuring water for irrigation the item of cost is, of course, much more strongly 
 emphasized than in obtaining water for municipal use. The drillers of wells in 
 California were not only confronted with a material which is almost everywhere 
 full of bowlders and similar mountain debris, but also by a high cost of labor 
 and of well casings. It was undoubtedly these difficulties that led to the very 
 general adoption in California of the " stovepipe " well. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS AND METHODS. 
 
 The wells are put down in the gravel and bowlder mountain outwash or 
 other unconsolidated material to any of the depths common in other localities. 
 One string of casing in favorable location has been put down over 1,300 feet. 
 The usual sizes of casings are 7, 10, 12, and 14 inches, or even larger. A com- 
 mon size is 12 inches. The well casing consists of, first, a riveted sheet-steel 
 " starter," from 15 to 25 feet long, made of two or three thicknesses of No. 10 
 sheet steel, with a forged steel shoe at lower end. In ground where large 
 bowlders are encountered these starters are made heavier, the shoe 1 inch thick 
 and 12 inches deep, and three-ply instead of two-ply No. 10 sheet-steel body. 
 
 The rest of the well casing, above the starter, consists of two thicknesses of 
 No. 12 sheet steel made into riveted lengths, each 2 feet long. One set of sec- 
 tions is made just enough smaller than the other to permit them to telescope 
 together. Each outside section overlaps the inside section 1 foot, so that a 
 smooth surface results both outside and inside of the well when the casing is 
 in place, and so that the break in the joint is always opposite the middle of a 
 2-foot length. It is these short overlapping sections which are popularly known 
 as " stovepiping." 
 
 The casing is sunk by large steam machinery of the usual oil-well type, but 
 with certain very important modifications. In ordinary material the " sand 
 pump" or "sand bucket" is relied upon to loosen and remove the material 
 from the inside of the casing. The casing itself is forced down, length by 
 length, by hydraulic jacks, buried in the ground, and anchored to two timbers 
 34 by 14 inches and 16 feet long, which are planked over and buried in 9 or 10 
 feet of soil. These jacks press upon the upper sections of the stovepiping by 
 means of a suitable head. The driller, who stands at the front of the rig, has 
 complete control of the engine, the hydraulic pump, and the valves by which 
 pistons are moved up or down, and also of the lever that controls the two 
 clutches which cause tools to work up and down or to be hoisted. 
 
 The sand pumps used are usually large and heavy. For 12-inch work they 
 vary in length from 12 to 16 feet, are lOf inches in diameter, and weigh, with 
 lower half of jars, from 1.100 to 1,400 pounds. 
 
 After the well has been forced to the required depth, a cutting knife is low- 
 ered into the well and vertical slits are cut in the casing where desired. A 
 record of material encountered in digging the well is kept and the perforations 
 are made opposite such water-bearing materials as may be most advantageously 
 drawn upon. A well 500- feet deep may have 400 feet of screen if circumstances 
 justify it. 
 
 The perforator (see fig. 6) for slitting stovepipe casing is handled with 3-inch 
 standard pipe with f-inch standard pipe on the inside. In going down or in 
 coming out of the well the weight of the f-inch line holds the point of the 
 knife up. When ready to " stick " the f-inch line is raised. By raising 
 slowly on the 3-inch line with hydraulic jacks, cuts are made from three- 
 
62 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 eighths to three-fourths inch wide and from 6 to 12 inches long, according 
 to the material at that particular depth. In another type of perforathig ap- 
 paratus (fig. 7) a revolving cutter punches fine holes at 
 Q each revolution of the wheel. This style of perforator is 
 
 called a " rolling knife." Besides these many other kinds of 
 perforators are in use in California. In fact, the perforator 
 is a favorite hobby of the local inventors. They all seem 
 to work well. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF CALftORNIA METHOD. 
 
 The advantages of this method of well construction are 
 quite obvious. For wells in unconsolidated material, the Cali- 
 fornia type is undoubtedly the best yet devised. * * * 
 
 Among the special advantages in the stovepipe construction 
 we may enumerate the following : 
 
 1. The absence of screw joints liable to break and give out. 
 
 2. The flush outer surface of the casing, without couplings 
 to catch on bowlders or to hang in clay. 
 
 . 3. The elastic character of the casing, permitting it to ad- 
 just itself in direc- 
 
 J 
 
 Figure 6. — Per- 
 forator for 
 slitting stove- 
 pipe casing. 
 
 tion and otherwise to 
 
 dangerous stresses, to 
 
 obstacles, etc. 
 
 4. The absence of 
 
 screen or perforation 
 
 in any part of the 
 
 casing when first put 
 
 down, permitting the 
 easy use of sand pump and the pene- 
 tration of quicksand, etc., without loss 
 of well. 
 
 5. The cheapness of large-size cas- 
 ings, because made of riveted sheet 
 steel. 
 
 6. The advantage of short sections, 
 permitting use of hydraulic jacks in 
 forcing casing through the ground. 
 
 7. The ability to perforate the casing 
 at any level at pleasure is a decided ad- 
 vantage over other construction. Deep 
 wells with much screen may thus be 
 heavily drawn upon with little loss of 
 suction head. 
 
 8. The character of the perforations 
 made by the cutting knife are the best 
 possible for the delivery of water and 
 avoidance of clogging. The large side 
 of the perforation is inward, so that 
 the casing is not likely to clog with silt 
 and d§bris. 
 
 9. The large size of casing possible 
 in this system permits a well to be put down in bowlder wash where a common 
 well could not possibly be driven. 
 
 Figure 7.- — Roller type of perforator. 
 
CONSTEUCTION OF WELLS. 
 
 63 
 
 10. The uniform pressure produced by tlie hydraulic jacks is a jxreat advantage 
 in safety and in convenience and speed over any system relying upon driving 
 the casing by a weight or ram, 
 
 11. The cost of construction is Ivept at a minimum by the limited amount of 
 labor required to man the rig, as well as by the good rate of progress possible 
 in what would be considered in many places impossible material to drive in, 
 and by the cheap form of casing. 
 
 COST OF THE WELLS. 
 An idea of the cost of constructing these wells can best be given by quoting 
 
 actual prices on some recent construction in California. According to con- 
 tracts recently let near Los 
 
 Angeles, the cost of 12-inch 
 
 wells was : 
 
 Fifty cents per foot for 
 
 the first 100 feet, and 25 
 
 cents additional per foot 
 
 for each succeeding 50 feet, 
 
 casing to be furnished by 
 
 the, well owner. This 
 
 makes the cost of a 500- 
 foot well $700 in addition 
 
 to casing. The usual type 
 
 of No. 12 gauge, double 
 
 stovepipe casing, is about 
 
 $1.05 a foot, 'With $40 for 
 
 12-foot starter with f-inch 
 
 by 8-inch steel ring. A 
 
 good driller gets $5 a day ; 
 
 helpers, $2.50 a day. The 
 
 cost of drilling runs higher 
 than that given above in 
 localities where large and 
 numerous bowlders are en- 
 countered. 
 
 The drillers build their 
 own rigs according to their 
 own ideas, so that no two 
 rigs are exactly alike ; that 
 is, the drillers pick out the 
 castings and working parts 
 and mount them according 
 to ideas that experience has taught them are the best for the wash formations 
 in which they must work. Figure 8 shows a connnon form of rig. 
 
 It is not very profitable to name individual wells of this type and give their 
 flow or yield, since conditions vary so much from place to place. From the 
 method of construction it must be evident that this type of well is designed to 
 give the very maximum yield, as every water-bearing stratum may be drawn 
 upon. The yield from a number of wells in California of average depth of 
 about 250 feet, pumped by centrifugal pumps, varied from about 25 to 150 
 miners' inches, or from 800.000 to 2,000.000 galhms a day. These are actual 
 measured yields of water supplied for irrigation. 
 
 Among the very best flowing wells in southern California are those near 
 Long Beach. The Boughton well, the Bixby wells, and the wells of the Sea 
 
 Figure 8. — Common form of California well rii 
 
64 GKOUND WATERS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Side Water Co. are 12-iiich wells, varying in depth from 500 to 700 feet and 
 flowing about 250 miners' inches each, or over 3,000,000 gallons per 24 hours. 
 The flow of one of these wells is the greatest I have seen reported. Among the 
 records for depth are those of 1,360 feet for a 10-inch well, and 915 feet for a 
 12-inch well. A new 14-inch well has already reached a depth of 704 feet. 
 
 WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OE TRAVEL. 
 
 The following information is given for the benefit of persons who 
 are strangers to this region but who wish for any reason to make a 
 journey to some part of it. In connection with these directions, Plates 
 I, II, and IV should be consulted. It should be remembered that 
 changes are made from time to time and that wells in use at one time 
 may later become filled up. For this reason inquiries* should be made 
 from local sources before starting on a trip. 
 
 RAILWAY STATIONS AND THEIR CONNECTIONS. 
 
 On the maps of this region stations are indicated at intervals of 
 several miles along the railroad, but most of these stations are merely 
 switches, with no inhabitants and no shelter, food, or water. 
 
 Eureka, Robinson, and Silver City are mining towns where con- 
 veyances and provisions for a journey can be procured. Mona, 
 Kephi, Juab, and Leamington are villages situated oh the branch 
 railroad that joins the main line at Lynn. Juab is the supply station 
 for Levan and also has stage connections with Scipio. Leamington is 
 a convenient station from which to reach Oak City. Lynn is a small 
 railroad town where it may not be possible to outfit for a journey. 
 
 South of Lynn the inhabited stations on the main line which sup- 
 ply the region east and west are Akin (Burtner), Oasis, Clear Lake, 
 and Black Rock, in Millard County; Milford, in Beaver County; 
 Lund and Modena, in Iron County. 
 
 Oasis is the principal supply station for middle and lower Snake 
 Valley, and is a good outfitting point for a journey to the western 
 parts of Juab and Millard counties. Oak City and Holden can 
 also be reached from this station. A stage goes twice each week to 
 Joy and freighters make regular trips to Fish Springs. 
 - Clear Lake is the principal supply station for Pavant Valley. A 
 stage goes daily to Fillmore, whence there are stage connections with 
 Meadow and Kanosh, and also with Holden and Scipio. 
 
 Milford is a mining town and also the supply station for Beaver 
 and the other settlements of eastern Beaver County. From this point 
 a branch railroad goes to Frisco and Newhouse, both of which are 
 mining towns. From Newhouse there is a stage line to Garrison, in 
 Snake Valley. 
 
 Lund is the supply station for Rush Lake and Parowan valleys. A 
 stage runs daily to Cedar City, from which there are stage connec- 
 
WATEEING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 65 
 
 tioiis with the other settlements in these valleys, and indirectly with 
 Sevier Valley. A halfway house between Lund and Cedar City is 
 situated at Iron Springs. 
 
 Modena is the supph^ station for settlements in Washington County 
 and for Gold Sj^ring, Stateline, and Fa}^ — small mining camps north- 
 west of Modena. There are stage connections in both directions. 
 
 TINTIC ^riNING DISTRICT TO SEVIER DESERT AND JOY. 
 
 The road leading from the Tintic district south to Leamington or 
 Lynn runs near the central axis of Tintic Valley. A good watering 
 place along this road is Mclntyre's ranch, in the center of the valley 
 and a short distance west of Mclntire station. Water can j)erhaps 
 also be procured at Jericho station or at some other point in the 
 valley. 
 
 In going to Joy or points beyond, water can be obtained along 
 Cherry Creek, preferably at Rockwell's ranch (NE. J sec. 30, T. 12 
 S., R. 5 W.). The onlv permanent water supply between Rockwell's 
 and Joy is at the Hot Springs, which are reached by leaving the main 
 road and following a road that leads southward along the east side 
 of the lava plateau. Since the water from these springs is too highly 
 mineralized to be fit for man to drink, it is usually Avisest to drive 
 directly to Joy. 
 
 From Rockwell's, a road leads to Abraham and another to Oasis. 
 Along the first there is no water until near Abraham; the second 
 passes the Desert wells, where water can be procured. 
 
 OASIS TO JOY, FISH SPRINGS, AND DEEP CREEK. 
 
 The trip from Oasis to Deep Creek is best made by wa}^ of Joy, 
 Fish Springs, and Callao, but it can be made also by way of Antelope 
 Spring, Trout Creek, and Callao. 
 
 Joy can be reached by way of Abraham or by way of the Old 
 Smelter well and the road between Drum and Little Drum Moun- 
 tains. On the Abraham route plenty of good wells are found be- 
 tween Oasis and Abraham, but the last watering place before reach- 
 ing Joy is a well a short distance northwest of Abraham, at the 
 buildings on the farm of Peter Christ ensen (SW. J SE. J sec. 15, 
 T. 16 S., R. 8 W.). On the other route the Old Smelter well, 15 
 miles northwest of Deseret, is used by the freighters, but it can not 
 be relied upon for a water supply unless specific information to that 
 effect is obtained. The next w\atering place after leaving the Old 
 Smelter well is at Joy, where there are two wells. 
 
 In going from Joy to Fish Springs the road shown in Plate IV 
 is followed. The first watering place after leaving Joy is at Cane 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 5 
 
66 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Spring, which furnishes water of poor quality that is used, however, 
 by the freighters for their horses. Six or seven miles farther north 
 is Thomas's ranch, where there is plenty of good water. At the 
 Utah mine, on the west slope of the Fish Springs Range, water ele- 
 vated from the mine is used for both man and beast. 
 
 Between the Utah mine and Callao there is no water, but at the 
 latter point there are good wells and springs. From Callao a road 
 leads northward and westward across the mountains to the settlement 
 in the valley of Deep Creek. 
 
 From the Utah mine or Callao the middle and upper parts of 
 Snake Valley can be reached by way of Trout Creek, where there are 
 two ranches with a good water supply. There is no dependable 
 watering place between these points and Trout Creek. 
 
 STAGE ROUTE TO FISH SPRINGS AND DEEP CREEK. 
 
 A stage goes from Ajax, in Tooele County, to Dugway, Thomas's 
 ranch, the Utah mine, Callao, and Deep Creek, but this route has 
 few watering places. Dugway (between the Dugway and Thomas 
 ranges) is uninhabited most of the time and has no reliable water 
 supply. 
 
 OASIS TO SNAKE VALLEY. 
 
 The middle part of Snake Valley is most conveniently reached 
 from Oasis, the road leading west across the House Range, White 
 Valley,* and the Confusion Range, as shown in Plate IV. After 
 leaving the settlements the first watering place is Antelope Spring, 
 on the House Range, and the second is one of the springs in White 
 Valley. In White Valley the road forks, one branch leading to 
 Trout Creek, another to Foote's ranch, and another to Meecham's 
 ranch and Garrison. The first watering places reached on these 
 routes after leaving the springs of White Valley are, respectively, at 
 Trout Creek, Bishop's Springs (near Foote's ranch), and Knoll 
 Springs. In Snake Valley, from Trout Creek to Garrison, Burbank, 
 and Big Springs, watering places exist at no great distances apart. 
 
 NEWHOUSE TO SNAKE VALLEY. 
 
 Newhouse is a mining town in Beaver County, at the terminus of 
 8 branch railroad that extends west from Milford. (Figs. 1 and 2.) 
 From this point a stage is run west-northwest to Burbank and Gar- 
 rison. On the route followed by the stage water can usually be pro- 
 cured at Kelley's, which is on the west side of Wah Wah Valley, 
 opposite Newhouse. A short distance south of Kelley's are the 
 Wah Wah Springs, the water from which is conveyed through a pipe 
 line to Newhouse, Between Kelley's and Burbank there is no 
 :^atering place, 
 
JUAB VALLEY. 67 
 
 BLACK ROCK AND CLEAR LAKE TO SNAKE VALLEY AND IBEX. 
 
 Snake Valley is more easily reached from Oasis or Xewhouse than 
 from Black Rock or Clear Lake. In making the trip from Black 
 Rock it is best to go first to Newhouse or Kelley's and thence follow 
 the stage road to Burbank. There is no watering place between 
 Black Rock and Xewhouse or Kelley's. 
 
 Ibex, a winter supply station for sheep herders, is situated a few 
 miles west of the southern extremity of White Valley, about 35 miles 
 by wagon road from Black Rock and 50 miles from Clear Lake. It 
 is on unsurveyed land in T. 22 S., R. 14 AV., and, as nearly as was 
 ascertained, its location in this township is about midway between 
 the north and south lines and a little over a mile from the west 
 boundar3^ The water supply, which consists of rain or melted snow 
 stored in small rock reservoirs, is not permanent and should not be 
 depended on unless specific and reliable information is received in 
 regard to it before the journey is undertaken. There is no water 
 between Black Rock and Ibex. In going from Clear Lake to Ibex, 
 water can be procured at the flowing well on the Swan Lake farm 
 (6 miles from Clear Lake station) and also at the headquarters of 
 the farm (on the banks of Sevier River, about 10 miles from the 
 station). There is no water between the river and Ibex, and none 
 between Ibex and Garrison. 
 
 JUAB VALLEY. 
 TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 Juab Valley is bounded on the east by a precipitous and imposing 
 rock wall, formed in the northern part by the southernmost exten- 
 sion of the Wasatch Mountains and farther south by the San Pitch 
 Mountains. (See PL I.) This section of the Wasatch Mountains is 
 in the main a huge anticlinal fold, flanked on the west by steeply 
 dipping strata, chiefly Carboniferous limestone.^ It culminates in 
 Mount Nebo, which projects to an elevation of 11,887 feet above the 
 sea and towers 7,000 feet above the center of the valley less than 5 
 miles distant. The San Pitch Mountains contain younger forma- 
 tions and nre capped by early Tertiary strata. 
 
 On the west the valley is bordered by a low but continuous range, 
 back of which lie loftier mountain masses. This range consists of 
 Paleozoic limestones, overlain to the north by igneous rocks and to 
 the south by a series consisting chiefly of red and yellow conglomer- 
 ate and sandstone, probably early Tertiary in age. This series dips 
 steeply eastward and pitches toward the south. 
 
 The valley constitutes a structural trough continuous, in a sense, 
 with Sevier Valley to the south and Utah Valley to the north, from 
 
 1 Emmons, S. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, 40tli Par., yol. 2, 1877, pp. 343, 344, 
 
68 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IIT WESTERIT UTAH. 
 
 each of which it is separated by a low debris-covered divide. It is 
 filled to an unknown depth with material washed from the mountain 
 borders. It contains a north basin and a south basin, which are 
 
 separated from each other 
 by a broad, gentle eleva- 
 tion commonly known as 
 the Levan Eidge (fig. 9). 
 The north basin belongs to 
 the Great Salt Lake drain- 
 age area and the south 
 basin to the Sevier Eiver 
 drainage area. The sur- 
 face water in each has an 
 avenue of escape from the 
 valley, not by way of the 
 low divide at either end, 
 but through a gorge cut 
 into the rock of the west 
 wall. The swampy and al- 
 kali conditions show, how- 
 ever, that in recent time the 
 drainage out of the valley 
 has not been vigorous. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 According to the rec- 
 ords .of the United States 
 Weather Bureau, the pre- 
 cipitation is greater in 
 Juab Valley than in any 
 other section discussed in 
 this report. (See p. 19 
 and fig. 3.) At Levan, 
 where observations have 
 longest been made, the 
 average annual rainfall for 
 the last 16 years was 16.58 
 inches, approximately 40 
 per cent of which fell in 
 the spring, 13^ per cent in 
 the summer, 20 per cent 
 in the fall, and 26J per cent in the winter. (See fig. 4.) In recent 
 years considerable success has been .attained with dry farming. The 
 principal product is winter wheat, and the usual method is to en- 
 
 I v:.-.v..-/ ^^y '^;;' grounS watefCm feetL- 
 
 pproximate contotirs'basedon 
 i&vay levels andanercddreadings 
 Contour interval 100 feet 
 
 Figure 9. — Map of Juab Valley, Utah, showing 
 ground-water conditions. 
 
JUAB VALLEY. 
 
 69 
 
 deavor to raise a crop only in alternate years.^ The abundant spring 
 rains favor this method of agriculture, but the dry season which 
 usually begins in June is adverse, especially for the late crops. 
 
 Precipitation (in inches) in Juab YaUeij. 
 Levan. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1892 
 
 1.29 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.70 
 
 l.CO 
 
 l.K) 
 
 1.95 
 
 .SO 
 
 1.43 
 
 .87 
 
 .93 
 
 .53 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.71 
 
 .91 
 
 1.(14 
 
 3.04 
 
 .82 
 
 0.55 
 
 .98 
 1.55 
 2.20 
 
 .(10 
 1.88 
 
 .25 
 2.25 
 
 .70 
 2.23 
 1.41 
 
 .98 
 1.93 
 2.53 
 1.37 
 2.70 
 1.19 
 
 2.90 
 3.42 
 1.20 
 3.50 
 1.49 
 2.22 
 1.45 
 3.96 
 .12 
 1.88 
 2.41 
 1.33 
 3.25 
 2.10 
 5.(19 
 1.21 
 1.00 
 
 1.G8 
 2.69 
 2.30 
 5.10 
 1.23 
 1.05 
 1.06 
 
 .71 
 3.70 
 1.02 
 1.20 
 2.03 
 1.00 
 1.03 
 3.77 
 1.19 
 
 .31 
 
 1.85 
 1.12 
 
 .96 
 7.18 
 1.58 
 
 .85 
 5.57 
 1.75 
 
 .57 
 1.74 
 
 .16 
 2.26 
 3.13 
 2.60 
 3.30 
 '2.33 
 4.35 
 
 0.47 
 .00 
 
 1.71 
 .28 
 .36 
 .41 
 .90 
 .95 
 .04 
 .29 
 .03 
 .48 
 .44 
 .30 
 .57 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.15 
 
 0.20 
 .40 
 .95 
 .84 
 
 2.26 
 .28 
 
 1.62 
 .25 
 .03 
 .25 
 .32 
 .47 
 .79 
 .34 
 .79 
 .43 
 
 1.06 
 
 0.02 
 
 1.68 
 
 .89 
 
 1.04 
 
 .71 
 
 .14 
 
 .73 
 
 1.06 
 
 .28 
 
 1.55 
 
 .20 
 
 .15 
 
 1.24 
 
 .47 
 
 1.31 
 
 3.57 
 
 1.55 
 
 Tr. 
 
 1.17 
 
 2.87 
 .91 
 .54 
 
 1.84 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 1.70 
 .18 
 .91 
 .92 
 .27 
 
 3.68 
 
 1.74 
 .91 
 
 2.89 
 
 ■".'26" 
 
 .85 
 
 .89 
 
 .50 
 
 3.29 
 
 .99 
 
 2.07 
 
 .69 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.56 
 
 .98 
 
 .12 
 
 .38 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.87 
 
 0.60 
 
 .96 
 
 .00 
 
 1.(53 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.23 
 
 .94 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.45 
 
 .53 
 
 1.98 
 
 .24 
 
 .00 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.57 
 
 .36 
 
 .63 
 
 2.38 
 1.85 
 2.75 
 
 .95 
 
 .36 
 1.65 
 1.36 
 1.91 
 
 .19 
 1.40 
 1.72 
 
 .52 
 1.52 
 
 .94 
 1.71 
 1.89 
 1.40 
 
 
 1893 
 
 15 75 
 
 1894 
 
 17.73 
 
 1895 
 
 26.12 
 
 189(1 
 
 12.37 
 
 1897 
 
 16. 79 
 
 1898. . 
 
 15. 67 
 
 1899 
 
 1900 
 
 17.43 
 10.34 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 13.31 
 12.49 
 
 1903. . 
 
 12.58 
 
 1904 
 
 16.26 
 
 1905 . . 
 
 16.24 
 
 190;; 
 
 23.84 
 
 1907 
 
 20.09 
 
 1908. . 
 
 18. '?2 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 1.37 
 
 1.49 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.83 
 
 2.43 
 
 .57 
 
 .66 
 
 .98 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.15 
 
 .94 
 
 1.44 
 
 16.58 
 
 Nephi. 
 
 1904. 
 1905. 
 1903. 
 1907. 
 1908. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.43 
 
 .26 
 
 0.94 
 .37 
 
 0.07 
 .49 
 
 0.18 
 2.86 
 
 1.07 
 .05 
 
 0.00 
 1.23 
 
 1.10 
 .69 
 
 .79 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.07 
 
 4.29 
 
 3.76 
 
 3.35 
 
 .61 
 
 1.45 
 
 2.31 
 
 .71 
 
 Tr. 
 
 1.81 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.82 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.26 
 
 1.28 
 
 2.13 
 
 1.30 
 
 .98 
 
 1.98 
 
 .64 
 
 .67 
 
 .66 
 
 2.01 
 
 .79 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.28 
 
 .44 
 
 4.46 
 
 1.23 
 
 .61 
 
 1.31 
 
 2.62 
 
 1.63 
 
 .66 
 
 .60 
 
 14.62 
 22.34 
 18.00 
 16.84 
 
 STREAMS. 
 
 Juab Valley receives the drainage of about 500 square miles, some- 
 what more than one-half of which belongs to the north basin. Most 
 of this area is mountainous country which lies east of the valle}^ and 
 gives rise to the creeks that furnish the irrigation supplies. The low 
 ridge to the west has no springs of consequence and gives rise to no 
 permanent streams. 
 
 Salt Creek, the largest stream, heads far back in -the mountains, 
 receives the drainage from the east side of Mount Nebo, flows through 
 a canyon between the AVasatch Mountains and San Pitch Mountains, 
 and enters the valley at Nephi, which it supplies w^ith water for irri- 
 gation. North of Salt Creek a number of small streams issue from 
 the high mountains and furnish irrigation supplies for ranches and 
 small settlements that extend from Nephi to the north end of the 
 valley. The surplus water that reaches the lowest part of the basin 
 is there stored, and is eventually led, through the canyon that forms 
 the north outlet of Juab Valley, into (loslien Valley, where it is 
 utilized for irrigation. (See fig. 9.) 
 
 1 Farrcll, F. D., Dry-land grains in the Great Basin 
 try, Circular 01, 1010. 
 
 U. S. Dept. Afir., Bur. Plant Indus- 
 
70 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 The largest streams tributary to the south basin are Chicken Creek 
 and Pigeon Creek, which provide the irrigation supplies for the set- 
 tlement of Levan. Farther north Fourmile Creek, a small stream, 
 flows out upon the Levan Ridge, where it supplies a ranch and a dry 
 farm. About 8 miles south of Levan, Little Salt Creek enters the 
 valley and furnishes irrigation water for a few families, and near 
 the south divide a small stream debouches from Chriss Canyon. The 
 surplus water in the south basin is utilized in much the same manner 
 as that in the north basin. It is stored in a reservior in the low cen- 
 tral flat, whence it is led, through the south outlet of Juab Valley, 
 upon lower ground in Little Valley. (See fig. 9.) 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 In the north basin a chain of seepage springs extends along the foot 
 of the east slope, which receives the principal suppl}^ of water from 
 the mountains. In the south basin an important group of springs 
 occurs on the farm of Arthur Meads (NW. J sec. 2, T. 15 S., R. 1 W.) , 
 at the foot of the alluvial fan of Chicken Creek. It is probably fed 
 largely by the irrigation waters applied to the Levan fields. 
 
 The springs in both basins are employed to some extent for irri- 
 gation, but much of the water goes to waste or is used to poor ad- 
 vantage on low-lying grass lands. Water from Meads's Spring is led 
 by gravity through a pipe line to the railway tank at Juab station and 
 is there used for locomotive supplies. 
 
 The discharge of some of the springs varies notably wit.h the dif- 
 ferent seasons, the yield being greatest from July to October, and 
 least in the latter part of winter. This fluctuation shows that the 
 ground water responds to the seasonal variations in precipitation, 
 but with a lag of several months, for the heaviest rainfall and the 
 largest supplies from the melting of the snow in the mountains occur 
 in the spring while the least precipitation is in the summer. 
 
 FLOWING WELLS. 
 
 In the low central part of the north basin (PI. I) numerous flow- 
 ing wells are found for a distance of about 12 miles, from a point 
 north of Starr nearly to a point in the valley due west of Nephi. 
 The position of most of these wells on the east side of the central 
 axis is due chiefly to the fact that the principal ground- water supply 
 comes from the east, but is probably in part also due to the fact that 
 the ranches and settlements are on the east side and therefore most 
 of the drilling has been done there. The flowing wells range in depth 
 from about 80 feet to somewhat more than 300 feet, and without 
 doubt all are supplied from beds of sand and gravel in the valley fill. 
 Nearly all are 2 inches or less in diameter, and their natural flow 
 
JUAB VALLEY. 
 
 71 
 
 ranges from a fraction of a gallon a minute to a maximum of about 
 30 gallons a minute. Their yield is said to vary in a manner some- 
 what like that of the springs, the largest discharge being in sunmier 
 and fall, and the smallest in the latter part of winter. Several wells 
 near the margin of the area of flow are so sensitive to climatic condi- 
 tions that they may cease to flow during or immediately after dry 
 seasons. The locomotive supply at Starr is furnished by a 1-^-inch 
 flowing well from which the water rises into the tank by artesian 
 pressure. 
 
 The low central tract of the south basin is somewhat wider but not 
 nearly as long as that of the north basin, and its ground-water re- 
 sources have been less thoroughly explored. Until recently the only 
 flowing well in this basin was that of N. M. Taylor, at Juab. This 
 well is 2 inches in diameter and 130 feet deep and discharges several 
 gallons per minute. It is situated on relatively low ground, but it is 
 west of the center of the valley and rather remote from the east slope 
 which is the main source of Avater supply. The water rises to at 
 least the level of the railway, which is here 5,077 feet above the sea, 
 or about 150 feet above the level reached by the artesian water in the 
 north basin. 
 
 In the summer of 1908 a prospect hole for oil was put down about 
 one-half mile east of Juab. It was 12 inches in diameter at the top 
 and 6 inches at the bottom and reached a depth of 560 feet. Water 
 was struck at different levels and when the drill reached a depth of 
 165 feet the water rose above the surface and overflowed at a rate 
 estimated by the driller at about 200 gallons per minute. The drilling 
 was finally stopped because of the abundance of Avater. The entire 
 hole is said to penetrate valley deposits. The section to the depth of 
 353 feet is reported by the driller as follows: 
 
 Section of ivell east of Juah. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Sand and gravel 
 
 Coarse gravel (water) 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Quicksand and gravel (water) 
 
 Conglomerate 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Gravel, with layers of quicksand and clay (flow). . . 
 Conglomerate alternating with blue and yellow clay 
 
 Feet. 
 30 
 10 
 5 
 
 75 
 7 
 3 
 
 35 
 188 
 
 Feet. 
 30 
 40 
 45 
 120 
 127 
 130 
 165 
 353 
 
 In the center of the valley in both basins the sediments washed in 
 from the mountains no doubt extend to considerable depths, and the 
 lower portions probably include beds of gravel that contain water 
 under fidly as great pressure as the shallower beds that have hitherto 
 provided the flows. Artesian water should not be expected on the 
 
72 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 bench lands, but the amount of water recovered through flows in the 
 low areas could be increased if wells of larger diameter and some- 
 what greater depth were drilled. 
 
 GROUND WATER BENEATH THE BENCHES. 
 
 In the two low central areas in which flows are obtained ground 
 water is invariably found near the surface and springs are abundant. 
 In passing from these central areas up the slopes toward the moun- 
 tains, the ground water occurs at greater depths as the altitude 
 increases. Where flows are not expected, the wells are usually dug 
 by hand and are not sunk far below the level at which the first water 
 is found. Though the yield of such wells is not large, it is generally 
 sufficient for domestic and stock uses. 
 
 In the vicinity of York, at the north end of the valley, about a 
 dozen wells have been sunk. Some of these wells found seeps at a 
 depth of less than 30 feet; others were carried to depths of over 100 
 feet. (See fig. 9.) In the village of Mona the domestic supplies are 
 derived chiefly from wells ranging in depth from a few feet to more 
 than 100 feet, according to the altitude of the surface. At Nephi, 
 which is located on the alluvial fan of Salt Creek, far above the low 
 central area in which flows are obtained, there are at present no wells, 
 but a successful well about 160 feet deep was at one time sunk. Far- 
 ther down the slope, northwest, west, and southwest of the city, a 
 number of wells have been dug, their depth depending on the alti- 
 tude of the surface. On the west side of the north basin wells are 
 scarce, but ground water in sufficient quantities for domestic and 
 stock purposes can probably be obtained, especially under the lower 
 parts of the slope. 
 
 A number of wells have been dug in the fields below Levan, and 
 ground water could probably be found beneath the village at depths 
 not greatly exceeding 100 feet. A few wells have also been sunk 
 south of Levan and in the region northwest of Levan, to within IJ 
 miles of Sharp station. At the Little Salt Creek settlement there 
 are several wells about 50 to 100 feet deep. On the farm of the Juab 
 Development Co., in sec. 19, T. 15 S., R. 1 W., just west of Chicken 
 Creek reservoir and near the west margin of the valley, a well was 
 drilled into rock and carried to a depth of 620 feet before obtaining 
 a satisfactory yield. The water in this well rises to a level 22 feet 
 below the surface. 
 
 Nearly all the wells in this valley are found within the areas in 
 which the ground water is less than 100 feet below the surface 
 (fig. 9), but recent dry-farming developments have created a demand 
 for water supplies farther up the slopes, especially on the Levan 
 Ridge. The ordinary failures of attempts to find water in the higher 
 
JUAB VALLEY. 73 
 
 areas are readily explained by the fact that sufficient account was not 
 taken of the altitude, the holes having been abandoned before there 
 was any reason for expecting water. It is probable that wells sunk 
 some distance beyond the limits of existing wells will be successful 
 if digging or drilling is carried to sufficient depths, but the upper 
 parts -of the slopes should of course be avoided. 
 
 The most southerly well in the north basin is located about 2| 
 miles north of Sharp Station and has water at a depth of about 60 
 feet. The most northerly well in the south basin is that of Grace 
 Bros., in the NW. i sec. 14, T. 14 S., K. 1 W., just west of the rail- 
 way and about IJ miles southwest of Sharp (fig. 9) . This Avell is 102 
 feet deep and its section is said to consist almost entirely of red clay, 
 in which a seep was obtained at the depth of 92 feet. About 2 miles 
 south of Sharp and at a somewhat lower level than the Grace Bros.' 
 well, is the well of J. W. Paxman, which is 56 feet deep and yields 
 generously. In the last two wells the water stands at a level of about 
 5,100 feet above the sea, or not much more than 100 feet below the 
 surface at Sharp, which has an elevation of 5,224 feet. This station is 
 situated at approximately the lowest point of the divide between the 
 north and south basins, and eastward from it the surface rises at the 
 rate of about 100 feet per mile for several miles, beyond which the 
 grade becomes steeper. (See fig. 9.) These relations give a basis for 
 forecasting the depth to the ground-water table beneath the Levan 
 Ridge. 
 
 QUALITY OF WATER. 
 
 The ground water in Juab Valley is hard, but, as a rule, is other- 
 wise of good quality, this being true even of wells and springs in 
 close proximity to alkali soils. A few of the shallow wells, especially 
 on the west side, are reported to yield somewhat saline water, but 
 here water of better quality can probably be found by tapping a 
 deeper bed. The quality of the water used at Starr as locomotive 
 supply is shown by the following analysis. This water is derived 
 from a flowing well about 100 feet deep. 
 
 Analysis of water from the railivay tvell at Starr. 
 
 Parts per 
 million. 
 
 Total solids 207. 5 
 
 Siliceous matter (SiO-) 4.5 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe20.i+Al203) 1 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 112 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 52 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 23 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgSOO, sodium sulphate (NasSOO, 
 volatile, organic and loss 75 
 
^74 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 
 
 Much of the water that sinks into the gravelly deposits in the 
 upper parts of the slopes, reappears in the low wet areas along the 
 central axis of the valley, where it goes to waste or is put to poor use. 
 A large part of this surplus ground water could be recovered through 
 wells before it reaches the central areas and could be applied to fertile 
 soil that is now idle for lack of water. 
 
 Up to the present time irrigation with ground water has not been 
 attempted except on a very small scale, chiefly from 2-inch flowing 
 wells. Though more water could be obtained from flowing wells 
 than is at present derived from this source, yet the possibilities of 
 irrigating with artesian water are limited by the fact that much 
 of the low land where copious flows can be obtained is too poorly 
 drained and contains too much alkali to be successfully cultivated. 
 If wells were drilled on somewhat higher ground and pumps were 
 installed, water could be recovered in larger quantities and applied 
 to better land. Before pumping plants are installed the precautions 
 discussed on pages 49-53 should be taken. Pumping plants could 
 probably be best employed in providing supplementary supplies for 
 the latter part of the growing season, when the flow of the streams 
 diminishes. 
 
 CULINARY SUPPLIES. 
 
 At Nephi water for domestic uses is derived from springs and led 
 to the city through a gravity pipe line. At Levan the stream water 
 that flows through the village is used. At Mona and most of the 
 smaller settlements and isolated ranches the drinking and culinary 
 supplies are obtained from wells. For some of the dry farms water 
 is hauled from distant sources. 
 
 ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The mountainous region west of Juab and Sevier valleys embraces 
 a north-south trough in which lie several small valleys that contain 
 tracts of arable land. West of this trough are the East Tintic, Can- 
 yon, and Pavant ranges, which form the highest part of the moun- 
 tainous region; east of the trough is a group of lower ridges, the 
 southern part of which is known as the Valley Eange. Sevier River 
 breaks into this trough through a gap in the east rim, flows north- 
 ward for about 10 miles in what is locally known as Little Valley, 
 and then escapes into Sevier Desert through a deep canyon cut into 
 
ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 75 
 
 the lofty west wall. Before the river leaves Little Valley it is joined 
 by the channel of Chicken Creek, which enters from the south basin 
 of Juab Valley through another gap in the east rim. Farther north 
 a rock-ribbed region, including Sage, Dog, and Fernow valleys, and 
 a small part of East Tintic Valley, is drained, at least potentially, 
 into this section of Sevier River. At the south end of the trough 
 lie Upper and Lower Round valleys. (See PL I.) 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 The oldest rocks in this region consist of indurated Paleozoic 
 quartzites and limestones which have been folded and greatly eroded. 
 They lie at the surface in many localities, chiefly in the northern part 
 of the region, and form the core of the Canyon and Pavant ranges. 
 Younger strata, consisting mainly of red and buff conglomerates, 
 sandstones, and shales, rest upon the irregular erosion surface of 
 the quartzites and limestones, producing a pronounced unconformity, 
 which is well displayed on the east flank of the Canyon Range. 
 These younger strata are believed to be, at least in part, of early 
 Tertiary age. They do not occur at the north end of the region, but 
 they form the east wall of Sage Valley and become increasingly 
 prominent south of Sevier River until, in the Round Valley area, 
 they conceal the older formations almost entirely. They are less 
 folded than the Paleozoic strata but are fractured and faulted and 
 in this region they generally dip towar'd the east. In Fernow and 
 Dog valleys the Paleozoic formations are partly covered by volcanic 
 rocks, which are probably j^ounger than the Tertiary sediments.^ 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 The following table presents a record of the monthh^ precipitation 
 at Scii^io, in Round Valley, where observations have been made for 
 the United States Weather Bureau since 1894. The average annual 
 precipitation at this point is somewhat less than at Levan, about the 
 jrame as at Fillmore, and decidedly more than in the desert region 
 farther west. (See p. 19 and fig. 3.) Approximately 35 per cent 
 of the precipitation occurs in the spring, 14 per cent in the summer, 
 24 per cent in the fall, and 27 per cent in the winter. (See fig. 4.) 
 Dry farming has been undertaken on a large scale in Dog and Little 
 valleys, the principal crop being winter wheat. 
 
 1 Smith, G. O., Tintic special folio (No. Go, Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. 2. 
 
76 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) at Scipio. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 •Tul^. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1894 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .68 
 .42 
 
 2.82 
 .42 
 .19 
 .58 
 Tr. 
 
 1.12 
 .07 
 .27 
 .50 
 .43 
 .46 
 .67 
 
 . .98 
 
 1.53 
 .28 
 
 1.59 
 .38 
 .44 
 
 1.03 
 
 i67 
 
 .21 
 
 .17 
 
 .51 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.64 
 
 2.17 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.08 
 .38 
 .89 
 
 1.39 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 1.17 
 .10 
 
 1.38 
 .98 
 .30 
 
 2.88 
 
 1.68 
 .73 
 
 2.09 
 
 ".'83" 
 1.53 
 3.34 
 
 "i'oe' 
 
 .57 
 
 1.31 
 
 .56 
 
 .67 
 
 .95 
 
 .53 
 
 .17 
 
 1.35 
 
 3.33 
 
 .00 
 1.35 
 1.14 
 1.55 
 1.36 
 
 .83 
 1.17 
 
 .51 
 2.31 
 
 .48 
 
 .00 
 2.66 
 1.99 
 
 .28 
 
 .46 
 
 2.00 
 
 .80 
 
 .40 
 
 1.49 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.85 
 
 .10 
 
 .76 
 
 .47 
 
 .33 
 
 1.99 
 
 .50 
 
 1.44 
 
 2.67 
 
 .74 
 
 
 1895 
 
 .58 
 
 1.22 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.89 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.04 
 
 .60 
 
 .80 
 
 1.51 
 
 .82 
 
 .67 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.39 
 
 .16 
 
 "".'io' 
 
 2.61 
 1.62 
 2.28 
 
 .20 
 2.43 
 1.61 
 
 .86 
 1.74 
 4.70 
 1.08 
 2.35 
 1.09 
 
 2.12 
 1.51 
 3.26 
 3.41 
 3.85 
 
 .10 
 1.02 
 2.25 
 1.59 
 3.21 
 2.58 
 3.97 
 1.41 
 
 .94 
 
 
 
 .33 
 Tr. 
 .21 
 
 1.10 
 .43 
 .10 
 .27 
 .08 
 .36 
 .28 
 .09 
 .71 
 
 1.22 
 .68 
 
 
 1896 
 
 1.06 
 1.26 
 
 .35 
 
 .51 
 2.09 
 1.07 
 1.17 
 1.83 
 
 .27 
 2.00 
 3.07 
 1.19 
 
 .46 
 
 1.36 
 
 .73 
 
 2.83 
 
 .70 
 
 .01 
 
 .83 
 
 .84 
 
 1.96 
 
 2.01 
 
 3.08 
 
 2.12 
 
 1.80 
 
 3.56 
 
 13.62 
 
 1897 
 
 19.24 
 
 1898... 
 
 
 1899. . 
 
 15. 52 
 
 1900 
 
 6.92 
 
 1901 
 
 12.69 
 
 1902 
 
 11.75 
 
 1903 
 
 11.01 
 
 1904 
 
 12.58 
 
 1905 
 
 21.13 
 
 1906.. 
 
 19.99 
 
 1907 
 
 18.03 
 
 1908 
 
 15.97 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 1.24 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.23 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.68 
 
 .42 
 
 .64 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.10 
 
 14.87 
 
 WATER SUPPLIES. 
 
 ROUND VALLEY. 
 
 At the south end of the mountainous trough lies Upper Bound 
 Valley, which is hemmed in on the east and south by the Valley 
 Range and on the west by the precipitous up-faulted wall of the 
 Pavant Range, but which opens northward into Lower Round Valley. 
 The lower valley, in which is located the village of Scipio, is bounded 
 on the east by the Valley Range, on the west by the Pavant and 
 Canyon ranges, and on the north by a low ridge, through which has 
 been cut a gap that is no longer functional as an outlet for the 
 drainage. 
 
 The water supply comes from a series of large springs and spring- 
 fed streams near the head of the upper valley, the principal sources 
 being Maple Grove Spring, Rock Creek, Phoero Creek, and Willow 
 Creek. (See PL I.) The water flows to a depression near the outlet of 
 the upper valley, where a reservoir has been constructed, and is thence 
 allowed to flow to the lower valley, where it is used by the people of 
 Scipio for irrigation. Any surplus water collects in the lowest part 
 of the valley. Faintly outlined strands show that at some time in 
 the past the lower valley held a lakelet with an area of several square 
 miles. North of the pass to Holden there are several canyons that 
 contain springs and small intermittent streams, but their discharge 
 is not large enough nor regular enough to be of much value for 
 irrigation. 
 
 The upper and the lower valley each constitutes a relatively inde- 
 pendent rock basin containing a rather thick deposit of loose sedi- 
 ments that are partly saturated with water. In the lower valley 
 there are many wells, most of which are in or near Scipio, where they 
 furnish the greater part of the supply for drinking, household, and 
 
ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 77 
 
 stock use. The ground-water level fluctuates with the rainfall and 
 the amount of irrigation water that is used. In the southeastern part 
 of Scipio tlie depth to water is more than 100 feet, but on the lower 
 ground in the northwestern part of the village and in the adjacent 
 area to the west it is generally less than 10 feet. Two test wells 
 have been sunk in the hope of obtaining flows. One was drilled in 
 the village square and is said to have been carried to a depth of over 
 300 feet, apparently all in loose valley deposits. The other was 
 drilled near the residence of H. Esklund, one-half mile or more west 
 of the square and at a lower altitude. In both wells the water from 
 the deeper beds rose fully to the level of the superficial ground- 
 water table, but in neither was a flow obtained. In the shallow- 
 water belt ground water could probably be profitably pumped for 
 irrigation. In the southeastern part of the village, where water 
 from the irrigation ditches is used for household purposes, more 
 satisfactory supplies could be obtained by sinking Avells. 
 
 LITtLE VALLEY. 
 
 Little Valley may be said to constitute the valley of Sevier River 
 from the Sevier Bridge dam to the point where it enters the canyon 
 in the Canyon Range. (See PI. I.) 
 
 In the level reach above the canyon the river has only a slight 
 grade and is bordered by swampy bottom lands on which a dozen or 
 more flowing wells have been drilled. ( See PL I. ) They are located 
 on sections 15, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28, and 34, in T. 15 S., R. 2 W. Most of 
 them are 2 inches in diameter and pass through clay, sand, and gi^avel 
 to depths of a little over 50 feet. The water rises only a few feet 
 above the level of the river and the yield is generally less than 10 
 gallons a minute. The land on which the flows are obtained lies so 
 low that it is not possible to make much use of the water for irriga- 
 tion. Several springs of good size also occur near the river. 
 
 On the east side of the valley, a short distance south of Chicken 
 Creek, a well 2 inches in diameter and 320 feet deep was drilled for 
 the Juab Development Co. It is said to end in valley sediments with- 
 out reaching rock, and the water rises within 18 feet of the surface or 
 slightly above the river level. This well is frequently pumped con- 
 tinuously for several hours at the rate of 5 gallons per minute. 
 
 The west side of the valley is occupied by a broad upland belt 
 which is underlain in part by Tertiary strata that are dissected into 
 a sort of bad-land topography and in part by younger sediments. 
 In the lower portions of this belt, lying near the ri^^er, there will 
 probably be no difficulty in obtaining enough water for domestic 
 and stock use by sinking to moderate depths in the valley sediments, 
 but on the higher levels the prospects are not good. 
 
78 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 SAGE VALLEY. 
 
 Sage Valley lies north of Little Valley and its surface rises 
 gradually from Sevier River to the rocky ridges that separate it 
 from Dog Valley. (See PL I.) As far as was ascertained, it contains 
 no spring, stream, or well. Wells sunk near the south end, where the 
 surface is low and the valley sediments are generally deep, would 
 doubtless obtain water, but farther north these sediments are likely 
 to be drained and drilling would be an uncertain undertaking. 
 
 DOG AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 
 
 Dog and Fernow valleys lie several hundred feet above Juab Val- 
 ley and Sevier River, and are hemmed in on all sides by rocky walls 
 consisting of Paleozoic limestones and quartzites and Tertiary 
 igneous rocks. The rock of both valley floors are in most places 
 covered with loose sediments, but irregularities of the surface as 
 well as exposures of the bed rock in certain localities indicate that 
 the average thickness of these sediments is not great. Both valleys 
 have gorge-like outlets toward the south, but neither has any per- 
 manent stream. At the north end of Fernow Valley several small 
 permanent springs issue from the porous mantle of disintegrated 
 material that covers the impervious igneous rocks at the head of the 
 valley. Recently a pipe line about 5 miles long has been laid from 
 one of these springs to the headquarters of the Utah Arid farm, in 
 Dog Valley. 
 
 There is no well in either valley, but two unsuccessful attempts to 
 obtain ground water have been made in Dog Valley — ^the first, a dug 
 hole about 75 feet deep, in which no water was found; the second, 
 a drilled hole put down in 1908 by the State of Utah. At a depth 
 of 230 feet in the drilled hole no water had been found, but some 
 sort of hard rock was encountered and the project was abandoned. 
 There are no surface indications that the unconsolidated sediments 
 contain water. The underlying limestones are likely to be traversed 
 by fissures or solution passages which may allow the storm water that 
 seeps into the unconsolidated sediments to escape to lower levels. 
 
 TINTIC VALLEY. 
 GENERAL EEATUKES. 
 
 Tin tic Valley extends for nearly 30 miles in a north-south direction 
 and comprises more than .300 square miles (PI. I). It is walled in 
 on the east and northeast by the East Tintic Mountains, on the 
 southeast by the Canyon Range, and on the west by the West Tintic 
 and Champlin mountains, its outlet being toward the south through 
 a constricted portion of the valley. 
 

 U. S. GEOLOGIC 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 
 
 277 
 
 PLATE V 
 
 
 J 
 
 J 1906 1 
 
 
 'June" 
 July 
 Aug. 
 Sept. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov.- 
 
 150.000 
 
 140.000 
 130.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120,000 
 110.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 — V- 
 
 \ 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 :r month) 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5: 
 
 ^ 80.000 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPRINGS (CUBIC 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 - 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 £J 50,000 
 
 40.000 
 
 
 
 
 1 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 1; 
 J 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30.000 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 / 
 J / 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 
 \ 1 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 
 i y'^ 
 
 '' 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 >REC 
 
 IPITA" 
 
 DON. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE V 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING FLOW OF THE SPRINGS THAT SUPPLY SILVER CITY AND THE RELATION OF FLOW TO PRECIPITATION. 
 
TINTIC VALLEY. 79 
 
 The stream channel which marks the central axis descends from 
 about 6,000 feet above sea level, near the north end, to 4,000 feet 
 where it enters the Sevier delta region, 200 feet above Sevier River. 
 The alluvial slopes that extend from the mountain borders to the 
 center of the valley are steep and gravelly, and are dissected to an 
 unusual degree, the erosion topography in many places giving a relief 
 of over 100 feet. The central draw is depressed below the adjoining 
 bench lands out of which it has been excavated, and south of Jericho 
 it expands to form the fiat bed of ancient Lake Bonneville, bordered 
 by terraces of the Bonneville stage. The draws or stream valleys 
 that are cut into the unconsolidated sediments are probably chiefly 
 relics of the humid epoch when Lake Bonneville existed. 
 
 Cedars and large sagebrush are found on the upper parts of the 
 slopes, and rabbit brush grows in the draws, that collect some mois- 
 ture. On the old lake bed the vegetation is dwarfed and scanty. 
 No rainfall observations are available for this region, but the char- 
 acter of the vegetation seems to indicate less intense aridity than in 
 the region farther west. The high bench land is gravelly and the low 
 draws and lake bed show indications of alkali, but areas of what ap- 
 pears to be good soil are found at intermediate levels. 
 
 The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad enters the 
 region through Boulter Pass at the north end, extends southward 
 through the entire length of the valley, and makes its exit through 
 the outlet at the south end. Except for the people at the Mclntyre 
 ranch, in the heart of the valley, and a few railroad employees the 
 valley is virtually destitute of permanent inhabitants. Dry farming 
 has not been seriously attempted. 
 
 WATER RESOURCES. 
 
 In the mountains at the head and sides of the valley springs are 
 numerous, but they are widely scattered and are not of sufficient size 
 to be of much value for irrigation nor to give rise to streams of any 
 importance. Consequently the broad alluvial slopes are destitute of 
 water except on rare occasions when the snow melts or a rainstorm 
 occurs and a mud-laden flood courses down the arroyos. The only 
 partial exception to this condition is the valley of Cataract, or Death, 
 Creek, which heads in the highest part of the West Tintic Moun- 
 tains and leads southeastward toward Mclntyre and which in some 
 seasons contains a small stream. 
 
 Although little prospecting has been done, there is evidence that 
 water exists in the valley deposits and that the central draw along a 
 part of its course has been eroded to the ground-water level. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Mclntyre ranch, wdiich is near the station 
 of Mclntyre, sec. 28 ( ?), X, H S., R. 3 W., near the junction of th^ 
 
80 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 main Tintic draw with the draw of Death Creek, the flat-bottomed 
 and deeply intrenched stream valleys receive numerous seeps and 
 small springs that make it possible to raise a little grass and grain. 
 At the old smelter, a short distance north of the ranch house, 
 ground water was at one-time tapped by running tunnels to dis- 
 tances of several hundred feet beneath the benches adjoining the 
 valley, and water still flows from these abandoned tunnels. At this 
 point there is also a shallow open well and a 2-inch flowing well, 
 which is about 90 feet deep and usually yields several gallons per 
 minute, though it is known to have stopped flowing in summer. At 
 the ranch house there is a flowing well, said to be 190 feet deep, which 
 yields a small supply of water. (See PI. I.) 
 
 About midway between Mclntyre and Jericho stations, in ravines 
 on the east side of the railway, are several small springs, variously 
 known as Cazier Spring, Squaw Bush Spring, Twin Springs, etc. 
 (PL I), which, together with the Kiley Springs in the mountains, 
 furnish the railway supply at Jericho, the water being led to this 
 station through pipe lines by gravity. 
 
 In the valley, a few miles south or southwest of Jericho, several 
 wells have, at different times, been dug to depths of 50 to 100 feet, 
 and fairly good supplies of water have been found. 
 
 About 2 miles north of Mclntyre station, in a draw on the east side 
 of the railway, there was at one time a well about 60 feet deep, which 
 is said to have had good water and to have been pumped by a 
 windmill. 
 
 About 1| miles northwest of Tintic Junction, a short distance west 
 of the railway, and situated on dissected bench land, is a dug well 
 belonging to G. A. Franke, which is 165 feet deep and contains about 
 12 feet of somewhat mineralized water. In a ravine southwest of 
 the Franke well, and a short distance north of the Cherry Creek 
 pipe line, is another dug well, which is said to have found good 
 water at a depth of about 50 feet. 
 
 The steep, gravelly character of the alluvial slopes makes it prob- 
 able that beds of sand and gravel extend to the center of the valley, 
 and the springs and wells that have been described give reason to 
 believe that these porous beds are saturated below a certain level and 
 that wells sunk to moderate depths in the lower parts of the valley 
 will be successful; but as the ground water is not under sufficient 
 head to rise to the level of the more fertile land, little irrigation will 
 probably be possible from flowing wells. On the higher ground in 
 the peripheral parts of the valley the depth to water is in all proba- 
 bility too great to make its recovery practicable. 
 
 In most places the limestone and quartzite formations of this 
 region dip away from the valley, and other conditions are unfavor- 
 able for obtaining water by drilling into rock. 
 
TINTIC VALLEY. 81 
 
 QUALITY OF THE WATER. 
 
 The water from most of the wells and springs in this valley is of 
 fairly good quality and is considered satisfactory for drinking and 
 for culinary uses. The result of an analysis, made in September, 
 1903, of the water from Cazier Spring, which is used by the railroad 
 company for locomotive supplies, is presented in the following table : 
 
 Analysts of icater from Cazier Spring, in Tintic Valley. 
 [Parts per million.i Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Total solids 508 
 
 Siliceous matter (Si02) 57 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (FejOs+AhO.) 3.5 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 137 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 38 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 39 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) ._ 163 
 
 Calcium chloride (CaCl) Trace. 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), 
 
 volatile, organic, and loss 70 
 
 TINTIC MINING DISTRICT. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 The Tintic mining district, one of the oldest and most productive 
 in the State, is located near the north end of the East Tintic Moun- 
 tains. The geology of the region has been described in detail by 
 George Otis Smith. ^ 
 
 The indurated rocks belong to two distinct groups : A thick strati- 
 fied series, consisting chiefly of Paleozoic limevStones and quartzites, 
 and a series of igneous rocks of Tertiary age. After the stratified 
 rocks had been compressed into large folds and had been somewhat 
 fractured and faulted they were extensively eroded. Later they were 
 invaded and in large part covered by the Tertiary lavas, which, in 
 their turn, have also been submitted to prolonged weathering and 
 erosion. The two systems differ radically in their relations to ground 
 water. 
 
 WATER IN LIMESTONE AND QUARTZITE. 
 
 The areas underlain by the Paleozoic stratified rocks are practi- 
 cally destitute of springs and wells (fig. 10) and the rocks themselves 
 are barren of water to great depths, several of the mines in this 
 region having been sunk to low levels without finding water or pass- 
 ing beneath the zone of oxidation. According to reports, the Eureka 
 
 1 Orifiinally reported in grains por gallon. 
 
 2 Tintic special folio (No. 65), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1000. 
 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 6 
 
82 GEOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Hill mine has reached a depth of 1,500 feet (4,976 feet above sea 
 level), the Centennial mine a depth of 1,800 feet (5,093 feet above 
 sea level), and the Mammoth mine a depth of 2,260 feet (4,780 feet 
 above sea level), each without finding water, while in the Gemini 
 mine water is reported at the 1,600-foot level (4,867 feet above the 
 sea), and a pump is operated at the rate of about 100 gallons per 
 minute. Apparently such fractures as exist in the limestone allow 
 the water to descend to profound depths. 
 
 WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING WASTE. 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 As is shown in figure 10, numerous springs are found in those parts 
 of the mountains where igneous rock constitutes the surface forma- 
 tion. The rock itself is nearly impervious, but its upper portion has 
 been disintegrated into loose, porous, gritty materials, with which it is 
 covered in localities that are sheltered from active erosion. The rain 
 percolates into the debris mantle, but is prevented from descending 
 far because of the underlying unweathered rock. Accordingly, the 
 ground water either accumulates or seeps along the surface of the 
 firm rock until it reaches a point where the rock crops out and the 
 water is returned to the surface in the form of a spring or seep. 
 
 Most of these springs are small, and as they are fed from shallow 
 sources their flow varies greatly. In figure 10 the yield of a group 
 of springs, whose water is led through a pipe line to Silver City, is 
 plotted for a period of three and one-half years, during which their 
 flow was measured, and on the same diagram is shown the precipi- 
 tation for this period at Levan, one of the nearest points at which 
 rainfall observations were made. The diagram shows that the yield 
 fluctuates widely and that the fluctuations follow those of the rainfall 
 with but slight lag. This diagram should not be given too strict an 
 interpretation because the rainfall in the vicinity of the springs may 
 have had a somewhat different distribution than at Levan and also 
 because of repairs that were made on the system and meter within 
 this period. Nevertheless, the records for this region show conclu- 
 sively that the heaviest rainfall occurs in the spring months, and 
 these spring rains no doubt account for the increase in flow shown in 
 this season each year. Moreover, the radical increase in flow in 1906 
 is clearly the result of an abnormal amount of precipitation at that 
 time, for the records of the 11 stations for which data are given in 
 this report all show more than the average amount of rainfall during 
 this year, and 9 show more rainfall during this year than during any 
 other in which records were kept. 
 
 Springs of this type furnish supplies for Silver City, Jericho, and 
 the Utah Arid farm, in Dog Valley. 
 
TINTIO MINING DISTRICT. 
 
 83 
 
 Contour interval 250 feet 
 Dcttvim is meeuv sea level 
 
 Valley depoaits Tertiary Paleozoic limestones Area containing 
 
 igneous rocks and quartzites shallow domestic wells 
 
 ^ © X ^ 
 
 Spring Pumping plant or large well Mine containing water Mine without water 
 
 Figure 10. — Map of Tintic mining district, showing tho relation of tho water supply to 
 the igneous rocks. (Geology after George Otis Smith, Tintic special folio.) 
 
84 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEIT UTAH. 
 
 WELLS. 
 
 Valuable supplies of water are derived from wells and infiltration 
 galleries in the sediments overlying the igneous rocks and in the 
 partly disintegrated upper portion of the rocks themselves. These 
 wells are situated in the Eureka and Homansville gulches, which are 
 on opposite sides of the main divide. (See fig. 10, p. 83.) The upper 
 joart of each of^ these valleys is underlain by igneous rocks, is rela- 
 tively broad and open, and is mantled with residual waste and sedi- 
 ments carried down from the mountain sides; but farther down in 
 each valley the igneous rocks give way to the more resistant lime- 
 stones and quartzites, and the valleys accordingly become more con- 
 stricted and canyon-like. The wells are found in the upper parts of 
 the valleys, as shown in figure 10. 
 
 In Eureka there are many private wells that are dug to depths 
 ranging from about 15 to 125 feet. Most of these wells extend to the 
 hard rock or are sunk a short distance into the rock, and they derive 
 their meager supplies from seepage near the bottom of the loose ma- 
 terials. Near the divide and in the Homansville Basin greater quan- 
 tities of water are recovered through large vertical shafts and hori- 
 zontal tunnels that afford extensive infiltration surfaces. Two of 
 these plants may be considered typical. 
 
 The water for the Gemini pumping station in the Homansville 
 Basin is obtained from one or more shafts which are 60 feet deep and 
 end in partly decomposed rock, and from two tunnels at the 60- foot 
 level, which are about 5 by 7 feet in cross section and have a combined 
 length of about 900 feet. At the time the plant was visited the water 
 level was only 20 feet below the surface, but it is reported to descend 
 nearly to the bottom in dry seasons. The pump is operated about 14 
 hours each day at the rate of 27 gallons per minute, and the engineer 
 in charge estimated that the maximum yield for continuous pumping 
 is only about 25 gallons per minute. The water is considered satisfac- 
 tory for use in boilers. 
 
 • At the Eureka Hill pumping plant, situated a little farther north- 
 east in the same basin, there is a main shaft, about 4 by 6 feet in cross 
 section, that extends to a depth of 265 feet, largely through inco- 
 herent materials consisting of clay, bowlders, and sand; two other 
 shafts ; and tunnels at the 65- foot and lower levels, said to aggregate 
 several thousand feet in total length. At the time the plant was 
 visited it was reported that the normal water level was 20 feet be- 
 low the surface but that the water in the well was drawn down to 
 60 feet below the surface by pumping. The pump is operated at the 
 rate of about 80 gallons per minute for about 5 to 12 hours each day, 
 fully 50,000 gallons being withdrawn on certain days. The water is 
 only moderately mineralized but varies considerably in mineral con- 
 
TINTIC MINING DISTRICT. 
 
 85 
 
 tent, probably with changes in the water level. The following table 
 presents two analyses of this water made by the Dearborn Drug & 
 Chemical Co. : 
 
 Analyses of Homansville well waier.^ 
 
 [Parts per million.] 
 
 August, 
 
 June, 
 
 1895. 
 
 1897. 
 
 400 
 
 320 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 9.9 
 
 1.2 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 65 
 
 33 
 
 163 
 
 146 
 
 65 
 
 35 
 
 Total solids 
 
 Silica (SiOa) 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (re203+Al203) 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 
 
 Magnesium (Mg) 
 
 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 
 
 Bicarbonate radicle ( I ICO3) 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 
 
 Chlorine (CI) 
 
 1 Those analyses were orlpjinally given in hypothetical combinations and in grains per 
 gallon. All of the carbonates have been recalculated as bicarbonates. 
 
 The Homansville wells furnish good illustrations of the fact that, 
 if the filtration surfaces are made sufficiently extensive, important 
 quantities of water can be recovered from materials whose specific 
 yield is very small. 
 
 MINES. 
 
 Near Silver City there are many old mines that have been developed 
 entirely in igneous rocks. They have invariably encountered water 
 that descends along the veins or fracture zones but does not seem to 
 have free means of escape into the subjacent limestone. As the water 
 in the different veins is not in close communication, the level at which 
 it occurs differs radically within short distances. Although the 
 quantity of w^ater is sufficient to be troublesome in mining operations, 
 it is not great when compared with the dimensions of the under- 
 ground workings. Mines that have been developed in igneous rocks 
 representing lava flows generally lose their water by downward per- 
 colation when they are sunk into underlying limestone. 
 
 DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIES. 
 
 To obtain enough water for domestic and industrial supplies the 
 meager sources of this area have been heavily drawn upon and one 
 source entirely extraneous to the area has been called into requisition. 
 
 The large Avells in the Homansville Basin and in the upper part of 
 Eureka supply a number of the principal mines, the Rio Grande 
 Western Railroad, and much of the water for domestic consumption 
 in Eureka, and small private wells in the city are also used for 
 domestic purposes. The water from springs whose flow has already 
 been discussed is conducted through a pipe line, by gravity, to this 
 region, where it supplies the domestic consumption of Silver City and 
 also a smelter and several mines. 
 
86 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN tJTAH. . 
 
 On the west flank of the West Tintic Mountains, about 20 miles 
 from Mammoth, there is a pumping plant that lifts water from 
 Cherry Creek to the summit of the range. From the summit the 
 \vater is conducted, through a pipe line, across Tintic Valley to Rob- 
 inson, where a second pumping plant is used in raising a part of the 
 water to the higher levels of Mammoth and some of the mines. It 
 is estimated that about 150,000 gallons are pumped daily at Cherry 
 Creek. The water thus obtained provides the railway supply at 
 Tintic Junction, the domestic supplies at Robinson and Mammoth, 
 and the supplies for several of the mines. The water is reported to 
 be somewhat hard but otherwise of good quality. 
 
 PA V ANT VALLEY. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Pavant Range extends along the southeastern border of 
 Millard County and forms a continuous mountain tract nearly 50 
 miles long, with its highest peaks rising 5,000 feet above the adjacent 
 country, or 10,000 feet above the sea (PL I). It abounds in springs 
 and streams and supports a forest of large trees. In ground plan 
 the range is a crescent, one horn of which projects north and the 
 other southwest. On its southeastern convex side is the valley of 
 Sevier River, which follows a course roughly concentric with the 
 crest of the range. In the concavity on the opposite side, this range 
 shelters the agricultural settlements of Kanosh, Hatton, Meadow, 
 Fillmore, and Holden, beyond which stretches the sterile desert of 
 western Utah. Toward the north the range bifurcates into the main 
 Pavant Range and the Valley Range, and between these two forks lies 
 Round Valley. North of the pass to Scipio the Canyon Range con- 
 stitutes a virtual continuation of the Pavant Range. 
 
 From the north end of Pavant Valley to beyond Kanosh extends 
 a relatively smooth and featureless, yet somewhat dissected, alluvial 
 slope, which descends gradually from the mountain borders and 
 passes insensibly into the flat bottom lands. Its broad and even 
 expanse is interrupted north of Fillmore by " Cedar Mountain " and 
 "Bald Mountain," and west of Kanosh b}^ two lava buttes. (See 
 fig. 11.) When Lake Bonneville stood at its highest level this slope 
 was partly submerged, and at the water's edge a shore line was cut 
 that can be seen distinctly when the region is viewed from the west. 
 This shore line lies between the 5,000-foot and 5,500-foot contours 
 as shoAvn on the map (fig. 11). It passes through Holden and Fill- 
 more and a short distance back of Meadow and Kanosh. On the 
 west the bottom lands are to a large extent hemmed in by various 
 low mesas of volcanic origin, but to the northwest, between the 
 
PAVANT VALLEY. 
 
 87 
 
 Figure 11. — Map of Pavant ^'allcy, showing streams, springs, and gi-ound-wator conditions. 
 
88 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Canyon Kange and Pavant Butte, they merge into the level expanse 
 of Sevier Desert. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 The rocks of this area include (1) quartzites and limestones, (2) 
 conglomerates, sandstones and shales; (3) volcanic and intrusive 
 rocks; and (4) unconsolidated stream and lake sediments. In age, 
 the first are Paleozoic, the second Mesozoic and Tertiary, the third 
 Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent, and the fourth chiefly late Ter- 
 tiary and Pleistocene. The limestones and quartzites form the core 
 of the Pavant Eange from the north end to the westward projection 
 southwest of Kanosh, and they are also exposed in ridges in the 
 valley between Fillmore and Holden. After they had been deformed 
 and eroded they were covered by the deposits that hardened into con- 
 glomerates, sandstones and shales, and that were later deformed and 
 deeply eroded. At the south end of the range and in the mountains 
 still farther south igneous rocks of Tertiary age occur in great quan- 
 tity. In the desert to the west lavas and tuffs, ranging in age from 
 Tertiary to very recent, lie at the surface in many localities, forming 
 a chain of buttes and low mesas that partly isolate Pavant Valley 
 from the main desert. Prominent among these buttes are Pavant 
 Butte (locally known as Sugar-Loaf Mountain), Ice Spring Buttes, 
 and Tabernacle Butte, all of which have been described in detail by 
 G. K. Gilbert in his monograph on Lake Bonneville. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 Observations made at Fillmore for the United States Weather Bu- 
 reau show that during a period of 17 years the annual precipita- 
 tion has ranged from 9.32 inches (in 1900) to 21.28 inches (in 1906) 
 (fig. 3), and has averaged 14.61 inches, of which 39 per cent has 
 fallen in the spring months, but only 14 per cent in the summer 
 months (fig. 4). The average precipitation is about the same as 
 at Scipio and slightly less than at Levan, but nearly twice as great as 
 at Deseret and Black Rock in the desert to the west. This difference 
 in climate is reflected in the natural vegetation, for on the Pavant 
 bench, as in Juab and Round valleys, large sagebrush flourishes, but 
 farther west the brush has a more pronounced desert aspect. The 
 Pavant Range, with its numerous streams and springs and its large 
 timber, forms a striking contrast to the dry and barren Basin ranges. 
 
 Dry farming has been undertaken on a large scale west of Kanosh 
 and on a smaller scale in other parts of the area, but at the time the 
 region was visited (1908) it was uncertain whether this new enter- 
 prise would be successful. 
 
PAVANT VALLEY. 
 Precipitation (iti inches) at Fillmore. 
 
 89 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 
 2.11 
 2.09 
 2.43 
 1.23 
 1.47 
 1.26 
 
 .59 
 1.45 
 3.18 
 2.35 
 
 .36 
 2.66 
 
 .26 
 1.53 
 4.38 
 
 .55 
 
 .50 
 
 2.03 
 1.53 
 
 .64 
 1.51 
 1.06 
 
 .03 
 4.44 
 
 .85 
 
 .35 
 1.92 
 
 .90 
 2.27 
 2.81 
 2.45 
 2.18 
 3.20 
 4.15 
 
 0.82 
 .00 
 
 2.04 
 .80 
 .01 
 .26 
 .96 
 .96 
 .60 
 .57 
 .09 
 .04 
 .25 
 Tr. 
 .40 
 .88 
 
 1.13 
 
 0.29 
 .48 
 .34 
 .56 
 
 2.36 
 .19 
 .99 
 .01 
 Tr. 
 .41 
 .49 
 .27 
 .07 
 .53 
 
 1.27 
 .97 
 
 1.46 
 
 0.47 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.19 
 
 .97 
 
 1.69 
 
 .31 
 
 .06 
 
 .28 
 
 .14 
 
 .90 
 
 .16 
 
 .38 
 
 1.13 
 
 .62 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.38 
 
 0.06 
 1.21 
 1.94 
 1.66 
 
 .85 
 1.50 
 Tr. 
 
 .00 
 1.58 
 
 .00 
 1.51 
 1.00 
 
 .10 
 2.81 
 2.38 
 1.24 
 2.02 
 
 1.07 
 .46 
 .41 
 .93 
 ..37 
 
 3.59 
 .60 
 
 1.94 
 .93 
 .72 
 .58 
 
 1.06 
 .62 
 .51 
 .15 
 
 1.99 
 
 3.31 
 
 0.53 
 
 1.11 
 
 .31 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.06 
 
 .66 
 
 .15 
 
 2.70 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 1.13 
 
 2.93 
 
 .25 
 
 .69 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.79 
 
 1.77 
 
 1.10 
 
 ..33 
 
 1..55 
 
 .76 
 
 1.03 
 
 .03 
 
 1.97 
 
 .46 
 
 .40 
 
 .95 
 
 .54 
 
 .63 
 
 1.86 
 
 1.55 
 
 
 1893 
 
 0.81 
 
 .70 
 
 1.93 
 
 .75 
 
 2.15 
 
 .15 
 
 .50 
 
 1.25 
 
 .35 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.89 
 
 .90 
 
 .72 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.51 
 
 .56 
 2.15 
 
 .16 
 2.17 
 1.20 
 1.40 
 
 .45 
 2.00 
 1.03 
 1.26 
 1.90 
 2.48 
 1.16 
 1.96 
 
 .87 
 
 2.89 
 1.04 
 2.06 
 
 .94 
 2.89 
 3.07 
 5.00 
 
 .15 
 1.54 
 2.59 
 1.19 
 2.16 
 2.66 
 3.88 
 1.34 
 
 .36 
 
 15.59 
 
 1894 
 
 13.37 
 
 1895 
 
 16.36 
 
 1896 
 
 11.16 
 
 1897 
 
 17.04 
 
 1898. 
 
 14.59 
 
 1899 
 
 14.48 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 9.32 
 12.88 
 
 1902 
 
 11.90 
 
 1903 
 
 11.97 
 
 1904 
 
 12.14 
 
 1905 
 
 16.16 
 
 1906... 
 
 21.28 
 
 1907 
 
 17.14 
 
 1908... . 
 
 18.43 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.39 
 
 2.11 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.90 
 
 .58 
 
 .63 
 
 .81 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.13 
 
 .98 
 
 1.05 
 
 14.61 
 
 STREAMS AND MOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 
 
 The settlements at the west base of the Pavant Range are devoted 
 almost exclusively to agriculture by means of irrigation, the water 
 being derived, not from a single large source, but from a number of 
 small streams that issue from the canyons and from numerous springs. 
 (See fig. 11.) In general the flow of the streams is most copious in 
 the spring when the snow in the mountains melts, but the discharge 
 of any stream is likely to be temporarily greatly increased at any 
 season by a heavy rainstorm in its small drainage basin. The normal 
 flow is all carefully appropriated during the growing season, but as 
 there are no reservoirs large amounts of water in times of flood and 
 much of the winter flow passes the cultivated fields and reaches the 
 bottom lands, where it is lost or produces a small amount of wild 
 grass. 
 
 The largest streams are Corn Creek, which drains about 90 square 
 miles and forms the principal irrigation supply for Kanosh and Hat- 
 ton, and Chalk Creek, which drains scarcely 50 square miles but 
 furnishes the main supply for Fillmore. At Meadow several small 
 streams are relied upon (chiefly Meadow Creek, Walker Creek, and 
 Sunset Creek), and at Holden several small streams (chiefly Wild 
 Goose Creek and Pioneer Creek) and a number of large springs are 
 utilized. A small amount of water issuing from the southwest flank 
 of the Canyon Range is also used for irrigation. 
 
 SHALLOW-WATER BELT. 
 
 Between the alluvial slope on the east and the lava fields on the 
 west there is a belt of low level land in which the ground-water table 
 is nearly at the surface. (See fig. 11.) Here there are many springs 
 and seeps, and wells obtain water at only slight depths. Both the 
 
90 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEISr UTAH. 
 
 northern section of this belt, which lies west of Holden and is in part 
 known as the Pioneer Hay Field, and the southern section, which lies 
 west of Fillmore and Meadow, support a growth of grass without 
 artificial irrigation and furnish rather extensive hay fields and pas- 
 tures. A chain of fresh-water springs, shown in figure 11, occurs 
 along the east margin of this belt from west of Fillmore nearly to 
 Hatton. Several miles northwest, of Hatton, near the northeast 
 corner of sec. 24, T. 22 S., R. 6 W., is the Warm Spring, from whose 
 tuffaceous basin flows a copious stream of mineralized water with a 
 temperature of 94° F. Several cold springs yielding mineralized 
 water occur farther west and north in this locality. 
 
 Most of the water in the shallow-water belt is derived from the 
 mountains east of this valley, but some seepage no doubt also comes 
 from the table-lands to the west and from the sandy tracts. In addi- 
 tion to the supply from these underground sources the surface waters 
 that are not diverted for irrigation accumulate in the low areas. The 
 contributions from surface sources are greatest in the winter and 
 early spring, but those from underground sources reach their maxi- 
 mum at a later season. The water level is usually highest and the 
 yield of the springs greatest in the summer, following with some lag 
 the thawing of the snow and the heavy rainfall of the spring months. 
 
 ARTESIAN PROSPECTS. 
 
 Considerable attention has been directed toward the possibility of 
 obtaining flowing water and several unsuccessful test wells have been 
 drilled. One of these was sunk by the State of Utah, about 5 miles 
 northwest of Fillmore (NW. i sec. 36, T. 20 S., R. 5 W.), on low 
 ground a short distance west of " Cedar Mountain." No definite rec- 
 ord of this well is available. Its total depth is reported to be about 
 900 feet ; the upper 100 feet are said to consist of clay and sand, be- 
 low which the drill penetrated shale and red sandstone. Plentiful 
 supplies of good water are said to have been found at the depths of 
 25 feet, 60 feet, and 80 feet, but there is less certainty as to the amount 
 found in the rock strata. The water did not come to the surface, and 
 that from the deeper sources barely rose to the level of the first 
 ground water. As a small amount of oil was struck, three other wells 
 were sunk by private enterprise. . One of these is in the same locality 
 and reached a depth of about 500 feet. Another, situated on the 
 higher ground of " Cedar Mountain," reached a depth of 700 feet, but 
 it is said to have found only a small quantity of water that stood 125 
 feet below the surface. The third well, situated at the northwest 
 margin of "Bald Mountain" (sec. 15, T. 20 S., E. 5 W.), only 
 
PAVANT VALLEY. 91 
 
 slightly above the level of the low flat, was carried to a depth of at 
 least 1,800 feet, and seems to have penetrated quartzite for much of 
 this distance. The drillers re2:)orted that water entered through crev- 
 ices at different levels and that the quantity was rather great. The 
 water stood about 40 feet below the surface and showed no tendency 
 to rise as greater depths were reached. The location of these wells 
 is shown in figure 11, page 87. 
 
 Throughout this region the structure of the rocks is not favorable 
 for accumulating water under artesian pressure. Although in cer- 
 tain localities the strata dip toward the valley, this is not their general 
 attitude, and the extensive fracturing and deformation do not give 
 much reason for expecting flowing water. 
 
 In the shallow-water belt there were better prospects of obtaining 
 flows from beds of sand in the unconsolidated sediments, but test 
 wells have here also resulted in disappointment. Wells have been 
 sunk in these sediments to depths of at least 190 feet. In some of 
 them the water rose practically to the surface, but, as far as could be 
 ascertained, no actual flow has anywhere been struck. The failure to 
 obtain flows is probably to be attributed to the absence of a com- 
 petent barrier on the west to confine the ground water and cause it to 
 accumulate under pressure. 
 
 AVATER BENEATH THE BENCH LANDS. 
 
 Bordering the shallow-water belt on the east is a zone in which 
 many wells have been sunk. In these wells the depth to water in- 
 creases in general with the distance from the shalloAV-water belt. 
 (See fig. 11.) The zone in which wells are successful coincides 
 roughly with the zone in which the depth of water is less than 100 
 feet, but there is reason to believe that for some distance farther up 
 the slope wells could be obtained by sinking to a somewhat greater 
 depth. The water level is, however, likely to be higher near the 
 settlements, Avhere the large streams emerge from the mountains, than 
 iri the intermediate meagerly watered tracts. 
 
 The conditions in regard to the water table in the vicinity of 
 Ilolden are the reverse of the conditions commonly found. This vil- 
 lage is located at the base of a low cliff that marks the Bonneville 
 shore line, several hundred feet above the bottom lands where the 
 water table comes to the surface. At the foot of the cliff a number 
 of springs emerge and wells find water at very shallow depths. 
 Westward from the cliff the surface descends gently, yet the depth 
 to water increases rapidly until in the northwestern corner of the 
 village it is nearly or quite 100 feet, and 2 or 3 miles farther west 
 
92 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 (N. ^ sec. 9, T. 20 S., R. 4 W.), and at a much lower level, there is a 
 dry hole 90 feet deep. In figure 12 is shown the position of the cliff 
 and springs, the location and depth to water of some of the wells, the 
 slope of the surface, and the slope of the ground-water table, both of 
 the latter being shown by contour lines with vertical intervals of 20 
 feet and referred to an arbitrary datum of 100 feet below the post 
 office. The explanation of the couditions seems to be that, a certain 
 amount of underground seepage, instead of sinking at once to its 
 
 normal level, follows along an 
 impervious formation which 
 comes near the surface at the 
 foot of the cliff, but descends to 
 greater depths toward the west. 
 
 QUALITT OF GROUND WATER. 
 
 In the following table are 
 given two analyses of ground 
 water from this area, both made 
 at the Utah agricultural experi- 
 ment station: 
 
 The first is an anaylsis of 
 water from the well of Daniel 
 Stevens on the NW. J sec. 1, 
 T. 21 S., R. 5 W., a few miles 
 northwest of Fillmore ; the well 
 is 50 feet deep and has a nor- 
 mal depth to water of- about 35 
 feet. As shown by the analy- 
 sis the water contains only 
 moderate amounts of the ordi- 
 nary mineral substances, in 
 which respect it is probably 
 more or less typical of the 
 water derived from most of the 
 wells in this area and also of that from the springs along the east 
 margin of the shallow-water belt. 
 
 The second is an analysis of water from the well on the Kanosh 
 Arid Farm, in the NE. J sec. 16, T. 23 S., R. 6 W., on low level 
 ground several miles west of the village of Kanosh. This well is 42 
 feet deep, normally contains 4 or 5 feet of water and has yielded as 
 much as 2,800 gallons in a day, or 400 gallons in a period of 30 
 minutes. The analysis shows that the water is rather highly min- 
 eralized, about one-half of its dissolved solid content apparently be- 
 
 ^%m\\^' 
 
 500 
 
 Wells,givingdepth 
 in feet to water 
 
 2000 Feet 
 
 Contour interval ZOfeet 
 JJatvcm. isioofeet l>eloWJRO. 
 
 Figure 12.^ — Map of Holden, showing the re- 
 lation of tlae ground-water table to the 
 surface. 
 
PAVANT VALLEY. 
 
 93 
 
 ing common salt. In the region north of this well there are several 
 springs, including the AYarm Sj^ring, that yield mineralized water. 
 
 Analyses of ground loatcrs in I'acant Valley, 
 (Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. (Jroaves.] 
 
 Total solids . 
 Silica XSi02). 
 Iron 
 
 (Fc). 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 
 
 Carbonates, stated as calcium carbonate (CaCos). 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO^) 
 
 Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) 
 
 D. Stev- 
 ens's 
 well. 
 
 520 
 
 29 
 
 Trace. 
 
 38 
 
 258 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 Well on 
 
 Kanosh 
 
 Arid Farm. 
 
 2,220 
 
 30 
 
 Trace. 
 
 73 
 
 714 
 
 294 
 
 1,181 
 
 IRRIGATION AVITH GROUND WATER. 
 
 Though flowing water may y^t be obtained from Avells sunk in un- 
 consolidated sediments in the low-lying bottom lands, it is not prob- 
 able that such wells would be of much consequence for irrigation be- 
 cause the pressure would probably be so Aveak that the yield would be 
 small and the water would rise only to the surface of the low ground 
 that is ill adapted for agriculture. 
 
 A few years ago an attempt Avas made by Edgar Warton to irri- 
 gate on his land, 4 miles Avest of Holden (S. -| sec. 6, T. 20 S., E. 4 
 AY.; see fig. 11), by pumping from wells of large diameter dug to 
 a depth of about 40 feet. The poAver AA^as at first applied by wind- 
 mills but a gasoline engine was later installed. At the time the re- 
 gion Avas visited this project had been abandoned but no definite in- 
 formation was obtained as to the difficulties encountered. 
 
 NotAvithstanding this apparent failure, it seems probable that a 
 certain amount of irrigation could be successfully accomplished by 
 pumping ground water. There is little doubt that a large supply of 
 good water is available. The greatest danger of failure in this region 
 lies in the alkali in the soil of the shallow-water tracts. In en- 
 deavoring to keep the vertical lift as Ioav as possible there is danger 
 of locating on land that is poorly drained and so impregnated Avith 
 alkali that the project is predestined to failure. Perhaps the best 
 use that can be made of the ground Avater in this valley, as in Juab 
 Valley, is as a supplementary supply for the latter part of the grow- 
 ing season when the floAv of the streams becomes small. 
 
 CULINARY SUPPLIES. 
 
 In the village of Holden dug Avells formerly furnished the domestic 
 water supplies, but more recently there have been installed six small 
 independent pipe lines leading from the springs at the foot of the 
 
94 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEN UTAH. 
 
 cliff along the east margin of the village (fig. 12), and most of the 
 wells have accordingly fallen into disuse. The pressure in the pipes 
 is not sufficient to afford fire protection. 
 
 In Fillmore several wells have been dug on comparatively low 
 ground at the north end, but most of the people depend on the stream 
 water. At the time the region was visited, plans were under con- 
 sideration for the installation of a system of waterworks to be sup- 
 plied by gravity from a mountain spring. 
 
 In Meadow and Hatton the domestic supplies are obtained chiefly 
 from dug wells, which range in depth from about 55 to 90 feet in the 
 former village and from about 30 to 40 feet in the latter. 
 
 In Kanosh the only well at present is that of Hyrum Prowse. This 
 well was sunk to a depth of 127 feet and the water rises to a level 91 
 feet below the surface. It is reported to have been pumped for 
 several hours at the rate of 15 gallons a minute. Two other wells 
 were at one time dug but both have for some reason been abandoned. 
 As in Fillmore, the domestic supply comes chiefly from the irrigation 
 stream and is led to the houses through ditches, but plans are being 
 considered to install waterworks that will be supplied from a spring. 
 
 LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 
 TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 The Cricket Mountains, a typical basin range, on old maps called 
 the Beaver Range, lie in the south-central part of Millard County 
 and trend in a north-northeasterly direction. Farther south, in 
 Beaver County, the range is continuous with mountains of another 
 name, but at the north end it projects into a flat desert expanse. It is 
 composed of paleozoic quartzites and limestones which for the most 
 part dip toward the east, though in the vicinity of Goss they dip west- 
 ward, giving this part of the range a synclinal structure. This range 
 contains a few small springs, but it is essentially dry and barren, in 
 which respect it is in strong contrast to the Pavant Range about 30 
 miles farther east. 
 
 The area between these two ranges consists of plains, mesas, and 
 buttes. ( See PL I. ) The part lying south of a line extended westward 
 from Kanosh is largely occupied by low mountains and table lands 
 which are formed in part of stratified rocks and in part of igneous 
 material, and into which the shore lines of the ancient Lake Bonne- 
 ville have been incised. The part north of this line is occupied 
 chiefly by a plain but contains a number of low tables and buttes 
 of lava and tuff, a large part of which was extruded while the lake 
 was in existence or since its desiccation. At the north end of the area 
 is Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain) whose exposed position and 
 unique form make it a notable landmark. 
 
LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 
 
 95 
 
 Between the Beaver Range and the volcanic area just described, 
 the valley of Beaver Creek leads nortlnvard from Beaver County and 
 opens out upon Sevier Desert. (See 1^1. I.) South of Black Rock 
 the valley is broad, flat, and playa-like, but north of this station it 
 becomes constricted betAveen the mountain range and a lava plateau, 
 and it is held within rather narrow limits until it reaches the vicinity 
 of Turner's ranch, where the confining rock Avails retreat or disap- 
 pear. In the area betAveen Cruz and Borden the valley is crossed by 
 a succession of bars and terraces built during the Provo stage of Lake 
 Bonneville, but farther north it expands into a Ioav flat area that 
 
 merges into Sevier Desert. 
 
 HAINFALL. 
 
 Lower BeaA^er Valley and the adjacent uplands appear arid, bar- 
 ren, and desolate. The observations made at Black Rock for the 
 United States Weather Bureau indicate an aA^erage annual precipita- 
 tion of less than 10 inches. 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) at Black Rock. 
 
 Years. ' 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1901 
 
 0.40 
 .26 
 1.11 
 4.10 
 .48 
 1.59 
 1.85 
 
 1.43 
 .20 
 1.30 
 1.00 
 2.26 
 
 0.34 
 1.15 
 2.00 
 .93 
 1.74 
 
 1.29 
 .16 
 
 2.59 
 .26 
 
 1.28 
 
 3.31 
 .52 
 Tr. 
 
 0.78 
 .23 
 1.72 
 1.64 
 1.52 
 .91 
 1.31 
 1.59 
 
 0.C4 
 Tr. 
 .33 
 .04 
 Tr. 
 .12 
 .53 
 .20 
 
 0.15 
 .40 
 .41 
 .05 
 .05 
 
 '".b'i 
 1.17 
 
 L02 
 .19 
 
 1.75 
 .56 
 .75 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.00 
 
 .84 
 
 .92 
 
 .30 
 
 2.57 
 
 2.33 
 
 0.56 
 .53 
 .95 
 .65 
 
 .88 
 .03 
 
 Tr. 
 
 1.97 
 
 .10 
 
 .00 
 
 0.70 
 .45 
 .18 
 .55 
 
 ■ 
 7 61 
 
 1902 
 
 
 6.38 
 
 1903. 
 
 
 13.36 
 
 1904 
 
 6.39 
 
 1905 
 
 
 190G 
 
 2.11 
 
 .97 
 
 
 1907 
 
 .78 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 1908 - - - 
 
 .80 
 
 
 3.31 
 
 .00 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8.43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STEEAMS. 
 
 The valley of BeaAcr Creek forms the natural outlet for a large 
 drainage basin that lies to the south of LoAver BeaA^er Valley, and 
 if the climate Avere more humid it would be occupied by a riA^er; but 
 under existing. conditions the streams that rise in the high mountains 
 of BeaA^er County normall}^ disappear long before the}^ reach this 
 region, and it is only in exceptional fi-eshets that Avater floAvs through 
 this part of the valleA^ At Turner's ranch a reservoir for storing 
 flood water has been built, the dam being at a point where an ancient 
 lake bar is projected across the valley. Pine Creek, in the northeast 
 corner of BeaA^er County, and Cove Creek, in the southeast corner of 
 Millard County (PI. I), have small irrigation supplies, but the channel 
 that leads from these small streams to BeaATr Creek is noruially dry. 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 BLACK ROCK SPRINGS. 
 
 In the vicinity of Black Rock station the eastern border of Beaver 
 Valley is formed by the abrupt cliff of a large plateau. In a re- 
 
96 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 entrant of this cliff, about 1 mile east and a short distance south of 
 the station, there are three groups of springs that issue from crevices 
 in the lava rock near the base of the cliff. The southernmost group 
 yields the most water. Its flow, measured at different times by the 
 railroad company, was found to average 622,000 gallons per day, or 
 432 gallons per minute, and to be nearly constant, the daily yield at 
 no time being found to vary more than 10,000 gallons from the 
 average. The water has a temperature of about 58 °F. It is of good 
 quality and contains only moderate amounts of the mineral sub- 
 stances usually found in ground waters. The following analyses of 
 water from the south group are reported by the railroad company. 
 No. 1 represents water from the small spring farthest north in this 
 group; No. 2, water from the middle spring; and No. 3, water from 
 the large spring farthest south. 
 
 Analyses of water from Black Rock Springs. 
 [Parts per million. i Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Total solids 
 
 Siliceous matter (Si02) 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe203+Al203) 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) -. 
 
 Calcium sulphates (CaS04) 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate 
 (Na2S04), calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), vola- 
 tile, organic, and loss 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 397 
 
 324 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 27 
 
 273 
 
 146 
 
 328 
 50 
 2 
 70 
 
 139 
 
 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 
 
 A part of the Avater is led through a pipe line to the station, where 
 it is used in the locomotives and forms the only domestic supply ; the 
 rest is used for irrigation on James's ranch, at the springs, where it 
 produces a small oasis in the midst of a large desert. 
 
 CLEAR LAKE SPRINGS. 
 
 Somewhat more than 30 miles northwest of Black Eock Springs is 
 a group of springs that furnish a larger supply of water for irriga- 
 tion. These springs are situated east of Clear Lake station and 
 southwest of Pavant Butte, and issue from the margin of the lava 
 bed that extends southward from that butte. They give rise to a 
 small lake that was formerly called Spring Lake but is now locally 
 known as Clear Lake, from which the water naturally discharges into 
 a marshy area to the north but is at present led through a canal to 
 Clear Lake station, where it is used with partial success for irriga- 
 tion. The following analysis of water from the lake was made at 
 the Utah agricultural experiment station. 
 
LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 97 
 
 Analysis of water from Clear Lake. 
 [Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. Greaves.] 
 
 Total solids 1,003 
 
 Silica (SiO.) 19 
 
 Iron (Fe) Trace. 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 77 
 
 Carbonates, stated as calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 240 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 188 
 
 Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) 786 
 
 OTHER SPRINGS. 
 
 These two large springs, or rather groups of springs, both closely 
 related to beds of volcanic rock, are the only ones in the area that 
 yield Avater in sufficient quantity for irrigation, but several smaller 
 springs are valuable as desert watering places. Among these are 
 Antelope Spring, about 7 miles southeast of Black Rock, the Coj^ote 
 Springs, about the same distance northeast of Black Rock, and a 
 small spring north of North Twin Butte. There are also several 
 springs in the mountains southwest of Black Rock and one small 
 spring, know^n as Cricket Spring, on the west side of the Cricket 
 Mountains.. 
 
 WELLS. 
 WELLS ON THE BEAVER BOTTOMS. 
 
 Between Black Rock and Milford, Beaver Valley constitutes a 
 low fiat area, known as the Beaver Bottoms, in which ground water 
 occurs near the surface. Here a number of wells have been dug or 
 drilled, and some of these wells overflow, but the water-bearing sedi- 
 ments are fine, the yield is small, and the water is generally saline. 
 Most of the wells are in Beaver County and have been discussed in 
 the report on that region.^ 
 
 GOSS WELL. 
 
 The railway well at Goss is reported to be 1,775 feet deep and to 
 end in granite. According to the section, which is show^n in Plate 
 III and is given in detail in the following table, the material from 
 the surface to a depth of 355 feet consists of clay or shale except at 
 three horizons where sand or gravel occurs, and between the depths 
 of 355 feet and 1,584 feet it consists almost exclusively of clay 
 or shale. Salty water was obtained at depths of 195 feet and 350 
 feet. The yield from the first horizon was about 1 gallon per 
 minute, and from the second about 14 gallons per minute. Near the 
 bottom large supplies were found, but the water, like that at higher 
 horizons, is salty. AYhen 10-inch casing had been inserted to a 
 depth of 1,555 feet the well is reported to have been pumped with 
 
 1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah ; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
 Survey No. 217, 1908, p. .30. 
 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 7 
 
98 
 
 GROUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 a Sillett deep-well cable pump extending to a depth of 410 feet for 
 15 hours continuously at a good many hundred gallons a minute 
 AAdthout depleting the supply. Pumping at about 75 gallons per 
 minute was continued for over a year in the hope that the quality 
 of the water would be improved, but, as far as was ascertained, no 
 improvement took place. So great, however, is the need for a supply 
 at this point that the water, bad though it is, is used to some extent in 
 locomotive boilers. 
 
 Section of railroad well at Ooss. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Clay and gravel 
 
 Sticky blue clay 
 
 lay 
 
 Blue waxy clay and brown sedimentary sand (salty water at 195 feet; 1 gallon per 
 
 minute) ";; 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Blue clay and shale 
 
 Blue shale 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Fine sand (salty water; 14 gallons pei minute; analysis given below) 
 
 Gray shale 
 
 Soapstone 
 
 Brown waxy clay 
 
 White clay 
 
 Hard blue clay 
 
 Hard soapstone 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Silt shale 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 Brown clay and rock 
 
 Rock 
 
 Sedimentary stone 
 
 Silt shale 
 
 Shale 
 
 Soapstone : 
 
 Soapstone and bowlders 
 
 Soapstone 
 
 Cemented gravel 
 
 Blue limestone 
 
 Cemented gravel 
 
 Blue limestone 
 
 Blue limestone and yellow clay mixed. 
 
 Granite (a soft streak between 1,770 and 1,773 feet is supposed to be the source of the 
 large supply of water; analysis given below) 
 
 Thick- 
 
 Feet. 
 12 
 25 
 32 
 118 
 
 15 
 24 
 18 
 60 
 46 
 5 
 59 
 
 238 
 96 
 15 
 93 
 17 
 
 347 
 42 
 38 
 12 
 10 
 12 
 48 
 49 
 83 
 26 
 44 
 17 
 4 
 5 
 22 
 11 
 
 132 
 
 Analyses of loater from the Goss railroad toell. 
 [Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Total solids 
 
 Siliceous matter (Si02) 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe203+ AI2O3) 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOg) 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 
 
 Sodium sulphate (Na2S04), magnesium sulphate (MgSO^), sodium bicarbonate 
 (Na2C0?), volatile, organic, undetermined, and loss 
 
 1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 
 
 Sample 
 
 from 
 
 depth of 
 
 350 feet, 
 
 July 25, 
 
 1906. 
 
LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 
 
 99 
 
 NEELS WELL. 
 
 The railway well at Neels, which is 1,998 feet deep, resembles the 
 Goss well in that it passes through great thicknesses of clay or sliale 
 and ends in granite. (See PL III and the log given below.) The 
 projjortion of coarser sediments is, hoAvever, somewhat greater, and 
 water was reported at no less than nine horizons. Six-inch casing 
 was inserted to a depth of 1,425 feet. The largest supplies of water 
 come from the thick beds of gravel and sandstone that occur at about 
 this level, and it is reported that no water was found in the forma- 
 tions below these. W. T. Lee ^ states that the well was pumped at 
 260 to 300 gallons per minute during a test lasting continuously for 
 24 hours ; H. C. Sillett, who has more recently tested the well for the 
 railroad company, reports that with his deep-well cable j)ump, in 
 which he used the entire 6-inch casing as the pump -cylinder, he was 
 able to draw water at the remarkable rate of about 2,000 gallons per 
 minute. The water from all horizons is salty. In three analyses re- 
 ported by Mr. Lee, the chlorine content is, respectively, 1,065 parts, 
 1,063 parts, and 863 parts per million, and the total solids are 3,336 
 parts, 3,345 parts, and 2,888 parts per million. Beds of lava and 
 volcanic ash occur at different depths, and the water that comes from 
 the deep sources is hot. As in the Goss well, it was hoped that heavy 
 and long continued pumping might improve the quality, but this 
 hope was not realized. The well has now been abandoned. 
 
 Section of railroad ircli at Vrr/.v.'"^ 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 9 
 
 58 
 
 21 
 
 79 
 
 6 
 
 85 
 
 3 
 
 88 
 
 11 
 
 99 
 
 39 
 
 138 
 
 4 
 
 142 
 
 12 
 
 154 
 
 34 
 
 188 
 
 7 
 
 195 
 
 3f) 
 
 231 
 
 12 
 
 243 
 
 12 
 
 255 
 
 6 
 
 2()1 
 
 25 
 
 28R 
 
 6 
 
 292 
 
 28 
 
 320 
 
 7 
 
 327 
 
 10 
 
 337 
 
 16 
 
 353 
 
 5 
 
 358 
 
 27 
 
 385 
 
 no 
 
 495 
 
 15 
 
 510 
 
 24 
 
 534 
 
 17 
 
 551 
 
 Surface soil 
 
 Sedimentary (alkali) 
 
 Fire clay 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand 
 
 Shale and soapstone 
 
 Rock (sedimentary) 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand 
 
 Soapstone 
 
 Soapstone with fossil bowlder; 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand 
 
 Fireclay. 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Gray shale and clay mixed. 
 
 Gray waxy clay 
 
 Lava rock 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Sedimentary sandstone 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand . . 
 
 Blue wa.xy clay 
 
 Water-bearing'quicksand . . 
 
 Sedimentary sandstone 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand . . 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Sedimentary sandstone 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 1 Water-supply Paper V. S. (Jool. Survey No. 217, 1908. 
 
 Idem, p 
 
100 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Section of railroad well at Neels — Continued. 
 
 Soapstone 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Silt 
 
 Water-bearing quicksand : 
 
 Yellow clay ,... , 
 
 Sedimentary sandstone , 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Blue waxy clay , 
 
 Yellow clay 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Blue shale (sand mixed) 
 
 Blue waxy clay 
 
 Blue shale : 
 
 Blue shale (sand mixed); yielded hot water 
 
 Red shale 
 
 Blue shale 
 
 Red shale 
 
 Blue shale 
 
 Red "keel" stone '. 
 
 Water, sand, gravel, and bowlders 
 
 Sedimentary sandstone, brown 
 
 Red sandstone 
 
 Red shale, burned 
 
 Trap rock, dark brown 
 
 Red shale, burned 
 
 Lava rock with calcite crystals , 
 
 Red sandstone 
 
 Red clay, sticky 
 
 Volcanic deposit, ash, and bowlders; gas under pressure sufficient to raise 6,200 
 
 pounds of tools 400 feet 
 
 Bowlders, cemented 
 
 Cavity 
 
 gowlders 
 avity • 
 
 Granite with crevices and gas. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Feet. 
 50 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 53 
 12 
 34 
 117 
 
 9 
 210 
 18 
 13 
 45 
 71 
 12 
 70 
 24 
 28 
 
 6 
 70 
 35 
 95 
 35 
 36 
 56 
 14 
 68 
 48 
 
 105 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 601 
 612 
 
 623 
 
 722 
 839 
 848 
 1,058 
 1,076 
 1,089 
 1,134 
 1,205 
 1,217 
 1,287 
 1,311 
 1,339 
 1,345 
 1,415 
 1,450 
 1,645 
 1,580 
 1,616 
 1,672 
 1,686 
 1,754 
 1,802 
 
 1,907 
 1,913 
 1,922 
 1,944 
 1,950 
 1,998 
 
 CLEAR LAKE WELL. 
 
 At Clear Lake station a well was at one time drilled by the rail- 
 way company, but it has long since been abandoned, and the data 
 in regard to it are accordingly vague. Its depth was variously 
 reported at 1,335 and 1,380 feet. Water was struck at several depths. 
 According to some accounts the water overflowed with slight pressure, 
 but according to others it remained 4 feet below the surface. No 
 water flows from the well at present. The water was used for a 
 number of years, but was too highly mineralized to be satisfactory 
 for steam making, and the bad quality appears to be the reason for 
 the disuse of the well. At present the culinary supply for Clear 
 Lake is hauled from Oasis by the railroad company. 
 
 SWAN LAKE FARM WELLS. 
 
 On the Swan Lake farm (sec. 15, T. 19 S., E. 9 W.), about 6 miles 
 west of Clear Lake, there is an old flowing well which is said to be 
 about 600 feet deep and which yields a small amount of water. The 
 water has a distinct taste and in a rough field test was found to con- 
 tain about 500 parts per million of chlorine. The water is used at 
 the ranch for culinary purposes. 
 
OLD KIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 101 
 
 In a well drilled 4 miles farther west, at the headquarters of the 
 Swan Lake farm (about sec. 13, T. 19 S., R. 10 W.), the strata 
 penetrated were chiefly clay, but a number of sandy water-bearing 
 beds were found, all of which yielded salty water and none of which 
 gave rise to a flow. The drilling was carried to 365 feet below the 
 surface, at which depth the hole was abandoned. 
 
 Section of ahandoned well on the Swan LaJcc farm. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Feet. 
 Clay. 
 
 Gravel (very salty water which stood 10 feet below the surface) 7 55 
 
 Hardpan with thin layers of sand (salty water) I 65 I 120 
 
 Soft light-blue clay 15 135 
 
 Light-colored hardpan with 7 strata of sand, each 4 to 6 inches thick (small yield of 
 salty water, which stood 17 feet below the surface) ." 
 
 SHALLOW WELLS IN THE VALLEY BELOW BLACK ROCK. 
 
 For some distance north of Black Rock the valley is narrow and 
 there is no evidence of ground water. At Turner's ranch, where the 
 surface water is to some extent entrapped between bars built by the 
 ancient lake, there is a shallow dug well. On the low flat farther 
 north the ground is generally saturated, especially in the vicinity of 
 irrigated fields, and in many places seepages of poor water can be 
 obtained near the surface. 
 
 OLD RIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 Sevier Desert is inclosed on the north by a group of ranges which 
 includes the Champlin, AYest Tintic, Simpson, McDowell, and Drum 
 mountains. South of the Simpson Mountains lies a rugged area thai 
 culminates in a cluster of bald peaks known locally as Desert Moun- 
 tain, and south of the McDowell Mountains is a lava plateau which 
 is bounded by precipitous walls and which stands prominently above 
 the adjoining plain. (See PL I.) The low, flat area of Sevier Desert 
 extends to the region east of this plateau, and farther north con- 
 tracts into a narrow belt through which passes the Old River Bed. 
 This constricted valley leads between the McDowell Mountains on 
 one side and the Desert and Simpson mountains on the other, to 
 Tooele County and the flat expanse surrounding Great Salt Lake. 
 (See PL I.) 
 
 Broad open plains extend from the low flat and the Old River Bed 
 into the largest reentrants between the mountains, their surfaces 
 rising gently but continuously toward the mountain borders where 
 
102 GROUND WATEKS UsT WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 they have an elevation several hundred feet above the low flat or the 
 Old River Bed. One of these amphitheaters extends between Desert 
 Mountain and Simpson Mountains and opens to the Old River Bed. 
 It has no recognized name, but as Judd Creek enters it from the north 
 it can properly be designated Judd Creek Valley. A larger plain of 
 the same character, sometimes called Cherry Creek Valley after the 
 stream that flows into it, lies in the angle between Desert Mountain 
 and the West Tintic and Champlin mountains, and leads out upon 
 the low, marshy tract east of the lava bed. A third large valley lies 
 between the McDowell Mountains, on the east, and the Thomas and 
 Drum ranges, on the west, and leads southeastward to the Sevier 
 Desert flat. 
 
 When Lake Bonneville stood at its highest level its waters covered 
 the low flat and the Old River Bed to a depth of 600 to 700 feet, and 
 inundated the sandy bench to the east and the lower parts of all the 
 principal valleys. Cherry Creek Valley and Judd Creek Valley were 
 then bays, and the site of Rockwell's ranch was under water. Desert 
 Mountain formed a rocky promontory connected with the mainland 
 by an isthmus that extended between the bays just mentioned. The 
 McDowell Mountains were completely surrounded by water and the 
 numerous small buttes to the north formed an archipelago of rocky 
 islands. The lava plateau was entirely submerged except for Fuma- 
 role Butte, commonly known as " the crater," and a small butte 
 farther northeast. (See fig. 2.) 
 
 In the Provo stage the lake covered the low flat and Old River 
 Bed and reached some distance up the central axes of Cherry Creek 
 and Judd Creek valleys, but the lava plateau and the valley to the 
 west were dry land, as is indicated in figure 2. Both the Bonneville 
 and Provo shore lines are marked by beach ridges, terraces, and sea 
 cliffs, and form easily recognized natural datum planes which assist 
 in estimating the altitude and probable depth to water in any given 
 locality. At a later stage, when the lake level was lowered still more, 
 a stream flowed northward through the Old River Bed, as is described 
 by Mr. Gilbert in his monograph on Lake Bonneville. 
 
 The relation of the vegetation to the shore lines is significant. In 
 some places shad scale predominates above the Provo shore line and 
 greasewood below it. Owing to the seepage from the large gravel 
 terraces, the vegetation at the foot of these terraces is more luxuriant 
 than it is elsewhere, and greasewood and rabbit brush are dominant. 
 Large sagebrush is found along arroyos through which freshets oc- 
 casionally discharge, the soil here containing less alkali than in the 
 low areas and receiving more moisture than in other parts of the 
 bench lands. 
 
OLD RIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 103 
 
 WATER SUPPLIES. 
 
 The principal water supply in this region is furnished by Cherry 
 Creek, which rises in the West Tintic Mountains and flows south- 
 westward, as shown in Plate I. Upon this creek depends Rock- 
 weirs ranch (NE. J sec. 30, T. 12 S., R. 5 W.), the so-called Com- 
 2^any ranch (SW. | sec. 10, in the same township), and the pump- 
 ing station (about 5 miles farther northeast), from which a pipe line 
 leads to the Tintic mining district, 20 miles distant. Approximately 
 150,000 gallons of water is pumped daily from Cherry Creek into 
 Tintic Valley. Only enough water reaches the two ranches to supply 
 the live stock and to irrigate small plats of land. 
 
 This region contains a few other small mountain streams, among 
 which may be mentioned Judd Creek, on the south flank of the 
 Simpson Mountains, and a few isolated mountain springs, such as 
 Keg Spring, on the north slope of the McDowell Mountains. None 
 of these furnish much water, but they are valuable as watering places 
 for live stock on the range. 
 
 The only other source of water in this region is the Hot Springs 
 situated at the east base of the lava plateau, where hot water issues 
 in large quantities from mounds of variegated hues and gives 
 rise to columns of vapor which, on favorable days, can be seen 
 far out on the desert. Temperatures ranging from 110° to 178° F. 
 were observed by Mr. Gilbert.^ Certain types of red, yellow, and 
 green algae live in the hot water and are largely responsible for 
 the bright colors that characterize the locality. The water is strongly 
 saline, the amount of chlorine found in a field test being about 1,600 
 parts per million. The combined yield from the different openings 
 amounts to several hundred gallons per minute. The water flows 
 unused to the swampy area east of the springs, but on its way, where 
 sufficiently cooled, it produces a meager growth of poor grass. The 
 large quantities of salt in the water and soil of the vicinity prevent 
 the successful use of the water for irrigation. These springs proba- 
 bly owe their origin to fissures in the lava bed and derive their high 
 temperature from the residual heat retained by the lava at some 
 depth below the surface. 
 
 GROUND- WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 Owing to the lack of irrigation supplies and of other resources, 
 this region remains almost without permanent inhabitiints, and hence 
 there has been little incentive to dig or drill for ground water. 
 Nevertheless in certain sections wells yielding good water could prob- 
 ably be obtained by moderately -deep wells. 
 
 1 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. IJ. S. Gool. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, p. 333. 
 
104 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Surrounding the Champlin Mountains and reaching to the foot 
 of the West Tintic Range there is an extensive upland area, much of 
 which is deeply buried in sand. Part of the water that falls as rain 
 on this area sinks into the ground and is probably transmitted to 
 beds of sand and gravel underlying Cherry Creek valley and the 
 low belt of land that extends southward toward the Desert Wells. 
 Much of the run-off from the west slope of the West Tintic Range 
 sinks into the gravelh^ materials at its margin and is also added to 
 the ground water below the valley. There are, therefore, rather good 
 prospects for obtaining successful wells in the region that lies in gen- 
 eral southwest of Rockwell's ranch, and the water that is found will 
 probably be of good quality. However, it is not likely that the 
 ground water stands greatly above the level of the low flat east of 
 the lava plateau, and hence it is only on the lower parts of the slopes 
 from the uplands that the prospects are good for getting water at 
 moderate depths. In the low flat east of the lava plateau the ground- 
 water level is near the surface and flows might possibly be obtained, 
 but there is some danger that the sediments are here too fine to yield 
 water freely or that the water is saline. The alkali in the soil and 
 the poor drainage of the flat are unfavorable for irrigation with 
 ground water even if satisfactory supplies could be developed. 
 
 In the valley north of Desert Mountain, here called Judd Creek 
 valley, the conditions are comparable to those in Cherry Creek val- 
 ley. This valley receives a supply of ground water from the moun- 
 tainous areas that border it on the north, east, and south, and the 
 water is likely to be of good quality. Both the Bonneville and Provo 
 shore lines are plainly traced upon the great amphitheater that com- 
 prises this valley ; the Bonneville near the top and the Provo near the 
 bottom. Below the Provo shore line there are prospects for obtain- 
 ing successful wells at moderate depths. 
 
 In that part of the Old River Bed that lies east of the McDowell 
 Mountains there are no indications that the ground water comes to 
 the surface, but the low altitude makes it probable that the ground- 
 water level is within reach of ordinary drilling operations, and there 
 are fairly good chances of obtaining successful wells along the site 
 of this ancient stream channel. Mr. Gilbert's monograph on Lake 
 Bonneville mentions an abandoned well, 100 feet deep, at the old stage 
 station in the River Bed, a short distance beyond the north boundary 
 of Juab County. 
 
 DRUM AND SWASEY WASH REGION. 
 
 WELLS AT JOY. 
 
 In a pass through the Drum Mountains are located the Joy post 
 office and Laird ranch, and near by is the Ibex mine, where a few 
 
DRUM AND SWASEY WASH REGION. 105 
 
 miners are at work. This small settlement contains the only ])er- 
 manent human inhabitants that will be found in going from Fish 
 Springs to the settlements in Sevier Desert, or from Trout Creek, in 
 Snake Valle}'', to Rockwell's ranch, on Cherry Creek. Here are two 
 small but highly prized water supplies. One is at the ranch and 
 comes from a tunnel and other shallow excavations. The other, 
 about a mile farther northwest, is obtained from a well 30 feet deep, 
 and is used by the freighters who operate between Fish Springs and 
 Oasis, and also by the men at the Ibex mine. (See PL IV.) The con- 
 ditions are here similar to those in the Tintic mining district. Where 
 the porous rock waste has not been removed by erosion it collects rain 
 water, and as this water can not penetrate the underlying firm 
 igneous rock it forms seeps that can be tapped at favorable points. 
 Evidently the best localities to prospect for supplies of this kind are 
 where igneous rock occurs and where there is some indication of 
 seepage at the surface. As in the Tintic district, the supply fluctu- 
 ates with the rainfall, but, as far as is known, the wells have at no 
 time dried up completely. 
 
 OTHER WATER SUPPLIES. 
 
 The barren and desolate region that surrounds Joy for many miles 
 in all directions is nearly destitute of springs, Avells, or water supplies 
 of any kind. The Hot Springs, to the east, and Keg Spring, far to 
 the northeast, have been mentioned in describing the Old River Bed 
 region (pp. 101-104) ; Wild Horse Spring is 15 miles northwest of 
 Joy, in the Thomas -Range; Swasey Spring is 15 miles southwest of 
 Joy, at the east margin of the House Range ; Antelope Spring is 5 
 miles farther southwest, near the summit of this range; and a spring 
 in Granite Canyon is 15 miles still farther south, in the same range. 
 (See PI. IV.) In the area that lies between Fish Springs flat and 
 White Valley on the west and the Old River Bed and Sevier River 
 on the east these are the only springs worthy of mention. 
 
 A prospector is reported to have struck water at a depth of 30 feet 
 about 6 miles south of Joy, the conditions probably being similar to 
 those at Joy. At the site of an abandoned smelter midway between 
 Joy and Deseret, on the road that leads between Drum and Little 
 Drum mountains, there is a well that consists of a hole dug to the 
 depth of 90 feet and drilled with 1^-inch casing from this level to a 
 total depth of 190 feet. The water rises through the casing and fills 
 the dug hole to a level about 80 feet below the surface. The water is 
 reported to be of good quality, but the yield is not large. This well, 
 which is known as the Old Smelter well, forms one of the watering 
 places for the freighters who haul ore from Fish Springs to Oasis. 
 
106 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 A large valley lies between the Drum and McDowell mountains 
 and leads southeastward to Sevier Desert; a smaller valley lies be- 
 tween the Drum and Little Drum mountains and likewise leads to 
 Sevier Desert; and a large open valley, commonly known as Swasey 
 Wash, intervenes between the Little Drum Mountains and the House 
 Eange and leads in the same direction. All three of these valleys lie 
 at considerable elevations above the ground-water level of Sevier 
 Desert and their axes have pronounced gradients. They are there- 
 fore probably drained of their ground water to great depths. 
 
 The strata of the House Range form an eastward dipping mono- 
 cline. On the west their edges are exposed and form an imposing 
 escarpment overlooking White Valley; toward the east they grad- 
 ually pass beneath alluvial and lake sediments. The debris-covered 
 slope that extends from this range to the flat of Sevier Desert is 
 remarkably wide and has a total descent of nearly 1,000 feet. There 
 can be little doubt that the width of the slope is largely due to the 
 underlying eastward-dipping rock strata. The prospects are not 
 good for finding water below this slope. The unconsolidated sedi- 
 ments are likely to be drained, and the limestone and quartzites, 
 which lie below them in a large part of the area, are unpromising as 
 sources of water. 
 
 Successful wells may possibly be sunk at the foot of the slope that 
 descends from the House Range and in the areas where the valleys 
 mentioned above merge into the low flat of Sevier Desert. Here the 
 ground-water level is likely to be within reach of the drill and 
 coarse sediments containing fresh water probably exist. On the flat 
 farther east there is more danger of encountering only fine lake 
 sediments, which may not yield freely and whose water may be 
 saline. 
 
 SEVIER DESERT. 
 PHYSIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Sevier River, the only large stream that enters the region dis- 
 cussed in this report, follows a devious course. Rising in the high 
 plateau near the south boundary of the State it flows northward for 
 nearly 150 miles in a structural trough, then turns and passes through 
 Little Valley and Sevier Canyon, from which it emerges at Leam- 
 ington; thence it flows southwestward through Sevier Desert and 
 discharges into the alkaline waters of the playa-like lake that bears 
 its name. (See PL I.) 
 
 Like the numerous smaller streams of this region Sevier River has 
 built an alluvial fan where it debouches from the mountains, though, 
 in accordance with its greater volume of water, its fan is more ex- 
 
SEVIER DESERT. 107 
 
 panded and has a gentler grade. When Sevier Desert was submerged 
 beneath Lake Bonneville, the river deposits were built into a delta 
 rather than into a fan, and thus a somewhat complex structure has 
 resulted. In the Bonneville stage the lake level was so high that 
 Little Valley contained a land-locked bay and Sevier Canyon became 
 a strait (fig. 2), and under these conditions the bulk of the stream's 
 load came to repose before reaching the Leamington area. In the 
 Provo stage, which lasted for a long time, the water stood at a level 
 more favorable for building a delta below the canyon. 
 
 Sevier Desert may be regarded as consisting of two plains at differ- 
 ent levels, the ascent from one to the other being steep enough to 
 form a recognized topographic feature. The upper plain, commonly 
 known as the Lynn bench, is essentially the ancient delta of Sevier 
 River. It occupies the region on both sides of the river as far down- 
 stream as the vicinity of Burtner. Here its margin swings back, on 
 one side trending southeast toward the south end of the Canyon 
 Range and on the other side trending somewhat east of north in the 
 direction of Rockwell's ranch. The altitude of this delta plain is 
 approximately that of the Provo shore line, being 4,790 feet above 
 sea level at Lynn, 4,785 feet at Cline, and about 4,770 feet at the 
 Burtner Dam. Since the subsidence of the lake Sevier River has 
 carved a gorgelike valley out of the loose sediments of the delta. At 
 the Burtner Dam the valley has two terraces, one about 20 feet below 
 the upland, and the other about 75 feet lower, or about 40 feet above 
 the present flood plain. The sides of the valley have the castellated 
 appearance of badlands. The walls bordering the present flood plain 
 are conspicuously steeper and more angular than those bordering the 
 terraces. 
 
 In the vicinity of Burtner, the river leaves its gorge and flows out 
 upon the extensive low fiat that forms the lower plain of Sevier 
 Desert. A few miles farther downstream its valley disappears 
 entirely and it occupies a channel whose banks are on a level with 
 the general surface of the plain or slightly higher. Here the stream 
 is of the aggrading type and frequently changes its course, as is 
 attested by many channels that meander over the plain and in many 
 places form low ridges. In times of high water large portions of 
 this lower plain are inundated and are converted into impassable 
 swamps. Sevier Lake, however, lies at a lower level, and before 
 reaching it the river occupies a definite though shallow valley. 
 
 Sevier Desert is nearly surrounded by mountain ranges. The 
 Canyon, Pavant, Beaver, Drum, McDowell, Desert, West Tintic, and 
 Champlin ranges all form parts of the inclosing rock wall, and where 
 gaps occur between these ranges other mountains rise in the back- 
 ground. In contrast to the great relief and the rugged topogi'aphy 
 
108 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 of the mountains, which are always in sight, the vast expanse of 
 Sevier Desert appears flat and featureless and the difference in level 
 between the Lynn bench and the lower plain is inconspicuous. The 
 impression of flatness is heightened through the contrast afforded by 
 the isolated volcanic buttes and mesas which here and there rise 
 abruptly above the floor of the desert. The Lynn bench and the 
 alluvial slopes adjoining the mountains give the desert a total relief 
 of several hundred feet, the gorge in the Lynn bench is locally a 
 conspicuous feature, and the sand dunes and abandoned stream chan- 
 nels break to some extent the monotony of the general surface. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 Eecords of precipitation at Deseret and Oak City are presented in 
 the following table. In the 11 years for which the record at Deseret 
 is complete, the annual precipitation ranged between 4.85 and 11.77 
 inches, and averaged 8.15 inches, which is approximately the same as 
 at Black Eock and Frisco, but is only one-half as much as at Levan 
 and also substantially less than at Scipio, Fillmore, and Oak City. 
 (See p. 19 and fig. 3.) As at other stations in this section of the 
 country, the most rain falls in the spring and the least in the summer. 
 (See fig. 4.) In an average year the precipitation at Deseret during 
 the months of June, July, and August together is only about 1 inch. 
 
 Precipitation (in inches) at Deseret. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.64 
 .58 
 .91 
 .23 
 
 Tr. 
 
 0.62 
 .06 
 .46 
 
 1.67 
 .80 
 
 0.05 
 1.12 
 .05 
 .39 
 .45 
 
 0.00 
 .10 
 .14 
 .00 
 .84 
 
 0.21 
 .86 
 .82 
 .88 
 .38 
 
 
 1892 
 
 0.53 
 .54 
 .35 
 .40 
 .32 
 
 1.30 
 .61 
 
 1.35 
 .53 
 
 1.84 
 1.85 
 .53 
 .63 
 .29 
 
 0.71 
 1.40 
 .64 
 .84 
 .47 
 
 1.81 
 .67 
 .43 
 
 0.14 
 
 .00 
 
 1.29 
 
 Tr. 
 
 0.42 
 .21 
 .25 
 
 Tr. 
 
 9.47 
 
 1893 
 
 7 66 
 
 1894 
 
 8.01 
 
 1895 
 
 
 1896 
 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tr. 
 
 1.12 
 .03 
 .40 
 .67 
 .32 
 
 1.79 
 .95 
 .87 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.23 
 .39 
 .50 
 .20 
 .72 
 .32 
 
 Tr. 
 
 Tr. 
 .60 
 
 2.15 
 
 .34 
 
 .48 
 
 .04 
 
 1.65 
 
 Tr. 
 
 .00 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.38 
 
 .20 
 
 .25 
 
 .80 
 .00 
 .76 
 .20 
 .05 
 .77 
 .13 
 .94 
 .79 
 .34 
 
 
 1900 
 
 .36 
 .10 
 -■48 
 .94 
 .15 
 .42 
 .31 
 1.66 
 .11 
 
 .48 
 
 .05 
 
 1.67 
 
 .30 
 
 1.30 
 
 .97 
 
 1.25 
 
 .41 
 
 .82 
 
 .80 
 
 Tr. 
 
 .80 
 
 .82 
 
 .40 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.06 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.85 
 
 1.02 
 
 .36 
 
 .90 
 
 .13 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.63 
 
 .10 
 
 .40 
 
 .10 
 1.90 
 
 .32 
 1.53 
 2.13 
 1.35 
 1.06 
 2.20 
 1.10 
 
 .03 
 .62 
 Tr. 
 .40 
 .60 
 .00 
 .19 
 1.07 
 1.22 
 
 Tr. 
 .03 
 .08 
 
 Tr. 
 
 Tr. 
 .00 
 
 ".'64' 
 
 Tr. 
 
 1.54 
 .04 
 .08 
 .20 
 
 1.15 
 .63 
 .29 
 .57 
 
 5.38 
 
 1901. ... 
 
 9.01 
 
 1902 
 
 4.85 
 
 1903 
 
 6.99 
 
 1904 
 
 7.14 
 
 1905 
 
 9.76 
 
 1906 
 
 11.77 
 
 1907 
 
 9.64 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 .87 
 
 1.07 
 
 .91 
 
 1.22 
 
 ,43 
 
 .10 
 
 .49 
 
 .78 
 
 .55 
 
 .45 
 
 .53 
 
 8.15 
 
 Precipitation (in inches) at Oak City. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1905. 
 1906. 
 1907- 
 1908. 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.80 
 
 .66 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.80 
 
 .71 
 
 1.83 
 3.49 
 1.47 
 1.15 
 
 1.30 
 3.28 
 
 ,57 
 
 1.91 
 2.31 
 
 3! 29 
 
 0.00 
 .58 
 
 1.37 
 .59 
 
 0.15 
 .83 
 
 1.04 
 .56 
 
 0.63 
 1.56 
 1.15 
 
 .87 
 
 2.29 
 
 .91 
 2.34 
 
 0.15 
 .27 
 
 2.55 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.15 
 
 .12 
 
 .54 
 1.64 
 1.51 
 
 19.05 
 14.24 
 
SEVIER DESERT. 109 
 
 GROUND- WATER LEVEL. 
 
 Much of the water that falls as rain on the mountains and elevated 
 valleys that encircle Sevier Desert migrates, either in surface streams 
 or by underground percolation, toward the low interior. Thus, 
 though in the high areas the ground water is at great depths or may 
 be entirely drained away, in the low interior it has accumulated until 
 it is practically at the surface. The lowest depression is that occu- 
 pied by Sevier Lake, but the entire Sevier Desert except at Lynn 
 bench and the alluvial slopes near the mountains is so nearly at a 
 level that the ground water is everywhere near the surface, and 
 swamps are found over large tracts extending north beyond the Hot 
 Springs and east to Clear Lake and the region north of Pavant Butte. 
 Sevier Desert thus acts as a huge evaporating pan for disposing of 
 the accumulating water. In the Lake Bonneville stage, when the 
 climate was more humid, the inflow of water was much greater and 
 the rate of evaporation was probably less, with the result that .the 
 water accumulated until this entire region was submerged to a depth 
 of several hundred feet. 
 
 The fact that this region is the receptacle of surplus surface and 
 ground water and has at the same time an arid climate brings dry 
 and wet areas unexpectedly close together. Thus in the most barren 
 parts of the desert it may be necessary to dig down only a short dis- 
 tance in order to find water, and where the water table comes to the 
 surface the desert gives way to the swamp so suddenly that the 
 traveler may find himself mired where a moment before all seemed 
 dry. 
 
 On the Lynn bench the water level is, of course, farther beloAv the 
 surface, but it is probably not beyond the reach of ordinary drilling 
 operations. In the valley at Leamington the ground water stands 
 nearly at a level with the river, and in the well at Lynn it rises 
 approximately to the river level, or within about 100 feet of the 
 upland surface. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The soil and subsoil on the low flat are impregnated with alkalies 
 left behind by the evaporating waters. The following table presents 
 the results of analyses of samples of soil from two localities where 
 conditions have not been modified by irrigation. The first sample 
 was taken on the flat 5 J miles east of Oasis; the second, near the 
 Desert Wells, 7 miles north of Burtner. On the higher ground of 
 the Lynn bench and the slopes bordering the mountains the groimd 
 water is not within the reach of evaporation, and for this reason 
 the soil no doubt contains less alkali. 
 
110 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Analyses of soil m Sevier Desert. 
 [Made by Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture.] 
 
 Location. 
 
 Depth 
 within 
 
 Soluble 
 
 solids 
 
 which the 
 
 (alkaU), 
 
 soil was 
 
 per cent 
 
 taken. 
 
 of total. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 1 
 
 - 0.3 
 
 2 
 
 3.1 
 
 3 
 
 2.6 
 
 4 
 
 2.4 
 
 5 
 
 2.0 
 
 6 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 1.3 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 3 
 
 1.7 
 
 4 
 
 .8 
 
 5 
 
 1.3 
 
 6 
 
 1.2 
 
 Predominating salts in order named. 
 
 No. 1, northeast corner of sec. 3, T. IS S., 
 R. 6 W., 5|- miles east of Oasis, Utah. 
 
 No. 2, sec. 1, T. 16 S., R. 7 W., 7 miles 
 north of Burtner, Utah. 
 
 Bicarbonates and chlorides. 
 Sulphates and chlorides. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Carbonates and chlorides. 
 Sulphates and chlorides. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 VEGETATION. 
 
 The native vegetation is, of course, all of the desert type, but it dif- 
 fers radically in different sections, according to the degree of aridity, 
 the amount of alkali in the soil, and the depth to ground water. 
 
 On the Oak City and Fools Creek benches, where the aridity is 
 not extreme and the soil is not overburdened with alkali, tall sage- 
 brush predominates; on the uplands farther west, especially on the 
 Lynn bench, where precipitation is less and conditions are perhaps 
 more adverse in other respects, the sagebrush gives way largely to 
 shad scale ; on most of the low flat, where there is little rainfall and 
 much alkali, but where the ground water is near the surface, tall and 
 luxurious greasewood predominates; on some of the low ridges 
 formed by abandoned river channels, where conditions differ some- 
 what from those on the alkali flat through which these ridges mean- 
 der, the greasewood is largely displaced by rabbit brush, and an aban- 
 doned channel can sometimes be traced long distances by such a band 
 of yellow-topped brush winding through the monotonous expanse of 
 greasewood ; in a few areas, generally near springs, patches of grass 
 are maintaining themselves; and in the impassable salt marshes, 
 salt brush holds undisputed possession. The only tracts where condi- 
 tions seem to be so adverse that no sort of vegetation is able to obtain 
 a foothold are certain low flats which are usually dry, but which at 
 irregular intervals become submerged, with the result that they are 
 alternately extremely dry and extremely wet. The soil, samples 
 whose analyses are given were taken in localities where greasewood 
 is dominant. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The water from Sevier River is used for irrigation at Leamington, 
 Mack, Burtner, Oasis, Deseret, Hinkley, Abraham, and Swan Lake. 
 
SEVIER DESERT. Ill 
 
 These communities have in the past been compelled to contend with 
 two adverse conditions — the breaking of reservoirs and the presence 
 of alkali in the soil. Below Leamington, where the sides and bottom 
 of the river valley consist of unconsolidated material, dams built 
 across the valley have frequently been washed out. The remedy for 
 this difficulty, after much unfortunate experience, is being found in 
 constructing reservoirs farther upstream where rock walls and bot- 
 tom offer more secure dam sites. The difficulty with alkali has been 
 chronic. With light irrigation the alkali has become concentrated at 
 the surface; with copious irrigation it has been temporarily carried 
 down, but water-logging has resulted. The United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture has recently made a survey of the region with a 
 view to having established an effective system of underdrainage, by 
 means of which the alkali can.be washed away. 
 
 WATER-BEARING BEDS. 
 
 That this region has been filled to a depth of many hundreds of 
 feet Avith stream and lake sediments is demonstrated by the deep 
 railroad wells at Oasis, Neels, and Goss. Some of these sediments 
 have been washed from adjacent mountain sides, but most of them 
 have j^robably been brought by Sevier Kiver. In as far as they are 
 derived from Sevier River it would be expected that they would be 
 coarse near the point where the river comes out of the mountains 
 and very fine in localities most remote from this point, because an 
 aggrading stream deposits its load of gravel and sand first and 
 holds the fine grains of clay in suspension longest. A gradation of 
 this kind is suggested b}^ Plate III: The section at Lynn is made 
 up largely of gravel and sand; that at Oasis contains numerous beds 
 of sand; at Swan Lake farm and Neels the sections have a smaller 
 proportion of sand, and the sand is mostly of the fine-grained variety 
 reported as quicksand ; the section at Goss, still farther from the base 
 of supply, consists for hundreds of feet of almost nothing but clay. 
 Since the water-yielding capacity of a bed decreases with the size 
 of its constituent grains, it might be expected that the prospects of 
 getting wells with good yield would be best near the point where 
 the Sevier comes out of the mountains and poorest in the areas most 
 remote from this point, and the well data given in the ensuing para- 
 graphs indicate that this is the case. 
 
 WELLS ON THE LYNN BENCH AND CANYON MOUNTAIN SLOPE. 
 
 The railroad well at Lynn is of special interest because it is the 
 only well on the Lj^nn bench. It ends in coarse gravel at a depth 
 
112 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 of 235 feet and is cased with 12-inch pipe to a depth of 225 feet.^ 
 When completed, in 1905, it was pumped continuously for 11 hours 
 at the rate of 108 gallons per minute. 
 
 Section of railroad well at Lynn, Utah. 
 
 Thick- 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Sand 
 
 Sand and gravel 
 
 Sand 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Blue sandy clay, water-bearing 
 
 Sand 
 
 Coarse gravel, water-bearing. . . 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 95 
 
 155 
 
 60 
 
 215 
 
 10 
 
 225 
 
 10 
 
 235 
 
 In the valley at Leamington a group of dug wells, about 20 to 25 
 feet deep, yield plenty of water for domestic use, but have not been 
 given any severe tests. About 1 J miles southeast of Leamington there 
 is a good well 45 feet deep, belonging to Emil Anderson, but farther 
 south on the alluvial slope of the Canyon Range there are no wells. 
 At Fools Creek settlement two holes have been dug, one 145 feet and 
 the other 110 feet deep, and at Oak City a hole was sunk to the depth 
 of 70 feet. In all three of these excavations gravel and coarse sand 
 were passed through but work was stopped before the water level was 
 reached. 
 
 There is reason to believe that water-bearing beds of sand and 
 gravel exist in most places below the Lynn bench and the lower part 
 of the slope on which Oak City and Fools Creek are situated. 
 
 WELLS ON THE LOW FLAT. 
 
 On the low flat in the vicinity of Deseret, Oasis, Hinkley, Burtner, 
 and Abraham, several hundred successful wells have been sunk. 
 Though water is found within a few feet of the surface, most of the 
 wells are between 100 and 200 feet deep, many are between 200 and 
 300 feet deep, and a few go to still greater depths. The new railroad 
 well at Oasis was carried to a depth of TlO feet. 
 
 The strata penetrated consist essentially of unconsolidated and 
 frequently alternating beds of clay and sand with no bowlders and 
 almost no gravel. The clay preponderates but there are numerous 
 beds of sand of sufficient thickness and coarseness of grain to supply 
 water freely. Several well sections are given to illustrate the char- 
 acter of the strata. 
 
 1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
 Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 34. 
 
SEVIER DESERT. 
 
 113 
 
 Section of S. W. Western's flotcinf/ rceJl at Deseret, Utah. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Sandy loam (salty water at 12 feet) 
 
 Red gumbo clay 
 
 White chalk 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Red joint clay 
 
 Clay and sand alternating (salty water which did not flow) 
 
 Light blue clay 
 
 Sand (flow of sulphurous water. Some of the oldest wells end in this stratum) 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 Fine yellow sand (flow of soft water, less sulphurous. Many wells end in this stratum) 
 Clay and sand alternating, the clav layers about 3 to 4 feet and the sand beds about 
 
 one-half foot thick (flows of good water from aU the sand beds) 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Dark coarse sand (flow of one-half gallon a minute of soft water, slightly sulphurous; 
 
 head about 1 foot above the surface) entered 
 
 Feet. 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 62 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 164 
 
 167 
 
 210 
 
 234 
 237 
 
 239 
 
 Section of E. J. WhieJcer's tcell near Burtner, Utah {sec. 23, T. 11 S., R. 7 W.). 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Clay vnth some sand 
 
 Hafdpan 
 
 Soft clay \\-ith thin layers of sand 
 
 Coarse sand 
 
 Clay and sand in thin layers — 
 
 Soft clay 
 
 Light-colored clay 
 
 Clay 
 
 Mud or silt 
 
 Clav 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay 
 
 Red sand 
 
 Hardpan 
 
 Soft clay. ^. 
 
 Sand...... 
 
 Gumbo 
 
 Red and blue clay 
 
 Clay with thin bed of sand 
 
 Soft, light-colored clay 
 
 Sand entered. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 42 
 
 57 
 
 69 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 94 
 
 100 
 
 104 
 
 110 
 
 115 
 
 119 
 
 127 
 
 128 
 
 129 
 
 137 
 
 140 
 
 146 
 
 154 
 
 171 
 
 187 
 
 Section of deep railroad ivell at Oasis.^ 
 
 Alternating beds of clay and sand, similar to the sections already given. 
 Sand 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Quicksand 
 
 Clay and sand 
 
 Black sand : 
 
 Clay and gravel 
 
 Clay 
 
 Cerhented gravel . . . 
 
 Soft sandstone 
 
 Clay 
 
 Rock 
 
 Clay 
 
 White clay 
 
 Clay, chiefly yellow 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 335 
 350 
 370 
 395 
 408 
 412 
 480 
 491 
 500 
 527 
 530 
 559 
 562 
 575 
 598 
 610 
 617 
 623 
 625 
 640 
 656 
 710 
 
 1 Lee. W. T. Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah: Water-Supply Paper U. S. GeoL Survey No. 217. 
 1908, pp. 33-34. 
 
 903U8°— wsp 277—11 8 
 
114 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Nearly all of the successful wells are within 10 miles of the margin 
 of the Lynn bench. The farthest north is a group of wells north of 
 Abraham, several recently drilled wells near the north margin of 
 T. 16 S., R. 7 W., and the Desert Wells, near the northeast corner of 
 T. 16 S., R. 7 W. Toward the west wells are found approximately 
 to a line extending from Abraham southward to the river. Toward 
 the south they are found a few miles south of Deseret and Oasis. To- 
 ward the east they are found for" several miles beyond Burtner and 
 Oasis, and a well was once drilled about 8 miles east of Oasis. Suc- 
 cessful wells could probably be obtained farther north and east. In 
 the region south and southwest of the limits outlined, at greater dis- 
 tances from the Lynn bench, considerable drilling has been done, but 
 it was almost invariably unsuccessful. The conditions at Swan Lake, 
 Clear Lake, Neels, and Goss. are discussed on pages 97 to 101. 
 
 The deep railroad well drilled at Oasis in 1905 is 10 to 12 inches in 
 diameter and 710 feet deep. It passes through a number of water- 
 bearing beds of sand, 10 of which gave rise to flows. At a depth of 
 335 feet a 15-foot stratum of sand was struck and a flow of about 
 30 gallons a minute was obtained. In a pumping test the well is 
 reported to have supplied 200 gallons a minute with but slight lower- 
 ing of the water level. The last part of the drilling was in clay, 
 which yielded no water. 
 
 ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 
 
 In a large proportion of the wells of this region the water rises 
 above the surface. Commonly, ground water is reached in these wells 
 at a depth of only a few feet; as work continues, the drill passes 
 through successive beds of water-bearing sand which are separated 
 from each other by layers of clay. The water in these beds is under 
 artesian pressure, and as lower beds are reached the artesian pressure 
 increases slightly until beds may be tapped from which the water 
 rises to the surface or a few feet higher. S. W. Western's well in 
 Deseret is typical. Here the first water was found at 12 feet, and 
 below this level water-bearing beds were passed through at short in- 
 tervals until the drilling was stopped at the depth of 240 feet. The 
 Avater did not rise to the surface until a depth of 160 feet was reached, 
 below which every water-bearing bed gave rise to a flow. From no 
 horizon in this well was the water under much pressure nor the yield 
 large. In the deep railroad well at Oasis the most copious flow was 
 obtained after the depth of 335 feet was reached. 
 
 Throughout the entire low flat portion of Sevier Desert the head 
 of water coincides so nearly with the surface of the land that a swell 
 or depression almost too gentle to be discerned is sufficient to make 
 
SEVIER DESERT. 115 
 
 the difference between a flowing and a nonflowing well. Flows are 
 obtained in Oasis and in the region immediately north of that village. 
 Exceptionally strong flows are found east of Oasis for about 3 miles, 
 and the abandoned Phillips well, about 8 miles east, indicated that 
 there may here be a considerable area in which wells would obtain 
 flowing water. Flows are found in most of Deseret, and for about 
 4 miles up the river to sec. 15, T. 17 S., R. 7 W., also north and 
 west of Deseret to a distance of several miles, and in the region be- 
 tween Deseret and Hinkley. In most of the wells in Hinkley the 
 water does not rise quite to the surface, but at the north end of this 
 village there are several flowing wells. South of Deseret and Oasis 
 flows have been obtained nearly as far as Van, but farther south 
 attempts to get flows have generally been unsuccessful, though there 
 is one isolated flowing well on the Swan Lake farm, nearly 15 miles 
 southwest of Deseret. (See PI. I.) 
 
 Another area in which flows have been obtained is north of the 
 river near the margin of the Lynn bench. (See PL I.) It contains 
 the group of flowing wells known as the Desert Wells. This area is 
 limited on the east by the high ground of the Lynn bench and on the 
 south by a tongue of elevated land that extends westward from this 
 bench between the wells and the river. Toward the west and north 
 there is low ground with prospects for flows. However, only 3 
 miles east of the Desert Wells there is a well, belonging to Bruce 
 Seely, which is 182 feet deep and in which the water stands 12 feet 
 below the surface, and IJ miles farther northwest there is a well 
 which is 130 feet deep and in which the water stands 14 feet below 
 the surface. 
 
 All of the flowing wells with the possible exception of the one on 
 the Swan Lake farm have a relation to the Lynn bench. This large, 
 level, elevated, and sandy region is the principal catchment area 
 from which the water is supplied to the beds of sand that extend be- 
 neath the adjacent low flat. Hence, the artesian pressure is best on 
 that part of the flat that lies nearest this bench, and, in spite of the 
 fact that the surface continues to descend, flows are not generally 
 obtained beyond a certain distance from the foot of the bench. The 
 head of water is about 4,700 feet above sea level at Lynn, 4,625 feet 
 at Burtner, 4,600 feet at Oasis, and less than 4,600 feet farther south- 
 west. 
 
 QUALITY or WATER. 
 
 The water from the railroad well at Lynn contains only moderate 
 amounts of dissolved mineral matter, and most of the ground water 
 below the Lynn bench and the slope of the Canyon Range will 
 probabl}^ be found to be fairly good. 
 
116 GBOUND WATERS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Analysis of water from railroad well at Lynn, Utah. 
 [Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Total solids 559 
 
 Siliceous matter (Si02) 93 
 
 Oxides of iron and alnminum (Fe203+'Al203) 9 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOs)— 136 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) Trace. 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 85 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 149 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgSO*), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), 
 
 volatile, organic and loss 87 
 
 Throughout the low flat area the shallow ground water is saline, 
 but in most of the localities in which drilling has been done the deeper 
 beds contain water that is relatively soft and not perceptibly saline. 
 Thus in the wat^ from the flowing well of David Day in Oasis the 
 chlorine content is only 37 parts per million; in the water from 
 the Desert wells, 75 parts ; in the water from the well of Bruce Seely, 
 3 miles west of the Desert wells, 63 parts ; and in the water from the 
 well of Peter Christensen, northwest of Abraham (SE. J sec. 15, 
 T. 16 S., K. 8 W.), 108 parts. In S. W. Western's well, already 
 referred to as showing typical conditions for the vicinity of Deseret 
 and Oasis, salty water is reported to a depth of 130 feet, but fresh 
 water from all lower beds. 
 
 The following is an analysis, made in September, 1910, of the water 
 from the Jensen artesian well, in the northern part of Deseret, Utah. 
 The water is commercially known as the Deseret lithia water. The 
 lithium was not separately determined : 
 
 Analysis of water from Jensen artesian well. 
 [Parts per million. Analyst, James R. Bailey.] 
 
 Total solids 581 
 
 Silica (SiOa) 48 
 
 Iron (Fe) .1 
 
 Aluminum (Al) .1 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 3.3 
 
 Magnesium (Mg) 1.0 
 
 Sodium (Na) 209 
 
 Potassium (K) 7.8 
 
 Carbonate radicle (CO3) 22 
 
 Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) ; : - 429 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO,) 28 
 
 Chlorine (CI) 42 
 
 Nitrate radicle (NO3) .6 
 
 Most of the deep water contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which is 
 given off in small bubbles when the water comes to the surface. The 
 
 1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 
 
WAH WAH VALLEY. 117 
 
 stratum which in Deseret and Oasis nsnally gives rise to the first 
 flow, and which was struck at the depth of 100 feet in AVestern's well, 
 seems to be especially strongly charged with this gas. 
 
 In the southern part of Sevier Desert saline water has generally 
 been found at all depths penetrated by the drill. The flowing well of 
 P. N. Peterson, 1 mile northeast of Van, is 258 feet deep and yields 
 water that contains about 675 parts per million of chlorine. On the 
 farm of J. V. Conk, 4 miles southwest of Deseret, three wells have 
 been drilled, the deepest going to the depth of 227 feet, but the water 
 found was all salty. Deep wells have been drilled at Swan Lake, 
 Clear Lake, Neels, and Goss in the hope of finding good water, but 
 none of these wells has been successful. 
 
 The following analysis of water from the railroad well at Oasis 
 is not typical of the best deep water of the region. There is some 
 reason for believing that water from shallow sources enters this well. 
 
 Analysis of water from railroad irell at Oasis. 
 [Parts per million. ^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Total solids 1, 325 
 
 Siliceous matter (Si02) 45 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOsH-AluO:;) 3 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 54 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 45 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 75 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 804 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (NajSO^), 
 
 volatile, organic, and loss , 239 
 
 WAH WAH VALLEY. 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 Wah Wah Valley, which on the old maps is called Preuss Valley, is 
 bordered on the east by the San Francisco Mountains and on the 
 west by the AVah Wah Range and the southern extension of the Con- 
 fusion Mountains. It lies chiefly in Beaver County, but its lower 
 part extends into Millard County and leads to Sevier Lake. (See 
 PI. I.) It is a wide, open valley Avitli large alluvial slopes and so 
 few topographic irregularities that from a single vantage point the 
 eye can sweep a large part of its area. In the Bonneville stage the 
 waters of the ancient lake extended far up this valley and formed a 
 distinct strand on its sides ; in the Provo stage the lake occupied only 
 the lower part. (See fig. 2.) The axis of the valley descends sev- 
 eral hundred feet from its upper end to Sevier Lake, but in one 
 locality between Newhouse and Sevier Lake there is an obstruction 
 back of which a playa has formed. Wah AYah Valley can consist- 
 
 1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 
 
118 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 ently be considered to end with this playa, but it is convenient here 
 to discuss the entire area to the south end of Sevier Lake. West of 
 the lower part of this structural trough and tributary to it lies an 
 extensive and rugged upland area which contains several soil-covered 
 valleys of considerable size. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 Samples of soil were taken at the point where the road from 
 Blkck Kock to Ibex crosses the axis of the valley, and these samples 
 were analyzed by the United States Bureau of Soils, with the results 
 shown in the following table. This crossing is below the Provo 
 shore line and below the playa, but well above Sevier Lake and at 
 a point where the valley has considerable gradient, as is shown by 
 the presence of a dry channel 
 
 Analysis of soil south of Lake Sevier. 
 
 Depth 
 
 Soluhle 
 
 within 
 
 substances 
 
 which the 
 
 (all^ali). 
 
 soil was 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 taken. 
 
 total. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 1 
 
 0.5 
 
 2 
 
 .9 
 
 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 4 
 
 1.2 
 
 5 
 
 ,9 
 
 6 
 
 1.3 
 
 Predominating salts in order 
 named. 
 
 Chlorides and carbonates. 
 Sidphates and chlorides. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Chlorides and sulphates. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 No rainfall observations are recorded by the United States Weather 
 Bureau for Wah Wah Valley, but aridity is plainly shown by the 
 vegetation and surface features. At Black Rock and Frisco th3 aver- 
 age annual precipitation is between 8 and 9 inches, and at Garrison 
 it is still less. This amount of rainfall has thus far not proved suffi- 
 cient for dry farming. The data for Frisco are given in the following 
 table: 
 
 Precipitation {in incites) at F^'isco. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1897 
 
 
 0.30 
 .10 
 .65 
 .04 
 
 2.36 
 .02 
 
 1.66 
 .64 
 
 1.44 
 .56 
 .42 
 
 0.44 
 .12 
 
 2.56 
 .03 
 ..28 
 .72 
 .68 
 .97 
 
 1.71 
 
 Tr. 
 
 0.41 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.73 
 
 .86 
 
 .10 
 
 1.49 
 
 .10 
 
 .58 
 
 0.20 
 
 2.59 
 
 .08 
 
 "i."42" 
 Tr. 
 
 1.88. 
 2.49 
 1.44 
 
 0.11 
 .11 
 .36 
 .04 
 .97 
 Tr. 
 .66 
 .11 
 .02 
 
 0.16 
 .97 
 .81 
 Tr. 
 
 1.76 
 .74 
 .72 
 .86 
 .58 
 
 0.19 
 
 1.46 
 .18 
 .05 
 .64 
 .82 
 
 1.12 
 .83 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.21 
 .00 
 Tr. 
 
 1.41 
 Tr. 
 .47 
 .82 
 .45 
 
 2.32 
 
 1.50 
 .31 
 .51 
 
 .77 
 .68 
 .15 
 .85 
 .41 
 .89 
 
 0.45 
 .15 
 .28 
 .55 
 Tr. 
 
 1.22 
 .02 
 .00 
 .83 
 .98 
 
 1.00 
 .24 
 Tr. 
 .05 
 .75 
 .39 
 . 07 
 .22 
 .30 
 .95 
 
 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 
 0.<2 
 .10 
 .11 
 .35 
 .95 
 .75 
 .50 
 .66 
 .10 
 
 1.12 
 
 6.88 
 6.54 
 
 1900 
 
 
 1901 
 
 10.07 
 
 1902 
 
 5.58 
 
 1903 
 
 10.72 
 
 1904 . . . 
 
 7.58 
 
 1905 
 
 11.81 
 
 1906 . . 
 
 
 1907 
 
 .60 
 1.30 
 
 .00 
 .30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1908 
 
 1.58 
 
 .49 
 
 ,42 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.87 
 
 1.57 
 
 .00 
 
 .60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SEVIER LAKE BOTTOMS. 119 
 
 WATER SUPPLIES. 
 
 Wah Wah Valley is entirely destitute of an irrigation supply and 
 contains very few watering places for man or beast. AVah Wah 
 Spring — the only spring of consequence in the region — is situated in 
 Beaver County, on the west side of the valley, and its water is led by 
 gravity through a pipe line to Newhouse, a mining town on the east 
 side. At Kelley's, a short distance north of Wah Wah Spring, a 
 small supply has been developed from surficial sources. 
 
 GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 Conditions are not favorable for finding ground water in this re- 
 gion. Beneath the broad slopes that flank the valley water is almost 
 certainly at a great depth, and may be entirely absent. Even along 
 the axis of the valley the gradient is in most places so steep and the 
 altitude so much higher than that of Sevier Lake that it is not likely 
 that water would be found near the surface. At the playa the drain- 
 age is evidently checked, but there may be no underground structure 
 competent to impound the water that percolates beneath the surface. 
 A drill hole was at one time put down in the valley west of Newhouse 
 with the hope of obtaining a supply for that town. Detailed infor- 
 mation could not be obtained, but it is known that the project proved 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 In the elevated valleys to the west the rock waste is as a rule not 
 deep, and the underljdng formations consist chiefly of limestones and 
 quartzites which are likely to allow the ground water to escape. 
 Small supplies may exist in basins lined with igneous rock, but the 
 chances of finding any such supplies are poor. 
 
 SEVIER LAKE BOTTOMS. 
 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE LAKE LEVEL. 
 
 The Pleistocene Lake Bonneville is now represented only by a few 
 small isolated sheets of water and swampy areas that occupy the 
 lowest depressions of the ancient lake bottom. Sevier Lake is the 
 largest oi these residual water bodies in the area covered by this re- 
 port. It receives supplies from Sevier River and loses them by 
 evaporation. As the amount of evaporation depends on the water 
 area, the size of the lake is an expression of equilibrium between 
 inflow and evaporation, between gain and loss. 
 
 Mr. Gilbert, in his monograph on Lake Bonneville, states that 
 Sevier Lake was first explored and accurately mapped in 1872 by 
 R. L. Hoxie and Louis Nell, of the "^Mieeler Survey, and that at that 
 time it was about 28 miles long; its water surface was 188 square 
 
120 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 miles in extent; its maximum depth was about 15 feet, and its out- 
 line that indicated in Plate I. He also states that in January, 1880, 
 the lake was virtually dry and its bed was crossed on foot where the 
 water had been deepest. 
 
 A large part of the water that would normally flow into the lake is 
 now diverted for irrigation and that which still reaches the lake repre- 
 sents an economic loss that should, as far as possible, be stopped. To 
 save all of the water of Sevier Eiver in years of heavy rainfall would, 
 however, require a very much greater storage capacity than is re- 
 quired in years of light or even average precipitation. In 1880 and 
 in several preceding years the water of the river was so nearly 
 monopolized by irrigators that the lake dried up, but since that time, 
 in spite of probable increased use for irrigation, a surplus has again 
 accumulated. The outline of the lake shown in Plate I is copied from 
 a map of Utah compiled by Gilbert Thompson in 1899.^ In the au- 
 tumns of 1908 and 1909 a lake existed which was somewhat larger than 
 that indicated in Plate I, but whose margin was separated from the 
 shore line of 1872 by a flat miry belt. The outline of the north end 
 of the lake in 1908 is shown on the topographic map of the Fish 
 Springs quadrangle. (See PL IV.) 
 
 POSITION OF THE LAKE. 
 
 Sevier Lake occupies the lowest depression in the Sevier drainage 
 basin, but this depression is not in the interior of the desert plain, 
 remote from mountain masses, but in a relatively narrow trough 
 between the House and Cricket ranges. The reason for this position 
 is evident. Originally the lowest depression may have been farther 
 from the elevated areas, but the basin was filled to great depths 
 with sediments brought chiefly by Sevier Eiver, and the quantity of 
 material deposited varied inversely with the distance from the point 
 where the river made its exit from the mountains. This was true 
 both when the river discharged into Lake Bonneville and when it 
 was an aggrading stream building an alluvial fan. Hence the local- 
 ity most remote from the river's exit received the least sediment, was 
 built up the most slowly, and eventually remained at the lowest level. 
 This most remote locality is the present site of Sevier Lake. 
 
 QUALITY or THE LAKE WATER. 
 
 The water of the lake is too saline to be used as a supply for live 
 stock. In 1872, in connection with the Wheeler Survey, a sample 
 was taken at a point on the west shore remote from the inflow, and 
 this sample Was analyzed by Dr. O. Loew, with the results shown in 
 
 1 Gannett, Henry, A gazetteer of Utah ; Bull U. S. Geol. Survey No. 166, 1900, PI. I. 
 
WHITE VALLEY. 121 
 
 the following table.^ During the periods that the lake was dry 
 some of the deposited salt was probably covered with mud or dust 
 which later prevented it from being redissolved. On the other hand, 
 the quantity of water is at present less than in 1872, and this fact 
 tends to make the concentration greater. 
 
 Analysis of water in Sevier Lake.^ 
 
 I Percent- 
 age coni- 
 Partsper position 
 million, j of the an- 
 hydrous 
 I residue. 
 
 Total solids 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 
 
 Magnesium (Mg) 
 
 Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SCO 
 
 Chlorine (CI) 
 
 86,400 
 120 
 2,100 
 28,900 
 17,580 
 37,700 
 
 0.14 
 2.43 
 33.45 
 20.35 
 43.63 
 
 100. 00 
 
 a Recalculated from hypothetical compounds in grains per gallon. 
 GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 The sediments brought to Sevier Lake Avere not only meager in 
 quantity but fine grained in character, and hence they are unpromis- 
 ing as a source of water supply. The conditions are similar to those 
 on the opposite side of the Cricket Mountains, where unsuccessful 
 railroad wells were drilled. Nevertheless some coarse material was 
 washed down from the adjacent ranges and this material may con- 
 tain supplies of fresh water. Gravelly water-bearing lenses are most 
 likely to be found at the base of alluvial fans heading in the largest 
 canyons, out of which have come the most gravel and the most water. 
 
 WHITE VALLEY. 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 White Valley occupies a closed basin more than GO miles long and 
 about 900 square miles in area. It is bordered on the west by the 
 Confusion Range, which separates it from Snake Valley, and on the 
 east by the House Range, which separates it from Sevier Desert. 
 (See PI. IV.) 
 
 The central flat of the valley is about 4,400 feet above sea level. 
 The loftiest part of the inclosing mountain rim is formed by the 
 House Range, whose two highest peaks are Antelope Mountain and 
 Granite Peak, respectively 9,580 feet and 9,725 feet above sea level, 
 or about one mile above the valley flat. The lowest notch in the rim 
 is at Sand Pass, between the House and Fish Spring ranges, where 
 the altitude is between 4,700 and 4,800 feet. 
 
 ^Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, p. 114. 
 
122 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 The strata of the bordering mountains consist chiefly of Paleozoic 
 limestones and quartzites. In the House Range they dip toward the 
 east, away from the valley, and their outcropping edges form a steep, 
 rugged westward-facing wall which for many miles towers precipi- 
 tously above the valley flat. In the northern part of the Confusion 
 Range the dip is also toward the east, which here is toward the val- 
 ley, and the slope from the mountains to the central flat is relatively 
 wide and gentle, like the east slope of the House Range. Hence the 
 valley is asymmetrical, the lowest part lying near the base of the 
 more lofty range. (See PI. IV.) 
 
 The lowest part of the valley constitutes a nearly flat area, many 
 miles long and several miles in average width. In some parts a 
 miniature eolian topography is imposed upon this flat surface, a 
 fantastic landscape being produced by the presence of innumerable 
 hummocks, the tallest of which are 12 to 15 feet high. These hum- 
 mocks consist chiefly of residual clay held in place by clumps of salt 
 bush or other vegetation, while the surrounding surface has been 
 lowered by wind erosion. In other parts of the flat, probably the 
 lowest tracts where flood waters occasionally collect, the surface is 
 smooth and quite destitute of vegetation of any sort. Toward the 
 south the valley becomes more constricted and trough-like, but the 
 central axis remains low and, with some interruptions, retains its 
 playa character. At the tapering south end it is hemmed in by rock 
 walls. ' 
 
 When Lake Bonneville existed. White Valley contained a large bay, 
 which, during both the Bonneville and Provo stages, was connected 
 with the main body of the lake by narrow straits at the north end. 
 After the water was lowered a short distance beneath the Provo level, 
 the straits were drained and the bay was converted into a lake that 
 had no outlet. 
 
 White Valley is uninhabited. Although there are no records of 
 precipitation in the valley, the sparseness of the desert vegetation and 
 the scarcity of water plainly indicate aridity. Almost the only use 
 made of the region is for sheep grazing, the flocks being brought in 
 during the winter when the light snowfall helps to solve the problem 
 of water supply. Ibex, a winter supply station for sheep herders, is 
 situated a few miles west of the southern extremity of the valley. 
 At this point an attempt at dry farming, thus far unsuccessful, is 
 being made. 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 The White Valley drainage basin has no permanent streams and 
 only a few small springs. Two seepage springs are reported near 
 the base of the Confusion Range. One of these, known as Skunk 
 Spring, is said to be about 5 miles east and 1 mile south of the sum- 
 
WHITE VALLEY. 123 
 
 mit of Cowboy Pass; the other, known as Gregory Spring, about 
 8 miles farther south. Though they are small and little known, they 
 are valuable watering places for stock on the range. 
 
 Antelope Spring is situated in the House Range, about 1 mile east 
 of the divide and one-half mile north of the road leading from Snake 
 Valley to Oasis. (See PI. IV.) It yields several gallons per minute 
 of good water and is a valuable watering place for travelers. 
 
 A group of small springs, including Coyote, Willow, Tule, and 
 South Tule Springs, occur in the low part of the valley. (See PL IV.) 
 They are all on the central flat, west of the axis of the valley and 
 near the base of the long slope from the Confusion Range. Coyote 
 Spring consists of a circular depression in which tules- are growing. 
 This depression contains water which is evidently supplied from un- 
 derground sources but which was not overflowing at the time the 
 spring was seen. The water, though perceptibly mineralized, is used 
 for drinking and for watering live stock. The other springs of the 
 group are said to be similar to Coyote Spring. Like Antelope Spring, 
 these springs are used as watering places by persons traveling be- 
 tween Snake Valley and the settlements in Sevier Desert. 
 
 At Ibex there is no spring, but storm water collected from a steep 
 mountain side is stored in reservoirs formed out of natural cavities in 
 the rock. 
 
 GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 There are no wells in this valley, but it is not improbable that in 
 certain localities ground water could be found. The topographic 
 map (PI. IV) shows that the central flat is about 4,400 feet above sea 
 level, which is not only far below the surrounding uplands but also 
 slightly beloAv the level of Sevier Lake, 200 feet below the level of 
 the flowing district surrounding Deseret, 300 to 500 feet below the 
 water level in Snake Valley, and only slightly above the surface of 
 Fish Springs Flat and the south end of Great Salt Lake Desert. 
 Obviously the ground water of this valley does not escape to the sur- 
 rounding valleys, and it is therefore probable that it has accumulated 
 in the sediments below the central flat, a condition also indicated by 
 the group of springs on this flat. 
 
 Beneath the flat the sediments may be too fine to yield water freely 
 or too heavily charged with alkali to furnish water of good quality. 
 The chances of obtaining satisfactory supplies are better near the foot 
 of the slopes, where the elevation is not much greater than on the flat 
 but where the sedments are likely to be coarser and less strongly im- 
 pregnated with alkali. Localities near the mouths of the largest 
 canyons are the most promising. The central part of the tapering 
 southern appendage of the valley has a low altitude nearly to the 
 south end, and may have ground water at moderate depths. 
 
124 GBOUNB WATERS IK WESTEEK UTAH. 
 
 Most of the extensive west slope and the steep east slope of the 
 valley lie so high above the flat that their ground water is no doubt 
 either far below the surface or entirely drained away. In the ele- 
 vated tributary valleys near the south end the prospects of finding 
 ground water, except at great depths, are also poor, especially where 
 limestones and quartzites are present and igneous rocks are absent. 
 
 FISH SPRINGS VALLEY. 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 Fish Springs Valley is bounded on the east by the Thomas Range 
 and on the west by the Fish Springs Range. Both of these ranges 
 consist of westward-dipping limestones and quartzites with associated 
 masses of volcanic rock, the latter being especially abundant in the 
 Thomas Range. On the east side of the valley the rocks dip toward 
 the center of the valley and the slope is correspondingly wide and 
 gentle. This slope is continuous with the high tract that shuts in 
 the valley on the south, and slope and high tract together form a large 
 upland area. On the west side of the valley the strata have appar- 
 ently been faulted up and their outcropping edges form a precipitous 
 mountain wall at the base of which is a steep and narrow alluvial 
 slope that diminishes in size toward the north until it almost disap- 
 pears. At the foot of the slopes from the east, south, and west is a 
 broad swampy alkali flat that merges on the north with the desolate 
 expanse of Great Salt Lake Desert. The only permanent inhabitant 
 in this drainage basin of nearly 400 square miles, is to be found at 
 Thomas's ranch, near the northwestern extremity of the valley, but 
 the Fish Springs and Drum mining camps are located on the moun- 
 tain rim, just beyond the divides. (See PI. lY.) 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 No permanent streams rise in the mountains, and the only mountain 
 spring worthy of mention is Wildhorse Spring in the main Thomas 
 Range, 4 miles south and 11 miles east of Thomas's ranch. However, 
 in the central flat, near the base of the Fish Springs Range, there is a 
 group of springs some of which are large. 
 
 The Hot Springs, which are located on the fiat a short distance 
 from the north end of the Fish Springs Range and less than 1 mile 
 south of the Tooele County line, include a group of tuffaceous mounds 
 with vents from which water is flowing, or has flowed in the past. 
 Hydrostatic equilibrium exists between the water in the different 
 springs, and hence the springs that have the highest mounds have 
 
FISH SPRINGS VALLEY. 125 
 
 only a small yield or are extinct, while the most copious flow observed 
 comes from a vent around which almost no mound has yet been built, 
 and which therefore discharges at a lower level. The spring that 
 supplies the bathhouse issues from a mound about 25 feet in diame- 
 ter and yields several gallons per minute. The water has a tempera- 
 ture of 104° F., is highly mineralized, and deposits incrustations of 
 salt. The water from the large spring has a much higher tempera- 
 ture. A variety of colors, including red, brown, bright green, olive 
 green, and black, are displayed in the vicinity. They are due to 
 chemical precipitates and to filamentary algae that thrive in the hot 
 water. The large mounds that yield little or no water are distin- 
 guished by their bright red color, which is probably due to more com- 
 plete oxidation of the precipitates at these places than in the vicinity 
 of more active springs. 
 
 Between the Hot Springs and the mountain there are two small 
 springs that yield water of lower temperature, and about 1 mile 
 southeast of the Hot Springs is the Big Spring. The latter is 
 located on the flat within a fcAv yards of the foot of the mountain, 
 the alluvial slope here being virtually absent. It consists of a deep 
 pool which has vertical or overhanging walls, and is filled with clear 
 water that issues at the rate of several hundred gallons per minute. 
 Other springs are located at Thomas's ranch and between the ranch 
 and Big Spring, and a number of large springs issue along a line 
 extending to a little over a mile south of the ranch. Most of these 
 springs, like the Big Spring, consist of deep, steep-sided pools filled 
 with clear water, which is supplied from underground sources and 
 which rises by artesian pressure and overflows at a nearly constant 
 rate. The pools are inhabit ated by small fish for which the springs 
 are named. 
 
 Although these springs are known as " cold springs," in distinc- 
 tion from the Hot Springs, they are thermal in the sense that the tem- 
 perature of their water is higher than the normal temperature of the 
 shallow ground water of the region. The water in the spring at the 
 ranch has a temperature of 78° F., which is nearly 30 degrees above 
 normal. This water is not excessively mineralized and is freely used 
 for drinking. 
 
 About 7 miles south of Thomas's ranch is Cane Spring, which 
 consists of a number of seeps at the base of the alluvial slope. The 
 water is highly mineralized but is used for live stock and forms 
 one of the supplies for the freighters operating between the Utah 
 mine and Oasis. 
 
 The Devils Hole, which is near Cane Spring but a little farther 
 up the slope, is a deep circular hole filled with water within 10 or 
 15 feet of the top. Beneath the Avater surface, which is about 15 
 feet in diameter, the walls are overhanging, as in some of the pools 
 
126 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 of the Fish Springs. This hole has been described by G. K. Gilbert,^ 
 who states that " it appears to be due to the undermining action of 
 subterranean currents flowing in channels sufficiently open to permit 
 the removal of even coarse detritus, and the salinity of the water 
 suggests that these channels may have been opened by the solution 
 of deposits of salt." 
 
 The Fish Springs Eange has evidently been produced by faulting, 
 the break in the strata occurring along the east side. Moreover, 
 very recent faulting is shown by a small fresh scarp which runs 
 parallel to the east margin of the range and in which the alluvial 
 and lacustrine sediments have been displaced.^ The linear arrange- 
 ment of the Fish Springs along the east side of the range, together 
 with their high temperature and copious yield, suggests that their, 
 origin may be associated with the fault. 
 
 WATER IN UTAH MINE. 
 
 The Utah mine, which is near the north end of the Fish Springs 
 Eange, was sunk through limestone near a contact of intrusive rock. 
 It appears that the first water was found between the depths of 
 800 and 820 feet, which is somewhat lower than the level of the 
 springs in the valley. The water comes in small quantities from 
 crevices in the rock. It contains a large amount of common salt, 
 but it is the only supply at the mine and is used for drinking and 
 other purposes. 
 
 Analysis of water from Utah mine.^ 
 
 [Parts per million ; analyst, C. C. Crismon ; date, September, 1901.] 
 
 Total solids 2, 255 
 
 Volatile and organic matter 239 
 
 Silica (SiOs) 18 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOs+ALOs) 13 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 64 
 
 Magnesium (Mg) 67 
 
 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 591 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 164 
 
 Chlorine (CI) 1,096 
 
 GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 In general the best chances of obtaining satisfactory wells are at 
 the base of the slopes, near the margin of the central flat (PL IV). 
 Beneath the flat itself the ground water is probably near the sur- 
 face but it is likely to be poor in quality and, if fine-grained lake 
 
 1 United States Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. lOOth Mer., vol. 3, 1875, p. 110. 
 
 2 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, p. 353. 
 
 3 Recalculated from hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon. 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 127 
 
 sediments prevail, its yield is likely to be small. Farther up the 
 slopes the water probably stands at great depths or has been drained 
 away entirely. Small supplies, similar to those developed at Joy, 
 may exist near the surface in certain localities in the hills and 
 mountains to the east and south where igneous rocks occur. 
 
 SNAKE VALLEY. 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 Snake Valley is a structural trough that trends in a direction some- 
 what east of north. (See Pis. I and IV.) From its head, in Nevada, 
 it extends diagonally across the State line, passes through the 
 western parts of Millard and Juab counties, and opens upon Great 
 Salt Lake Desert'. On the east it is bordered by the low, barren 
 ridges of the Confusion Range; on the west, by the lofty Deep 
 Creek Range, in western Juab County, and by high mountains 
 farther southwest in Nevada. The length of this trough from the 
 vicinity of Burbank to where it merges into Great Salt Lake Desert, 
 near the Tooele County line, is about 80 miles, and its total drainage 
 area within the State of Utah is approximately 2,000 square miles. 
 Its axis descends toward the north but not with equal gradient in 
 all parts. (See PL IV.) The valley may be considered to consist of 
 three sections : The upper section includes the part south of Garrison 
 and is sometimes called " Lake Valley," the middle section stretches 
 from Garrison to Trout Creek and forms Snake Valley proper; the 
 lower section extends north from Trout Creek. The middle and 
 lower sections are shown in Plate IV. 
 
 In the highest stage of Lake Bonneville the lower and middle 
 sections of Snake Valley contained a large bay (fig. 2) and the upper 
 section was traversed by a tributary river described as follows by 
 Mr. Gilbert:^ 
 
 A large channel whose habit Indicates a stream comparable with the smaller 
 rivers of the basin, enters Snake Valley from the south at a point just east of 
 AVheeler Pealv, known as the Snake Valley settlement [Garrison]. The channel 
 ends at the margin of the old lake, and appears to have contained a stream tribu- 
 tary to the lake, which disappeared at the same time. It is now occupied near 
 the settlement by a streamlet from the adjacent mountain known as Lake Creek, 
 but this enters the channel at its side, and played no important part in its 
 formation. Above its confluence the channel has essentially the same dimen- 
 sions, and these continue as far as it was traced, about 20 miles from its mouth. 
 
 In the Provo stage the middle section was virtually drained and the 
 bay extended only a short distance south of Trout Creek. 
 
 Conspicuous shore features were constructed by the waves in Snake 
 Valley Bay. Especially characteristic are large terraces bordered 
 on the outside by heavy embankments resembling railroad grades and 
 
 1 Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Gcol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 184, 185. 
 
128 
 
 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 forming " natural reservoirs." So perfect and regular are these em- 
 bankments that they are believed by some of the inhabitants of the 
 region to represent the labors of an ancient people. 
 
 RAINFALL AND VEGETATION. 
 
 The rainfall records of the United States Weather Bureau, given 
 in the following table, although not very comprehensive, plainly in- 
 dicate an arid climate, the precipitation in some years being less than 
 5 inches. These records are corroborated by the character of the 
 native vegetation. The broad, gravelly slopes that flank the valley 
 on both sides contain only a meager cover of dry, stunted bushes. 
 In the axial portion of the valley, where ground water is near the 
 surface, rabbit brush, greasewood, and salt brush are found, the domi- 
 nating type among these three in any locality depending largely on 
 the amount of alkali in the soil. The Confusion Eange, like the 
 Basin ranges that lie farther east, is notably barren; but the Deep 
 Creek Range, which is several thousand feet higher, supports large 
 trees and evidently receives more moisture than either the valley or 
 the Confusion Range. 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) in Snake Valley. 
 Garrison. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1903 
 
 0.66 
 .07 
 .37 
 
 0.60 
 1.49 
 1.30 
 Tr. 
 .55 
 .89 
 
 0.20 
 .62 
 .30 
 
 2.47 
 .90 
 .16 
 
 0.38. 
 
 .06 
 
 .99 
 1.58 
 
 Tr. 
 
 .10 
 
 1.16 
 .97 
 
 1.83 
 .77 
 .42 
 .47 
 
 0.54 
 .41 
 Tr. 
 .06 
 .20 
 .10 
 
 0.05 
 .93 
 .10 
 .33 
 .21 
 .65 
 
 0.55 
 .95 
 .83 
 
 "'.'65" 
 .56 
 
 0.38 
 .55 
 .85 
 .50 
 .05 
 
 0.23 
 .94 
 .00 
 .10 
 .64 
 
 1.41 
 
 Tr. 
 0.00 
 2.14 
 1.98 
 .49 
 .33 
 
 Tr. 
 0.22 
 .11 
 .58 
 .20 
 .26 
 
 4.75 
 
 1904 
 
 7.21 
 
 1905 
 
 8.82 
 
 1906 
 
 
 1907 
 
 .64 
 .25 
 
 4.35 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 ~ .40 
 
 .81 
 
 .77 
 
 .52 
 
 .94 
 
 .22 
 
 .38 
 
 .59 
 
 .47 
 
 .55 
 
 .83 
 
 .23 
 
 6.28 
 
 Trout Creek. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1905 
 
 
 1.45 
 .43 
 .51 
 
 1.40 
 
 0.95 
 
 .92 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.25 
 
 1.18 
 
 .00 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.92 
 
 .79 
 
 0.00 
 
 1.70 
 
 .69 
 
 0.00 
 .28 
 Tr. 
 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 1.56 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.22 
 
 .37 
 
 0.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 .52 
 
 1.25 
 2.20 
 Tr. 
 
 0.23 
 .15 
 .95 
 
 
 1906 
 
 0.14 
 
 1.85 
 
 .50 
 
 12.34 
 
 1907 
 
 8.28 
 
 1908. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Callao. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.44 
 .16 
 .00 
 
 0.28 
 .07 
 .05 
 
 
 1903 
 
 1904 
 
 0.50 
 1.50 
 .05 
 
 "6." 83" 
 
 "i.'ie" 
 
 Tr. 
 0.28 
 
 2.56 
 .77 
 
 ■i.'52' 
 
 0.05 
 Tr. 
 
 Tr. 
 0.54 
 
 0.31 
 .36 
 
 0.18 
 .76 
 
 ""7.'77 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 
 
 129 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) in Snake Valley — Continued. 
 Fish Springs (Utah Mine). 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 1 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1899, , ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.73 
 
 
 1900 
 
 
 ... 0.05 
 22 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.05 
 
 4.65 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.07 
 .24 
 
 6.70 
 .25 
 
 Tr. 
 Tr. 
 
 1.37 
 .00 
 
 .42 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 i ■ 
 
 
 SPRINGS AND STREAMS. 
 
 Some parts of Snake Valley have flowing water during most of 
 the year, but other parts of the axial region are normally dry or are 
 occupied by alkali flats or salt marshes. If the climate were humid, 
 or perhaps if it were only somewhat less arid, a permanent stream 
 would flow through the entire length of the valley. The barren 
 Confusion Range has no streams and is almost destitute of springs, 
 but the loftier and better-watered mountains west of the valley give 
 rise to a number of small irrigation streams. In the succeeding para- 
 graphs the different streams and springs are described in the order 
 in which they are found in passing northward through the valley. 
 
 Big Spring and Lake Creek. — Big Spring is situated in Nevada, 
 about 10 miles up the valley from Burbank. The water issues in 
 large volume from gravel not far from a limestone cliff that borders 
 the valley on the west. This water appears to be of good quality. 
 Its temperature was found to be 63.5° F. The spring gives rise to 
 Lake Creek, which flows northeastward to the Burbank settlement 
 and into the reservoir shown in Plate I. For some miles below the 
 Big Spring smaller springs well out of the gravel and help to aug- 
 ment the size of the creek. The flow of the creek below these springs 
 is reported to be 18 second-feet. The water is used for irrigation on 
 six ranches at Burbank, above the reservoir, and on five ranches at 
 Garrison, below the reservoir, but its duty is apparently low. A 
 mile or more south of the reservoir a large spring, known as Burbank 
 Spring, issues from the gravelly bench on the east side of the valley 
 and supplies water of good quality, the temperature of which is 
 57° F. Another spring exists in the same vicinity, but nearer the 
 creek. 
 
 Snake Creek. — A small stream, known as Snake Creek (PI. I), 
 rises in the mountains west of Garrison and furnishes the irriiration 
 supply for two ranches at this settlement. Its flow is largely pro- 
 vided by the melting of snow at high altitudes. 
 
 Baker Creek. — About 7 miles north of Garrison, Baker Creek enters 
 the valley from the west. (See PL I.) Its surplus waters Join those 
 from Snake and Lake creeks and flow northward along the axis of 
 the valley toward Conger's ranch, producing a swamp}^ tract. There 
 are also springs in the vicinity of Conger's ranch, and small springs, 
 known as Cane Springs, occur several miles west. 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 9 
 
130 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 Knoll Springs. — The Knoll Springs comprise several groups of 
 springs Avhich are arranged along a north-south line. They are 
 on the east side of the valley, but on low ground. (See PL IV.) The 
 southernmost group is near the road leading from Meecham's ranch 
 to Cowboy Pass, about 7 miles east-northeast of the ranch. Some of 
 these springs consist of pools with overhanging walls, but more char- 
 acteristic are those that consist of mounds, or knolls, near the top of 
 which the water issues. The largest of these knolls are over 100 feet 
 in diameter and more than 10 feet high. Apparently the knolls have 
 been built over pools by the growth of vegetation and the accumu- 
 lation of dust, as is explained on pages 44 and 45. 
 
 The shelves of the pool springs tremble when they are stepped upon, 
 and horses or cattle that venture too far out on them are likely to 
 break through and become mired, but the knolls are so firmly built 
 that they can be traversed with impunity by man and beast. As far 
 as was observed, none of the springs has a large fioAv, but those which 
 have no knolls or only small ones, and which therefore issue near 
 the level of the normal land surface, yield more than those which 
 discharge at a higher level near the tops of well-developed knolls. 
 
 The water does not seem to be highly mineralized. From some of 
 the springs bubbles of hydrogen sulphide were seen to escape, prob- 
 ably resulting from the decomposition of the vegetable matter with 
 which the springs are surrounded. The temperature of the water in 
 one spring was found to be 70.5° F. 
 
 Kell Springs^ etc. — About halfway between Smithville and But- 
 son's ranch, along the road to Garrison, are four springs known as 
 the Kell Springs (PL IV). They are on the west side of the valley 
 but not greatlj^ above the central flat. The most northerly of the 
 group consists of a swampy seepage area, about 30 feet in diameter, 
 covered with water cress. Water that is cool and good to the taste 
 flows from the spring, but is soon lost by seepage and evaporation. 
 A short distance southeast of this spring there is a mound, approxi- 
 mately 75 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 5 feet high, from an orifice at 
 the top of which a small quantity of water issues. A few rods farther 
 south is a small pool of clear water overgrown AAdth cress, the flow 
 from which amounts to several gallons per minute. The water is 
 good to the taste and has a temperature of 58° F. A few rods still 
 farther south there is a mound, more than 100 feet long and perhaps 
 5 feet high, from three points near the margin of which water flows 
 at the rate of several gallons per minute. 
 
 At Butson's ranch a small spring of good cold water issues from a 
 gravelly bank on the valley slope and a small amount of water comes 
 from a canyon to the west. Other streams in the vicinity are Henry 
 Creek, used for irrigation on Meecham's and Simonson's ranches, and 
 Smith Creek, used on George Bishop's ranch at Smithville. 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 131 
 
 Warm Springs. — A mile or more west of Gandy post office, which 
 is situated high up on the alluvial slope on the west side of the valley, 
 there is a small mountain that consists of distorted and steeply dip- 
 ping limestone strata. The Warm Springs issue from crevices in 
 the rock at the base of the precipitous south slope of this mountain, 
 and give rise to a stream (PL I) that is estimated to be larger than 
 Lake Creek, and whose flow is said to be independent of seasonal 
 changes. The temperature of the water coming from the largest 
 vents is 81.5° F. Calcareous precipitates are found in large quanti- 
 ties at the springs, and they form thick incrustations on the sides and 
 bottom of the stream channel. Deposits of this kind in the vicinity 
 of the springs show that water once issued at points that are now dr}^ 
 Algae and water cress abound in the stream. The water appears to 
 be only moderately mineralized and is used for domestic purposes 
 and for irrigation on the ranch of James Robison, on the fields of 
 a small Indian settlement near by, and on a ranch farther down the 
 valley. The total acreage irrigated is not large, and the water is 
 evidently not doing full duty. 
 
 Springs at Footers ranch. — A large group of pool and knoll springs 
 is situated on low ground on the east side of the valley, between 1 
 and 2 miles south and southeast of Foote's ranch, which is in sec. 
 9, T. 16 S., R. 18 W. (See PL lY.) Most of the pools are sur- 
 rounded and partly inclosed by marginal shelves, and their clear 
 waters are inhabited by small fish. The largest knolls are about 10 
 feet high. The flow of these springs is not noticeably affected by 
 seasonal changes, and their total yield amounts to a number of sec- 
 ond-feet. The water appears to be of good quality, and its tempera- 
 ture, in five springs that were tested, ranges between 66.5° and 68° F. 
 The spring having the largest yield consists of a pool which is about 
 125 feet in diameter and is said to be 40 feet deep. 
 
 Springs bordering the Salt Marsh. — Numerous springs are found 
 on the west side of the Salt Marsh, which lies north of Foote's ranch. 
 Some of these springs consist of small pools, but in others the water 
 seeps or wells up directly from the porous ground. None are large, 
 but together they yield much water. The temperature of the water 
 in the so-called Cold Spring is 55° F., and in the spring at C. A. 
 Conklin's (the old Gandy ranch) it is 58° F. Neither of these is of 
 the pool type. 
 
 The flow of these springs is said to be least in the summer and 
 greatest in the fall. In the fall and winter the Salt Marsh fills with 
 water, Avhich disappears in the summer, but this may be due more 
 largely to a difference in the rate of evaporaton than to differences 
 in the yield of the springs. 
 
 Springs between Salt Marsh ami Trout Creek. — North of the -Salt 
 Marsh the axial part of the valley contains a number of pool springs 
 
132 GEOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 which discharge into swampy tracts. The largest spring of this 
 group that was observed is at Miller's ranch, about 8 miles south of 
 Trout Creek. It consists of an oval pool about 125 feet long and 75 
 feet wide, around which a dam several feet high has been built. The 
 discharge from this pool is several hundred gallons per minute. The 
 water does not appear to be highly mineralized. Its temperature at 
 the outlet was found to be 64° F. 
 
 Springs at Trout Creek. — In the lowest part of the valley, at Trout 
 Creek post office, there is an area of seeps and small springs some of 
 which are of the pool type. The temperature of the water in one 
 spring was found to be 55° F. 
 
 Springs and streams in Pleasant Valley. — Pleasant Valley heads 
 in Nevada and leads southeastward to Snake Valley, which it enters 
 between Trout Creek and Gandy. (See PL I.) A small stream which 
 issues from Water Canyon, to the north, furnishes the irrigation 
 supply at Henroid's ranch, and other canyons furnish still smaller 
 supplies. Along the axis of the valley there are numerous springs 
 some of which yield copiously. 
 
 Streams from the Deep Greek Range. — Deep Creek Eange is ex- 
 ceptional among the basin ranges of the region in that it gives rise to 
 a number of permanent streams (PL IV). Some of these are on the 
 west side and are tributary to Deep Creek, which flows northward 
 into Tooele County; others drain the east slope and provide small 
 quantities of irrigation water for the lower section of Snake Valley. 
 The waters of Birch Creek and Trout Creek are led to the Trout 
 Creek settlement where they furnish the irrigation supply for two 
 ranches, and the waters of Indian Farm Creek, Thoms Creek, and 
 Basin Creek are led to Callao where they supply three ranches. 
 
 Willow Springs and similar springs farther north. — At Callao, 
 near the Tooele County line, there is a swampy area that contains a 
 labyrinth of pool springs of various sizes, together known as the 
 Willow Springs. Some of the pools barely overflow but others give 
 rise to vigorous streams. They contain fish and abound in water 
 cress. Kedding Spring, another large spring of the pool type, is 
 situated 6 miles farther north. 
 
 Character of the springs. — From the foregoing account it is evi- 
 dent that this valley, from Big Spring, 10 miles south of Burbank, 
 to Redding Spring, 6 miles north of Callao, is characterized by an 
 abundance of large springs, most of which, together with the Fish 
 Springs and Hot Springs, exhibit certain traits in common. 
 
 Not only are many of the springs large, a number yielding over one 
 second-foot and a few yielding several times this amount, but, 
 according to local reports, the flow of the large springs is not affected 
 by seasonal changes. 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 133 
 
 The pools and knolls are distinctive of the group, though they do 
 not include the Big Spring nor the AVarm Springs, which are the 
 largest springs in the valley. The pools and knolls are found only 
 on low ground, not much above the bottom of the valley, but the 
 Warm Spring is at a much higher level. Characteristic of the pools 
 are their depth, their overhanging shelves, the fish they contain, and 
 the abundance of water cress and other vegetation that they support. 
 
 Characteristic also of many of the pools, and of the Big Spring 
 and Warm Springs as well, is the high temperature of their water. 
 The mean annual temperature of this region is about 50° F., in con- 
 trast with which the following maximum temperatures were observed 
 in springs: 
 
 Temperature {°F.) of spring tcatcr in Snake and Fish Springs vaUeys. 
 
 Hot Springs Near boiling. 
 
 Warm Springs 81.5 
 
 Fish Springs (small spring at Thomas's ranch) 78.0 
 
 Knoll Springs , 70.5 
 
 Springs at Foote's ranch 68.0 
 
 Spring at Miller's ranch 64.0 
 
 Big Spring 63.5 
 
 Considerable difference in temperature usually exists among the 
 different springs of the same group, the warmest water being where 
 the flow is most copious. This relation was found, for example^ in 
 the Hot Springs, Warm Springs, and springs at Foote's ranch. The 
 temperature of the water in large pools with little discharge is no 
 doubt affected by atmospheric conditions. 
 
 The origin of these springs is discussed on pages 43-45. 
 
 WELLS AND GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 
 
 Burhanh. — In the valley of Lake Creek, above the reservoir, the 
 ground- water level is near the surface, and shallow dug, drilled, or 
 driven wells yield copious supplies of good water. On the farm of 
 B. P. Hockman, 2 miles north and one-half mile east of Burbank 
 post office, two wells have been drilled on ground only a few^ feet 
 above the creek level, one to a depth of 18 feet and the other to a 
 depth of 40 feet. In sinking these wells alternate beds of clay, sand, 
 and gravel were passed through. The first water was struck at the 
 depth of 9 feet and at 18 feet a good supply that rose by artesian 
 pressure within 4 feet of the surface was obtained. 
 
 Considerable quantities of ground water no doubt exist in this part 
 of the valley and could be made available for irrigation by a small 
 lift, but it is improbable that good artesian wells could be obtained. 
 In the lower part of AVhite Sage Valley (also known as Antelope 
 Valley), pump wells can probably be obtained at moderate depths, 
 
134 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 but in the middle and upper parts of this valley the ground water 
 is likely to be far below the surface or to be drained away entirely. 
 
 Gamson. — In the vicinity of Garrison the depth to water de- 
 creases toward the north. In this part of the valley a number of 
 wells have been sunk, most of which have fallen into disuse. Aban- 
 doned wells are reported as follows: SE. \ SW. J sec. 6, T. 22 S., 
 E. 19 W., a dug well 40 feet deep; SW. \ SE. \ sec. 31, T. 21 S., E. 
 19 W., a dug well 35 feet deep ; SE. \ SE. \ sec. 31, T. 21 S., E. 19 
 W., a dug well 30 feet deep ; NW. \ SW. \ sec. 32, T. 21 S., E. 19 W., 
 a dug well 15 feet deep. A well at the hotel, sunk almost entirely 
 through gravel, receives a small supply of water from seepage near 
 the bottom. At the south end of the settlement (SE. \ NW. \ sec. 7, 
 T. 22 S., E. 19 W.), two unsuccessful attempts were made to obtain 
 flows. One hole is reported to have been sunk to a depth of nearly 
 200 feet, at which level bedrock was struck. 
 
 Betxoeen Garrison and Conger'' s ranch. — The old Conger ranch is 
 situated in a low, swampy area that receives the drainage from the 
 creeks farther up the valley. At this point a well was drilled which 
 is said to have reached a depth of more than 100 feet and to have 
 found a supply of good water that rose within 3 feet of the surface. 
 
 In the low tract traversed by Baker Creek ground water could 
 probably be found in some abundance, and it is possible that in the 
 lowest parts flows would be struck. The large branch valley on the 
 east side of Snake Valley, and heading in the direction of Ibex, re- 
 ceives less water than Baker Creek Valley, but up to some distance 
 beyond the 5, 000- foot contour, as shown in Plate IV, there is a reason- 
 able chance of obtaining wells at moderate depths and with supplies 
 sufficiently large for stock purposes. 
 
 • Between Conger'^s ranch and Trout Creeh. — In the entire stretch 
 between Conger's ranch and Trout Creek the ground is saturated 
 with water virtually to the level of the surface along the axis of the 
 valley, and wells can probably be obtained on the central flat and 
 near the foot of the alluvial slopes, especially on the west side. 
 
 A number of shallow wells sunk on the west side of the valley yield 
 water of satisfactory quality and in sufficient amount for domestic 
 and stock purposes. On the ranch of William Meecham (sec. 21, T. 
 18 S., E. 19 W.) , situated about 90 feet above the center of the valley, 
 there is a dug well 28 feet deep which yields water that is somewhat 
 hard, but otherwise good. Two similar wells, one 12 feet and the 
 other 18 feet deep, are situated at a little lower level on this ranch, 
 and a well of the same type supplies Simonson's ranch in the same 
 locality. 
 
 On the ranch of George Bishop (NW. \ sec. 3, T. 17 S., E. 19 W.), 
 there are two dug wells, one 35 feet and the other about 45 feet deep. 
 The water level here fluctuates considerably, and the wells, at first 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 135 
 
 more shallow, have been deepened several times to procure a perma- 
 nent supply. The water is hard but otherwise good and is used for 
 drinking and for culinary purposes. 
 
 At the old Barry ranch, near the banks of the Salt Marsh, there is 
 an abandoned dug well in which the water stood 14 feet below the 
 surface. 
 
 The two ranches at Trout Creek, situated near the central axis of 
 the valley, obtain their culinary supply from wells 15 feet deep in 
 which the Avater level fluctuates with the season. The water in these 
 wells is considered of good quality though harder than the stream 
 water. On Alfred Bishop's ranch a 2-inch well was at one time sunk 
 to a depth of over 200 feet in quest of flowing water, but the project 
 w^as not successful. 
 
 Pleasant Valley. — Several wells sunk in Pleasant Valley obtain 
 satisfactory culinary supplies, but attempts to get flows in this valley 
 have thus far been unsuccessful. 
 
 Trout Creek to Callao. — Trout Creek is situated in a constricted 
 part of Snake Valley, south of which the valley trough is rela- 
 tively flat and swampy, but north of which it descends at a rate 
 of about 25 feet per mile until it begins to merge with the desert 
 flat. North of Trout Creek the benches on either side of the valley 
 are high and wide and the valley proper is relatively low. These 
 high benches, especially the one on the west side, receive large con- 
 tributions of water which is transmitted to lower levels, and there 
 is therefore reason to expect that in the lower parts of the valley 
 good supplies can be obtained at moderate depths. Probably, how- 
 ever, the axial gradient is too great to allow the ground water to 
 accumulate under sufficient head to give rise to flows. 
 
 The only well reported in this region is a 50- foot dug well on the 
 claim of Harry Parker, near the center of the valley, not far from 
 the line between sees. 34 and 35, T. 12 S., R. IT W. Most of the 
 material excavated in sinking this Avell was compact cla}^, but near 
 the bottom, quicksand, sand, and water-bearing gravel were found. 
 The yield is reported to be ample and the quality satisfactory, but 
 the water is under little or no artesian pressure. 
 
 Callao. — In the northern part of Juab County, Snake Valley ex- 
 pands into Great Salt Lake Desert and a large alluvial slope extends 
 from the Deep Creek Range to the desert flat. In the vicinity of 
 Callao, where the slope from the mountains gives way to the dead 
 level of the desert, and where the Willow Springs, already described, 
 are located, a number of flowing and nonflowing wells have been 
 sunk. Ground water is here reached within a few feet of the sur- 
 face, as, for example, in the dug well of E. W. Tripp, which is only 
 12 feet deep and is filled with water to within 3 feet of the surface. 
 
 ^V V 
 
136 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 The flowing wells are 1^ to 2 inches in diameter and range from 
 about 40 to 175 feet in depth. Their section consists of clay, sand, 
 and gravel, the largest flows thus far obtained coming from coarse 
 gravel at depths of 90 to 100 feet. In most wells the water rises 
 only a few feet above the surface, but original heads of 15 feet and 
 more are reported. Toward the west the flowing area is sharply 
 limited by the rise in the surface of the land. Flows are obtained 
 on F. G. Kearney's and E. E. Bagley's ranches, but farther west the 
 water remains below the surface. Toward the east, in the direction 
 of the desert, the limits of the flowing area are less definitely known, 
 but satisfactory flows have been obtained as far as 2 miles east of 
 the Kearney ranch buildings. (See PI. I.) 
 
 One of the best wells of this group is near the house of F. J. 
 Kearney, in the SE. i sec. 1, T. 11 S., R. IT W. It is 2 inches in 
 diameter and 93 feet deep and ends in coarse gravel, from which the 
 water will rise to a level 6 feet above the surface, while at a level 
 1 foot above the surface the flow is about 20 gallons per minute. 
 
 The water from the flowing wells is, as a rule, of better quality than 
 the shallow ground water. The following table contains an analysis, 
 made at the laboratories of the Utah agricultural experiment station, 
 of water from one of the flowing wells at the residence of F. J. 
 Kearney. This sample, which is believed to be typical of the well 
 waters of the Callao Basin, contains only moderate amounts of the 
 mineral constituents generally found in ground waters. 
 
 Analysis of water from flowing well of F. J. Kearney, Callao, Utah. 
 
 [Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. Greaves.] 
 
 Total solids ^ 249 
 
 Silica (SiOa) : 16 
 
 Iron ( Fe) Trace 
 
 Calcium (Ca) 38 
 
 Carbonates, stated as calciam carbonate (CaCOs) 228 
 
 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 4 
 
 Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) ]26 
 
 Between Callao and Fish Springs. — The northern part of Juab 
 County between Callao and the Fish Springs Eange, into which 
 Great Salt Lake Desert extends, lies so low and is so nearly level 
 (PL IV) that the ground-water table nearly coincides with the sur- 
 face. Desert and swamp are here intimately associated, and the 
 same tract is frequently converted from one to the other. Yet the 
 prospects for obtaining satisfactory wells are not good. The region 
 formed a part of the bed of ancient Lake Bonneville, and the sedi- 
 ments beneath it are likely to be too fine to yield water freely and 
 too heavily impregnated with salt to furnish water of good quality. 
 
SNAKE VALLEY. 137 
 
 The unfcavorable conditions found in parts of Sevier Desert are likely 
 to be found here also. In general the prospects both as to quantity 
 and quality become poorer as the distance from the Deep Creek 
 Range increases. 
 
 Man}^ years ago two 2-inch holes were sunk on the flat near the 
 west base of the Fish Springs Range, the location being approxi- 
 mately sec. 13, T. 11 S., R. 15 W. According to current report, they 
 reached a depth of about 300 feet, where drilling was stopped by 
 hard rock. The water that was found was salty and remained about 
 10 feet below the surface. One of the wells was finished, however, 
 and for a number of years its water was used at the mine for live 
 stock, laundry, and toilet, and, to some extent, for drinking purposes. 
 
 Another hole was drilled on the flat near the old stage station 
 known as Boyd, in or near sec. 21, T. 11 S., R. 15 W. This project 
 was also unsuccessful but definite information as to the difficulties 
 could not be obtained. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The amount of land irrigated in Snake Valley is small as compared 
 with the amount of water furnished by streams and springs. This 
 is due in part to the fact that some of the largest supplies can not be 
 led by gravity upon land adapted for agriculture, but also in part 
 to the fact that available supplies are not used to their full capacit}^ 
 Much water could be saved if adequate storage facilities could be 
 j)rovided. Some of the " natural reservoirs " formed by the waves 
 of Lake Bonneville are in positions where they could be brought into 
 service at relatively small cost, but it has not been demonstrated that 
 they could be rendered sufficiently waterproof to make their use 
 feasible. Some water could probably also be saved by practicing 
 winter irrigation. 
 
 The water from many of the large springs in the low parts of the 
 valley serves no useful function except to produce the growth of a 
 small amount of poor grass. The chief obstacle to the use of these 
 springs for irrigation lies in the poor drainage and alkali character 
 of the soil upon which the water can be led. Whether it could be 
 made profitable to pump this water to higher and better land is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Practically the only irrigation now accomplished with water from 
 wells is at Callao, where a few small tracts are watered from flowing 
 wells. In certain parts of the valley, already indicated, considerable 
 quantities of water could be recovered from underground sources, but 
 pumping would generally be required to make these supplies avail- 
 able on good soil. At Callao the quantity recovered by natural flow 
 could be increased if a series of wells of large diameter were sunk. 
 
138 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 PAROWAN VALLEY. 
 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 Pare wan Valley lies at the northeast base of a high plateau from 
 which it is separated by a fault scarp several thousand feet high — the 
 northward continuation of the Hurricane Ledge. On the face of this 
 escarpment and in the canyons that have been cut into the plateau 
 since its differential elevation are exposed the edges of several rock 
 series that have a great total thickness, display a variety of rich 
 colors, and cover a wide range of geologic time. The highest sedi- 
 mentary strata — bright-hued Tertiary deposits — are covered in some 
 places with somber-colored volcanic rocks. 
 
 Parowan Valley is separated from Rush Lake Valley by a moun- 
 tainous region that is several miles wide and consists of sedimentary 
 strata and associated dark volcanic rocks. This mountainous region 
 is traversed by several faults and the strata dip in different directions. 
 Farther southwest the valley is separated from Rush Lake Valley by 
 only a low pass which projects from the high plateau to the moun- 
 tainous west wall. On the north the valley is shut in by a mountain- 
 ous area in which volcanic rocks are abundant. The lowest notch in 
 the rim of the basin is formed by Hieroglyph Canyon, which has been 
 cut boldly through the west wall. (See PI. II.) 
 
 According to the best available data, the Parowan drainage basin 
 comprises between 550 and 600 square miles, nearly two-thirds of 
 which belongs to the plateau. Since the Tertiary deformation, which 
 apparently brought the basin into existence, the plateau has been 
 greatly eroded and the resulting sediments have in large part been 
 deposited in the valley. Since only small amounts of rock waste 
 were brought into the valley from the west, the alluvial slope on the 
 east side comprises most of the valley, and Little Salt Lake, which 
 occupies the lowest depression, hugs the west border. Near the 
 plateau the slope is steep, but near Little Salt Lake it passes into a 
 flat plain with only slight gradient. 
 
 Not all of the material eroded from the plateau has remained in 
 the valley, for the drainage of the basin once had an outlet through 
 Hieroglyph Canyon, and the outflowing stream carried some rock 
 waste with it. The valley lies above the level of the highest stage of 
 Lake Bonneville, but there can be little doubt that when the ancient 
 lake existed the climate was sufficiently humid to cause a stream to 
 flow out through the canyon. Possibly the canyon was formed at this 
 time, but more probably it is the work of a stream which was in ex- 
 istence before the west wall of the valley was raised and which main- 
 tained its course by cutting down its channel as rapidly as the region 
 was lifted. That the canyon has long ago fallen into disuse is shown 
 
PAROWAN VALLEY. 
 
 139 
 
 by the talus and alluviuin that has aceiimiilated in it and also by the 
 salt that has accumulated in the lowest depression of the valley. x\n 
 indistinct strand, perhaps 20 feet above the pre>sent level of Little 
 Salt Lake, shows that this lake has at one time had larger dimensions 
 than it has at present. 
 
 RAINI'ALL. 
 
 The records of the United States Weather Bureau, given in the fol- 
 lowing table, show that during a period of 18 years, from 1891 to 
 1908, inclusive, the annual precipitation at Parowan ranged between 
 7.04 and 20.87 inches, and averaged 12.51 inches. Large sagebrush 
 is prevalent on the alluvial slopes of this valley. Dry farming has 
 not been extensively undertaken, but much interest is at present mani- 
 fested in this mode of agriculture and it will probably be given a 
 thorough trial in the near future. That the plateau receives more 
 precipitation than the valley is shown by the trees and other vegeta- 
 tion which it supports. 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) at Parowan. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.93 
 
 2.10 
 .00 
 
 1.11 
 .72 
 .29 
 .47 
 
 1.84 
 .25 
 .08 
 .82 
 .04 
 .50 
 
 1.00 
 .17 
 
 3.80 
 
 3.49 
 .33 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.59 
 .00 
 
 2 32 
 Tr. 
 .65 
 .58 
 .36 
 
 2.48 
 .30 
 .78 
 .56 
 .32 
 .61 
 
 2.03 
 .74 
 .12 
 .41 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.61 
 
 0.43 
 .00 
 .20 
 
 1.38 
 Tr. 
 
 1.28 
 .30 
 .73 
 .72 
 .31 
 .34 
 .03 
 
 1.86 
 Tr. 
 Tr. 
 
 1.11 
 
 2.09 
 .32 
 .50 
 
 0.34 
 
 1.13 
 
 .39 
 
 .72 
 
 1.88 
 
 .90 
 
 .16 
 
 .88 
 
 .82 
 
 1.60 
 
 .07 
 
 96 
 
 1.03 
 
 .53 
 
 .79 
 
 .32 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.02 
 
 
 1891 
 
 1.46 
 
 .47 
 
 .84 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.94 
 
 .16 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.99 
 
 .12 
 
 .51 
 
 .63 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.10 
 
 .43 
 
 .52 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.15 
 
 .86 
 
 2.07 
 1.03 
 1.03 
 
 .85 
 2.82 
 
 .48 
 3.45 
 1.20 
 1.10 
 
 .23 
 1.84 
 
 .31 
 
 .77 
 1.46 
 1.54 
 
 .93 
 1.58 
 1.19 
 
 2.57 
 1.79 
 1.23 
 2.65 
 1.93 
 
 .71 
 3.76 
 1.66 
 2.18 
 
 .18 
 
 .85 
 1.83 
 1.94 
 2.11 
 2.29 
 3.99 
 1.61 
 
 .62 
 
 1.57 
 
 2.03 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.27 
 
 .47 
 
 .83 
 
 .95 
 
 .64 
 
 1.20 
 
 2.64 
 
 1.61 
 
 .21 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.27 
 
 .66 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.23 
 
 .39 
 
 1.14 
 
 .83 
 
 1.34 
 
 .55 
 
 .87 
 
 .93 
 
 .51 
 
 3.35 
 
 1.19 
 
 .61 
 
 .88 
 
 .18 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.07 
 
 1.99 
 
 .62 
 
 2.85 
 
 1.16 
 
 0-20 
 .04 
 .00 
 .57 
 .06 
 .08 
 .02 
 .24 
 .82 
 .13 
 .50 
 .06 
 .49 
 .07 
 Tr. 
 Tr. 
 .31 
 .16 
 
 1.24 
 .66 
 
 2.08 
 .78 
 .70 
 
 1.69 
 .79 
 
 1.19 
 .72 
 .11 
 .04 
 .49 
 .41 
 .98 
 .75 
 
 1.71 
 .34 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.76 
 1.24 
 1.65 
 1.40 
 
 .23 
 3.00 
 1.50 
 1.46 
 
 .82 
 
 .84 
 3.35 
 
 .76 
 1.46 
 1.23 
 
 .37 
 3.10 
 
 .65 
 
 .49 
 
 14.24 
 
 1892 
 
 11.00 
 
 1893 
 
 12.80 
 
 1894 
 
 12.97 
 
 1895 
 
 12.07 
 
 1896 
 
 9.17 
 
 1897 
 
 18.47 
 
 1898 
 
 13.82 
 
 1899 
 
 10.92 
 
 1900 
 
 7.04 
 
 1901 
 
 11.05 
 
 1902 
 
 9.02 
 
 1903 
 
 11.89 
 
 1904 
 
 11.32 
 
 1905 
 
 13.47 
 
 1906 
 
 20.87 
 
 1907 
 
 13.73 
 
 1908 
 
 11.80 
 
 Average 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.23 
 
 .21 
 
 .94 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.03 
 
 .88 
 
 .61 
 
 .84 
 
 12.54 
 
 STREAMS AND ISLOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 
 
 Parowan Creek. — The largest stream in the basin is Parowan 
 Creek, which supplies the village of Parowan Avith water for irriga- 
 tion. Like other streams of its type, its flow is very irregular, gen- 
 erally being largest in May and June when the bulk of the snow in 
 the mountains melts. Much of the flood water and winter discharge 
 are lost. In October, 1908, the flow was estimated to be 15 second- 
 feet. The total area irrigated with this supply is reported to be 
 about 2,000 acres. 
 
 Red and Little creehs. — Red Creek and Little Creek furnish the 
 irrigation supply for the Paragonah settlement. The water in Red 
 Canyon comes largely from springs and its volume varies less than 
 
140 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 that of streams which depend chiefly on the melting of snow. In 
 October, 1908, the discharge from Ked Canyon was about one-half as 
 great as from Parowan Canyon. The Ked Canyon water is reported 
 to irrigate about 800 to 1,000 acres, and the water from Little Creek, 
 a short distance north, about 300 acres. 
 
 Streams and springs north of Little Greek. — The only streams of 
 any consequence north of Little Creek are Willow Creek and Cotton- 
 wood Creek, which together are said to furnish enough water to irri- 
 gate about 100 acres. Buckskin Valley, high up in the mountains, 
 has three good springs which supply a large number of cattle. There 
 is also a spring in Fremont Pass and several others near the north 
 end of the basin. 
 
 Streams and springs south of Parowan Creeh. — The largest supply 
 south of Parowan Creek comes from Summit Creek and is used for 
 irrigation at the village of Summit. There is also a small supply at 
 the Winn Ranch, a short distance west of Summit, and there are 
 numerous springs along the margin of the mountain between Paro- 
 wan and Summit, some of which are used to irrigate small tracts. 
 
 VALLEY SPRINGS. 
 
 Many springs occur in the valley along a line extending southeast- 
 ward from Buckhorn Spring, where the steep part of the alluvial 
 slope gives way to the nearly level plain that occupies the lowest part 
 of the valley. Many of the springs consist of small pools, in which 
 respect they resemble somewhat the Fish Springs and the springs in 
 Snake Valley. They furnish good supplies for live stock and culi- 
 nary purposes but do not yield enough to be of much value for irri- 
 gation. Many small springs, some of which yield salty water, occur 
 on both sides of Little Salt Lake. 
 
 FLOWING AVELLS. 
 
 Flowing wells have been obtained throughout an area that is about 
 16 miles long and extends from a point 1 mile northeast of Buckhorn 
 Spring to a point several miles west of Parowan, .as is shown in 
 Plate 11. Most of the best flows are found along the spring line or 
 a short distance east of it, but flows have also been obtained at vari- 
 ous points on the flat between the spring line and the salt lake. Sev- 
 eral score of flowing wells are at present in use and new wells are 
 being sunk. 
 
 The flowing water is derived from deposits of sand and gravel 
 interbedded with layers of clay, and the artesian conditions do not 
 depend on the structure of the rocks. It is not obtained from a 
 single bed nor from several definitely recognized beds, but from all 
 porous materials below a certain level. In many wells the first flow 
 
PAKOWAN VALLEY. 
 
 141 
 
 is struck at a depth of about TO feet, but as the drill penetrates deeper 
 it is likely to discover stronger flows from beds of gravel that are 
 more freely porous and that contain water under slightly better head. 
 The deepest flowing well reported is about 400 feet deep, and many 
 of the largest yields are derived from Avells between 200 and 300 feet 
 deep, but most of the wells are less than 200 feet deep. The water 
 from these wells has not been analyzed but is apparently of good 
 quality. 
 
 The wells thus far drilled are all small, most of them being 2 
 inches, and a few 3 inches, in diameter. They are finished with 
 heavj^ iron casing, and water is usually admitted into them at only 
 one level. Many of the wells flow less than 10 gallons per minute, 
 but a few of the 3-inch wells jdeld from 25 to nearly 100 gallons per 
 minute. In none of the wells is the water under much pressure. 
 
 The largest flowing well supplies have been developed on the farm 
 of J. L. Lowder (sees. 25, 26, and 35, T. 33 S., R. 9 W.), where 14 
 wells furnish water for irrigating about 100 acres; on the farm of 
 Frank Culver (NE. J sec. 9, T. 34 S., R. 9 W.), where about a dozen 
 wells together yield more than one-half second- foot ; and on the farm 
 of James C. Robison, 2 miles south of Buckhorn Spring, where a 
 number of flowing wells furnish water for irrigation. On several 
 other farms irrigation supplies are obtained from flowing wells. 
 
 The wells of Frank Culver, all of which are Avithin several rods of 
 each other, discharge into a small reservoir, from which the water is 
 led to irrigated fields. The following table gives the principal facts 
 in regard to this group of wells. 
 
 Wells of Frank Culver, Parotvan Valley, Utah. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diame- 
 ter. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Temper- 
 ture of 
 water. 
 
 Natural 
 flow. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 G 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Inches. 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 Feet. 
 
 ° F. 
 49.8 
 49.8 
 50.3 
 32.3 
 52.4 
 50.0 
 50.0 
 51.5 
 51.0 
 51.0 
 53. 
 53.3 
 
 Gallons 
 per min- 
 ute. 
 11 
 5 
 5 
 4 
 37 
 13 
 11 
 5 
 40 
 23 
 50 
 43 
 
 
 
 180(?) 
 
 233 
 
 50 
 
 160(?) 
 
 140 
 
 50 
 
 202 
 
 242 
 
 247 
 
 
 
 
 
 The inhabitants of this valley have only recently come to realize 
 that supplies of substantial value can be developed by drilling Avells, 
 and further development is being prosecuted Avith enthusiasm. The 
 conditions warrant sinking test wells to greater depths than have 
 
142 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 [ 
 
 thus far been reached. The faulted structure of the basin makes it 
 probable that the unconsolidated sediments are very thick, and the 
 deeply buried sediments are likely to contain beds of gravel with 
 water under good head. Drilling should not, however, be carried into 
 bed rock. The California method of drilling wells, described on 
 pages 60-64, could be introduced to good advantage in this valley. 
 
 As the supply of underground water is a definitely limited quan- 
 tity, none of it should be wasted. Unless it is found practicable to 
 build reservoirs of sufficient size to store the water which the flowing 
 wells would yield during the winter, these wells should be closed at 
 the end of the irrigation season. If the number of wells is greatly 
 increased they will interfere with each other. Eventually it may be 
 found profitable to install pumping plants rather than to depend 
 entirely on artesian pressure, because more water could be recovered 
 by pumping, and it could be applied to more productive soil. On the 
 higher levels of the alluvial slopes there are no prospects of securing 
 flows, and the success thus far attained should not lead to costly 
 drilling experiments on high ground or in rock formations. 
 
 WATER BENEATH THE BENCH LANDS. 
 
 A number of nonflowing wells have been sunk on the lower part of 
 the alluvial slope directly west of Parowan and in other localities. 
 These wells yield good water which remains at a depth proportionate 
 to the elevation of the surface above the flowing area. Good pump 
 wells can generally be obtained by sinking to moderate depths on the 
 lower and middle parts of the alluvial slopes. 
 
 CULINARY SUPPLIES. 
 
 In the three principal settlements of this valley the supplies for 
 drinking and culinary use are taken from the streams which furnish 
 the irrigation supplies or from ditches leading from these streams. 
 Water from springs in the canyons or on the mountain sides, if led 
 to the settlements through pipe lines, could be protected from pollu- 
 tion, and would therefore be safer for drinking and culinary purposes 
 than the stream water. 
 
 RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 
 
 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 A great fault with a throw of several thousand feet extends north- 
 eastward through Iron County, passing Kanarraville, Cedar City, 
 Summit, Parowan, and Paragonah. East of the fault the rock 
 formations have been thrust relatively upward, producing a high 
 plateau with a steep escarpment known as the Hurricane Ledge. 
 Since the displacement the edge of the plateau has been carved by 
 
RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 143 
 
 stream erosion into a mountainous area. This escarpment forms the 
 east border of Rush Lake Valley as far north as the vicinity of 
 Enoch, where it swings eastward and forms th« border of Parowan 
 Valley, while a low range that trends more nearly northward forms 
 the divide between Eush Lake and Parowan valleys. 
 
 West of the southern part of Rush Lake Valley are the Iron Moun- 
 tains, but these mountains disappear toward the north, leaving only 
 a low divide between the northern part of this valley and the Esca- 
 lante Desert. There are two other low points in the rim of Rush 
 Lake Valley. One is at the Iron Springs, where there is an outlet 
 for the drainage of a part of the valley; the other is in the vicinity 
 of Kanarraville, where an inconspicuous divide is all that separates 
 Rush Lake Valley from the drainage basin of Colorado River. (See 
 PL IL) 
 
 The rocks exposed in this region have a great total thickness and 
 include Carboniferous, Jurassic, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary 
 strata. The youngest formations are exposed in the northern part 
 of the plateau area of this county and older beds come to light farther 
 south. The Jurassic, Triassic, and Tertiary formations have con- 
 spicuous colors, but the intervening Cretaceous beds have a somber 
 gray aspect. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary age are found on the plateau, 
 in the Iron Mountains, in the range between Rush Lake and Paro- 
 wan valleys, and in the area southwest of Cedar City. 
 
 Rush Lake Valley exhibits the characteristic features of a closed 
 basin in an arid region. Its peripheral parts consist of broad, open, 
 alluvial slopes, and its central part consists of a nearly level plain, 
 the lowest depressions of which are occupied by lakes, swamps, and 
 dr}^ alkali flats. The alluvial slopes and central plain are underlain 
 by sediments which were washed out from the mountains and which 
 consist of alternating beds of gravel, sand, and clay. 
 
 A low divide, extending from the mouth of Coal Creek Canyon 
 to Iron Springs, separates the valley into tAvo basins. The south 
 basin drains into a small salt lake known as Shirts Lake. (See PL 
 II and fig. 13.) The north basin is drained in part into Rush Lake, 
 but the water from Coal Creek may come to rest in depressions 
 farther south or may find its way into Escalante Desert through the 
 valley at Iron Springs. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 The rainfall observations at Cedar City cover only a few years, but 
 they indicate that the precipitation at this point does not differ 
 greatly from that at Parowan, where the record extends over a much 
 longer period. That the climatic conditions in Rush Lake Valley are 
 similar to those in Parowan Valley is also indicated by the general 
 aspect of the vegetation. Dry farming has been attempted on a small 
 scale and some success has been attained. 
 
144 
 
 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTEBN UTAH. 
 Precipitation (in inches) at Cedar City. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb^ 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .47 
 .46 
 
 1.00 
 .61 
 
 Tr. 
 1.18 
 
 1.03 
 .39 
 
 .39 
 .38 
 3.36 
 2.07 
 .20 
 .32 
 
 1.18 
 
 
 1900 
 
 .81 
 
 .29 
 
 .22 
 
 3.65 
 
 .34 
 
 .11 
 
 
 1905 
 
 .54 
 1.31 
 .93 
 
 .67 
 
 
 1906 
 
 .68 
 .93 
 .55 
 
 1.28 
 1.31 
 1.44 
 
 3.78 
 1.58 
 
 .77 
 
 1.77 
 .88 
 .38 
 
 .72 
 2.63 
 1.16 
 
 
 
 
 1.56 
 
 .53 
 
 2.30 
 
 .10 
 3.24 
 2.31 
 
 
 1907 
 
 .34 
 .15 
 
 1.16 
 2.45 
 
 2.43 
 1.23 
 
 16.16 
 
 1908.. 
 
 13.73 
 
 
 
 STREAMS. 
 
 Coal Creek, the largest stream that discharges into Eush Lake 
 Valley, collects its waters in the plateau area and debouches from its 
 canyon at Cedar City. Here it furnishes enough water to irrigate 
 about 3,000 acres, of which 1,700 acres come under the primary water 
 right. Owing to lack of storage facilities, a large part of the winter 
 flow and of the flood waters resulting from heavy storms, runs to 
 waste. 
 
 Shirts Creek rises on the plateau in an area south of Coal Creek 
 drainage basin, and its water is used by the small settlement at 
 Hamiltons Fort, where between 200 and 300 acres are under cultiva- 
 tion. The flow of this stream fluctuates widely, being generally 
 greatest in the spring when the snow melts. An attempt was made 
 to store the flood waters, such as are at present lost, by utilizing as 
 a reservoir the basin formed by the volcanic rocks that occur some 
 distance west of the mountain border, but these rocks are so badly 
 fissured that they allowed the water to escape. 
 
 Kanarra Creek provides the irrigation supply for the settlement 
 at Kanarraville. Like Shirts Creek it rises on the plateau, receives 
 much of its water directly from the melting of the snow, and hence 
 fluctuates greatly in size. Some water has been stored in a reservoir 
 south of the village. The total area brought under irrigation is re- 
 ported to be somewhat less than 300 acres. 
 
 Several very small streams are found in the Iron Mountains, among 
 which are Queatchupah Creek, whose supply is used to irrigate about 
 50 acres at McConnell's ranch (fig. 13), and the streamlet in Leach 
 Canyon, which is utilized at the Duncan ranch. 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 Ward's ranch is in the NE. J sec. 12, T. 34 S., R. 11 W., about 
 5 miles north of Enoch, and near the base of a cliff of volcanic rock 
 that belongs to the mountainous area between Rush Lake and Paro- 
 wan valleys. At this ranch there is a group of springs which yield 
 approximately one second-foot of water. The water issues on low 
 ground, where it gives rise to a swampy tract, but, as far as possible, 
 
RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 145 
 
 it is used for irrigating grass land. The origin of these large springs 
 seems to be associated with the volcanic rock. 
 
 Volcanic rock similar to that found at Ward's ranch forms a low 
 ridge east of Enoch and separates the relatively high bench land in 
 the vicinity of Summit from the lower level of Kush Lake Valley. 
 Near the west base of this ridge, along a line extending northward 
 from Enoch for more than a mile, there are numerous springs, some 
 of which are large. Considerable water also issues from springs in 
 a small canyon cut through the ridge. The water is derived, at least 
 in part, from saturated sediments east of the ridge, the fissures in the 
 volcanic rock probably having a function in conducting it. The water 
 is of good quality and is used for irrigation, although some of it 
 issues at too low a level to be applied advantageously. 
 
 A number of small springs are found on the low ground that sur- 
 rounds Shirts Lake. Among them are Eight-mile Spring, situated 
 a short distance northwest of the lake on the NW. I sec. 16, T. 36 S., 
 R. 12 W., and Mud Springs, situated a short distance south of the lake 
 on about the NW. i sec. 9, T. 37 S., R. 12 W. (fig. 13). There are 
 also seepage springs in the valley west of Kanarraville. 
 
 Iron Springs are located in the valley that leads from Rush Lake 
 Valley, through the northern part of the Iron Mountains, into Esca- 
 lante Desert. The water issues at different points along a stream 
 channel which passes through this valley. In part the springs seem 
 to result from the overflow of the ground water that saturates the 
 sediments of Rush Lake Valley, much as some of the Enoch Springs 
 result from the overflow of the ground water in Parowan Valley. 
 Accordingly their yield varies with the season, being greatest in the 
 spring, when some of the surface w^aters of Rush Lake Valley are dis- 
 charged through this outlet, and least in the fall and the winter, when 
 the water supply is meager. At the time the area was visited, Octo- 
 ber, 1908, nearly a second-foot of water issued from the springs and 
 flowed through the stream channel. This water is used to only a 
 small extent for irrigation but forms a valuable supply for live stock. 
 The Church ranch, near the springs, is important as the halfway 
 house between Cedar City and the railway station at Lund. 
 
 FLOWING WELLS. 
 
 Wehsfer^s well. — The well of Francis Webster is situated on low 
 ground a few miles southwest of Enoch, in the NE. J SE. J sec. 14, 
 T. 35 S., R. 11 W. (PI. II). It is 2 inches in diameter and 153 feet 
 deep. The water is rather hard, but apparently othenvise of good 
 quality and has a temperature of about 54° F. When the well was 
 completed the water remained at a depth of 7 feet, and for seven yeai*s 
 it had to be pumped in order to bring it to the surface, but in July, 
 9030S°— wsp 277—11 10 
 
146 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 1907, it began to overflow, and from that time until October, 1908, 
 when the investigation was made, it overflowed continuously. At 
 the latter date the natural yield was about 3^ gallons per minute. 
 This interesting rise in the head of the water is probably to be corre- 
 lated with increase in rainfall. The records for Parowan show that 
 
 in 1900, the year in 
 which the well was 
 drilled, the precipi- 
 tation was lighter 
 than in any other 
 year within the pe- 
 riod of 18 years 
 during which rec- 
 ords have been kept 
 at that station, and 
 that in each year 
 from 1899 to 1904, 
 inclusive, the pre- 
 cipitation was be- 
 low the average. 
 These records show 
 further that in 1906 
 the precipitation 
 was heavier than 
 in any other year 
 within the 18-year 
 period, and that in 
 1907 it was again 
 above the average. 
 The records at Ce- 
 dar City also show 
 unusually light pre- 
 cipitation in 1900 
 and unusually 
 heavy precipitation 
 in 1907. 
 
 M gC onnelV s 
 well. — A small flow 
 is reported from a 
 well that belongs 
 to Mr. McConnell and is situated in Cedar Bottoms several miles 
 west of Webster's well. 
 
 Thorley^s wells. — About half a mile north of the Eightmile Springs, 
 near the northwest corner of sec. 16, T. 36 S., R. 12 W. (fig. 13), 
 are four flowing wells which belong to A. Thorley. They are small 
 
 Figure 13. 
 
 Contour i nterval 50 feet 
 
 -Map of a part of the south basin of Rush Lake 
 Valley. 
 
RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 147 
 
 in diameter and are said to be only 80 or 90 feet deep. The water 
 is apparently good but the natural flow is very slight. 
 
 Williams^s wells. — Five flowing wells have been drilled by George 
 Williams in the vicinity of Mud Springs, south-southeast of Shirts 
 Lake. (See fig. 13.) The first was drilled in about 1892 and is two 
 inches in diameter and 85 feet deep. In this well the first water 
 was struck 8 feet below the surface, and the casing extends only to 
 this depth. According to report, the flow was about 20 gallons per 
 minute when the well was completed, but it is now much less, prob- 
 ably owing to deterioration of the well. 
 
 The other four wells, which are located nearly a mile farther west, 
 are 2 inches in diameter and about 90 feet deep. One is cased to a 
 depth of 80 feet, the others only to 8 feet, where the first water was 
 struck. Each of these wells is said to have flowed about 5 gallons a 
 minute when they were completed, but they have since been neg- 
 lected and their yield has diminished. They are situated on some- 
 what lower ground than the Thorley wells, which fact may account 
 for their larger original flow. The water is good to the taste and 
 was found to have a temperature of 54.5° F. 
 
 In this locality Mr. Williams has drilled to the depth of 240 feet, 
 the drill apparently passing through unconsolidated sediments only. 
 He states that in drilling to this depth five or six beds were struck 
 that gave rise to flows, some of them stronger than the 90-foot flow, 
 and that all the water is of good quality. 
 
 Wells at Kanarraville. — On Ioav ground less than 1 mile west of 
 Kanarraville there is a well, belonging to William Ford, which is 
 reported to be considerably less than 100 feet deep. In the past this 
 well yielded a small amount of water by natural flow but at the time 
 it was visited no water flowed from it. 
 
 In the village of Kanarraville, at a somewhat higher altitude than 
 Ford's well, a 2-inch hole Avas drilled to a depth of 240 feet. Mr. 
 Williams, the driller, reports that several water-bearing strata were 
 found and that water from the depth of 190 feet rose within 1 foot 
 of the surface. The drill was finally lost and the well was abandoned. 
 
 NONFLOWING WELLS. 
 
 In northern part of valley. — At AYard's ranch (NE. I sec. 12, T. 
 34 S., R. 11 W.) a well 2 inches in diameter was drilled to a depth 
 of 250 feet, the last 13 feet of which are said to be in volcanic rock. 
 The water comes from the bottom and rises within 8 feet of the top 
 of the well, or nearly to the level of the flat area west of the well. 
 The water is of good quality and is used for drinking and other pur- 
 poses. Less than a mile north of this ranch another 250-foot well 
 is reported, the water here rising within 4 feet of the surface. Other 
 
148 GUOUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 wells have been sunk in the bottoms farther west, in all of which the 
 water stands within a few feet of the surface. 
 
 Several shallow wells have been dug in the vicinity of Enoch. The 
 well of Iliram Jones, which is located on the narrow bench between 
 the ridge and the bottom lands, is 20 feet deep and is filled with water 
 within 6 or 8 feet of the top ; the well of J. H. Armstrong, situated on 
 lower ground near the foot of tile bench, is only 12 feet deep ; the well 
 of William Grimshaw, southwest of Enoch, on the W. ^ of SW. J 
 sec. 12, T. 33 S., E. 11 W., is 17 feet deep and contains 3 feet of water; 
 the well of John Webster, about 1 mile south of Enoch, is 30 feet 
 deep; the well of David Bullock, on the W. J sec. 24, T. 35 S., E. 11 
 W., was 48 feet deep and contained 10 feet of water until recently 
 when the sides caved in and the well fell into disuse. Wells of the 
 game type, many of them abandoned or in bad repair, are found at 
 liliiferent points on Cedar Bottoms. Most of the wells that have 
 been mentioned yield good water, but in some of the wells on the bot- 
 toms the water is salty. 
 
 In southern part of valley. — At Hamiltons Fort a depth of 100 feet 
 has been reached without striking ground water, but about 1^ miles 
 west of this settlement there are pump wells 30 to 40 feet deep and 
 shallow wells are also found between Hamiltons Fort and Kanarra- 
 ville. There is a dug well only 12 feet deep at Bower's (NW. J sec. 3, 
 T. 36 S., E. 12 W.), where the altitude is about the same as at Thor- 
 ley's flowing wells, and there was formerly a good well with the same 
 depth at the Church ranch (N. J sec. 20, T. 35 S., E. 12 W.). 
 
 IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 
 
 Both the north basin and the south basin of the valley have possi- 
 bilities of further development of the water in the unconsolidated 
 deposits. 
 
 The recent success in prospecting for flows in Parowan Yalley has 
 revived interest in similar prospecting in Eush Lake Yalley, and it is 
 likely that before this paper appears considerable drilling will have 
 been done. Although some irrigation could be accomplished with 
 flowing well water, there is no indication that any extensive tracts 
 could be reclaimed in this manner, because in the areas where flowing 
 wells can be expected the soil is for the most part swampy and alka- 
 line. 
 
 If wells of large diameter, several hundred feet deep, were widely 
 scattered over those parts of the valley which have shallow ground 
 water, but which are not swampy or burdened with alkali, and if 
 pumps were applied to these wells, enough water could be recovered 
 to bring hundreds of acres under irrigation. The construction of 
 wells of this type is discussed on pages 59-64. If the water power 
 
ESCALANTE DESERT. 149 
 
 of the streams were developed, the pumping could be done at com- 
 paratively small cost, but even by the use of gasoline, producer-gas, 
 or a proper type of steam engines pumping for irrigation can prob- 
 ably, with efficient management, be made profitable. Before in- 
 stalling pumping plants the precautions given on pages 49-53 should 
 be observed. 
 
 CULINARY SUPPLIES. 
 
 At Cedar City, Hamiltons Fort, and Kanarraville the water from 
 the mountain streams which furnish the irrigation supplies has up 
 to the present time been used for drinking and culinary purposes. 
 At Cedar City the water has been brought into the city through 
 wooden mains; in the other two settlements it is drawn from the 
 open ditches. At Cedar City steps have recently been taken to in- 
 stall a pipe line leading from a mountain spring, and at Kanarraville 
 a similar project is under consideration. At Enoch the culinary sup- 
 ply is derived from springs and wells. The sanitary aspects of water 
 supplies are discussed on pages 53-55. 
 
 ESCALANTE DESERT. 
 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 Escalante Desert is an extensive plain surrounded by mountains, 
 most of which are only moderately high. (PL II.) The rocks that 
 constitute the mountains differ widely in character, age, and struc- 
 ture, but these differences have so little relation to the occurrence of 
 ground water in the desert that they need not be discussed here. To 
 a large extent the sedimentary formations are covered with volcanic 
 rocks of Tertiary age. 
 
 When Lake Bonneville stood near its highest level Escalante Desert 
 was occupied by a large but shallow bay of that lake (fig. 2), as is 
 proved by the ancient shore features, which are distinct although not 
 as impressive as in some localities. The monotonously flat surface 
 of this desert, like that of Sevier Desert and Great Salt Lake Desert, 
 is typical of ancient lake topography. 
 
 The desert is underlain by unconsolidated sediments derived from 
 the rock waste of the surrounding mountains. In part these sedi- 
 ments were deposited by the streams; in part they were carried into 
 the ancient lake and were allowed to settle quietly at the bottom of 
 this lake. The lake-formed deposits in the interior of the desert 
 probably consist largely of fine-grained sediments that will not fur- 
 nish much water, but coarse materials that will yield their water 
 freely are to be expected near the mouths of the principal canyons. 
 The well sections given in succeeding paragraphs throw some light 
 on the character of the unconsolidated beds. 
 
150 
 
 GROUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 RAINFALL. 
 
 In the following table are given the United States Weather Bureau 
 records of precipitation in this region. At Modena the lightest 
 annual precipitation since 1901, inclusive, was 5.00 inches, and the 
 heaviest 16.62 inches, while the average for eight years is 11.50 inches. 
 By reference to figure 4 it will be seen that the seasonal distribution 
 of the rainfall is here somewhat different from that at the stations in 
 Juab and Millard counties, the spring rainfall being less and the late 
 summer rainfall being greater. Recently dry farming has been 
 undertaken on a large scale near the mouth of Pinto Creek. 
 
 Precipitation {in inches) in Escalante Desert. 
 Modena. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 0.43 
 .33 
 .12 
 .20 
 .86 
 .67 
 1.63 
 1.62 
 
 3.63 
 .32 
 .85 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.79 
 .47 
 .73 
 
 1.47 
 
 0.06 
 .54 
 .74 
 .98 
 2.09 
 3.22 
 2.23 
 1.10 
 
 0.68 
 .13 
 .61 
 .02 
 1.05 
 2.91 
 .51 
 .76 
 
 0.65 
 
 .19 
 
 .55 
 
 1.55 
 
 .72 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.50 
 
 0.32 
 .02 
 .13 
 .11 
 
 Tr. 
 .00 
 .50 
 .37 
 
 1.33 
 
 Tr. 
 
 .14 
 
 .69 
 
 .81 
 
 2.30 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.76 
 
 1.17 
 1.58 
 
 .92 
 1.52 
 1.71 
 3.40 
 
 .77 
 2.76 
 
 0.06 
 
 .76 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.26 
 
 .91 
 
 .09 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.78 
 .04 
 
 1.39 
 .50 
 
 1.00 
 .34 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.76 
 
 0.01 
 .89 
 .00 
 .00 
 .90 
 
 1.40 
 .12 
 .03 
 
 0.12 
 .29 
 .00 
 .23 
 .20 
 
 2.13 
 .34 
 .85 
 
 9.24 
 5.09 
 
 1903 
 
 6.93 
 
 1904 
 
 9.83 
 
 1905 
 
 12.39 
 
 1906 
 
 19.06 
 
 1907 
 
 12.80 
 
 1908 
 
 16.62 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 .73 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.37 
 
 .83 
 
 1.02 
 
 .18 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.73 
 
 1.03 
 
 .94 
 
 .42 
 
 .52 
 
 11.50 
 
 Near Enterprise. 
 
 1907. 
 1908. 
 
 3.27 
 2.53 
 
 1.66 
 2.56 
 
 3.00 
 1.09 
 
 0.96 
 1.56 
 
 1.52 
 1.37 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.70 
 
 2.43 
 
 1.22 
 
 2.45 
 
 0.10 
 .73 
 
 16.97 
 
 Pinto. 
 
 1897. 
 
 1900. 
 1901. 
 1902. 
 1903. 
 1904. 
 1905. 
 1906. 
 1907. 
 1908- 
 
 .64 
 2.72 
 2.63 
 1.20 
 
 3.05 
 
 .68 
 
 .35 
 
 .27 
 
 2.74 
 
 .95 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.91 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.52 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 4.11 
 1.33 
 2.17 
 .34 
 .23 
 2.66 
 1.57 
 1.72 
 2.28 
 6.45 
 2.92 
 1.59 
 
 0.78 
 .39 
 .40 
 
 2.31 
 .85 
 .25 
 
 1.30 
 .44 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.15 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.52 
 
 2.30 
 
 .58 
 
 .65 
 
 .85 
 
 .19 
 
 .80 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.09 
 
 .93 
 
 1.84 
 
 .95 
 
 0.05 
 .25 
 .77 
 .25 
 .45 
 
 Tr. 
 .17 
 
 .00 
 .17 
 
 .09 
 
 0.90 
 
 .07 
 
 .05 
 
 .13 
 
 .80 
 
 .01 
 
 Tr. 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.64 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.15 
 
 5.07 
 1.71 
 1.74 
 1.97 
 1.83 
 2.82 
 
 3.45 
 
 2.17 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 1.32 
 .00 
 .20 
 
 1.37 
 .99 
 
 4.82 
 
 1.82 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.76 
 
 .00 
 
 1.75 
 
 .77 
 
 1.43 
 
 .93 
 
 1.75 
 
 .91 
 
 .77 
 
 .10 
 
 3.09 
 
 2.24 
 
 0.40 
 .11 
 .67 
 
 3.16 
 .39 
 
 3.09 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 1.67 
 
 2.43 
 
 ,25 
 
 1.16 
 .11 
 .49 
 .05 
 .57 
 .70 
 .21 
 .17 
 .08 
 
 2.85 
 
 .90 
 
 7.12 
 8.54 
 9.71 
 15.10 
 11.30 
 10.40 
 
 18.95 
 25.60 
 
 19.85 
 
 Lund. 
 
 1901. 
 1902. 
 1903. 
 
 0.15 
 .24 
 .25 
 
 1.73 
 .05 
 1.20 
 
 Tr. 
 .53 
 1.20 
 
 Tr. 
 0.94 
 
 Tr. 
 0.89 
 
 Tr. 
 
 0.28 
 2." 76' 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.05 
 
 Tr 
 
 .36 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The native vegetation shows that there are important differences 
 in the character of the soil in different parts of the desert. On the 
 bench lands along the borders sagebrush is founds but on much of the 
 
ESCALANTE DESERT. 
 
 151 
 
 low flat, where the ground water is near the surface and the soil con- 
 tains alkali, greasewood and salt brush predominate. 
 
 In order to investigate the feasibility of irrigating with ground 
 water in a low area where the water rises nearly or quite to the sur- 
 face, samples of soil were obtained from two localities in this area, 
 and these samples were analyzed by the United States Bureau of 
 Soils. One set of samples was taken on the flat a short distance south 
 of the station house at Lund, where water was struck at the depth of 
 6 feet; the other set was taken near Webster's flowing well, a short 
 distance west of the Table Buttes, where water was struck at the 
 depth of 4 feet. In both localities greasewood and salt brush were 
 present, and in both the analyses show a soil that is high in alkali. 
 
 Analyses of soil at Lund, Utah. 
 
 Depth 
 
 within 
 
 which soil 
 
 was taken. 
 
 Soluble 
 
 solids 
 
 (alkalies). 
 
 Per cent 
 
 of total 
 
 material. 
 
 Predominating salts in order 
 named. 
 
 ■ Feet. 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 G 
 
 2.1 
 2.1 
 2.5 
 2.1 
 2.2 
 2.7 
 
 Sulphates and chlorides. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Chlorides and sulphates. 
 Sulphates and chlorides, 
 
 Do. 
 
 Analyses of soil near Webster's flowing well, Escalante Desert, Utah. 
 
 Depth 
 
 within 
 
 which sou 
 
 was taken. 
 
 Soluble 
 solids 
 
 (alkalies). 
 Percent 
 of total 
 
 material. 
 
 Predominating salts, in order 
 named. 
 
 Feet. 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 .8 
 
 .4 
 
 Sulphates and clilorides. 
 
 Do. 
 Chlorides and bicarbonates. 
 Bicarbonates and sulphates. 
 
 STREAMS. 
 
 Because of the general aridity and the low altitude of most of tlie 
 surrounding mountains, few streams reach Escalant-e Desert. Aside 
 from Iron Springs Creek, the only permanent streams in the basin 
 rise in the relatively high mountains to the south. (See PL II.) 
 
 The most westerly of these streams is Shoal Creek, which emerges 
 at Enterprise, in Washington County, and furnishes considerable 
 
152 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEHN UTAH. 
 
 water for irrigation in that vicinity. Twelve miles up this stream 
 there is a partly completed reservoir in which the flood waters will 
 be stored, thus adding greatly to the available supply. Formerly 
 the water was used at Hebron, which is farther upstream than Enter- 
 prise. Spring Creek is a much smaller stream that rises east of Shoal 
 Creek, but also emerges from the mountains in the vicinity of Enter- 
 prise. 
 
 Meadow Creek is next east of Spring Creek. Formerly it fur- 
 nished irrigation water for a small settlement at Hamblin, which is 
 located in a meadow in the mountains, but some years ago heavy 
 spring floods cut a deep gully through this meadow and thus robbed 
 it of most of its water supply. At present the water of the creek is 
 used at the Holtz ranch, which is located at the mouth of the canyon. 
 
 Farthest east are Pinto and Little Pinto creeks, which unite and 
 flow out upon the desert at what is called the " Castle," or the " Mouth 
 of Pinto." Much of the water of Pinto Creek is used at a settlement 
 called Pinto, which, like Hebron and Hamblin, is situated in the 
 mountains, but important water rights have also been established 
 below the Castle. 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 The low mountains west of the railroad contain many small springs 
 which are valuable chiefly as supplies for live stock on the range. 
 Only a few of the best known of these springs are shown in Plate II. 
 Many of them are seeps from the disintegrated igneous rock. 
 
 Sulphur Spring is about IJ miles west-northwest of Lund and at 
 about the same level. It is situated at the base of a low alluvial slope 
 bordering the western mountains. The small amount of water that it 
 yields is used only as a supply for live stock. 
 
 The Desert Springs are situated northwest of Modena and other 
 small springs occur farther up the canyon in which they are found. 
 The locomotive and culinary supplies at Modena come from a number 
 of large dug wells about 4J miles northwest of the village, the water 
 being conducted to the village, by gravity, through a 6-inch pipe line. 
 At Gold Springs and Stateline, two small mining camps northwest 
 of Modena, the water supplies are derived chiefly from springs. 
 
 Iron Springs, which have been described in the section on Rush 
 Lake Valley (p. 145), but whose water drains into Escalante Desert, 
 are the largest springs in the Iron Mountains. Other springs in these 
 mountains and within this drainage basin are Antelope Springs, in 
 sec. 4, T. 35 S., R. 14 W., and Sand Springs, between this point and 
 the Mouth of Pinto. Numerous spring's are found in the moun- 
 tainous area south of the desert. 
 
ESCALANTE DESERT. 153 
 
 FLOWING AVELLS. 
 
 Wehster^s well. — A floAving well belonging to John Webster is 
 located in the interior of Escalante Desert, along the road leading 
 from the Mouth of Pinto to Lund, a short distance west of Table 
 Buttes, which form a Avell-known landmark in this region. (PL 11.) 
 The surrounding country lies low, is flat excej)t for minor irregulari- 
 ties that have been developed by Avind erosion, and in wet seasons is 
 partly submerged by accumulating storm Avaters. The well is 1} 
 inches in diameter, is reported to be 160 feet deep, and yields several 
 gallons of water per minute by natural flow. The water is good to 
 the taste; it Avas found to contain only 29 parts per million of 
 chlorine but it gaA^e a slight reaction for normal carbonates. 
 
 Wells at Sulphur Springs and Lund. — A small flowing well in the 
 vicinity of the Sulphur Springs is said to be 280 feet deep but little 
 reliable data in regard to it could be procured. In his report on the 
 water resources of Beaver County, Lee states that in the 585-foot 
 railroad well at Lund flowing water was struck at 5 horizons,^ but 
 from the best information available it appears that these flows took 
 place in a pit and that the water never rose higher than within one 
 or two feet of the natural surface. . 
 
 NONFLOAVING AVELLS. 
 
 Railroad wells at Lund. — The old railroad well at Lund is said to 
 be 4 inches in diameter and several hundred feet deep, but reliable 
 information in regard to it is lacking. Originally the water rose 
 within 1^ feet of the surface, but now it remains at a depth of about 
 8 feet. 
 
 The new well, completed in 1903, was carried to a depth of 585 feet. 
 The casing is 12 inches in diameter at the top, but is reduced to 10, 8, 
 and finally 6 inches. As in the old well, the water at first rose 
 Avithin 1^ or 2 feet of the surface, but has since retreated to a leA^el 
 about 8 feet below the surface. Mr. Lee states that when this well is 
 pumped it yields 100 gallons per minute Avith a temporary depression 
 of the water surface of less than 20 feet. The following section of 
 the new well, taken from Mr. Lee's report, shows that the sediments 
 underlying Lund are predominantly fine-grained, but that a fcAV beds 
 of graA^el and coarse Avater-bearing sand exist. 
 
 1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver A'alley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
 Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 31. 
 
154 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 Section of the t^ailroad loell at Lund, Utah, 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel (small flow) 
 
 Coarse gravel 
 
 Hardpan and clay 
 
 Quicksand 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Red rock 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Quicksand 
 
 Green shale rock 
 
 Clay and sand 
 
 Sand (small flow) 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Clay and sand 
 
 Sand (large flow) 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Very fine sand 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Veiy fine sand 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Fine sand (small flow) . . . 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 Coarse sand 
 
 Coarse gravel (large flow) . 
 Blue clay 
 
 Feet. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 49 
 
 4 
 80 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 159 
 
 6 
 70 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 
 3 
 11 
 
 8 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 Feet. 
 
 12 
 16 
 65 
 69 
 149 
 153 
 165 
 324 
 330 
 400 
 420 
 430 
 440 
 443 
 454 
 462 
 475 
 478 
 
 504 
 508 
 522 
 525 
 527 
 530 
 549 
 550 
 573 
 583 
 585 
 
 The water is only moderately mineralized, as is shown by the fol- 
 lowing analysis made for the railroad company in January, 1905 : 
 
 Analysis of water from the new railroad well at Lund, Utah. 
 
 [Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Hai*ms.] 
 
 Total solids 486 
 
 Silica (SiOa) 64 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOg+AloOs) 4 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 47 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaSO^) 83 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 63 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 116 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi), sodium sulphate (NaaSO*), 
 volatile and organic matter, and loss 159 
 
 Railroad well at Beryl. — In the railroad well at Beryl, which is 13 
 inches in diameter and 208 feet deep, water was found at depths of 
 23 feet, 180 feet, and 203 feet. The well as finished draws from the 
 203-foot bed, from which the water rises within 19 feet of the surface. 
 During a pumping test of 24 hours the well is said to have yielded 183 
 gallons per minute. A 4-foot hole sunk to the depth of 23 feet 
 yielded 20 gallons per minute. 
 
 1 Reported by the chemist in grains per gallon. 
 
ESCALANTE DESERT. 
 Section of the railroad well at Beryl, Utah} 
 
 155 
 
 Depth, 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Soil 
 
 Clay and gravel 
 
 Gravel (water-bearing). 
 
 Gravel and clay 
 
 Clay 
 
 Clay and gravel 
 
 Gravel (water-bearing). 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sand (water-bearing) . . 
 Clay 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 IG 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 38 
 
 80 
 
 118 
 
 57 
 
 175 
 
 5 
 
 180 
 
 20 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 203 
 
 5 
 
 208 
 
 Lee, W. T., Water-Supply Taper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 31. 
 
 The water from this well, like that from the Lund well, is used in 
 the boilers of the locomotives. As shown in the following analyses, 
 it contains only moderate amounts of the mineral substances com- 
 monly found in ground waters. 
 
 Analyses of ivater from the railroad ivell at Beryl, Utah. 
 
 [Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 
 
 Sample 
 
 from 
 depth of 
 25 feet 2 
 
 Sample 
 
 from 
 bottom.3 
 
 Total solids 
 
 Silica (Si O2) 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminum (re203-l- AI2O3) 
 
 Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 
 
 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 
 
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 
 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 
 
 Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), volatile, organic, and loss. 
 
 492 
 92 
 4 
 72 
 49 
 37 
 86 
 
 152 
 
 344 
 61 
 2 
 74 
 41 
 42 
 70 
 
 1 Reported by the chemist in grains per gallon. 
 
 2 Sample collected Aug. 27, 1905. 
 
 3 Lee, W. T., Water-Supply Paper U. S, Geol. Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 51. 
 
 State test well near Enterprise. — A test w^ell was sunk by the State 
 at a point a few rods north of the boundary between Iron and Wash- 
 ington Counties and near the line between Rs. 16 and 17 W. As 
 far as could be ascertained no record was kept and the only infor- 
 mation w^as that furnished from memory by the driller, Mr. Halter- 
 man, of Parowan. He states that the materials penetrated by the 
 drill consisted of gTavel and other unconsolidated sediments for the 
 first 300 feet, and of red rock from this depth to about 700 feet, where 
 hard rock was struck and the drilling was stopped. He states also 
 that water was found at the depth of 40 feet and at various horizons 
 below this level, and that the water from the unconsolidated sediments 
 rose within about 40 feet of the top of the well, but that the water 
 from the rock remained 90 feet below the surface. It appears that 
 
156 
 
 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 no tests were made of the quantity or quality of the water and that 
 the well has remained practically unused. 
 
 Well of the New Castle Reclamation Go. — The New Castle Kecla- 
 mation Co. has a dug well, 86 feet deep, situated in the NE. J sec. Y, 
 T. 36 S., E. 15 W., several miles northwest of the Mouth of Pinto. In 
 October, 1908, the water in this well stood 81 feet below the surface, 
 was yielded freely, and was considered to be of good quality. 
 
 Section of the Neto Castle Reclamation Go's well. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Clay loam . , . , 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Clay and sand alternating 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Clay 
 
 Hard clay 
 
 Black gravelly sand 
 
 Dense clay 
 
 Black sand (water which did not rise) 
 
 Dense clay 
 
 Black sand (water which rose to level of first water-bearing bed) . . . 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sand (water which rose to level of first water-bearing bed), entered 
 
 Feet. 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 75 
 
 76i 
 
 79 
 
 Other wells. — The well just described is typical of more than a 
 score of wells that have been dug at different points in the desert, 
 chiefly for the purpose of watering sheep or other live stock. Prac- 
 tically all of these wells are less than 100 feet deep because the holes 
 that were dug where the ground-water table is more than this dis- 
 tance below the surface were generally abandoned before the requi- 
 site depth was reached. Most of the dug wells yield water of fairly 
 good quality and in ample amounts for stock purposes, but there are 
 exceptions both as to quality and quantity. 
 
 DEPTH TO GROUND WATER. 
 
 Vicinity of Lund. — The depth to which it is necessary to sink a 
 well in order to reach the ground-water table depends largely on the 
 altitude of the surface. At Lund the water table nearly coincides 
 with the surface, and this condition prevails west of Lund to Sulphur 
 Springs, north, northeast, east, and southeast of Lund for some miles, 
 and south of Lund to beyond Webster's flowing well. With certain 
 interruptions, it also prevails from Webster's flowing well to T. 35 
 S., R. 16 W., where water is obtained at very shallow depths. 
 
 Between Lund and Modena. — Along the railroad south westward 
 from Lund the surface gradually rises, but water can be obtained at 
 moderate depths between Lund and Beryl (see p. 155) and probably 
 between Beryl and a point some distance southwest of Morton, be- 
 yond which the railroad has a steeper gradient and the depth to water 
 
ESCALANTE DESERT. 157 
 
 is greater. In going from the railroad toward the western moun- 
 tains the depth to water also increases, and near the mountains it 
 may be impracticable to get wells. 
 
 Southeast of Modena. — East and southeast of Modena there is an 
 extensive area of fertile land that lies somewhat above the desert flat 
 and is partly encircled b}' low rocky ridges. Except near the ridges, 
 wells can probably be obtained in this area at reasonable depths, but 
 flows are not to be expected. 
 
 North of Enterprise. — Water can probably be obtained at mod- 
 erate depths on a large part of the bench that lies east of the ridge 
 extending northward from Enterprise. On the low ground at the 
 foot of this bench there are some indications that flows could be 
 obtained. 
 
 Vicinity of New Castle. — An alluvial slope extends along the border 
 of the mountains from Enterprise to the vicinity of New Castle and 
 from New Castle to the north end of the Iron Mountains. This belt 
 is especially wide in the reentrant occupied by the alluvial fan of 
 Pinto Creek. A number of wells already sunk in the region give some 
 indications as to the position of the water table. Thus in the NE. J 
 sec. 7, T. 36 S., K. 15 W., ground water was found at the depth of 
 80 feet ; near the middle of the line between T. 36 S. and T. 35 S., in 
 R. 15 W., it was found at about the same depth; and on sec. 31, T. 
 35 S., R. 15 W., it was found at 25 or 30 feet. 
 
 Eastern part of the desert. — In the low-lying areas of the eastern 
 part of the desert the water table can be reached by sinking to mod- 
 erate depths but on the higher benches the distance to water is no 
 doubt great. The Iron Mountains are projected northward in two 
 ranges, one of which extends to Antelope Springs, the other to Iron 
 Springs and beyond. (See PI, II.) Between these tw^o ranges there 
 is a wide reentrant which occupies a township or more of land and 
 consists of a large alluvial slope in the shape of an amphitheater. In 
 this reentrant plain, especially at the higher levels, the prospects for 
 obtaining water are poor. 
 
 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 
 
 In the railroad wells at Lund and Berjd water of satisfactory 
 quality was found, as is shown by the analyses given on pages 151—155. 
 These analyses and less definite data in regard to other wells indicate 
 that the water in the beds of sand and gravel underlying Escalante 
 Desert is in general not so highly mineralized as to be unfit for culi- 
 nary use or irrigation. An exception is formed by some of the dug 
 wells in the shallow-water tracts, the water from which, like the soil 
 in the same tracts, may be heavily charged with mineral salts. 
 
158 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
 
 USE or GROUND WATER. 
 
 The ground water of this region is used for locomotive, live-stock, 
 and culinary supplies. Kelatively large amounts of fairly good 
 water are required for locomotive supplies, and consequently the 
 most thorough and valuable explorations for ground water in this 
 region have been made by the railroad company. As can be seen from 
 the descriptions of the wells at Lund, Beryl, and Modena, the efforts 
 to secure satisfactory railroad supplies were, on the whole, success- 
 ful in this region, in which respect Escalante Desert contrasts favor- 
 ably with the lower part of Sevier Desert and Lower Beaver Valley. 
 Most of the wells in this desert have been dug for the purpose of pro- 
 curing water for live stock, and many springs have been developed in 
 the western mountains for the same purpose. These watering places 
 have made the range accessible and have thereby added greatly to 
 its value. Recently dry farming has been undertaken and accord- 
 ingly a new demand for water has been created. 
 
 No serious efforts have yet been made to use the ground water for 
 irrigation. Flowing wells are not likely to be of much value for this 
 purpose because they are obtained only in low areas where the soil is 
 impregnated with alkali, and even in these areas the water is under so 
 little pressure that it would be difficult to obtain large enough sup- 
 plies to be of consequence in irrigation. On land which lies some- 
 what higher than the alkali desert flats and has better soil consider- 
 able irrigation water could in the aggregate be recovered by pump- 
 ing from moderate depths, but the amount that could be recovered 
 in any one locality is probably not great, and it is doubtful whether 
 even in the more favored tracts pumping for irrigation would be 
 practicable. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. Page. 
 
 Acknowledgments to those aiding 10-1 1 
 
 Alkalies in water, effect of 4G-47 
 
 Alluvial slopes, occurrence of ground water 
 
 on 36-37 
 
 Apparatus used in well construction, descrip- 
 tion of and illustrations showing. 61-62 
 Artesian conditions, data regarding 37-41 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacteria in water, effect of 46 
 
 Bailey, James R., analysis by 116 
 
 Baker Creek, water of, character of 129 
 
 Bedrock, artesian conditions of 37-38 
 
 confining function of 32 
 
 occurrence of groimd water in 29-32 
 
 "Bench lands," occurrence of ground water 
 
 on 36-37 
 
 Beryl, railway well at, depth, section, and 
 
 analysis of water of 154-156 
 
 Big Spring, water of, character of 129 
 
 water of, temperature of 133 
 
 Black Rock, precipitation at, tables showing. 19, 95 
 Black Rock Springs, water of, character and 
 
 analysis of 95-96 
 
 Boilers, water supplies for, sources and qual- 
 ity of 57-58 
 
 Burbank, wells near, distribution and char- 
 acter of 133 
 
 Burtner, well at, section of 113 
 
 C. 
 
 Calcium, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46 
 California, conditions governing water sup- 
 plies in 60-61 
 
 construction of wells in 60-64 
 
 cost of well construction in , . . . 63-64 
 
 California method of well construction, ad- 
 vantages of 60-64 
 
 apparatus and methods, description of. . . 61-62 
 
 cost of 63-64 
 
 figmes illustrating 62, 63 
 
 California well rig, common form of, figure 
 
 showing 63 
 
 Callao, precipitation at, tables showing 19, 128 
 
 well water of, analysis of 136 
 
 wells near, distribution'arfd character of. 135 
 Canyon Mountains, wells near, depth and 
 
 yield of 111-112 
 
 Carbonates, dissolved, effect of, on use of 
 
 water 46-47 
 
 Cazier Springs, water froni, analysis of 81 
 
 Cedar City, precipitation at, table showing. . . 19 
 Cherry Creek region, topography and water 
 
 resources of 101-104 
 
 Chlorides, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46-47 
 Clear Lake Springs, water of, character and 
 
 analysis of 9(>-97 
 
 Clear Lake well, water of, character of 100 
 
 Page. 
 Coal, availability of, for irrigation purposes . . 53 
 
 Coal Creek, source and drainage area of 144 
 
 Crissman, C. C, analysis by 126 
 
 Crops, value of 53 
 
 Culinary uses, availability of water for 53-55 
 
 D. 
 
 Deep Creek, watering places near, locations of 65-66 
 Deseret, analj'sis of water of Jensen well at. . . 116 
 
 precipitation at, diagrams showing 20, 21 
 
 precipitation at, table showing 19 
 
 well at, section of 113 
 
 Deserts, ground water of, mineral content of. . 47-48 
 Desert flats, ground water on, occurrence of. 34-36 
 
 Dissolved solids, effect of, on use of water 45-47 
 
 Dog Valley, water supplies of, source of 74-78 
 
 Drilled wells, construction of 59 
 
 Drum and Swasey Wash region, water supplies 
 
 of, sources and character of 104-106 
 
 Dry farming, relation of rainfall to 22-23 
 
 Dry farms, water supplies for, possible sources 
 
 of 55-56 
 
 E. 
 
 Enoch, springs at, character and origin of 145 
 
 Enterprise, precipitation at, tables showing, 19, 150 
 
 well near, depth and yield- of 155-156 
 
 Escalante Desert, geology and physiography 
 
 of 149-150 
 
 ground water of, depth to 156-157 
 
 quality of 157 
 
 use of 158 
 
 rainfall in, data regarding 150 
 
 soil of, character and analyses of 150-151 
 
 spring of, distribution of 152 
 
 streams of, utilization of water of 151-152 
 
 wells of, character of water of 153-156 
 
 F. 
 
 Fernow Valley, water supplies of 74-78 
 
 Fillmore, precipitation at, diagrams showing 20,21 
 
 precipitation at, tables showing 19, 89 
 
 Fish Springs, precipitation at, table showing 129 
 
 watering places near, locations of 65-66 
 
 Fish Springs quadrangle, topographic map 
 
 of. In pocket. 
 
 Fish Springs Valley, topography, springs, and 
 
 ground water of 124-126 
 
 water of, temperature of, table showing. . 133 
 Formations, geologic, ages, character, and 
 
 succession of 15-16 
 
 G. 
 
 Garrison, precipitation at, diagrams showing. 20, 21 
 
 precipitation at, tables showing 19, 128 
 
 wells near, distribution and character of. 134 
 
 Geologic history, outline of 16-18 
 
 159 
 
160 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Geology, features of 15-18 
 
 Goss well, section of 98 
 
 water of, character and analysis of ^ 97-98 
 
 Grazing land, water supplies of, data on 56-57 
 
 Greaves, J. E., analyses by 93, 97 
 
 Ground water, confining effect of bedrock 
 
 upon 32 
 
 in high valleys, occurrence and character 
 
 of... : 37 
 
 in lake deposits, occurrence and character 
 
 of 33-34 
 
 in low valleys, occurrence and character 
 
 of 34 
 
 irrigation with, development of 49-53 
 
 mineral content of 45-49 
 
 occurrence of 29-37 
 
 on alluvial slopes, occurrence and charac- 
 ter of 36-37 
 
 on desert fiats, occurrence and character 
 
 of 34-36 
 
 quality of 45-49 
 
 substances contaiaed in, effect of 45-47 
 
 value of, for culinary purposes 53-55 
 
 See also particular valleys, regions, etc. 
 
 H 
 
 Harms, Herman, analyses by 96, 98, 116, 154, 155 
 
 Holden, relation of ground- water table to sur- 
 face at, map showing 92 
 
 Hot Springs, character, origin, and distribu- 
 tion of 43-44 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibex, location of water at 67 
 
 Igneous rocks, occurrence of ground water in. 30-31 
 
 Industrial development, character of 26-28 
 
 Investigation, purpose of 9 
 
 Iron County, location and area of ' 9 
 
 location and area of, map showing 16 
 
 Iron Springs, character, location, and origin 
 
 of 145 
 
 Irrigation, cost of pumping for 51-53 
 
 ground water available for, quality of . . . 51 
 quantity of 50-51 
 
 with ground water, development and 
 
 prospects of 49-53 
 
 See also particular valleys, regions, etc. 
 Irrigation wells, construction of 60 
 
 J. 
 
 Jensen well, water of, analysis of 116 
 
 Juab, well near, section of 71 
 
 Juab County , location and area of 9 
 
 location and area of, map showing 10 
 
 Juab Valley, geology and topography of 67-68 
 
 ground water beneath benches in, char- 
 acter of 72-73 
 
 ground-water conditions in, map show- 
 ing 68 
 
 irrigation with ground water in 74 
 
 rainfall in, tables and diagrams showing. 68-69 
 springs of, character and distribution of. . 70 
 streams of, courses and partial enumera- 
 tion of 69-70 
 
 Water of, availability of, for culinary use. . 74 
 • wells of, character, distribution, and typ- 
 ical section of 70-72 
 
 K. Page. 
 
 Kanarra Creek, source and drainage area of . . 144 
 
 Kanarraville, wells at. yield of 147 
 
 Kell Springs, water of, character of 130 
 
 Knoll springs, character and locations of 44-45 
 
 Knoll Springs, water of. character of 130 
 
 water of, temperature of 133 
 
 L. 
 
 Lake Bonneville,, area formerly covered by, 
 
 mapshowiag 17 
 
 Lake Creek, water of, character of 129 
 
 Lake deposits, occurrence of ground water in. 33-34 
 
 Lake topography, features of 12-13 
 
 Lava beds, springs from, origin of 43 
 
 Levan, precipitation at, diagrams showing ... 20, 21 
 
 precipitation at, tables showing 19, 69 
 
 Little Creek, source and drainage area of. . . 139-140 
 
 Little Valley, water supplies of 74-78 
 
 Lower Beaver Valley, geology and topog- 
 raphy of 94-95 
 
 rainfall in, data on 95 
 
 springs of, distribution and character of. . 95-97 
 
 See also particular springs. 
 
 streams of, data on 95 
 
 wells of, distribution and character of... 97-101 
 
 See also particular wells. 
 
 well sections in, plate showing 36 
 
 Lund, precipitation at, tables showing 19, 150 
 
 soil of, analysis of 151 
 
 well at, section of ^ 154 
 
 water of, analysis of 154 
 
 wells at, yield of 153-154 
 
 wells of San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt 
 
 Lake R. R. near, data on. .... . 153-154 
 
 Lynn, well at, section of 112 
 
 well at, water of, analysis of 116 
 
 Lynn bench, wells of, depth and yield of. . 111-112 
 
 M. 
 
 McConnelFs well, location of 146 
 
 Magnesium, dissolved, effect of, on use of 
 
 water 46 
 
 Means, T. H., on dissolved alkalis 46-47 
 
 Millard County, location and area of 9 
 
 location and area of, map showing 10 
 
 Mining, extent of development of 27-28 
 
 Minor basins, characteristics and partial enu- 
 meration of 13-14 
 
 Modena, precipitation at, diagrams showing. . 20, 21 
 
 precipitation at, tables showing 19, 150 
 
 Mountain areas , water from , character of 47 
 
 Mountain springs, characteristics of 41-42 
 
 N. 
 
 Neels well, section of 99-100 
 
 water of, character of 99 
 
 Nephi, precipitation at, figure showing 69 
 
 precipitation at, table showing 19 
 
 New Castle Reclamation Co. well, section of. . 156 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak City, precipitation at, table showing — 19 
 
 Oasis, railway well at, water of, analysis of. . . 117 
 
 well at, section of 113 
 
NDEX. 
 
 161 
 
 Page. I 
 Old River Bed, topography and water re- 
 sources of 101-104 
 
 Organic matter, in water, effect of 45 
 
 P. 
 
 Parowan , precipitation at , diagrams showing. 20. 21 
 
 precipitation at, table showing 19 
 
 Parowan Creeiv, character of flow of 139 ' 
 
 Parowan Valley, geology and physiography 
 
 of 138-139 I 
 
 rainfall of, data regarding 139 ! 
 
 springs of, character of 140 \ 
 
 streams of, character and locations of. . . 139-140 
 water of, suitability of for culinary uses. . 142 
 wells of, depth, locations, and yield of — 140-142 
 Pavant Valley, geology, topography, and 
 
 water resources of 86-94 
 
 ground water of, occurrence, quality, and 
 
 utilization of 89-93 
 
 rainfall in, data on 88-89 
 
 streams and springs of, data on 89 
 
 water of, culinary use of 93-94 
 
 water supplies of, map showing 87 
 
 Perforators, illustrations showing 62 
 
 Physiography, features of 11-14 
 
 units of discussion of 11 
 
 Pinto, precipitation at, table showing 150 
 
 " Pit flow " wells, construction of 59-60 
 
 Pleasant Valley, wells near, distribution and 
 
 character of 135 
 
 Pool springs, character and partial enumera- 
 tion jf 44-45 
 
 Population, distribution of 26-28 
 
 Precipitation, annual, diagram showing 20 
 
 aimual, table showing 19 
 
 monthly diagram showing 21 
 
 Preuss Valley , conditions affecting water sup- 
 ply of 117-119 
 
 See also Wah Wah Valley. 
 Provinces, physiographic, distinctions be- 
 tween 11-12 
 
 Pumping, for irrigation, cost of 51-53 
 
 R. 
 
 Railway facilities, development of, and effect 
 
 of 28 
 
 Railway stations, watering stations near, 
 
 partial enumeration of 64-65 
 
 Rainfall, data regarding 18-23 
 
 diagrams showing amount of 20, 21 
 
 geographic distribution of 18-21 
 
 relation of, to dry farming 22-23 
 
 tables showing amount of 19 
 
 variation in amount of 21-22 
 
 Ranches, relations of, to water supply 27 
 
 Ranges, water supplies of, availability of 56-57 
 
 Red Creek, source and drainage area of . . . 139-140 
 Round Valley, water supplies of, source and 
 
 character of 74-78 
 
 Routes of travel, watering places on, locations 
 
 of 64-67 
 
 Rush Lake Valley, geology and physiography 
 
 of 142-143 
 
 irrigation in, development of 148-149 
 
 90398°— wsp 277—11 11 
 
 Page. 
 
 Rush Lake Valley, rainfall in, data regard- 
 ing..! 143-144 
 
 south basin of, map showing location of. . 146 
 springs of, character and distribution of 144-145 
 
 streams of, utilization of water of 144 
 
 water of, suitability of, for culinary uses. . 149 
 wells of, locations of, and character of 
 
 water of 145-149 
 
 S. 
 
 Sage Valley, water supplies of, sources and 
 
 character of 74-78 
 
 Scipio, precipitation at, diagrams showing. . . 20, 21 
 
 precipitation at, table showing 19 
 
 Sedimentary rocks, occurrence of ground 
 
 water in : 29-30 
 
 Sediments, unconsolidated, character of 32-33 
 
 See also Unconsolidated sediments. 
 Seepage, from unconsolidated sediments, con- 
 ditions favorable to 42 
 
 Settlements, relation of, to water supplies ... 27 
 
 Sevier Desert, artesian conditions of 114-115 
 
 ground-water level of 109 
 
 irrigation in, development of 110-111 
 
 ph5'siography of 106-108 
 
 rainfall in, data regarding 108 
 
 soil of, character and analysis of 109 
 
 vegetation of, character of 110 
 
 water of, quality of 115-117 
 
 water-bearing beds of, positions of Ill 
 
 well sections in, plate showing 36 
 
 Sevier Lake, fluctuations in level of 119-120 
 
 position of 120 
 
 water of, analysis of 121 
 
 quality of 120-121 
 
 Sevier Lake bottoms, quality of water supply 
 and effect of fluctuation of lake 
 
 level on 119-121 
 
 Shirts Creek, source and drainage area of 144 
 
 Shirts Lake, springs near, character and loca- 
 tion of 145 
 
 Silver City, relation of springs supplying, to 
 
 precipitation, plate showing 78 
 
 Slichter, C. S., on cost of pumping for irri- 
 gation 52 
 
 on well construction in California 60-64 
 
 Snake Creek, water of, character of 129 
 
 Snake Valley, geography and water supply 
 
 of 127-137 
 
 irrigation in, data on 137 
 
 rainfall and vegetation of 128-129 
 
 springs and streams of 129-133 
 
 water of, temperature of, table showing. . 133 
 
 watering places near, locations of*. 66-67 
 
 wells and ground-water prospects of . . 133-137 
 
 Soil, at Lund, analysis of 151 
 
 character of 23-24 
 
 near Lake Sevier, analysis of 118 
 
 of Sevier Desert, analysis of HO 
 
 quality of.effectof, on irrigation projects. 51 
 Solids, dissolved, effect of, on use of water — 4.5-47 
 Springs, character distribution, and classifi- 
 
 cat ion of 41-45 
 
 water of, mineral content of 48-49 
 
162 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Starr, well near, water of, analysis of 73 
 
 "Stovepipe" method of well construction, 
 
 description of 60-64 
 
 See also California method. 
 Stream deposits, occurrence of ground water 
 
 in 33 
 
 Streams, character and partial enumeration 
 
 of 25-26 
 
 Stream topography, features of - 12 
 
 Stream water, pollution of 53-54 
 
 value of, for household use 53-54 
 
 Sulphates, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46 
 
 Swan Lake farm well, section of 101 
 
 water of, character of 100-101 
 
 Swasey Wash region, water supply of 104r-106 
 
 T. 
 
 Tanner, Caleb, work of 9 
 
 Thorley's wells, location and character of. . 146-147 
 Tintic mining district, geology and water re- 
 sources of 81-86 
 
 mrnes of, relations of, to water supply 85 
 
 relation of water supply to igneous rocks 
 
 in, map showing 83 
 
 springs of, characteristics of 82-83 
 
 watering places in, locations of 65 
 
 wells of, character and distribution of. . . 84-85 
 Tuitic Valley, geology, topography, and water 
 
 resources of 78-81 
 
 Topography, features of 12-14 
 
 lake action upon 12-13 
 
 stream action upon 12 
 
 wind action upon 13 
 
 Travel, routes of, watering places on, loca- 
 tions of 64^67 
 
 Trout Creek,precipitation at,tables showing. 19, 128 
 Typhoid, agency of stream waters in spread- 
 ing 53-54 
 
 U. 
 
 Unconsolidated sediments, artesian condi- 
 tions of 38-40 
 
 character of... 32-33 
 
 occurrence of ground water in 32-37 
 
 seepage from, conditions favoring 42 
 
 Utah, sections of, covered in report, map show- 
 ing 10 
 
 Page, 
 Utah, State Geological Survey of, work of . . 9 
 Utah mine, water of, analysis of 126 
 
 V. 
 
 Valleys, artesian conditions in 38-40 
 
 artesian conditions of, cross section show- 
 ing 38 
 
 ground water of, mineral content of 47 
 
 occurrence of 34, 37 
 
 Variation, annual, in amount of rainfall 21-22 
 
 seasonal, in amount of rainfall 22 
 
 Vegetation, character of 24-25 
 
 W. 
 
 Wah Wah Valley, conditions affecting water 
 
 supply of 117-119 
 
 ground-water prospects in 119 
 
 rainfall in, data on .- 118 
 
 soil of, character and analysis of 118 
 
 topography of 117-118 
 
 Ward's ranch, springs at, character and origin 
 
 of 144^145 
 
 Warm Springs, water of, character of 131 
 
 water of, temperature of 133 
 
 Water, substances contained in, effect of 45-47 
 
 >See a^so Ground water; Springs; Wells. 
 Watering places, on routes of travel, locations 
 
 of 64^67 
 
 Webster's well, in Escalante Desert, water of, 
 
 quality of 153 
 
 near Enoch, location and character of flow 
 
 of 145-146 
 
 Wells, construction of 58-6^ 
 
 construction of, California- method of 60-64 
 
 drilled, on alluvial slopes, advantages of. 59 
 
 irrigation, proper construction of .... 60 
 
 "pit flow," proper construction of 59-60 
 
 types of 58-59 
 
 Well sections, in Sevier Desert and Lower 
 
 Beaver Valley, plate showing 36 
 
 White Kiver valley, geography, springs, and 
 
 ground-water prospects of 121-124 
 
 Williams's wells, location, depth, and yield 
 
 of 147 
 
 Willow Springs, water of, character of 132 
 
 Wind topography, features of 13 
 
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