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(Bnintii to (E^nffUel) Claseics Scries 
 
 JULIUS CiESAR 
 
 (Shakespeare) 
 
 BY 
 
 HELEN M. ROTH, B.A. 
 
 Instructor of English, Girls' Commercial High School 
 Beooklyn, New York 
 
 NEW YORK 
 GLOBE BOOK COMPANY 
 
 Flatiron Building 
 175 FIFTH AVENUE 
 
GUIDES TO ENGLISH CLASSICS 
 
 Genuine aids to the study of English classics in secondary 
 schools and^in colleges. Include outlines, summaries, explana- 
 tory notes, biography, bibliography and recent examination 
 questions. Compiled by New York City high school teachers 
 of undisputed fitness and ability. 
 
 Speech on Conciliation— Buree 
 
 As You Like It— Shakespeare 
 
 Tale of Two Cities— Dickens 
 
 Julius Caesar 
 Macbeth 
 
 Shakespeare 
 
 Essay ON Burns— Garlyle 
 Life of Johnson— Macaulay 
 
 Silas Marner— Euot 
 
 Idylls of the King— Tennyson 
 
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 Browning's Poems (Selected) 
 
 Mabel F. Brooks, B.A., M. A. 
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 Edith C. Younghem, B.A. 
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i3uitit6 to €ngli6b ClagsicES Series 
 
 JULIUS CtESAR 
 
 (Shakespeare) 
 
 BY 
 
 HELEN M. ROTH, B.A. 
 
 Instructor of English, Girls' Commercial High School 
 Brooklyn, New York 
 
 NEW YORK 
 GLOBE BOOK COMPANY 
 
 Flatiron Building 
 175 FIFTH AVENUE 
 
u,^'^ 
 
 ^p-^ 
 
 -<?}■ 
 
 Copyright, 1921 
 GLOBE BOOK COMPANY 
 
 FEB 2B 1921 
 
PREFACE 
 
 With the market so crowded with editions of the 
 classics, the publishers of these Guides would have hesi- 
 tated to bring forth their series, were there not a uni- 
 versal demand among teachers and students for just 
 such exposition as is here presented. Editors of works 
 studied in high schools are apt to forget that their ex- 
 planations are meant to help the inexperienced reader. 
 For this reason the usual school editions have been of 
 slight help to the student. 
 
 The high school teachers who have prepared these 
 Guides have had years of experience with the mind that 
 is confronted with a great literary work for the first time. 
 They have given just such information and suggestive 
 guidance as will enable the student fully to understand 
 and enjoy the masterpiece, without being lost in a mass 
 of irrelevant and dry discussion. They have arranged 
 their material so as to make it possible for the student, 
 if necessary, to pursue his work independently, whether 
 his aim be the preparation for an examination or the 
 furthering of his general culture. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 General Nature of the Work 3 
 
 Its Purpose 3 
 
 Sources of the Plot 4 
 
 Study of the Background of the Play 4 
 
 Time Analysis of the Action. 5 
 
 Synopsis of the Play 6 
 
 Study of Characters 9 
 
 Study of the Construction of the Play 16 
 
 Study of the Style 18 
 
 Passages worth Memorizing 20 
 
 Study of the Text 21 
 
 Examination Questions: 
 
 Regents' 24 
 
 High School 2.(i 
 
 Selected 2"] 
 
 Biographical Sketch of Shakespeare. 28 
 
 Bibliography .........,,..,...,,..,,,...,....,.. 30 
 
GUIDE TO SHAKESPEARE'S "JULIUS C^SAR" 
 
 General Nature of the Work 
 
 A tragedy is that form of drama of which the theme 
 is solemn, lofty, or pathetic, and generally involves a fatal 
 issue of a hopeless struggle. 
 
 In Shakespeare's dramas the difference between tragedy 
 and comedy is merely one of conclusion. However com- 
 plicated the situation of the drama has become, in the 
 comedy there is always a satisfactory outcome of that 
 complication; in the tragedy the reverse resolution (out- 
 come) is found. 
 
 Its Purpose 
 
 Julius CcBsar is a play dealing with a question of gov- 
 ernment. The center of interest in the play is thus a sub- 
 ject which appealed strongly to the England of Shake- 
 speare's time ( 1 564-1616). The assassination of EHza- 
 beth had often been plotted, and in the latter years of 
 her reign, which ended in 1603, it was feared that her 
 death might bring on another struggle for the crown. The 
 conspiracy of her favorite, the Earl of Essex, occurred 
 in 1601. Shakespeare made use of an historic back- 
 
4 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 ground to warn against treachery to a sovereign and civil 
 war. "The stroke that was to free Rome from a pos- 
 sible tyranny gave three tyrants for one, and civil war 
 for peace." 
 
 Sources of the Plot 
 
 Shakespeare derived his material for the play from 
 Sir Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's "Lives of 
 the Noble Grecians and Romans," chiefly from the lives 
 of Csesar, Brutus, and Antony. Shakespeare follows 
 Plutarch's version faithfully for his subject matter, ex- 
 cept where he compresses the action so as to secure 
 greater dramatic force. 
 
 Study of the Background 
 
 The action of the drama opens in Rome, February 15, 
 44 B.C., but in order to understand the play properly, it 
 is necessary to go back fifteen years to the year 59 B.C., 
 when Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus united to form the 
 first triumvirate (L. frium-three, and vir-msin), propos- 
 ing to secure for themselves control of public affairs. 
 Four years later Crassus was murdered, and the two 
 remaining triumvirs divided the Roman possessions — 
 practically all of the known world — between them. 
 
 Each had his own political party in Rome, Pompey the 
 aristocratic, Caesar the democratic, and between these two 
 parties there was an acute rivalry that finally resulted in 
 a civil war, 49 B.C. War ended in 48 B.C., with Pompey's 
 defeat and death. 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 5 
 
 Caesar was now acknowledged head of the Roman 
 world by the Senate, which made him ''perpetual dic- 
 tator." He had a genius for administration, as well as 
 for conquest, and his reign was distinguished for brilliant 
 statesmanship. 
 
 Pompey's sons marshaled their father's party for a 
 second attack, which resulted in a second victory for 
 Csesar in October, 45 B.C. 
 
 It is at this point that the play opens. Caesar returns 
 to Rome February 15, 44 B.C., to find himself surrounded 
 by new conditions. The "liberty faction" has grown in 
 numbers and power, and a report has been circulated that 
 Caesar is aiming to make himself king. 
 
 Time Analysis of the Action 
 
 As a history, the play covers a period of three years, 
 from October, 45 B.C., to the Battle of PhiHppi, in the 
 autumn of 42 b.c. 
 
 On the stage, however, the action is drawn together 
 in six days, with intervals between, as follows : 
 
 Day I: Act I, Sc. i and Sc. 2. — Feast of Lupercal, 
 February 15, 44 b.c. 
 
 Interval,, one month. 
 
 Day II : Act I, Sc. 3. | Evenings of March 14 and 
 
 Day III: Acts II and III. j March 15 
 
 Interval of ig months. 
 Day IV: Act IV, Sc. i. 
 
6 JULIUSykSAR 
 
 Interval. 
 Day V: Act IV, Sc. 2 and Sc. 3. 
 
 Interval, one day at least. 
 Day VI : Act V. 
 
 Synopsis of the Action 
 
 (Note. — Where more than one sentence is used to sum 
 lip the action of a scene, the first sentence contains 
 the main thought.) 
 
 Act I 
 
 Sc. I. — The Roman tribunes rebuke the populace for 
 its interest in Csesar, who has returned from his conquest 
 of Pompey. He is now dictator of the Roman World, 
 and, it is reported, aims to make himself king. 
 
 Sc. 2. — Cassius tries, during the festivities of Lu- 
 percal, to win Brutus over to a conspiracy against Csesar. 
 Brutus is further influenced by Casca's recital of Caesar's 
 reluctant refusal of the crown. 
 
 Sc. 3. — The conspirators meet at Pompey's porch, a 
 month later, on the night before the Ides of March, a 
 night of mysterious signs and portents. Anonymous let- 
 ters have been sent to Brutus by Cassius, urging him to 
 save Rome from Caesar's tyranny. 
 
 Act II 
 
 Sc. I. — The conspirators meet at the home of Brutus, 
 who has decided to join them, and plan to kill Caesar at 
 
JULIUS CESAR 7 
 
 the session of the Senate the next day. Portia asks 
 Brutus's confidence, but is put off by her husband. 
 
 Sc. 2. — In spite of his own incHnations, Caesar is per- 
 suaded by the conspirators to go to the forum. Both 
 Calpurnia and the augurers have warned him to stay at 
 home on the Ides of March. 
 
 Sc. 3. — Artemidorus, a professor of Greek, prepares a 
 warning for Caesar. 
 
 Sc. 4. — Portia, alarmed at Caesar's uneasy manner and 
 the visit of the conspirators, sends Lucius to the Senate 
 House for news. 
 
 Act III 
 
 Sc. I. — Caesar is assassinated at the foot of Pompey's 
 statue, in the Senate House. The conspirators have 
 gathered around him under pretext of petitioning pardon 
 for Cimber's brother, and, on Caesar's refusal, all stab 
 him. Those senators who were ignorant of the con- 
 spiracy are prevented by horror from going to Caesar's 
 aid; most of them, with Antony, flee from the Capitol. 
 Antony returns, professing friendship for the conspira- 
 tors, and Brutus, against Cassius's wish, gives him per- 
 mission to hold a funeral oration over Caesar's body. 
 
 Sc. 2. — Although Brutus, in his speech, has convinced 
 the Romans of the justice of Caesar's death by declaring 
 that the people have been deprived of their liberty by 
 Caesar's tyranny, Antony fills them with a desire to avenge 
 Caesar. This he does by arousing their pity and gratitude. 
 Sc' 2i- — Cinna, the poet, innocent of any part in the 
 
JULIUS CyESAR 
 
 conspiracy, is slain by the populace merely because he 
 bears a conspirator's name. 
 
 Act IV 
 
 Sc. I. — Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, the triumvirs 
 now ruling over the Roman World, meet to proscribe 
 their enemies. 
 
 (Meanwhile Brutus, having retired to Athens, has 
 raised a large army there and become master of all Greece 
 and Macedonia, part of the Roman possessions. He goes 
 now to Asia and joins Cassius, whose efforts have been 
 equally successful, and the two generals return to Europe 
 to oppose the triumvirs, whom they meet on the plains 
 of Philippi.) 
 
 Sc. 2. — The two generals, Brutus and Cassius, meet at 
 a camp near Sardis. 
 
 Sc. 3.^Brutus and Cassius quarrel, but are reconciled. 
 Brutus has accused Cassius of accepting bribes, and of 
 refusing to lend him money to pay his legions. After 
 the reconciliation, Brutus tells Cassius that Portia, in a 
 fit of madness caused by brooding over her husband's 
 absence and the triumphs of his opponents, the triumvirs, 
 has committed suicide. Brutus, against Cassius's advice, 
 decides to march to Philippi rather than wait for an at- 
 tack. That night the ghost of Caesar appears to Brutus, 
 and says that he will reappear at Philippi. 
 
JULIUS CyESAR 
 
 Act V 
 
 Sc. I. — The generals of both sides meet at Phihppi and 
 taunt one another. Brutus and Cassius part to take 
 charge of their armies. 
 
 Sc. 2. — Brutus sends Messala to hasten a part of his 
 army. 
 
 Sc. 3. — Cassius, beheving the battle lost, has Pindarus 
 stab him. His legions are surrounded by Antony's army, 
 and, not knowing that Brutus has defeated Octavius, 
 Cassius dies on the sword that killed Csesar. 
 
 Sc. 4. — Lucilius is captured, being mistaken for his 
 general, Brutus, whom he is trying to shield. 
 
 Sc. 5. — Defeated, Brutus runs on his own sword and 
 kills himself just before the entrance of Antony and 
 Octavius into his tent. 
 
 STUDY OF CHARACTERS 
 
 In spite of Shakespeare's close adherence to Plutarch 
 for his material, his genius is seen in the character por- 
 trayal. Human nature was paramount with Shakespeare, 
 and the facts of history have been subordinated in his 
 plays wherever they interfered with his conception of 
 character. 
 
 Julius Caesar 
 
 This tendency to place character conception before his- 
 toric truth is best illustrated in Julius Cccsar by the por- 
 
lo JULtUSZCMSAR 
 
 trayal of Csesar himself. Shakespeare insists, despite his- 
 tory, that he is a tyrant, weak in body and mind, easily 
 flattered, vain, superstitious. 
 
 1. Physically weak. 
 
 a. Subject to epileptic fits. Act I, sc. 2, 1. 256. 
 
 ''He hath the falling sickness." 
 h. Deaf. I, 2, 1. 213. 
 "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf." 
 
 2. Susceptible to flattery. II, 2, 1. 91. 
 
 ''And this way have you well expounded it." 
 
 3. Superstitious. 
 
 a. "Forget not, in your speed, Antonius, 
 
 To touch Calpurnia." I, 2, 1. 6. 
 h. Influenced by Calpurnia's dream and augurers' 
 
 warnings. II, 2. 
 c. "He is superstitious grown of late," II, i, 
 
 1. 195. 
 
 4. Vain. 
 
 a. "Danger knows full well 
 
 That Caesar is more dangerous than he." II, 
 
 2, 1. 44. 
 
 h. "These crouchings and these lowly curtesies 
 Might fire the blood of ordinary men." Ill, 
 
 1, 1. 36. 
 
 c. "I am constant as the northern star ..." 
 Ill, I, 1. 60-73. 
 
 5. Arrogant. 
 
 "If thou dost bend and pray and fawn for him 
 I spurn thee like a cur out of my way." Ill, i, 
 
 1.45. 
 
JULIUS CMSAR II 
 
 Yet, although Caesar's weakness is thus emphasized, he 
 rules throughout the play, especially after his death. The 
 chief conspirators must at length fall before Caesar's 
 spirit. Cassius's last words are ''Caesar, thou art re- 
 venged," and Brutus ends his life with ' » 
 
 . . . "Caesar, now be still; 
 
 I killed not thee with half so good a will." 
 
 Brutus 
 
 The second half of the play, roughly speaking, is the 
 tragedy of Brutus. He is the idealist, the dreamer, so 
 universally respected that the conspirators seek him to 
 give prestige to their cause. Love of country, of liberty, 
 of honor, are his guiding principles. 
 
 1. Patriotic and liberty loving. 
 
 a. "li it be aught toward the general good, 
 Set honor in one eye and death i' the other 
 And I will look on both indifferently." I. 2, 
 
 I. 85-89. 
 
 h. "Oh, Rome, I make thee promise 
 
 If the redress will follow, thou receivest 
 Thy full petition at the hands of Brutus." 
 
 II, I, 1. 56-58. 
 
 ., c. Not that I love Caesar less but that I loved 
 Rome more." Ill, 2, 1. 23. 
 
 2. Honorable. 
 
 a. "I love 
 
 The name of honor more than I fear death." 
 I, 2, 1. 88. 
 
12 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 b. "Oh he sits high in all the people's hearts." 
 (to end of speech). I, 3, 1. 157-160. 
 
 3. Idealistic. 
 
 . "No, not an oath!" (to end of speech. 1. 1 14-140. 
 Romans need no other bond than their pledged 
 word. 
 
 4. Self controlled and stoical. 
 
 "Why, farewell, Portia. We must die, Mes- 
 sala ..." IV, 3, 1. 190-192. 
 As the play progresses, we retain all our respect for 
 Brutus's high moral character and disinterestedness, but 
 cannot fail to see that, though forced to act, he is not 
 qualified for action. His public life is only a series of 
 mistakes. 
 
 5. Unpractical. 
 
 a. Refuses to have Antony killed. II, i, 1. 162-183. 
 
 b. Gives Antony permission to speak at Caesar's 
 funeral. Ill, i, 1. 231 ; 235-242. 
 
 c. Insists on marching to Philippi. IV, 3, 1. 203- 
 212. 
 
 Himself the soul of honor, scorning to do anything 
 unworthy of a Roman, acting only for his country's wel- 
 fare, he is incapable of imputing less honorable motives 
 to those with whom he is associated. Mark Antony, his 
 political enemy, fitly pronounces him "the noblest Roman 
 of them all." 
 
 Portia 
 
 Portia, Brutus's wife, is also his counterpart. As he, 
 actuated by the principles of honor and love of country, 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 13 
 
 forces himself to perform deeds against his nature, so 
 Portia, exercising the self-restraint and noble dignity 
 suited to a woman ''so fathered and so husbanded," holds 
 rigidly in check all the deep feeling, tenderness, and 
 anxiety that are aroused in her by her husband's and her 
 country's plight. (Act II, Sc. i, and II, 4.) When 
 finally her suppressed grief and suspense can no longer 
 be endured, her mind gives way and in a fit of madness 
 she takes her own life. 
 
 Cassius 
 
 Cassius is the foil to Brutus. He has all the practical 
 gifts, the insight into character, the tact in dealing with 
 men which Brutus lacks, but he has not Brutus's dis- 
 interested love of country and high ideals. 
 
 1. Tactful. 
 
 a. "I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus ..." 
 
 I, 2, 1. 90-99; 140- 161. 
 h. Casca drawn into the conspiracy. I, 3, 1. iii- 
 
 130. 
 
 2. Scheming and unscrupulous. 
 
 a. Throws letters into Brutus's window. I, 3, 
 l.r44; II, I, 1.46-58. 
 
 h. "Well, Brutus, thou art noble; yet I see 
 Thy honorable metal may be wrought 
 From that it is disposed." I, 2, 1. 312-326. 
 
 3. Practical and shrewd. 
 
 a. "1 think it is not meet 
 
 Mark Antony, so well beloved of Caesar, 
 Should outlive Caesar." II, i, 1. 155-161. 
 
14 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 b. "Do not consent 
 
 That Antony speak in his funeral." Ill, i, 
 1. 232-235. 
 
 c. " 'Tis better that the enemy seek us." IV, 3, 
 
 1. 198-202. 
 
 But Brutus's moral power is so great that it over- 
 powers Cassius's practical judgment, to the failure of 
 their cause. 
 
 ' At the outset, Shakespeare accents Cassius's unlovely 
 traits, his ambition opposing itself to Caesar's, his un- 
 scrupulous methods of drawing Brutus into the con- 
 spiracy. As the action progresses, however, we gain 
 insight into Cassius's nobler side: his generosity in the 
 reconciliation; (Act IV, Sc. 3) his sincere sympathy for 
 his friend's grief; (Act IV, Sc. 3) his deep affection for 
 Brutus, "I cannot drink too much of Brutus's love"; 
 and finally, his fortitude in meeting a self-inflicted death. 
 
 Antony 
 
 Antony, like Cassius, is a foil to Brutus. Like Cassius, 
 he is an astute, practical man of the world, but unlike 
 Cassius, he is fond of pleasure and adventure. Like 
 Cassius again, he is bound by ties of affection and admi- 
 ration to a finer nature. His love for Caesar is sincere, 
 but he is shrewd and selfish enough to use it for his own 
 ends. 
 
 I. Pleasure-loving. 
 
 a. "He loves no plays as thou dost, Antony." 
 (Caesar.) I, 2, 1. 203. 
 
JULIUS CESAR 15 
 
 b. "he is given 
 
 To sports, to wildness, and much company." 
 (Brutus.) II, I, 1. 187. 
 
 c. "A peevish schoolboy, worthless of such honor. 
 
 Joined to a masker and a reveller!" (Cas- 
 sius.) V, I, 1. 61-2. 
 
 2. Devoted to Caesar. 
 
 a. *'Yet I fear him, 
 
 For in the ingrafted love he bears to Caesar — 
 (Cassius.) II, I, 1. 183. 
 
 b. ''That I did love thee, Caesar, oh 't is true!" 
 
 Ill, I, 1., 194-210. 
 
 3. Shrewd and astute. 
 
 a. Speech of conciliation to Brutus. 
 
 "Brutus is noble, v^ise, valiant, and honest." 
 Ill, I, 1. 123-137. 
 
 b. Gains permission to speak at funeral. Ill, i, 
 
 1. 227-230. 
 
 c. Plays on mob's curiosity and greed in his 
 
 speech. 
 "Let but the commons hear this testiment." 
 
 Ill, 2, 1. 135; 
 
 and 
 "It is not meet you know how Caesar loved 
 
 you." 1. 146. 
 
 Presented first merely as the gaiety-loving adventurer, 
 Antony reveals after Caesar's death an extraordinary in- 
 sight into character, from Brutus' noble, unsuspicious 
 nature to the easily-swayed emotions of the mob. 
 
 In the opening scene of Act IV, more than nineteen 
 
1 6 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 months after Caesar's assassination, we see Antony in 
 session with the other two triumvirs, and there is shown 
 still another phase of his character : cold-hearted cruelty 
 and selfish double-dealing. Lepidus, the third trium- 
 vir, is "a slight, unmeritable man, meet to be sent on 
 errands," but having done his part in easing Antony "of 
 divers slanderous loads," he is to be sent off "like to 
 the empty ass, to shake his ears." In making out the 
 proscriptions, he does not hesitate to add the names of 
 any he suspects may work him some injury, though his 
 sister's son is among them. 
 
 But however practical and unscrupulous his own na- 
 ture, he was able to recognize and admire nobility of 
 character in another, as is shown in his frank apprecia- 
 tion of Brutus : 
 
 "This was the noblest Roman of them all." 
 
 STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The play represents the conflict between Csesar and a 
 conspiracy by which he is overcome, and which is then 
 itself overcome. 
 
 "The idea that the spirit of Csesar is avenging his 
 murder is the central thought of the plot." 
 
 I. Main plot: The assassination of Csesar and its fatal 
 consequences. 
 
 II. Minor plot: Antony's attempts to succeed to 
 Caesar's power. 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 17 
 
 III. Steps in plot development: 
 
 A. Rising action, 
 
 1. Caesar's return to Rome. 
 
 2. The procession of the Lupercal: discus- 
 sion of Cassius and Brutus as to Caesar's 
 position. 
 
 3. Apprehensions aroused in Brutus and 
 Cassius by Casca's recital of Casar's re- 
 fusal of crown. 
 
 4. Conspiracy definitely formed in mind of 
 Cassius. 
 
 5. Meeting of conspirators at Pompey's 
 porch. 
 
 6. Meeting of conspirators at Brutus's 
 house; Brutus's decision to join them. 
 
 7. Each conspirator assigned his part. 
 
 8. Augurers' warnings. 
 
 9. Calpurnia's dream. 
 
 10. Caesar's entrance into Senate. 
 
 11. Cimber's petition. 
 
 12. Signal for attack given by Casca. 
 
 13. Brutus's blow. 
 
 14. FHght of senators and Antony. 
 
 15. Antony's request to speak at funeral. 
 
 16. Effect of Brutus's speech on mob. 
 
 B. Climax: Effect of Antony's speech — desire of 
 mob to avenge Caesar's death. 
 
 C. Falling Action: 
 
 - ■ I. The proscriptions made out by triumvirs. 
 
 2. Quarrel between Cassius and Brutus. 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 3. Reconciliation. 
 
 4. Portia's death. 
 
 5. Warning of Caesar's ghost. 
 
 6. Approach of Antony and Octavius an- 
 nounced. 
 
 7. Decision of Brutus to march to Philippi. 
 
 8. Battle of PhiHppi. 
 
 9. Result of battle — Antony's victory. 
 10. Death of Cassius. 
 
 D. Catastrophe: Death of Brutus. 
 
 STUDY OF STYLE 
 
 "Everything is wrought out in the play with great care 
 and completeness ; it is well planned and well propor- 
 tioned; there is no tempestuousness of passion, and no 
 artistic mystery. The style is full, but not overburdened 
 with thought or imagery; this is one of the most perfect 
 of Shakespeare's plays ; greater tragedies are less perfect, 
 perhaps for the very reason that they try to grasp greater, 
 more terrible, or more piteous themes." — Profe'ssor 
 Edzvard Dozvden, "Primer on Shakespeare." 
 
 Mr. Richard Grant White, a masterly editor of Shake- 
 speare, says in his introduction to Julius Ccesar: 
 
 "Among the plays that bear Shakespeare's name, this 
 is one of the comparatively few which are purely Shake- 
 spearean. It is not founded on any other, nor is there a 
 trace in it of any hand but Shakespeare's." 
 
 Professor Robert M. Lovett of the University of Chi- 
 cago says in his introduction to Jidius Ccesar: 
 
JULtUS CMSAR 19 
 
 ''Julius Cccsar is an admirable example of Shake- 
 speare's freedom of dramatic expression, whereby he 
 gives to his characters both actuality and dignity of 
 speech." 
 
 Rhetorical Elements. 
 
 Julius Caesar is essentially a rhetorical play, depending 
 on rhetorical skill for the development of the action. 
 Brutus and Antony, with their oratory, sway the popu- 
 lace. Their two speeches are the most perfect imitation 
 of the condensed eloquence of the ancients that our lan- 
 guage affords. 
 
 Brutus's speech is argumentative. Though he is con- 
 vinced of the justice of his cause, he realizes that it will 
 require an effort to convince the people of it. He antici- 
 pates their objections and answers them. 
 
 Antony's aim is to move the feelings of his audience, 
 in order to gain the attention, and then the support of the 
 people who have just been shouting their approval of 
 Brutus. Note the repetition of the word honorable and 
 the point where it becomes ironical; note the dramatic 
 pauses in the speech, and how the conversation of the 
 citizens indicates that Antony understands his audience. 
 
 Diction and Versification 
 
 The style of Julius Ccesar is vigorous and forceful 
 because Shakespeare "has discarded the artificial, exu- 
 berant, overdecorated manner of his early plays, along 
 
20 JULIUS CESAR 
 
 with rhyme and much other rhetorical tinsel, and has not 
 yet taken on" the habit of intense compression that gives 
 so many touches of obscurity to his later plays." (Pro- 
 fessor Lovett.) 
 
 The language in the play, as in all of Shakespeare's 
 plays, is the English that cultivated Englishmen used in 
 Shakespeare's time. 
 
 The form is, in general, blank verse, except when the 
 speeches of "certain commoners," or plebeians, are ren- 
 dered in plain prose. The unrhymed iambic pentameter 
 prevails, however. There are very few rhymes. Most 
 of the lines permit a full pause at the close; there are 
 only ten '"light" endings : lines, that is, ending in a 
 slightly-stressed monosyllable such as am, can, or do, 
 and no weak endings, or lines which permit no pause at 
 all, but carry the reader on to the next line. The many 
 short lines, which account for the different systems of 
 numbering to be found in the various editions, may indi- 
 cate that the play was abridged after the writing. 
 
 NOTES 
 
 I. Passages worth memorizing: 
 
 Act I, Sc. I. — 'Wherefore rejoice? What con- 
 quest brings he home" ? 1. 24. 
 Act I, Sc. 2. — "And since you know you cannot 
 see yourself 
 As well as by reflection." 1. 4. 
 Act I, Sc. 2. — "The fault, dear Brutus, is not in 
 our stars." 1. 8. 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 21 
 
 Act II, Sc. I.— "O Conspiracy 
 
 Sham'st thou to show thy dang'rous brow by 
 
 night." 1. 9. 
 Act II, Sc. 2.— "Cowards die many titmes before 
 
 their deaths." 1. 6. 
 Act III, Sc. I.— "I could be well moved, if I were 
 
 as you." 1. 5- 
 Act III, Sc. 2.— Brutus's Speech. 
 Act. Ill, Sc. 2.— Antony's speech to 
 
 ''And I must pause till it come back to me." 
 Act V, Sc. 5.— 'This was the noblest Roman of 
 
 them all." 1.8. 
 
 II. Study of the Text. 
 
 I. Paraphrased Passages. 
 
 a. ''Will modestly discover to yourself." I, 2. 
 
 Will show to you. (Cassius to Brutus.) 
 h. "Caesar doth bear me hard." Cassius I, 2. 
 
 Caesar has a grudge against me. 
 
 c. "His coward lips did from their colors fly." 
 
 I, 2. (Cassius talking of Caesar to 
 
 Brutus.) 
 
 —as cowards desert their colors in battle. 
 
 d. "I'll get me to a place more void." II, 4- 
 
 (Soothsayer to Portia.) 
 
 I'll go to a less crowded (empty) place. 
 
 e. "Crimson'd in thy Lethe." (Antony to 
 
 Cesar's body.) HI, i- 
 Reddened in your life blood. 
 /. "Havoc! And let slip the dogs of war." 
 (Same as e.) 
 
22 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 Havoc — signal that no quarter should be 
 given. Only a monarch had right to give 
 that signal. Dogs of war — horrors of 
 war: slaughter, famine, fire. 
 
 g. ''Who else must be let blood." Ill, i. 
 (Antony to conspirators.) 
 An allusion to the usual method of treat- 
 ing disease by bleeding; i.e., who else must 
 be killed. 
 
 h. ''Dishonor shall be humour." IV, 3. (Bru- 
 tus to Cassius.) 
 
 humour = mood. Dishonour shall be con- 
 sidered caprice. 
 
 2. Anachronisms. (Errors in assigning dates of 
 
 events. ) 
 a. References to striking of clocks. II, i, 2. 
 
 (Roman water clocks did not strike the 
 
 hour.) 
 h. "He plucked me ope his doublet." I. 2. 
 
 (The doublet was an English garment.) 
 c. "Is not the leaf turned down 
 
 Where I left reading?" IV 3. (The 
 
 Roman book was a roll of manuscript.) 
 
 3. Superstitions of the Time. 
 
 a. Augurers and sacrifices. II, 2. 
 h. Soothsayers. I, 2; II, 4; III, i. 
 c. Belief in signs, dreams, portents. I, 3, ; II, 
 i; II, 2; V, I. 
 
 4. Variations from Plutarch. 
 
 a. Character of Csesar. (See Study of Char- 
 ■ acters.) 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 23 
 
 h. "Et tu, Brute/' (This phrase was not in 
 Plutarch, but in several of the tragedies 
 current in Shakespeare's time.) 
 
 c. Battle of Philippi. In reality two battles, 
 
 separated by 20 days, were fought. 
 
 d. Compression of action. (See Study of 
 
 Background.) 
 
 5. Ides of March. 
 
 The Ides were the 15th of March, May, July, 
 and October; the 13th of the other months. 
 
 6. Tribunes. (I, i.) 
 
 Flavins and Marullus were tribunes of the peo- 
 ple, elected to defend the plebeians against 
 the patricians. 
 
 7. Lupercal. 
 
 The feast of Lupercus, the Roman Pan, god 
 of fertility. It occurred about the middle of 
 February. The priests of Lupercus' ran 
 through the streets clothed in goat-skins and 
 struck with leather thongs all whom they met 
 in token of purification and fertility. 
 
 8. Triumph. (I, i.) 
 
 A triumph was a grand military procession 
 moving through the streets of Rome in the 
 following order : (i) Magistrates, (2) Senate, 
 (3) trumpeters, (4) wagons and platforms 
 laden with spoils, (5) flute players, (6) white 
 bulls or oxen for sacrifice, (7) priests and at- 
 tendants, (8) elephants or other strange ani- 
 
24 ■ JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 mals from conquered districts, (9) arms, 
 standards, insignia of conquered nation, (10) 
 captive princes, leaders, and their kindred, 
 (11) other prisoners of war in fetters, (12) 
 crowns and gifts from alhes, (13) the tri- 
 umphant Imperator, (14) the Roman legions. 
 
 9. Colossus. I. 2. 
 
 Famous statue of Apollo at Rhodes, 90 feet 
 high, mistakenly supposed to bestride the har- 
 bor entrance. 
 
 10. ^neas . . . Anchises. 
 
 An allusion to the flight of ^neas from Troy, 
 carrying his father, Anchises, on his back. 
 
 11. Cato's daughter. II, i. 
 
 Portia was the daughter of Marcus Porcius 
 Cato, the great defender of the Roman re- 
 public. He took sides with Pompey against 
 Caesar. 
 
 12. Proscriptions. IV, i. 
 
 Lists of chief citizens of Rome condemned to 
 death by the triumvirs : Antony, Octavius 
 (Caesar's nephew and adopted son, later 
 Caesar Augustus), and Lepidus. 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 
 
 Regents 
 
 I. Who is the noblest character in Julius Ccesarf Substan- 
 tiate your opinion by definite references to the play. (See 
 character study of Brutus.) 
 
JULIUS CMSAR 25 
 
 2. Write one or more paragraphs, explaining in detail how 
 the affairs of three persons in Shakespeare's Julius CcBsar come 
 to a happy or an unhappy ending in the play. {Cassius, Brutus, 
 CcBsar, Antony, Portia. See synopsis and character study.) 
 
 3. Write in paragraph form concerning the historical accuracy 
 or the historical inaccuracy of Julius Ccesar. {See Sources of 
 Plot and Historic Background for accuracy. See Notes 2 and 4 
 for inaccuracies.) 
 
 4. Give the name of your favorite character in a drama read 
 in your English course, and describe this character in detail as 
 he appears in your imagination at an important crisis in his life. 
 {Ccesar at the Capitol; Brutus delivering his speech; Antony 
 delivering speech, etc.) 
 
 5. Write a paragraph showing in what respect Julius Ccesar 
 tends to uphold or to disparage either a monarchical form of 
 government or government by the people. {Shakespeare's evi- 
 dent contempt for CcBsar's character seems a jeer at imperialism; 
 his portraiture of the unstable populace certainly shows his scorn 
 of its intelligence. Yet the mob has power, however unreason- 
 ing it may be. Purity of politics is praised in the person of 
 Brutus, yet Shakespeare shows the pitfalls it may stumble into. 
 For Shakespeare's views on civil war, see Purpose of Play.) 
 
 6. Name two minor characters in Julius Ccesar and show fully 
 the part each has in the drama. {Casca, /, 2, 3 ; //, i; III, i; 
 Calpumia, II, 2.) 
 
 7. Quote a passage of about 100 words from Julius Ccesar. 
 Tell in your own words what the passage means, show its 
 relation to the rest of the play, and state why it is worth 
 memorizing. {See Note i.) 
 
 8. For the purpose of informing or interesting a friend, write 
 an account of the life of Caesar, including a discussion of his 
 
26 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 characteristics, ideals, or friends, and anything else that will 
 make him more real. {See Historical Background and Char- 
 acter Sketch of Ccesar.) 
 
 High School Questions 
 
 1. Give proof for or against the following conceptions of the 
 characters of Julius Ccesar: that if he lived to-day Brutus would 
 make a good lecturer ; Cassius, an excellent financier ; Antony 
 a political boss. {See Rhetorical Elements of Style and char- 
 acter sketches of the three men.) 
 
 2. "The poetry of the day creates in the imagination a great 
 stage whereon is acted not only (i) the story of Brutus but 
 (2) the moral strife, (3) the development of character, (4). 
 the mistakes, (5) the ambitions, (6) the sacrifices — the good 
 and evil which forever battle in life." 
 
 (a) Tell in not more than three sentences the story of 
 Brutus, and in the narrative bring out a different illus- 
 tration for each of the other five points mentioned in 
 the selection. {See character study of Brutus for (i), 
 (2), (4) ; character studies of Antony and Cassius for 
 (3). (5)> (^^^d study of Portia for (6).) 
 
 {b) Indicate and prove two ways in which this play reflects 
 Elizabethan characteristics and two in which it shows 
 itself Shakespearean only. {Elizabethan interest in gov- 
 ernment, in the ancients; realistic character develop- 
 ment, simplicity of style.) {See Style.) 
 
 {c) Quote eight lines beginning "The fault, dear Brutus," 
 and show their connection with the play by giving (i) 
 the name of the speaker and (2) the circumstances 
 occasioning the speech, (i. Cassius. 2. procession of 
 Lupercal; "new honors heaped on Ccesar.") 
 
 3. Explain the difference in meaning between the modern use 
 
JULIUS CESAR 27 
 
 of the word discover and the use ilhistrated in the following 
 quotation : 
 
 "I, your glass, 
 Will modestly discover to yourself 
 That of yourself which you yet know not of." 
 
 (See Note II j i.) 
 
 4. Write an account of the. events of the Ides of March as 
 supposedly related by Anthony to Octavius. In the introduc- 
 tory paragraph describe the speakers and their surroundings, and 
 throughout the story show the character of the two men. 
 (See Synopsis for Act III, Sc. i and 2, and Note 2.) 
 
 5. Quote a few lines to show each of the following : 
 
 (a) How Cassius flattered Brutus. ("And since you know 
 you cannot see yourself." 1,2.) 
 
 (h) How Antony used sarcasm in speaking of Brutus. 
 (''Yet Brutus says he was ambitious . . ." Ill, 2.) 
 
 (c) How Antony spoke of Brutus with, sincere apprecia- 
 tion. ("This was the noblest Roman of them all." V, 5.) 
 
 6. Describe the scene suggested by the following: "This was 
 the noblest Roman of them all." (Brutus dead in his tent; 
 Strato beside his master's body; Antony standing over Brutus; 
 Octavius; the army. Costumes.) 
 
 Selected Examination Questions. 
 
 1. Explain and illustrate by quotations the main differences 
 between the characters of Brutus and Cassius. (See Character 
 Studies. ) 
 
 2. Write a short account of Antony's speech over the dead 
 body of Caesar. 
 
 3. Write a character of Brutus, giving illustrative extracts, 
 (See Character Study.) 
 
28 JUUUS CESAR 
 
 4. Write a character of Portia, giving illustrative extracts. 
 {See Character Study.) 
 
 5. Give examples of anachronisms in this pla}'. {See Note 3.) 
 
 6. Compare and contrast the speeches of Brutus and Antony, 
 giving illustrative extracts. {See Rhetorical Elements of Style.) 
 
 7. Give a brief narrative of the historical basis of Julius 
 Ccesar. {See Sources of Plot and Study of Background.) 
 
 8. By whom, of whom, and on what occasion were the follow- 
 ing lines uttered? 
 
 {a) ''The angr}- spot doth glow on Caesar's brow." 
 
 {h) "Oh, he sits high in all the people's hearts." 
 
 {c) "So let high-sighted t^'ranny range on." 
 
 {d) "But I am constant as the northern star." 
 
 {e) "He shall but bear them as the ass bears gold." 
 
 (/) "There is a tide in the affairs of men." 
 
 {g) "In Partia did I take thee prisoner." 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF SHAKESPEARE 
 
 William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon, War- 
 wickshire, on the 23d of April, 1564. His father, John Shake- 
 speare, was a "general merchant" of agricultural produce, such 
 as corn, malt, hides, wool, leather, and \\3.y. His mother was 
 Mary Arden, daughter of a prosperous farmer in W^ilmecote, near 
 Stratford. William was the third child, but eldest son. 
 
 . His childhood was spent in comfort, his father having ad- 
 vanced to the office of bailiff in 1568 and Chief Alderman in 
 1571. In October, 1572, some unknown misfortune befell the 
 merchant, and at the age of thirteen his son was taken from 
 
JULIUS;^ C^SAR 29 
 
 school and apprenticed. He had probably attended the Free 
 Grammar School at Stratford, where Latin was the chief study. 
 
 Very little is known of the events of 1577-1582, in the poet's 
 life. In November, 1582, he married Anne Hathaway of Shot- 
 tery, near Stratford, who, like his own mother, was the daughter 
 of a well-to-do farmer. His daughter Susanna was born in 1583, 
 followed in 1585 by the twins, Hamnet and Judith. Early the 
 next year Shakespeare left Stratford for London. 
 
 Little is known, again, of Shakespeare's employment from 1586 
 to 1592. It is probable that he was prompter's assistant, or "call 
 boy," at Burbage's playhouse, "The Theatre." That and "The 
 Curtain" were the only two theatres in existence, then, in Eng- 
 land, both just outside the boundaries of London, as playhouses 
 were not permitted in the city. 
 
 Shakespeare advanced rapidl}^ from call boy to actor in the 
 Earl of Leicester's company, then to reviser and adapter of plays, 
 and finally to dramatist. He appeared with his company before 
 Queen Elizabeth in 1594. In 1600 he purchased New Place, the 
 largest house in Stratford, and a few years later a large area 
 of adjoining land. 
 
 London and his dramatic work held him until 161 1, when he 
 retired to Stratford and lived the life of a country gentleman 
 until his death in 1616. 
 
 Shakespeare's first tragedy was Romeo and Juliet" a "lyrical 
 tragedy of youth, of love, and of death." After completing 
 his series of historical plays — Richard II, King John,. Henry IV, 
 and Henry V — and his light-hearted comedies — Merchant of 
 Venice, Taming of the Shrew, Merry Wives of Windsor, Much 
 Ado About Nothing, As You Like It, and Tivelfth Night — 
 Shakespeare again turned to tragic themes. Julius CcBsar was 
 the first of the series of tragedies that followed, the tragedy of 
 an historic figure, Brutus, unfitted to cope wisely with the prac- 
 tical affairs of life. 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra, written in 1607, is connected with 
 Julius Caesar only through the figure of Anton}' in both. In 
 subject and style it is strikingly different. 
 
30 JULIUS CMSAR 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Critical. 
 
 Primer on Shakespeare — Edward Dowden. 
 
 Characters of Shakespeare's Plays — HazHtt. 
 
 Shakespeare's Dramatic Art — Ulrici (trans.)- 
 
 EngHsh of Shakespeare — Craik. 
 
 Caesar : A Sketch — Froude. 
 
 Introduction to Julius Ccesar — Edited by Hudson. 
 
 Introduction to Julius Ccesar — Edited by Morley. 
 
 Introduction to Julius Ccesar — Edited by H. B. Sprague. 
 
 Introduction to Julius Ccesar — Edited by Robert M. Lovett. 
 
 (Tudor edition.) 
 
 2. Biographical. 
 
 Outhnes of Life of Shakespeare — J. O. Halliwell-PhilHps. 
 
 Wilham Shakespeare — Karl Elze. 
 
 Life and Work of Shakespeare — F. G. Fleay. 
 
 Shakespeare — B. ten Brinck. 
 
 William Shakespeare — B. Wendell. 
 
 Shakespeare : His Mind and Art — E. Dowden. 
 
 Shakespeare — Furnivall and Monro. 
 
 Shakespeare, the Boy — Rolfe. 
 
 Shakespeare's Life and Work — Lee. 
 
 3. Contemporary. 
 
 Shakespeare's England — Goodby. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth — Strickland. 
 
 Where Shakespeare Set His Stage — Lathrop. 
 
 In the Days of Shakespeare — Jenks. 
 
 4. Shakespeare's Stage. 
 
 Shakespeare's Theatre — Thorndike. 
 
 Where Shakespeare Set His Stage — Lathrop. 
 
 Shakespearean Stage — Albright. 
 
 <\ 
 
 532