7^Sao35- H(H)k___^7^7: .>nv/g?SOL ENGLISH STUDIES (No. I.) THE ASSEMBLY OF GODS: OR THE ACCORD OF REASON AND SENSUALITY IN THE FEAR OF DEATH BY JOHN LYDGATE. EDITED FROM THE MSS. WITH INTRODUCTION, NOTES, INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES, AND GLOSSARY. BY OSCAR LOVELL TRIGGS, M.A., Ph.D. CHICAGO Cte ^anfbirsitB of (tttiicago ^tega 1895 Aionograpn. The Department of English Language and Literature and Rhetoric of the University of Chicago will publish, as an organic part of its work, a series of monographs, written from time to time by its Instructors and Students. Of this series the present study, Lydgate's Assembly of Gods, edited by Dr. O. L. Triggs, Docent in English Literature, is the first number. The work is published by the University of Chicago, in con- junction with the Early English Text Society, of London, and will constitute one of the regular issues of the English Society. MEDIEVAL FIGURES OF DEATH (DRAWN FROM ANCIENT PRINTS). Ef)t Bnibetsitg of ;? THE ASSEMBLY OF GODS: OR THE ACCORD OF REASON AND SENSUALITY IN THE FEAR OF DEATH BY JOHN LYUGATE. EDITED FROM THE MSS. WITH INTRODUCTION, NOTES, INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES, AND GLOSSARY. BY OSCAR LOVELL TRIGGS, M.A., Ph.D. CHICAGO Cte ^anibersitB of aii)icago ^ress 1895 DEDICATED TO MY MASTER CHANCELLOR GEORGE EDWIN MacLEAN WITH HUMBLE AFFECTION. Qlti The UniTersity PREFACE. This edition of Lydgate's Assembly of Gods serves a double pur- pose. It is, first, a study in literature conducted at The University of Chicago, a part of the work having been first offered in candi- dacy for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ; it is, second, a study of an English text undertaken for the Early English Text Society of London. The two institutions are associated in the publication. The critical and linguistic parts of the work and the notes are as accurate and comprehensive as I am able to make them with the materials at hand. The hardihood of venturing to work upon ancient and foreign matters in a land that has no past at its back, that neither possesses antiquarian materials nor engenders anti- quarian enthusiasms, will be appreciated by those who, like myself, have made the endeavor without what one may call a traditional training for the event. The literary discussion of the Introduction maintains the gen- eral interest that any work of .iiCerature is wont to arouse. This portion represents the reaction --.which the poem made upon my mind with its own knowledge o^rnedi^Eval life and art. While this part is necessarily somewhat pedantic I have tried to maintain my natural interest in literature as an exponent of life, as the expression of the imagination. The study of Allegory is a selection and con- densation of materials that I have gathered for an extended history of Allegory. Every one who works in Lydgate will find himself indebted at every turn to the investigations of Dr. Schick, now of Heidelberg, who edited the Temple of C/r?.- — indebted not only for matters of fact but also for judgments of critical and literary insight. Workers in the same field will bear witness to the value of the edition of Lydgate and Burgh's Secrces of Old Philisoffres by Mr. Robert Steele, of London. For the facts relating to Lydgate's life and works, reference may be made to the very accurate and complete article on Lydgate by Mr. Sidney Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography. iv Preface. At home I have every reason to be grateful for the encourage- ment and assistance given by Dr. George E. MacLean, formerly my teacher in the University of Minnesota; also for kindly help ren- dered by Professors McClintock, Blackburn, and Tolman, of the Department of English in The University of Chicago. Dr. Klaeber, of the University of Minnesota, has performed the offices of a friend in reviewing the proofs. My brother, Mr. Flloyd W. Triggs, has drawn from old prints the figures of Death for the frontispiece. To Dr. Furnivall, the veteran Director of the work of the Early English Text Society, every one is indebted. Oscar Lovell Triggs. The University of Chicago, October 2, 1895. CONTENTS. Preface Introduction Chapter I. A. The Manuscripts — Texts A and B - - - B. The Prints— Texts C and D - Chapter II. A. The Title - B. The Authorship and Date ... - Chapter III. The Metre— The Types A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H The Mixture of Free and Regular Stress Chapter IV. The Rime — (i) End-Rime . - . . . (a) Identical Rimes - (b) Imperfect Rimes (c) Feminine Rimes - (d) Medial ^/i . . . . Rime-Index .... (2) Alliteration - - . . . Chapter V. The Rime and the Final e - - - - - (i) The -y -ye Rimes . . . . . (2) The Infinitives among the Riming Words Chapter VI. The Language A. Vocabulary B. Grammar in-iv vii-lxxvi VII ix XIV xix XXI xxi xxi xxi xxii xxii xxix xxx XXX xxxii XXXV XXXV Contents. Chapter VII. The Poem A. Literary Analysis ------- xxxvii B. Literary Studies ------ xl (i) The Religious Character of the Poem - - xl (2) The Fear of Death and the Scorn of the World xliii (3) The Conventional Materials ... \ (4) The Season motif ----- Hij (5) The Vision ------- Iv (6) Proverbial Phrases ----- Ivi (7) The Painted Wall . . - - . ivii (8) The Admixture of Pagan and Christian Traditions ------ iviii (9) The Allegorical Type ----- Lx (10) The Relationship between the Allegory and the Moral Play ----- ixi (11) The Allegory of the Vices and Virtues - - Ixiii Text Notes Index of Names and Persons, and Glossary 1-61 77 INTRODUCTION. CHy\PTER I. A. The Manuscripts. I. Text A=R.j. ig, Trin. Coll. Cai?ib. — This is a quarto volume, in paper, in handwriting of the second half of the fifteenth century. It contains poems by Chaucer, Lydgate and others (v. Skeat, Chance?-'' s Minor P. p. xliv. Trin : Legend of Good Women, p. xl. T. Skeat dates the MS. before 1500). The earliest possible date for the volume is fixed by a poem written by Geo. Ashby, entitled Prisoner in the Fleet, and dated 1463. The present poem occupies fols. 68a-98a. A table of Interpretations (v. Text p. i) pre- cedes the poem. The volume belonged formerly to John Stowe and was the source of most of Stowe's additions to Chaucer (Skeat). This is the earliest and the only authoritative MS. known to me, and its readings are followed with but a very few emendations in the present text. The following are the textual changes made : Eolus is printed for the Coins of the MS.; Morpheus for Morpleus; in feere 166 for feere ; Phebe 243, 566 for Phebus ; foom 104 for from ; presse 256 for preef ; she 412 for he; best 634 for bost ; ther 635 for the ; hys 815 for was; be 875 for he; comparyson 891 for a form not clear in MS.; with 976 for without ; fly C185 for sty; macrocosme 1420 for macocrosme ; omnipotent 1467 for omnipotens. The punctuation and the capitalization of proper names are mine. The orthography is highly unphonetic, the most marked charac- teristics being the confused uses oi y and /, and the arbitrary doubling of vowels. Y is either long or short : wys, whyle, myne ; but ys, hys (also his), yn (also in), hyt (also hit), wyth (also with), tyll, wyll, lytyll, shyp, fysshe, sylvyr, knyghtes, syttyng, begynne, etc. ; i is used in king, philosophres, scisme, idylnesse, Diana, Cirus, Virgyle. The scribe wrote indifferently se or see, fle or flee, fre or free, so or soo, do or doo, wo or woo, mo or moo, whos or whoos, none or noon, hope or hoope, hole or hoole, sore or soore, holy or hooly, wordes vii viii The Matiuscripts. or woorde, god or good, ost oost or boost, blood or blody, sone or soone ; regularly — deere, leede, scene, seere, reepe, roote, poore, aboorde, stoode, goold, roode, woode, broode, stoon, loob, etc. Final e (inorganic) is written with no regularity, occurring after short as well as long vowels. The consonants generally follow the rule of doubling after short vowels. 2. Text B-=BibL Reg. 8.D. II, Brit. Mus. — This is written in color on vellum and in two parts. The first part, in a 15th century hand, contains Lydgate's Siege of Troy (5 books) and Siege of Thebes (illustrated). The second part, beautifully written and illuminated, is early i6th century work and contains a Treatise betiven Trowthe &> Enfortnacion by Will Cornish, an Elegy by John Skelton, Stanzas by Lydgate, his Testament and Assembly of Gods. The latter poem is indexed in the MS. as Discord between Reason and Sensiialitie. This MS. does not differ materially from the Camb. MS. except in its omission of the table of Interpretations. It is, however, most probably a copy of the print by Wynken de Worde (G.i 1587), since it follows that print most closely in orthography and in the omission of line 812. The chief variations of this text from A are given in the follow- ing collation. A few variants are given from Print D. To indicate the differences in orthography the variations of the first fifty lines are recorded complete. I. hys I his. 2. toward | towarde ; iourne | iourney. 3. speere | spere ; begonne | begon. 4. syttyng | sittinge ; solytary | solitary ; alone | allone. 5. musyng | musinge ; myght | might. 6. sensualyte | sensualite ; con | one ; acorde I accorde. 7. cowde | coude ; nat | not ; bryng | bringe ; about | aboute. 8. long | longe ; myght | might; oppresse | oppres. 9. cowde | coude. 10. heede | hede ; heuynesse 1 heuynes. 11. myn | myne ; habytacle | habitacle. 12. pylow | pilow. 13. dyssese | disease. 14. anone | anon; came | cam. 15. so lay | soo lave; traunse | traunsse. 16. slepyng | slepinge ; wakyng | wakinge. 17. seyde | saide. 18. gret | grete ; court | courte ; iustyse | iustice. 19. auaylyd | auayled; sylogyse | silogyse. 20. hit | it; ys ] is; seyde | saide. 21. nedys | nedis. 22. when I whan ; sy | see ; bettyr | better ; must | muste. 23. seyde | saide ; hys | his ; co;«maundment | commaundemente. 24. whedyr | wheder ; wold | wolde ; leede | lede. 25. forthe | forth. 26. tyll | till ; paHyament | parliament. 29. the- dj'rward | thederward. 30. h^'s | his. 31. seyde thow | saide thou. 32. seyd | saide. 33. heuen | heuyn ; outher | either ; elles | ellis. 34. seyde | saide ; myn [ myne ; abydyng | abidinge. 35. ys | is ; 13'tyll | litill ; corner | cornoure ; callyd | callede. 36. these wordys | thes wordes ; sayd | saide. 37. hys | his. 38. raggys I raggis ; arayd | arayde. 39. agayn | agayne ; whom | whome ; Diana | Dyana. 40. seying | sayenge ; thow ] thou. 41. yeue [ gyue ; ageyn | ayen; soo | so. The Prints. ix 42. preyse | preise ; lord | lorde. 43. proclamasion | proclamacioun. 44. Plutoys Plutos ; cowmaundyd | commaundede. 45. vppon | vpon ; peyne | payne ; strayte | straite. 46. Diana | Dyana ; myght | might. 47. greefe | gref ; gret | grete. 48. theym | theyme ; done | do; they | ^ei; compleynyd | cowpleyned. 49. begyn | begynne ; Diana | Dyana ; constreynyd | constreynede. 50. whyche I whiche. 56. yef | yf. 57. howe | hou. 70. thorough | thorugh. 71. syngler I synguler. 72. shuld | sholde ; world | worlde. 73. dyspleser | displeasure. 77. yeue | omitted. 94. yow | you. 98. thorough | thrugh. 99. furst | first. 102. ferre | fer. 103. merueyle | meruaill. 104. from | come. 107. ebbe | eb. 109. dykes | dyks. 117. 00 | one. 130. perysshe | perish. 132. pepyll | people. 135. requyreth ] req?ey repent. 472: lason ne | Hercules || went they neuer so wyde. 63 1: Slowthe was | so slepy || he came all behynde. 648: Boldnes | in Yll || with Foule' Rybaudy. 747: Pepyll I to reyse || hys quarrell to menteyn. 760: Gaderyd | to Vertew |1 in all that they mowte. 1 174: Hauyng | in her hande || the palme of vyctory. Type F. There may be a double thesis in any measure. In many cases the extra syllable may be slurred over. But the trisyllabic measure was without doubt an accepted poetic form (v. Ellis, Early Eng. Pron., ch. iv, p. 334 ; ch. vii, p. 648. Ellis cites 69 examples in the Prolog. See Skeat, ed. of Prioresses Tale, tic, Introd. p. Ixiii). 7: But I cowde I nat bryng | about | that mon | acorde. 66: He breketh | hem asondre |1 or rendeth | hem roote | & rynde. 98: For hurt | of my name |j thorough | thys gret ] offence. 126: With a sod | eyn pyry || he lapp | yd hem | in care. 139: The more gre | uous peyne || and hast | y iug | ement. 199: But furst I I yow pray \\ let me | the mat | er here. 361: And ones | in the moneth || with Phe | bus was | she meynt. 383: That he ther | with glad | yd all | the com | pany. 410: But there was | no rome | to set ] hyr in | that hous. 472: lason I ne Hercules || went | they neu | er so wyde. 487: To the dynt | of my dart || for doole | nor des | tyny. Type G. Lydgate frequently expands the normal pentameter line to six measures. Mr. Steele, the editor of the Secrees, remarks that the greater part of that poem might be scanned on a six-beat basis. If such lines were of sporadic occurrence they might be slurred over, but there are so many lines with the longer rhythm that the acceptance of the Alexandrine is rendered imperative. It is possi- ble, of course, to read some of these lines with four accents, as if they were formed on the model of the alliterative four-beat meas- ures as found in the Mystery Plays (v. York Plays, ed. by Smith, Introd., p. li), certain ballads (v. King John and the Abbot of Canterbury) and the contemporary alliterative poems. The long doggerel lines in Shakespeare may be reduced to this form (v. Quell, u. For.,vo\. 61, p. 119, 3). But the use of the Alexandrine was now established both by itself and in association with other metres (v. Schipper, Engl. Met., I, Kap. 5, 8, 13, and cf. its later usage by XVlll The Metre. Wyatt, and see Mirror for Magistrates, ed. by Haslewood, p. 123, for mixture of pentameter and x\lexandrine), and Lydgate would naturally adopt the form at a time when every irregularity in verse was permissible. He himself was most attracted to the French forms, though the English alliterative principle still had some force in his verse. I think there can be no question about Lydgate's Alexandrines. Mr. Ellis [Early Eng. Pron., ch. vii, p. 649) thought that Chaucer made use of this variation and noticed four instances in the prolog of the Canterbury Talcs of what seemed to him to be a six-measure line (11. 148, 232, 260, 764), all of which have the jus- tification of the best MSS. Zupitza and Skeat in their critical texts of the Prologue rtdwce these lines to the normal (1. 764 by slur- ring). 4: Syttyng | all sol | ytary ll alone | besyde | a lake. 54: Accord I yng to | the offence || that he | to me | hath do. 161 : And ellys | I most | procede || opon | thy iug | ement. 253: And when | Apol | lo sy || hit wold | noon oth | er be. 267: Lyke | as she | had take || the man | tell & | the ryng. 298: The pal | eys ther | of shone || as though | hit had | be day. 325: Clad I in rus | set frese || and brech | ed lyke | a bere. 327: A shepe | crook in | hys hand || he spar | yd for | no pryde. 340: Aboute I hymin | hysgyr | dyllstede || hyngfyssh | esman | y a score. 347: She lok I ed eu I er about || as though | she had | be mad. 359: Fat I she was | of face jj but of | complex | yon feynt. 364: And on | hyr hede | she weryd | a crowne | of syl | uyr pure. 367: He had [ a gyld | yn tong || as fyll | for hys | degree. 372: By I hym sate | Dame Venus || with col | our crys | tallyne. 385: In sygne ] that he | was mastyr !| & lord | of that | banket. So I read lines 401, 404, 420, 421, 422, 462, 476, 490, 495, 496, 497. 500. 504, 525- 542, 560, 634, 656, 817, 864, 937, 949, 952, 962, 995, 999, 1048, 1050, 1093, 1097, 1106, 1113, 1120, 1167, 1204, 1210, 1225, 1239, 1240, 1267, 1344, 1589, 1792, 2099, 2100, 2106, 2107. Lines 61, 102, 128, 130, 131, 338, 343, 578, 672, 856, 1000, might be read either as Alexandrines or as pentameters of type F. Type H. There are occasional four-measure lines. 232: So that I your game ] shall nat | dyscrese. 307: Safe on | her hede || a crowne | ther stood. 444: All ye 1 gret goddys [ yeue at | tendaunce. 693: Getters || chyders j| causers | of frayes. 758: To Ver | tews frendys || thus all | aboute. 979 : These four | tene knyghtes || made Vyce | that day. 1659: Wherfore | ar chyl | dren put | to scoole. 1834: Of eu I ery mans | oppyn | yon. The Metre. xix In this manner may be read lines i6, 17, 22, 27, 28, 47, 50, 94, 134, 182, 204, 530, 550, 703, 722, 916, 1065, 1243, 1506, 1654, 1655, 1740, 1839, 2004, 2035, 2046. 2. Of course many lines can be scanned in more than one way. Other prosodists will probably not agree with the scansion of the examples given. It is difficult and often impossible to determine the pronunciation of many words. I think the final &m\v\%\tce.Vi'i History of English Poetry, \,,'^-^. 326-33. Cf. the state- ment of Mr. I. Gollancz in his edition of Cyn. Christ, p. xvii : " The secret of Marlowe's discovery (the secret of blank verse) lies in this that he Teutonized the 'versi sciolti' imported from Italy." XX The Metre. Shepherd^s Calendar, which combines free and regular stress in a remarkable manner; and again by the heroic verses of Shake- speare and Spenser and of Dryden and Pope, many of which have rhetorically but four stresses. On the whole Lydgate followed his French models, or more strictly his Chaucer. The many alliterative phrases in his poem illustrate, however, the traditions of the older poetry ; such a line as 66b "orrendeth hem roote & rynde" indicating the " rum ram riif'' principle of composition. The varia- ble measure and line reveal the confusion into which English verse had fallen after Chaucer, it being still uncertain whether free or regular stress would prevail. Had Lydgate been favored with Chaucer's literary environment and gifted with his genius and ear for rhythm it is probable that he might have maintained the master's delicate Normanized literary English, but the influence of the vulgar Suffolk tongue with its accentual principles of verse and its rapidly disappearing inflections was too strong for the monk. Chaucer's regular measures — -regular because artificial — were given over to confusion. The oral, in the rude times of the fifteenth cen- tury, superseded the literary. From Chaucer to Spenser no one was able to give permanency to the forms of English verse. That the metre is at best extremely irregular is shown by count- ing the syllables. In the first one thousand lines, slurring wherever possible and omitting, except where forbidden by the rhythm, the final (?'s, the following result is given : 2 14-Sy liable lines. See 66, 340. 5 13 See 404, 525. 47 12 2IO II 546 10 179 9 II 8 See p. xvii, Tyi Types B and F make up the 11 -syllable lines and D and C the 9-syllable lines. G has frequently but 11 syllables (v. line 359). The Rime, xxi CHAPTER IV. The Rime. I. End-rime: — The rime is generally pure throughout. Correct masculine rimes are the rule. The most numerous rime-endings are -ace, -ake, -all, -aunce,- ay, -e, -ence, -ent, -ere, -esse, -y, -yde, -yght, -o, -on, -ore, -ought, -ow, -ure {v. Rime Index). (a) Identical rimes occur in a number of cases. By identical rimes I mean here those in which the riming syllables coincide in sound throughout. These syllables may be etymologically different. Acorde 6: monacorde 7; malapert 503: pert 504; dyscharge 603: charge 605; ouerse 772: see 775; take 1388, 1409: vndyrtake 1390, 1411; become 1406: welcome 1407; serue 1408: deserue i4ro; goon 1836: ouergoon 1838; before 1871: therfore 1874; hande 1912: hande 1914; dyffuse 1955: refuse 1957; dyscorde 2015: monacorde 2016; alone 923 : euerychone 924 (14 cases). Identical suffix-ritnes : (a) with initial consonant : — iugement i3g:auysment 140; resystence 228: sentence 229; satysfaccion 834: dysposicion 836; sadnes 1380: glad- nes 1382; royally 268: sykerly 270; herytykes 678: scismatykes 679; pycture 15 14: creature 15 16; (b) with initial vowel : — varyaunce 244: ordynaunce 245; conuenyent 249: expedyent 250; precious 790: vyctoryous 791; swerers 702: morderers 704 etc. (about i4ocases of such rimes (b) and (a). (b) Imperfect rimes ^x& occasional: — am 86: man 88; strong 260: hand 262; came 785: man 787; came 862: than 864; dooni2i7: com 1 2 18; come 1336: oblyuyone 1337; came 1702; woman 1 704 (7 cases of assonance); beste 1056: lyste 1057 (v. lyst 1297: myst 1299); neere 1616: desyre 1617 (v. desyre 1870: wyre 1872, — cf. Schick Intro. Ixi); bedde 2038: vnderstande 2040; crysmatory 1444: sanctuary I ^^6; probably imperfect: — syt 191: yet 193 (perhaps = yit as in Chaucer); fete 566: yete 567 (cf. yet 193: syt 191); ende 1777: mynde 1778 (mynde 1923: ende 1922: spende 1920; ende 1931: mende 1932; but cf. mynde 1784: behynde 1785). (c) Feminine rimes occwx in the following instances :—- obstacle 9: habytacle 11: tryacle 12; chases 58: places 60: manaces 61; philosophres 272: cofres 273; centre 769: entre 770; seuyn 821: heuyn 823: steuyn 824; euer 1203, 1974: neuer 1204, 1973; ? reson 1259: seson 1260; crysmatory 1444: sanctuary 1446: tary 1447; story 1 5 13: memory 1515; fable 1686: acceptable i687;ymages 1731: stages 1733: passages 1734; nother 1807: brother 1809; parable 1987: xxii Rime Index. fable 1988; ? compleynyd 48: constreynyd 49 (cf. herde 498: con- queryd 5oo = masc.); grauntyd 118, 874: hauntyd 119, 875; prom- ysyd 482: dyspysyd 483; preuydyd 946: guydyd 948; aqueyntyd 1345: peyntyd 1347; deuydyd 1765: prouydyd 1767; ? declaryd 736:sparyd 738; Pretornyd 1119; mornyd 1120; ?excusyd 1399: dysvsyd 1400; probably : — requyreth 135: expyreth 137: desyreth 138 (but cf. gooth 426: wrooth42 7 =masc.); sygnyfyeth 2010: applyeth 2012; chaungeth 2094: estraungeth 2096. Doubtful cases are : — colowres32i: shoures 322 (but cf. embas- satours 1016: shoures 1018); oonys 499: boonys5oi: noonys 502; goddys49i: pesecoddys 493; dreines 1854: stremes 1855 (but cf. astronomers 1696: speres 1698: yeres 1699; laborers 911: freres 913); the fi)ial e's are perhaps pronounced in these words : — releue (inf.) 13: sleue (obi. sng.) 14; kepe (inf.) 107: depe (adj. pi.) 109: crepe (inf.) no; more 149: store (obi. sng.) 151: sore (adv.) 152; Saturne 279: morne (inf.) 280; hede (obi. sng.) 2S6: leede (obi. sng.) 287; corne (obi. sng.) 293: home (obi. sng.) 294; leue (obi. sng.) 520: foryeue (inf.) 522: myscheue (inf.) 523; carre (obi. sng.) 554: marre (inf.) 556; wyde (obi. sng.) 664: abyde (inf.) 665; herte (obi. sng.) 1451: aduerte (inf.) 1453: sterte (inf.) 1454; foole (obi. sng.) 1658: scoole (obi. sng.) 1659; pylgremage (obi. sng.) 1779: passage (obi. sng.) 1781; holde 1821: olde 1823; sonne (obi. sng.) 1896: tonne (obi. sng.) 1897. (d) Medial gh (O. E. h\ already weak in Chaucer, has ceased to be pronounced in the cases following, and probably therefore in all cases: — about 261: fought 263: mought 264 (cf.aboute 386: route 388; mowte 760: dowte 761; abowte ii24:showte 1122: withowte 1125); ryght 489: saf condyght 490; ipocrytes 701: ryghtes 703; sodomytes 708: syghtes 710; cyrcute 757: myght 759; trypartyte 1031: lyght 1033: wyght 1034; syght 1037: wyght 1039; fyght 1112: meryt 1113; bryght 1367: whyte 1369: myght 1370 (cf. infynyte 1605: myte 1607: whyte 1608; myte 1814: appetyte 1816); myght 1801: dyspyte 1803: lyte 1804. RIME INDEX. A -able 1686, 1687; 1987, 1988. -ace 219, 221, 222; 300, 301; 316, 318; 475, 476; 538, 539; 1212, 1214; 1497; 1498; 1758, -as 1760; 1826, 1827; 1880, -as 1878, 1881, 2099, 2100. See -as. -acle II, 12. -ad 345, 347, 348; 580, 581. Rime Index. xxiii -ade 69, 70; 1560, 1 56 1. -adde 1415, 1417; 1875, 1876; 1982, 1984. -aff 2071, 2072. -aft 1 133, 1 134. -age 1779, 1781; 1889, 1890; 1899, 1901, 1902; 1906, 1908, 1909. -ages 1731, 1733, 1734- -ak 366, 36S, 369. -ake 2, 4, 5; 233, 235, 236; 608, 609; 722, 724; 1014, 1015; 1052, 1054, 1055; 1220, 1222, 1223; 1388, 1390, 1391; 1409, 1411, 1412; 1420, 1421; 1457, 1459; 1812, 1S13; 1905, 1907; 1947, 1949; 2043, 2044. -ale 358, 360. -ales 68s, 686. -all 114, 116, 117; 153, 154; 230, 231; 246, 248; 435, 437; 555, 557, 558; 776, 777; 1007, 1008; 1072, 1074; 1226, 1228; 1443, 1445; 1504, 1505; 1588,1589; 1597. 1599; 1612, 1614, 1615; 1707, 1708; 1819, 1820; 1898, 1900. -am 86, -an 88, 89. See -an. -ame 132,133; 589,591; 713,714; 785, -an 787; 862, -an 864; 1238,1239; 1702, -an 1704. -an 925,927; 1395, 1397, 1398; 1518, 1519. See -am, -ame -ane 2011, 2013, 2014. -and 262, -ong 260 ; 370, 371; I177, I179. See -ang. -ande 12S, 130, 131; 1084, io85; 1161, 1162; 1562, 1564; 1574. 1575; 1651, 1652; 1912, 1914; 1959, i960, -ape 524, 525; 1315, 1316. -ard 601, 602. -are 125, 126; 723, 725, 726; 807, 809, 810. -arge 85, 87; 545, 546; 603, 605; 1632, 1634. -arke 937, 938. -arpe 400, 402. -arre 554, 556. -art 876, 878; 1940, 1942. -ary 1446, 1447, -ory 1444. -aryd 736, 738. -as 274, 276; 611, 613, 614; 1065, 1067; 1339, -ase 1341, 1342; 1878, -ace 1880, 1 88 1. See -ase, -ace. -ase 314,315; 461,462; 513,515,516; 632,634,635. See -as. -ases 58, 60, 61. -ast 72, 74, 75; 127, 129. -aste 1045, 1047, 1048. -ate 27, 28; 422, 424, 425; 1483, 1484; 1546, 1547; 1639, 1641. -ates 706, 707. -aught 1 23 1, 1232. -aunce 244, 245; 335, 336; 398, 399; 407, 409; 442, 444; 659, 661; 797, 798; 835, 837> 838; 954, 956, 957; 989, 991, 992; 1094, 1096, 1097; 1147, 1148; 1374, 1376, 1377; 1430, 1432, 1433; 1450, 1452; 1507, 1509, 1510; 1598, 1600, 1601; 1660, 1662; 1714, 1715; 1835, 1837; 2003, 2005; 2060, 2062, 2063. -aunge 1402, 1404, 1405. -aungeth 2094, 2096. xxiv Rime Index. -aunse 15, 17; 996, 998, 999. -aunt 883, 885; 1254, 1256; 1294, 1295, -auntyd 118, 119; 874, 875. -ause 134, 136. -aute 587, 588. -ay 29, 31; 282, 284, 285; 296, 298, 299; 548, 550, 551; 666, 668; 715, 717; 727, 728; 729, 731; 743, 745; 813, 815; 958, 959; 965, 966; 979, 980; 1028, 1029; 1086, 1088; 1245, 1246; 1276, 1278, 1279; 1324, 1326; 1464, 1466; 1590, 1592; 1661, 1663, 1664; 1828, 1830; 1968, 1970. -ayd 36, 38. -ayde 164, -eyde 162; 207, -eyde 205. -ayed 1998, -eyde 1996. -ayes 692, 693. -ayll 615, 616; 751, 753, 754; 1219, 1221; 1969, 1971, 1972. -ayn 1567, 1568. -ayne 1668, 1670, -eyne 1671. See -eyne. -awe 559, 560; 1227, 1229, 1230. E -e (gen. = -y) 121, 123, 124; 198, 200, 201; 253,255; 271, -y 270; 457, 459, 460; 492, 494,495; 519, 521; 552, 553; 617, 619; 650, 651; 772, 774, 775; 804, 805; 811, -ee 812; 828, 830, 831; 842, 844, 845; 919, 921, 922; 933, 935, 936; 1002, 1004; loio, 1012, 1013; 1080, 1082, 1083; 1105, -ee 1106; 1261, 1263; 1280, 1281; 1329, 1330; 1416, 1418, 1419; 1423, 1425, 1426; 1700, 1701; 1800, 1802; 1868, 1869; 1926, 1928; 1945, 1946; 1980, 1981; 1994, 1995; 2017, 2019; ? 2038, 2040; 2057, 2058; 2067, 2069, 2070. -ee 365, 367; 505, 507; 995, 997; 1136, 1138, -e 1139; 1961, -e 1963. -eare 421, -ere 423. -ecte 895, 896; 1847, 1848. f-ede 286, -eede 287; 569,571,572; 755,756; 832,833; 1000,1001; 1035,1036; 1129, 1131, 1132; 1360, 1362, 1363; 1378, 1379. -eede 1023, 1025; 1583, 1585; 1815, 1817, 1818. -eet 1064, -et 1063. -eft 562, 564, 565. f-elde 667, 669, 670; 932, 934; 1044, 1046; 1095, 1093-eelde. \-eelde 1093, -elde 1095. (-ele 55, 56; 1026, 1027, -eele 1024; 2068, -eele 2066. (-eele 1024, -ele 1026, 1027; 1637, 1638; 2066, -ele 2068. -ell 30, 32, 33; 433, 434; 590, 592, 593; 1331, 1333; 1532, 1533. -erne 1609, 16 10. -ernes 1854, 1855. -ence 44, 46, 47; 76, 77; 79, 81, 82; 97, 98; 174, 175; 228, 229, -ense 226; 456 458; 639, 641, 642; 645, 647; 814,816,817; 1135, 1137; 1163,1165; 1436, 1438; 1490, 1491; 161 1, 1613; 1863, 1865; 2001, 2002; 2025, -ens 2027, 2028; 2106, 2107. See -ens, -ense. -ende 737, 739, 740; 1623, 1624; 1665, 1666; 1777, -ynde 1778; 1798,1799; 1920, 1922, -ynde, 1923; 1931, 1932. See -ynde. Rime Index. xxv (-ene 982, 984, 985; 1198, 1200; 1584, 1586, 1587. (-eene 275, -ene 277, 278; 2045, 2047. -ens 2027, 2028, -ence 2025. -ense 226, -f>nce 228, 229; 653, 655, 656; 1247, 1249. See -ence. -ent 23, 25, 26; 113, 115; 139, 140; 160, 161; 170, 172, 173; 247, 249, 250; 289, 291, 292; 415, 417, 418; 449, 451; 741, 742; 792, 794; 827, 829; 1003, 1005, 1006; 1092, -ente 1091; 1107,1109; 1140,1141; 1157, 1159, 1160; 1175, 1176; 1304, 1306, 1307; 1427, 1428; 1465, 1467, 1468; 1553, 1554; 1674, 1676; 1749, 1750; 1763, 1764; 1829, 1831, 1832; 1903, 1904; 2036, 2037. -entes 839, 840; 909, 910; 918, 920. -epe 107, 109, no; 1255, 1257, 1258; 1296, 1298. -ept 510, 511; 944, 945; 1682, 1684, 1685. -er 71, 73; 163, -ere 165, -eere 166; 547, 549. See -eere. -erde 498, -eryd 500; 625, 627, 628. See -eryd. -ere 50, 52; 93, 95, 96; 155, 157; 183, 185; 197, 199; 323, 325; 394, 396, 397; 423, -eare 42 1; 443, 445, 446; 541, 543, 544; 748, 749; 806, 808; 884, 887, -eere 886; 888, 889; 960, 962; 1128, 1130; 1233, 1235; 1541, 1543; 1556, 1558, 1559; 1602, 1603; 1626, 1628, 1629; 1742, 1743; 1933, 1935; 2004, 2006, 2007; 2029, 2030; 2081, 2083, 2084. See -eare. .-eere 166, -ere 165; 597, 599, -ere, 600; i6i6,-yre 1617; 1653, -ere 1655. See -yre. -eeres 905, -ers 907, -eres 908. -ers 674, 676, 677; 680, 682; 681, 683, 684; 688, 690, 691; 695, 697, 698; 702, 704, 705; 907, -eeres 905, -eres 908; 911, -eres 913; 1696, -eres 1698, 1699. -erse 405, 406. -ert 46S, 469; 503, 504; 1 170, 1 172; 1266, 1267; 1591, 1593, 1594; 1786, 1788; 1843, 1845, 1846. -erte 1451, 1453, 1454. -erue 1408, 14 10. -eryd 500, -erde 498. -es 391, 392; 881, 882; 902, 903; 1066. 1068, 1069; 1215,-esse 1213; 1380, 1382; 1640, 1642, 1643. -ese 232, 234; 237, 23S; 1752, 1754, 1755. -esse 8, 10; 184, 186, 187; 240, 242, 243; 254, 256, 257; 303, 305, 306; 534, 536, 537; 1059, 1061, 1062; 1213,-es 1215, 1216; 1262, 1264, 1265; 1385, 1386; 1492, 1494; 1511, 1512; 1633, 1635, 1636; 1716, 1718; 1941, 1943, 1944. -eson (or on) 1259, 1260. -esshe 2080, 2082. -est 223, 224; 342, 343; 573, 574; 820, 822; 2032, 2034, -este 2035. -este 478, 480, 481; 1056, -yste 1057; 2035, -est 2032, 2034. See -A'ste. -et 167, 168; 188, 189; 251, 252; 309, 311; 317, 319, 320; 337, 339; 384, 385; 1063, -eet 1064; 1154, 1155; 1184, 1186; 1654, -ete 1656, 1657; 1675, 1677, 1678; 1891, 1893. See -eet, -ete. -ete 212, 214, 215; 239, 241; 344. 346; 419, 420; 527, 529, 530; 566, 567; 1030, 1032; 1287, 1288; 1332, 1334, 1335; 1656, 1657, -et 1654. See-et. -ette 604, 606, 607; 1462, 1463. -ettj-s 1695, -etys 1697. See -etys. -etvs 1697, -ettys 1695. See -ettys. -eue 13, 14; 429, 431, 432; 520, 522, 523; 1679, 1680; 2031, 2033. xxvi Rime Index. -euer (or er) 1203, 1204; 1973, 1974.. -euyn 821, 823, 824. -ew 582, 584; 961, 963, 964; 1070, 1071; 1 123, -u 1121; 1364, 1365; 1373, 1375; 1506, 1508; 2046, 2048, 2049. See -u. -ewes 699, 700. -ewre 930, -ure 931. -ey 156, -ay 158, 159; 378, -y 377 ; 623, -y622; 873, -y 872, 870; Ii88,-y 1 187, 1 185; 1630, -y 1631; 1728, -y 1729; 1856, 1858. See -y. -eyde 162, -ayde 164; 205, -ayde 207, 208; 596, 598; 1996, -aj'ed 1998. See — ayde, -ayed. -eyn 62, 63; 146, 147; 176, 178; 561, 563; 744, 746, 747; 1359, 1361. -eyne 37, 39, 40; iii, 112; 610, -eygne 612; 1156, 1158; 1581, 1582; 1671,-ayne, 1670; 1808, 1810, 1811; 1966, 1967; 2085, 2086. See-ayne. -eyngth 967, 969. -eynt 78, 80; 258, 259; 359, 361, 362; 1644, -eynte 1645; 1793, 1795. -eynte 1645, -eynt 1644. -eyntydi345, 1347. -eynyd 48, 49. -ext 1502, -exte 1500. -exte 1502, -ext 1502. Y, I, (E). -y 34, 35; I04> 105; 148, 150; 202, 203; 268, 270, -e 271; 281, 283; 302, 304; 330,332; 377, -ey378; 380,382,383; 401, 403, 404; 450, 452, 453; 463, 465; 485, 487, 488; 594, I 595; 622, -ey623; 629, 630; 638, 640; 646, 648, 649; 652, 654; 657, 658; 660, 662, 663; 765, 767, 768; 800, 802, 803; 841, 843; 846, 847; 848,850; 853,854; 855, 857; 867, 868; 869, 871; 870, 872, -ey 873; 975,977,978; 1009, loii; 1021, 1022; 1073, 1075, 1076; 1171,1173, 1174; I185, 1187, -ey 1188; 1189, 1190; 1289, 1291; 1346, 1348, I 1349; 1458, 1460, 1461; 1485, i486; 1493, 1495, I 1496; 1513, 1515; 1534, 1536; 1549, 1551, 1552; 1570, 1572, 1573; 1631, -ey 1630; 1689, 1691, 1692; 1717, 1719, -uy 1720; 1729, -ey 1728; 1787, 1789, 1790; 1822, 1825, I 1824; 1840, 1841; 1989, 1991; 2039, 2041, 2042; 2064, I 2065; 2095, 2097, 2098; 2102, 2104, 2105. See -e, -ey, -uy. -yce 825, -yse 826; 863, -yse 865, 866. See -yse, -yde 216, 217; 288, 290; 324, 326, 327; 331, 333, 334; 349, 350; 470, 472; 624, 626; 664, 665; 716, 718, 719; 793, 795, 796; 891, 893, 894; 926, 928, 929; 940, 942, 943; 981, 983; 1283, 1285, 1286; 1499, 1501; 1525, 1526; 1555, 1557- -ydyd 946, -uydyd 948; 1765, 1767. See -uydyd. -yeth 2010, 2012. -yght 373, 375, 376; 489, 490; 750, 752; 759, -ute 757; 778, 780; 972, 973; 986, 987:993,994; 1033, 1034,-yte 1031; 1037, I039;III2, -yt II13; 1199,1201, 1202; 1367, 1370, -yte 1369; 1381, 1383, 1384; 1392, 1393; 1471, 1473; 1476, 1477; 1801, -yte 1803, 1804; 2078, 2079. See -yt, -yte, -ute. -yghtes, 710, -ytes 708. See-ytes. -ygne 1224, -yne 1225; 1441, 1442. See -yne. -yk 856, 858, 859. Rime Index. xxvii -ykes 678, 679. -yll 120, 122; 575, 577; 916, 917; 1058, 1060; 1079, 1081; 1990, 1992, 1993. -yme 953, 955. -yn 1049, 1050; 1857, 1859, i860. -yiide 64,66; 393, 395; 512, 514; 631, 633; 1343, 1344; 1387, 1389; 1542, 1544, 1545; 1647, 1649, 1650; 1756, 1757; 1778, -ende 1777; 17S4, 1785; 1923, -ende 1922. See -ende. -yne 265, 266; 372, 374; 1225, -vgne 1224; 2018, 2020, 2021. -yng 267, 269; 1366, 1368; 1528, 1530, 1531; 1535, 1537, 1538; 1618, 1620. -ynges 687, 689. -ynke 2052, 2054. -ynne 947, 949, 950; 1997, 1999, 2000. -yre 1617, -eere 1616; 1870, 1872. See -eere. -yreth 135, 137, 138. -ys 106, 108; 877, 879, S80; 1310, 1312. -yse 16, 18, 19; 225, 227; 447, 448; 568, 570; 826, -yce 825; 865, -yce 863; 11 15, II17, 1118; 1352, 1354; 1780, 1782, 1783; 1962, 1964, 1965. See -yce. -yst 1297, 1299, 1300. -yste 1057, -este 1056. -ysyd 482, 483. -yt 191, -et 193, -yte 194; 1113, -yght, III2. See -et, -yte, -yght. -yte 211,213; 1 03 1, -yght 1033, 1034; 1369, -yght 1370; 1605, 1607, 1608; 1803, -yght 1801; 1814, 1816. See -yght. -ytes 701, 703; 708, -yghtes 710. -yue 517, 518; 939, 94i; i«49, 1851- -yues 20, 21. O -o 22, 24; 41, 42; 51, 53, 54; 142, 144, 145; 169, 171; 195, 196; 218, 220; 295, 297; 471, 473, 474; 496, 497; 1210, 121 1; 1248, 1250, 1251; 1322, 1323; 1353, 1355, 1356; 1527, 1529; 1539, 1540; 1563,-00 1565, 1566. -00 41, -o 42; 92, 94; 1565, -o 1563. -ood 307, 308; I126, 1127; 1311, 1313, 1314; 1422, 1424; 1569, 1571. -oode 540, 542; 799, 801; 1038, 1040, 1041. -oddys 491, 493. -oft 99, lOI. -00k 1142, 1144; 1455, 1456; 1724. 1726, 1727. j -oke 181, 182. \ -ooke 1303, 1305; 1885, 1887, 1888. -olde 387, 389, 390; 428, 430; 1766, 176S, 1769; 1821, 1823; 1934, 1936, 1937; 1983, 1985, 1986; 2059, 2061; 2073, 2075. -oole 1394, 1396; 1658, 1659; 1952, 1953. -ome 190, 192; 1336, -one 1337; 1406, 1407. See -one. -on 43, 45; 90, 91; 636, 637; 643, 644; 834, 836; 849, 851, 852; 974,976; 988, 990; 1103,-owne iioi; 1108, mo, iiii; 1143, 1145, 1146; 1178, ii8o,-own 1181; 1205, 1207; 1301, 1302; 1413, 1414; 1429, 1431; 1619, 1621, 1622; 1646, 1648; 1681, 1683; 1721, 1722; 1737, 1739; 1744, 1746; 1751, 1753; 1772, 1774; 1833, 1834; 1842, 1844; 1864, 1866, 1867; 1910, 1911; 1913, xviii Rime Index. 1915, 1916; 1919, 1921; 1975, 1977; 2008, 2009; 2022, 2023; 2053, 2055, 2056; 2101, 2003. See -eson, -own. -oon 440, 441; 1217 -om 1218; 1667, -on 1669; 1759, 1761, 1762; 1805, 1806; 1836, 1838, -on 1839. See -om, -on. -onde 1712,-ounde 1710; 1735, -ounde 1736. See -ounde. -one 720, 721; 779, 781, 782; 923, 924; 1337, -ome 1336; 1745, 1747, 1748; 1839, -oon 1838. See -ome. -ong 730, 732, 733; 1269, 1271, 1272. -onne i, 3; 1896, 1897. -oonys 499, 501, 502. -ophres 272, 273. -orde 6, 7; 1252, 1253; 1434, 1435; 2015, 2016. -oorde 1240, 1242. r-ore 149, 151, 152; 338, 340, 341; 771, 773; 968, 970, 971; 1308, 1309; 1472, 1474, J 1475; 1604, 1606; 1794, 1797, -oore 1796; 1871, 1873, 1874; 1892, 1894, 1895. I -oore 1791, -ore 1792; 2074, 2076, 2077. -ores 673, 675. -orn 818, 8iq. -orne 280, -urne 279; 293, 294. See -urne. -ornyd 11 19, 11 20. -ort 65, 67, 68; 204, 206; 531, 532: 671, 672. -orte 1150, 1152, I153; i486, 1488, 1489. -ory 1444, -ary 1446, 1447. See -ary. -ose 1576, 1578. -osse 1595, 1596. -cost 764, 766; 783, 784; 951, 952; 1 192, -ost 1 194, 1195. -oote 620, 621, -ote 618; 1350, 1351. -othe 2092, 2093. -ooth 426, 427; 1338, 1340. -other 1807, 1809. -ought 141, 143; 209, 210; 263, 264, -out 261; 412, 413; 526, 528; 786, 788, 789; 1051, 1053; 1 196, 1 197; 1234, 1236, 1237; 1478, 1480; 1625, 1627; 1672, 1673; 1882, 1883; 2050, 2051. -oun 2087, 2089. -ound 506, -ownd 508, 509; 533, 535; 1042, 1043; 1521, 1523, 1524. -ounde 1690, -ownde 1688; 1709, 1711; 17 10, -onde 1712, 1713; 1736, -onde 1735 See -onde, -ownde. -our 464, 466, 467; 576, 578, 579; 734, 735; 1078, -owre 1077; iioo, II02; 1206 1208, 1209; 1290, 1292, 1293; 1850, -oure 1852, 1853. See -owre. -ours 709, 711, 712; 897, 899; 904, 906; 912, -oures 914, 915; 1016, -oures 1018; 1182, 1183; 1357, 1358; 1577, 1578, 1580. -oures 322, -owres 321; 694, 696; 914, -ours 912; 1018, -ours 1016. See -ours, -owres. -ous 408, 410, 411; 790, 791; 898, 900, 901. -out 261, -ought 263, 264; 436, 438, 439; 1437, -owte 1439, 1440; 1479, 1481, 1482; 1930, -oute 1929. See -ought, -owte. -cute 310, 312, 313; 386, 388; 758, -owte 760, 761; 1017, 1019, 1020; 1273, 1274; 1927, 1929, 1930. See -owte. Alliteration. xxix -ow 762, 763; 1149, 1151; 1164, 1166, 1167; 1191, 1193; 1241, -owe 1243, 1244; 1317, 1319; 1371, 1372; 1401, 1403; 1954, 1956; 2024, 2026. -owe 484, 486; 1243, -ow 1 24 1. See -ow. -own 1 181, -on 1 180. -ownd 508, -ound 506. See -ound. -ownde 1688, -oiinde 1689. See -ounde. -owne 379, 381; iioi, -on 1103, 1104. See -on. -owre 1077, -our 1078. See -our. -owres 321, -oures 322. See -oures. -owte 760, -oute 758; 1087, 1089, 1090; 1122, 1124, 1 125; 1318, 1320, 1321; 1439, -out 1437; 1861, 1862; 1924, 1925; 1948, 1950, 1951; 1976, 1978, 1979. U -u I121, -ew 1123. See -ew. -ude 890, 892; 1703, 1705, 1706. -ure 57, 59; S3, 84; 100, 102, 103; 363, 364; 414, 416; 454, 455; 477, 479; 860, 861; 931,-ewre 930; 1268, 1270; 1325, 1327, 1328; 1448, 1449; 1514, 1516, 1517; 1520, 1522; 1693, 1694; 1723, 1725; 1770, 1771; 1773, 1775, 1776; 1877, 1879; 1884, 1S86; 2088, 2090, 2091. See -ewre. -urre 328, 329. -urne 279, -orne 280. -us 177, 179, 180; 1 168, 1 169; 1469, 1470; 1938, 1939. -use 1917, 1918; 1955, 1957, 1958. -ust 1098, 1099; 1275, 1277. -usyd 1390, 1400. -ute 757 -yght 759. See -yght. -uy 1720, -y 1719. — uydyd 948, -ydyd 946. 2. Alliteration is a marked feature of the verse. As is well known, the usage of combining alliteration and end-rime, which became conspicuous in western and northern England about the middle of the fourteenth century, grew in favor through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, reaching its highest popularity in Scotland during the second half of the fifteenth century (v. Scottish Allit. Poems, ed. by Amours in Scot. Text Soc). The alliterative phrases record, clearly enough, the influence of the Old-English method of verse. In this poem alliteration occurs chiefly in formal phrases, as an ornament of the verse, rarely having any constructive significance. Lydgate followed no fixed method, though of course accent most often determines the phrase. For Chaucer's usage consult Ten Brink, Ch. S/>. p. 196, et. seq., and The Alliteration of Chaucer, a thesis by Dr. C. F. McClumpha (Univ. of Minn.). I cite a few of the most notable instances : XXX The Rime and the Final e. 4: jyttyng all rolytary a/one bei-yde a /ake. 5: wusyng on a waner how that I wyght wake. 13: so /eyde I me i/owne my ^yssese to re/eue. 35: ys in a lytyll corner ^allyd Fantasy. 66: roote and rynde. 127: 3oystous (^last. 261: /lame of /yre. 270: full .rad and wyse he jemyd jykerly. 303: worldly tt/ysdom. 320: hyr ^owne was of ^awdy grene chamelet. 345: in ruras dad. 354: dad in dustres. 372: (Tolour crystallyne. 379: fopyr rrowne. 382: 3eames ^ryght. 425: (/euyll's «/ate. 487: (/oolenori/estyny. 501: (Joody^^lood and ^oonys. 557: walewyng with hys wawes. 556: wake and warre. 631: jlowthe so depy. 673: i^osters, (^raggars and <5rybores. 675: ^hamefuU Aakerles, roleyn ^haueldores. 684: walycious wur- murers. 688: robbers, reuers, rauenouse ryfelers. 690: warrers of waters and money ;«akers. 806: roody as a roose. 848: refuse of rychesse. 899: /erpetuell ;)restes. 902: /ysshers of /owles. 907: on /eynfull /oore /j'teous com/assioners. 912: ^ooly -^eremytes. 913: wonasteriall wonkes. 996: c/^aunger of the c/iaunse. I166: /eyne /erpetuell. 1362: wylde wantones wede. 1603: coloryd crystall dare. 1743: /eynyd/ables. 1886: cry with sodeynly 1075 and myghtyly 1073; stody with espy 1989; occupy with testyfy 452 and deny 453. In Lydgate and Burgh's Secrees (c. 1446) the latter usage obtains. The final e is there rarely sounded (Steele, Irdro. to Sec. p. xx. § xvil.). Applye rimes with partye 15 16, fantasye 303. Victorye rimes with pryncipally 2 181, prudently 2182, hastely 2445, remedy 2448. Remedy rimes with hevyly 1735, specially 2008. Hastily rimes with denye 1846. Partve rimes with streyghtlye 2 131. Mallady rimes with specially 1700; foly with discretly 2281, angry 2652 ; leccherye with fynally 2503 and velony 2504. The change had already been accomplished in the Quair (1423) of King James I., who rimed armory with contynually, ielousye with melancholve and quhy (N. E. why), philosophye with properly, partye xxxii The Rime and the Final e. with I, quhy with companye, ielousye, folye, onely, I with humility, gye, supplye, etc. In the Pastime of Pleasure (c. 1506), the work of Stephen Hawes, the pupil of Lydgate, and in Spenser's poems and in other sixteenth century works, the new usage is completely established. The period of transition would seem to be from about 1415 to 1450. Lydgate's own works exhibit the change, and very likely his poems can be approximately dated by reference to his treatment of this -y rime. 2. The infinitives among the ritning words present the phenomena given in the following word list. The inflectional ending has dis- appeared in most cases. It is maintained somewhat in verbs of English origin but is almost completely lost in verbs of Romance origin. I use e to indicate the conjectural pronunciation of the infinitive end- ing. In the table the first word in each series is the infinitive, which is followed by the words with which it rimes : (a) Of Teutonic Origin. abyde: wyde 664: tyde 718: ryde (inf.) 719: pryde (obi. sng.) 928: syde (obi. sng.) 929: gyde (inf.) 793: hyde (inf.) 894. aryse: iustyse (obi. sng.) 18: sylogyse (inf.) 19. astert: hert (obi. sng.) 468. awake: take (inf.) 1015: shake (inf.) 2044. be: perplexyte (obi. sng.) 200: se (inf.) 201: me 255: pyte (obi. sng.) 921: vnyte (obi. sng.) 919. beware: care (obi. sng.) 126. blyn: syn (inf.) 1857: wyn (inf.) 1859. borow: sorow 1166: folow (inf.) 1164. bow: how 2026. call: fall 1008: wall 1898. crepe: depe (obi. pi.) 109: kepe (inf.) 107. deele: wele (obi. sng.) 2068. do: so 144: to 145. dwell: tell (inf.) 585: rebell 583. fall: shall 231: all 246. fare: care (obi. sng.) 809: bare 807. feele: yele 1026: dele (obi. sng.) 1027. fet: banket (obi. sng.) 167: met 1154: get 1678. fly: sodenly 11 87: ey (obi. sng.) 11 88. folow: sorow 1 166: borow (inf.) 1 1 67. forsake: take (inf.) 1052: make (inf.) 1055- foryete: entrete (inf.) 241. foryeue: leue (obi. sng.) 520: myscheue (inf.) 523. fulfyll: wyll (obi. sng.) 575. fyght: myght 993. fynde: rynde (obi. sng.) 66: behynde 514. The Rime and the Final e. xxxiii gete: conterfete (inf.) 212: entrete (inf.) 214: whete 1334. go: fro 24. here: fere (obi. sng.) 52 (nere 396: Omere 397): daungere (obi. sng.) 96: prysonere 93: apere 157: plesere 197: offycere (obi. sng.) 446. hy: redely 767: ny 768. hyde: syde (obi. sng.) 891: abyde (inf.) 893. kepe: depe (obi. pi.) 109: crepe (inf.) no: wepe (inf.) 1257: slepe (inf.) 1258. lere: geere (obi. sng.) 886: were 884. lowte: rowte (obi. sng.) 1087: dowte 1090: abowte 1924. ly: company 403: melody (obi. sng.) 401 : Pyromancy 869. make: lake (obi. sng.) 4: take (inf.) 2. marke: parke (obi. sng.) 938. mete: shete (obi. sng.) 420. morne: Saturne 279. mys: wys 879: thys 877. nede: spede (inf.) 571: dede (obi. sng.) 572. ouerse: meyne (obi. sng.) 774: see (inf.) 775. ryde: wyde 626: tyde 718: abyde (inf.) 716. say: day 1830: deley (obi. sng.) 1858. se: perplexyte (obi. sng.) 200: be (inf.) 198: meyne 774: ambyguyte I0I2: lyberte 1013: benygnyte 1426. shake: awake (inf.) 2043. slepe: wepe (inf.) 1257: kepe (inf.) 1255. spede: nede (inf.) 569: dede (obi. sng.) 572. steuyn: heuyn (obi. sng.) 823: seuyn 821. syn: wyn (inf.) 1859: blyn (inf.) i860, syt: yet 193: abyte 194. take: lake (obi. sng.) 4: make (inf.) 5: awake (inf.) 1014: forsake (inf.) 1054. tell: dwell 32: hell (obi. sng.) 33: fell (obi. pi.) 434: rebell 583. wepe: kepe (inf.) 1255: slepe (inf.) 1258. Wynne: ynne 949: synne 950: syn (inf.) 1857: blyn (inf.) i860: thynne 1997: theryn 1050. wythstande: hande (obi. sng.) 1084. (b) Of Romance Origin, acorde: monacorde (obi. sng.) 7. apele: wele (obi. sng.) 56. appere: herbere (obi. sng.) 1935: fere (obi. sng.) 2006: here (inf.) 2004. asaute: defaute (obi. sng.) 587. asay: day 979: may 1278: nay 1276. assent: content 172: iugement (obi. sng.) 170, auale: pale (obi. sng.) 358. auaunce: puruyaunce 956: daunce (obi. sng.) 957. auowe: bowe (inf.) 486. carpe: harpe (obi. sng.) 400. cese: dyscrese (inf.) 232: doutlese 1754: prese (obi. sng.) 1755. chastyse: dispyse (inf.) 448. compleyn: iweyn (obi. pi.) 146. xxxiv The Rime and the Final e. conclude: multitude 890. confound: drownd 508: fownd 509. counterfete: entrete (inf.) 214: gete (inf.) 215. cry: sodeynly 1075: myghtyly 1073. daunce: penaunce (obi. sng.) 1148. deny: testify (inf.) 452: occupy (inf.) 450: Pawmestry 870: ey (obi. sng.) 873. depart: cart (obi. sng.) 878. depryue: lyue 518. dereygne: cheyne (obi. sng.) 610. deyfy: multyply 1717: guy (inf.) 1720. dyscrese: cese (inf.) 234. dyspyse: chastyse (inf.) 447. dysuse: muse (inf.) 1917. endure: mesure (obi. sng.) 102: nature (obi. sng.) 100: creature (obi. sng.) 2088; sure 2091. enhaunse: remembraunse 998: chaunse (obi. sng.) 996. enlumyne: discyplyne (obi. sng.) 2018: Doctryne 2021. entrete: counterfete (inf.) 212: gete (inf.) 215: foryete 239: banket 1654: gete (obi. sng.) 1657. escape: iape (obi. sng.) 525. eschew: Vertew (obi. sng.) 963: sew (inf.) 964. espy: stody (obi. sng.) 1991. exorte: reporte i486: sorte 1489. fade: shade (obi. sng.) 69. greue: leue (obi. sng.) 429: meue (inf.) 431. gyde: tyde 795: abyde (inf.) 796. magnyfy: hy 2104: Mary 2105. menteyn: peyn 746: ageyn 744. meue: leue (obi. sng.) 429: greue (inf.) 432: sleue (obi. sng.) 2033. multyply: guy (inf.) 1720: deyfy (inf.) 1719. muse: disvse (inf.) 1918. myscheue: leue (obi. sng.) 520: foryeue (inf.) 522. occupy: testyfy(inf.)452: deny (inf.) 453: hy (obi. sng.) 1 173: vyctory (obl.sng.) 11 74 oppresse: heuynesse 10: neuerthelesse 1059: duresse (obi. sng.) 1062. peruert: hert 1786: desert (obi. sng.) 1843: smert 1845. promyse: wyse (obl.sng.) 225. rebell: tell 592: well 593. recompense: audyence (obi. sng.) 1249. refuse: diffuse 1955: vse (inf.) 1958. reherse: werse 405. releue: sleue (obi. sng.) 14. repent: went 417: inconuenyent (obl.sng.) 415. resorte: comforte (obi. sng.) 1 152: porte (obl.sng.) 1153. sew: Vertew (obi. sng.) 963: eschew (inf.) 961. sylogyse: iustyse (obi. sng.) 18: aryse (inf.) 16. tary: sanctuary 1446: crysmatory 1444. testyfy: hy 105: occupy (inf.) 450: deny (inf.) 453. vse: diffuse 1955: refuse (inf.) 1957. The Language. xxxv CHAPTER VI. The Language. A. Vocabulary . The modern character of Lydgate's language has often been remarked. Warton long ago gave his judgment to the effect "that Lydgate made considerable additions to those amplifications of our language in which Chaucer, Gower and Occleve led the way; and that he is the first of our writers whose style is clothed with that perspicuity in which the English phraseology appears at this day to an English reader" {Hist, of Eng. Poet., II., 270). The influence of French and Latin is more apparent in his vocabulary than in that of any other East Midland writer (v. Diet. Natl. Biog., XXXIV., p. 310 ; Skeat Priii. Engl. Ety., II., ch. viii). The Assem- bly of Gods is especially rich in words of Romance origin, and, as compared with contemporary writings, in words of recent adoption from the French. The poem is therefore especially helpful in tracing the gradual assimilation of foreign words into the language. In the Prolog to the Cantc7-bury Tales in 303 words in the first 42 lines, Chaucer used 263 native English words, leaving 13 per cent. of foreign words. In 84 lines of the Assembly of Gods, of 669 words, the total number employed, 153, or nearly 2t^ per cetit., are foreign; of the 305 different words used in the same lines, 107 are of foreign origin. As Lydgate was popular long in the reign of Elizabeth, his service in naturalizing the foreign vocabulary was considerable. It will be seen that the number of obsolete words is comparatively small, the proportion of such words being less than in Chaucer or Wyclif or Pecock (Lee, Diet. Natl. £iog.). B. Grammar. Lydgate's grammar has been well treated by Dr. Schick in his Introduction to the Temple of Glas (chap. vi. p. Ixiii). This MS., being of a late date, can aid but little in the construction of Lyd- gate's own speech. In the main, it is probable that Lydgate's phonological and inflexional system did not differ much from that of Chaucer. There was, however, in the case of Lvdgate a much less certain use of inflexional endings. In the present MS. the pronunciation of many endings is purely conjectural, the metre, owing to its irregularity, being seldom conclusive. The language xxxvi The La/iguage. is seen to be in a state of greatest confusion about the year 1450, I note below a few of the grammatical forms of this text. I. Declension. Nouns. In Substantives of English origin, the final e of the sng. nom. is maintained in some cases : tyme 137, 1751 ; name 132; erthe 535. Inorganic e occurs in frende 1798, 1S07; wytte 1887. Genitives have regularly the endings {e)s, es,ys; whales 1535J foes 1126; feldys 1451 ; the genitive form ladyes is found in 1178. The dative and accusative 7naintain the e in crabbe i ; erthe 67, 1627; tyme 69; hede 271 (: sykerly) 286, 356, 384 (perhaps hede 379); tyde 334; felde 959; ende 1799; sonne 1896; tonne 1897; tylthe 1 7 10; and others. Plurals commonly end in {e)s, es,ys; other plurals are found, as deere 65, 68 ; thyng 1064 ; eyen 220 ; men 759 ; foon 1762; chyldren 1659. In Substantives of Romance origin the final e in the sng. nom. is found in only a few cases: hooste 11 24; bandeii62; chere 375; gowne 320. The genitives end regularly in {e)s, es. With proper names hys is sometimes used to indicate the genitive, as Vertew hys men 1072 ; Vyce hys quarrell 1055. The dative and accusative are most of ten without endings, though a final e occurs in pese 238; chare 792; scorge 1 1 70 ; scoole 1396, 1659. Plurals are regularly found in {e)s, es, ys. II. The Adjectives are generally without case endings. The final e appears, however, in all cases, sng. and pi. : as nom. sng. foule, dymme, 313; olde 390, 1749;//. olde 294; /// oblique cases sng., derke 310; crystallyne 372; rewde 438 ; foule 648; hoole 1172;//., sage 389; blake 141 2. III. The Pronouns have the common M. E. forms; ye is used as singular in 32, 95, as plural in 150; she is found in 378, se in 376; hit occurs regularly ; theym is used in 48, 415, hem in 66, 126; her (their) is used in 47, 65, 123, 867, and regularly. The indefinite som, without ending, occurs in 865, 1196, 1198, 1199. Eor relatives, which that and who (rare), are used; by hem that lyues 20 ; he that 21 ; poetes whyche 1743 ; [he] who 769. IV. Adverbs are found with endings e, es or ys, ly and without endings: sone 36, 461, 721, 1345; while 181, 72; ferre 1627; newe 562 ; nedys 21, 1372 ; nedes 1245 ; elles 33, 1033 ; ellys 1614, 1385 ; eftsones 1007. V. Conjugation of Verbs. The formation of the tenses of the verbs, strong and weak, is the same as in Chaucer. Infinitives end Literary A/ialysis. xxxvii in e, though perhaps more often they are without endings, as fall 230, riming with shall ; syt 191 riming with yet ; fly 11 85 riming with sodenly ; bow 2024 riming with how ; tell 30 riming with hell, etc. T/ie third perso7i, indicative, present, has regularly the ending eth, cth. The fiorthern es is found in two places : dryues 21, manaces 61 {in pi. lyues 20). The past participle is without a prefix ge-, i- or y- ; the strong verbs end commonly in en and e, the weak in yd, cd, t : knowen 1141; beholdyn 1S66; taken 501; take 59, 267, 547, 722, 725; tane 2013; broke 182; spoke 181; ronne i; dreven 1080; cropyn 1953; ouerthrow 1149 rimes with know (inf.) and 1191 with low. The form beene occurs in 2047 riming with scene, also bene 420, 1343, ben 627, byn 1798, be 115,298,460; bee 1136. So occur the forms goon 757, go 1396 ; done 48, 563, doon 84, do 195, 1248 (riming with lo), 496,; scene 545, seyne 1671. CHAPTER VII. THE POEM. A. Literary Analysis.' A. Introduction {stanzas /-j). The time : when Phoebus had nearly finished his course in the Crab. The place: I was sitting alone beside a lake. The theme : musing how I might make Rea- son and Sensuality to accord. The framework of the action : a dream. The director of the dream : Morpheus. B. The Action of the Dream : the Theme illustrated {6-2gi). Act I. The case of Eolus [6-8 ~). Scene I. At the Court of Minos in Hell {6-26). — Characters at the Court: Pluto, Ruler of Hell; Minos, the Justice ; Cerberus, the Constable ; Diana and Neptune, plaintiffs ; Eolus, the defendant; Morpheus and Lydgate, spectators, {a) Eolus led in by Cerberus (6). {b) Silence proclaimed by Pluto (7). [c] The complaint of Diana: Eolus had destroyed her forests with his blasts wherefore the deer were without shelter (8-1 1). {d) The complaint of Neptune: Eolus had disputed with him the jurisdiction of the sea and had caused him to turn against his natural course and to labor far out of measure, making him to ebb and flow out of his season. Moreover, Eolus had destroyed those to whom he had granted protection (12-20). (e) The case in judgment (21-23). ' I have analyzed the poem according to its dramatic divisions as if it were a Moral Plav. xxxviii Literary Analysis. (/) The court dismissed, without action, at the invitation of Apollo to a banquet (24-27). Scene II. At the palace of Apollo {py-Sj). [a) Apollo sues for Diana's forgiveness of Eolus (27-34). (b) Neptune accepts Phebe as arbiter of his case (35). {c) The banquet (36- 59): Apollo seats his guests at the table, Aurora and Apollo, Diana and Mars, Juno and Jupiter, Ceres and Saturn, Othea (Athena) and Cupid, Fortune and Pluto, Isis and Pan, Minerva and Neptune, Phoebus and Bacchus, Venus and Mercury. The waiters were philosophers and poets. Orpheus and Pan made music. Of dain- ties and meats there was a plenteous store, {d) Discord enters but is denied a place at the table (59-60). (c) Discord departs in wrath and meets with Atropos (60). (/) Atropos takes her part and enters the palace (61-62). {g) He rudely salutes the Gods (63); recites his services to them in destroying Hector, Alexander, Cassar, etc. (64-69); charges them with assisting one whom he can not destroy (70); refuses to serve them longer (71). (//) The Gods in dismay swear to help Atropos and to confound this rebel. But Eolus will not help them (72-75). (/) Excursus: how Eolus came into the power of Pluto (76-80). (7) Eolus, forgiven by Neptune at the request of Phebe, promises to afflict the rebel if he be in the air (81-84). {k) The name of this rebel is Virtue (85-86). Pluto sends for his son Vice (87). Act II. The Battle bettvecn the Vices and Jlrtiies in the field of Microcosm {88-210). Scene I. The gathering of the hosts {88-1 Jj). {a) Vice and his head-captains, Pride, Envy, Wrath, Covetousness, Gluttony, Lecherv, Sloth (88-91); inferior captains. Sacrilege, Simony, etc., a great company (91-95); such a host of commons man never beheld — they were led by Idleness (95-102). (l>) Virtue and his head-captains. Humility, Charity, Patience, Liberality, Absti- nence, Chastity, Good-Business (103-118); inferior captains and common soldiers numbering a tenth of Vice's host (i 19-133). Scene II. The preparation for the combat {1J4-IJ8). The field is Microcosm. It is entered by five highways. Conscience is judge of the battle. Freewill is Lord of the Field, {a) Vice and Virtue dub fourteen knights each (140-142). {I)) They send ambassadors to Freewill (143-146). (c) Sensuality sows the field with wicked seeds (146-147). Scene III. The battle (148-162). (a) Virtue tar- ries under the Sign of the Cross and wards off the shots by the Shield of the Holy Trinity (149-150). (b) Virtue, abandoned by Freewill, retreats (i 51-154). (c) Other captains hold the ground and Per- Literary Analysis. xxxix severance brings reinforcements (155-159). {d) Vice is overthrown (160-162). Scene IV. The result, {a) Freewill repents (163-164). (//) Vice is met by Despair (165). (c) Prescience drives Vice and his host through the gates of Hell (166-167). 0^) Predestination gives Virtue the palm of Victory and to all a heavenly habitation (168-170). {e) Some of Vice's host repent (i 71-174). (/) Free- will recompenses Virtue. • Freewill is made bailiff in Microcosm under Reason. Sensuality is guided by Sadness. To Morpheus are given the five keys of the highways (178-187). (^) Atropos, angry at the Gods, seeks another master. He is called Death and given possession of Microcosm (188-209). (//) Virtue is exalted above the firmament to receive the Crown of Glory (210). Act HI. The School and Lessons of Doctrine : The Doubt Solved [21 i-2go). The place, a garden with four pictured walls; the por- ter. Wit ; the teachers, Doctrine, Holy Text, Gloss and Moralization; the scribe, Scripture. Scene I. (a). The Interpretation by Doctrine of the dream and of the four " Times'" pictured on the walls {211— 2j^). First, the imprisonment of Eolus signifies that wealth increases misrule. Every man is judged by Minos according to his wicked- ness. The complaint of Diana and Neptune signifies the folly of fools in seeking to bring the winds to correction. When they came to the banquet of Apollo like fools they gave up the matter to oblivion. The Gods resemble false idols. In the beginning the people slept in pagan law. The poets feigned many fables which were given places and names. Idolatry was the rule during the Time of Deviation from Adam to Moses. With Moses began the Time of Revocation which endured to the Incarnation of Christ. The New Testament opens the time of Reconciliation. The Time of Pilgrimage or War is signified by the battle between Vice and Vir- tue. As for Atropos his complaint signifies the constraint of friend- ship. Discord must needs be avenged by Death. The battle betokens the moral struggle in the soul. Microcosm is the world of man. Perseverance betokens the continuance of virtuous living. Prescience and Predestination are therewarders of Vice and Virtue. The five keys are man's five wits. The return of man to sin is pre- vented bv Reason and Sadness. Scene II. The reconciliation of Reason and Sensuality : the theme completed {276-288). a. Death, Reason and Sensuality enter. Of Death Lydgateis afraid. Reason argues that Death ought to be shunned. In this sentiment Sen- sualitv accords, {b). Doctrine vanishes (289-290). xl The Religious Character. C. The Conclusion {2g2-joi). {a). The dream broken (291-293). {b). Lest fault be found with me I record the vision (294-296). {c). The exhortation (297-301) : Gentle Reader, walk alway in the path of Virtue. Fight daily against the World, the Flesh, and the Devil. Thine shall be the glory and the heavenly mansions. Let us pray that the Lord of Glory give us grace. Let us magnify his name. To you may Jesus grant eternal joy. B. Literary Studies. I. The Religious Character of the Poem. — The Assembly of Gods is one of Lydgate's numerous moral treatises so sounding in virtues that Bishop Alcock of Ely (b. 1430), in sermons addressed to the generation succeeding the poet, might praise it as leading to "the encrease of vertue and the oppression of vyce.'" It is a sermon in verse, only the moral truth is"cloked," as Stephen Hawes phrases it, "with cloudy fygures." By this time Lydgate at Bury St. Edmunds must have become an excellent ecclesiastic. In the poem he freelv employs the vocabulary of mediaeval monasticism. The explanation by Doctrine, for instance, of the pagan deities, and indeed the whole discourse of Doctrine, is in the manner of the early theolo- gians and schoolmen. Thus the writings of Fulgentius, the gram- marian (c. 480-550), notably his Mythologiarum {Mythologicori) Libri, which explains the pagan names and legends, may be cited as the far source of that portion of the poem which interprets the deities, and the Hamartigenia and Psychomachia of Prudentius, the Christian hymn writer, a little earlier than Fulgentius, may be consulted for the origin of that part which contains the battle of the vices and virtues. Lydgate's immediate masters in opinion and sentiment were the compilers of the Gesta Romanorum. The definite teachings of the treatise might indeed be gathered into a system.* The one God is thought of as a Supreme Judge, Alpha and Omega omnipotent, standing above the firmament and apportioning infinite rewards and punishments. Life is a pil- grimage, a war with the sins. Sin is the parent of all woe. Death ^ Sermo on Luke viii., printed c. 1496. " Frendes I remembre dayes here before in my youthe that there was a vertuous monke of Bury called Lydgate, whiche wrote man}' noble histories and made many vertuous balettes to the encrease of vertue and oppression of vyce." Brydges' Brit. Bibliog., iii, p. 533- 'That Lydgate knew his creed well is shown by London Lackpenny, Minor Poems, p. 106. The Religious Cliaracter. xli is the supreme object of dread. Salvation is sacramental and sacer- dotal. Remedies against sin are found in the Seven Blessings of the Gospel, the Seven Virtues of God, the Ten Commandments, the Twelve Articles of the Faith, the Seven Sacraments, Veneration of the Cross and the Saints, the Doctrine of Unity and the System of Redemption in Christ. The necessity of penance is especially enjoined. The chief sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, the one being regarded as the sacrament of the new birth, the other as the sacrament of sanctification which maintains the new life. Of course the church is built on the stone of Peter who keeps the keys of Heaven. In all the poem there is not the least suggestion of the coming Reformation or of the work of Wyclif. A digression is made at one point to notice the error of Origen (st. 227.) And circumcision is held in derision (st. 173.). The work closes appro- priately with a prayer to the Son of the Virgin Mary. Of the artistic merits of such a treatise little can be said. The poem is simply one of the many moral poems which were so popular during the Middle Ages throughout Europe and which were calcu- lated to gratify the almost universal taste for poetry of a serious and didactic nature. We can now consider these works hardly other than monuments of the bad taste that accompanies a low literary culture. Such writings belong however to the history of literature and without their consideration that history would be incomplete. The Assembly of Gods is worthy of special attention for its complex allegory, which is one of the best of its kind. I admit at the begin- ning that it will furnish no pleasure to those who seek in literature for originality and imaginative power. No one today would think of echoing the praise of Lydgate's poet-friends, or of placing Lydgate's name by the side of Chaucer, though he may be fair companion for Gower and Hoccleve. That Burgh should think his master knew the muses well {Secrees^'^X.. 226), that Stephen Hawes should maintain that Lydgate was the "most dulcet sprynge of famous rhethoryke" [Pastime of Pleasure^, that Dunbar should write that Lydgate had with his "mellifluate " speech illumined the English language, and that before his coming the English Isle was "bare and desolate of rethorike or lusty fresch endyte" [The Golden Targe) — that this chorus of eulogy should be at all received only illustrates the imperfect literary sense of the late Middle Ages in England, that period which Taine calls appropriately, for its almost utter lack alike, of the " grand style " and any high imagination, the Dark Age. Lau- xlii The Religious Character, reate Skelton, alone among these early writers, has a bit of discerning criticism of Lydgate's work in his Phyllyp Sparrowe (11. 804-12) : " It is dyffuse to fynde (difficult to understand) The sentence of his mynde, Yet wryteth he in his kynd, No man that can amend Those maters that he hath pende ; Yet some men fynde a faute, And say he wryteth to haute (loftily)." But while we cannot greatly admire a poem of this moralizing kind, it must be remembered that the work is no worse than very much of the prose and poetry of the Middle -English period, nearly all of which is ethical if not distinctly religious in character, and which might be assigned with propriety to the alcoves of the theo- logical library. Chaucer is almost the onlv writer amid the multi- tude of preachers and satirists who obeyed his artistic rather than his moral conscience. The moral and artistic blend happily, it is true, in Langland who, although a reformer, was gifted with such Dantean earnestness and strength as to elevate his noble Fiers the Plowman into a true and poetic allegory of the soul. Beautiful too is the poem of the Pearl in its perfect union of religious earnestness and deep and delicate poetic feeling, the lyric gem of all this period. Still on the whole it must be said that while England was ready ripe for an artistic literature in the period of the Renaissance, during the Middle Ages the secret of art was wanting. For liter- ature with the artistic stamp we must go to the continent, especially to Italy. To Provenpal poetry England presents no counterpart save perhaps the people's ballads and songs of Robin Hood. Not until the advent of the "courtly makers" of the reign of Henry VHI. was there any sign of change to an artistic literature. Religion and not Art, in short, was the "Time-spirit" of the age. So prevalent is the moral motive, indeed, that it is not surprising to find even Chaucer professing himself in his last years to be more thankful that he had translated the Consolation of Boethius and repeated Saints' Lives and religious homilies than that he had written the great works of his artistic imagination, the worldly vanities of which filled his senile mind with concern. As Mr. Lowell observes in comparing Chaucer and Dante, the main question with the former was after all the conduct of life. The conduct of life — this concern has been the characteristic English trait from Csedmon to Browning. That Lydgate's life tended to moral good if not to artistic purpose The Fear of Death. xliii is evidenced by the prayer of Hawes in his Excusation of the Pastime of Pleasure, who prayed God to give him grace to compile books of "moral vertue" — " Of my maister Lidgate to folowe the trace, His noble fame for laude and renue, Whiche in his lyfe the slouthe did eschue ; Makyng great bokes to be in memory, On whose soule I pray God have mercy." 2. The Fear of Death and the Scorn of the World. — It is now quite generally acknowledged that the mediaeval conception of life is very accurately signified by a line in Dante's Purgatorio (xxxiii, 54-5) : "To those who live the life that is a race to death." It is notable that the same sentiment is repeated in almost the same words, though in broad Scotch, by William Dunbar, whose death year was just two centuries after the passing of Dante, his daily sombre line running : " Quhat is this lyfe bot ane straucht way to deid ?" These lines expressly point to what was the most characteristic feature of mediievalism, the almost universal dualism of thought. In art there was developed during the early Christian era a complete system of allegory and symbolism. A world of sense images on the one hand was set over against a universe of analogical and mystical meanings on the other, the former being strictly subordinated to the latter. This exaltation of the spiritual at the expense of the natural characterized the religious life of the whole people. As Mr. Kidd makes clear, the first fourteen centuries of our civilization were devoted to the growth and development of a stupendous system of otherworldliness. The supernatural became the object of the popular faith. And the conception of a future life simply overshadowed every consideration of the present. During the two centuries that I have noted, reckoning roughly from Dante to Dunbar, this faith in the other-world reached its culmination. Before Dante the boundaries of the dual realm had not been perfectly limned ; the construction of the circles of the supernatural was the work of the poet in whom thirteen centuries of Christianity actually came to expression. After Dunbar the spirit of the Renaissance is working, introducing into this divided universe the principle of unity. It is certain that in Shakespeare unity is well nigh established. The development of the English drama away from the supernaturalism of the Miracle Play and the abstraction of the Moralities and towards a more or less consistent realism indicates the breaking-up of dualistic xliv The Fear of Death. thought. Shakespeare having seen that men and women arrive at judgment in the world could disregard the life to come. Taking then into our view the dramatic realm of Dante, the other-world, and of Shakespeare, the present world, we discover in the centuries intervening between the life-work of these two artists the incidents of a remarkable transition in thought, the break-up of a dualistic system. In the art of the i6th century, which was more immediately the product of the Renaissance, the new principle of unity is seen to be confirmed. Naturally the tradition of religion continued longer in force. Still the Reformation church destroyed one feature of supernaturalism, the belief in Purgatory, and though it was under the necessity of maintaining the theory of Paradise and Hell, it laid greater stress than before upon the actual life of men upon the earth. It was after all a problem of the earth that Milton tried to solve — the justification of the ways of God to men. Following the rise of the system of otherworldliness there grew in the heart of man, century by century from the founding of the church, an ever present fear, a fear that for sinful men was only increased by the joy of the martyrs, the fear of Him who was called Death, the Foeraan, the invincible Archer. During the 14th and 15th centuries this dread of death was at its uttermost. On the physical side the fear at this period was heightened by the helplessness of all Europe before the ravages of the Black Plague, at the approach of which householders could only cry, "The Lord have mercy upon us." Spiritually the Day of Doom with its attendant terrors was a fully realized conception, and no man was so sure of victory that he did not tremble on the verge of the grave. By reference to the homiletic and didactic literature of the 14th and 15th centuries in England the fear of death is found to be part and parcel of the religious feeling of the time. In the Pricke of Conscience, which contains the religious meditations of that strange hermit and visionary, Richard Rolle of Hampole, most of whose life was contemporary with that of Dante and who bore about with him a certain Dantean mysticism, we learn of the Unstableness of the World, of Death and why it is to be dreaded, of Purgatory, Dooms- day, and the Pains of Hell. Dan Michel's Ayenbite of hiwyt, contemporary with Hampole's work, and illustrative likewise of the teachings of the church, takes a similar view of the present and future life. Comparing these and other typical treatises with reference to the report which they make upon death, it is seen that they accord Tlie Fear of Death. xlv in assigning to Death, who is invariably heralded by Dread, the execution upon all creatures of the awful sentence of doom. It was taught, to be sure, that to good men death may be the end of evils and the beginning of every blessing. Yet the righteous could not escape from the terrors that attend death — the death that might be eternal. On the day of Doom even angels and archangels shall tremble. In a parable it was written that at the door of the house of the .Spirit, Dread, the messenger of Death, should knock and demand entrance. He comes from Hell, the torments of which surpass the picturing of the imagination : in a great deep below Hell yawns, bottomless and frightful. Out of the stench and dark- ness rise the songs of sorrow from loathsome fiends in chains. Rest- less are the souls encumbered there, that are tormented by hunger and thirst, that are driven by heat and cold and bathed in burning pitch, withal feeling the turnings of the worm of conscience. Satan is there with his rake, having horns upon his head and knees, yawn- ing with his mouth, venting fire from mouth and nostril and eyepits. This was the background of terror upon which were pictured the glories of heaven. By hopeful ones it was remembered that Christ had descended into Hell and broken the gates asunder. Gentle spirits taught that " Loue is more stranger ^anne drede" (^j^. (^//ww. p. 75) that "Love of God driveth out fear" {Sawies IVarde, O. E. Horn. p. 259). Yet upon the foundation of fear the mediaeval church was erected. The church then seemed to have been established for little else than to harass the human race. The homiletic treatment of death and doom precedes the poetic by about a century. The chc<.racteristic utterance on these themes in English poetry is subsequent to 1400 and well along in the i6th century.' Yet Langland's great poem (about 1362-1393) has a con- tent typical of the century to which it belongs. Perhaps the most striking and vigorous passage in all his Vision of the World at work is the one descriptive of the procession of Death amid the "field full of folk": " Elde ^e hore he was in p& vauntwarde. And bare pG. banere bifor deth by righte he it claymed. Kynde come after with many kene sores, As pokkes and pestilences and moche people shente ; 'See Sackville's picture in the Induction to the Mirrour for Magistrates and Southwell's Image of Death, and many others of like import even in the days of the Renaissance. xlvi The Fear of Draf/i. So kynde povw cdiupciouns kiillcd ful inanve. Deth cam diviicmlc after aiul al to doust passhed Kynges & knyghtes, kavseres and popes; Lered ne levved he let no man stonde, That he liitte euene ^at euere stired after. Many a lonely lady and lemmanes of knyghtes Swouned and swelled for sorwe of dethes dvntes." — P. PI. Pas. .XX. 11. 04-104. So ill the fear of death, Dunbar, a characteristic inelancholv figure of the 15th century, wrote liis startlini;- antl horrible Dance of the Serin Deidly Synnis. For "This fals warld," he said, "is bot transitory." When Beauty won her victory over the poet — so ran his allegorv — he was consigned to the custody of Grief. Youth and loveliness, bravery and wit, all come to an end : " Onto the ded gois all estatis, Princis, prelates, and potestatis, Baith riche and pur of all degre ; Timor mortis conturbat me." — Lamoit. The poets, "the makers" themselves, for all their sweet service cannot escape the end : "1 see the makers among the rest." "lie hes done petuously devour The noble Chaucer, of makaris Hour, The monk of Bery, and Gower. all thre; Timor mortis conturbat me." ' — Lament. At length the man that feared not Death found a place in Barc- lay's Ship of Fools (85th), the author knowing well : "There never was man of so greate pryde ne pompe Nor of such myght, youth nor man of age That myght gaynsay the sounde of dethes trompe. He makes man daunce and that without courage As well the state as man of lowe lynage His cruell cours is z.y so intretable That mannys myght to withstand is nat able." — Barclay, Ship of Fools, W. p. no. In this manner the Fool who thought to escape Death became a prominent character in the spectacle-plays. The Fool always ended by becoming perforce Death's servant. Shakspeare refers to the action in Measure for Measure (Act. III. Sc. i.): ' This line occurs in one of Lydgate's poems and forms the burden of more than one of the popular songs of the day, indicating the rather "sad sincerity" of English life. And cf. Villon's ballad with the refrain: "Oil sont des neiges d'antan ?" The Fear of Death. xlvii " Merely, thou art death's fool ; For him thou labour'st by thy flight to shun, And yet runn'st toward him still." There were many sides, of course, to njediseval life. The monks often forgot their professions of sanctity and, living for the moment for the world, incurred — rightly, no doubt — the satire of the poets and preachers. Chaucer's gay, worldling monk who "loved vene- rie," and the churchman who knew rimes about Robin Hood better than his prayers and could hunt a hare in the fields better than a clause in a Saints' Lives, were not, ]jerhaj)s, uncommon types. Dunbar said, after all, "best to be blyth" in the face of the false world, and to his verses he often gave, like Villon, the sweetness of melancholy. Among the poems of the Percy MS. (Vol. 111. 56) is one entitled Death and Life and thought to be late Middle- English work. It contains a gracious picture of Lady Dame Life, brighter than the sun, redder than the rose, ever laughing for love, awakening life and love in grass and tree, in bird and beast and man, as she speeds, with Comfort, Hope, Love, Courtesy, Honor, Mirth, Mercy and Disport in her train, in her concpiest over Death. The sense of the piece, despite the intrusion of the "ugly fiend Dame Death," is that of gladness in the thought of life. Still the ballad shines by con- trast. It was most common, it appears, to scoff at the world — that was vanity and mockery. Where there was one like Chaucer who could take a calm, sane delight in life, seeing too deeply into the nature of things to despair, there were many like Pope Innocent III. to enu- merate without a gleam of hope the miseries of human conditions.' "/e worldeycleped pQ daneof tyeeres," expresses Dan Michel's judg- ment. Langland, the English Mystic, had likewise an austere and frowning face, and, having in his view the "field full of folk," burned with indignation at the worldlings there that Chaucer loved, the latter poet's sunny and sensuous tales being regarded as mortal sin. Death it was that made the world a mockery. When Graund Amoure, in Hawes' Pastime of Pleasure, became eager to heap up the world's riches it was Death that stood by to warn that these are valueless. So it was Death that rendered Nature unlovely. In the ^:crt:/;«//^ ^/F/W?/^ Hawes brought Lusty Juven- tus within the glorious mansion of Dame Nature, whose perfect loveliness the youth admired ; but Discretion, as was his part, led ' De Contemptu Miindi sive de Miseria Conditionis Humana:. xlviii TJic Fear of Death. to a place where the goddess's back was seen, which was all marred by an image of Death. Taking now into consideration these two sentiments of mediaeval life, the scorn of the world, and the fear of death, it is noteworthy that Lydgate represents most fully the religious attitude. In his youth he loved the pleasures of the world. In his Testame/it, refer- ring to his wayward youth, he tells how he was converted : " When Ver is fresshest of blosmys and of flourys. An vnwar storm his fresshnesse may apayre. Who may withstande the sterne sharp shourys Of dethvs power, wher hym list repayre? Thouhe the feturis fresshe, angelik and fayre, Shewe out in childhood, as any cristal cleer, Dethe can diSace hem witheyne fyfteene yeere. "Which now remembryng in my latter age, Tyme of my childhood, as I reherse shal, Witheyne tifteene holdyng my passage, Mid of a cloistre depict vpon a wal ; I sauhe a crucifix, whos woundys were nat smal, W'ith this woord vide writen ther besyde, ' Behold my meeknesse, O child, and Icfe thy pride.'" From various sources we have the outward aspect of the monk in this "latter age" revealed. In a Shirley MS. (Addit. 16,165 Brit. Mus.) reference is made to "Lydgate the Monk clothed in blakke." Douglas, mentioning Lydgate among the poets in the Court of the Muses, witnesses that he "raid musing him allone" {Palice of Honour ^j In the prolog to the Story of TJiebes, written by Lydgate to complete the Canterbury Tales, he describes himself as looking pale and bloodless and wearing a cape of black — no fit companion for Chaucer's gaver pilgrims one would think. But the most per- fect description is given by William Bullein in his Dialogue against the Fever Pestilence (Lond. 1573). Having spoken of Homer, Hesiod, Ennius and Lucan as favorites of the Muses, Bullein adds to the list of beneficiaries Gower, Skelton, Chaucer, and Lydgate. The last he thus describes: "Lamenting Lidgate, lurking emong the lilies with a bold skons, with a garland of wiliowes about his pate ; booted he was after Sainct Benet's guise, and a black stamell robe, with a lothly monsterous hoode, hahging backwarde ; his stoopyng forward, bewavling euerv estate, with the spirite of prouidence for- seyng the falles of wicked men, and the slipprie seates of Princes, the ebbyng and flowyng, the risyng and falling of men in auctoritie, The Fear of Death. xlix and how vertue doth aduaiince the simple, and vice ouerthrowe the most noble of the worlde." (Bullein's Dialogue, E. E. T. S., p. 17.) Of these accounts there is every justification in Lydgate's writings. The dominant themes are without question those connected with the thought of death and change. The painting at St. Paul's of the procession of Death seemed to impress his mind deeply. Beside his translation of the French verses of the Dance Macawbre more than one reference occurs in his lyrics to the "Daunceof Poules" {Minor Poems, p. 34, 77). Often he pictures life as a hard pilgrim- age, "in which there is no stedfast abyding." He harps recurrently upon the wretchedness of human affairs — the note being taken, he afhrms, from his master Chaucer ! One of his favorite topics is to show the greatness of mankind and how they are brought low : "All do but show a shadow transitory." "Stabilnesse is founde in nothyng, In worldly honour who so lokithe wele ; For dethe ne sparithe emperour ne kyng, Thoughe they be armed in plates made of Steele ; He castithe downe princes from fortunes wheele, As hir spokes rounde about goo, To exemplifye, who that markithe wele, How this world is a thurghfare ful of woo." On the Wretchedness of Worldly Affairs, M. P., p. 126. "Considre and see the transmutacioun, How the sesoun of greene lusty age, Force of juventus, hardy as lioun, Tyme of manhood, wisdom, sad corage, And how decrepitus turneth to dotage, Al cast in ballaunce, bewar, forget nothyng, And thu shalt fynde this lyff a pylgrymage. In which there is no stedfast abydyng." — On the Mutability of Human Affairs, p. 198. The Daunce of Poules or the Daniice Macawbre consists of verses spoken by Death to the various persons he is leading to the grave and of their responses. x\ll must go upon this dance, the Pope, the highest in the land, the Emperor, the Cardinal, the Em- press, the King and all the lower ranks — there is none escape. " In this myrrour every man may fvnde That hym behoveth to gon upon this daunce Who goth to forne or who schal go behynde Al dependeth in goddes ordynaunce. 1 The Co7ivaitional Materials. Wherfor eche man lowly take his chaunce. Deth spareth not pore ne blode ryal, Eche man therfor haue this in remembraunce Of on matere God hath forged al." The Assembly of Gods is the consummate expression of Lydgate's fear of death. Death is here the central figure throughout. In the fear all accord — Lydgate, Reason and Sensuality. Very appropri- ately the last recorded line written by this somewhat sombre monk, line 1 49 1 of the Secrees of Old Philisoffres, is of Death : "Deth al consumyth which may nat be denyed." 3. Tlic Conventional Materials. — The Assembly of Gods in respect to its materials, its machinery, so to speak, is anything but original. The poet is thrown into the conventional sleep by a lake side, on the hackneyed spring morning. At once we expect the poem to be crammed full of stereotyped theology, mythology and allegory. Indeed the work as a whole is merely a mosaic of current traditions, the different parts being fitted together with more or less perfect skill. When, then, we come to estimate the literary effects of compositions of this sort, their origins and history must be taken into account. Mediaeval ideas had always a definite pedigree. While modern romantic literature is most characterized by its personal element, mediaeval literature may be divided rather into impersonal classes, as romances, chronicles, lays, etc. Individuality rarely appeared as an element of poetic composition. Each writer, being under no com- pulsion to originate or invent, simply threw what he had to say into the prevailing form. The genius of poetry, both with respect to form and materials, was conventionality.' An artist was held in esti- mation according to his skill in plagiarizing from the world's literatures. It was sufificient that he could wisely quote, that he had won a reputation for scholarship, and that the epithet "learned" be attached to him. It is characteristic of the age that Dante, after a youth spent in writing love songs, should plan a Convito, to be avast encyclopaedic work, so anxious was he that the title of "learned" might offset the reproach of a youth misspent in composing love sonnets. So Chaucer was called with approbation "learned" and 'This feature of mediaeval literature is commonly spoken of by readers slightingly and with meagre patience. But a traditional literature is cumulative, so to speak, in its effects. Repetition is then a virtue and not a weakness. Tra- ditions are most effective at the momen^t of most common use. A later age is quite incapable of giving full and due credit to conventions that have passed ; it should at least exercise charity. The Conventional Materials. li the "great translator." In his case, by reason of the blending in his works of his own stream of romantic fancy and feeling with this remote traditional tide, often strange anomalies of thought were produced. In fact Chaucer was differentiated from the writers of the period by his originality which worked with new results upon the materials that tradition had given him. Yet it was for his learn- ing that he was most admired. It is not necessary to disprove the extent or accuracy of Chaucer's attainment in this respect.' Like other writers of the period he was learned enough to refer sugges- tively to matters more or less familiar to his readers, who held their own knowledge loosely, and in the manner of all middle-age erudi- tion, without critical accuracy. A work of this period is not then to be interpreted by itself but by the class of literature to which it belongs by virtue of associated themes and motifs. When one first reads the opening stanzas of the Assembly of Gods he exclaims that it is a dream like Piers the Plowman, like the Poem of the Pearl, like the Roman de la Rose and the Divina Comedia. These poems and many more add their several contributions to one's delight. A phrase here, a thought there, the dream, the allegory, the pictured walls, the theme of death, in one way or another serve to recall pretty much the whole of mediaeval literatures — just probably as the author intended. Only by thus recovering the past and setting a work in the historical current, can we understand the pleasure and profit with which a poem of this kind was read by contemporaries and by those of a later time to whom its literary traditions were familiar. We must remember that to Lydgate,'^ for a century after his death, the distinction was given of belong- ing with Gower and Chaucer to the great triumvirate of letters. Not alone for his " sugurit lippis and toungis aureate" was this fame acquired, though for these he seems to have been most admired by Hawes, the Scottish poets, the critic Webb, and the poet Gray; but his praise was in the mouth of his nearest disciple, Benedict Burgh, for that "ye have gadred flouris in this motli mede," — in the literature, that is, of the past — and on this account "to yow is yeven the verray price of excellence." Of course a succeeding age, intent upon the Reformation and the New Learning, forgot the mediaeval traditions, the dream, the allegory, the teachings of Doctrine, and ' Cf. Lounsbury Studies in Chaucer, ch. v. * For the subject of Lydgate's literary fame v. Sidney Lee's summary in Diet, of Nad. Biog. XXXIV., p. 309-10. lii The Convcntioial Materials. Lydgate and his school were relegated to obscurity. Chaucer sur- vives now not for his learning but because of the perrennial charip. of his native genius. No one of us cares much for Boethius or Fulgentius or Prudentius, or even Dante in his doctor's robes, dead, all of them, to modern comprehension. No one will question Lydgate's learning or the extent of his reading. He was more or less familiar with ancient and mediaeval literatures, especially that written in Latin and French. His library contained much the same books that Chaucer, Gower and Langland read. He is as pedantic as they in filling his pages with the names of authors and famous men. He illustrates, as they, the influence exercised in poetry by the scholastic and encyclop;tdic training of the Church and School. Mr. Lee's statement on this point is suf- ficient : "Lydgate mentions familiarly all the great writers of classical and mediaeval antiquity. Of Greek authors he claims some aquaint- ance with 'grete' Homer, Euripides, Demosthenes, Plato, Aristotle and Josephus. Among Latin writers he refers constantly to Ovid, Cicero, Virgil, and his commentator Servius, Livy, Juvenal and 'noble' Persius ; to 'moral' Seneca, Lucan, Statius, Aulus Gellius, Valerius Maximus, Prudentius, Lactantius, Prosper the 'dogmatic' epigrammatist, Vegetius, Boethius, Fulgentius, Alanus ab Insulis, and Guido di Colonna. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are repeatedly commended by him among Italian writers, and he was clearly acquainted with the 'Roman de la Rose,' with French fabliaux, romances, and chronicles." — Diet. Natl. Biog. XXXIV., p. 309. The mosaic of the Assembly of Gods is made up of the following materials, all of which are traditional and common. Introduction with the season motif. The dream. The painted walls. The School of Doctrine. The pagan Divinities. The court scene and the banquet of the Gods. The Nine Worthies and the learned men of antiquity. The allegory. Proverbial phrases. The teaching of the Church. The Seven Sins and Virtues. The Season Motif. liii The battle of Antichrist. The Liberal Sciences. The five Wits. The fear of Death. The romance of Paris and Helen. 4. The Season Motif} The introduction of Middle-English poems by reference to the season of the year and the position of the planets seems generally to have been merely a part of the machinery of composition — a happy way of getting started. The same pre- lude is met with in the Provencal, French and German lyrics of the period with wearisome regularity. The May landscape especially was stereotyped into set forms that could have had but a rhetorical significance. With Chaucer and most of the Scottish poets, the nature-prelude was, one feels, something more than derivative. Chaucer, King James, Dunbar, and Douglas especially appear to draw quite directly from nature with a heartfelt feeling for the season. They write with an unction and an eye for delicate effects never exhibited in the purely conventional prelude. Chaucer's love of nature amounted almost to a passion. Whatever he touched broke into full blossom. Reading him, as Lowell says, is like brush- ing through the dewy grass at sunrise. Poets with Chaucer's spirit had naturally a sense for nature as a dramatic background for their compositions. Thus it was agreed that May" was the "mirthful month," the " quicking" season, the month of "joy and disport," the one that "among months sittith like a queen" — the time, there- fore, for beginning love-poems and romantic allegories. Chaucer tells us that in the Spring he would say farewell to his books and walk out in the meadow; this was the time to compose "Seyntes Legends of Cupid." The association of the romances with the Spring was so common that there came to be a saying that "Arthur is the man of May." Where the dramatic motive was present other seasons would be employed as the occasion required. The Pearl occurred in the high season of August when the reapers' sickles were in the corn. Lyndesay's Drenie opens appro})riately with a ' See McLaughlin, Studies in MedicEval Life and Literature, c\\. i.; also Veitch, Nature in Scottish Poetry. 'There is a primitive feelini,' among poets that Spring is the season of delights. Keats had this sense in a large degree when he began to write Endyinioi "while the early budders are just new," hoping that no wintry season should find his work incomplete. liv The Season Motif dreary winter's night in January. Dunbar's horrible Daiue of the Sinus is seen in February. Sackville's Alirrour for Magistrates, which harks back to the Chaucer School, begins in the " wrathful winter." In one instance Chaucer opens a poem, the Hous of Fame, modelling his work upon Dante, with the December season. In Henryson's melancholy story of Troylus and Creseyde there is an open effort to construct a dramatic background, for the poet says in beginning : " Ane doolie sesoun to ane cairfull dyie Sidd correspond, and be equivalent; Richt sa it wes quhen I began to write This tragedie, the wedder richt fervent, Quhen Aries, in middis of the Lent, Schouris of haill can fra the nortli descend, That scantlie fra the cauld I micht defend." But there are other cases, as Langland's Piers the Plowman,^ where no Eesthetic value in the prelude can be determined. The last of these derivative forms, as in Skelton's Bowge of Court, or Fletcher's Purple Island, seem but rhetorical. The conventional aspect of the introduction is well displayed by Lyndesay when he begins his doleful Monarcliie with the May morning, as if he were unable to get started in any other way, but realizing that his purpose is to describe mortal miseries, he calls a truce to his vain descriptions and turns to the matter in hand. In the minds of some writers there may have been a thought of the planetary influences that ever streamed down from the heavens upon the earth. Astrology is known to have been an attractive theme to the mediaeval poets. "It was the delight of Dante," says Dean Church, "to interweave the poetry of feeling and of the out- ward sense with the grandeur of order, proportion, measured mag- nitudes, the relation of abstract forces displayed on such a scene as the material universe." Chaucer constantly makes a literary use of astrology though personally skeptical of the pretentions of the science. This perception of the starry forces at work in the lives of men must have been present in the first of the preludes. Thus the introduction served almost the function of an invocation to the Muses. King James, indeed, invoking the Muses Nine, passes at once to consider the Spring "that full of vertu is and gude." In one of the very earliest of the poems containing the typical season 'Langland seemed to have had Mapes' Golias satire in mind when he began to write. Note Mapes' "Inter prodigia plebem innumeram." The Vision. ' Iv motive, the Apocalypse of Golias, written toward the close of the 12th century, the astronomical allusion is prominent • "A Tauro torrida lampade Cynthii Fundente jacula ferventis radii Umbrosas nemoris latebras adii, Explorans gratiam levis Favonii. Aestivae medio diei tempore, Frondosa recubans Jovis sub arbore, Astantis video formain Pythagorae : Deus scit, nescio, utrum in corpore." May was the month of life because the planets at that season had special power of hot and moist.' With Lydgate and his immediate pupils, as Hawes in the Pas- tifne of Pleasure, the astronomical introduction is apparently a matter of pure literary habit. The vision of the Temple of Glas takes place in December, after its model the Hous of Fame. The opening of the Assembly of Gods — the only reference to nature in the work — is conventional. It is barely possible that in the monk's scholastic mind there was in the reference to the spheres the sug- gestion of the harmony to be achieved by Reason and Sensuality. 5. The Visio)!.^ In the psychology of the Middle Ages the vision is perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon displayed. The records of dreams constitute in Europe and England an entire lit- erature with features peculiar to the kind. Some of this dream- work is in imitation of the revelations of Scripture ; some works are clearly due to the hallucinations of an ascetic life ; some are as plainly the results of adoration, the fruits of "contemplative life," in the exercise of which men passed from the knowledge of things of sense to knowledge of things eternal ; others reveal the passion for dogmatic definition that characterized the schoolmen however mystical the theme ; other forms are secular and merely a part of the higher rhetoric of poetry as then conceived and developed. After the Bible, the head sources of the mediaeval visions seem to have been the " Dialogues" of St. Gregory, a compilation of many religious dreams, the De Coiisolatione Philosophice of Boethius, and the Somnium Scipioiiis in Cicero's treatise on The Republic. In ' For the effects of the seasons upon the lives of men see Lydgate's Testat}ieni, The Mutability of Human Affairs, and the Secrees. *See Y^tcVy'^ History of European Morals, 11., pp. lib et seq., 220. For fur- ther references to the literature of the vision see Schick's Intro., p. cxviii. Ivi Proverbial Phrases. general, two types of vision are distinguishable, in accordance with their monastic or worldly origin. In the visions of one class the dreamer takes into his view the circles of the supernatural, and reports as man may of the revelations accorded him either of Heaven or Hell or the intermediate states. In the other class the objects of contemplation are in the "wilderness of this world," and the dream may be but a poetical device, a kind of framework for any secular action or incident, as the experiences of a lover in the Romaioit of the Rose. In English literature illustration of the first type is furnished by The Pearl, with its view of the heavenly city ; Dunbar's Dance of the Seven Deadly Sinns, with its vision of Hell ; and Lyndesay's Dreme, which gives the reader sight of all the circles of the Infinite. Probably the earliest instance in England of this kind of dream is the Apocalypse of Golias, written in Latin by Walter Mapes (b. 1143), a work which enjoyed an extraordinary popularity during the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief examples of the second type are Langland's Piers the Plow- man, Chaucer's several dreams. King James's Qiiair, Dunbar's Golden Targe, Skelton's Bowge of Court, etc. The Assembly of Gods is in its scope a vision of the first order, though the battle takes j)lace in Microcosm. Probably Lydgate did not have any very real sense of the other worlds, nor could he ever loose his imagination so that he really saw visions— at best he asked but for dogmatic definition as the schoolmen before him. 6. Proverbial Phrases. Like other writers of the period Lyd- gate makes a conspicuous use of conventional phrases and pro- verbial sayings. A considerable body of proverbs, rhetorical figures, and phrases may be gathered from his works, some of which are peculiar to his own usage and style, while others are the common property of literature. On a later page is given a list of the prov- erbs and phrases emploved in this poem. The manner of the employment of a stock simile by writers is well illustrated by the history of the phrase "hair like gold wire" which seems to have been given currency by Lydgate. The simile first occurs in Layamon's^r/// (11. 7047-8), where it is employed to describe King Pir who was so wondrous fair. By Lydgate it was first used to characterize the feathers of a bird in the Chorl and Bird. In the Temple of Glas and the Assembly of Gods (1. 373) the reference is to Venus with her ever sunnish hair. In the Troy-Book it occurs no less than seven times being applied both to men and women. The larger compari- The Fai/itcd Wall. Ivii son "hair like gold" is often found in European literature before Lydgate as in the Roman de la Rose, but this special phrase is Lyd- gate's own. From this time to the close of the sixteenth century the figure is in constant employment', generally descriptive of women of ideal beauty. Its force is partly spent in Shakespeare's time, for the reverence for gold hair is satirized by the saying of Benedick in Much Ado about Nothing (II., 3, 36) : " Her hair shall be of what colour it please God." In sonnet cxxx. reference is made to Lydgate's simile in the line, "If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head." 7. The Painted Wall.^ The pictured wall was another rhetorical device common to mediaeval poetry — an elastic framework into which any subject could be made to fit. It was a convenient means of extending indefinitely the scope of one's work. To such an extent was the method carried that a secondary poet like Stephen Hawes cannot mention a wall without covering it over with pictures. Instances of the usage will be found in Boccaccio's Thesiad, in the romance of Guigemar by Marie de France, Lorris's Rotttan de la Rose, Chaucer's Boke of the Duchesse, Lydgate's Temple of Glas and Assembly of Gods, Hawes's Pastime of Pleasure, Dunbar's Dream, Barclay's Towre of Vertue and Honour, etc. In the romances the stories depicted are commonly those of love. In Guigemar, for instance, the walls are painted with images of Venus and scenes from Ovid's Art of Love, and in the Boke of the Duchesse the imagery is that of the Roman de la Rose. In descriptions of the temples of Mars and Diana scenes of war and the hunt will appear. The siege of Troy or Thebes was a favorite theme for the walls of palaces. Scriptural scenes occur in cathedrals and cloisters. Dun- bar saw on his chamber walls "All the nobill stoiyis old and new, Sen oure first father formed was of clay." ' For many instances of its usage see Schick's Temple of Glas, notes, pp. 88- 90 ; and Kolbing, Bevis of Hamloun, notes, pp. 244-5 ; ^"d for a full discussion of its usage and resthetical meaning see a paper by the present editor read before the English Club (Chicago) and reported in outline in the University Quarterly Calen- dar (May, 1895), p. 80. ''See Warton, Hist, of En g. Poetry, II., pp. 131, 275, 402; III., p. 63; on page 402, Vol. II., is reprinted a passage from an Itinerary written in 1322 describ- ing Westminster palace ; see Longfellow's Golden Legetid for instances of picture and plav; a description of convent walls is given in Piers tlie Plowman'' s Crede, 11. 1 86, et seq. Iviii Pagan and Christian Traditions. While this method is an open piece of machinery when viewed as rhetoric, quite ludicrous too when as elaborate as Lydgate's arbor walls which reveal the history of the world in small, yet it should be remembered that during the Middle Ages the picture was the favorite means of conveying story and doctrine. It is a remark- able feature of mediaeval art that often no positive line of division can be drawn between literature and picture or spectacular show. The paintings on royal palaces of the scenes of war, the weaving on ladies* tapestries of the incidents of romance, the picturing on cloister walls of the saints and scenes from Scripture, the depiction in public places as on the bridge at Lucerne and in the churches in France and England of such instructional processionals as the Dance of Death, the scenic representation of sacred things in liturgies, and pageants and street plays — these constituted the popular literature of the period, of far greater influence than the written page that issued from the scriptorium of the monastery. Allegory, the written picture, necessarily adopted the scenic method for which the mind was already prepared. This interplay of imagery between picture and allegory contributed much to the later establishment of an independent literature. But for the present the pictorial was the literary. Even Chaucer was not freed from the necessity of "drawing of picture." 8. The Admixture of Pagan and Christian Traditions. — One characteristic of the Assembly of Gods is the curious admixture in it of pagan and Christian traditions. The pagan deities are all ranged on the side of the Vices of Christendom. The Christian Vice is represented as the son of Pluto, who is the Lord of the Christian Hell. The ancient Fateful Atropos, who cut with shears the thread of pagan life, is transformed into Death with a lance, the dread of the Christian Church. It was the almost universal practice of the poets of late Middle English to confound the mythology of all peoples and to mix up incongruously the pagan myths and Christian allegories, constitut- ing in fact a veritable mythology of their own. Gower in his Confessio Amantis, Douglas in h\'s Paltce of Honour, King James in his Quair, and others of the allegorical school display their learning in this man- ner. Such usage points to the renaissance of paganism, accompany- ing the temporary decay of Christianity in the 14th century, and to the rise of a new mythology, and foreshadows the new learning of the next century. The results of this renaissance in Europe a century later Pagan and Christia/t Traditions. lix are well exhibited by Browning in his poem, The Bishop Orders his Tomb, where Pans and Nymphs, symbols of Delphic wisdom and Bacchic revels, the Saviour on the Mount, St. Praxed in his glory and Moses with his tables are brought into juxtaposition on the sculptured tomb. We know too that in Italy Plato was called the second Moses and Orpheus, Empedocles, Parmenides and others were placed on a level with David and the prophets. In some cases there seems to be more than a jjoetic use of the machinery of mythology — as if some profound meaning was read into the ancient myths. Always when traditional currents from different sources blend, the underlying human meanings are transferred and commonly understood. When Angelo painted in the Last Judgment an Herculean Christ he was clearly not irreverent. Dante wrote Olympus for Paradise {Purg. c. xxiv. 1. 15). He spoke of Christ as "Sommo Giove" who was crucified for us [Purg. c. vi. 1. 118). In canto xxix, the Grifon naturally symbolizes the Christ. In a like spirit Milton and others have spoken of Christ as the "mighty Pan," and Milton's Deity, as Lowell observes, was a Calvanistic Zeus. Even Bunyan introduces, into his Holy War, Cerberus, who swears by St. Mary, and the Furies, Alecto, Megaera and Tisiphone, and the incongruity of their presence there seems to have escaped his attention. Chaucer in calling one of his works the Seintes Legend of Cupyde must have entered into the spirit of the heathen pantheism as a real form of religion.' It is not so clear that Lydgate entered very deeply into the spirit of mythology. His usage is not very consistent. In the Assembly of Gods Cupid is counted among the vices. But in another piece attributed to Lydgate (Fairfax MSS. xvi. Eibl. Bodl.) the rubrics of the missal are applied to the god Cupid for whose sake many were martyrs. In the Life of Our Lady the beauty of the Virgin Mary is compared with that of Helen, Polyxena, Lucretia, Dido, Bath- sheba and Rachel. The clearest case of insight is in his Testament where Jesus is spoken of as "Our Orpheus that fro captvvyte^ Feit Erudice to his celestial tour." In the present instance Doctrine is under the necessity of explain- ing away the heathen worship. 'Cf. Mr. Jephson's remark, Skeat's ed. Pr. Tale, notes p. 136. * Jesus was frequently represented in early Christian paintings in the form of Orpheus, who overcame death. Ix The Allegorical Type. 9. The Allegorical 7)^