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 BRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 
 
 
 mm 
 
 JNIVERSAL HISTORY 
 
 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY 
 
 EXTENDING FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES 
 TO THE YEAR 1892 
 
 FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS, TEACHERS, AND READERS 
 
 LOUIS HEILPRIN 
 
 
 ^■■- -.^^/ 
 
 / 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 189;> 
 
CoPTRioHT, 1884, 1892, 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
 Elkctrotyped and Printed 
 AT THE Appleton Press, U. S. a. 
 
 ,^\^ 
 V 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 REMARKS CONGERNmO THE PLAN OF TEE WORK. 
 
 It will be seen that the plan adopted in the present work 
 has been to deal separately with the events of different countries. 
 The events in any one year are not arranged all in chronological 
 order, but each state is introduced independently. Several coun- 
 tries are, of course, grouped together in one division whenever 
 the connection of events demands. In the history of the Middle 
 Ages and of modern times down to the American Revolution 
 the first place, as a rule, is accorded to the British Isles. France 
 follows, and next in order come the countries of central Europe 
 and Italy and Spain, after which the remaining states of Europe 
 are introduced. The political history of the whole of the Old 
 World is given before that of the New. From the time of the 
 American Revolution the first place is assigned to the United 
 States, the order otherwise remaining in the main as before. It 
 has been deemed proper to present the history of Europe in the 
 year 1848 in a connected sketch. Events not political are always 
 left to the end. The names in the obituary lines are arranged 
 in chronological order. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL AGGURACT. 
 
 A comparison of the dates in this book with those in any 
 ordinary work of reference will reveal a great amount of dis- 
 crepancy. It is little understood to what an extent encyclo- 
 pedic publications contradict each other in the matter of dates. 
 Uniform accuracy is seldom achieved, owing to the amount 
 of labor involved and the readiness to accept dates on the 
 part of compilers, who are little apt to be on their guard 
 
iy PREFACE. 
 
 where no special reason for doubt is present. Even able 
 and conscientious historians will often slip into chronologi- 
 cal errors. It will frequently happen that where the con- 
 current statements in several reference-books appear to leave 
 no doubt whatever concerning the date of a particular his- 
 torical event, a grave error will result from relying on the tes- 
 timony. 
 
 An experience of many years in the editorial department of 
 the " American Cyclopaedia " charged with the verification of 
 historical and biographical dates, has taught the compiler of the 
 present work the lesson of mistrust and caution. A few exam- 
 ples may serve to give the reader an idea of the singular pitfalls 
 which beset the path of the chronologist, and of the confusion 
 and contradiction which he constantly encounters. 
 
 The date of the capture of Prague by the forces of France 
 and her allies in the War of the Austrian Succession is Nov. 
 26, 1741. In the compendious "Encyclopaedia of Chronol- 
 ogy " of Woodward and Cates (London, 1872), under Prague, 
 we are informed that the event took place Oct. 26, 1742, 
 and we meet with the same date in the article on that city 
 in the fourth edition of "Pierer's Universal-Lexikon." * In 
 this latter work, in the article Osterreiciiischer Erbfolge- 
 KEiEG, the event is mentioned in the account of the operations 
 of 1741, but we still find Oct. 26 instead of Nov. 26, and, 
 to remove all doubt from the mind of the perplexed student, 
 there immediately follows the statement that on Oct. 27 the 
 elector of Bavaria entered the captured city.f In William 
 Coxe's standard "History of the House of Austria" (1807) the 
 event is likewise placed a month too early. In " Oesterreich 
 unter Maria Theresia," &c. (Berlin 1882-'4), forming part of 
 Wilhelm Oncken's great historical collection, " Allgemeine Ge- 
 schichte in Einzeldarstellungen," the city is stated to have 
 fallen in the night of Dec. 5-6. Oncken's own work in the 
 same collection, " Das Zeitalter Friedrich's des Grossen," gives 
 
 * The correct date is given in the sixth edition. 
 
 f The dates do not occur in the corresponding article (greatly condensed) in 
 the last edition of the " Universal-Lexikon." 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 the correct date. Under the head of Belleisle in the " Ency- 
 clopsedia of Chronology" both month and year are correctly 
 
 stated. 
 
 In 1800 a conspiracy was formed against the life of Bona- 
 parte by Ceracchi, Arena, and others. The First Consul was to 
 be assassinated Oct. 10. The plot was betrayed, and on that 
 day the conspirators were seized, and they were executed Jan. 
 30, 1801. The "Encyclopaedia of Chronology," under the 
 head of Ceracchi, gives as the respective dates Oct. 10, 1801, 
 and Feb. 10, 1802. In the voluminous " Dictionnaire en- 
 cyclopedique de I'histoire de France," edited by Le Bas, the 
 article on Arena informs us that he engaged in the plot of 
 Oct. 10, 1801, and that he was executed Jan. 30, 1802. Dr. 
 Thomas, in his excellent "Dictionary of Biography," both in 
 the notice of Ceracchi and in that of Arena, has likewise slipped 
 into the error of stating that they met their death in 1802. We 
 also find 1802 in the article on Arena in the fourth edition of the 
 " Universal-Lexikon." * 
 
 Garibaldi's victory over the Neapolitan forces at Yelletri was 
 achieved May 19, 1849. Instead of May 19 we find March 19 
 (in each case under the head of Veli^etri) in the " Encyclopae- 
 dia of Chronology," in the twelfth edition of " Brockhaus' Con- 
 versations-Lexikon" (1879), and in "Beeck's Handlexikon der 
 Geschichte und Biographic" (Berlin, 1881), a chronological man- 
 ual remarkable for accuracy. This case is a curious instance of 
 false concurrent testimony with regard to the date of an event 
 near to our own time. 
 
 The capture of Jefferson Davis took place on the morning 
 of May 10, 1865. May 11 is the date given in Greeley's 
 "American Conflict," in Lossing's "History of the Civil War," 
 in " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates " (under the head of United 
 States), and in " Unsere Zeit " (a supplement to " Brockhaus' 
 Conversations - Lexikon "). In Oscar Jiiger's supplement to 
 Schlosser's " Weltgcschichte " we have May 13, and we find the 
 same error in the notice of Davis in the thirteenth edition of 
 "Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " (1883). 
 
 * The error does not occur in the last edition. 
 
yi PREFACE. 
 
 The utmost confusion prevails in books respecting dates in 
 the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, re- 
 sulting from the circumstance that the Gregorian calendar was 
 adopted at different times by different countries,* It has been 
 customary with historians down to our own time to retain the 
 Old Style in treating the history of a Protestant country in the 
 period before the adoption of the New Style in that country, but 
 there is no uniformity in this respect, the New Style being very 
 frequently used. The dates of events of an international charac- 
 ter (battles, treaties), events belonging at once to the history of 
 a Protestant and a Catholic country, are given according to the 
 Old Style by one writer and by another according to the New. 
 In treating of the wars between the English and the French in 
 the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, the 
 French historians will follow the Gregorian calendar, the English 
 to a great extent the Julian. The same writer will not unfre- 
 quently use the Old Style in one place and the New in another. 
 The case grows worse when we come to encyclopedic publica- 
 tions, in whose preparation different authorities are consulted at 
 every step. The individual statements in any one work will fre- 
 quently be found to contradict each other. Let us take some of 
 the principal events in the Thirty Years' War, and examine the 
 
 * The reformation of the calendar instituted by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 
 consists in amending the Julian calendar by reducing the number of leap years in 
 400 years from 100 to 97, the centurial years being made ordinary years except 
 those whose numbers are divisible by 400 (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc., being 
 ordinary years, and 1600, 2000, 2400, etc., leap years). The reckoning, according 
 to the Julian calendar, or Old Style, thus drops back 3 days in 400 years behind 
 the New Style. Gregory XIII. directed that ten days be dropped out of the year 
 1582 (Oct. 5 was made Oct. 15), so as to bring back the vernal equinox to where 
 it bad been at the time of the council of Nice (323), it having retrograded to 
 March 11. The difference between Old and New Style remained 10 days down to 
 1700 (1600 having been retained as a leap year); from 1700 to 1800 it was 11 
 days ; since 1800 it has been 12 days ; from 1900 to 2100 it will be 13 days. The 
 Gregorian calendar was at once or soon adopted by the Catholic countries, but the 
 Protestant states continued long to adhere to the Julian calendar. In the Prot- 
 estant states of Germany, in Denmark, and in the greater part of Holland, the 
 change from Old to New Style was made in 1700; in Great Britain, in 1752; in 
 Sweden, in 1753. Russia has retained the Old Style to the present day. 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 chronological statements in various works. The date of the 
 storming of Magdeburg in the " Encyclopaedia of Chronology " is 
 given (under the head of Magdeburg) according to the New- 
 Style, May 20, 1631 ; in " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates," ac- 
 cording to the Old, May 10. The battle of Leipsic (under the 
 head of Leipsic) is given in both according to the Old Style, 
 Sept. 7, 1631, and each gives the battle of Liitzen (under the 
 head of Lutzen) according to the New, Nov. 16, 1632. In the 
 notice of General Pappenheim the " Encyclopaedia of Chronolo- 
 gy " gives Nov. 6 as the date of the latter battle. In the " En- 
 cyclopaedia of Chronology " the battle of Wittstock is stated to 
 have been fought Oct. 4, 1636 (the date according to the New 
 Style) under the head of Wittstock, and Sept. 24 under the 
 head of Bannier (Baner). The writer of the article Austria 
 in the last edition of the " Encyclopedia Britannica " gives the 
 capture of Magdeburg and the battles of Liitzen and Wittstock 
 according to the New Style, but the battle of Leipsic according 
 to the Old. In Weber's universal history we have the Old 
 Style for the battles of Leipsic and Liitzen, and the New for the 
 battle of Nordlingen (Aug. 27-Sept. 6, 1634) and that of Witt- 
 stock. It will occasionally happen that writers who use the New 
 Style will fall into the ludicrous error of adding 10 (11) days to 
 a date already converted to the New Style. In the article on 
 the Thirty Years' War in the very valuable " Encyklopiidie der 
 neueren Geschichte" (Gotha, 1880-'84) the writer, who uses the 
 New Style, gives March 16, 1629, as the date of publication 
 of the Edict of Restitution, which, however, was dated March 
 6 according to the Gregorian calendar, and in like manner he 
 states that the battle of Wittstock was fought Oct. 14, 1636, 
 when in reality the true date is Oct. 4, New Style (Old Style, 
 Sept. 24), which date is given in the same work in the article 
 Baner. 
 
 Another source of perplexity to the chronologist, more espe- 
 cially in dealing with biographical dates, arises from the circum- 
 stance that the time of the beginning of the Christian year has 
 been variously placed at difiFerent periods and in different coun- 
 tries, so that it frequently happens that an event described as 
 having taken place in a particular year by a contemporary writer 
 
Vin PREFACE. 
 
 actually falls in a different year according to modern chrono- 
 logical reckoning.* 
 
 Two cases will here be presented in which there is a bewil- 
 dering confusion in books due to the cause here indicated. The 
 first is the date of the accession of the house of Stuart to the 
 throne of Scotland in the person of Robert II., who was pro- 
 claimed king Feb. 22, 1371 (according to the old mode of reck- 
 oning, 1370), on the death of David Bruce. Let us first open 
 the "Encyclopaedia of Chronology." Under the head of Scot- 
 land and under Robert II. we find the date correctly stated. 
 In the notice of David Bruce, however, that monarch is stated 
 to have died Feb. 22, 1370. In Margaret Macarthur's " History 
 of Scotland," which forms part of Freeman's " Historical Series," 
 we likewise find 1370. The same error appears three times in 
 Hermann's "Lexikon der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte " (1882), 
 under Bruce, Schottlatstd, and Stuart, and twice in " Brock- 
 haus' Conversations-Lexikon " (twelfth edition), in the articles 
 ScHOTTLAND and Stuart. "Pierer'sUniversal-Lexikon" (sixth 
 edition) gives 1371 in the article Schottland and 1370 under 
 Stuart. The second case is the date of the institution of the Or- 
 der of the Golden Fleece by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 
 on the occasion of his nuptials with Isabella of Portugal. The 
 event took place in the town of Bruges Jan. 10, 1430, or, accord- 
 ing to the old mode of reckoning, 1429, the year having to run on 
 till Easter. We find the wrong year 1429 in Beeck's " Handlexi- 
 kon der Geschichte und Biographic," in " Haydn's Dictionary of 
 Dates," in Hermann's " Lexikon der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte " 
 (in the notice of Philip the Good), and in the sixth edition of 
 " Pierer's Universal-Lexikon " (in the article on the Golden 
 Fleece and in that on Philip the Good). The " Encyclopaedia of 
 
 * In England the year formerly began with the 25th of March. It was not 
 until 1752 that the first of January was made the beginning of the legal year. In 
 parts of Italy, likewise, the first day of the year was the 25th of March down to 
 the close of the last century, and the Pisan reckoning was a year ahead of the 
 Florentine. In the Venetian Republic it was the first day of March. In France 
 during the period of the Capetian aud Valois dynasties the year began with 
 Easter. The duchy of Burgundy and portions of the Netherlands had the same 
 reckoning. 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 Chronology " gives Jan. 10, 1429 (citing an authority) under the 
 head of Golden Fleece, and in the notice of Philip his mar- 
 riage is stated to have taken place on that day, but under the 
 head of Bruges we are correctly informed that the Order of the 
 Golden Fleece was instituted in 1430. 
 
 Chronological inaccuracy in books is in no small measure 
 merely the evidence of faulty printing. In the present work 
 the proof-reading has been so carefully done that the author 
 feels assured that this source of error has been completely 
 eliminated. 
 
 L. H. 
 
OHEOE"OLOGICAL TABLE OF 
 UjSTIYEESAL HISTOET. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4400 {about; Brugsch).* Foundation of tlie first dynasty in Egypt. 
 
 3700 {about; Brugsch). Erection of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh. 
 
 2500 {about ; Duncker). Rise of the kingdom of Elam. 
 
 2200-1700 {about; Brugsch). Dominion of the Hyksos in Egypt. 
 
 1700 {1600)-1250 {about). Period of the greatest power and splen- 
 dor of the New Empire in Egypt. Aahmes, Thothmes III., 
 Rameses II., Eameses III. (Meneptah, about 1320, general- 
 ly considered by Egyptologists the Pharaoh of the Exodus.) 
 
 1500 {about; ?). Babylonia is united into a single powerful mon- 
 archy. 
 
 1450-1300 {about; DuncJcer). Period of the greatest power of the 
 Hittite realm in Syria. 
 
 1300 {about). Reign of Shalmaneser I. in Assyria. 
 
 1250 {about ; Duncker). The Phoenicians enter upon their career as 
 a great colonizing people. 
 
 1100 {about). Dorian migration into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 1055 {about, Duncker; about 1095 or lOSO, common chronology). -f 
 Establishment of monarchy by the Hebrews ; Saul king. 
 
 1033 {about, Duncker; 1058, Oppert). The Philistines overwhelm 
 
 Saul at Gilboa. David proclaims himself king in Judah. 
 993 {about, Duncker; 1017, Oppert). Accession of Solomon. 
 953 {about, Duncker; 977, Oppert). Revolt of the Ten Tribes 
 under Jeroboam from Rehoboam ; Israel and Judah sepa- 
 rate kingdoms. 
 949 {about, Duncker; 973, Oppert). Sheshonk (Shishak), king of 
 
 Egypt, takes Jerusalem. 
 929 {about, Duncker; 958, Oppert). Accession of Asa in Judah. 
 899 {about, Duncker; 931, Oppert). Accession of Omri in Israel. 
 873 {about, Duncker; 917, Oppert). Accession of Jehoshaphat in 
 Judah. 
 
 * The views of other authorities will be found stated in the Appendix. 
 + See IIebkews in the Appendi.\. 
 
2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 853 {about, DuncJcer; 900, Oppert.) Ahab, king of Israel, is de- 
 feated and slain by the Syrians at Ramoth-Gilead. 
 
 850 (about). Colonization of Carthage by the Tyrians. 
 Legislation of Lycurgus in Sparta. 
 
 843 (about, Duncker ; 887, Oppert). Jehu usurps the throne of 
 Israel. 
 
 792 (about, Duncker; 811, Oppert). Accession of Uzziah in Judah. 
 
 790 (about, Duncker; 8S5, Oppert). Accession of Jeroboam II. in 
 Israel. 
 
 776. Beginning of the OljTiipiads. 
 
 753 (common chronology). Foundation of Rome. 
 
 750 (about). Foundation of Syracuse by the Corinthians. 
 
 748 (about, Duncker; 772, Oppert). End of the dynasty of Jehu in 
 Israel. 
 
 743-724 (730-710). First great war of Sparta against Messenia, 
 which is reduced to subjection. 
 
 734-732 (about). Tiglath-pileser II. of Assyria subjects Syria. 
 
 728 (727). Accession of Hezekiah in Judah. 
 
 731 (about). Chalda^a becomes subject to Tiglath-pileser II. 
 
 722 (721). The Assyrian king Sargon takes Samaria, and puts an 
 end to the kingdom of Israel. 
 
 701 (700). Expedition of Sennacherib into Syria. Siege of Jeru- 
 salem. Sennacherib encounters the forces of Egypt and 
 Ethiopia. His expedition fails. 
 
 697 (698). Accession of Manasseh in Judah. 
 
 650 (about). All Egypt united under Psammetichus. 
 
 645-628 (685-668).* Unsuccessful attempt of the Messenians to free 
 themselves from the Spartan yoke. 
 
 640 (about). Media shakes off her dependence on Assyria, and ap- 
 pears as a single united kingdom. 
 
 625 (about). Great irruption of the Scythians into Media, Assyria, 
 and Syria. 
 
 622 (about). Reformation of Josiah in Judah, 
 
 609 (about). Necho, king of Egypt, crushes the power of Judah 
 at Megiddo ; Josiah is slain. 
 
 607 (606). \ The Medes and Babylonians take Nineveh, and over- 
 w^helm the Assyrian monarchy. 
 
 605. Victory of Nebuchadnezzar over Necho at Carchemish, 
 
 597 (598). Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and carries away the 
 principal inhabitants. (See 586.) 
 
 * The earlier dates, 685-6G8, are according to the common chronology. Recent 
 authorities place the war 40 years later. 
 
 t Some authorities place the full of Nineveh in 625. 
 
CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL DISTORT. 3 
 
 594. Legislation of Solon in Athens. 
 
 586 {587). Nebuchadnezzar takes and destroys Jerusalem, and 
 puts an end to the kingdom of Judah. Babylonish cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 570 (about). Nebuchadnezzar attacks Egypt, dethrones Hophra 
 (Apries), and places Amasis on the throne. 
 
 560. Pisistratus usurps the government of Athens. 
 
 550 (about).* The Persians, under the lead of Cyrus, destroy the 
 Median monarchy. 
 
 546 (about). Cyi'us overthrows Croesus, king of Lydia. 
 
 538. Cyrus conquers Babjdon. 
 
 529. Cambyses succeeds Cyrus as king of Persia. 
 • 527. Hippias and Hipparchus succeed their father, Pisistratus, in 
 the government of Athens. 
 
 527 (5S3). Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 
 
 522. Usurpation of Pseudo-Smerdis in Persia. Death of Cam- 
 byses. 
 
 521. Darius Hystaspis ascends the throne of Persia. 
 
 521-516 (about). Eebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 514. Miu'der of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 
 510. Expulsion of Hippias from Athens. Clisthenes heads the 
 democratic party. 
 Destruction of Sybaris by the Crotonians. 
 
 510 (about). The Romans abolish royalty and establish a republic. 
 Institution of the Consulship. 
 
 508-506 (about). Darius engages in a disastrous expedition against 
 the Scythians. The Persians extend their dominion over 
 Thrace, and receive the submission of Macedonia. 
 
 501 (Rawlinson, Clinton; 502, Grote; 500, Hertzberg). Aristagoras 
 excites a revolt of the Ionian cities from Pei'sia. 
 
 500 (Rawl. ; 499, Clinton, Hertzberg). Expedition of the lonians 
 against Sardis. They enter the city, and tlien retreat. 
 
 497 (about). The Romans defeat the Latins at Lake Eegillus. 
 
 494. Defeat of the Asiatic Greeks by the Pereians m the naval 
 battle of Lade. Fall of Miletus. 
 
 494 (Smith's Dictionary, Hertzberg; Jf.92, Rawl.). First secession 
 of the Plebeians from Rome. Institution of the office of 
 Tribunes of the People. 
 
 493 (Smith's Diet., Hertzberg ; JfOl, Rawl.). The Latins are com- 
 
 * According to the common chronology 558. An inscription has recently been 
 discovered of the Babylonian king Nabonidus, according to which, if the decipher- 
 ment be correct, the overthrow of the Median king Astyages occurred in 550. 
 2 
 
4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNLV^ERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 pelled to enter into a league with Rome, which is threatened 
 
 by the power of the ^qiii and Volsci. 
 492. First Persian expedition against Greece under Mardonius. 
 490. Invasion of Greece by the ai'my of Darius. It is vanquished 
 
 by the Athenians, under Miltiades, at Marathon. 
 489 (Smith'' s Diet., Hertzberg). Miltiades unsuccessfully attacks 
 
 Paros. He is thrown into prison by the Athenians. 
 486 (Justi).* Xerxes succeecls his father, Darius Hystaspis. 
 486 (about). League of the Hernici with Rome. 
 483 (Clinton, Hertzberg). Ostracism of Aristides. 
 480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. Defense of Thermopylae by 
 
 Leonidas. Naval battle of Artemisium. Burning of Athens. 
 
 The Greeks, led by Themistocles and Eurybiades, vanquish 
 
 the Persian fleet at Salamis. Flight of Xerxes. 
 The Carthaginians attempt to conquer the Greek cities of 
 
 Sicily. Their army is overwhelmed by Gelon, tyrant of 
 
 Syracuse, at Himera. 
 479. The Persian army under Mardonius is crushed by the Greeks, 
 
 under the command of Pausanias, in the battle of Plataea. 
 
 Simultaneous victory of the Greeks, under Leotychides and 
 
 Xanthippus, over the Persian naval forces at Mycale. 
 477. The hegemony ua Greece passes from Sparta to Athens. 
 471 (probably). Fall of Themistocles. 
 471 (SmitJi's Diet., Hertzberg ; JflO, Rawl.). Passage of the Publi- 
 
 lian Law in Rome ; the right is accorded to the Plebeians 
 
 of initiating legislation in their assemblies. 
 468 (about). Triumph of democracy in the cities of Sicily. 
 466. Victories of Cimon over the Persians at the Eurymedon. 
 465. Murder of Xerxes by Artabanus. Accession of Artaxerxes 
 
 Longimanus, his son. 
 464. Destruction of Sparta by an earthquake. 
 464-455. Rising of the Messenian helots against the Spartans. 
 463 (about). i The Argives reduce Mycenae, and enslave or drive 
 
 away its inhabitants. 
 458 (about). Return of Jews from Babylonia to Jerusalem under Ezra. 
 457. Battle of Tanagra between the Spartans and Athenians. 
 456. The Athenians vanquish the Boeotians at CEnophyta, and ob- 
 tain their submission, with that of Phocis and Locris. 
 456 (about). Completion of the Long Walls connecting Athens 
 
 with the Piraeus. Athens subdues ^gina. 
 
 * Some authorities place the death of Darius in 485. 
 
 t See note in Grote's "History of Greece," vol. v., p. 820 (Amer. edition). 
 
CHROXOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 5 
 
 450 (about). Institution of tlie Decemvirate in Rome. Publication 
 of the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 
 
 448. Sacred War between the Phocians and Delphians. 
 
 448 {about). Abolition of the Decemvirate. 
 
 447. Defeat of the Athenians at Coronea, by which they lose their 
 hold on Boeotia, Phocis, and Locris. 
 
 445 {about). Nehemiah undertakes the rebuilding of the walls of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 444. Pericles assumes the sole direction of affairs in Athens. 
 
 442 {about). Institution of the military tribunes and censors in 
 Rome to supersede the consuls.* 
 
 436. Beginning of the dispute between Corinth and Corcyra regard- 
 ing Epidamnus. 
 
 435. Naval victory of the Corcyraeans over the Corinthians near 
 Actium. 
 
 432. Athens joins Corcyra against Corinth. Corinth incites Poti- 
 da^a to revolt from Athens. 
 
 431. Sparta espouses the cause of Corinth, and makes war on Athens. 
 Beginning of the Peloponnesian War*. 
 
 431-425. The Spartans invade Attica five times : 431, 430, 428, 427, 
 425. 
 
 429. The Athenians reduce Potidsea. Pericles dies of the plague. 
 
 428. Revolt of Lesbos fi'om the Athenian confederacy. 
 
 427. The Athenians reduce Mytilene, and become masters of Les- 
 bos. Platffia, the ally of Athens, surrenders to the Pelopon- 
 nesians. 
 
 425. The Athenian commander Cleon takes Sphacteria. 
 
 Death of Artaxerxes I. Reigns of Xerxes II. and Sogdianus. 
 
 424. The Spartan general Brasidas takes Amphipolis. Victoiy of 
 the Bceotians over the Athenians at Delium. 
 Accession of Darius II., Nothus, in Persia, t 
 
 423. Banishment of Thucydides from Athens, 
 
 422. Cleon, sent by the Athenians to recover Amphipolis, is de- 
 feated and slain by the army of Brasidas, who also falls in 
 the battle. 
 
 421. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta. 
 
 419. Alcibiades leads an Athenian expedition into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 415. The Athenians undertake an expedition against Syracuse. 
 
 * The Consulship, however, was not done away with ; it alternated irregularly 
 with the office of the military tribunes till the passage of the Licinian Rogations, 
 when it was restored as a permanent annual magistracy. See 364. 
 
 t Some authorities place this event in 425. 
 
6 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 414. The Athenians, under Nicias, invest Syracuse. Tlie Spartan 
 commander Gylippus, with a fleet of Corinthian ships, comes 
 to the aid of the city. 
 
 413. The Spartans, at the instance of Alcibiades, take up a fortified 
 position at Decelea, in Attica. The Athenian commander 
 Demosthenes is sent to the assistance of Nicias. Comj)lete 
 ruin of the expedition against Syracuse. 
 
 412. Alcibiades undertakes a mission to the Persian satrap Tissa- 
 phernes, and induces him to enter into treaties with Sparta, 
 
 411. Reign of the Four Hundred in Athens (4 months). Alcibiades 
 is reinstated in the Athenian service. 
 
 410. Naval victory of Alcibiades over the Spartans at Cyzicus. 
 
 407. The Spartan admiral Lysander defeats the Athenian fleet at 
 Notium. 
 
 406. The Spartan fleet, under Callicratidas, is vanquished by the 
 Athenians off the Ai'ginusae. 
 Dionysius the Elder establishes his power in Syracuse. 
 
 405. The Spartans, under Lysander, annihilate the naval power 
 of Athens at ^gospotami. 
 Artaxerxes II. succeeds Darius 11. in Persia.* 
 
 405 (JiOJi,?). Persia loses her dominion over Egypt. (Tlie country 
 resubjected about 340.) 
 
 404. Surrender of Athens to Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian 
 War ; Sparta all-powerful in Greece. Establishment of the 
 Thirty Tyrants in Athens. About the close of the year f 
 they are overthrown by Thrasybulus. 
 
 403. Thrasybulus restores democracy in Athens. 
 
 401. Expedition of the younger Cyi'us against his brother, Arta- 
 xerxes II. He is slain m the battle of Cunaxa. 
 
 401-400. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus, the Ten Thousand, effect 
 their retreat to the sea under the lead of Xenophon. 
 
 399. Sparta engages in a war with Persia. 
 Condemnation and death of Socrates. 
 
 396. The Spartan general Agesilaus enters upon his victorious cam- 
 paigns against the Persians. 
 
 396 {Smithes Diet., Hertzherg ; 392, Rawl.). The Romans, under 
 Camillus, take Veil. 
 
 395. Thebes, Corinth, Argos, and Athens enter into a league against 
 Sparta. The Thebans defeat the Spartans at Haliartus ; 
 death of Lysander. 
 
 * This event is placed by Justi in 404. 
 
 + According to German authorities at the beginning of 403. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 7 
 
 394. The Persian fleet, under the Athenian admiral Conon, over- 
 whehns that of the Spartans, under Pisander, off Cnidus. 
 Victory of the Spartans, under Agesilaus, over the forces of 
 the confederate Greeks at Coronea. 
 
 393. The Athenians, under the guidance of Conon, undertake the 
 restoration of their fortifications. 
 
 388 (Hertzberg ; 387, Bawl.).* The Gauls, under Brennus, vanquish 
 the Romans on the Allia, and burn Rome. 
 
 387. Sparta, through the mediation of Persia, forces the Greek 
 states to accept the Peace of Antalcidas. 
 
 382. Sparta engages in a war against Olynthus. The Spartans seize 
 the citadel of Thebes. 
 
 379. The Spartans force the Olynthians into submission. Pelopi- 
 das and his associates deliver Thebes from the Spartans. 
 
 378. Athens joins Thebes against Sparta. 
 
 376. Naval victory of the Athenians, tinder Chabrias, over the 
 Spartans off Naxos. 
 
 371. The Thebans, under Epaminondas, vanquish the Spartans, 
 under Cleombrotus, at Leuctra. Thebes becomes the domi- 
 nant power in Greece. 
 
 370. Foundation of the Arcadian confederacy. 
 
 370-369. EiDaminondas undertakes his first expedition into the 
 Peloponnesus. He threatens Sparta, which is preserved 
 by Agesilaus. 
 
 369. Foundation of Megalopolis as the centre of the Arcadian con- 
 federacy. Rise of a new Messenian state under the auspices 
 of Epaminondas. Foundation of the city of Messene. 
 
 369 or 368. Pelopidas is sent by the Thebans on his first expedition 
 against Alexander of Pherae. 
 
 367 (Smith's Diet. , Hertzberg; 364, Rawl. ) . Adoption of the Licinian 
 Rogations in Rome ; acts for the relief of Plebeian debtoi-s 
 and the limitation of the rights of the Patricians to the pub- 
 lic domain ; restoration of the Consulship as a permanent 
 annual magistracy, the office of military tribimes with con- 
 sular power being abolished ; one of the two consuls to be 
 henceforth a Plebeian ; institution of the Praetorship. 
 
 364 or 363. Death of Pelopidas in a battle with Alexander of Pherae. 
 
 362. Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans and their allies at 
 Mantinea ; he falls in the battle. 
 
 361 or 359. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) succeeds Artaxerxes 11. in Persia. 
 
 * According to the chronological reckoning formerly followed, the burning of 
 Rome occurred in 390. 
 
8 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 358.* Athens becomes involved in the Social War with Cos, Chios, 
 Rhodes, and Byzantium. 
 Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis. 
 
 357. Outbreak of the Sacred War excited by Thebes against Phocis. 
 
 356. Dion liberates Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. (See 346.) 
 Burnmg of the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 355. End of the Social War. 
 
 352 or 351. The j)rogress of Philip of Macedon evokes the fii'st 
 Philipinc of Demosthenes. 
 
 347. Philip of Macedon takes and destroys Olynthus. 
 
 346. The Sacred War is brought to a close by the occupation of 
 Phocis by Philip of Macedon. 
 Dionysius the Younger recovers his power in Syracuse. 
 
 343. Timoleon delivers Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. 
 
 343 {Smith's Diet. ; 340, Raid.). Rome engages in the first Sam- 
 nite War. 
 
 341 {S7nith''s Diet. ; 338, Raid.). Close of the first Samnite War. 
 
 340-338 (Smith's Diet. ; 337-335, Raid.). War of the Romans 
 against the Latins, ending in the subjugation of the latter. 
 
 338. Philip of Macedon passes Thermopylae, and seizes Elatea. 
 Athens and Thebes form a league to resist him. Philip 
 overwhelms their forces at Chserouea, and establishes the 
 dominion of Macedon over Greece. 
 Arses succeeds Artaxerxes III. in Persia. 
 
 336. Philip of Macedon is murdered while preparing to invade 
 Persia. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander the Great. 
 Darius III., Codomannus, succeeds Arses in Persia. 
 
 335. Thebes rebels agaiast the authority of Macedon, and is de- 
 stroyed by Alexander. 
 
 334. Alexander the Great enters upon the conquest of Persia. He 
 is victorious at the Granicus. 
 
 333. Victory of Alexander over Darius at Issus. 
 
 332. Alexander reduces Tyre, takes Gaza, and occupies Egypt, 
 and (about the close of the year) lays out the city of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 331. Alexander conquei'S Darius in the battle of Ai'bela (or of 
 Gaugamela), and overthrows the Pei^ian em^Dire. 
 
 330.t The Spartans, under Agis III., take up arms against Macedon. 
 
 * The years 858-355 for the Social War are those given by Grote and Eawlinson. 
 The chronology of this period is not perfectly settled. 
 
 t The year 330 for the revolt of Sparta is the date given by Grote ; according 
 to Clinton the event occurred in the preceding year. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 9 
 
 They and their allies are defeated by the regent Antipater 
 at Megalopolis. Agis is slain. 
 Murder of Darius Codomannus by Bessus. 
 
 330-327. Conquest of the eastern provinces of the Persian empire 
 by Alexander. 
 
 326. Alexander marches into India, and defeats Porus. 
 
 326 {Smithes Diet. ; 323^ Raid.). Eome enters upon the second 
 Samnite War. 
 
 325-324. Alexander effects his return march from the Indus to 
 Persepolis, while his fleet is conducted to the Euphrates by 
 Nearchus. 
 
 323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. Partition of power among 
 his generals Perdiccas, Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, Eu- 
 menes, Ptolemy Lagi, Lysimachus, and others. The Greeks 
 attempt to throw off the yoke of Macedon. Their army 
 besieges Antipater in Lamia. 
 
 322. Victory of Antipater over the confederate Greeks at Crannon. 
 End of the Lamian War. Demosthenes, pursued by the 
 vengeance of the Macedonians, puts an end to his life. 
 
 321. Beginning of the wars between the successors of Alexander ; 
 Perdiccas and Eumenes opposed to Antipater, Craterus, 
 Antigonus, and Ptolemy. Perdiccas marches into Egypt 
 against Ptolemy. Eumenes, in Asia Minoi-, triumphs over 
 Craterus, who is slain. Death of Perdiccas in a mutiny. 
 
 321 (Smith's Diet. ; 319, Rawl). Victory of the Samnites over the 
 Romans at the Caudine Forks. 
 
 320-319. Antigonus blockades Eumenes in Nora. 
 
 319. Aoitipater dies after appointing Polysperchon to succeed him 
 as regent for Philip Arrhid^eus and Alexander iEgus, the 
 half-brother and the son of Alexander the Great. Poly- 
 sperchon succeeds to Antipater's power in Macedonia and 
 Greece. His elevation is followed by a league against him 
 between Antipater's son Cassander, Antigonus, and Ptolemy. 
 Polysperchon is supported by Eumenes. 
 
 318-317. Cassander prevails over Polysperchon in the contest for 
 the possession of power in Greece and Macedonia. He places 
 Athens under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus. About the 
 close of 317 Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, sup- 
 ported by Polysperchon and the Epirotes, seizes Macedonia. 
 
 316. Olympias falls into the power of Cassander, who puts her to 
 death. Eumenes is betrayed to Antigonus, and is put to 
 death; the power of Antigonus supreme in Asia. 
 
10 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 315. Cassander undertakes the rebuilding of Thebes. 
 
 314 (Rawl.). Beginning of the great struggle waged against Anti- 
 gonus by Cassander, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. 
 
 312. Establishment of the realm of the Seleucidae by Seleucus Nica- 
 tor ; its seat in the beginning at Babylon. 
 
 310. The Syracusan ruler Agathocles enters upon a brilliant career 
 against Carthage on her African territory. 
 
 307. Successful expedition of Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Anti- 
 gonus, against Athens. End of the rule of Demetrius 
 Phalereus. 
 
 306. Demetrius Poliorcetes annihilates the fleet of Ptolemy at Sa- 
 lamis (Cyprus). Antigonus assumes the title of king of 
 Asia. His example is followed by Ptolemy Lagi, Lysima- 
 chus, and Seleucus, rulers, respectively, of Egypt, of Thrace, 
 and of the portion of Alexander's empire lying east of the 
 Euphrates. Cassander of Macedon is saluted with the royal 
 title by his subjects. 
 
 305-304. Siege of Ehodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 304 {Smith's Diet. ; 303, Rawl.). The Romans bring the second 
 Samnite War to a triumphant close. 
 
 300 (301?).* Battle of Ipsus ; the army of Antigonus and his son, 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, is overwhelmed by Seleucvis and Ly- 
 simachus ; Antigonus is slain. The conquerors divide the 
 dominions of Antigonus. Lysimachus appropriates a great 
 part of Asia Minor ; Seleucus, Upper Syria, Cappadocia, and 
 other territories. 
 
 300 {about). Seleucus Nicator founds Antioch as the seat of govern- 
 ment of his kingdom. 
 
 298. Rome becomes engaged in the third Samnite War. 
 
 295. The Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians united in a 
 common efPoi^t against Rome. The forces of Q. Fabius Rul- 
 lianus and P. Decius Mus vanquish the Samnites and Gauls 
 at Sentinum. 
 
 294. Demetrius Poliorcetes (after restoring his fortunes in Greece) 
 seizes the Macedonian throne. 
 
 290. End of the third Samnite War ; submission of the Samnites. 
 
 287. Pyi-rhus, king of Epirus, and Lysimachus wrest Macedonia 
 from Demetrius Poliorcetes. f 
 
 285 {about). Completion of the Septuagint. 
 
 * The date usually given for the battle of Ipsus is 301. Clinton places it in that 
 year, but Grote asserts that in all probability the event occurred in the year 300. 
 t Pyrrhus was immediately after expelled from Macedonia by Lysimachus. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. H 
 
 283. Death of Ptolemy Lagi (Ptolemy Soter). He is succeeded by 
 
 his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus (associated with his father La 
 
 the governmeut since 285). 
 280. Pyrrhus espouses the cause of Tarentum agamst Rome, and 
 
 makes war on the republic. He defeats Laevinus. 
 280 {about). Rise of the Achaan League. 
 279. Victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans at Asculum. 
 
 The Gauls overwhelm Ptolemy Ceraunus, king of Macedonia.* 
 278 {Rawl., Hertzberg). Invasion of Greece by the Gauls under 
 
 Brennus. Their army meets with disaster at Delphi. 
 277 (about). A body of Gauls take i^ossessiou of northern Phiygia. 
 275. Total defeat of Pyrrhus by M. Curius Dentatus at Beneven- 
 
 tum. 
 272. Death of Pyrrhus in an attack upon Argos. 
 
 Surrender of Tarentum to the Romans. Lucania and Bruttium 
 
 submit to them. 
 265. The Romans take and destroy Yolsinii ; Rome mistress of 
 
 all Italy. 
 264. Outbreak of the first war between Rome and Carthage (first 
 
 Punic War). The Romans enter upon a successful career 
 
 in Sicily. 
 263. The Romans force Hiero, king of Syracuse, to abandon the 
 
 cause of Carthage. 
 260. Naval victory of Duilius over the Carthaginians at Mylae ; 
 
 first appearance of Rome as a naval power. 
 259. The Romans begin the conquest of Corsica. 
 256-255. The Romans, under Regulus, fight Carthage on her Afri- 
 can territory, where they are finally vanquished. 
 251. Sicyon, restored to freedom by Aratus, joins the Achaean 
 
 League, which becomes a powerful body. 
 250. The Romans begin the siege of LilybEeum.f 
 249. Naval victory of the Carthaginians at Drepanum. 
 248 (about). Parthia becomes an independent kingdom under 
 
 Ai'saces. 
 247. Ptolemy Philadelphus is succeeded by Ptolemy Euergetes. 
 243. Corinth is delivered from the sway of Macedon by Aratus, 
 
 and joins the Achasan League. 
 
 * The year 279 for the invasion of Macedonia is the date adopted by Eawlinson 
 and Hertzberg. According to Clinton and Am6dee Thierry the event occurred in 
 280. 
 
 + The town was successfully defended by the Carthaginians till the close of the 
 war. 
 
12 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 243-241 (Hertzberg). Attempt of Agis IV. to reform the Spartan 
 
 state. 
 241. The Romans, under Lutatius Catulus, vanquish the Cartha- 
 ginians in a great naval battle off the Agates. Close of the 
 
 first Punic "War. Carthage relinquishes Sicily to Rome. 
 240-237 (about). Revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries in Africa; 
 
 supijressed by Hamilcar Barca. 
 237. Carthage is forced to relinquish Sardinia to Rome. 
 236 (or 235)-221. Reign of Cleomenes III. of Sparta, distinguished 
 
 by his great political reforms, and by his struggle with the 
 
 Achaean League. 
 236-220 (about). The Carthaginians, under Hamilcar Barca and 
 
 his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, conquer a large portion of Spain. 
 229. The Romans wage a successful war against the Greek king- 
 dom of Illyria, extending their power across the Adriatic. 
 225-222. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans. 
 221. Antigonus Doson, ruler of Macedon, crushes Cleomenes III. at 
 
 Sellasia ; the power of Sparta completely broken. 
 220. The ^tolian League makes war on the Achasan League 
 
 (Social War). 
 219. Hannibal begins the second Punic War by laying siege to 
 
 Saguntum ; fall of the city.* 
 219-217. Victorious campaigns of PhiliiJ V. of Macedon against the 
 
 ^tolian League. 
 218. March of Hannibal into Italy. He defeats the Romans on the 
 
 Ticinus and Trebia. 
 217. Hannibal destroys the army of Flaminius at Lake Thrasy- 
 
 menus. The Romans appoint Fabius Maxiraus dictator to 
 
 oppose the Carthaginians. 
 216. Hannibal annihilates the Roman army, under Varro and L. 
 
 -^milius Paulus, in the battle of Cannae. Capua joins the 
 
 cause of Hannibal, who makes the city his headquarters. 
 214. Rome becomes involved in her first conflict with Macedon. 
 
 Philip V. , having allied himself with Hannibal, begins the 
 
 war. 
 213. Aratus is poisoned by Philip V. of Macedon. 
 212. The Romans, under Marcellus, take Syracuse after a siege of 
 
 two years. 
 211. Hannibal threatens Rome. He loses Capua. The ^Etolian 
 
 League and its allies join Rome against Macedon. 
 
 * The beginning of the second Pimic War is often, reckoned from 218, the year of 
 Hannibal's invasion of Italy. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 13 
 
 208. Hasdriibal, sou of Hamilcar, suspendmg his operations against 
 
 Scipio,* in Spain, sets out for Italy to relieve his brother 
 
 Hauuibal. 
 207. Hasdrubal is overwhelmed and slain on the Metaurus. 
 
 Philopcemen, the general of the Achaean League (in alliance 
 
 with Macedon), achieves a signal victory over the Spartans 
 
 at Mantinea. 
 206. Scipio completes the desti'uction of the Carthaginian power in 
 
 Spain. 
 205. Peace between Rome and Macedon. 
 204. Scipio carries the war against Carthage into Africa. 
 202. Scipio Africanus conquers Hannibal at Zama, and completely 
 
 breaks the Carthaginian power. 
 201. End of the second Punic War. Pome enters upon a war for 
 
 the resubjugation of the Boii and Insubres of Cisalpine Gaul, 
 
 set free by the Carthaginian invasion. 
 200. Outbreak of the second war between Rome and Macedon, 
 198. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, conquers Coele-Syria and 
 
 Palestine fi'om Egypt. 
 197. The Romans, vmder Flamininus, overwhelm Philip V. of Mace- 
 don at Cynoscephalai, and force him to a humiliating peace. 
 196. Flamininus proclaims the freedom of Greece. 
 192. Antiochus the Great, in alliance with the ^tolians, takes up 
 
 arms against Rome. 
 191. Defeat of Antiochus by the Romans, under Acilius Glabrio, 
 
 at ThermopylEe. Rome completes the resubjugation of Cis- 
 
 alj)ine Gaul. 
 The Achaean League attains its gx-eatest extension, embracing 
 
 the whole of the Peloponnesus. 
 190. The Romans, imder Scipio, t vanquish Antiochus the Great at 
 
 Magnesia (at the foot of Mt. Sipylus), and force him to 
 
 relinquish the greater j)art of Asia Minor. (Nearly all of 
 
 the conquered territory is annexed to the kingdom of Per- 
 
 gamus.) 
 183. Philopcemen, having marched against the Messenians, falls 
 
 into their hands, and Is forced to put an end to his life. 
 171. Perseus, king of Macedon, begins his straggle with Rome. 
 168. Complete defeat of Perseus by the Romans, under L. ^milius 
 
 Paulus, at Pydna. End of the Macedonian kingdom. 
 167. Deportation of a thousand of the j)rincij)al Achceans by the 
 
 Romans. 
 
 * The future Scipio Africanus. t Scipio Asiaticus. 
 
14 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 167, The Asmoneans take up arms against Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 king of Syria. 
 
 165 (Hitzig, ScJmrer, Wellhausen). Judas Maccabseus enters Jeru- 
 salem, and purifies the Temj)le. 
 
 160. Judas Maccabseus falls in battle. 
 
 149. Beginning of the third Punic War. 
 
 147 (about). The Lusitanian leader Viriathus achieves his first great 
 victory over the Romans. 
 
 146. Destruction of Carthage by the younger Scipio Af ricanus. 
 
 The Achaean League succumbs to the Roman arms. Destruc- 
 tion of Corinth by the consul Mummius. End of Greek 
 independence. 
 
 141 {Schilrer). Simon Maccabaeus conquers the citadel of Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 140. Simon Maccabseus is proclaimed hereditary prince of the Jews ; 
 the office of high priest to be permanently united with the 
 princely dignity. 
 
 140 or 139. The war of Rome against Yiriathus is ended by the 
 assassination of the Lusitanian leader. 
 
 135. Assassination of Simon Maccabseus. He is succeeded by his 
 son, John Hyrcanus. 
 
 134-133. Siege of Jerusalem by Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, 
 
 134-132. Servile War in Sicily. 
 
 133. Numantia succumbs to the younger Scipio Africanus. 
 
 Attalus III. of Pergamus bequeaths his kingdom, embracing a 
 
 great part of Asia Minor, to the Romans. 
 Tiberius Gracchus attempts his agrarian reforms in Rome. 
 
 125-121. The Romans conquer the S. E. portion of Transalpine 
 Gaul. 
 
 123-121. Political and agrarian agitations of Caius Gracchus. 
 
 113, The advancing hordes of the Cimbri and Teutones begin to 
 menace the Roman dominions. 
 
 111. Beginning of the war of Rome against Jugurtha, king of 
 Numidia. 
 
 109. Metellus takes command of the Roman forces against Jugurtha. 
 
 109 (about). John Hyrcanus takes and destroys the city of Samaria. 
 
 109-105. The Cimbri and their allies completely overthrow the Ro- 
 man arms in Gaul. 
 
 106. Marius successfully terminates the Jugurthine War. 
 
 105 (MunJc, Schilrer, Wellhausen). John Hyrcanus is succeeded by 
 his son, Aristobulus, who assumes the title of king of Judea, 
 
 104. Aristobulus is succeeded by his brother, Alexander Jannaeus. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 15 
 
 102. Marius overwhelms the Teutones and Ambrones at Aquas 
 
 Sextise. 
 102-99. Second Servile War m Sicily. 
 101. Marius annihilates the Cinibri on the Raudian Fields. 
 
 90-88. Marsic or Social War, a struggle of the Italian peoples 
 against Rome. 
 
 88. Mithridates, king of Pontus, takes up arms against Rome, and 
 overruns Asia Minor. 
 Beginnmg of the war between Sulla and Marius. 
 
 87. Sulla passes over into G-reece to conduct the war against Mi- 
 thridates. Bloody iDroscriptions by Marius and Cinna. 
 
 86. Death of Marius. Sulla takes the revolted city of Athens, and 
 defeats the forces of Mithridates at Cheeronea. 
 
 85. Successes of the Romans against Mithridates in Asia. 
 
 84. Close of the first Mithridatic War. 
 
 83. Sulla engages in a war with the Marian party in Italy. Be- 
 ginning of the second Mithridatic War. 
 
 82. Sulla crushes the Marian party, and becomes dictator. Close 
 of the second Mithridatic War. 
 
 80 (close of 81 ?). The Marian leader Sertorius sets up an inde- 
 pendent state in Spain. 
 
 79. Sulla lays down his dictatoi'ship. 
 
 74. Beginning of the third Mithridatic War ; the Romans give 
 the command of their forces to LucuUus. 
 
 73. Rising of the gladiators under Spartacus (third Servile War). 
 
 72. Murder of Sertorius. Pompey restores order in Spain. 
 
 Lucullus drives Mithridates from his dominions. The king 
 takes refuge with Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
 
 71. Spartacus is defeated and slain by the forces of Crassus. 
 
 69. Victory of Lucullus over Tigranes at Tigranocerta ; fall of 
 that city. 
 
 67. Victorious advance of Mithridates. 
 Pompey subdues the pirates of Cilicia. 
 
 66. Pompey completely vanquishes Mithridates. 
 
 65. Close of the third Mithridatic War. 
 
 Pompey deposes Antiochus XIII., putting an end to the king- 
 dom of the Seleucidae (kingdom of Syria). 
 
 64. Pompey takes possession of Syi'ia. 
 
 63. Pompey, having intei-vened m the contest between the brothers 
 John Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II., and decided in favor 
 of Hyi'canus, besieges Aristobulus in Jerusalem, takes the 
 city, and makes Judea tributary to Rome. 
 
16 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 63. Mithridates puts an end to his life. 
 
 Conspiracy of Catiline ; frustrated by Cicero. 
 62. Defeat and death of Catiline. 
 60. Formation of the first Triumvirate by Pompey, Caesar, and 
 
 Crassus. 
 58. Cassar enters upon his Gallic wars. The Helvetii, having 
 
 migrated into Gaul, ai'e defeated by him. He defeats the 
 
 German chief Ariovistus. 
 57. Caesar conquers the Belgi. 
 55. Caesar invades Britain. 
 54. Second expedition of Ccesar into Britain. 
 53. Defeat and death of Crassus in the war against the Parthians. 
 52. Rising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. He is besieged by 
 
 Csesar in his stronghold Alesia, which is forced to surrender. 
 51. Caesar completes the subjugation of Gaul. 
 49. Outbreak of the war between Csesar and Pompey. 
 48. Caesar triumphs over Pompey at Pharsalia. Pomney flees to 
 
 Egyjit, where he is murdered. 
 48-47. War of Caesar in Egypt (Alexandrine War). 
 47. Ctesar vanquishes Pharnaces, king of Bosporus. 
 46. The Pompeians in Africa are overwhelmed by Caesar in the 
 
 battle of Thapsus. Juba, king of Numidia, and Cato put 
 
 an end to their lives. 
 Reformation of the calendar by Ctesar. 
 45. Ca3sar crushes the Pompeians in Spain in the battle of Munda. 
 
 He is made dictator for life. 
 44. Murder of Ceesar by Brutus, Cassius, and other consjjirators. 
 
 Contest for power between Antony and Octavius. Cicero's 
 
 eloquence secures the triumph of Octavius in Rome. 
 44-43. x\ntony takes up arms against the government, and be- 
 sieges Decius Brutus in Mutina (Mutinensian War). His 
 
 forces are overthro^vn by those of the Senate. 
 43. Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus form the second Triumvu-ate. 
 
 Proscriptions of the Triumvirs ; Cicero put to death. 
 42. Octavius and Antony overwhelm Cassius and Bi'utus in the 
 
 two battles of Philippi. 
 41-40. War in Italy between Octavius and the party of Antony 
 
 (Pei'usian War). 
 40.* Antony and Octavius proclaim Herod I. (foimder of the Idu- 
 
 msean dynasty) king of Judea. 
 
 * See Schurer, " Lehrbuch dor neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschiclite," p. 184, note. 
 Herod was in Rome at the time, and landed in Syria in 39, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I7 
 
 38-36. Naval war between Octavius and Sextus Pompeius, who is 
 
 completely defeated. 
 37. Conquest of Jerusalem by Herod ; fall of the Asmonean house. 
 
 36. Fall of Lepidus. 
 
 31. War between Octavius and Antony. Naval victory of Octa- 
 vius off Actium. He becomes master of the Roman world. 
 Flight of Antony with Cleopatra to Egypt. 
 
 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra ; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty. 
 
 Egypt is annexed to the Roman dominions. 
 27. Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 
 24. Unsuccessful expedition of ^lius Gallus into Arabia. 
 19. Agrippa effects the final subjugation of the Cantabri ; Rome 
 
 mistress of the whole Spanish peninsula. 
 15. Drusus and Tiberius subdue the Rh^tians and A'indelicians. 
 12-9. Victorious campaigns of Drusus against the Germans. 
 9. Tiberius completes the subjugation of Pannonia. 
 4. Death of Herod the Great. 
 A. D. 
 9. Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci, annihilates the army of 
 
 Quintilius Varus in the Teutoburg Forest. 
 14. Death of Augustus. He is succeeded by Tiberius. 
 14-16. Germanicus repeatedly invades Germany, and finally tri- 
 
 umj)hs over Arminius. 
 26. Tiberius quits Rome, leaving the conduct of affairs to Sejanus. 
 29-33. Date of the Crucifixion variously placed by theologians 
 within this period. 
 
 31. Fall and execution of Sejanus. 
 
 37. Caligula succeeds Tiberius as emjDeror. 
 
 41. Murder of Caligula. Accession of Claudius. 
 
 41-44. All Palestine united under Herod Agrippa I. 
 
 43. The Romans begin the conquest of Britain. 
 
 50-51. Caractacus, king of the Silures in Britain, is betrayed to the 
 Romans, and brought a prisoner to Rome. 
 
 54. Claudius is poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Accession of her 
 son Nero. 
 
 61. Revolt in Britain under Boadicea. She is vanquished by Sue- 
 tonius Paulinus. 
 
 64. Great fire in Rome. First persecution of the Christians. 
 
 65. Piso's conspiracy against Nero. The emperor ordei-s the death 
 
 of Seneca and Lucan. 
 
 66. Rising of the Jews against the Roman rule. 
 
 67-68. Victorious campaigns of Vespasian against the Jews. 
 
18 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 68. Vindex, Galba, Otho, and other commanders rebel against 
 
 Nero. March of Galba upon Eome. Death of Nero. Ac- 
 cession of Galba. 
 
 69. Otho puts an end to the reign of Galba, and becomes emperor. 
 
 He succumbs to the arms of Vitellius, who mounts the 
 throne. Vitellius is overthrown and succeeded by Vespasian. 
 69-70. Insurrection of the Batavi under Claudius Civilis. 
 
 70. Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 
 78-79. Agricola extends the Roman dominion in Britain to the 
 Tyne. 
 
 79. Titus succeeds his father Vespasian. 
 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii are overwhelmed by an eruption of 
 Vesuvius. 
 
 80. Titus dedicates the Colosseum, the work of Vespasian. 
 80-81. Agricola advances the Roman frontiers in Britain to the 
 
 Frith of Forth. 
 
 81. Titus is succeeded by his brother Domitian. 
 
 83-84. Victorious campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians. 
 86-90. The Dacians, under Decebalus, wage a successful war 
 
 against the Romans. 
 96. Murder of Domitian. The Roman Senate raises Nerva to the 
 
 throne, 
 98. Nerva is succeeded by Trajan. 
 
 101-106. Wars of Trajan with Decebalus, ending in the conquest 
 of Dacia. 
 
 115. Trajan, in a war against Parthia, adds Armenia and Mesopota- 
 mia to the Roman dominions. The Roman Empire attains 
 its greatest extension. (See 117.) 
 
 117. Hadrian succeeds Trajan. He relinquishes the conquests made 
 by Trajan in the Parthian War. 
 
 131-135 or 136. Insurrection of the Jews under Bar Cocheba. (Fol- 
 lowed by the complete dispersion of the people.) 
 
 138. Hadrian is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. 
 
 161. Death of Antoninus. Accession of Marcus Aurelius, who makes 
 Lucius Verus his associate in the empire. (Death of Verus, 
 about beginning of 169. 
 
 161-166. W^ar between Parthia and Rome. 
 
 166 {about)-lQO. War between the Romans and the Germanic tribes 
 of the Marcomanni and Quadi. 
 
 177. Persecution of the Christians in Gaul. 
 
 180. Marcus Aiirelius is succeeded by his son Commodus. Begin- 
 ning of the period of Rome's rapid decline. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 19 
 
 192. Murder of Commoclus. 
 
 193. Reigu of Pertinax, who is slain by tlie prcetorians. Didius 
 
 Jiiliauus purchases the imperial dignity. Albinus, Septi- 
 mius Severus, and Niger are invested with the purple by 
 their legions. Fall of Didius Julianus and accession of 
 Severus. 
 
 194. Severus triumphs in the East over his rival Niger. Byzantium 
 
 holds out against Severus. 
 
 196. Fall of Byzantium. 
 
 197. Sevenxs crushes Albinus in Gaul. 
 
 198. Victorious advance of Septimius Severus against the Parthians. 
 208-209. Septimius Severus overruns Caledonia. 
 
 211. Death of Septimius Severus. He is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Caracalla (Caracallus) and Geta. 
 
 212. Murder of Geta by Caracalla. 
 
 213. First campaign of the Romans agaiust the Alemanni. 
 
 217. Murder of Caracalla. Macrinus is proclaimed emperor. 
 
 218. Elagabalus overthrows Macrinus, and succeeds him. 
 222. Murder of Elagabalus. Accession of Alexander Severus. 
 226. Overthrow of the Parthian kingdom by Ardeshir (Artaxerxes), 
 
 who founds the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanidas. 
 
 231-233. War of Alexander Severus against the Pereians. 
 
 235. Murder of Alexander Severus. Accession of Maximin. 
 
 238. Reljellion against Maximin in the province of Africa; the pro- 
 consul Gordian and his son are raised to the imperial dignity ; 
 they are overthrown. The Senate proclauns Pupienus Maxi- 
 mus and Balbinus joint emperors. Advance of Maximin 
 into Italy. The third Gordian is associated with Pupienus 
 Maximus and Balbinus in the empire. Murder of Maximin 
 before Aquileia. Murder of Pupienus Maximus and Balbi- 
 nus. Gordian becomes ruler of the Roman world. 
 
 241. Victorious advance of the Persian king Sapor I. against the 
 
 Roman dominions. 
 
 242. Gordian defeats the Persians. 
 
 244. Murder of Gordian. Accession of Philij) the Arabian. 
 
 249. Overthrow of Philip. Accession of Decius. 
 
 250. Pereecution of the Christians by order of Decius. 
 
 The Goths penetrate into the Roman dominions as far as 
 Thrace, and take Philippopolis. 
 
 251. Defeat and death of Decius in the war against the Goths. Ac- 
 
 cession of Gallus. 
 253. ^milianus assumes the purple. 
 3 
 
20 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 254. Murder of Gallus. Valerian marches against ^milianus. 
 Death of ^milianus. 
 
 254-268. Eeigns of Valerian and his son Gallienus, marked by the 
 invasions of the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, and the Persian 
 king Sapor, and by niunerous rebellions in the empire. 
 (Gallienus associate of his father in the government. Vale- 
 rian prisoner of the Persians from about 260.) 
 
 268. Accession of Claudius II. 
 
 269. Claudius II. is victorious over the Goths at Naissus, in Mcesia. 
 
 270. Aurelian succeeds Claudius II. He successfully opposes the 
 
 Goths in Pannonia. The Alemanni invade Italy. 
 
 271. The Alemanni in Italy are overwhelmed by Aurelian. 
 272-273. Aurelian vanquishes Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 
 
 275. Assassination of Aurelian. Accession of Tacitus. 
 
 276. Death of the emj)eror Tacitus. Reign of Florian. 
 
 276-282. Reign of Probvis ; he defeats the Germans, Sarmatians, 
 and other enemies. 
 
 282. Accession of Carus. 
 
 283. Victorious campaign of Carus against Persia. Death of Carus ; 
 
 his sons, Carinus (the associate of his father in the govern- 
 ment) and Numerian, joint emperors. 
 
 284. Murder of Numerian. Diocletian is proclaimed emperor. 
 
 285. Murder of Carinus. 
 
 286. Diocletian makes Maximian his colleague m the empire. 
 
 292. Galerius and Constantius Chlorus are appointed ' ' Ceesars " by 
 Diocletian and Maximian (the "Augusti"). Partition of 
 the empire between the four. 
 
 303. Persecution of the Christians by Diocletian. 
 
 305. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Galerius and Con- 
 
 stantius Chlorus become " Augusti." ]\Iaximm and Severiis 
 are appointed " Cajsars." 
 
 306. Death of Constantius Chlorus. His son, Constantine the Great, 
 
 becomes " CiBsar." Severus is raised to the rank of "Augus- 
 tus." Maxentius, son of Maximian, assumes the purple. 
 Maximian resumes the title of "Augustus." 
 
 307. Fall of Severus. Licinius is made "Augustus." 
 
 308. Constantine and Maximin are proclaimed "Augusti." 
 
 310. Maximian suffers death by order of Constantine. 
 
 311. Death of Galerius. 
 
 312. Constantine marches into Italy, vanquishes Maxentius, and 
 
 becomes sole ruler of the western half of the Roman world. 
 
 313. Constantine and Licinius proclaim toleration for the Christian 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 21 
 
 religion. Licinius overthrows Maximin and unites the east- 
 ern half of the Roman Empire under his sceptre. 
 
 314. First war between Constant ine and Licinius. 
 
 323. Constantrne ovel•^vhelms Licinius and becomes sole master of 
 the Roman world. 
 
 325. Council of Nice, the first general council ; condemnation of 
 Ai'ius by the followers of Athanasius. 
 
 330. Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine 
 from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople). 
 
 337. Death of Constantine. Partition of the Roman Empire be- 
 tween his sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius. 
 
 340. Constantine II. makes war on Constans, and is slain. Con- 
 stans becomes lord of the principal portion of the Roman 
 Emiiire, Constantius ruling in the East. 
 
 341 (about). Ulfilas becomes bLshoii of the Goths. 
 
 350. Magnentius proclaims himself emperor, and overthrows Con- 
 stans. 
 
 351- Magnentius is defeated by Constantius in the battle of Mursa. 
 
 353- Magnentius succumbs to the arms of Constantius, who becomes 
 sole emperor. Constantius convokes the synod of Aries for 
 the condemnation of Athanasius. 
 
 355 Council of Milan ; condemnation of Athanasius by the Arians. 
 
 356-?59. Victorious career of Julian against the Alemanni and 
 Fi'anks. 
 
 360- Juhau is i^roclaimed emperor in Gaul. 
 
 361' Death of Constantius. 
 
 363- Campaign of Julian against Sapor U. of Persia. The emperor 
 is slain. He is succeeded by Jovian, who imrchases peace 
 of Sapor by sacrificing the Roman frontiers. 
 
 364. Jovian is succeeded by Valentinian I., who appoints his brother, 
 Valens, his associate in the empire, assigning to him the 
 East. 
 
 374. The Huns pass the Volga, and overj)ower the Alani, who join 
 
 them. 
 Ambrose is elected bishop of Milan. 
 
 375. Death of Valentinian I. He is succeeded by his son, Gratian 
 
 (appointed "Augustus" in 367), who is forced to acknowl 
 edge his brother, Valentinian II. (4 or 5 years of age), his 
 associate in the empire. 
 375-376. The Huns force the Ostrogoths into submission, and oblige 
 the Visigoths to seek shelter in the Roman dominions south 
 of the Danube. 
 
22 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 378. The Goths overwhelm the army of Valens near Adrianople ; 
 
 death of the emperor. 
 
 379. Gratian assigns the sovereignty of the East to Theodosius the 
 
 Great. 
 381. Council of Constantinople (second general council). 
 383. Gratian is overthrown by Maximus. (Valentinian II. retains 
 
 the sovei'eignty of Italy, Africa, and Western lUyricum.) 
 
 387. Maximus expels Valentinian II. from Italy. 
 
 388. Theodosius the Great overthrows Maximus. Valentinian II. 
 
 becomes sole ruler of the West. 
 392. Murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogast, who places Eugenius 
 on the throne of the West. 
 
 394. Theodosius the Great vanquishes Eugenius and Arbogast, and 
 
 unites the whole Roman Empire under his sway. 
 
 395. Death of Theodosius the Great. He is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Arcadius and Honorius, the former as emperor of the East, 
 and the latter of the West ; final division of the Roman Em- 
 pire into the Byzantine and Western Emj)ires. 
 Augustine is elected bishop of Hippo. 
 
 401. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, invades Italy. 
 
 402.* Stilicho, the general of Honorius, defeats Alaric at Pollentia, 
 and saves Italy. 
 
 405. Rhadagaisus, at the head of a host of Ostrogoths, Vandals, 
 
 Suevi, Burgundians, and other barbarians, invades Italy. 
 He is vanquished by Stilicho. 
 405 (about). Jerome completes his Latin version of the Bible. 
 
 406. The Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and Burgundians cross the Rhine 
 
 and invade Gaul. 
 
 408. Theodosius 11. succeeds Arcadius in the Byzantine Empire. 
 Stilicho is put to death by Honorius. 
 
 409. The Vandals, Suevi, and Alani enter Spain. 
 
 410. The Visigoths, under Alaric, pillage Rome. 
 412. The Visigoths enter Gaul. 
 
 415 (a6ou^)-4l8. The Visigoths lay the foundations of their domin- 
 ion in Spain. 
 
 418. The Visigoths obtain possession of a large i)ortion of Aqui- 
 tania. 
 
 423. Death of Honorius. Usurpation of Joannes. 
 
 * Felix Dahn, " Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker," 1881. 
 The chronology of this period is very obscure. The date commonly assigned for the 
 battle of Pollentia is 403. Hertzberg, in his " Geschichte des romischen Kaiser- 
 reichs," agrees with Dahn. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 23 
 
 425. Fall of Joannes. Valentinian III. ascends the throne of the 
 
 West undei* the regency of his mother Placidia. 
 429. The Vandals, under Genseric, invade Africa. 
 430-431. Bonifacius unsuccessfully opposes the Vandals in Africa. 
 
 431. Council of Ephesus (third general council). 
 
 432. Bonifacius perishes in the struggle with his rival Aetius. 
 439. Genseric becomes master of Carthage. 
 
 441. The Huns, vmder Attila, pass the Danube and invade Illyricum. 
 
 449. Landing of the Jutish band of Hengist and Horsa in Britain, 
 Council of Ephesus ("robbers' synod "). 
 
 450. Death of Theodosius II. 
 
 451. The Romans, under Aetius, and the Visigoths, successfully en- 
 
 counter Attila on the field of Chalons. Retreat of Attila 
 from Gaul. 
 Council of Chalcedon (fourth general council). 
 
 452. Attila ravages Italy ; Rome is saved by its bishop, Leo the Great. 
 
 455. Petronius Maximus murders Valentinian III. and usurps the 
 
 throne of the West. Fall of Maximus. The Vandals, under 
 Genseric, pillage Rome. Avitus is proclaimed emperor of 
 the West. 
 
 456. Avitus is deposed by Ricimer. 
 
 457. Ricimer places Majorian on the throne of the West. 
 
 461. Ricimer deposes Majorian, and makes Libius Severus nominal 
 emperor. 
 
 465. Death of Libius Severus. Ricimer continues to wield the su- 
 preme power. 
 
 467. Anthemius is made emperor of the West. 
 
 468. The Byzantine emperor, Leo I., supported by the Western 
 
 Empire, makes a great but unsuccessful effoi-t against the 
 
 Vandals. 
 472. Fall of Anthemius. Reign of Olybrius. 
 473-474. Glycerins emperor of the West. 
 474-475. Julius Nepos emperor of the West. 
 
 475. Romulus Augustulus is made emperor of the West. 
 
 476. Odoacer, a chief of German mercenaries, dethrones Romulus 
 
 Augustulus, and puts an end to the Western Empu'e. Odo- 
 acer assumes the title of king of Italy. 
 
 486. Victory of ClovLs, king of the Franks, over Syagi'ius at Sois- 
 sons, which puts an end to the Roman dominion in Gaul. 
 
 489. Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, invades Italy. 
 
 490-493. Odoacer is besieged by Theodoric in Ravenna, and forced 
 to surrender. Theodoric king of Italv. Murder of Odoacer. 
 
24 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 496. Clovis vanquishes the Alemanni. Baptism of Clovis. 
 
 507-508. Clovis defeats the Visigoths near Poitiers, and makes him- 
 self master of nearly all Aquitania. 
 
 511. Death of Clovis ; partition of the Frankish possessions between 
 his sons. 
 
 526 (about). Boethius is put to death by order of Theodoric. 
 
 526. Death of Theodoric. 
 
 Destruction of Antioch by an earthquake. 
 
 527. Justinian ascends the Byzantine throne. 
 529. Publication of the Code of Justinian. 
 
 530 (about). Foundation of the order of Benedictines. 
 
 533. Belisarius, the general of Justinian, destroys the Vandal king- 
 
 dom in Africa. 
 
 534. The Franks overthrow the Burgundian kingdom. 
 
 535. Belisarius is sent by Justinian to recover Italy from the Ostro- 
 
 goths. He conquers Sicily. 
 
 536. Belisarius enters Rome. 
 
 537-538. Vitiges, king of the Ostrogotlis, unsuccessfully besieges 
 
 Belisarius in Rome. 
 540 (about beginning of). Belisarius obtains possession of Ravenna, 
 
 the stronghold of Vitiges. 
 540. Chosroes I., king of Persia, invades Syria. 
 541-542. Belisarius successfully opposes Chosroes. 
 
 552. Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, is defeated and slain by the 
 
 forces of Narses, the successor of Belisarius. 
 
 553. Narses puts an end to the Ostrogothic i>ower in Italy, wliich is 
 
 annexed to the Byzantine Empire. 
 Council of Constantinople (fifth general council). 
 
 554. Italy is overrun by the Alemanni and Franks ; destruction of 
 
 their forces. 
 
 558-561. The Frankish empire reunited under Clotaire I. ; again 
 divided on his death. 
 
 565. Justinian is succeeded by Justin II. 
 
 566 (about). The Lombards, under Alboin, with the aid of the 
 Avars, destroy the kingdom of the Gepidas in Pannonia. 
 
 568. Establishment of the exarchate of Ravenna by the Byzan- 
 tines. 
 
 568-572. Alboin establishes the Lombard kingdom in Italy. 
 
 582-602. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Mauritius ; wars with the 
 Persians and Avars. 
 
 597. Augustin, dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great, begins the 
 conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 05 
 
 611-616. Chosroes II., king of Persia, conquers Syria, Egypt, and 
 Asia Minor from the Byzantines. (See G22, 627.) 
 
 613. Clotaire II. reunites the whole Frankish empire. (The realm 
 again divided during his reign.) 
 
 622. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius entei*s upon hLs victorioixs 
 career against the Pei-sians. 
 Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina — the Hegira. 
 
 627. The forces of Chosroes II. are overthrown by those of Heraclius 
 
 at Nineveh. 
 
 628. Fall of Chosroes II. 
 
 629. Mecca submits to Mohammed. He invades Palestine. 
 
 631. The Frankish empire is reunited under Dagobert I. (Again 
 
 divided on his death, 638.) 
 
 632. Death of Mohammed. Acce.ssion of Abubekr, the firet caliph. 
 
 His forces advance to the conquest of Syi'ia. 
 
 634. Death of Abubeki". Accession of Omar. 
 
 635. The Saracens break the power of the Persian monarchy in the 
 
 battle of Cadesia. 
 
 636 {about close of). The Saracens complete the conquest of Syria 
 and Palestine. 
 
 639-641. Amru, the general of Omar, conquers Egypt from the 
 Byzantines. 
 
 642. Victory of the Saracens at Nehavend, which ]3laces Persia in 
 their power. (Death of the last king of the Sassanidae, 651.) 
 
 644. Assassination of Omar. Accession of Othman. 
 
 656. Assassmation of Othman. Accession of Ali. 
 
 661. Moawdyah founds the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs. (Damas- 
 cus made the seat of the caliphate.) 
 
 680 (about). The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Moesia.* 
 
 680-681. Council of Constantinople (sixth general council). 
 
 687. Pepin of Heristal extends his sway over the whole Frankish 
 empire. 
 
 697. Establishment of the dogate in Venice. 
 
 711. The Saracens, under the lead of Tarik, j)ass into Spain, and 
 overwhelm Eoderic, king of the Visigoths, at Xerez de la 
 Frontera. (The conquest of the peninsula completed within 
 three years.) 
 
 719. The Saracens take Narbonne. 
 
 726. First edict of the Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian respect- 
 ing images. 
 
 * Modern Bulgaria. 
 
26 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 730. Prohibition of image worship m the Byzantine dominions. 
 732. Battle of Poitiei's ; Charles Martel overwhelms the Saracens, 
 and saves the Frankish empire. 
 
 750. Overthrow of the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs by the Abbas- 
 
 sides. 
 
 751. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, deposes Childeric III., 
 
 the last of the Merovingians, and assumes the title of king 
 of the Franks, founding the Carlovingiau dynasty. 
 
 752. The Lombards, iinder Astolphus, put an end to the exarchate 
 
 of Ravenna. 
 
 755. Pepin the Short vanquishes Astolphus, and invests Pope 
 
 Stephen II. with Ravenna, the Pentapolis, and other places 
 wrested from the Lombards ; creation of the Papal States. 
 
 756. Foundation of the Ommiyade kingdom (afterward caliphate) 
 
 of Cordova by Abderrahman. 
 
 762 (about). Foundation of Bagdad by Al-Mansoui". (The city soon 
 after made the seat of the caliphate.) 
 
 768. Pepin the Short is succeeded by his sons, Charles (Charle- 
 magne) and Carloman. 
 
 771. Death of Carloman ; Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. 
 
 772. Charlemagne enters upon his wars against tlie Saxons. 
 
 774. Charlemagne vanquishes Desiderius, and puts an end to the 
 Lombard kingdom. He is crowned king of Italy. 
 
 778. Charlemagne invades Spain. Disaster of Roncesvalles. 
 
 780. Ii'ene assumes the government of the Byzantine Empire in the 
 name of her son, Constantino VI. (Constantine dethroned, 
 797.) 
 
 785. Wittikind, the leader of the Saxons, submits to Charlemagne. 
 
 786. Accession of the caliph Haroun al-Rashid. 
 
 787. Second council of Nice (seventh general council) ; condemna- 
 
 tion of the Iconoclasts. 
 
 788. Charlemagne brmgs Bavaria completely under the Frankish 
 
 sway. 
 
 789 (about). First recorded inroad of the Northmen into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 791-796. Charlemagne destroys the power of the Avars. 
 
 800. Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the West by Pope 
 Leo III. 
 
 813. The Bulgarian khan Krumn menaces Constantinople. 
 Accession of the caliph Al-Mamoun. 
 
 814. Death of Charlemagne ; he is succeeded by his son, Louis 
 
 le Debonnaire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 27 
 
 826 {about). Ansgar enters upon liis missionary labors among the 
 
 Northmen. 
 827. Egbert, king of Wessex, establishes his overlordship over the 
 
 states of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. 
 The Saracens begin the conquest of Sicily from the Byzantines. 
 833. Louis le Debonnaire in the power of his rebellious sons. 
 
 840. Death of Louis le Debonnaire ; he is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Lothaire (emperor), Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. 
 
 841. Defeat of Lothaire by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the 
 
 battle of Fontenailles (Fontenay). 
 
 842. The council of Constantinople gives a fuial sanction to image 
 
 worship. 
 
 843. Partition of the Frankish empire by the treaty of Verdun be- 
 
 tween the sons of Louis le Debonnaire : Italy and a region 
 west of the Rhine and the Alj)s allotted to Lothaire ; Ger- 
 many, to Louis the German ; France, to Charles the Bald. 
 
 845. The Northmen pillage Paris. 
 
 846. The Saracens appear before Rome. 
 
 851. Victory of Ethelwulf over the Northmen at Ockley. 
 
 862. The Varangian chief Rurik lays the foundations of the Rus- 
 
 sian Emx^ire at Novgorod. 
 
 863. Cyril and Methodius undertake the conversion of the Mora- 
 
 vians. 
 863 (864 ?). Bogoris, khan of the Bulgarians, embraces Christianity. 
 
 865. First naval expedition of the Varangians against Constan- 
 
 tinople. 
 
 866. Accession of Alfonso the Great of Asturias. 
 
 867. Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, convenes a synod which 
 
 excommunicates the pope. Basil I. inaugurates the Mace- 
 donian dynasty in the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 869-870. Eighth general council, held at Constantinople. 
 
 870-894. Reign of Svatopluk in Moravia. 
 
 871. Accession of Alfred the Great. 
 
 874. The Northmen settle in Iceland. 
 
 878. Victory of Alfred the Great over the Danes at Eduigton ; bap- 
 
 tism of Guthrum. 
 The Saracens take Syracuse, and become masters of Sicily. 
 
 879. Foundation of the kmgdom of Cisjurane Burgundy. 
 
 884 {about the close o/)-887. Reunion of the empire of Charlemagne 
 
 under Charles the Fat. 
 885-886. Siege of Paris by the Northmen. 
 887. Deposition of Charles the Fat. 
 
28 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 888. Complete and final disruption of tlie Carlovingian empire. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy. 
 891. Arnulf, king of Germany, defeats the Northmen at Lou vain. 
 894 (about). The Magyars (Hungarians) cross the Carpathians, and 
 
 occupy the hasin of the Theiss. 
 901. Death of Alfred the Great ; he is succeeded by his son, Edward 
 
 the Elder. 
 909. Establishment of the Fatimite caliphate in Africa. 
 911. End of the Carlovingian dynasty m Germany. The Germans 
 
 elect Conrad, duke of Franconia, their king. 
 Charles the Simple, king of France, grants Normandy as a 
 
 duchy to the Northman Rolio. 
 912-961. Reign of Abderrahman III. of Cordova; the Arab realm 
 
 in Spain at the height of its splendor. 
 
 918. Death of Conrad, king of Germany. 
 
 919. Henry the Fowler is elected king of Germany, inaugurating 
 
 the Saxon dynasty. 
 925. Athelstan succeeds his father, Edward the Elder, in England. 
 933. Victory of Henry the Fowler over the Hungarians at Merse- 
 
 burg. 
 The kingdoms of Cisjurane and Transjurane Burgundy are 
 
 united into one realm, the kingdom of Aries. 
 
 936. Accession of Otho the Great in Germany and of Louis d'Ou- 
 
 tremer in France. 
 
 937. Athelstan defeats the Danes and Scots at Brunanburh. 
 
 951. Otho the Great dethrones Berenger II., king of Italy. 
 
 952. Otho I. reinstates Berenger II. as his feudatory. 
 955. Otho I. vanquishes the Hungarians on the Lech. 
 
 961. Final dethronement of Berenger II. by Otho I. ; the crown of 
 
 Italy passes from the descendants of Charlemagne to the 
 sovereigns of Germany. 
 
 962. Coronation of Otho the Great as emperor of the Romans by 
 
 Pope John XII. ; establishment of the Holy Roman Empire 
 
 of the German nation. 
 963-969. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas, 
 
 marked by victorious campaigns, conducted by himself and 
 
 his general John Zimisces, against the Saracens in Asia. 
 
 John Zimisces murders the emperor, and takes j)OSsession 
 
 of the throne. 
 966. Miecislas, ruler of Poland, embraces Christianity. 
 969. Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimites. 
 973. Otho II. succeeds his father, Otho I., in the German Empire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 29 
 
 978. Victorious advance of Otho II. into France. 
 
 981-982. "War of Otlio II. against the Saracens and Greeks in South 
 
 Italy. His army is finally overthrown. 
 983. Otho II. of Germany is succeeded by his infant son, Otho III. 
 
 987. End of the Carlovingian line of kings in France. Hugh 
 
 Capet inaugurates the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 988. Vladimir the Great of Eussia embraces Christianity. 
 991. Ethelred II. of England pays tribute to the Danes. 
 
 997. Death of Gejza, the first Christian monarch of Hungary. 
 The doge of Venice assumes the title of duke of Dalmatia. 
 
 998. Crescentius, having usurped power in Rome, is overcome and 
 
 put to death by Otho III. 
 
 1000. Meeting between Otho III. and Boleslas the Valiant, ruler of 
 
 Poland, at Gnesen. Otho founds the archbishopric of 
 Gnesen. 
 Stephen, ruler of Hungary, receives the royal dignity from 
 Pope Sylvester II. 
 
 1001. First invasion of India by Mahmoud of Ghuzni. 
 
 1002. Henry II. succeeds Otho III. in the German Empire. 
 Massacre of the Danes in England. 
 
 1013. Sweyn, king of Denmark, becomes master of England. 
 
 1014. Death of Sweyn ; restoration of Ethelred II. 
 
 1016. Death of Ethelred II. Contest for the possession of England 
 
 between his son, Edmund Ironside, and Canute, son of 
 Sweyn. Death of Edmund. 
 
 1017. Camite becomes king of all England (having succeeded to the 
 
 throne of Denmark in 1016). 
 
 1018. The Byzantine emperor Basil II. completes the destruction of 
 
 the Bulgarian realm. (See 1186.) 
 
 1019-1054. Reign of Yaroslav in Russia. (The country on his 
 death partitioned into various principalities.) 
 
 1020. Death of the Persian poet Firdusi. 
 
 1024. Death of Henry II., emperor of Germany. Conrad II. in- 
 augurates the Franconian dynasty. 
 
 1027. Conrad II. formally cedes Schleswig to the Danes. 
 
 1028. Invasion of Norway by Canute. 
 
 1031. End of the Ommiyade caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 1032. Extinction of the line of Arletan kings. 
 
 1033. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre, having acquired Castile 
 
 (1028), erects it into an independent kingdom. 
 1033-1034. Conrad II. establishes his dominion over the Arletan 
 terx'itories. 
 
30 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1035. Death of Canute ; his sons, Harold Harefoot and Hardica- 
 nute, lords of England. 
 Aragon is separated from Navarre and made an independent 
 kingdom. 
 1036 or 1037. Death of the Arabian physician and philosopher Avi- 
 
 cenna. 
 1037. Harold becomes sole ruler of England. 
 
 1037-1050 (about). The Seljuks, under Togrul Beg, establish their 
 dominion in Persia. 
 
 1039. Henry III. succeeds his father, Conrad II. , in Germany. 
 Macbeth kills Duncan, and becomes king of the Scots. 
 
 1040. Hardicaniite becomes king of England. 
 
 1041. The Normans conquer most of Apulia from the Byzantines. 
 
 1042. Death of Hardicanute ; end of the Danish rule in England. 
 
 Edward the Confessor succeeds to the throne. 
 1046. Tlie emperor Henry III. holds a council at Sutri, puts aside 
 the rival claimants to the pontificate, and himself appoints 
 a new pope, Clement II. 
 
 1054. Complete separation of the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 
 1055. Togrul Beg, sultan of the Seljuks, establishes his authority 
 
 in the dominions of the caliph of Bagdad, who retains the 
 nominal exercise of power. 
 
 1056. Henry IV. succeeds his father, Henry III., in Germany under 
 
 the regency of his mother, Agnes. 
 
 1057. The first of the Comneni ascends the Byzantine throne. 
 
 1059. Nicholas II. decrees that the election of the pope be hence- 
 forth vested in the college of cardinals. The pope confirms 
 Robert Guiscard in the title of duke of Apulia and Calabria. 
 
 1061. Tlie Normans, under Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, 
 
 engage in the conquest of Sicily from the Saracens. 
 
 1062. Anno, archbishop of Cologne, seizes the pei-son of the young 
 
 emperor Henry IV. and the reins of government. 
 1066. Harold II. succeeds Edward the Confessor. The Norwegians 
 invade England, and are defeated by Harold. William, 
 duke of Normandy, invades England, overthrows Harold 
 in the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, and conquers the kmg- 
 dom. 
 
 1071. The Seljuk sultan. Alp Ai^lan, defeats and takes prisoner the 
 
 Byzantine emperor, Romanus Diogenes. 
 
 1072. Roger Guiscard takes Palermo from the Saracens, and estab- 
 
 lishes his power in Sicily. 
 Malek Shah becomes sultan of the Seljuks. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 31 
 
 1073. Election of Pope Gregory YII. (Hildebrand). 
 
 1074. Gregory VII. holds a council for the prohibition of simony 
 
 and the marriage of the clergy. 
 1074-1084 (about). The Seljuks conquer Asia Minor and Syria. Else 
 of the sultanate of Roum. 
 
 1075. Gregory VII. holds a council which prohibits lay investiture. 
 
 Beginning of the war between the emperor Henry IV. and 
 the pope respecting investiture. 
 
 1076. Henry IV. holds a council at Worms which deposes Gregory 
 
 VII. The pope, in union with the German prmces, de- 
 poses the emperor. 
 
 1077. Henry IV. humbles himself before Gregoiy A^II. at Canossa, 
 
 and receives absolution. Election of a rival emperor in 
 Germany, Rudolph of Swabia. 
 
 1080. Henry IV. holds a council which deposes Gregory VII., and 
 
 elects Guibert (Antipope Clement III.) in his place. The 
 war between Henry and Rudolph of Swabia is terminated 
 by the death of the latter. 
 
 1081. Henry IV. is foiled in an expedition against Rome. Her- 
 
 mann of Luxemburg is set up as emperor in opposition to 
 Henry. 
 Alexis Comnenus takes Constantinople, and places himself on 
 the Byzantine throne. Robert Guiscard makes war on 
 Alexis, and defeats his forces at Durazzo. 
 
 1084. Henry IV. besieges Gregory VII. in the castle of Sant' Angelo. 
 
 Robert Guiscard advances and delivers the pope. 
 
 1085. Conquest of Toledo from the Moors by Alfonso the Valiant 
 
 of Castile and Leon. 
 Death of Gregory YII. and Robert Guiscard. 
 
 1086. Completion of the Domesday Book under William the Con- 
 
 queror. 
 
 1087. William the Conqueror is succeeded by his son William 
 
 Rufus in England, and by his son Robert in Normandy. 
 
 1090-1102. The Almoravides of Morocco conquer most of Moham- 
 medan Spain. 
 
 1092. Death of Malek Shah, followed by the complete disruption of 
 the empire of the Seljuks. 
 
 1095. Pope Urban 11. holds the councils of Piacenza and Clermont. 
 Proclamation of a crasade for the recovery of the holy 
 sepvilchre. 
 
 1095 (fibout). Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon erects Por- 
 tugal into a coimty for Henry of Burgundy. 
 
32 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1096. Peter the Hermit, Walter the Penniless, and others lead 
 
 hordes of undisciplined crusaders to destruction. Godfrey 
 of Bouillon and his associates conduct their forces toward 
 the Holy Land. 
 
 1097. The crusaders take Nicaea. They defeat the sultan of Iconium 
 
 at Dorylseum. Baldwin of Flanders founds the principal- 
 ity of Edessa. 
 
 1098. The crusaders take Antioch, where they are unsuccessfully 
 
 hesieged hy the Mussulmans. 
 
 1099. Bohemond establishes himself as prince of Antioch. Suc- 
 
 cessful termination of the first crusade. Storming of 
 Jerusalem, July 15. Godfrey of Bouillon is appointed 
 ruler of the conquered city. Victory of the crusaders over 
 the ruler of Egypt at Ascalon. 
 
 1100. Henry I. succeeds his brother, William Rufus, in England. 
 
 1101. Robert, duke of Normandy, makes war on his brother, Henry 
 
 I., and invades England. 
 1106. Henry I. overthrows Robert, and secures Normandy, 
 
 Accession of Henry V. to the throne of Germany. 
 1108. Louis VI. succeeds his father, Philip I., in France. 
 
 1111. Henry V. arrests Pope Paschal XL, and extorts his consent to 
 
 the imperial right of investiture. Coronation of Henry by 
 the poi^e. 
 
 1112. Paschal II. revokes his concessions to Henry V., who is ex- 
 
 communicated by the council of Vienne. 
 
 1115. Death of Matilda, countess of Tuscany. (Her dominions, 
 oi'iginally destined by her for the church, are taken posses- 
 sion of by the emperor of Germany in 1116.) 
 Foundation of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux by St. 
 Bernard. 
 
 1118 {about). Foundation of the order of Knights Templars. 
 
 1122. Henry V. concludes with Pope Calixtus II. the Concordat 
 
 of Worms, which settles the contest respecting investi- 
 ture, the emperor agreeing to the free election of bishops. 
 
 1123. First council of the Lateran (ninth genei'al council). 
 
 1125. Death of the emperor Henry V. ; end of the Franconian 
 dynasty. Lothaire II. , duke of Saxony, is elected his suc- 
 cessor. Lothaire declares war to the house of Hohen- 
 staufen. 
 
 1127. Roger II., count of Sicily, is recognized as duke of Apulia 
 and Calabria, uniting the Norman conquests in Italy with 
 Sicily. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 33 
 
 1128. Conrad, duke of Franconia, of tlie house of Holienstaufen, 
 
 has hunself crowned king of the Lombards in opposition to 
 
 Lothaire II. 
 1132-1133. Expedition of Lothaire 11. to Rome in support of Pope 
 
 Innocent II. against the antipope Anacletus II. 
 1135. Death of Henry I. of England ; he is succeeded by his 
 
 nephew, Stephen. 
 Lothaire forces the house of Hohenstaufen into submission. 
 1136-1137. Successful expedition of Lothaire against the Italian 
 
 cities and Eoger II. of Sicily. Death of the emperor. 
 
 1137. Louis VII. succeeds his father, Louis VI., in France. 
 
 1138. David I. of Scotland, having invaded England, is defeated in 
 
 the battle of the Standard. 
 Accession of Conrad III., the first of the Hohenstaufen em- 
 perors of Germany. 
 1138-1139. War between Conrad III. and Henry the Haughty, duke 
 of Bavaria and Saxony, of the house of Guelph. Conrad 
 gives Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold 
 IV. of Austria. Henry, after defeating Albert the Bear, 
 dies, and leaves as his heir his son, Henry the Lion, a minor. 
 
 1139. Matilda (Maud), daughter of Henry I., and wife of Geoffrey 
 
 Plantagenet, count of Anjou, engages in a war with Stephen 
 for the crown of England. 
 
 AfPonso (Alfonso) Henriquez of Portugal gains a great victory 
 over the Moors at Ourique. He assumes the royal dignity. 
 
 Second council of the Lateran (tenth general council) ; con- 
 demnation of Arnold of Brescia. 
 
 1140. Guelph (Welf) VL, imcle of Henry the Lion, attempting to 
 
 secure possession of Bavaria, is defeated by the forces of 
 Conrad HI. at Weinsberg. 
 
 1141. King Stephen is taken prisoner by the party of Matilda. 
 
 1142. Conrad HI. invests Henry the Lion with the duchy of Saxony. 
 Death of Abelard. 
 
 1143. Eepublican revolution in Rome, evoked by the agitations of 
 
 Arnold of Brescia. 
 1143-1180. Reign of Manuel Comnenus in the Byzantine Empire ; 
 wars with the Seljuks, Normans, and Hungarians. 
 
 1144. The sultan of Aleppo takes Edessa. 
 
 1145. Disruption of the Almoravide realm in Spain. 
 
 1146. St. Bernard preaches a crusade for the iirotection of the Holy 
 
 Land against Nourcddin, the new sultan of Ale])po. 
 Roger, king of Sicily, ravages the Byzantine dominions. 
 
34 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1146-about 1171. The Almohades of Morocco extend their sway over 
 Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 1147. The emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. of France engage 
 
 in the second crusade. 
 
 1148. The crusaders unsuccessfully besiege Damascus. 
 
 1149. Return of the crusaders from the Holy Land. 
 
 1151. Union of Aa'agon and Catalonia. 
 
 1152. Marriage of Henry Plantagenet, son of Matilda, with Eleanor 
 
 of Aquitaine. 
 Frederick I. , Barharossa, succeeds Conrad III. in Germany. 
 
 1153. Treaty between Stephen and Henry Plantagenet terminating 
 
 the contest for the English throne ; Henry to succeed on 
 the death of Stephen. 
 
 1154. Death of King Stephen. Henry II. inaugurates the Planta- 
 
 genet dynasty ; a large portion of France united with the 
 crown of England. 
 Frederick Barharossa enters upon his first Italian expedition. 
 
 1155. Frederick I. re-establishes the i^apal authority in Rome. Pope 
 
 Adrian IV. has Arnold of Brescia executed. 
 
 1156. Bavaria is i-estored to the house of GueliDh, Henry the Lion 
 
 being placed in possession. 
 Erection of Austria into a duchy. 
 
 1157. Frederick I. forces Poland to pay him homage. 
 
 1158. Frederick I. besieges and takes Milan. 
 
 1159. Death of Pope Adrian IV. Election of Alexander III. Fred- 
 
 erick Barharossa creates an antipope, Victor IV. (The first 
 of several antipopes set up by the emperor against Alex- 
 ander HI.) 
 1159-1160. Siege and reduction of Crema by Frederick. 
 
 1160. Excommunication of Frederick by Alexander HI. 
 1161-1162. Siege and destruction of Milan by Frederick. 
 
 1164. Enactment of the constitutions of Clarendon, directed against 
 the power of the English clergy. 
 
 1167. Formation of the league of the Lombard cities against Fred- 
 erick Barharossa. 
 
 1169. The English begin the conquest of Ireland. 
 
 1170. Murder of Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 1171. End of the Fatimite dynasty of caliphs in Egypt ; Saladin 
 
 takes possession of the country (nominally for Noureddin). 
 1174. William the Lion, king of Scotland, falls into the hands of 
 the English, and is forced to acknowledge himself the vas- 
 sal of Henry II. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 35 
 
 1174-1183. Saladin, sultan of Egypt, conquers Syria and most of 
 Mesopotamia fi*om the successors of Noureddin. 
 
 1176. Frederick Barbarossa is vanquished by the forces of the Lom- 
 
 bai'd Leagxie at Legnano. 
 
 1177. Frederick and Pope Alexander III. meet at Venice, and 
 
 terminate their contest. 
 
 1179. Third council of the Lateran (eleventh general council) ; one 
 
 of its canons condemns the Albigenses. 
 
 1180. Philip Augustus succeeds his father, Louis VII., in France. 
 Henry the Lion is placed under the ban of the empire. His 
 
 Bavarian territories are assigned to the house of Wittels- 
 bach. His Saxon dominions are partitioned. 
 
 1181. Fall of Henry the Lion. 
 
 1183. Peace of Constance between the emperor Frederick Barbaros- 
 sa and the cities of the Lombard League, which secures 
 their liberties. 
 
 1185. End of the dynasty of the Comneni in Constantinople. 
 
 1186. Marriage of Henry, son of Frederick Barbarossa, with Con- 
 
 stance, heiress of the Two Sicilies. 
 Foundation of the Bulgaro-Wallachian realm. 
 
 1187. Saladin vanquishes the Christians at Tiberias, and overthrows 
 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 
 1189. Frederick Barbarossa sets out on the third crusade. Guy of 
 
 Lusignan, the dispossessed king of Jemsalem, lays siege to 
 Acre; he is joined by bodies of crusaders from various 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Fresh troubles in Germany with Henry the Lion. 
 
 Richard Coeur-de-Lion succeeds his father, Henry II. 
 
 1190. Foundation of the order of Teutonic Knights. 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa, after defeating the forces of the sultan 
 of Iconium, is drowned in the river Calycadnus. His son, 
 Henry VI., becomes emperor of Germany. Richai'd Coeur- 
 de-Lion and Philip Augustus engage in the crusade. 
 
 1191. Philip Augustus and Richard join in the siege of Acre, which 
 
 falls. 
 
 1192. Richard concludes a truce with Saladin ; on his return jour- 
 
 ney he is arrested in Austria. 
 
 1193. John Lackland, brother of Richard, attempts to usurp the 
 
 crown of England. 
 
 1194. Richard, after having been prisonor of the emperor Henry 
 
 VI. for more than a year, is ransomed by his subjects. 
 
 He defeats Philip Augustus. 
 4 
 
36 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1194. Henry VI. puts an end to the Norman rule in the Two Sicilies, 
 
 and establishes the Holienstaufen dynasty there. 
 
 1195. Defeat of Alfonso the Noble, king of Castile, by the Moors at 
 
 Alarcos. 
 
 1197. Death of Henry VI. of Germany ; he leaves as heir an infant 
 
 son, Frederick (II.). 
 
 1198. Philip of Swabia, brother of Henry VI. , and Otho of Bruns- 
 
 wick, son of Henry the Lion, are elected to the imperial 
 throne of Germany by the Ghibellines and Guelphs respec- 
 tively, and engage in a contest for the crown. 
 
 Pope Innocent III. summons Europe to a new crusade ; 
 preachings of Foulques de Neuilly. 
 
 Death of the Moorish philosopher Averroes. 
 
 1199. Richard Cceur-de-Lion is killed in a contest with one of his 
 
 French vassals ; he is succeeded by John Lackland, 
 
 1201. Baldwin of Flanders, Boniface of Montferrat, Simon de Mont- 
 
 fort, and other princes engage in the fourth crusade. 
 
 1202. Venice, having agreed to transjaort the crusaders to the Holy 
 
 Land, secures their services, in lieu of a portion of the 
 
 payment, for the conquest of the rebellious city of Zara. 
 1202-1205. Philip Augustus wrests Normandy, Maine, Poitou, An- 
 
 jou, and Touraine from King John of England. 
 1202-1206. Genghis Khan lays the foundations of a great Mongol 
 
 empire. 
 
 1203. The Venetians and crusaders, under the command of the doge 
 
 Enrico Dandolo, take Constantinople, and restore the de- 
 posed emperor Isaac Angelus. 
 
 1204. Revolution in Constantinople. The Venetians and crusaders 
 
 take and pillage the city. Partition of the Byzantine ter- 
 ritories. Foundation of the Latin Empire of the East, 
 Baldwin of Flanders being raised to tlie throne. Alexis 
 Comnenus founds the Greek realm of Trebizond. 
 Death of the Jewish theologian and philosopher Maimonides. 
 1206. Foundation of the Greek empire of Nica:a by Theodore Las- 
 caris. 
 
 1208. Innocent III. proclaims a crusade against the Albigenses. 
 
 He lays England under an interdict. 
 Assassination of Philip of Swabia, emperor of Germany, by 
 Otho of Wittelsbach. Otho (IV.) of Brunswick is recog 
 nized as emperor. 
 
 1209. Massacre of the Albigenses by the crusaders at Beziers. 
 Foundation of the order of Franciscans. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 37 
 
 1210-1211. The emperor Otho IV. attempts the conquest of the 
 Two Sicilies from Fx'ederick (II.) of Hohenstaufen. 
 
 1212. Frederick of Hohenstaufen, supported by Innocent III., en- 
 
 gages in a contest for the crown of Germany with Otlio. 
 The kings of Castile, Navarre, and Aragon overwhelm the 
 
 Moors in the battle of Navas de Tolosa, and break the 
 
 Almohade power in Spain. 
 The Children's Crusade. 
 
 1213. Philip Augustus takes up arms for the dethronement of King 
 
 John of England. John becomes a vassal of the pope. 
 Simon de Montfort, the leader of the crusade against the Al- 
 bigenses, vanquishes Count Eaymond VI. of Toulouse and 
 the Aragonese at Muret. 
 
 1214. Victory of Philip Augustus over Otho IV. at Bovines. 
 
 1215. King John signs the Magna Charta. 
 
 Coronation of the emj)eror Frederick 11. in Germany. 
 Fourth council of the Lateran (twelfth general council). 
 
 Formal establishment of the inquisition. 
 Foundation of the order of Dominicans. 
 Capture of Yenking (Peking) by Genghis Khan. 
 
 1216. Heniy III. succeeds his father, John, in England ; the earl of 
 
 Pembroke protector. 
 Pope Honorius III. succeeds Innocent III. 
 
 1217. Andrew II., king of Hxmgary, and other princes undertake 
 
 a fifth crusade. 
 1217-1218. Simon de Montfort besieges Toulouse, and is killed in 
 the enterprise. 
 
 1218. Death of Otho IV. of Germany. 
 
 Andrew 11. withdraws from the crusade, which is prosecuted 
 by William I., count of Holland, and John of Brienne. 
 
 1219. The crusaders reduce Damietta. 
 
 1219-1220. The Mongols overrun Turkestan, take Bokhara and 
 Samarkand, and break the power of the Kharesmians. 
 
 1221. The crusaders in Egyi^t are forced to agree to disastrous terms 
 
 of peace. 
 
 1222. Andrew II. signs the Golden Bull, the Magna Charta of 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 1223. Louis VIII. succeeds his father, Philip Augustus, in France. 
 
 1224. Victory of the Mongols over the Russians on the Kalka. 
 1226. Louis IX. succeeds his father, Louis VIII., in France, under 
 
 the regency of his mother, Blanche of Castile. 
 The Lombard League is renewed against Frederick II. 
 
38 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1227. Pope Gregory IX. succeeds Honorius III. 
 
 Frederick II. embarks on a crusade ; his first expedition mis- 
 carries. 
 
 1228. Frederick II. resumes his expedition for the recovery of the 
 
 Holy Land ; Gregory IX. attempts to deprive the emperor 
 of his dommions. 
 
 1229. Frederick II. terminates his crusade by a truce with the sultan 
 
 of Egypt, by which Jerusalem is placed in the hands of the 
 Christians. 
 Raymond VII. of Toulouse submits to terms fatal to the 
 Albigenses. 
 1231. The Teutonic Knights, summoned to the aid of the Poles 
 against the heathen Prussians, lay the foundations of their 
 dominion in the Baltic regions. 
 
 1236. Frederick II. makes war on the Lombard League in conjunc- 
 
 tion with the Ghibelline leader Ezzelino da Romano. 
 Conquest of Cordova from the Moors by St. Ferdinand of 
 Castile and Leon. 
 
 1237. Victory of Frederick II. over the forces of the Lombard League 
 
 at Cortenuova. 
 Union of the order of Knights Swordbearers with that of the 
 Teutonic Knights. 
 1239-1241. Crusade of the French and English nobles and knights, 
 headed by Thibaud, count of Champagne and king of 
 Navarre, and Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry 
 III. 
 
 1240. Frederick U. advances against Gregory IX., and threatens 
 
 Rome. 
 The Mongols of the Golden Horde, under Batu Khan, after 
 
 overrunning and devastating Russia, force the princes of 
 
 the country to do homage. 
 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, achieves a great victory over 
 
 the Swedes on the Neva. 
 
 1241. Advance of the Mongols into central Europe. They vanquish 
 
 the Silesians, Poles, and Teutonic Knights on the field of 
 
 the Wahlstatt, near Liegnitz, April 9. They overwhelm 
 
 the Hungarians on the Sajo. 
 Death of Gregory IX. 
 Hamburg and Liibeck form an alliance for the protection of 
 
 their commerce, laying the foundations of the Hanseatic 
 
 League. 
 
 1242. The Mongols invade Asia Minor. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 39 
 
 1242. Alexander Nevski vanquishes the Knights Swordbearers on 
 Lake Peipus. 
 
 1244. The Kharesmians storm Jerusalem. 
 
 1245. The council of Lyons (thirteenth general council), convened 
 
 by Pope Innocent IV., proclaims the deposition of the em- 
 peror Frederick II. Proclamation of a new crusade. 
 
 1246. The Babenberg dynasty in Austria terminates with the death 
 
 of Duke Frederick the WarUke. 
 
 1248. Louis IX. of France embarks on his first crusade. 
 
 St. Ferdinand of Castile and Leon wrests Seville from the 
 
 Moors. 
 The erection of the cathedral of Cologne is begun. 
 
 1249. The crusaders take Damietta. 
 
 Foundation of Univei'sity College at Oxford ; the university 
 at this time at the height of its fame. 
 
 1250. The army of Louis IX. is overwhelmed by the Egyptians. 
 
 The king is captured, but soon released. The Mamelukes 
 usurp the supreme power in Egypt. 
 The emperor Frederick II. dies, leaving his son, Conrad IV,, 
 his successor in his hereditary dominions and in the Ger- 
 man Empire. "William II., count of Holland, contests the 
 imperial dignity. 
 
 1251. Ottocar, son of Wenceslas I. of Bohemia, acquires Austria. 
 1253 {about). Foundation of the Sorbonne. 
 
 1254. Death of Conrad IV., the last of the Hohenstaufen emperors; 
 his infant son, Conradin, his heir ; William of Holland rec- 
 ognized in Germany ; Pope Innocent IV. , having attempted 
 to wrest the Two Sicilies from the Hohenstaufen, is defeated 
 by the regent Manfred, uncle of Conradin. Death of the 
 pope, who is succeeded by Alexander IV. 
 
 1256. William of Holland is killed va. a war with the Frisians. 
 
 1257. Alfonso the Wise of Castile and Richard of Cornwall are 
 
 elected to the imperial throne of Germany. 
 
 1258. Enactment of the Provisions of Oxford by the "Mad Parlia- 
 
 ment"; Henry III. is forced to submit to a Council of 
 
 State, with Sunon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, at its head. 
 Manfred has himself crowned king of Sicily. 
 Venice and Genoa engage in their fii'st great straggle. 
 Hulalvu Khan, the Mongol ruler, puts an end to the caliphate 
 
 of Bagdad. 
 1260. Ottocar II. of Bohemia vanquishes Bela IV. of Hungary, and 
 
 secures the possession of Styria, 
 
40 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1261. Michael Palaeologus, emperor of Nicxa, with the aid of the 
 Genoese, overthrows the Latin Empire of the East, and 
 places the dynasty of the Palaeologi on the Byzantine 
 throne. 
 
 1263. Alexander III. of Scotland repels the last invasion of the 
 
 Norwegians, under King Hako. 
 
 1264. Simon de Montfort, at the head of the English harons, defeats 
 
 Henry III. and his brother, Richard of Cornwall, at Lewes, 
 and takes them prisoners. 
 
 1265. Simon de Montfort grants representation to the commons in 
 
 Parliament. He is defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Evesham. 
 
 1266. Charles of Anjou undertakes the conquest of the Two Sicilies, 
 
 and overwhelms Manfred in a battle near Benevento. 
 
 1267. The Guelphs triumph over the Ghibellines * in Florence. 
 
 1268. Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, attempts to recover 
 
 the Two Sicilies from Chai'les of Anjou, but is defeated and 
 captured at Tagliacozzo, and executed. 
 Conquest of the Christian principality of Antioch by Bibars, 
 sultan of Egypt and Syria. 
 
 1269. Louis IX. publishes the Pragmatic Sanction, which lays the 
 
 foundations of the Galilean Church. 
 Ottocar of Bohemia occupies Carinthia. 
 
 1270. Louis IX. engages in a new crusade, m which he is joined by 
 
 Edward, son of Henry HI. , and dies in an expedition against 
 Tunis. He is succeeded by his son, Philip III. 
 
 1271. Marco Polo sets out on his travels. 
 
 1272. Prince Edward abandons the Holy Land ; end of the crusades. 
 
 Edward (I.) succeeds his father, Heniy III., on the throne 
 of England. 
 
 1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg is elected emperor of Germany. 
 
 1274. Second council of Lyons (fourteenth general council), pre- 
 
 sided over by Gregory X. 
 Death of Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 * The name of Ghibellines was given in Italy to the party which favored the 
 overlorclship of the emperors of Germany. Their opponents, the Guelphs, con- 
 tended for the more complete autonomy of the city republics, supported the papacy, 
 and were in a measure a national and democratic party. These appellations came 
 into use among the Italians in the first half of the thirteenth century, or at a time 
 when little was left of imperial rule in northern Italy ; but, after the emperors had 
 completely lost their hold on the peninsula, the names Guelphs and Ghibellines long 
 continued the designations of fiercely contending parties. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 41 
 
 1276. Eudolpli of Hapsburg vanquishes Ottocar II. of Bohemia, and 
 forces him to give up Austria, Styria, Carinthia, etc. 
 
 1278. Ottocar II., having renewed the war with Rudolph, is de- 
 feated and slain on the Marchfeld. 
 
 1280. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis 
 Khan, complete the conquest of China. 
 
 1282. Rudolph of Hapsburg invests his sons, Albert and Rudolph, 
 
 with the duchies of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia. (Ca- 
 rinthia relinquished by them in favor of Meinhard of Tyrol.) 
 
 Massacre of the French in Palermo (Sicilian Vespers). Sicily 
 throws off the yoke of Charles of Anjou, and places herself 
 under the rule of Pedro III. of Aragon. 
 
 Formation of the Zuyder Zee by an inundation of the sea. 
 1282-1283. Conquest of Wales by Edward I. of England. 
 
 1283. The Teutonic Knights, after a struggle of fifty years, com- 
 
 plete the subjugation of the Prussians. 
 
 1284. The Genoese break the power of the Pisans in the naval bat- 
 
 tle of Meloria. 
 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair, succeeds his father, Philip III., in France. 
 1288-1326. Othman lays the foundations of the Turkish Empire in 
 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 1290. Death of Margaret of Norway, the young queen of Scotland ; 
 
 the succession disputed by John Balliol, Robert Bruce, and 
 others. 
 Expulsion of the Jews from England. 
 
 1291. Death of Rudolph of Hapsburg. The people of Uri, Schwytz, 
 
 and Unterwalden enter into a defensive alliance, directed 
 
 mainly against his son, Albert. 
 Conquest of Acre from the Christians by Malek el-Ashref, 
 
 ruler of Egypt and Syria ; final loss of the Holy Land. 
 Death of the Persian poet Saadi. 
 
 1292. Edward I. of England adjudges the crown of Scotland to 
 
 John Balliol. 
 Adolphus of Nassau is elected to the throne of Germany. 
 
 1295. Philip the Fair and John Balliol make war on England. 
 
 1296. Edward I. dethrones Balliol. 
 
 Bull of Boniface VIII. (Clericis laicos) against the taxation 
 of ecclesiastical property without the consent of the Holy 
 See. Philip the Fair I'efuses to submit to it. 
 
 1297. Victory of the Scots, under Wallace, over the English at 
 
 Stirling. 
 Successful Invasion of Flanders by the French. 
 
42 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1298. Edward I. defeats Wallace at Falkirk. 
 
 Albert of Austria, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, takes up 
 
 arms for the dethronement of the German emperor, Adol- 
 
 phus of Nassau, who falls in battle, and is succeeded by his 
 
 rival. 
 Naval victory of the Genoese over the Venetians at Curzola. 
 Boniface VIII. wages a successful war against the Colon- 
 
 nas. 
 
 1300. First gi*eat 3u.bilee of the Catholic church; Boniface VIII. 
 
 grants indulgence to all visiting Rome within the year. 
 
 1301. End of the Arpad dynasty in Hungary; the crown becomes 
 
 elective. 
 
 1302. First convocation of the States General in France; repre- 
 
 sentatives of the burghers (Third Estate) are summoned to 
 the assembly of the nation in addition to the nobility and 
 clergy. 
 Rising in Flanders agauist the French. Victory of the Flem- 
 ings at Courtrai. 
 
 1303. Arrest of Boniface VIII. at Anagni by order of Philip the 
 
 Fair. Rescue and death of the i)ope. 
 The Byzantine emperor Andronicus Palgeologus takes the 
 Catalan Grand Company into his service to aid him against 
 the Turks. 
 1303-1304. Edward I. advances into Scotland, and completes the 
 conquest of the kingdom. 
 
 1305. Execution of Wallace. 
 
 1306. Revolt of Scotland \inder Robert Bruce (grandson of Robert 
 
 Bruce, the rival of John Balliol), who is crowned king. 
 Extinction of the dynasty of Premysl (Przemysl) in Bohemia. 
 
 1307. Edward II. succeeds his father, Edward I. 
 Arrest of the Knights Templars by Philip the Fair. 
 
 1308. The Swiss forcibly resist the tyrannous encroachments of the 
 
 emperor Albert of Hapsburg.* Albert is assassinated by 
 John of Austria. Henry VII., of the house of Luxemburg, 
 is elected emperor of Germany. 
 
 1309. Removal of the papal court, under Clement V., from Rome 
 
 to Avignon. 
 The Knights of St. John conquer Rhodes from the Turks. 
 
 * According to the common tradition, the representatives of Uri, Schwytz, and 
 Unterwaldcn met in 1307 on the meadow of Grlitli, and there concluded an alliance, 
 which was the basis of the Swiss Confederacy. These cantons, however, had already 
 entered into a formal union in 1291, the articles of which have been preserved. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 43 
 
 1310. Henry VII. of Germany undertakes an expedition into Italy 
 to restore the imperial authority. John, son of Henry, 
 inaugurates the Luxemburg dynasty in Bohemia. 
 
 1311-1312. Council of Vienne (fifteenth general council) ; condem- 
 nation of the Knights Templars and Beghards. 
 
 1312. Henry VII. unsuccessfully attaclcs Floi^ence. 
 
 1313. Henry VII. dies in Italy while preparing to subdue Robert 
 
 the Wise of Naples, the champion of the Guelphs. 
 1314- Robert Bruce overwhelms the army of Edward II, at Ban- 
 
 nockburn, June 24. 
 Burning of Molay, the last grand-master of the Knights 
 
 Templars, with other dignitaries of the order, at Paris. 
 
 Louis X. succeeds his father, Philip IV. 
 1314-1322. Contest for the crown of Germany between Louis the 
 
 Bavarian and Frederick the Handsome of Austria. 
 
 1315. The Swiss achieve a great victory over Leopold, brother of 
 
 Frederick the Handsome, at Morgarten, Nov, 
 
 1316. Accession of Philip V. in France. 
 
 1321. Death of Dante. 
 
 1322. Charles IV. succeeds his brother, Philip V., in France. 
 Louis the Bavarian triumphs over his rival, Frederick of Aus- 
 tria, taking him prisoner in the battle of Miihldorf (or of 
 Ampfing). 
 
 1324. Pope John XXII. excommunicates Louis the Bavarian. 
 
 1326. Isabella, queen of Edward II., and Roger Mortimer invade 
 
 England to dethrone the king, who becomes a prisoner. 
 
 1327. Edward II. is deposed by Parliament, and succeeded by his 
 
 son, Edward III. Murder of Edward II. 
 1327-1328. Louis the Bavarian marches into Italy, enters Rome, 
 and proclaims the deposition of John XXII., but is forced 
 to retreat. 
 
 1328. Edward III. recognizes the independence of Scotland. 
 Death of Charles IV. of France ; end of the Capetian dynasty, 
 
 Philip VI. inaugurates the dynasty of Valois. 
 1330. Orkhan, sultan of the Tui'ks, takes NicEea. 
 
 1332. Edward Balliol invades Scotland to dethrone the young king, 
 
 David Bruce. 
 
 1333. Edward III. invades Scotland, and overtlirows the forces of 
 
 Archibald Douglas, regent for David Bruce, in the battle 
 of Halidon Hill. 
 Accession of Casimir the Great in Poland. 
 1335. Cai'inthia becomes a possession of the house of Austria. 
 
44 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1336-1355 (close of). Reign of Stephen Dushan in Servia ; the king- 
 dom at the height of its power. 
 
 1338. Jacob van Artevelde, the leader of the burghers of Ghent, 
 
 becomes governor of Flanders, its people refusing allegi- 
 ance to their ruler, Count Louis I. 
 Beginning of the wars of Edward III. against France; the 
 king strengthened by alliances in the Low Countries and 
 Germany. 
 
 1339. Edward III. makes an unsuccessful campaign against the 
 
 French in Flanders. He assumes the title of king of 
 France. 
 Simone Boccanera becomes first doge of Genoa. 
 
 1340. Naval victory of the English over the French at Sluys. 
 
 1341. Death of John III. of Brittany. The succession is contested 
 
 by his brother, John of Montfort, and his niece, Jeanne de 
 Penthievre, wife of Charles of Blois, the former being sup- 
 ported by England, the latter by France. 
 
 1342. Campaign of Edward III. in Brittany. 
 
 1346. Charles of Luxemburg (Charles IV.), son of King John of 
 
 Bohemia, at the instance of Poi)e Clement VI. , is elected 
 emperor of Germany in opposition to Louis the Bava- 
 rian. 
 Victor}^ of Edward III. over Philip VI. of France at Crecy, 
 Aug. 26; death of King John of Bohemia; cannon used 
 by the English. David Bruce invades England, and is 
 vanquished and captured at Neville's Cross. 
 
 1347. Edward III. takes Calais. 
 
 Death of Louis the Bavarian, who is succeeded by Charles 
 IV. (The authority of Charles disputed till 1349.) 
 
 Louis the Great of Hungary invades the dominions of Queen 
 Joanna I. of Naples to avenge the murder, supposed to 
 have been committed by her order, of her husband Andrew, 
 brother of Louis. 
 
 Pienzi's revolution in Rome. 
 
 1348. Joanna I. of Naples sells Avignon to the pope. 
 
 Charles IV. founds the University of Prague, the first in 
 
 Germany. 
 1348-1351. The "black death" ravages Europe. 
 1350. John the Good succeeds his father, Philip VI., in France. 
 1352. Naval engagement between the Genoese, under Paganino 
 
 Doria, and the Venetians, Catalans, and Byzantines, under 
 
 Niccolo Pisani, near Constantinople. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 45 
 
 1353. Victory of the Venetians over the Genoese off Sardinia. 
 
 1354. Tyranny of Rienzi in Rome ; his fall and death. 
 Paganino Doria overwhelms the Venetian fleet in the Gulf of 
 
 Sapienza. 
 A Turkish force seizes Gallipoli ; first beginnings of Turkish 
 dominion in Europe. 
 
 1355. Conspiracy of Marino Falieri in Venice. 
 
 1356. The English, under Edward the Black Prince, overwhelm 
 
 John the Good of France and make him prisoner in the 
 battle of Poitiei*s, September 19. 
 Charles IV. of Germany issues the Golden Bull, defining the 
 rights and duties of the imperial electors, the manner of 
 electing the emperor, &c. 
 1358. Insurrection of the peasantry, known as the Jacquerie, in 
 France. 
 
 1360. Treaty of Bretigny between England and France ; King John 
 
 is set at liberty. 
 
 1361. Extinction of the first ducal house of Burgundy. 
 Sultan Amurath I. conquers Adrianople. 
 
 1363. John the Good, king of France, confers the duchy of Bur- 
 
 gundy upon his son, Philip the Bold. 
 Acquisition of Tyrol by the house of Austria. 
 
 1364. Charles V. succeeds his father, John the Good, in France. 
 
 His general Du Guesclin defeats the English and the 
 forces of Charles the Bad of Navarre at Cocherel. The 
 English, under Sir John Chandos, vanquish the army of 
 Charles of Blois and Du Guesclin at Auray ; Chai'les of 
 Blois slain, Du Guesclin made prisoner; Brittany secured 
 to the house of Montfort (the succession havmg been dis- 
 puted since 1341). 
 
 1365. Du Guesclin takes ux) arms for Henry of Trastamare against 
 
 his brother, Pedro the Cruel of Castile. 
 Foundation of the University of Vienna. 
 
 1366. Pedro the Cruel is driven from his throne. 
 
 1366-1369. Tamerlane, the reviver of the great Mongol empire, in- 
 augurates his conquests by vanquishing the khan of North- 
 ern Khorasan, and taking Balkh. 
 
 1367. Edward the Black Prince, having espoused the cause of 
 
 Pedro the Cruel, dethrones Henry of Trastamare. 
 
 1368. The Ming dynasty in China succeeds the Mongol dynasty. 
 
 1369. Pedro the Cruel falls in battle by the hand of his brother, 
 
 Henry of Trastamare. 
 
46 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1370. Death of Casimir the Great of Poland ; end of the Piast 
 
 dynasty. He is succeeded by Louis the Great, king of 
 Hungary. 
 
 1371. Death of David Bruce. The Stuart dynasty ascends the 
 
 throne of Scotland in the person of Robert II.* 
 
 1374. Death of Petrarch. 
 
 1375. Death of Boccaccio. 
 
 1376. Death of Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 Avignon is given up as the papal residence by Gregory XI. 
 
 1377. Rome again the seat of the papacy. Gregory XI. orders 
 
 proceedings against Wycliffe. 
 Richard II. succeeds his grandfather, Edward III. 
 
 1378. Wenceslas succeeds his father, Charles IV., as emperor of 
 
 Germany. 
 Pope Urban VI. succeeds Gregory XI. Election of the anti- 
 pope Clement VII. ; beginning of the Great Schism. 
 
 1379. The Genoese vanquish the Venetian fleet off Pola, and, under 
 
 the command of Pietro Doria, take Chioggia, and threaten 
 Venice. 
 
 1380. Surrender of the Genoese foi'ces at Chioggia, 
 Charles VI. succeeds his father, Charles V., in France, 
 
 1381. Wat Tyler's Rebellion in England. 
 
 Charles of Durazzo (Charles the Little; overthrows Joanna I. 
 of Nai)les. (The queen put to death, 1383.) 
 
 1382. The people of Ghent, led by Philip van Artevelde, triumph 
 
 in a struggle with their ruler. Count Louis 11. They take 
 and plunder Bruges (its burghers having sided with the 
 count). Philip van Artevelde is recognized as governor by 
 nearly all the communes of Flanders. A French army 
 advances to restore Louis, and overwhelms the forces of 
 Artevelde, who is slain. 
 Death of Louis the Great, king of Hungary and Poland. 
 
 1382-1384. Contest for the throne of Naples between Charles of 
 Durazzo and Louis I. of Anjou, terminated by the death 
 of the latter. 
 
 1384. Philip the Bold of Burgundy acquires Flanders, Artois, and 
 Franche Comte. 
 Death of Wycliffe. 
 
 * The accession of the Stuart dynasty is often erroneously placed in the year 
 1370. Kobert II. was proclaimed king in the month of February, 1371, or before the 
 expiration of 1370 according to the old method of reckoning the beginning of tlie 
 year from March 25. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 47 
 
 1385. Invasion of Scotland by Richard II. 
 
 Accession of John the Great in Portugal. He defeats the 
 Castilians at Aljubarota. 
 
 1386. Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at Sempach, July 9. 
 Jagellon, grand-prince of Lithuania, by his marriage with 
 
 Hedvig, daughter of Louis the Great of Hungary and 
 Poland, becomes king of Poland, founding the Jagellonian 
 dynasty. (As sovereign of Poland styled Ladislas II.) 
 Foundation of the University of Heidelberg. 
 1386-1389. The regency of the duke of Gloucester is imposed upon 
 Richard II. 
 
 1387. Sigismund, brother of the emperor Wenceslas, becomes king 
 
 of Hungary. (His queen, Mary, joint ruler till 1395.) 
 
 1388. Battle of Otterburn between the Scots and English ; the earl 
 
 of Douglas slain; Hem*y Percy taken prisoner by the 
 Scots. 
 
 1389. The army of Sultan Amurath I. breaks the power of Servia 
 
 in the battle of Kosovo. Amurath is slain on the field of 
 battle, and is succeeded by his son, Bajazet I. 
 Pope Boniface IX. succeeds Urban VI. 
 
 1390. Accession of Robert III. in Scotland. 
 
 1394. Death of Clement VII., antipope, at Avignon. Antipope 
 
 Benedict XIII. is elected to succeed him. 
 
 1395. The emperor Wenceslas erects Milan into a hereditary duchy 
 
 for Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti. 
 
 1396. Victory of Bajazet I. over Sigismund, king of Hungary, at 
 
 Nicopolis, Sept. 28. 
 
 1397. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, under the rule of Queen 
 
 Margaret, enter into the Union of Calmar, the crowns of 
 the three kingdoms to remain united under one sovereign. 
 
 1399. Deposition of Richard II. Henry IV. inaugurates the line 
 
 of Lancaster. 
 A long contest for the possession of Naples between Ladislas, 
 son of Charles of Durazzo, and Louis II. of Anjou ends in 
 the triumph of Ladislas. 
 
 1400. Owen Glen dower heads a great revolt of the Welsh. 
 Deposition of the emperor Wenceslas. Rupert of the Pala- 
 tinate is elected to the German throne. 
 
 Death of Chaucer. 
 
 1401. The burning of Lollards is ordained by Parliament. 
 
 1402. Victoiy of the Percys over the Scots at Homildon Hill. 
 Defeat and capture of Bajazet by Tamei'lane at Angora. 
 
48 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1403. Henry IV. vanquislies the Percys, allies of Owen Glendower, 
 
 at Shrewsbury, July ; death of Henry Hotspur. 
 
 1404. Pope Innocent VII. succeeds Boniface IX. 
 
 1405. Prince James Stuart, heir to the throne of Scotland, becomes 
 
 a prisoner of the English. 
 Conquest of Verona and Padua by Venice. 
 
 1406. Death of Robert III. of Scotland; the duke of Albany re- 
 
 gent. 
 Pisa is forced to svibmit to Florence. 
 Pope Gregory XII. succeeds Innocent VII. 
 
 1407. Assassination of Louis, duke of Orleans, by John the Fear- 
 
 less, duke of Burgundy. 
 
 1409. Council of Pisa ; deposition of Gregory XII. and Benedict 
 
 XIII. ; accession of Pope Alexander V. 
 Foundation of the University of Leipsic. 
 
 1410. Death of the German emperor Rupert of the Palatinate. 
 Jagellon (Ladislas II.), king of Poland, defeats the Teutonic 
 
 Knights near Tannenberg. 
 Pope John XXIII. succeeds Alexander V. 
 
 1411. Sigismund is elected emperor of Germany. 
 Foundation of the University of St. Andrews. 
 
 1413. Henry V. succeeds his father, Henry IV., in England. 
 Ladislas of Naples takes Rome. 
 
 1414. Opening of the council of Constance. 
 Joanna II. succeeds Ladislas in Naples. 
 
 1415. Victory of Henry V. over the French at Agincourt, Oct. 25. 
 Deposition of John XXIII. by the council of Constance. 
 
 Burning of John Huss. 
 The house of Hohenzollern acquires Brandenburg. 
 John the Great of Portugal conquers Ceuta. 
 
 1416. Burning of Jerome of Prague. i 
 
 1417. Burning of Oldcastle as a heretic. 
 
 Martin V. is elected pope by the council of Constance. 
 
 1418. Closing of the council of Constance. 
 
 Massacre in Paris of the adherents of the faction of the 
 Armagnacs by the partisans of John the Fearless of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 1419. Murder of John the Feai'less by the dauphin Charles. 
 Beginning of the Hussite wars with the storming of the town- 
 hall of Prague by the Hussites. Death of Wenceslas. 
 
 The Portuguese, sailing under the auspices of Henry the 
 Navigator, reach Madeira. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL EISTORY. 49 
 
 1420. Treaty of Troyes, securing to Henry V. tlie succession to the 
 French, throne. Henry enters Paris. 
 
 Crusade against the Hussites, who are victorious under John 
 Ziska. 
 
 Louis III. of Anjou attacks Joanna II. of Naples, who sum- 
 mons Alfonso V. of Aragon to her aid. 
 
 1422. Death of Henry V. of England and Charles VI. of France. 
 
 Henry is succeeded hy his infant son, Henry VI., who is 
 proclaimed king of France ; his uncles, the dukes of Glou- 
 cester and Bedford, regents, respectively, in England and 
 France. The French proclaim Charles VII., son of Chai'les 
 VI., their king. 
 Siege of Constantinople by Amurath II. 
 
 1423. The house of Wettin is invested with the electorate of Saxony 
 
 in the person of Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Misnia. 
 
 1424. James I., released by the English, assumes the government 
 
 of Scotland. 
 Procopius the Great succeeds Ziska as leader of the section of 
 
 the Hussites called Taborites. 
 Election of the antipo^je Clement VIII. 
 
 1425. Accession of the Byzantine emperor John Palseologus II. 
 
 1426. Victoiy of the Hussites at Aussig. 
 
 1427. Victory of the Hussites at Mies. 
 
 1428. The English besiege Orleans. 
 
 1429. Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans, ]\Iay. Coronation of 
 
 Charles VII. at Rheims. 
 The abdication of Clement VIII. terminates the Great Schism. 
 1429-1430. The Hussites ravage Saxony, Franconia, and Bavaria. 
 
 1431. Burning of Joan of Arc, May. Henry VI. is crowned in 
 
 Paris, Dec. 
 
 Pope Eugenius IV. succeeds Martin V. Opening of the coun- 
 cil of Basel. 
 
 Victory of the Hussites at Taus. 
 
 1432. The Portuguese take possession of the Azores. 
 
 1433. The council of Basel makes a compromise with the section of 
 
 the Hussites called Calixtines {compactata of Prague). 
 
 1434. The Taborites are vanquished by the Calixtines at Bohmisch- 
 
 Brod ; Procopius the Great and Procopius the Small slain. 
 Triumph of the i^arty of Cosmo de' Medici in Florence. 
 
 1435. Treaty of Arras between France and Burgundy. Death of 
 
 Bedford. 
 
 1436. The French recover Paris. 
 
50 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1436. Treaty of Iglau ; settlement effected between the Hussites and 
 
 Sigismund, wlio is recognized as king of Bohemia. 
 
 1437. Death of Sigismund ; end of the Luxemburg dynasty in the 
 
 German Empire and Bohemia. 
 
 Murder of James I. of Scotland; his son, James II., suc- 
 ceeds, 
 
 Eugenius IV. ordei-s the dissolution of the council of Basel. 
 
 1438. Election of the Emperor Albert II., of the house of Haps- 
 
 burg. 
 Council of Ferrara. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., securing the liberties of 
 the Galilean Church. 
 1438 (about). Gutenberg begins to practice printing with movable 
 type. 
 
 1439. Death of Albert II. 
 
 The council of Florence decrees the union of the Greek and 
 Latin churches. The schismatic council of Basel x>roclaims 
 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy pope, as Felix V., in place of 
 Eugenius IV. 
 
 The States General of France vote a standing army. 
 
 1440. Election of the emperor Frederick III. of Germany. 
 
 1442. Alfonso V. of Aragon becomes master of the kingdom of 
 
 Naples, dispossessing his rival, Eene the Good of Anjou. 
 
 1443. Scanderbeg heads a rising of the Albanians against the Turks. 
 
 1444. Sultan Amurath II. overwhelms the Hungarian army, com- 
 
 manded by King Ladislas (also king of Poland) and John 
 Hunyady, at Varna; death of Ladislas. 
 The Portuguese engage in the African slave-trade. 
 
 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou, daughter of 
 
 Eene the Good. 
 1447. Pope Nicholas V. succeeds Eugenius IV. 
 
 End of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. 
 1449-1450. Reconquest of Normandy by the French. 
 
 1450. Jack Cade's insurrection in England. 
 
 Establishment of the ducal house of Sforza in Milan by Fran- 
 cesco Sforza. 
 
 1451. The French conquer Guienne from the English. 
 
 1452. Murder of the insubordinate earl of Douglas by James II. 
 
 1453. Conquest of Constantinople by Mohammed II., May 29; 
 
 death of Constantine XIII., and end of the Eastern Em- 
 pire. 
 Victory of the French over the English at Castillon ; end of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 51 
 
 the so-called Hundred Years' "War between the two nations ; 
 the English conquests lost, all but Calais. 
 
 1454. The duke of York is named protector of England. 
 
 1455. Beginning of the contest for the throne of England between 
 
 the houses of York and Lancaster known as the Wai^s of 
 the Eoses. Victory of the Yorkists at St. Albans, May. 
 Pope Calixtus III. succeeds Nicholas V. 
 
 1456. Victory of Hunyady over the Turks at Belgrade. Conquest 
 
 of Athens by the Turks. 
 1458. Matthias Coi-vinus becomes king of Hungary ; George Podie- 
 brad, of Bohemia. 
 Pope Pius II. (^neas Sylvius Piccolomini) succeeds Calix- 
 tus HI. 
 Death of Alfonso V. of Aragon; his brother John II., king of 
 Navarre, succeeds in Aragon and Sicily ; his illegitimate 
 son Ferdinand I. , in Naples. 
 
 1460. James II. of Scotland, having taken up arms against the 
 
 English, is accidentally killed before Roxburgh ; accession 
 of his son, James III. Battle of Wakefield, Dec. 31; the 
 duke of York overthrown by the amiy of Queen Margaret. 
 The Turks masters of nearly the whole of Greece. 
 
 1461. Defeat of the Yorkists in the second battle of St. Albans, 
 
 Feb. 17. Edward IV. is proclaimed king in London, 
 March. Victory of the Yorkists at Towton, March 29. 
 
 Louis XI. succeeds his father, Charles VII., in France. 
 
 The Turks put an end to the empire of Trebizond. 
 
 1462. Accession of Ivan the Great in Russia. 
 
 1464. Queen Margaret invades England. Her adherents are de- 
 
 feated at Hexham, May 15. 
 Pius II. endea vol's to organize a crusade against the Turks ; 
 he dies at Ancona ; election of Paul II. 
 
 1465. Henry VI. of England is thrown into the Tower. 
 
 War between Louis XL and the League of the Public Good. 
 Treaty of Conflans. 
 
 1466. Treaty of Thorn between Casimir IV. of Poland and the 
 
 Teutonic Knights, who cede West Prussia, and retain East 
 Prussia as a fief of Poland. 
 
 1467. Charles the Bold succeeds his father, Philip the Good, as 
 
 duke of Burgundy. 
 
 1468. Conference of Louis XL and Charles the Bold at Peronne. 
 
 1469. Marriage of Prince Ferdinand of Aragon with Princess Isa- 
 
 bella of Castile. 
 5 
 
52 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1469. Lorenzo tlie Magnificent becomes the head of the Florentme 
 
 state. 
 
 1470. Henry VI. is restored by the earl of Warwick. 
 
 1471. Edward IV. re-enters England. Defeat of the Lancastrians 
 
 at Barnet, April 14 ; Warwick slain. The Lancastrians are 
 vanquished at Tewkesbury, May 4. Death of Henry VI. 
 
 Charles the Bold makes war on France ; truce. 
 
 Pope Sixtus IV. succeeds Paul II. 
 
 1472. Charles the Bold ravages Normandy. 
 
 1473-1477. Successes of Louis XL in his war on the feudal princes. 
 Ruin of the house of Armagnac and other noble houses. 
 
 1474. Isabella and Ferdinand ascend the throne of Castile. 
 
 1475. Expedition of Edward IV. against France ; he concludes 
 
 peace. Charles the Bold occupies Lorraine. 
 The Crimea is made subject to the Turks. 
 
 1476. Charles the Bold attacks the Swiss, and is vanquished at 
 
 Granson, March 3, and at Morat, June 22. 
 
 1477. Charles the Bold is overwhelmed by Rene of Lorraine and 
 
 his Swiss mercenaries at Nancy, and falls in the battle, 
 Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy is seized by Louis XL 
 The Netherlands and Franche Comte remain in possession 
 of Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. Mar- 
 riage of Mary with Maximilian of Austria. Successes of 
 the French in Picardy, ArtoLs, Hainaut, and Flanders. 
 
 1478. Edward IV. puts to death his brother, the duke of Clarence. 
 Conspii'acy of the Pazzi against the life of Lorenzo de' Me- 
 dici. 
 
 Mohammed II. completes the subjugation of Albania. 
 
 1479. Maximilian defeats the French at Gumegate, Aug. 
 Accession of Ferdinand the Catholic in Aragon ; union of 
 
 Castile and Aragon. 
 
 1480. Death of Rene the Good of Anjou; Louis XI. annexes the 
 
 duchy to France. 
 Establishment of the Inqu.isition in Spain. 
 Mohammed II. imsuccessfully attacks Rhodes. The Turks 
 
 storm Otranto. 
 Emancipation of Russia from Mongol overlorcLship. 
 
 1481. Provence is annexed to France. 
 
 Sultan Bajazet II. succeeds Mohammed II. Otranto is re- 
 taken from the Turks. 
 
 1482. Ferdmand and Isabella enter upon a war for the conquest of 
 
 the kingdom of Granada. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 53 
 
 1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy. Treaty of Arras between Maxi- 
 
 milian and Louis XI. 
 
 1483. Death of Edward IV. of England. His brother, Richard III., 
 
 takes possession of the throne. 
 Charles VIII. succeeds his father, Louis XL, in France. 
 
 1484. Pope Innocent VIII. succeeds Sixtus IV. 
 
 1485. Richard III. is vanquished at Bosworth by the earl of Rich- 
 
 mond (Henry VII.), Aug. 22, and is slain in the battle; 
 end of the Wars of the Roses and of the Plantagenet dy- 
 nasty ; Henry VII. inaugurates the Tudor dynasty. 
 Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, takes Vienna. 
 
 1486. Marriage of Henry VII. with Elizabeth of York, daughter of 
 
 Edward IV. ; union of the houses of York and Lancaster. 
 1486-1487. Voyage of Bartholomeu Dias to the southern extremity 
 of Africa ; he discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1487. Attempt of the pretender Lambei't Simnel to gain the Eng- 
 
 lish throne. 
 
 1488. The regent Anne de Beaujeu, sister of Charles VIII. , van- 
 
 quishes the supporters of Louis, duke of Orleans, who is 
 captured and imprisoned. 
 James III. of Scotland is defeated and killed in the struggle 
 with the nobles ; accession of his son, James IV. 
 
 1491. Union of Brittany with France by the marriage of Charles 
 
 VIII. with the duchess Anne. 
 
 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella enter Granada, Jan. ; end of the 
 
 Moorish dominion in Spain. Expulsion of the Jews from 
 
 the Spanish dominions. 
 Columbus lands in America, Oct. 12. Discovery of Cuba and 
 
 Hayti (Hisi)aniola). 
 Henry VII. invades France. Treaty of Etaples. 
 Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 
 Pope Alexander VI. succeeds Innocent VIII. 
 
 1493. Treaty of Senlis between Charles VIII. and Maximilian. 
 Death of Fredeiick III. of Germany ; accession of his son, 
 
 Maximilian I. 
 Columbus returns to Spain, leaving a garrison in Hispaniola. 
 He sails on his second voyage. Discovery of Porto Rico. 
 
 1494. Charles VIII. of France marches into Italy to conquer the 
 
 kingdom of Naples. Expulsion of the Medici from Flor- 
 ence ; iJopular government restored by Savonarola ; Pisa 
 independent of Florence. 
 Discovery of Jamaica. 
 
54 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1495. Conquest of Naples by Charles YIII. A league is fonned 
 
 against him by Pope Alexander VI., Venice, Maximilian, 
 Ferdinand of Aragon, and Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan. 
 Eetreat of Charles VIII. to France. Ferdinand II. of 
 Naples recovers his throne. 
 Establishment of the Imperial Chamber by Maximilian. 
 
 1496. Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian, with Joan, daughter 
 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 1497. Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England, raises 
 
 an army in Cornwall. He is made prisoner. (Executed, 
 
 1499.) 
 John Cabot discovers the mainland of Amei'ica. 
 Vasco da Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1498. Louis XII. (duke of Orleans) succeeds Charles VIII. iu 
 
 France. 
 Savonarola is put to death by the people of Florence. 
 Third voyage of Columbus ; he reaches the mainland of South 
 
 America. 
 Sebastian Cabot undertakes a voyage in search of a northwest 
 
 passage to China. 
 Vasco da Gama lands in India. 
 
 1499. The French conquer the duchy of Milan. 
 
 Maximilian is unsuccessful in a war against the Swiss, who 
 
 become virtually independent of the German Emjoire. 
 Ojeda and Vespucci sail along the coast of South America, 
 
 1500. Ludovico Sforza recovers Milan. He is betrayed to the 
 
 French. 
 Vicente Yanez Pinzon discovers the coast of Brazil. Cabral 
 lands there, and takes possession of the country for Por- 
 tugal. 
 1500-1501. Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI. , nmkes him- 
 self master of Pesaro, Rimini, and Faenza, and is named 
 duke of Romagna. 
 
 1501. Conquest of Naples by Louis XII. and Ferdmand of Ai^agon, 
 Establishment of the Aulic Council by Maximilian I. 
 Columbus is sent in chains to Spain by the governor of His- 
 
 paniola. 
 
 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy. 
 Bloody excesses of Cesare Borgia at Sinigaglia. 
 Columbus sets out on liis fourth voyage. 
 
 Foundation of the University of Wittenberg by Frederick the 
 Wise, elector of Saxony. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 55 
 
 1503. Marriage of James FV. of Scotland with Margaret Tudor, 
 
 daughter of Henry VII. 
 Gonsalvo de C6rdova defeats the army of the duke of Nemoiii^ 
 
 at Cei'ignola, April 28. Defeat of the French in the battle 
 
 of the Garigliano, Dec. ; the Spaniards masters of the 
 
 kingdom of Naples. 
 Death of Pope Alexander VI. Cesare Borgia is driven from 
 
 Rome. Election of Pius III. He is succeeded by Julius 11. 
 
 1504. The Lordship of the Isles is broken up by James IV. 
 Death of Queen Isabella of Castile, Nov. 2Q. 
 
 Baber becomes master of Cabool. 
 
 1505. Basil (Vasili) IV. succeeds his father, Ivan the Great, in 
 
 Russia. 
 
 1506. Death of Philip I. of Castile, which is governed by Ferdinand 
 
 as regent for Joan the Mad. 
 The Portuguese discover Madagascar. 
 The rebuilding of St. Peter's is begun by Julius II. 
 Death of Columbus. 
 
 1508. League of Cambrai against Venice, formed by Maximil- 
 
 ian I., Julius II., Louis XII., and Ferdinand of Aragon, 
 Dec. 
 Michel Angelo undertakes the task of decorating the Sistine 
 chapel. 
 
 1509. Henry VIH. succeeds his father, Henry VII., in England, 
 
 April. He marries Catharine of Aragon, daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella. 
 
 Victory of the French over the forces of the Venetians at 
 Agnadello, May. 
 
 The Florentines regain Pisa. 
 
 Taking of Oran by the Spaniards, under Cardinal Ximenes 
 and Navarro. 
 
 Subjugation of Porto Rico by Ponce de Leon. 
 
 1510. Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of the Indies, takes 
 
 Goa. 
 
 1511. Julius II. forms the Holy League against France with Spain 
 
 and Venice. Accession of Henry VIII. to the league. 
 The Spaniards, under Velasquez, subdue Cuba. 
 The Portuguese take Malacca. 
 
 1512. Victory of the French at Ravenna, April 11 ; death of their 
 
 general, Gaston de Foix. The French evacuate Lombardy ; 
 the Sforza dynasty restored in Milan. 
 Conquest of Spanish Navarre by Ferdinand of Aragon. 
 
56 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1512. Restoration of the Medici in Floi^ence. 
 
 Julius II. opens the fifth council of the Lateran. 
 Sultan Selim I. succeeds Bajazet II. 
 Ponce de Leon lands in Florida. 
 
 1513. Henry VIII., in alliance with the emperor Maximilian, in- 
 
 vades France. Defeat of the French at Guinegate ("Battle 
 of the Spurs"), Aug. 16. The English take Terouanne and 
 Tournai. 
 
 James IV. of Scotland undertakes an invasion of England ; 
 the Scots are overwhelmed by the English at Flodden 
 Field, Sept. 9 ; the king slain. Accession of his son, James 
 V. , imder the regency of Queen Margaret. 
 
 Death of Pope Julius II., Feb. Leo X. is elected his suc- 
 cessor, March. The French, ixnder La Tremouille, are de- 
 feated by the Swiss at Novara, June 6, and driven from the 
 field in Italy. 
 
 Christian II. of Denmark succeeds his father, John. 
 
 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean from the Isthmus of 
 Panama. 
 
 1514. Truce between France and Spain. 
 
 Henry VHI. concludes i)eace with France and Scotland. 
 
 1515. Wolsey is appointed chancellor by Henry VIH., Dec. 
 
 The duke of Albany assumes the regency in Scotland. 
 
 Francis I. succeeds Louis XII. in France, Jan. 1. He in- 
 vades Italy. Battle of Marignano, Sept. 13, 14; Francis, 
 with the aid of the Venetians, overwhelms the Swiss al- 
 lies of the duke of Milan. The French become masters 
 of Lombardy. 
 
 1516. Death of Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, Jan. 23 ; his grand- 
 
 son, Charles of Hapsburg, his successor. Treaty of Noyon 
 
 between Charles and Francis I. 
 Concordat between Francis I. and Leo X. Conclusion of the 
 
 agreement known as the ' ' Perpetual Peace " between France 
 
 and the Swiss. 
 The corsair Barbarossa (Horuk) becomes master of Algiers. 
 Publication of Ariosto's " Orlando furioso." 
 
 1517. Closing of the fifth council of the Lateran. Leo X. author- 
 
 izes the sale of indulgences. 
 
 Luther publishes his Theses at Wittenberg, Oct. 31; begin- 
 ning of the Reformation. 
 
 Selini I. overthrows the sovereignty of the Mamelukes, and 
 annexes Egypt to the Ottoman Emj^ire. 
 
CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 57 
 
 1518. Luther appeals to a general council. Zwingli begins the Swiss 
 
 Reformation. 
 Barbarossa (Horuk) is slain by the Spaniai'ds. 
 
 1519. Death of the emperor Maximilian I. His grandson, Charles 
 
 I. of Spain — his successor, jointly with Ferdinand, brother 
 of Charles, in his hereditary dominions — is elected em- 
 peror, as Charles V., June 28. The German Empire, Spain, 
 the Netherlands, the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the Span- 
 ish Indies united under one sovereignty. 
 
 Deposition of Ulrich, duke of Wiirtemberg, by the Swabiau 
 Leagiie. 
 
 First entry of Cortes into the city of Mexico. 
 
 Death of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 1520. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. on the Field of the 
 
 Cloth of Gold (near Guines, France). 
 Insurrection of the Castilian cities under Padilla. 
 Bull of Leo X. against Luther, who burns it. 
 Successful invasion of Sweden by Christian II. of Denmark. 
 
 The Swedish administrator, Sten Sture, is mortally wounded 
 
 at Bogesund. Christian is acknowledged king. Execution 
 
 of nobles at Stockholm. 
 Sultan Solyman the Magnificent succeeds Selim I. 
 Magellan sails through the straits separating Patagonia from 
 
 Tierra del Fuego. 
 Death of Raphael. 
 
 1521. Beginning of the wars between Francis I. and Charles V. The 
 
 French unsuccessfully invade Navarre. Invasion of France 
 
 from the north. The French lose Milan. 
 Treaty of Bruges between Henry VIII. and Charles V. 
 Overthrow and execution of Padilla. 
 Charles V. relmquishes to his brother, Ferdinand, the sole 
 
 sovereignty over the principal portion of the hereditary 
 
 Austrian states. (The remainder added in 1522.) 
 Luther before the Diet of Worms. He is secreted in the 
 
 Wartburg. 
 Anabaptist gathering at Zwickau, 
 Rising of the Swedes against Denmark under Gustavus Vasa^ 
 
 who is appointed administrator by the states. 
 Death of Pope Leo X. , Dec. 
 Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade. 
 Conquest of Mexico by Cortes, who reduces the capital after a 
 
 long siesre. 
 
58 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1521. Magellan reaches the Ladrones and Philippines ; he is slain 
 
 on an island of the latter group. 
 
 1522. The forces of Charles V., under Prospero Colonna, defeat the 
 
 French, under Lautrec, at La Bicocca, April. The English 
 
 invade France. 
 Election of Pope Adrian VI. 
 Conquest of Rhodes hy Solyman the Magnificent from the 
 
 Knights of St. John. 
 One of Magellan's ships completes the circumnavigation of 
 
 the globe. 
 
 1523. Invasion of France by the forces of Cliarles V. and Henry 
 
 VIII. The French invade Italy. 
 
 Invasion of Scotland by the English, under the earl of Surrey. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden. 
 
 Christian II. of Denmark is diuven from his throne by his sub- 
 jects. He is succeeded by Frederick I. (duke of Schleswig- 
 Holstein). 
 
 Pope Clement VII. succeeds Adrian VI. 
 
 1524. The chevalier Bayard falls in the battle of the Sesia. Inva- 
 
 sion of Provence by the Imperialist general, the consta- 
 ble de Bourbon (previously in the service of Francis I.). 
 Francis I. invades Italy, occupies Milan, and besieges 
 Pavia. 
 Outbreak of the Peasants' War in Germany. 
 
 1525. Francis I. is defeated by the Imperialists at Pavia and made 
 
 prisoner, Feb. 24 ; his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent in 
 France. Treaty of alliance between France and England. 
 
 The army of Thomas Miuizer is annihilated at Frankenhau- 
 sen, May 15 ; end of the Peasants' War. 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of the Teutonic Knights, 
 converts their realm of East Prussia into a hereditary prin- 
 cipality (Protestant), the duchy of Prussia, for which he 
 does homage to Sigismund I., king of Poland. 
 
 1526. Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., Jan. 14. 
 
 Francis is liberated, and prepares to renew the struggle. 
 The Hungarians are overwhelmed at Mohacs by Solyman the 
 Magnificent, Aug. 29 ; death of Louis II. The Turks oc- 
 cupy Buda. Withdrawal of their forces. Ferdinand of 
 Hapsburg, brother of the emperor Charles V., is chosen 
 successor to Louis in Bohemia. John Zapolya, waywode 
 of Transylvania, is elected king of Hungary by the national 
 party. A part of the nobles elect Ferdinand of Hapsburg. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UXIVEESAL HISTORY. 59 
 
 1526. Baber conquers Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi at Panipixt, and founds 
 
 the Mogul dynasty of India. 
 
 1527. Storming and pillage of Rome by the troops of the constable 
 
 de Bourbon, May ; Bourbon killed in the assault. Captivity 
 
 of Clement YII. 
 Expulsion of the Medici from Florence. 
 Death of Machiavelli. 
 
 1528. Francis I. and Henry VIII. declare war against Charles V. 
 
 Andrea Doria delivei-s Genoa from the yoke of the French. 
 
 The earl of Angus, after tyrannizing over Scotland for two 
 years, is driven from the kingdom ; overthrow of the Doug- 
 lases. 
 
 Death of Albert Diii-er. 
 
 1529. Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 The German Reformers present their Protest at the Diet of 
 Spire, April 19. 
 
 Peace of Cambrai between Francis I. and Charles V., Aug. 
 5. Francis abandons Italy to the emperor, and renounces 
 all claims to suzerainty over Flanders and Artois; he is 
 recognized in the possession of the duchy of Burgundy. 
 
 Charles V. and Clement VII. unite to restore the rule of the 
 Medici in Florence. The city is besieged. 
 
 Buda (occupied by Ferdinand of Hapsburg in 1527) again falls 
 into the hands of the Turks. Solyman unsuccessfully be- 
 sieges Vienna. He establishes the authority of Zapolya in 
 Hungary. 
 
 Establishment of Lutheranism as the state church of Sweden 
 by the Diet of Orebro. 
 
 Conference of Marburg between the followers of Luther and 
 Zwingli. 
 
 1530. Charles V. is crowned by Pope Clement VII. at Bologna as 
 
 king of Lombardy and emperor of the Romans. (The last 
 coronation of a German emperor by the pope.) 
 
 The Protestants present their Confession at the Diet of Augs- 
 burg. 
 
 Fall of Florence ; restoration of the Medici. 
 
 The Knights of St. John receive Malta from Charles V. 
 
 1531. League of Smalcald between the Protestant states of Ger- 
 
 many. 
 Defeat of the army of Zurich by the Swiss Catholics at Kap- 
 
 pel, Oct. 11 ; Zwingli slain. 
 The deposed king Christian II. makes a descent on Norway. 
 
60 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1531-1533. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro, 
 
 1532. The Turks threaten Vienna. Charles V. is forced to grant 
 
 the relig-ious peace of Nuremberg'. 
 Alessandro de' Medici (Alessandro il Moro) is made duke of 
 
 Florence. 
 Christian II. becomes a prisoner of his former Danish subjects. 
 
 1533. The marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Aragon is 
 
 declared null and void by Cranmer. Coronation of Anne 
 Boleyn. 
 
 Heniy, son of Francis I. , marries Catharine de' Medici. 
 
 Calvin is forced to flee from Paris. 
 
 Dissolution of the Great Swabian League. 
 
 Death of Frederick I. of Denmark. 
 
 Ivan IV., the Terrible, succeeds his father, Basil TV., in Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 1534. England throws off the papal authority ; passage of the Act 
 
 of Suj)remacy. 
 
 Pope Paul III. succeeds Clement VII. 
 
 The Anabaj)tists, led by John of Leyden and others, establish 
 their disorderly reign in Miinster. 
 
 Ulrich, the deposed duke of Wiirtemberg, recovers his throne. 
 
 The duke of Savoy and the bishop of Geneva make an un- 
 successful attempt to re-establish their authority over that 
 city, which, from having been semi-independent, is hence- 
 forth free. 
 
 Luther completes his translation of the Bible. 
 
 Death of Correggio. 
 
 1535. Henry VIII. assumes the title of Supreme Head of the Church. 
 
 Execution of Sir Thomas More. 
 
 Francis I. occupies the dominions of the duke of Savoy, the 
 ally of Charles V. 
 
 Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. He defeats Barba- 
 rossa (Kliair-ed-Din), and makes himself master of the city. 
 
 End of the Sforza dynasty in Milan ; the duchy taken pos- 
 session of by Charles V. 
 
 Fall of the Anabaptists at Miinster. 
 
 Foundation of Lima and Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Jacques Cartier ascends the river St. Lawrence. 
 
 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII. marries Jane Sey- 
 
 mour. Incorporation of Wales with England. Dissolu- 
 tion of the lesser monasteries in England. 
 Charles V. invades Provence. 
 
CHEONOLOeiCAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 61 
 
 1536. The Bernese widest the Pays de Vaud from Savoy. 
 Christian III. takes Copenhagen, and becomes master of Den- 
 mark. He abolishes the Catholic chvirch in his dominions. 
 
 Calvin publishes his " Institutes of the Christian Religion." 
 
 He makes his appearance in Geneva. 
 Death of Erasmus. 
 
 1537. Death of Jane Seymour. 
 
 Murder of Alessandro de' Medici, duke of Florence. 
 
 1538. Truce of Nice between Francis I. and Charles V. ; the duke 
 
 of Savoy left stripped of nearly all his dominions. 
 Expulsion of Calvin from Geneva. 
 Marriage of James V. of Scotland with Mary of Guise. 
 
 1539. Dissolution of the greater monasteries in England. Parlia- 
 
 ment passes the Statute of the Six Articles for the regulation 
 of the church. 
 
 1540. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves. He divorces her, and 
 
 marries Catharine Howard. Execution of Thomas Crom- 
 well. 
 
 Charles V. reduces the rebellious city of Ghent, and destroys 
 its liberties. 
 
 Bull of Paul III. sanctioning the order of Jesuits, founded by 
 Loyola. 
 
 Death of John Zapolya. 
 
 1541. Unsuccessful expedition of Charles V. against Algiers. 
 Solyman the Magnificent overruns Hmigary. 
 Return of Calvin to Geneva. 
 
 The expedition of De Soto reaches the Mississippi River. 
 
 1542. Henry VIII. assumes the title of king of Ireland. Execution 
 
 of Catharine Howard. The English invade Scotland, and 
 are victorious at Solway Moss, Nov. Death of James V., 
 Dec. Accession of his infant daughter, Mary, under the 
 regency of the earl of Arran. 
 Renewal of the struggle between Francis I. and Charles V. 
 
 1543. Henry VIII. enters into an alliance with Charles V. against 
 
 France. Marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine Parr. 
 Death of Copernicus and of Holbein. 
 
 1544. The English, under the earl of Hertford, invade Scotland, 
 
 and burn Edinburgh. 
 Victory of the French over the Imperialists at Ceresole, April. 
 Charles V. advances into Champagne. The English invade 
 France, and take Boulogne. Treaty of Crespy between 
 Francis I. and Charles V. 
 
62 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1544. Albert, duke of Prussia, founds the University of Konigs- 
 
 berg. 
 
 1545. Opening of the council of Trent. 
 
 Erection of Parma and Piacenza into duchies by Pope Paul 
 
 III. for his son. Pier Luigi Farnese. 
 Massacre of the Vaudois in France. 
 Discovery of the silver mines of Potosi by the Spaniards. 
 
 1546. George Wishai't is burned as a heretic by order of Cardinal 
 
 Beaton, primate of Scotland. Assassination of Beaton, 
 Death of Luther. 
 Beginning of the War of the Smalcald League between 
 
 Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany. 
 Death of Giulio Romano. 
 
 1547. Edward VI. succeeds his father, Henry VIII. , in England, 
 
 Jan. 28 ; the duke of Somerset (earl of Hertford) protector 
 of the realm. Victory of the protector over the Scots at 
 Pinkie, Sept. 10. 
 
 Henry II. succeeds his father, Francis I., in France, March 31. 
 
 The War of the Smalcald League ends in the victory of Charles 
 V. over the Protestants at Miililberg, April 24 ; John Fred- 
 eric, elector of Saxony, is made prisoner ; the principal 
 part of his electorate passes to Maurice, duke of Saxony, of 
 the Albertine line. Imprisonment of Philip, landgrave of 
 Hesse. 
 
 Conspiracy of Fiesco at Genoa against Andrea Doria ; acci- 
 dental death of Fiesco. 
 
 1548. Publication of the Augsburg Interim, fixing the degree of 
 
 toleration in Germany, pending the decision of the coun- 
 cil of Trent. 
 Marriage of Jeanne dAlbret, daughter of Henry II. of Na- 
 varre, with Antoine de Bourbon. 
 
 1549. The Act of Uniformity, regulating public worship, is passed 
 
 in England; adoption of the Book of Common Prayer. 
 Henry II. attempts to retake Boulogne from the English. 
 Charles V. formally unites the Netherlands with the Spanish 
 
 crown. 
 Death of Pope Paul HI. 
 
 1550. England concludes peace with France and Scotland; Bou- 
 
 logne is restored to the French. 
 The Inquisition in the Netherlands. 
 Election of Pope Julius III. 
 
 1551. Maurice of Saxony takes Magdeburg after a long siege. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 63 
 
 1552. Execution of the duke of Somerset, Jan. Adoption of the 
 
 Forty-two Articles of the Church of England. (Subse- 
 quently reduced to the Thirty-nine Articles.) 
 
 Maurice of Saxony, having allied himself with France, makes 
 war on Charles V. in behalf of the Protestants. The em- 
 , peror is forced to the peace of Passau, Aug. 2, which estab- 
 lishes the liberties of the Lutherans. 
 
 Henry II. of France seizes the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and 
 Verdun. 
 
 Ivan the Terrible of Russia subjugates the Tartare of Kazan. 
 
 1553. Death of Edward VI. of England, July 6; he is succeeded 
 
 by his sister, Mary. 
 
 The duke of Northumberland unsuccessfully attempts to 
 place his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, upon the 
 throne. 
 
 Charles V. is forced to raise the siege of Metz after a gallant 
 defence by Francis, duke of Guise. 
 
 Maurice of Saxony defeats Albert (Albert Alcibiades) of Bran- 
 denburg at Sievershausen, and is mortally wounded in the 
 battle. 
 
 Burning of Servetus at Geneva, with the sanction of Calvin. 
 
 Death of Rabelais. 
 
 1554. Wyatt's rebellion in England. Execution of Lady Jane Grey, 
 
 Feb. 12. Queen Mary marries Philip of Spain, just invested 
 by his father, Charles V. , with the sovereignty of Naples 
 and Sicily. 
 
 The earl of Arran resigns the regency of Scotland, and is suc- 
 ceeded by Mary of Guise, mother of Mary Stuart. 
 
 Conquest of Astrakhan by Ivan the Terrible. 
 
 1555. Burning of Ridley and Latimer. 
 
 Religious i^eace of Augsburg between the Catholic and Lu- 
 theran parties in Germany ; the individual members of the 
 Germanic body to enjoy the right of prescribing the form 
 of worship within their limits ; the Calvinists not included 
 in the peace.* 
 
 Charles V. resigns the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his 
 son, Philip II. 
 
 Death of Pope Julius III. Election of Paul IV. 
 
 1556. Burning of Cranmer. 
 
 * The peace of Augsburg only secured the liberties of the Lutheran church as 
 against the Catholics, but did not provide for toleration. 
 
64 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1556. Charles V. resigns Spain and the rest of her dependencies to 
 
 his son, Philip II., already invested with the Netherlands, 
 
 Naples, Sicily, and Milan. 
 Charles V. abdicates the imperial crown of Germany in favor 
 
 of his brother, Ferdinand I. 
 Accession of the Mognl emj)eror Akbar. 
 
 1557. Victory of the forces of Philip II., under Emanuel Philibert, 
 
 duke of Savoy, over the French, under the constable de 
 Montmorency, at St. Quentin, Aug. 10. 
 
 1558. Taking of Calais by the duke of Guise, Jan. ; the English lose 
 
 their last foothold in France. Queen Elizabeth succeeds her 
 
 sister, Mary, Nov. 17. 
 Marriage of Mary Stuart with Francis, dauphin of France, 
 
 April 24. 
 Victory of the Spaniards, under Egmont, over the French at 
 
 Gravelines, July 13. Death of Charles V., Sept. 21. 
 Ivan the Terrible makes war on the Knights Swordbearers. 
 
 1559. Passage of a new Act of Sujoremacy in England ; Protestant- 
 
 ism firmly established. 
 
 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis between France, Spain, and Eng- 
 land ; by its terms Emanuel Philibert of Savoy recovers a 
 great portion of the dominions of his house. 
 
 Francis II. succeeds his father, Henry II., in Finance, July 10. 
 
 The preachmgs of Knox excite Iconoclastic outbreaks in Scot- 
 land. The Scottish Reformers take up arms against the 
 queen regent, Mary of Guise. 
 
 Philip II. appoints his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent 
 of the Netherlands ; Granvelle her chief councillor. 
 
 Death of Pope Paul IV. Election of Pius IV. 
 
 1560. The Scottish Reformers conclude a treaty of alliance with 
 
 Queen Elizabeth at Berwick. They are joined by the Eng- 
 lish forces. Death of the queen regent, Mary of Guise. 
 Mary Stuart and her husband, Francis II., conclude the 
 treaty of Edinburgh with Elizabeth and the Reformers. The 
 French forces in the service of the Scottish court return 
 home. The Scottish Parliament passes the Statutes of Ref- 
 ormation. 
 
 Conspiracy of Amboise, formed by the Huguenots, for the 
 overthrow of the Guises. Arrest of Conde. Charles IX. 
 succeeds his brother, Francis II. ; his mother, Catharine de' 
 Medici, regent. 
 
 Eric XIV. succeeds his father, Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 65 
 
 1560. Death of Melanchthon. 
 
 1561. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. 
 
 Shane O'Neill heads a rehellion in Ireland. 
 
 Colloquy of Poissy between the French theologians. 
 
 The jjower of the Knights Swordbearers broken ; their last 
 grand-master, Gotthard Ketteler, cedes Livonia to Sigis- 
 mund Augustus of Poland and Lithuania, and becomes his 
 vassal as hereditary duke of Courland. Esthonia submits 
 to Sweden. 
 
 1562. Edict of St. Germain granting partial toleration to the Hu- 
 
 guenots. Massacre of the Huguenots at Vassy and other 
 cities. Beginning of the Huguenot wars. Defeat of the 
 Huguenots, under Conde and Coligni, at Dreux, Dec. 19. 
 The Huguenots attempt a settlement on the coast of South 
 Carolina. 
 
 1563. Publication of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of Eng- 
 
 land. (See 1552.) 
 
 Assassination of Francis, duke of Guise, Feb. Edict of paci- 
 fication of Amboise. 
 
 Publication of the Heidelberg Catechism by the Calvinists. 
 
 Closing of the council of Trent. 
 
 Philip II. begins the construction of the Escurial. 
 
 1564. Maximilian II. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in the Ger- 
 
 man Empire, the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, and Bo- 
 hemia. 
 
 Margai'et of Parma is forced to dismiss Granvelle. 
 
 St. Philip Neri founds the Congregation of the Oratory. 
 
 Huguenot settlement on the St. John's River, Florida. 
 
 Death of Michel Angelo and of Calvin. 
 
 1565. Marriage of Mary Stuart with Darnley. 
 
 Successful defence of Malta by La Valette against the Turks, 
 
 led by Mustapha Pasha. 
 The Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, kill the Huguenot 
 
 settlers in Florida, together with the forces under Ribault. 
 
 Foundation of St. Augustine by the Spaniards. 
 Death of Pope Pius IV. 
 
 1566. Murder of Rrzzio by Darnley. 
 
 The nobles of the Netherlands, having formed a league among 
 themselves, present a petition of rights to the regent, Mar- 
 garet of Parma. The members of the league assume the 
 name of Gueux (beggars). Iconoclastic outbreaks in the 
 country. 
 
66 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 1566. Election of Pope Pius V. 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent invades Hungary. He dies in the 
 camp before Sziget, which falls after a heroic defence by 
 Nicholas Zrinyi. Accession of Selim II. 
 
 1567. Murder of Darnley. Mary Stuart marries Bothwell. She is 
 
 imprisoned, and forced to resign the crown in favor of her 
 
 son, James VI. ; Murray regent. 
 Defeat and assassination of Shane O'Neill. 
 Renewal of the Huguenot wars. Indecisive battle of St. 
 
 Denis, Nov. 10. 
 Arrival of the duke of Alva in the Netherlands as governor 
 
 with a Spanish army. He organizes the "Council of 
 
 Blood." 
 Foundation of the Rugby Grammar School. 
 
 1568. Defeat of Mary Stuart by Murray at Langside, May 13. She 
 
 takes refuge in England, and is imprisoned by Elizabeth. 
 Peace of Longjumeau with the Huguenots. The Protestant 
 
 leaders assemble at La Rochelle. The Huguenot struggle 
 
 is renewed. 
 Execution of Egmont and Horn at Brussels, June 5. Louis 
 
 of Nassau and his brother, William of Orange, in arms 
 
 against the Spaniards. 
 Rising of the Moriscos in Spain, Dec. 
 Eric XIV., king of Sweden, is deposed, and succeeded by his 
 
 brother, John. 
 
 1569. Catholic insurrection in England, headed by the earls of West- 
 
 moreland and Northumberland. 
 
 Defeat of the Huguenots at Jarnac, March 13; Conde cap- 
 tured and shot. Defeat of Coligni at Moncontour, Oct. 3. 
 
 The Florentine dominions are erected into the grand-duchy of 
 Tuscany under Cosmo de' Medici (Cosmo the Great). 
 
 The Diet of Lublin proclaims the union of Poland and Lithu- 
 ania into one commonwealth (to be governed by an elective 
 king). 
 
 1570. Assassination of Murray, regent of Scotland. The kingdom 
 
 is invaded by the English. The earl of Lennox assumes 
 the regency. 
 
 Peace of St. Germain between the Catholics and Hugue- 
 nots. 
 
 Don John of Austria crushes the insurrection of the Moriscos 
 in Spain. 
 
 The Turks complete the conquest of Yemen. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. G7 
 
 1571. Dunbarton, the princij)al stronghold of the adherents of Mary 
 
 Stuart, falls into the hands of the earl of Lennox. The re- 
 gent is mortally wounded at Stirling. The earl of Mar suc- 
 ceeds him. 
 
 Formation of the Holy League against the Turks by Spain, 
 Venice, and the pope. Its fleet, under Don John of Austria, 
 wins a great victory at Lepanto, Oct. 7. 
 
 The Turks wrest Cyprus from the Venetians. 
 
 1572. The duke of Norfolk, having entered into negotiations with 
 
 Mary Stuart, is executed. The earl of Morton becomes re- 
 gent of Scotland. 
 
 Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, is succeeded by her son, 
 Henry. He marries Margaret of Valois, sister of Chai'les 
 IX. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24 ; Coligni slain. 
 Fresh rising of the Huguenots. 
 
 Great rising of the Dutch against their Spanish oppressoi-s. 
 The patriots recognize the authority of William of Orange. 
 
 Death of Sigismund Augustus of Poland, the last of the Ja- 
 gellonian dynasty ; the crown becomes elective. 
 
 Pope Gregoiy XHL succeeds Pius V. 
 
 Publication of the " Lusiad " of Camoens. 
 
 1573. Successful defence of La Eochelle by the Huguenots. The 
 
 treaty of La Rochelle grants them toleration. 
 The Spaniards reduce Haarlem, and besiege Leyden; recall 
 of Alva ; Requesens his successor. 
 
 1574. Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., is crowned 
 
 king of Poland. He becomes king of France on the death 
 of Charles, as Henry HI. , and abandons Poland. 
 The Spaniards are compelled to raise the siege of Leyden. 
 
 1575. Stej^hen Bathori, prince of Transylvania, is elected king of 
 
 Poland through the influence of Zamojski. 
 Foundation of the University of Leyden. 
 
 1576. Henry, duke of Guise, organizes the Catholic League against 
 
 the Huguenots. 
 
 Eudoljih II. succeeds his father, Maximilian II., in the Ger- 
 man Empire, the archduchy of Austria, Hiingary, and 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Pacification of Ghent, an engagement entered into by the 
 revolted provinces of the Netherlands for their deliverance, 
 Nov. 8. Don John of Austria is appointed governor of the 
 Netherlands by his half-brother, Philip II. 
 
 Plague at Milan. 
 6 
 
68 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1576. First voyage of Frobislier in search of a northwest pas- 
 
 sage. 
 Death of Titian. 
 
 1577. Peace of Bergerac between Henry III. and the Hug-uenots. 
 Fruitless attempt to pacify the Netherlands through the so- 
 called "Perpetual Edict." 
 
 1578. Treaty of alliance between the Dutch and English. 
 
 Don John of Austria wins a great victory at Gembloux, Jan. 
 31. Alessandro Farnese, duke of Parma, succeeds as gov- 
 ernor of the Netherlands on the death of Don John. 
 
 King Sebastian of Portugal invades Morocco, and is over- 
 whelmed and slain at Alcazarquivir. 
 
 1579. Foundation of the Dutch Rej)ublic by the Union of Utrecht. 
 
 The duke of Parma takes Maestricht, June. A Spanish 
 force invades Ireland. 
 Faustus Socinus joins the anti-Trinitarians in Poland, 
 
 1580. The revolted Netherlands appoint the duke of Anjou, brother 
 
 of Henry III., their stadtholder. 
 Conquest of Portugal by Philip II. 
 Publication of the Formula of Concord by the German 
 
 Lutherans. 
 Death of Camoens and of Palladio. 
 
 1581. Execution of the earl of Morton, regent of Scotland. 
 Declaration of independence by the Dutch. The duke of 
 
 Anjou relieves Cambrai. 
 Publication of Tasso's ' ' Gerusalemme liberata. " 
 1581-1582. Conquest of Siberia (the western portion of the region 
 now called by that name) by the Cossacks under Yermak 
 Timofeyeff. 
 
 1582. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIH. (It is 
 
 directed that Oct. 5 of this year be made Oct. 15.) 
 
 1583. The duke of Anjou renounces the governoi-ship of the Nether- 
 
 lands. 
 Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of Newfoundland for 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1584. Assassination of William of Orange, July 10. The duke of 
 
 Parma lays siege to Antwerp. 
 Treaty of alliance between the Catholic League and Philip 
 
 II., Dec. 
 The archbishop of Cologne, having embraced Protestantism, 
 
 is driven from his territories. 
 Fedor I. succeeds his father, Ivan the Terrible, in Russia, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 69 
 
 1584. Sir "Walter Ealeigh's men visit North Carolina. The name 
 
 Virginia is given to the region by Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1585. The Catholic League in arms against Henry III. Treaty of 
 
 Nemours between the court and the League. Renewal of 
 the war against the Huguenots. 
 
 Fall of Antwerp, Aug. Elizabeth sends an army, under 
 Leicester, to aid the Dutch. 
 
 Expedition of Drake against the Spanish possessions in 
 America. 
 
 Pope Sixtus V. succeeds Gregory XIII, 
 
 A party sent out by Raleigh makes an unsuccessful settle- 
 ment on Roanoke Island. 
 1585-1587. Expeditions of Davis in search of a northwest passage. 
 
 1586. Conspiracy of Babington against Elizabeth. 
 The earl of Leicester at the head of the Dutch. 
 Death of Stephen Bathori, king of Poland. 
 
 1587. Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, Feb. 8. Drake destroys 
 
 the Spanish ships of war at Cadiz. 
 Henry of Navarre defeats 'the forces of Henry IH. at Cou- 
 
 tras. 
 End of Leicester's rule in the Netherlands. 
 Sigismund Vasa is elected king of Poland. 
 
 1588. The Invincible Armada of Philip II., under the duke of 
 
 Medina Sidonia, is dispersed by the English, under Howard 
 and Drake, Aug. 
 
 Henry of Guise makes his entry into Paris against the prohi- 
 bition of Henry III. The Parisians take up arms against 
 the king, May 12 ("Day of the Barricades ") ; Henry III. is 
 forced to flee. The king convokes the States General at 
 Blois. The duke of Guise is assassinated by his order, Dec. 
 23. Assassination of the cardinal of Guise, Dec. 24. 
 
 Death of Paul Veronese. 
 X589. Unsuccessful English expedition, under Drake and Norris, 
 for the liberation of Portugal from the yoke of Spain. 
 
 Death of Catharine de' Medici, Jan. 5. Henry III. is declared 
 deposed by the Sorbonne and the Parliament of Paris ; his 
 kingdom in arms against him. Tlie duke of Mayenne, head 
 of the Catholic League, enters Paris, and is j)roclaimed 
 lieutenant general of the kingdom. Henry III. johas Henry 
 of Navarre and the Huguenots, and with them maz-ches 
 against Paris. The king is stabbed by Jacques Clement 
 at St. Cloud, Aug. 1, and dies Aug. 2; end of the Valois 
 
70 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 dynasty. Henry of Navarre (Heury IV.) inan^rates tlie 
 Bourbon dynasty. Henry, forced back into Normandy, is 
 victorious over the duke of Mayenne at Arques, SejDt. , and 
 reappears before Paris. 
 
 1590. Victory of Henry IV. over Maj^enne at Ivry, March 14. A 
 
 Spanish army, under the duke of Pai'ma, assists the League, 
 and raises the siege of Paris. 
 
 Pope Urban VII. succeeds Sixtus V. He is succeeded by 
 Gregoiy XIV. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau, governor of the Netherlands, makes him- 
 self master of Breda. 
 
 1591. Pope Innocent X. succeeds Gregory XIV. He dies. 
 
 1592. Tlie Parliament of Scotland abolishes Episcopacy, and estab- 
 
 lishes the Presbyterian government in the church. 
 Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland, succeeds his father, John, 
 
 as king of Sweden. 
 Election of Pope Clement VIII. 
 Death of Montaigne. 
 
 1593. Severe enactments against recusants in England. 
 Henry IV. abjures Protestantism. 
 
 1594. Henry IV. is crowned at Chartres, Feb. 37. Paris opens its 
 
 gates to him, March 22. 
 Death of Tintoretto. 
 
 1595. Henry IV. declares war against Spain. 
 
 1595-1597. First voyage of the Dutch around the Cape of Good 
 Hope to the East Indies. 
 
 1596. Submission of the duke of Mayenne; end of the Catholic 
 
 League. 
 Capture of Cadiz by Howard and Essex. 
 
 1597. Maurice of Nassau, with the aid of English auxiliaries, defeats 
 
 the Spaniards at Turnhout, Jan. 
 Henry IV. of France intrusts the direction of the finances to 
 Rosny (the future duke of Sully). 
 
 1598. Henry IV. issues the Edict of Nantes, granting toleration to 
 
 the Huguenots, April 13. Treaty of Vervins between France 
 
 and Spain. 
 Philip HI. succeeds his father, Philip II., in Spain, Sept. 13. 
 Death of Fedor I. of Russia ; end of the line of Rurik. Boris 
 
 Godunoff succeeds to the throne. 
 
 1599. Elizabeth sends Essex to Ireland to put down the insurrection 
 
 under the earl of Tyrone. He enters into negotiations with 
 the rebel leader. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 71 
 
 1599. Sigismund Vasa, having attempted to establish. Catholicism 
 
 in Sweden, loses the crown of that kingdom. 
 Death of Spenser. 
 
 1600. The French invade and occupy Savoy. Marriage of Henrj^ 
 
 IV. with Maria de' Medici. 
 Maurice of Nassau defeats the archduke Albert of Austria, 
 
 governor of the Spanish Netherlands, at Nieuport. 
 Burning of Giordano Bruno in Rome. 
 The English East India Comx^any is chartered. 
 
 1601. Execution of Essex. Lord Mountjoy breaks the power of Ty- 
 
 rone. (The insurgent leader surrenders to the English about 
 
 the beginning of 1603.) 
 Peace between France and Savoy. 
 
 The archduke Albert of Austria begins the siege of Ostend. 
 The Portuguese discover Australia (first discovery ?). 
 Death of Tycho Brahe. 
 
 1602. Bartholomew Gosnold attemj^ts a settlement on the coast of 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 1603. Death of Queen Elizabeth, March 24; end of the Tudor dy- 
 
 nasty. James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, ascends 
 the English throne as James I. Sir Walter Raleigh is com- 
 mitted to the Tower on a charge of conspiring to place 
 Lady Ai*abella Stuart on the throne. 
 
 1604. Conferences of Hampton Court between the English ijrelates 
 
 and the Puritans. 
 
 Surrender of Ostend to the Spanish general, Spinola. 
 
 The emperor Rudolph II. provokes a rising of the Hungarians 
 under Bocskay. 
 
 The regent of Sweden, Charles, uncle of the deposed Sigis- 
 mund Vasa, formally ascends the throne as Charles IX. 
 
 1605. Gunpowder Plot to destroy the English king and Parliament; 
 
 Guy Fawkes seized, Nov. 5. 
 
 Death of Boris Godunoff , czar of Russia. His son, Fedor, is 
 dethroned and succeeded by the first Pseudo-Demetrius (an 
 impostor pretending to be Demetrius, a son of Ivan IV. put 
 to death by Boris Godunofi: in 1591), helped on to his enter- 
 prise by Polish nobles. 
 
 Pope Leo XI. succeeds Clement VIII. Paul V. succeeds 
 Leo XL 
 
 Abbas the Great, of Pereia, defeats the Turks at Bassorah. 
 
 Cervantes publishes the first portion of "Don Quixote." 
 
 Death of Beza. 
 
72 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1606. The archduke Matthias rebels against his brother, Rudolph II, 
 The first Pseudo-Demetrius is dethroned and killed. Shuiski 
 
 succeeds him as Basil V. 
 James I. grants a patent to the London and Plymouth Com- 
 j)anies. 
 
 1607. The Protestant city of Donauwoi'th is deprived of its liberties. 
 Naval victory of the Dutch over the Spaniards at Gibraltar. 
 Foundation of Jamestown by the London Company. 
 
 1608. Formation of the Evangelical Union by the Protestant states 
 
 of Germany. Rudolph II. is forced to cede the archduchy 
 of Austria, Moravia, and Hungary to Matthias. 
 
 Marie Jacqueline Angelique Arnauld undertakes the refbrm 
 of Port Royal. 
 
 Foundation of Quebec by the French. 
 
 1609. Beginning of the contest for the possession of Julich. For- 
 
 mation of the Catholic League in Germany. Rudolph 11. 
 is compelled to grant the "Majestatsbrief," an edict of tol- 
 eration, to the Bohemians. 
 
 Truce for twelve years between the Netherlands and Spain. 
 
 Philip III. expels the Moriscos from Spain. 
 
 The London Company is reorganized; Lord Delaware gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain. 
 
 Henry Hudson ascends the Hudson River. 
 
 Foundation of the Bank of Amsterdam. 
 1609-1610. Another Pseudo-Demetrius, by means of the Polish arms, 
 conquers the throne of Russia. The usurper is killed, 
 
 1610. Assassination of Henry IV. by Ravaillac, May 14. His son, 
 
 Louis XIII., succeeds under the regency of Maria de' Medici. 
 Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay. 
 Discovery of the satellites of Jupiter by Galileo (the telescope 
 
 having been invented a shoi-t time previously). 
 
 1611. Rudolph II. loses the crown of Bohemia, which is transferred 
 
 to his brother, Matthias. 
 Gustavus Adolphus succeeds his father, Charles IX., on the 
 
 throne of Sweden. 
 Completion of King James's Bible. 
 
 1612. Death of Rudolph II. Matthias becomes emperor. 
 
 The Russians, under the lead of Minin and Pozhai'ski, liberate 
 their country from its Polish invaders. 
 
 1613. Michael Romanoff becomes czar of Russia, the first of the Ro- 
 
 manoff dynasty. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 73 
 
 1614. Last convocation of the States General in France previous to 
 
 the Revolution. 
 The Dutch erect a fort on Manhattan Island. 
 Napier publishes his invention of logarithms. 
 
 1615. Louis XIII. marries Anne of Austi'ia, daughter of Philip III. 
 
 of Spain. 
 
 1616. Death of Shakespeai'e and Cervantes. 
 
 1616 (about). Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood. 
 
 1617. Murder of Marshal d'Ancre (Concini), the favorite of Maria 
 
 de' Medici. Maria is exiled to Blois. 
 Peace of Stolbova between Russia and Sweden ; Karelia and 
 Ingria ceded to Sweden. 
 
 1618. Execution of Sii* Walter Raleigh. 
 
 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War ; the Protestants of Bo* 
 hernia rise under Count Thurn. Spain lends her support 
 to the emperor Matthias. 
 Union of the duchy of Prussia with Brandenburg. 
 1618-1619. Synod of Dort ; Arminianism condemned. 
 
 1619. Death of the emperor Matthias, March. His cousin, Ferdi- 
 
 nand, succeeds him as head of the house of Austria. He is 
 besieged in Vienna by Thurn, but is relieved by Dampierre. 
 He is elected emperor as Ferdinand II., Aug. Gabriel 
 Bethlen, prince of Transylvania, invades Hungary. Fred- 
 erick v., elector palatine, son-in-law of James I. of Eng- 
 land, is crowned king by the Bohemians. 
 
 Execution of Barneveldt by Maurice of Nassau. 
 
 A colonial assembly is convened at Jamestown, the fii*st rep- 
 resentative body of British colonists in America. Negro 
 slavery is introduced into Virginia. 
 
 Batavia is founded by the Dutch as the seat of government of 
 their East Indian possessions. 
 
 1620. The Catholic League, headed by Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, 
 
 in arms for Ferdinand II. The Protestants are overthrown 
 in the battle of the White Mountain (battle of Prague), 
 Nov. ; flight of Frederick from Bohemia. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in the Valtellina (at this time be- 
 longing to Grisons). The territory is occupied by a Span- 
 ish force. 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrim Fathei's at Plymouth, Dec. 11 (new 
 style, Dec. 21).* 
 
 * Tho celebration of " Forefathers' Day" is held on Dec. 22. 
 
74 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1620. Publication of Francis Bacon's "Novum Organum." 
 
 1621. Fall of Lord Chancellor Bacon. 
 
 Dissolution of the Evangelical Union. Mansfeld continues 
 the war for the elector Frederick V. 
 
 Philip IV. succeeds his father, Philip III., in Spain; Olivarez 
 his minister. The struggle between Spam and the Nether- 
 lands is renewed. 
 
 Pope Gregory XV. succeeds Paul V. 
 
 The Virginia Colony secures a rej)resentative government. 
 
 The cotton culture is introduced in Virginia. 
 1621-1622. War between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots, led by 
 
 Rohan and Soubise. 
 1621-1629. Victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus against the Poles. 
 
 1622. Peace of Nikolsburg between Ferdinand II. and Gabriel 
 
 Bethlen. Tilly, the general of the Catholic League, defeats 
 
 the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen, and Christian 
 
 of Brunswick at Hochst. 
 Pope Gregory XV. founds the Propaganda. 
 The Dutch West India Company takes possession of New 
 
 Netherland. Indian massacre in Virginia. 
 
 1623. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, receives the dignity of elector, 
 
 forfeited by the elector palatine Frederick V. 
 Pope Urban VIII. succeeds Gregory XV. 
 Settlement of New Hampshire at Dover. The Dutch build 
 
 Fort Orange (on the present site of Albany). 
 
 1624. Richelieu enters the council of Louis XIII. 
 
 The French expel the Spaniards from the Valtellina. 
 Dissolution of the London Company ; Virginia placed under 
 the crown. 
 
 1625. Charles I. succeeds his father, James I., March 27. He mar- 
 
 ries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. He dissolves his 
 first Parliament. 
 
 The Huguenots renew their struggle. 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark takes up arms for the German Prot- 
 estants. 
 
 Frederick Henry succeeds his brother, Maurice of Nassau, in 
 the Netherlands. The Spanish general Spinola takes Breda. 
 
 1626. Impeachment of Buckingham. Charles I. dissolves his sec- 
 
 ond Parliament. 
 Peace between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots. Treaty of 
 MonQon between France and Spain, recognizmg the sov- 
 ereignty of Grisons over the Valtellina. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 75 
 
 1626. Wallenstein, having raised an army for Ferdinand II., defeats 
 
 Mansfeld at Dessau, April. Tilly vanquishes Christian IV. 
 of Denmark at Lutter, Aug. 
 The Dutch purchase Manliattan Island fi'om the Indians. 
 
 1627. War is renewed against the Huguenots, who receive English 
 
 aid. La Rochelle, the Protestant stronghold is besieged. 
 Unsuccessful expedition of Buckingham to the Isle of Re. 
 Wallenstein invades Denmark. 
 
 1628. Charles I. is forced to assent to the Petition of Right, directed 
 
 against the abuse of royal authority, June. Assassination 
 of Buckingham. 
 
 Fall of La Rochelle, Oct. 
 
 Wallenstein unsuccessfully besieges Stralsund. 
 
 War in Italy for the possession of Mantua and Montferrat. 
 France supports the claim of Charles, duke of Nevei-s (re- 
 lated to the late reigning house of Gonzaga), and is opposed 
 by Spain and Austria. 
 
 Settlement of Salem by the Massachusetts Bay Company. 
 
 1629. Charles I. dissolves his third Parliament. 
 
 End of the Huguenot wai^s. Richelieu becomes the prime- 
 minister of Louis XIII. 
 
 Fei'dinand II. publishes the Edict of Restitution, demanding 
 of the Protestants the surrender to the Catholic church of 
 numerous sees in their possession, as well as of secularized 
 pi'ojjei'ty, March. The emperor concludes i^eace with Den- 
 mark at Llibeck, May. 
 
 The English take Quebec. 
 
 1630. Dismissal of Wallenstein by Ferdinand II. Gustavus Adol- 
 
 phus of Sweden enters Germany, and wages war for the 
 
 Protestants. 
 The Imperialists take Mantua. Treaty of Ratisbon between 
 
 Louis XIII. and Ferdinand II., who recognizes Charles of 
 
 Nevers as duke of Mantua. 
 John Wuithrop assumes the government of the Massachusetts 
 
 Bay Company. Foundation of Boston. 
 Death of Kepler. 
 
 1631. Imprisonment of Maria de' Medici for intrigues against Riche- 
 
 lieu. She escapes from France. 
 Subsidiaiy treaty between France and Sweden, signed at Bar- 
 walde. Storming of Magdeburg by Tilly and Pappenheim, 
 May 10 (new style, 20). Gustavus Adolphus overwhelms 
 Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, Sept. 7 (new style, 17). 
 
76 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1631. Advance of Gustavus Adolplius to the Eliine. Occupation 
 of Prague by the forces of John George, elector of Saxony. 
 
 William Clayborne makes a settlement on Kent Island, Mary- 
 land. 
 
 1632. Gustavus Adolphus forces the passage of the Lech, April ; 
 
 Tilly mortally wounded. The Swedes enter Munich. Wal- 
 lenstein, placed in command of the Imperial forces, in- 
 trenches himself before Nuremberg, which is held by Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, who vainly attempts to dislodge him. 
 Victory of the Swedes over Wallenstein at Llitzen, Nov. 6 
 (new style, 16) ; Gustavus Adolphus killed. His daughter, 
 Christina, succeeds him under the regency of Oxenstiern. 
 Death of the elector palatine Frederick V. 
 
 Ladislas IV. succeeds Sigismund Vasa in Poland. 
 
 Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, receives a charter 
 for a colony in Maryland. 
 
 Canada is restored to France by England. 
 
 1633. Laud is made archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Union of Heilbronn between the German Protestant states and 
 the Swedes ; Oxenstiern intrusted with the conduct of the 
 war against the emj)eror and the Catholic states. 
 
 Death of Coke. 
 
 1634. Writ of Ship-Money issued by Charles I. 
 
 Assassination of Wallenstein at Eger, Feb. 15 (new style, 25). 
 The army of the German Protestants and Swedes, under 
 Bei'nhard of Weimar and Horn, is annihilated at Nord- 
 lingen by the forces of Ferdinand, son of the emperor of 
 Germany, and Gallas,Aug. 27 (new style, Sept. 6). 
 
 Settlement of St. Mary's, Maryland, by Leonard Calvert. 
 1634-1636. Settlement of Connecticut by the English. 
 
 1635. Peace of Prague between Ferdinand II. and Saxony. 
 France, under the guidance of Richelieu, engages in an active 
 
 contest against the power of Austria and Spain. 
 Foundation of the French Academy. 
 Death of Lope de Vega. 
 
 1636. Invasion of France by the Spaniards, Imperialists, and Charles 
 
 of Lorraine. Victory of the Swedish general Baner over 
 the Imperialists at Wittstock, Sept. 24 (new style, Oct. 4). 
 
 Roger Williams makes a settlement at Providence. 
 
 First performance of Corneille's "Cid." 
 1636-1638. John Hampden resists the payment of Ship-Money; the 
 case is decided against him by the Court of Exchequer. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 77 
 
 1637. Burton, Bastwick, and Piynne (Prynne for a second time) are 
 
 condemned by the Star Chamber. The Scots resist the in- 
 troduction of the English liturgy. 
 
 Ferdinand II. is succeeded in all his dominions by his son, 
 Ferdinand III., Feb. 
 
 Subjugation of the Pequots by the New England colonists. 
 
 1638. The Scots publish the National Covenant, and declare Epis- 
 
 copacy abolished. 
 
 A^ictory of Bernhard of Weimar over the Imperialists at 
 Rheinfelden. He reduces Breisach. 
 
 William Coddington makes a settlement on the island of 
 Aquidneck, (Rhode Island). Foundation of Harvard Col- 
 lege. Establishment of the colony of New Haven. Swedes 
 and Finns settle in Delaware. 
 
 1639. The Scots take up arms for the Covenant. Pacification of 
 
 Berwick. 
 Naval victory of the Dutch, under M. H. Tromp, over the 
 
 Spaniards in the Downs. 
 The people of Connecticut adopt a constitution. 
 The transit of Venus is first observed by Horrox. 
 
 1640. Session of the Short Parliament, April-May. The Scots in- 
 
 vade England. Meeting of the Long Parliament, Nov. 
 
 Impeachment of Strafi'ord. 
 Accession of Frederick William, the "great elector," in 
 
 Brandenburg. 
 Revolt of Catalonia from Spain. 
 Portugal recovers her independence ; John, duke of Braganca, 
 
 is proclaimed king as John IV. 
 Death of Rubens. 
 
 1641. Archbishop Laud is sent to the Tower. Execution of Straf- 
 
 ford, May. Abolition of the Star Chamber and Court of 
 High Commission. Insurrection in Ireland. 
 
 Publication of Descartes's " Meditationes de Prima Philo- 
 sophia." 
 
 Death of Vandyke. 
 
 1642. War between Charles I. and Parliament. Indecisive battle 
 
 of Edgehill, Oct. 23. 
 Conspiracy of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., 
 the duke of Bouillon, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou against 
 Richelieu. Execution of Cinq-Mare and De Thou. The 
 French conquer Roussillon from Spain. Death of Riche- 
 lieu, Dec. 
 
78 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1642. Torstenson, the Swedish commander-in-chief, is victorious at 
 
 Breitenfeld. 
 
 Urban VIII. condemns Jansen's work on the doctrine of 
 Augustine. 
 
 Discovery of Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) and New Zea- 
 land by the Dutch navigator Tasman. 
 
 Hobbes publishes his " Elementa Philosophica de Give." 
 
 Death of Galileo. 
 
 1643. The Westminster assembly of divines convenes. Bristol sur- 
 
 renders to Prince Rupert. First battle of Newbuiy, Sept. 
 20. Parliament, to secure the close alliance of the Scots, 
 subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant, a bond be- 
 tween the English and Scots to uphold Presbyterianism in 
 Scotland, and establish it in place of Episcopacy in Eng- 
 land and Ireland. 
 
 Louis XIV. succeeds his father, Louis XIII., May 14; his 
 mother, Anne of Austria, regent; Mazarin prime-minister. 
 
 Victory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) over the Spaniards 
 at Rocroy. Defeat of the French by the Imperialists at 
 Tuttling-en. 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark makes war on Sweden. 
 
 The New England colonies establish a confederacy. 
 
 Invention of the barometer by Torricelli. 
 
 1644. The Scottish forces enter England. Battle of Marston Moor, 
 
 July 2 ; the Parliamentarians and Scots, commanded by 
 Fairfax, the earl of Manchester, and the earl of Leven, de- 
 feat the Royalists, under Prince Rupert. The marquis of 
 Montrose defeats the Covenanters at Tippermuir, Sept. 1. 
 Second battle of Newbury, Oct, 27. 
 
 Torstenson overruns Denmark. Battle between the French 
 and Germans at Freiburg. Torstenson defeats Gallas at 
 Jiiterbock. 
 
 Christina assumes the reins of government in Sweden. 
 
 Pope Innocent X. succeeds Urban VIII. 
 
 The Mantchoos establish their dynasty in China on the ruins 
 of the Ming dynasty. 
 
 Roger Williams obtains a patent from Parliament for the 
 united government of the Rhode Island settlements. 
 
 1645. Execution of Laud, Jan. 10. Battle of Naseby, June 14; the 
 
 Royalists defeated by Fairfax, seconded by Cromwell and 
 Ireton. Surrender of Bristol to the Parliamentarians. 
 Victory of Torstenson at Jankau, Feb. 24 (new style, March 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 79 
 
 1645. 6) ; the Imperialist general Hatzfeld taken prisoner. Vic- 
 tory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) and Turenne near 
 Nordlingen. 
 
 Peace of Bromsebro between Sweden and Denmark. 
 Alexis succeeds his father, Michael, as czar of Russia. 
 Death of Grotius. 
 
 1646. Charles I. delivers himself up to the Scots, May. Capitula- 
 
 tion of the marquis of Montrose. 
 
 1647. Charles I. is handed over to Parliament by the Scots, Jan. 
 
 30. He is imprisoned. 
 
 Turenne and the Swedish commander Wrangel force Maxi- 
 milian of Bavaria to an armistice. 
 
 Masaniello's insurrection at NajDles. 
 
 George Fox, founder of the sect of Quakers, begins his 
 preachings. 
 
 1648. Royalist risings in England. The Scots take up arms for 
 
 Charles I., and are defeated by Cromwell. Parliament 
 adopts the Westmmster Confession of Faith. Cromwell 
 " purges" the Long Parliament. 
 
 Spain recognizes the independence of Holland, Jan. 
 
 The Swedish general Konigsmark occupies a portion of 
 Prague. Close of the Thirty Years' War; treaties signed 
 at Osnabriick and Miinster ; signing of a general treaty at 
 Miinster, the Peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24 (new style). 
 Holland and Switzerland are declared independent of the 
 German Empire; Alsace is annexed to France, which is 
 confii'med in the possession of Metz, Toul, and "Verdun; 
 Sweden receives Hither Pomerania (west of the Oder), 
 Stettin, the island of Riigen, Wismar, the bishoprics of 
 Bremen * and A'erden, etc., and is admitted to representa- 
 tion in the German Diet; Brandenburg secm-es Further 
 Pomerania, Halberstadt, Minden, and Kammin, and the 
 succession to the see of Magdeburg ; Lusatia is confirmed 
 to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate to Bavaria; a new 
 electorate (the eighth) is created for the Rhenish Palatinate 
 (see 1623) ; the equality of the Catholic, Lutheran, and Re- 
 formed creeds in Germany is established. 
 
 Beginning of the war of the Fronde in France. Insurrection 
 in Paris against prime-minister Mazarin (" day of the bai*- 
 ricades ") Aug. 27. 
 
 * The city of Bremen retained its independence. 
 
80 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1648. John Casimir succeeds his brother, Ladislas TV., m Poland. 
 The Turks begin the blockade of the fortress of Candia. 
 
 1649. Execution of Charles I., Jan. 30. His son Charles is j)ro- 
 
 claimed king at Edinbiirgh. England is declared a Com- 
 monwealth. Cromwell storms Drogheda and Wexford; 
 Ireland almost completely subdued. 
 Siege of Paris by the forces of the Court ; an accommoda- 
 tion effected. 
 
 1650. Fatal expedition of the marquis of Montrose in support of 
 
 Charles II. Charles II. in Scotland. Victory of Crom- 
 well over the Scots, under Leslie, at Dunbar, Sept. 3. 
 
 The princes of Conde and Conti and the Duke of Longueville 
 are seized and imprisoned by order of Mazarin. 
 
 Death of Descartes. 
 1650 {about). Invention of the air-pumj) by Otto von Guericke. 
 
 1651. Cromwell overwhelms the army of Charles II. at Worcester, 
 
 Sept. 3. Charles escapes to the continent. Passage of the 
 Navigation Act. 
 
 1652. The Irish rebellion comi^letely suppressed. War between 
 
 England and Holland. A'^ictory of Maarten Tromp over 
 Blake near the Goodwin Sands, Nov. 
 Campaign of Conde, the i^rincipal leader of the Fronde, who 
 is opposed by Turenne. Collapse of the Fronde. Conde 
 passes over to the Spaniards. 
 
 1653. Victory of Blake over the Dutch, commanded by Maarten 
 
 Tromp, off Portland Island, Feb. Exj)ulsion of the Rump 
 Parliament by Cromwell. Barebones's Parliament assem- 
 bles. Naval victory of the English over the Dutch off the 
 coast of Holland, July 31 (new style, Aug. 10) ; Maarten 
 Tromp killed. Cromwell is made Protector, Dec. 16. 
 Johan de Witt, head of the anti-Orange party in the Nether- 
 lands, is made grand-j)ensionary of Holland. 
 
 1654. Peace between England and Holland. 
 
 Queen Christina of Sweden abdicates in favor of her cousin, 
 Charles (X.) Gustavus. 
 
 Chmielnicki, the leader of the Cossacks in their revolt 
 against Poland, places himself under the sovereignty of 
 Rvissia. War between Russia and Poland. 
 
 1655. Conquest of Jamaica from the Spaniards by the English. 
 Charles X. of Sweden overruns Poland. 
 
 Pope Alexander VII. succeeds Innocent X. 
 
 Peter Stuyvesant, director general of New Netherland, dis- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 81 
 
 possesses the Swedish settlers near the mouth of the Dela- 
 ware. 
 
 1656. Fi-ederick William, elector of Brandenburg, joins Charles X. 
 
 against the Poles, to whom the Cossacks resume allegiance. 
 
 Victories of the Poles under Czarnecki. Ovex'throw of the 
 
 Poles in the battle of Warsaw, July 28-30. 
 The Dutch put an end to the Portuguese power in Ceylon. 
 Publication of Pascal's " Lettres provinciales." 
 
 1657. Oliver Cromwell declines the title of king. 
 
 Austria enters into ah alliance with Poland against Sweden. 
 
 Death of the emperor Ferdinand III., April 2. His son Leo- 
 pold succeeds in Austria, Hungaiy, and Bohemia. 
 
 Denmark makes war on Sweden. The elector of Branden- 
 burg gives up the Swedish alliance and joins Poland, which 
 renounces her suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia in the 
 treaty of Wehlau. 
 
 1658. Defeat of the Spaniards by the French and English forces 
 
 in the battle of the Dunes. Dunkirk is taken from the 
 Spaniards by the French, and secured to England. 
 
 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept. 3. His son Richard is named 
 Protector. 
 
 Leopold I. is elected emperor of Germany after a year's inter- 
 regnum, July 18. 
 
 Treaty of Roskilde between Denmark and Sweden. War is 
 renewed between the two kingdoms. Charles X. lays siege 
 to Copenhagen. The Dutch, in alliance with Denmark, de- 
 feat the Swedish fleet. 
 
 Aurungzebe succeeds his father. Shah Jehan, as Mogul em- 
 peror (Shah Jehan being kept in prison). 
 
 1659. Resignation of Richard Cromwell, May 25. 
 
 Conventions of the Hague between England, France, and the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain ; an mipor- 
 tant part of the Spanish Netherlands as well as Roussillon 
 secured to France; Catalonia to, continue a province of 
 Spain. 
 
 The siege of Copenhagen is abandoned by the Swedes. Fred- 
 erick William of Brandenburg defeats the Swedes in Pom- 
 erania. 
 
 Firet performance of Moliere's "Precieuses ridicules." 
 
 1660. March of General Monk upon London. End of the Puritan 
 
 regime. Restoration of the Stuarts; Charles 11. is pro- 
 
82 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1660. claimed king in London, May 8. Entry of Charles into 
 London, May 29. Act of Indemnity passed. 
 
 Marriage of Louis XIV, with Maria Theresa, daughter of 
 Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Charles XL (born 1655) succeeds his father, Charles X., in 
 Sweden. 
 
 Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, and 
 the emioeror of Germany; Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden, 
 and also relinquishes Esthonia to her. Treaty of Copen- 
 hagen between Sweden and Denmark ; Denmark gives up 
 her possessions in the Swedish portion of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. 
 
 Foundation of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 1661. Execution of the marquis of Argyll. Episcopacy is restored 
 
 in Scotland. 
 Death of Mazarin. Colbert becomes the chief minister of 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 1662. The Act of Uniformity is passed by Parliament requiring 
 
 from all clergymen a strict adhesion to the Episcopal 
 church. Marriage of Charles II. with Catharine of Bra- 
 ganca (Braganza). Execution of Sir Henry Vane. Ejec- 
 tion of the Nonconformist clergy from their livmgs. Dun- 
 kirk is sold to France. 
 The Connecticut and New Haven colonies receive a charter 
 from Charles II. 
 
 1663. The Turks, under Koprili, overrun Hungary. 
 Foundation of the French Academy of Inscriptions. 
 
 1663-1665. Formation of the colony of Carolina. 
 
 1664. The first Conventicle Act (directed against the Dissenters) 
 
 is passed by Parliament. 
 
 Victory of Montecuculi, general of Leopold I., over the Turks 
 at St. Gotthard, in Hungary, Aug. 1. 
 
 Charles II. grants the region between the Connecticut and 
 Delaware rivers to his brother James, duke of York. The 
 English occupy New Amsterdam, and take possession of 
 New Netherland ; the name New York is given to the city 
 and province. A portion of his territory is disposed of by 
 James, to which the name of New Jersey is given. 
 
 Foundation of the French East India Company. 
 
 1665. War between England and Holland. The great plague in 
 
 London. 
 Charles II. (born 1661) succeeds his father, Philip IV., in Spain. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNH^ERSAL HISTORY. 83 
 
 1665. The union of the Connecticut and New Haven colonies is com- 
 
 pleted. 
 Death of Poussin. 
 
 1666. Naval battle in the Downs between the English and Dutch. 
 
 The gi'eat fire in London. The Scotch Covenanters take 
 
 up arms, and are defeated. 
 France declares war against England. 
 Foundation of the French Academy of Sciences. 
 
 1667. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV. The 
 
 Dutch admiral De Ruyter enters the estuary of the Thames, 
 and sails up the Medway, burning a number of English 
 ships ; he afterward sails up the Thames. Treaty of Breda 
 between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Charles 
 II. dismisses his chief adviser, Clarendon, whose impeach- 
 ment follows. 
 
 Treaty of Andrusovo between Poland and Russia ; the Ukraine 
 east of the Dnieper secured to Russia. 
 
 The king of Denmark acquires Oldenburg. 
 
 Pope Clement IX. succeeds Alexander VII. 
 
 Publication of Milton's "Paradise Lost." First performance 
 of Racine's ' ' Andromaque." 
 
 1668. Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden 
 
 against France. Louis XIV. invades and occupies Franche- 
 Comte. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; France restores Franche- 
 Comte to Spain, which makes some cessions on the side of 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 Spain, after a protracted Avar, recognizes the independence of 
 Portugal m the treaty of Lisbon. 
 
 Abdication of John Casimir of Poland. 
 
 The island of Bombay (conveyed to England by Portugal in 
 the dowry of Catharine of Bragan^a) is granted to the Eng- 
 lish East India Company by Charles 11. 
 
 Father Marquette founds the mission of Sault Ste. Marie. 
 
 1669. Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki is elected king of Poland. 
 The Turks conquer the fortress of Candia from the Venetians. 
 Death of Pope Clement IX. 
 
 Locke draws up the Fundamental Constitution for Carolina. 
 Discovery of phosphorus by Brandt. 
 Death of Rembrandt. 
 
 1670. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XTV. 
 Louis XIV. occupies Lorraine. 
 
 Election of Pope Clement X. 
 
 r 
 
84 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. 
 
 1671. Tyrannical measures of Leopold I. for the subversion of the 
 
 liberties of Hungary. Execution of Frangepan, Zrinyi, 
 and Nadasdy. 
 
 1672. France and England declare war against Holland. Treaty 
 
 of Stockholm between France and Sweden. Louis XIV. 
 invades Holland. The Dutch confer the supreme power 
 on William (III.) of Orange. Massacre of the brothers De 
 Witt by the people. 
 Acquisition of Pondicherry by the French East India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 1673. Frederick William of Brandenburg, having marched to the 
 
 aid of the Dutch (together with Montecuculi, the Austrian 
 general), is compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality with 
 France. The French take Maestricht and Treves. Will- 
 iam of Orange and Montecuculi take Bonn. The French 
 are baffled in Holland. Spain joins in the struggle against 
 France. 
 
 Passage by Parliament of the Test Act, excluding Papists and 
 Non-conformists from all offices under the government. 
 (Parliamentary test imposed in 1678.) 
 
 Rising in Hungary against the Austrians. 
 
 Death of Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki, king* of Poland. 
 
 John Sobieski defeats the Turks at Khotin. 
 
 The Dutch occupy New York and New Jersey. 
 
 Death of Moliere and of Salvator Rosa. 
 
 1674. Peace between England and Holland. The French conquer 
 
 Franche-Comte from Spain. The German Empire in arms 
 against France. Battle of Senef between Conde and Will- 
 iam of Orange, Aug. 11. Turenne lays waste the Palati- 
 nate, and defeats the Imperialists. Messina rises against 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 John Sobieski is elected king of Poland. 
 
 New York and New Jersey are restored to the English. 
 
 Death of Milton. 
 
 1675. The Swedes, having invaded Brandenburg, are vanquished 
 
 by Frederick William at Fehrbellin, June 18. Death of 
 Turenne at Sassbach, July 27. Conde is victorious against 
 Montecuculi. 
 
 Commencement of King Philip's War. 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral is begun by Christopher Wren. 
 
 Roemer ascertains the velocity of light. 
 
CHKOXOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 85 
 
 1676. The French, under Duquesne, defeat the Dutch admiral De 
 
 Ruyter off the coast of Sicily, April ; De Ruy ter mortally 
 
 wounded. 
 Fedor II. (III.) succeeds his father, Alexis, in Russia. 
 PoiJe Innocent XI. succeeds Clement X. 
 End of King Philip's War. Bacon's rebellion in Virginia 
 
 against the government of Sir William Berkeley. 
 Flamsteed begins observations in the Greenwich Observatory. 
 
 1677. Defeat of William of Orange by the French at Cassel, in 
 
 Flanders, April. Freiburg is taken by the French. 
 Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, daughter of the 
 
 duke of York (James II.), 
 Death of Spinoza. 
 
 1678. Titus Oates invents the Popish Plot. 
 
 France makes peace with Holland and Spain at Nimeguen ; 
 she secures Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders from the 
 latter. 
 
 Tokolyi leads the Hungarians in their struggle against Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 1679. Murder of Sharp, primate of Scotland. The Covenanters take 
 
 up arms, and are defeated by the duke of Monmouth at 
 Bothwell Bridge, June. Passage of the Habeas Corpus 
 Act by Parliament. 
 Peace of Nimeguen between France and the German Empire. 
 Treaties of i^eace between France, Brandenburg, Sweden, 
 and Denmai-k. 
 
 1680. Execution of Viscount Stafford for participation in the alleged 
 
 Popish Plot. 
 Death of La Rochefoucauld. 
 
 1681. Louis XIV. occupies Strasburg. 
 
 William Penn obtains his patent from the crown. 
 Death of Calderon. 
 
 1682. LouLS XIV. attempts to seize Luxemburg. Declaration of the 
 
 French clergy, drawn up by Bossuet, setting forth the lib- 
 erties of the Galilean Church. 
 
 The Turks take up the cause of Tokolyi. 
 
 Ivan V. and Peter the Great succeed their brother, Fedor II. 
 (III.) in Russia; their sister, Sophia, regent. 
 
 Bombardment of Algiers by the French. 
 
 Purchase of East Jersey by William Penn. He takes posses- 
 sion of New Castle (Delaware) and the surrounding terri- 
 tory. He founds the colony of Pennsylvania. 
 
86 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1682. La Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth. 
 Death of Murillo and of Claude Lorraine. 
 
 1683. Execution of William Eussell, July 21, and of Algernon 
 
 Sidney, Dec. 7, for alleged complicity in the Eye House 
 Plot. 
 
 Louis XIV. attacks the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 The Turks, under Kara Mustapha, lay siege to Vienna, July. 
 Defense of the city by Starhemberg. The Turks are utterly 
 defeated before that place by the combined forces of John 
 Sobieski, king of Poland, Charles, duke of Lorraine, and 
 the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, Sept. 12. 
 
 Death of Colbert. The French again bombard Algiers. 
 
 1684. Bombardment of Genoa by the French. Louis XIV. becomes 
 
 master of Luxemburg. 
 Venice joins in the war against the Turks. 
 Arrival in France of an embassy from Siam. 
 The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company is declared 
 
 forfeited. 
 Leibnitz publishes his invention of the differential calculus. 
 
 (Newton's method of fluxions invented about 1665.) 
 Death of Corneille. 
 
 1685. James II. succeeds his brother, Charles II., Feb. 6. The king 
 
 celebrates mass. Insurrection of the earl of Argyll and the 
 duke of Monmouth. Execution of Argyll. Defeat of Mon- 
 mouth at Sedgemoor. Execution of Monmouth. "Bloody 
 assizes " of Jeffreys. 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., Oct. 22 
 (accompanied by terrible persecutions of the Huguenots, 
 known as dragonnades). 
 
 The buccaneers pillage the coast of Peru. 
 
 1686. James II. proceeds to restore Romanism in his dominions. 
 
 He establishes a camp at Hounslow Heath. 
 Louis XIV. and Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy wage a bloody 
 
 crusade against the Waldenses in Piedmont. 
 Buda is taken from the Turks. Successes of the Venetians in 
 
 the Morea. 
 Sir Edmund Andros is made governor of New England. 
 
 1687. James II. appoints Tyi'connel, a Catholic, lord deputy of Ire- 
 
 land. The king issues declarations for liberty of conscience. 
 Caraffa's " bloody tribunal " in Hungary. Leopold I. forces 
 the Hungarians to make their kingdom hereditary in the 
 Hapsburg family. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 87 
 
 1687. The duke of Lorraine defeats the Turks at Mohacs. Taking 
 
 of Athens by the Venetians. 
 Publication of Newton's "Principia," enunciating the law of 
 gravitation. 
 
 1688. James II. issues a fresh Declaration of Indulgence. Arrest of 
 
 the seven bishops for petitioning against it. The English 
 Revolution. William of Orange, invited by the malcon- 
 tents, lands with an army in England, Nov. 5, and pro- 
 ceeds to make himself master of the government. Flight 
 of James II. to France. 
 
 Louis XIV. makes war on Germany. The French take Phil- 
 ippsburg. Louis declares war against Holland. 
 
 Frederick III. succeeds his father, Frederick William, in 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 1689. William (III.) and Mary accept the Declaration of Rights, 
 
 and are proclaimed king and queen of England, Feb. 13. 
 Ireland rises for James II. , who lands there. AVilliam and 
 Mary are proclaimed in Scotland, April 11. James II. un- 
 successfully besieges Londonderry. England declares war 
 against France. Passage of the Toleration Act by Par- 
 liament ; Catholics not included. Victoiy of the Scottish 
 Jacobites at Killiecrankie ; their leader. Viscount Dundee, 
 killed. Parliament passes the Bill of Rights. 
 
 The French, at the instance of Louvois, lay waste the Pala- 
 tinate. Formation at Vienna of the Grand Alliance against 
 Louis XIV. Successes of the Germans on the Rhine. 
 
 Peter the Great baffles a conspiracy of the Strelitzes, excited 
 by his sister, Sophia, and takes the reins of power entirely 
 into his own hands. 
 
 Poi)e Alexander VIII. succeeds Innocent XI. 
 
 Overthrow of Andros in New England. Beginning of King 
 William's War in America (terrainated by the treaty of 
 Ryswick in 1697). Jacob Leisler's revolution in New 
 York. 
 
 1690. Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy joins the league against France. 
 
 Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over the allies at Fleurus. 
 The fleet of William III. is defeated off Beachy Head by 
 the French, under Tourville. The Orangemen win the bat- 
 tle of the Boyne, July 1 (new style, 11).* Successful cam- 
 paign of Catinat against Savoy. 
 
 * The anniversary of this event is celebrated July 12. 
 
88 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1690. Re-establisliment of Presbyterianism as the national church 
 
 system in Scotland. 
 
 Destruction of Schenectady by the French and Indians. Un- 
 successful expedition of Sir William Phips against Canada. 
 
 Publication of Locke's " Essay on the Human Understanding." 
 
 1691. The Jacobites overcome in Scotland. Defeat of the Irish at 
 
 Aghrim. Surrender of Limerick, the last stronghold of 
 
 James II. in Ireland. 
 Victory of Louis of Baden over the Turks at Salankamen. 
 Pope Innocent XII. succeeds Alexander VIII. 
 Execution of Jacob Leisler. 
 
 1692. Massacre of the MacDonalds at Glencoe, Feb. 13. i 
 
 The French fleet, under Tourville, is destroyed by the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch off La Hogue, May 19 (new style, 29). 
 Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over William III. at 
 Steenkerk, July 24 (new style, Aug. 3). 
 
 Erection of the dominions of the duke of Brunswick-Liine- 
 burg into the electorate of Hanover (the ninth electorate). 
 
 Union of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies. Witch- 
 craft delusion at Salem. 
 
 1693. The French admiral Tourville defeats the English fleet off 
 
 Cape St. Vincent. Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over 
 William III. at Neerwinden, July 19 (new style, 29). Cati- 
 nat defeats the army of Savoy at Marsaglia, Oct. 
 
 1694. Successes of the duke de Noailles in Spain. The English at- 
 
 tack the French coast. 
 
 Death of Queen Mary. The censorship of the press in Eng- 
 land ceases. Establishment of the Bank of England. 
 
 Death of Malpighi. 
 
 1695. Campaign of Villeroi against William HI. in the Netherlands. 
 Death of La Fontaine and of Huygens. 
 
 1696. Savoy makes peace with France. 
 Death of John Sobieski, king of Poland. 
 Peter the Great takes Azov from the Turks. 
 
 1697. Taking of Barcelona by the French. France makes peace at 
 
 Ryswick with Holland, Spain, and England, Sept. 21 (old 
 style, 11),* and with the German Empire, Oct. 30; the 
 recent French conquests surrendered; Charles IV., duke 
 of Lorraine, placed in possession of his dominions. 
 
 * The date that has passed into history is Sept. 20 (10). The plenipotentiaries 
 met on that day, but it was after midnight when the first of the treaties was signed. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 89 
 
 1697. Charles XII. succeeds his fathei', Charles XI., in Sweden. 
 Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is elected king of Poland 
 
 as Augustus II. 
 The forces of Leopold I., under Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
 annihilate the Turkish army at Zenta, Sept. 11. 
 
 1698. Treaty between Louis XIV. and William III. for the partition 
 
 of Spain on the death of Charles II. 
 Revolt of the Strelitzes in Russia. Russia and Turkey sign a 
 
 truce at Carlowitz, Dec. 
 Establishment of an English factory at Calcutta. 
 
 1699. Peace of Carlowitz between the Turks and Austria, Poland, 
 
 and Venice ; Hungary between the Danube and Theiss 
 given up by the Turks; Transylvania secured to Leopold 
 I. ; a large part of the Ukraine, lost by Poland in 1672, 
 restored to that. kingdom; the Morea ceded to Venice. 
 
 The French begin the settlement of Louisiana. 
 
 Death of Racine. 
 
 1700. Second Partition Treaty between Louis XIV. and William 
 
 III. 
 
 Charles II., the last of the Hapsburg dynasty in Spain, dies, 
 Nov. 1, after appointing as his successor Philip of Anjou, 
 grandson of Louis XIV., who is proclaimed at Fontaine- 
 bleau and Madrid as Philip V. (Bourbon djniasty in Spain). 
 The throne is claimed by the archduke Charles of Austria, 
 second son of Leopold I. 
 
 Russia, Poland, and Denmark enter into a joint war against 
 Sweden. Charles XII. attacks Copenhagen, and forces the 
 Danes to the peace of Travendal. He overwhelms the 
 army of Peter the Great at Narva, Nov. 30. 
 
 Pope Clement XL succeeds Innocent XII. 
 
 Foundation of the institution afterward named Yale College, 
 
 Death of Dryden. 
 
 1701. Passage of the Act of Settlement in England ; the crown to 
 
 pass, on the death without issue of William III.'s suc- 
 cessor, Anne (daughter of James II.), to Sophia, grand- 
 daughter of James L, electress dowager of Hanover. 
 Philip V. enters Madrid. Beginning of the War of the 
 Spanish Succession. Brilliant campaign of the Austrian 
 general. Prince Eugene of Savoy, in Italy. He defeats 
 Villeroi at Chiari, Sept. The emperor Leopold I. and 
 William III. of England and Holland form the Grand 
 Alliance against Louis XIV. and Philip V., who are sup- 
 
90 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1701. ported hj Savoy, some of the German states, and other 
 allies. 
 
 Death of James II. His son, James Edward (the first Pre- 
 tender), is recognized as his successor by Louis XIV. 
 
 Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, crowns himself king 
 of Prussia as Frederick I., Jan. 18. 
 
 Charles XII. defeats the Poles and Saxons. 
 
 1702. Death of "William III., March 8 (new style, 19); accession 
 
 of Queen Anne, daughter of James II. ; the grand-pension- 
 ary Hemsius conducts the affairs of the Netherlands ; the 
 succession to the possessions of the House of Orange dis- 
 puted. 
 
 Prince Eugene takes Villeroi prisoner at Cremona. He is 
 checked by Vendome. Successful campaign of Churchill 
 (Marlborough) in the Netherlands. Battle of Friedlingen 
 between Villains and Louis of Baden. Naval triumph of 
 the English and Dutch over the Spaniards and French at 
 Vigo. 
 
 Insurrection of the Camisards, or Protestant inhabitants of 
 the Cevennes. 
 
 Charles XII. enters Warsaw. He defeats the army of Augus- 
 tus II. at Kliszow. He enters Cracow. 
 
 Queen Anne's War in America (terminated by the treaty of 
 Utrecht in 1713). The French found a settlement on the 
 Mobile River, Alabama (transferred to the present site of 
 MobUe in 1711). 
 
 1703. The Dutch military engineer Coehorn reduces Bonn. Villars 
 
 crosses the Rhine, and vmites with the army of Maximilian 
 
 Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. The Bavarians invade Tyrol. 
 
 The French general Tallard is victorious on the Rhine. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II. in the alliance against France. 
 Francis Rakoczy excites an insurrection in Hungary against 
 
 Leopold I. 
 Charles XII. defeats the army of Augustus H. at Pultusk. 
 Foundation of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great. 
 
 1704. The Hungarian insurgent forces advance to the neighborhood 
 
 of Vienna. 
 
 Conquest of Gibraltar by the English. Victory of Marlborough 
 and Prince Eugene over the French general Tallard and the 
 elector of Bavaria at Hochstadt (battle of Blenheim), Aug. 13 
 (new style). Villars subdues the Camisards. 
 
 Charles XII, deprives Augustus II. of the crown of Poland, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 91 
 
 1704. and brings about the election of Stanislas Leszczynski. 
 Peter the Great takes Dorpat and Narva. 
 
 Massacre at Deerfleld, Massachusetts. 
 Death of Locke. 
 1704-1705. The French and Spaniards fail in an attempt to recon- 
 quer Gibraltar. 
 
 1705. Invasion of Spain by the earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudes- 
 
 ley Shovel. Battle of Cassano between Prince Eugene 
 and Vendome. Surrender of Barcelona to the English. 
 Joseph I. succeeds his father, Leopold I., in Germany and the 
 Austrian possessions, May 5. 
 
 1706. Barcelona is unsuccessfully besieged by the French and Span- 
 
 iards. Victory of Marlborough over the French, under 
 Villeroi, and the Bavarians at Eamillies, May 23 (new 
 style). Madrid is occupied for the archduke Charles, who 
 proclaims himself king there, but is soon forced to with- 
 draw. Victory of Prince Eugene at Turin. He occupies 
 Milan. 
 Charles XII. defeats the forces of Augustus II. at Fraustadt. 
 He occupies Saxony, and dictates the i^eace of Altrau- 
 stadt. 
 
 1707. Legislative union of England and Scotland. 
 
 Victory of the French general Berwick at Almanza, April 
 25 (old style, 14). Unsuccessful attack on Toulon by the 
 allies. Conquest of the kingdom of Naples by the Impe- 
 rialists. 
 
 Death of Vauban. 
 
 1708. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Oudenarde over 
 
 the dukes of Bui^gundy and Vendome, July 11 (new style). 
 Sir John Leake takes possession of Sardinia. Gallant de- 
 fense of Lille by Boufiers. Fall of that city. 
 Charles XII. invades Russia. 
 
 1709. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over Villars at 
 
 Malplaquet, Sept. 11 (new style). 
 
 Peter the Great annihilates the army of Charles XII. at Pol- 
 tava, July 8. Flight of Charles into Turkish territory. 
 Augustus II. recovers Poland. The Danes invade Swe- 
 den. 
 
 Suppression of the convent of Port Roj-al des Champs. 
 
 1710. Fall of Godolphin and the Whig ministry; Harley and Bo- 
 
 lingbi^oke come into power. 
 Victory of Starhemberg at Saragossa, Aug. The archduke 
 
92 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1710. Charles entere Madrid. He is forced to abandon the city, 
 which is re-entered by Philip. Battle of Villaviciosa be- 
 tween Vendome and Starhemberg, Dec. 10. 
 
 Stenbock exj)els the Danes from Sweden. 
 
 1711. Harley (earl of Oxford) is made lord high treasurer of Great 
 
 Britain. Marlborough, after further successes in Flanders, 
 is removed from his command. 
 
 Death of the emperor Joseph I. , April 17 ; his brother, Charles, 
 his successor in the Austrian possessions. Treaty of Szatmar 
 with the Hungarian insurgents. Charles is elected em- 
 peror of Germany (Charles VI.), Oct. 12; his rival, Philip 
 V. , firmly established on the throne of Spain. 
 
 The Turks, having taken up arms for Charles XII. , almost 
 achieve the ruin of Peter the Gi'eat, who is hemmed in at 
 the river Pruth. They make peace, and recover Azov and 
 other places. 
 
 Unsuccessful expedition of the English and New England 
 forces, under Walker, against Canada. 
 
 Addison publishes the "Spectator" (finally discontinued in 
 1714). 
 
 Publication of Pope's "Essay on Criticism." 
 
 Death of Boileau. 
 
 1712. Armistice between France and England. Campaign of Prince 
 
 Eugene in French Flanders. 
 War of Toggenburg (second Toggenburg War) between the 
 Catholic and Reformed cantons of Switzerland. 
 
 1713. The treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11, or, according to old 
 
 style, March 31 (acceded to by Spain some months later), 
 virtually terminates the War of the Spanish Succession. 
 France, Spain, England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and 
 Portugal make peace. (The struggle continued for a time 
 by France against Austria and the German Empire.) Philip 
 V. recognized as king of Spain ; the Spanish Netherlands, 
 Naples, the Milanese, and Sardinia awarded to Austria (see 
 1714) ; Acadia (Nova Scotia, &c.) ceded to England by 
 France (which also restores the Hudson Bay region) ; the 
 sole sovereignty over Newfoundland secured to England ; 
 Gibraltar and Minorca ceded to England by Spain ; Sicily 
 ceded by Spain to Savoy ; Neufchatel secured to Prussia. 
 
 Frederick William I. succeeds his father, Frederick I., in 
 Prussia, Feb. 25. 
 
 Charles VI. issues the Pragmatic Sanction to secure the sue- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 93 
 
 1713. cession in his liereditaiy dominions to the female line in 
 default of male issue. 
 
 The Swedish general Stenhock surrenders at Tonningen to 
 
 the Danish, Saxon, and Russian forces. 
 Condemnation of Jansenism by Clement XI. 
 The power of the Tuscaroras is broken by the Carolinians. 
 
 1714. George I., elector of Hanover, succeeds Queen Anne in Great 
 
 Britain, Aug. 1. 
 
 Treaty of Eastadt between Austria and France, March, fol- 
 lowed by the treaty of Baden (in Aargau) between the Ger- 
 man Empire and France; the Spanish Netherlands, Na- 
 ples, the Milanese, and Sardinia secured to Austria, which 
 recovers Freiburg and Breisach; Landau retroceded to 
 France. 
 
 The French and Spanish forces take Barcelona, which is de- 
 prived of its liberties. Marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth 
 Farnese. 
 
 Charles XII. returns to his kingdom. 
 
 1715. Impeachment of Oxford and Bolingbroke. Rebellion in 
 
 Scotland and the north of England in favor of James 
 Edward Stuart. Formation of the Walpole ministry. 
 Overthrow of the Jacobites. 
 
 Louis XV. succeeds his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., Sept. 
 1 ; the duke of Orleans regent. 
 
 Barrier Treaty between Austria, Holland, and England, giv- 
 ing the Dutch the right to garrison certain places in the 
 Austrian Netherlands. 
 
 Frederick William I. declares war against Sweden. He takes 
 Sti'alsund, Dec. 
 
 The Turks reconquer the Morea from the Venetians. 
 
 Death of Fenelon. ^ 
 
 1716. Passage of the Septennial Act by Parliament, fixing the limit 
 
 of the duration of a Parliament at seven years. 
 John Law establishes his bank in Paris. 
 Charles XII. unsuccessfully invades Norway. 
 Austria makes war on Turkey. Victory of Prince Eugene 
 
 at Peterwardein, Aug. 5. 
 Death of Leibnitz. 
 
 1717. Triple alliance between France, Great Britain, and Holland. 
 Dismissal of Walpole. 
 
 Philip V. of Spain, at the instigation of Alberoni, occupies 
 Sardijiia. 
 
94 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1717. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Belgrade, Aug. 16, and 
 
 enters that city, Aug. 18. 
 
 1718. The Spaniards invade Sicily. Quadruple alliance between 
 
 Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland against Spain. 
 Defeat of the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. 
 
 Peace of Passarowitz between Turkey, Austria, and Venice, 
 July 21 ; Turkey cedes the Banat, part of Servia, with Bel- 
 grade, and parts of Bosnia and Wallachia to Charles VI. ; 
 she retains the Morea. 
 
 Charles XII. attempts the conquest of NorT\^ay, and is killed 
 while besieging Frederikshald, Dec. 11. His sister, Ulrica 
 Eleonora, is declared his successor. 
 
 French settlement at New Orleans. 
 
 1719. The French forces, under Berwick, attack Spain. Philip V. 
 
 dismisses his minister Alberoni. 
 Execution of the Swedish prime-minister Gortz. Treaty be- 
 tween Sweden and George I. ; the duchies of Bremen and 
 Verden ceded to Hanover (having been already a few 
 years in her possession). 
 
 1720. The South Sea Company assumes the discharge of the British 
 
 national debt. Bvirsting of the South Sea Bubble. 
 
 Failure of Law's Mississippi Scheme in France. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy cedes Sicily to Austria in ex- 
 change for Sardinia. The dominions of Savoy become the 
 kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 Treaty of Stockholm between Sweden and Prussia; Sweden 
 cedes a great part of Hither Pomerania. Ulrica Eleonora 
 gives over the government of Sweden to her husband, 
 Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 1721. Walj)ole again iirime-minister. 
 Financial bankruptcy in France. 
 
 Treaty of Nystad between Sweden and Russia ; Livonia, Es- 
 
 thonia, Ingria, and Karelia secured to Russia. 
 Pope Innocent XIII. succeeds Clement XI. 
 
 1722. Discovery of a Jacobite plot against George I. 
 Peter the Great makes war on Persia. 
 
 Establishment of the Moravian settlement at Herrnhut under 
 the auspices of Count Zinzendorf . 
 
 1723. Death of the regent Orleans. 
 
 Peter the Great secures large territories from Persia. 
 
 1724. Formal publication of the Pragmatic Sanction by Charles 
 
 VI. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 95 
 
 1724. Philip V. resigns the government of Spain in favor of his 
 
 son, Luis, but resumes it on the latter's death. 
 Pope Benedict XIII. succeeds Innocent XIII. 
 
 1725. Signing of a treaty of alliance at Vienna between Austria 
 
 and Spain. England, France, and Prussia form a counter 
 alliance in the Hanover Treaty. 
 Peter the Great is succeeded by his wife, Catharine I. 
 
 1726. Fleury assumes the conduct of afPaire in France. 
 Accession of Russia to the Vienna alliance. Treaty of Wus- 
 
 terhausen between Prussia and Austria. 
 
 1727. Gibraltar is unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. 
 George II. succeeds his father, George I., June 11 (new style, 
 
 22). 
 Death of Catharine I. of Russia. Accession of Peter II., 
 
 grandson of Peter the Great. 
 Death of Isaac Newton. 
 
 1728. A congress of the Great Powers assembles at Soissons. 
 Behring disco vei-s the strait connecting the Arctic with the 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 1729. Treaty of Seville between Spain, Great Britain, and France. 
 Corsica rebels against Genoa. 
 
 Carolina is purchased by the crown. (Two royal provinces 
 constituted, North and South Carolina.*) 
 
 1730. Peter II. of Russia is succeeded by Anne, niece of Peter I. 
 Pope Clement XII. succeeds Benedict XIII. 
 
 Laying out of Baltimore. 
 
 1731. Parma and Piacenza, on the extinction of the male line of 
 
 the Farnese family, are conferred vipon Don Carlos, son of 
 Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese. 
 Death of Defoe. 
 1731-1732. Expulsion of the Protestants from Salzburg. 
 
 1732. Oglethorpe embarks from England wdth a party of colonists 
 
 to found a settlement in Georgia. 
 
 1733. Death of Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, 
 
 Feb. 1. His son, Frederick Augustus II. , succeeds m Saxony. 
 The Poles elect (Sept.) their former king, Stanislas Lesz- 
 czynski, who is supported by his son-in-law, Louis XV. of 
 France, seconded by Spain and Sardinia. A fraction of 
 the Polish nobility, backed by a Russian army, and sup- 
 ported also by Austria, elects Frederick Augustus II. of 
 
 * Under tlie proprietorship there had been two separate governments for the region. 
 
96 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1733. Saxony (as king of Poland Augustus III.), Oct. Stanislas 
 is exx^ellecl. Beginning of the so-called War of the Polish 
 Succession. The French occupy Lorraine, and take Kehl. 
 Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia and the French invade 
 Lombardy. Occupation of Milan. 
 
 Oglethorj)e founds Savannah. 
 
 1734. Campaign of the Austrians against France and Sardinia in 
 
 northern Italy. Don Carlos, son of Philip V., undertakes 
 the conquest of the Two Sicilies. He enters Naples, and 
 proclaims himself king. The Austrian army is vanquished 
 at Bitonto, May 25. Fall of Capua, Nov. 
 The French forces, under Berwick, lay siege to Philippsburg ; 
 Berwick is killed. Fall of that fortress. 
 
 1735. Don Carlos completes the conquest of Sicily, and is crowned 
 
 king of the Two Sicilies as Charles III. (Bourbon dynasty). 
 
 Preliminary ti-eaty of Vienna ; Augustus III. acknowledged 
 king of Poland ; Stanislas Leszczynski to succeed Francis 
 Stephen * in the duchy of Lorraine on the extinction of the 
 Medici Ime in Tuscany, that grand-duchy to be allotted in 
 exchange to Francis Stephen ; Loi-raine to fall to France 
 on the death of Stanislas ; Charles III. to retain the Two 
 Sicilies ; Parma and Piacenza to be ceded to Austria. 
 
 Publication of the ' ' Systema Naturae " of Linnaeus. 
 
 1736. The Russians make war on Turkey, and take Azov. 
 
 End of the Suffavean (Sofi) dynasty in Persia; Nadir Shah 
 (Kuli Khan) placed on the throne. 
 
 1737. Stanislas Leszczynski succeeds Francis Stephen in Lorraine. 
 Extinction of the Medici dynasty in Tuscany ; Francis Stephen 
 
 grand-duke. 
 Charles YI. makes war on Turkey. 
 Opening of the University of Gottingen, founded by George 
 
 II. 
 
 1738. Definitive treaty of Vienna between Charles VI. and France, 
 
 Nov. (Acceded to by Sardinia and Sixain in 1739.) 
 Nadu' Shah conquers Afghanistan. 
 Death of Boerhaave. 
 
 1739. England declares war against Spain. Taking of Porto Bello 
 
 by Admiral Vernon. 
 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and the Turks, who re- 
 cover Belgrade and adjoining Servian territories, &c. 
 
 * Afterward emperor of Germaay as Francis I. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 97 
 
 1739. The Russians, aftei* a victorious advance under Mlinnich, 
 
 make peace with Turkey. 
 Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, overthrows the power of the 
 
 Great Mo^l, and enters Delhi. He replaces the Great 
 
 Mogul on his throne. 
 Publication of Hume's " Treatise of Human Nature." 
 
 1740. Frederick II., the Great, succeeds his father, Frederick Will- 
 
 iam I., May 31. 
 
 Death of Charles VI., Oct. 20. His daughter, Maria Theresa, 
 succeeds in his hereditary dominions. The succession is 
 disputed by Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, and Au- 
 gustus III. of Poland and Saxony. Spain claims a part of 
 the Austrian dominions. Frederick the Great demands the 
 cession of Silesia, and invades that province, Dec. Begin- 
 ning of the War of the Austrian Succession. 
 
 Death of the empress Anne of Russia. Her grand-nephew, 
 the infant Ivan VI., succeeds under the regency of Biron. 
 
 Pope Benedict XIV. succeeds Clement XII. 
 
 Nadir Shah conquers the rulers of Bokhara and Khiva. 
 
 1741. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at Moll- 
 
 witz, April 10. France takes up arms for the elector 
 Charles Albert, and concludes an alliance with him and 
 Spain at Njonphenburg, May. Alliance between England 
 and Austria. Charles Albert invades the Austrian do- 
 minions. Maria Theresa appeals to the Hungarian Diet at 
 Presburg. Bohemia overrun by the Bavarian, French, and 
 Saxon armies. Fall of Prague, Nov. 26. 
 
 War between Sweden and Russia. 
 
 Deposition of the infant czar, Ivan VI. Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Peter the Great, is proclaimed his successor. 
 
 Vernon unsuccessfully attacks Cartagena, New Granada. 
 
 New Hampshire is finally separated from Massachusetts. 
 
 1742. Fall of the Walpole ministry, Feb. Formation of the Wil- 
 
 mington ministiy. 
 
 Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, is chosen emperor of Ger- 
 many (Charles VII.), Jan. 24. Invasion of Bavaria by the 
 Austrians. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Aus- 
 trians at Chotusitz, May 17. Treaty of Breslau; Avistria 
 cedes most of Silesia to Prussia. Retreat of the French, 
 under Belleisle, from Prague. 
 
 Dupleix is made governor of the French possessions in India. 
 
 1743. Death of Cardmal Fleury. 
 
98 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1743. The Austrians occupy Bavaria. The English, under George 
 
 II., defeat the French, under Noailles, at Dettingen, June 
 27 (old style, 16). The Wilmington ministry is succeeded 
 by that tinder Pelham. Saxony and Sardinia join the Aus- 
 trian alliance. 
 Treaty of Abo between Eussia and Sweden. 
 
 1744. Defeat of the English fleet before Toulon. Successes of the 
 
 French in the Austi-ian Netherlands. Charles III. of 
 Naples, after having been forced into neutrality by the 
 English in 1742, again takes up arms against Austria, and 
 is victorious at Velletri. Frederick II. invades Bohemia 
 (Second Silesian War). Victory of the French and Span- 
 iards over Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia near Coni. 
 
 Beginning of Kmg George's War in America (terminated by 
 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748). 
 
 Death of Pope. 
 
 1745. Scotland rises for the Young Pretender, Charles Edward. He 
 
 is victorious at Prestonpans, Sept. 21, and advances into 
 the heart of England, but is forced to retreat. 
 
 Death of the eipperor Charles VII., Jan. 20. His successor 
 in Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, makes peace with Maria 
 Theresa. Victory of the French, under Marshal Saxe, over 
 the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, under 
 the duke of Cumberland, at Fontenoy, May 11 (old style, 
 April 30). Victory of Frederick the Great at Hohenfried- 
 berg, June 4. Francis Stephen, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 husband of Maria Theresa, is elected emperor of Germany 
 (Francis I.), Sept. 13. The Prussians, under Leopold of 
 Dessau, defeat the Saxons at Kesselsdorf, Dec. 15. Treaty 
 of Dresden between Austria, Saxony, and Prussia ; end of 
 the Second Silesian War. 
 
 The Italian possessions of Austria occupied by her enemies. 
 
 The British colonists of America, under Sir William Pepperell, 
 seconded by a British fleet under Warren, reduce Louis- 
 burg, June 17. (The place restored to France in 1748.) 
 
 Death of Swift. 
 1745 {about). Rise of the sect of the Wahabees. 
 
 1746. Victory of Charles Edward at Falkirk, Jan. He is over- 
 
 thrown at Culloden by the duke of Cumberland, April 16 
 (new style, 27). 
 Successful campaign of the Austrians in Italy. They occupy 
 Genoa, the republic having joined the anti-Austrian 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 99 
 
 1746. league, but are soon expelled. Mai-shal Saxe, after reducing 
 the principal towns of the Austrian Netherlands, defeats 
 the allied army, under Charles of Lorraine, in the battle of 
 Raucoux, Oct. 11. 
 
 Ferdinand VI. succeeds his father, Philip V., in Spain, 
 
 July 9. 
 Labourdonnais takes Madras. 
 
 1747. Genoa is unsuccessfully invested by the Austrians and Sar- 
 
 dinians. Naval victory of the English, under Admiral An- 
 son, over the French off Cape Finisterre. Mai'shal Saxe 
 defeats the duke of Cumberland at Lawfeld, July 2 (new 
 style). The French take Bergen-op-Zoom. Admiral Ha wke 
 defeats the French fleet off Belle-Isle. The Empress Eliza- 
 beth of Russia sets an army on foot for the support of 
 Maria Theresa. 
 
 Briihl becomes prime minister in Saxony. 
 
 Death of Le Sage. 
 
 1748. Maestricht is taken by Marshal Saxe. The peace of Aix-la- 
 
 Chapelle, Oct. 18 (old style, 7), terminates the War of the 
 Austrian Succession ; the basis of settlement being the 
 mutual restitution of conquests, but not in regard to Aus- 
 tria, which, besides confirming Silesia to Frederick the 
 Great, cedes Parma and Piacenza, as well as Guastalla 
 (taken possession of by Austria on the extinction of the 
 ducal line in 1746), to Don Philip, brother of Ferdinand 
 VI. of Spain. 
 
 Successful defence of Pondicherry by Dupleix against Bos- 
 cawen and Lawrence. 
 
 Publication of Montesquieu's "Esprit des lois." 
 
 Death of Thomson. 
 
 1749. The Ohio Company receives its grant from George II. 
 Publication of Fielding's " Tom Jones " and of the first part 
 
 of Buffon's " Histoire naturelle." 
 
 1750. Death of Muratori and of J. S. Bach. 
 
 1751. Adolphus Frederick, of the house of Holstein-Eutin, succeeds 
 
 Frederick in Sweden. 
 Clive takes Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. 
 The publication of the EncyclopecUe is begun by Diderot and 
 
 D'Alembert. 
 
 1752. The reform of the calendar goes into effect in Great Britain. 
 The identity of lightning with electricity is fully demon- 
 
 sti'ated by Franklin. 
 8 
 
100 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1753. Kaunitz is appointed chancellor by Maria Theresa. 
 Foundation of the British Museum. 
 
 Death of Berkeley. 
 
 1754. Death of Sir Henry Pelham, March. Formation of the New- 
 
 castle ministry. 
 Beginning of the French and Indian War in America. 
 Death of Fielding. 
 
 1755. Great earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. 1. 
 
 Unsuccessful British expedition against Fort Duquesne. Brad- 
 dock is overwhelmed on the banks of the Monongahela, 
 July 9. Washington conducts the retreat. Abortive ex- 
 pedition against the French forts of Niagara and Frontenac. 
 Expedition of William Johnson against Crown Point. En- 
 gagement between his forces and those of Dieskau on the 
 shores of Lake George, Sept. 8; repulse of the French. 
 Johnson abandons the attempt to reduce Crown Point. 
 — Dispersion of the French colonists of Acadia. 
 
 Death of Montesquieu. 
 
 1756. Defensive treaty between England and Prussia. — The French 
 
 attack Minorca ; Admiral Byng is defeated off that island, 
 May ; it surrenders, June. — Treaty of alliance between 
 France and Austria against Frederick the Great, con- 
 cluded at Versailles, May. Beginning of the Seven Years' 
 War between Austria, the German Empire, France (joined 
 toward the close of the contest by Spain), Saxony, Russia, 
 and Sweden, on the one side, and Prussia, England, Han- 
 over, and a few of the smaller German states (also Portu- 
 gal at the close of the contest), on the other. Fi'ederick 
 the Great invades Saxony, Aug. He entere Bohemia, and 
 defeats the Austrians, under Browne, at Lowositz, Oct. 1. 
 Surrender of the Saxon army, Oct. 
 
 Resignation of the British premier, the duke of Newcastle, 
 Nov. William Pitt is appointed secretary of state, Dec. 
 
 Surajah Dowlah, the subahdar of Bengal, takes Calcutta, and 
 throws the English prisoners into the Black Hole. 
 
 The forces of Montcalm take Fort Oswego. 
 
 Publication of Voltaire's "Essai sur les moeurs et I'esprit des 
 nations." 
 
 1757. The German Diet levies an army against Frederick the Great. 
 
 France and Sweden declare war against Prussia. Fred- 
 erick defeats the Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine and 
 Browne, at Prague, May 6. He besieges that city. His 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Id 
 
 1757. army is overwhelmed by the Austrians, under Daun, at 
 Kolin, June 18. East Prussia is overrun by a Russian 
 army. Victory of the French, under D'Estrees, at Hastem- 
 beck, July 26, over the duke of Cumberland, who, in Sept. , 
 is forced to conclude the convention of Kloster-Zeven. 
 The Russians, under Apraxin, defeat the Prussian general 
 Lehwald at Grossjagerndorf, Aug. 30. Victory of Fred- 
 erick over the French and Imperialists, under Soubise, at 
 Rossbach, Nov. 5. The Austrians, after occupying Silesia, 
 are defeated at Leuthen, Dec. 5. 
 
 Resignation of Pitt, April. Formation of the Newcastle and 
 Pitt ministry, June ; Pitt at the head of the administra- 
 tion as secretary of state. 
 
 Clive retakes Calcutta and defeats Surajah Dowlah at Plas- 
 sey, June 23. 
 
 Montcalm takes Fort William Henry. 
 
 1758. Ferdinand of Brunswick expels the French from Hanover, 
 
 and defeats them at Crefeld, June 23. Frederick the Great 
 defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug. 25. He is defeated 
 by Daun at Hochkirchen, Oct. 14. 
 
 Pope Clement XIII. succeeds Benedict XIV. 
 
 The French, under Lally, take Arcot, and lay siege to Mad- 
 ras. (The siege raised in 1759.) 
 
 Victory of Montcalm over Abercrombie at Ticonderoga, July 
 8. Amherst and Boscawen reduce Louisburg ; it is occupied, 
 July 27. The French lose Forts Frontenac and Duquesne. 
 
 Death of Jonathan Edwards. 
 
 1759. Victory of Ferdinand of Brunswick over the French at Min- 
 
 den, Aug. 1. The Russians and Austrians, under Soltikoff 
 and Laudon, annihilate the army of Frederick the Great 
 at Kunersdorf, Aug. 12. Naval victory of the English, 
 under Boscawen, over the French in the Bay of Lagos, 
 Aug. Admiral Hawke defeats Conflans in the Bay of 
 Quiberon, Nov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrenders 
 at Maxen, Nov. 21. 
 
 Charles III. succeeds his brother, Ferdinand VI. , in Spain. 
 Ferdinand IV., son of Charles III., becomes king of the 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 King Joseph of Portugal, under the guidance of his minister 
 Pombal, expels the Jesuits. 
 
 The English take Guadeloupe from the French. (It is re- 
 stored in 1763.) 
 
102 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1759. The French abandon Ticonderoga and Crown Point. They 
 
 lose Fort Niagara. Successful invasion of Canada by 
 Wolfe. Battle on the Plains of Abraham, Sept. 13 ; Wolfe 
 and Montcalm fall. Surrender of Quebec. 
 Death of Handel. 
 
 1760. Victory of Marshal Broglie at Corbach, July. Frederick the 
 
 Great defeats Laudon at Liegnitz, Aug. Occupation of 
 Berlin (for a few days) by the Russians and Austrians, Oct. 
 Frederick is victorious over Daun at Tor'gau, Nov. 3. 
 
 George III. succeeds his gi-andf atlier, George II. , Oct. 25. 
 
 Fall of Montreal ; the British masters of Canada. 
 
 1761. The English take the island of Belle-Isle. The Family Com- 
 
 pact, an alliance of the Bourbon crowns, is negotiated by 
 Choiseul, Aug. Frederick the Great confronts the Rus- 
 sians, under Buturlin, and the Austrians, under Laudon, 
 in his fortified camp at Bunzelwitz, Aug. -Sept. Storming 
 of Schweidnitz by Laudon, Oct. 1. Surrender of Kolberg 
 to the Russians, Dec. 
 
 Surrender of Pondicherry to the English, Jan. (The place 
 restored to the French in the peace of 1763.) 
 
 Pitt resigns the office of secretary of state, Oct. 
 
 The Mahrattas are overwhelmed by the Afghans, under 
 Ahmed Shah, at Paniput, Jan. 
 
 Death of Richardson. 
 
 1762. England declares war against Spain, Jan. Death of the 
 
 Empress Elizabeth of Russia, Jan. 5. She is succeeded by 
 Peter III. , of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, who goes over 
 to the side of Frederick the Great. The English conquer 
 Martinique from the French. (It is restored in 1763.) The 
 Spaniards invade Portugal. Sweden withdraws from the 
 war against Frederick. Peter III. is deposed by his wife, 
 Catharine II., who usui'ps the throne, July 9. Peter is 
 strangled, July 17. Victory of Frederick at Burkei-sdorf, 
 July 21. The English reduce Havana, Aug. Henry, 
 brother of Frederick, is victorious at Freiberg, Oct. Pre- 
 liminaries of peace between England, France, Spain, and 
 Portugal are signed at Fontainebleau, Nov. 3. 
 
 Newcastle is succeeded by Bute as head of the English min- 
 istry. May. 
 
 Publication of Rousseau's " Contrat social." 
 
 1763. Peace of Paris between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 
 gal, Feb. 10 : Canada, together with Prince Edward Island 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 103 
 
 1763. and Cape Breton, the region east of the Mississippi hitherto 
 claimed by France, and the islands of Dominica, St. Vin- 
 cent, and Tobago (the last previously neutral territory), 
 ceded by France to England ; Florida ceded to England 
 by Spain, which receives Louisiana from France ; Minorca 
 restored to England ; Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Pon- 
 dicherry restored to France, which receives Santa Lucia ; 
 the French settlements on the Senegal ceded to England ; 
 Goree restored to France. 
 
 Peace of Hubertsburg between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, 
 Feb. 15; Silesia finally confirmed to Frederick the Great; 
 end of the Seven Years' War. 
 
 The Bute administration is succeeded by that of Grenville. 
 Beginning of the pereecutions of John Wilkes by the Gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Death of Augustus III. of Poland and Saxony. 
 
 Pontiac's War ; the Indians unsuccessfully besiege the Eng- 
 lish fort at Detroit. 
 
 1764. Louis XV., under the guidance of Choiseul, suppresses the 
 
 order of Jesuits in France. Death of Madame de Pompa- 
 dour. 
 
 Catharine II. of Russia secures the election of Stanislas 
 Poniatowski as king of Poland. 
 
 Publication of Beccaria's "Trattato dei delitti e delle pene." 
 
 Settlement of St. Louis by the French. 
 
 Death of Hogarth. 
 
 1765. Passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament. The Eockingham 
 
 ministry succeeds that of Grenville. 
 
 The first colonial congress is held at New York. 
 
 Joseph n. succeeds his father, Francis L, as emperor of Ger- 
 many, Aug. 18. 
 
 The Mogul emperor formally cedes Bengal, Behar, and Orissa 
 to the English East India Company. 
 
 Death of Edward Young. 
 
 1766. Rei)eal of the Stamp Act. Fall of the Rockingham ministry ; 
 
 Pitt premier. 
 Death of Stanislas Leszczynski ; Lorraine is united with 
 
 France. 
 Publication of Lessing's ' ' Laocoon" and of Goldsmith's * ' Vicar 
 
 of Wakefield." 
 
 1767. The British Pai'liament imposes duties on paper, glass, tea., 
 
 etc., imported into America. 
 
104 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1767. Charles III. of Spain, with the advice of his minister Aranda, 
 
 orders the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
 First war between the English and Hyder Ali, rajah of 
 
 Mysore. (Peace made in 1769.) 
 Hargi'eaves invents the spinning jenny. 
 
 1768. Riots on the occasion of the imprisonment of John Wilkes. 
 
 Retirement of Pitt from the British administration ; Graf- 
 ton at the head of the ministiy. 
 
 The British station a military force in Boston. 
 
 The Polish patriots form the Confederation of Bar to resist the 
 designs of Russia. Turkey declares war against Russia. 
 
 Revolt of Ali Bey against the Porte in Egypt. 
 
 Corsica is made over to France by Genoa. 
 
 Cook sails on his fix'st voyage around the world. (He returns 
 in 1771.) 
 
 James Bruce sets out on his travels for the discovery of the 
 sources of the Nile. 
 
 Death of Sterne and of Winckelmann. 
 
 1769. Appearance of the Letters of Junius. 
 
 Defeat of Paoli and subjection of Corsica by the French. 
 Victorious advance of the Russians through Moldavia. 
 Pope Clement XIV. succeeds Clement XIII. 
 Watt obtains his first patent for an improvement in the 
 
 steam engine. 
 Arlcwright patents his spinning frame. 
 Death of Gellert. 
 
 1770. The Grafton ministry is succeeded by that of Lord North, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 The Boston massacre, March 5. 
 
 Successes of the Russians in Wallachia. The Russian fleet, 
 under OrlofP and Elphinstone, defeats the Turkish fleet at 
 Scio. Elphinstone burns the Turkish fleet at Tchesme, 
 July. The Russian general Rumiantzeff defeats the Tar- 
 tar khan of the Crimea, the vassal of the Porte, on the 
 Pruth. He defeats the Turks on the Kagul. The Rus- 
 sians, under Panin, storm Bender, Sept. 
 
 Christian VII. of Denmark dismisses his minister Bernstorff. 
 Struensee succeeds to his power. 
 
 1771. The Russian general Dolgoruki storms the lines of Perekop, 
 
 and occupies the Crimea. 
 Gustavus HI. succeeds his father, Adolphus Frederick, in 
 Sweden. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 105 
 
 1771. Death of Gray and of Smollett. 
 
 1772. First partition of Poland, between Catharine II., Maria The- 
 
 resa, and Frederick the Great. Russia appropriates a con- 
 siderable region on the Diina and the upper Dnieper; Prus- 
 sia takes Polish or regal Prussia* (Thorn and Dantzic 
 excepted) and adjoining territories; an extensive region 
 bordermg on Hungary is annexed to the Austrian domin- 
 ions and constituted into the kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- 
 meria . Stanislas Poniatowski remains king of the remainder 
 of Poland, including Warsaw. 
 
 Stnaensee, after virtually ruling Denmark, dies on the scaffold. 
 
 Warren Hastings is appointed president of the supreme coun- 
 cil of Bengal. 
 
 Death of Swedenborg. 
 
 1773. Tea thrown overboard at Boston, Dec. 16. 
 
 Clement XIV. pronounces the dissolution of the Jesuit order. 
 
 Advance of the Russians through Bulgaria. They fail before 
 Silistria and Varna. The Cossack PugatchefF (a pseudo 
 Peter III.) raises a rebellion against Catharine II. 
 
 Fall of Ali Bey. 
 
 Oldenburg is given over by Denmark to the house of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. 
 
 1774. Parliament passes the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of 
 
 that city. The fu-st Continental Congress meets at Phila- 
 delphia, Sept. 5. 
 
 Louis XVI. succeeds his grandfather, Louis XV., May 10; 
 Maurepas his minister of state, Turgot minister of finance. 
 
 Siege of Shumla by the Russians. They conclude peace with 
 Turkey at Kutchuk-Kainarji ; Turkey renounces her suzer- 
 ainty over the Crimea and other Tartar territories. 
 
 Death of Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 Warren Hastings becomes the first governor-general of India. 
 
 Discovery of oxygen by Priestley. 
 
 Death of Goldsmith. 
 
 1775. Beginning of the American Revolution. Battle of Lexington, 
 
 April 19. The second Continental Congress assembles at 
 Philadelphia, May 10. Ethan Allen seizes Ticonderoga, 
 May 10. Occupation of Crown Point, May 12. Mecklen- 
 burg (N. C.) declaration of independence. May. Washing- 
 ton is appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental 
 
 * Now included in West Prussia and Ermeland. 
 
106 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1775. forces, June 15. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. Wash- 
 ington conducts the siege of Boston. The Americans take 
 Montreal, Nov. Unsuccessful assault on Quebec, Dec. 31 ; 
 Montgomery killed. — Settlement of Kentucky by Daniel 
 Boone and others. 
 
 Execution of Pugatcheff . 
 Election of Pope Pius VI. 
 
 1776. General Howe evacuates Boston, March 17. Colonel Moultrie 
 
 repulses the British at Charleston, June 28. The Conti- 
 nental Congress adopts the Declai'ation of Independence 
 July 4. The British, under Howe and Clinton, defeat the 
 Americans, under Putnam and Sullivan, in the battle of 
 Long Island, Aug. 27. The British occupy New York, 
 Sept. 15. The forces of Howe defeat the Americans at 
 White Plains, Oct. 28. The British take Fort Washing- 
 ton, Nov. 16. Washington surprises the Hessians at Tren- 
 ton, Dec. 26. 
 
 Publication of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" and of 
 the fii'st volume of Gibbon's ' ' Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
 man Empu'e." 
 
 Death of Hume. 
 
 1777. Victory of Washington at Princeton, Jan. 3. The British 
 
 general Tryon burns Danbury, April. Burgoyne takes 
 Ticonderoga, July. Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 
 16. Defeat of Washington by Howe in the battle of Bran- 
 dywine, Sept. 11 ; Lafayette wounded. Battle of Stillwater 
 between Burgoyne and Gates, Sept. 19. The British enter 
 Philadelphia, Sept. 26. Repulse of Washington at German- 
 town, Oct. 4. Battle of Saratoga (second battle of Still- 
 water) between Burgoyne and Gates, Oct. 7. Surrender of 
 Burgoyne at Saratoga, Oct. 17. Congress adopts the Arti- 
 cles of Confederation, Nov. 15. Washington establishes his 
 winter-quarters at Valley Forge, Dec. 
 
 Louis XVI. appoints Necker minister of finance. 
 
 Annexation of Bukowina to Austria. 
 
 Death of Maximilian Jose]Dh, elector of Bavaria, w^ithout direct 
 heii's, Dec. 
 
 1778. France recognizes the independence of the United States, Jan. 
 
 She concludes a treaty of amity and commerce with their 
 commissioners, Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, Feb. 
 6. Death of Pitt, May 11. The British evacuate Philadel- 
 phia, June. Engagement between Washmgton and Clinton 
 
CHROXOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 107 
 
 1773, at Monmouth, June 28. The French fleet, under D'Estaing, 
 entei"s Delaware Bay, July. France declares war against 
 England, July 10. Massacre of Wyoming, July. Battle 
 of Rhode Island between Sullivan and Pigot, Aug. 29. The 
 British enter Savannah, Dec. 29. 
 
 Beginning of the contest known as the War of the Bavarian 
 Succession. Austria attempts to enforce her pretensions to 
 a portion of the Bavarian territories, while upholding the 
 lawful claimant to the throne, Charles Theodore, elector 
 palatine, and is opposed by Prussia. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are rediscovered by Cook. 
 
 Death of Linnaeus, of Voltaire, and of Rousseau. 
 
 1779. Victory of the British, under Prevost, at Brier Creek, March 
 
 3. The Americans, under Wayne, storm Stony Point, July 
 16. Victory of Paul Jones off Flamborough Head, Sept. 23. 
 The British repulse an assault on Savannah, Oct. 9. 
 
 Spain declares war against England, June 16. The Spanish 
 and French fleets undertake the blockade of Gibraltar. 
 
 The treaty of Teschen closes the War of the Bavarian Succes- 
 sion ; Charles Theodore recognized as ruler ; the Palatinate 
 of the Rhine united with Bavaria. 
 
 Death of Garrick. 
 
 1780. Surrender of Lincoln at Charleston to Clinton, May 12. De- 
 
 feat of Gates by Cornwallis in the first battle of Camden, 
 Aug. 16. Arnold makes an agreement to deliver West 
 Point to the British, Sept. Execution of Major Andre, 
 Oct. 2. Defeat of the British at King's Mountain, Oct. 7. 
 
 Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Jan. 
 
 Gordon (''no popery") riots in London, June. 
 
 England declares war against Holland, Dec. 
 
 Death of Maria Theresa, Nov. 29. Her son, the emperor 
 Joseph II., succeeds in her hereditary dominions. He un- 
 dertakes a complete reform in his states. 
 
 Outbreak of a new war between Hyder Ali and the English. 
 
 1781. Victory of the Americans, under Morgan, over the British, 
 
 under Tarleton, at Cowpens, Jan. 17. The ratification of 
 the Articles of Confederation by the states of the Union 
 completed, March 1. Defeat of Greene by Cornwallis at 
 Guilford Court House, March 15. Rawdon is victorious 
 over Greene at Hobkii-k's Hill (second battle of Camden), 
 April 25. Arnold takes New London and Fort Griswold, 
 and bui'ns New London, Sept. Battle of Eutaw Springs be- 
 
108 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1781. tween Greene and Stuart, Sept. 8. Washington and Ro- 
 clianibeau, aided by a fleet under De Grasse, besiege Corn- 
 wallis in Yorktown, Oct. Surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 19. 
 
 Bombardment of Gibraltar by the Spanish vessels, April- 
 Nov. Naval action between the English and Dutch off 
 Doggerbank, Aug. 5. 
 
 Resignation of Necker, May. 
 
 Joseph II. issues an edict of toleration. 
 
 Discovery of Uranus by Herschel. 
 
 Publication of Kant's " Kritik der rein en Vernunft" and of 
 the first of Schiller's dramas, " Die Rauber." 
 
 Death of Lessing. 
 
 1782. Fall of the North ministry, March. The second Rockingham 
 
 administration follows, succeeded, in July, by the Shelburne 
 ministry. Victory of Admiral Rodney over De Grasse in 
 the Antilles, April 12. The British evacuate Savannah, 
 July. Great cannonade of Gibraltar by the French and 
 Spanish batteries, Sept. 13 ; successful resistance of Eliott. 
 
 John Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens sign a preliminary 
 treaty of peace with Great Britain, Nov. 30. The British 
 evacuate Charleston, Dec. 14. 
 
 Grattan and his followers secure the independence of the Irish 
 Parliament. 
 
 Tippoo Saib succeeds his father, Hyder Ali, in Mysore. 
 
 1783. End of the Shelburne administration, Feb. Formation of the 
 
 "Coalition Ministry" of Portland, Fox, and North, April. 
 Peace of Versailles between Great Britain, the United States, 
 France, and Spain, Sept. 3. Great Britain recognizes the 
 independence of the United States ; she restores Florida and 
 Minorca to Spam, and cedes Tobago to France. Evacuation 
 of New York by the British, Nov. 25. Dismissal of the ' ' Co- 
 alition Ministry," Dec. The younger Pitt becomes prime 
 minister. 
 
 Louis XVI. appoints Calonne minister of finance. 
 
 Incorporation of the Crimea with the Russian Empire. 
 
 Successful introduction of the balloon by the brothers Mont- 
 golfler. 
 
 Death of Euler and of D'Alembert. 
 
 1784. England concludes peace with Holland. Creation of the 
 
 Board of Control for the affairs of India. 
 Frederick (VI.) becomes regent of Denmark for his father, 
 Christian VII. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 109 
 
 1784. Tippoo Saib makes peace with the English. 
 Death of Diderot and of Johnson. 
 
 1785. La Perouse sails on his great voyage of exploration to the 
 
 Pacific. 
 
 1786. Outbreak of Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts. 
 Impeachment of Warren Hastings ; the articles of impeach- 
 ment presented by Burke. 
 
 Frederick William II. succeeds his uncle, Frederick the Great, 
 
 Aug. 17. 
 Death of Moses Mendelssohn. 
 
 1787. Suppression of Shays's rebellion. Framing of the constitution 
 
 of the United States by the convention assembled at Phila^ 
 delphia. Congress undertakes the government of the North- 
 west Territory. 
 
 The Assembly of Notables meets at Vereailles, Feb. Dismissal 
 of Calonne; Lomenie de Brienne made minister of finance. 
 Dissolution of the Assembly of Notables. Lomenie de Bri- 
 enne is appointed to the office of chief minister. 
 
 Tui'key declares war against Russia. Joseph II. begins a war 
 against Turkey by an unsuccessful attempt to seize Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 The anti-Orange party in Holland is crushed by a Prussian 
 army. 
 
 Death of Gluck. 
 
 1788. A majority of the United States ratify the Constitution. (Rhode 
 
 Island the last to ratify, 1790.) — Foundation of Cincinnati. 
 The trial of Warren Hastings begins, Feb. (He is acquitted 
 
 in 1795.) George III. becomes insane, Nov. (Temporary 
 
 recovery, 1789.) 
 Dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne by Louis XVI., Aug. ; 
 
 Necker chief minister. New Assembly of Notables, Nov.- 
 
 Dec. 
 Death of Charles III. of Spain, Dec. 13. He is succeeded by 
 
 his son, Charles IV. 
 Sweden declares war against Russia. 
 The Russians, under Potemkin, storm Otchakov, Dec. 
 The English establish a penal settlement in Australia. 
 Death of Buffon. 
 
 1789. Washington is elected president of the United States. The 
 
 Continental Congress is superseded by the first Congress 
 under the Constitution. Inauguration of Washington in 
 New York, April 30. 
 
110 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1789. Beginning of the Fi'ench Revolution, Opening session of the 
 
 States General at Versailles, May 5. The commons (Third 
 Estate), on the motion of Sieyes, constitute themselves the 
 National Assembly (Constituent Assembly), June 17. Many 
 deputies from the clergy and nobility vmite within a few 
 days with the commons. The Assembly, under the lead of 
 Mirabeau, refuses to obey the king's command to withdraw 
 from its position, June 23. On the demand of Louis XVI., 
 the two upper orders join the Third Estate, June 37. The 
 king dismisses Necker, July 11. Formation of the National 
 Guard, Jvily 13. Storming of the Bastille by the populace, 
 July 14, followed by its destruction. Lafayette is appointed 
 commander of the National Guard, July 15. The emigra- 
 tion of the nobles begins. Necker is recalled to office, July 
 28. The Constituent Assembly abolishes feudal rights and 
 privileges, Aug. 4. Declaration of the Rights of Man 
 adopted, Aug. The Assembly decrees that the legislative 
 power be vested in a single Chamber of Deputies, Sept. 
 Louis XVI. accepts the decrees of the Assembly, Oct. March 
 of the Parisian populace to Versailles, and tumult there, 
 Oct. 5, 6. The king and Assembly remove to Paris. The 
 Assembly decrees the transfer of the ecclesiastical property 
 to the state, Nov. 2. 
 
 Revolt of the Austrian (Belgian) Netherlands. 
 
 The Austrians and Russians, under the prince of Coburg and 
 Suvaroff, defeat the Turks at Fokshani. The Austrians take 
 Belgrade, the Russians Bender. 
 
 Alexander Mackenzie discovers and explores the Mackenzie 
 River. 
 
 1790. The seat of government of the United States is removed from 
 
 New York to Philadelphia. (See 1800.) Unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition of Harmar against the Indians of the Northwest 
 Territory. 
 
 Division of France (including Corsica) into departments, Jan. 
 The Constituent Assembly abolishes the succession by pri- 
 mogeniture, Feb. Suppression of titles of nobility, June. 
 The civil constitution of the clergy is decreed, July 12. 
 Federation Fete on the Champ de Mars, July 14. Necker 
 is again dismissed, Sept. Suppression of the parliaments, 
 Sept. First issue of assignats, Sept. 
 
 Joseph II. revokes his arbitrary enactments respecting Hun- 
 gary. Death of the emperor, Feb, 20. His brother, Leo- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. m 
 
 1790. pold, succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected 
 emperor of Germany as Leopold II., Sept. 30. The Aus- 
 trians reoccupy Brussels, Dec. ; the Belgian insurgents sub- 
 dued. 
 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden achieves a great naval victory over 
 the Russians in the Gulf of Finland, July. He concludes 
 peace, Aug. 
 
 Suvaroff storms Ismail, Dec. 22. 
 
 War between the English and Tippoo Saib. 
 
 Fitch introduces steam navigation on the Delaware. (Soon 
 abandoned.) 
 
 Publication of Goethe's "Faust" (in an incomplete form). 
 
 Death of Franklin and of Adam Smith. 
 
 1791. Admission of Vermont into the Union. Congress charters the 
 
 Bank of the United States (at Philadelphia). Defeat of St. 
 Clair by the Miamis, Nov. 4. 
 
 Death of Mirabeau, April 2. The royal family attempt a se- 
 cret flight from France, June 20. They are turned back at 
 Varennes, June 21. Leopold II. and Frederick William II. 
 hold a convention at Pillnitz, and issue a declaration prom- 
 ising support to the emigres against the revolution, Aug. 27, 
 The French Assembly completes the constitution, Sept. 3. 
 Louis XVI. takes the oath to it, Sept. 14. The incorpora- 
 tion of Avignon and Venaissin vnth France is decreed, 
 Sept, Last session of the Constituent Assembly, Sept. 30. 
 Opening of the Legislative Assembly, Oct. 1. 
 
 A new sanction is giv^en to the constitutional liberties of Hun- 
 gary by Leopold II. The Protestants secure their rights. 
 
 Austria concludes peace with Turkey at Sistova, Aug. 
 
 A liberal constitution is promulgated in Poland. 
 
 Division of Canada into Upper and Lower Canada. 
 
 Outbreak of the insurrection of the blacks in the French por- 
 tion of Hayti. The mulattoes take up arms against the 
 whites. 
 
 Galvani publishes his discoveries in animal electricity. 
 
 Appearance of Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man." 
 
 Death of Wesley and of Mozart. 
 
 1792. Admission of Kentucky into the Union. Establishment of 
 
 the national mint at Philadelphia. 
 Confiscation of the property of the French emigres, Feb. 
 Louis XVI. forms a Girondist ministry, March. Adoption 
 of the guillotine, March. The king is forced to declare war 
 
112 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1792. against Austria, April 20. Campaign of the French and 
 Austrians in Flanders. Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia 
 joins tlie coalition of Austria, Prussia, and other German 
 states against France, July. Famous manifesto issued from 
 the camp of the duke of Brunswick, July 25. The members 
 of the mimicipal government of Paris establish themselves 
 as the Insurrectionary Commune, Aug. 10. The Parisian 
 populace attack the Tuileries, and massacre the Swiss 
 guards, Aug. 10. The royal family are imiorisoned in the 
 Temple, Aug. 13. Establishment of the first Eevolution- 
 ary Tribunal by the Jacobins, Aug. 17. The duke of 
 Brunswick invades France at the head of a combined 
 Prussian and Austrian army, Aug. Royalist rising in the 
 west of France, Aug. The " Sexrtember massacres" in 
 Paris begin, Sept. 2. The French, under the elder Kel- 
 lermann, obtain an advantage over the duke of Brunswick 
 at Valmy, Sept. 20. The National Convention takes the 
 place of the Legislative Assembly, and declares France a 
 republic, Sept. 21.* The French occupy Chambery and 
 Nice, Sept. Victorious advance of Custiue into Germany, 
 Sept. -Oct. Victory of Dumouriez over the Aiistrians at 
 Jemmapes, Nov. 6, followed by the occupation of Belgium. 
 Annexation of Savoy to France, Nov. Beginning of the 
 trial of Louis XVI., Dec. 11. 
 
 Death of the emperor Leopold II., March 1. His son, Francis, 
 succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected emperor 
 of Germany as Francis II. , July 5. 
 
 Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, Jan. ; Russia ac- 
 quires Otchakov, and extends her territory to the Dniester. 
 
 The opponents of the new constitution in Poland, at the insti- 
 gation of Catharine II. of Russia, form the Confederation of 
 Targovitza. A Russian army invades the country. 
 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden is shot by Anckarstroem, night of 
 March 15, 16. He dies March 29, and is succeeded by his 
 son, Gustavus IV. Adolphus. 
 
 Tippoo Saib is forced to cede a large portion of Mysore to 
 the English. 
 
 Death of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 1793. Beginning of Washington's second administration, March 4. 
 Execution of Louis XVI., Jan. 21. Grand coalition against 
 
 * September 22 was made the beginning of tlie republican era. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 113 
 
 1793. France, formed by England, Austria, Prussia, tlie German 
 Empire, Holland, Spain, Naples, and other states. Forma- 
 tion of the new Revolutionary Tribunal in France, March. 
 Danton, Mai'at, and Robesi)ierre inaugurate the Eeign of 
 ^^ Terror. Outbreak of a great royalist insurrection in the 
 
 y^ Vendee, March. Dumouriez is defeated by the Austri- 
 ans, under the prince of Cobui'g, at Neerwinden, March 
 18, and soon after passes over to the enemy, by whom 
 Belgium is recovered. Institution of the Conmiittee of 
 Public Safety, April 6. The Spanish forces invade Rous- 
 sillon, April. Beginning of the revolt in Coi-sica against 
 the Convention, May. Fall of the Girondists, June 2. 
 Victory of the Vendeans at Saumur, June 9-10. Cathe- 
 lineau, the Vendean leader, is mortally wounded before 
 Nantes, June 29. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte 
 Corday, July 13. Mentz (taken by Custine in Oct., 1792) 
 surrenders to the Prussians, July 23. Toulon is deliv- 
 ered to the English, Aug. 27. The duke of York, the 
 British commander-in-chief in Flanders, is defeated near 
 Dunkirk, Sept. The Convention jjasses a law against the 
 "suspected," Sept. 17. Introduction of the revolutionary 
 calendar, Oct. 5. (Era reckoned from Sept. 22^ 1792.) 
 Great massacres at Lyons by the troops of the Convention, 
 Oct. The German allies force the lines of Weissenburg, 
 Oct. (They are recovered by the French, Dec.) Jourdan 
 defeats the Austrians in the battle of Wattignies, Oct. 
 15, 16. Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16. La Roche- 
 jaquelein becomes the leader of the Vendeans, Oct. Exe- 
 cution of the Girondists, Oct. 31. Execution of Philippe 
 Egalite, Nov. 6. The ' ' Worship of Reason " is deci'eed by 
 the Conveution, Nov. 10. Defeat of the Vendeans at Le 
 Mans, Dec. Toulon is retaken from the English, Bonaparte 
 commanding the French artillery, Dec. 19. The Vendeans 
 are overthrown at Savenay. Atrocities of Carrier at Nantes 
 (noT/ades). 
 Second partition of Poland ; Prussia appropriates the western- 
 most portion of the kingdom, also taking possession of 
 Dantzic (made a free city in 1772) ; Russia takes a great part 
 of the Lithuanian territories, half of Volhynia, Podolia, and 
 all of the Ukraine held by Poland. 
 The commissioners of the French Convention proclaun the 
 freedom of the blacks in Hayti. 
 
114 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1794. Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. Wayne breaks the 
 
 power of the Miamis in a battle at Maumee Rai)ids, Aug. 20. 
 Jay's treaty with Great Britain. 
 
 Execution of the Hebertists, March 24. Execution of Danton 
 and his followers, including Camille Desmoulins, April 5. 
 Naval victory of the English, under Howe, over the French, 
 June 1, Fete de VEtre Supreme, June 8. Victory of Jour- 
 dan at Fleurus over the Austrians, under the prince of Co- 
 burg, June 26, followed by the conquest of Belgium. Fall 
 of Robespierre, July 27 (9th Thermidor) ; end of the Reign 
 of Terror. Execution of Robespierre and his supporters, 
 July 28. The French take the Spanish town of Fuen- 
 terrabia, Aug. 1. The English complete the liberation of 
 Corsica from the French, Aug. Victorious campaign of 
 Jourdan on the Rhine, Sept. -Oct. Pichegim invades Hol- 
 land. 
 
 Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and others for high treason. 
 
 Kosciuszko heads a great rising of the Polish people, which is 
 met by the combined arms of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 
 He succumbs to the Russians, under Suvaroff and Fersen, at 
 Maciejowice, Oct. 10, and is made prisoner. Storming of 
 Praga and massacre by the Russians, under Suvaroff , Nov, 4. 
 Capitulation of Warsaw, Nov. 8. 
 
 Death of Gibbon and of Lavoisier (guillotined). 
 
 1795. The French complete the conquest of Holland, Jan. Procla- 
 
 mation of the Batavian Republic. Insurrection in Paris 
 against the Convention, April 1. Peace of Basel between 
 France and Prussia, April 5 ; the Prussian territories west 
 of the Rhine left to the French. Fresh rising against the 
 Convention in Paris, May 20. A body of emigres land at 
 Quiberon to join the royalist insurgents called Chouans, 
 June. Failure of the expedition, July. Treaty of Basel 
 between France and Spain, negotiated by Godoy, July. 
 Adoption of the constitution of the year III., Aug. 22. 
 The French armies, under Jourdan and Pichegru, invade 
 Gei-many, Sept. Annexation of Belgium and other con- 
 quered territories to the French Republic, Oct. 1. Bona- 
 parte successfully defends the Convention against a rising 
 of the royalists, Oct. 5 (13th Vendemiaire). The Austrians, 
 under Clerfayt and Wurmser, force back Jourdan and 
 Pichegru, Oct. Last session of the Convention, Oct. 26, 
 First session of the Council of Ancients and the Council of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 115 
 
 1795. Five Hundred, Oct. 28. Installation of the Directory 
 (executive of five), Nov. 1. 
 
 The third partition of Poland, between Prussia, Russia, and 
 Austria, terminates the existence of that country as an in- 
 dependent kingdom. The capital, Warsaw, becomes the 
 possession of Prussia. Stanislas Poniatowski resigns his 
 crown. Courland submits to Russia. 
 
 The English take the Cape of Good Hope colony. 
 
 Mungo Park sets out on his fi^rst journey to the region of the 
 Niger. 
 
 Foundation of the Institute of France. 
 
 1796. AchuLssion of Tennessee into the Union. John Adams and 
 
 Thomas Jefferson are elected president and vice-president of 
 the United States. 
 
 Bonaparte is placed in command of the "army of Italy." 
 The Vendean leader Charette is made prisoner and shot, 
 March. Victories of Bonaparte over the Austrians and 
 Sardinians at Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, and Mondovi, 
 April. He defeats the Austrians at Lodi, May 10. His 
 forces enter Milan, May. Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia 
 makes peace, relinquishing Savoy and Nice to the French, 
 May. The armies of the Sambre and Meuse and of the 
 Rhine and Moselle, respectively under the command of 
 Jourdan and of Moreau, enter upon a campaign against 
 Austria and Germany. The German states outside of Aus- 
 tria withdraw from the struggle, July-Sept. Bonaparte 
 defeats the forces of Wurmser at Lonato, Aug. 3, and at 
 Castiglione, Aug. 5. General Hoche pacifies the Vendee, 
 Aug. The archduke Charles defeats Jourdan at Wiirzburg, 
 Sept. 3. Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at Ro- 
 veredo, Sept. 3, 4. Wurmser is defeated by Bonaparte at 
 Bassano, Sept. 8, and throws himself into Mantua, which is 
 closely invested by the French. Spain declares war against 
 England, Oct. Ferdinand IV. of Naples makes peace with 
 France, Oct. Moreau effects a masterly retreat to the Rhine, 
 Oct. The French dominion is re-established in Coi'sica, 
 Oct. Bonaparte defeats the Austrians, under Alvinczy, at 
 Arcole, Nov. 15-17. French expedition to Ireland, Dec. 
 
 Paul succeeds his mother, Catharine II. , in Russia, Nov. 17. 
 
 The English dispossess the Dutch in Ceylon. 
 
 Jenner shows the efficacy of vaccination as a preventive 
 against small-pox. 
 9 
 
IIG CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1796. Death of Burns. 
 
 1797. Beginning of John Adams's administration. Difficulties be- 
 
 tween the United States and France. (Settled by a treaty 
 in 1800.) 
 
 Bonaparte vanquishes the Austrians, under Alvinczy , at Rivoli, 
 Jan. 14. Mantua surrenders to the French, Feb. Bona- 
 parte invades the dominions of Pius VI., Feb. The British 
 admiral Jei^vis defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vin- 
 cent, Feb. 14. The pope is forced to sign the peace of To- 
 lentino, Feb. 19. Bonaparte invades Austria, Mai'ch, forces 
 back the archduke Charles, and compels the signature of the 
 preliminaries of Leoben, April 18. Fall of the Venetian 
 Republic, the French forces occupy Venice, May. The 
 Genoese dominions are constituted into the Ligurian Re- 
 public, June. Establishment of the Cisalpine Republic by 
 Bonaparte, June. The majoiity of the Directory execute a 
 coup-dfetat against tlie royalist reaction, Sept. 4 (18th 
 Fructidor). Admh'al Duncan defeats the Dutch fleet off 
 Camperdown (Camperduin), Oct. 11. Peace of Campo For- 
 mio between France and Austria, Oct. 17; Austria cedes 
 her former Belgian possessions and Lombardy, and receives 
 most of the territories of the extinguished republic of Ven- 
 ice (including Venetian Istria and Dalmatia) ; the Ionian 
 Islands (held by Venice since the Middle Ages) are secured 
 to the French. Return of Bonaparte to Paris, Dec. Open- 
 ing of the congress of Rastadt. Insurrection in Rome. 
 
 Frederick William III. succeeds his father, Frederick William 
 II., in Prussia, Nov. 16. 
 
 1798. Passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws in the United States. 
 The French occupy Rome, and proclaim tlie Roman Repub- 
 lic, Feb. The French, after revolutionizing Switzerland, 
 proclaim the Helvetic Republic, April. Annexation of 
 Geneva and other portions of Switzerland to France. Bona- 
 parte embarks on his expedition to Egypt, May. He takes 
 possession of Malta, dispossessing the Knights of St. John, 
 June. He enters Alexandria, July. The Mamelukes are 
 vanquished by him in the battle of the Pyramids, July 21. 
 Nelson destroys the French fleet at Aboukir (battle of the 
 Nile), Aug. 1, 2. The Porte declares war against France, 
 Sept. Ferdinand IV. of Naples, urged by Queen Caro- 
 line, takes up arms against the French, Nov. Alliance 
 between England and Russia, Dec. Charles Emanuel IV. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 117 
 
 1798. of Sardinia is forced by tlie French to give up Pied- 
 mont. 
 
 The Great Rebellion in Ireland. It is suppressed after much 
 bloodshed. 
 
 1799. Death of Washington, Dec. 14. 
 
 The French enter Naples, and jproclaim the Parthenopean Ee- 
 public, Jan. The fortress of Corfu surrenders to the Rus- 
 sians and Turks, March. France declares war against Aus- 
 tria, March. Defeat of Jourdan by the archduke Charles 
 at Stockach, March. Dissolution of the congress of Rastadt, 
 April. SuVaroff, the commander-iu-chief of the Russian 
 and Austi'ian armies in Italy, defeats Moreau at Cassano, 
 April 37. Three membei's of the Directory are expelled by 
 the Councils, and replaced by others, June 18 (30th Prairial). 
 Macdonald, after a contest of three days, June 17-19, is de- 
 feated by SuYaroff on the Trebbia. End of the Partheno- 
 pean Republic, June; Ferdinand IV. restored to the Nea- 
 politan throne. The Neapolitan forces enter Rome, July, 
 Suvaroff defeats the forces of Joubert and Moreau at Novi, 
 Aug. 15 ; Joubert killed. The Dutch fleet is delivered to 
 the English, Aug. Victory of Massena over the Russian 
 general Korsakoff at Ziii'ich, Sept. 25, 2Q. SuvarofP, after 
 marching into Switzerland, executes a retreat through that 
 countiy, Oct. Failure of the Anglo-Russian expedition to 
 the Netherlands, Oct. 
 
 Bonaparte 'enters upon his Syrian campaign, Feb. Fall of 
 Gaza, Feb. 25. Storming of Jaffa, March 7. Bonaparte 
 begins the siege of Acre, March. He raises the siege, May 
 20, after a gallant defense by the Turks and Sir Sidney 
 Smith, and retreats toward Egypt. Victory of Bonaparte 
 over the Turks at Aboukir, July 25. He embarks for 
 France, leaving Kleber in command in Egypt, Aug. 22. 
 
 Bonaparte undertakes a coup-d'etat against the Directorial 
 government, Nov. 9 (18th Brumaire). The Council of Five 
 Hundred is forcibly dispersed, Nov. 10. Bonaparte, Sieyes, 
 and Ducos are appointed provisional consuls, Nov. 11. 
 Proclamation of the Consulate, Dec. 24; Bonaparte, Cam- 
 baceres, and Lebrun consuls for ten years, Bonaparte first- 
 consul. 
 
 Death of Pius VI., Aug. 29. 
 
 Storming of Seringapatam by the English, May 4; Tippoo 
 Saib knied. 
 
118 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1799. Invention of the Voltaic pile. 
 
 1800. Removal of the seat of government of the United States from 
 
 Philadelphia to Washington. Presidential election in the 
 United States. Jefferson and Burr receive the largest 
 number of electoral votes, an equal number being cast for 
 both. Other candidates, John Adams and C. C. Pinckney * 
 
 Final submission of the Chouans. The army of Moreau is 
 victorious over the Austi'ians at Moskirch and Biberach, 
 May. Bonaparte leads his army over the Great St. Ber- 
 nard, May. Genoa, after a desperate defense of nearly 
 two months by Massena, sui'renders to the Austrians, June. 
 Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians, under Melas. 
 at Marengo, June 14. The English take Malta, Sept. 
 Victory of Moreau over the Austrians, under the archduke 
 John, at Hohenlinden, Dec. 3. Attempt to assassinate 
 Bonapai'te by means of the Infernal Machine, Dec. 24. 
 
 Assassination of Kleber at Cairo, June 14. 
 
 Retrocession of Louisiana to France by Spain. 
 
 Act for the legislative vmion of Ireland and Great Britain. 
 (To take effect Jan. 1, 1801.) 
 
 Election of Pope Pius VII., March 14. 
 
 1801. Jefferson is elected president of the United States by the 
 
 House of Representatives. Burr becomes vice-president. 
 Outbreak of war between Tripoli and the United States. 
 
 Austria and Germany conclude peace with France at Lune- 
 ville, Feb. 9 ; the stipulations of the peace of Campo For- 
 mio are confirmed ; all of Germany west of the Rhine is re- 
 linquished to France ; the hereditary princes of Germany 
 agree to indemnify themselves for their losses by appropri- 
 ating the territories of the ecclesiastical states as well as 
 the free imperial cities. 
 
 Defeat of the French at Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
 who is mortally wounded, March 31. Treaty of Madrid be- 
 tween France and Spain, March "1, providing for the ces- 
 sion of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the French on 
 the death of the reigning duke, Ferdinand, in exchange 
 for which, Tuscany (occupied by France in 1799) is trans- 
 ferred as the kingdom of Etruria to the duke's son, Don 
 Luis. (Death of Ferdinand, 1802.) Peace between France 
 
 * The last election in which the electors did not specify which candidate was 
 voted for as president and which as vice-president. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. HQ 
 
 1801. and Naples, Marcli. Denmark having entered into an 
 armed neutrality with the northern powers with respect to 
 England, her fleet is attacked at Copenhagen by Nelson, 
 and defeated, April 2. Bonaparte concludes his Concordat 
 with Pius VII., July 15. The French are forced to evacu- 
 ate Egypt. Preliminary treaty of peace between France 
 and England, Oct. Peace between France and Russia, Oct. 
 
 Resignation of Pitt, March. The Addington ministry suc- 
 ceeds. 
 
 Annexation of Grusia (Georgia) to the Russian Empire. Con- 
 spiracy against Czar Paul, who is murdered, night of March 
 23-24. Accession of his son, Alexander I. 
 
 Bonaparte dispatches an exj)edition, under Leclerc, against 
 Toussaint TOuverture, the Negro governor of Hayti. 
 
 Piazzi discovers the fh'st asteroid, Ceres. 
 
 1802. The Cisalpine Republic is reconstituted as the Italian Republic, 
 
 with Bonaparte as president, Jan. Peace of Amiens be- 
 tween France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic on one 
 side and Great Britain on the other, March 27. Great 
 Britain recognizes the changes made by France in Europe. 
 She agrees to give up the recent conquests with the excep- 
 tion of Ceylon (conquered from the Dutch m 1796) and 
 Trinidad (conquered from the Spaniards in 1797). (The 
 provision resiDecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights 
 of St. John not carried out.) Definitive treaty of peace be- 
 tween France and Turkey, June. Bonaparte is declared 
 consul for life, Aug. 2. Rebellion in Switzerland against 
 the established order. Union of Piedmont with France, 
 Sept. The French forces restore order in Switzerland. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia resigns, and is succeeded by 
 his brother, Victor Emanuel I. 
 
 Operations of Leclerc against the blacks of Hayti. Their 
 le9,der, Toussaint TOuverture, is treacherously seized and 
 conveyed to France. 
 
 Institution of the French Legion of Honor. 
 
 Foundation of the "Edinburgh Review." 
 
 1803. Admission of Ohio into the Union. 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States. 
 Lewis and Clarke are appointed to conduct an exploring 
 expedition through the western portion of the territory of 
 the United States. (Advance beyond the Mississippi under- 
 taken in 1801: ; the expedition returns in 1806.) 
 
120 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1803. "Act of Mediation" by which Bonaparte reorganizes the 
 
 Swiss confederacy, Feb. 19 ; restoration of the former can- 
 tonal system. 
 
 The imperial delegation (Reichsdeputation) charged with the 
 settlement of the changes in the Germanic body provided 
 for in the treaty of Luneville publishes its conclusions 
 (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss), Feb. 25. 
 
 England declares war against France, May. The French 
 occupy Hanover, June. 
 
 Emmet's attempted rebellion in Ireland. 
 
 Brilliant achievements of the English under Wellesley, Lake, 
 and others against the Mahrattas. 
 
 The blacks of Hayti are successful against the French, who 
 are expelled from the island. 
 
 Death of Klopstock, Alfieri, and Herder. 
 
 1804. Duel between Hamilton and Burr, July 11. (Death of Ham- 
 
 ilton, July 12.) — The United States frigate "Philadelphia," 
 having fallen into the hands of the Tripolitans in 1803, is 
 retaken and burned by Decatur. Commodore Preble makes 
 repeated attacks upon the Tripolitan fleet in front of Trip- 
 oli, Aug. -Sept. — Thomas Jefferson is re-elected president; 
 George Clinton is chosen vice-president. 
 
 Arrest of Moreau, Pichegru, and Cadoudal on a charge of 
 conspiracy, Feb. -March. Publication of the Code Civil 
 des Frangais (afterward called Code Napoleon), March 
 21. The duke d'Enghien is shot at Vincennes by order 
 of Bonaparte, March 21. The French fleet, assembled at 
 Boulogne for the invasion of England, is unsuccessfully 
 attacked by the British, April (again in October). Napo- 
 leon I. is declared emperor of Finance, May 18. Execution 
 of Cadoudal and others, June. Coronation of Napoleon 
 and Josephine in Paris by Pius VII., Dec. 2. Spain de- 
 clares war against England, Dec. 12. 
 
 Fall of the Addington ministry. May ; Pitt again premier. 
 
 Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of Austria as Francis 
 I., Aug. 11. 
 
 Rising of the Servians against Turkish rule. Czerny George 
 (Kara George) becomes their leader. 
 
 War between the English and the Mahratta ruler Jesewunt 
 Row Holkar. (The war concluded in Dec, 1805.) 
 
 Dessalines (at first appointed governor) assumes the title of 
 emperor of Hayti as Jean Jacques I. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 121 
 
 1804. Death of Kant. 
 
 1805. Beginning of the second administration of Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 Peace between the United States and Tripoli. 
 Napoleon assumes the title of king of Italy, March. Coalition 
 against France between England, Russia, Austria, and Swe- 
 den. (The South German states side with France.) Union 
 of the Ligurian Republic with France, June. Eugene Beau- 
 harnais is appointed viceroy of Italy, June. The Austrian 
 army invades Bavaria, Sept. The French forces cross the 
 Rhine, Sept. Surrender of the Austrian general Mack with 
 his army at Ulm, Oct. 20. Victory of Nelson over the 
 French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, Oct. 21 ; death of 
 Nelson. The archduke Charles is successful against Massena 
 at Caldiero, Oct. ; the engagement is followed by the retreat 
 of the Austrians. Murat occupies Vienna, Nov. 13. Vic- 
 tory of Napoleon at Austerlitz over the combined Austrian 
 and Russian armies, commanded by the emperors Francis 
 and Alexander, Dec. 2. Convention between France and 
 Prussia, by which Prussia cedes Anspach, Baireuth, Cleves, 
 and Neufchatel, Hanover being given up to her in ex- 
 change, Dec. 15. Peace of Presburg between France and 
 Austria, Dec. 26 ; * Austria cedes her Venetian dominions 
 (including Dalmatia, etc.) to the Italian kingdom, and 
 Tyrol to Bavaria ; Breisgau f and the other old possessions 
 of the house of Austria in Swabia are annexed to Baden, 
 Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria ; Salzburg I is given to Austria ; 
 the imperial city of Aiigsburg is incoi'porated with Bava- 
 ria ; Bavaria and Wiirtemberg are erected into kingdoms. 
 (Proclamation of their new titles by the kings of Bavaria 
 and Wiirtemberg, Maximilian I. Joseph and Frederick I. , 
 Jan. 1, 1806.) 
 
 * According to a statement in iletternicli's con-espondence, the treaty -n'as ac- 
 tually signed Dec. 27. 
 
 + Breisgau had already been separated from Austria in pursuance of the stipula- 
 tions of the treaty of Luneville, having been assigned to Ercoleof Este, the dispos- 
 sessed duke of Modena. This prince died in 1803, and Breisgau passed to his son- 
 in-law, the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, uncle of the emperor Francis. On the 
 downfall of Napoleon, Ferdinand's son, Francis IV., became reigning duke of Modena. 
 
 X In the changes which followed the treaty of Luneville, the archbishopric of Salz- 
 burg had been secularized and given to Ferdinand III., the dLspossessed grand-duke 
 of Tuscany (brother of the emperor Francis), who was created an imperial elector. 
 In exchange for Salzburg, Ferdinand received the former sec of "Wiirzburg. On the 
 downfall of Napoleon, he was reinstated in Tuscany. 
 
122 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1805. Publication of Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel." 
 Death of Schiller. 
 
 1806. Death of Pitt, Jan. 23. Formation of the Grenville ministry, 
 
 Feb. ; Fox secretary for foreign affairs. The French forces 
 enter Naples, Feb. Murat is created grand-duke of Cleves 
 and Berg, March. Joseph Bonaparte is proclaimed king of 
 Naples and Sicily, March (the island of Sicily, however, 
 continuing under the dominion of Ferdinand IV.). Louis 
 Bonaparte is proclauned king of Holland, June. For- 
 mation of the Confederation of the Rhine, July. The em- 
 peror Francis II. renounces the German crown, Aug. 6; 
 end of the Holy Roman Empire. Death of Fox, Sept. 
 13. New coalition against France. Prussia declares war, 
 Oct. Napoleon and Davout overAvhelm the Prussians in 
 the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Oct. 14. Napoleon 
 enters Berlin, Oct. 27. The French storm Liibeck, Nov. 6. 
 Bliicher capitulates at Ratkow, Nov. 7. The French oc- 
 cupy Hamburg, Nov. Napoleon issues nis Berlin Decree, 
 declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade and pro- 
 hibiting all commercial intercourse with them, Nov. 21. 
 The French enter "Warsaw, Nov. Treaty between France 
 and Saxony, whose elector, Frederick Augustiis III., as- 
 sumes the title of king as Frederick Augustus I., Dec. Bat- 
 tle of Pultusk between the French and Russians, Dec. 26. 
 
 The English retake possession of Cape Colony. 
 
 Outbreak of war between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Assassination of Dessalines, emperor of Hayti. Christophe is 
 made president for life. 
 
 1807. Act of Congress abolishing the slave-trade (from Jan. 1, 1808). 
 
 Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. The British man-of-war 
 "Leopard" attacks the frigate "Chesapeake." Congress 
 lays an embargo on shipping destined for foreign ports. 
 Indecisive battle of Eylau between the French and the allied 
 Russians and Prussians, Feb. 7, 8. The French take Dant- 
 zic, May. Victory of Napoleon over the Russians at Fried- 
 land, June 14. Conference between Napoleon and Alex- 
 ander I. on a raft on the Niemen, June. France concludes 
 the treaties of Tilsit with Russia (July 7) and Prussia (July 
 9) ; Prussia gives up her possessions west of the Elbe and 
 the Polish dominions acquired in 1793 and 1795. Out of 
 the latter Napoleon creates the duchy of Warsaw for Fred- 
 erick Augustus of Saxony, Aug. Out of the former and 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 123 
 
 1807. tlie electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Brunswick- 
 Wolf enbtittel, etc. , he creates the kingdom of Westphalia 
 for his brother Jerome, Aug. Napoleon conquers the Swe- 
 dish possessions in Germany, Aug.-Sei^t. Bombardment of 
 Copenhagen by the British, Sept. 2-5. The French, under 
 Junot, invade Portugal, Nov. The royal family embarks 
 for Brazil. Junot occupies Lisbon. Napoleon takes pos- 
 session of the kingdom of Etruria, Dec. Napoleon's Milan 
 Decree against British commerce. 
 
 Sir John Duclnvorth forces the passage of the Dardanelles, 
 Feb. Abolition of the slave-trade m the British Empire. 
 Resignation of the Grenville ministry, March. Foi'mation 
 of the Portland mmistry, April. 
 
 Inauguration of great political reforms in Prussia, chiefly 
 imder the direction of Stein. 
 
 Triumijh of the Servian insurgents. (See 1813.) 
 
 Successful introduction of steam navigation ; Fulton's steam- 
 boat, the "Clermont," begins her trips on the Hudson. 
 
 Publication of Hegel's " Phanomenologie des Geistes." 
 
 1808. James Madison is elected president of the United States; 
 
 George Clinton is re-elected vice-president. 
 
 The French forces enter Rome, Feb. Charles IV. of Spain is 
 forced by a po^jular rising to abdicate in favor of his son, 
 Ferdinand VII. , March 19. Murat enters Madrid, March 23. 
 Napoleon annexes a large portion of the Paxjal States to the 
 kingdom of Italy, April. Ferdinand VII. and Charles IV. 
 meet Napoleon at Bayonne, and are forced to renounce the 
 Spanish crown, April-May. Outbreak of the insurrection 
 against the French in Spain, May. Napoleon makes his 
 brother Jose^jh king of Spain, June 6. Portugal rises 
 against the French, June. Surrender of the French gen- 
 eral Dupont to the Spaniards at Baylen, July. Napo- 
 leon proclaims his brother-in-law Murat king of Naples, 
 Aug. 1. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, be- 
 gin operations against the French in Portugal, Aug. The 
 French are forced to raise the siege of Saragossa, Aug. 
 Victory of Wellesley over Junot at Vimeiro, Aug. 21. 
 Junot signs the convention of Cintra for the evacuation of 
 Portugal by the French, Aug. 30. Conference of Erfurt 
 between Napoleon, Alexander I., and other j)rinces, Sept.- 
 Oct. Surrender of Madrid to Napoleon, Dec. 
 
 Napoleon forces the king of Prussia to dismiss Stein. 
 
124 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 1808. Russia conquers Finland fi^om Sweden. (See 1809.) 
 Frederick VI. succeeds his father, Christian VII., in Denmark. 
 
 (See 1784.) 
 Accession of Mahmoud II. in Turkey. 
 
 1809. Beginning- of James Madison's first administration. 
 
 Sir John Moore, after retreating before the French to Corunna. 
 is killed in an engagement before that place, Jan. 16. The 
 French storm Saragossa, Jan. Its citadel falls, Feb. The 
 French, under Soult, take Oporto, March. It is recovered 
 by Beresford, May. Wellesley gains the battle of Talavera 
 de la Reina, July 27, 28. 
 
 Austria renews the struggle against Napoleon. Her armies 
 invade Bavaria and the duchy of Warsaw, April. Andreas 
 Hof er heads an insurrection of the Tyrolese against Bavaria, 
 April. Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Abensberg, Lands- 
 hut, and Eckmlilil, April. Russia declares war against 
 Austria, May 3. Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13. Battle 
 of Asj)ern and Essling, May 21, 22 ; defeat of Napoleon by 
 the archduke Charles. Eugene Beauharnais defeats the 
 Austrians at Raab, June 14. Napoleon vanquishes the Aus- 
 trians, under the archduke Charles, at Wagram, Jvily 6. 
 Signing of an armistice at Znaim, July 12. Peace of Schon- 
 brunn between France and Austida, Oct. 14. (Ratified in 
 Vienna.) Austria gives up Salzburg, part of the provinces 
 of Upper Austria and Carinthia, Carniola, most of Croatia, 
 the coast-land of the Adriatic, large portions of her Polish 
 territories, etc. Napoleon creates the dominion of the Illy- 
 rian Provinces. 
 
 Decree of Napoleon annexing the territories of the pope to 
 the French Empire, May. Pius VII. excommunicates Na- 
 poleon, June. Arrest of the pope, July, followed by his 
 removal to France. 
 
 Disastrous English expedition to the island of Walcheren. 
 
 Divorce of the emj^ress Josephine, Dec. 
 
 The Portland ministry is succeeded by that of Perceval, 
 Oct. 
 
 Gustavus IV. Adolphus of Sweden is forced to abdicate. His 
 uncle, Charles XIII., succeeds. Cession of Finland to 
 Russia. 
 
 Death of Haydn. 
 
 1810. Andreas Hofer is betrayed to the French and executed, Feb. 
 
 Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa, daughter of the 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 125 
 
 1810. emperor Francis!., April. Annexation of Holland to the 
 French. Emjiix'e, July. 
 
 The French take Ciudad Rodrigo, July. Wellington (Welles- 
 ley) repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27. Wellington re- 
 tu'es behind the lines of Torres Vedras, Oct. 
 
 Bremen, Hamburg, Liibeck, and extensive territories in North 
 Germany are united to the French Empire, Dec. 
 
 George HI. hopelessly insane. 
 
 Hardenberg is placed at the head of affairs in Prussia. 
 
 Bernadotte is made ci'own-prince of Sweden. 
 
 Campaign of the Russians, under Kamenskoi, in Bulgaria. 
 Fall of Silistria. The Russians fail before Shumla. Siir- 
 render of Rustchuk. 
 
 The English wrest Mauritius from the French. 
 
 The Mexican war of independence is begun by Hidalgo. 
 
 Beginning of the struggle for independence in Venezuela, 
 New Granada, and Buenos Ayres. Insurrection in Quito. 
 Revolutionary movement in Chili. 
 
 Opening of the Univei-sity of Berlin. 
 
 Death of Cavendish. 
 
 1811. Battle of Tippecanoe, Nov. 7; General Harrison defeats the 
 
 Indians, under the Prophet, brother of Tecumseh. 
 Retreat of Massena from Portugal, March. Surrender of 
 
 Badajoz to the French, March. Wellington repulses Mas- 
 sena at Fuentes de Onoro, May. Beresford defeats Soult at 
 
 Albuera, May 16. 
 George, Prince of Wales, is appointed regent of Great Britain, 
 
 Feb. 
 Financial bankruptcy of the Austrian government. 
 Campaign of the Russians, under Kutuzoff, against the Turks 
 
 on the Danube. 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo by Mehemet Ali. 
 The English make themselves masters of Java. 
 Hidalgo falls into the hands of the Spaniards, and is executed. 
 
 Morelos continues the war for Mexican independence. 
 
 (Made prisoner by the Spaniards, and executed, 1815.) 
 New Granada and Venezuela declare themselves independent 
 
 of Spain. Revolutionary struggle in Paraguay. 
 Publication of the fii-st volume of Niebuhr's ' ' Romische Ge- 
 
 schichte." 
 
 1812. Admission of the state of Louisiana into the Union. (Tlie ter- 
 
 ritory of Louisiana becomes the territory of Missouri.) The 
 
126 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1812. United States declare war against Great Britain, June 18. 
 The Americans, under General Hull, invade Canada, July. 
 Surrender of Hull to Brock at Detroit, Aug. 16. The Ameri- 
 can fi'igate " Constitution," commanded by Isaac Hull, cap- 
 tures the "Guerriere," Aug. 19. The Americans cross the 
 Niagara, and take Queenstown, which is soon recovered by 
 the enemy, Oct. The American sloop-of-war "Wasp," 
 Capt. Jones, captures the "Frolic," Oct. 18. Jones is forced 
 to surrender on the same day to the "Poictiers." The 
 American frigate "United States," Capt. Decatur, captures 
 the "Macedonian," Oct. 25. The "Constitution," now 
 commanded by Captain Bainbridge, takes the "Java," 
 Dec. 29. — James Madison is re-elected president, and El- 
 bridge Gerry is chosen vice-president; defeated candidate 
 for the presidency, De Witt Clinton. 
 
 Suchet takes Valencia, Jan. Wellington storms Ciudad Rod- 
 rigo, Jan. Promulgation of a liberal constitution by the 
 Spanish Cortes, March 18. Wellington storms Badajoz, 
 April. Victory of Wellington over Marmont near Sala- 
 manca, July 22. The British enter Madrid, Aug. Wel- 
 lington unsuccessfully besieges Burgos, Sept. -Oct. 
 
 Napoleon declares war against Russia, June 22. The Grand 
 Army begins the invasion of Russia, June. The French 
 defeat the Russians at Smolensk, which is burned, Aug. 
 Victory of Napoleon over Kutuzoff at Borodino, on the 
 Moskva, Sept. 7. The French, under Murat, enter Moscow, 
 Sept. 14. Entry of Napoleon into the city, Sept. 15. Mos- 
 cow is set on fire by the Russians, Sept. 15-16. The French 
 army begins its retreat, Oct. Passage of the Berezina by 
 the French, Nov. 26-28. Napoleon arrives in Paris, Dec. 
 
 Assassination of Perceval, May. Formation of the Liverpool 
 ministry, June. 
 
 Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, May 28 ; the 
 Pruth made the boundary between the two empires. 
 
 Great earthquake at Caracas, March 26. Temporaiy triumph 
 of the Spanish authority in Venezuela. The patriot leader 
 Miranda is sent a prisoner to Spain. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Byron's " Childe Harold." 
 
 1813. Victory of the British, under Proctor, over the Americans at 
 
 French town, Jan. 22. Capture of the British brig "Pea- 
 cock" by the "Hornet," Capt. Lawrence, Feb. 24. Begin- 
 ning of Madison's second administration. The Americans 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 127 
 
 1813. take York (Toronto), April 27; their leader, General Pike, 
 killed. Successful expedition of the Americans against 
 Fort George, May. Eepulse of the British at Sackett's 
 Harhor, May. Capture of the "Chesapeake," Capt. Law- 
 rence, by the "Shannon," June 1. The British brig 
 "Boxer" is taken by the "Enterprise," Sept. 5. Victory 
 of the Americans, under Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, 
 Sept. 10. General Harrison defeats Proctor in the battle 
 of the Thames, Oct. 5 ; death of Tecimiseh. — War with the 
 Creek Indians. 
 
 Rising of the German people against France. Russia and 
 Prussia conclude an alliance at Kalisz, Feb. Bernadotte, 
 at the head of a Swedish army, joins in the campaign 
 against France. Napoleon is victorious over the Russians 
 and Prussians at Llitzen, May 2. He wins the battle at 
 Bautzen, May 20, 21. Austria declares war against France, 
 Aug. 12. Oudinot is defeated by the army of Bernadotte 
 (by Billow's division) at Grossbeeren, Aug. 23. Bliicher 
 defeats Macdonald on the Katzbach, Aug. 2Q. Napoleon 
 wins the battle of Dresden against Prince Schwarzenberg, 
 Aug. 26, 27. Battle of Culm, Aug. 29, 30 ; the French gen- 
 eral Vandamme is forced to surrender. Billow defeats 
 Ney at Dennewitz, Sept. 6. Battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, 
 19 ; Napoleon overthrown by the forces of Schwarzenberg, 
 commander-in-chief of the allies, Bliicher, Bernadotte, and 
 Bennigsen; the king of Saxony, Napoleon's ally, taken 
 prisoner. Dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine 
 and of the kingdom of Westphalia. Retreat of Napoleon 
 to the Rhine. Expulsion of the French from Holland. 
 William, son of William V. , is placed by the Dutch at 
 the head of the government. 
 
 Wellington defeats the French at Yitoria June 21. He is 
 victorious over Soult in the Pyrenees, July. He passes 
 the Bidassoa, Oct. , and pursues Soult into France. 
 
 Re-establishment of Turkish authority in Servia. (See 1815.) 
 
 Russia compels Persia, in the peace of GulLstan, to cede Da- 
 ghestan, Shirvan, Baku, and other territories. (The treaty 
 ratified at Tiflis in 1814.) 
 
 Successful advance of Bolivar through New Granada and 
 Venezuela. He enters Caracas, and receives the title of 
 Libertador. 
 
 Death of Wieland, Lagrange, Delille, Korner. 
 
128 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1814, General Jackson breaks the power of the Creeks. The Ameri- 
 can frigate "Essex," Commodore Porter, surrenders to the 
 ' ' Phoebe " and ' ' Cherub, " March 28. Capture of the Brit- 
 ish brig " Epervier " by the " Peacock," April 29. Victory 
 of the Americans at Chippewa, July 5. The Americans, 
 under Scott and Brown, are victorious at Lundy's Lane (bat- 
 tle of Bridgewater), July 25. The forces of General Ross, 
 after dispersing the American militia at Bladensburg, enter 
 Washington, Aug. 24. They retire, Aug. 25. The Ameri- 
 cans, under Commodore McDonough, achieve a great vic- 
 tory on Lake Champlain, Sept. 11, The British unsuccess- 
 fully attack Baltimore, Sept. 12, 13, General Jackson seizes 
 Pensacola, Nov, The people of New England hold a con- 
 vention at Hartford to protest against the continuance of 
 the war with Great Britain, Dec, Treaty of Ghent between 
 the United States and Great Britain, Dec. 24. 
 
 Invasion of France by the allies. Murat deserts Napoleon, 
 and joins the allies, Jan. 
 
 Denmark is forced to conclude the treaty of Kiel with Sweden 
 and England, Jan. 14 ; she cedes Norway to Sweden, receiv- 
 ing Swedish Pomerania in exchange, and Heligoland to 
 England. (The island held by the British since 1807.) 
 
 Pius VII. is permitted to leave Fontainebleau, Jan. The Con- 
 gress of Chatillon between France and the allies oj)ens, Feb. 
 (Closes in March.) Napoleon is victorious over the army of 
 Bliicher at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, and 
 Vauchamps, and achieves a success against Schwarzenberg 
 at Montereau, Feb. Wellington defeats Soult at Orthez, 
 Feb. 27. Bliicher repulses the French at Laon, March 9. 
 The French evacuate the Papal States, March. Napoleon 
 releases Ferdinand VII., March. Schwarzenberg is vic- 
 torious at Arcis-sur-Aube, March 20, 21. Battle before Paris, 
 the allies storm Montmartre, March 30. Entry of the allies 
 into Paris, March 31. The French Senate, under the lead 
 of Talleyrand, establishes a provisional government, April 
 
 I, Soult unsuccessfully opposes Wellington at Toulouse, 
 April 10. Abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, April 
 
 II. Eugene Beauharnais, after opposing the Austrians 
 in Italy, signs a convention with them, April 16. Louis 
 XVIII. , brother of Louis XVI. , having been placed on the 
 French throne by the Senate and the allies, makes his sol- 
 emn entry into Paris, May 3 ; First Restoration. Napoleon 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 129 
 
 1814. lands at Elba, May 4. Peace of Paris, May 30. Louis 
 XVIII. promulgates the " Charte constitutionelle," June 4. 
 A general congress of the Euroj)ean powers, great and small, 
 is assembled at Vienna for the pui'pose of reorganizing the 
 political system of the continent ; opening of the congress, 
 Nov. 3. Austria represented by Metternich ; Prussia, by 
 Hardenberg; Russia, by Nesselrode; England and Han- 
 over, by Castlereagh and Mvinster ; France, by Talleyrand. 
 
 Ferdinand VII. , after abrogating the constitution of 1812, en- 
 ters Madrid, May. 
 
 Pius VII. re-establishes the order of Jesuits, Aug. 
 
 Defeat of Bolivar and Marino by the Spanish general Boves 
 at La Puerta, Venezuela. Bolivar passes over into New 
 Granada, where he is appointed commander-in-chief. 
 
 Francia becomes dictator of Paraguay. 
 
 Introduction of gas for general illumination in London. 
 
 Death of Fichte and of Count Rumford. 
 
 1815. General Jackson repulses the British attack on New Orleans, 
 
 Jan. 8. Commodore Decatur imposes terms upon the Dey 
 of Algiers, and exacts reparation from Tunis and Tripoli. 
 Escape of Na]3oleon from Elba, Feb. 26. He lands in France, 
 March 1. Ney passes over to him with his army, March 13. 
 Louis XVIII. quits Paris, March 20 ; Napoleon entere it on 
 the same day; beginning of the "Hundred Days." Re- 
 newal of the alliance of the Great Powers against France, 
 March. Murat takes up arms on the side of Napoleon, 
 March. He is defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino, 
 May 2, 3 ; the kingdom of Naples recovered by Ferdinand 
 IV. Vendean insurrection under the younger La Roche- 
 jacquelin, May-June. Signing of the acts of the Congress 
 of Vienna relating to the reconstitution of the Germanic 
 federation, June 8. Signing of the general acts of the con- 
 gress, June 9. 
 
 EEOKGANIZATION OP THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF EUROPE 
 BY THE CONGEESS OF VIENNA. 
 
 France is permitted to retain the hmits existing- at the outbreak 
 of the Revolution. 
 
 Austria is reinstated in the possession of all the territories be- 
 longing to her at the outbreak of the French Revolution, with the 
 exception of Belgium (conquered by the Prencli in 1794) and of 
 Breisgau and other territories annexed to the South German states ; 
 
130 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 her dominion being re-established in Lombardy (given up to the 
 French in 1797), in Tyrol (transferred to Bavaria in 1805), and in 
 the territories constituted by Napoleon into the Illyrian Provinces 
 in 1809. Venetia, Venetian Istria, and Dalmatia (all acquired in 
 1797, and lost in 1805) are restored to her, as is also Salzburg (ac- 
 quired in 1805, and annexed to Bavaria in 1810). "West Galicia 
 (taken in the third partition of Poland, 1795, and united with the 
 duchy of Warsaw after the war of 1809) remains severed from 
 Austria. 
 
 Prussia resumes possession of the territories west of the Rhine 
 ceded to France in 1795 and of the German territories lost in 
 180G-'7 (not reckoning Hanover, acquired in 1805), excepting East 
 Fricsland and Ilildesheim, given to Hanover in exchange for Lau- 
 enburg. Of the Polish territories taken from her to form the duchy 
 of Warsaw (created in 1807), she recovers the western portion, which 
 is constituted the grand-duchy of Posen. Dantzic (held by the 
 French from 1807 to the beginning of 1814) is also reunited with 
 Prussia. Of the territories ceded in exchange for Hanover in 1805, 
 viz., Anspaeh, Baireuth, Cleves, and Neufchatel, she recovers Cleves 
 and Neufchatel, Bavaria retaining Anspaeh and Baireuth. She re- 
 ceives as new possessions half of Saxony, most of the former archbish- 
 oprics of Treves and Cologne, the territories of the grand-duchy of 
 Berg and of the duchy of Jiilich, and also Swedish Pomerania (with 
 Riigcn), given to Denmark in compensation for the loss of Norway, 
 and made over by that power to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. 
 
 Tlie bulk of the duchy of Warsaw is erected into the new king- 
 dom of Poland, jDlaced under the sceptre of Russia. The republic 
 of Cracow is created and placed under the protection of the Great 
 Powers. 
 
 Russia retains Finland (conquered from Sweden in 1808-'9). 
 
 The king of Sweden is confirmed in the jiossession of Norway. 
 
 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, and Oldenburg resume their 
 position as independent states, Hanover being erected into a king- 
 dom. The order of things introduced in Germany after the treaty 
 of Luneville — that is, the incorporation of the ecclesiastical states 
 and free cities with the larger members of the federal body — remains 
 perpetuated. Hamburg, Bremen, Llibeck, and Frankfort, alone of 
 all the free cities, reappear as autonomous political iniits. Of the 
 territory of the Lower Palatinate west of the Rhine (ceded to France 
 in 1801), the greater portion is reunited with Bavaria. Baden re- 
 tains Heidelberg and Mannheim (formerly included in the Palati- 
 nate), acquired in 1803. The former see of Wiirzburg is united with 
 Bavaria. 
 
 The members of the former German Empire enter into a new 
 union, the German Confederation. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 131 
 
 Holland and Belgium are united, and erected into the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands for the house of Orange. Luxemburg (pre- 
 viously part of the Austrian Netherlands) is erected into a grand- 
 duchy for the king of the Netherlands (to be included, as formerly, 
 in the Germanic body). 
 
 The house of Savoy is reinstated in the possession of the conti- 
 nental dominions of the kingdom of Sardinia (Savoy and Nice, lost 
 in 1792, and Piedmont, lost in 1798), and is invested with the do- 
 minions of the former republic of Genoa. 
 
 Ferdinand IIL (brother of the emperor Francis) is restored to 
 the throne of Tuscany. 
 
 Francis IV., grandson of Ercole HI. of Este (and cousin of the 
 emperor Francis), is placed on the throne of Modena. 
 
 Fei'dinand IV. of Naples and Sicily is reinstated in his conti- 
 nental possessions (given to Joseph Bonaparte in 1806, and to Murat 
 in 1808). 
 
 The States of the Church are restored in nearly their former ex- 
 tent, France retaining Avignon and Venaissin. 
 
 Parma is given to the ex-empress Maria Louisa. 
 
 Lucca is given to the Spanish infanta Maria Louisa (widow of 
 Louis, son of the last duke of Parma, and ex-queen of Etruria) and 
 her son, Charles Louis.* 
 
 The Austrian dominions in Italy are erected into the Lombardo- 
 Venetian Kingdom. 
 
 Spain is secured to the dispossessed Bourbon dynasty. 
 
 The Swiss Confederacy is reconstituted with 22 cantons. 
 
 Of the colonial possessions taken by England from the Dutch 
 and French, she retains Cape Colony, Ceylon, a large portion of the 
 Dutch possessions in Guiana, Mauritius, Tobago, and Santa Lucia. 
 She is secured in the possession of Malta and Heligoland. 
 
 1815. Napoleon defeats Bliicher at Ligny, June 16. Repulse of Ney 
 at Quatre-Bras, June 16. Napoleon is overwhelmed at 
 Waterloo by Wellington and Bliicher, June 18. Second 
 abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, June 22. Entry 
 of the allies into Paris, July 7. Louis XVIII. re-enters 
 the capital, July 8 ; Second Restoration. Napoleon gives 
 himself up to the captain of the "Bellerophon," July 15. 
 (He lands at St. Helena, Oct. 16.) Formation of the 
 Richelieu ministry by Louis XVIII. , Sept. 
 Formation of the Holy Alliance between the sovereigns of 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 
 
 * In a subsequent treaty, the reversion of Parma, on the death of the ex-empress 
 Maria Louisa, was secured to Charles Louis. 
 10 
 
132 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1815. Expedition of Marat to Calabria for the recovery of the king- 
 
 dom of Naples, Oct. He is shot by order of court-martial, 
 
 night of Oct. 13-14. 
 Treaty constituting' the Ionian Islands a republic under 
 
 British protection, Nov. 
 Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20. 
 Execution of Ney, Dec. 7. 
 Milosh Obrenovitch heads a new insurrection of the Servian 
 
 people. 
 The Spaniards, under Morillo, overrun New Granada. 
 
 1816. Congress charters a second Bank of the United States for 
 
 twenty years. James Monroe is elected president of the 
 United States ; Daniel D. Tompkins, vice-president. Ad- 
 mission of Indiana into the Union. 
 
 Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, grants a 
 representative government to his subjects. Openmg of 
 the Diet {Bundestag)* of the German Confederation, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 Fei'dinand IV. unites the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily into 
 the single kingdom of the Two Sicilies, assTiming the title 
 of Ferdinand I., Dec. 
 
 Death of Maria I. of Portugal. Her son, John VI., pre- 
 viously regent, succeeds as king of Portugal and of Brazil. 
 
 Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, Aug. 
 
 The congress of Tucuman proclaims tlie independence of the 
 Plata provinces, July 9. 
 
 1817. Beginning of James Monroe's fii'st administration. Admis- 
 
 sion of Mississippi into the Union. 
 
 Formation of the United Evangelical Church in Prussia out 
 of a union of the Lutheran and Calvinist churches. Wart- 
 burg Festival of the German Burschenschaft (patriotic 
 association of students), Oct. 18. 
 
 Milosh Obi*enovitch is elected prince of Servia. 
 
 The Mahrattas engage in a war with the English, who break 
 their power. 
 
 Bolivar establishes a Supreme Council in Venezuela, and as- 
 sumes the chief power. . 
 
 Publication of Cuvier's "Regne animal." 
 
 1818. Campaign of Jackson against the Seminoles. He occupies 
 
 Pensacola. Admission of Illuiois into the Union. 
 
 * Composed of delegates appointed by the sovereigns of the several states. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 133 
 
 1818. Congress of the Great Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle. With- 
 
 drawal of the foreign armies from France. Dismissal of 
 the Richelieu ministry, Dec. ; Louis XVIII. intrusts the 
 administration of affairs to Decazes. 
 
 Bernadotte succeeds Chai-les XIII. in Sweden and Norway as 
 Charles XIV. John, Feb. 5. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, takes El-Derayeh, the 
 capital of the Wahabees, and completes their subjugation. 
 
 Mulhar Row Holkar, the Mahratta ruler of Indore, cedes a 
 large part of his territories to the English, and becomes 
 their vassal. The English subdue the Pindarees. 
 
 The Chilians gain the battle of Maypu, and achieve their lib- 
 eration from Spain. 
 
 Foundation of the new University of Bonn. 
 
 1819. Treaty between the United States and Spain for the cession 
 
 of Florida to the United States. (Formal possession given 
 to the United States in 1821.) Admission of Alabama into 
 the Union. 
 
 Dispersal of a great Radical reform meeting in Manchester, 
 followed by a " massacre," Aug. 
 
 Assassination of Kotzebue by Karl Sand at Mannheim, March 
 23. Congress of Carlsbad, held by the members of the 
 German Confederation. Adoption of the Carlsbad resolu- 
 tions, directed against the freedom of the universities and 
 the press. First beginnings of the German Zollverein. 
 
 Victorious entry of Bolivar into Bogota. Union of New 
 Granada and Venezuela to form the republic of Colombia, 
 with Bolivar as president, Dec. 
 
 Publication of Scott's ' ' Ivanhoe. " 
 
 1820. Maine is detached from Massachusetts, and admitted into the 
 
 Union. Adoption of the "Missouri Compromise," pro- 
 hibiting slavery in the territory acquired from France 
 north of latitude 36° 30', except within the limits of the 
 state of Missouri, aboLit to be admitted into the Union. 
 Re-election of James Moni-oe and Daniel D. Tompkins. 
 
 George IV. succeeds his father, George III., Jan. 29. Trial 
 of Queen Caroline. 
 
 Assassination of the duke of Berry, second son of the future 
 Charles X., Feb. 13. (Death of the duke, Feb. 14.) Dis- 
 missal of Decazes, Feb. ; Richelieu again premier. 
 
 Riego heads an insurrection in Spain against Ferdinand VII., 
 who is forced to restore the constitution of 1812. 
 
134 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1820. Successful rising of the Carbonari (secret revolutionary asso- 
 
 ciation) against Ferdinand I. of Naples. Insurrection in 
 
 Sicily. Congress of tlie Great Powers at Troppau for the 
 
 support of absolutism. 
 Successful revolution in Portugal. 
 Revolt of Ali Pasha of Janina. 
 Insurrection in Hayti against Christophe, who puts an end 
 
 to his life. 
 Oersted announces his discoveries in electro-magnetism. 
 
 1821. Beginning of Monroe's second administration. Admission of 
 
 Missoui'i into the Union. 
 
 Congress of the Great Powers at Lay bach. An Austrian 
 force advances into the Neapolitan dominions, and restores 
 the absolute authority of Ferdinand I. 
 
 Revolution in Piedmont. Victor Emanuel I. resigns, March. 
 Charles Albert, of the line of Savoy-Carignan, assumes the 
 regency, and proclaims a liberal constitution. Intervention 
 of Austria. Charles Felix, brother of Victor Emanuel, is 
 placed on the Sardinian throne, April. The constitution is 
 annulled. 
 
 End of the Richelieu ministry, Dec. 
 
 John VI. returns from Brazil to Portugal, leaving his son, 
 Dom Pedro, regent of Brazil. 
 
 Outbreak of the Greek Revolution. Alexander Ypsilanti raises 
 the standard of revolt at Jassy, Moldavia, March. He is 
 overthrown by the Turks, June. Heroic death of Georgakis 
 and his followers. Suppression of the revolt in the north. 
 
 Revolt in the Morea, March. Victorious efforts of the Greeks 
 under Germanos, Colocotronis, Mavromichalis, Demetrius 
 Ypsilanti, Mavrocordatos, Botzaris, Odysseus, and others. 
 Successful rising in the Archipelago. Storming of Tripo- 
 litza by the patriots, Oct. 
 
 A new revolution in Mexico, heade^ by Iturbide, secures the 
 independence of the country. 
 
 The colonies of Central America declare themselves independ- 
 ent of Spain. 
 
 Victory of Bolivar and Paez at Carabobo, June 24, which puts 
 an end to Spanish power in Colombia. 
 
 San Martin enters Lima, and proclaims the independence of 
 Peru. 
 
 Appearance of Saint-Simon's " Systeme industriel." 
 
 Death of Napoleon, May 5. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 135 
 
 1822. Appointment of Canning as secretary of state for foreign af- 
 
 fairs in the Liverpool ministry. 
 
 Villele is made president of the new ministry in France 
 (foi-med Dec, 1821). 
 
 The struggle between the Constitutionalists and Eoyalists in 
 Spain ends in the triumph of the former. The Great 
 Powers, at a congress held at Verona, resolve to put down 
 the Constitutionalists. 
 
 Proclamation of Greek independence by the national assem- 
 bly at Epidaurus, Jan. Fall of Ali Pasha of Janina, Feb. 
 Massacres on the island of Scio by the Turks. The Greeks 
 force the Acropolis of Athens to surrender, June. Defeat 
 of the patriots at Peta, July. Disastrous campaign of 
 the Turks in the Morea. Naval exploits of Miaulis and 
 Canaris. 
 
 Iturbide is proclaimed emperor of Mexico, May. Santa Anna 
 and others proclaim the republic, Dec. 
 
 Brazil proclaims her seiiaration from Portugal. Dom Pedro 
 is declared constitutional emperor, Oct. 12. 
 
 The battle of Pichincha, May, secures the liberation of the 
 province of Quito from Spain. 
 
 Union of the whole island of Hayti under Boyer. 
 
 Establishment of the colony of Liberia by the American Colo- 
 nization Society. 
 
 Death of Shelley, Herschel, Canova. 
 
 1823. Foundation of the British Anti-Slavery Society by Wilber- 
 
 force and others. 
 
 A French army, under the duke of Angouleme, invades Spain 
 to restore the authority of Ferdinand VII. It enters Madrid, 
 May. The Cortes retire to Cadiz, and defend the place. 
 Storming of the Trocadero by the French, Aug. ; the Con- 
 stitutionalists are crushed. 
 
 The Suliote leader Marco Botzaris attacks the Turkish camp 
 at Karpenisi, and falls, Aug. 
 
 Pope Leo XII. succeeds Pius VII. 
 
 Resignation of Iturbide, March. 
 
 Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa 
 Rica constitute themselves the federal republic of Central 
 America. 
 
 Entry of Bolivar into Lima. 
 
 The African expedition of Denham and Clapperton reaches 
 Lake Tchad. 
 
136 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1824. Presidential election in the United States. Candidates for 
 
 tlie presidency : Andrew Jackson, J. Q. Adams, W. H. 
 
 Crawford, Henry Clay. None of the candidates receives a 
 
 majority of the electoral votes. J. C. Calhoun is elected 
 
 vice-president. 
 Death of Louis XVIII., Sept. 16. Accession of his brother, 
 
 Charles X. 
 Death of Byron at Missolonghi, April 19. Ibrahim Pasha 
 
 sails with an Egyptian force to restore the Turkish author- 
 ity in Greece, but is baffled by Miaulis. 
 Outbreak of a war between the English and Burmah. 
 The Congress of Mexico constitutes the country a federal 
 
 republic. 
 Bolivar is made dictator of Peru. General Sucre overwhelms 
 
 the Spaniards at Ayacucho, Dec. 9 ; the Spanish powder in 
 
 South America completely destroyed. 
 
 1825. John Quincy Adams is chosen president of the United States 
 
 by the House of Representatives, Feb. 
 The French government grants an indemnity of 1,000,000,000 
 
 francs to the emigres. 
 Death of Alexander I. of Russia, Dec. 1. Accession of his 
 
 brother Nicholas I. Unsuccessful military insurrection in 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 Louis I. succeeds his father, Maximilian I., in Bav^aria. 
 Francis I. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in Naples. 
 Portugal recognizes the independence of Brazil. 
 Ibrahim Pasha makes himself master of the Morea. 
 Bolivar resigns his dictatorship in Peru. Creation of the 
 
 republic of Bolivia. 
 France recognizes the independence of Hayti. 
 Opening of the Erie Canal. 
 
 Introduction of gas for general illumination in New York. 
 Death of Saint-Simon, Lacepede, Richter (Jean Paul). 
 
 1826. Death of John VI. of Portugal. His son, Pedro I. of Brazil, 
 
 resigDS the Portuguese throne to his young davighter Maria 
 da Gloria. 
 
 Fall of Missolonghi after a desperate defense by the Greeks, 
 April. The Turks occupy Athens, and besiege the Acropo- 
 lis, Aug. The Greek government retires to ^gina. 
 
 Massacre of the janizaries by Mahmoud II. ; the organization 
 abolished. Treaty of Akerman between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Feth Ali, shah of Persia, makes war on Russia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 137 
 
 1826. End of the fii'st Burmese war; the British acquire Aracan, 
 
 Tenasserim, and Assam. 
 
 The Spaniards evacuate Callao, their last post in Peru. 
 
 Foundation of the University of London. (Incorporated as 
 University College in 1836, on the creation of the new Uni- 
 versity of London.) 
 
 Death of Jefferson (July 4) and of John Adams (July 4). 
 
 1827. Canning succeeds the earl of Liverpool as prime-minister, 
 
 April. Death of Canning, Aug. Goderich is appointed 
 
 prime-minister. 
 Charles X. dissolves the National Guard and the Chamher of 
 
 Deputies. 
 Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is succeeded by his brother, 
 
 Anthony. 
 The Greek garrison in the AcrojiolLs of Athens is forced to 
 
 surrender, June. Treaty of London between Great Britain, 
 
 France, and Russia for the pacification of Greece, July 6. 
 
 The allied fleets destroy the Turkish-Egj^ptian fleet at 
 
 Navarino, Oct. 20. 
 Brilliant campaign of the Russian general Paskevitch against 
 
 the Persians. He takes Erivan and enters Tabriz. 
 Parry's Arctic expedition reaches lat. 82° 45'. 
 Death of Laplace and of Beethoven. 
 
 1828. Andrew Jackson is elected president of the United States ; de- 
 
 feated candidate, John Quincy Adams. Calhoun is re- 
 elected vice-president. 
 
 Resignation of Goderich, Jan. Wellington forms a new min- 
 istry. Repeal of the Test Act. 
 
 The Martignac ministry in France succeeds that of Villele, 
 Jan. 
 
 Dom Miguel, having been appointed regent of Portugal by his 
 brother, Dom Pedro, usurps the throne. 
 
 Capo d'Istria, having been elected president in 1827, assumes 
 the government of Greece. A French army lands in the 
 Morea, which Ibrahim Pasha is forced to evacuate. 
 
 Russia begins a war against Turkey, April. The Russian 
 forces, under Wittgenstein, cross the Danube, June. Pas- 
 kevitch takes Kara, July. Fall of Varna, Oct. 
 
 Peace of Turkmantchai between Russia and Pei'sia, Feb. ; 
 Pei*sian Armenia ceded to Russia. 
 
 Guerrero heads a successful insurrection against the govern- 
 ment in Mexico, 
 
138 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1828. Uruguay is recognized as an independent republic. 
 
 1829. Beginning of Andrew Jackson's first administration. 
 Passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act in England, April. 
 
 O'Conuell takes his seat in Parliament. 
 
 End of the Martignac ministry m France, Aug. Formation 
 of the Polignac ministry. 
 
 End of the Greek Revolution. 
 
 The Russian general Diebitsch takes Silistria. Paskevitch 
 takes Erzerum. Diebitsch passes the Balkans, and enters 
 Adrianople. Peace of Adi*ianople, Sept. 14; Turkey relin- 
 quishes to Russia the northeastern coast-land of the Black 
 Sea, and transfers to her the suzerainty over the tribes of 
 the Caucasus ; she also cedes to her the district of Akhal- 
 tzik; she accords to Russia a protectorate over Moldavia 
 and Wallachia, and agrees to recognize the independence 
 of Greece. 
 
 Death of Pope Leo XII. , Feb. Election of Pius VIII. , March. 
 
 Spain makes a fruitless attempt to recover Mexico. Busta- 
 mante heads a revolt against Guerrero, proclaiming the 
 Plan of Jalapa. 
 
 Separation of Venezuela from Colombia. 
 
 Rosas, the leader of the Federalists against the Unitarios, at- 
 tains to the supreme power in the Argentine Republic. 
 
 The first great cholera epidemic in Europe begins to spread in 
 Russia. 
 
 Death of Friedrich von Schlegel, Thomas Young, Davy, La- 
 marck. 
 
 1830. Famous debate in Congress between Webster and Hayne, 
 
 Jan. Organization of the church of the Mormons at Man- 
 chester, N. y . , by Joseph Smith. 
 
 The London Protocol of the Great Powers declares Greece an 
 independent kingdom, Feb. The Porte recognizes the Pro- 
 tocol. 
 
 Death of George IV., June 26. Accession of his brother 
 William IV. The Grey ministry succeeds that of Welling- 
 ton, Nov. 
 
 The French begin the conquest of Algeria. General Bour- 
 mont takes Algiers, July. 
 
 Charles X. publishes his unconstitutional "ordinances," July 
 26 (signed the day previous). Revolution in Paris, July 
 27-29 ; ovei'throw of the Bourbon dynasty. Abdication of 
 Charles X., Aug. 2, followed by his flight from France. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 139 
 
 1830. Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, is declared king by the 
 chambers, Aug. 7. He is formally installed, Aug. 9. For- 
 mation of the Laffitte ministry. 
 
 Outbreak of the Belgian insurrection, Aug. 25. A Dutch 
 army, after entering Brussels, is forced to retreat, Sept. 
 Belgium declares her independence, Oct. 4. The revolu- 
 tionists enter Antwerp, Oct. The Dutch garrison in the 
 citadel, under General Chasse, bombards the city. Opening 
 of a national congress, Nov. A conference of the Great 
 Powers in London recognizes the independence of Belgium, 
 Dec. 
 
 Charles, duke of Brunswick, is expelled by his subjects, Sept. 
 Revolutionary movements in Saxony and Hesse-Cassel, 
 Sept. -Oct. 
 
 Outbreak of a revolution in Poland, Nov. 29. The Russian 
 forces, under the grand-duke Constantine, retire from War- 
 saw. The Poles appoint Chlopicki dictator, Dec. 
 
 Ferdinand 11. succeeds his father, Francis I. , in Naples. 
 
 Death of Pope Pius VIII., Nov. 30. 
 
 Bustamante assumes the executive power in Mexico. 
 
 End of the presidency of Bolivar in Colombia. Foundation 
 of the republic of Ecuador (previously part of Colombia). 
 Death of Bolivar. 
 
 Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ; success- 
 ful inauguration of the modern system of passenger trans- 
 portation on steam railways. 
 
 The brothers Lander establish the identity of the Quorra and 
 Niger rivers. 
 
 1831. William Lloyd Garrison begins the publication of the "Lib- 
 
 erator " in Boston. 
 
 Lord John Russell introduces the Reform Bill in Parliament, 
 March 1. 
 
 Casimir Perier is made prime-minister by Louis Philippe, 
 March. Insurrectionary riots of the silk weavers in Lyons, 
 Nov. Abolition of the hereditary peerage in France. 
 
 The Belgians elect Leopold of Saxe-Coburg their king, June 4. 
 He ascends the throne, July 21. The Dutch forces defeat 
 the Belgians, Aug., but are arrested by the advance of a 
 French army, under Marshal Gerard. 
 
 William II., elector of He^e-Cassel, is forced to grant a new 
 constitution to his subjects. Saxony receives a new consti- 
 tutional government. 
 
140 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1831. Resignation of the Polish dictator Chlopicki, Jan. The na- 
 
 tional government, under the lead of Adam Czartoryski, 
 declares the independence of Poland, Jan. 25. A Russian 
 army, under Diebitsch, invades the country. Battles near 
 Warsaw, Feb. -March. The Poles, under Skrzynecki, are 
 unsuccessful at Ostrolenka, May 26. A Polish army, sent 
 to revolutionize Lithuania, is forced to lay down its arms in 
 Prussia, July. Masterly retreat of Dembinski from Lithu- 
 ania. Capitulation of Warsaw, Sept. 8. Complete subjec- 
 tion of Poland. 
 
 Revolutions in Modena and the Papal States, which are sup- 
 pressed by Austrian intervention. Charles Albert succeeds 
 Charles Felix as king of Sardinia, April. 
 
 Election of Pope Gregory XVI., Feb. 
 
 Assassination of Capo d'Istria at Nauplia, Oct. 9. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, sends an army under Ibrahim 
 Pasha to occuj)y Syria. 
 
 Abdication of Pedro I. of Brazil in favor of his son, Pedro II. , 
 April. Establishment of a regency. 
 
 Ravages of the cholera in central Europe. 
 
 Captain John Ross determines the position of the true mag- 
 netic pole (Boothia Felix). 
 
 Death of Niebuhr, Monroe (July 4), Hegel. 
 
 1832. Black Hawk's War; defeat of the Sacs and Foxes. Nullifica- 
 
 tion movement in South Carolina; John C. Calhoun the 
 champion of state rights. Andrew Jackson is re-elected 
 president ; principal defeated candidate, Henry Clay. Mar- 
 tin Van Buren is elected vice-president. 
 
 Final passage of the Reform Bill by Parliament, June. 
 
 Death of Casimir Perier, May. Disturbances in Paris, June. 
 Soult forms a coalition ministry, including Thiers and 
 Guizot, Oct. (Soult president of the council till 1834.) The 
 duchess of Berry, having attempted a revolution in favor 
 of her son, the duke de Bordeaux (afterward count de 
 Chambord), is arrested, Nov. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader takes the lead in the struggle against the French 
 in Algeria. 
 
 Marshal Gerard lays siege to the citadel of Antwerp, Nov. Its 
 commander, General Chasse, surrenders, Dec. 23 ; liberation 
 of Belgium. 
 
 Great German Liberal meeting at Hambach (Hambach Fes- 
 tival). 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 141 
 
 1832. The Austrians occupy Bologna, the French the citadel of 
 
 Ancona. (The occupation of both lasts till 1838.) 
 
 Poland is declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. 
 
 Dom Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil, leads an expeditionary force 
 collected by the opponents of the usurper Dom Miguel at 
 the island of Terceira, for the dethronement of his brother. 
 He enters Oporto, July. 
 
 Separation of Basel into two half-cantons, Basel City and 
 Basel Country. 
 
 Otho, the second son of Louis I. of Bavaria, is placed on the 
 throne of Greece by the Gr-eat Powers. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha storms Acre, May. He defeats the Turks at 
 Homs, July. He wins a great victory at Konieh, Dec. 20. 
 
 Overthrow of the government of Bustamante. 
 
 The cholera spreads over western Europe, and ravages Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 Death of J. F. Champollion, Goethe, Cuvier, Bentham, Scott. 
 
 1833. Henry Clay's tariff compromise. President Jackson removes 
 
 the public funds from the Bank of the United States. For- 
 mation of the American Anti-Slavery Society. 
 
 Act abolishing slavery in the British West Indies, Aug. (To 
 take effect Aug. 1, 1834.) 
 
 Revolutionary attempt at Frankfoi-t, April, followed by in- 
 creased reactionary measures on the part of the German 
 governments. A liberal constitution is granted in Han- 
 over by the viceroy, the duke of Cambridge. 
 
 Death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Sept. 29. His infant 
 daughter, Isabella II. , succeeds under the regency of her 
 mother, Maria Christina. Don Carlos, uncle of Isabella, 
 proclaims himself the lawful sovereign. Outbreak of the 
 Carlist insurrection. 
 
 The fleet of Dom Pedro, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, 
 vanquishes that of Dom Miguel off Cape St. Vincent, July 5. 
 Dom Pedro enters Lisbon, July, and declares himself regent 
 for his daughter, Dona Maria. 
 
 Arrival of King Otho in Greece. 
 
 A Russian force prepares to aid Mahmoud II. against Mehemet 
 Ali, who makes peace, receiving Syria and other territories 
 from the sultan. Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi between Russia 
 and the Porte. 
 
 Beginning of the first presidency of Santa Anna in Mexico. 
 
 1834. Act of Congress for the formation of an Indian Territory. 
 
142 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1834. Lord Melbourne succeeds Grey as premier, July. Fall of the 
 
 Melbourne ministry, Nov. Peel becomes premier, Dec. 
 
 Peace between the French and Abd-el-Kader, who is recog- 
 nized as emir of Mascara, Feb. Insurrection in Lyons and 
 riot in Paris, April. 
 
 Quadruple treaty between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal, directed against Dom Miguel and Don Carlos, April. 
 Submission of Dom Miguel, May. Maria da Gloria is de- 
 clared of age, Sept. Death of Dom Pedro, Sept. 
 
 Death of Feth Ali, shah of Persia. He is succeeded by his 
 grandson, Mohammed Shah. 
 
 Death of Schleiermacher, Lafayette, Coleridge, Lamb. 
 
 1835. Outbreak of the second war with the Seminoles. 
 Reorganization of the Mexican Republic into a centralized 
 
 state. Revolution in Texas against the Mexican authority. 
 Resignation of Peel, April ; Lord Melbourne again premier. 
 
 Passage of the Municipal Corporations Act for England. 
 Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis Philippe, July 28. 
 The French attack Abd-el-Kader. Clausel burns Mascara. 
 Ferdinand I. succeeds his father, Francis I., in Austria, 
 
 March 2. 
 Otho, king of Greece, attains his majority. 
 The migration of the Boers from Cape Colony begins. 
 Great fire in New York, Dec. 
 
 1836. Admission of Arkansas into the Union. Martin Van Buren 
 
 is elected president of the United States, and Richard M. 
 Johnson vice-president ; principal defeated candidate for the 
 presidency, William H. Harrison. 
 
 Storming of the Alamo, near San Antonio, by Santa Anna, 
 March. Houston defeats the Mexicans on the San Jacinto, 
 and captures Santa Anna, April 21, 22. Inauguration of 
 Houston as president of Texas. 
 
 Formation of a Thiers cabinet in France, Feb. Thiere re- 
 signs, Aug. Mole is appointed premier, Sept. Attempt of 
 Louis Napoleon at Strasburg to excite a revolution in his 
 favor, Oct. 
 
 The French, under Clausel, take Tlemcen, Jan. Abd-el-Kader 
 achieves a victory near that place, April. Bugeaud defeats 
 him on the Sikkak, July. Unsuccessful expedition of Clau- 
 sel against Constantine. 
 
 Revolutionary movement against the queen-regent of Spain, 
 Maria Christina, at the palace of La Gran j a, Aug. She 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 143 
 
 1836. swears to the constitution of 1812. Espartero is victorious 
 over the Carlists at Luchana, Dec. , and, aided, by a British 
 fleet, forces them to raise the siege of Bilbao. 
 
 Establishment of the new University of London. 
 Appearance of Dickens's "Pickwick Papers." 
 Death of Madison and of A. L. de Jussieu. 
 
 1837. Admission of Michigan into the Union. Beginning of Martin 
 
 Van Buren's administration. Financial iianic in the United 
 States. Incorporation of Chicago as a city. 
 
 Death of William IV., June 20. Accession of his niece, Vic- 
 toria. Separation of Hanover from England in virtue of 
 the Salic law. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, bro- 
 ther of William IV., succeeds in that kingdom. He abro- 
 gates the constitution of 1833, and dismisses seven of the 
 principal professors at Gottingen on account of their protest. 
 
 Treaty of the Tafna between the French and Abd-el-Kader, 
 May. The French, under General Valee, storm Constan- 
 tine, Oct. 
 
 The Carlist forces appear before Madrid. They retreat before 
 General Espartero. 
 
 The Caucasian chieftain Shamyl defeats the Russian general 
 Ivelitch. 
 
 The Persians lay siege to Herat. 
 
 Insurrections in Canada. 
 
 Bustamante becomes for a second time president of Mexico. 
 
 Pviblication of Carlyle's "French Revolution." 
 
 Death of Pushkin. 
 
 1838. Victorious campaign of Espartero against the Carlists. 
 The Pereians are forced to raise the siege of Herat. 
 
 The India government declares war against Dost Mohanuned, 
 
 ameer of Cabool. 
 Order restored in Canada. 
 
 The invention of photography perfected by Daguerre. 
 Inauguration of trans- Atlantic steam navigation. 
 
 1839. Formation of the Anti-Corn-Law League; agitation of Cob- 
 
 den and others. The Chartists present a petition to Par- 
 liament, demanding univereal suffrage and other reforms. 
 Chartist riot at Newport, in Monmouthshire. 
 
 Fall of the Mole ministry, March. Soult forms a new cabi- 
 net. May. 
 
 Renewal of the struggle between Abd-el-Kader and the French. 
 Successes of Abd-el-Kader. 
 
144 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1839. Espartero concludes the convention of Vergara with the 
 
 Carlist general Mai-oto, Aug. 31 ; the powei' of Don Carlos 
 completely broken. 
 
 Holland and Belgium make a final settlement ; Luxemburg 
 and Limburg divided between the two kingdoms. 
 
 Christian VIII. succeeds Frederick VI. in Denmark. 
 
 Sultan Mahmoud II. makes war on Mehemet Ali, viceroy of 
 Egypt. The Turkish forces, under Hafiz Pasha, are com- 
 pletely defeated by Ibrahim Pasha at Nizib, June 24. Death 
 of Mahmoud II., July 1. Accession of Abdul-Medjid. The 
 Turkish fleet is treacherously surrendered to the Egyptians, 
 July. Abdul-Medjid, acting under the guidance of Reshid 
 Pasha, begins the constitutional reform of The Tui'kish 
 Empire by the promulgation of the Hatti-Sherif of Gul- 
 hane, Nov. 3. 
 
 The Russians, under General Grabbe, make a victorious ad- 
 vance against the Caucasians, and take Akulgo. 
 
 Russian expedition, under Perovski, against Khiva. (Ends in 
 total disaster, 1840.) 
 
 The British forces traverse the Bolan pass, and invade Afghan- 
 istan. They enter Candahar, April, take Ghuzni, July 22, 
 and occupy Cabool, Aug. Shah Shujah is placed nominally 
 on the throne. 
 
 Death of the Sikh ruler Runjeet Singh. 
 
 The British take possession of Aden. 
 
 Dissolution of the confederacy of Central America. 
 
 1840. William H. Harrison is elected president of the United States, 
 
 and John Tyler vice-president ; defeated candidate for the 
 presidency, Martin Van Buren. 
 
 Marriage of Queen Victoria with Prince Albert of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, Feb. 10. 
 
 Fomiation of a new Thiers ministry, March. Attempt of 
 Louis Napoleon at Boulogne to raise an insurrection in his 
 favor, Aug. He is arrested and imprisoned. 
 
 Frederick William IV. succeeds his father Frederick William 
 III. in Prussia, June 7. 
 
 End of the Carlist insurrection. Revolutionary movements 
 against Maria Christina. She quits Spain, leaving Espar- 
 tero at the head of affairs, Oct. 
 
 Abdication of William I. of Holland in favor of his son 
 William II., Oct. 
 
 London Treaty of the Great Powers (France not included) 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 145 
 
 1840. directed against Mehemet Ali, July 15. British and Aus- 
 trian expedition to Syria. Beyi'out is bombarded and taken, 
 Sei3t. Capture of Acre, Nov. Sir Chai-les Napier appears 
 before Alexandria, Nov. Mehemet Ali sues for peace. 
 
 Eesignation of Thiers, Oct. Formation of a ministry under 
 Soult, with Guizot as minister of foreign affairs. The re- 
 mains of Napoleon I. are brought to Paris. 
 
 The Circassians successfully attack the Russian forts on the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 Dost Mohammed delivers himself up to the English, Nov. 
 
 Outbreak of the Opium War between England and China, 
 
 The Mormons found the city of Nauvoo, in Illinois. 
 
 Introduction of Rowland Hill's cheap postage system in 
 England. 
 
 1841. Inauguration of William H. Harrison, March 4. He dies, 
 
 April 4, and is succeeded by John Tyler. 
 
 Mehemet Ali makes peace with the sultan. He renounces 
 Syi'ia and other territories, and is recognized as hereditary, 
 though tributary, ruler of Egyjjt. Treaty between Turkey 
 and the Great Powers ; closing of the Dardanelles against 
 foreign vessels of war. 
 
 Resignation of the Melbourne ministry, Aug. Peel becomes 
 prime-minister, Sept. 
 
 Louis Philippe begins the vast fortifications of Paris. 
 
 The French take Mascara. 
 
 Espartero is appomted regent by the Spanish Cortes. 
 
 Successful insurrection of the Afghan chiefs in Cabool, Nov. ; 
 massacre of Sir Alexander Burnes and others. Assassina- 
 tion of Sir William McNaghten, Dec. 
 
 The British reduce the Bogue forts, guarding the Canton 
 River, and the forts commanding Canton, and compel the 
 surrender of the city. They take Amoy. 
 
 Santa Anna becomes virtual dictator of Mexico. 
 
 Death of Lermontoff . 
 
 1842. Final termination of the war with the Seminoles. The 
 
 United States and Great Britain conclude the Ashburton 
 Treaty for the settlement of the northeastern boundary of 
 the United States. Fremont undertakes the exploration 
 of the Rocky Mountain region. (Explorations continued 
 during several years.) 
 The duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, Ls killed 
 by an accident, July 13. 
 
14G CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1842. Successful campaign of the French, in Algeria. 
 Unsuccessful campaign of the Russians, under General 
 
 Grabbe, in the Caucasus. 
 
 The British army, having agreed to evacuate Afghanistan, 
 begins its fatal retreat from Cabool. It is overwhelmed in 
 the Kurd-Cabool Pass, Jan. Successful defense of Jella- 
 labad by General Sale and of Candahar by General Nott. 
 General Pollock, after forcing the Khyber Pass, relieves 
 General Sale, April. Entry of Pollock into Cabool, Sept. 
 The British withdrav^ from Afghanistan, and release Dost 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The British occupy Shanghai, June, take Chinkiang, July, and 
 advance to Nanking. Treaty of Nanking, Aug. ; the ports 
 of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to be 
 thrown open to British commerce ; Hong-kong ceded to 
 England. (Treaty ratified in 1843.) 
 
 The British take j)ossession of the Boer republic in Natal. 
 
 Completion of the Walhalla. 
 
 Great fire in Hamburg, May. 
 
 Death of SLsmondi. 
 
 1843. O'Connell, the leader in the movement for the repeal of the 
 
 union of Ireland with Great Britain, organizes a monster 
 meeting on the Hill of Tara, Aug. He is arrested, Oct. 
 
 Formation of the Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 A revolution in Spain, headed by Narvaez, puts an end to 
 the regency of Espartero. Isabella II. is declared of age. 
 
 A bloodless rising in Athens compels King Otho to promise 
 a constitution. (See 1844.) 
 
 Annexation of Sinde to British India after a brilliant cam- 
 paign under Sir Charles Napier. 
 
 The Thames tunnel is opened to the public. 
 
 Death of Southey and of Delavigne. 
 
 1844. James K. Polk is elected president of the United States, and 
 
 George M. Dallas vice-president ; defeated candidate for 
 the presidency, Henry Clay. 
 
 Remodelling of the Bank of England by Peel's Bank Charter 
 Act. 
 
 Defeat of Abd-el-Kader by the French. His ally, Abderrah- 
 man, emperor of Morocco, is overwhelmed by Bugeaud on 
 the river Isly, Aug. 14. Bombardment of Mogadore by the 
 prince de Joinville, Aug. 15. The em^Deror makes peace. 
 
 The exhibition of the "holy coat" at Treves attracts vast pil- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I47 
 
 1844. grimages. Johann Ronge inaugurates the German Catholic 
 movement. 
 
 The brothers Bandiera attempt an insurrection in Southern 
 Italy. They are executed. 
 
 Oscar I. succeeds his father, Charles XIV. John, in Sweden, 
 March. 
 
 Establishment of constitutional government in Greece. 
 
 China concludes treaties with the United States and France. 
 
 Restoration of constitutional government in Mexico. 
 
 The eastern portion of the island of Hayti is formed into the 
 republic of Santo Domingo. 
 
 Beginning of the dictatorship of Carlos Antonio Lopez in 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Successful inauguration of the telegraphic line between Balti- 
 more and Washington constructed by Moree. 
 
 Death of Thorwaldsen and of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. 
 
 Appearance of Eugene Sue's "Wandering Jew." 
 
 1845. Admission of Florida into the Union. Beginning of James 
 
 K. Polk's administration. Texas joins the Union as a state. 
 
 The French general Pelissier suffocates a multitude of Kabyles 
 in a cave at Dahra. 
 
 Vorontzoff leads a powerful expedition against the tribes of 
 the Caucasus. 
 
 England and France make war on Eosas, dictator of the Ar- 
 gentine Republic. 
 
 Outbreak of the first Sikh War. Victories of the British gen- 
 eral Sir Hugh Gough at Moodkee and Fei'ozeshah, Dec. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Humboldt's "Kosmos." 
 
 Sir John Franklin sails on his last voyage in search of a 
 northwest passage. 
 
 Death of Sydney Smith, Hood, A. W. Schlegel, Andrew 
 Jackson. 
 
 1846. Admission of Iowa into the Union. War between the United 
 
 States and Mexico. General Taylor defeats the Mexicans 
 at Palo Alto, May 8, and at Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 
 and forces Monterey to surrender, Sept. 24. Occupation of 
 California and New Mexico by American forces. — Repre- 
 sentative Wilmot introduces his "Proviso" (not adopted 
 by the Senate) for the exclusion of slavery from all terri- 
 tory to be acquired from Mexico. — Treaty between the 
 United States and Great Britain for the settlement of the 
 northwestern boundary of the United States. 
 11 
 
148 CHRONOLOGICAL TAELE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1846. A great famine visits Ireland. Repeal of the English Corn 
 
 Laws by act of June 26. Resignation of Peel, June 29. 
 Lord John Russell becomes premier, July 6. 
 
 Escape of Louis Napoleon from Ham, May. 
 
 Marriage of Isabella 11. of Spain with Francisco de Asis, and 
 of her sister, Louisa, with the duke de Montpensier, young- 
 est son of Louis Philippe. 
 
 Revolutionaiy movement in Portugal ; Costa-Cabral driven 
 from power. 
 
 Unsuccessful rising of the Poles, Feb. Mieroslawski, while 
 preparing to head the insurrection in Posen, is ai'rested 
 by the Prussians. Massacre of the Polish nobles in Galicia 
 by the peasantry. The republic of Cracow is suppressed, 
 the city and territory being annexed to Austria. 
 
 Death of Pope Gregory XVI., June 1. Election of Pius IX., 
 June 16. The poiie inaugurates great reforms in his states. 
 
 Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at Aliwal, Jan., and at 
 Sobraon, Feb. The Sikhs conclude peace at Lahore, and 
 cede a great portion of their territory to tlie East India 
 Company. 
 
 Discovery of the planet Neptune. 
 
 Dr. Morton publicly introduces the use of anaesthetics in Bos- 
 ton. 
 
 Elias Howe patents his sewing machine. 
 
 1847. General Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Vista, Feb. 23. 
 
 General Scott reduces Vera Cruz ; his forces occupy the 
 city, March 29. He is victorious over Santa Anna at Cerro 
 Gordo, April 18. The Americans take Puebla, May 15. 
 Successes of the Americans at Contreras and Churubusco, 
 Aug. 20. Storming of Molino del Rey by General Worth, 
 Sept. 8. Storming of Chapultepec, Sept. 13. Entry of 
 Scott into the city of Mexico, Sept. 14. 
 
 The great famine continues in Ireland ; vast increase of emi- 
 gration. 
 
 Resignation of Soult as prime-minister, Sept. Guizot, the vir- 
 tual head of Soult's cabinet, succeeds to his place. Abd-el- 
 Kader gives himself up to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 
 
 Meeting of the so-called United Landtag in Prussia. 
 
 Pius IX. continues his liberal reforms. His policy excites the 
 armed oi)position of Austria. 
 
 The Swiss Federal Diet decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
 The resistance of the seven cantons of the Sonderbund 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNR^ERSAL HISTORY. 149 
 
 1847. (formed in 1843), Lucerne, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, 
 Fribourg-, and Valais, results in civil war. Overthrow of the 
 Sonderbund by the Federal forces, under General Dufour. 
 
 Revolutionary outbreaks in the Two Sicilies. 
 Death of O'Connell and of Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 
 
 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo between the United States and 
 
 Mexico, Feb. 2. Admission of Wisconsin into the Union. 
 Act for the organization of Oregon Territory. Migration of 
 the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake. Formation of the 
 Free Soil party. Zachary Taylor is elected president, and 
 Millard Filmore vice-president; principal defeated candi- 
 date for the presidency, Lewis Cass. 
 Disturbances in Lombardy, Jan. Sicily rises against Ferdi- 
 nand II., Jan. Frederick VII. succeeds his father. Chris- 
 tian VIII., in Denmark, Jan. Ferdinand II. of Naples and 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia are forced to accord a represen- 
 tative constitution to their subjects, Jan.-Feb. (Sicily con- 
 tinues in rebellion.) Disturbances in Paris, Feb. 22. Strug- 
 gle in Paris between the troops and the people, Feb. 23. 
 Louis Philippe dismisses Guizot, Feb. 23 ; Thiers is charged 
 with the formation of a new ministry. Triumph of the 
 revolution in France, Feb. 24 ; abdication of Louis Philippe. 
 Formation of a provisional government, including Dupont 
 de I'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Etienne Arago, Cre- 
 mieux, Garnier-Pages, and others, Feb. 24. Formal proc- 
 lamation of the republic in France, Feb. 27. Opening of a 
 workingmen's convention in Paris under the superintend- 
 ence of Louis Blanc, March. Outbreak of a revolution in 
 Vienna, March 13; fall of Metternich. Promulgation of a 
 representative constitution by Pius IX., March 14. Revo- 
 lutionary movement in Pesth, March 15. Appointment of 
 an independent Hungarian ministry, the Batthyanyi-Kos- 
 suth ministry, March 17. Outbreak of an insurrection 
 against Austrian I'ule in Milan, March 18. Rising in Berlin 
 against the government of Frederick William IV. , March 
 
 18. The king yields to the demands of the people, March 
 
 19. Revolution in Panna, March. Louis I. of Bavaria, in 
 consequence of revolutionary movements, abdicates in favor 
 of his son, Maximilian II. , March 20. The people of Venice 
 take up arms against the Austrians, March 22. They estab- 
 lish a republic, with Manin at its head, March 23. Radetzky 
 is forced to withdraw his army from Milan, March 23. The 
 
150 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1848. duke of Modena is forced by revolutionary movements to 
 quit his dominions, March. Charles Albert of Sardinia be- 
 gins a war against Austria for the liberation of Italy, March. 
 Outbreak of the first Schleswig-Holstein War ; the people of 
 the duchies rise in insurrection against the king of Denmark, 
 March. Meetmg of the German Vorparlament at Frank- 
 fort, March 31. The Pi'ussians take up the cause of Schles- 
 wig-Holstein, and begin a campaign against the Danes, 
 April. Great Chartist demonstration in London, April 
 10. Closing of the last Diet of Presburg, April 11. Un- 
 successful republican insurrection in Baden under Hecker 
 and Struve, April. Rising of the Poles in Posen under 
 Mieroslawski, April. Decree abolishing slavery in the 
 French colonies, Aj^ril 27. Opening of the Constituent 
 Assembly in France, May 4. Arrest of the Irish revolu- 
 tionist John Mitchel, May. Collapse of the insurrection 
 in Posen, May. Red Republican disturbances in Pai'is, 
 May 15. Bloody conflict at Naples, which is bombarded by 
 Ferdinand II., May 15; re-establishment of absolutism. 
 Movement against the government in Vienna, May 15. 
 Flight of the emperor Ferdinand from Vienna, May 17. 
 Opening of the Frankfort Parliament, May 18. Meeting of 
 the Prussian Constituent Assembly, May 22. Opening of a 
 Pan-Slavic congress m Prague, June 2. Surrender of the pa- 
 pal forces at Vicenza to the Austrians, June 11. Insurrection 
 in Prague, quelled by Windischgratz, June. The people 
 storm the arsenal of Berlin, June 14. Bloody conflict be- 
 tween the Parisian populace and the government, June 23-26 ; 
 General Cavaignac suppresses the insurrection. Cavaignac 
 is appointed chief of the executive power in France, June. 
 The Frankfort Parliament elects the archduke John of 
 Austria vicar of Germany, June 29. Opening of the Hun- 
 garian National Assembly, July 5. Meeting of an Austrian 
 Parliament, July 22. The Austrian forces, under Radetzky, 
 defeat Charles Albert at Custozza, July 25. O'Brien at- 
 tempts an insurrection in Ireland, July. (He is made pris- 
 oner, Aug. 5.) General Radetzky re-enters Milan, Aug. 6. 
 Armistice between Charles Albert and the Austrians, Aug. 
 9. The Hungarian forces are repulsed by Serb insurgents, 
 Aug. Prussia and Denmark conclude the armistice of 
 Malmo for the suspension of the Schleswig-Holstein contest, 
 Aug. 26. The forces of Ferdinand II., under Filangieri, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 151 
 
 1848. recover Messina, Sept. 7. Jcllachich, ban of Croatia, enters 
 upon a campaign against the Hungarians, Sept. Insurrec- 
 tion of the Eadicals in Frankfort, Sept. 18. Formation of 
 a Hungarian Committee of Defense, with Kossuth at its 
 head, Sept. Struve fails in a new revolutionary attempt in 
 Baden, Sept. Count Lamberg, having been sent by the 
 emperor Ferdinand to dissolve the Hungarian National As- 
 sembly, is murdered at Buda-Pesth, Sept. 28. Jellachich, 
 after menacing Buda, is defeated by the Hungarians, Sept. 
 29. Vienna rises in insurrection, Oct. 6. Second flight of 
 the emperor Ferdinand from his capital, Oct. 7. The Hun- 
 garian forces, after advancing almost to the gates of Vienna, 
 are routed, Oct. 30. Storming of Vienna by Windischgratz^ 
 Oct. 31. Adoption of a republican constitution in France, 
 Nov. 4. Assassination of Count Rossi, prime-minister of 
 Pius IX., Nov. 15. Rismg in Rome against the pope, Nov. 
 16. Formation of the Schwarzenberg ministry in Austria, 
 Nov. 21. Pius IX. escapes from Rome, Nov. 24, and takes 
 refuge in Gaeta. Abdication of the emperor Ferdinand of 
 Austria in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, Dec. 2. 
 The king of Prussia dissolves the Constituent Assembly, and 
 publishes a constitution of his- own, Dec. 5. Louis Napo- 
 leon is elected president of France, Dec. 10. The Austrians, 
 under Schlick, enter Kaschau, Dec. Establishment of a 
 provisional government in Rome, Dec. 11. Louis Napoleon 
 enters upon his presidency, Dec. 20. Victories of the Hun- 
 garians, under Bem, over the insurgent Wallachs and Im- 
 perialists in Transylvania, Dec. Retreat of the Hungarian 
 general Gorgey before the forces of Windischgratz, Dec. 
 The Hungarians, under Perczel, are defeated at Moor 
 Dec. 29. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha succeeds Mehemet Ali as viceroy of Egypt. 
 He dies, and is succeeded by Abbas Pasha. 
 
 Outbreak of the second Sikh War in India. 
 
 Nasr-ed-Din succeeds Mohammed Shah in Persia. 
 
 The governor of Cape Colony attacks the Boers, and occupies 
 the Orange River Sovereignty. (See 1854.) A portion of 
 the Boers migrate beyond the Vaal, where they establish the 
 Trans- Vaal Republic. 
 
 Discovery of gold in California. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Macaulay's "History of 
 England." 
 
152 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1848. Death of Jolin Quincy Adams, Donizetti, Chateaubriand, 
 
 Berzelius, George Stephenson. 
 
 1849. Beginning of Zacliary Taylor's administration. 
 Dissolution of the French Constituent Assembly and meeting 
 
 of the Legislative Assembly, May. Eevolutiouary attempts 
 of the Radicals in Paris, June 13. Louis Napoleon ap- 
 points a Bonapartist ministry, Oct. 31. 
 
 Meeting of the new Prussian chambers, Feb. 26. The Frank- 
 fort Parliament, having framed a constitution for Germany, 
 decrees the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., March 
 28. It is declined by tlie king, April 3. The Danes, having 
 renewed the contest with Schleswig-Holstein, make a dis- 
 astrous attemiit on Eckernforde, April 5. The German 
 forces sent to aid Schleswig-Holstein storm the lines of 
 Diippel, April 13. The Schleswig-Holstein forces take 
 Kolding, in Jutland, April 20. Frederick William IV. dis- 
 solves the Lower House of the Prvissian chambers, April 27. 
 Republican rising in the Palatinate, May. Insurrection in 
 Dresden, suppressed by the aid of Prussia, May. Revolu- 
 tion in Baden, May. Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, and other 
 German states form a confederation (DreiJcdnigsbund), May 
 26. The remaining members of the Frankfort Parliament 
 adjourn, May 30, and renew their sessions in Stuttgart 
 (Rump Parliament), June 6. The assembly is dissolved, 
 June 18. The revolutionists in the Palatinate and Baden 
 are overthrown by the Prussian arms, June. A portion of 
 members of the late Frankfort Parliament, the party of 
 Gagern and Dahlmann, hold an assembly at Gotha, June. 
 The Schleswig-Holstein army is repulsed before Fridericia, 
 July 5, 6. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark, July 
 10. Surrender of the fortress of Rastadt, July 23 ; end of 
 the struggle of the revolutionists in Baden. The Prussian 
 chambers (with a newly elected Lower House) are reopened, 
 Aug. 7. 
 
 General Schlick disperses the forces of the Hungarian general 
 Meszaros at Kaschau, Jan. 4. The Hungarians abandon 
 Buda-Pesth, Jan. 5. Successes of Klapka against Schlick, 
 Jan. A Russian force enters Transylvania to assist the 
 Austrians, Feb. The forces of Gorgey are victorious over 
 those of Schlick at Mount Branyiszko, Feb. 5. Dembinski, 
 the commander-in-chief of the Hungarians, loses the battle 
 of Kapolna, Feb. 26, 27. Francis Joseph issues .a constitu- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVErwSAL HISTORY. I53 
 
 1849. tion for the Austrian Empire, which abrogates the national 
 avitonomy of Hungary, March 4. Victory of the Hungarians 
 at Szolnok, March 5. Bern overcomes the Russians and Im- 
 perialists in Transylvania, March. Gorgey executes a vic- 
 torious advance against the Austrians, April. The Diet at 
 Debreczin pi'oclaims the independence of Hungary, April 
 14 ; the country is declared a republic, with Kossuth as gov- 
 ernor. Gorgey, after a victory at Nagy-Sarlo, relieves Co- 
 morn, April. Storming of Buda by the Hungarians, May 21. 
 The Russian general Paskevitch invades Hungary, June. 
 Gorgey unsuccessfully opposes the Austrians on the Waag, 
 and loses Raab, June. Battle of Szony, July 2. The Aus- 
 trians re-enter Pesth, July 13. Battle of Waitzen between 
 Gorgey and Paskevitch, July 15. Bern is vanquished by 
 the Russians at Schassburg, July 31. Brilliant sortie of 
 Klapka from Comorn, Aug. 3. Victory of the Austrians, 
 under Haynau, at Temesvar, Aug. 9. Kossuth resigns the 
 civil and military power into the hands of Gorgey, Aug. 
 11. Gorgey surrenders the Hungarian army to the Russian 
 general Rildiger at Vilagos, Aug. 13. Comorn capitulates 
 to the Austrians, Sept. 28. Resubjection of Hungary to 
 the Hapsburgs. Bloody tribunals at Pesth and Arad, Oct. 
 Meeting of a Constituent Assembly in Rome and proclamation 
 of the Roman Republic, Feb. Revolution in Tuscany, Feb, 
 Suspension of the armistice between Sardinia and Austria, 
 March 12. King Charles Albert is overwhelmed by the 
 Austrians, under Radetzky, at Novara, March 23. He re- 
 signs on the same day in favor of his son Victor Emanuel, 
 who concludes an armistice with the Austrians. (The ex- 
 king dies at Oporto, July 28. Creation of a Roman Tri- 
 umvirate— Mazzini, Saffi, Armellini— March. A French 
 expedition, under General Oudinot, sent to restore Pius 
 IX., lands at Civita Vecchia, April 25. The forces of 
 Ferdinand II. enter Palermo, May; end of the revolu- 
 tion in Sicily. The Austrians take Bologna, May. The 
 Neapolitan forces sent to assist the papal cause are de- 
 feated by Garibaldi at Velletri, May 19. The French 
 begin the siege of Rome, June 3. Surrender of Ancona 
 to the Austrians, June. Fall of Rome, July 2. Restora- 
 tion of the temporal power of the pope. Treaty of Milan 
 between Sardinia and Austria, Aug. 6. Venice, after a 
 long siege, is forced to surrender to Radetzky, Aug. 
 
154 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1849. William III. succeeds liis father William II. in Holland. 
 Repeal of the Navigation Laws in England. 
 
 Battle between Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs at Chillian- 
 
 wallah, Jan. 13. He is victorious at Gujerat, Feb. 21. 
 
 Submission of the Sikhs ; annexation of the Punjaub to 
 
 British India. 
 President Soulouque assumes the title of emperor of Hayti as 
 
 Faustin I. 
 Discovery of Lake Ngami by Livingstone. 
 Death of Polk and of Petofi. 
 
 1850. The United States and Great Britain conclude the Clayton- 
 
 Bulwer Treaty, respecting the proposed water communica- 
 tion through Central America. Death of President Taylor, 
 July 9. He is succeeded by Millard Fillmore. Adoption 
 of the "compromise measures" of Henry Clay, providing 
 for : The admission of California into the Union as a free 
 state ; the organization of New Mexico and Utah into terri- 
 tories ; the settlement of the boundary of Texas ; the aboli- 
 tion of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and 
 the rendition of fugitive slaves. 
 
 A British fleet appears before Athens, and forces the Greek 
 government to grant indemnity for losses sustained by 
 British subjects (Don Pacifico claims). 
 
 Establishment of a Catholic hierarchy in England. 
 
 Unionsparlament of Noi-th Germany at Erfurt, March- April. 
 Prussia concludes a treaty with Denmark, definitively aban- 
 doning the cause of Schleswig-Holstein, July 2. Battle of 
 Idstedt, July 24, 25 ; the Danes defeat the Schleswig-Hol- 
 steiners. Austria and the states allied with her in opposi- 
 tion to Prussia revive the Bundestag or Federal Diet of 
 Germany, which opens its sessions at Frankfort, Sept. 2. 
 The ai-bitrary measures of Hassenpflug provoke revolu- 
 tionary troubles in Hesse-Cassel, Sept. The Schleswig- 
 Holsteiners are repulsed in an attack on Friedrichstadt, 
 Oct. 4. Conference of the sovereigns of Austria, Bavaria, 
 and Wiirtemberg at Bregenz, Oct. Prussia prepares to 
 resist the restoration of the German Bund, and opposes 
 her forces to those of Austria and Bavaria in Hesse-Cassel, 
 Nov. Prussia, in a conference at Olmiitz, yields to the 
 demands of Austria, Nov. 29. 
 
 Insurrection in Bosnia. 
 
 Outbreak of the Taiping Rebellion in China. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 155 
 
 1850. Expedition of Richardson, Barth, and Overweg to the country 
 
 around Lake Tchad. (Death of Richardson, 1851 ; death of 
 Overweg, 1852; return of Barth, 1855.) 
 Death of Oehlenschliiger, Wordsworth, Peel, Balzac. 
 
 1851. Fatal expedition of the filibuster Narciso Lopez to Cuba. 
 Arrival of Louis Kossuth in the United States, Dec. 
 
 Coup cFetat of Louis Napoleon, Dec. 2 ; he dissolves the Leg- 
 islative Assembly, and makes himself master of France. 
 He is elected px*esident for 10 years by a plebiscite, Dec. 
 20, 21. 
 
 Austro-Prussian intervention in the affairs of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein. The people of the duchies lay down their arms, Jan. 
 Complete restoration of the German Bund, May. 
 
 A revolutionary movement in Portugal, headed by Saldan- 
 ha, forces Maria II. to dismiss her minister Costa-Cabral 
 (reinstated in power in 1849) ; Saldanha at the head of 
 affairs. 
 
 Omer Pasha quells the Bosnian insurrection. 
 
 Burmah provokes the British to hostilities. 
 
 World's Fair in the Crystal Palace, at Hyde Park, London. 
 
 Discovery of great deposits of gold in Australia. 
 
 Invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz. 
 
 Death of Audubon, Oersted, J. F. Cooper, Turner. 
 
 1852. Franklin Pierce is elected president of the United States, and 
 
 William R. King vice-president*; defeated candidate for 
 the presidency, Winfield Scott. 
 
 The Russell administration is succeeded by the first Derby 
 ministry, Feb. Lord Derby resigns, and is succeeded by 
 the earl of Aberdeen, Dec. 
 
 Confiscation of the property of the Orleans family, Jan. Ple- 
 biscite respecting the establishment of the empire in France, 
 Nov. 21, 22. Louis Napoleon is proclaimed emperor as Na- 
 poleon III., Dec. 2. 
 
 Death of the Austrian premier. Prince Schwarzenberg ; Count 
 Buol-Schauenstein is appointed his successor. 
 
 London Protocol of the Great Powers respecting the succes- 
 sion in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein, May 8. 
 
 The Montenegrins take up arms against the Turks. 
 
 Victorious campaign of the British in Burmah ; they acquire 
 Pegu. (Peace restored in 1853.) 
 
 * W. E. King, who wa.? president of the Senate under Fillmore, died April, 1853. 
 
156 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1852. The Argentine dictator Rosas is overthrown by the party of 
 
 Urquiza. Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- 
 federation. 
 Death of Moore, Clay, Wellington, Daniel Webster, Gioberti. 
 
 1853. Act for the organization of Washington Territory. Begin- 
 
 ning of Franklin Pierce's administration. 
 
 Marriage of Napoleon III. with Eugenie de Montijo, Jan. 29. 
 
 Campaign of Omer Pasha against the Montenegrins. The 
 Turks suspend hostilities, Feb. Eussia demands a protect- 
 orate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, March. Eng- 
 land and France prepare to sustain the Sultan against Rus- 
 sia. The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay, 
 June. The Russian forces advance into the Danubian Prin- 
 cipalities, July. The English and French fleets pass through 
 the Dai'danelles, Oct. A Turkish force, iinder Omer Pasha, 
 crosses the Danube at Viddin, Oct. Beginning of the East- 
 ern War. Repulse of the Russians at Oltenitza, Nov. 4. 
 The Russian admiral Nakhimoff destroys a Tvirkish squad- 
 ron at Sinope, Nov. 30. Vienna Protocol of the Great Pow- 
 ers, directed against Russia, Dec. 
 
 Pedro v. succeeds his mother, Maria II., in Portugal. 
 
 Nanking and other cities fall into the hands of the Taipings. 
 
 Occupation of New Caledonia by the French. 
 
 Expedition of Dr. Kane in search of Sir John Franklin's 
 party. (Return of the expedition, 1855.) 
 
 Opening of the Crystal Palace in New York. 
 
 1854. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the passage of the 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Conclusion of a treaty for commer- 
 cial reciprocity between the United States and Canada. 
 (Abrogated in 1866.) Drawing up of the Ostend Manifesto 
 by Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, recommending the pur- 
 chase of Cuba by the United States. 
 The English and French fleets enter the Black Sea, Jan. The 
 English Baltic fleet sails under Sir Charles Napier, March. 
 The Russian forces, under the command of Prince Michael 
 Gortchakofi', pass the Danube, March. France and England 
 declare war against Russia, March. (The Crimean War.) 
 Landing of the French and English forces in Turkey, March 
 and April. The French Baltic fleet sails, April. Bombard- 
 ment of Odessa by the allies, April. The Russians, under 
 Paskevitch, lay siege to Silistria, May. They are compelled 
 to abandon the siege, June. Surrender of Bomarsund to 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 157 
 
 1854. the allies, Aug. 16. The Russians, on the demand of Aus- 
 tria, evacuate the Danubiau Principalities, which are occu- 
 pied by the Austrian forces, Aug. -Sept. The English and 
 French forces, under Raglan and Saint-Arnaud, land in 
 the Crimea, Sept. 14. The Russians, under Menshikoff, are 
 defeated by the allies in the battle of the Alma, Sept. 20. 
 Death of Saint-Arnaud, Sept. ; Canrobei't his successor. The 
 allied army lays siege to Sebastopol, Oct. ; Todleben directs 
 the defense. Battle of Balaklava, charge of the "light 
 brigade," Oct. 25. Defeat of the Russians at Inkerman, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 O'Donnell excites a revolution in Spain, June-July. Ap- 
 pointment of Espartero as prime-minister and of O'Don- 
 nell as secretary of war. 
 
 Promulgation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. 
 
 Said Pasha succeeds Abbas Pasha in Egypt. 
 
 An expedition under Gen. Pei'ovski forces the khan of Khiva 
 to a treaty highly advantageous to Russia. 
 
 Commodore Perry, on the part of the United States, concludes 
 a treaty with Japan. Treaty between Japan and Great 
 Britain. The Japanese government inaugurates a new 
 policy of commercial intercourse vfith the world. 
 
 The British consent to the establishment of the Orange River 
 Republic. 
 
 Commander McClure arrives in England, after accomplishing 
 the northwest passage, having entered the Polar seas 
 through Behring Strait in 1850 and been imprisoned in 
 the ice for three yeai\s. 
 
 1855. A pro-slavery legislature organizes in Kansas. A free-state 
 
 convention draws up the Topeka Constitution. 
 
 William "Walker, with a force of filibusters, invades Nica- 
 ragua. 
 
 Victor Emanuel joins in the war against Russia, Jan. Fall 
 of the Aberdeen ministry, Jan. Palmerston becomes pre- 
 mier, Feb. Death of the emperor Nicholas, March 2. He 
 is succeeded by his son, Alexander II. GortchakofP takes 
 command of the Russian forces in the Crimea, March. 
 Prolonged bombardment of Sebastopol, April. Arrival of 
 the Sardinian forces in the Crimea, May. Pelissier suc- 
 ceeds Canrobert in the command of the French army, May. 
 The allies destroy the Russian stores at Kertch, May. Un- 
 successful attempt to storm the Malakhoff, June 18. Death 
 
158 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1855. of Raglan, June 28. The Eussians, advancing to the relief 
 of Sebastopol, are defeated in the battle of the Tchernaya, 
 Aug. 16. The French forces storm the MalakhofF, the Brit- 
 ish attack the Redan, Sept. 8 ; fall of Sebastopol. Unsuc- 
 cessful assault of Muravieff upon Kars, Sept. 29. The allies 
 take Kinburn, Oct. 17. Surrender of Kars to Mui-aviefF, 
 Nov. 27-28. 
 
 Concordat between the court of Austria and Pius IX. 
 
 Final overthrow of Santa Anna in Mexico by the party of 
 Alvarez and Comonfort. Government of Alvarez. He re- 
 signs in favor of Comonfort. 
 
 Livingstone discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. 
 
 International Exhibition in Paris. 
 
 Completion of the Niagara railway suspension bridge. 
 
 Opening of the railway across the Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 Death of Mickiewicz. 
 
 1856. Civil war in Kansas. James Buchanan is elected president of 
 
 the United States, and John C. Breckenridge vice-president ; 
 defeated candidates for the presidency, John C. Fremont 
 and Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Arbitrary rule of Walker in Nicaragua. 
 
 Sultan Abdul-Medjid promulgates a liberal statute, the Hatti- 
 Hiiiuayun, Feb. 18. Treaty of Paris, terminating the 
 Crimean War, March 30 ; neutralization of the Black Sea ; 
 cession by Russia of a portion of Bessarabia, which is an- 
 nexed to Moldavia ; Russia renounces the protectorate over 
 the Danubian Principalities; institution of an interna- 
 tional Danubian Commission. 
 
 Insurrections in Madrid and Barcelona. Dictatorial measures 
 of Isabella's minister O'Donnell. 
 
 Annexation of Oude to British India. 
 
 Outbreak of a second war between Great Britam and China. 
 British attack upon Canton. 
 
 The Persians occupy Herat, and become involved in a war 
 with the government of India. 
 
 Death of Heine, Sir W. Hamilton (the philosopher), Dela- 
 roche. 
 
 1857. Beginning of James Buchanan's administration. Victory of 
 
 the free-state party at the polls in Kansas. A pro-slavery 
 convention draws up the Lecompton Constitution. — Re- 
 bellion of the Mormons in Utah. (Order restored in 1858.) 
 — Financial panic in the United States and Europe. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CNIVEESAL HISTORY. 159 
 
 1857. Ti'eaty between Denmark and the Powers for the abolition of 
 
 the Sound Dues. 
 
 The British bring the war with Persia to a successful close. 
 
 Outbreak of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India. The blood- 
 shed begins at Bari-ackpoor, March. Rising at Meerut, 
 May. The mutineers mastera of Delhi, May. Mutiny at 
 Luclaiow, May ; at Benares, June. Nana Sahib heads the 
 insurrection in Cawnpore, June. Massacre of Europeans 
 at Cawnpore by his orders, July 15. Havelock di'ives the 
 mutineer from the city, July. The British recover Delhi, 
 Sept. Havelock, after a brilliant campaign, relieves the 
 garrison at Lucknow, Sept. Sir Colin Campbell rescues 
 Havelock and Outram at Lucknow, Nov. He is victorious 
 at Cawnpore, Dec. 
 
 Bombardment and occupation of Canton by the British and 
 French, Dec. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Buckle's "History of Civili- 
 zation in England." 
 
 Death of A. de Musset, Beranger, Sue, Comte, Ranch. 
 
 1858. Admission of Minnesota into the Union. The j)eople of Kan- 
 
 sas reject the Lecompton Constitution. 
 
 Attempt of Orsini upon the life of Napoleon HI., Jan. 14. 
 
 End of the first Palmerston administration, Feb. ; formation 
 of the second Derby ministry. Act removing the disabili- 
 ties of the Jews in Great Bi'itain. 
 
 Interview between Napoleon III. and Cavour at Plombieres, 
 July. 
 
 Prince William of Prussia is appointed regent for his brother, 
 Frederick William IV. 
 
 Sir Colin Camj)bell recaptures Lucknow, March. Sir Hugh 
 Rose takes Gwalior, June. Virtual suppression of the 
 Sepoy Mutiny. The government of British India is trans- 
 ferred by act of Pax'liament from the East India Company 
 to the crown. 
 
 Capture of the forts at the mouth of the Peiho by the British 
 and French. China concludes treaties at Tientsin with 
 Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. Ces- 
 sion of the Amoor Country to Russia. 
 
 France, in co-operation with Spain, engages in a war with 
 Anam. 
 
 Fall of Comonfort, president of Mexico. Zuloaga is recog- 
 nized as his successor by the clerical and reactionary pai-ty. 
 
IGO CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1858. Juarez is declared lawful president by the Liberals. Suc- 
 cessful campaign of Miramon, the general of the reactionary 
 party. 
 
 Momentary establishment of transatlantic telegraiDhic com- 
 munication. The cable fails after a few messages. 
 
 Discovery of lakes Tanganyika and Victoria N'yanza by Bur- 
 ton and Speke. 
 
 1859. Admission of Oregon into the Union. Adoption of the Wyan- 
 
 dotte Constitution, prohibiting slavery, in Kansas. Attempt 
 of John Brown to excite an insurrection of the slaves in the 
 South. He seizes the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, night of 
 Oct. 16-17 ; he is overiDOwered and captured, Oct. 17 ; he is 
 executed, Dec. 3. 
 
 The second Derby administration is succeeded by a new 
 Palmerston ministry, June. 
 
 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia, in alliance with France, enters 
 upon a war against Austria, Ajoril. The Austrian forces 
 cross the Ticino, April. Victor Emanuel takes charge of 
 the government of Tuscany, May (the grand-duke, Leopold 
 II., having a few days before quitted his territories). Vic- 
 tory of Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel over the Aus- 
 trians, under Gyulai, at Magenta, June 4. Parma and 
 Modena emancipate themselves from their reigning houses, 
 June ; the Romagna throws off the papal rule. The sover- 
 eigns of France and Sardinia overwhelm the Austrian army 
 at Solferino, June 24. Preliminary treaty of Villafranca 
 between France and Austria, July 11. Treaty of Zurich 
 between Austria, France, and Sardinia, Nov. 10 ; Victor 
 Emanuel acquires Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua 
 and Peschiera). 
 
 Francis II. succeeds his father, Ferdinand II., in Naples, May. 
 
 Spain undertakes a war against Morocco. 
 
 Surrender of Shamyl at Ghunib, Sept. 6; the dominion of 
 Russia over the tribes of the Caucasus virtually secured. 
 
 Oscar I. of Sweden is succeeded by his son, Charles XV. 
 (i-egent since 1857), July. 
 
 Capture of Saigon, in Cochin China, by the French. 
 
 Difficulties between the Chinese government and Great Britain 
 and France. 
 
 Miramon assumes the chief power in Mexico. The supporters 
 of Juarez threaten the capital. They are defeated by the 
 forces of Miramon at Tacubaya. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 161 
 
 1859. Buenos Ayres is forced to rejoin the Argentine confederation. 
 The sinking of petroleum wells is begun in the United States. 
 The Arctic expedition of McClintock ascertains the fate of Sir 
 
 John Franklin, the true discoverer (in 1846) of the north- 
 west passage. 
 Publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species." 
 Death of Hallam, Prescott, De Tocqueville, Humboldt, Met- 
 ternich, Eitter, Ii'ving, De Quincey, Macaulay. 
 
 1860. Abraham Lincoln is elected president of the United States, 
 
 and Hannibal Hamlin vice-president, Nov. 6 ; defeated can- 
 didates for the presidency, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. 
 Breckenridge, and John Bell. Secession of South Carolina^ 
 Dec. 20. 
 
 Annexation of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Romagna 
 to the dominions of Victor Emanviel, who cedes Savoy and 
 Nice to Fi'ance, March. Rising in Palermo against Francis 
 n., April. Landing of Garibaldi in Sicily, at Marsala, May. 
 The revolutionists assault Palei'mo, May. The Neapolitan 
 forces evacuate the city, June. Victory of Garibaldi over 
 the Neapolitans at Milazzo, July 20. Garibaldi, having 
 achieved the liberation of Sicily, invades the Neapolitan 
 ruainland, Aug. He enters Naples, and proclaims the reign 
 of Victor Emanuel, Sept. The Sardinian forces advance 
 into the Marches and Umbria, which are in a state of revolt 
 against Pius IX., Sept. Cialdini defeats the papal army, 
 commanded by Lamoriciere, at Castelfidardo, Sept. 18. La- 
 moriciere, having thrown himself into Ancona, is forced to 
 surrender, Sept. 29. Garibaldi defeats the troops of Francis 
 n. on the Voltui-no, Oct. The Sardinian foi^ces advance 
 into the Neapolitan territories, Oct. They lay siege to 
 Gaeta, which is defended by Francis II., Nov. Annexation 
 of the Two Sicilies, the Marches, and Umbria to the domin- 
 ions of Victor Emanuel. 
 
 Napoleon III. accords increased privileges to the French legis- 
 lature. 
 
 Attempted reorganization of the Austrian Empire on a fed- 
 ei'alistic basis by the Imperial Diploma of Oct. 20. (See 
 1861.) 
 
 Massacres of the Maronites by the Druses in the Lebanon. 
 Massacre of Christians at Damascus. Intervention of the 
 Western Powers. A French force occupies Syria. 
 
 Surrender of Tetuan to the Spaniards. They successfully end 
 
162 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1860. the war against Morocco. Unsuccessful Carlist insurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 An Englisli-Frencli expedition marches on Peking, occupies 
 the city, Oct. , and forces the Chinese emperor to comply 
 with the terms of the previous treaties. 
 
 Miramon makes an unsuccessful attempt to take Vera Cruz, the 
 seat of government of Juarez. His forces are overthrown 
 by those of Juarez in the battle of Calpulalpam, Dec. 22. 
 
 Introduction of spectrum analysis by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. 
 
 Death of Schopenhauer. 
 
 1861. Secession of Mississippi, Jan. 9; of Florida, Jan. 10; of Ala- 
 
 bama, Jan. 11; of Georgia, Jan. 19; of Louisiana, Jan. 26. 
 Admission of Kansas into the Union as a free state, Jan. 
 Secession of Texas, Feb. 1. Assembling of a congress of the 
 seceding states at Montgomery, Feb. 4. The congress elects 
 Jefferson Davis president of the Confederate States of Amer- 
 ica, Feb. 9. He is inaugurated, Feb. 18. General Twiggs 
 surrenders his forces to the Texans, Feb. 18. Inauguration 
 of President Lincoln, March 4. Adoption of the permanent 
 constitution of the Confederate States, March 11. Bom- 
 bardment of Fort Sumter by the Confederates, April 12, 13. 
 Major Anderson evacuates Fort Sumter, April 14. Procla- 
 mation of Lincoln calling for 75,000 militia, April 15. Se- 
 cession of Virginia, April 17. The Confederates seize the 
 arsenal at Harper's Ferry, April 18. The Massachusetts 
 militia is attacked in Baltimore, April 19. Lincoln pro- 
 claims the blockade of the Southern ports, April. The 
 navy-yard at Gosport, near Norfolk, is abandoned by the 
 Federals, April 21. The Congress of the Confederate States 
 assembles at Montgomery, April 29. Secession of Tennessee 
 and Arkansas, May 6 ; of North Carolina, May 20. Formal 
 secession of western Virginia from Virginia, June. The 
 ^ Confederates are repeatedly defeated in western Virginia by 
 General McClellan's troops, July. Richmond becomes the 
 seat of the Confederate Congress, July 20. Battle of Bull 
 Run, July 21 ; the Confederates, under Beauregard, repulse 
 McDowell. Battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield (Mo.), 
 Aug. 10 ; death of Genei'al Lyon. Capture of forts Hatteras 
 and Clark by the Federals, Aug. 29. The Confederate 
 general Pince takes Lexington (Mo.), Sept. 20. Repulse of 
 the Federals at Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, Oct. 21. Mc- 
 Clellan is appointed general-in-chief of the armies of the 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 163 
 
 1861. United States (succeeding Winfield Scott), Nov. 1. The 
 Federals gain possession of the harbor of Port Royal, Nov. 
 7. Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Eng- 
 land and France, are intercepted on the "Trent," Nov. 8. 
 
 William I. succeeds his brother, Frederick William IV., in 
 Prussia, Jan. 2. 
 
 Imperial Patent of Francis Joseph providing for the reorgani- 
 zation of Austria on a constitutional basis and a system of 
 consolidation, Feb. 2Q. Schmerling directs the new policy. 
 
 Czar Alexander II. proclaims the emancipation of the serfs, 
 March 3. 
 
 Surrender of Gaeta to the forces of Victor Emanuel, Feb. 13. 
 Meeting of the Parliament of Italy, Feb. 18. It confei-s the 
 title of King of Italy on Victor Emanuel, Feb. 26. He 
 assumes the title, March 17. Death of Cavour, June 6, 
 
 Louis I. succeeds his brother, Pedro V. , in Portugal. 
 
 Rising in Herzegovina ; the Montenegrins support the insur- 
 gents. Sultan Abdul- Aziz svicceeds Abdul-Medjid, June. 
 
 Appointment of a Christian governor of the Lebanon. 
 
 Death of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, Dec. 14. 
 
 Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) proclaims the union of Mol- 
 davia and Wallachia under the name of Principality of 
 Roumania, Dec. 23. 
 
 Entry of Jviarez into the city of Mexico, Jan. •, his authority 
 firmly established. Convention of London between France, 
 England, and Spain for joint action in the enforcement of 
 their Mexican claims. The three powers dispatch fleets to 
 Mexico. A Spanish force takes possession of Vera Ciniz, 
 Dec. 
 
 The government of the republic of Santo Domingo is trans- 
 ferred to Spain by Santana. 
 
 Death of Scribe and of Schlosser. 
 1862 The British government having demanded the release of Mason 
 and Slidell, they are given up by the United States, Jan. 
 General Thomas defeats the Confederates at Mill Spring 
 (Ky.), Jan. 19. The Federals, under Commodore Foote, 
 reduce Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, Feb. 6. Cap- 
 ture of Roanoke Island by the expedition of General Bvim- 
 side and Commodore Goldsborough, Feb. 8. Surrender of 
 Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, to General Grant, 
 Feb. 16. Battle of Pea Ridge (Ark.), March 7, 8; victory 
 of the Federals. Engagement between the "Virginia" 
 12 
 
164 CHllONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1862. (" Merrimac ") and the "Monitor" in Hampton Roads, 
 March 9. The army of McClellan begins the siege of 
 Yorktown, April 5. Battle of Shiloh (Tenn.), or of Pitts- 
 burgh Landing, between Grant and the Confederate gen- 
 erals A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, April 6, 7 (Johnston 
 killed April 6). Capture of Island No. Ten, in the Missis- 
 sippi River, by General Pope, April 7. Act of Congress 
 abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, April 16. 
 The fleet of Captain Farragut begins the bombardment of 
 forts Jackson and St. Philip, on the Mississippi, April 18, 
 Farragut passes the Mississippi forts, April 24. He appears 
 before New Orleans, April 25. Surrender of the Mississippi 
 forts, April 28. Genei*al Butler takes formal possession of 
 New Orleans, May 1. General J. E. Johnston abandons 
 Yorlctown, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg (Va.), May 5. 
 Occupation of Norfolk by the Federals, May 10. Engage- 
 ment at Hanover Court-House (Va.), May 27. Evacuation 
 of Corinth (Miss.) by the Confederates, May 29. Battle of 
 Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (Va.) between the forces of 
 McClellan and those of J. E. Johnston, May 31, June 1. 
 Battle of Cross Keys (Va.) between Fremont and a detach- 
 ment of Jackson's forces, June 8. Act of Congress abolish- 
 ing slavery in the territories, June 9. ' ' Seven days' battle " 
 between the armies of McClellan and Lee before Richmond, 
 June 26-July 1 ; McClellan retires from the Chickahominy 
 to a position on the James : Battle of Mechanicsville, or of 
 Beaver Dam Creek, June 26 ; battle of Cold Harbor, or of 
 Gaines's Mill, June 27; battle of Savage's Station, June 29; 
 battle of Frazier's Farm, June 30 ; repulse of the Confeder- 
 ates at Malvern Hill, July 1. Halleck is appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, July. 
 Battle of Cedar Mountain (Va.), the Confederates success- 
 ful, Aug. 9. Second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 30 ; Jack- 
 son and Longstreet, of Lee's army, successful against Pope. 
 Victory of the Confederates, under Kirby Smith, at Rich- 
 mond (Ky.), Aug. 30. Lee invades Maryland, Sept. Battle 
 of South Mountain (Md.), Sept. 14. Surrender of a Union 
 force at Harper's Ferry to Jackson, Sept. 15. Battle of 
 Antietam Creek (Md.) between McClellan and Lee, Sept. 16, 
 17 ; Lee recrosses the Potomac. Proclamation of President 
 Lincoln decreeing the emancipation on Jan. 1, 1863, of all 
 slaves in the states which should till then continue in a state 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 165 
 
 1862. of rebellion, Sept. 22. Attack of the Confederates upon Cor- 
 inth, Oct. 3, 4 ; they are repulsed by Eosecrans. Battle of 
 Perryville (Ky.) between a portion of Buell's army and the 
 forces of Bragg, Oct. 8. Burnside is appointed commander 
 of the army of the Potomac (superseding McClellan), Nov. 
 7. Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13; Lee unsuccessfully 
 attacked by Burnside. The forces of Eosecrans engage with 
 those of Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), Dec. 26-31 
 (severe battle Dec. 31, followed by another, Jan. 2). 
 
 Bismarck assumes the administration of affairs in Prussia. 
 
 Garibaldi organizes an expedition in Sicily against Rome. 
 He is defeated and captured by the forces of Victor Emanuel 
 at Aspromonte, Aug. 
 
 The Montenegrins are vanquished by Omer Pasha, and sub- 
 mit to a disadvantageous peace. 
 
 Bloody conflict between the Servians and Turlcs in Belgrade. 
 
 Revolution in Greece, Oct. ; deposition of King Otho. 
 
 France declares war against Mexico. The Mexicans having 
 agreed to an accommodation, England and Spain with- 
 draw their forces. 
 
 Francisco Solano Lopez succeeds Carlos Antonio Lopez in the 
 government of Paraguay. 
 
 Cession of Lower Cochin China by Anam to France. 
 
 Discovery of the Victoria Nile by Speke and Grant. 
 
 International exhibition in London. 
 
 1863. Proclamation of President Lincoln definitely abolishing slav- 
 
 ery in the rebellious states, Jan. 1. Bragg unsuccessfully 
 attacks tlie forces of Rosecrans at Murfreesboro (Stone 
 River), Jan. 2. The Confederates abandon Murfreesboro, 
 Jan. 3, 4. The Federals reduce Fort Hindman (Ark.), Jan. 
 11. Hooker is appointed to the command of the army of 
 the Potomac, Jan. 2Q. The Federals unsuccessfully attack 
 the fortifications in Charleston harbor, April 7. Proclama- 
 tion of President Lincoln declaring West Virginia admitted 
 into the Union, April 20. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 
 2-4; Lee victorious over Hooker; "Stonewall" Jackson 
 mortally wounded. Grant, having crossed the Mississippi, 
 repels Johnston at Jackson (Miss.), defeats Pemberton on 
 the Black River, and invests Vicksburg, May. Lee occupies 
 Winchester, June 15. He crosses the Potomac, June 24, 25, 
 and enters Pennsylvania. Meade assumes command of the 
 army of the Potomac, June 28. Battle of Gettysburg, July 
 
166 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1863. 1-3 ; defeat of Lee by Meade. Pemberton surrenders Vicks- 
 burg to General Grant, July 4. Surrender of Port Hudson 
 (La.) to Banks, July 8. Conscription riots in New York, 
 July. Unsuccessful assault upon Fort Wagner, Charleston 
 harbor, July 18. Abandonment of Fort Wagner, Sept. 7. 
 Rosecrans occupies Chattanooga, Sept. 9. Battle of Chicka- 
 mauga, Sept. 19, 20 ; defeat of Rosecrans by Bragg. Burn- 
 side is besieged by Longstreet in Knoxville, Nov. Battle 
 of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25 ; Bragg is driven from Chatta- 
 nooga ; the operations of the Federals conducted by Grant. 
 (Nov. 24, battle of Lookout Mountain; Nov. 25, battle of 
 Missionary Ridge.) Fii"st j)residential proclamation re- 
 specting reconstruction, Dec. 8. 
 
 Rising of the Poles against Russia. The central revolutionary 
 committee at Warsaw summon the people to arms, Jan. 
 Langiewicz takes the principal command among the pa- 
 triots. Fruitless combats with the Russian forces. 
 
 The Greeks confer the royal crown on William, son of Prince 
 Christian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, March. (He assumes 
 the name of George I.) 
 
 Great Britain announces her renunciation of the protectorate 
 over the Ionian Islands. 
 
 Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark, Nov. 15. Prince Claris- 
 tian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg succeeds him as Christian 
 IX. Holstein refuses allegiance. Occupation of Holstein 
 and Lauenburg by order of the German Diet, Dec. 
 
 Ismail Pasha succeeds Said Pasha in Egyi^t. 
 
 Conquest of Herat by Dost Mohammed. Death of Dost 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The French forces, under Genei'al Forey, besiege and reduce 
 Puebla. They enter the city of Mexico, June 10. An 
 assembly of notables, convened under French auspices, de- . 
 clares in favor of an imperial government for Mexico, the 
 crown to be ofPered to the archduke Maximilian of Austria, 
 July 10. Juarez, withdrawing northward, continues the 
 struggle with the French. 
 
 Death of Horace Vernet, Jakob Grimm, Thackeray. 
 
 1864. General Banks, assisted by General A. J. Smith and Admiral 
 
 Porter, enters upon the Red River expedition, March. 
 Grant is invested with the chief command of the armies 
 of the United States (superseding Halleck), March. Vic- 
 tory of Kirby Smith and Dick Taylor at Sabine Cross 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 167 
 
 1864. Roads, April 8 ; failui'e of the Red River expedition. Storm- 
 ing of Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, by the Confederates, 
 April 12. Sherman begins his march on Atlanta, May 5 ; 
 he is opposed by Johnston. Battle of the Wilderness be- 
 tween Grant and Lee, May 5, 6. Battles at Spottsylvania 
 Court-House, May. Escape of Porter s fleet at Alexandria, 
 on the Red River, May. Sherman repeatedly flanks John- 
 ston, forcing him to fall back, May-June. Second battle 
 of Cold Harbor, June 3 ; Lee repulses Grant's assault. Vic- 
 tory of the Federals, under Hunter, at Piedmont (Va.), 
 June 5. Unsuccessful attack upon Petersburg by Grant's 
 army, June 15, 16. The regular siege of Petersburg is be- 
 gun, June 19. Sinking of the Confederate cruiser "Ala- 
 bama " by the " Kearsarge, " June 19. General Early makes 
 a raid into Maryland and Pennsylvania, July ; he is vic- 
 torious on the Monocacy, July 9, and threatens Washington ; 
 burning of Chambersburg, July 30. The forces of Grant 
 make an unsuccessful assault upon Cemetery Hill, at Pe- 
 tersburg, July 30. Hood, Johnston's successor in com- 
 mand, after disastrous attacks on Sherman, July 20, 22, 
 28, is besieged m Atlanta. Farragut passes forts Gaines 
 and Morgan, and destroys or captures the Confederate fleet 
 in Mobile Bay, Aug. Atlanta, evacuated by Hood, is 
 occupied by Sherman's army, Sept. 2. Victory of Sheri- 
 dan over Early on Opequan Creek, near Winchester, Sept. 
 19. Sheridan defeats Early at Fisher's Hill, near Win- 
 chester, Sept. 22. Early surprises the Federal forces at 
 Cedar Creek, Oct. 19 ; he is routed by Sheridan. Re-elec- 
 tion of Lincoln, Nov. 8; defeated candidate for the presi- 
 dency, George B. McClellan. Andrew Johnson is elected 
 vice-president. Defeat of Hood before Nashville by Thomas, 
 Dec. 15, 16. Sherman occupies Savannah, Dec. 21.— Ad- 
 mission of Nevada into the Union. 
 Second Schleswig-Holstem War. An Austro-Prussian army 
 invades Schleswig, Feb. 1. The Danes abandon the Dan- 
 nevirke, Feb. 5, Occupation of Schleswig and invasion of 
 Jutland. The Prussians storm the lines of Diippel, April 
 18. The London conference for the settlement of the 
 Schleswig-Holstein question assembles, April. It dissolves 
 after fruitless negotiations, June. The Austrian and Prus- 
 sian forces, after a truce, resume hostilities, June. Pre- 
 liminary peace between Denmark and the allies, Aug. 1, 
 
168 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL HISTOEY. 
 
 1864. Treaty of Vienna, Oct. 30 ; Christian IX. of Denmark re- 
 nounces Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 Complete suppression of the insurrection in Poland. 
 Final conquest of the Circassians by the Russians. 
 Napoleon III. concludes a convention with Victor Emanuel 
 
 agreeing to withdraw the French forces from the papal 
 
 territory in two years, Sept. 15. 
 Organization of the International Association of workingmen. 
 The emperor of China recovers Nanking ; end of the Taiping 
 
 Rebellion. 
 Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. 
 
 Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, enters upon a war with Brazil. 
 Outbreak of hostilities between Peru and Spain. 
 Discovery of Lake Albert N'yanza by Baker. 
 Death of Meyerbeer, Hawthorne, Landor. 
 
 1865. The Federals take Fort Fisher (N. C), Jan. 15. Occupation 
 
 of Charleston by Sherman's army, Feb. 18. Act of Con- 
 gress organizing the Freedmen's Bureau, March 3. Lin- 
 coln's second inauguration, March 4. General Johnston 
 makes an unsuccessful effort to check Sherman's advance 
 at Bentonville (N. C), March 19. Lee attacks Grant's forces 
 before Petersburg, March 25 ; he takes and loses Fort Stead- 
 man. Battle of the Five Forks, March 31, April 1; rout 
 of Lee's troops, who are pursued by Sheridan. Capture of 
 Selma (Ala.) by Wilson, April 2. Occupation of Peters- 
 burg and Richmond by the Federals, April 3. SuiTender 
 of Lee at Appomattox Court-House, April 9. The Federal 
 forces occupy Mobile, April 12. Assassination of Lincoln, 
 April 14 ; death of the president, April 15 ; Johnson suc- 
 ceeds him. Occupation of Columbus (Ga.) by Wilson, 
 April 16. Johnston surrenders his army to Sherman at 
 Durham's Station (N. C), April 26. Surrender of Dick 
 Taylor to Canby, May 4. Capture of Jefferson Davis near 
 Irwinville (Ga.), May 10. Surrender of Kirby Smith in 
 Texas, May 26 ; end of the civil war. President Johnson 
 issues a proclamation of amnesty. May 29. (The amnesty 
 made universal, Dec. 25, 1868.) The Tliirteenth Amend- 
 ment, abolishing slavery in the United States, becomes a 
 part of the Constitution, Dec. 18. 
 The British authorities take measures to suppress the Fenian 
 movement in Ireland. Death of Palmerston, Oct. 18 ; Earl 
 Russell becomes premier for a second time. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.. 169 
 
 1865. Convention of Gastein between the sovereigns of Prussia and 
 
 Austria, Aug. Schleswig to be temporarily governed by 
 Prussia, Holstein by Austria; Prussia to possess Lauenburg, 
 Austria receiving an equivalent in money. 
 
 Transfer of the seat of government of Italy from Turin to 
 Florence, May. 
 
 Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. , in Belgium, Dec. 10. 
 
 Lopez makes war on the Argentine Republic. Alliance be- 
 tween Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay against 
 Paraguay. 
 
 1866. Passage of the Civil Rights Bill over President Johnson's veto, 
 
 April 9. Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in Con- 
 gress, Jtine ; the colored natives of the United States de- 
 clared to be citizens thereof and of the individual States ; 
 any State withholding the right of suffrage from any poi^ 
 tion of its citizens to have the basis of representation in 
 Congress proportionately reduced. (See 1868.) 
 
 Wholesale arrest of Fenians in Ireland. The Fenians attempt 
 an invasion of Canada. Resignation of Earl Russell, June ; 
 formation of the third Derby ministry. 
 
 Prussia and Italy form an alliance against Austria. Mobili- 
 zation of the Prussian army, May. Austria refers the set- 
 tlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question to the German 
 Diet, June 1. Prussia occupies Holstein, June. The Ger- 
 man Diet, at the instance of Austria, orders the mobilization 
 of the Federal forces, June 14. The Prussian troops occupy 
 Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel, June. War of Prussia 
 and Italy against Austria and her German allies. Victory 
 of the Austrians, under the archduke Albert, over the Ital- 
 ians under Lamarmora at Custozza, June 24. Capitulation 
 of the Hanoverian army to the Prussians at Langensalza, 
 June 28. Battle of Sadowa (or of Koniggratz), July 3; the 
 Prussian forces, under the crown-prince, Frederick William, 
 and Prince Frederick Charles, overwhelm the Austrian 
 army, under Benedek. Austria cedes Venetia to Napoleon 
 III. , July 4, the province to be made over to Italy. The 
 Prussians enter Prague, July 8. Successful campaign of the 
 Prussians in the valley of the Main against the forces of the 
 South German states, July. Occupation of Frankfort by 
 the Prussians, July. Naval victory of the Austrians, under 
 Tegetthoff, over the Italians, under Pei-sano, at Lissa, July 
 20. Truce between the Italians and Austrians, July 25. 
 
170 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1866. Preliminaries of Nikolsburg between Prussia and Austria, 
 July 2Q. Prussia concludes treaties with Wiirtemberg, Ba- 
 den, and Bavaria, Aug. Peace of Prague between Prussia 
 and Austria, Aug. 23. Dissolution of the German Confed- 
 eration. Annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
 Frankfort to Prussia. Hesse-Darmstadt cedes Hesse-Hom- 
 burg to Prussia, Sept. Formation of the North German 
 Confederation under the lead of Prussia. Peace of Vienna 
 between Austria and Italy, Oct. 3. Annexation of Venetia 
 to Italy. Beust is appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 
 Austria (supersedmg Mensdorff), Oct. 30. Withdrawal of 
 the French trooi>s from the Papal territories, Dec. The 
 Prussian Landtag decrees the incorporation of Schleswig- 
 Holstein with Prussia, Dec. 
 
 Revolutionary risings in Spain. 
 
 Attempt of Karakozoff upon the life of Alexander II., April 16. 
 
 Fall of Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) of Roumania. Charles 
 of Hohenzollern is elected his successor. 
 
 Outbreak of the Cretan insurrection. 
 
 First congress of the Internationals at Geneva ; adoption of 
 the rules drawn up by Karl Marx. 
 
 Juarez is successful against the French invaders in Mexico, 
 
 Chili having entered into an alliance with Peru against Spain, 
 the Spaniards bombard Valparaiso, March 31. Bombard- 
 ment of Callao. Spain withdraws from the contest. 
 
 Successful establishment of telegraphic communication be- 
 tween Europe and America. 
 
 1867. Act of Congress, passed over President Johnson's veto, con- 
 
 ferring the suffrage on the colored citizens in the District 
 of Columbia and the territories, Jan. Admission of Ne- 
 braska into the Union, Feb. The Tenure of Office Act 
 and a reconstruction act, providing for a military govern- 
 ment in the Southern States, are passed by Congress over 
 the president's veto, March 2. Purchase of Alaska from 
 Russia by the United States. 
 
 Fenian insurrection in Ireland. Canada, New Brunswick, 
 and Nova Scotia are constituted the Dominion of Canada. 
 Passage of a new Parliamentary Reform Act for England, 
 Aug. (See 1868.) Outbreak of a war between England and 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Meeting of the North German Constituent Reichstag. Adop- 
 tion of the federal constitution. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 171 
 
 1867. Negotiations of Napoleon III. for the purchase of Lxixemburg 
 from the king of Holland. Threatened interference of the 
 North German Confederation. Neutralization of Luxem- 
 burg by the treaty of London, May 11. 
 
 Agreement between the North and South German States for 
 the reorganization of the Zollverein. 
 
 Francis Joseph appoints Beust his prime-minister, Feb. 7. Re- 
 construction of the Austrian Empire on the dualistic basis 
 proposed by Francis Deak. Restoration of the Hungarian 
 constitution. Formation of a national Hungarian ministry, 
 with Andrassy at its head. Coronation of Francis Joseph 
 as constitutional king of Hungary, June 8. 
 
 Garibaldi undertakes an expedition against Rome, Oct. He 
 captures Monte Rotondo, Oct. 26. Landing of a French 
 force at Civita Vecchia, Oct. 28. The French and papal 
 forces defeat Garibaldi at Mentana, Nov. 3. 
 
 "Withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons from Servia. 
 
 Withdrawal of Bazaine's forces from the territory of Mexico. 
 Maximilian is besieged in Queretaro by the forces of Juarez. 
 He is made prisoner. May 15, and executed, together with 
 Miramon and Mejia, Jxme 19. Entry of Juarez into the city 
 of Mexico, July. 
 
 Extension of French dominion in Cochin China. 
 
 Abolition of the shogimate in Japan. (The supreme author- 
 ity previously shared by the shogun and the mikado.) 
 
 International exhibition in Paris. 
 
 Death of Cousin and of Faraday. 
 1868. Impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson, Feb. -May; the 
 impeachment fails. The Fourteenth Amendment is pro- 
 claimed part of the Constitution, July 28. Ulysses S. Grant 
 is elected president of the United States, and Schuyler Col- 
 fax vice-president ; defeated candidate for the presidency, 
 Horatio Seymour. 
 
 Resignation of Lord Derby, Feb. ; Disraeli forms a new minis- 
 try. Storming of Magdala by the forces of Sir Robert Napier, 
 April 13 ; death of King Theodore ; end of the Abyssinian 
 war. New Reform Act for Scotland and Ireland, July. 
 Resignation of Disraeli, Dec. ; Gladstone prime-minister. 
 
 Anti-clerical legislation in Austria. The Czech members of 
 the Bohemian and Moravian diets resign their seats, and 
 di-aw up "declarations " setting forth their demands for na- 
 tional autonomy. 
 
172 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1868. Revolution in Spain, headed by Prim and Serrano, Sept. Ser- 
 
 rano vanquishes the forces of Queen Isabella at Alcolea, 
 Sept. 28. Isabella quits Spain, Sept. 30. Entry of Serrano 
 into Madrid, Oct. 3. Formation of a provisional ministry 
 under the presidency of Serrano, Oct. 8. Outbreak of the 
 Cuban insurrection. 
 
 Assassination of Michael Obrenovitch, prince of Servia, June 
 10. Milan Obrenovitch is elected his successor. 
 
 Success of the Turkish arms in Crete. 
 
 Conquest of Samarkand by the Russians. 
 
 The last shogun of Japan unsuccessfully attempts to regain 
 power by force of arms. 
 
 The allied arms of Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uru- 
 guay successfullj^ assail Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, 
 who is driven from Asuncion and Humaita. 
 
 Death of Brougham and of Rossini. 
 
 1869. Adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in Congress, prohibit- 
 
 ing the States from denying the right to vote to any citizen 
 of the United States on account of race or color, Feb. (See 
 1870.) Beginning of Grant's fii'st administration. Treaty 
 between President Grant and President Baez for the an- 
 nexation of Santo Domingo to the United States. (The 
 scheme fails 1871.) 
 
 Act for the disestablishment of the Irish Church, July 26 (to 
 take effect Jan. 1, 1871). 
 
 Constitutional reforms in France. 
 
 The Poles of Galicia petition the Austrian government for au- 
 tonomy. Insurrection in the district of Cattaro in Dalmatia. 
 
 The Constituent Cortes in Spain decide in favor of a mo- 
 narchical government. Serrano is appointed regent of the 
 kingdom, June. Suppression of Republican insurrections. 
 
 Opening of the Vatican Council (twentieth cecumenical coun- 
 cil), Dec. 8. 
 
 Completion of the Pacific Railway and of the Suez Canal. 
 
 Death of Lamartine, Franklin Pierce, Sainte-Beuve. 
 
 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is proclaimed part of the Constitu- 
 
 tion, March 30. Completion of reconstruction in the South- 
 ern States. 
 Appointment of the Ollivier ministry in France, Jan. 2. 
 Murder of the journalist Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte, 
 Jan. 10. Trial of Pierre Bonaparte, March. Napoleon III. 
 submits new fundamental laws to France ; plebiscite, May 8. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I73 
 
 1870. Appointment of the duke de Gi'amont as minister of foreign 
 affairs, May 15. The council of ministei"S in Spain decide 
 to offer the royal crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, 
 July 2. Declaration of the duke de Gramont against the 
 candidature in the corps legislatif, July 6. Withdrawal of 
 Prince Leopold, July 12. Benedetti's interview with Will- 
 iam I. at Ems, resulting in an open rupture between Prus- 
 sia and France, July 13. France formally declares war, 
 July 19. Engagement at Saarbriick, Aug. 2. Victory of 
 the Germans at Weissenburg, Aug. 4. Frederick William, 
 crown-prince of Prussia, defeats the army of IMacMahon at 
 Worth, Aug. 6. Defeat of the French general Frossard at 
 Spichern, Aug. 6. Resignation of Ollivier, Aug. 9. Palikao 
 forms a new ministry, Aug. 10. First battle before Metz, 
 at Courcelles, Aug. 14. Battle of Mai-s-la-Tour (or of Vion- 
 ville) between the forces of Prince Frederick Charles and 
 those of Bazaine, Aug. 16. The armies of Steinmetz and 
 Prince Frederick Charles, commanded by King William 
 in person, defeat Bazaine at Gravelotte, Aug. 18. Defeat 
 of a part of MacMahon's forces at Beaumont, Aug. 30. Bat- 
 tle of Sedan, Sept. 1; defeat of MacMahon by Frederick 
 William and the crown-prince of Saxony. Surrender of 
 MacMahon's army at Sedan, Sept. 2 ; Napoleon III. a pris- 
 oner. Proclamation of the republic in Paris, formation of 
 a government of national defense, Sept. 4. Paris invested 
 on all sides, Sept. 19. Surrender of Toul, Sept. 23. Sur- 
 render of Strasburg, Sept. 27-28. Sortie of Gen. Vinoy 
 from Paris, Sept. 30. Gambetta escapes from Paris and 
 issues a proclamation from Tours, Oct. 7-9. Victory of 
 Von der Tann at Orleans, occupation of the city, Oct. 11. 
 Fall of Metz, Bazaine surrenders to Frederick Charles, Oct. 
 27. The defenders of Paris occupy Le Bourget, Oct. 28. 
 They are driven out of it, Oct. 30. Revolutionary rising in 
 Paris, Oct. 31. Battle of Coulmiei-s near Orleans, Nov. 9; 
 Aurelle de Paladines forces Von der Tann to retreat. The 
 French re-enter Orleans, Nov. 10. Repulse of Aurelle de 
 Paladines at Beaune-la-Rolande, Nov. 28. Attempt of 
 Ducrot to break through the German lines before Paris at 
 Brie and Champigny, Nov. 30-Dec. 3. Aurelle de Pala- 
 dines is defeated before Orleans by the grand-duke of 
 Mecklenburg and Prince Frederick Charles, Dec. 2-4. The 
 Germans reoccupy the city, Dec. 4-5. Entry of the Ger- 
 
174 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1870. mans into Eouen, Dec. 6. Engagements on the Loire be- 
 tween Chanzy and the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, Dec. 
 7-10. Removal of the members of the government of 
 national defense from Tours to Bordeaux, Dec. 9-10. The 
 North German Diet decrees the restoration of the German 
 Empire (the unification of Germany having been secured 
 by treaties Mnth the South German states, concluded Nov.), 
 Dec. 10. Fall of Pfalzburg, Dec. 12. Defeat of Faidherbe 
 at Pont-Noyelles, Dec. 23. The Germans open a bombard- 
 ment on Mont Avron (Paris), Dec. 27. The advance of 
 Bourbaki forces Von Werder to evacuate Dijon, Dec. 27. 
 The Germans occupy Mont Avron, Dec. 29. 
 
 Amadeus, duke of Aosta, son of Victor Emanuel, is elected 
 king by the Cortes of Spain, Nov. 16. He accepts the 
 crown, Dec. 4. Assassination of Prim, Dec. 28 (death, Dec. 
 30). Landmg of Amadeus Ln Spain, Dec. 30. 
 
 The Vatican Council adopts the dogma of Papal Infallibility, 
 July 18. Dollinger and his associates reject the decrees of 
 the council. 
 
 The Italian forces occupy Rome, Sept. 20 (the French forces 
 having left the papal territory in August). Annexation 
 of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 9, , 
 
 Irish Land Act, Aug. 1. Elementary Education Act for Eng- 
 land and Wales, Aug. 9. 
 
 Increased difficulties of the Austrian government in its rela- 
 tions with the Slavs; the Slavic element almost entirely 
 unrepresented in the Reichsrath. Abrogation of the Con- 
 cordat between Austria and Rome. 
 
 Russia announces her refusal to be bound by the terms of the 
 treaty of Paris respecting the Black Sea, Oct. 31. 
 
 The Paraguayan war ends with the death of Lopez at Aqui- 
 daban, March, 
 
 Sir Samuel Baker leads an expedition up the Nile to establish 
 the sway of Egypt in the upper basin of the river. 
 
 Death of Dickens, Farragut, Lee, A. Dumas. 
 
 1871. Treaty of Washington for the settlement of the "Alabama" 
 
 question, May 8. 
 Faidherbe unsuccessfully attacks the German forces at Ba- 
 paume, Jan. 3. Chanzy's army is completely defeated by 
 Frederick Charles at Le Mans, Jan. 10-12. Bourbaki at- 
 tacks Von Werder at Hericourt before Belfort, and is re- 
 pulsed, Jan, 15-17. William I, is proclaimed emperor of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 175 
 
 1871. Germany at Vei-sailles, Jan. 18. Sortie from Mont Vale- 
 rien under Trochu, Jan. 19. The army of Faidherbe is 
 crushed by Von Goeben at St. Quentin, Jan. 19. Capitula- 
 tion of Paris, signing of a partial armistice, Jan. 28. The 
 remains of Bourbaki's army retire into Switzerland, Feb. 
 1. Election of a National Assembly in France, Feb. 8. 
 The i^ssembly meets at Bordeaux, Feb. 12. Capitulation 
 of Belfort, Feb. 16. The Assembly elects Thiei-s chief of 
 the executive, Feb. 17. Preliminary treaty of Versailles 
 between France and Germany, Feb. 26 (ratified by the As- 
 sembly March 1) ; cession of Alsace, German Lorraine, 
 and Metz. Triumphal entry of the Germans into Paris, 
 March 1, Outbreak of the war of the Commune, March 
 18. The National Assembly meets at Versailles, March 
 20. Elections to the Commune, March 26. The Com- 
 munists attempt an advance upon Vei-sailles, but are 
 driven back, April 2. They repeat the attempt in gi'eat 
 force and are completely routed, April 3. MacMahon is 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the nation- 
 al government, April 3. The army of Versailles begins 
 active offensive operations against Paris, April 6. Fort 
 Issy is occupied, May 9. Signing of a definitive treaty of 
 peace between France and Germany at Frankfort, May 
 10. The government forces obtain possession of Fort Van- 
 ves. May 14. They secure a foothold in Paris, May 21. 
 Montmartre is taken. May 23. The Communists set fire to 
 the public buildings. May 24. Massacre of Archbishop 
 Darboy and other hostages, May 24. The government 
 forces take Pere Lachaise, May 27. End of the struggle, 
 May 28. The National Assembly revokes the proscription 
 against the Bourbon and Orleans princes, June 8. The 
 Assembly prolongs Thiers's term of office, and confers on 
 him the title of President of the Republic, Aug. 31. 
 
 Meeting of the London Conference for the settlement of the 
 Black Sea question, Jan. 17. Treaty between the Powers, 
 March 13 ; the provisions of the treaty of Paris respecting 
 neutralization abrogated. 
 
 Abolition of the purchase system in the British army. 
 
 Opening of the first Reichstag of the new German Empire, 
 March 21. First general congress of the Old Catholics at 
 Munich, Sept. 
 
 The Hohenwart ministry in Cisleithan Austria attempts a 
 
176 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1871. settlement with the Czechs on the basis of Bohemian au- 
 tonomy. Hohenwart fails, and resigns, Oct. 26. Resigna- 
 tion of Beust, Nov. 6. Francis Joseph appoints Andrassy 
 minister of foreign affairs. Prince Adolf Auersperg forms 
 a ministry in Cisleithania, Nov. 
 
 The Italian Parliament passes the Bill of the Papal Guaran- 
 tees, May. The seat of the Italian government is trans- 
 ferred from Florence to Rome. 
 
 Act of the Brazilian government providing for the gradual 
 abolition of slavery, Sept. 28. 
 
 Great conflagration in Chicago, Oct. 8-10. 
 
 Opening of the Mont Cenis tunnel. 
 
 Polar expedition of Captain Hall ; lat. 82° 16' reached. 
 
 Successful expedition of Stanley In search of Livingstone. 
 
 Death of Sir John Herschel, Auber, Grote. 
 
 1872. The Geneva Tribunal for the settlement of the "Alabama" 
 
 question makes an award to the United States, Sept. 14. 
 Settlement of the San Juan boundary question by the de- 
 cision of the emperor William, Oct. 21. Grant is re-elected 
 president, and Henry Wilson is elected vice-president; 
 defeated candidate for the presidency, Horace Greeley. 
 Death of Greeley, Nov. 29. Beginning of the Modoc war. 
 
 Passage of the Ballot Bill by the English Parliament. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law suppressing the houses of 
 the Jesuits and affiliated orders, June. Open rupture be- 
 tween the German government and the papal court, Dec. 
 
 Outbreak of the great insurrection in Spain in favor of Don 
 Carlos (Charles VII.). 
 
 Oscar II. succeeds his brother, Charles XV. , in Sweden, Sept. 
 
 Assassination of the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, Feb. 8. 
 
 Death of Juarez, president of Mexico ; he is succeeded by Lerdo 
 de Tejada. 
 
 Eruption of Vesuvius. 
 
 Great conflagration in Boston, Nov. 9-11. 
 
 The Austrian polar expedition under Payer and Weyprecht 
 sails. (Francis Joseph land discovered, 1873; lat. 82° 5' 
 reached, 1874.) 
 
 Death of Mazzini and of Meade. 
 
 1873. Beginning of President Grant's second administration. Sur- 
 
 render of the Modocs. 
 Death of Napoleon III., Jan. 9. Resignation of Tliiers, Mac- 
 Mahon chosen his successor, May 24. The Germans com- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I77 
 
 1873. plete the evacuation of the French territory, Sept. 16. The 
 National Assembly confers the executive power on Mac- 
 Mahon for a term of seven years (Septennat), night of 
 Nov. 19-20. Bazaine is sentenced for treason, Dec. 10. 
 
 Tlie Prussian government issues the Falk laws against the 
 Catholics, May. 
 
 Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain, Feb. 11 ; a republican 
 government established. Formation of a ministry under 
 the presidency of Figueras, with Castelar as minister of 
 foreign affairs, Feb. 12. Act abolishing slavery in Porto 
 Rico, March 22. Spain is declared a federal republic by 
 vote of the Constituent Cortes, June 8. Pi y Margall is 
 appointed president of the executive, June 11. Risings of 
 the Intransigentes and Internationals in the cities of An- 
 dalusia, Murcia, and Valencia, June-July. Bloody excesses 
 of the Internationals in Alcoy, July 10. Formation of a 
 new ministry under Salmeron, July 19. The Carlists take 
 Igualada, July 20. End of the insurrection in Seville, July 
 29. The Intransigentes of Cartagena bombard Almeria, 
 July 30. The Intransigentes succumb, except in Carta- 
 gena, Aug. Castelar is chosen by the Cortes president of 
 the Executive, Sept. 7. Ineffectual operations of Moriones 
 against the Carlists. The Carlists attempt the reduction of 
 Bilbao. 
 
 Capture of the steamship "Virginius" by a Spanish man-of- 
 war, Oct. 31. Spain yields to the demands of the United 
 States, Nov. 29. Surrender of the "Virginius," Dec. 16. 
 
 Russian expedition under General Kaufmann against Khiva. 
 The city of Khiva is taken, June 10. Treaty of peace, Aug. 
 
 Outbreak of the Ashantee war. 
 
 The sultan of Zanzibar submits to the demands of Sir Bartle 
 Frere for the abolition of the slave trade. 
 
 The Dutch make war on Atcheen; they suffer a severe re- 
 vei-se. 
 
 International exposition in Vienna. 
 
 Financial panic in Austria and in the United States. 
 
 Death of Bulwer, Livingstone, Mill, Manzoni, Agassiz. 
 
 1874. Resignation of Gladstone, Feb. ; Disraeli prime-minister. 
 Resignation of Castelar, .Jan. 3. Coup cVetat of General 
 
 Pavia, Jan. 3. Serrano at the head of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, Jan. 4. Surrender of Cartagena, Jan. 12. General 
 Moriones, attempting to relieve Bilbao, is repulsed by the 
 
178 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1874. Cai'lists at Somorrostro, Feb. 34. Serrano and Concha at- 
 tack the Carlist positions before Bilbao, and raise the siege 
 of the city, April 28-May 2. General Concha attacks the 
 Carlist stronghold of Estella, June 25-27; he is repulsed 
 and mortally wounded. The Carlists, under Don Alfonso, 
 brother of Don Carlos, take Cuenca, July 15. The Carlists 
 are forced to retreat from before Puycerda and Irun, Aug, 
 and Nov. Alfonso, son of the ex-queen Isabella, is pro- 
 claimed king of Spain by the armies, as Alfonso XII. , Dec. 
 29, 30. Establishment of a ministry of regency under 
 Canovas del Castillo, Dec. 31. 
 
 Capture of Koomassie by Sir Garnet Wolseley, Feb. 4. End 
 
 of the Ashantee war. 
 Annexation of the Feejee Islands to the British possessions. 
 Successful campaign of the Dutch in Atcheen. 
 Death of Fillmoi^e, Sumner, Kaulbach, Guizot. 
 
 1875. England purchases the Khedive's share in the Suez canal, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 The Assembly in France adopts laws providing for the con- 
 stitution of the national legislature; the legislative power 
 to be vested in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 Alfonso XII. lands in Spain, Jan. 9. Submission of the Carlist 
 general Cabrera, March. Surrender of the Carlist fortress 
 of Seo de Urgel, Avig. General Quesada drives the Carlists 
 from before Pamplona, Nov. 
 
 Outbreak of an insurrection in Herzegovina, July ; in Bosnia, 
 Aug. 
 
 Ismail Pasha engages in a war of conquest against the Abys- 
 sinians. 
 
 British polar exj)edition under Captain Nares. (See 1876.) 
 
 Cameron completes his journey across the African continent. 
 
 Death of Lyell, Andrew Johnson, Andersen. 
 
 1876. General Custer's command is annihilated by the Sioux, June 
 
 25, 26. Admission of Colorado into the Union. Disputed 
 
 presidential election in the United States. The Republicans 
 
 claim the election of Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. 
 
 Wheeler ; the Democrats, of Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas 
 
 A. Hendricks. 
 Parliament confers on Queen Victoria the title of Empress 
 
 of India ; formal assumption of the title, April 28. 
 The Great Powers address a note (the Andrassy note) to the 
 
 Porte, demanding reforms, Jan. 31. Severe fighting between 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I79 
 
 1876. the Herzegovinians and Mukhtar Pasha. Fresh rising in 
 Bosnia, April. Eising in Bulgaria, May. Murder of the 
 French and German consuls at Salonica, May 6. Massacres 
 in Bulgaria, May. Revolution in Constantinople, May 12 ; 
 fall of the grand- vizier Mahmoud Pasha. Gortchakoff , An- 
 drassy, and Bismarck, draw up the Berlin Memorandum, 
 May 14. Deposition of Abdul- Aziz and elevation of Murad 
 V. , night of May 29-30. Violent death of Abdul-Aziz, June 
 4. Servia and Montenegro declare war against the Porte, 
 July 2. Victory of the Montenegrins at Vrbitza, July 28. 
 The Turks defeat the Servians on the Timok, but are re- 
 pulsed before Alexinatz, Aug. Deposition of Murad V. 
 and elevation of Abdul Hamid II., Aug. 31. Surrender of 
 Medun to the Montenegrins, Oct. 20. The Turlcs defeat the 
 Servians at Diunis and Alexinatz, and completely break the 
 strength of the enemy, Oct. Evissian ultimatum to the 
 Porte, Oct. 30. Conclusion of a general armistice, Oct. 31. 
 Midhat Pasha is appointed grand-vizier, Dec. 19. Pro- 
 clamation of a constitution for the Turkish Empire, Dec. 
 23. Opening of the conference of the Great Powers at 
 Constantinople, Dec. 23. 
 Fall of Estella, Feb. 19. Don Carlos retreats into France, 
 Feb. 28. Abolition of the Fueros of the Basque provinces. 
 Annexation of Khokan to Russia. 
 
 The Abyssinians overthrow the Egyptian forces at Gura. 
 The Boers of the Transvaal Republic, under President Burgers, 
 
 engage in a disastrous war with the Caffres. 
 Porfirio Diaz seizes the supreme power in Mexico. 
 Centennial exposition in Philadelphia; Alexander Graham 
 
 Bell exhibits his articulating telephone. 
 A sledging party of Captain Nares's expedition reaches lat. 83° 
 
 20' north of Greenland. 
 Death of Deak, George Sand, Ehrenberg. 
 1877. Congress passes an act providing for an Electoral Commission 
 to settle the disputed presidential election, Jan. 25, 2Q ; Presi- 
 dent Grant approves the act, Jan. 29. Election of the mem- 
 bers of the Commission, Jan. 30. The Commission renders 
 a decision in favor of Hayes, March 1. Congress declares 
 Hayes elected, March 2. Inauguration of the president, 
 March 5. Great labor strikes in the United States, disorders 
 supijressed by the military, July-Aug. 
 rhe grand council of the Turkish Empire rejects the proposi- 
 13 
 
180 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1877. tions of tlie Great Powers respecting reforms, Jan. 18. 
 Close of the conference at Constantinople, Jan. 20. Fall 
 of Miclliat Pasha, Feb. 5. Peace between Turkey and Ser- 
 via, March 1. Openmg of the Turkish Parliament, March 
 19. London Protocol of the Great Powers, March 31. It 
 is rejected by the Porte, April 9. Convention between Eus- 
 sia and Roumania, April 16. Russia declai-es war against 
 the Porte, April 24. The Russian forces enter Roumania 
 and Turkish Armenia, April 24. Rising in the Caucasus, 
 May. Roumania at war with the Porte, May. The Rus- 
 sians storm Ardahan, May 17. Roumania declares her in- 
 dependence, May 21. A portion of the Russian forces cross 
 the Danube at Galatz, June 22. Repulse of General Loris- 
 Melikoff at Zevin, June 25. The Russian main army begins 
 the passage of the Danube at Simnitza, June 27. Mukhtar 
 Pasha forces the Russians to raise the siege of Kars, July 9. 
 General Gurko passes the Balkans, July 13, 14. Fall of 
 Nicopolis, July 16. First victory of Osman Pasha at Plevna, 
 July 20. A portion of the army of the grand-duke Nicholas 
 suffers a great defeat before Plevna, July 30. Suleiman 
 Pasha attacks and defeats General Gurko at Eski Zaghra, 
 July 31, Aug. 1. Suleiman Pasha begins his attacks on the 
 Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, Aug. 21. Successful 
 operations of Mehemet Ali against the Russian crown-prince 
 on the Lom, Aug. -Sept. The Russians storm Lovtcha 
 (Lovatz), Sept. 3. Surrender of Niksitch to the Montene- 
 grins, Sept. 8. Renewed attacks on Plevna, Sept. ; des- 
 perate assault of the Russians and Roumanians, Sept. 11. 
 Complete defeat of Mukhtar Pasha in the battle of Aladja 
 Dagh, Oct. 15; followed by his retreat upon Erzerum. 
 General Gurko storms Gorni Dubnik, ''Oct. 24. He takes 
 Telish, Oct. 28. The Russians storm the Turkish positions 
 at Deve-Boyun, and force Mukhtar Pasha to withdraw 
 behind the fortifications of Erzerum, Nov. 4. Storming of 
 Kars, Nov. 18. Mehemet Ali is forced from his positions 
 at Pravetz, Nov. 23. Suleiman Pasha's forces capture 
 Elena, Dec. 4. Osman Pasha attempts to break through 
 the Russian lines at Plevna, but is forced to surrender, Dec. 
 10. Defeat of Suleiman Pasha at Metchka, Dec. 12. Sei'Aaa 
 declares war against the Porte, Dec. 14. General Gurko 
 advances across the Balkans. 
 The British take possession of the Transvaal Republic. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 181 
 
 1877. Stanley establishes tlie identity of the Lualaba and Congo 
 
 rivers. 
 Death of Motley, Thiers, Leverrier. 
 
 1878. General Gurko enters Sofia, Jan. 4. General Eartzoff forces 
 
 the Troyan Pass, Jan. 7. Generals Mirski, Skobeleff, and 
 Eadetzky capture the Turkish forces in the Shipka Pass, 
 Jan. 9. Surrender of Nish to the Servians, Jan. 10. The 
 Montenegrins take Antivari, Jan. 10. Fighting near Phil- 
 ippopolis, ending in the ruin of Suleiman's army, Jan. 15- 
 17. The Russians occupy Adrianople, Jan. 20. They ad- 
 vance to the neighborhood of Constantinople. Armistice, 
 Jan. 31. Entry of the British fleet into the Sea of Mar- 
 mora, Feb. 13. Treaty of San Stefano, March 3. The 
 British government embarks a force of Sepoys at Bombay 
 for service against the Russians, April. England enters 
 into a convention with Turkey, in which she engages to 
 maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions in Asia, the 
 Porte permitting her to occupy Cyi^rus, June 4. Opening 
 of the congress of Berlin, June 13. Treaty of Berlin, July 13. 
 
 MAIN STIPULATIONS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN. 
 Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro are declared independent 
 principalities ; Russia receives most of Turkish Armenia — includ- 
 ing Kars and Ardahan — as well as Batum, and the portion of Bess- 
 arabia annexed to Moldavia in 1856. The Dobrudja is given to 
 Roumania. Large additions (including Nish) are made to the terri- 
 tory of Servia, Montenegro receives Niksitch, Podgoritza, and 
 AntivarL Bulgaria (with altered boundaries) is created a Christian 
 principality, tributary to the Porte. The province of Eastern Rou- 
 melia is created, to be ruled by a Christian governor. The fortresses 
 of Shumla, Varna, Silistria, Rustchuk, and Viddin to be dismantled. 
 Austria undertakes the occupation and administration of Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina. Civil rights are guaranteed to non-Mohamme- 
 dans in the Turkish Empire. 
 
 The Austrian forces enter Bosnia and Herzegovina, July 29. 
 The Mohammedans offer a desperate, but ineffectual, re- 
 sistance. The subjugation of the provinces completed, Oct. 
 
 Death of Victor Emanuel, Jan. 9. He is succeeded by his son, 
 Humbert. 
 
 Death of Pius IX., Feb. 7. Election of Leo XIII., Feb. 20. 
 
 Attempt of the Nihilist Vera Zasulitch upon the life of Tre- 
 poff, prefect of St. Petei-sburg, Feb. 5. General Mezentzeff, 
 
182 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1878. director of the third section of the Eussian imperial chan- 
 cellery, is assassinated by Nihilist conspirators, Aug. 16. 
 
 Attempt of Hodel upon the life of the emperor William, May 
 4. Nohiliug wounds the emperor, June 2. The German 
 Reichstag passes the Anti-Socialist Law, Oct. 
 
 Reception of a Russian embassy, under Stolietoff , by Shir Ali, 
 ameer of Afghanistan, Aug. Lord Lytton, viceroy of India, 
 demands the admission of a British embassy at Cabool, 
 Aug. The British embassy, under Sir Neville Chamber- 
 lain, is refused a passage by the Afghan commandant at Ali 
 Musjid (at the Xbyber Pass), Sept. The viceroy sends an 
 ultimatum to Shir Ali, Nov. 2. The British forces enter 
 Afghanistan, Nov. 21. General Browne attacks Ali Musjid, 
 Nov. 21. He occupies the fort, Nov. 22. Victory of Gen- 
 eral Roberts at the Peiwar Pass, Dec. 2. Withdrawal of 
 the Russian embassy from Cabool, Dec. Flight of Shir Ali 
 from Cabool, Dec. 13 ; his son, Yakub Khan, left in charge 
 of the government. Bi'owne occupies Jellalabad, Dec. 20. 
 
 Restoration of order throughout most of Cuba. 
 
 International exhibition in Paris. 
 
 Death of Joseph Henry, Bryant, Petermann. 
 
 1879. Resumption of specie payment in the United States, Jan. 1. 
 Resignation of President MacMahon, Jules Grevy chosen his 
 
 successor, Jan. 30. Gambetta is chosen president of the 
 French Chamber of Deputies, Jan. 31. 
 The British, under Biddulph and Stewart, occupy Candahar 
 and Kelat-i-Ghilzai, Jan. Death of Shir Ali in Turkestan, 
 Feb. 21 ; Yakub Khan succeeds hun. Advance of the Brit- 
 ish from Jellalabad to Gundamuk, April. Yakub Khan re- 
 pairs to Gundamuk, and concludes there a treaty of peace 
 with the British, May 19 (treaty signed. May 26). A British 
 embassy, under Major Cavagnari, enters Cabool, July 24. 
 Massacre of Cavagnari and his suite, Sept. 3. The British 
 undertake a general advance on Cabool, Sept. Yakub Khan 
 repairs to the British camp, Sept. The main army of the 
 British, under General Roberts, traverses the Shutar-Gar- 
 dan Pass, Oct. 1. He repulses the attacks of the Ghilzais, 
 Oct. 2. He defeats the Caboolese near their capital, Oct. 6. 
 Entry of his forces into Cabool, Oct. 12. Abdication of 
 Yakub Klian, Oct. General Roberts, after protracted com- 
 bats with the Afghans, evacuates Cabool, and collects his 
 forces in a fortified jDOsition at Shu-pur, Dec. He dislodges 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 183 
 
 1879. the Afghans from their positions around Shh'pur, Dec. 23. 
 The British reoccupy Cabool. 
 
 The British make war on the Zulu king Cetywayo, Jan. Dis- 
 aster to the British at Isandula, Jan. 22. Lord Chelmsford 
 repulses the Zulus at Gingolovo, April 2. He relieves Colo- 
 nel Pearson at Ekowe, Aj)ril 3. Sir Garnet Wolseley is 
 appointed to conduct the war, May. Prince Louis Napo- 
 leon is slain in a reconnoissance, June 1. Lord Chelmsford 
 vanquishes the Zulus at Ulundi, July 4. Capture of Cety- 
 wayo, Aug. 28. 
 
 Assassination of Krapotkin, governor of Kharkov, Feb. 21. 
 Attempt upon the life of Drenteln, the successor of Mezen- 
 tzeff, March 25. Attempt of Solovieff upon the life of 
 Alexander II., April 14. Repulse of the Russians, under 
 Lomakm, by the Tekke -Turkomans at Gok-Tepe, Sept. 9. 
 Attempt of the Nihilists to blow up the train cariying the 
 czar to Moscow, Dec. 1. 
 
 Prince Alexander of Battenberg is elected prince of Bulgaria, 
 Apinl 29. 
 
 Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, is deposed by the Porte, and 
 his son, Tewfik Pasha, appointed his successor, June. 
 
 Passage of the Irish Univereity Bill, Aug. Anti-rent agitation 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Resignation of Andrassy, Oct. ; Baron Haymerle succeeds him. 
 
 Chili engages in a war with Bolivia and Peru. The Peruvian 
 iron-clads "Huascar" and " Independencia " attack two 
 Chilian men-of-war at Iquique, May 21 ; one of the Chilian 
 vessels is simk ; the "Independencia," while pursuing the 
 other, runs upon a shoal, and is lost. The Chilians cap- 
 ture the " Huascar," Oct. 8. The Chilians occupy Pisagua, 
 Nov. 2. They defeat the Peruvians and Bolivians at Dolores, 
 Nov. 19. They occupy Iquique, Nov. 23. Battle of Tara- 
 paca, Nov. 27. President Prado quits Peru, Dec. Pierola 
 proclaims himself dictator. 
 
 Destruction of Szegedin by an inundation of the Theiss, March, 
 
 Nordenskjold accomplishes the northeast passage. 
 
 Death of Espartero, Garrison, Carey. 
 
 1880. Election of James A. Garfield to the presidency of the United 
 
 States, Nov. 2 ; defeated candidate, W. S. Hancock. Ches- 
 ter A. Arthur is elected vice-president. The United States 
 government concludes a treaty with China relative to the 
 restriction of the immigration of Chinese laborers, Nov. 17. 
 
184 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1880. Attempt to blow up the Russian imperial family in the Win- 
 ter Palace, Feb. 17. General Loris-Melikoff is appointed 
 president, with almost dictatorial powers, of a supreme com- 
 mission charged with the suppression of Nihilism, Feb. 24. 
 The Russians undertalce a new expedition against the 
 Tekke-Turkomans, Skobeleff commanding, July. Aboli- 
 tion of the supreme commission, Loris-MelikofP appointed 
 minister of the interior with extensive powers, Aug. 18. 
 
 Publication of the Ferry Educational Bill in France, March 
 19. Promulgation of the decrees of the Freycinet cabinet 
 ordering the dissolution of all the Jesuit establishments and 
 compelling all other non-authorized religious orders to sub- 
 mit their statutes to the government, March 30 (decrees 
 dated March 29). Passage of a bill granting amnesty to 
 the Communists, July (decree signed by the president, July 
 10). Resignation of Freycinet, Jul&s Ferry becomes head 
 of the ministry, Sept. 
 
 Resignation of the Beaconsfield ministry, Gladstone forms a 
 new cabinet, April. Abdurrahman Khan, neiDhew of Shir 
 Ali, is proclaimed ameer of Cabool under British auspices, 
 July 22. General Burrows's command is overwhelmed at 
 Kushk-i-Nakhud, by Ayub Khan of Herat, July 27. Gen- 
 eral Roberts marches from Cabool to relieve Candahar; 
 Aug. Withdrawal of General Stewart's forces from Ca- 
 bool, Aug. 11. Roberts enters Candahar, Aug. 31. He 
 disperses Ayub Khan's army on the Argand-ab, Sept. 1 ; 
 flight of Ayub toward Herat. 
 
 The agrarian movement in Ireland develops into a formida- 
 ble system of terrorism. 
 
 A conference of the Great Powers is convened at Berlin, sup- 
 plementary to the Berlin congress of 1878, June. Naval 
 demonstration of the Powers off the coast of Albania to en- 
 force the decrees of the supplementally conference respect- 
 ing the surrender of Dulcigno by Turkey to Montenegro, 
 Sept. A Turkish force expels the Albanians from Dulcigno, 
 which is taken possession of by the Montenegrins, Nov. 
 
 A violent agitation against the Jews is set on foot in Germany. 
 
 The Cortes of Spain pass a law for the gradual abolition of 
 slavery in Cuba (the period being fixed at eight yeare), Jan. 
 (Promulgation of the law, Feb.) 
 
 Rising in the Transvaal against British rule, Nov. 
 
 The Society Islands are annexed to the dominions of Franca 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 185 
 
 1880. The Chilians unsuccessfully attack Arica by sea, Feb. 27. 
 
 They enter Moquegua and storm the heights commanding 
 it, March 20, 21. The blockade of Callao is begun, April. 
 The Chilians storm the positions of the Peruvians and Bo- 
 livians at Tacna, May 27. They make themselves masters 
 of Arica, June 7. 
 
 Manuel Gonzalez succeeds Diaz as president of Mexico. 
 
 Completion of the cathedral of Cologne. 
 
 Death of Jules Favre, Cremieux, Peirce, George Eliot. 
 
 1881. Beginning of Garfield's administration, March 4. He is shot 
 
 by an assassin, July 2. He dies Sept. 19. Chester A. 
 Arthur succeeds him. 
 
 A detachment of British troops, under Sir George Colley, is 
 annihilated by the Boers, Feb. 37. England agrees to a 
 peace with the Boers on the basis of the autonomy of the 
 Transvaal, March 21. 
 
 Final passage of the Irish Land Bill, Aug. 16 ; the bill receives 
 the royal assent, Aug. 22. Arrest and imprisonment of 
 Parnell and other Irish agitatoi-s, Oct. Manifesto of the 
 Irish Land League against the payment of rent, Oct. 18. 
 
 The Russians, under General Skobeleff, take Gok-Tepe, Jan. 
 24. Treaty between Russia and China respecting Kulja, 
 Feb. Assassination of Alexander II., March 13; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Alexander III. Outbreak of the 
 persecution of the Jews in Russia, April. General Igna- 
 tieff succeeds Loris-Melikoff as minister of the interior, 
 May 16. 
 
 France dispatches an expedition to Tunis with the ostensible 
 object of chastising the Krumirs, April. Treaty with the 
 bey establishing a French protectorate over Tunis, May 12. 
 Bloody afPray between the Italians and French in Mar- 
 seilles, June 19. An insurrection breaks out in Tunis, June. 
 The French take Sfax, July 16. They occupy Kairwan, 
 Oct. 26. The Ferry ministry resigns, and is succeeded by 
 that of Gambetta, Nov. 
 
 Hamburg consents to her incorporation in the Zollverein on 
 condition of retaining the privilege of having a free port 
 for her general commei'ce. 
 
 The Italian Chamber passes an electoral reform bill, June; 
 the bill passes through the Senate, Dec. 
 
 The Turkish government gives its final consent to the cession 
 to Greece of an extensive territory in Thessaly and Epirus, 
 
186 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1881. May. Sentence of Midhat Pasha and others for the mur- 
 der of Abdul- Aziz, June 29. 
 
 Roumania assumes the title of kingdom, March 26. 
 
 Death of Baron Haymerle, Austrian foreign minister, Oct. 
 Kalnoky is appointed his successor, Nov. Outbreak of an 
 insurrection in the district of Crivoscie in Dalmatia, Nov. 
 Decree of the government of Austriaj-Hungary subjecting 
 the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina to military 
 service in the imperial army. 
 
 Sagasta becomes head of the ministry in Spain (succeeding 
 Canovas del Castillo), Feb. 
 
 Evacuation of Candahar by the British, April. Battle between 
 Ayub Elhan and Abdurrahman at Candahar, Sept. 22; 
 Ayub's army broken up. Abdurrahman's forces occupy 
 Herat, Oct. 4. 
 
 Revolutionary movement of the soldiery in Cairo, headed by 
 Arabi Bey, the chief of the military or "national" party 
 in Egypt, Sept. ; the khedive appoints Sherif Pasha prime- 
 minister. Meeting of an assembly of Notables at Cairo, 
 Dec. — Revolt of the Mahdi, or False Prophet, in the Soudan. 
 
 The Chilians defeat the Peruvians at Chorillos, Jan. 13, and 
 at Miraflores, Jan. 15. They enter Lima, Jan. 17. Pierola 
 continues the war in the provinces. Establishment of a 
 provisional government in Peru under the presidency of 
 Calderon, March. Seizure of President Calderon by the 
 orders of Admiral Lynch, Nov. 
 
 Great earthquake at Scio, April. 
 
 Completion of the St. Gothard tunnel. The construction of 
 the Panama canal is begun. 
 
 Death of Mariette, Carlyle, Beaconsfield, Littre, Bluntschli. 
 
 1882. Sherif Pasha, prime-minister of Egypt, refusing to yield to 
 
 the demand of the Notables for parliamentary government, 
 is compelled to resign, Feb. ; a ministry is formed, with 
 Arabi Bey, secretary of war, as its actual head. The Anglo- 
 French "control" in the financial administration of Egypt 
 is practically abolished. Arabi Pasha (pasha since March) 
 makes himself virtual dictator. May. Massacre of Euro- 
 peans at Alexandria, June 11. A conference of the Great 
 Powers for the settlement of the Egyptian question meets at 
 Constantinople, June 23. Admiral Seymour bombards the 
 forts at Alexandria, July 11, 12. Withdrawal of Arabi and 
 his forces from the city, massacre of Europeans there, July 12. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 187 
 
 1882. The British undertake a campaign for the overthrow of 
 Arabi. He is completely defeated by Sir Garnet Wolseley 
 at Tel el-Kebir, Sept. 13. He becomes a prisoner of the 
 British, Sept. 14. He is sentenced to death, his sentence is 
 commvited to banishment, Dec. 3. 
 
 Release of Parnell and other Irish agitatoi"s. May. Lord Cav- 
 endish, the newly appointed secretary for Ireland, and 
 Burke, the under-secretary, are murdered at Dublin, May 
 6. Parliament passes the Arreai's of Rent Bill for Ireland, 
 July- Aug. Formation of the Irish National League, Oct. 
 
 Gambetta resigns his premiership and is succeeded by Frey- 
 cinet, Jan. The French determine to secure the delta of 
 \ the Sang-koi River (Red River), in Tonquin, to their com- 
 merce and arrest the predatory incursions of the Black 
 Flags (a Chinese soldiery, a remnant of the Taiping rebels). 
 Major Riviere makes himself master of the citadel of 
 Ha-noi, April. Anam encoui'ages the Black Flags in their 
 resistance to the French, and invokes the aid of China. 
 Resignation of the French prime-minister Freycinet, July ; 
 a new cabinet is formed under Duclerc, Aug. Death of 
 Gambetta, Dec. 31, 
 
 Insurrection in Herzegovina, Jan. The Austrian forces sup- 
 press the insurrection in Dalmatia and Herzegovina, March. 
 
 Count Tolstoi succeeds Ignatieff as minister of the interior in 
 Russia, June. 
 
 Bands of Peruvians maintain a desultory warfare against the 
 Chilians. 
 
 Death of J. H. Draper, Longfellow, Darwin, Emerson, Gari- 
 baldi, Louis Blanc, Anthony Ti'ollope. 
 
 1883. The United States Congress passes the Civil Service Bill, Jan. 
 The Duclerc cabinet in France is succeeded by that of Fal- 
 
 lieres, Jan. The Fallieres cabinet resigns, Feb. ; Jules 
 Ferry becomes (for the second time) head of the mmistry. 
 The Anamese unsuccessfully assault Ha-noi, Mai'ch. A 
 French force, under Riviere, is surprised by the Black 
 Flags and defeated. Riviere being slain. May 19. The 
 French fleet, under Courbet, bombards the Anamese forts 
 at the mouth of the river Hue, Aug. 18-20. Anam is com- 
 pelled to accept the French terms of peace, Aug. 25; a 
 French protectorate is established over Anam ; the French 
 are allowed to prosecute their designs with I'egard to Tonquin. 
 The French take Son-tay (N. W. of Ha-noi), Dec. 16, 17. 
 
188 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1883. Aggressions of the French in Madagascar. Admiral Pierre 
 
 bombards Tamatave, June 13. 
 
 Italy enters into an alliance with the German Empire and 
 Austria-Hun gary . 
 
 Death of the count de Chambord, Aug. 24. 
 
 Coronation of Alexander III. at Moscow, May 27. 
 
 Military revolts in Spain, Aug. Resignation of prime-minis- 
 ter Sagasta, Oct. ; Posada-Herrera succeeds him. 
 
 The Mahdi annihilates an Egyptian army, under Hicks Pasha, 
 near El-Obeid (the chief town of Kordofan), Nov. 3-5. 
 Risings of the hill tribes in the coast region of the Sou- 
 dan, about Suakin. 
 
 The Iglesias government in Peru accepts Chili's terms of 
 peace. The Chilian forces evacuate Lima, Oct. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general 
 insurance of workingmen against illness. 
 
 Earthquake in the island of Ischia, July 28. Volcanic erup- 
 tion at the island of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait, Aug. 
 26, 27. 
 
 Completion of the East River suspension bridge. 
 
 Death of Gustave Dore, Richard Wagner, J. R. Green, 
 Gortchakoff, Karl Marx, Abd-el-Eader, Sir E. Sabine, Tur- 
 geneff, Mayne Reid, Henri Martin. 
 
 1884. Grover Cleveland is elected president of the United States, 
 
 and Thomas A. Hendricks vice-president, Nov. 4 ; defeated 
 candidate for the presidency, James G. Blaine. 
 
 The French general Millot takes Bac-ninh (N. E. of Ha-noi), 
 March 12. The Chinese attack a French force at Lang-son 
 (a town of Tonquin, near the Chinese frontier), June 23. 
 Open war between France and China, Aug. Courbet de- 
 stroys the arsenal at Foochow, Aug. 23. Descents upon 
 Formosa. — The French continue to wage war in Madagas- 
 car. — Revision of the French constitution, Aug. 
 
 General Gordon is dispatched by the British to the Soudan, 
 Jan. An Egyptian force, under Baker Pasha, is vanquished 
 by Osman Digna near Tokar (S. E. of Suakin), Feb. 4. 
 General Graham defeats Osman Digna near Tokar, Feb. 
 29, and at Tamanieb, March 13. Gordon is shut up in 
 Khartoum by the followers of the Mahdi. Egyptian con- 
 ference at London, June 28- Aug. 2. Expedition under 
 Wolseley for the relief of Gordon. 
 
 Passage of the new Fi^anchise Bill by Parliament, Nov. -Dec. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORT. 189 
 
 1884. Meeting of the emperoi's of Russia, Germany, and Austria at 
 
 Skierniewice (a town S. W. of Warsaw), Sept. 15-17. 
 New ministry in Spain under Canovas del Castillo, Jan. 
 The Tekke-Tui'komans of Merv submit to Russia. 
 Porfirio Diaz becomes for a second time president of Mexico, 
 
 succeeding Manuel Gonzalez. 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general 
 
 insurance of workingmen against accidents. 
 Germany engages in the work of colonization in Africa. 
 Death of Mignet, Reade, Lepsius, Makart. 
 
 1885. Beginning of President Cleveland's administration, March 4. 
 
 Death of Vice-president Hendricks, Nov. 25. 
 
 Attempts of Iiish revolutionists to wreck the Houses of Par- 
 liament and the London Tower, Jan. 24. 
 
 The Mahdi captures Khartoum at the moment when Wolse- 
 ley's advance reaches the vicinity of the place, Jan. 26 ; 
 death of Gordon. The British forces are withdrawn from 
 the Soudan. Death of the Mahdi. 
 
 The Russian general Komaroff occupies the Zulfikar Pass, 
 leading to Herat. He attacks the Afghans on the Kushk, 
 March 30. England makes military preparations to meet 
 a Russian advance upon Herat. A settlement is effected, 
 the British government making some concessions to Rus- 
 sia with respect to the houndary between Turkestan and 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Louis Riel heads an insurrection in Canada. He is defeated 
 and captured, May. (He is executed, Nov. 16.) 
 
 Resignation of the Gladstone ministry, June ; the Marquis 
 of Salisbury becomes premier. 
 
 Outbreak of w^ar between England and Burmah, Nov. Entry 
 of General Prendergast's forces into Mandalay, Nov. 28 ; 
 surrender of King Thehaw. 
 
 The French meet with a reverse in Tonquin, near the Chi- 
 nese frontier, March. Resignation of Jules Ferry's cab- 
 inet, March. Brisson forms a new ministry, April. Peace 
 between France and China, June 9. Attack upon the 
 French at Hue, July. Announcement of peace between 
 France and Madagascar, Dec. ; the government of Mada- 
 gascar forced to recognize the French x^rotectorate. Grevy 
 is re-elected President of France, Dec. 28. Brisson re- 
 signs. 
 
 Death of Alfonso XII. of Spain, Nov. 25. His widow, Chris- 
 
190 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1885. tina, becomes regent of the kingdom. Sagasta is made 
 premier. 
 
 Meeting of the emperors of Austria and Russia at Kremsier 
 (in Moravia), Aug. 
 
 Eevolution in Eastern Roumelia, Sept. 18. Proclamation of 
 the union of the province with the principality of Bulga- 
 ria. The Servians invade Bulgaria, and are completely 
 defeated, Nov. 
 
 Creation of the Congo Free State, Feb. 
 
 Destructive earthquakes in Spain, Jan. 
 
 Death of Hugo, Grant, Montefiore, McClellan, Serrano. 
 
 Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
 
 1886. Extensive labor strikes in the United States. Bloody riots in 
 
 Chicago, May. 
 
 The annexation of Burmah to Great Britain proclaimed, Jan. 
 1. Resignation of the Salisbury ministry, Jan. Gladstone 
 again becomes premier, Feb. He introduces a bill in Par- 
 liament providing for home rule in Ireland, Aj)ril. He 
 submits a land-purchase scheme for Ireland, April. For- 
 mation of the Liberal Unionist Party. Fall of the Glad- 
 stone ministry, July; Salisbury again premier. 
 
 Freycinet becomes head of the ministry in France, Jan. Ex- 
 pulsion of the Orleans and Bonaparte princes from the re- 
 public. Freycinet resigns ; Goblet forms a new cabinet, Dec. 
 
 Christina, widow of Alfonso XII. of Spain, gives birth to a 
 son, who becomes king as Alfonso XIII., May 17. 
 
 Measures for the Germanization of Polish districts in Prussia 
 passed by the Landtag. 
 
 King Louis II. of Bavaria drowns himself, June. He is suc- 
 ceeded by his brothei', Otho II. Prince Luitpold, uncle of 
 Otho, governs as regent. 
 
 Prince Alexander of Bulgaria is recognized as governor of 
 Eastern Roumelia. Conspiracy against Alexander, excited 
 by the intrigues of Russia and headed by ZankofP, the met- 
 ropolitan Clement, and others. He is kidnapped, Aug. 21. 
 A counter-revolution' takes place, the revolutionary gov- 
 ernment is overthrown by Mutkuroff, and the prince, hav- 
 ing been set at liberty, returns to resume the reins of power, 
 Aug. In consequence of the attitude of the Czar, prince 
 Alexander formally abdicates his crown, Sept. 7. 
 
 Greece threatens an invasion of Turkey. Intervention of 
 the Great Powers. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 191 
 
 1886. The city of Charleston (S. C) is shattered by an earthquake, 
 
 Aug. 
 Death of Liszt, Beust, Arthur, C. F. Adams. 
 
 1887. Congress passes the Intei'state Commerce Law. Execution of 
 
 Anarchists in Chicago, Nov. 11. 
 
 Goblet, head of the French cabinet, resigns. May ; Eourier 
 becomes head of the ministry. Rouvier resigns, Nov. 
 President Grevy abdicates, Dec. 2 (act of abdication dated 
 Dec. 1). Sadi Cai'not is elected his successor, Dec. 3. The 
 president accepts the resignation of the Rouvier cabinet. 
 Tirard is entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet. 
 
 Termination of the KulturJccnnpf waged by the Prussian 
 government against the Holy See, the former having been 
 gradually compelled to renounce the policy inaugurated iu 
 the ecclesiastical laws of 1873. 
 
 Renewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Italy. 
 
 Prince Ferdinand of Cobui-g is elected prince of Bulgaria, 
 July. Russia protests against the election. 
 
 The Italians sufPer a bloody defeat near Massowa at the hands 
 of King John of Abyssinia, Jan. 
 
 Stanley undertakes an expedition for the relief of Emin Bey, 
 governor of the equatorial provinces of Egypt. Starting 
 from the Congo, he marches through the basin of the 
 Aruwimi, and then traverses the wildei^ness between that 
 river and the Albert N'yanza, which he reaches. 
 
 The German government begins the construction of the canal 
 to connect the North Sea with the Baltic. 
 
 The consti'uction of the Manchester Sbip Canal is begim. 
 
 Death of Beechei-, Kraszewski, S. F. Baird, Kirchhoff. 
 
 1888. Fisheries Treaty between the United States and Great Britain 
 
 signed at Washington, Feb. 15. It is rejected by the United 
 States Senate. Benjamin Harrison is elected president of 
 the United States and Levi P. Morton vice-president, Nov. 
 6 ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Grover Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 Death of William I., emperor of Germany, March 9 ; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Frederick. Death of Frederick, June 
 15 ; he is succeeded by his son, William II. 
 
 Boulaugist agitation in France. Boulanger demands a re- 
 vision of the constitution. Resignation of the Tirard min- 
 istry, March. Floquet forms a cabinet, Api'il. 
 
192 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LTNIVERSAL HLSTORY. 
 
 1888. General Grenfell carries the fortifications of Osman Digna, 
 
 near Suakin, Dec. 20. 
 
 Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. 
 
 The government in Brazil passes an act by which the emanci- 
 pation of the slaves is completed. (See 1871.) 
 
 Conflict in Samoa between the Americans and Germans. 
 
 The Gei'man East African Company becomes involved in a 
 war with the Arab traders of Zanzibar. 
 
 Meeting of Stanley and Emin Pasha on Lake Albert N'yanza. 
 
 The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway is opened as far as 
 Samarkand. 
 
 Death of Asa Gray, Matthew Arnold, General Sheridan. 
 
 1889. Beginning of President Benjamin Hai'rison's administration. 
 
 Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and 
 Washington into the Union. An international American 
 conference assembles in the city of Washington. 
 
 Resignation of the Floquet cabinet in France. Tirard be- 
 comes for a second time head of the ministry, Feb. Trial 
 and condemnation of Boulanger by the Senate. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the com- 
 pulsory insurance of workingmen against disability arising 
 from old age or infirmity. 
 
 King Milan of Servia abdicates in favor of his son, Alex- 
 ander, March. 
 
 Collision between the British and Portuguese in southeastern 
 Africa. Death of King Louis of Portugal, Oct. 19 ; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Charles. 
 
 Military uprising in Brazil, headed by Marshal Deodoro da 
 Fouseca, Nov. 15 ; the government of Pedro II. is over- 
 thrown and Brazil proclaimed a republic. 
 
 Conference at Berlin between the i-epresentatives of the Ger- 
 man Empire, the United States, and Great Britain for the 
 settlement of the affairs of Samoa. 
 
 Establishment of parliamentary government in Japan. 
 
 King John of Abyssinia is defeated by the dervishes and 
 mortally wounded, March. Menelek of Shoa obtains pos- 
 session of the Abyssinian throne. 
 
 March of Stanley and Emin Pasha to the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 Successful expedition of Wissmann against the Arab traders 
 of Zanzibar. 
 
 International Exposition in Paris. 
 
 Destruction of Johnstown (Pa.) by the bursting of a dam. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 193 
 
 1889. Death of Ericsson, John Bright, Cheyreul, Joule, Augier, 
 
 Jefferson Davis, Browning. 
 ^SRO. Oklahoma is organized as a territory. Admission of Idaho 
 and Wyoming into the Union. Congress passes the Mc- 
 Kinley Tariff Bill, Messiah craze among the Indians. 
 Killing of the Sioux chief Sitting Bull, Dec. 
 
 An international conference is held at Berlin under the 
 auspices of William II. for the discussion of questions re- 
 lating to the welfare of the working classes. Bismarck 
 resigns the chancellorship of the German Empire, March; 
 General Caprivi is appointed his successor. 
 
 Portugal is forced to yield to the demands of England in the 
 dispute respecting sovereignty in southeastern Africa. 
 
 Treaty between the German Empire and Great Britain estab- 
 lishing the boundaries of the spheres of activity of the two 
 powers in Africa, and providing for the cession of the 
 island of Heligoland to Germany. England assumes a 
 protectorate over Zanzibar. 
 
 Division in the ranks of the Irish Nationalists. The majority 
 of the party recognize Justin McCarthy as leader in oppo- 
 sition to Parnell, Dec. 
 
 The Tirard ministry in France resigns, March ; Freycinet 
 forms a new cabinet. 
 
 Tisza, the Hungarian premier, after having been at the head 
 of affairs for more than fourteen yeai-s, resigns, and is 
 succeeded by Count Szapary. 
 
 Canovas del Castillo succeeds Sagasta as head of the ministry 
 in Spain, July. 
 
 Death of William HI. of Holland, Nov. 23. He is succeeded 
 by his daughter, Wilhelmina, Queen Emma being ap- 
 pointed regent. Adolphus, formerly duke of Nassau, suc- 
 ceeds to the throne of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. 
 
 Disorder's in the Swiss canton of Ticino. The usurpations of 
 the clerical party are checked by a revolutionary outbreak, 
 Sept. Intervention of the Swiss federal government. 
 
 Convention between Belgium and the Congo Free State pro- 
 viding for the annexation of the latter to the former at the 
 end of ten years. 
 
 Insurrection in Buenos Ayres against the government of 
 President Celman, July. He is driven from the city, but 
 regains his power in a few days, after bloody fighting. He 
 resigns in favor of Pellegrini, Aug. 
 
194 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1890. Completion of the new Croton Aqueduct." 
 Opening of the Forth railway bridge. 
 
 Death of Dollinger, Andrassy, the Chinese diplomatist, Mar- 
 quis Tseng, Fremont, Cardinal Newman, Schliemann. 
 
 1891. General Miles pacifies the Indians of the Northwest, Jan. 
 
 Congress passes the Copyright Bill, March. Lynching of 
 a number of Italians in New Orleans, March. Italy sus- 
 pends diplomatic relations with the United States. 
 
 Renewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Italy. 
 
 The German Reichstag enacts a code of regiilations for the 
 protection of workingmen. 
 
 Death of Parnell, Oct. 
 
 Osman Digna is completely defeated by the Egyptians in the 
 neighborhood of Suakin, Feb. 
 
 A conflict in Chili between President Balmaceda and Con- 
 gress culminates in civil war. The Congressionalists, hav- 
 ing determined to put an end to the president's arbitrary 
 regime by means of a revolution, begin the struggle by in- 
 ducing the i^rincipal part of the national fleet to revolt, 
 Jan. After a number of severe encounters, the war termi- 
 nates in favor of the Congressional party, whose forces 
 vanquish those of Balmaceda in the outskirts of Valparaiso, 
 capture that city and enter Santiago, Aug. Balmaceda 
 puts an end to his life, Sept. Difficulties arise with the 
 government of the United States in consequence of a mur- 
 derous assault upon American seamen in Valparaiso, Oct. 
 Jorge Montt is chosen president of Chili, Nov. 
 
 Promulgation of the constitution of the United States of 
 Brazil, Feb. Marshal Fonseca, hitherto the provisional 
 head of the republic, is elected president, Feb. He at- 
 tempts to usurp dictatorial power, Nov. Revolt of the 
 province of Rio Grande do Sul, Nov. A revolutionary 
 movement in Rio Janeiro forces President Fonseca to re- 
 sign, Nov. The vice-president, Peixoto, assumes the duties 
 of president. 
 
 Rising among the Manipuris, in India, against the British, 
 March- April. 
 
 A convention of the colonies of Australasia, assembled at 
 Sydney, draws up a federal constitution. 
 
 The Russian government begins the construction of the trans- 
 Siberian railway. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I95 
 
 1891. Famine in Russia. 
 
 Death of Elinglake, Bancroft, Meissonier, General Sherman, 
 Prince Napoleon, General J. E. Johnston, Moltke, Lowell, 
 Grevy, Earl Lytton, Pedro II. 
 
 1892. Chili apologizes to the United States for the outrages per- 
 
 petrated upon American seamen at Valparaiso. 
 
 England and the United States agree to submit their dif- 
 ferences in the matter of the Behring Sea seal-fisheries to 
 arbitration. 
 
 Italy resumes regular diplomatic relations -vAdth the United 
 States. 
 
 Suspension of the Navigation Laws in the United States by 
 the admission of the steamers " City of Paris " and " City 
 of New York '' to American registry, May. 
 
 The Freycinet ministry in France resigns, Feb. ; Loubet be- 
 comes head of the cabinet. 
 
 Death of Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt, Jan. 7. He is 
 succeeded by his son, Abbas Pasha. 
 
 Death of Airy, J. C. Adams, Etienne Arago, Freeman, Whit- 
 man, Bodenstedt. 
 
 U 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Egypt — [b. C.J— Date of the foundation of the first dynasty according to 
 Lepsius, about 3900 ; according to Bunsen, about 3600 ; according to 
 Marietta, about 5000. 
 
 Bi-ugsch, presenting what he regards as a plausible approximative reconstruc- 
 tion of the chronology of the first 17 dynasties, gives : 
 
 Foundation of the first dynasty, about 4400 ; reign of Khufu (Cheops), 
 the builder of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, about 3700 ; invasion of the 
 Hyksos or Shepherds, about 2200; subversion of the dominion of the 
 Hyksos and foundation of the 18th dynasty (New Empire), about 1700. 
 
 Some Egyptologists reduce the period preceding the invasion of the Hyksos 
 to less than 1000 years. Kawlinson is inclined to assign to the period of the 
 Hyksos no more than 200 years. With the foundation of the 18tli dynasty the 
 chronological uncertainty ceases in a great measure. Brugsch's date for this 
 event accords with the chronology of Lepsius. Keginald Stuart Poole and Birch 
 incline to a somewhat later date. 
 
 Period of the greatest power and splendor of the New Empire, from 
 about 1700 (1600) to about 1250 — principal kings: Aahmes (Amasis), 
 founder of the 18th dynasty, Thothmes III. and Amenhotep III., of the 
 same dynasty, Seti I. and Raraeses II. (the Sesostris of the Greeks), of the 
 19th dynasty, and Rameses III. of the 20th dynasty ; expedition of She- 
 shonk (Shishak) against Judah, about 949 {Dunchei- ; about 973, Biblical 
 chronology) ; period of Ethiopian and Assyrian overlordsliip, about 750- 
 650; Psamatik I. (Psammetichus), king over the whole country, from 
 about 650; reign of Necho, about 610-595 ; Psamatik II., about 595-589 ; 
 Hophra (Aprils), about 589-570; Amasis, about 570-527; under Psam- 
 menitus (Psamatik III.), the country is conquered by the Persian king 
 Cambyses, 527 (525 ?) ; again independent, 405 (404?); Persian dominion 
 re-established, about 340 ; occupied by Alexander, 332 ; on Alexander's 
 death, 323, assigned to Ptolemy Lagi ; Ptolemy Lagi assumes the title of 
 king, 300 ; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty, kingdom annexed to the Roman 
 dominions, 30 b. c. 
 
198 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Pyramids of Gizeh — The date of the erection of the Great Pyramid, the 
 pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), according to the chronology of Lepsius is 
 about 3100 B. c. According to Brugsch the probable date would be about 
 3700. Marictte carries back the reign of Khufu to about 4200. Other 
 Egyptologists assign to the monument a lesser antiquity than Lepsius. 
 The other two pyramids of Gizeh are the work of the immediate suc- 
 cessors of Khufu. 
 
 Babylonia — [b. c] — The various portions of the country permanently 
 united into a single powerful monarchy, about 1500 (?) ; reign of Nabonas- 
 sar, 747-734 * ; Tiglath-pileser II. imposes the yoke of Assyria, about 781 ; 
 Merodach-baladan liberates the kingdom and mounts the throne, 721 
 (722); resubjugated by the Assyrian king Sargon, 710-709; Babylon de- 
 stroyed by Sennacherib, about 695 ; its restoration undertaken by Esar- 
 haddon. king of Assyria, about G80 ; unsuccessful revolt from Assyria, 
 about 650-G48 ; Nabopolassar throws off the authority of Assyria, about 
 620 (?) ; the Medcs and Babylonians overthrow the Assyrian monarchy, 
 607 (606) f; reign of Nebuchadnezzar, 605-561 (562); Evil-merodach, 
 561-559 ; Neriglissar, 559-555 ; Nabonidus succeeds ; overthrow of the 
 monarchy by Cyrus, 538 ; unsuccessful effort to throw off the Persian 
 yoke, about 521-519. 
 
 Assyria — [b. c] — Reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1300 ; Tiglath-pileser I., 
 about 1100 ;. Assur-nazir-pal, 885-860 ; 1^ Shalmaneser II., 860-825 ; Samsi- 
 raman (Samsi-vul), 825-812; Raman-nirar (Vul-nirari), 812-783; Shal- 
 maneser III., 783-773; Assur-dan-il, 773-755; Assur-nirar, 755-745; 
 Tiglath-pileser IL, 745-727; Shalmaneser IV., 727-122; Sargon, 722-705 ; 
 Sennacherib, 705-681 ; Esarhaddon, 681-668 ; Assur-bani-pal, 668-626 ; 
 overthrow of the Assyrian monarchy by the Medes and Babylonians, 607 
 (606). t 
 
 Hebrews — [b. c] 
 
 According to the Common Chronology. 
 
 Establishment of royalty, Saul made king, about 1095 (1080). 
 
 Beginning of David's reign, 1055 (1058). 
 
 Accession of Solomon, 1015 (1017). 
 
 Revolt of the Ten Tribes, 975 (977). 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, 722 (721). 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, 586 (587). 
 
 * According to the Canon of Ptolemy. 
 
 t Some authorities place this event in 625, and consider the reign of Assur-bani-pal to 
 have terminated about 6^7. See Duncker, " AUgemeine Geschichte des Alterthums," 
 fifth edition, vol. ii., pp. 473-479. 
 
 t The cuneiform inscriptions of the Assyrian Eponym Canon furnish a complete 
 chronological record extending from the beginning of the ninth century nearly down 
 to the destruction of the monarchy. This chronology is not fully in accord with that 
 of the Bible. See Hebrews. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 199 
 
 The decipherment of the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions has unsettled the 
 chronology of the early period of authentic Jewish history. 
 
 According to the Assyrian Records.* According to the Biblical Chronology. 
 
 King Ahab fought against the Assy- Ahab was slain in 000 (897). 
 
 rians at Karkar in 854. 
 
 Jehu paid tribute to Assyria in 842. Jehu died in 859 (856). 
 
 Uzziah was still reigning in 742 or 740. Uzziah died in 758. 
 
 Menahem paid tribute to the Assy- Mcnahem died in 762 (761). 
 
 rians in 738. 
 
 The Assyrian records place the capture of Samaria in 722, wliich agrees with 
 the Biblical chronology. With regard to the extraordinary discrepancy as to 
 the interval between the reign of Menahem and the capture of Samaria, Jules 
 Oppert,+ who has devoted much labor to the revindication of the Biblical chro- 
 nology, refuses to admit that the Menahem who figures in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions in 738 is the Menahem of ths Biblical text, and argues that there was 
 probably a second king of Israel by that name. Dunckcr,1: who has attempted a 
 reconstruction of the Biblical chronology with reference to the data furnished by 
 Assyriologists (as well as to the information concerning the duration of the rule 
 of Omri and Ahab contained in the inscription on the Moabite Stone), gives as 
 the most plausible approximate date for the death of Solomon the year 953. The 
 beginning of Solomon's reign would then be 993, and the elevation of David in 
 Judah, 1033. 
 
 The following is a list of the successors of Solomon with the approximate 
 dates of their accession according to Duncker: 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 Eehoboam, 
 
 953. 
 
 Jeroboam I., 
 
 953. 
 
 
 
 Zachariah, 
 
 749. 
 
 Abijah, 
 
 932. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shallum, 
 
 748. 
 
 Asa. 
 
 929. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Menahem, 
 
 748. 
 
 
 
 Nadab, 
 
 927. 
 
 Jotham, 
 
 740. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baasha, 
 
 925. 
 
 
 
 Pekahiah, 
 
 738. 
 
 
 
 Elah, 
 
 901. 
 
 
 
 Pekah, 
 
 736. 
 
 
 
 Omri, 
 
 899. 
 
 Ahaz, 
 
 734. 
 
 Hoshea, 
 
 734. 
 
 
 
 Ahab, 
 
 875. 
 
 Hezekiah, 
 
 728. 
 
 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 
 
 873. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capture of Sa 
 
 .- 
 
 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 853. 
 
 
 
 maria, 
 
 722, 
 
 
 
 Joram, 
 
 851. 
 
 Manasseh, 
 
 697. 
 
 
 
 Jehoram, 
 
 848. 
 
 
 
 Amon, 
 
 642. 
 
 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 844. 
 
 
 
 Josiah, 
 
 640. 
 
 
 
 Athaliah, 
 
 843. 
 
 Jehu, 
 
 843. 
 
 Jehoaliaz, 
 
 609. 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 837. 
 
 
 
 Jehoiakim, 
 
 609. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 815. 
 
 Jehoiachin, 
 
 597. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 798. 
 
 Zedekiah, 
 
 597. 
 
 
 
 Amaziah, 
 
 797. 
 
 
 
 Destruction of 
 
 
 
 Uzziah, 
 
 792. 
 
 Jeroboam 11., 
 
 , 790. 
 
 Jerusalem, 
 
 586. 
 
 
 
 * See Schrader, " Keilinschriften uud das alte Testament." 
 
 t " Salomon et ses successeurs." t " Geschichte des Alterthums." 
 
200 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 SuccBssoKS OF SoLoiioN, With the dates of their accession according to 
 Oppert : 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 JUDAH, 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 Rehoboam, 
 
 9V8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Foreign domi- 
 
 
 
 
 Jeroboam I., 
 
 977. 
 
 
 
 nation, 798-787. 
 
 Abijah, 
 
 900. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jeroboam again 
 
 1,787. 
 
 Asa, 
 
 958. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zachariah, 
 
 773. 
 
 
 
 Nadab, 
 
 956. 
 
 
 
 Shallura, 
 
 772. 
 
 
 
 Baasha, 
 
 955. 
 
 
 
 Menahem I. , 
 
 772. 
 
 
 
 Elah, 
 
 932. 
 
 
 
 Pekahiah, 
 
 762. 
 
 
 
 Omri with Tib- 
 
 
 
 Pekah, 
 
 759. 
 
 
 
 ni, 
 
 931. 
 
 Jotham, 
 
 758. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orari alone, 
 
 927. 
 
 Ahaz, 
 
 743. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ahab, 
 
 920. 
 
 
 
 Menahem II., 
 
 742. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 
 
 917. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pekah again. 
 
 733. 
 
 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 900. 
 
 
 
 Hoshea, 
 
 730. 
 
 
 
 Joram, 
 
 899. 
 
 Hczekiah, 
 
 727. 
 
 
 
 Jehoshaphat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capture of Sa- 
 
 
 with Jehoram,895. 
 
 
 
 
 
 maria, 
 
 .721. 
 
 Jehoram alone. 
 
 , 892. 
 
 
 
 Manasseh, 
 
 698. 
 
 
 
 Ahaziali, 
 
 888. 
 
 
 
 Amon, 
 
 642. 
 
 
 
 Athaliah, 
 
 887. 
 
 Jehu, 
 
 887. 
 
 Josiah, 
 
 640. 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 881. 
 
 
 
 Jelioahaz, 
 
 609. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 859. 
 
 Jehoiakim, 
 
 608. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 842. 
 
 Jehoiachin, 
 
 598. 
 
 
 
 Amaziah, 
 
 840. 
 
 
 
 Zedekiah, 
 
 698. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jeroboam II. 
 
 , 825. 
 
 Destruction of 
 
 
 
 Uzziah, 
 
 811. 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem, 
 
 , 587. 
 
 
 
 Phoenicians — [b. c] — Enter upon their career as a great colonizing people 
 by establishing settlements in Cj'prus, about 1250 (Duncker) ; push their 
 voyages beyond the straits of Gibraltar, about 1100 {Duncker); Tyre 
 about this time supplants Sidon as the leading city ; the Phcenician cities 
 pay tribute to Assyria, 9th-7th c. ; soon after the fall of the Assyrian 
 monarchy they are forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of Babylon ; 
 they submit to Persia, latter part of 6th c. 
 
 Tyre— [b. c] — Becomes the leading city of Phoenicia, about 1100; the new 
 city (the island city) besieged by Shalmaneser IV. of Assyria, about 727- 
 722 ; by Nebuchadnezzar, 586-573 ; * reduced by Alexander the Great, 332. 
 
 * This siege is sometimes stated to have taken place in the years 598-585. The best 
 recent authorities adopt the later dates." 
 
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