iH 
 
 
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 Book 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 
 
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 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
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RQMTIG GUIDE. 
 
SELECT DIALOGUES. 
 
 AND 
 
 SELECT SPEAKERS. 
 
 We invite the attention of all lovers of good books to our two 
 new series, wliich will be the most attractive and most compre- 
 hensive in their particular field, and we hope that they will be 
 found on the library table of every home in the country. 
 
 A full list of the SELECT SPEAKERS, as far as issued, will 
 be found below. Each number contains appropriate selections of 
 unusual excellence. 
 
 No. l-EXHIBITiON SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 2 HUMOROUS SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 3 YOUNG AMERICAN SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 4 SCHOOL GIRL'S SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 5 TEMPERANCE SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 6 CHILDREN'S SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 7 IRISH DIALECT SPEAKER. 
 
 No. 8 PATRIOTIC SPEAKER. 
 These two series will be issued semi-monthly, and all the 
 readers who are pleased with the first numbers may depend upon 
 it that the succeeding numbers will be equally attractive and en- 
 tertaining. 
 
 These popular books are large type editions, well printed, well 
 bound, and in handsome covers. For sale by all Booksellers and 
 Newsdealers; or sent, postage free, on receipt of price, 10 cents, 
 by the publishers, STREET & SMITH, 
 
 25, 27, 29 and 31 llose Street, New York. 
 
THE HAND-BOOK LiBRARY-NO. 13. 
 
 ISSUED Monthly. ttttv iqqi 
 
 Subscription Price, §3.00 Per Year. *i uj-i3c, ioyi. 
 
 CopyHghted, 1891, hy Street <& Smith. 
 
 Entered at the Post O^ce, New Torkj as Second-Class Matter, 
 
 AaUATIO GUIDE; 
 
 OR, 
 
 YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 A Complete Hand-Book of Useful Information 
 
 for All Lovers of this Delightful Sport, 
 
 Containing Full Instructions for 
 
 Handling and Sailing Boats. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 STREET & SMITH, Publishers, 
 
 31 Rose Street. 
 
f\1 
 
 "( 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 INTEODUCTORT. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 The choice of a boat.— Description of the various parts of a cutter. 5 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE EOPES. 
 
 Knots, bends, and hitches 10 
 
 CHAPTEE in. 
 
 THE THEOEY OF SAILING. 
 
 Leeway and lateral resistance. — Heeling. — Balancing sails. — Tack- 
 ing. — Action of rudder. — Longitudinal resistance. — Deep keel 
 or center-board 17 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 ON s:mall boats. 
 
 Open and half-decked boats. —Ballast. — The center-board. — False 
 keels. — Lee-boards. — Counters, square and pointed sterns. — 
 Battened sails 23 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE RIGS OE SMALL BOATS. 
 
 Spritsa*>.— Dipping lugs.— Standing lugs. — Leg of mutton sails. — 
 The balance lug. — The Una rig. — Balance reefs. — The sloop. — 
 Eules of open boat sailing ; 28 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 A cutter's eigging. 
 
 The bowsprit.— Backstays.— Main halyards.— Tack tricing line.— 
 Lacing mainsail to boom. — Maintack tackle. — The gaff. — Fore- 
 sheets. — Forehorse. — Jib sheets. — Mainsheet-horse. — Topsail. 
 —Spinnaker.— Strops for block, etc.— The Yawl.— The Ketch. 39 
 
 CHAPTEE VIL 
 
 HOW TO SAIL A YACHT. 
 
 To get under way from moorirgs or anchorage. — Setting sail. — 
 Close hauled. — Tacking.— Missing stays. — Waring. --Squalls. — 
 Shifting jibs. — Jibing. — Scandalizing mainsail. — Hove to. — 
 Eeefing. — Eeturning to moorings.— Eunning aground 51 
 
CONTENTS,— Continued. 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS HINTS. 
 
 Towing a dinghy.— Bertlion boats. — To prevent a dinghy bumping 
 against an anchored yacht. — Foul anchor. — Mooring. — The 
 drogue. — The management of open boats in a heavy sea. — 
 Management of a yacht in a rough sea. — Boarding 63 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FITTING OUT. 
 
 Ballasting a yacht. — Lead on keel. — The anchor. — Setting up rig- 
 ging. — Ventilation and dry rot. — Mildew in sails. — Stretching 
 new sails. — Laying up a boat for the winter.— Inventory 73 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE ECONOMY BETWEEN DECKS. 
 
 The well. — Arrangement of cabin. — Leaky decks. — Cabin lights. — 
 The forecastle. — Cooking stoves 80 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE LAWS OF THE SEA. 
 
 Board of Trade regulations concerning lights, fog signals, steering 
 and sailing rules, pilot signals, etc.— Custom House clearance 
 on returning from a foreign port. — Explanation of the terms 
 used in giving steering directions, etc 85 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 INSTBUMENTS OF NAVIGATION NECESSAKY FOR COASTING. 
 
 Mercator's chart. — The mariner's compass. — The spirit compass. — 
 Variation. — Deviation. — The log ship and line. — The lead line. 95 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HOW TO FIND one's WAY AT SEA. 
 
 Cross bearings. — Tacking across the sea. — Leeway. — How to allow 
 for a current. — To find the hour of high water 104 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 WEATHER WISDOM. 
 
 Use of the instruments.— Forecasting weather from natural phe- 
 nomena, etc 112 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 YACHT RACING. 
 
 The new Y. R. A. rule of measurement. — Sail area. — Time allow- 
 ance. — Rules of racing. — Methods of starting 116 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Glossary of Nautical Terms 126 
 
AQUATIC GUIDE ; or, YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 The choice of a boat.— Description of the various parts of a cutter. 
 
 More, probably, could be written on boat-sailing 
 than on any other sport; for this pursuit owes 
 much of its extraordinary fascination to the fact 
 that its science is practically infinite; the most ex- 
 perienced sailor has always something new to learn, 
 and is ever acquiring fresh wrinkles. Of all in- 
 animate objects a boat is surely the most beloved 
 of its owner; there is something almost human in 
 its ways and vagaries ; and whereas it is possible 
 to conceive the attainment of perfection in the de- 
 sign of the instrument employed in any other sport, 
 the complexity of the problem involved in producing 
 tlie ablest craft renders improvement ever possible, 
 and the sailing of a boat is not more fascinating 
 than the designing of one. 
 
 It is easy to acquire the art of sailing a boat under 
 favorable circumstances ; but it is only after con- 
 siderable experience that the sailor is able to do the 
 right thing promptly in the various emergencies 
 which he is sure to encounter. The tyro will soon 
 
6 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 discover that the more he knows, the more he has 
 left to learn, and if once he commences to acquire 
 this knowledge of seamanship, he w411 be thirsty 
 for more, and he will never weary of his favorite 
 sport all the days of his life. 
 
 This book is intended for the tyro, and in it, there- 
 fore, only the more neessary and elementary por- 
 tions of nautical science will be treated of. 
 
 In the first place, he must have his boat, and to 
 assist him in the selection of this is no easy task — 
 so much depends on the idiosyncrasy of the tyro, 
 the character of the waters he proposes to navigate, 
 and other circumstances. It may be safely pre- 
 mised that he cannot possibly know what sort of 
 boat will best satisfy his needs, and as his more 
 experienced friends have each their separate views 
 as to what he should procure in the way of a craft— 
 their views of course depending not on his, but on 
 their separate idiosyncrasies — it is many chances to 
 one that, whether he follows the friend's advice or 
 his own inexperienced inclination, he will not in 
 the first insta^iLce obtain the boat he really requires. 
 It is, indeed, as an old salt remarked, as impossible 
 to choose for another man the boat that will suit 
 him as to pick out a wife for him ; and some men — 
 good sailors, too — never succeed in mating them- 
 selves with the right craft, but are perpetually 
 building or buying and selling again without ever 
 satisfying themselves. 
 
 We, therefore, recommend the novice not to be 
 over-ambitious at first. Let him content himself 
 with a modest and inexpensive craft until he has 
 acquired at least the rudiments of the art of sailing, 
 and is better capable of deciding what he wants. 
 Of course, if he has friends who own boats, on 
 board which he can pass his apprenticeship, so 
 much the better; but we have observed that as 
 soon as a young fellow is bitten with a taste for 
 sailing, he — small blame to him — insists on having 
 a boat of his very own, and will take little pleasure 
 in the boat of another. 
 
 In recommending the novice to content himself 
 at first with a cheap boat, we of course do not mean 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 7 
 
 a cheap bad boat, not one of those extraordinary 
 bargains one conies across in the advertisement 
 columns of the newspapers — a live-ton yacht, for in- 
 stance, going for the ridiculous sum of twenty-five 
 dollars, an ancient hull patched up with paint and 
 putty, which will certainly cause much heartburn- 
 ing to the innocent novice who acquires possession 
 of her, and will probably so disgust him that he 
 will abandon yachting altogether. For first she re- 
 quires a new mast, ilien she must have new sails, 
 then it is found necessary to re-timber her, possibly 
 re-deck her, and then, after twenty times the pur- 
 chase-money has been spent upon her, it is discov- 
 ered that the hull is so rotten that it were madness 
 to put to sea in her at all ; so all the expense has 
 been for nothing, and the great bargain slowly falls 
 to pieces, neglected, on a mud flat. 
 
 The following hints may prove of some service to 
 a novice, who, despite what we have said, deter- 
 mines to commence his aquatic career by purchas- 
 ing a second-hand yacht, without having a friend 
 who can assist him in the examination of a vessel. 
 
 Though a craft will often be found to be as sound 
 after thirty years or more as on the day she was 
 launched, still if sappy wood was used in her con- 
 struction, or if she has been neglected while lying 
 up, she may become utterly worthless in less than 
 ten years. 
 
 In surveying an old vessel, soft spots can be de- 
 tected by thrusting a penknife into the wood. 
 
 Those streaks of her planking that are between 
 wind and water, alternately dry and wet, will gen- 
 erally rot first. 
 
 The interior of the bottom should be carefully ex- 
 amined, in order to ascertain the soundness of the 
 planking and timbers. Dry rot is likely to find its 
 way into the inner sides of the stem and stern posts. 
 If possible remove some of the saloon panels, for 
 the space between a vessel's skins is a favorite nest 
 for dry rot. 
 
 If a vessel is coppered and she is hauled up, the 
 sheathing will be wrinkled in a horizontal direction 
 if she has been in any way strained. These 
 
8 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 wrinkles beneath the channels show infallibly that 
 her sides have been strained by the rigging. Ver- 
 tical or irregular wrinkles on other portions of her 
 copper may merely indicate that she has rubbed 
 against some hard substance. 
 
 Look to the nails and bolts and see if they are 
 corroded, or if copper nails have worked loose in 
 consequence of the vessel's strainings 
 
 If spars are cracked in the direction of their 
 length, this is of little consequence, unless the 
 cracks are very deep. Such cracks should be stop- 
 ped with putty when the wood is quite dry, so as to 
 keep the wet out. When a spar is sprung the 
 cracks will be transverse as well as lengthways. 
 
 A mast is liable to decay where it passes through 
 the deck, also under the hounds. 
 
 Look with suspicion on a vessel that has cement 
 in her bottom ; for this prevents a proper examina- 
 tion of her interior. To fill up the spaces between 
 the lower timbers with Portland cement is, as we 
 shall show further on, an admirable plan ; but it is 
 often resorted to in order to conceal serious defects. 
 The bottom of many an old craft is practically held 
 together by cement. 
 
 Before describing the various forms of boats suit- 
 able for pleasure sailing, it will be well to give to 
 the reader a general idea of the rigging and other 
 parts of a small craft, so that certain terms which 
 we shall have to use constantly may be understood 
 by him. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a small cutter rigged as simply 
 as possible. 
 
 The spars are (1) the mast, which is what is 
 known as a pole mast — that is, a mast complete in 
 itself, having no topmast above it; (2) the bowsprit; 
 (3) the boom ; and (4) the gaff. 
 
 To support the mast and bowsprit, shrouds and 
 stays are employed. The mainshrouds (5) and the 
 f orestay (6) are now generally of iron wire rope ; 
 the former rest on the projecting shoulders known 
 as hounds (13), and are attached to the channels 
 (14) on the side of the boat ; 7 is the bobstay and 8 
 are the backstays or runners. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 9 
 
 The sails are, A, the mainsail ; B, the foresail ; 
 C, the jib. The mainsail is spread between the gaff 
 and boom, being laced to the former. The foresail 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 is hoisted up the forestay, to which it is attached 
 by iron hoops. The upper edge of a sail is called 
 the head ; the lower edge is the foot ; the fore edge 
 is the luff, and the after edge is the leach. The 
 upper fore corner is the throat of a sail ; the upper 
 after corner is the peak; the lower fore corner is 
 the tack, and the lower after corner is the clew. 
 
 The ropes by which the sails are hoisted are 
 called halyards. The mainsail has two halyards, 
 the throat halyards which hoist the fore end of the 
 gaff, and the peak halyards which raise its after 
 end. The topping lift (10) tops up the boom and 
 reelieves the sail of its weight. 
 
 The reef pennant (15), passing through an iron 
 
10 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 ring called the cringle (12) and the rows of reef 
 points (11), serve to reef or shorten sail when neces- 
 sary. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ROPES. 
 
 Knots, Bends, and Hitches. 
 
 A man cannot be even an amateur sailor until he 
 knows his ropes. A great number of knots, hitches, 
 bends, etc., are employed by sailors; but the skip- 
 per of a small fore-and-after will find that the dif- 
 ferent manipulations of cordage which we will now 
 describe will suffice his needs. 
 
 The ropes in ordinary use are what are known as 
 hawser-laid ropes, and are thus put together. Sev- 
 eral threads of hemp, called yarns, are twisted to- 
 gether to form a strand. Three strands twisted 
 together from right to left form the hawser-laid or 
 right-handed rope. 
 
 What is called a cable-laid rope contains nine 
 strands, that is, three ordinary right-handed ropes 
 twisted together from left to right into one large 
 rope. Right-handed rope must be coiled "with the 
 sun" from right to left. Cable-laid ropes must be 
 coiled from left to right. 
 
 The ends of all ropes should be whipped to pre- 
 vent the strands from unraveling. This is done 
 with spun-yarn or tarred twine. The twine is 
 wound round the rope in such a way that both ends 
 of the twine are covered, and so secured by the 
 laps, and no knot is necessary. It is very easy to 
 whip a rope's end, but very difficult to describe the 
 process in such a way as to make one's self intel- 
 ligible to one who has never seen it. 
 
 Where a rope is liable to be chafed, as in the eyes 
 of the rigging, it is wormed, parceled, and served. 
 Fio^. 2 will show how these operations are performed. 
 Worming consists of laying spun-yarn between the 
 strands, so as to fill up the spiral groove which 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 11 
 
 every rope presents, and obtain a smooth surface. 
 Parceling is wrapping narrow strips of tarred can- 
 vas over the worming ; it is put on with the lay, 
 that is, follows, the direction of the 
 strands. Serving a rope is the lay- 
 ing on of spun-yarn or other small 
 stuff over the parceling and worm- 
 ing. Service is put on against the 
 lay of the rope. Before commencing 
 to protect a rope in this way it should 
 be stretched out as taut as possible 
 with tackle, and the worming, par- 
 celing, and service should be laid on 
 as tightly as possible. The service is 
 hauled taut by a serving mallet. If 
 the rope is a small one it may be 
 served without worming, as the 
 grooves between the strands are not 
 deep enough to cause great uneven- 
 ness of surface. 
 
 Splicing, by which the 
 ropes are neatly and per- 
 manently joined, is a ne- 
 cessary accomplishment 
 of the yachtsman, and is 
 easilv acquired. 
 
 A Short Splice (Fig. 3).— 
 Unlay the strands of both 
 rope ends for a little way. Interlace the 
 three loose strands of one rope with the 
 three loose strands of the other, so that 
 each strand of one rope is between two 
 strands of the opposite rope. Then force 
 each strand under the next strand but 
 one opposite to it, and draw all tight. 
 Repeat this operation with each strand, 
 and the splice is made ; but to finish it off 
 neatlv untwist each strand end, cut away 
 half the yarns, and tuck in these reduced 
 strands as before. A marline-spike or 
 pricker is necessary to force open the 
 strands under which the ends have to 
 
 ends 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 pass. 
 
 When two rope ends are joined by a Long Splice 
 
12 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 (Fig. 4), the joined portion is no thicker than the 
 rest of the rope, and will reeve through any block 
 that will admit that rope; this splice is, therefore, 
 
 very useful for repairing a hal- 
 yard that has broken. Unlay 
 the ends of the two ropes for a 
 distance six times greater than 
 for a short splice, and place the 
 strands together as for a short 
 splice. Unlay one strand of 
 one rope for a considerable dis- 
 tance further, and fill up the 
 interval thus left with the. op- 
 posite strand from the other 
 rope. Repeat this process with 
 one strand of the other rope. 
 Where the opposite strands 
 meet, divide them, take an 
 overhand knot in them, and 
 tuck them in as in a short 
 splice; but before cutting off 
 the half strands the rope should 
 be well stretched. 
 The yachtsman will use the 
 Eye Splice (Fig. 5) more frequently than anj^ other. 
 The end of the rope is bent round so 
 as to form a loop of the required size 
 and the unlaid strands are tucked into 
 the rope exactly as in the short splice. 
 
 If one strand of an otherwise sound 
 rope be cut through it can be replaced 
 thus. Cut off about two feet of the in- 
 jured strand. Take a somewhat greater 
 length of a strand of the same size and 
 lay it in the interval left by the removed 
 portion of injured strand, then proceed 
 to halve the strands, knot and tuck in 
 as in a long splice. 
 A Grommet (Fig. 6) is a rope ring. Unlay a 
 strand, without stretching it and so disturbing the 
 turns in it. Form a ring of the required size by 
 bending the end round on to the standing part. 
 Then wind the strand twice round this ring, fitting 
 
 i'ig. 4- 
 
YACHTrnG AND SAILING. 
 
 13 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 it carefully into the crevices, so that the ring then 
 presents exactly the appearance of the original rope 
 from which the strand was taken. Where the ends 
 meet take an overhand knot with them, halve the 
 yarns, and tuck them in as in the long 
 splice. 
 
 We now come to the various useful 
 knots, bends, and hitches, all easy to 
 acquire, but difficult to describe in 
 words. However, if the reader will 
 study the accompanying diagrams 
 with a bit of rope in his hand he will 
 soon discover for himself Thow these 
 knots are formed. They all serve their purpose 
 admirably— that is, they are quickly made, are 
 secure, and cannot slip, and yet are readily undone 
 again. 
 
 ^ We must explain that the standing part of a rope 
 
 IS the portion held in the hand ; the bight is the 
 
 loop made in tying the knot; 
 
 the end is that extremity of the 
 
 rope on which the knot is to be 
 
 made. 
 
 First we have the common 
 Overhand Knot (Fig. 7), to 
 which we have already alluded. 
 
 One overhand knot on the top 
 form a Reef Knot (Fig. 8), that is 
 
 of 
 if 
 
 .^22^:222 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 another will 
 the ends are 
 crossed the right 
 way; for otherwise 
 it will be a Granny, 
 (Fig. 9),thesailor^s 
 detestation. The 
 novice on board a 
 
 yacht is sure to be unmercifully chaffed should he 
 have assisted at 
 reefing the main- 
 sail, and a ;?*ranny 
 be afterward dis- 
 covered among the 
 reef points. The fig- 
 ures will show that 
 in the reef-knot both parts— the standing part and 
 
14 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 A commoii bend 
 
 Fig. i^ 
 
 the end— pass through the bight the same way, not 
 one under and one above as in the granny. 
 
 A Common Bend (Fig. 10) will bend two 
 
 ropes together. Take up the end of one 
 
 rope into a bight, 
 
 and pass the end 
 
 of the other rope 
 
 through the 
 
 bight round both 
 
 parts and under 
 
 its own standing part. 
 
 also serves to bend a 
 
 rope into an eye spliced 
 
 into the end of another 
 
 rope. The signal hal- 
 yards are thus bent on 
 to the burgee. 
 
 A Carrick Bend (Fig. 11) will 
 bend two ropes together more 
 securely than the common bend. 
 When it is desired to fasten 
 one rope on to the middle of an- 
 other rope, so as to haul upon it, 
 a Rolling Hitch must be used, 
 as this, when jammed, cannot 
 slip down the rope, and yet it is 
 easily cast off again. 
 
 Fig. 12 represents a watch- 
 tackle, with the tail of its upper, 
 block l3ent Avith a rolling hitch 
 on to the rope it is intended to 
 pull upon, while the hook on its 
 lower block is made fast with a 
 Blackwall hitch. 
 
 A watch-tackle is a very 
 handy tackle on board ship, and 
 is used for a variety of purposes. 
 A tail is strapped to the upper 
 block and an iron hook to the 
 lower block. 
 
 A very powerful purchase is Fio u^ 
 
 obtained by using two watch- ^^ 
 
 tackles in combination. This is done by making 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 15 
 
 fast the tail of one watch-tackle to the hook on the 
 lowec block of the other tackle. 
 
 With a Blackwall Hitch a rope can be rapidly and 
 securely fasten*^d to a hook for a temporary purpose 
 
 ihe diagram will show how it is formed The 
 hitch is prevented from slipping by the jamming of 
 the rope between ^ 
 
 its own standing 
 part and the stem 
 of the hook. 
 Two Half Hitches 
 (Fig. 13) are very 
 useful for bending 
 a rope to a ring, a 
 boat's painter to a 
 post, and other 
 purposes. 
 
 Fig- «3- 
 
 rnl ^^""^ -^'*^\ ^^^^- ^^) '^ employed to fasten a 
 rope to a spar or to a stouter rope. In this way the 
 ratlines are hitched to the shrouds, 
 and a buoy-rope is fastened to an 
 anchor. 
 
 The Bowline Knot (Fig. 15) is 
 
 somewhat more difficult to make 
 
 than any of the preceding, but if the 
 
 reader diligently imitates the form of Fig. 15. 
 
 the diagram with a piece of rope or string he will 
 
 soon acquire the secret. ^ 
 
 Where an easily running noose is reauirpd a 
 Eunnmg Bowline (Fig. 16) i? useful? "^^^^'^^^ ^ 
 
16 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 A rope can be quickly bent on to a spar by means 
 of a Timber Hitch (Fig. 17), which does not rgadily 
 slip. 
 
 A Topsail Halyard Bend (Fig. 18) 
 is still less likely to slip. In this 
 case a description may assist the 
 diagram. Take three turns round 
 the spar ; come back round the 
 
 ^'ig* iS 
 
 ^-iS- 
 
 standing part ; pass under all three turns, then over 
 the last two turns and under the first turn. 
 
 The most secure way of fastening a hawser to a 
 mooring ring or dolphin is by means of the Fisher- 
 
 Fig. 19* 
 
 man's Bend (Fig. 19). This is also one of the best 
 ways of bending a hemp cable on to an anchor ring. 
 When used for this last purpose it is well to seize 
 the ends as shown in the diagram. 
 
 New rope, especially manilla rope, is very apt to 
 twist itself up into loops or kinks. This tendency 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 17 
 
 to kink can be prevented by stretching the rope 
 well before using it. 
 
 W 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE THEORY OF SAILING. 
 
 Leeway and lateral resistance — Heeling.— Balancing sails.— Tacking.— 
 Action of rudder — Longitudinal resistance.— Deep keel or center- 
 board. 
 
 Any object floating on the water will have a ten- 
 dency to drift before the wind ; but a boat, with its 
 scientifically constructed hull, sails, and rudder, 
 can be so guided as to sail with the wind on her 
 quarter or abeam, or even close-hauled, as it is 
 called, that, is, with the wind meeting her at an 
 angle of about forty-five degrees. 
 
 Fig. 20 represents the deck plan of boat sailing 
 close-hauled under two sails. The 
 sails A and B are drawn aft with the 
 sheets till they form an acute angle 
 with the line of the keel. The wind, 
 whose direction is indicated by the 
 arrow W, strikes the sails at a very 
 acute angle, so that they do not 
 shake, but are just full. 
 
 The result of this pressure on the 
 sails is that the boat is propelled for 
 ward and also sideways away from 
 the wind, making leeway, as it is 
 called. 
 
 If a boat has a deep keel her lat- 
 eral resistance to the water will 
 cause the leeway to be insignificant. ^ 
 
 If the boat is of very shallow ^ 
 draught and so offers little lateral 
 resistance to the water, she will not 
 go ahead at all, and the entire force 
 of the wind will be expended in 
 driving her bodily to leeward. Lee-boards and 
 center-boards are fitted to shallow boats in order to 
 obviate this. 
 
 Fig: 20. 
 
18 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 The pressure of the wind on the sails, in addition 
 to producing the above effects, lieels a boat over. 
 A sailing-boat is so constructed as to resist this ten- 
 dency to capsize. Either she is made narrow and 
 deep and is weighted with ballast as far as possible 
 below the water line, or she is shallow but of con- 
 siderable beam. The deep and weighted boat will 
 heel over more readily than the beamy shallow 
 boat, but the further she heels the greater pressure 
 of wind is necessary to make her heel still more, 
 for the leverage of her ballast increases as she 
 heels, and many boats with lead upon their keels 
 are practically uncapsizable. On the other hand, 
 the beamy shallow boat does not heel so readily, 
 but after she has heeled to a certain angle she will 
 capsize. 
 
 The pressure of the wind on the sails not only 
 propels, drives to leeward, and heels over a boat, 
 but unless the sails are absolutely balanced it tends 
 to turn her in one direction or the other. 
 
 In Fig. 20 we have a boat with two sails. If the 
 after sail is the more powerful it is obvious that the 
 wind will drive round that sail and the stern of the 
 boat with it in the direction of the arrow C, while 
 the head of the boat will run up into the wind. If, 
 on the other hand, the head sail be the more power- 
 ful of the two, the bow will be driven off the wind 
 and the boat will bear away. 
 
 The sails of a boat should be so balanced that she 
 has a slight tendency to run up into the wind ; and 
 to counteract this weather helm, as it is called, the 
 steersman will have to keep the rudder slightly to 
 leeward of the line of the keel. 
 
 If a boat carrying weather helm be left to her 
 own devices in a squall she will at once do the right 
 thing, luff up into the wind and be in safety; 
 whereas a boat with too much head-canvas and 
 carrying lee-helm will run off her course and put 
 herself in a dangerous position. 
 
 A boat should not gripe, that is, carry too much 
 weather helm, for steering will then be very hard, 
 and the rudder forced far over to counteract the 
 helm, will act as a serious drag in the water. 
 
(^ 
 
 YACHTING AND SAILING. 19 
 
 In balancing the sails it must be remembered that 
 the further out a sail is on an extremity of a boat 
 the greater its effect in driving that end of the boat 
 off the wind. 
 
 Sometimes a vessel's sails are not properly bal- 
 anced because the ballast has not been stowed in 
 the right place. It is obvious, for instance, that if 
 ballast be shifted aft, the weather helm will be 
 diminished, for the stern of the boat 
 will draw^ more water and so offer 
 more lateral resistance, whereas the 
 stem of the boat will draw less water 
 and will therefore be more easily 
 ^ blown round. A center- 
 board, again, is gener- 
 ally placed well forward, 
 so it is found that when 
 ./ this is lowered the 
 
 ./ weather helm of the boat 
 
 *4^ is c o n s i d e r a b 1 y in- / 
 
 %e. creased. ^ 
 
 C^V We have explained /I 
 
 ^^^ that a boat properly con- /I/ 
 
 ^ \ structed and rigged can vj 
 y^ sail within forty-five de- / 
 / grees of the wind. Now, / 
 y^ if it be desired to sail to <_,,^^ 
 f iJ some point more directly \a\ 
 iCf to windward than this, ^T/ 
 
 J ' what is called tacking / 
 
 /^ becomes necessary. This / 
 
 %^ consists of sailing a cer- /j 
 
 ^r>w tain distance close hauled ly 
 
 XA with the wind on one r\ 
 y^^^x side, and then turning / 
 round and sailing close 
 Fig. 21. hauled with the wind on pjg, 21/ 
 the other side. A zigzag 
 course is thus taken, each tack being at about right 
 angles to the last. 
 
 One diagram of Fig. 21 illustrates the process of 
 tacking with the wind right ahead, and in the other 
 diagram the wind is a point or two off, so that one 
 
20 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 tack is longer than the other, there oeing, in sailor 
 language, a short leg and a long leg. 
 
 That the action of the rudder, when forced over 
 till it is at an angle with the keel, is to act as a 
 drag on that side and so deflect the boat's course, is 
 plain enough. But it is not so obvious a fact that 
 this action of the rudder m turning the boat is not 
 
 to turn her bow round through the 
 water, but to push the stern side- 
 ways while the bow is almost at a 
 standstill. For the center of rota- 
 tion of a boat, that is, the imagi- 
 nary pivot on which she turns, is 
 always well forward. 
 
 In Fig. 22, A is the center of ro- 
 tation. So when the rudder is put 
 over to the right the boat will re- 
 volve on the pivot A till she is in 
 the position indicated by the dot- 
 ted lines. It will be observed that 
 the stern has moved about twice as 
 far as the bow. The farther for- 
 ward the center of rotation the greater will this 
 proportion be. 
 
 It is very important to remember this effect when 
 sailing very near any object such as a buoy, for 
 while steering so as to turn the boat's head away 
 from the object and avoid it, the stern is made to ap- 
 proach the object, and the very action that seems 
 calculated to prevent a collision may become the 
 cause of one. 
 
 Having shown what are the relations of the sails, 
 hull, and rudder of a boat to the wind and water, 
 and explained how a vessel requires either ballast 
 or beam to prevent the wind from capsizing her, 
 and needs draught to increase her lateral resistance 
 and prevent her from being blown to leeward, it 
 remains to add that the longitudinal resistance to 
 the water must be diminished as much as possible, 
 so that the boat can slip easily through the water 
 and travel with speed. 
 
 For this reason a sharp stem is put on a vessel, so 
 that she can open a way for herself through the 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 21 
 
 water like a wedge, and she is given what is called 
 a fine run aft, so that her stern will not drag 
 heavily. 
 
 Again, the larger the area of the boat's greatest 
 cross-section (Fig. 23) the more resistance that re- 
 sults and the slower she will travel. The area of 
 
 the cross-section is diminished 
 by making a boat of narrow 
 beam, while the necessary dis- 
 placement is obtained by in- 
 creased length and depth. 
 
 Now, the difficulty arises that 
 most of the qualities that insure 
 speed in a boat have a tendency 
 to lessen her stability and even 
 FicT. 23, h^^ lateral resistance. It fol- 
 
 *** lows that, while constructing a 
 
 boat, a compromise has to be made between these 
 three ; and the problem as to how to produce the 
 fittest craft becomes a very complicated one that 
 has never been solved yet, and probably never 
 will be. 
 
 Thus a long narrow shallow boat will run the 
 fastest before the wind, but she will not turn to 
 windward at all, and will capsize with great 
 ease. 
 
 As it is recognized that beam is opposed to speed, 
 it has been long the fashion in England to con- 
 struct racing yachts extremely narrow and of great 
 draught. Such craft do attain speed, but at the 
 expense of all comfort, and when a heavy sea is 
 running go through it instead of over it. 
 
 To come to the opposite extreme, we have the 
 flai-bottomed very shallow and very beamy craft, 
 with a deck plan not unlike a flat-iron — a veritable 
 skimming-dish. Provided with a center-board, 
 such a boat is well adapted for shallow and shel- 
 tered waters. The center-board can be raised while 
 crossing a shoal, and the boat will then draw only 
 as many inches as a deep-keel boat of her size 
 would draw feet. She will be very fast in smooth 
 water, but in rough water she will pound heavily 
 into the seas, and, having no good hold of the water 
 
22 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 and little momentum, will lose her headway and 
 soon prove dangerous. 
 
 For real comfort and seaworthiness — and some 
 now maintain for racing purposes as well — a boat 
 that ifc; something between these two extremes an- 
 swers the best ; that is, a boat that is moderately 
 beamy and has a moderate draught of water. 
 
 Some years ago we sailed to South America in a 
 yacht that well represented the class of vessel we 
 are now speaking of. Her length was forty-two 
 feet, her beam thirteen feet, and her draught seven 
 feet six inches. Not being one of the narrow deep 
 class, she was an excellent sea boat ; indeed, she 
 once had the reputation of being the best sea boat 
 of her size in the Channel. Now the advocates of 
 the narrow boats will contend that speed must have 
 been sacrificed to obtain this comfort in heavy 
 weather. We scarcely agree with these gentlemen ; 
 for this boat, though furnished with exceptionally 
 small sails, could do her nine knots an hour, and 
 on one occasion traveled two thousand sea miles in 
 ten days. 
 
 The author also once owned a center-board yawl 
 of five tons, which drew between two and three 
 feet without her center-board. She thus combined 
 the advantages of the shallow boat with the sea- 
 worthiness of a boat that is sufficiently immersed 
 to have a good hold of the water. 
 
 This compromise between the deep-keel and the 
 center-board types of boats has long been popular 
 in this country, and probably the recent victories of 
 the American yachts constructed on these principles 
 over the crack deep-keelers will gradually modify 
 the English views on this subject. 
 
 Most of the English yachting men maintain that a 
 long hole through the bottom of a boat must weaken 
 her; that the great strain of the center-board, con- 
 centrated as it is on one small portion of the keel, 
 must render a large craft thus fitted ill adapted to 
 buffet with a really heavy sea. 
 
 On the other hand, the American builders em- 
 phatically deny that a center-board is a cause of 
 weakness, and point to our noble pilot vessels and 
 
YA.CHTING AND SAILING. 23 
 
 trading schooners, which are all provided with 
 center-boards, and which are exposed to every sort 
 of weather. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell longer on this contro- 
 versy, for though there is much divergence of oipn- 
 ion as regards large craft there can be no question 
 as to the advantages of fitting center-boards into 
 many kinds of small craft, especially in those that 
 are intended for river sailing. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON SMALL BOATS. 
 
 Open and half-decked boats. — Ballast— The center-board. — False keels. — 
 Lee-boards. — Counters, square, and pointed sterns. — Battened sails. 
 
 The following observations apply chiefly to small 
 boats, which can be rowed as well as sailed, and be 
 easily handled by one man — that is, boats from the 
 smallest size up to about eighteen feet in length. 
 
 Open and Half-decked Boats.— A small boat is 
 often half -decked, that is, she is provided with a 
 small deck in the bows and a narrow deck on either 
 side, low coamings being carried round the inside 
 edge. Such a boat must to a certain extent be safer 
 than an entirely open boat ; that is, if she be struck 
 by a squall and heel far over, or again, if she run 
 her nose into a sea, the water will flow off her decks 
 instead of pouring into her and possibly swamping 
 her. But a small boat is not a yacht, and she ought 
 not to be sailed in so reckless a manner as to drive 
 her bow or gunwale under and ship large bodies of 
 water in this way. A quite open boat, if she be 
 properly constructed, not over-ballasted, not over- 
 canvassed, and of course properly sailed, will go 
 through an extraordinary amount of sea without 
 taking a bucketful of water on board ; and not only 
 this, but she will sail as fast if not faster than the 
 half-decked craft of the same size staggering along 
 under excessive canvas, with the water under her 
 lee coamings. The slight additional safety, or 
 
24 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 rather inducement to recklessness afforded by the 
 half -deck and waterways, is more than comiterbal- 
 anced by several disadvantages. In the first place, 
 this deck — too narrow to walk along — will occupy 
 much of the already limited space available on 
 board a small boat, and it will be in the way of and 
 impede one working the sails, or rowing, to an ex- 
 tent that it is difficult to appreciate until one has 
 tried the experiment. In the next place, this deck 
 must be of considerable weight — a serious disadvan- 
 tage if the boat has often to be beached. And not 
 only is the deck heavy in itself, but, situated as it 
 is high above the water-line, it tends to make the 
 boat top-heavy, and this must be counteracted by 
 putting more ballast into her than would be required 
 in an entirely open boat of the same dimensions. 
 Now, if a small boat is intended ever to venture into 
 rough water, the less ballast she carries and the 
 more buoyant she is the better. 
 
 We therefore do not recommend half-decks for 
 the class of boat of which we are now speaking. 
 When a boat is big enough to be a small yacht, and 
 the half-deck forward covers a cuddy large enough 
 to afford sleeping accommodation to the crew, the 
 case is different, and the half-deck becomes a de- 
 cided advantage. 
 
 Ballast. — A small boat's ballast, whatever form 
 ijt may take, should be readily movable. Thus, if 
 lead is used, it should be cast in small blocks of not 
 more than half a hundred weight each, and in order 
 that it may be lifted with ease, each block should 
 be provided with a handle. Lead being very heavy, 
 and therefore occupying little space in a boat, is 
 the most convenient form of ballast, but it is also 
 by far the most expensive. The iron half -hundred 
 weights with handles at the top, which can be pur- 
 chased at any marine store dealer's, are nearly as 
 convenient as lead weights, and are very cheap. 
 
 Battens should be nailed to the bottom of the boat 
 to keep the ballast in its place, otherwise it might 
 slide to leeward in a squall and cause a capsize. 
 
 Stones and bags of sand are often employed as 
 ballast, but water contained in small barrels, or, 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 25 
 
 better still, in metal tanks, shaped so as to fit 
 closely into the bottom of the boat, is far the safest 
 ballast that can be used. For if a boat provided 
 with water ballast capsize and fill she will be no 
 heavier than if she contained no ballast, and con- 
 sequently she will not sink. -, ^^ ^ . x. 4. -^ 
 Another advantage of water ballast is that it 
 can be pumped out to lighten the boat when a calm 
 necessitates the use of oars, and be quickly admit- 
 ted again when a breeze springs up and the sail is 
 hoisted. Again, when the water-tanks are empty 
 the boat is practically converted into a lifeboat, 
 and if a sea fill her she will still float. 
 
 The advantages of water over other forms ot bal- 
 last are so numerous that nothing else would be 
 used in small boats were it not for the great amount 
 of space it occupies; and so serious is this objection 
 that one but rarely comes across a boat thus bal- 
 1 f\ ^fpd 
 
 The'Center-Board.— In England the center-board 
 of a small boat is generally of galvanized iron, thus 
 acting also, to some extent, as ballast. In this coun- 
 try wooden center-boards are more often used. If a 
 boat has often to be beached or carried, lightness is 
 an important object, and therefore the wooden 
 center-board is to. be preferred. One objection to 
 the center-board is that its trunk or case occupies 
 so much space in the interior of the boat. A tele- 
 scopic or fan center-board has recently been in- 
 vented which folds up into itself when hauled up, 
 and therefore requires no trunk. We believe, how- 
 ever, that this is only adapted for canoes and other 
 very small boats. \ j_. .. • 
 
 False Keels.— If the tyro lives by the sea it is 
 very likely that he will commence his nautical 
 career by becoming the proud possessor of some old 
 yacht's dinghy or ship's boat, which, when he puts 
 sail on her, runs before the wind to his complete 
 satisfaction, but is too shallow to turn to windward 
 Fow, to put a center-board into a boat that has not 
 been expressly built for one is an expensive and 
 generally unsatisfactory job, but any carpenter can 
 nail a false keel on to the old one, and so give the 
 
26 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 boat the necessary draught at a small expense. A 
 false keel should be rounded up toward the bow 
 and stern, and have its greatest depth some way 
 abaft the middle of the boat. 
 
 Lee-Boards. — The tyro will find lee-boards even 
 less expensive and possibly more effective than a 
 false keel, and when they are raised the boat will 
 row more easily than if she were provided with the 
 latter. There is some prejudice against lee-boards 
 in England, and to eyes unaccustomed to see them 
 on pleasure craft they appear ugly, but in Holland 
 no boat or yacht is without them. 
 
 Large lee-boards are made in several sections, 
 and are strengthened with iron bands, while they 
 require a good deal of gear to support and raise 
 them; but the author has found that with a small 
 boat the following simple method of fitting: lee- 
 boards proved very satisfactory. 
 
 The shape and position of this lee-board is shown 
 
 in Fig. 24. It is cut out of one plank and has no 
 
 iron fittings, and it is between three and four feet 
 
 1 ^ y^ — s. in length. The 
 
 II f o V ■ ■ inner side is 
 
 i y \ ^M flat. The outer 
 
 side, as repre- 
 sented in the 
 diagram, main- 
 tains the *thick- 
 n e s s of the 
 plank at the 
 head and down 
 the middle, and 
 is thence planed 
 away to a nar- 
 r o w edge. A 
 rope ib rove 
 through a hole 
 at the head of 
 the lee-board, and passing over the gunwale is se- 
 cured to a cleat. Another rope rove through a 
 hole at the bottom of the lee-board is led aft, and 
 serves to raise it, while the first rope serves as a 
 pivot. When the lee-boards are not required they 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 27 
 
 can be brought on board and placed at the bottom 
 of the boat. If the boat is wall-sided, that is, has 
 perpendicular sides, the lee-boards can rest against 
 these; but if, as is the case with most boats, her 
 sides fall in beneath, wooden pillows must be fas- 
 tened on the outside of the boat to support the lee- 
 boards and keep them at the right angle ; or, and 
 this is sometimes the better plan, battens of the re- 
 quisite breadth are nailed on the lee-boards them- 
 selves. In working lee-boards the lee one is lowered 
 and the weather one hauled up, and when the boat 
 is running both are raised. All those who are ac- 
 customed to the use of lee-boards speak well of 
 them, and they certainly have some advantages over 
 center-boards, notably, that if the boat runs aground 
 they will not bend, break off, or strain the boat, as 
 is often the case with a center-board. 
 
 Counters, Square, and Pointed Sterns. — What- 
 ever it may be on a yacht, a counter or overhang- 
 ing stern is not an ornament on a small boat, being, 
 as it is, the very reverse of useful ; and to the edu- 
 cated eye the useful and beautiful go together in 
 boats, as they do in many other things. In rough 
 water, if a sea strikes a boat under the counter a 
 variety of disagreeable results may ensue; for in- 
 stance, the boat's bow may be driven under, or she 
 may broach to, that is, be driven broadside on to the 
 sea, and be swamped by the next wave. 
 
 A square stern, as is usual in small boats, is far 
 better than a counter ; but far better still, for a boat 
 intended to be out in rough water, is the pointed 
 stern. Such a boat is undoubtedly safer, especially 
 when running before a sea, and we maintain that 
 she will be faster as well. All life-boats are thus 
 constructed. Many men dislike a pointed stern, 
 and consider it ugly. However that may be, it be- 
 haves handsomely, and we should certainly recom- 
 mend any amateur building a sailing boat for coats- 
 ing purposes to give her the lifeboat stern. 
 
 Battened Sails. — Battens of pine tapering at the 
 ends are sometimes fastened to the reef bands of 
 balance lugs and other sails in use on small boats. 
 The object of battens is to make a sail stand very 
 
28 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 flat. Another advantage gained by the use of these 
 is that if one is sailing a boat alone a reef can be 
 taken down in a moment with one hand while the 
 halyard is being slacked off a sufficient length with 
 the other. This is done by means of a line which, 
 when hauled taut, draws the boom and batten close 
 together. It is not necessary to tie down reef points 
 in a sail reef eel as above, but to do so makes a much 
 neater reef. 
 
 Battens are of great service on the sails of canoes 
 and very small craft, but they make a larger sail 
 somewhat heavy and clumsy to handle. 
 
 CHAPTER V, 
 
 THE RIGS OF SMALL BOATS. 
 
 Spritsails. — Dipping lugs. — Standing lugs. — Leg-of-mutton sails. — The 
 balance lug. — The Una rig. — Balance reefs — The sloop — Eules of 
 open boat sailing. 
 
 The spritsail rig is much used on small boats all 
 around the coast of England. It is an exceedingly 
 handy and safe rig, and the spritsail will set flatter 
 and is better adapted for turning to windward than 
 almost any other form of sail. It 
 has no boom or gaff, but is ex- 
 tended by a long diagonal spar 
 called the sprit, which tapers 
 away at the two extremities, the 
 upper end of it fitting into an eye 
 on the peak, the lower end fitting 
 into a loop on the mast called the 
 snotter. The snotter (see Fig. 25) 
 is a grommet which is placed 
 round the mast, and then seized 
 in the middle so as to form an 
 eye for the sprit. 
 
 In using this rig the sail is 
 hoisted first ; one end of the sprit 
 is inserted into the eye of the peak, and then the 
 other end is inserted into the snotter. Lastly, the 
 
 'g- 25. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 29 
 
 snotter is pushed up the mast as far as it will go, 
 bringing tht^ sail quite flat. It is well to have a 
 tackle for hoisting the snotter and preventing it 
 from slipping down the mast. It is important that 
 the snotter should be quite sound. There is a great 
 strain on it, and should it break the sprit end may 
 drive a hole through the bottom of a boat or work 
 some other serious damage. 
 
 A spritsail can be brailed up along the mast in a 
 moment by means of a line leading through a block 
 on the mat and passing round the sail. A glance at 
 any sailing barge in English waters at anchor, will 
 show how this is done. 
 
 An old ship's long-boat provided with a sprit 
 mainsail, sprit mizzen, and jib, as in Fig. 36, is a 
 
 Tig. a6. 
 
 very convenient sort of craft in which to take one's 
 first lessons in sailing. When it blows hard the 
 mainsail can be stowed, and the boat will sail 
 under jib and mizzen, or these last two sails can be 
 taken in and the mainsail alone be left standing. 
 
 The mizzen sheet, it will be observed, is rove 
 through a sheave-hole at the end of a bumpkin, a 
 small fixed spar projecting from the stern of the 
 boat. 
 
 The Dipping Lug is a powerful sail very well 
 adapted for sea work, and a favorite with fisher- 
 men and other professional sailors, but it cannot be 
 
30 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 recommended to the amateur; for at every tack 
 the sail has to be lowered and passed round to the 
 other side of the mast. This necessitates plenty ot 
 sea room, and would be an awkward operation to 
 undertake while turning up a narro\y and crowded 
 channel. To handle a dipping lug with safety m a 
 ■^tifE breeze requires considerable experience both on 
 the part of the steersman and of the hand or hands 
 to whom the dipping of the sail is intrusted. 
 
 The Standing Lug, though not so powerful a sail 
 as the dipping lug, is far more convenient ; as the 
 sail has not to be lowerd in tacking. The tack, in- 
 stead of being carried forward, is brought down to 
 the mast, where it is hooked on to an iron hook it 
 the sail be a small one, and if the sail be a large 
 one it is fitted with a tackle, so that the tack can bo 
 bowsed down after the sail is hoisted The yard is 
 swung at about one-third of its length, where it has 
 
 Fig. 27, 
 
 a strop to pass over the hook on the traveleT-an 
 iron ring on the mast to which the end of the hal- 
 yard is tttached, and which prevents the sail blow- 
 ing away from the mast. i. j n +v,« 
 In order to insure a lug sail that will stand well the 
 peak should be cut high, as in the dvawmg. It is a 
 Common fault to cut the head of a lug sail too 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 31 
 
 square. Such a sail can never be made to set flatly. 
 A short, beainy dinghy with one lug is a handy little 
 craft for the amateur, but if the boat is a long one 
 she will be better with a jib and mizzen, as in 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 The Leg-of-Mutton Sail.— A very handy rig and 
 one that requires no spars but the masts, is that 
 represented in Fig. 38. The masts though long are 
 
 slight, as there is lit- 
 tle strain on them. 
 Each sail is hoisted to 
 its masthead by one 
 halyard, and its luff 
 is kept close to the 
 mast by hoops or 
 more usually by a 
 lacing. A boat thus 
 rigged is possibly the 
 safest of any, and is 
 not easily capsized. 
 
 The rigs we have so 
 far described are w^ell 
 adapted for a novice, 
 insomuch as they 
 need no booms. As soon as a sail is provided with 
 a boom the danger of sailing is much increased. If 
 you let go the sheet of a sail that has no boom— a 
 spritsail, for instance— it flaps away from the mast 
 innocently like a flag. Put a boom on it, and' you 
 at once have a great surface of canvas extended 
 rigidly and offering the greatest possible resistance 
 to the wind. When running before a strong wind 
 a jibe, and especially if it be an unpremeditated jibe, 
 of a sail bent on to a long boom becomes a source 
 of danger. 
 
 Thus a green hand or a careless person cannot be 
 safely trusted with a boom sail on a squally day; 
 but when the novice has acquired the rudiments of 
 sailing, and employs that constant caution and 
 watchfulness of his ever-open weather-eye which 
 are indispensable qualities for a sailor, he will most 
 certainly, and very rightly, too, prefer the boom 
 sail. For a sail that has no boom is most unsatis- 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
32 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 factory if one wishes to get any speed out of a boat. 
 When running free it curves into a bag, and only 
 presents half its area to the wind. It never stands 
 flat, except when the boat is close-hauled, and not 
 always then, unless the sheet is led exactly to the 
 right place; and though a sail without a boom jibes 
 with p^reater safety, it is much more liable to acci- 
 dental jibes than one with a boom. 
 
 The Balance Lug. — The favorite sail for small 
 center-board craft in England is undoubtedly the 
 balance lug. Most of the racing boats on the Upper 
 Thames- are fitted with this sail; some have jibs, 
 others jibs and mizzens, besides the mainsail; but 
 we will confine ourselves to describing the single- 
 sail center-board dinghy, which little craft is per- 
 haps unrivaled for the purpose of single-handed 
 sailing on a river. 
 
 A handy boat is one fifteen feet long, with five 
 feet beam. She should have a fiat fioor, and there- 
 fore shallow draught. The mast is supported with 
 wire shrouds, and is 
 fitted into what is 
 called a tabernacle, 
 that is, a wooden 
 case for the heel of 
 the mast, having a 
 pivot through it, on 
 which pivot the mast 
 i s easily lowered 
 when the l3oat is pass- 
 ing under a bridge. 
 
 The sail, as is 
 shown in Fig. 29, is 
 hoisted on a yard 
 similar to that of a 
 standing lug, but the 
 foot of the sail is 
 laced to a boom, and 
 extends some dis- 
 tance in front of the 
 mast. One end of the 
 tack is fastened to the boom, where 
 mast, and the other 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 it crosses the 
 end of it is secured to the mast. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 33 
 
 The tack is a most important rope in a balance- 
 lug boat, for after the sail has been hoisted with 
 the halyard and it is required to give that last haul 
 on the sail which brings it to its proper tautness, a 
 much smaller amount of power will do this when 
 applied to the tack than if applied to the halyard. 
 An efficient tack purchase is what is known as a 
 watch tackle, which is represented in Fig:. 12. When 
 after sailing awhile the ropes have stretched, and 
 the sail is no longer fiat, it is with this tackle, and 
 not with the halyard, that one sets it up again. A 
 balance lug requires more frequent setting up to 
 preserve its flatness than any ether sort of sail. 
 
 In a small dinghy no purchase is needed for the 
 halyards ; the sail will lower more easily and 
 quicker without one. The tabernacle also is un- 
 necessary, as the mast can be easily unstopped. 
 
 The sail is kept close to the mast by an iron trav- 
 eler, but if the sail be cut with a high peak it will 
 be found that the traveler has a ten- 
 dency to prevent the sail from lower- 
 ing completely. A traveler is also 
 liable to jam if the mast is not kept 
 well greased. 
 
 On this account the iron traveler 
 is dispensed with on most of the 
 Upper Thames boats, and instead of 
 it a line is fastened to the yard, 
 which passes round the mast and is 
 rove through an e^^e on the yard. 
 When tlie sail is up this line is hauled 
 taut, and prevents the yard from 
 blowing away from the mast. This 
 method will be understood by refer- 
 ring to Fig. 30. 
 A well'Cut balance lug properly 
 hoisted should be nearly as fiat as a board. The 
 fact of the tack being some way down the boom 
 prevents the pressure of the wind from lifting the 
 after-end of the boom and so forming a belly in the 
 sail, as is the case with the ordinary fore-and-aft 
 sail. A balance-lug is always rigid ; the boom and 
 yard can only move together, and this rigidity ren- 
 
 Fig. 30, 
 
34 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 ders it somewhat unfit for rough water, where it is 
 apt to considerably strain mast and boat. 
 
 The balance lug is rather an awkward sail to 
 lower, and as it is impossible to brail it up, or lower 
 the peak, or trice up the tack to temporarily reduce 
 the canvas in a squall, as can be done with other 
 rigs, the sail has to be lowered bodily if the boat is 
 overpowered by the wind. Thus, if one is over- 
 taken by a violent squall while running before the 
 wind, the balance lug is perhaps the most danger- 
 ous sail one can have on a boat. 
 
 So as to facilitate reefing a grommet is sometimes 
 placed on each reef cringle at the luff of a balance- 
 : ug sail. In taking down a reef the fore end of the 
 3uom is thrust into this eye and an earing is thus 
 dispensed with. 
 
 The usual method of fitting the sheet of a balance- 
 lug sail is to fasten one end of it to one side of the 
 stern, and then to lead it through a single block 
 strapped on to the boom, and through another block 
 fastened to the other side of the stern. 
 
 The Cat Rig. — Whereas the balance lug is the 
 favorite English rig for small river craft, the Cat or 
 Una rig is generally preferred in this country, and 
 it undoubtedly possesses some important advan- 
 tages over the other rig. 
 
 The cat boat (Fig. 31), being intended for very 
 shallow waters, has the least possible draught. 
 This boat consequently has great beam, and is often 
 quite flat-bottomed. The center-board is of wood or 
 iron. The mast is stepped much more forward than 
 in a balance-lug boat, and carries one large sail 
 laced to a boom and gaff. The cat boat, in our 
 opinion, will turn to windward in smooth water 
 even more smartly than a balance lug. and as a 
 rule will row more easily, for the displacement is 
 vpry small, and in consequence of the stability 
 given by the great beam, little, and often no ballast 
 is used. 
 
 In England it is usual for a cat boat to have but 
 one halyard, which serves to hoist both peak and 
 throat. We prefer two halyards, one for the 
 throat, one for the peak, the latter leading aft, so 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 35 
 
 that it can be let go in a squall, and thus reduce the 
 sail by one-half. 
 
 The author had recently a good deal of experi- 
 ence in an eighteen-foot cat-boat among the quays of 
 the Gulf of Mexico and on an extensive lake in 
 Florida, and he came to the conclusion that for 
 
 K3] 
 
 such work the cat rig was far handier than the bal- 
 ance-lu^, especially when, as was often the case, 
 there was a large party of ladies on board. 
 
 This was an entirely open boat, carrying no bal- 
 last, and having a wooden center-board. She was 
 therefore very light for her size, and could be rowed 
 with singular ease. 
 
 The lake was subject to sudden and violent 
 squalls, and it was very c^onvenient to be able to let 
 go the peak halyards without leaving the tiller, and 
 have them up again in a moment as soon as the 
 squall had passed, without disturbing the passen- 
 gers in the least. Had the sail been the uncom- 
 
36 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 promising balance lug the whole sail would have 
 had to be lowered in a body on to the heads of the 
 passengers. 
 
 A topping lift, always belayed so as to feel the 
 weight of the boom, is indispensable in a cat boat, 
 else the end of the boom would drop into the water 
 when the peak was lowered. 
 
 Strong winds would spring up suddenly on this 
 lake, so that the boat would be quite overpowered 
 even under close-reefed sail, and it became impos- 
 sibe to tack home until the wind dropped. Neither 
 was it possible to row back, for the very lightness of 
 a cat boat renders her a troublesome boat to pull 
 against the wiad. She is blown over the surface of 
 the water before the wind, despite all the efforts of 
 the oarsman. Now, as the swamps which surround 
 yiis lake also made it out of the question to land 
 and walk home, one was liable to find one's self 
 weather-bound among tho dismal cypress swamps 
 at the farther end of the lake for three days at a 
 stretch while a "norther" was blowing. The author 
 almost entirely did awaj^ with the chance of such an 
 unpleasant adventure by putting what is known as a 
 balance reef into the sail, a plan he strongly recom- 
 mends to all those who would sail cat boats or small 
 sloops on broad waters liable to sudden storms. 
 
 The Balance Reef (Fig. 31) extends diagonally 
 across the sail from the throat to the clews. In 
 taking in this reef the jaws of the gaff are lowered 
 till they touch the boom, and are there tied. The 
 fall of the throat halyards will do for this purpose. 
 When the reef ha^ been taken down and the peak 
 is hoisted again it will be found that the gaff is 
 nearly parallel to the mast, and a very snug little 
 triangular sail is formed, under which the boat will 
 tack or run — with boom well topped up — with 
 safety; and the moment the peak halyard is let go 
 down the sail will fall into the bottom of the boat 
 without making any fuss. 
 
 The boat we are speaking of was remarkably 
 cranky, but she would behave well in a strong gale 
 under her balance reef. 
 
 The balance reef is much employed by our fisher- 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 37 
 
 men and_ coasters, but scarcely ever on board 
 yachts. I believe that many amatem^s consider this, 
 together with some other useful wrinkles, to be 
 "unyachty." 
 
 From what v/e have said it will be seen that the 
 cat rig offers many advantages over its rival, the 
 balance-lug, but it likewise has some serious disad- 
 vantages. 
 
 The cat boat is not easily capsized— the beam 
 prevents that— but she soon becomes altogether 
 overpowered by sea and wind. Like all fiat-bot- 
 tomed boats, she pounds heavily into a head sea 
 and is very wet. The weight of the mast, being so 
 far forward, makes her somewhat liable to run her 
 nose under water and fill. She steers wildly, too, 
 
 before a sea, and 
 will broach to more 
 readily than other 
 boats, while the 
 length of her boom 
 renders an acciden- 
 tal jibe dangerous. 
 The Sloop.— Boats 
 and small yachts 
 are often sloop-rig- 
 ged. 
 
 There is consider- 
 able discrepancy of 
 opinion as to what 
 constitutes the dif- 
 ference between a 
 sloop and a cutter. 
 At any rate, the 
 generally under- 
 stood distinction 
 
 Fin. 32. 
 
 among boating men is, rightly or wrongly, that 
 \vhereas a sloop's forestay is carried to the end of a 
 fixed bowsprit or an iron bumpkin, the forestay of 
 a cutter is carried to the stem of the vessel ; and 
 thus the sloop can only set one large foresail, in- 
 stead of a foresail and a jib as a cutter does. 
 
 We will adopt this definition of a sloop, which is 
 represented in Fig. 32. As the rig is in every other 
 
38 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 respect the same as that of a cutter, we will re- 
 serve an explanation of its different parts till 
 the next chapter, wherein the cutter rig will be 
 discussed. 
 
 The sloop rig is not one to be altogether recom- 
 mended, except for racing purposes on a river. For 
 cruising purposes, if the boat be a small one, one of 
 the rigs above mentioned is preferable to the sloop 
 rig. If the boat be a good-sized one it is better to 
 make a cutter or yawl yacht of her at once ; for a 
 sloop's Dig foresail is an awkward sail to handle in 
 rough weather. 
 
 The following important rules apply to the sail- 
 ing of open boats, such as we have described in this 
 chapter. 
 
 Carefully coil your halyards after hoisting sail, 
 so that they will not get entangled and jam if you 
 have to let go in a hurry. 
 
 See that your mainsheet is coiled- out of every 
 one's way. Many a boat has been capsized owing 
 to a man's leg getting entangled in a sheet. 
 
 Do not belay your mainsheet, but hold it in your 
 hand ; if the strain be great take one turn with the 
 sheet round a cleat or pin. 
 
 Sit to windward while steering. 
 
 If struck by a squall luff up to it, or ease the 
 sheet, or do both. 
 
 Always luff up in the wind before hoisting or 
 lowering sail. 
 
 Never climb the mast of a small boat. If any- 
 thing is wrong aloft, lower the mast to set it right. 
 
 Belay a halyard by taking a few turns round its 
 cleat. Do not put a half-hitch on the top of the 
 turns. 
 
 Do not jibe in the middle of a squall, if you can 
 avoid doing so. If a jibe is unavoidable lower your 
 peak first ; haul in your mainsheet, and pay it out 
 on the other side, so as to lessen the jerk as the 
 boat jibes. 
 
 If it is blowing hard, and all your crew are sit- 
 ting to windward, remember that a sudden drop in 
 the wind maj'^ cause the boat to capsize to wind- 
 ward. Unless your companions are experienced 
 
YA.CHTING AND SAILING. 39 
 
 boatmen, do not carry so much sail as to necessitate 
 their all sitting to windward. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 A cutter's rigging. 
 
 The bowsprit — Backstays— Main halyards — Tack tricing line — Lacing 
 mainsail to boom— Maintack tackle — The gaff- For esheets — Fore- 
 horse— Jib sheets— Mainsheet-horse— Topsail— Spinnaker — Strops 
 for bloclis, etc.— The Yawl— The Ketch. 
 
 As this is a treatise on small craft we will speak of 
 the cutter, yawl, and ketch-rigged yachts only, for 
 the schooner rig is only adapted to a larger style of 
 vessel. 
 
 With the object of familiarizing the reader with 
 the names of those portions of her rigging common 
 to nearly all boats, we have already, in Chapter I., 
 given a slight description of a cutter. We will now 
 enter upon a more detailed explanation of this rig 
 as applied to craft of under ten tons. 
 
 A cutter's bowsprit is not a fixture, as it is on the 
 small boats we have so far described, but is made 
 to slide in and out. It can be run in altogether 
 when no jib is set; and when the large jib — for a 
 cutter should be provided with two jibs at least — is 
 shifted in a breeze for the smaller jib, the bowsprit 
 can be partly run in. It is a great relief to a vessel 
 plunging into a heavy sea thus to relieve her of this 
 overhanging weight. 
 
 The bowsprit passes between strong wooden bits 
 on the deck and through an iro^ ring covered with 
 leather, bolted on the stem, called the gammon 
 iron. When the bowsprit has been run in to the 
 required distance it is kept in its place by the fid, 
 an iron bolt which passes through the bowsprit and 
 the bits. 
 
 It is essential that a bowsprit run in easily with- 
 out jamming, so the gammon iron should be made 
 large, and the fid should be a stout one, else the 
 pressure of the bowsprit will soon bend it, and it 
 will be impossible to draw it out. 
 
40 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 When the bowsprit is reefed the bobstay and the 
 bowsprit shrouds have also to be shortened and 
 tautened up with the tackle attached to them. 
 
 The tack of the jib hooks on to an iron traveler 
 on the bowsprit which is hauled out to the required 
 distance with the jib outhaul. 
 
 The backstays or runners (see Fig. 1) support the 
 mast when the vessel is running before the wind. 
 The lee runner must be always slacked 
 out, so that the boom can run out suffi- 
 ciently far. 
 
 Most of a cutter's halyards consist of 
 systems^ of pulleys giving more or less 
 mechanical advantage as the sail is large 
 or small ; but it must be remembered that 
 the more powerful the purchase employed 
 the longer the time occupied in hoisting 
 and lowering the sail and the greater the 
 friction and chance of the halyard jam- 
 ming, so a purchase that will just enable 
 one hand to hoist a sail with moderate 
 ease is all that is necessary. Small 
 yachts are often over blocked. 
 
 For example, a cutter's throat halyards 
 generally consist of a luff-tackle^ pur- 
 chase, the double block on the mast and 
 a singe one on the throat ; but in a very 
 small cutter a gun-tackle purchase of two 
 Pig^ 32^ single blocks (see Fig. 33) will suffice. 
 
 A gun-tackle purchase is also generally 
 used for the jib halyards and fore halyards of a cut- 
 ter under ten tons. 
 
 The tack tricing line serves to trice up or draw 
 up the tack of the mainsail and so considerably re- 
 duce its size in a squall. It is convenient also to be 
 able to trice up the tack so as to see ahead better 
 while sailing into a crowded harbor. Where the 
 sail is small, the tack tricing line is fastened on to 
 the tack of the sail, passes through a single block 
 on the gaff close to the jaws, and thence leads to 
 the deck. Where the sail is large, a gun-tackle 
 purchase is used. 
 In large cutters the clew of the mainsail is hauled 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 41 
 
 out on the boom with a traveler and tackle. In 
 smaller boats, where the clew can be hauled out by 
 hand, it is generally permanently lashed to the 
 end of the boom. This plan is apt to pull the sail 
 all out of shape, for if the clew has been hauled out 
 sufficiently taut when the sail is dry, it will be 
 stretched overmuch when the sail is shrunk with 
 rain. Thus, even if no traveler be used, it is well to 
 have the clew lashing so arranged that it can be 
 easily cast off or slackened. 
 
 Ill this country the foot of a cutter's mainsail is 
 invariably laced to the boom. There is some pre- 
 judice in England against this method, so far as 
 sea-going boats are concerned. There can be no 
 doubt that a sail sets flatter when its foot is laced, 
 and another great advantage gained is that a much 
 lighter boom can be employed; for the lacing di- 
 vides the strain throughout the whole length of the 
 boom, instead of concentrating it at the two ex- 
 tremities. The buckling or bending of a boom is 
 also much lessened by this method, and conse- 
 quently the sail is flatter in a strong wind. 
 
 In our opinion the sole objection of any impor- 
 tance to lacing the foot of the mainsail is that in 
 doing so, that very handy rope, the tack trice, must 
 be dispensed with. 
 
 The tack of a mainsail is generally hauled down 
 by means of a maintack tackle, generally a luff 
 tackle purchase, but in smaller cutters a short rope 
 spliced into the tack of the sail is sufficient, which 
 can be made fast to the boom or to a cleat on the 
 mast. 
 
 The gaff travels up and down the mast on the 
 jaws, which are generally of wood in small cutters. 
 But as the necessary strength is obtained by iron 
 jaws of much less thickness, these are the best; 
 they look neater, fit closer, and the halyards are 
 not so liable to get jammed between them and the 
 mast. 
 
 The jaws are prevented from slipping from the 
 mast by the parrel, a line with beads of hard wood 
 threaded on it, which passes round the mast from 
 one horn of the jaws to the other. 
 
42 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 The boom is sometimes fitted to the mast with 
 wooden jaws like those of the gaff; but an iron 
 gooseneck, a joint that gives play in every direc- 
 tion to the boom, is far preferable. We will re- 
 mark here, once and for all, that whenever we 
 mention iron work of any description, we speak of 
 galvanized iron. No other should be allowed on 
 board a yacht under any pretense. 
 
 The hoops by wliich the luff of the sail is kept to 
 the mast are sometimes of iron covered with leather 
 but wooden hoops are 
 preferable for a small 
 yacht, and are less 
 liable to jam. 
 
 The simplest arrange- 
 ment for the fore sheets 
 is as follows : Two single 
 blocks are fastened to 
 the clews of the foresail 
 (a double block may 
 answer as well.) One 
 end of each sheet is 
 spliced into an eye on 
 deck, then the sheet is 
 rove through one of the 
 blocks, and back 
 through a lead to its 
 cleat aft. Fig. 34 illus- 
 trates this method. 
 
 A horse for the fore- 
 sheet is a great conveni- 
 ence on any boat which 
 has decks large enough 
 to work upon. The horse is an iron bar which 
 crosses the deck just before the mast, with a trav- 
 eler running on it to which the foresheet— only 
 one sheet is necessary when a horse is used— is 
 made fast. 
 
 The foresail thus works itself when the vessel is 
 tacked, and there is no danger of its blowing away 
 forward, as there is with the jib and also with a 
 foresail when no horse is employed. 
 
 In order to haul the foresail to windward and 
 
 K^. 54^ 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 43 
 
 flatten it in, two bowlines leading aft like fore or 
 jib sheets are employed. 
 
 The sheets of the head sails of a small cutter 
 should lead aft and belay to cleats within reach of 
 the helmsman. 
 
 The jib has two sheets, one on either side of the 
 mast, one of which is hauled in and the other slack- 
 ened out, according to the tack the 
 vessel is on. 
 
 When the jibs are small the sheets 
 
 require no purchase, but eacli should 
 
 lead either through a single block 
 
 Fig* 35* on the gunwale or a comb cleat (Fig. 
 
 35) on the deck. It is important that this f airlead be 
 
 exactly in the right spot, for on this depends whether 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 the jib stands flatly or becomes a loose bag. The 
 right spot can only be determined by experiment. 
 
44 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 Where the bulwarks are high it is sometimes 
 found advantageous for the jib sheets to pass 
 through holes in them. 
 
 A knot should be tied at the end of each jib sheet, 
 so that in case the sheet gels loose by accident it 
 cannot escape though the fairlead. 
 
 The f oresheets require a purchase, more especially 
 when no horse is used. 
 
 There are several methods of fitting a mainsheet. 
 It usually travels on a horse, and the advantage of 
 a horse is, that in tacking, the boom is hauled down 
 directly into its right place, and cannot lift and so 
 give a belly to the sail, as is the case where there 
 is no horse. Fig. 36 represents the usual fitting of 
 a mainsheet with horse and 
 two double blocks. For a 
 small cutter one double and 
 one single block — the single 
 block on the horse — would 
 be sufficient, and in a small 
 yawl even two single blocks 
 would do, for it must be re- 
 membered that though 
 mechanical advantage is 
 gained by a number of pul- 
 leys, friction is increased 
 and time lost. Now it is 
 very important at times 
 that a mainsheet be rounded 
 in or paid out smartly. 
 
 The cleat to which the 
 mainsheet is belayed should q 
 be as nearly as possible in 
 the middle of the deck or 
 transom, else the boom will 
 have more sheet on one tack 
 than on the other. pj 
 
 It is in our opinion a mis- 
 take to put a topmast with its complication of gear 
 into a small yacht, especially as a good-sized top- 
 sail can be set without a topmast at all. An inspec- 
 tion of Fig. 37 will show how this is done. In the 
 first place the yard is laid on deck and the sail is 
 
 37. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 45 
 
 laced to it. Then the end of the halyard is bent on 
 to A, a position which has been ascertained by ex- 
 periment, and which is marked, or better still, has 
 a cleat on it to prevent the halyard from slipping. 
 (See Fig. 18 for the topsail halyard bend.) 
 
 Then the sheet, which passes through a sheave 
 hole on the peak and a block under the throat, is 
 bent on to the clew of the sail. Next the down- 
 haul, B, is bent on to the heel of the spar. 
 
 The sail is hoisted with the halyard till A is close 
 up to the sheave hole on the mast, and while it is 
 hoisting a slight strain is kept on the doAvnhaul to 
 keep the spar perpendicular. The downhaul is next 
 hauled down as taut as possible and belayed to a 
 cleat on the mast. Lastly, the sheet is hauled in 
 till the sail is quite flat. 
 
 A topmast slides through two iron caps on the 
 fore-side of the mast. It is hauled up by the heel 
 rope, which is fastened to the heel of the spar and 
 passes through a sheave hole at the masthead. The 
 topmast, when hoisted, is kept in position by an 
 iron fid. The topmast shrouds are spread out by 
 the crosstrees, of iron or hard wood, projecting at 
 right angles from the masthead. The topmast stay 
 is carried from the head of the topmast to the end 
 of the bowsprit. The topmast is also supported by 
 preventer backstays leading aft. In jibing the lee 
 preventer stay must be slacked out as well as the 
 lee runners. 
 
 Two sorts of topsails can be set on a topmast — a 
 yard topsail, by which a large area of canvas is 
 obtained, and a jib-headed topsail. In a. good-sized 
 yacht it is well to have both. The jib-header can 
 be used in strong winds. When out at sea in really 
 bad weather it is often of great advantage to set 
 the jib-header over a reefed mainsail, for the wind 
 still fills it, and the steerage way is preserved wiiile 
 the reefed mainsail is becalmed in the trough of 
 the sea. By means of a jackyard, which extends 
 the foot of the sail beyond the end of the main gaff, 
 the area of either a jib-header or a yard topsail can 
 be increased. 
 
 When a cutter is running before the wind, a jib- 
 
46 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 headed sail, called a spinnaker, can be set on the 
 opposite side to the mainsail. (See Fig. 38 1. 
 
 *The spinnaker boom is fitted to the fore-side of 
 the mast by a gooseneck, and if the sail is intended 
 for cruising purposes only, the boom should, when 
 topped up alon^ the mast with its topping-lift, be 
 able to pass under the forestay. 
 
 The spinnaker halyard passes through a block on 
 the mast, and the clew of the sail is hauled out to 
 
 Fig. 3S* 
 
 the end of the boom by an outhaul, while the tack 
 can be made fast to a cleat on deck. 
 
 In order to prevent the spinnaker boom from 
 swinging fore or aft it is stayed or guyed with a 
 fore guy leading to the stem and an after guy lead- 
 ing to the st^rn. These guys also serve to trim the 
 boom to the required angle. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 47 
 
 Most of thf^ blocks now used on yachts have iron 
 strops to them but it is still necessary that the 
 amateur sailor should know how to strop a block. 
 
 If it be a tail block for which the strop is required 
 this can be done by making an eye splice in the 
 piece of rope that is to serve as the tail. The com- 
 mon form of strop is a rope grommet coated with 
 canvas. 
 
 The above strops are liable to stretch consider- 
 ably, and for blocks, such as the mainsheet blocks, 
 which have a tendency to slip out, the author has 
 found that grommets of wire rope make serviceable 
 strops. These, too, should be coated with canvas 
 or leather and afterward painted. 
 
 Selvagee strops are now much used for blocks, are 
 ver}' strong, look neat, and are easily made. 
 
 To make a selvagee strop, drive two spikes or nails 
 into a board, their distance apart depending upon 
 
 the size of the required strop. 
 Then make fast one end of a 
 ball of rope yarn to one of the 
 nails, and wind the rope yarn 
 round and round the two nails, 
 hauling each turn very taut 
 until the strop thus formed is 
 stout enough. Tie the yarns 
 together at intervals, and the 
 Fig. 39. strop will present the appear- 
 
 ance shown in Fig. 39. Leather 
 should always be wet when it is sewn on a strop, 
 for it will shrink when dry and stretch tightly 
 round the strop without showing any wrinkles. 
 
 The best form of block for yachting purposes is 
 the patent iron-stropped block ; the lignum vitce 
 shell being fastened over the strop. 
 
 Iron blocks should never be used in a small 
 yacht. They are only necessary on large craft, 
 where chain halyards are employed. 
 ^ Where a tackle is used, as in the backstay run- 
 ners, it is advisable that one of the blocks should 
 have a swivel hook. In this way all turns will 
 be taken out of the tackle, and jamming will be 
 prevented. 
 
48 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 The difference between a cutter and a yawl is 
 that the latter bas not so big a mainsail as the cut- 
 ter; the main boom does not project over the stern, 
 but is all inboard, thus permitting of a small miz- 
 zen-mast being stepped right aft. (Fig. 40.) 
 
 \ yacht rigged as a cutter will, under most cir- 
 cumstances, be faster than if she were yawl rig- 
 ged ; so, in racing, a yawl is granted a certain time 
 
 Fig. 40- 
 
 allowance when competing with "single-stick" 
 craft. But for cruising purposes the yawl rig is 
 undoubtedly the most comfortable, the most handy, 
 and requires fewer hands to work it. 
 
 A yawl's mizzen is generally a ^ standing lug, 
 sometimes a leg-of-mutton sail ; in either case 
 working on a boom with a sheet leading through 
 the end of a short wooden or iron outrigger or 
 bumpkin projecting over the stern. 
 
 For single-handed sailing the yawl is much to be 
 preferred to the cutter, as the following examples 
 will show: 
 
 Should it come on to blow it is much eaeier to 
 reef down on the short boom than on the overhang- 
 ing boom of a cutter. 
 
 It is not so often necessary to reef a yawl's main- 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 49 
 
 sail as a cutter's; for, instead of reefing, the mizzen 
 can be stowed and smaller headsail set, or she can 
 be made to sail under mainsail and foresail alone, 
 or under mizzen and foresail alone. 
 
 If it is required to take a reef in the mainsail the 
 sail can be lowered on deck and reefed at leisure by- 
 one hand; while the vessel, hove to under foresail 
 
 and mizzen, is allowed to take 
 care of herself. When one is 
 alone on board a cutter, and it 
 becomes necessary to reef, the 
 task is a difficult and often a 
 dangerous one. 
 
 As the mizzen of a yawl is 
 sometimes just before the rud- 
 der head the tiller must have 
 a curve or loop in it, so as to 
 allow of its being put over to a 
 sufficient angle. An iron til- 
 ler is therefore generally used. 
 (See Fig. 41.) 
 A yawl's mizzen is always a 
 
 Fig. 4t» 
 
 very small sail, and in a large majority of yachts 
 of this rig it appears ridiculously small, and can 
 have only an inappreciable effect on the vessel. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 But in a ketch (Fig. 42), which differs from a 
 
60 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 yawl in having a still smaller mainsail and shorter 
 boom, with a mizzen mast stepped fm^ther inboard, 
 the mizzen is a much larger and more serviceable 
 sail. 
 
 For real cruising on broad seas in all sorts of 
 weather the ketch is the best of all fore-and-aft 
 rigs. It is the rig of many of our coasters, and of 
 nearly all of our deep sea fishing boats. A ninety- 
 ton ketch-rigged fishing smack, such as one may 
 see hundreds of any day tossing about on the steep 
 seas of the Dogger Bank, is as fine a sea boat as 
 any sailor's heart can desire. 
 
 No bumpkin is needed for a ketch's mizzen sheet, 
 as the mast is so far inboard; the sheet works on a 
 horse on the taffrail or merely through a block 
 bolted into the deck as far aft as possible. 
 
 In coasters and fishing smacks a topsail is set 
 over the mizzen. 
 
 All those advantages which the yawl possesses 
 over the cutter are magnified in the ketch, and in 
 addition to this the vessel can sail well under head 
 sails and mizzen, and can turn to \vindward under 
 these, a performance impossible for the average 
 yawl, with its pocket handkerchief of a mizzen. 
 
 Old Peninsular and Oriental and other large 
 steamers' life-boats can be purchased for a few 
 pounds in the London Docks; for it is the custom 
 to condemn them and sell them for w^hat they will 
 fetch after a certain number of years' service — or 
 rather idle rest in their davits— whether they be 
 sound or otherwise. 
 
 These boats, generally built of double skins of 
 teak, are marvelously strong, and are perhaps the 
 best sea boats of their size in the world. 
 
 The author once timbered and decked one of 
 these boats— thirty feet long by eight feet beam— 
 and converted her into a ketch yacht, in which he 
 recently sailed to Copenhagen aud back, encoun- 
 tering plenty of bad weather on the w^ay. 
 
 After his experience he can strongly recommend 
 those who desire a cheap, stroug cruising boat that 
 will go through almost any sea, to do the same. 
 
 As these lifeboats are of shallow draught it will 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 51 
 
 be necessary either to fit a center-board or false 
 keel on the vessel. The author's craft has lee- 
 boards ; but he is aware that the amateur will sel- 
 dom face the prejudice of his yachting friends, pro- 
 fessional or amateur, and adopt this simple and 
 very efficient method of stopping his vessel's leeway. 
 But let us tell him that a little double-ended craft 
 of polished teak, with neat, polished oak lee-boards 
 is anything but unsightly, and is the very boat for 
 the Zuyder Zee and shallow Dutch waterways, 
 where no^one will ridicule his lee-boards, provided 
 they be properly made. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HOW TO SAIL A YACHT. 
 
 To get under way from mooring or anchorage— Setting sail — Close 
 hauled —Tacking— Missing stays — Waring— Squalls— Shifting jibs 
 — Jibing — Scandalizing mainsail — Hove to— Reefing — Eeturning 
 to moorings— Running aground. 
 
 Each rig has its own little special tricks of sail- 
 ing differing from those of other rigs, but the main 
 rules are the same for all, and one who has thor- 
 oughly grasped the mechanical laws that govern 
 the relation of a boat's sails, hull, and rudder to 
 wind and water, and has learned how to sail one 
 sort of craft, can discover for himself, by reasoning 
 and experiment, what methods must be employed 
 on a boat of a different rig. 
 
 Let us imagine ourselves on board a yawl yacht 
 of five tons lying at anchor at the mouth of a tidal 
 river. We will now describe the principal man- 
 euvers that must be employed in getting her under 
 way and sailing her. 
 
 To get under way may appear a simple matter 
 enough, yet to do so safely often taxes the skill of 
 the cleverest sailor. 
 
 If the wind is moderate, and we have plenty of 
 sea room, and no vessels are brought up near to us, 
 the process is easy. We hoist all sail, haul up the 
 anchor, and by holding the foresheet to windward 
 
52 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 cant the vessel off in the required direction, then 
 trim the sheets, and away we go. 
 
 But supposing that a strong tide is running under 
 us and a fresh breeze is blowing in the same direc- 
 tion as the tide, it will not do to get under way after 
 this fashion, more especially if other vessels are 
 brought up not far astern of us; for the yacht will 
 begin to drag her anchor when sail is hoisted, or at 
 any rate some time before the chain is a-peak ; the 
 result being that before she can be canted and gotten 
 under control she will drag astern and get foul of 
 some of the other craft. And even if she does not 
 do this and her sails fill, she will shoot ahead over 
 her anchor and make it impossible to get it up. 
 
 Our best method of getting under way under the 
 above conditions would probably be as follows: 
 First the anchor is hove short, so that the yacht is 
 nearly over it. Tlien the mainsail or mizzen, ac- 
 cording to the strength of the wind, is hoisted. 
 Then, while the anchor is being smartly got off the 
 ground and hauled on board, the foresail is hoisted. 
 The tide passing under a vessel while she is at 
 anchor gives her steerage way ; so, just before the 
 anchor leaves the ground, the tiller is put over to 
 cant the vessel on the desired tack, the foresheet is 
 trimmed, and thus we get way on our craft without 
 anv delav, and are able to avoid the vessels that 
 surround us. 
 
 If there is but little wind a strong tide under one, 
 and a crowd of vessels brought up close astern, it 
 sometimes happens that the following method is the 
 only one by which one can get away clear. Let 
 one hand get the anchor up till the chain is nearly 
 straight up and down and the yacht commences to 
 drag slowly. Let him, by giving her chain or tak- 
 ing it in, keep her going thus, never letting her 
 drag fast. As the tide is running hj the vessel 
 faster than she is dragofing astern she still has 
 steerage way; thus the helmsman is enabled to 
 steer her, so as to avoid the different craft. As 
 soon as she is astern of them and the road is clear 
 the anchor is got on board, the sails are hoisted, and 
 away she goes. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 53 
 
 If the wind and tide are in opposite directions, 
 and the tide has most effect on a vessel at anchor 
 so that she rides with her bow against the tide, it 
 is often advisable to heave the anchor short, and 
 just as it comes off the ground to set mainsail or 
 foresail and run before the wind. 
 
 Do not set too much sail and get speed on your 
 vessel before your anchor is on deck, or you will 
 get it caught under your stem, and have to luff up 
 so that a hand can clear it. 
 
 If a yacht is not anchored, but made fast to a 
 buoy or other moorings, from which one can slip in 
 a moment, the problem of getting under way is 
 much simplified; for one can carry the mooring 
 line to the bow, or to the quarter, or even astern, 
 so as to direct the vessel's head in the desired direc- 
 tion. Then the mooring can be slipped, and sail 
 hoisted simultaneously, and the vessel will get way 
 on at once, and can be steered cleai of everything. 
 
 The amateur, if he puts his mind to it, will in 
 time be able to reason out the best method of get- 
 ting his craft under way under every contingency 
 of tide, wind, and surrounding obstacles. The 
 maneuver is often a difficult one ; but luckih^ the 
 novice has generally time to sit down quietly on 
 deck and reason out his method before commenc- 
 ing operations, which is far from the case with 
 most of the maneuvers which have to be performed 
 when one is under way. 
 
 While we are on the subject of getting under 
 w^ay we will describe how the sails are to be set. 
 
 The mainsail, when furled, is tied up with small 
 ends of rope, called tyers. First cast off the tyers. 
 Then top the boom a little with the topping-lift and 
 slack out the mainsheet. Seize both main halyards 
 together and hoist till the throat is nearly up. Then 
 belay the peak halyards while you swing away at 
 the throat till it is taut, and belay the throat hal- 
 yards. Then hoist the peak and belay the peak 
 halyards. Then coil the halyards neatly close 
 under their cleats. 
 
 After coiling halyards always capsize them, that 
 is, turn them over so that the end of the halyard is 
 
54 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 under the coil. If this precaution is not taken, and 
 a sail is lowered in a hurry, the coil will probably 
 be dragged up to the masthead, possibly jam some- 
 where in a block, and prev^ent the sail from lower- 
 ing further until some one has gone aloft to undo 
 the mischief. 
 
 Having now gotten our boat under way — say under 
 mainsail and foresail — we proceed to hoist our other 
 sails as we sail close-hauled down the river. It is 
 blowing fresh, and there is a look of more wind in 
 the sky, so we^ will dispense with the topsail (the 
 method of setting this sail has been already de- 
 scribed), and get the mizzen and second jib on her. 
 We are supposing that there are three jibs on board, 
 so the one we have decided to use is the medium 
 one. 
 
 The method of setting the jib requires some ex- 
 planation. In the first place, we take it for granted 
 that the bobstay and bowspit shrouds have been 
 hove taut before we got under way. 
 
 Lay the jib on the deck forward with its tack 
 ahead. Hook the tack on the traveler, and the jib 
 halyard on to the head, and then fasten the jib 
 sheets on to the clew. The jib sheets are often at- 
 tached to the sail on a small yacht by spring hanks ; 
 but these are somewhat liable to become unhooked 
 when the sail is shaking in stays. Sister hooks, 
 which must be seized together with yarn— moused, 
 as the operation is called — or have a stout india- 
 rubber ring around them are preferable. Toggles 
 and shackles are also sometimes employed for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The jib is now all ready for hoisting. First haul 
 out the tack on the traveler to its proper position, 
 and belay the outliaul. If the jib is a biggish one 
 and may touch the water while it is being hauled 
 out, hoist on the halyard at the same time just suf- 
 ficiently to keep the jib clear of the water. When 
 the outhaul is belayed, hoist the halyards taut and 
 belay them. Then trim in the lee sheet. 
 
 We are now close-hauled, sailing iull and bye, 
 as it is called, that is, the sails are full while the 
 vessel is sailing as near to the wind as she can. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 55 
 
 The steersman should stand on the weather side of 
 the vessel. To sail a yacht to windwaid with the 
 greacest advantage requires considerable practice, 
 and the novice is sure at first to yaw her about a 
 good deal, now keeping her off the wind too much 
 and now luffing till all the sails are shaking and 
 she loses her way. 
 
 The burgee or vane at the masthead will tell him 
 when he is bearing away too much, and the luff of 
 the mainsail will shake when he is sailing as close 
 as he should. 
 
 The luff of the mainsail is generally lifting 
 slightly when a yacht is sailing close hauled; but 
 the best way of steering full and bye is by the feel 
 of the wind on one's face; and this is of course the 
 only rnethod of doing so on a dark night. 
 
 We have now come to a bend in the river where 
 the wind heads us, so it becomes necessary to tack. 
 The helmsman sings out "Eeady about!" and the 
 crew stand by ready to tend the jib and foresheets. 
 The helmsman keeps the vessel a point or so off for 
 a few moments, so as to give her plenty of way; 
 then singing out "Helm's a-leel" puts the tiller 
 slowly down— slowly, be it remembered, and not 
 too far down. 
 
 The vessel now shoots up into the wind, the jib 
 sheet is let fly, the foresail still kept to windward 
 helps to pay the vessel off on the other tack. The 
 jib sheet on the other side, which now becomes the 
 lee jib sheet, is trimmed in as soon as the vessel is 
 turned sufficiently around. If the jib sheet be 
 hauled in too soon, the jib becomes a back sail, and 
 will cause the vessel to miss stays. Next the fore- 
 sheet is passed over, and the yacht is rushing away 
 on the other tack. The mainsail and mizzen have 
 been taking care of themselves during this oper- 
 ation; but, if it is blowing hard, it is well to haul 
 in the mainsheet and ease it over gently. If the 
 yacht be a smart one in stays, it is not necessary to 
 keep the foresheet to windward while tacking ; jib 
 and foresheet can be let go together. 
 
 A small amount of clumsiness in tacking a vessel 
 will cause her to miss stays and get in irons — that 
 
56 AQUATIC GUIDE." 
 
 is, she will lie up in the wind, all her sails shaking, 
 and refuse to fill on either tack. She has now lost 
 all headway, and commences to go astern. In order 
 to get way on again, haul the head sheets to wind- 
 ward, which we will suppose is the port side. Put 
 the tiller to starboard. As the vessel is going 
 astern, the rudder will now produce the reverse 
 effect of what it would were the vessel going ahead ; 
 so putting the tiller to starboard turns the vessel's 
 head to starboard. 
 
 To assist her still further in paying off, slack out 
 main and mizzen sheets ; for these sails have a ten- 
 dency to keep her up in the wind. When she has 
 paid "off sulHciently, trim the sheets, and she will 
 soon gather way on the port tack. 
 
 Sometimes, in a choppy sea, a boat will refuse to 
 stay, and it becomes necessary to ware her. To do 
 this, slack out the maiiisheet and bear away till the 
 wind is brought on the other side and the sail jibes. 
 Then luff till the vessel is close hauled. 
 
 While tacking in a river, with the tide under one, 
 it must not be forgotten that close under either 
 shore there is generally much less current than in 
 the middle of the river, sometimes no current at all 
 or even a back eddy. The yacht must therefore 
 not be taken in too near the bank before going 
 about, for then her bows will be out of the tide 
 while her stern will be in it ; the pressure on her 
 stern will prevent her coming up in the wind when 
 the helm is put down, and she will consequently 
 miss stays. 
 
 While we are tacking down this reach, the wind 
 freshens a lot, and we are struck by several squalls, 
 to which the helmsman luffs up, thereby lessening 
 the force of their impact ; but he must be careful 
 not to luff too much or too long, else the yacht will 
 lose all her way and get in irons. 
 
 It blows still harder, and our vessel is running 
 her nose into the short, choppy se^, so it is decided 
 that we shift the second jib for the third or smallest. 
 
 To do this properly while one is under way re- 
 quires an experienced hand. To take in the jib, let 
 go the outhaul, and as the sail on its traveler comes 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 57 
 
 inboard along the bowsprit, muzzle it, that is, clasp 
 it in your arms; then letting go the halyards, pull 
 the sail down on deck to leeward of the foresail. 
 Untoggle the sheets, unhook the tack and head from 
 the outhaul and halyards; secure these last to 
 their respective/ leats, so that they cannot blow 
 a drift, and then carry the sail below. Get the third 
 jib on deck, and set it in the way before described. 
 
 If we had been out at sea instead of taking a 
 short sail on a river, we should have reefed the 
 bowsprit when we shifted jibs, and thus have re- 
 lieved the vessel of the unnecessary leverage of this 
 weight over her bows. 
 
 In the next reach, the river bends around so that 
 we have to put the helm up and run before the 
 wind. The lee-runner is slacked off and all the 
 sheets are eased off. 
 
 Further on, the river bends around still more, so 
 that we have to jibe. As the wind is strong, this 
 must be done with certain precautions. First the 
 peak is lowered. Then the runner is slacked off 
 and the helm is put up. The main sheet must be 
 rounded in quickly till the boom is amidships, and 
 then, as the wind strikes the sail on the other side, 
 the sheet is paid out again. If the boorn were al- 
 lowed to jibe over by itself, and the mainsheet was 
 not thus made to break the violence of the jerk, the 
 boom would be sprung or some other serious acci- 
 dent would probably occur. 
 
 When the boom has jibed over, the runner which 
 is now the weather one is set up taut and the head 
 sheets are slacked out on the weather side and be- 
 layed on the less side. 
 
 In the next reach, the wind is a little before the 
 beam, so the sheets are trimmed in a bit. 
 
 So stiff a squall now strikes us that our lee gun- 
 wale and several planks of our deck are under 
 water ; so, until it is over, the mainsail is scandal- 
 ized. Scandalizing a mainsail consists of tricing 
 up the tack and lowering the peak, thus much re- 
 ducing the area of canvas. 
 
 The squall over, we hoist the peak and lower the 
 tack again. The man at the tiller now complains 
 
58 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 that in this strong wind "the vessel is carrying 
 enough weather helm to pull his arms off.'' The 
 cause of this griping, as it is called, is plain enough. 
 When we got under way our sails were nicely bal- 
 anced, and the yacht steered easily with just a 
 slight weather helm. But we have shifted the sec- 
 ond jib for the third, thus reducing the head sail so 
 much that the after sails are producing the most 
 effect, and a lot of helm is necessary to counteract 
 the vessel's tendency to run up into the wind. (See 
 Chapter III., on the balancing of sails.) We must 
 now restore the proper balance of the sails by re- 
 ducing the after sail. We can do this either by 
 taking in the mizzen or by reefing the mainsail, 
 and as the wind looks more like freshening than 
 moderating, we decide to take down one reef in the 
 mainsail. 
 
 In the first place we heave our vessel to. To do 
 this we slack away our lee foresheet and haul in 
 the weather one, while we flatten in the main and 
 mizzen sheets. 
 
 The wind striking the after sails drives the vessel 
 up in the wind ; but the foresail being hauled to 
 windward and becoming a back sail makes her pay 
 off. By tiimming the sheets properly the head and 
 after sails can thus be made to balance each other, 
 and the yacht will float on the water practically 
 motionless, with her head to the wind, and remain 
 so for as long as we please without any hand being 
 required at the tiller. 
 
 We next lower the mainsail on deck, and remain 
 hove to under foresail and mizzen. Having now 
 much less after sail set, we must let the jib sheet 
 flow and, perhaps, give the foresail a trifle more 
 sheef'to prevent our vessel from paying off too much. 
 
 And now to take down our reef. If the reef- 
 pendant is not already rove, as it always should be 
 on a short-handed craft, we proceed to reeve it. 
 Fig. 43 will demonstrate how this is done. The 
 boom has a comb cleat on either side of it. As we 
 wish to take down only one reef, we reeve the pen- 
 dant through the first hole of one of these cleats, 
 a knot at the pendant end preventing it from slip- 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 69 
 
 ping throitgh. Then we pass it through the first 
 reef cringle and down through the first hole of the 
 other comb cleat. 
 
 Now we haul on the pendant till we have boused 
 down the cving]^ to the boom, and then lash it 
 securely. 
 
 Next the tack is secured to the first reef cringle 
 on the luff of the sail, the foot of the sail is rolled 
 
 up, and the first row 
 of reef points are 
 tied. 
 
 Having got our 
 reef down, we hoist 
 up our reduced 
 mainsail, slack out 
 the main and miz- 
 zen sheets to let the 
 vessel pay off a bit, 
 then let go the 
 weather foresheet 
 and haul in the lee 
 one and proceed on 
 our voyage. The 
 sails are now nicely 
 balanced again, and 
 the man at the tiller 
 no longer grumbles 
 at the arm pulling 
 weather helm. 
 
 In the next reach 
 the wind is ahead, 
 and we have to tack 
 again; but the tide 
 has turned and is 
 running strongly against us so that we find we are 
 making no progress. We therefore, decide to re- 
 turn home. The helm is put up, the mainsheet is 
 eased off, and we bear away to run up the river. 
 
 By-and-by we are close-hauled, and we observe 
 that our sails are standing very badly, the jib espe- 
 cially so, for its luff is bending around in a great 
 bow. 
 
 The cause of this is that our ropes have stretched, 
 
 Fi^. 43. 
 
60 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 and a pull on the halyards all around becomes 
 necessary. While the steersman luffs for a moment 
 so that the sails shake, a hand swings down the jib 
 halyards and belays them. So again while a pull is 
 being taken on each halyard in its turn, the steers- 
 man luffs up, thereby relieving the sail of the pres- 
 sure of the wind, but without stopping the vessel's 
 way. 
 
 And now we approach our moorings; the tide 
 and wind are both with us. We lower our head 
 sails, steer the yacht so that she takes a sweep 
 around into the wind, and we haul in the mainsheefc 
 as she comes up. We bring her up head to wind, 
 and she loses her way just as we are alongside the 
 mooring buoy. A hand forward picks up the buoy 
 rope with a boat hook and secures it. Then the 
 mainsail and mizzen are quickly lowered, and we 
 stow the sails at our leisure. 
 
 The method here described is the most usual one 
 of coming up to moorings. 
 
 To perform this maneuver with confidence re- 
 quires considerable experience. The moment at 
 which the vessel should be luffed up into the wind 
 and the nature of the curve she should be made to 
 describe depend on a variety of circumstances. The 
 strength of the tide must be taken into considera- 
 tion, and also the tendency of the boat either to 
 shoot far ahead or lose her way quickly after she has 
 been luffed up into the wind. 
 
 A very slight mistake will bring the vessel up 
 short of her moorings. Then, having lost her way, 
 she will drop astern with the tide and possibly get 
 foul of some other craft before head sail can be set 
 and way can be gotten on her. 
 
 We would therefore recommend the novice to al- 
 ways have his anchor ready to let go when ap- 
 proaching his moorings. 
 
 When the wind and tide are in opposite directions 
 the maneuver is sometimes rendered easier ; for then 
 the vessel can be made to run before the wind up to 
 her buoy under her mainsail, and then, the sail being 
 scandalized, she will no longer be able to stem the 
 tide, but will come to a standstill close to the buoy. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 61 
 
 If the wind is strong, she can run up under her 
 foresail only, which can be lowered as soon as the 
 buoy is reached. 
 
 To come to an anchor, the usual method is to 
 lower the head sails, haul in the mainsheet, and 
 luff the vessel up into the wind till she stops her 
 way ; then let go. 
 
 Before coming up to the anchorage a few fathoms 
 of chain should be ranged before the windlass, suf- 
 ficient at least to allow the anchor to reach the bot- 
 tom when let go. 
 
 It is best not to let go the anchor until the vessel 
 has begun to gather stern way ; then give her chain 
 gradually until she has taken out enough — that is, 
 under ordinary circumstances, about three times as 
 much length of chain as the depth of the water. If 
 the chain is allowed to run out all at once it will 
 fall on the top of the anchor, a coil will get around 
 one of the flukes, dislodge the other fluke from the 
 ground, and the vessel will drag. 
 
 The end of the chain, especially if no windlass is 
 used, should be secured to a bolt in the chain locker 
 or otherwise ; else a careless hand may let it all run 
 overboard and thus lose both anchor and cable. 
 
 The chain should be marked at every flve fath- 
 oms, by attaching a small piece of cord to the link. 
 The loose end of the flrst cord can have one knot 
 tied in it, the second cord two knots, and so on. The 
 length of chain that is overboard is thus easily 
 ascertained. 
 
 Our vessel being now moored or anchored, we 
 neatly stow our sails, fasten the tyers around them, 
 belay all halyards and sheets, and coil the main- 
 sheet and the other falls. If the ropes are dry, 
 belay them slack, for a shower would shrink them, 
 and if they were belayed taut all the life would be 
 stretched out of them. 
 
 When a vessel has run aground, the method of 
 getting her off as:ain varies with circumstances. 
 
 If the keel is in soft mud and we were not run- 
 ning before the wind Avhen our vessel struck, we 
 may get her off by slacking the main and mizzen 
 right out, so that the wind does not press on the 
 
62 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 sails, or by lowering the mainsail and mizzen, while 
 we haul the head sheets to windward, so that the 
 head sails turn her bows around and drive her 
 astern at the same time. If this is not enough to 
 move her, we can assist the action of the sails by 
 shoving her off with poles; also by making our 
 crew run from side to side to roll her and so dis- 
 lodge her keel from the mud ; or, if she is only 
 aground forward and the rest of her is afloat, by 
 bringing the weight of all hands aft and so lighten- 
 ing the bows. 
 
 But if she has run upon a sloping shoal of sand or 
 shingle, the above method will seldom prove of any 
 avail, for the opposition of the hard bottom will 
 prevent the keel from turning. Under these cir- 
 cumstances, our only plan will be to lower all sail 
 and drag her off by the same way that she came 
 on, that is, we must shove her astern with the poles 
 and if that is not sufficient, take an anchor out in 
 the dinghy and let it go in the deep water some dis- 
 tance astern, when we can haul her off with the 
 cable. If the anchor holds well, we can— in case 
 our own strength is insufficient — clap a watch tackle 
 on the cable or pass it around the windlass so as to 
 gain more power. 
 
 If we were running before the wind when we got 
 aground, we must in this case also lower all sail 
 and haul the vessel off stern first. 
 
 If the tide is dropping, there must be no delay in 
 getting her off, or the water will leave us, and we 
 \pll have to remain where we are till the next flood. 
 
 Be careful not to run aground on the top of high 
 water spring tides, or you may be neaped as it is 
 called— that is, you will not have water to float you 
 off unil the next springs, and must remain stuck in 
 the mud for maybe a fortnight. 
 
 While sailing a small craft, if you pass close 
 under the lee of a large vessel, you will find that 
 she will take all the wind out of your sails and you 
 will be becalmed. Look out. if the day be a breezy 
 one, for the sudden blow with which the wind will 
 strike you again when the vessel is passed. As 
 your vessel will probably have lost nearly all her 
 
YACHTING AJND ^l^AILING. 63 
 
 way while under the lee of the other, the first pres- 
 sure of the wind will be entirely exerted in heeling 
 your craft over. 
 
 Therefore lower your peak, or have your sheets 
 ready to slack out while under the lee of the other 
 vessel. 
 
 The spinnaker is the only sail on board our yawl 
 whose management has not been described. When 
 not in use, the spinnaker boom is topped along the 
 mast, and secured by lashings to the shrouds. To 
 set the spinnaker, cast off the boom lashings. 
 Lower the boom over the side, keeping it still well 
 topped up. Guy it with the fore and the after guys. 
 Bend the outhaul and halyards on the sail. Belay 
 the sheet loosely. First haul the sail up with the 
 halyards. Then haul it along the boom with the 
 outhaul. Then trim in the sheet. 
 
 Before we leave the subect of handling a fore- 
 and-after, we will point out that if a vessel be slug- 
 gish in stays, it is advisable, instead of leaving the 
 foresheet fast aad keeping "the foresail aback till 
 the vessel has paid off on the other tack, to let fly 
 the foresheet as the vessel comes up into the wind, 
 thus taking the pressure off the head sails and 
 making her come up the quicker; then, as soon as 
 the vessel is in the wind's eye, to haul the foresheet 
 in again, so that the foresail to w^indward helps the 
 vessel around. Keep it to windward no longer than 
 is necessary; then, as before, let fly the weather 
 sheet and trim in the lee. 
 
 # 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS HINTS. 
 
 Towing a dinghy — Berthon boats— To prevent a dinghy bumping against 
 an anchored yacht Foul anchor^Mooring — The drogue — The 
 management of open boats in a heavy sea — Management of a yacht 
 in a rough sea — Boarding — Inventory. 
 
 In the last chapter we have described the prm- 
 cipal maneuvers that must be employed on a small 
 yacht. This chapter v/ill contain a variety of 
 
64 AQUATIC GUIDia. 
 
 wrinkles connected with the management of a 
 yacht or boat which may be of service to a novice. 
 
 Towing a Dinghy. — If a yacht is rumiing before 
 a high sea, a dinghy towing astern is apt to rush 
 violently down upon the yacht at intervals and 
 possibly stave herself in. Some give a dinghy a 
 long scope of painter under these circumstancs, 
 so as to keep her far astern out of the w^ay. But 
 the long painter allows her more play, and if she 
 does swoop down upon the yacht and strike her it 
 will be with far greater force than if the painter 
 were short. The best method in rough weather, is 
 to tow the dinghy with two very short painters, one 
 to either quarter of the yacht, while an iron half- 
 hundred weight is lashed to the floor of the dinghy 
 close to her stern. This weight steadies her so that 
 she steers straight, does not yaw about, and does 
 not run down upon the yacht. The short painters 
 keeps her nose right out of the water so that she 
 cannot be swamped. If a sea fills her it will almost 
 all run out over her stern again. Overhanging 
 counters have caused the destruction of many 
 dinghys. 
 
 Few small yachts have accommodation on deck 
 for a wooden dinghy. A Berthon collapsible boat, 
 which can be easily stowed in the cabin or laid flat 
 on deck is therefore a great advantage for a small 
 craft. For, however safely a dinghy may tow 
 astern, she greatly impedes the speed of the yacht. 
 
 "When a yacht is lying at anchor with her dinghy 
 afloat, it often happens that the wind and tide being 
 ♦opposed to each other, now one and then the other 
 influences the dinghy most, so that she wanders in 
 erratic fashion as far as her painter's length will 
 allow, now scraping along the yacht's sides, and 
 now thumping into her stern, much to the damage 
 of the new paint. 
 
 The patience of the novice is often severely tried 
 by such tricks on his dinghy's part. Half a dozen 
 times in the night he leaves his snug berth and leaps 
 on deck to shift the dinghy's painter from one part 
 of the vessel to the other, first to one side, then to 
 the other, then to the bows, and then back to the 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 65 
 
 stern again, but all to no avail, for as soon as he 
 has turned in, the dismal 'Hhud," "thud" recom- 
 mences. 
 
 If the yacht be a large one, and the bowsprit be 
 therefore sufficiently high above the water, the 
 dinghy's painter can be made fast to the bowsprit 
 end, and the dinghy will thus keep clear of the 
 yacht. But if the vessel is a small one and this plan 
 is not practicable, the following: method generally 
 proves successful. Drop an iron bucket with a line 
 attached to its handle over the dinghy's stern. The 
 bucket sinking in the water will offer so much re- 
 sistance to the tide that the dinghy will ride to the 
 tide only, and the wind will not have power to blow 
 her over the tide against the yacht's sides. ^ 
 
 Foul Anchor. — If a yacht is at anchor in a tide- 
 way, the slack of the chain is very liable to get 
 around the anchor and foul it when the vessel 
 swings at the turn of the tide. It is therefore, ad- 
 visable to get in the chain at slack water until the 
 yacht is right over her anchor. As soon as the new 
 current has set in and the yacht has swung to it, 
 the necessary amount of chain can be given her. 
 
 Mooring.— If it is blowing hard, or the holding 
 ground is bad, it may be necessary to moor — that 
 is, to ride to two anchors in different directions. 
 Having come to with one anchor, pay out chain 
 and let the vessel drop astern until you have out 
 twice the length of chain you intend to ride by. 
 Then let go the other anchor. Slack out the last 
 anchor chain and heave in that of the first till the 
 same scope of chain is on each. Moor with open 
 hawse toward the direction from which the greatest 
 pressure of wind or current is expected — that is, 
 with a line drawn between the two anchors opposite 
 that direction. 
 
 The vessel in swinging around to the tide may 
 get a foul hawse — that is, one chain may take turns 
 over the other. By steering the vessel, setting a 
 sail, or by other means adapted to the particular 
 circumstances, so tend her while she is swinging at 
 each turn of the tide that she never makes a com- 
 plete revolution, but swings backward &;nd forward 
 
66 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 in the same semicircle. Foul hawse will thus be 
 avoided. 
 
 To Unmoor. — Heave in on one anchor and pay 
 out chain to the other, get the first anchor on board, 
 then heave in on the other anchor. To ride easily 
 in heavy weather put rope springs on the chain 
 cables. 
 
 A coir rope makes an excellent cable for a small 
 yacht. It floats on the water, and has plenty of 
 spring in it, so that the yacht rides very lightly. 
 
 The Deogue. — When a small yacht cruises on 
 broad and stormy seas such as the North Sea, it is 
 advisable to have a drogue or deep sea anchor 
 among her inventory. Many a small fishing-boat 
 has been saved from destruction by this precaution. 
 
 A drogue is a conical bag of stout canvas some- 
 times having its mouth bent on to an iron ring. 
 When a little craft is far from the land and so high 
 a sea is running that she cannot sail or even lie to 
 with safety, the drogue is attached by a bridle to a 
 hawser and let go over the bows like an anchor. It 
 offers so much resistance to the water that as the 
 vessel is driven astern by the wind the strain on the 
 hawser keeps her head to wind and sea, and she 
 rides safely and easily. A tripping line is attached 
 to the pointed end of the drogue so that it can be 
 capsized and easily hauled on board. 
 
 If an open boat is being pulled across the breakers 
 on a bar so as to make a harbor, or is being rowed 
 toward the shore before a heavy surf, a drogue or 
 even a bucket towed astern will keep the boat's 
 stern back and prevent her from broaching to. 
 
 If a small boat be blown right out to sea and it is 
 impossible to bring her back to the shore either by 
 rowing or sailing, a floating anchor can be made by 
 lashing the oars, the mast, and the yard with the 
 sail bent on it, together. The sail must be loosed 
 and a weight can be attached to its foot so as to 
 sink it and offer more resistance to the water. A 
 short rope secured to both extremities of the raft 
 forms a span to the middle of which the cable is 
 bent. Such a floating anchor breaks the sea in a 
 marvelous manner, and small boats have been often 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 67 
 
 known to ride out the most furious gales in this 
 way. 
 
 I. In Rowing to Seaward. 
 
 As a general rule, speed must be g^iven to a boat 
 roAving against a heavy surf. Indeed, under some 
 circumstances, her safety will depend on the ut- 
 most speed l3eing attained on meeting a sea. 
 For if the sea be really heavy, and the wind 
 blowing a hard on-shore gale, it can only be by the 
 utmost exertions of the crew that any headw^ay can 
 be made. The great danger then is, that an ap- 
 proaching heavy sea may carry the boat away on 
 its front, and turn it broadside on or up-end it, 
 either effect being immediately fatal. A boat's 
 only chance in such a case is to obtain such way as 
 shall enable her to pass, end on, through the crest 
 of the sea, and leave it as soon as possible behind 
 her. If there be rather a heavy surf, but no wind, 
 or the wind off shore, and opposed to the surf, a 
 boat might be propelled so rapidly through it that 
 hor bow would fall m.ore suddenly and heavily after 
 topping the sea than if her way had been checked ; 
 and it may therefore only be when the sea is of such 
 magnitude and the boat of such a character that 
 there may be chance of the form.er carrying her 
 back before it, that full speed should be given to 
 her. It may also happen that, by careful manage- 
 ment under such circumstances, a boat may be made 
 to avoid the sea, so that each wave may break 
 ahead of her ; which may be the only chance of 
 safety in a small boat ; but if the shore be flat, and 
 the broken water extend to a great distance from 
 it, this will be impossible. 
 
 II. On Running before a Broken Sea, or Surf, 
 
 TO THE Shore. 
 
 The one great danger, when running before a 
 broken sea, is that of broaching to. To that pecu- 
 liar effect of the sea, so frequently destructive of 
 human life, the utmost attention must be directed. 
 The cause of a boat's broaching to,, w^hen running 
 before a broken sea or surf is, that her own motion 
 
68 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 being in the same direction as that of the sea, 
 whether it be given by the force of oars or sails, or 
 by the force of the sea itself, she opposes no resis- 
 tance to it, but is carried before it. Thus, if a boat 
 be running with her bow to the shore and her stern 
 to the sea, the first effect of a surf or roller overtak- 
 ing her is to throw up the stern, and as a conse- 
 quence to depress the bow ; if she then has sufficient 
 inertia (which will be proportioned to weight) to 
 allow the sea to pass her, she will in succession 
 pass through the descending, the horizontal, and 
 the ascending position, as the crest of the wave 
 passes successively her stern, her midships, and her 
 bow, in the reverse order in which the same posi- 
 tions occur to a boat propelled to seaward against a 
 surf. 
 
 This may be defined as the safe method of run- 
 ning before a broken sea. But if a boat on being 
 overtaken by a heavy surf, has not sufficient inertia 
 to allow it to pass her, the first of the three positions 
 above enumerated alone occurs — her stern is raised 
 high in the air, and the wave carries the boat be- 
 fore it, on its front, or unsafe side, sometimes with 
 frightful velocity, the bow all the time deeply im- 
 mersed in the hollow of the sea, where the water 
 being stationary, or comparatively so, offers a resis- 
 tance, while the crest of the sea, having the actual 
 motion which causes it to break, forces onward the 
 stern or rear end of the boat. A boat will in this 
 position sometimes, aided by careful oar steerage, 
 run a considerable distance until the wave has 
 broken and expended itself. But it will often hap- 
 pen that, if the bow be low, it will be driven under 
 water, when the buoyancy being lost forward, while 
 the sea presses on the stern, the boat will be thrown 
 end over end; or if the bow be high, or if it be pro- 
 tected by a deck so that it does not beome sub- 
 merged, that the resistance forward acting on one 
 bow will slightly turn the boat's head, and the force 
 of the surf being transferred to the opposite quar- 
 ter, she will in a moment be turned around broad- 
 side by the sea, and be thrown by it on her beam 
 ends, or altogether capsize. It is in this manner 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 69 
 
 that most boats are upset in a surf, especially on 
 flat coasts, and in this way many lives are annually 
 lost. Hence it follows that the management of a 
 boat, when landing through a heavy surf, must, as 
 far as possible, be assimilated to that when proceed- 
 ing to seaward against one, at least so far as to stop 
 her progress shoreward at the moment of being 
 overtaken by a heavy sea, and then enabling it to 
 pass her. There are different ways of eJBfecting this 
 object: 
 
 1. By turning the boat's head to the sea before 
 entering the broken water, and then backing in 
 stern foremost, pulling a few strokes ahead to meet 
 each heavy sea, and then again backing astern. If 
 a sea be really heavy and a boat small, this plan 
 will be generally the safest, as a boat can be kept 
 more under command when the full force of the 
 oars can be used against a heavy surf than by back- 
 ing them only. 
 
 2. If rowing to shore with the stern to seaward, 
 by backing the oars on the approach of a hea^^y 
 sea, and rowing ahead again as soon as it has 
 passed the bow of the boat; or as is practiced in 
 some lifeboats, placing the after oarsmen with their 
 faces forward, and making them row back at each 
 sea on its approach. 
 
 3. If rowed in bow foremost, by towing astern a 
 pig of ballast or large stone, or a drogue, the object 
 of each being to hold the boat's stern back and pre- 
 vent her being turned broadside to the sea or 
 broaching to. 
 
 Heavy weights should be kept out of the extreme 
 ends of a boat ; but when rowing before a heavy 
 sea, the best trim is deepest by the stern. A boat 
 running before a heavy sea should be steered by an' 
 oar as the rudder will then at times be of no use. 
 
 The following rules may therefore be depended 
 on when running before a heavy surf. 
 
 1. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing 
 the boat where the sea will break ahead of her. 
 
 2. If the sea is very heavy, or if the boat is small, 
 and especially if she has a square stern, bring her 
 bow around to seaward and back her in, rowing 
 
70 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 ahead against each heavy surf sufficiently to allow 
 it to pass the boat. 
 
 3. If it be considered safe to proceed to the shore 
 bow foremost, back the oars against each sea on 
 its approach, so as to stop the boat's way through 
 the water as much as possible, and if there is a 
 drogue or other instrument in fhe boat which may 
 be used as one, tow it astern. 
 
 4. Bring the principal weights in the boat toward 
 the end that is seaward, but not to the extreme end. 
 
 5. If a boat worked by both sails and oars be run- 
 ning under sail for the land through a heavy sea, 
 her crew should, under all circumstances, unless the 
 beach be quite steep, take down her masts and sails 
 before entering the broken water, and take her to 
 land under oars alone. If she have sails alone, 
 her sails should be much reduced, a half-lowered 
 foresail or other small headsail being suflBcient. 
 
 III. Beaching or Landing Through a Surf. 
 
 The running before a surf or broken sea, and the 
 
 beaching of a boat, are two distinct operations; the 
 
 management of boats, as above recommended, has 
 
 exclusive reference to running before a surf where 
 
 the shore is so flat that the broken water extends to 
 
 some distance from the beach. Thus, on a very 
 
 steep beach, the first heavy fall of broken water 
 
 wll be on the beach itself, while on some very fiat 
 
 shores there will be broken water as far as the eye 
 
 can reach. The outerm.ost line of broken water, on 
 
 a flat shore, where the waves break in three or four 
 
 fathoms of water, is the heaviest, and therefore the 
 
 most dangerous, and when it has been passed 
 
 through in safety, the danger lessens as the water 
 
 shoals, until, on nearing the land, its force is spent 
 
 and its power is harmless. As the character of the 
 
 sea is quite different on steep and flat shores, so is 
 
 the customary management of boats on landing dif 
 
 ferent in the two situations. On the fiat shore, 
 
 whether a boat be run or backed in, she is kept 
 
 straight before or end to the sea until she is fairly 
 
 aground, when the surf takes her further in as it 
 
 overtakes her, aided by the crew, who will then gen- 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 71 
 
 erally jump out to lighten her, and drag: her in by her 
 sides. As above stated, sail will, in this case, have 
 been previously taken in, if set, and the boat will 
 have been rowed or backed in by oars alone. 
 
 On the other hand, on the steep beach, it is the 
 general practice, in a boat of any size, to, retain 
 speed right on to the beach, and in the act of land- 
 ing, whether under oars or sail, to turn the boat's 
 bow half-around toward the direction from which 
 the surf is runnings so that she may be thrown on 
 her broadside up the beach, when abundance of 
 help is usually at hand to haul her as quickly as 
 possible out of the reach of the sea. In such situa- 
 tions, we believe, it is nowhere the practice to back 
 a boat in stern foremost under oars, but to row in 
 under full speed as above described. 
 
 Management of a Yacht in a Rough Sea. — 
 When sailing a small yacht in a rough sea certain 
 precautions must be observed which we will de- 
 scribe as briefly as possible, for to handle a vessel 
 properly under these circumstances requires a skill 
 that cannot be imparted by books. 
 
 In the first place, do not carry on too much; for 
 it will often be necessary to bear away or luff ac- 
 cording to the seas, regardless of the wind ; and if 
 too much sail be carried this cannot be done. 
 
 A beam sea is the most dangerous. If you are 
 obliged to sail in a direction that brings the sea 
 abeam, keep a sharp look-out and luff up to every sea 
 that looks dangerously steep, so as to take it at a 
 sharp angle instead of broadside on. 
 
 To run before a high sea is also dangerous, espe- 
 cially if the vessel is a short and beamy one, for a 
 sea may strike the stern on one side and cause her 
 to broach to ; or again the vessel may be pooped, 
 that is, a sea may break on board over the stern, 
 filling' the well and even swamping her. 
 
 While running before the sea, steer with great 
 care, so that every dangerous sea strikes the vessel 
 right aft, and not on the side, and be ready to 
 meet promptly with the tiller any tendency to 
 broach to. 
 
 If you are sailing with the sea on the quarter, 
 
72 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 bear away to every dangerous sea so as to bring it 
 right aft. . 
 
 To sail against the sea, as when one is close- 
 hauled, is the safest way of meeting it. A sea 
 breaking over the bows can do little harm in com- 
 parison to one coming over the stern. Luff up so as 
 to meet a dangerous sea nearly end on, and bear 
 away after it has passed, but take care that the 
 way of the vessel is not lost in doing this. 
 
 We have already explained how to heave to, the 
 most prudent measure that can be taken in bad 
 weather, provided one has plenty of sea room to 
 leeward. 
 
 It may happen that when one is saihng along the 
 coast for some harbor of refuge the wind is dead on 
 shore so that the seas are on one's beam. If the 
 seas are so dangerous that it becomes very hazard- 
 ous to proceed in this way, it is best to sail in a zig- 
 zag fashion toward one's port— that is, first to sail 
 almost close hauled out to sea, then, having watched 
 one's opportunity in a smooth, to bear away again 
 and run right before wind and sea toward the shore, 
 and so on till the harbor is reached. 
 
 The sea and wind are fortunately generally m the 
 same direction ; but what is called a cross sea some- 
 times rolls up at intervals, especially if the direc- 
 tion of the wind has recently changed. These 
 cross seas must be carefully watched and steered 
 
 for. ... 1 
 
 Always wait for a smooth before tacking m rough 
 water. In open water there is a regular rhythm 
 in the movement of the seas, and it will be observed 
 that at regular intervals three exceptionally heavy 
 seas will follow each other in succession. These 
 heavy waves are invariably followed by a short 
 period of comparatively smooth water ; and a sharp 
 steersman will always wait for this smooth before 
 putting his vessel about in rough weather. 
 
 Boarding.— It will sometimes be necessary to go 
 off in the dinghy to one's yacht when she is sailing 
 or hove to in a rough sea, or one may have to bring 
 one's boat alongside some large vessel in order to 
 board her. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 73 
 
 In doing this certain precautions must be ob- 
 served. In the first place, a vessel should be boarded 
 to leeward, as the sea will not be so violent on the 
 lee as on the windward side. 
 
 In boarding a vessel that is rolling a good deal, 
 lower your boat's mast, if she has one, before get- 
 ting alongside. 
 
 The line by which you make fast to the vessel 
 must be long enough to allow for the rising and 
 falling of the sea. Have this line ready to slip in a 
 moment. 
 
 If the vessel is hove to, do not get alongside while 
 she has stern way; wait till she has headway. 
 
 Sometimes, as in the case of boarding a stranded 
 vessel, it is dangerous to get under her leeside, as 
 the masts may fall on one, or the boat may get 
 entangled among drifting rigging. It is the prac- 
 tice of lifeboats, under such circumstances, to 
 anchor to windward of the wreck and veer cable 
 until one can throw a line on board. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FITTING OUT. 
 
 Ballasting a yacht— Lead on keel— The anchor — Setting up rigging — 
 Ventilation and dry-rot — Mildew in sails — Stretching new sails — 
 Laying up a boat for the winter — Inventory. 
 
 Ballast. — In ballasting a yacht, whatever mate- 
 rial be used, certain general rules must be observed. 
 
 In the first place no ballast should be stowed at 
 either extremity of a vessel; it should, as far as is 
 possible, be concentrated in the midship section. 
 This cannot be done unless a heavy, and therefore 
 compact form of ballast such as lead or iron is em- 
 ployed. If ballast be divided throughout the entire 
 length of a vessel she will be sluggish in a sea-way ; 
 her head will not rise to the waves, but plunge into 
 them, and it will be the same with her stern; she 
 will be a wet and uncomfortable craft. On the 
 other hand, a vessel whose ballast is- concentrated 
 amidships will be lively, her bow and stern in sue- 
 
74 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 cession will rise buoyantly to the seas, and she will 
 be a dry, seaworthy craft. 
 
 It is always well to have some of the ballast for a 
 small yacht outside, on her keel; for it will be gen- 
 erally found impossible to stow all the ballast in 
 the midship section without raising the floor and so 
 sacrificing-head room in the cabin. 
 
 In placing ballast on the outside of a vessel, the 
 same precaution must be taken as when stowing it 
 inside— no weight must be put at the ends of the 
 vessel. The lead or iron keel should not be carried 
 down her whole length, as it often is, but should be 
 mortised into the central portion of the wooden keel. 
 
 In the next place, ballast should be stowed as low 
 as possible ; for the lower it is the less amount of it 
 suffices to give the vessel the necessary stability. 
 Here again the advantage of a metal keel is appar- 
 ent. The leverage of the outside ballast is so enor- 
 mous that the yacht becomes practically uncap- 
 sizable. But an excessive weight of lead on the keel 
 will strain a vessel in rough water ; she will recover 
 herself with a quick jerk after heeling over to a 
 puff, and her every motion will be violent. The 
 most comfortable vessel at sea is undoubtedly the 
 one that carries only a moderate weight of ballast 
 on her keel, and the bulk of it inside. 
 
 Should a vessel be coppered, care must be taken 
 that the sheathing does not touch— or even approach 
 within an inch or two— the iron keel ; for the gal- 
 vanic action set up between the two metals would 
 rapidly corrode the iron. 
 
 In order that the ballast may fit closely and so 
 lie as low as possible in a vessel's hold, it is well to 
 have it cast in molds shaped like the interior of the 
 vessel's bottom. This is more important in the case 
 of the limber ballast— that is, the lowest layer of 
 ballast which rests on the vessel's timbers. This 
 can be so molded as to project downward between 
 the limbers and fill up what would otherwise be 
 empty space ; for ballast must on no account be 
 supported by the planking, but always by the tim- 
 bers or framework of the vessel. If you put pres- 
 sure from the inside on your yacht's planking, do 
 
YACHTING A:ND SAILING. 75 
 
 not be surprised if she soon becomes nail-sick and 
 leaky. 
 
 If ordinary pig and not molded ballast be used, 
 the spaces between the bottom timbers are empty. 
 It is an excellent plan to fill them up fore and aft 
 with Portland cement. This, hardening to the 
 shape of the vessel, becomes as it were a part of 
 her, and, far from exerting outward pressure on 
 the planking, strengthens the bottom considerably. 
 It not only serves as ballast, but effectually pre- 
 vents the water leaking through that portion of the 
 vessel covered by it. 
 
 Lead is far the best ballast that can be used, the 
 only objection to it being its great cost. However, 
 it may be set off against this that lead does not cor- 
 rode to any extent, and if the yacht is broken up or 
 sold, the lead ballast can be sold at its market value 
 with as much ease as if it were a precious metal. 
 
 The specific gravity of lead is to that of iron, 
 roughly, as eleven to seven. Not oxidizing readily, 
 it makes much cleaner ballast than iron, and it 
 does not produce appreciable galvanic action and 
 corrosion when in contact with another metal. Irun 
 ballast, unless it is painted, fills the bilge w^ater 
 with rust, w^iich will stain everything it comes 
 across when pumped on deck. Even if the pump 
 leads, as it should do, over the side, the water 
 thrown out wall leave an ugly stain on the paint. 
 
 If pig iron is used as ballast, the interstices be- 
 tw^een the pigs can be fitted up with small fragments 
 of scrap iron, which can be purchased very cheaply. 
 
 If the spaces between the timbers are not filled 
 with Portland cement, by which the bilge is kept 
 quite sweet, the limbers or holes through the bot- 
 tom timbers must be kept clear, so that the bilge 
 water cannot accumulate anywhere and become 
 offensive, but will run down freely to the pump- 
 well. 
 
 With this object, a small chain is generally kept 
 rove through the limber holes. By drawing it back- 
 ward and forward the limbers are cleared of shav- 
 ings or other obstacles that are blocking them up. 
 
 We may here remark that it is important to ar- 
 
76 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 range the pump-well so that it can be got at in a 
 moment; if the pump is choked it can thus be 
 quickly cleared. 
 
 To keep the inside of a vessel sweet tar the bot- 
 tom timbers and plankings before putting the bal- 
 last in ; this of course also serves to preserve the 
 wood. 
 
 The Anchor. — A good anchor should combine 
 various qualities, the chief of which, so far as a 
 yacht's anchors are concerned, are, holding power, 
 exemption from fouling, and easy stowage. 
 
 Setting up Rigging. — The forestays, main 
 shrouds, and other portions of a yacht's standing 
 rigging are now very seldom made of hemp, but of 
 galvanized w4re. These must always be set up 
 taut as soon as they show signs of slackness, but 
 not quite so taut as hempen stays are set up, for 
 wire does not stretch like hemp. Wire shrouds 
 set up too taut put an enormous strain on the sides 
 of a boat, and will in course of time pull them quite 
 out of shape. The mast should not be so rigidly 
 stayed down that it has no play ; on the contrary, 
 when sail is set, a mast should be allowed to bend 
 and so take upon itself a considerable proportion 
 of the strain before any is thrown upon the weather 
 shrouds. 
 
 The shroud lanyards are of rope, but are not long 
 enough to give sufficient play by stretching; bow- 
 ever, they do give some life and spring to the rig- 
 ging, whereas the iron screw^s with which the 
 shrouds on some small yachts are set up cannot 
 give and take in the least, must strain the boat, 
 and seem to us wholly objectionable, though they 
 do save some labor to an indolent mariner. 
 
 To Sbt up a shroud, get it taut with a w^atch 
 tackle (see Fig. 12)— the smallest yacht ought to 
 carry at least one watch tackle, or '-handy billy,'' 
 as sailors call it ; it is useful for a variety of odd 
 jobs — then reeve the lanyards through the dead- 
 eyes and make the ends fast. 
 
 ^ When a yacht is under way in a fresh breeze the 
 weather shrouds are very taut and the lee shrouds 
 slack, So the lee shrouds can easily be set up by 
 
YACHTING AKD SAILING. 77 
 
 hand, and when the vessel has gone about on the 
 other tack the other shrouds will become the slack 
 ones and can be set up m the same manner. 
 
 Ventilation and Dry-rot.— One cause of dry-rot 
 is the use of unseasoned timber in the construction 
 of a vessel, but this fatal evil has its origin most 
 frequently in want of ventilation. 
 
 The air should permeate freely every portion of a 
 vessel's woodwork. The ballast should be so stowed 
 that it does not interfere with the ventilation of the 
 hold; and holes, which can form an ornamental 
 pattern, must be drilled at intervals along the 
 paneling of the cabin. 
 
 Mildew in Sails is always the result of careless- 
 ness. It is not wet that causes mildew, but damp- 
 ness combined with want of ventilation. Thus, if 
 a sail be furled when it is damp, the inner folds will 
 mildew. A wet sail should always be furled loosely, 
 and it should be shaken out and dried at the earliest 
 opportunity. If it has been lying furled in a damp 
 state for some time do not wait for the sun, but 
 shake it out and give it air, even if the rain be fall- 
 ing. 
 
 Do not, because you have furled your sail dry 
 and put its waterproof cover on it, imagine that 
 you can leave it thus with safety for an indefinite 
 time. The damp will get into it in some way, and 
 half the mildew in sails is due to a blind faith in 
 sail-covers. 
 
 Remember that the light cotton of which the 
 topsails and spinnakers of small yachts are made is 
 much more liable to mildew than flax canvas. 
 
 Stretching New Sails. — If a new sail is not 
 treated with proper care when it first comes from 
 the makers, it will stretch irregularly, forming a 
 great bag in one place, and having tight wrinkles 
 in another. If a sail be thus spoiled at the outset 
 the fault can never be remedied, and it will remain 
 a badly standing sail to the end. , 
 
 Do not put too great a strain on any part of a 
 new sail. For instance, while bending the main- 
 sail do not haul out its peak and clews along the 
 gaff and boom with powerful tackle. Have them 
 
78 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 out taut, of course, but do not try and stretch them 
 out at first by main force so as to save yourself fu- 
 ture trouble. Let the whole sail stretch equally. 
 
 It is a good plan, and the delay will be well re- 
 paid, not to get under way at once with one's new 
 sails, but to remain at anchor for a few days, and 
 haul the sails up for some hours each day. They 
 will then, with their own weight and the slight 
 action of the wind swinging them about without 
 filling them, stretch in a gradual and uniform way. 
 
 After this you will find. your mainsail slack along 
 the gaff, and you can tighten up your peak lashing 
 and lacing. 
 
 The first day that you get under way with your 
 new canvas should be a fine one. If it comes on to 
 blow hard, and you have to reef your mainsail, it 
 will certainly be pulled but of shape. You must 
 not expect your sails to stretch in a day. You will 
 have to tighten up the lacing and haul out the ear- 
 ing manv times before your mainsail has stretched 
 its full, and the of tener the better for your sail's 
 flatness. 
 
 Laying up a Boat for the Winter.— In lay- 
 ing up a small yacht it is well to have her upon 
 shore, and, if possible, under cover. She will thus 
 become thoroughly dry, and she will be far m.ore 
 buoyant when she is launched again than if she had 
 been lying on the mud all winter with the water 
 soaking through her. 
 
 All the ballast should be taken out of a boat when 
 she is laid up. If the limber pieces be molded to fit 
 the shape of the bottom, each piece should be num- 
 bered so that its particular place in the hold will be 
 known when fitting out again. 
 
 The bottom of the boat inside should be thor- 
 oughly cleansed and then tarred. 
 
 If any weeds are growing on the outside scrape 
 them off as soon as the yacht is on shore. It is 
 much easier to do so when they are moist than after 
 they have dried on the wood. 
 
 When taking the running rigging off a small 
 yacht the simplest plan is not to unreeve the hal- 
 yards, but to unhook the blocks and carry them 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 79 
 
 away with the halyards. Write the name of each 
 halyard on one of its blocks, or, better still, mark 
 both blocks of a halyard, showing which is the 
 upper and which the under. 
 
 You will thus greatly simplify the task of rig- 
 ging the vessel again on the following season ; for 
 to recognize one's rigging when ropes and blocks 
 are lying in front of one unmarked is no easy mat- 
 ter. 
 
 If the yacht is to be left out of doors for the win- 
 ter^ cover the decks with common varnish and the 
 spars with grease and white lead. Resin dissolved 
 in boiled oil makes a very good varnish for coating 
 woodwork that is to be exposed to the open air dur- 
 ing the winter. 
 
 Remember that there is nothing that will so spoil 
 and blacken a vessel's decks as an accumulation of 
 snow upon them. It is a wise precaution to build a 
 rough sloping roof over the decks, of hurdles and 
 old canvas, or anything that comes handy, when 
 laying her up. If she is laid up in a river where she 
 may be exposed to floating ice, fasten hurdles 
 around her sides. 
 
 Skylights and hatches must be frequently opened 
 during the winter, so as to ventilate the vessel, and 
 any water must be pumped out of her. A yacht will 
 deteriorate more through one winter's neglect than 
 in ten years' fair sailing. 
 
 The sails should of course be thoroughly dried be- 
 fore being stowed away for the winter. They 
 should be stowed in a dry, well-ventilated loft. If 
 they are soaked in sea water before being dried 
 they are not so liable to mildew. 
 
 Inventory. — There are many small but ne'cessary 
 articles which the amateur is likely to forget when 
 starting for a cruise in his new boat. We will enu- 
 merate some of the most important of these. Mar- 
 line spikes, a sail-maker's needle and palm, plenty 
 of spun-yarn and seaming twine. Spare ropes, in- 
 cluding stuff for lanyards, etc. Spare blocks, thim- 
 bles, clipbooks, shackles, etc. The most necessary 
 carpenters' tools, including the nails and screws 
 likely to be required. Universal spanners, for 
 
80 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 screwing on or unscrewing nuts of various sizes. 
 Paints in tins, with turpentine, oil, dryers, and 
 brushes. Scrapers for removing old paint, etc. 
 Stout fenders, to be used while getting alongside a 
 wharf, and on other occasions, when outside paint 
 is in danger. A good warp — grass rope or coir will 
 answer the purpose well. A watch tackle or 
 "handy billy," which is, as we have shown, useful 
 for a variety of purposes. A snatch-block with a 
 tail, very handy when a pull is required on any 
 rope, as it can be clapped on in a moment. A small 
 screw-jack. A serving mallet. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE ECONOMY BETWEEN DECKS. 
 
 The well — Arrangement of cabin— Leaky decks—Cabin lights — The 
 forecastle — Cooking stoves. 
 
 The available space in a small yacht is generally 
 partitioned off into an open well, a cabin, and a 
 forecastle. 
 
 The steering is done from the well, and all the 
 sheets are belayed to cleats within easy reach of it. 
 The well is surrounded with seats and lockers. The 
 after locker is sometimes used as a sail room ; but 
 in a very small yacht the forecastle answers better 
 for this purpose, and the warps, etc., can be stowed 
 in the after locker. 
 
 One of the side lockers of the well can be fitted 
 with shelves, and will then serve as a larder. 
 Pierce holes for ventilation into the front of it at 
 some height above the floor. 
 
 Holes should be cut through the floor of the well, 
 so that any water that comes on board may escape 
 into the bilge. A wooden grating on the floor will 
 keep one's feet dry. 
 
 The cabin generally communicates with the well 
 by folding doors, while a small hatch is made to 
 slide back in the cabin roof, thus making the aper- 
 ture larger, and facilitating ingress and egress. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 81 
 
 Personally we do not like cabin doors in a small 
 yacht ; they are always in the way while open, and 
 as they cannot be — or at any rate never are — made 
 water-tight, if a little water is shipped in the well it 
 will find its way through the closed doors and make 
 the cabin uncomfortable. 
 
 A better plan is to have a water-tight bulkhead 
 dividing the cabin from the well, and at the top of 
 the bulkhead to have a square opening which can 
 be closed when necessary with a vertical shutter 
 or slide. When this is open, and the hatch on the 
 cabin roof is pushed back, it is easy to step over 
 
 fig. 44-- 
 
 into the cabin. Fig. 44 illustrates this arrangement. 
 
 It adds considerably to the safety of a small ves- 
 sel if her well be made completely water-tight. In 
 this case there must be an additional pump in the 
 well, to throw out any water that gets into it. 
 
 It is very convenient to have an awning that will 
 fit over the well when the vessel is at anchor. An 
 additional room is thus obtained which will be 
 found very useful to perform one's toilette in. 
 
 The raised roof over the cabin is generally covered 
 
82 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 with canvas and painted white. This effectually 
 prevents leakage. 
 
 It is not easy to keep a small yacht's decks quite 
 water-tight, and every one who has been to sea in a 
 little craft has passed through the unpleasant sen- 
 sation of havidg the water falling drop by drop 
 upon his face, as he lies in his bunk at night, from 
 the seams in the planking between the raised cabin 
 roof and the waterways. 
 
 In dry w^eather water should be freely poured on 
 the decks morning and evening, to prevent them 
 shrinking. 
 
 A black marine putty is now made which in our 
 experience serves as well as pitch, and as it does 
 not require heating is much rhore convenient to 
 use. Wherever a leak is discovered in the deck 
 seams while on a voyage, stop with cotton (using a 
 blunt knife, not a caulking-iron) and fill up the 
 seam with this putty. 
 
 The cabin of a small yacht generally has a bunk 
 on either side, serving as sofas by day and beds by 
 night, with lockers under them, useful for the stow- 
 age of such stores as will not be spoiled by water. 
 Two or more cupboards are in the corners, and a 
 table — one that can be folded up when not in use is 
 best — stands in the center of the floor. 
 
 Water is sure to find its way into the cabin some- 
 times, so every article of furniture must be chosen 
 with a view to its getting wet. A carpet is not suit- 
 able for the floor of a small yacht; it is unpleasant 
 when wet, and is difficult to dry. Oilcloth or lino- 
 leum is better, but these are cold to the feet. The 
 best material with which to cover the floor is cocoa- 
 nut matting of a good quality. It is made in every 
 width, so a piece of the breadth of the cabin floor 
 can be procured. Cocoanut matting looks Avell, is 
 pleasant and warm to walk upon with bare feet, 
 can be washed easily, and dries very quickb^ 
 
 Horsehair is, of course, the best material with 
 which to stuff the cushions of the bunks. These are 
 often covered with American cloth, which dries 
 quickly, but is cold and disagreeable, especially if 
 one's blanket slips off at night and one's naked foot 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 83 
 
 comes in contact with it. Cretonnes and other cot- 
 ton stuffs are cold when damp, and are altogether 
 unsuitable for the purpose. After having tried 
 many materials, the author prefers dark blue flan- 
 nel to any other for cushion covers. The flannel 
 feels warm even when it is wet, and one will not 
 catch cold while sleeping on it. 
 
 The paneling of the cabin should be, if possible^ 
 of some hard wood, polished. This is much more 
 ornamental than painted wood, and though more 
 costly at the outset, is more economical in the long- 
 run, for in order to keep up a smart appearance 
 paint must often be renewed. 
 
 If the cabin be painted, white paneling with a 
 plain gilt molding around the top looks very well ; 
 but white paint gets dirty quickly, and a fresh coat 
 is required very frequently. Possibly the white 
 enamel paints now largely manufactured would an- 
 swer the purpose better, as they form a very hard 
 coat which can be thoroughly washed without in- 
 jury. 
 
 For cabin lights, spring candlestick lamps, 
 swinging on gimbals, are the best ; these can be 
 obtained at any yachting warehouse ; they are pro- 
 vided with globes, and with some shades to be 
 screwed into the ceiling abovte to prevent its dis- 
 coloration. They can be lit in a moment, and are 
 much cleaner to handle than other lamps. But 
 while on a cruise it will be often necessary to have 
 a light burning all night in the cabin, so as to be 
 able to refer to the chart, etc. A paraffin lamp 
 swung over the table will then be more convenient 
 and economical. 
 
 The interior of a small j^acht's cabin can be made 
 to look very pretty and snug. The library shelf 
 can be on the forward wall, with the aneroid on 
 one side of it and the clock on the other. On the 
 side walls above the bunks the charts, guns, and 
 fishing-rods can be slung. A rack for glasses and 
 another for pipes can be fitted where most conven- 
 ient. 
 
 As the blankets that serve for the yachtsman's 
 bedding cannot well be stowed out of sight in a 
 
84 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 small cabin, it is well to have them as ornamental 
 as possible. Red blankets neatly folded up at one 
 end of the blue flannel bunk cushions give a bright 
 appearance to the cabin. The windows and the 
 skylight should have little blinds — red silk looks 
 very well. 
 
 The forecastle of a yacht of the size we are speak- 
 ing of is rarely large enough to afford sleeping ac^ 
 commodation, unless it be to a small boy. The 
 chain-locker is here, and here too are stowed the 
 spare sails, the mops, brooms, buckets, etc. The 
 cooking-stove should also be in the forecastle. This, 
 in our opinion, should invariably be a spirit stove, 
 on a small craft where little cooking is done. A 
 paraffin stove has an unpleasant smell, even if the 
 wick be kept carefully trimmed, and it is the cause 
 of a great deal of dirt. 
 
 Excellent galvanized cooking-stoves for burning 
 methylated spirits are now manufactured. These 
 produce no dirt. It may be of use to mention here 
 that spirits of wine for burning purposes can be 
 procured at a cost very far under that of methylated 
 spirits. 
 
 Mildew generates very quickly in the interior of 
 a yacht ; therefore it is very necessarj^ that all cloth- 
 ing and bedding be brought on deck to dry at every 
 convenient opportunity. Any shackles or other 
 small iron work not in use should — if ungalvanized 
 — be greased before being put away in the lockers. 
 
 There are so many odd corners in a j^acht in 
 which dirt can accumulate and conceal itself that a 
 srupulous cleanliness is necessary. Scrub and swab 
 everything like a Dutch w^oman, and take care 
 that no morsels of meat or other perishable matter 
 be swept through the chinks of the floor into the 
 bilge. Even paper and straw will produce a very 
 unpleasant odor after they have been lying sodden 
 some while. Therefore take the paper covers oflf 
 your tins of meat before stowing them under the 
 bunks. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 85 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE LAWS OF THE SEA. 
 
 Board of trade regulations concerning lights, fog signals, steering and 
 sailing rules, pilot signals, etc. — Custom House clearance on re- 
 turning fi'om a foreign port — Explanation of the terms used in 
 giving steering directions, etc. 
 
 Any one who ventures to take charge of even a 
 small yacht should be familiar with the Board of 
 Trade regulations for preventing collisions at sea, 
 and not only with those rules which have been laid 
 down for his own guidance, but with those apply- 
 ing specially to steamers, to fishing-boats, or other 
 craft differing from his own, that he may recognize 
 their maneuvers when he comes across them, and 
 thus be able to avoid collision with them. 
 
 We will now quote the Board of Trade regula- 
 tions, making such comments and explanations as 
 we think will be useful. 
 
 Art. I. — In the following rules every steamship which 
 is under sail, and not under steam, is to be considered a 
 sailing ship ; and every steamship which is under steam, 
 whetner under sail or not, is to be considered a ship under 
 steam. 
 
 The following are the Rules Concerning Lights: 
 
 Art. 2. — The lights mentioned in the following Articles 
 numbered 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, and no others, 
 shall be carried in all wt^.ather, from sunset to sunrise. 
 
 Art. 6. — A sea-going steamship, when under way, shall 
 carry : 
 
 (a) On or in front of the foremast, at a height above 
 the hull of not less than 20 feet, and if the breadth 
 of the ship exceeds 20 feet, then at a height above 
 the hull not less than such breadth, a bright white 
 light, so constructed as to show a uniform and un- 
 broken light over an arc of the horizon of 20 points 
 of the compass ; so fixed as to throw the light 10 
 points on each side of the ship, viz., from right 
 
86 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 ahead to two points abaft the beam on either side, 
 and of such a character as to be visible on a dark 
 night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of 
 at least five miles. 
 
 (b) On the starboard side, a green light so constructed 
 as to show, a uniform and unbroken light over an 
 arc of the horizon of 10 points of the compass ; so 
 fixed as to throw the light right ahead to two points 
 abaft the beam on the starboard side, and of such 
 a character as to be visibJe on a dark night, with a 
 clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (c) On the port side, a red light, so constructed as to 
 show a uniform and unbroken light over an arc 
 of the horizon of 10 points of the compass ; so fixed 
 as to throw the light from right ahead to two points 
 abaft the beam on the port side ; and of such a char- 
 acter as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear 
 atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (d) The said green and red side lights shall be fitted 
 with inboard screens projecting at least three feet 
 forward from the light, so as to prevent these lights 
 from being seen across the bow. 
 
 Art. 4. — A steamship, when towing another ship, shall, 
 in addition to her side lights, carry two bright white 
 lights in a vertical line one over the other, not less than 
 three feet apart, so as to distinguish her from other steam- 
 ships. Each of these lights shall be of the same construc- 
 tion and character, and shall be carried in the same posi- 
 tion as the white light which other steamships are re- 
 quired to carry. 
 Art. 5. — 
 
 (a) A ship, whether a steamship or a sailing ship, 
 which from any accident is not under command, 
 shall at night carry, in the same position as the 
 white light which steamships are required to carry, 
 and, if a steamship, in place of that light, three red 
 lights in globular lanterns, each not less than 10 
 inches in diameter, in a vertical line one over the 
 other, not less than three feet apart, and of such 
 a character as to be visible on a dark night, with 
 a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least tAvo 
 miles ; and shall by day carry, in a vertical line one 
 over the other, not less than three feet apart, in 
 front of but not lower than her foremast head, 
 three black balls or shapes, each two feet in diame- 
 ter. 
 
YA.CHTING AND SAILING. 87 
 
 (&) A ship, whether a steam or a sailing ship, em- 
 ployed in laying or in picking up a telegraph cable, 
 shall at night carry in the same position as the 
 white light which steamships are required to carry, 
 and, if a steamship, in place of that light, three 
 lights in globular lanterns, each not less than 10 
 inches in diameter, in a vertical line over one an- 
 other, not less than six feet apart : the highest and 
 lowest of these lights shall be red, and the middle 
 light shall be white, and they shall be of such a 
 character that the red lights shall be visible at the 
 same distance as the white light. By day she shall 
 carry in a vertical line, one over the other, not less 
 than six feet apart, in front of but not lower than 
 her foremast head, three shapes not less than two 
 feet in diameter, of which the top and bottom shall 
 be globular in shape and red in color, and the mid- 
 dle one diamond in shape and white. 
 
 (c) The ships referred to in this Article, when not 
 making any way through the water, shall not carry 
 the side lights, but when making way shall carry 
 them. 
 
 (d) The lights and shapes required to be shown by this 
 Article are to be taken by other ships as signals 
 that the ship showing them is not under command, 
 and therefore cannot get out of the way. The sig- 
 nals to be made by ships in distress and requiring 
 assistance are contained in Article 27. 
 
 Art. 6. — A sailing ship under way, or being towed, shall 
 carry the same lights as are provided by Article 
 3,, for a steamship under way, with the exception of 
 the white light, which she shall never carry. 
 
 Art. 7. — Whenever, as in the case of small vessels dur- 
 ing bad weather, the green and red side lights cannot be 
 fixed, these lights shall be kept on deck, on their respec- 
 tive sides of the vessel, ready for use ; and shall, on the 
 approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their 
 respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in 
 such manner as to make them most visible, and so that 
 the green light shall not be seen on the port side nor the 
 red light on the starboard side. 
 
 To make the use of these portable lights more certain 
 and easy, the lanterns containing them shall each be 
 painted outside with the color of the light they respec- 
 tively contain, and shall be provided with proper screens. 
 
 Art. 8.: — A ship, whether a steamship or a sailing ship, 
 
88 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 when at anchor, shall carry, where it can best be seen, 
 but at a height not exceeding 20 feet above the hull, a 
 white light in a globular lantern, of not less than 8 inches 
 in diameter, and so constructed as to show a clear uniform 
 and unbroken light visible all round the horizon, at a 
 distance of at least one mile. 
 
 Art. 9. — A pilot vessel, when engaged on her station on 
 pilotage duty, shall not carry the lights required for other 
 vessels, but shall carry a white light at the masthead, 
 visible all round the horizon, and shall also exhibit a 
 flare-up light or flare-up lights at short intervals which 
 shall never exceed fifteen minutes. 
 
 A pilot vessel, when not engaged on her station on 
 pilotage duty, shall carry lights similar to those of other 
 ships. 
 
 Art. 10. — Open boats and fishing vessels of less than 20 
 tons net registered tonnage, when under way and when 
 not having their nets, trawls, dredges, or lines in the 
 water, shall not be obliged to carry the colored side 
 lights ; but every such boat and vessel shall in lieu there- 
 of have ready at hand a lantern with a green glass of the 
 one side and a red glass on the other side, and on ap- 
 proaching to or being approached by another vessel, such 
 lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient time to prevent 
 collision, so that the green light shall not be seen on the 
 port side nor the red light on the starboard side. 
 
 A very convenient lantern is now ' sold by the 
 yachting outfi-tters, which not only combines in it- 
 self the port and starboard lights, as permitted by 
 Article 10 ; but on the removal of a slide serves as a 
 riding-light as well. 
 
 Small yachts are generally provided with lanterns 
 of smaller size and less illuminating power than 
 those enjoined in the regulations ; but it is best to 
 comply with these rules if possible, so that one can 
 have the right on one's side in case of a collision. 
 It often happens again that small lights burn in an 
 unsatisfactory manner, and frequently go out. A 
 riding-light that does this is a great nuisance, and 
 spoils one's night's rest when one is brought up in 
 a crowded thoroughfare. 
 
 "We prefer lanterns that burn paraffin for sea 
 work; if colza is used some camphor should be 
 dissolved in it; this increases the illuminating 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 89 
 
 power, and in our opinion the light is not so likely 
 to go out when this is done. 
 
 The following rules relate to Fog Signals. It 
 will be observed that the old-fashioned fog horn 
 which is sounded with the mouth is not recognized 
 by the present regulations. It is, however, still 
 generally used on small craft, and will certainly 
 make more noise than some of the mechanical fog 
 horns : 
 
 Art. 11. — A steamship shall be provided with a steam 
 whistle, or other steam sound signal, so placed that the 
 sound may not be intercepted by any obstructions, and 
 with an efficient fog horn to be sounded by a bellows or 
 other mechanical means, and also with an efficient bell. 
 A sailing ship shall be provided with a similar fog horn 
 and bell. 
 
 In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night, 
 the signals described in this Article shall be used as fol- 
 lows ; that is to say : 
 
 (a) A steamship under way shall make with her 
 steam whistle, or other steam sound signal, at 
 intervals of not more than two minutes, a pro- 
 longed blast. 
 (6) A sailing ship under way shall make with her fog 
 horn, at intervals of not more than two minutes, 
 when on the starboard tack one blast, when on the 
 port tack two blasts in succession, and when the 
 wind abaft the beam three blasts in succession, 
 (c) A steamship and a sailing ship, when not under 
 way, shall, at intervals of not more than two min- 
 utes, ring the bell. 
 Art. 12. — Every ship, whether a sailing ship or steam- 
 ship, shall in fog, mist, or falling snow, go at a moderate 
 speed. 
 
 Next come the articles relating to the Rules of 
 Steering and Sailing. 
 
 In applying these the novice must never forget 
 that when he stands on his deck and looks for- 
 ward, the port side of his vessel is on his left, the 
 starboard side on his right. When a vessel is on 
 the port tack the wind is blowing from the port or 
 left side of him ; when she is on the starboard tack 
 from the starboard or right side. 
 
 Let him also remember that though he should ob- 
 
90 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 serve these rules as closely as possible, Article 23 
 affords a fine loophole for the huge and clumsy 
 steamers that crowd the Thames and other rivers. 
 It is a well-known fact that big steamers will not 
 get out of the way of small sailing craft, even 
 when they can do so without difficulty, and the 
 little boat is expected to get out of their way. 
 
 The moral of this is : Keep out of the way of the 
 big steamers, not by getting flurried and altering 
 your course at the last moment, against all the 
 rules of the road, and so putting yourself in the 
 wrong if there is a collision, but by altering your 
 course and showing them your intentions some 
 time before they are^near you. 
 
 Art. 13. — When two sailing ships are approaching one 
 another, so as to involve risk of collision, one of them 
 hall keep out of the way of the other, as follows, viz. : 
 
 (a) A ship which is running free shall keep out of the 
 way of a ship which is close hauled. 
 
 (b) A ship which is close hauled on the port tack 
 shall keep out of the way of a ship which is close 
 hauled on the starboard, tack. 
 
 (e) When both are running free with the wind on dif- 
 ferent sides, the ship has the wind on the port side 
 shall keep out of the way of the other. 
 
 (d) When both are running free with the wind on the 
 same side, she ship which is to windward shall 
 keep out of the way of the ship w^hich is to leeward. 
 
 (e) A ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of 
 the way of the other ship. 
 
 Art. 14. — If two ships under steam are meeting end on, 
 or nearly end on, so as to involve risk of collision, each 
 shall alter her course to starboard, so that each may pass 
 on the port side of the other. 
 
 This Article only applies to cases where ships are meet- 
 ing end on, or nearly end on, in such a manner as to 
 involve risk of collision, and does not apply to two 
 ships which must, if both keep on their respective 
 courses, pass clear of each other. 
 
 The only cases to which it does apply are, when each 
 of the two ships is end on, or nearly end on, to the 
 other ; in other words, to cases in which, by day, 
 each ship sees the masts of the other in a line, or 
 nearly in a line, with her own ; and by nighty to c^ses 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 91 
 
 in which each ship is in such a position as to see both 
 
 the side lights of the other. 
 
 It does not apply, by day, to cases in which a ship sees 
 
 another ahead crossing her own cour.se ; or by night, 
 
 to cases where the red light of one ship is opposed 
 
 to the red light of the other, or where the green light 
 
 o one ship is opposed to the green light of the other, 
 
 or where a red light without a green light, or a green 
 
 light without a red light, is seen ahead, or where 
 
 both green and red lights are seen anywhere but 
 
 ahead. 
 
 Art. 15. — If two ships under steam are crossing, so as 
 
 to involve rish of collision, the ship which has the other 
 
 on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way of the 
 
 other. 
 
 Art. 16. — If two ships, one of which is a sailing ship 
 and the other a steamship, are proceeding in such direc- 
 tions as to involve risk of collision, the steamship shall 
 keep out of the way of the sailing ship. 
 
 Art. 17. — Every steamship, when approaching another 
 ship, so as to involve risk of collision, shall slacken her 
 speed, or stop and reverse, if necessary. 
 
 Art. 18. — In taking any course authorized or required 
 by these regulations, a steamship under way may indi- 
 cate that course to any other ship which is in sight by 
 the following signals on her steam whistle, viz. : 
 
 One short blast to mean " I am directing my course to 
 
 starboard." 
 Two short blasts to mean " I am directing my course to 
 
 port." 
 Three short blasts to mean "I am going full speed 
 
 astern." 
 The use of these signals is optional ; but if they are 
 used, the course of the ship must be in accordance with 
 the signal made. 
 
 Art. 19. — Notwithstanding anything coirtained in any 
 preceding Article, every ship, whether a sailing ship or a 
 steamship, overtaking any other, shall keep out of the 
 way of the overtaken ship. 
 
 Art. 20. — In narrow channels every steamship shall, 
 when it is safe and practicable, keep to that side of the 
 fair way or mid-channel which lies on the starboard side 
 of such ship. 
 
 Art. 21. — Where, by the above rules, one of two ships 
 
 is to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her course. 
 
 Art. 22. — In obeying and construing these rules, due 
 
92 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 regard shall be had to all dangers of navigation ; and to 
 any special circumstances which may render a departure 
 from the above rules necessary in order to avoid immedi- 
 ate danger. 
 
 Art. 23. — Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any 
 ship, or the owner or master, or crew thereof, from the 
 consequence of any neglect to carry lights or signals, or 
 of any neglect to keep a proper look-out, or of the neglect 
 of any precaution which may be required by ordinary 
 practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the 
 case. 
 
 A. 24. — Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the 
 operation of a special rule, duly made by local authority, 
 relative to the navigation of any harbor, river, or inland 
 navigation. 
 
 Art. 25. — Nothing in these rules shall interfere with 
 the operation of any special rules made by the govern- 
 ment of any nation with respect to additional station and 
 signal lights for two or more ships of war, or for ships 
 sailing under convoy. 
 
 The next article relates to Signals of Distress: 
 Art. 26. — When a ship is in distress and requires assist- 
 ance from other ships, or from the shore, the following 
 shall be the signals to be used or displayed by her, eitlier 
 together or separately, that is to say : 
 In the daytime : 
 
 1. A gun fired at intervals of about a minute. 
 
 2. The international Code signals of distress indicated 
 
 byN.C. 
 
 3. The distant signal, consisting of a square flag, 
 
 having either above or below it a ball, or anything 
 resembling a ball. 
 
 At night : 
 
 1. A gun fired at intervals of about a minute. 
 
 2. Flames bn the ship (as from a burning tar barrel, oil 
 
 barrel, etc.). 
 
 3. Rockets or shells, throwing stars of any color, or 
 
 description, fired one at a time at short intervals. 
 
 The flags of the International Code of signals 
 should be carried on every cruising yacht, they 
 will often be found of service. For a small yacht, 
 flags two feet by one and a half will suffice. 
 
 The yachtsman will occasionally require the ser- 
 vices of a pilot or local fisherman to show him the 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 93 
 
 way into some difficult harbor, and it is probable 
 that he will be considerably confused by the steer- 
 ing directions given to him by his guide, and put 
 the helm to port when he sliould have put it to star- 
 board, or vice vei^sa. And this is not to be woiidered 
 at ; for even professionals are often puzzled by the 
 somewhat uncertain signification of the terms now 
 in use. 
 
 First as to the orders most frequently given at 
 sea— "Port!" and "Starboard!" Surely there can 
 be no vagueness about their meaning; but every 
 sailor will tell you that there is a vagueness, and 
 one that is no doubt responsible for many accidents. 
 
 When an American pilot cries out "Port!" or 
 what comes to the same thing, holds his hand out 
 to port, he does not wish the vessel's head to be 
 turned to port, but that the helm or tiller be put to 
 port, this action of course turning the vessel's head 
 in a starboard direction. 
 
 Wheels are now generally used in the place of 
 tillers on all craft of any size. Now a wheel works 
 in a contrary direction to a tiller ; that is, a wheel 
 turning to port turns the vessel's head to port. In 
 this case, when an American pilot cries out "Port!" 
 he means that the wheel, rudder and head of the 
 vessel are all to be turned to starboard. 
 
 If his rule — viz., that on every occasion on which 
 the orders "port" or "starboard" are given, the ves- 
 sel's head must be turned in the opposite direction 
 — prevailed everywhere, all would accustom them- 
 selves to it and there would not be much confusion. 
 But, if we visit France or some other Continental 
 countries, we find the pilots always ^peak of the 
 vessel's head and not of the helm when they give 
 an order. In France, "Port!" does not signify 
 "Port your helm !" but "Turn your vessel's head to 
 port," which is the reverse of what an American 
 pilot would mean when giving the same order. 
 
 There are other methods of giving orders to the 
 man at the tiller which must be thoroughly under- 
 stood by every amateur. The author has seen a 
 somewhat experienced yachtsman' puzzled when a 
 boatman, who had come on board to pilot us, cried 
 
94 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 out: "Bear up!" at the same time holding his hand 
 to windward. 
 
 Had he cried out "Bear away!" the yachtsnjan 
 would have understood that the order apphed to 
 the head of the vessel— that the vessel was to be 
 steered awav from the wind. But "Bear up!" and 
 the hand pointing to windward confused him, and 
 he steered to windward or luffed. 
 
 Now these two orders mean exactly the Fame ; 
 but Avhereas " Bear away!" applies to the vessel's 
 head, "Bear up!" applies to the vessels' helm or 
 tiller which must be pushed up to windward. So, 
 too, the pilot's hand, pointing to windward, sig- 
 niefld: "Put the helm in that direction," and not 
 "Turn the vessel in that direction." 
 
 In the table below the orders in general use are 
 defined : 
 
 1. "Port" signifies "Turn the helm or tiller to port." 
 
 2! " Starboard" signifies " Turn the helm or tiller to star- 
 board." ^ , , ^ . . , „ 
 
 3. " Luff" signifies " Turn vessel's head to wmdward. 
 
 4. "Bear away" signifies " Turn the vessel's head away 
 from the wind." . 
 
 5. '' Bear up" signifies " Turn the helm or tiller to wmd- 
 "vvfird 
 
 6. " Put the helm down" signifies " Turn the helm or 
 tiller away from the wind." 
 
 7. " Put the helm up" signifies " Turn the helm or tiller 
 
 to windwar.d." . ., , 
 
 It will be seen that 4, 6, and 7 are various methods 
 of giving the same order, while 3 and 6 are the 
 
 same. _ _, 
 
 The following regulations relate to Pilot biGNALS : 
 In the Daytime.— The following signals, numbered 1 and 
 2, when used or displayed together or separately, shall be 
 deemed to be signals for a pilot in the daytime : 
 
 1. To be hoisted at the fore, the jack or other national 
 color usually worn by merchant ships, having round it a 
 white border, one-fifth of the breadth of the flag ; or 
 
 2. The international code pilotage signal, indicated by 
 P.T.* 
 
 * This is a square blue flag, having in its center a white square, 
 hoisted over a flag of a similiar shape-the latter showing three verti 
 cal bars, colored red, white, and blue. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 95 
 
 At night.— The following signals, numbered 1 and 2, 
 when used or displayed together or separately, shall be 
 deemed to be signals for a pilot at night : 
 
 1. The pyrotechnic light, commonly known as a blue 
 light, every fifteen minutes, or 
 
 2. A. bright white light flashed or shown at short or fre- 
 quent intervals, just above the bulwarks, for about a min- 
 ute at a time. 
 
 And " Any master of a vessel who uses or displays, or 
 causes or permits any person under his authority to use 
 or display, any of the said signals for any other purpose 
 than that of summoning a pilot, or uses, or causes, or per- 
 mits any person under his authority to use any other sig- 
 nal for a pilot, shall incur a penalty not exceeding one 
 hundred dollars. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS OF NAVIGATION NECESSARY FOR COAST- 
 ING. 
 
 Mercator's chart — The mariner's compass — The spirit compass — Varia- 
 tion — Deviation — The log ship and line — The lead ]ine. 
 
 As soon as the amateur leaves the ba}^ or river 
 with whose features he is well acquainted and ven- 
 tures to take his vessel along a coast unknown to 
 him, he must provide himself with the necessary 
 instruments for finding his way and make himself 
 familiar with their use. 
 
 As the management of large yachts is not within 
 the scope of this book, it will be unnecessary to 
 treat here of navigation properly so called — that is, 
 the art of guiding a vessel across broad seas, out of 
 sight of land, by observation of the sun and stars 
 and by dead reckoning. But we may remark that 
 an educated man will find no difficulty in rapidly 
 acquiring the art of navigation if he wishes to do 
 so. It is the seamanship that will give him trouble ; 
 for to acquire that a long apprenticeship and con- 
 siderable natural capacity are necessary. 
 
 For coasting pui-poses and for crossing narrow 
 seas such as the Channel, and the Korth Sea, and 
 even for a voyage to the Baltic, sextants, chrono- 
 
96 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 meters, and other instruments of. navigation proper 
 are not required, and the following is a cojnplete 
 list of all that is needed for the purpose of finding 
 one's way. 1. The necessary charts. 2. A mari- 
 ner's compass. 3. A parallel rule. 4. A pair of 
 compasses or dividers, o. A lo^ ship and line. 6. 
 A hand-lead and line. 7. One of the small nautical 
 almanacs which give the tide tables for the princi- 
 pal harbors. 
 
 Charts. — Whatever method is employed for 
 representing a portion of a globe on a plane sur- 
 face, the result c^n only be approximately correct. 
 Charts are drawn on what is known as Mercator's 
 projection, which, though it greatly distorts the 
 relative magnitudes, is the most convenient for 
 'purposes of navigation. 
 
 The parallels of latitude on the ^lobe are every- 
 where equidistant. On the other hand, the merid- 
 ians of longitude are furthest apart at the equator, 
 and gradually approach till they meet at the poles. 
 
 In Mercator's chart the meridians of longitude 
 are drawn parallel and equidistant. The distortion 
 in the direction of longitude resulting from this 
 projection is counterbalanced by distorting the lati- 
 tude to a proportionate extent ; that is, the parallels 
 of latitude are drawn further apart as the poles are 
 approached. 
 
 Thus, on a chart of the world, the polar regions 
 are greatly magnified when compared to the re- 
 gions near the equator; still, as the degrees of lati- 
 tude and those of longitude are proportionately 
 magnified, the general shapes of any particular 
 tract is preserved. 
 
 The reason why this projection is the most adapted 
 for purposes of navigation is that it produces 
 no errors of direction ; that is, if one place is north- 
 west of another, it appears so on a Mercator's chart. 
 It follows, from what has been said, that one scale 
 of miles will not serve for a chart; as the scale is 
 ever varying. The method of overcomng this diffi- 
 culty while measuring the distance from one place 
 to another on the chart will now be explained. 
 
 On inspecting an ordinary chart it will be found 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 9? 
 
 that the top of it is true north, the bottom true 
 south. 
 
 Along the top and bottom are graduated paral- 
 lels, which are divided into degrees and minutes, 
 and which enable us to distinguish the longitude of 
 any position on the chart. 
 
 So, too, on the right and left sides of the chart 
 we find graduated meridians also divided into de- 
 grees and minutes, and which enable us to measure 
 the latitude of any position on the chart. 
 
 Now, as a* degree or a minute o£ latitude is the 
 same length everywhere, we can use these grad- 
 uated meridians as scales of miles. Each degree is 
 divided into sixty minutes. A minute or nautical 
 mlie is about one sixth longer than an English mile. 
 
 But as Mercator's chart distorts the latitudes, 
 each portion of the graduated meridians serves as 
 a scale of miles only to that part of a chart imme- 
 diately opposite to it — that is, on the same latitude. 
 Consequently, to measure the distance between 
 two places on the chart; for instance, Falmouth 
 harbor in latitude 50^ and Madeira in latitude 30^, 
 we proceed as follows. The dividers are spread 
 out till their points are over the two places on the 
 chart. This distance is then measured off on the 
 graduated meridian, by so placing the dividers on 
 the scale that the mean latitude of the two places — 
 that is, latitude 40^, is marked on the graduated 
 meridian exactly half way between the two points 
 of the dividers. 
 
 The graduated parallels cannot, of course, be 
 used as scales of miles for purposes of measure- 
 ment. 
 
 While measuring distances on the large scale 
 charts used for coasting purposes it matters little 
 what portion of the graduated meridians be used 
 as a scale, for the error will be imperceptible. It 
 is only while using what are known as general 
 charts, which extend across many degrees of lati- 
 tude, that a considerable error will result from not 
 measuring from the mean latitude. 
 
 Compasses are generally designed on various 
 portions of a chart. These compasses usually indi- 
 
58 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 cate the magnetic and not the true bearings. (See 
 Compass.) 
 
 Various abbreviations are used on charts which 
 are generally explained in a corner of the chart it- 
 self. Thus the nature of the bottom is indicated by 
 sft for soft, c. for coarse, h. for hard, etc., while 
 buoys are marked R. for red, HS. for horizontally 
 striped. 
 
 The soundings in fathoms or feet are indicated by 
 numbers, the depth being calculated at low water 
 ordinary spring tides. Where shoals sometimes 
 dry, their height above low water spring tides is 
 given by underlined numerals. 
 
 Roman numerals on a chart give the hour of high 
 water at that spot at the full and change of tlie 
 moon. 
 
 The velocity of the tide in knots is also indicated 
 and its direction shown by arrows. 
 
 The yachtsman should provide himself with large 
 scale Admiralty charts ; for these alone can guide 
 him into those shallow intricate channels frequented 
 by small coasters only, which we will be so often 
 tempted to enter. 
 The Mariner's Compass.— Every one is more or 
 
 less familiar with the 
 use of the mariner's 
 compass, the instru- 
 ment which enables 
 us to know the direc- 
 tion in which a ves- 
 sel is sailing when 
 out of sight of land. 
 
 The compass card 
 (Fig. 45) is divided in- 
 to thirty-two points, 
 so, as a circle con- 
 tains 360^^, the dis- 
 tance from one point 
 to the next is 114i^. 
 
 Sometimes a point 
 is expressed in its 
 angular value — that 
 is, the number of degrees the point is west or east 
 
 Fig. 4S^ 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 99 
 
 of the meridional line joining north and south. 
 Thus N'. by E. would be called N. Hi E., and N. E., 
 N. 45^ E. 
 
 Compass bearings are calculated to quarter points, 
 as N. E. i E., which signifies N. E. and quarter of a 
 point toward E. 
 
 The compass card moves freely on a pivot in the 
 compass bowl, which in its turn is balanced on 
 gimbals, enabling it to preserve a horizontal posi- 
 tion despite the vessel's rolling and pitching. 
 
 The binnacle or case in which the compass bowl 
 is swung is provided with a lamp, so that the man 
 steering can read t^^e compass card by night. 
 
 Inside the bowl is a small mark, called the "lub- 
 bers line," which is exactly in a line with the head 
 of the ship. That portion of the card which touches 
 the lubber's line therefore indicates the direction in 
 which the vessel is pointing. 
 
 The jerky motion of a small craft will often cause 
 an ordinary compass card to oscillate and even to 
 completely revolve, so that the direction in which 
 one is steering cannot be ascertained. It is there- 
 fore necessary to use a heavy compass card whose 
 movement will be more sluggish. A spirit compass 
 in which the card is surrounded by fluid — is the 
 best adapted for small vessels. 
 
 But when a little craft is pitching quickly the 
 very best compass will oscillate to some extent. In 
 this case, one must observe the extreme points on 
 either side reached by the swinging card and take 
 the mean between them as the ship's direction. 
 
 The needle points to the magnetic north, which 
 coincides with the true north in certain portions of 
 the earth only. The difference between the mag- 
 netic and real north is called the variation of the 
 compass, it differs in different places, and is con- 
 stantly but very slowly changing. 
 
 The variation at the mouth of the Thames, for 
 instance, is now roughly 20^ W. ; that is, the needle 
 is dragged 20^ to the west of north, so that if a 
 vessel's head be pointing true north, her compass 
 will indicate a direction of about N.N.E. 
 
 The compasses designed on a chart generally 
 
100 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 show, as we have ah-eady explamed, the magnetic 
 and not the true bearings. Consequently, in order 
 to ascertain the course that should be steered from 
 one place to another, we lay one edge of the paral- 
 lel rules on the two places on the chart, and by 
 opening the rule we slide the other edge along— al- 
 ways preserving the direction — until it is on the 
 center of one of the compass designs on the chart. 
 The direction thus indicated represents the course 
 to be steered by compass. 
 
 But if the compasses on the chart are, as some- 
 times happens, true and not magnetic, the course 
 shown by the rule is not the one to be steered by 
 compass. We must, in this case, discover the 
 variation existing in the locality— generally given 
 on the chart— and convert the true course as indi- 
 cated by the. edge of the rule into a compass or 
 magnetic course. To do this, if the variation is so 
 many degrees west, the course to be steered will be 
 that number of degrees east of the true course if 
 the variation is so many degrees east, the course to 
 be steered will be that number of degrees west of 
 the true course. 
 
 Where there is local attraction, as in an iron 
 ship, the compass bearings will not be correct mag- 
 netic, but the needle will be dragged on one side or 
 the other of the magnetic meridian. This error is 
 called the deviation of the compass. 
 
 On board a wooden yacht, if certain precautions 
 are observed, there should be no perceptible devia- 
 tion of the compass. As iron ballast is generally 
 used on a yacht, the compass should be as high as 
 possible above it. If the boat have a well, the bin- 
 nacle can at least be on a level with the raised 
 hatch on the deck. 
 
 Care must be taken that no elongated iron mass, 
 especially if vertical, such as a bolt, be near the 
 compass. 
 
 Deviation is not uniform, like variation. When 
 the vessel's head is pointing about E. or W. the de- 
 viation is generally greatest, and it is different with 
 every direction the vessel is turned to. 
 
 The deviation, if any, is ascertained by what is 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 
 
 101 
 
 termed swinging the vessel. The correct magnetic 
 bearing of some distant object is first obtained. The 
 vessel is then slowly swung around — this can often 
 be done by carrying the mooring line along one 
 side of the deck aft, and then along the other side 
 to the bows again — and as the vessel's head comes 
 to each point of the compass, a compass bearing is 
 taken of the object, and the difference between that 
 bearing and the true magnetic one is noted. 
 
 A table can then be drawn out showing the devia- 
 tion to be applied for each point of the compass 
 toward which a vessel is steering. 
 
 When steering by compass, do not keep the eyes 
 constantly fixed on the compass card, as this is ex- 
 tremely wearying, especially by night. When you 
 have got the vessel on her course, get some object 
 ahead — a distant vessel, a cloud, a star, if no land 
 is in sight — in line with the mast, or one of the 
 shrouds, and steer for that; referring only occas- 
 ionally to the compass, so as to correct the direction 
 and get a new mark to steer for when necessary. 
 
 The Log Ship and Line ara employed to calcu- 
 late the speed at which a vessel is traveling 
 through the water. The log ship (Fig. 46) is a 
 
 ^ig. 46. 
 
 quadrant-shaped piece of wood, loaded with lead at 
 the bottom, so that it may preserve an upright posi- 
 tion in the water. It is attached to the log line by 
 means of a bridle. 
 
 The ordinary log line is 120 fathoms long. The log 
 glass generally used is a common sand-glass, run- 
 
102 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 ning out in 28 seconds. The line is divided into 
 equal distances by knots, each distance being the 
 same fraction of a nautical mile as 28 seconds is of 
 one hour; the distance therefore between two 
 knots is about 47 feet. 
 
 A bit of bunting is attached to the line about 12 
 fathoms from the log ship. These 12 fathoms are 
 called the stay line. 
 
 The process known as "heaving the log" is per- 
 formed as follows : One hand stands by, with the 
 glass in hand, full end downward ; another hand 
 heaves the log ship overboard, which floats away 
 astern ; the line is then steadily paid out from the 
 reel, in such a way that no strain is put on the log 
 ship. 
 
 At the moment when the piece of bunting mark- 
 ing the stray line goes overboard, the glass is 
 smartly turned. As soon as the sand has run out, 
 the man holding the glass calls out, "Stop I" and 
 the log line is suddenly checked. The number of 
 knots that have been reeled off represent the num- 
 ber of sea miles the v^essel is sailing an hour. 
 
 Several forms of self -registering logs are now in 
 general use. These are towed astern, and commu- 
 nicate the revolutions of a screw rotator to a regis- 
 ter — either overboard or on the taffrail of the vessel 
 — which indicates the distance run. 
 
 These patent logs do not act in an altogether 
 satisfactory way on small sailing craft. They gen- 
 erally under-log the distance run when the vessel 
 is sailing slowly, and are more adapted for use on 
 steamers. For ordinary cruising purposes, on a 
 small fore-and-after, we prefer the old-fashioned 
 log ship and line, and it is not very often that one 
 has occasion to use even that. 
 
 The Lead Line. — Two leads are employed on ves- 
 sels — the deep sea lead weighing 28 pounds ; and 
 the hand lead weighing 14 pounds. The latter, or 
 even a lead weighing somewhat less, is sufficient 
 for a small yacht. 
 
 The line used for a hand lead is 25 fathoms long, 
 and is generally marked as follow^: 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 103 
 
 At 2 fathoms, Leather, with two ends. 
 3 " Leather, with three ends. 
 
 5 " White calico. 
 
 7 " Eed bunting. 
 
 10 " Leather, with hole through it. 
 
 13 " Blue serge. 
 
 15 " White calico. 
 
 17 " Eed bunting. 
 
 20 " Strand, with two knots in it. 
 
 It is possible, by the different feel of the mate- 
 rials used, to tell what mark is in one's hand in the 
 dark. The above depths are called marks; the 
 intervening depths in fathoms which are unmarked 
 are called the deeps. Thus, in five fathoms, the 
 leadsman sings out : "By the mark five," in eleven 
 fathoms, "By the deep eleven." He also calls out 
 the halves and quarters of fathoms thus : " And a 
 half six," for six and a half fathoms, "A quarter 
 less six," for five fathoms and three-quarters. 
 
 To sound when the vessel is under way, swing 
 the lead around and throw it as far forward as pos- 
 sible, so that the lead be at the bottom and the line 
 tight from it to the hand, when the vessel is just 
 over the lead. 
 
 If the lead be hove properly, so that it draws the 
 line through the hands, it is easy to tell when it has 
 reached the bottom, by the sudden withdrawal of 
 the strain. 
 
 When sailing on very shallow waters soundings 
 can be taken much quicker with a pole or boathook 
 than with a lead. 
 
 There is a hollow at the heel of a lead which can 
 be filled — armed as it is termed — with tallow; a 
 specimen of the bottom — mud, sand, or shingle — is 
 brought up with the lead, and this, by reference to 
 the chart, which generally marks the nature of the 
 bottom, may enable us to find our position. 
 
104 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HOW TO FIND one's WAY AT SEA. 
 
 Cross bearings— Tacking across the sea — Leeway — How to allow for a 
 current — To find the honr of high water. 
 
 Having in the last chapter described the various 
 instruments which enable a mariner to direct his 
 course, we will now give some further explanations 
 of the method of employing the chart and compass. 
 Cross Bearings. — When a vessel is in sight of 
 land her position can be calculated with exactness 
 by several methods. 
 "First. By cross bearings of two known objects. 
 If two well-known landmarks are visible on 
 shore, we observe how each of them bears by our 
 compass. We then refer to the chart, lay down 
 these bearings with the parallel rule, and the point 
 where the lines cut will represent the vessel's posi- 
 tion. 
 
 For instance (see Fig. 47), the beacon a is found 
 to be N. W. of us, the beacon b N.E. of us. We lay 
 
 our parallel rule on 
 Aj[ I B ^ the magnetic com- 
 
 pass design on the 
 chart so that its edge 
 passes through N.W. 
 and also through the 
 center of the com- 
 pass. We then slide 
 the rule to the beacon 
 A on the chart — pre- 
 p,-. ^ serving the direction 
 
 ^^'^'''^ — and draw with a 
 
 pencil the line from A indicated by the edge of the 
 rule. 
 
 In the same way we carry the direction N.E. 
 from the compass design to the beacon b, and draw 
 the line from b indicated Dy the rule. The point c 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 105 
 
 where these lines cut represents the position of the 
 vessel, and the distance between c and the beacons 
 or the shore can be measured with the dividers by- 
 referring to the graduated meridian on the side of 
 the chart as a scale. 
 
 While a vessel is sailing along the shore her dis- 
 tance from it can be calculated as follows : We se- 
 lect any prominent point on the shore, as the tree 
 A in Fig. 48. We take its bearing, which we find to 
 
 Fig. 43* 
 
 beN.W. From A we draw the line a b in a N.W. 
 magnetic direction by the compass design. Our 
 vessel's course is N. by W. From any point b on 
 the line a b we draw a line b c in a N. by W. direc- 
 tion. When we have sailed a certain distance, say 
 five miles by the log, we take another bearing of 
 the tree and find it is now N.E. of us. From a we 
 draw a line corresponding to this last bearing, 
 which cuts the line c b at c. Taking c b a distance 
 of five miles as our scale, we can measure the dis- 
 tance between the vessel's position c and the tree a. 
 A chart is not needed for the above method of cal- 
 culating one's distance. A sheet of paper with a 
 compass design sketched on it is all that is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The following is a very easy method of calculat- 
 ing the distance of an object that one is passing, 
 and requires no chart or diagram. Take a bearing 
 of the object, and observe the angle this bearing 
 makes with the vessel's course J also note the time, 
 
106 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 As the vessels sails on this angle will increase 
 until at last it is doubled. The vessel's distance 
 
 from the object will 
 then equal the distance 
 she has traveled since 
 the first bearings were 
 taken. Fig. 49 will 
 make this method 
 clear, a is the object 
 g ^ - on shore, c and b the 
 
 position of the vessel 
 ^^^^ 49- when the bearings 
 
 were taken. a c d is the angle formed by the 
 course e d and the first bearings. When this angle 
 is doubled, as at a b d, the line b c will equal the 
 line A B. 
 
 If one is sailing parallel to a coast the following 
 is a rapid method of ascertaining one's distance 
 from the shore. Note the time when an object on 
 shore is exactly at right angles to the vessel's 
 course. When one has brought the object at an 
 angle of 45^ to the vessel's course — looking aft — 
 calculate the distance traveled since the time was 
 
 noted. The distance 
 
 from the shore will be 
 
 the same. Thus, in 
 
 Fig. 50, the vessel's 
 
 direction when she is 
 
 at B is at right angles 
 
 to the bearings of a, 
 
 the object on shore. 
 
 When the vessel has 
 
 arrived at c the angle 
 
 ^^^* S^* A c B has a value of 
 
 45^. It follows that c D, the distance from the 
 
 shore, equals c b, the distance traveled. 
 
 An azimuth compass is one specially adapted for 
 taking bearings. Its card is more carefully di- 
 vided than that of the steering compass, and it is 
 fitted with sight vanes. 
 
 However, bearings sufficiently accurate for prac- 
 tical purposes can be taken with the ordinary com- 
 pass. Hold a piece of string across the center of the 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 107 
 
 compass, and, looking along it, direct it toward 
 the object whose bearing is required, as if taking 
 an aim with a gmi. The direction of the string 
 will then indicate the bearing on the compass card 
 beneath. 
 
 In taking cross bearings endeavor to obtain a 
 difference between them of as near 90^ as possible; 
 for if the difference be small, as, for example, 10^, 
 or large, as 150^, a small error in the bearing will 
 cause a great error in the calculation of the ves- 
 sel 's position. 
 
 If, when directing one's course out of sight of 
 land, head winds are met with, and it becomes 
 necessary to tack, it is an advantage as a general 
 rule to sail on that tack on which the vessel looks 
 up best for her port, and not to go about until she 
 has brought herself to a position on which the 
 other tack is the most favorable, and so on. The 
 ship thus constant!}^ keeps her port in the wind's 
 eye, and any change in the direction of the wind 
 can be taken advantage of. But if a vessel stands 
 on till the tack be a losing one in order that she 
 may fetch her destination on the next tack, a 
 change in the wind may put her dead to leeward of 
 her port, and she will have lost ground by the ill- 
 judged tactics. 
 
 When tacking out of sight of land, the direction 
 and length of each successive board can be pricked 
 out on the chart by using the dividers and parallel 
 rule in the manner already described, and the posi- 
 tion of the vessel at any time will thus be known. 
 
 Before land is lost sight of, what is termed a de- 
 parture is taken from the last well-known object on 
 the shore. Its bearing is taken by compass, its dis- 
 tance by log is estimated, and the time is noted. A 
 departure can also be taken by cross bearings. 
 
 It is from the departure that the voyage is 
 reckoned out. 
 
 In determining the course and position cf a 
 vessel at sea, allowance must be made for leeway 
 and for the set of the tide. The leeway is greater 
 when the sea is rough and when the sails are 
 reefed. The amount of leeway can be roughly es- 
 
108 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 looking 
 
 a vessel's stern at her 
 in the same line as her 
 
 timated by looKing over 
 wake, whi^h will not be 
 keel, but at an angle to it. 
 
 Having measured this angle, apply it to the left 
 when the vessel is on the starboard tack, to the 
 right when she is on the port tack. 
 
 If the strength and direction of a current are 
 known, its effect upon the vessel's course and dis- 
 tance made must be allowed for. 
 
 If the set of the current is in the same direction 
 as the ship's direction — either with her or opposed 
 to her — her course is unaffected, but her rate of 
 motion over the ground is increased or lessened by 
 as many knots an hour as the current is flowing. 
 The rate of current must therefore be added to or 
 deducted from the distance logged. The log, of 
 course, only indicates the vessel's speed through 
 the water, and does not register the current. 
 
 If the current is across a vessel's direction it 
 will influence both her course and rate of sailing. 
 
 In order to find the course that should be steered 
 so as to make good a required course in a cross 
 current we proceed as follows. In either of the 
 two Figs. 51 and 52, let A be the position of the ves- 
 sel, B the port we desire to make, and let the arrow 
 
 represent the direction 
 of the current. With 
 the dividers take from 
 the scale at the side of 
 the chart the number of 
 miles the current runs 
 per hour, and lay down 
 this distance a c in the 
 direction of the arrow. 
 Then take from the 
 scale the number of 
 miles the vessel is going 
 per hour, and with this 
 distance as radius, and 
 c as the center^ describe 
 a circle. 
 The line joining c and 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 109 
 
 D — the point where the 
 circle and the line a b 
 cut — represents the di- 
 rection in which the 
 vessel must be steered 
 so as to keep on the 
 line A B. Draw a e 
 parallel and equal to c 
 D. Then if the vessel 
 be steered from a to- 
 ward E, and travel the 
 distance a e through 
 the water she will in 
 Fig, 52. reality have made the 
 
 distance a D in the di- 
 rection of her port. In the two figures the altera- 
 tion of the vessel's course is about the same, but as 
 the current is contrary in Fig. 51, a d, the distance 
 made, is much less than a e, the distance sailed, 
 whereas in Fig. 52 the current is favorable and 
 therefore the distance made is greater than the 
 distance sailed. 
 
 In current sailing every advantage must be 
 taken of the tide, and it is often possible to fetch a 
 port dead to windward on one tack by w^iat is 
 termed underbowing the tide. 
 
 For instance, if we are bound for a port due 
 north of us, and the wind is also due north, while 
 we have a current running to the eastward, we 
 can, by putting our vessel on the tack that directs 
 her to the westward of north — that is, in this case 
 the starboard tack, bring the tide on the lee bow 
 so that the result of our northwest course and the 
 easterly current is that our vessel travels due north. 
 Hence it is very necessary, while tacking across 
 the sea, to know when the tide will turn, so that we 
 can put the vessel about tu the best advantage. 
 
 If we are crossing a broad stretch of water, with 
 the wind free, and are likely to be in more than 
 one tide, we can steer a course straight for our port, 
 without paying much attention to the currents, as 
 the effects of the ebb and flood will cancel each 
 other, and we will be able to make a good land-fall. 
 
no 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 The rise, rate, and direction of the tide at springs 
 and neaps are generally given on the chart. If 
 the hour of high water for the particular day and 
 place are known, the speed of the current and the 
 height above low water can be roughly calculated 
 from the following data. Unless the conformation 
 of the coast produces a variation from the general 
 rule, the tide rises from low to high water in six 
 hours and a quarter, and falls from high to low 
 water in the same time. The rise and fall are not 
 uniform. During the first and last hours of flood 
 the rise is smallest. During the second hour it 
 greatly increases. At the fourth hour the tide has 
 reached its maximum rate, and from then the rate 
 of rising diminishes in the same proportion until 
 high water. The same rule applies to the ebb tide. 
 
 Fi^\ 53 represents the range of the tide' in the 
 open sea, which we. have divided into sixteen equal 
 parts. It has been found that the tide will rise 
 one division in the first hour, 
 three in the second hour, four 
 in the third hour, four in the 
 fourth hour, three in the 
 fifth hour, and one in the last 
 sixth hour and a quarter. 
 
 We have already explained 
 that the time of high water 
 at any particular spot at the 
 full and change of the moon 
 is indicated on the chart — 
 thus, for instance, H.W. at 
 F. and C. 6 h. 10 m., which 
 signifies high water at full 
 and change of the moon at 
 six hours ten minutes. If we 
 have no tide tables at hand 
 we can roughly calculate the 
 time of high water for the 
 day by adding forty-eight 
 minutes for every day that 
 has passed since the last full 
 or new moon to the time at 
 full and change given on the 
 
 High Water 6i Hours, 
 5th Hour. 
 
 4 th Hour. 
 
 3d Hour. 
 
 2d Hour. 
 
 - 1st Hour of Flood. 
 -Low Water. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 chart. But a more 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. Ill 
 
 accurate method is to refer to the Admiralty tide 
 tables, or, what will answer the purpose equally 
 well, to some nautical almanac. Here he will find 
 daily tide tables, morning and afternoon, for the 
 principal ports, together with the height of the rise 
 in feet. 
 
 Besides these, there is an extensive list of ports 
 and positions on the coast of America with their 
 tidal constants. The constant for a given place is 
 the number of hours and minutes that are to be 
 added to or subtracted from the time of high water 
 at the standard port or port of reference in order to 
 obtain the time of high water at the given place. 
 
 For instance, supposing New York to be the 
 standard port, and we require to know the hour of 
 high water at Portland on a gis^en day. We first 
 refer to the table of constants, and find plus 5 h. 3 
 m. to be the constant of Portland. We then turn 
 to the New York tide table, and find the time of 
 high water for the day— morning or afternoon, as 
 the case may be. We add five hours and three 
 rninutes to this, and the result will be the required 
 time. Had the sign before the constant been minus 
 istead of plus we should have subtracted and not 
 added. 
 
 If we require the high water at a port where the 
 tidal constant is not given in the tables, but where 
 high water at full and change is given on the 
 chart, find the high water at full and change of 
 some port— New York, for example, whose con- 
 stant is in the tables. Substract the lesser of these 
 twice from the greater, the remainder will be 
 the constant of our port— additive if the full and 
 change at the port be greater than that of New 
 York, subtractive if it be less. 
 
112 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 WEATHER WISDOM. 
 
 Use of the instruments— Forecasting weather from natural phe- 
 nomena, etc. 
 
 Weather wisdom is more necessary to the man 
 who travels along the coast in a small vessel than 
 to any one else. A large vessel is constructed to 
 encounter any weather with safety, and she must 
 take fair and foul as she finds it ; but the safety of 
 a small craft often depends entirely on an accurate 
 forecast of the wind. When the skipper of the lit- 
 tle yacht undertakes a voyage, say from New 
 York to Atlanta, he has to pick his weather. He 
 waits in port till he ^'ets a slant — that is, until he 
 has satisfied himself that in all human probability 
 no wind of dangerous strength will blow in the 
 course of the next few days — then he weighs his 
 anchor, hoists his sails, and speeds across the 
 broad sea as fast as he is able, knowing that should 
 a gale of wind spring up before he has made the 
 opposite coast, he will be in considerable peril and 
 not improbably be lost. 
 
 But the mariner who has made himself ac- 
 quainted with the science of meteorology can make 
 a coasting voyage, even in a tiny craft, from one 
 end of America to the other, sailing from port to 
 port in favorable weather, and dodging the storms 
 that would infallibly destroy him, by foreseeing 
 them and remaining in snug harbors until they 
 have passed by. 
 
 In following the rules which we shall now lay 
 down, the amateur will sometimes find that his 
 forecast of storm will prove a false alarm and will 
 keep him in port idle while he might have been at 
 sea; but on the other hand — and w^hat is far more 
 important — a forecast of fair weather is very rarely 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 113 
 
 wrong; a really dangerous wind is scarcely ever 
 known to spring up without having given a due 
 warning of its approach. 
 
 The weather can be foretold with considerable 
 accuracy by observing the appearance of many 
 natural phenomena, the clouds, the water, the sun 
 and moon, and also by the movements of fish and 
 fowl; but the changes of the barometer are far 
 more to be depended on than the above as indica- 
 tions of coming weather. 
 
 Every small yacht should be provided with an 
 aneroid barometer, which is more sensitive and in- 
 dicates change more quickly than the mercurial 
 barometer, also with a thermometer, and, if the 
 yachtsman wishes to have a complete meteorologi- 
 cal outfit, with a hygrometer or wet bulb thermome- 
 ter. These three instruments will enable him to 
 measure the weight, the temperature, and the de- 
 gree of moistness of the atmosphere. The last of 
 the instruments mentioned is not often found on a 
 small yacht, and indeed the aneroid and thermome- 
 ter suffice for ordinary purposes of weather-fore- 
 cast. 
 
 It must be remembered, while foretelling the 
 weather, that the barometer is affected : 
 
 Firstly, by the direction of the wind. The great- 
 est rise being with the northeast wind, the lowest 
 fall with the southwest wind. 
 
 Secondly, by moisture, an increase of which will 
 cause a fall. 
 
 Thirdy, by the force of the wind. If a wind 
 freshens the moisture and direction of the wind re- 
 maining the same, the 2:lass will fall. 
 
 These three causes do not often act in accord ; 
 one is generally affecting the glass in a way oppo- 
 site to the other two. It is for this reason that an 
 observation of the barometer alone will often mis- 
 lead us. It must be read in conjunction with the 
 thermometer and also with the hygrometer, in order 
 to determine the true cause of the rise or fall of the 
 mercury. 
 
 The barometer rises for northerly wind (including 
 from N.W. by the N. to E.,) for dry or less wet 
 
114 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 weather, for less wind, or for more than one of 
 these changes; except on a few occasions, when 
 rain (or snow) comes from the N. with strong wind. 
 
 The barometer falls for south wind (including 
 from S.E. by the S. to W.), for wet weather, for 
 stronger wind, or for more than one of these 
 changes ; except on a few occasions, when moder- 
 ate wind with rain (or snow) comes from the north- 
 ward. 
 
 The following rules are selected from the official 
 computation, which is very comprehensive and 
 should be studied by every yachtsman. Admiral 
 Fitzroy's book should be on every yacht's library 
 shelf. 
 
 If the barometer has been at its ordinary height 
 — about thirty inches at sea-level — and is steady 
 or rising, while the thermometer falls, and damp- 
 ness lessens, N.W., N., or .E., or less, wind may be 
 expected. 
 
 If the barometer is falling, the thermometer ris- 
 ing, and the dampness increasing, wind and rain, 
 or snow may be expected from S.E., S., or S.W. 
 
 The most dangerous shifts of wind and the heav- 
 iest gales from N. happen after the mercury first 
 rises from a very low point. 
 
 A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled 
 weather; a slow rise, or steadiness with dryness 
 shows fair weather. 
 
 The greatest depressions of the barometer, are 
 with gales from S.E., S. or S. W. ; the greatest ele- 
 vations with winds from N.W., N., or N.E. 
 
 Sudden falls of the barometer with west wind 
 are sometimes followed by violent storms from 
 N. W. and N. 
 
 If a gale sets in from the E. orS.E.,and the 
 wind veers by the S., the barometer will continue 
 falling until the wind becomes S. W., when a com- 
 parative lull may occur, after which the gale will 
 be renewed, and the shifting of the wind toward 
 the N.W. will be indicated by a fall of the ther- 
 mometer as well as a rise of barometer. 
 
 If a change of weather is long foretold by the 
 barometer, the longer the presaged weather will 
 
YACHTING A:ND SAILING. 115 
 
 last, and vice versa. The sailor expresses this in 
 the rhyme : 
 
 ** Long foretold, long last ; 
 Short warning — soon past.** 
 
 Many more rules have been laid down by the 
 meterological observers, for which we have no 
 space here ; but we will now give a few brief rules 
 on the forecast of weather by the observation of 
 natural phenomena, which are useful by them- 
 selves, but still more so when confirming the fore- 
 cast we have made from the instruments. 
 
 A halo around the moon, especially if it appear 
 distant and yet very distinct, indicates a gale of 
 wind, and probably rain. 
 
 When high lands are shrouded in mists, south- 
 west gales and rain may be expected. 
 
 If distant objects are very clear and raised by 
 reflection, rain (possibly wind also) is near. 
 
 "Wind dogs," which are like broken portions of 
 a rainbow seen to windward in the morning, are 
 very certain signs of a gale. 
 
 "Mare's tails," which are ragged streaks of 
 cloud, having little motion, foretell gales from the 
 direction they radiate from. 
 
 In fine weather the wind generally follows the 
 sun — that is, it blows from the east in the morning 
 and from the west in the evening. 
 If the wind blows from west in the morning, and 
 " backs" against the sun, till it is east in the even- 
 ing, bad w^eather will follow. 
 
 A red sunset presages fine weather. 
 
 A red sunrise presages bad weather. 
 
 A bright yellow sky at sunset is a sign of wind ; 
 a pale yellow, of wet. 
 
 A gloomy dark blue sky is a sign of wind, while 
 a light blue sky indicates fine weather. 
 
 The sun's setting or rising behind a bank of 
 clouds indicates rough weather. 
 
 A phosphorescent sea is a very certain sign of a 
 continuance of fine weather. 
 
 The presence of vast quantities of jelly-fish pres- 
 ages fine weather. 
 
116 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 Sea-birds fly far out to sea in fine weather; but if 
 they fly inland bad weather may be expected. 
 
 When porpoises come into shallow water and as- 
 cend the rivers, stormy weather is near. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 YACHT RACING. 
 
 The new Y. R. A. rule of measurement — Sail area — Time allowance — 
 Eules of racing — Methods of starting. 
 
 Other things being equal, the speed of a vessel in- 
 creases with her size ; so it has always been the 
 custom to handicap yachts competing in a race by 
 giving time allowance to smaller craft. 
 
 In order to carry out this handicapping it is of 
 course necessary to have some general rule of 
 measurement by which the size — so far as racing is 
 concerned — of any yacht can be determined with 
 exactitude. It has taxed the brains of yachting 
 men from the earliest days of the sport to discover 
 some standard of measurement which will be fair 
 to all, and which will tend to encourage the build- 
 ing of a class of seaworthy pleasure vessels, and 
 not of mere racing machines. 
 
 Until within the last two years the Yacht Rac- 
 ing Asociation rule for measuring a yacht's ton- 
 nage was as follows: "Add the yacht's greatest 
 breadth to her length along the load-line ; multiply 
 the sum thus obtained by itself, and by the breadth ; 
 then divide the product by 1730; and the quotient 
 shall be the tonnage in tons and hundreths of a 
 ton." 
 
 Thus the length and beam w^ere the only factors 
 to be taken into consideration while calculating a 
 yacht's tonnaere. The displacement, draught, and 
 sail area counted for nothing. The natural result 
 followed. As beam was discouraged, it became ap- 
 parent that the fastest boat for her tonnage, ac- 
 cording to this artificial rule, was a long narrow 
 craft with great draught, large sail area, and a 
 lead mine on her keel ; consequently uncomfortable 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 117 
 
 in a sea way, and affording, for her size, very 
 cramped accommodation to her passengers; in 
 short, a cup-winning machine unfit for anytliing 
 but racing. 
 
 But now, at last, all this has been changed. The 
 old Y. R. A. rule has been done away with, and a 
 system of measurement on entirely new principles 
 has been introduced which does not tax a vessel's 
 beam, and the sole factors in the calculation for 
 which are length and sail area. 
 
 This revolution in yacht rating has taken place so 
 recently that its results, as regards the type of ves- 
 sels that will be constructed with a view to meeting 
 the new conditions, have not yet had time to de- 
 clare themselves; but it is claimed by many san- 
 guine people that under these rules the old-fash- 
 ioned wholesome beamy vessel will have its day 
 again, that the "plank set up on edge" style of 
 craft is doomed, and that the fastest yacht will 
 also be the best boat. 
 
 The following are the new Y. R. A. rules of 
 measurement . We will quote the more essential 
 rules, and those parts only of these which apply to 
 small yachts such as we are writing about. 
 
 Rule 3. — The rating of evevj yacht entered to 
 sail in a race shall be ascertained by multiplying 
 the sail area in square feet (as found in the man- 
 ner hereinafter enjoined) by the length in feet on 
 the load water-line, and dividing the product by 
 6,000; the quotient shall be the rating, and in rat- 
 ing above 10, a fraction of or exceeding '01 shall 
 count as 1 ; but in rating from 1 to 10, a fraction 
 smaller than '01 shall count as '1 (see Rule 4). The 
 length shall be taken in a straight line from the 
 fore-end to the after-end of the load water-line, 
 provided always that if any part of the stem or 
 stern-post or other part of the vessel below the 
 load water-line project beyond the length taken 
 as mentioned, such projections shall, for the pur- 
 pose of the rule, be added to the length taken as 
 stated ; and pieces of any form cut out of the stem, 
 stern post, or fair-line of the ridge of the counter, 
 with the intention of shortening ' the load water- 
 
118 
 
 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 line, shall not be allowed for in measurement of 
 length, if at or immediately below the load-line, 
 nor above if within six inches of the water-level. 
 
 Mainsail. — a, measured from the top of the 
 boom (over the pin for outhaul sheave) to the gaff 
 under the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, provided 
 the peak cringle of the mainsail does not extend 
 beyond the pin ; in the case of the yacht having no 
 topsail, or of the peak cringle extending beyond 
 the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, then the meas- 
 urement to be taken to the peak lacing-hole. 
 
 B, perpendicular to a, measured to underside of 
 gaff close into the mast. 
 
 c, measured from top of boom over the pin of the 
 sheave for outhaul to underside of gaff close into 
 the mast. 
 
 D, perpendicular to c, measured in to the mast, in 
 a line with the top of the boom, or to tack cringle 
 of mainsail, if below top of boom. 
 
 To find the area of the mainsail, multiply a by b 
 and c by d, and add the two products together and 
 divide by two. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 119 
 
 Jib-headed Topsail.— k, measured from top of 
 gaff close in to mast to pin of halyard sheave in 
 topmast. 
 
 L, perpendicular to k, measured to pin of topsail 
 sheet sheave in gaff; or to lacing-hole in jackyard. 
 
 To find the area of the Jib-header, multiply k by 
 L and divide the product by two. 
 
 Head Sails.— i, measured from the main boom 
 goose neck to the shoulder of topmast, or in cases 
 Tvhere no sails are attached to the topmast stay or 
 pole stay, the measurement to be taken from the 
 main boom gooseneck to the pin of the highest 
 sheave in or on the topmast or pole, or to the pin of 
 the sheave of any block secured to the topmast or 
 pole, and used in either case for head sail or spin- 
 naker. 
 
 J, measured from the f oreside of the mast to top 
 of cranse iron on bowsprit end where cut by line 
 of topmast stay or pole stay ; or, in cases where no 
 sail or sails are attached to the stay, the measure- 
 ment to be taken from the foreside of the mast to 
 the pin of the sheave for jib outhaul. 
 
 In all cases, if the distance from the center fore 
 and aft line of the mast to the outer end of spin- 
 naker boom (when shipped in its place and square 
 to the keel) exceeds the distance from the fore side 
 of the mast to the cranse iron on the bowsprit end 
 (where cut by the line of topmast stay), or pm of 
 sheave for jib outhaul as the case may be, the ex- 
 cess shall be added to the base of the triangle 
 formed by the head sails ; and the area of the head 
 sail to be computed accordingly. 
 
 In the case of a yacht having no head sail, but 
 carrying a spinnaker, the area for head sail shall 
 be computed from the length of spinnaker boom 
 and the height from main boom gooseneck to shoul- 
 der of topmast, or highest pin in sheave of pole- 
 mast, as provided for in this rule. 
 
 The length of head-stick or heal-yard to spin- 
 naker shall not exceed one-twentieth the length of 
 spinnaker boom. Foot yards not allowed on spin- 
 naker. 
 
120 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 To find the area of head sails, jib, topsails, or 
 spinnaker, multiply i by J and divide -by two. 
 
 To find the area of head sail, for pole mast, mul- 
 tiply I by J and divide by two. 
 
 Lug Sails with Head Sails.— In the case of a 
 lug sail, sianding lug sail, or balance lug sail being 
 carried, the actual area of the same, shall be com- 
 puted; and if head sail be also carried, the meas- 
 urements for computing the area of the same shall 
 be taken from foreside of mast, etc., in accrdance 
 with the method provided in the rule for head sails. 
 
 Yaw^l Sails. —The area of a schooner's sail or a 
 yawl's sail would be similarly found; in the case of 
 a yawl having a lug mizzen, the lacing-holes in 
 the yard would be taken as the upper boundaries. 
 
 Time Allowance (Rule 4).— Time shall be al- 
 lowed on arrival for differences in rating, accord- 
 ing to the annexed scales, increased or decreased 
 in proportion to the length of different courses. In 
 all time, where time has to be allowed for difference 
 of rating in yachts of 10 rating and under, it shall 
 be computed by the rating and fractions of the rat- 
 ing in accordance with the time scales. 
 
 It will suffice to say here, that if a vessel's rating 
 is X, t, the allow^ance she makes per knot to a yacht 
 whose range is 1, will be thus found : 
 
 f==360— ^^^ 
 
 5 \^ X. 
 
 The result is the allowance in seconds. As the al- 
 lowance is calculated for one knot, the allowance 
 for another distance will be found by multiplying 
 by the length of the course in knots. To calculate 
 the alloAvance that should be made by one yacht to 
 another, find the t, as above, for both j^achts. Sub- 
 stract the lesser from the greater t. The result 
 will be the time in seconds to be allowed per knot 
 by the yacht rating highest. 
 
 Allowance to Schooners and Yawls.— Tlie 
 Yacht Racing Association recommend for the con- 
 sideration of sailing committees: (1) That as mixed 
 races are no satisfactiory test of the relative speed 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 121 
 
 of yachts, the different rigs should, whenever 
 practicable, be kept separate; but when mixed 
 races are unavoidable, the following rule shall be 
 observed : 
 
 The rating of schooners and yawls to be reckoned 
 for time allowance as follows, viz. schooners at 
 three-fifths, and yawls at four-fifths of their actual 
 rating; provided that in case of a yawl, her main- 
 sail does not exceed '37 of her total sail area, and 
 that her mizzen is not les^s than '06 of her total sail 
 area. In the case of a pole-masted yawl, her main- 
 sail shall not exceed .46 of her total sail area, and 
 her mizzen shall not be less than 75 of her total sail 
 area. In schooners, the foreside of the mainmast 
 shall, at the deck, be not further forward than the 
 middle of length of the load water-line. 
 
 Ketches and luggers shall be reckoned for time 
 allowance at three-fifths their rating; provided 
 that in a ketch the distance between the masts does 
 not exceed half the length of the load water-line 
 of the yacht, and that the smaller sail is carried 
 aft. In the case of a lugger, to be entitled to the 
 rig allowance, the yacht must have two or more 
 masts, and the after, or the middle mast, at the 
 deck must not be forward of the middle of length 
 of the load water-line, and in the case of a two- 
 masted lugger, if the area of the after lug be less 
 than half the area of the main lug, she will be rated 
 as a yawl. 
 
 In calculating the deduction for difference of rig, 
 the rating by certificate to the exact fraction must 
 be used. The time allowances to be calculated 
 from each yacht's reduced rating; but schooners 
 and yawls shall not be allowed to qualify to enter 
 by their reduced rating in a class race. 
 
 In racing for mixed rigs, the time allowances be- 
 tween yachts of the same rig must be calculated 
 on each yacht's reduced rating. 
 
 Yachts fitted with center-boards have up till now 
 been prohibited by the Y. R. A. rule from compet- 
 ing in races sailed under those rules. But this has 
 now been changed, and in place of the old Rule 8, 
 we have the following regulation : Rule 8.— "In the 
 
122 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 case of a yacht fitted with a center-board or plate, 
 or other form of shiftmg keel, manual power only 
 shall be employed in working it." 
 
 In Rule 17, the rules of the road for yacht racing 
 are given. As these are the same as the Board of 
 Trades rules for avoiding collision, w^hich w^e have 
 already quoted, we need not recapitulate them 
 here. But the following additional rules of the road 
 have been framed especially for yachts competing 
 in a race. 
 
 Rule 18.— When rounding any buoy or vessel 
 used to mark out the course, if two yachts are not 
 clear of each other at the time the leading yacht is 
 close to, and actually rounding the mark, the out- 
 side yacht must give the other room to pass clear 
 of it, whether it be the lee or weather yacht which 
 is in danger of fouling the mark. No yacht shall 
 be considered clear of another yacht, unless so 
 much ahead as to give a free choice to the other on 
 which side she will pass. An overtaking yacht 
 shall not, however, be justified in attempting to 
 establish an overlap, and thus force a passage be- 
 tween the leading yacht and the mark, after the 
 latter yacht has altered her helm for the purpose 
 of rounding. 
 
 Rule 19. — When passing a pier, shoal, rock, ves- 
 sel, or other obstruction to sea room, should yachts 
 not be clear of each other, the outside yacht or 
 yachts must give room to the yacht in danger of 
 fouling such obstruction, whether she be the 
 weather yacht or the leeward yacht; provided 
 alwaj^s that an overlap has been established before 
 an obstruction is actually reached. 
 
 Rule 20, — A yacht overtaking any other shall 
 keep out of the way of the overtaken yacht; and 
 a yacht may luff as she pleases to prevent another 
 yacht passing to windward, but must never bear 
 away out of her course to hinder the other passing 
 to leeward — the lee side to be considered that on 
 which the leading yacht of the two carries her 
 main boom. The overtaking vessel, if to leeward, 
 must not luff until she has drawn clear ahead of 
 the yacht she has overtaken. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 123 
 
 Rule 21. — If two yachts are standing towards a 
 shore or shoal, or toward any buoy, or boat, or 
 vessel, and the yacht to leeward is likely to run 
 aground or foul of such buoy, boat, or, vessel (a 
 mark vessel excepted), and is not able to tack with- 
 out coming into collision with the yacht to wind- 
 ward, the latter shall at once tack, on being hailed 
 to do so by the owner of the leeward yacht, or the 
 person acting as his representative, who shall be 
 bound to see that his own vessel tacks at the same 
 time. 
 
 Rule 22. — Any yacht running on shore, or foul 
 of a buoy, vessel, or other obstruction, may use her 
 own anchors, boats, warps, etc., to get off, but may 
 not receive any assistance except from the crew 
 of the vessel fouled. Any anchor, boat, or warp 
 used, must be taken-on board again before she con- 
 tinues the race. 
 
 Rule 23. — Each yacht must go fairly round the 
 course ; and must not touch any buoy, boat, or ves- 
 sel, used to mark it out, but shall not be disqualified 
 if wrongfully compelled to do so by another yacht. 
 Any yacht causing a mark vessel to in any way 
 shift her position to avoid being fouled by such 
 yacht, shall be disqualified, If a yacht, in conse- 
 quence of her neglect of any of these rules, shall 
 foul another yacht, or compel other yachts to foul, 
 she shall forfeit all claim to the prize, and shall pay 
 all damages. 
 
 Rule 24.— No towing, sweeping, poling, or push- 
 ing, or any mode of propulsion, except sails, shall 
 be allowed, except for the purpose set forth in 
 Rule 22. 
 
 Rule 25. — A yacht may anchor during a race, 
 but must weigh her anchor again and not slip. 
 No yacht shall, during a race, make fast to any 
 buoy, pier, or other object, or send an anchor out 
 in a boat, except for the purpose of Rule 22. 
 
 Rule 26. — No other means of sounding than the 
 lead and line allowed. 
 
 The following rules refer to various matters : 
 
 Rule 6. — Each yacht entered for a race, must be 
 the 6o?ia yzde property of the person or persons in 
 
124 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 whose name or names she is entered, who must be 
 a member or members of a recognized yacht club. 
 
 A yacht, whilst let on hire, shall not be allowed 
 to compete under these rules. 
 
 EuLE 7. — No owner shall be allowed to enter 
 more than one yacht in a race, except in cases in 
 which a prize is given for each rig, when one yacht 
 of each rig may be entered ; nor shall he be entitled 
 to enter the same yacht under different rigs for any 
 race. 
 
 EuLE 9, — Every yacht sailing in a race shall have 
 on board a member of a recognized yacht club, 
 who, before the prize is awarded, shall sign a 
 declaration that the yacht under his charge has 
 strictly conformed to all the sailing regulations. 
 
 EuLE 12, — There shall be no restrictions as to 
 sails, or the manner of setting and working them; 
 but manual power only may be used for hoisting 
 and working them. 
 
 EuLE 13. — There shall be no limit as to the num- 
 ber of paid hands, and no restriction as to the num- 
 ber of friends, or to their working. No paid hand 
 shall join or leave a yacht after the signal to start, 
 except in case of accident or injury to any person 
 on board. [This rule is not intended to apply to 
 Corinthian matches.] 
 
 EuLE 14. — All yachts exceeding a rating of 10 
 shall be fitted below deck with the ordinary fittings 
 of a j^acht, including two transverse bulkheads of 
 wood. The following shall apply to all yachts: 
 their platforms shall be kept down, and bulkheads 
 standing. 
 
 No water shall be started from or taken into the 
 tanks after the signal to start has been made. No 
 more than the usual anchors and chains shall be 
 carried during a race, which must not be used as 
 shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the 
 yacht. No bags of shot shall be on board, and all 
 ballast shall be properly stowed under the platform 
 or in the lockers, and shall not be shifted or trim- 
 med in any way during a race. No ballast or other 
 dead weight shall be shifted, shipped, or unshipped, 
 so as to alter the length of the load water-line, 
 
YACHTING AKD SAILING. 125 
 
 after a yacht has been entered for a race, nor with- 
 out giving notice thereof to the secretary, as en- 
 joined in Rule 3. 
 
 The Y. R. A. rules for ascertaining the area of 
 sails for rating purposes seriously handicap small 
 yachts ringed in what may be termed river fashion. 
 For instance, the area of the head sails of a lug-sail 
 boat is computed in accordance with the method 
 provided in the rule for a cutter's headsails ; that 
 is, the after limit of the area is taken along the 
 mast; whereas a lug-sail, projecting before the 
 mast, prevents the boat from carrying head sails 
 that will reach so far aft as the mast. 
 
 Again, in the case of a cat or balance lug-boat 
 carrying a spinnaker, but no head sail's, the whole 
 area of the spinnaker, is reckoned in the rating ; 
 whereas in the case of a boat carrying head-sails as 
 well as spinnaker, the area of the spinnaker is not 
 taken into account at all unless it be larger than 
 that of the head-sail, in which case the difference 
 between them is added to the sail area. The result 
 is that the first boat only carries the sail area for 
 which she is rated when running before the wind. 
 
 There are various methods of arranging the start 
 in a yacht race. One plan is to have the competing 
 yachts anchored or moored in a line with all sails 
 down, or after sails up and head-sails down, or all 
 sails up, as the sailing committee may direct. 
 Lots are drawn for the different stations. Five 
 minutes before the start a Blue Peter is hoisted and 
 a gun is fired. At the expiration of the five minutes 
 the Blue Peter is hauled down, and a second gun is 
 fired as a signal to start. The yachts then slip from 
 their moorings. If a yacht lets go her moorings or 
 drag her anchor before the second gun is fired, she 
 is liable to be disqualified, unless the parting or 
 dragging be explained to the satisfaction of the 
 committee, or unless she has returned, after the 
 signal to start, within the line of starting buoys, so 
 as not to obtain any advantage from the accident. 
 
 Another method of starting is what is known as 
 a flying start. The yachts are all under way, and 
 have to keep inside an imaginary line between two 
 
126 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 marks until the starting gun is fired. Then they 
 cross the line. If the yacht crosses the line before 
 the signal, she must return and recross it. 
 
 Should the owner of any yacht or his representa- 
 tive consider that he has a fair ground of complaint 
 against another for foul sailing, or any violation of 
 the rules, he must, if it arises during the race, sig- 
 nify the same on first passing the committee vessel, 
 by showing an ensign conspicuously in the main 
 rigging. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF NAUTICAL TERMS. 
 
 Those nautical terms whose meanings have 
 already been defined at some length in this work, 
 will not be repeated in this glossary. 
 
 Aback. — Said of a sail when its sheet is to wind- 
 ward and it drives the vessel astern. 
 
 About. — On the other tack. 
 
 A-LEE. — The position of the helm when it is put 
 in an opposite direction to the wind. 
 
 A-PEEK. — When the chain is hove taut and the 
 the vessel is over her anchor. 
 
 A-TRiP. — Said of an anchor when it is hauled 
 clear of the ground — same as weighed. 
 
 Balance Reef. — A diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft 
 sail extending from throat to clews. 
 
 Battens. — Pieces of wood fastened to the reef- 
 bands of lug-sails to make them stand fiat. 
 
 Beamy. — Broad; said of a vessel when her 
 breadth is great in proportion to her length. 
 
 Bear Away.— To steer so that a vessel sails off 
 her course to leeward. 
 
 Belay.— To make fast the end of a rope tempo- 
 rarily by turning it round a cleat. 
 
 Bight. — The loop formed by a rope when a knot 
 or hitch is being made. 
 
 Bolt Rope. — The rope surrounding a sail, and to 
 which the canvas is sewed. 
 
 Brail up. — To furl a sail along the mast by haul- 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 127 
 
 ing on a rope which is led from the mast round the 
 sail. 
 
 Braeming — Cleaning a vessel's bottom by burn- 
 ing the paint or tar off. 
 
 Bridle. — A rope with its two ends fastened to 
 the two ends of a spar — as to a trawl beam, or to a 
 deep-sea anchor — and held by a rope attached to 
 the middle of the bight. 
 
 Broach to. — To fall off so much, when going 
 free, as to bring the vessel nearly broadside on to 
 the wind. 
 
 Bulkhead. — Partitions dividing a vessel into sec- 
 tions. 
 
 Bumpkin. — A spar projecting from a vessel to 
 which a sheet or rope is led ; for instance, the miz- 
 zen sheet is led through a block or sheave-hole at 
 the end of the mizzen bumpkin. 
 
 Channels. — Stout pieces of timber bolted on the 
 outside of a vessel, to which the deadeyes of the 
 rigging are fastened. 
 
 Chock a Block.— When the upper and lower 
 blocks of a tackle touch each other and one can 
 hoist no higher. 
 
 Clew. — The lower after corner of a fore-and-aft 
 sail. 
 
 Clip-hook. — A metal eye, with two hooks at- 
 tached to it, working on the same pivot, so that 
 they overlap when closed. 
 
 Close-hauled.— Said of a vessel when she is sail- 
 ing as close to the wind as possible. 
 
 Coamings. — A raised ledge round the well of a 
 boat to prevent the water running in. 
 
 Cranse-iron. — An iron hoop at the bowsprit end, 
 with eyes fitted to it, to which the bobstay and top- 
 sail stays are fastened. 
 
 Cringle. — A rope eye spliced into the bolt rope 
 of a sail inclosing an iron thimble, through which 
 a reef earing is rove. 
 
 Crown of an Anchor.— Where the arms and 
 shank join. 
 
 Crutch.— A wooden support for the main boom 
 when the mainsail is furled. 
 
 Dead-eye. — A wooden block with three sheaveless 
 
128 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 holes through which the lanyards of the main- 
 shrouds are rove. 
 
 DixSTGHY. — The smallest of a yacht's boats. 
 
 Eaeing. — A rope which passes through the cringle 
 of a sail and serves to reef it. 
 
 Eyes of the Rigging. — The loop of the shrouds 
 and stays which are passed over the mast-head and 
 rest on the hounds. 
 
 Faik-leader.— A block or comb cleat for running 
 rigging, e. gr., jib sheets to lead through. 
 
 Flukes. — The barbs at the extremities of an an- 
 chor's arms. 
 
 Forefoot. — A piece of timber at the fore end of 
 the keel, to which the heel of the stem fits. 
 
 FoREREACH. — To slioot ahead in stavs. 
 
 Garboard Streak. — The range of planks on each 
 side of the keel. 
 
 Get in Irons. — A vessel is in irons when she is in 
 the wind's eye, and, having lost all headway, will 
 not go off on either tack. 
 
 Gimbals. — A contrivance consisting of two or 
 more metal hoops balanced on pivots, so that a 
 compass or lamp swung within the gimbals will 
 not oscillate, but preserve a vertical position. 
 
 Grapnel. — A small anchor having more than 
 two arms. 
 
 Ground Tackle. — The tackle — anchor, cables, 
 and springs — used in anchoring a vessel. 
 
 Guy. — A rope attached to anything to steady it 
 and prevent its moving. Thus a spinnaker boom 
 has its fore and after guys, and a mainboom is to 
 prevent its swinging aft. 
 
 Hawse-hole. — The hole in the bows through 
 which the chain runs. 
 
 Hawser. — A large rope used for warpiug, etc. 
 
 Helm down. — When the helm is put over in the 
 direction toward which the wind is blowing. 
 
 Helm up. — When the helm is put over in the 
 direction the wind is blowing from. 
 
 Hounds. — The wooden shoulders at the masthead 
 on which the eyes of the shrouds rest. 
 
 House. — To house a topmast is to lower it. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 129 
 
 Jibe.— When running, to bring the wind on the 
 other quarter, so that the boom swings over. 
 
 Kedge* — A small anchor. To kedge, is to warp 
 a vessel along with hawser and kedge. 
 
 Lanyards. — Ropes rove through the dead-eyes to 
 set up the standing rigging. 
 
 Lee-helm. — A vessel is said to carry lee-helm 
 when she has a tendency to pay off before the wind, 
 and the tiller has to be kept down in order to coun- 
 teract this. 
 
 Limbers.— Holes cut in the floor timbers to allow 
 the water in the bilge to flow freely. 
 
 List. — Said of a vessel when she leans sideways, 
 for instance to leeward before the pressure of the 
 wind. 
 
 Marline. — Small cord or spun-yarn. 
 
 Mouse. — To put turns of rope yarn round a hook 
 so as to prevent it slipping out from what it is 
 hooked to. For instance, the sister hooks of the 
 jib sheets are moused to prevent them escaping 
 from the clews of the jib. 
 
 Neaped. — When a vessel has got aground at the 
 top of the spring tides and must await the next 
 springs before she can get off. 
 
 Preventer.— An additional rope placed to assist 
 another one in supporting a strain, e. gr., a pre- 
 venter backstay. 
 
 Purchase. — An arrangement of ropes and pul- 
 leys by which a mechanical power is gained. 
 
 Quarter. — The after part of a vessel's side. 
 
 Range. — To range chain, is to get a certain quan- 
 tity before the wijidlass so that, when the anchor 
 is let go, it will run out to the bottom without a 
 check. 
 
 Reefing. — To reduce the area of a sail by rolling 
 and tying up a portion of it. Also to shorten the 
 bowsprit by hauling it partly in board. 
 
 Round in. — To haul in on rope. 
 
 Run. — The run of a vessel is the after part of her 
 narrowing up to the stern post. To let a halyard 
 go by the run is to let it go altogether and not to 
 slack it out gently. 
 
 Running.— Sailing before the wind. 
 
130 AQUATIC GUIDE. 
 
 Running Rigging. — The ropes, such as halyards, 
 that are hauled upon in order to hoist or trim sails, 
 as opposed to the standing rigging — shrouds and 
 stays which are not moved in working a vessel. 
 
 Bag. — To sag to leeward is to drift before the wind 
 or make leeway. 
 
 Scuppers. — Holes through which the water runs 
 overboard off the decks. 
 
 Shake up. — To luff up for a short time without 
 losing a vessel's way, so that the sails may shake, 
 and the pressure of the wind being taken off them, 
 the crew are enabled to take a pull on the halyards 
 or purchases. 
 
 Shank. — The long bar or stem of an anchor con- 
 necting the arm€ with the stock. 
 
 Sheave-hole. — A hole in a spar to reeve a rope 
 through. 
 
 Sheet. — A rope attached to the clews of a sail, 
 by means of which the sail is trimmed to the wind. 
 
 Small Stuff. — Spun-yarn, marline, etc., used for 
 serving, seizing, and other purposes. 
 
 Spars. — The masts, j^ards, booms, etc., on which 
 a vessel's sails are extended. 
 
 Stays. — Ropes supporting a mast. In Stays. — 
 When a vessel is in the wind's eye while gomg 
 about from one tack to another. 
 
 Sternboard. — ^When a vessel is going stern fore- 
 most. 
 
 Stiff. — A vessel is stiff when she can carry plenty 
 of sail without listing over. The opposite to crank. 
 
 Stock. — The cross bar at the end of an anchor's 
 shank. 
 
 Stop. — A fastening of small stuff. 
 
 Strop. — An eye of rope or wire spliced round a 
 block. 
 
 Tabernacle. — A mast-step on deck, in which the 
 mast works on an iron pivot, and so can be easily 
 lowered. 
 
 Tack. — The lower fore corner of a sail. 
 
 Taffrail. — The rail round a vessel's stern. 
 
 Thimble. — An iron ring, with a concave outer 
 edge, into which a strop can be fitted. 
 
 Toggle. — A pin fastened to the end of a rope. 
 
YACHTING AND SAILING. 131 
 
 which can be thrust through the eye of another 
 rope, and and so secure them together. The jib 
 sheets are often secured to the clew of the jib in 
 this way. 
 
 Topping Lift. — The rope which sustains the 
 weight of the end of the boom, and by hauling on 
 which the boom can be raised to the required 
 height. 
 
 Truck. — A circular block of wood at the mast- 
 head with holes in it through which the signal hal- 
 yards are rove. 
 
 Waist.— The midships section of a vessel. 
 
 Wash-boards. — Board placed above the gunwale 
 of a boat to keep the water out. 
 
 Water-ways.— The long timbers running fore- 
 and-aft that divide the decks from the vessel's 
 sides. 
 
 Weather Helm. — A ship is said to carry weather 
 helm when she has a tendency to come up into 
 the wind, and requires the tiller to be kept to wind- 
 ward so as to counteract this. 
 
 Whip. — A purchase formed by a rope rove 
 through a single block. 
 
 Yaw. — When a vessel goes off her course first to 
 one side then to the other. 
 
 [the END.] 
 
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 No. 11— BADLY MATCHED, by Mrs. Helen Corwin Pierce 25 
 
 No. 10— OCTAVIA'S PRIDE, by Charles T. Manners 25 
 
 No. 9-THE WIDOW'S WAGER, by Rose Ashleigh 25 
 
 No. 8— WILL SHE WIN? by Emma Garrison Jones 25 
 
 No. 7— GRATIA'S TRIALS by Lucy RandaU Comfort 25 
 
 No. 6— A STORMY WEDDING, by Mrs. Mary E. Bryan 25 
 
 No. 5— BRUNETTE AND BLONDE, by Mrs. Alex. McVeigh Miller 25 
 
 No. 4— BONNY JEAN, by Mrs. E. Burke Collins 25 
 
 No. 3— VELLA VERNELL; or, AN AMAZING MARRIAGE, by Mrs. Sumner 
 
 Hayden -. 25 
 
 No. 2— A WEDDED WIDOW, by T. W. Hanshew.... 25 
 
 No. 1— THE SENATOR'S BRIDE, by Mrs. Alex. McVeigh Miller 25 
 
 These popular books are large type editions, well printed, well bound, and 
 in handsome covers. For sale by all Booksellers and Newsdealers ; or sent, 
 postage frety on receipt of price, 25 cents each, by the publishers, 
 
 STREET & SMITH, 
 
 p. O. Box 2784. 25 to 81 Bose Street, New Tork 
 
Issned ^w^eekly. Price, 5 cents per copy. 
 
 No other five-cent paper gives such a high grade of reading matter 
 suitable for readers of all ages. It contains stories of 
 
 ADVENTURE AND TRATEL, ENTERTAINING AND INSTRUCTH^E ARTICLES, 
 HUMOROUS SKETCHES, of a refined nature, SERIES OF SHORT TALKS 
 WITH THE BOYS, describinar the character of Trades and Occupations. 
 ATHLETIC SPORTS, SHORT SCIENTIFIC ITEMS, EXCHANGE COLUMN, 
 HUMANE SOCIETY, PUZZLES, PRIZES, PREMIUMS, Et€. 
 
 Among the contributors will be found the following popular names: 
 
 HORATIO ALGER, JR., OLIVER OPTIC, HARRY CASTLEMON, EDWARD S. 
 ELLIS, JAMES OTIS, MAX ADELER, GEORGE H. COOMER, LIEUT. 
 LIONEL LOUNSBERRY, WM. H. THOMES, CHARLES W, FOSTER, JOHN 
 R. CORYELL. LIEUT. JAMES K. ORTON, WALTER MORRIS, W. R 
 LAWSON, ARTHUR SEWALL. 
 
 The illustrations and typographical appearance of GOOD NEWS 
 are in keeping with the high literary merit of its contents. 
 
 is a sixteen-page paper, and is G:rowing rapidly in circulation. 
 
 We will send you No. 1 to No. 10 GOOD NEWS inclusive for 10 
 cents, as samples. Address 
 
 P. O. Box 2731 GOOD XE^\S, 31 Rose street, N. T. 
 
THE BEST AND BRIGHTEST! 
 
 UNANIMOUSIiY ACKNOVVIiEDGED TO BE THE 
 
 GREATEST STORY AND SKETCH PAPER. 
 
 FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS AND NEWSDEALERS. 
 
 BY MAIL, $3 A YEAR, POSTAGE PREE. 
 
 STREET &c SMITH, PulDlishers, 
 
 25 to 31 Rose Street, New York. 
 
S. & 8. 
 
 /HA/NUAL LIBRARY 
 
 No. 1— Tlie Album- Writer's Assistant ... 10 
 
 No. 2 -The Way to Dance 10 
 
 No. 3 -The Way to Do Magic 10 
 
 No. 4 The Way to Write Letters 10 
 
 No. 5 -How to Behave in Society 10 
 
 No. G -Amateur's 3Iauual of Photograpliy 10 
 
 No. 7 -Out-Door Sports 10 
 
 No. 8— How to Do Dusiness 10 
 
 No. 9 -The Young Gymnast 10 
 
 No. 10 -Tlie Hunter and Angler 10 
 
 No. 1 1 Short- Hand for Everybody 10 
 
 No. 12 -The Taxidermist's Manual 10 
 
 No. 13 -Kiddles and Their Answers 10 
 
 No. 14— Tlie Peerless Keciter 10 
 
 No. 15 -The Young Elocutionist 10 
 
 No. 16— Callahan's Easy Metliod of Ventriloquism 10 
 
 No. 17- Tlie Standard Reciter 10 
 
 No. 18 -Cupid's Dream Dook 10 
 
 No, 19-Napoleon's Book of Fate 10 
 
 No. 20 Tlie Imperial Fortune- Teller 10 
 
 No. 21 -Everyday Cook Book 10 
 
 No. 22 -iMitciiell's Art of Boxing. By Prof. Charley MitcheU. 10 
 
 No. 28— The Lover's Guide to Courtship and Marriage 10 
 
 No. 24— Dunn's Fencing Instructor 10 
 
 No. 25— Professor Muldoon's Wrestling 10 
 
 No. 2G-The Complete Checker- Player 10 
 
 No. 27— Backgammon and Bagatelle 10 
 
 No. 28- Boys' Own Book of Boats 10 
 
 No. 20- Captain Webb's Swimming Instructor 10 
 
 No. 30— Amateur and Professional Oarsman's Manual. By 
 
 W. Beach 10 
 
 These popular books are large type editions, well printed, well 
 bound, and in handsome covers. For sale by all Booksellers and 
 Newsdealers; or sent, postage free, on receipt of price, 10 cents, 
 by the publishers, STREET' & SMITH, 
 
 25, 27, 29 and 31 Rose Street, New York. 
 
THE 
 
 H/^^D-BoOf^ I^IBI^/^I^Y. 
 
 No. I— WOMEN'S SECRETS; or, How 
 TO BE Beautiful. 
 
 No. 2— MILL'S UNIVERSAL LETTER- 
 WRITER 
 
 No. 3— HERRMAN'S BLACK ART 
 
 No. 4— SELECT RECITATIONS AND 
 READINGS. 
 
 No. 5— ZOLA'S FORTUNE-TELLER. 
 
 No. 6— BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 No. 7— ZOLA'S DREAM BOOK. . 
 
 No. 8— THE MODERN HOYLE. . 
 
 No, 9— HERRMAN'S TRICKS WITH 
 CARDS 
 
 No. ID— HELLER'S HAND-BOOK OF 
 MAGIC AND ITS MYSTERIES 
 
 No. II— THE COMPLETE ANGLER. 
 
 No. 12— CAMPBELL'S LAWN TENNIS 
 
 No. 13— AQUATIC GUIDE; or, Yacht 
 iNG AND Sailing. 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 These popular books are large type editions, well printed, well 
 bound, and in handsome covers. For sale by all Booksellers and 
 Newsdealers; or sent, postage free, on receipt of price, 25 cents, 
 by the publishers, STREET & SMITH, 
 
 25, 27, 29 and 31 Rose Street, >ew York.