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Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1984 
 
 Manganese Availability— Market 
 Economy Countries 
 
 A Minerals Availability Program Appraisal 
 
 By Joseph S. Coffman and Cesar M. Palencia 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
Information Circular 8978 
 
 Manganese Availability—Market 
 Economy Countries 
 
 A Minerals Availability Program Appraisal 
 By Joseph S. Coffman and Cesar M. Palencia 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 William P. Clark, Secretary 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES 
 Robert C. Horton, Director 
 
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior 
 has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural 
 resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water re- 
 sources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and 
 cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for 
 the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 
 our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is 
 in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major re- 
 sponsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who 
 live in Island Territories under U.S. administration. 
 
 
 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: 
 
 Coffman, Joseph S 
 
 Manganese availability— market economy countries. 
 
 (Information circular / United States Department of the Interior, 
 Bureau of Mines ; 8978) 
 
 Bibliography: 25 
 
 Supt. of Docs, no.: I 28.27:8978. 
 
 1. Manganese industry. 2. Manganese mines and mining. I. 
 Palencia, Cesar M. II. United States. Bureau of Mines. III. Title. 
 IV. Series: Information circular (United States. Bureau of Mines) ; 
 8978. 
 
 JQN2&5.U4 [HD9539.M32] 622s [333.8'5] 84-600014 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 
 Washington, D.C. 20402 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The purpose of the Bureau of Mines Minerals Availability Program (MAP) is to assess the 
 worldwide availability of nonfuel minerals. The program identifies, collects, compiles, and 
 evaluates information on active, developed, and explored mines and deposits, and on mineral 
 processing plants worldwide. Objectives are to classify domestic and foreign resources, to 
 identify by cost evaluation resources that are reserves, and to prepare analyses of mineral 
 availabilities. 
 
 This report is part of a continuing series of Minerals Availability Program reports that 
 analyze the availability of minerals from domestic and foreign sources and the factors that affect 
 availability Analyses of other minerals are currently in progress. Questions about the Minerals 
 Availability Program should be addressed to the Chief, Division of Minerals Availability 
 Bureau of Mines. 2401 E St., NW., Washington, DC 20241 
 
_J 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Preface iii 
 
 Abstract 1 
 
 Introduction 2 
 
 Commodity overview 2 
 
 Industrial applications 
 
 Production 3 
 
 Ore and concentrates - 3 
 
 Manganese ferroalloys 
 
 Geology 4 
 
 Resources 5 
 
 Country* manganese resource summary 8 
 
 Australia 8 
 
 Brazil 9 
 
 Serra do Navio Mine 9 
 
 Azul, Buriturama. and Sereno Deposits 
 
 (Carajas Mineral Province^ 9 
 
 Santana Mine 9 
 
 Urucum Mine 10 
 
 Other mines 10 
 
 Gabon 10 
 
 Ghana 11 
 
 India 11 
 
 Maharashtra-Madhya Pradesh area 11 
 
 Balaghat Mine 12 
 
 Kandri Mine 12 
 
 Mansar Mine 12 
 
 Tirodi Mine 12 
 
 Ukwa Mine 12 
 
 Keonjhar District 12 
 
 Karnataka (Mysore) area 13 
 
 Other mines 13 
 
 Page 
 
 Country manganese resource summary — Con. 
 
 Mexico 13 
 
 South Africa 13 
 
 Resources 13 
 
 Operations 14 
 
 Kalahari Field 14 
 
 Black Rock area 15 
 
 Mamatwan Mine 15 
 
 Middleplaats Mine 15 
 
 Wessels Mine 15 
 
 Postmasburg Field 16 
 
 Ferroalloy smelters 16 
 
 United States 16 
 
 Upper Volta 17 
 
 Alternate sources of supply 17 
 
 Sea nodules 17 
 
 Stockpile 17 
 
 Engineering and economic analyses 18 
 
 Mining 18 
 
 Beneficiation 18 
 
 Transportation 19 
 
 Smelting 20 
 
 Production cost summary 21 
 
 Availability of market economy country manganese 23 
 
 Potential total manganese production 23 
 
 Potential annual manganese production 24 
 
 Conclusions 24 
 
 References 25 
 
 Appendix. — Mines and deposits investigated but 
 
 not evaluated for this study 26 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 1. Joint U.S. Geological Survey-Bureau of Mines resource classification system 5 
 
 2. Relationship of demonstrated and identified resources included in this study 5 
 
 3. Demonstrated ore resources evaluated in this study, by country 5 
 
 4. Location of market economy country manganese mines and deposits 7 
 
 5. Manganese ore resources of South Africa, by grade 14 
 
 6. U.S. ferromanganese production and imports and manganese ore imports, 1970-81 16 
 
 7. Market economy country manganese production costs 21 
 
 8. Relationship of cost elements through manganese ore and concentrate production 22 
 
 9. Relationship of cost elements through ferromanganese production 22 
 
 10. Cost and total availability of world manganese 23 
 
 11. Cost and annual availability of world manganese 24 
 
 TABLES 
 
 1. Market economy country manganese ore and concentrate production, 1976-82 3 
 
 2. Market economy country manganese ferroalloy production, 1976-81 4 
 
 3. Reserve-resource classification categories by organization 6 
 
 4. Market economy country manganese mine and deposit data 6 
 
 5. Estimated South African manganese resources, total and used in this study 14 
 
 6. Manganese land transportation distances and modes 19 
 
 7. Estimated manganese ore and concentrate ocean shipping rates 20 
 
 8. Annual manganese ferroalloy capacities and ore requirements of major ore importing and exporting countries 2 1 
 
 9. Manganese ore and ferromanganese transportation costs, comparing smelting in South Africa and in the 
 
 United States 22 
 
 10. Manganese ore and ferromanganese transportation costs, comparing smelting in France and in the United 
 
 States 22 
 
VI 
 
 UNIT OF MEASURE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT 
 
 Btu 
 
 British thermal unit 
 
 m 
 
 meter 
 
 ft 3 
 
 cubic foot 
 
 mm 
 
 millimeter 
 
 kg 
 
 kilogram 
 
 |xm 
 
 micrometer 
 
 kg/m 3 
 
 kilogram per cubic meter 
 
 pet 
 
 percent 
 
 km 
 
 kilometer 
 
 ton 
 
 metric ton unless 
 
 lb 
 
 pound 
 
 
 otherwise noted 
 
MANGANESE AVAJ LABILITY— MARKET ECONOMY COUNTRIES 
 A Minerals Availability Program Appraisal 
 
 By Joseph S. Coffman 1 and Cesar M. Palencia 3 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 To determine the availability of manganese for metallurgical purposes from selected world 
 resources, the Bureau of Mines evaluated the potential production of contained manganese in 
 concentrates based on the demonstrated resources of 23 foreign and 8 domestic mines and 
 deposits in 9 market economy countries. All but 2 of the 23 foreign deposits are operating mines; 
 none of the domestic deposits are in operation. 
 
 The demonstrated resources of the mines and deposits used in this study represent an in situ 
 ore resource of approximately 2.2 billion tons, 3 containing 780 million tons of manganese with a 
 total recoverable production potential of 514 million tons of contained manganese in 
 concentrates. The analyses of mines and deposits in this study indicate that about 213 million 
 tons of the contained manganese (41 pet) is potentially available at a January 1981 constant 
 dollar long-run total cost of up to $1.50 per long ton unit (22.4 lb, or 10.15 kg contained Mn), 
 approximately 428 million tons (83 pet) is potentially available at a cost of about $1.75 or less, 
 and 491 million tons (95 pet) is available at less than $3.30. The remaining 23 million tons, 
 which is potentially available at much higher costs (about $8 to $35 per unit), represents the 
 U.S. deposits. On an annual basis, with a cost range of up to $1.75 per long ton unit, the 
 availability from currently operating mines would last at least 80 years based on 1980 world 
 production data. Total manganese production costs are estimated to comprise mining — 8 pet, 
 beneficiation — 3 pet, transportation — 26 pet, and smelting — 63 pet. 
 
 Metallurgist - Mining engineer. 
 Minerals Availability Field Office. Bureau of Mines. Denver, CO. 
 ' L'nless otherwise noted, "tons" refer to metric tons. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Manganese is a vital element in an industrial society; 
 virtually all steels must contain some manganese to 
 improve malleability. No other metal can be substituted 
 for this purpose. Over 90 pet of all manganese produced is 
 used in the ferrous and nonferrous metallurgical indus- 
 tries for improving metal strength and workability 
 qualities. The remaining amount is used in the battery 
 and chemical industries. 
 
 The United States is highly dependent on imports for 
 its supply of manganese and has no resource that could 
 economically offset an interruption of foreign supply. In 
 1981, the United States imported approximately 265,000 
 tons of manganese ores and concentrates and 620,000 tons 
 of ferromanganese, which represented an apparent 99-pct 
 import dependence (17, p. 96)." 
 
 The purpose of this report is to evaluate selected 
 domestic and market economy country resources of 
 manganese for metallurgical application. Individual mine 
 and deposit evaluations were performed on the basis of 
 tonnage, grade, and cost of production. 
 
 In 1982, about 11.6 million tons of manganese ore was 
 produced in 21 market economy countries. Production in 
 the nine countries used in this study accounted for more 
 than 98 pet of this total. Since a high percentage of all 
 manganese produced is used in the metallurgical indus- 
 try, this study includes only resources suitable principally 
 for metallurgical use. 
 
 In this study, final engineering and economic evalua- 
 tions were performed on 31 mines and deposits. This 
 includes eight U.S. deposits analyzed in a recent report on 
 the availability of U.S. manganese (10). A total of 52 
 deposits were investigated; however, 21 were excluded 
 from the final analysis because their demonstrated 
 tonnages were negligible or the product was used in the 
 
 battery and/or chemical industries. Deposits investigated 
 but not included in the final analysis are shown in the 
 appendix. 
 
 The procedure for conducting this study was to 
 identify and define demonstrated manganese resources 
 and the engineering and economic parameters that would 
 affect production from these selected deposits. Capital 
 investment and operating costs for the mining and 
 beneficiation methods were estimated, and a cost analysis 
 for each deposit was performed. Allowances were made for 
 mine and mill recoveries of manganese from each deposit, 
 and results are reported on the basis of U.S. dollars per 
 long ton unit (22.4 lb or 10.15 kg) of recoverable 
 manganese contained in the concentrates. Estimated 
 production costs are in constant January 1981 dollars and 
 include all required costs to deliver the material to 
 existing ferromanganese smelting areas, according to 
 assumed delivery patterns. The long-run operating costs 
 were estimated to cover mining and processing of the 
 entire demonstrated resource of each mine and deposit. 
 Estimated ferromanganese smelting costs are presented 
 to assess their relative effect on total production costs. 
 
 Total resources evaluated amount to about 2.2 billion 
 tons of in situ material with about 779 million tons of 
 contained manganese. From this, about 514 million tons 
 of manganese (metal content) is recoverable after all mine 
 and mill recoveries have been applied. This addresses 
 greater than 98 pet of all known demonstrated resources 
 at current mining grades. All resources are estimated as 
 of January 1, 1980. 
 
 U.S. ferromanganese production has been declining 
 in recent years. The current annual capacity available for 
 production is 250,000 to 350,000 tons, much of which is 
 shut down. 
 
 COMMODITY OVERVIEW 
 
 Manganese is the 12th most abundant element in the 
 Earth's crust, and thus manganiferous occurrences are 
 relatively widespread. It is a relatively low-value com- 
 modity of abundant supply and is used in larger quantities 
 than other ferroalloy materials. 
 
 Manganese occurs in the form of numerous mineral 
 assemblages of varying constituents or mixtures of one or 
 more minerals. The most important economic minerals 
 include bixbyite, braunite, cryptomelane, hausmannite, 
 jacobsite, pyrolusite, rhodochrosite, romanechite (psi- 
 lomelane), and wad. With the exception of rhodochrosite, 
 which is a carbonate, all these minerals are oxides or 
 mixed oxides and silicates. 
 
 The physical and chemical properties of manganese 
 enhance its strategic value in that other elements can 
 rarely substitute satisfactorily for the use of manganese 
 on a cost-effective basis. No workable substitutes have 
 been found for the metallurgical uses of manganese; only 
 in chemical uses may substitutions be made. Manganese 
 metal oxidizes readily and as metal by itself has no 
 practical use. 
 
 4 Italicized numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of references 
 preceding the appendix. 
 
 In ancient times, oxides of manganese were used as 
 colorizers and decolorizers for ceramics and glass; 
 elemental manganese was first isolated in 1774. Man- 
 ganese additions to steel began with experiments in 1839 
 which demonstrated that manganese increased the mal- 
 leability of steel. Large-scale usage of manganese for steel 
 alloying began in 1856 with the addition of spiegeleisen (a 
 low-grade ferromanganese) to the bessemer steel process. 
 In 1888, high-alloy, wear-resistant steels were developed. 
 The invention of the wet galvanic electric cell led to the 
 development of the dry cell battery in 1886, which 
 currently represents one of the largest nonmetallurgical 
 uses of manganese. Oxides of manganese combine easily 
 with a wide range of organic and inorganic acids which 
 are utilized in the chemical industry (3, pp. 653-654). 
 
 Nearly all manganese resources are located at 
 relatively great distances from the major consuming 
 centers in the United States, Europe, and Japan. A certain 
 amount of manganese concentrate production is processed 
 into ferroalloys or used in direct blast furnace application 
 in countries where it is produced, although the majority is 
 shipped to the major consuming centers. 
 
 International trade in manganese concentrate is 
 restricted to a relatively small number of users, principal- 
 
ly consuming steel mills and intermediate ferroman- 
 ganese producers. Some manganese producers have sales 
 contracts with steel mills which may hold an equity 
 
 investment in the mine itself. A relatively small amount 
 of manganese concentrate production is sold on the spot 
 market. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 
 
 The metallurgical uses of manganese involve the 
 application of raw ore in various forms and its use in the 
 manufacture of manganese ferroalloys. The ores are 
 utilized as a smelting aid in the blast furnace and in the 
 manufacture of manganese ferroalloys; the ferroalloys are 
 usually added to the ladle in steelmaking. 
 
 The use of manganese in the production or manufac- 
 ture of steel begins with additions of manganiferous 
 materials to the blast furnace charge as an enhancement 
 to smelting. This can be in virtually any form or grade, 
 such as ore, sinter, slag, scrap, manganiferous iron ore, 
 etc. In some areas, iron ores are manganiferous to the 
 extent that little or no additional manganese ore is needed 
 in the process. 
 
 The principal value is in the manganese acting as a 
 sulfur scavenger and as an enhancement to smelting in 
 that it increases refractory lining life. A certain amount of 
 the blast furnace manganese is passed on to the steel 
 furnaces, where it reduces slag viscosity. 
 
 It is estimated that in terms of total manganese metal 
 (content^ consumed from all sources — that is, manganese 
 ores and lower grade manganiferous iron ores — about 45 
 pet is used in the blast furnace {9, p. 29). It is estimated 
 that about one-half of this is from manganese ores that 
 contain less than 35 pet manganese. The remainder would 
 be from low-grade manganiferous iron ores and ferrugi- 
 nous manganese ores that are not primarily mined for 
 manganese. 
 
 The value of manganese as an alloying agent is its 
 property for improving various qualities of iron and steel. 
 It enhances the toughness, hardening properties under 
 working conditions, hardness, and overall strength of 
 steels. Virtually all steels contain certain amounts of 
 manganese (0.5 to 1.5 pet.) The wear-resistant alloys 
 (Hadfield steels) contain about 10 to 14 pet manganese. 
 
 PRODUCTION 
 
 ORE AND CONCENTRATES 
 
 Market economy country annual manganese ore and 
 concentrate production in 1982 is estimated to be 
 approximately 11.6 million tons. Production data for 
 1976—82 are shown in table 1. 
 
 The centrally planned economy countries historically 
 produced approximately 45 pet of the world's manganese 
 
 ore; however, these countries as a bloc have become net 
 ore importers in recent years. It has been estimated that 
 the U.S.S.R. requires much more manganese per unit of 
 crude steel than does the United States, presumably 
 because of lower grade ores, lower manganese recoveries, 
 and the use of high-sulfur coke (9, p. 4). 
 
 The grades of the ores and concentrates shown in 
 table 1 vary between considerable limits, and since data 
 
 Table 1.— Market economy country manganese ore and concentrate production, 1976-82 
 
 (Thousand tons) 
 
 Oc Manganese, pet 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 
 
 37-53 2.154 1,389 1.241 1,723 2,019 1,448 
 
 Bolivia 28-54 12 9 1 11 1 1 
 
 B-az 38-50 1,696 1,515 1.916 2,258 2,281 2,042 
 
 Z* e 32-36 24 18 24 25 28 25 
 Egypt 28- 44---- 
 
 GSbori 50-53 2.216 1.850 1.710 2,299 2,146 1,487 
 
 Ghana 30-50 312 292 316 272 252 225 
 
 Qreace 48-50 8 10 7 5 5 5 
 
 India 10-54 1.834 1.865 1,619 1,755 1,645 1,526 
 
 ndonai a 47-56 10 6 5 6 5 3 
 
 33- 40 40 30 20 
 
 Hay 30 4 9 10 10 9 9 
 
 Japan 24-28 142 126 104 89 80 87 
 
 Korea 23-40 1 1 1 - - - 
 
 MexiCO 27- 453 487 523 493 447 578 
 
 Morocco 50-53 117 114 126 136 132 110 
 
 P* pp-nes 35-45 11 21 4 4 3 3 
 
 Sour* Afnca 30-48- 5451 5.047 4.345 5,182 5,694 5,038 
 
 Thatend 46-50 50 77 73 35 54 11 
 
 Turkey 27-46 17 19 68 42 42 15 
 
 tinted Stale 12-13 233 196 283 218 158 159 
 
 fenuafU 40-44 35 23 21 11 
 
 Yugoslavia 30- 19 25 27 30 30 31 
 
 Za.re 30-57 182 38 - - 16 31 
 
 Totl NAp 15.025 13.181 12,454 14.624 15.047 12.834 
 
 -rated NAp Not applicable - Negligible 
 
 ' Mmor amounts (less than 500 tons) were also produced by Pakistan. Peru, and Sudan 
 2 Ferruginous manganese ore and manganiferous iron ore 
 
 Source Reference 19 Converted from short tons by the factor: short tons x 907 ■ metric tons. 
 
 1982° 
 
 1,132 
 
 1,300 
 
 24 
 
 1,512 
 
 132 
 
 5 
 
 1,466 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 82 
 
 509 
 
 94 
 
 3 
 
 5,215 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 4 
 
 11,564 
 
Table 2. — Market economy country manganese ferroalloy production, 1976-81 
 
 (Thousand tons) 
 
 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 
 
 Country FeMn SiMn FeMn SiMn FeMn SiMn FeMn SiMn FeMn 
 
 Argentina 24 (5 36 6 25 10 37 16 35 
 
 Australia 50 15 71 24 95 - 86 20 86 
 
 Austria 8 - 7 - 7 - 9 - 8 
 
 Belgium 84 - 55 - 87 - 90 - 85 
 
 Brazil 99 63 129 75 118 106 133 128 141 
 
 Canada 80-60-70-41 - 86 
 
 Chile 8 2 5 - 5 - 5 - 5 
 
 France 365 12 358 21 390 19 440 13 470 
 
 Germany, Federal Republic .... 280 - 225 - 225 - 223 - 225 
 
 India 176 - 193 10 220 3 189 5 162 
 
 Italy 78 42 75 40 90 43 89 54 83 
 
 Japan 632 373 527 334 455 303 603 299 569 
 
 Korea, Republic 29 - 36 •- 47-53 - 54 
 
 Mexico 54 17 100 27 107 34 123 31 125 
 
 Norway 348 169 244 127 273 133 337 184 296 
 
 Peru - - - - 1 - 1-1 
 
 Portugal 55 2 55 5 78 15 75 15 74 
 
 South Africa 350 22 310 22 330 22 560 45 500 
 
 Spain 133 91 141 63 134 109 148 119 120 
 
 Sweden - 7 
 
 Thailand 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 
 
 Turkey - - 1 - 1 - 1-1 
 
 United Kingdom 122 - 69 - 69 - 137 - 52 
 
 United States 438 117 303 109 248 129 288 150 171 
 
 Venezuela - - - - - - 1 1 2 
 
 Yugoslavia - - 54 9 36 28 45 29 44 
 
 Zimbabwe - - - - - - 3 - 3 
 
 Total 3,437 964 3,055 872 3,112 954 3,718 1,109 3,397 
 
 8 Estimated. - Negligible. 
 
 Source: Reference 18. Converted from short tons by the factor: short tons x 0.907 = metric tons. 
 
 1981 s 
 
 SiMn 
 
 FeMn 
 
 SiMn 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 19 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 90 
 
 - 
 
 134 
 
 128 
 
 122 
 
 - 
 
 109 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 - 
 
 21 
 
 315 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 233 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 209 
 
 9 
 
 45 
 
 81 
 
 54 
 
 310 
 
 570 
 
 283 
 
 - 
 
 64 
 
 - 
 
 31 
 
 125 
 
 30 
 
 168 
 
 224 
 
 1 
 
 73 
 
 198 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 60 
 
 450 
 
 50 
 
 123 
 
 92 
 
 63 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 91 
 
 - 
 
 171 
 
 175 
 
 157 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 54 
 
 29 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 1,149 
 
 3,221 
 
 1,057 
 
 are not available on the amounts produced at specific 
 grades, it is difficult to determine the average manganese 
 content. It is estimated that average annual production of 
 about 13.7 million tons from 1976 to 1982 would contain 
 an annual average of 5.0 to 6.0 million tons of manganese 
 (5.3 million tons in 1981). The weighted average grade of 
 the ores and concentrates produced from the mines and 
 deposits in this study is about 44 pet contained man- 
 ganese. 
 
 The United States is almost totally dependent on 
 imports for its supply of manganese. Production of ore is 
 limited to manganiferous iron ore. The average grade of 
 all ore produced in the United States in 1980 and 1981 
 was about 12 to 13 pet manganese. This ore was used in 
 various ceramic applications, such as brick coloring, and 
 for direct additions to the blast furnace. Ore imports by 
 country vary considerably from year to year; in 1981 and 
 
 1982 South Africa was the largest supplier of metallurgic- 
 al ore. 
 
 MANGANESE FERROALLOYS 
 
 Ferromanganese and silicomanganese account for 
 nearly all the manganese ferroally production. Market 
 economy country production of manganese ferroalloys 
 from 1976 through 1981 is shown in table 2. 
 
 As can be seen in the table, production of ferroalloys 
 has increased in the ore-producing countries of Australia, 
 Brazil, India, Mexico, and South Africa. The other 
 ore-producing countries of Gabon and Ghana as yet have 
 no smelting facilities. The largest consistent U.S. sources 
 of ferromanganese are South Africa and France. 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 Manganese deposits are classified into four geological 
 types: hydrothermal, residual, metamorphic, and 
 sedimentary (15, pp. 10-14). Hydrothermal manganese 
 deposits are normally made up of carbonates and oxides of 
 manganese minerals along with other hydrothermal 
 minerals such as barite, fluorite, and sulphides. Examples 
 of hydrothermal vein-type and replacement deposits 
 include the rhodochrosite ore at Butte and Phillipsburg, 
 MT. 
 
 Residual deposits are formed near the surface by 
 weathering processes. Large deposits of economic sig- 
 nificance include the Serra do Navio Deposits in Brazil, 
 Moanda in Gabon, Nsuta in Ghana, and several occur- 
 rences in Australia and India. 
 Metamorphic occurrences are generally in the form of 
 
 low-grade silicates and rarely if ever have any economic 
 value. 
 
 Sedimentary manganese deposits contain the largest 
 portion of world economic manganese. These deposits are 
 subdivided into several subclasses as shown below: 
 
 1. Volcanogenic deposits are those in which the 
 manganese can be related directly or indirectly to volcanic 
 sources. The Nsuta Mine in Ghana is considered to be in 
 this class. 
 
 2. Nonvolcanogenic sedimentary deposits include 
 those where the manganese is not related to any volcanic 
 source. The more important manganese deposits of this 
 type include Groote Eylandt in Australia, the Morro do 
 Urucum area in Brazil, and the Maharashtra-Madhya 
 Pradesh area in India. 
 
3. Metasedimentary manganese deposits associated 
 with iron formations are identified in Brazil and South 
 Africa. The iron formation units are entensive and cover 
 relatively great distances: however, the associated man- 
 ganese beds within these formations vary in thickness and 
 continuitv. 
 
 4. Ocean floor nodules cover vast areas in the Pacific, 
 Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The nodules are found at all 
 depths of the ocean, but higher grades are usually found 
 within the deeper basins at great distances from land 
 
 areas. 
 
 RESOURCES 
 
 Resources are defined according to the mineral 
 resource-reserve classification system developed jointly by 
 the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Mines 
 (21). This classification is shown diagramatically in figure 
 1. The position of the resources included for this study is 
 shown by the crosshatched areas. 
 
 The selection of 23 foreign and 8 domestic mines and 
 deposits for this study includes over 98 pet of the known 
 demonstrated resources at current mining grades for 
 
 . m :-:* :■ 
 
 EWCt - 
 
 v :;■.-;«. -E?,-.--. : 
 
 ,-..,....,. 
 
 
 ■ onae 
 
 
 
 '•;■■: 1 Speculate 
 
 
 i : *.;■«: 
 
 V///77 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 1 
 
 w - - : i vi - . - 
 BDOMM E 
 
 : 
 
 Z/77/P, 
 
 bOM 
 
 sue- 
 
 
 - grade '-•a'c o ! 
 
 Figure 1.— Joint U.S. Geological Survey-Bureau of Mines 
 resource classification system. 
 
 TotoI Identified = 994 million tons 
 
 Figure 2.— Relationship of demonstrated and Identified 
 resources Included In this study (in situ contained man- 
 ganese). 
 
 market economy countries. In terms of contained man- 
 ganese, deposits evaluated in this study contain 780 
 million tons of demonstrated (measured plus indicated) 
 and 994 million tons of identified (measured plus 
 indicated plus inferred) resources (fig. 2). The demonstra- 
 ted resources evaluated in this study by country are 
 illustrated in figure 3. 
 
 Manganese resource estimate compilations have been 
 made by several organizations. Correlation of these 
 compilations with each other and this study in many cases 
 is quite difficult, if not impossible, because of the different 
 classification criteria used. 
 
 A summary of world manganese resources was made 
 by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1973 (5). A later world 
 estimate was made in 1979 as a combined effort by the 
 U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Mines (4). 
 The South Africa Minerals Bureau also presented an 
 estimate of world resources in 1979 (6). The most recent 
 comprehensive study (1981) was completed by the 
 National Materials Advisory Board (15). 
 
 Ghana 
 
 9 million tons 
 India 
 1 1 million tons 
 
 Upper Volta 
 9 million tons 
 
 Mexico 
 
 8 million tons 
 
 United States 
 39million tons 
 
 Total = 780 million tons 
 
 Figure 3. — Demonstrated ore resources evaluated in this 
 study, by country (in situ contained manganese). 
 
Table 3.— Reserve-resource classification categories by 
 organization 
 
 Organization 
 
 Reserves and/or resource 
 classifications 
 
 U.S. Geological Survey (1973) 
 
 Bureau of Mines-Geological Survey 
 
 (1979). 
 South Africa Minerals Bureau 
 
 (1979). 
 National Materials Advisory Board 
 
 (1981). 
 
 Minerals Availability Study (1980). 
 
 Reserves and conditional 
 
 and hypothetical resources. 
 Reserves and other (resources). 
 
 Reserves and resources. 
 
 Measured, indicated, and inferred 
 reserves and submarginal and 
 hypothetical resources. 
 Demonstrated and Identified 
 resources resources 
 
 (measured plus (measured plus 
 
 indicated) indicated plus 
 
 inferred) 
 
 Source: References 4-6 and 15. 
 
 A summary of the manganese resource classification 
 used by these different organizations is shown in table 3. 
 The table illustrates a difficulty in correlating manganese 
 resource estimates because there are no established 
 standards for the categorization of in situ manganese ore 
 resources. Resources are reported in terms of ore, product, 
 contained manganese in ore or product, or a mixture of 
 any of these. In addition, classification includes reserves, 
 resources, measured, indicated, inferred, other, condition- 
 al, hypothetical, etc., all assessing the same material and 
 from essentially the same sources of data. 
 
 Table 4 contains the total demonstrated and iden- 
 tified resources of mines and deposits in market economy 
 countries as interpreted from published and other 
 available sources. The resources analyzed for this study 
 are identified by footnote 5. The demonstrated resources 
 
 Table 4. — Market economy country manganese mine and deposit data 
 
 
 Owner and/or 
 
 Map 
 
 Deposit 
 
 Annual output 
 capacity as of 
 
 Type of 
 
 Average 
 
 in situ grade, 
 
 pet Mn 
 
 
 Resources, 4 
 
 million tons 
 
 Country and mine 
 
 Demonstrated 
 
 Identified 
 
 or deposit 
 
 operator 
 
 index 1 
 
 status 2 
 
 1981, thousand 
 
 operation 3 
 
 In situ 
 
 Contained 
 
 In situ 
 
 Contained 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons 
 
 
 
 material 
 
 manganese 
 
 material 
 
 manganese 
 
 Australia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Groote Eylandt 
 
 Broken Hill Proprietary 
 Co. 
 
 20 
 
 Prd 
 
 2,500 
 
 OP 
 
 41 
 
 308 
 
 5 126 
 
 490 
 
 201 
 
 Brazil: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Azul-Buhtirama-Sereno 
 
 . Companhia Vale do 
 Rio Doce (CVRD). 
 
 11 
 
 Expl 
 
 NA 
 
 NA 
 
 42 
 
 65 
 
 5 27 
 
 65 
 
 27 
 
 Santana 
 
 Compania Pavulista 
 de Ferro Ligas. 
 
 12 
 
 Prd 
 
 120 
 
 UG 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 5 2 
 
 30 
 
 1.4 
 
 Serra do Navio 
 
 Industria Comercio e 
 Minerios S.A. 
 (ICOMI). 
 
 10 
 
 Prd 
 
 1,200 
 
 OP 
 
 39 
 
 23 
 
 59 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 Urucum 
 
 CVRD 
 
 .NAp 
 
 12 
 NAp 
 
 Prd 
 NAp 
 
 250 
 
 UG 
 NAp 
 
 45 
 NAp 
 
 72 
 
 5 32 
 
 102 
 
 46 
 
 Total Brazil 
 
 1,570 
 
 165 
 
 70 
 
 220 
 
 96 
 
 Gabon: Moanda 
 
 Cie. Miniere de 
 I'Ogooue (Comilog). 
 
 15 
 
 Prd 
 
 2,300 
 
 OP 
 
 44 
 
 400 
 
 5 176 
 
 467 
 
 205 
 
 Ghana: Nsuta 
 
 Ghana National 
 Manganese Corp. 
 
 17 
 
 Prd 
 
 300 
 
 OP 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 5 9 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 India: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maharashtra-Madhya 
 
 Manganese Ore India, 
 
 18 
 
 Prd 
 
 320 
 
 OP/UG 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 5 5 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 Pradesh area 
 
 Ltd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (includes Balaghat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kandri, Munsar, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tirodi, Ukwa). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Karnataka (Mysore): 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bisgod 
 
 . Mysore Minerals Ltd. 
 
 17 
 
 Prd 
 
 45 
 
 OP 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 5 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Keonjhar District 
 
 . Various owners 
 
 . NAp 
 
 19 
 NAp 
 
 Prd 
 NAp 
 
 300 
 
 OP 
 NAp 
 
 40 
 NAp 
 
 12 
 
 5 5 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 Total India 
 
 665 
 
 24 
 
 5 11 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 Mexico: Tetzintla-Molango. 
 
 Compani Minera 
 Autlan. 
 
 9 
 
 Prd 
 
 550 
 
 OP/UG 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 5 8 
 
 230 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South Africa: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Black Rock area 
 
 Associated 
 
 16 
 
 Prd 
 
 2,000 
 
 UG 
 
 44 
 
 132 
 
 5 58 
 
 132 
 
 58 
 
 (includes Gloria, 
 
 Manganese Mines 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nchwaning, 
 
 of South Africa Ltd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nchwaning West) 
 
 (AMMOSAL). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Southern Farms 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Ppd 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Other AMMOSAL 6 - 7 . . . 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 36-40 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Do" 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 30-40 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Do 67 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 38-40 
 
 377 
 
 147 
 
 509 
 
 199 
 
 Do 67 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 30-38 
 
 402 
 
 137 
 
 1,913 
 
 650 
 
 Do 6 ' 7 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 20-30 
 
 126 
 
 32 
 
 1,400 
 
 350 
 
 Mamatwan 
 
 South African 
 Manganese Amcor, 
 Ltd. (SAMANCOR). 
 
 16 
 
 Prd 
 
 2,200 
 
 OP 
 
 38 
 
 433 
 
 6 165 
 
 433 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Middleplaats 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Prd 
 
 1,000 
 
 UG 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 5 15 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 Wessels 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Prd 
 
 1,125 
 
 UG 
 
 44 
 
 208 
 
 5 92 
 
 208 
 
 92 
 
 Lohathla 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Prd 
 
 520 
 
 OP 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Other SAMANCOR 67 
 
 ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 36-40 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 Do 6 - 7 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 36-40 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 Do 67 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 30-38 
 
 614 
 
 209 
 
 2,992 
 
 1,017 
 
 Do 6 - 7 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 20-30 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 
 2,163 
 
 541 
 
 Do 6 7 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 30-38 
 
 179 
 
 61 
 
 852 
 
 290 
 
 Other companies 6 
 
 South African Iron and 
 Steel Industrial 
 Corp. Ltd. (ISCOR). 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 20-30 
 
 i04 
 
 26 
 
 1,159 
 
 290 
 
 Do 6 
 
 . Minerts 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 44 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 Do 6 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 30-38 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 244 
 
 83 
 
 Do 6 
 
 . ..do 
 
 16 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 20-30 
 
 62 
 
 16 
 
 693 
 
 173 
 
 See footnotes at end of table. 
 
Table 4. — Market economy country manganese mine and deposit data — Continued 
 
 Country and mine 
 or deposit 
 
 Owner and or 
 operator 
 
 Map 
 index' 
 
 Deposit 
 status-' 
 
 South Amca — Con 
 
 Other companies 6 — Con 
 
 " do 5 ^. : 
 
 Do 6 
 
 Do 6 
 
 Do 6 
 
 Total South Afnca 
 
 Armco Bronne 
 
 do 
 
 Texas. Gulf 
 
 .do 
 
 NAp 
 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 
 . . NAp 
 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 
 Identified 
 
 . Resources, 4 million tons 
 
 Annual output Averaqe 
 
 capacity as of Type of in Sltu gr s ade Demonstrated 
 
 1981. thousand operation 3 pet Mn In situ Contained In situ Contained 
 
 ,ons material manganese material manganese 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 6.845 
 
 United States 
 Hardshell 
 Maggie 
 
 Sunnyside 
 
 Maple Mountam- 
 
 Hovey Mountain 
 North Aroostook 
 
 Distnct (Dudley and 
 
 Getot Hill) 
 Cuyuna North Range 
 
 (southwest portion) 
 Butte distnct (Emma 
 
 Mine). 
 Three Kids 
 
 fl 
 
 Anzona Manganese 
 
 Corp 
 Standard Metals Inc 
 Various owners 
 
 Various owners 
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 Total United States 
 
 Upper Voita 
 Tambao 
 
 Grand total 
 
 The Anaconda Co. 
 
 Income Investment 
 
 Inc. 
 NAp 
 
 Societe Miniere de 
 Tambao 
 
 NAp 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 NAp 
 
 13 
 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 
 Expl 
 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 Expl 
 NAp 
 
 Expl 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 30-38 
 20-30 
 30-38 
 20-30 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 15.0 
 8.8 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 10.5 
 8.9 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 17 241 
 
 10 446 
 
 3 42 
 
 2 77 
 
 3,119 
 
 1,089 13,628 
 
 NAp 
 
 95 
 
 NAp NAp 
 
 14,730 
 
 NAp 
 
 78 
 
 NAp 
 
 180 
 
 NAp 
 
 132 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 54 
 
 NAp 
 
 Nap 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 260 
 
 63 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 5 1 
 5 1 
 
 5 3 
 5 23 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 40 
 260 
 
 63 
 
 5 4 140 
 
 9 1 
 
 5 1 15 
 
 419 
 
 39 533 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 4,511 
 
 1,537 15,671 
 
 82 
 
 112 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 4.182 
 
 4 
 23 
 
 11 
 9 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 16 
 
 4,844 
 
 NAp Not applicable 
 ' Refer to figure 4 
 
 2 Status of deposit: Prd — operating. Expl — explored. Ppd — past producer 
 
 3 Type of operation: UG — underground. OP — open pit 
 * Rounded to nearest 1 million tons 
 
 5 Resources used m this study. 
 
 6 "Other" refers to resources that are not delineated by location, thickness, specific grade, 
 ' Manganese grade ranges averaged as follows for contained manganese, in pet: 
 
 Range Average Range Average 
 
 depth, etc, or that are below current mining grade 
 
 36-^0 38 
 30-^0 35 
 38-M) 39 
 8 Property not under ownership 
 ; Less than 500.000 tons contain 
 
 30-38 
 20-30 
 
 ed manga 
 
 34 
 25 
 
 nese. 
 
 
 T A 
 
 1 •? 
 
 s \_v ^V\ 
 
 /-^ 
 
 
 Figure 4. — Location of market economy country manganese mines and deposits; index numbers refer to table 4. 
 
used in this study are based on estimates of quantities 
 existing in the foreign mines and deposits at or above 
 current mining grades shown for the producing mines in 
 table 4; the U.S. deposits contain about 12 to 13 pet 
 manganese. The resource locations are shown in figure 4. 
 The resources used in this study compared to total 
 published resources listed in table 4 are shown below (in 
 million tons of contained manganese): 
 
 Resources evaluated in this study 
 Total resources (table 4) 
 
 lonstrate 
 
 d Identified 
 
 780 
 
 994 
 
 1,537 
 
 4,844 
 
 In the total demonstrated resources (contained man- 
 ganese) there is a difference of about 757 million tons 
 (1,537 minus 780), which is accounted for by the difference 
 in classification of materials in South Africa. This results 
 from the inclusion of resources in the total quantity that 
 are below the current mining grade or that cannot be 
 defined as to location, dimensions, depth, ore thickness, 
 etc. 
 
 The resources used for South Africa are an adaptation 
 of data published by Taljaardt (16) in which the resources 
 are identified by ore types, grade, and various company 
 ownership. The ore types include the Wessels, which is of 
 higher grade with a relatively high iron content, and the 
 Mamatwan, which is lower grade with a low iron content. 
 
 In the Wessels category 340 million tons of plus 
 40-pct-Mn material were analyzed in this study, or about 
 83 pet of the Taljaardt estimate of 409 million tons. 
 
 In the Mamatwan category 4/3 million tons of 38- to 
 40-pct-Mn material were used in this study, or about 3.6 
 
 pet of the Taljaardt total estimate of 13.2 billion tons in 
 grades of 20 to 40 pet Mn. Taljaardt estimated a total of 
 982 million tons of Mamatwan-type ore at 38 to 40 pet Mn, 
 of which only the 473 million tons used could be identified 
 as to location, thickness, depth, etc. 
 
 Even with the varied interpretations of resource data 
 by different organizations, land-based manganese re- 
 sources of the market economy countries are vast in 
 comparison with future requirements. In fact, only seven 
 major operations, Serra do Navio in Brazil, Groote 
 Eylandt in Australia, Moanda in Gabon, and the Black 
 Rock area (three mines), Wessels, Middleplaats, and 
 Mamatwan Mines in South Africa, after allowing for mine 
 and mill recoveries, could supply the market economy 
 estimated demand for at least 80 years based on 1976-81 
 average production. 
 
 The grade ranges and resource quantities estimated 
 by Taljaardt for the Wessels and Mamatwan ore types 
 follow: 
 
 Ore type and Estimated resource 
 
 grade, pet Mn quantity, million tons 
 Wessels: 
 
 + 44 330 
 
 40 to 44 30 
 
 36 to 40 18 
 
 30 to 40 31 
 
 Total 409 
 
 Mamatwan: 
 
 38 to 40 982 
 
 30 to 38 6,286 
 
 20 to 30 5,938 
 
 Total 13,206 
 
 COUNTRY MANGANESE RESOURCE SUMMARY 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 The principal manganese deposit in Australia is the 
 Groote Eylandt, owned by Broken Hill Proprietary Co. 
 Ltd. and operated by a subsidiary, Groote Eylandt Mining 
 Co. Ltd. The mine has been in operation since 1966. A 
 number of smaller deposits not included in this study are 
 located in Western Australia, Queensland, New South 
 Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. 
 
 The Groote Eylandt Deposit occurs as a relatively flat 
 tabular stratum deposited over an irregular basement 
 rock. Sandy clay and laterized conglomerates which vary 
 in thickness and lateral extent overlie the ore body. The 
 ore in turn lies on consolidated sands and clays with 
 claystones and mudstones; the principal ore minerals are 
 pyrolusite, cryptomelane, and psilomelane (12). 
 
 It is estimated that there was approximately 308 
 million tons of demonstrated material remaining as of 
 January 1980, containing an average of 41 pet man- 
 ganese. There is possibly another 110 million tons in other 
 areas of the deposit that have only been minimally 
 explored (12). 
 
 The deposit is mined by open pit methods and is 
 worked in a series of separate quarries for grade control. 
 The mine has a capacity of about 5 million tons of ore per 
 year and can produce about 2.5 million tons of product. It 
 is estimated that to mine the total resource the 
 
 cumulative waste-to-ore ratio will be about 2.5 to 1. The 
 maximum haulage distance to the concentrator is about 
 20 km. 
 
 The concentrator consists of four sections: crushing, 
 feed preparation by washing and screening, scrubbing and 
 dewatering, and heavy-media separation. The concentra- 
 tor produces products of varying grades in both lump and 
 fine sizes. The concentrate grades vary from a little over 
 41 pet to about 52 pet. A high-silica lump product is also 
 produced that is used in the production of silicoman- 
 ganese. The concentrate is hauled about 16 km to a 
 storage area near the port where the various grades are 
 reclaimed, blended, and shiploaded by conveyor. 
 
 The high-carbon ferromanganese capacity of Austra- 
 lia is about 115,000 tons per year. This is produced in 
 three Bell Bay (Tasmania) plants operated by Tasmanian 
 Electro Metallurgical Co. Proprietary Ltd. An additional 
 25,000 tons per year of silicomanganese can be produced 
 as a byproduct of the high-carbon process. Estimated ore 
 requirements would be about 360,000 to 370,000 tons, or 
 about 15 pet of the mine output capacity. 
 
 The largest export markets are Japan and Asia, 
 which have in the past consumed about 40 pet of the 
 production. The remainder is shipped to Europe and the 
 United States. 
 
 There are no known plans for increasing smelting 
 capacity in Australia. Smelting capacity required to 
 
utilize all the Groote Eylandt output would be approx- 
 imately 1 million tons per year. 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 The principal manganese resources of Brazil occur in 
 the Serra do Navio Mine of Amapa, the Urucum and 
 Santa Mines of Bahia, and the Azul, Buriturama, and 
 Sereno Deposits in the Carajas Mineral Province of Para. 
 Numerous other manganese deposits occur in the States of 
 Minas Gerais, Bahia, Goias, and Espirito Santos, but 
 because of their small size, they were not included in this 
 study. 
 
 Data on production from separate areas are apparent- 
 ly not reported on a common base and thus are difficult to 
 interpret. In 1979, total ore production was reported as 
 approximately 2,260,000 tons, from which about 
 1,700,000 tons of concentrates and pellets was shipped. Of 
 this quantity, 1,189,800 tons was shipped from the Serra 
 do Navio Mine. The remaining production was from 
 numerous mines in the States of Minas Gerais (about 
 400,000 tons), Bahia, Mato Grosso, Goias, and Espirito 
 Santo. 
 
 Serra Do Navio Mine 
 
 The Serra do Navio Mine is located in the Amapa 
 Territory and is the largest producer of manganese 
 concentrates in Brazil. The mine is owned and operated by 
 Industria Comercio e Minerios S.A. (ICOMI), which is a 
 joint venture between Cia. Auxiliar de Empresas Miner- 
 acao (Caemi), a Brazilian company, and Bethlehem Steel. 
 Initial development began in 1952 and production in 1957. 
 A pellet plant for upgrading previously discarded fines to 
 about 54 pet manganese was put on stream in 1973. 
 
 The deposit is part of the Precambrian Guyana 
 Shield, consisting of a metasedimentary sequence of 
 gneisses, amphibolites, schists, and quartzites. These 
 sedimentary units alternate in a relatively cyclic pattern 
 and are subdivided into three distinct facies: quartzose, 
 biotitic, and graphitic. The major ore minerals are 
 cryptomelane and pyrolusite. Minor manganiferous 
 minerals include hausmannite, lithiophorite, and manga- 
 nite. These deposits are classified as residual lateritic 
 concentrations. 
 
 The mining area contains about 20 ore bodies 
 distributed along a belt about 12 km long up to 70 m wide. 
 Typically the ore bodies are fairly dense and compact but 
 show stages of variations from dense to porous friable 
 material. 
 
 Mining operations are rotated to some extent on a 
 seasonal basis. During the rainy season (January through 
 June), activities are concentrated on mining; stripping 
 receives major emphasis during the dry season. The ore is 
 concentrated at the mine by crushing, screening, and 
 washing. The minus 1.2-mm material is stockpiled for use 
 in pelletizing feed, and the plus 1.2- to minus 8-mm 
 material is either shipped as sinter feed or used as pellet 
 plant feed as conditions warrant. 
 
 The pellet plant is located at the port of Santana, 
 about 200 km from the mine. Here the processes include 
 cyclones, screens, heavy media, and spirals, followed by 
 reduction roasting, magnetic separation, and pelletizing. 
 The pellets contain about 54 pet manganese. 
 
 The remaining in situ demonstrated resources are 
 
 estimated at approximately 23 million tons including 
 stockpiled fines (7, p. 11), which would last about 8 to 10 
 years at a 2.5-million-ton-per-year mine capacity. 
 Another 6 to 7 years of pellet production is possible from 
 the fines stockpile at a product capacity of 200,000 tons 
 per year. All the concentrates are shipped by rail to 
 Santana, where they are loaded on ships for export. 
 
 The approximate 1.2 million tons of concentrates 
 available annually in the Serra do Navio Mine should be 
 more economically shipped to the United States than to 
 other areas. In recent years, though, only about 10 pet has 
 been shipped to the United States. The majority is shipped 
 to Europe. In 1980, about 64 pet was shipped to Europe, 11 
 pet to Japan, 6 pet to the United States, 17 pet to Brazilian 
 ports, and the remainder to other South American ports. 
 In 1981, the export destinations were Europe — 70 pet, 
 Japan — 15 pet, United States — 13 pet, and 2 pet to other 
 South American countries, with none shipped to Brazilian 
 ports. 
 
 Azul, Buriturama, and Sereno Deposits 
 (Carajar Mineral Province) 
 
 The Azul Deposits in the Carajas area of Para State 
 lie between the north and south limbs of a synclinorium 
 composed of Precambrian sediments, iron formations, and 
 volcanic rocks. The manganese deposits lie above 
 manganiferous pelitic shales that uncomformably overlie 
 the Precambrian sediments. The in situ ore was derived 
 from weathering of two shale protore beds with grades 
 ranging from 14 to 36 pet manganese and an intervening 
 layer grading about 2 to 4 pet manganese. 
 
 The Buriturama deposits, consisting of nine separate 
 ore bodies, appear to be the product of weathering and are 
 an enrichment of a manganese carbonate-silicate protore. 
 
 The Sereno Deposits are genetically similar to the 
 Buriturama deposits, but are much smaller and more 
 scattered. Resources for the separate areas follow (7): 
 
 Deposits 
 
 Azul 
 
 Buriturama . . 
 Sereno 
 
 Quantity, 
 million tons 
 
 65 
 11 
 
 2.8 
 
 Grade, 
 pet Mn 
 
 42 
 39 
 30 
 
 Exploitation of these deposits is not expected until a 
 900-km railroad from the coastal city of Sao Luis to the 
 Carajas Iron District is completed. This railroad is 
 presently under construction and is projected to initiate 
 the development of some 18 billion tons of iron ore in the 
 area (14, pp. 16-18). It is estimated that to develop the 
 manganese in this area world require an investment of 
 about $40 million, including the construction of a 30-km 
 railroad and other infrastructure. Mining capacity is 
 assumed at about 1 million tons per year. 
 
 For this study, only the Azul Deposit containing 65 
 million tons was used. It was assumed that mining would 
 be by open pit methods, that milling would consist of 
 crushing and screening, and that 50 pet of the concen- 
 trates would be consumed in Brazil; the remaining 50 pet 
 would be shipped to Europe and the United States. 
 
 Santana Mine 
 
 The Santana Mine is located in a remote area of Mato 
 Grosso near the Bolivian border and is owned by Cia. 
 
10 
 
 Paulista de Ferro-Ligas, which also owns the smelters 
 through which the material is processed. 
 
 The manganese bed at the Santana Mine, probably 
 the lower bed of the Morro do Urucum Formation, can be 
 traced over a distance of 650 m along an outcrop. The 
 manganese bed dips 15° to the east and ranges in 
 thickness from 2.5 to 4.0 m, with most of the manganese 
 oxides concentrated in the lower part of the bed. The major 
 ore mineral, cryptomelane, occurs as thin irregular layers 
 and roughly stratified layers of nodules in a matrix of 
 coarse sand and clay derived from weathered arkose. 
 
 The Santana Mine has produced both hematite float 
 and manganese ore for several years. The ore is mined by 
 underground room-and-pillar methods from adits, and 
 current capacity is 120,000 tons per year. Output from the 
 Santana Mine is converted to ferromanganese in two 
 company-owned electric smelting plants in the Corumba 
 area and in smelters in other locations. 
 
 Demonstrated resources of the Santana Mine are 
 estimated at 5 million tons. Nearby properties have 
 reported a total of about 30 million tons of resources, 
 which reportedly could be increased by some 30 + million 
 tons by more detailed exploration (7, p. 16). At this time, 
 there are too few data available to adequately delineate 
 these other deposits for inclusion at the demonstrated 
 level for this study. 
 
 Urucum Mine 
 
 The Urucum Mine is located in Mato Grosso in the 
 same area as the Santana Mine. The manganese occurs in 
 a mesalike mountain of sedimentary rock series. The 
 deposit was first mined in 1912 and had intermittent 
 periods of production through 1972. In 1976, mining was 
 restarted by Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD). 
 
 Three manganese beds with thickness ranging up to 6 
 m occur in this area. The manganese oxide beds are 
 almost all intercalated between clastic beds in an iron 
 formation. Average analysis of the manganese oxide 
 lenses in the Urucum area is about 46 pet manganese. The 
 principal mineral is cryptomelane. 
 
 The ore is mined by room-and-pillar methods. The 
 mine is developed and mined through parallel adits driven 
 along the strike. The ore is broken and removed prior to 
 breaking and removal of the waste to prevent dilution. 
 Rooms are turned off from the adits at right angles every 
 15 m. Stope pillars are 4 by 4 by 4 m wide, and the rooms 
 are 60 m long. With the present equipment and mine 
 development, the mine has a maximum annual capacity of 
 260,000 tons and contains an estimated resource of 72 
 million tons (7, p. 14). The ore is beneficiated by simple 
 crushing and screening. 
 
 The ore from this mine can be shipped either 1,500 to 
 1,700 km by rail to Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo for 
 domestic use, or 2,700 km by barge (seasonal) to Nueva 
 Palmira, Uruguay, for export. The ore contains 3 to 4 pet 
 alkalies that must be diluted by blending. 
 
 For the economic evaluation in this study it is 
 assumed that 50 pet is transported by barge through 
 Paraguay for export. The remainder is transported by rail 
 for domestic use. 
 
 Other Mines 
 
 Aside from the more important manganese deposits 
 discussed above, Brazil has numerous smaller mines 
 
 which supply domestic requirements. These small de- 
 posits are scattered through the States of Minas Gerais, 
 Bahia, Goias, and others. The estimated resources from 
 individual States follow (7, p. 29): 
 
 Quantity, Grade, 
 
 Area million tons pet Mn 
 
 Minas Gerais 5.5 31 
 
 6 35 
 
 5 30 
 
 Bahia 15 38 
 
 Goias 10 33 
 
 With the development of the Urucum and Azul areas, 
 Brazil could maintain current production levels after the 
 depletion of the Serra do Navio resources, although at 
 higher costs mainly because of the longer transportation 
 distances. 
 
 Brazil's current annual smelting capacity is 140,000 
 tons of ferromanganese and 180,000 tons of silicoman- 
 ganese, which requires a feed of about 560,000 tons of ore 
 and concentrates at full capacity. Part of this is supplied 
 by a number of small mines that have relatively 
 insignificant resources. The remainder is supplied by the 
 mines in the Urucum area. 
 
 Brazil has projected a progressive increase in its 
 manganese ore, ferromanganese, and steel production. 
 Because of vast iron ore resources, the near-future 
 expansion of the steel industry is more probable than the 
 expansion of the manganese industry. Future develop- 
 ments in the manganese industry will probably depend on 
 the domestic iron industry, such as development of the 
 Carajas iron ore area. Increases in mine production will be 
 restricted by high transportation costs, since the major 
 resources are located in remote areas. 
 
 GABON 
 
 The Moanda Mine in Gabon is owned and operated by 
 Comilog, a company jointly owned by U.S. Steel, Bureau 
 de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres (BRGM), Imetal 
 S.A., other French interests, and the Gabon Government. 
 
 The manganese occurs in five deposits within the 
 Francevillian Series, and the principal ore minerals are 
 pyrolusite, manganite, and cryptomelane. 
 
 The ore is mined at the Bangombe Deposit by open pit 
 methods and is excavated in a series of rectangular 
 trenches running from 610 to 915 m in a north-south 
 direction. Each trench measures 20 m wide and is worked 
 from east to west by walking draglines. Ore from the mine 
 is trucked to the crusher station, where it is reduced to 6 
 mm size. The crushed material is then fed to cleaning 
 drums, where water is introduced countercurrently. The 
 washed material is then classified through vibrating 
 screens to different product sizes with fines upgraded in a 
 heavy-media separation circuit. The minus 6-mm mate- 
 rial is currently being stockpiled as waste; about 10 
 million tons had been stockpiled as of 1979 {15, p. 177). 
 
 With current annual mine production capacity of 4 
 million tons (about 2.3 million tons of product) and a 
 demonstrated resource of 400 million tons (6, p. 40; 15, p. 
 178), the deposit will sustain a mine life of at least 100 
 years. Annual mine production rate in 1982 was about 3.5 
 million tons of ore. 
 
 The mine product is transported 78 km by aerial 
 ropeway and 485 km by rail to Pointe Noire in The 
 Republic of Congo for export. 
 
11 
 
 In addition to the ore treatment plant, a concentra- 
 tion plant was installed to treat about 100,000 tons per 
 year of washed ore sized to plus 6 mm minus 20 mm for 
 use in dry cell batteries. 
 
 The advantages of this mine are the high degree of 
 mechanization and the abundant reserves of high-grade 
 ore. along with significant quantities of battery-grade ore. 
 One limiting factor is the relatively long distance to 
 transport the concentrates to smelter installations. Gabon 
 has no smelting facilities. The Trans-Gabon railway (560 
 km>. which would serve the Moanda area, is scheduled for 
 completion in 1987. With this railroad the mine capacity 
 could be increased to at least 4 million tons per year of 
 product. 
 
 GHANA 
 
 The manganese ore deposits of the Nsuta Mine are 
 located about 62 km from the port of Takoradi and are 
 owned by Ghana National Manganese Corp. The deposits 
 occur on five hills and can be traced almost continuously 
 for about 4 km. The hills are elevated 60 to 90 m above the 
 surrounding area and are interconnected by saddles. 
 
 The principal ore bodies that have been mined in the 
 past are sedimentary lenses rich in battery-grade man- 
 ganese oxides from Recent or Tertiary laterizations and 
 oxide enrichment of gondites. The major manganese 
 mineral in the remaining resources is rhodochrosite. 
 
 The mine has operated for over 60 years and has been 
 one of the major suppliers of battery-grade oxide ore, but 
 the reserves of this type of ore are nearly mined out. The 
 evaluation in this study was based on approximately 30 
 million tons of carbonate ore underlying the oxides (6, p. 
 76 
 
 In recent years, the carbonate ore has been mined and 
 processed for the manufacture of electrolytic manganese 
 dioxide in plants in Japan and Ireland. Production in 1982 
 was about 22,000 tons of oxide ore and 138,000 tons of 
 carbonate ore. The carbonate ore is processed by crushing, 
 washing, screening, and hand sorting. 
 
 At the Nsuta Mine, the Ghana National Manganese 
 Corp. has completed a nodulizing plant which will convert 
 the carbonate ore to oxide by roasting. The plant was 
 completed in 1982 but has not been commissioned because 
 of the lack of electric power. As of 1982, a 2-year plant feed 
 supply had been stockpiled, with production anticipated in 
 1984. 
 
 From this plant, it is expected that 300,000 tons of 
 manganese oxide nodules from 450,000 tons of carbonate 
 ore will be produced annually (23). The nodules will be 
 transported about 62 km by rail to the port of Takoradi for 
 export. This is a relatively short distance; however, the 
 railway system experiences frequent breakdowns. 
 
 The beneficiation costs for this resource are relatively 
 high in that the ore must be nodulized; however, this 
 beneficiation increases the grade from about 31 to about 
 44 pet manganese. For this study it it estimated that 
 about 80 pet of the concentrates will be destined for 
 Europe and the remaining 20 pet will be sent to Japan. 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Manganese ore mining in India is characterized by 
 many small mine operators mining and sorting ores by 
 
 hand methods. With over 300 individual mines in various 
 stages of selective hand mining, it is difficult if not 
 impossible to interpret resource data. In addition, no 
 systematic geological mapping or drilling program has 
 been done on the majority of the existing deposits. 
 
 In general, resources are outlined in the immediate 
 vicinity of the mine areas, based on ore exposures. All 
 other data are estimated on the basis of geologic inference. 
 As a result, most information indicated a great difference 
 (4 to 10 times) between indicated and inferred resources. 
 Estimates of inferred resources generally include wide 
 areas and are not deposit specific. 
 
 Mining and processing of the manganese ores is 
 generally done by hand because labor is cheap and 
 production of individual mines is not large enough for the 
 use of mechanical methods. 
 
 India has an annual smelting capacity of about 
 307,000 tons of high-carbon ferromanganese and about 
 43,000 tons of silicomanganese. This includes the 72,000- 
 ton-per-year plant under construction at Tumsar. Total 
 ore requirements to feed the smelting capacity of India 
 would be about 810,000 tons. This is approximately 50 pet 
 of the ore production of India, and thus it is assumed that 
 about 50 pet of the ores are exported. 
 
 Much of the production of high-grade manganese ore 
 in India has been designated for use within the country in 
 recent years. The only ore exported is that containing less 
 than 46 pet manganese. The future capability of produc- 
 tion cannot be predicted with any certainty because of the 
 lack of a definitive resource base. Manganese production 
 in India has remained relatively constant since the early 
 1950's without any significant changes in the known 
 reserves. Without systematic exploration or mechanized 
 mining methods in the manganese industry, it is unlikely 
 that significant increases in production could or will occur. 
 
 Because of extremely labor-intensive mining and 
 processing methods, estimated to produce about 0.1 ton 
 per worker-shift, the costs associated with these mines are 
 much higher than those experienced in the mechanized 
 mines in all the other countries studied. 
 
 In view of the vast number of small mining operations 
 and limited demonstrated resources in India, it was not 
 considered feasible within the scope of this study to 
 attempt an evaluation that would include a major number 
 of these operations. It is felt that the coverage included 
 represents the current mining and processing practices in 
 the manganese mining industry of India. This evaluation 
 includes mines from three areas, the Maharashtra- 
 Madhya Pradesh area of central India (five mines), the 
 Keonjhar District in Orissa, and the Bisgod Mine in 
 Karnataka.The mines in central India are operated by 
 Manganese Ore India, Ltd. Most of the ores are relatively 
 high grade and can be blended with lower grade, 
 low-phosphorus ores of Orissa. Most of the ore in 
 Karnataka is exported because of the high iron content 
 and the lack of nearby smelting facilities (22, pp. 32-33). 
 
 Maharashtra-Madhya 
 Pradesh Area 
 
 It is reported that this area produces about 75 pet of 
 all high-grade ore in India (22, p. 34). Demonstrated 
 resources for the area are estimated at 10 million tons. 
 Generally, the mines described represent the main 
 operation in a particular area. Ore is also supplied by 
 numerous individually operated workings. 
 
12 
 
 It is assumed that about 50 pet of this ore is smelted 
 domestically, and the remainder is shipped to the ports of 
 Visakhapatnam and Bombay for export to Japan and 
 Europe. 
 
 Balaghat Mine 
 
 The Balaghat Mine is mainly an underground 
 operation and extends over a strike length of 3.7 km. The 
 ore comes from two types of deposits, lode or reef type, and 
 detrital or float-type deposits. The ore consists of a 
 mixture of several manganese oxides, with braunite being 
 the principal mineral. 
 
 The mine operates on six levels, some of which have 
 been developed to a strike length of 2.7 km, and produces 
 about 114,000 tons annually. The ore is sorted and cleaned 
 by hand and separated into different sizes and grades. The 
 reject fines and tailings are relatively high grade. It is 
 planned to build a beneficiation and an agglomerating 
 plant to process this waste material. A ferromanganese 
 plant also has been contemplated for the area. 
 
 Kandri Mine 
 
 The Kandri Mine is situated near the village of 
 Kandri. The ore body occurs in a horseshoe-shaped 
 synclinal exposure and has barren zone between its two 
 limbs. 
 
 The ore zone ranges in thickness from 1.5 to 3.9 m 
 near the bottom of the syncline. Over the exposed length 
 of 230 m of the syncline, the ore-bearing horizon attains a 
 maximum thickness of 22.5 m. 
 
 The ore was originally mined by opencast methods. 
 Now, all mining operations are underground through an 
 inclined ?haft. Overhead, flat back, and cut-and-fill 
 stoping methods are used to mine 30,000 tons annually. 
 Mining is performed mostly by manual labor, but in 
 recent years some mechanization has been introduced. 
 Manual sorting and sizing are done at the mine, and the 
 product is shipped to the Tumsar, Kahhua, and Kelsar 
 ferromanganese plants. 
 
 Mansar Mine 
 
 The Mansar Deposit has an indicated strike length of 
 2.8 km. The ore body crops out on the surface as a band 
 running almost northwest-southeast in an isoclinically 
 folded and plunging formation with very high dips. 
 
 The ore is both hard and soft. The hard ore consists 
 mainly of braunite granules cemented by psilomelane. 
 Quartz is the main gangue mineral, and the ore contains 
 high phosphorus and silica. On the average, the run-of- 
 mine, unsorted ore represents 70 pet of the total thickness 
 of the ore zone, and the balance is waste consisting of 
 manganiferous quartzite. The marketable ore comprises 
 roughly 30 pet of the ore body. 
 
 Mining is conducted by open pit and underground 
 cut-and-fill methods. The combined annual production is 
 45,000 tons. 
 
 Tirodi Mine 
 
 All deposits in the Tirodi area are characterized by 
 intensely folded, overturned, isoclinal, and recumbent 
 folds. These deposits are exposed continuously over a 
 distance of about 10 km. The main potential zone has a 
 thickness of 2 to 3 m along a total strike length of 425 m. 
 The manganese ore is very hard, compact, fine to coarse 
 grained, and usually enclosed in schist. The deposit 
 consists of a primary bedded manganese sequence with 
 
 braunite as the principal mineral. The ore is generally 
 high in phosphorus (above 0.2 pet), whereas the silica 
 content is fairly low. 
 
 The Tirodi Deposit has been mined since 1901 using 
 the open pit method. The bulk of the mining extraction is 
 carried out manually, and even jackhammers and 
 compressed air are rarely used. Underground cut-and-fill 
 methods are being adopted in deeper sections of the 
 deposit, consisting of levels 2.1 by 2.1 m in size driven 
 laterally. The present combined annual production capac- 
 ity for the mine area is estimated at about 90,000 tons. 
 
 Ore from the mine is broken by hand into about 10-cm 
 lumps and processed by hand sorting. Mechanical 
 washing is adopted during the rainly season using 
 washing drums. This washing technique upgrades the ore 
 by about 3 pet. 
 
 Ukwa Mine 
 
 Mining in the Ukwa area was started in 1906; 
 continuous operation probably began in 1938 when a 
 29-km ropeway was installed. The Ukwa deposit extends 
 over a strike length of about 5.5 km. In general, the 
 thickness of the ore bed for the major portion of the strike 
 length is 3.0 to 3.5 m. The greater part of the ore is in the 
 form of psilomelane and braunite. The ore is fairly high in 
 manganese, with phosphorus content varying from 0.07 to 
 0.1 pet. Annual ore production is about 39,000 tons. All 
 mining is done by" manual labor, including hauling. 
 Upgrading is accomplished by hard sorting and jigging of 
 the ore on the mine floor. The concentrate is transported 
 by aerial tramway 29 km to the railhead at Balaghat and 
 is shipped to Tumsar or Komptee for smelting or to 
 Bombay for export. 
 
 Keonjhar District 
 
 The Keonjhar District in Orissa State contains about 
 200 open pit operations that are mined by a few major 
 operators and a large number of individual miners. 
 
 The principal rock types in the Keonjhar District 
 include quartzites, banded hematite, metavolcanics, high- 
 ly folded shales of an iron ore series, and gently folded 
 sandstone, phyllites, and shales. The manganese ore, 
 together with associated iron ore, occurs as lenses, 
 pockets, reefs, and veins in the shale, jasper, and quartzite 
 formations. The most abundant mineral is psilomelane 
 with some manganite. 
 
 The Keonjhar ores are characterized by low phosphor- 
 us and high iron content. The grade varies from deposit 
 to deposit, but most of the ores are in the lower grade 
 ranges. Only about 10 to 15 pet of the ores are suitable 
 for ferromanganese production without blending {22, p. 
 32). 
 
 All mining operations are by open pit methods using 
 manual labor. Current ore production from four major 
 stratigraphic zones with the district is estimated at 
 about 300,000 tons per year. The practice of removing the 
 high-grade ore results in the loss of large tonnages of low- 
 and medium-grade ores, which often become contamin- 
 ated with waste materials. For this study, the resources of 
 the Keonjhar District were estimated at 12 million tons. 
 
 It is assumed that 50 pet of the concentrates are 
 exported through Visakhapatnam to Japan and Europe. 
 Rail shipping distances are nearly the same for both 
 export and domestic use. 
 
13 
 
 Karnataka (Mysore) Area 
 
 The manganese deposits at the Bisgod Mine in 
 Karnataka. owned by Mysore Minerals Ltd., are strati- 
 form in nature and enclosed in laterite. The major mineral 
 is psilomelane. with pyrolusite occurring in lesser 
 amounts. The current mining method is opencast, and a 
 large segment of the work is done by manual labor. 
 Current production is estimated at 142 to 180 tons per 
 day. as in other parts of India, part of the production is 
 supplied from individual workings in the mine area. Most 
 of the ore is high in iron and low in manganese, and about 
 75 pet of the product is exported. The exported concen- 
 trates are transported 140 km by small trucks to 
 Beligondi, where they are loaded onto barges and then 
 transloaded to ships. The remainder is shipped by rail to 
 domestic plants in the area. 
 
 Other Mines 
 
 It is estimated that over 300 separate mines are being 
 worked, of which about 290 are privately owned. Because 
 of their small size, most of these mines were not included 
 in this study. Total reserves for the larger of the mines not 
 included have been reported as approximately 13 million 
 tons, measured plus indicated, and approximately 52 
 million tons inferred {14). 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 Nearly all of Mexico's total output of manganese ore 
 comes from the Tetzintla Mine located in the Molango 
 district of the State of Hidalgo about 140 km southwest of 
 Tampico and owned by Compania Minera Autlan, S.A. de 
 C.V. Mineralization occurs over an area measuring 50 by 
 20 km at the base of the Chipoco Formation, although the 
 manganese-bearing horizon may not occur throughout the 
 entire area. At the Tetzintla Mine, the manganese- 
 bearing section is about 7 m thick and averages about 28 
 pet manganese. 
 
 The ores are hard, compact, finely stratified man- 
 ganiferous limestone. There are two types of manganese 
 deposits in the Molango district. The most important is 
 the fine-grained carbonate ore that is composed mainly of 
 rhodochrosite. kutnahorite, and manganocalcite. The 
 second type is rich oxide ore derived from the carbonate 
 ores by oxidation and supergene enrichment. The oxide 
 product from the Nonoalco Mine in the district is a source 
 of manganese dioxide used for the production of dry cell 
 batteries. About 40,000 tons per year of battery-grade ore 
 are produced. 
 
 The Tetzintla Mine started production as an open pit 
 mine in 1969. and in 1978 an underground room-and- 
 pillar operation was developed in the Tetzintla ore body. 
 The open pit mine has a capacity of 1,500 tons per day, 
 while the underground operation has a capacity of 1,900 
 tons per day Demonstrated resources of the district are 
 estimated at 30 million tons 15. p. 93). This includes 15 
 million tons proven at the Tetzintla Mine. The concession 
 area contains an additional estimated 200 million tons of 
 similar material, which for this study is considered to be 
 inferred. The concession area includes the Tetzintla Mine 
 and the Naopa. Acoxcatlan. and Comextetzintla Deposits 
 The Naopa Deposit is in the planning stages for an open 
 pit mine. 
 
 Normally the ore is crushed in three stages to minus 
 
 1.25 cm and fed into a rotary kiln at Otongo, where the 
 carbonates are converted to oxides and nodules are 
 formed. When excessive silica and alumina dilution is 
 present, the ore is first upgraded to 27.5 pet manganese by 
 heavy-media separation. The nodules contain 39 to 40 pet 
 manganese (I). 
 
 Mexico has a smelting capacity of about 150,000 tons 
 of ferromanganese and 50,000 tons of silicomanganese. 
 The mine has a capacity to produce about 550,000 tons of 
 nodules. Because of the low grade of the nodules, they 
 must be blended with high-grade imported ore. It is 
 estimated that about 75 pet of the output is exported. 
 Marketing involves transporting the nodules about 230 
 km by truck to Tampico, from where they are shipped to 
 domestic ferromanganese plants at Vera Cruz and 
 exported to Japan, France, and the United States. 
 
 Within Hidalgo State, small amounts of manganese 
 ore are mined at Pachuca. Minor amounts are also mined 
 in the States of San Luis Potosi (Charcas), Chihuahua 
 (San Buenaventura), and Zacatecas (Villa de Cos). 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA 
 Resources 
 
 The manganese resources of South Africa are consi- 
 dered vast, although there are differences in the resource 
 interpretations of the available data. The resources occur 
 mainly in two separate fields, the Kalahari and Postmas- 
 burg. Nearly all the resources are in the Kalahari Field. 
 Probably the most complete assessment of the resources 
 was estimated by Taljaardt (16) at over 13.6 billion tons of 
 material through the inferred category, grading from 20 
 to over 44 pet manganese aggregated by company 
 ownership and different grade range categories. Only 
 deposits near the existing mines are fairly well investi- 
 gated by exploration drilling. Further exploration will 
 undoubtedly reclassify some of the material from inferred 
 to demonstrated resources. In this study, these resources 
 are allocated to the operating mines as shown in table 5. 
 
 The majority of the resources in South Africa are in 
 grade categories lower than most of those currently being 
 mined through the market economy countries. According 
 to the data shown in table 5, the current mining grades 
 (plus 38 pet Mn) account for 1,396 million tons, or about 10 
 pet of the total resource shown in the table. Of this total, 
 818 million tons is considered in this study. Based on 
 current capacities (table 4), it will probably be 70 to 80 
 years before any development is needed on the lower 
 grade type of ore. The relationship of the ores by grade is 
 shown in figure 5. 
 
 Of the total resource of 13,628 million tons, 409 
 million tons (about 3 pet) is of the high-grade, high-iron 
 Wessels type, and nearly all the remainder is low-grade, 
 low-iron Mamatwan type. Resources in the Postmasburg 
 Field account for less than 1 pet of the total. Of the current 
 total production capacity, Wessels type accounts for 47 
 pet, Mamatwan type accounts for 45 pet, and the 
 remaining 8 pet is from the Postmasburg Field. 
 
 The criterion used in the allocation of resources in 
 South Africa for this study was the limitation of grades to 
 those currently being mined. This limits the Wessels 
 grades to plus 44 pet and 40 to 44 pet manganese, and the 
 Mamatwan grades to 38 to 40 pet manganese. Lower 
 grade ores are apparently produced by all operations, but 
 
14 
 
 Table 5. — Estimated South African manganese resources, 
 total and used in this study 
 
 (Million tons) 
 
 KEY 
 
 Resources used 
 in this study 
 
 
 
 
 Resources 
 
 
 Type and grade, 
 pet Mn 
 
 Company 
 
 Total 
 
 Jsed in this 
 
 
 
 quantity 1 
 
 study 
 
 Mine 
 
 KALAHARI FIELD 
 
 Wessels: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plus 44 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 184 P 
 
 184 
 
 Wessels 
 
 
 . . do 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 
 
 Wessels 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 120 E 
 
 120 
 
 Black 
 Rock 2 . 
 
 
 Minerts 
 
 20 E 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 40 to 44 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 18 P 
 
 18 
 
 Wessels 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 12E 
 
 12 
 
 Black 
 Rock 2 . 
 
 36 to 40" 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 11 P 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 7 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 30 to 40" 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 19 P 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 12 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 Total 
 
 NAp 
 
 409 
 
 340 
 
 NAp. 
 
 Mamatwan: 
 
 
 
 
 38 to 40 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 348 P 
 
 348 
 
 ( 6 ). 
 
 
 . . do 
 
 125 I 
 
 125 
 
 ( 6 ). 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 509 E 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 30 to 38 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 614 P 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 . . do 
 
 . 2,378 I 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 . 1,913 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 ISCOR 
 
 852 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Minerts 
 
 244 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Armco Bronne 
 
 241 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Texas Gulf . . 
 
 42 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 200 P 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 . . do 
 
 . 1,963 1 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 . 1 ,400 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 ISCOR 
 
 . 1,159 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Minerts 
 
 693 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Armco Bronne 
 
 446 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 
 Texas Gulf . . 
 
 77 E 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 NAp. 
 
 Total 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 . 13,204 
 
 473 
 
 NAp. 
 
 Total Kalahari 
 
 . 13,613 
 
 813 
 
 NAp 
 
 Field 
 
 
 
 
 
 POSTMASBURG FIELD 
 
 Postmasburg 
 
 SAMANCOR. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Lohatla. 
 
 
 AMMOSAL . . 
 
 10 
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 Southern 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 Farms. 
 
 Total Postmasburg 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 NAp. 
 
 Field 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 . 13,628 
 
 818 
 
 NAp. 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 1 E = estimated; I = inferred; P = proven. 
 
 2 Gloria, Nchwaning, Nchwaning West Mines. 
 
 3 Not delineated as to location, depth of ore, dimensions, etc. 
 
 4 Grades of 36 to 44 pet manganese contain 60 pet manganese plus iron. 
 Grades of 30 to 40 pet manganese contain 5 to 10 pet iron. 
 
 5 Below current mining grades. 
 
 6 Total 473 million tons; allocated to the Mamatwan Mine (433 million 
 tons) and the Middleplaats Mine (40 million tons). 
 
 7 Bishop, Gloucester, Paling Mines, shut down. 
 Source: Adapted from reference 16. 
 
 this is considered a result of grade fluctuation within the 
 ore body and is not part of a lower grade resource category. 
 Additionally, the grade ranges below those used in this 
 study (30 to 38 pet and 20 to 30 pet manganese) are too 
 broad to attempt economic analysis on specific grades. 
 
 In addition to these Northern Cape deposits, a 
 relatively small tonnage occurs in a number of small 
 deposits in the Gopane area (Transvaal), which is mined 
 for the chemical-grade ore for use in uranium purifica- 
 tion (3). Because of its small size and the nonmetallurgical 
 use of the ore, this area was not included in the study. 
 
 Undoubtedly, South Africa will be a major supplier of 
 manganese for many years. Because of the lateral 
 continuity of the ore beds in and around the major mines, 
 a high degree of mechanization is possible. 
 
 Totol Mamatwan type 
 
 38-40 pet Mn -982 million tons — 
 
 Used in this study- 473 million tons 
 
 Total Wessels type - 409 million tons 
 Used in this study- 340 million tons 
 
 Postmasburg Field -15 million tons 
 Used in this study- 5 million tons 
 
 Figure 5. — Manganese ore resources of South Africa by 
 grade. 
 
 The potential for increasing production in South 
 Africa is favorable. In the major mines, significant 
 increases could apparently be accomplished in a short 
 time by adding more production shifts (6, p. 113). 
 
 For this study, it is assumed that 65 pet of the ores 
 and concentrates produced in South Africa are exported 
 through Port Elizabeth (an average rail distance of about 
 1,250 km), and the remaining 35 pet is used in the 
 ferromanganese smelters in Transvaal (an average rail 
 distance of about 900 km). 
 
 Operations 
 
 All operations in the Kalahari and Postmasburg 
 Fields are controlled by two companies, The Associated 
 Manganese Mines of South Africa Ltd. (AMMOSAL), 
 which operates the Black Rock area mines, and South 
 African Manganese Amcor, Ltd. (SAMANCOR), which 
 operates the Mamatwan, Middleplaats, Wessels, and 
 Lohathla Mines. 
 
 Kalahari Field 
 
 The Kalahari Field contains a relatively continuous 
 belt of manganese ore that extends about 40 km in a 
 north-south direction. This field contains nearly all the 
 significant manganese ore resources of South Africa. The 
 ore in this field is laterally consistent and can be mined by 
 mechanized methods. 
 
 There are two separate grade classifications within 
 the Kalahari Field — the higher grade, high-iron Wessels 
 type in the northern part of the field and the lower grade, 
 
15 
 
 low-iron Mamatwan type in the southern part of the field. 
 The largest resources are of the Mamatwan type. 
 Mamatwan-type ore contains calcareous impurities which 
 somewhat restrict its use in electric furnace manganese 
 ferroalloy production and is generally blended with 
 high-grade ores such as the Wessels type. 
 
 Black Rock Area 
 
 The Black Rock area is in the northern part of the 
 Kalahari Field and currently includes three mines owned 
 and operated as a unit by AMMOSAL, the Gloria, 
 Nchwaning. and Nchwaning West. Total annual output 
 from the three mines is about 2 million tons. Resources 
 are estimated at 132 million tons in the plus 44 and 40 to 
 44 pet Wessels-type ore. 
 
 These mines are located on adjacent farms and are 
 operated at varying rates depending on ore contract 
 specifications. Grades vary between the mines, and 
 certain sections are mined as the need arises to maintain 
 an overall consistent grade product. 
 
 The broad structure of the ore-bearing banded iron 
 formation in this area is a north-trending asymmetrical 
 anticline planed off by faulting. The strike length of the 
 ore body is about 10 km. Two persistent ore bodies are 
 developed, each of which is approximately 6 m thick with 
 consistent thickness and grade down dip. The area being 
 mined at Nchwaning is the bottom ore body of the eastern 
 limb of the anticline. The depth of the cover ranges from 
 150 to 900 m. The major ore minerals are braunite, 
 bixbyite. and cryptomelane, with calcium and magnesium 
 carbonates. 
 
 The main ore bodies at the Gloria and Nchwaning 
 West are also on the eastern limb of the anticline. The ore 
 horizons here range in thickness from 5 to 40 m and dip 
 from 0° to 30°. 
 
 Mining in the Black Rock area is underground, using 
 basically a room-and-pillar method; selective mining is 
 used in some areas of the mine to produce higher grades. 
 The ore body is accessed by one vertical and one inclined 
 shaft to a depth of 400 m. 
 
 The waste is sorted from the ore manually before it is 
 crushed, screened, and washed. Some final sorting to 
 various grades and specifications is done by visual 
 identification. Four different grades of manganese concen- 
 trates are produced. 
 
 Mamatvcan Mine 
 
 The Mamatwan Mine is located at the "outhern limit 
 of the Kalahari Manganese Field and is owned and 
 operated by SAMANCOR. The manganese deposit varies 
 in thickness from the suboutcropping to an average of 45 
 m. At the base, the ore is siliceous and ferruginized with a 
 banded appearance. The manganese ore is normally 
 overlain by banded ironstone, which thickens to 15 m 
 within the lease area. Except for occasional fissures, the 
 manganese ore body is not affected by faulting and 
 folding. 
 
 The ore body consists of approximately 48 pet 
 braunite, 14 pet manganite, 22 pet calcite, 5 pet 
 magnesite, 6 pet hematite, and other minor minerals. The 
 resources used for the study are estimated at 433 million 
 tons. This includes only the grades of 38 to 40 pet 
 manganese, and roughly coincides with the strike length 
 of 4 km explored by 300 drill holes on the Mamatwan and 
 Goold properties (16, p. 8); one stated reserve is over 200 
 years' production <15, p. 193). 
 
 Mining is proceeding to the north along the strike of 
 the ore zone and is performed by conventional open pit 
 mining methods utilizing drilling machines, large power 
 shovels, front-end loaders, and dump trucks. Current 
 annual capacity is about 2.2 million tons. Currently, the 
 manganese ore being mined is about 40 m thick and is 
 covered by about 50 m of overburden, including about 7 m 
 of sand. The sand is removed by a bucket- wheel excavator, 
 and the hard rock overburden (limestone and banded 
 ironstone) is blasted and removed in three benches. The 
 ore is also excavated in a series of three benches. 
 
 In 1981, an in-pit crusher and conveyor system were 
 installed so that the crushed ore can now be transported 
 about 2.2 km to the secondary crushers and wet-screening 
 plant by conveyor. The conveyor system was designed for 
 twice the capacity of the in-pit crusher for the possibility 
 of increasing capacity by adding another crusher. 
 
 At the secondary crusher and screening plant, the ore 
 is crushed to minus 75 mm and wet-screened into plus 
 25-mm, minus 25- plus 6-mm, and minus 6-mm sizes. The 
 minus 6-mm fines must be sintered before being used as 
 ferromanganese smelter feed. 
 
 Middleplaats Mine 
 
 The Middleplaats Mine was ( purchased from the 
 Anglo American Corp, by SAMANCOR in March 1982. At 
 the Middleplaats, the ore horizon lies at a vertical depth of 
 300 to 500 m below the surface. The deposit is stratabound 
 and dips 10° to the northwest. The ore is generally hard 
 and competent and normally occurs as a mixture of 
 manganese silicates and oxides. The thickness ranges 
 from 8 to 14 m. The principal gangue minerals are calcium 
 and magnesium carbonates. 
 
 Demonstrated resources for this mine are estimated 
 at 40 million tons in the Mamatwan-grade category of 38 
 to 40 pet manganese. The mine has a capacity of about 1.2 
 million tons per year. 
 
 The mine is developed by shaft and service ramp. The 
 shaft is 489 m deep, and the ramp is 2,500 m long with a 
 slope of 10° to 12°. The main level is on the footwall at a 
 depth of 400 m. The shaft is equipped with a Koepe hoist 
 and is used for ore production and downcast ventilation, 
 whereas the ramp is used for the transport of personnel 
 and equipment. 
 
 Mining is by room-and-pillar, where an initial 4-m 
 cut is made on the hanging wall, followed by benching of 
 the lower section. The ore is crushed to minus 150 mm 
 underground before hoisting. 
 
 The concentrator consists of secondary crushing, wet 
 screening, and cycloning. The ore is crushed to minus 75 
 mm and screened into products of minus 75 plus 6 mm and 
 minus 6 plus 2 mm. The minus 2-mm fraction is further 
 processed by cyclones into plus and minus 150-nm 
 fractions. The plus 150-u.m product is stockpiled as a 
 potential product, and the minus 150-jim size is consi- 
 dered waste. 
 
 Wessels Mine 
 
 Wessels ore occurs at a depth of about 300 m in the 
 northern part of the Kalahari Field. On the average, the 
 material contains 44 pet manganese, with braunite, 
 bixbyite, and cryptomelane as the major minerals. 
 Demonstrated resources are estimated at 208 million tons. 
 
 The mine began production in 1973 and was designed 
 to replace the production of Wessels-type ore from the 
 Hotazel Mine, which was nearing depletion. Access 
 
16 
 
 initially was by a vertical shaft to a depth of 395 m and an 
 incline of about 1,200 m. A second incline was driven in 
 1980 and is currently being used for ore haulage to the 
 surface through a cable conveyor belt system. Current 
 mine capacity is about 1.5 million tons per year. 
 
 Mining is by conventional room-and-pillar methods, 
 although limited selective mining is done for grade 
 control. This is because of a vertical gradient in the 
 manganese content with the upper approximate 0.6 m of 
 ore being of lower grade. Here the upper section is 
 excavated first and stockpiled separately, and then the 
 lower approximate 4.5-m section is mined. The mine is not 
 adaptable to such large-scale equipment as the Middle- 
 plaats Mine, since the ore horizon is thinner (about 5 m) 
 and there are a number of small-scale faults and changes 
 in dip. 
 
 Crushing is done underground with satellite primary 
 crushers located at the main haulageway intersections 
 and a secondary crusher located at the belt loading 
 station. The satellite crushers reduce the ore to minus 125 
 mm; this product is further reduced to minus 63 mm for 
 transport to the surface. 
 
 The surface plant is a secondary crushing and 
 wet-screening plant that produces product sizes of plus 32, 
 minus 32 plus 6, and minus 6 plus 1 mm. The rock smelted 
 in South Africa is blended with Mamatwan-type ore for 
 use in company ferromanganese plants. 
 
 Postmasburg Field 
 
 The ore in the Postmasburg Field occurs as a broken 
 series of remnants lying about 1,800 m stratigraphically 
 below the Kalahari Field and is divided into eastern and 
 western belts. The eastern belt contains higher grade 
 siliceous ores occurring in tectonic siliceous breccias along 
 or close to their contact with a dolomite. The western belt 
 contains lower grade ferruginous ores. These manganese 
 deposits are marked by intricate shapes and inconsistent 
 sizes. 
 
 The only mine operating in the Postmasburg Field is 
 the Lohathla Mine owned by SAMANCOR. Until recent- 
 ly, three other mines, Bishop, Gloucester, and Paling, 
 owned by AMMOSAL, were producing a total of about 
 300,000 tons per year. These mines are now shut down, 
 and there is little likelihood they will reopen because of 
 the high cost of mining (labor intensive), low reserves 
 (about 10 million tons), and low-grade product (28 to 33 
 pet manganese). 
 
 At the Lohathla Mine, one of the main resources of 
 manganese is siliceous detrital ore. The detrital ore has 
 been formed at the foot of the elevated ground owing to 
 erosion. Resources are estimated at 5 million tons; 
 however, the manganese ore bodies are so irregularly 
 shaped that resource estimations are very difficult. 
 
 Run-of-mine ore is transported by 17-ton trucks to the 
 processing plant located adjacent to the mine. Waste 
 materials in the run-of-mine ores are hand sorted on 
 sorting belts before the ore is crushed, washed, and 
 screened. The processing plant produces up to six different 
 grades of contained manganese in concentrates. 
 
 Ferroalloy Smelters 
 
 South Africa has four ferromanganese smelting 
 plants with an annual ferromanganese capacity of 
 563,000 tons and a silicomanganese capacity of 122,000 
 tons. These plants are shown below (6, p. 117; 11, p. 157): 
 
 Smelter 
 
 Annual capacity, 
 thousand tons 
 
 Location 
 
 
 FeMn 
 
 SiMn 
 
 
 Witbank 
 
 Cato Ridge 
 
 393 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 60 
 
 563 
 
 52 
 
 70 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 122 
 
 50 km south of 
 Johannesburg. 
 
 100 km northeast of 
 Johannesburg. 
 
 New Castle 
 
 About midway between 
 Johannesburg and 
 Durban. 
 
 Total 
 
 NA — Not applicable. 
 
 
 
 
 Each of these smelters is located a considerable 
 distance from the manganese mines (Meyerton — 750 km, 
 Witbank— 900 km, Cato Ridge— 1,450 km, and New 
 Castle — 1,000 km). The average distance from the mines 
 to the various smelters is estimated to be 800 to 900 km. 
 The average rail distance for exporting the ferroman- 
 ganese is 1,450 km, while the rail distance for transport- 
 ing the concentrates to Port Elizabeth for export is about 
 1,250 km. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Certain manganese resources of the United States 
 were evaluated in a previous study (10). Eight deposits 
 were evaluated and estimated to contain nearly 422 
 million tons of material containing an average of about 10 
 pet manganese. As shown in table 4, these deposits 
 contain very low grades not approaching the grades of 
 manganese ore in the 23 foreign mines and deposits 
 evaluated for this study. 
 
 Recent significant factors in the U.S. manganese 
 industry are a decrease in production of ferromanganese 
 and a corresponding increase in imports. In addition, 
 nearly all U.S. manganese ferroalloy plants have been 
 acquired by foreign companies, some of which are current 
 ore producers. Trends in U.S. imports of manganese ore 
 and ferromanganese production for 1970 to 1981 are 
 shown in figure 6. As indicated in figure 6, there has been 
 a marked decrease in ore imports and ferromanganese 
 production in these years and an increase in ferroman- 
 
 ./ 
 
 A 
 
 \ / \ y'Q-e imports 
 
 V \ 
 
 V 
 
 FeMmmpofts-toTol 
 
 FeMn production 
 
 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 
 
 Figure 6. — U.S. ferromanganese production and imports ana 
 mangenese ore imports, 1970 to 1981. 
 
17 
 
 ganese imports. Of significance also is the increase in 
 ferromanganese imports from non-ore-producing coun- 
 tries. On the other hand, in 1973—78, when comparative 
 data are available, ferromanganese imports of non-ore- 
 producing countries other than the United States re- 
 mained relatively stable (9. p. 491. Apparently the United 
 States has absorbed much of the new ferromanganese 
 production from the ore-producing countries. 
 
 Although nearly all ferromanganese smelters are 
 shut down, the U.S. annual smelting capacity (either 
 producing or shut down on a care and maintenance basis) 
 is estimated to range between 250.000 and 350,000 tons 
 for high-carbon ferromanganese and was estimated at 
 approximately 250,000 tons for silicomanganese as of 
 January 1983. The range of the high-carbon capacity is 
 because of the uncertainty as to whether or not the plants 
 shut down on care and maintenance would reopen with 
 improvement of market conditions. 
 
 UPPER VOLTA 
 
 The Tambo manganese deposit is located in a 
 relatively remote region of Upper Volta. It occurs in two 
 
 adjacent hills about 150 m apart and lies about 100 m 
 above the general level of the surrounding terrain. The 
 manganese occurs in three separate structures which are 
 of a slightly different average manganese content, 
 classified as first, second, and main manganese oxide 
 zones. The main oxide zone is the highest grade material 
 and contains material of up to 55 pet manganese (13). 
 
 The Tambao oxides are variable in character. They 
 can be layered or bedded, solid or massive, concretionary 
 or cavernous, rubbly or friable. Generally, the central 
 parts of the ore bodies are of the massive, black-grade 
 oxide type, but towards the margins of the ore zones these 
 pass into a slabby softer ore containing thin beds of 
 argillaceous matter and kaolins. Resources are estimated 
 at 16 million tons containing about 54 pet manganese (20, 
 p. 202). 
 
 Development of this deposit would require the 
 construction of about a 350-km railroad and a total rail 
 haulage distance of about 1,500 km. High development 
 and concentrate transportation costs, in addition to 
 problems between the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta 
 Governments regarding the railroad transport system and 
 terms for the use of the port, have inhibited the 
 development of this deposit. 
 
 ALTERNATE SOURCES OF SUPPLY 
 
 Probably the only long-term manganese supply that 
 could be exploited by the United States at some future 
 time is contained in sea nodules. The National Defense 
 Stockpile could be used for a short-term supply. Steelmak- 
 ing slags have also been mentioned as an alternative 
 source, but there is no commercial developed technology 
 for the recovery of the manganese contained in slags. 
 
 SEA NODULES 
 
 The technology necessary for mining and processing 
 sea nodules has been under research and development for 
 over 10 years. The major problems associated with mining 
 are those connected with the raising of the manganese 
 nodules from the seabed to a surface vessel. A number of 
 processes for the extraction of the metals from the nodules 
 have been examined including chemical, electrochemical, 
 and pyrometallurgical. The most applicable process has 
 not yet been established. 
 
 Manganese nodules are widespread on the sea floor, 
 particularly in the deeper sections. The composition of 
 these nodules ranges from 1.8 pet to nearly 34 pet 
 manganese. In nearly all cases, the manganese is 
 associated with appreciable amounts of other valuable 
 metals including cobalt, nickel, copper, and molybdenum. 
 Although manganese comprises the major metallic consti- 
 tuent, cobalt, nickel, and copper constitute the primary 
 metals of economic importance. 
 
 In the most promising area of the Pacific Ocean 
 southwest of the Hawaiian Islands between latitude N 
 8""30 and N 10W, and between longitude W 131° and W 
 150". the average concentration of nodules is estimated at 
 9.76 kg m grading 25 pet manganese, 1.28 pet nickel, 1.16 
 pet copper, and 0.23 pet cobalt. Within the area, the total 
 quantity of potentially recoverable metals is estimated, 
 using 20-pct mining efficiency, at — 
 
 Million tons 
 
 500.0 
 
 23.6 
 
 20.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Copper 
 Cobalt 
 
 STOCKPILE 
 
 The National Defense Stockpile is a Government 
 inventory system to meet essential military defense and 
 civilian requirements in an emergency situation. It is not 
 designed to control market prices or remedy short-term 
 supply disruptions. 
 
 A 1978 study (20) indicated that private inventories 
 normally hold an estimated 10-month consumption 
 supply, and the National Defense Stockpile carries an 
 estimated 17-month inventory at normal U.S. consump- 
 tion rates. 
 
 At yearend 1981, private inventories carried about 
 940,000 tons of all types of manganese ore, and the 
 Government stockpile contained about 2.5 million tons of 
 stockpile-grade metallurgical ore and about 870,000 tons 
 of non-stockpile-grade metallurgical ore (19, 1981, pp. 
 573-575). Based on the 1981 consumption rate of about 1 
 million tons, these inventories, not including the non- 
 stockpile-grade ore, would last about 3 years. 
 
18 
 
 ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC ANALYSES 
 
 To determine the potential availability of manganese, 
 engineering analyses of individual deposits were per- 
 formed to determine the capital investment and operating 
 cost per ton of marketable product produced. When 
 available, actual data were used in the analysis. For any 
 missing cost data, the computerized cost estimating 
 system (CES), developed by the Bureau of Mines, was used 
 to analyze the engineering parameters of the deposit. To 
 standardize the evaluation, a 1981 U.S. dollar base was 
 used in all cost analyses. Foreign costs were updated to 
 the base year by applying cost indexes. Translation to U.S. 
 dollars was made by applying the U.S. exchange rate to 
 the appropriate country. All costs are assumed to 
 represent the average costs for exploitation of the entire 
 demonstrated resource and thus will not represent current 
 costs. 
 
 Mine capital investments were estimated for acquisi- 
 tion, exploration mine development, and infrastructure. 
 Included in the mine capital expenditures were the costs 
 for mobile equipment, plant machinery, the engineering 
 and construction management fee, and infrastructure 
 facilities. Mill capital investments include all mill and 
 beneficiation equipment and machinery, and also the 
 engineering and construction management fee. Working 
 capital was calculated as equal to 60 days of operating and 
 administrative costs. Costs for environmental factors were 
 not considered in the analyses. 
 
 Total operating cost was computed as the total of 
 direct and indirect costs of production. Direct operating 
 cost includes operation and maintenance labor and 
 supplies, supervision, payroll overhead, and utilities. 
 Indirect operating costs include technical and clerical 
 labor, administrative costs, maintenance of facilities, and 
 research. 
 
 Transportation costs were estimated for individual 
 mine outputs. These estimates were based on interpreta- 
 tions of costs of the various modes and distances of 
 transport and an assumption of what appeared to be the 
 most probable destinations of the concentrates consider- 
 ing existing smelting areas. 
 
 An important cost factor in mining and milling of 
 manganese ore is for support of the facilities in remote 
 areas where the mines are located. Virtually all the mines 
 are located in remote areas, most of them extremely 
 remote. Support facilities include such things as housing, 
 employee training, medical facilities, schools, recreation, 
 power, access transportation, etc. Even in South Africa 
 where the mining areas were populated before mining 
 commenced, there are no facilities to support an industrial 
 operation such as mining, so these must be provided. In 
 other areas such as Serra do Navio, Brazil, Groote 
 Eylandt, Australia, and Moanda, Gabon, the operations 
 are extremely remote and all services must be provided. 
 These areas would also experience problems in the supply 
 of materials and a very high personnel turnover. 
 
 MINING 
 
 Terrestrial manganese deposits are mined by either 
 open pit or underground methods. The physical character 
 of the ore body and maximum economic return influence 
 the selection of the specific mining system for any deposit. 
 Although surface mining is generally economically more 
 
 advantageous than underground mining, underground 
 operations are used when overburden stripping has 
 reached the economic limit and where deposits are deep 
 seated. The continuous character of the ore horizons in the 
 major manganese resource areas permits highly mecha- 
 nized operations in both open pit and underground mines. 
 Room and pillar is the most widely used underground 
 method. 
 
 Of the mechanized operating mines evaluated in this 
 study, eight are open pit and seven are underground. The 
 Molango-Tetzintla Mine in Mexico has separate open pit 
 and underground operations. In terms of both production 
 capacity and demonstrated resource, the open pit mines 
 account for about 60 pet of the total quantities. 
 
 The mining operations in India are virtually all 
 labor-intensive hand operations. In some cases a minor 
 amount of mechanization is used, such as a bulldozer or 
 shovel for removing overburden. In India, mining always 
 begins with the excavation of ore on the outcrop; if the 
 horizon is continuous and excessive overburden is 
 encountered, mining is shifted to underground. 
 
 In terms of both production and resources, the 
 mechanized mines evaluated in this study account for 
 nearly all of the total quantities. 
 
 Mining costs estimated in this study range from about 
 $6 to $14 per ton of ore in the mechanized operations. 
 Costs for the mechanized underground mining operations 
 are estimated to range between $10 and $14 per ton. Open 
 pit operating costs are estimated to range from $6 to $9 
 per ton. In the nonmechanized operations such as in India, 
 where productivity may be as low at 0.1 ton per 
 worker-shift, mining costs are estimated to reach $20 to 
 $25 per ton. 
 
 All underground mines, except the Middleplaats 
 Mine in South Africa, are mining higher grade ore (plus 
 44 pet manganese). The higher costs for the underground 
 mines are compensated for in part by the high grade of 
 ore, by the high degree of mechanization (Middleplaats), 
 and by the ore characteristics as to being able to fit into 
 the smelting complex, such as blending for special 
 constituents, physical characteristics, etc. 
 
 BENEFICIATION 
 
 All manganese ores must be crushed and screened, 
 and if the ore contains appreciable quantities of low-grade 
 or barren clayey material, then washing is practiced. The 
 adaptability of a particular beneficiation process depends 
 upon the mineralogical character of the ore and the 
 economics of the operation. In general, crushing, screen- 
 ing, and washing may upgrade the product by only 1 to 3 
 pet manganese. Washing can improve the product more if 
 there is a significant content of lower grade clayey 
 material, such as in the Groote Eylandt Mine in 
 Australia. In most cases, however, the fines removed by 
 washing contain relatively high values of manganese 
 (approximately 20 to 30 pet manganese), and thus the 
 recoveries are relatively low. Recoveries estimated for the 
 operations in this study range from about 60 to 75 pet. 
 Long-term recoveries are difficult to assess, however, 
 because some of the material discarded at one time may 
 be sold as low-grade blast furnace feed later, depending on 
 demand. 
 
19 
 
 Heavy-media separation can be used where there is a 
 significant quantity of silica and alumina gangue in the 
 ore and in some cases for upgrading chemical- and 
 battery-grade ore. This process is currently in use at the 
 Groote Eylandt Mine, the Molango-Tetzintla Mine in 
 Mexico where silica gangue is encountered, and the Serra 
 do Navio operations in Brazil in conjunction with 
 reduction roasting and magnetic separation. 
 
 Pelletizing of manganese fines (about minus 1.5 mm) 
 in conjunction with heavy-media separation and spiraling 
 is done by Serra do Navio Mines of Brazil. The final 
 process is a reducing roast to convert hematitic gangue to 
 magnetite. The magnetic fraction is removed, and the 
 remainder of the material is pelletized. 
 
 The nodulizing process is normally used in upgrading 
 manganese carbonate ores. The process involves calcining 
 the crushed ore in a rotary kiln to liberate carbon dioxide 
 and to form nodules. Carbon dioxide is first liberated; then 
 further heating softens the ore and forms sized nodules of 
 about 25 mm. At the Molango Mine in Mexico the ore is 
 nodulized and the Nsuta Mine of Ghana installed a 
 nodulizing plant to upgrade the carbonate ores from 31 to 
 about 44 pet manganese 23 I. 
 
 In all processes, a certain amount of fines are 
 produced which may or may not be further upgraded or 
 shipped direct as sinter feed. All fines (generally minus 6 
 mm' must be sintered, and this is done at the smelter 
 installation. 
 
 Recoveries of manganese in the processing operations 
 are generally relatively low. ranging from about 60 to 75 
 pet. The losses are the result of the fine material 
 generated by the process not being adaptable to further 
 processing. This may be the result either of dilution with 
 clayey gangue or of fineness of the material produced in 
 crushing and screening (generally less than 150 u.m>. The 
 weighted average grade of all concentrates produced from 
 the mines in this study is about 44 pet manganese. 
 
 Beneficiation costs for crushing, screening, and 
 washing are relatively standard, about SI to $2 per ton of 
 feed. Where the ore is processed by simple crushing and 
 screening, the costs would be in the lower part of this 
 range. Washing would increase the costs by a relatively 
 small amount. The higher range of the costs would be 
 experienced in operations where other methods were used, 
 
 such as heavy-media. Even heavy-media costs are not 
 very significant, because generally only a small part of the 
 feed passes through the heavy-media process. 
 
 Of more importance in the beneficiation costs is the 
 treatment of fines produced in the process. These fines are 
 generally in the range of minus 5 to 6 mm plus 150 u.m 
 and must be sintered before being adaptable to the 
 production of ferromanganese. It is estimated that the 
 amount of fines produced in the operations evaluated in 
 this study ranges from about 25 to 50 pet. The costs 
 of sintering these fines are estimated to range between 
 about $12 and $16 per ton. These costs are prorated to the 
 mill costs on an individual basis, depending on the 
 amount of fines estimated for each operation. 
 
 Nodulizing is done at two operations — Molango, 
 Mexico, and Nsuta, Ghana; the incurred costs are mainly 
 in fuel consumption. Assuming a heating requirement of 
 3.5 to 4.0 million Btu per ton and 1,000 Btu per cubic foot 
 of gas, the fuel requirement wuld be about 3,500 to 4,000 
 ft 3 per ton of product. The advantage of this process is that 
 the manganese content of the carbonate ore can be 
 increased by 12 to 15 pet with little recovery loss. 
 
 TRANSPORTATlbN 
 
 Transportation is by far the most significant cost 
 element in the production of manganese concentrates 
 since nearly all the ore must be transported long distances 
 to smelters. Even land transportation distances to 
 smelters within the ore-producing countries are not 
 significantly different from the distances required for 
 export. Since there is virtually no possibility of develop- 
 ment of manganese resources nearer to the major market 
 areas, transportation will continue to be the major cost 
 factor. 
 
 A comparison of land transportation distances for 
 export and in-country use is shown in table 6. 
 
 Costs for land transportation by truck can vary 
 greatly depending on road conditions and the type of 
 haulage equipment used. For this study, data indicated 
 that costs range from about $0.06 to $0.20 per ton- 
 kilometer. Truck transportation costs are relatively 
 insignificant in total world manganese production, howev- 
 
 
 Table 6. — Manganese land transportation distances and modes 
 
 
 
 Exported 
 
 Domestic use: 
 
 Country and mine 
 
 Percent 
 Distance (km) exported 
 and mode Destination 
 
 Distance 
 
 (km) 
 and mode 
 
 1 6 — true* 
 
 NAp 
 
 i do Navw 200— rail 
 
 JfUCUfT 30 — truck . ... 
 
 2 700 — barge 
 Sereno 930— I 
 
 Gabon Moanda 76 — ropeway 
 
 485— rail 
 Ghana Nsuta 60 — rail 
 
 India 
 
 Central Baiagha- msar 450 — rail 
 
 TVodt. Ukwa 
 Kamataka BisgodMine 140— truck 
 
 350— rail 
 Mexico Tetzintla 230— truck 
 
 South Ainca 
 
 Kalahan F« - 1 .250— rail 
 
 Postmasburg Field 1.1 50 
 
 Upper Votta: Tambao 1 500— rail' 
 
 Milner Bay 
 
 , NAp 
 
 Santana 
 
 Corumba ■, 
 
 Nueva Palmira. Uruguay } 
 
 Sao Luis 
 
 Railhead -. 
 
 Pomte Noire. Congo J 
 
 Takoradi 
 
 Visakhapatnam and Bombay 
 
 Beligondi 
 
 Visakhapatnam and Bombay 
 
 Tampico 
 
 Port Elizabeth 
 
 do 
 
 Abidjam. Ivory Coast 
 
 75 
 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 50 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 100 
 
 16 — truck. 
 
 30— truck. 
 NAp 
 
 1.50C— rail 
 
 930— rail 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 50— rail 
 
 50— truck 
 400— rail 
 230— truck 
 
 900— rail. 
 800— rail 
 NAp 
 
 \~z Not app catte 
 'Proposed explored depOBitl 
 
20 
 
 Table 7. — Estimated manganese ore and concentrate ocean 
 shipping rates 
 
 (Dollars per ton) 
 
 Destination 
 
 Originating country United 
 
 and port States Europe Japan 
 
 Australia: 
 
 Milner Bay 30 30 12 
 
 Brazil: 
 
 Santana 12 16 26 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 18 22 30 
 
 India: 
 
 Visakhapatnam 36 30 18 
 
 Bombay 32 26 22 
 
 Mexico: Tampico 10 17 24 
 
 Gabon: 
 
 Pointe Noire, Congo 28 28 34 
 
 Ghana: Takoradi 23 21 28 
 
 South Africa: 
 
 Port Elizabeth 30 30 32 
 
 Upper Volta: 
 
 Ivory Coast 23 21 28 
 
 er, since they are involved in only a small number of 
 mines. 
 
 Rail haulage involves long distances in nearly all 
 manganese operations. A number of factors can influence 
 the costs of rail haulage, such as size of the cars, condition 
 and availability of the track, use of multiple units (unit 
 trains), or Government policies such as special taxes, 
 tariffs, or rebates. For this study, rail haulage rates are 
 estimated to range between about $0,020 and $0,035 per 
 ton-kilometer. 
 
 Ocean transportation is generally the highest cost 
 element in the transportation of manganese concentrates 
 to main market areas. Estimated ocean shipping rates 
 from loading ports to the various use areas are shown in 
 table 7. 
 
 Cost data for ocean transportation are generally very 
 difficult to obtain and can be unrepresentative when 
 applied to specific cases. This is because rates can vary 
 drastically, depending on the availability of ships. Also, 
 different ports have different loading facilities that can 
 affect costs. In addition, destinations of the concentrates 
 can be extremely variable, generally on an annual basis, 
 depending on contracts between buyers and sellers. Other 
 variables in ocean shipping costs include the capacity of 
 the ships, or whether or not the ships are under term 
 contract or are owned by either the buyer or the producer. 
 In some cases, prices for shipping are negotiated for each 
 load. 
 
 SMELTING 
 
 Smelting of manganese ore for the production of 
 ferromanganese is carried out in either a blast furnace or 
 a submerged arc electric furnace. 
 
 Blast furnace smelting can utilize iron blast furnaces 
 converted to ferromanganese smelting. When this is the 
 case, the primary use of the smelter is to supply the steel 
 complex in which it is located. Excess production could be 
 sold on the open market. An exception is the Boulogne 
 blast furnace smelter in France, which was constructed for 
 the purpose of supplying ferromanganese to the open 
 market. The majority of ferromanganese sold on the open 
 market, however, is produced in electric smelters. Any 
 new smelters built will undoubtedly be electric furnaces. 
 
 Electric furnaces can be used for producing all forms 
 of manganese ferroalloy and other ferroalloys as well, 
 
 whereas the blast furnace can only produce high-carbon 
 ferromanganese. Recoveries in the electric furnace are 
 higher when the slags, which may contain 30 to 35 pet 
 manganese, are used to produce silicomanganese which 
 may be used as is or can be used to produce medium- and 
 low-carbon ferromanganese. The production of silicoman- 
 ganese in the electric furnace process from these slags is 
 mandatory, if the manganese in the slags is to be 
 recovered. The slag is upgraded by the addition of 
 manganese ore and resmelted to produce the silicoman- 
 ganese. 
 
 It is estimated that manganese recoveries to final 
 products in the electric furnace would be about 95 pet and 
 in the blast furnace about 80 to 85 pet (9, p. 63). If the slag 
 in the electric furnace process were not used for 
 silicomanganese production, electric furnace recoveries 
 would be about the same as those for the blast furnace. 
 
 A variable type and quality of manganese ores and 
 concentrates is used in ferroalloy smelting, depending on 
 the availability of specific types of ores and the desired 
 quality and type of ferroalloy produced. For this reason, 
 complex blending of the ores for ferromanganese smelter 
 feed is done at all smelters. The blending will nearly 
 always include ores from four or five different sources. 
 Blending is not entirely contingent upon manganese 
 content but may be used to control the quantity of other 
 constituents such as iron, silica, phosphorus, alumina, 
 alkalies, and manganese and calcium oxides. In South 
 Africa, a mixture of the high-grade, high-iron Wessels ore 
 is blended with the relatively low grade, low-iron 
 Mamatwan ore to obtain a higher manganese-to-iron ratio 
 (15, p. 19). The nodules produced from the Molango ore in 
 Mexico must also be blended with a higher grade ore to 
 produce a market-grade ferromanganese, and the ores in 
 the Urucum area in Brazil must be blended to dilute the 
 high alkali content. 
 
 It is estimated that the ore-producing countries have 
 the manganese ferroalloy production capacity to utilize 
 about 26 pet of their ore production capacities estimated 
 in this study, based on an average usage of about 2.2 tons 
 of ore per ton of ferromanganese and 1.4 tons of ore per ton 
 of silicomanganese produced. Ferroalloy production capa- 
 cities of the major ore importing and exporting countries 
 are shown in table 8. 
 
 The only recent development in the construction of 
 new ferroalloy smelters is the 72,000-ton-per-year plant at 
 Tumsar, India, which was built to utilize the ores of the 
 Madhya Pradesh-Maharashtra area in central India. 
 
 In view of the 11.6 million tons of manganese ore 
 production in 1982, there is a substantial overcapacity in 
 smelters at the present time. Assuming 25 pet of the ore 
 (approximately 35 pet manganese) is used as blast furnace 
 feed, and about 500,000 tons is used for the battery and 
 chemical industry, the effective ore production designated 
 for ferromanganese smelter feed would be about 9.1 
 million tons, or about 76 pet of the smelting capacity. 
 
 Using the factors of 2.2 and 1.4 tons of concentrate per 
 ton of ferromanganese and silicomanganese, respectively, 
 about 8.5 million tons of concentrate would be used in 
 1982. This would leave a concentrate surplus of about 
 400,000 tons, even though only about 76 pet of the 
 smelting capacity was being used. 
 
 The smelting overcapacity has caused a shutdown of a 
 number of smelters in trie ore-importing countries. As an 
 example, the United States had only 1 ferromanganese 
 smelter operating as of January 1983 out of 11 available. 
 
21 
 
 Table 8. — Annual manganese ferroalloy capacities and ore requirements of major ore Importing and exporting countries 
 
 (Tons) 
 
 Ferromanganese 
 
 Silicomanganese 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Ore 
 requirement 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Ore 
 requirement 
 
 Total ore 
 requirement 
 
 ORE-IMPORTING COUNTRIES OR AREAS 
 
 Canada 
 
 Western Europe 
 
 Japan 
 
 United States 
 
 Total 
 
 Austrai a 
 
 Brazil 
 
 India 
 
 Mexico 
 
 South Afnca 
 
 Total 
 
 Grant total 
 Assumed maximum 
 
 90 000 
 
 1.908.000 
 
 727.000 
 
 '350.000 
 
 198.000 
 4.198.000 
 1.542.000 
 
 770.000 
 
 50.000 
 427.000 
 575.000 
 240.000 
 
 3.049.000 
 
 6.709.000 
 
 1.292.000 
 
 70,000 
 598,000 
 805,000 
 336,000 
 
 1,809,000 
 
 268,000 
 4,796,000 
 2,347,000 
 1,106,000 
 
 8,517,000 
 
 ORE-EXPORTING COUNTRIES 
 
 1 1 5.000 
 140.000 
 307,000 
 150.000 
 563.000 
 
 253.000 
 308.000 
 675.000 
 330.000 
 1.239.000 
 
 25,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 122,000 
 
 1.275.000 
 
 2.805.000 
 
 433.000 
 
 4.324.000 
 
 9,513,000 
 
 1,725,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 252,000 
 
 78,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 171,000 
 
 606,000 
 
 2,415,000 
 
 288,000 
 560,000 
 753,000 
 400,000 
 1,410,000 
 
 3,411,000 
 
 1 1 ,928,000 
 
 It is possible that in the event of future increases in 
 ferromanganese demand, the ore-producing countries will 
 attempt to expand their existing smelting facilities to 
 meet the demand. 
 
 A smelter operating cost is assumed for the deposits 
 evaluated in this study to illustrate the effect of the cost 
 components of mining, beneficiation, transportation, and 
 smelting on the total production costs. For this purpose, it 
 is assumed that average operating cost for a smelter 
 would be about $117 per ton of concentrate in all countries 
 except South Africa and India. In South Africa, smelting 
 costs are assumed to be about 8 pet lower, or about $108 
 per ton of concentrate. This is because the main smelting 
 installation iMeyertom is relatively modern and efficient. 
 In India, because of the lower degree of mechanization, 
 smelting costs are assumed at $135 per ton of concentrate. 
 
 In Western Europe and Japan, labor costs are 
 generally lower than in the United States, but it is 
 assumed that this is compensated for by higher power 
 costs. 
 
 In Brazil, the smelters in the Corumba area have low 
 powers costs; however, these plants are relatively remote, 
 and supplies and the ferromanganese product must be 
 transported relatively great distances. In addition, most of 
 the plants in Brazil are small and therefore would not 
 have cost economies of scale. 
 
 The concentrates in Mexico (about 39 pet manganese) 
 must be blended with imported high-grade concentrate to 
 make a marketable alloy, and in Australia high labor 
 rates could compensate for the low power rates. 
 
 200 500 
 
 RECOVERABLE MANGANESE, m.ll.on tons 
 
 Figure 7.— Market economy country manganese production 
 costs. 
 
 PRODUCTION COST SUMMARY 
 
 Comparative operating costs to produce manganese 
 ore and concentrates and ferromanganese are illustrated 
 in figure 7. All costs are direct operating costs in terms of 
 dollars per long ton unit of contained manganese in ore 
 and therefore represent the effect of manganese grade on 
 the cost elements. Additionally, the costs are based on 
 mining and beneficiation of the entire resource and do not 
 include taxes, insurance, brokerage fees, warehousing, 
 etc., or profit or rate of return on investments. Transporta- 
 tion and smelting costs that are assigned to particular 
 mines and deposits are based on assumed delivery 
 patterns to areas of smelting. 
 
 As shown in figure 7, estimated mine operating costs 
 range from about $0.20 to $0.34 per unit, and beneficia- 
 tion costs range from about $0.05 to $0.45 per unit. The 
 major variance in the milling costs represents nodulizing 
 and the amount of sintering required. 
 
 Transportation costs show the largest variance of all 
 costs — from about $0.30 to $1 per unit. These costs are 
 dependent on the geographic location of the mines and the 
 modes of transportation to market areas. 
 
 The relationships of the cost elements through 
 concentrate production and delivery to the smelting areas 
 and through smelting are shown in figures 8 and 9, 
 respectively. 
 
 As previously stated, U.S. dependence on ferroman- 
 
22 
 
 Figure 8. — Relationship of cost elements through manganese 
 ore and concentrate production. 
 
 Beneficiation 
 3 pet 
 
 Figure 9. — Relationship of cost elements through ferroman- 
 ganese production. 
 
 ganese from non-U. S. sources has increased in recent 
 years. The increased imports have been not only from 
 ore-producing countries but also from countries that 
 import the ore, smelt it, and ship the ferromanganese to 
 the United States. On a per unit of contained Mn basis, 
 there appears to be more of a transportation cost 
 advantage to shipping the ore to the United States for 
 smelting rather than importing the ferromanganese. 
 
 Table 9. — Manganese ore and ferromanganese transportation 
 
 costs, comparing smelting in South Africa and in the United 
 
 States 
 
 (U.S. dollars) 
 
 Smelting in Smelting in the 
 
 South Africa United States 
 
 Per ton Per unit Per ton Per unit 
 product contained Mn product contained Mn 
 
 Mine to smelter (ore) 16.00 0.36 NAp NAp 
 
 Smelter to port (ore) NAp NAp 25.00 0.57 
 
 Smelter to port 
 
 (ferromanganese) 34.80 .47 NAp NAp 
 
 Shipment from South Africa 
 to U.S. market: NAp NAp 30.00 .68 
 
 Ore 36.00 .49 NAp NAp 
 
 Ferromanganese 
 
 Total NAp " 1 .32 NAp 1 .25 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 Using South Africa (the largest ferromanganese 
 supplier to the United States) as an example, and a 
 similar type of ore (estimated 44 pet manganese) and 
 ferromanganese at 74 pet manganese, table 9 shows 
 transportation costs for shipping ore versus ferroman- 
 ganese to the United States. 
 
 The shipping distance for transporting the ore to 
 South Africa smelters was assumed at 800 km; distance 
 for shipping the ore to Port Elizabeth for export was 
 assumed at 1,250 km. To ship the ferromanganese to ports 
 for export, a distance of 1,450 km was assumed. Costs of 
 $0,020 and $0,024 per ton-kilometer were assumed for ore 
 and ferromanganese rail transportation, respectively. 
 
 If 51 -pet- manganese Gabon ore were used as a 
 comparison, the difference would be greater since the 
 comparable transportation cost would be about $48 per 
 ton of concentrates from the mine, or about $0.94 per unit 
 of manganese ($48/51 units of manganese per ton). Thus 
 the transportation cost advantage of smelting Gabon ore 
 in the United States instead of importing ferromanganese 
 smelted in South Africa from South African ore would be 
 about $1.32 minus $0.94, or about $0.38 per unit. 
 
 Table 10 shows comparison of transportation costs 
 involved in ferromanganese smelting in France (the 
 second largest U.S. supplier of ferromanganese) and the 
 United States. For this example, Gabon concentrates (51 
 pet manganese) are used. The locations of the plants in 
 this example are Boulogne in France and Marietta, Ohio. 
 
 As near as can be determined, the ocean shipping 
 rates between the port of origin (Pointe Noire, Congo) and 
 either Boulogne, France, or New Orleans are similar at an 
 estimated $28 per ton. Since Boulogne is a seaport, costs 
 for delivery to the smelter are less than the barging costs 
 from New Orleans to Marietta as shown in table 10. This 
 difference is more than offset by the ferromanganese 
 transportation costs from France to the United States. 
 
 Table 10. — Manganese ore and ferromanganese transportation 
 costs, comparing smelting in France and in the United States 
 
 (U.S. dollars per long ton unit) 
 
 Smelting in 
 France 
 
 Smelting in 
 United States 
 
 Ore: 
 
 Transportation to France 0.55 
 
 Delivery to smelter location .02 
 
 Ferromanganese: 
 
 Transportation to the United States .37 
 
 Delivery to market areas .16 
 
 Total 1.10 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 0.55 
 .16 
 
 NAp 
 .07 
 
 .78 
 
23 
 
 AVAILABILITY OF MARKET ECONOMY COUNTRY MANGANESE 
 
 This study analyzed potential manganese production 
 based upon the demonstrated resources of 31 manganese 
 mines and deposits in 9 market economy countries 
 (including the United States); of these resources, an in 
 situ amount of about 2.2 billion tons was represented and 
 provided a total production potential of approximately 514 
 million tons of contained manganese in concentrates. The 
 economic evaluations of each deposit were performed 
 using discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) 
 techniques. 
 
 All economic evaluations were performed using the 
 computerized Supply Analysis Model (SAM) (2). This 
 evaluation determines the cost of the manganese that 
 equates the present value of revenues over the life of the 
 mine to the present value of all costs of production, 
 including a prespecified rate of return on investment. This 
 determined value is equivalent to the long-run total cost 
 of production for the deposit under a set of assumptions 
 and conditions (e.g., mine plan, design capacity produc- 
 
 tion, and a market for all output) that are necessary in 
 order to make an evaluation. This long-run total cost was 
 determined (in January 1981 dollars) at an assumed rate 
 of ret lrn of 15 pet over the life of the deposit. 
 
 The model contains a separate tax record file for each 
 foreign country and automatically applies and relevant 
 tax information to each deposit under evaluation. In 
 addition, it holds a separate file of economic indexes to 
 permit continuous updating of all cost estimates. 
 
 Using January 1981 as the initial year, a cash flow 
 generation of individual preproduction and production 
 years was performed. After the cash flow generation, all 
 properties under study were analyzed and aggregated to 
 estimate manganese availability curves. 
 
 The availability of manganese from a deposit is 
 presented in this study as a function of total cost 
 associated with development, mining, concentration, and 
 transportation. The evaluations are based on the utiliza- 
 tion of the entire resource of each deposit. 
 
 POTENTIAL TOTAL MANGANESE PRODUCTION 
 (CONTAINED IN CONCENTRATE) 
 
 The potential production of manganese based on the 
 long-run total cost of each operatiop is illustrated in figure 
 10. At a 15-pct DCFROR, the individual deposit costs 
 range from about $1 to $35 per long ton unit of contained 
 manganese in concentrate. These costs are for the 
 delivered material to ferromanganese smelting areas and 
 are estimated to include costs that would be incurred in 
 exploitation of the entire resource of each deposit. 
 
 The curve estimates the availability of manganese 
 that is potentially recoverable at certain costs. At up to 
 $1.50 per long ton unit, the total potential recoverable 
 manganese (metal > is about 213 million tons. At up to 
 $1.75. total potential recoverable manganese would be 
 about 428 million tons, and about 491 million tons would 
 be available at up to about $3.25. The analyses were 
 performed in constant January 1981 dollars. 
 
 The U.S. total potential recoverable 
 amounts to approximately 23 million tons 
 reflected on the curve. This is because 
 determined long-run total cost for U.S. manganese 
 resources is about $8 per long ton unit of contained 
 manganese, which is approximately 2V2 times greater 
 than the highest cost for any foreign operation. This 
 determined long-run total cost causes all U.S. potentially 
 
 manganese 
 and is not 
 the lowest 
 
 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 
 TOTAL RECOVERABLE MANGANESE, million metric Tons 
 
 Figure 10.— Cost and total availability of world manganese; 
 cost is in January 1981 dollars and includes a 15-pct DCFROR. 
 
 recoverable manganese to fall beyond the scale of the 
 curve. An analysis of U.S. potential manganese resources 
 is discussed in BuMines IC 8889 (10). 
 
24 
 
 POTENTIAL ANNUAL MANGANESE PRODUCTION 
 
 Another method of illustrating manganese availabil- 
 ity is to disaggregate the total resource availability curve 
 and show potential production on an annual basis. Figure 
 11 illustrates the potential annual production of contained 
 manganese in concentrates at various determined long- 
 run total costs from 1981 through 2025. The curves are 
 based on current production capacities for the producing 
 mines and estimated design capacities for the two 
 nonproducing operations. The annual curve does not take 
 into account possible delays caused by environmental, 
 legal, fiscal, financial, market, or other problems. 
 
 The figure also illustrates that 75 pet, or approx- 
 imately 5.8 million tons, of the total potential annual 
 manganese production is available at a cost of $1.75 or 
 less per long ton unit. 
 
 These analyses indicate that present potential annual 
 capacity can very well handle the free world market 
 requirements through the year 2025 without any addi- 
 tional capacity expansion, assuming no significant in- 
 crease in demand over that of the average 1976-82 
 production rate. 
 
 / 
 
 6 5 
 
 0<— 
 1981 
 
 '•N— > $0-$4.00 
 
 \ 
 
 $0-$2.SO "A 
 
 '\ 
 
 $0-$l.75 ','■ 
 
 $0- $1.50 
 
 •■-,.v ; 
 
 2006 2011 2016 2021 
 
 2026 
 
 Figure 1 1 .—Cost and annual availability of world manganese; 
 cost is in January 1981 dollars and includes a 15-pct DCFROR. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The demonstrated in situ resources contained in the 
 31 mines and deposits analyzed in this study amount to 
 approximately 2.2 billion tons in 9 market economy 
 countries (including the United States). From this 
 demonstrated resource, an estimated 514 million tons of 
 manganese is recoverable. The analyses indicate (given 
 all parameters remain constant as of the initial year, 
 1981) that at a long-run total cost per deposit of up to 
 $1.75 per long ton unit, over 30 pet of this material (about 
 413 million tons) is potentially available. Operating 
 mines in Australia, Brazil, Gabon, and South Africa 
 account for approximately 98 pet of the total available at 
 this indicated cost. 
 
 Demonstrated resources of manganese are sufficient 
 to serve well into the next century. Based on the average 
 1976-82 production rate of about 13.7 million tons and 
 assuming between 5 and 6 million tons of manganese 
 content, the demonstrated resources of the current 
 operating mines would last about 80 years. As manganese 
 deposits with tonnage estimates at the identified resource 
 level, such as in Australia, Brazil, Gabon, and South 
 Africa, are further explored, they could be upgraded to 
 demonstrated resources, significantly increasing the fu- 
 ture availability of manganese. 
 
 On the basis of contained manganese in concentrate, 
 nearly 80 pet of the market economy country demons- 
 trated resource included in this study is contained in 
 seven operating units: Groote Eylandt, Australia; Serra 
 do Navio, Brazil; Moanda, Gabon; and the Black Rock 
 area, Middleplaats, Wessels, and Mamatwan, South 
 Africa. 
 
 This study analyzed only the deposits containing 
 material of current mining grade with the exception of the 
 United States. The only foreign area where lower grade 
 resources have been quantified is South Africa. These 
 
 resources amount to approximately 5.7 billion tons 
 containing 30 to 38 pet manganese and a further 5.1 
 billion tons containing 20 to 30 pet manganese. Un- 
 doubtedly, lower grade resources may also occur in 
 association with other known deposits as well, although 
 apparently very little work has been done to delineate 
 them. 
 
 Thus, it appears quite definite that the long-term 
 world supply of manganese will be from the current 
 producing areas. The major consuming areas of the United 
 States, Western Europe, and Japan have no resources that 
 can impact this current supply status. 
 
 The most significant cost element in the manganese 
 ore production process is transportation. By far the 
 majority of production is from highly mechanized opera- 
 tions. Concentration of the ore generally involves 
 crushing, screening, and washing, and thus these costs are 
 relatively uniform. 
 
 The long-term world situation with regard to man- 
 ganese supply is principally one of competition between 
 the major producing mines for markets. In that seven 
 operating units, all in a current competitive cost position 
 account for over 400 million tons of recoverable man- 
 ganese, the long-range manganese supply for approx- 
 imately the next 80 years is assured. 
 
 In recent years, the manganese ferroalloy smelting 
 capacity of the United States has decreased significantly, 
 as is indicated by a change in the relative import 
 quantities of ferroalloys versus ore. This has been caused 
 in part by increases in smelting capacities in the 
 ore-producing countries. By contrast, there has been 
 comparatively little decline in smelter production in 
 Western Europe, which exports ferromanganese to the 
 United States. This is evidenced by the fact that in the 
 period 1973-78, U.S. imports of ferromanganese increased 
 
25 
 
 by over 200 pet. while the imports of other consuming 
 areas (Western Europe and Japan) did not perceptibly 
 increase. 
 
 One deterrent to the smelting of manganese concen- 
 trates in the United States is that none of the smelters is 
 integrated with the steel companies, such as is the case in 
 Japan, where the ferroalloy could be supplied to the steel 
 plants at cost if necessary. 
 
 As of 1983. market conditions in the market economy 
 
 countries will sustain only about 76 pet of the available 
 smelter capacity. Undoubtedly, some of the shutdown 
 smelters will not reopen even if it is warranted by 
 increased demand because of the inefficiency of the 
 operations. If demand should be projected to exceed the 
 effective smelter capacity in the future, it is expected that 
 the ore-producing countries would attempt to increase 
 their capacities to meet this demand. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Clavillo. M. T. Autlan. High Resources Will Feed Steel 
 Industry's Manganese Demand. Eng. and Min. J., v. 181. No. 11, 
 1980. pp. 107-108. 
 
 2. Davidoff, R. L. Supplv Analysis Model (SAM): A Minerals 
 Availability System Methodology ."BuMines IC 8820, 1980, 45 pp. 
 
 3. DeHuff. G. L. Manganese. Ch. in Minerals Facts and 
 Problems. BuMines B 671. 1980. pp. 549-562. 
 
 4. DeHuff. G. L.. and T. S. Jones. Manganese. BuMines 
 Mineral Commodity Profile. 1979, 19 pp. 
 
 5. Dorr. J. V.. M. D. Crittenden, and R. G. Worl. Manganese. In 
 United States Mineral Resources. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 
 820. 1973. pp. 385-^00. 
 
 6. Duke, V. W. A. (comp.). Manganese, A Mineral Commodity 
 Review. South Africa Department of Mines, Minerals Bureau 
 Internal Report 53. 1979, 246 pp. 
 
 7. ICOMI ilndustria Comerio de Minerios S.A.). Contribution 
 to the Round Table on Supply and Demand of Terrestrial 
 Manganese Ores. European Economic Council, Brussels, Dec. 
 4-5, 1979. 20 pp. 
 
 8. Industrial Minerals. Manganese Non-Metallic Market De- 
 velopments. August 1980, p. 23 
 
 9. International Iron and Steel Institute. Manganese and the 
 Iron and Steel Industry. Brussels, 1980, 77 pp. 
 
 10. Kilgore, C. C. and P. R. Thomas. Manganese Availabil- 
 ity — Domestic. A Minerals Availability System Appraisal. 
 BuMines IC 8889. 1982. 14 pp. 
 
 11. Metal Bulletin, Ferro Alloys, a World Survey. Metal 
 Bulletin. Ltd.. 1979, pp. 155-157. 
 
 12. Mining Magazine. Groote Eylandt. V. 144, No. 3, 1981, pp. 
 216-225. 
 
 13. Tamboa Manganese Deposits, Upper Volta. V. 
 
 144. No. 6. 1981, p. 437. 
 
 14. Narayanaswami, S. The Geology and Manganese-Ore 
 Deposits of the Manganese Belt in Madhya Pradesh and 
 Adjoining Parts of Maharashtra. Geol. Survey of India, Bull. 22, 
 Series A, Economic Geology, Part I, 1963, p. 60. 
 
 15. National Materials Advisory Board, National Research 
 Council-National Academy of Sciences. Manganese Reserves and 
 Resources of the World and Their Industrial Implications. 
 NMAB-374, Washington, DC, 1981, 334 pp.; NTIS, PB 82- 
 117615. 
 
 16. Taljaardt, J. J. Major Manganese Ore Fields, Republic of 
 South Africa. Johannesburg, November 1979 (updated November 
 1982), 11 pp. 
 
 17. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral 'Commodity Summaries, 
 1983, pp. 96-97. 
 
 18. Minerals Yearbook 1976-81. Chapter on Ferroal- 
 loys. 
 
 19. Minerals Yearbooks 1976-82. Chapter on Man- 
 ganese. 
 
 20. U.S. Department of State Bureau of Intelligence and 
 Research. The World Manganese Market: A Status Report. 
 Report 920 (unclassified), Feb. 6, 1978, 10 pp. 
 
 21. U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of Mines. 
 Principles of a Resource Reserve Classification for Minerals. U.S. 
 Geol. Survey Circ. 831, 1980, 5 pp. 
 
 22. Vasudeva, O. P. Status of Manganese Mining in India — 
 Problems and Prospect. Indian Mining, 1977 Annual Review, pp. 
 31-36. 
 
 23. World Mining. Ghana Manganese Will Extend Life by 
 Nodulizing Carbonate Ore Reserves. V. 31, No. 12, 1978, p. 79. 
 
26 
 
 APPENDIX.— MINES AND DEPOSITS INVESTIGATED BUT 
 NOT EVALUATED FOR THIS STUDY 
 
 Country and mine or deposit Comments 
 
 Argentina: Fallaron Negro Small resource, production of about 25,000 tons per 
 
 year as byproduct of a gold-silver mine. 
 
 Bolivia: Mutum Resource has not been established. 
 
 India: 
 
 Barbil Included in Keonjhar District. 
 
 Chickla Small resource. 
 
 Gumagon Do. 
 
 Beldongri Do. 
 
 Kuhiuga Do. 
 
 Bicholim-Sirigoa Principally an iron deposit. 
 
 Harbaliem Do. 
 
 Morocco: Imini All chemical grade, small resource. 
 
 South Africa: 
 
 Annex Langdon Nearly mined out. 
 
 Hotazel Do. 
 
 National Do. 
 
 Rand London All chemical grade, small resource. 
 
 Devon Included in Black Rock area. 
 
 Adams Do. 
 
 Mukulu Do. 
 
 Smartt Resources low grade. 
 
 Paling Resources small, shut down, will not reopen. 
 
 Bishop Do. 
 
 Gloucester Do. 
 
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