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 CffiATIOS 
 
 DELIVERED AT SALEM, INDIANA. 
 
 ON THE riFTIETK ANNIVERSARY OF 
 
 AffiSmi^AH TODBlHrDSH ©ffi, 
 
 AT THE REQUEST ©F THE COMMITTEE ^P ARRANGEMENTS, 
 
 APPOINTED FOR THAT PVRPOSB, 
 
 BY JOHN H. r ARNHAIMC 
 
 PITBtlSHED AT THE REQUEST OF THE COMMITTEE. 
 
 PRINTED BY ROBERTS ^ CAMPBELL, 
 
 KEW-ALBANY, INDIANA. 
 
 1826. 
 
• ^^\<. \^\% % 
 
 
 *-*^* , *^ ; 
 
 
®®ATa^a 
 
 FELLOW-CITIZENS, 
 
 IN celebrating this An^ivkrsarv in the mode that custom haa 
 sanctioneri embHrrassment^ of no l.ule perplexi.3. occur tr him 
 who as the honor ,0 lead v^ur .eflec-ions. Ic i. not the .m os.bl! 
 i 'y ot prenentrng any thing ne^v or original At this lapse of time 
 cL'n '''7'J^ expected. Nor is it the apprehension that your 
 candor and chanty will be withheld from the humble efforts of the 
 spBHker. It ,s that oppression of mind, which sink^ benea'h the 
 wergol and grandeur of the subject I. .9 the diifrdenre which Ifela 
 ts iPcapacity to do justice to a glo,i„u« and immor-al theme It is 
 the d Acuity of selecting and ompre.s.mg into a reasonable cma. 
 pas. a few pertinent reflections, out of the boundless varieiy of 
 sub ..„e .ncl magnificent topics thai crowd on the rwind in recurrine 
 to the a»>,.ici..us .^loroing of American independence, 
 
 hihy vea.s ago thi« da^, the freemen of this country pulled 
 «lo«n thestandarri of St. George, and hoiked (he Eagle with stripe*- 
 andsta.s ,n its place. Their reas-ms for so d ;mg, vou have just 
 be.iia. I'hey are given to the world with a simplicity and energy 
 
 tha^ can neter cp.se to extort our admiration. Thev form a necessary 
 part of the exercsen of this dav, and will m all coming time be hail- 
 ed by Americans, as the great preamble of their national esisience 
 
 How sinking and suLli.-ne the contrast we are this dav called to 
 contemplate! How solemn the appeal to heart-felt and piou. cra- 
 lilude. Fifty years ago— ,he sun ro.e on a handful of brave and 
 deteimmed but dependent colonie— r«-Jay, it shines on twelve 
 m.lUon.^of treemen. comoo^inga powerful, oppulent, harmonious 
 i^mpire. I .Ity years ag„_we were unknown even to Europe save 
 as the remote and sub..ervient appendages of the Eritish Isles— To- 
 tfaz/— we stand m the front rank of a galaxv of Republics, who have 
 conquered their freedom under the auspices and example of '76 — 
 VVeare known, represented and respected, wherever on the globe 
 empire and commerce unite to manence the destinies of mankmd '' 
 
 Lnjoying with scarcely an mteriuplinn for two generations, the 
 innumarabie blessings which have resulted from this memorable 
 epoch— It IS not without some effort and research that we can fully 
 appreciate the sublime devotion to Liberty, the arduous labors and 
 sacrifices, the unshnr.king constancy and fortitude of the heroes and 
 martjrs, who triumphed, and who fell in ihe cause of their counlrv. 
 
4 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 The light of that morning, which tons nppearseffulgent and uithoat a 
 cloud — to them, was lowering & dubious. The}' bad thrown the gaunt- 
 let at a power whose superiority, physical and moral, threateoed the 
 destruclion of their roost sanguine hopes. They were alone — and 
 ivilhout any rational prospect of aid in the contest. The very iiiea 
 of receiving aid from Europe, was then regarded as illusory — inas- 
 much as all Europe had a direct interest that rebellious colonies 
 should be crushed. Hence, under Providence, their sole reliance 
 to sustain the conflict, was on themselves, God and our Country^ 
 God and Freedom, were among the soul stirring sounds of that day ! 
 
 To preserve green in our memories this eventful crisi.", to fan 
 the flarne of patriotism by contemplating its purest and noblest ef- 
 forts, and t<> enabie us to traa.smit to those, who come after ns, a just 
 estimate of the founders of our republic, and of the legacy they 
 have bequeathed to u.*, the unaniiiious voice of a free people has 
 Consecrated ihis day to the cMJse and the men of '76 — It is around 
 the sacred <\Uar of Freedom that every American heart this day 
 rallies — Wherever in the wide circuit of t^e globe hjs lot may be 
 ca."l, whether buoyed in his progress by the Atlantic or Pacific wave, 
 whether an Indian or an African sua mantle hi? cheek, whether he 
 furrow the Northern Orean to strike the Greenland whale, or 
 plunge lus harpoon into the scaly monster of tbe Antarctic ^ea^, the 
 4lh of July commands tlie susjjen^ion of his lahorR; the !"acrefi fire 
 of Amm Patriae burns in his bosom — the star spangled banrier fl<iat8 
 before bi« vision m new and brighter colors — the anniversaiy can- 
 non strikes his thrilled nerves with Heaven-inspiring power — his 
 country with all its hallowed associations rushes to his soul, and in 
 iilial ttansport he embraces "TAe Land of the Free and the Home 
 of the Brave"'' 
 
 Permit me then, mv respected friends and fellow-citizens, in pay- 
 ing homage to an occnsion which titty years has made venerable, 
 and ^^hicii every thing readers sacred, to ask ynur indulgence, 
 whilst atiemj'ting a brief review of the firinciples arid feeling? that 
 triumphed -'in times that tried meyis squIsP which led the way to 
 the Declaration, and finally achieved the Independtnce of our country. 
 And here 1 must be permitted to reject a position that has not 
 unfreqnently been taken by the youthful orator, more solicitous to 
 embellish this Anniversary by the rhapsodies of fancy and the garnish 
 of rhetoric, than to elicit admiration by the simple subliniity of aui hen- 
 tic facts The position is this — that the condition of Ameiicans ante- 
 rior to the revolution, was that of ignoble servitude — that emanci- 
 pation from the British yoke was the dawn of their civil freedom, 
 that our fathers buckled on their Armour not to defend rights 
 long claimed and enjoyed, but to conquer for themselves the glori- 
 ous privileges of an yet untasted Liberty. This does not strike uie 
 as a fair appreciation of the men and the cause we this day com- 
 memorate. Such was not the opinion of the father of his country, 
 when on a sublime and interesting occasion he addressed the Am- 
 bassador of France in the following language: "Bor/i, sir, in a land 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 5 
 
 of liberty, having early learned its value, having: engaged in a peri- 
 lous conflict to (letend it, having in a word devoted the best years of 
 my life to secure its, permanent establishment in my o-ton country, my 
 anxious recollections', my ay mpathetic feelings, and my best wishes 
 are irresistably escited whensoever in any country I see an oppress* 
 ed nation unfurl the banners of Freedom." — No, my friends — we 
 have I ison to bless God that our fathers were born free — that 
 they were a chot<en race, from a chosen land — that when Europe 
 wa? darkened by Bigotry and FInguluhed ia Despotism, the s^acred 
 flame of Liberty glowed in the hertrts and nerved the arms of our 
 Britii«fa ancestois — that when kings and their minions sought to 
 smother and *-xtinguish it, it was transported in the persuoa of its 
 wa'rmest votaries to the »voods and wilds of this unexplored conti- 
 nent, where, under God'ji ble^siog they lesolved t-/ foster asd sus- 
 tain it. In defending this precinus inheritance it was their lot to 
 contend sgainst the g'eat u.ajority of mankind. I'he prerogative 
 aod power of kingj!, the pride arid insolence of aristocracy, the 
 ghostly pretensions and wily ar<itJces of priestcraft, all conspired 
 the destruction of their hopes — But with Roman fortitude as well 
 as Homa'i chastity, they pieserved the vestal flame through all 
 the vicissitudes (,f colonia] exi^teiice. and it n.w burns with a pure 
 and -tead\ light from the Sireights of Davis to the extremity of 
 Cape Horn! 
 
 A retrr'spect of the early colonization of this cotitsnent, were it 
 practicable on the pre«enl occaaion, would display in striking colors 
 the principles and feelings that were transplanted to our soil, that 
 grew with our growth, atid finally expanded into Independence. — ^ 
 Although the spiiit ofidventure and gain had its full share of in- 
 fltiPMce in atluiing many of the eail> emigrants to America, a very 
 large i)ortion were animated hy the prospect of lefnge fiom oppres- 
 sion, add a fixed determination t» secure to themselves and poste- 
 rity the bles-ings of civil and religious freedom — With the fettlers 
 of Nevv-Eiigland generally and of Pennsylvania, commerce and 
 trade weie »PCondary considerations. I'he venerable apostles of 
 re!i<jion who marched in the van of these colonic*, ejected from the. 
 rights of conricience in the old world, welcomed the bleak shores 
 and embri^ced the rogged rocks of an inhospitable coast as the se- 
 curities which Heaven had interposed between them and persecu- 
 tion. Fair England, her pleasant field?, her crowded marts and 
 luxurious cities, they had abandonded to the slaves of hierarchy and 
 passive obedience. ^^Where Liberty dvcells — <Aere" they exclaimed, 
 ^'henceforth shall be onr cotititryV 
 
 Between these hardy followers of the cross, and their brethren, 
 who bad obeyed the impulses of commercial enterprif^e, there was 
 nothing to oppo^se, but every thing to foster an early and lastiitg 
 sympathy. On the great subject of their natural and civil rights, 
 and their relation to the parent country, they all found them^elyea 
 at an early period occupying a common position, and were henc- 
 led. to cheri?h cocicr.cn feelings and pilnciples. History informs u;', 
 
& AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 that it was their, fate to struggle with hardships and suflerioa:?, suf^ 
 ficieiit to appal and reduce to despair, men, who were not buoyed 
 and supported by the highest motives of human action — That, ift 
 addition to the di«.pase« incident to all new settlements, famine and 
 pestilence, rombiaed with the tomahawk and scaljiing knife, to tbia 
 their numbeiTi, and m^'re than orvce brought them to the verge of 
 anodiihition — 'I'bat in these extiemsties the band of supplication 
 was involuntarily extended to the reluctant averted eye of their 
 common Soveieigri, but so little was the love of dominion propitia- 
 ted by the spectacle of a few starved and suffeiing colonies three 
 thousand mile* di-tant. that tliey ^vere peldom reached by the smiles 
 or favors ofeithei King or Parliaoieot. The neces^^ities of their 
 situation lhu-> forced (hem to depend on themselves, and etTicacious- 
 ly contributed to form and tit 'hem fir self-government. This foi- 
 tunate neglect^ added to a vigorous constitution and genial soil, ia 
 the conr>e 'fa few generations, tixed the growth of their liberties 
 bey nd ihe reach of the liuyal veto; and it is not surprising that ihey 
 sb "uld af erwaids view with distrust tht't paternal solicitude, which, 
 silent and !nacce««ible in ihe period of danger and suffering, sought, 
 in ttte h'lui of theii prosperity, to encumber them with good oihces. 
 
 The civil policy, institutions and manner? of all Ihe colonie«, were 
 highly popular, anrl, where not trammelled and conlroled by the 
 vjci us interference of Europeafl politicians, they were decidedly 
 republican. In all the northern colonies the rig'its of Primogeni- 
 ture^ that characienstic and darling nf Monarchy, were exploded — 
 This ali.ne breathes the spirit ot genuine Democracy For if any 
 • one [>rincif)le may be regarded as the basis or key of republicanism, 
 it is that fundamental law wh'ch perpetuallv and silentl} employs 
 the be^t affections of the human heart to undermine and demolish 
 the artificial monuments of Pride, Vani'y and Ambition — .A nation 
 of freeholders cannot be other than republican. Hence it is one of 
 the unceasing artifices of legitimacy, to be perpetually erecting 
 dykes and <iams to obstruct and divert the oatutaland equable cur- 
 rent "f piopertv. In accndance with these views, we find the pre- 
 sent King of France in hi- last speech from the throne, calling on his 
 Parliament f'r the lestoration of the lights of primogeniture whicU 
 the revolution had do^troyed, but which he claims and demands as 
 the necessary underpinning of Monarchy. 
 
 In acuisory notice of the feelings and principles that pervaded 
 the colonies anterior to the revoluiinn, it should be remarked, that 
 the llieratchy and Ari«t"Cracy of England were never suflered to 
 take root in our soil, nor to chill by their baneful influence the cor- 
 dial fellowship that springs from a juft and high-minded sense of 
 equality. Schemes indeed were not wanting among the sinister po- 
 liticians of Etiglaiul, Hod the little great men of the colonies, to en- 
 cuT.ber us with both. But the good sense and information of our 
 forefubers rejected with abhorrence, the least approximation or 
 tendency to an alliance between church and state, 'i'he star too 
 and garter they regarded as the fiivolous gewgav/s of little minds 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 7 
 
 fitted indeed to exalt insignificance but to debase true nobility, and, 
 vrhoUy unworthy a place in the vocabulary of freemen. 
 
 With all these tVelings of just respect f-^'i" thernselves and decided 
 repugnance t" many of the fashionable mftxims and doctrines of Ihe 
 the English Monarcbj^they siill cheri^^hed a cordial attachment to 
 the land of their progeniton?. They were accnstomed to regard 
 their relation to the British empire not as a badge of dependence, 
 but as a source of mutual interest, of pride and satisfaction. They 
 were, until oppression soured their mind^-, emphatically English in 
 their feelings. — Consanguinity, origin, language, government, all 
 attached them to the nan»e and character of British fieeaian. — The 
 page of English history ivas brightened by a thousand incident'- that 
 kindled the patriotism of Americans On their own soil they had 
 fought the battles (f England by the side of Entrlishmen — At the 
 sir ge ofLoui^burgh they had humbled the pride of France — On the 
 heights of Abraham they had bound the dying head of the illustri- 
 ous Wolfe with the chaplet of victory — and would have done the 
 same to the unfortunate Braddock^ had he not unwisely rejected the 
 judicious advice of his American Aid-de-camp. 
 
 Could England suppose that men like these were fit subjects for 
 passive obedience and non-resistance; docirines which stie hessiclf, 
 in her bet^t days, had scouted and stamped with the brand ot iuf-imyZ 
 Necessity, the origin of all governments, gave birth to the stiper- 
 ititending power of the parent country over her polonies, tlence the 
 imperial jurisdiction of Great Britain. In submiuing to thi?, our 
 ancestors were never forgetful of the necessary and unalienable 
 reciprocity between allegiance and protection So far from admit- 
 ting or dreamiug that they had forfeited a title of the substantial 
 rights of Englishmen by colonization in America, their v«ry object 
 in transplantig themselves was the securit v and enlargement of these 
 rights. The impossibility of applying the domestic laws and civ- 
 il polity of Englrind to their new and raw locations in a barbarous 
 wilderness, prevented even the experiment of any f'uch plan Ileoce 
 from Ihe infancy of Iheir settleroeKts. the clonists tphI zed «nd put 
 in practice the high prerogatives of self-governrnpnt, esfiecially the 
 right &i power of taxing themselves, and by conseqnence of del er mining 
 the amount, occasion, expedience, nature and chaiacter of tbe las. 
 But foreign commerce was a delicate and complicated concern. 
 it was this that brought them into contact with the world, ]'he 
 flag of England, which floatefi at their mast heads, was the [c^i of 
 their character, and the signal of peace or war with all other nations. 
 For this protection of the parent flag, they cheerfully sunrndered 
 the regulatiari of their commerce, the control and even the monopo- 
 ly of iheir trade. 
 
 Now, though it may be admitted that so far as the abstract prin- 
 ciple ofjurisdiction wa?! iuvulved, it was difiicnlt to draw a distinc- 
 tion between external and internal taxation — that the power winch 
 taxed American industry through the mediuni of monopoly, was as 
 ■absolute as that which enforced the use of the Royal Stamp en our 
 
 ii^Wjt^ 
 
8 ' AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 bonds and deeds, or which exacted threepence a pound on our lea, 
 yet t'i the colonie'? there was a real and !»ubs'aniial difleience in the 
 nature of these impositions — As it respected the mother country, 
 both these powers emanaied from the same source. The right of 
 al! '.axation was vested in Parlmoaeot, where tffe ppople of England 
 were, oj were supposed (o be represented. But to the C'don)es un- 
 represented, unheard, unknown to the political i^ystem ot Britain, a 
 direct internal tax levied by England was a gra'uitnus exaciinn — it 
 was 5<nfj|le irresponsible extortion — it was pillage — it was robbery 
 — it was any thing but a La-s} that freemen could submit to. — It was 
 not the threepence, the sixpence, the shilling, nor ihe pound ; it was 
 the principle thai vvas scouted by men proud and jealous of theit rights, 
 and whose understandings told them that a monneni's acqoiej-cence 
 in that principle reduced them to Egyptian bondage — made them 
 hewer? of wood and dravvera of vvater, to British taskmasters. So 
 far as commerce was concerned, they had surrendered to necesfity 
 and expediency, yet not without consideration, a great, social and 
 political right for the ju!?t exercise of which,they confided in the mag- 
 nanimity and policy, and especially in the interest of their common 
 sovereign — But the right of taxing themselves was among the 
 household gods of their country. Its violation was sacrilege — to tol- 
 erate U^infamy. 
 
 In reviewing, after a lapse of fifty years, the grounds of contest 
 bet^^^een Great Britain and her colonies, It is impossible to suppress 
 (he feelings of astonishment and indignation which weie excited in 
 our fatlieis, though to these feelings on our part are certainly added 
 those of joy and gratitude. Or. the one hand we behold a brave, 
 loyal, intelligent people, proud of their connection with the parent 
 country, exulting in the character of Anglo-Americans, cherishing 
 with enthu?>iasm the honor of the British name, willing and anxious 
 to contribute their share, and actually paying more than their pro- 
 portion to the support "f government, simply msiriling <in the known 
 and admitted right of British subjects the right of raxing themseves. 
 — On the other haod we see a great commercial kingdom, claiming 
 and professing to be governed bv the broad maxims of a liberal and 
 colighfeued p licy, sensible of the value and importance of Ameri- 
 ca, well acquainied with the origin, habits and feelings of her inhab. 
 it:»')ts, for t;ie sake of an abstract proposition, a bare salvo to imperial 
 pride, declaratory of a right whicli nevej did nor could exist, sa- 
 criticingihree .nillions of subjects, and by that act incurring the immi- 
 nent hazaid of throwing them into the aims of her hereditary enemies, 
 orof^uffeMng their pei petual alienation. Infatuation so gros&,stupid- 
 ity so blmd — lecklessness so wanton, no language can characterise. 
 '•Qvcfrt Deus vult perJsre prrus dtmentat^'' 
 
 This obviously suicidal chvacier of British policy will go far to 
 account for tbe toireuts of jtetitions. meuionale, arguments, remon- 
 stmnces and intercessions, which for a sci le-* of \ eats inundated the 
 Throtie and Parliament, It was difficult for the col mies to believe 
 that EngUuid was ingoud CAinesl, and really bent on me destruction 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 9 
 
 of her own interests. The king, the parliament, the people of En- 
 glaod were addressed by every argiiaient that genius could invent, 
 or affection urge on a misguided monarch, a perverse legislature, a 
 deluded people. When, however, it was assertaioed that Infatua- 
 tion was "Lord of the A«cei)dant," that no middle course existed 
 between unconditional submission and resistance, that parliament, 
 not satisfied with engrossing our commerce, was determined to mo- 
 nopolize our property, and by consequence our persons — when ava- 
 rice and extortion laid their grasp on our hearths and alters, when 
 these household gods of our country were no lunger safe from pol- 
 lution, the die wast cast — America presented an unbroken front to 
 ignominy — She cut the Gordian knot that tied her destinies to an 
 unnatural parent — She declared herself absolved from that alle- 
 giance which obtained no protection — She appealed to the God of 
 Armies — fie heard her prayer, and ratified in fieaven the Declara- 
 tion made on earth. 
 
 Fellow-Citizens — In claiming for our forefathers the character 
 of genuine whig?, in cherishing the conviction that they were the 
 unwavering champions of rational liberty, that they never degraded 
 themselves by even a temporary acquiescence in those usurpations, 
 which mutilated and impaired the substantial rights of freemen; I 
 do not, I cannot undervalue the glorious effects of their emancipa- 
 tion from the mother country. — \( 1 have drawn largely on your 
 patience in expatiating on their colonial history and condition, I 
 would fain excuse myself by avowing a solicitude to place on its 
 true grounds the causes and character of that Revolution, which has 
 been the wonder, and continues to be the light and glory of the 
 world — Daily developing new results, constantly expanding its be- 
 nign influence on the destinies of mankind, the world has not yet 
 witnessed a tithe of its beneficent effects. Every country, kingdom 
 or empire on the globe wherein liberal principles begin to unfold 
 themselves to improve the condition and exalt the character of 
 jman, adds a fresh trophy to the honors of '76. Every new Repub- 
 lic organized by proud and intelligent freemen, is a new triumph of 
 tha cause and principles we this day commemorate. Cast your eyes 
 for a moment on the map of this vast continent, and contrast it with 
 what it was when our Declaratien was first read! Where are the 
 /Airfcen feeble and disconnected colonies? Where are the crippled 
 and suffering provinces of Spain, at that time ground to the earth by 
 the combined pressure of civil and ecclesiastical tyranny — pining 
 and starving amidst unequalled exuberance and fertility? — They 
 stand erect in the conscious dignity of free intelligence. They have 
 cast the burden of oppression from their backs — They have fought 
 their way to freedom through clouds of darkness and seas of blood, 
 and, to borrow the language of a distinguished orator, [Daniel 
 Webster^ oi OMv own country, "in all their glorious struggles, they 
 **have looked steadily to the great Northern Light." — Washing- 
 toq and Warrenj Greene and Monlgomerv. have been the talisma*- 
 
 F. 
 
iff AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 liic sounds that have cheered them in victory and consoled them in 
 defeat. 
 
 Oiii Revolution, like all great changes in the moral world, wag 
 gradual, and accomodated to (he operation of natural causes. Its 
 early dawning may be compared to the effect of a pebble cast into 
 the bosom of a tranquil lake — 
 
 "7'Ae centre moved, a circle straight succeeds, 
 ^'Another still and still another spreads, 
 ^^Friend, Parent, A'eighbor, first it rvill embrace, 
 ■^^Our country next — and next all human race?'' 
 It has proceeded with an accelerated momentum, gaining new 
 -strength and resources in its progress, till it bids fair to encircle the 
 globe, and to bless with the trmm{>hs of philanlhrophy the inhabi- 
 tants of the equator and the poles. 
 
 To trace the rise and progress of the government, which succeed- 
 ed the imperial jurisdiction of Great-Britain over the Colonies, a 
 government, which has attracted, and which we fondly trust will 
 forever command the respect and admiration of the intelligent part 
 of the world, would be an interesting and grateful task. — The lim- 
 its of the occasion will only authorise us to notice a few prominent 
 circumstances. 
 
 The transition from colonial dependence to thirteen entire and 
 •distinct sovereignties, presented a most delicate and embarrassing 
 crisis to the patriots of the Revolution. The acknowledgement of 
 cur Independence and the restoration of Peace, had removed- from 
 the Arch of our hasty confederacy the pressure, which alone con- 
 stituted its strength. The enemies of Liberty saw with malignant 
 satisfaction, this noble but temporary edifice tottering to its fall. — ■ 
 Glootn and dismay for a season cast a cloud over the brightest vi- 
 sions of the purest patriots. The Daemon of Jealousy, local, selfish, 
 distracting, stalked through the land, carrying in her train '■'•Gorgons^ 
 Hydras, and Chimeras dire^^ For a time the hopes and fears of our 
 beloved country vibrated with the discordant elements of the day. 
 It almost began to be a question whether the blood of her patriot 
 martyrs had been shed in the cause of a great and glorious Repub- 
 lic, or had been lavishly wasted in the preliminary broils and san- 
 guinary conflicts of local factions. But, in everlasting honor to the 
 good sense of Americans, history has recorded that they frowned 
 into silence and oblivion the enemies of their domestic peace and 
 national union ; '^ United rve stand, Divided rs:e fall,'''' was the watch- 
 word and countersign of the revolutionary struggle — The same 
 glorious appeal to concession and compromise to co operation and 
 ■harmony gave us the Constitution of the United States. 
 
 The framers of this sacred instrument placed the key stone in 
 the Arch of our Independence, They stamped on the character of 
 the iige the peculiar impress of their own great minds. — They have 
 guaranteed so far as human genius can do it, immortality to free 
 institutions — Prior to this glorious result of philanthropy and patri- 
 otism, it might rationally have been doubted nhethec the Rerolo- 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. i\ 
 
 i'ioa were to prove a blessing or a curse to Americans. — This Con- 
 stitution forever dispelled that doubt. — It rescued a great and ris?. 
 iflg nation ^rom the soul-sickening apprehension of being cut up into 
 local factions, of being subdivided into petty wrangling provinces, 
 Jt dispelled forever the prevailing popularerror, that a free govern- 
 ment must necessarily be restricted tc^a scanty population and limited 
 space — It gave to the great cause o!" freedom the combined support 
 ef thirtet7i, ol' lzi:eiity-fotir, of an indefinitely expanding number of 
 states, all rallying under the sacred flag of Union. 
 
 Under its cheering auspices we have risen in less than half a- 
 century, from small beginnings to the rank and influence of the first 
 grade of Powers. Our numbers have been quadrupled — Our wealth 
 and resources increased an hundred fold. Every navigable wafer 
 on the globe has been whitened by our canvass. The spirit of Inter- 
 nal Improvement has caused these vast Western forests to bow to the 
 genius of Civilization. The spot we now occupy, the whole region of 
 the Ohio, the valley of the Mississippi, and Missouri, fifty years ago, 
 all was a howling wilderness. Behold it now studded with farms 
 and villages, teeming with a hardy and industrious population, all 
 animated with the spirit of Li4»erty, worshipping in various formf, 
 but a common spirit, the great Author of their blessings, each under 
 his own vine and fig-free. The genius of Fulton ha? given a refluent 
 tide to our descending waters. The elastic power of steam, withia 
 a few short years, as if by magic, ha? lined our extensive stream* 
 with the busy marts of an active and expanding commerce. Its ef- 
 fect has been to add thou.«ands of miles to our sea coast and tens- 
 of thousands to our coasting trade — Well may the Chief Magistrate 
 of this extensive Republic exclaim, Liberty is Power. 
 
 But why do I detain you, my ftieods, with the rehearsal of ad- 
 vantages flowing from our institutions, which your own feelings, 
 which the aspect of joy and prosperity here, and a thousand mile* 
 around, impress with ten-fold eloquence on your minds The bless- 
 ings of freedom are stamped on your countenances — they are writ- 
 ten on your hearts. 7'hey swell the general tide of joy and grati- 
 tude, which on this auspicious day rolls with accumulated force 
 from the shores of the Atlantic to the base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 How grateful, Fellow-Citizens, is the thought that all these heart 
 cheering results of our free institutions have been witnessed and en- 
 joyed by many, whose hands assisted to rear the noble fabric. Al- 
 though one and another of this illustrious band have fallen under the 
 scythe of time, and nature herself forbids the expectation of seeing 
 their venerable forms much longer among us — it is a high gratifica- 
 tion on this Jubilee of our country's Independence, to know that the 
 distinguished Author of our Declaration still survives; that although 
 pecuniary embarrassments, the result of a long and exclusive devo- 
 tion to h:^ country, have overtaken him in the evening of his days, 
 yet, that he is more than consoled for the misfortune by the proud 
 
12 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 testimonial it has furnished of his public purity, and of the spon*. 
 taneoos sensibility of his admiring and grateful countrymen!* 
 
 With what exultation and delight do our Mennoriea still linger on 
 the recent visit of the Nation's Guest! Here indeed was a tri- 
 umph oi feeling and principle dear to America, exhilirating to hu- 
 manity! It was an original banquet of the soul, upon which 
 Kings and their vassals gazed, Ifut c^arec/ no^, cou/i/noitaste. Where 
 in the annals of the human race shall we look to gee twelve millions 
 of freemen embracing with open arms a private individual of a fo- 
 reign country? Consecrating by unanimons and universal demon- 
 strations of joy and gratitude the moral enthusiasm of a whole con- 
 tinent? Before this touching and sublime spectacle, the laurels of 
 conquerors, the pomp and splendor of Monarchs. sink into insignifi- 
 cance. Amiable and generous benefactor of our country! accept 
 once more in the sacred retirement oi La Grange, the benedictions 
 of this young and rising State, which you have honored with your 
 presence, and saluted with the kindest expressions of affectionate 
 regard ! 
 
 In the enjoyment of the grateful feelings of this anniversary, let 
 us not, fellow-citizens, be unmindful of the moral purposes of its in- 
 stitution, nor forget the high responsibilities which have descended to 
 us, as the lineal successors of the founders of this confederated Re- 
 public. To us it belongs, not only by our conduct to vindicate and 
 sustain the characters of these illustrious men, to preserve and trans- 
 mit the glorious inheritance unimpaired, we are bound to amj'lify, 
 improve, and adorn the noble fabric, which their labors erected. 
 Inditference or inaction would as little become u?, as it would have 
 ill become them. The world is in a state of active and unceasing 
 progression. The theatre of human action is constantly expanding, 
 and we are bound to elevate and enlarge our views so as to grasp the 
 wholecircleof our duties. Inheriting by birth, or possessing b} choice, 
 a rich share in the sublime privileges, the ample domains, the high 
 destinies of a great and growing nation, it becomes the most sacred 
 of duties properly to appreciate the obligations which devolve on us 
 as men, as fathers, and as citizens. "As the origmal Founder of 
 "the Roman Empire was said, in the language of poetry, to have 
 "once borne on his shoulders the fame and fortunes of all his posleri. 
 ''ty, so let us never forget that the glory and greatness of all our de- 
 "scendants is in our hands."! If we consult the true happiness and 
 glory of those who are to succeed us, if veneration for our fathers 
 be properly blended with a just self love and affection for our off- 
 spring, if it be our aim to realize those sublime anticipations of the 
 
 * The exit of the two Ex-Presidents, Jefferson and Adams, the 
 one the Author, the other the most eloquent and able supporter of 
 the Declaration of Independence, on the NationalJubitee, and with- 
 in a few hours of each other — has produced an impression on the 
 public mind profound and universal — consecrating in the hearts of 
 Americans the joint apotheons of these illustrious patriots, 
 
 t J. Q, Adams. 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 1^ 
 
 future destinies of this country, which animated the meo of '76 in 
 the darkest hours of despondency and suffering, we shall place in the 
 first rank of our duties that of providing, by all the facilities whicU 
 public and private patronage can afford, for the moral and intelect- 
 ual culture of our children. We shall I'eel it our duty to make the 
 education of our citizens a public concern , 
 
 On this vitally interesting and all important subject it will not, I 
 trust be deemed a departure from the legitimate topics of this day, 
 if I solicit your attention for a few moments longer. 
 
 From the earliest periods of anliqnity, in which the Records of 
 our race present us with the first rude sketches f>[ dee govenment, 
 we find that the education of youth was regaided and claimed as a 
 great public trust — peculiarly belonging to the s^iperintendaoce of 
 government. Nothing can be more just or better founded than this 
 sentiment. It is an opinion by no means peculiai toy/-ce governments. 
 The subject, with its important bearings, is as well understood ia 
 Monarchies as Republics — at Constantinople as at Washington The 
 difference between them is this — that the Agents of De*poti!-m and 
 Oligarchy regard exclusively the physical develjfiement of their 
 subjects and slava^ whilst the functionaries of freedom solicit the 
 moral and intellectual expansion of ihe\t /ello-w-cituens and equals. 
 
 On this interesting subject it is both grateful and mortifying to 
 know that some of the earliest colonies have left us lessons and ex- 
 amples which cannot be too much admired nor too closel> imitated. 
 It is now nearly two hundred years since the little colony of Plymouth 
 enacted the following law; — ^'Forasmuch as the maintenance of good 
 literature doth much tend to the advancement 0/ the vaeal andjlourishing 
 state of societies and republics, this Court doth therefore order, that in, 
 "whatever township in this governmeut, consisting of Jifiy families or wy:- 
 wards, any meet man s^all be obtained to teach a grammar school, such 
 ioxanship shall allow at least twelve pounds to be raised by rate on all 
 the inhabitants. Twelve pounds, my friends, m those days, in Ply- 
 mouth Colony, were equal to a hundred now, in any part of the 
 United Stales, Similar laws, about the same time, were enacted in 
 the neighboring colonies of i\lassachu«etts and Connecticut, where a 
 system of public instruction was gradually established, which, with 
 numerous enlargements and imf»rovements, continue to this day, the 
 pride and boast of New-England — the slatle ground work of her "— 
 prosperity and happiness. New York, emulating her adjacent sis- 
 ters in this noble work, has displayed a zeal and muniticenre which 
 is beyond all praise. By the last official reports of the State of her 
 free schools we find that nearly half a million of children of both 
 sexes are, in that State, educated at the public expense. Virginia, 
 tmder the auspices of her illustrious Ex-Presidents, is heartily en« 
 gaged in the great cause. South-Carolina has for many years ap- 
 propriated a large portion of her revenue to the support of common 
 schools. Ohio, too, is directing her great and growing resources to 
 the same glorious object. She has obtained the consent of Congress 
 to euch sale of ber school lands as may be ^ulhoriicd by her Legisla- 
 
14 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 ture, ivith (he consent of the tovrnships; and it is understood to be 
 her intention to have (he proceeds of such sales vested in public se- 
 carities and sacredly appropriated to the purposes of education, at 
 designated in her compact with the general government. I enter- 
 tain httle doubt that Indiana uill find it her interest to follow this 
 exam}>le. The leasing sy^i err has been found in both states to bewhol- 
 )y inadequate to the purpose? of a productive fund ; to be wasteful to 
 the land, and, by encouraging an inferior and worthless population, to 
 produce a great preponderance of evil over the benefits derived from 
 it. The opinion is rapidly gaining ground, that the value of these 
 lands, securely vested at simple interest, will yield a better revenue 
 than any sysiem of leasitig that can be resorted to in our country. 
 
 Fellow-Citizens of Indiana! We are proud and zealous to 
 avow ourselves the advocates of Internal improvement. The magnifi- 
 cent canals, the increasingmanufactures, the vaslinter.ial commerce 
 ofNe»v-York. we contemplale with increasing admiration ; and, as 
 feer enierpiising spirit moves over the waters of Lake Erie into the 
 boundaries of our adjacient sister, continuing the line of excavation 
 which i< shortly to unite the streams of the west with the capacious 
 baibour of her imjierial metropolis, our enthusiasm cannot be re* 
 pressed: we are not satisfied with passive admiration — we would 
 be up hnd doing ourselves! All this is natural and praise-worthy — 
 It is a noble and genferous emulation, which Heaven grant may be 
 diffused co extensively with our Union. But the improvement of 
 our territory by roads and canals, the facilities of transportation and 
 travel, the advantages and choice ofiVIarkets, all excellent, desira 
 ble and attainable as they are — yet what are they in comparison 
 ivith that greatest and noblest of all Internal Improvements the cul- 
 ture and expansion of the Mind? What are they, compared with 
 that knowledge and iatelligence which enable/every patriot citizen 
 riearly to dijicern and steadily to j:ursue the interest of his country? 
 In artificial navigation and all the facilities of internal commerce, 
 Russia and China may challenge the world. — Yet who of us would 
 be a Chinese or a Hussian for the Rent Roll, aye, for they're simple of 
 their thousand canals? 
 
 Fortunately for Indiana, on this great subject, she has not been 
 left to the tardy lessons of her own isolated experience, iu addi- 
 tion to the examples of Colonies and States, which now form a part 
 of this Union, we have been stimulated by the parental Zealand 
 solicitude of our common country, lo appropriating a thirty-sixth 
 part of our soil for the use of township schools, in addition to two 
 whole townships of land granted for a University, the General Gov- 
 ernment has not left the great subject of popular education to the 
 unassisted efforts of our own citizens. Her generous solicitude for 
 this cardinal interei^thas frequentl y reminded us, not only of its in- 
 trinsic importance, but of our corre.= ponding obligations. 
 
 Permit tne, however, my friends, in the spirit of candor and mo- 
 desty, to suggest to you my serious apprehensions, that this noble 
 muojljcence will entirely fail of its beneficent effects, unless the spi- 
 
 ^tA^^^ 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 15 
 
 rit anfl intelligence of our citizens are rouaed to prevent if. There 
 is danger of expecting too much from our school lands and conse- 
 quently of doing too little ourselves, Altliough experience thus far 
 ha'^ demonstrated that the avails of the sixteenth section must neces- 
 sarily for years to come be but trifling, there are not a few of our 
 inhabitants who appear disposed to wait in listless inactivity, until, 
 by some miraculous change in the value of property, the proceeds 
 of this solitary section shall not only begin but complete the education 
 of their fauti^jes. VVherever this is the effect of the liberality of 
 Congress, and I hope it is not extensive, this noble bequest, instead 
 of a blessing, will prove the Box of Pandora, pregnant with evils 
 
 The truth is, Fellow Citizens, the only substantial available fund 
 of all public education, consists in the feelings and minds of the peo- 
 ple. To call these feelings jnto vigorous action, it is only necessa- 
 ry to rouse their attealion, to awaken their intelligence, to enlighten 
 the public mind Correct legislation will follow as a matter of 
 couise. And let the subject be sifted over and over again, let it 
 be canvassed ever so often, whenever the people or their represen- 
 tatives shall enter deliberately on this great work, they will, I feel 
 confident, with great unanimity concur in believing that the only 
 efficacious mode of drawing into action the mental and moral ener- 
 gies of the whole rising generation, and forming their morals and 
 manners is the good old plan adopted at Plymouth, near two hun- 
 dred years ago — viz; the system of free schools supported by equal 
 and moderate taxation — It is this system, my Friends, which in Co- 
 lonial times laid the foundation of a Franklin, the light and glory of 
 his age — which formed the Adamses, the Warrens, the Hancocks, 
 and Quincys, of '76, which has since unfolded the dawning intellect 
 and gigantic powers of a Parsons, a Dexter, a Kent, and a 'Vebster, 
 allof'.vhom and thousands more, equally cultivated, though not 
 equally distinguished, inhaled^lements of literature in the atmos- 
 phere of free schools, where it is the pride aiid glory of more than 
 two millions of people, that not a full grown individual of either 
 sex of sane mind, can be found, who has not learnt to read, write, and 
 cast accounts. These blessings, ladianians, may be jours. To will 
 them, vigorously to will them is to attain them."^ 
 
 When we reflect, Fellow-Citizens, that knowledge and virtue are 
 the main pillars which sustain the edifice of our liberties — that 
 these noble characteristics of the patriot freeman are in a great de- 
 gree if not wholly the result of education, thai public purity, order, 
 and happiness, have in all countries borne an exact conespondence 
 with the diffusion of light and knowledge, that the dissemination of 
 learning and morals is the happiest as well as most efTectual 
 
 * It is m our power to enjoy these mestimable privileges at lesa 
 than half the cost cf our Northern Brethren, since the school lands, 
 if judiciously managed, will defray half the expense of a free school 
 system, independent of the fines and penalties which now go to a 
 County Seminary, but which ought to go to common schools. 
 
 ;^ A 
 
16 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 BQOiIe of preventing and curtailing the pxtension of the criminal 
 code, that the sum allotted to this phiIan(hropic ohject is just so 
 DXKh saved from the ex{)enses of criminal justice — that a tax which 
 secures our persons and property, by purifying the moral atmos- 
 phere of our coiintf}', by rescuing from vice and misery the off- 
 spring of penury and misfortune, and at the same time adds to the 
 number of good citizen-^, is infinitely more acceptable and grateful 
 than one, which pays for the arrest, confinement, trial, and incar- 
 ceration of the miserable felon, who, if his history be known, will 
 in nine cases out of ten, be found to have been some poor, idle, ne- 
 glected, uneducated youth; when in fine we reflect that the system 
 here recommended is among the positive injunctions of our own ex- 
 cellent stale Constitution, that it has received the unqualified sanc- 
 tion of Washington, of Franklin, of Adams, of Jefferson, in fact of 
 every name distinguished in the annals of science, freedom or hu- 
 manity, is it, permit me to ask, too much to expect that it will 'ere 
 long receive the cordial support, the enlightened suffrages of the 
 free and independent citizens of Indiana? 
 
 Let this system be adopted, and the orator who shall address 
 you from this spot Jifly years hrnce, will under the glorious auspices 
 of that day, speak to you of other things in a different style from the 
 humble individual, now honored by your attention. Exulting in the 
 past and kmdling with the future gloiies of this expanding state, his 
 glowing pencil will spread illumination through the now dark re- 
 cesses of her magniticent forests — He will give you in history ivhat 
 is now only in perspective, the brilliant career, the enduring felici- 
 ty of his beloved Indiana! He will point you to the Franklins, 
 the Henrys, the Clays of this his native soil, born perhaps in the 
 lowest vale of indigence and obscurity, but whose etherial genius 
 and soul thrilling eloqu«nce, were rescued from oblivien and saved 
 to their country and mankind by the influence of Free Schools. — 
 He will exhibit to your admiring gaze the two millions of happy 
 citizens who will then inhabit this delightful region, all enlightened 
 and refined by the beneficent diffusion of learning and morals. 
 
 After doing justir:e to the philanthropic policy of his native state, 
 he will invite your listening admiration to the combined splendors of 
 this confederate Empire. He will, I tiust in God, tell you of a course 
 of gradual extinguishment, if not of the entire extirpation of Slavery 
 from a land consecrated to freedom. May he also under the auspi- 
 ces of American philanthrophy, proclaim the abolition of private 
 war, rapacity and plunder on the ocean! He will present to your 
 affectionate greeting the nevv states, which will then lengthen and 
 brighten the grand chain of Union. The extended glories of the 
 Star S(»aagled Bannpr will detain you as it were on enchante<i 
 ground. A new and unequalTrophy will have been added to Ame- 
 rican enfoi prise. The popuTatiou and commerce lining the shores 
 of the Pacific and Atlantic, will have decreed an eveilasting union 
 between these wa'ers — aod the hllimus of Panama, now (he central 
 subjccl of invidious hostility and designed misconstructioRj will then 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. It 
 
 survey with ever glowing rapture, this noblest mocameDt of the 
 combined exertions of freemen. 
 
 Then will the njad ravings of disappointed ambition be forgotten, 
 or remembered with pit)^ and contempt — The tia'.f maniac, half 
 incendiarji politiciau of our days, will have t>een consumed m the 
 fires of his own self-tormenting smil — the foul vapourings of hungry 
 and unfed oflice-seeUers will be exhaled by the lig'il and sclend.>r 
 of Truth. — Then will the malignant spirit of envy and det- action 
 be exchanged for the just admiration of discriminating posterity, 
 and the present administration of the National Government di-eo- 
 Ihralled and redeemed from prejudice and calumny, be hallowed by 
 the gratitude of the American People. 
 
 Note. — In consequence of being either mtVapprehended or no 
 apprehended, by several of my Fellow Citizens who beard the pre 
 ceding pages delivered, so far as the subject of Education ib glanc 
 ed at, ,1 cheerfully consented that this hasty production should be 
 published. Unforeseen impediments occuningto prevent the im- 
 mediate publication, an opportunity is afforded me to subjoin a few- 
 supplementary remarks. 
 
 1 certainly have been m-)st unfortunate in my comprehension of 
 the meaning of the ConstitxUion of Indiana, if it does not contain a 
 most direct, explicit and unequivocal i;ijunction on the Legislature 
 to establii^h tree Schools. If then 1 read the Constitution cf my 
 own State correctly, is it not a little cxtraordin»rv that resentment 
 and indignation, not to say denunciation^ should be raised against aa 
 individual for advising, ave, for warmly recommendiug bis Fellow- 
 Citizens to carry their own Constitution into effect? I confe-fss I 
 have witnessed the excitement that has recently prevailed in this 
 county on this subject, with on little surprise — 1 cannot say regret, 
 because from this very excitement 1 earnestly hope and firmly be- 
 lieve, that light and truth will be elicited — of couise that good will 
 result. In the mean lime I will indulge the gratificatioo of shewing 
 my Fellow-Citizens, by quotations fiom the Constitutions of our sis'er 
 states, that this noblest pari of the Constitution of Indiana is in per- 
 fect keeping with the characterof the age — that is with repubticanisnif 
 constantly progressive — and being one of the last, is, especially oa 
 this important subject, one of the best Constitutions in the Union. 
 
 Among the twenty-three Constitutions of the United States, 
 (Rhode Island is still governed by the Charter of Charles the lid,) 
 thirteen of them contain riiiect and explicit provisions for the eo- 
 couragement of popular education. All the states of New-England, 
 with the exception of Rhode-Island, have established free schools 
 bylaw. New York has done the SHme thing on a most ample and libe- 
 ral scale. The Constitution of Pennsylvania, Article 7th, contains the 
 following provision; — "The Legislature shall as soon as conveniently 
 may be, provide by law for the establishment of schools throughout 
 the state in s-uch manner, that the poor may ba taught gratis.'''' 
 
 The Constitution of North-Carolina, Sec. 41, reads as follows:-— 
 <'Tbat a school or schools shall be eslablished for the convenieirt in- 
 
 ■ G 
 
IS AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 ^traction of youth with sach salaries to the msler., paid by th. 
 pubhc, as may enable them to instruct at low prices, and all u/eful 
 
 ^1!^ '' '^'^ ^"""^^^^' ^"^ P^^'"^'^^ i" °- - -- 
 
 Article € Sec. 1. of the Constitution of Mis9ouri, reads as follows- 
 
 Schoo s and be means of education, shall forever be encouraged in 
 
 this state, and the General Assembly shall take measures to preserve 
 
 from waste or damage such land, as have been granted or hereafter 
 
 a^ay beg ted by the Udited States for the use of schools, within 
 
 each townsh.p m this state, and shall apply the funds which may 
 
 ari«e from such lands, m strict conformity to the object of the granf, 
 
 and .ne school pr more shall be established in each township as soon 
 
 as practicable and necessary, where the poor shall be taught gratis " 
 
 Tne consutut.ons of Georgia, Ohio, and Alabama contain provi- 
 
 «oaswho^^,r,t and meaning fully embrace this great interest.-. 
 
 But .n no State of the Union have the zeal and solicitude of the fra- 
 
 ttersofthe constitution been so fully and specifically expressed on 
 
 h.s subject as ,o that ofkoiANA. After providing for the care of 
 
 the lands granted by the general government, for the use of schools, 
 
 and securing the.r exclusive appropriation to this sacred object. Our 
 
 Cons .tufon Article 9th Sec. 2, contains the following enaction: 
 
 «/^ shal be the duty of the General Assembly, as soon as circum- 
 stances -..illpermU, to provide by larv for a general system of Education, 
 ascendzng tn a regular gradation from Tou-nship Schools to a State 
 University, wheretn tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all " 
 
 1 am laformed by a distinguished member of our State Conven- 
 tion, that ^r this part of our Constitution we are indebted to the 
 pen of John Badollet Esqr. Register of the Land office at Vin- 
 ^-fs'irr^^'^'^rr ""^"'^ '''""''' ^^^^°'"S and integrity, are 
 r V^/rru""^ ""u "'"""' '*" '' ^^"°^"' ^°d ^^ho has from an early 
 g/llatinI ""'^"^ "^'^^^^^ '"'"°'^' friendship of Albert 
 
 In order t^ obviate future misconstruction or misapprehension, I 
 take this occasion to state that it never has been in my contempla- 
 tion to urge upon the Legislature of our State any system of taxation, 
 whatever, for the support of township schools, which shall not 
 previously have received a foil examination and deliberate sanction 
 from the people. Nothing of this nature can with propriety be in. 
 ferred f.om my observations. It is the people, the sovereign people 
 Jhe^sT/biiJV f' S'"* «f '""desty," 1 have respectfully invited to take' 
 the subject of Education into their serious consideration_beIievin<. 
 that when ,t .s fully canvassed and thoroughly understood, they wilf 
 T' ?v^r "°^"^.'"'t3'';''"^"^ i« instructing their Representatives to 
 carry the provisions of the.r own constitution into effect- «to estab- 
 
 nnpn T" n'f '^.°°'' "y^""^'" *"'''°" ^*^^" ^« Sratis, and equally 
 open to all " Those who believe that theyouthful season of a Sta e 
 Ike that of an individual, is the seed time to prepare for a rich and 
 luxuriant harvest, will probably be of opinion that the sooner this 
 great work .s commenced the b.tter. J. H. FAKNHAM. 
 
 Washington County, October 26, 1326. 
 
3 
 
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