JK I 5 § U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR K C JAMES J. DAVIS. Secretary O 1| BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION WRITING. neaa tvitet VOCK /oot 4&71 moatA aim eue mloat tea note toe cniri eaA e/vow men ate eieatea eaaa/. * J — Declaration of Independence. rr ffle aie nevei too ota to /eat^i/ J — Benjamin Franklin. r '*Jne aooid of tvteavm, aie rieveb mat. J J — Benjamin Franklin. rr ) \ -jJSF/T ^r— /5*\ Jn.dak. ) xf\ \MINN. ^ f wis- I Sit A i* > ^-~-*3 ^ nl^? IOWA l*Lij -p 3 — - — , "S*™"" . n T $( JKANS. ^-V.^ ~ \r. \ j ^ "^^^^ r 1 VN^'\ ^ti^ ' g^" -, f — tOKLA. -sv M5L- !/*! 1 ^TEXX^V \_ • m ^VMISS.Ij ALA. AGfy ^^^VV 42783'— 21. (Fnce | student's textbook. LESSON III. Where What Take Put SCHOOLROOM OBJECTS. American flag book pencil floor wall ceiling window hallway- stairs picture picture frame box basket clock bell ruler blackboard eraser rubber pen penholder desk chair CLOTHES OR CLOTHING. hat collar coat necktie overcoat shoes dress shirt apron pants stockings gloves socks shawl cuff belt ribbon suspenders vest They are on my desk. I take your gloves from my desk and put them on your desk. The basket is on the chair. I took the basket from the chair and put it on the floor. I took your gloves from my desk and put them on your desk. I took the basket from the chair and put it on the floor. WRITING. a, a&moclczcu. J - J - — Thomas Jefferson. inAeb&nt U'ant of aw vn, ;oy. LESSON IV. I have two arms. I have two feet. I have two hands. I have two legs. I have one head. I have two ears. I have two eyes. I have eight fingers. I have two thumbs. You have two hands. You have one head. You have a hat. You have two arms. You have two feet. You have two legs. You have two ears. You have two eyes. You have two thumbs. You have eight fingers. He has two hands. He has two thumbs. He has eight fingers. He has a hat. He has two arms. He has two eyes. He has two feet. He has two legs. He has two ears. She has two hands. She has two thumbs. She has eight fingers. She has one head. She has two arms. She has two eyes. She has two feet. She has two ears. She has one nose. I have a hat in my hand. She has a hat on her head. r * ' Wwyw/ watte maned ^vee^Kt/ want. r < Vw£ tnwiad c&be eadw Jo cnaitdJltUj *Jy>/o J/Un>ad arte afonfccttw Jo d/oJn. — Benjamin Franklin. student's textbook. 9 LESSON V. This These That Those This is my hand. This is my arm. This is my head. This is my eye. This is my forehead. This is my nose. This is my mouth. This is my chin. This is my ear. This is my foot. That is your hand. That is your arm. That is your head. That is your eye. That is your forehead. That is your nose. That is your mouth. That is your chin. That is your ear. That is your foot. That is his hand. That is his arm. That is his head. That is his eye. That is his forehead. That is his nose. That is his mouth. That is his chin. That is his ear. That is his foot. That is her hand. That is her arm. That is her head. That is her eye. That is her forehead. That is her nose. That is her mouth. That is her chin. That is her ear. That is her foot. This is my hat. This is her hat. This is his hat. This is your hat. That is my hat. That is her hat. That is his hat. That is your hat. These are my arms. These are my fingers. These are my cheeks. These are my hands. Those are your arms. Those are your fingers. Those are your cheeks. Those are your hands. Those are her arms. Those are her fingers. Those are her cheeks. Those are her hands. Those are his arms. Those are his fingers. Those are his cheeks. Those are his hands. These are my shoes. Those are your shoes. Those are her shoes. Those are his shoes. This is your book. This is your desk. This is your pencil. This is your hat. This is your chair. That is your coat. This is a book. This is a desk. This is a pencil. This is a hat. This is a chair. This is a coat. This is a blackboard. This is a window. This is her book. This is her desk. This is her pencil. This is her hat. This is her chair. This is her coat. This is his book. This is his desk. This is his pencil. This is his hat. This is his chair. This is his coat. e/c ao7ie id veffiei, man ivetv daca/ j — Benjamin Franklin. LESSON VI. I have two eyes. You have two eyes. I see with my eyes. I hear with my ears. I smell with my nose. I speak with my mouth. I eat with my mouth. I taste with my tougue. No; I do not smell with my eyes; I look with my eyes. No; I do not hear with my hands; I hear with my ears. I can smell with my nose. I can hear the clock tick with my ears. Yes; I see with my eyes. In the schoolroom I see the teacher, the students, the blackboard, the desks, the clock, the window, the floor, the ceiling, and the walls. adte tnaned ivadte. eie tieveb wad a aooa £n^ vnaae a? vaa meta// J — Benjamin Franklin. io student's textbook. LESSON VII. CONVERSATION. How many feet have you? I have two feet. How many books have you? I have four books. How many pencils has the teacher? She has two pencils. How many legs has your desk? My desk has four legs. I am standing. I am walking. I am sitting. I am reading. He is standing. He is walking. He is sitting. He is reading. She is standing. She is walking. She is sitting. She is reading. We are standing. We are walking. We are sitting. We are reading. You are standing. You are walking. You are sitting. You are read- ing. They are standing. They are walking. They are sitting. They are reading. What am I doing? You are standing. What am I doing now? You are walking. What are Moische and Antonio doing? They are standing. What are Moische and Antonio doing now? They are walking. Put your hand on your head. What did you do? I put my hand on my head. Put your hand in your pocket. What did you do? I put may hand in my pocket. Where are my books? Your books are on the floor. Pick up your books and place them on the desk. I picked up the books and placed them on the desk. I sat down. I am seated. What use do you make of the clock? I tell the time of day by the clock. Tell the parts of the clock. The clock has two hands, a face, and a case. One of the hands is small and one is large. Why does it have a small and a large hand ? The small one is to tell the hours and the large one is to tell the minutes. Some clocks have another and smaller hand. What is the use of the smallest hand? It tells the number of seconds in each minute. How many seconds are in a minute? There are 60 seconds in each minute. How many minutes are in each hour? There are 60 minutes in each hour. How many hours are in each day? There are 24 hours in each day. *e*y?i<2> can,o / la / ?zt te ?io£ 60 macn a dna?ne ad veehza ftmwc/w'Ma to /eabvz. — Benjamin Franklin. LESSON VIII. I am sitting down. I rise and stand up. I walk across the floor. I reach the door. I open the door. I close the door. I return to my seat. I sit down. She is sitting down at her desk. She rises and stands up. She walks across the floor. She reaches the door. She opens the door. She closes the door. She returns to her seat. She sits down. This is my book. It is a schoolbook. I look at my book with my eyes. I give my book to Giovanni. Giovanni takes my book. He opens it with his hands. He looks at it with his eyes. He reads the book. He finishes reading the book. He passes the book to Selma. She takes my book. She opens it with her hands. She looks at it with her eyes. She reads the book. She finishes reading the book. rr <$oe Jnat dad a foaae dad an omce <^Alofrt ana d&nob. — Benjamin Franklin. student's textbook. II LESSON IX. STORY OF SCHOOLROOM. I like to come to the school. I like the teacher. I like the lessons that are taught. I like to write in my copy book. I like to write on the blackboard. I like to read in the schoolbooks. I like to read about America. If I am to learn all the teacher desires me to learn, I must come to the schoolroom every night the school is open. I must study my lessons. I must listen to what the teacher tells me. Those who come to the school to learn are called students or pupils. They should not be late. The students always should come to the school on time. Their clothing should be neat. When they are in school they should be respectful to their teacher and polite and courteous to one another. It is wrong to make noises in the schoolroom. It is harder to learn the lessons when there are noises in the room. The students should use the desks carefully and act so that the schoolroom and building will not be injured. If a student drops paper on the floor, he should pick it up at once. When I come to the schoolroom I should say " Good evening ' ' to the teacher. When I leave the school- room I should say "Good night" to the teacher. Students should speak to each other in the same way when coming into the schoolroom before the lesson commences. When students meet in the schoolroom they should say "How do you do?" "How are you? " " How are you this evening ? " or " Good evening. ' ' When they leave, it is courteous for them to say "Good night" to each other. I shall try to act as I have learned from this lesson. I come to the evening school to learn to speak American English . It means a better opportunity and a better home for me in America. It means a better job for me. It means a better chance for my children. It means a better America. I shall do my part in making a better America. I love America because of what it does for me . I shall talk in English in my home. I shall speak English in my work. I shall talk English with my wife and children. ' '' \y&eaGfori,a maned a /it// mari; mecufafawi a /Uawund -mean; c/teccwlde a c/eai mam/'' — Benjamin Franklin. LESSON X. The teacher is expected to give the class full instruction in this lesson. THE NEWSPAPER. Each day the newspaper gives us a record of events as they occur throughout the world and makes it possible for us to know what is being done and said and thought. It has been called "the poor man's univer- sity," as through its use the poor man may develop, at small expense, the habit of thinking — of reasoning — -which is the foundation of all mental growth. Three hundred years ago the newspaper was a single sheet printed on a simple hand press and issuing but a small number of copies. In its growth to the great modern daily, printed on giant presses which print and fold as many as 96,000 16-page papers in an hour, it has been an important factor in the upbuilding of our country. The wise men who 12 STUDENT S TEXTBOOK. framed our Constitution knew how necessary the freedom and inde- pendence of the newspapers would be to a democracy, and carefully provided for the "liberty of the press." To-day in the United States there are more than 23,000 newspapers, a fact which shows how necessary this kind of publication has become to the American family. LESwSON XI [. MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY. mother daughter grandparents wife uncle father children grandson mother-in-law aunt parents child granddaughter father-in-law nephew brother grandmother grandchildren brother-in-law niece sister grandfather husband sister-in-law cousin son PARTS OF THE HOUSE. attic dining room stairs key window garret sitting room wall lock windowpane roof cellar floor door windowframe parlor kitchen ceiling FURNITURE. table napkin chair soap sheet desk sugar bowl rocking chair shelf towel bureau sugar spoon pictures matches tablecloth settee spoon pillow lamp cupboard clock stove comb chair butter dish rug coal closet chiffonier cup piano wood spoon holder bed saucer blanket couch fork couch glass mirror dressing table knife curtains coffee pot brush sofa saltcellar mattress kettle "&a feme te nevel jfcwna aacwn. ** — Benjamin Franklin. VEGETABLES. potato lettuce parsley corn pea cucumber bean squash spinach carrot beet cabbage turnip FRUITS. tomato celery peach plum pear lemon currant strawberry grape fig orange cherry date apple cantaloupe NUTS. watermelon banana almond hickory nut butternut pecan Brazil nut hazelnut walnut peanut chestnut student's textbook. 13 LESSON XII. DAYS OF THE WEEK. There are seven days in a week. The first day is Sunday. The other days are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. Saturday is the last day of the week. The first day is a day of rest. People of the Jewish faith and of several Christian sects observe Saturday instead of Sunday as a day of rest. The other six days are days in which we are to work. The schools are open in the daytime from Monday to Friday for about nine months in the year. They are also open in the nighttime for four or five months in nearly 1,000 cities for those who work in the daytime. In some cities the schools are open through the whole year to teach citizenship classes. I wish this school would stay open all the year for teaching citizenship duties. When I become a citizen, I will vote to have the public schools kept open the entire year. MONTHS OF THE YEAR. There are 1 2 months in the year. The months are January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, and December. The year is divided into four seasons of three months each. These seasons are spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter The spring months are March, April, and May. The summer months are June, July, and August. The autumn or fall months are September, October, and November. The winter months are December, January, and February. The seasons commence on the 21st and end on the 20th day of the month. January, March, May, July, August, October, and December have 31 days each. April, June, September, and November have 30 days each. February has 28 days, except every fourth year, called leap year, when it has one day more. The abbreviated or short forms for writing the months are as follows: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr. (May, June, and July are not abbreviated), Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. holidays. The first day of January is New Year's Day, and it is observed as a holiday in all of the States and in Washington City, the capital of the Nation. February 1 2 is the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, and in a great many States it is a legal holiday. February 22 is Washington's Birthday, and it is universally observed as a holiday throughout the United States. March 4 is the day on which, every fourth year, the President of the United States is inaugurated. It is a holiday in Washington City in that year. May 30 is called Memorial or Decoration Day, when exercises in memory of the soldier dead are held, and is a holiday in most of the States. The Fourth of July or Independence Day is observed as a holiday in every part of the United States. The first Monday in September has been named by Congress Labor Day. Congress has made it a legal 14 student's textbook. holiday in the District of Columbia, and it is observed as a holiday in all the States. The last Thursday of November is called Thanksgiving Day, and each year the President of the United States issues a proclamation to the people to observe this day as a day of thanksgiving to God for the blessings received during the year. December 25 is called Christmas Day and is observed as a holiday not only throughout the United States but in almost every civilized country in the world. protection from fires. Everyone should be careful in the use of fire. Safety matches should be used if obtainable. If other matches are used they should be kept in metal boxes. A burning match never should be thrown on the floor. The light should be blown out. The spark remaining after the flame has gone out should be extinguished with care. Almost every fire is due to a thoughtless and careless action. There is great danger of fire in cities and especially in the parts of the cities in which working people live. In the tenement houses and factories the danger probably is greatest. This is because of the great number of people who live in tenement buildings and work in factories. Children should not be allowed to have matches. Sometimes it is necessary for parents to leave the little children alone in the home. Before the parents go out all matches should be placed where the children can not find them. Children should be repeatedly warned of the danger of fire. Loose papers, rags, and all rubbish should be taken from the house and placed in metal cans specially made for that purpose. All waste paper should be folded carefully and tied in neat bundles. Paper cared for in this way may be sold to advantage instead of being thrown away as waste. All persons employed in shops or factories or living in houses where many families live should know the location of the fire escapes. Everyone should learn where the fire-alarm boxes are placed. As soon as a fire is discovered, some one should run quickly to the nearest fire-alarm box and ring the alarm. No one should ring the fire alarm or touch the fire- alarm box unless there is a fire. It is wrong to cry "Fire," "Fire." The cry of fire causes many people to become frightened and in crowded buildings almost always results in loss of life or injury to many people. In the city government there is a fire department. The duty of the fire department is to provide means for the protection of the lives and property of the people from fire. The city government employs men to work as firemen. These firemen are always ready to answer the call to put out a fire in any part of the city. The men are fire fighters and are trained in all methods for putting out fires. Each city has an organi- zation of fire-fighting men. The head of the fire department is called the chief. The chief has subchiefs, captains, lieutenants, drivers, and other firemen. The city government pays the members of the fire department from the money collected from the taxpayers. STUDENT S TEXTBOOK. 15 LESSON XIII. VOCATIONS , TOOLS, ETC. actor housekeeper telephone operator pencil agent instructor watchmaker pickax automobile machinistjeweler watchman plane banker laborer anvil pliers barber laundress auger plow blacksmith lawyer awl plumb line boiler maker letter carrier ax punch bookbinder liveryman bellows rake bookkeeper machinist bit razor bricklayer mason brush reamer butcher merchant cash register riveter carpenter miner chisel saw chauffeur motorman churn scales clerk musician compass scraper conductor nurse cutter screw driver cook optician drill scythe dentist overseer eraser sewing machine detective painter file shears doctor plumber flatiron shovel driver policeman hammer sledge druggist preacher harrow spade electrician printer hatchet square engineer salesman hoe tongs engraver school-teacher last trowel farmer shoemaker lathe typewriter fireman stenographer level wire cutter fisherman tailor needle wrench grocer telegrapher pen LESSON XIV. FIRST STEPS IN NATURALIZATION. TAKING OUT MY FIRST PAPER. I am over 18 years old. For some time I have wanted to become an American citizen. I wanted to take out my first citizen's paper. I did not know how to do this. I asked my friends and found some who would tell me if I would pay them. Others who did not know sent me to their friends, who offered to help me; but they also wanted to be paid. I had heard that others were helped without having to pay. Finally, I found a friend who told me the Bureau of Naturalization in Washington City would show me what to do to become an American without asking me to pay for the information. I wrote a letter to the Bureau of Naturalization and received a letter with a paper to fill out. The Commissioner of Naturalization said the chief naturalization exam- iner in this city would help me fill out the paper without pay. I called on the chief naturalization examiner, and he helped me fill out the paper and would take no pay for his work. This paper was the form that shows all the information needed for the clerk of the court to make out the first paper. When it was filled out I took it to the clerk of the court and made my declaration of intention to become an American citizen. 1 6 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. The United States Government then sent me a letter telling me about the night schools and how they would help me in court to answer the questions necessary to get my citizen's papers, and urged me to go to the public school nearest my home. I went to the school, and now I am learning to read, write, and speak English. The teachers have received from the Bureau of Naturalization all of the forms that are needed to take out first papers and the second paper or certificate of naturalization. The teacher knows all about citizen's papers and is always ready to help anyone to get his citizenship papers, and will not take pay for this work. This is because the United States Government gave the papers to the teacher, who is glad to give the help without pay in any place where there are no United States naturalization examiners. If I had known the public-school teacher had all the preliminary papers and knew all about how to take out citizen's papers, I would have gone to the school-teacher and not to others, who would not help me unless I would pay them. Form 2213. FACTS FOR DECLARATION OF INTENTION. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. NATURALIZATION SERVICE. Note. — A copy of this form should be furnished by the clerk of the court to each applicant for a declar- ation of intention, so that he can at his leisure fill in the answers to the questions. After being filled out the form is to be returned to the clerk, to be used by him in properly filling out the declaration. If the applicant landed on or after June 29, 1906, his declaration should not be filed until the name of the vessel is definitely given (or the name of the railroad and border port in the United States through which the alien entered), as well as the date of arrival. To the Applicant. — The fee of $1 must be paid to the clerk of the court before he commences to fill out the declaration of intention. No fee is chargeable for this blank. My name is Age years. (Alien should state here his true, original, and correct name in full) (Give age at last birthday) Also known as (If alien has used any other name in this country, that name should be shown on line immediately above) Occupation Color Complexion Height feet inches. Weight pounds. Color of hair Color of eyes Other visible distinctive marks (If no visible distinctive marks, so state) Where born , (City or town) (Country) Date of birth , , (Month) (Day) (Year) Present residence , , (Number and street) (City or town) (State, Territory, or District) Emigrated from , (Place where alien got on ship or train to come to the United States) (Country) Name of vessel (If the alien arrived otherwise than by vessel, the character of conveyance or name of transportation company should be given) Last place of foreign residence , (City or town) (Country) *I am married ; the name of my wife is ; she was *born at ; and now resides at I am now a subject of and intend to renounce allegiance to (Write name and title of sovereign and country of which now a subject; or if citizen of a Republic, write name of Republic only) Port of arrival , (City or town) (State or Territory) Date of arrival in United States , 1 , (Month) (Day) (Year) *Note to clerk OP court. — The two lines indicated by the (*) contain information which is provided for by blanks on the latest declaration of intention form; until such time as you may be supplied with forms containing these blank spaces the information called for herein should be inserted immediately above the twelfth line, which begins " It is my bona fide intention," etc., as requested in circular letter of Jan- uary 5, 1916. student's textbook. 17 LESSON XV. COMPOSITION AND LETTER WRITING. 84 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y., June 10, iqi6. Messrs. Sheppard, Miller & Co., gff Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Gentlemen: Inclosed please find my check for $25, drawn to your order, in settle- ment in full of my account. Very truly, yours, Anton Martin. Mr. Anton Martin, 84 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Dear Sir: The receipt is acknowledged of your letter of the 10th instant, together with your check in the sum of $25 in full settlement of your account, for which please accept our thanks. Very respectfully, yours, Sheppard, Miller & Co., Per B. 0. Miller. LESSON XVI. SIMPLE NUMBER WORK. o=naught. 1 =one. 2=tWO. 3=three. 4=four. 5=five. 6=six. 7=seven. 8=eight. 9=nine. io=ten. n=eleven. i2=twelve. i3=thirteen.- 1st = first. 2d =second. 3d =third. 4th=fourth. 5th=fifth. 6th=sixth. 7th=seventh. 8th=eighth. 42783°— 21- CARDINAL NUMERALS. i4=fourteen. 1 5 == fifteen. i6=sixteen. i7=seventeen. i8=eighteen. i9=nineteen. 2o=twenty. 2 1 =twenty-one . 22 =twenty-two. 23= twenty-three . 24=twenty-four. 25= twenty-five . 26=twenty-six. 27= twenty-seven . ORDINAL NUMERALS. 9th==ninth. ioth=tenth. 1 ith= eleventh. 1 2th = twelfth. i3th=thirteenth. 1 4th =f ourteenth . i5th=fifteenth. i6th=sixteenth. 28= twenty-eight . 2 9 =twenty-nine . 3o=thirty. 40=forty. 5o=fifty. 6o=sixty. 7o=seventy. 80= eighty. 9o=ninety. 1 00= one hundred. i,ooo=one thousand. i,ooo,ooo=one million. 1 7th =seventeenth . 1 8th = eighteenth . 1 9th =nineteenth . 2 oth = twentieth . 2 1st =twenty-first. 5oth=fiftieth. 1 ooth =hundredth . 1 ,000th =thousandth . i8 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. ROMAN NUMERALS. 1= si. VII= = 7- XIII= =I 3- XIX= = 19. C=ioo. 11= = 2. VIII= =8. XIV= = 14. xx= =20. D=5oo. 111= =3- IX= =9- XV= =15- xxx= =3°- CM= 9 oo. IV= =4- x= = 10 XVI= = 16. XL= =40. M=i,ooo. v= =5- XI= =11 XVII= = 17. L= = 50- VI= =6. XII= =12 XVIII= =18. LX= =60. NUMBERS. i 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 2 15 28 41 54 67 80 93 3 16 29 42 55 68 81 94 4 17 30 43 56 69 82 95 5 18 31 44 57 70 83 96 6 19 32 45 58 7i 84 97 7 20 33 46 59 72 85 98 8 21 34 47 60 73 86 99 9 22 35 48 61 74 87 100 IO 23 36 49 62 75 88 n 24 37 50 63 76 89 12 25 38 51 64 77 90 M- 13 26 39 52 65 78 9i LUU. 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 I 4 S 3 5 2 3 7 Subtract: 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 4 6 9 7 6 8 7 5 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 11 12 9 7 6 9 6 8 3 8 7 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 1 2 4 3 2 5 3 4 Multiply: 2 by 2 3 by 4 4 by 6 9 by 9 10 by 10 10 by 7 11 by 9 3 by 3 4 by 5 7 by 8 9 by 8 12 by 8 10 by 8 12 by 6 4 by 4 5 by 6 8 by 8 8 by 6 11 by 4 12 by 9 10 by 3 5 by 5 6 by 7 9 by 6 8 by 4 10 by 9 11 by 7 12 by 9 Divide: 4 by 2 12 by 3 10 by 5 24 by 6 16 by 8 36 by 9 6 by 2 15 by 3 15 by 5 30 by 6 24 by 8 45 by 9 8 by 2 8 by 4 20 by 5 14 by 7 32 by 8 10 by 2 12 by 4 25 by 5 21 by 7 40 by 8 6 by 3 16 by 4 12 by 6 28 by 7 18 by 9 9 by 3 20 by 4 18 by 6 35 by 7 27 by 9 student's textbook. 19 LESSON XVII. UNITED STATES MONEY. One cent. Five cents = a nickel. Ten cents = a dime; two nickels = a dime. Twenty-five cents=a quarter; two dimes and a nickel=a quarter. Two quarters = a half dollar. Fifty cents=a half dollar. One hundred cents=one dollar; four quarters=one dollar; two half dollars=one dollar. The cent has the smallest value among United States coins. It is made of copper. The next coin is the five-cent piece. It is made of nickel. Five cents make a nickel. The next coin is the dime. It is made of silver. Ten cents make a dime. Two nickels make a dime. The next coin is the quarter. Twenty-five cents make a quarter. Five nickels make a quarter. Two quarters make a half dollar. Two fifty-cent pieces make a dollar. One hundred cents make a dollar. Dollars are made of silver, gold, or paper. When made of paper they are called dollar bills. In making change I get four quarters for a dollar bill; I get five one-dollar bills for a five-dollar bill ; I get five dimes for a half dollar. If I pay fifty cents for a necktie, I get fifty cents change from a dollar bill. If the change is given to me in quarters, I get two quarters. If I buy a suit of clothes for twenty-five dollars and give the merchant three ten- dollar bills, I get five dollars change. If the change is given to me in one-dollar bills, I get five one-dollar bills. Symbols.— One cent — 1<5 or $0.01. One dollar — $1. Twenty-five cents — 25$ or $0.25. Five dollars — $5. Five dollars and twenty-five cents — $5.25. Write, add, and subtract the following: $0. 05 $1. 25 $5. 12 .02 .79 2. S3 $4.13 $8.49 $1.92 3-67 5-63 1.83 LESSON XVIII. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS. (The teacher will supply problems involving the following tables.) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Avoirdupois weight. 16 ounces (oz.)=i pound (lb.) 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt) 20 hundredweight! 2,000 poundsp 1 ton ^ 2, 240 pounds=i long ton. Liquid measure. 4 gills (gi.)=i pint (pt.) 2 pints = 1 quart (qt.) 4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal.) 31% gallons = 1 barrel (bbl.) 2 barrels) 6 2 gallons^ 1 hogshead (hhd.) 20 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. Dry measure. 2 pints (pt.)=i quart (qt.) 8 quarts=i peck (pk.) 4 pecks=i bushel (bu.) 2Kbushels=i barrel (bbl.) Long measure. 12 inches (in.)=i foot (ft.) 3 feet=i yard (yd.) SX yards) i6K feetf =I rod ( r <*.) 320 rods] 1,760 yards i=i mile (mi.) 5,280 feet J Square measure. 144 square inches (sq. in.)=i square foot (sq. ft.) 9 square feet=i square yard (sq. yd.) 30X square yards=i square rod (sq. rd.) 160 square rods=i acre (A.) 640 acres = 1 square mile (sq. mi.) NAMES AND ABBREVIATIONS OF THE. STATES, TERRI- TORIES, AND AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. Alabama Ala. Arizona Ariz. Arkansas Ark. California Cal. Colorado Colo. Connecticut Conn. Delaware Del. District of Columbia D. C. Florida Fla. Georgia Ga. Idaho Idaho. Illinois 111. Indiana Ind. Iowa Iowa. Kansas Kans. Kentucky Ky. Louisiana La. Maine Me. Maryland Md. Massachusetts Mass. Michigan Mich. Minnesota Minn. Mississippi Miss. Missouri Mo. Montana Mont. Nebraska Nebr. Nevada ' Nev. New Hampshire N. H. Note. — Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, be abbreviated. New Jersey N.J. New Mexico N. Mex. New York N. Y. North Carolina N. C. North Dakota N. Dak. Ohio Ohio. Oklahoma Okla. Oregon Oreg. Pennsylvania Pa. Rhode Island R. I. South Carolina S. C. South Dakota S. Dak. Tennessee Tenn. Texas Tex. Utah Utah. Vermont Vt. Virginia Va. Washington Wash. West Virginia W. Va. Wisconsin Wis. Wyoming Wyo. Territories and insular possessions. Alaska Alaska. Hawaii Hawaii. Philippine Islands P. I. Porto Rico P. R. Virgin Islands Virgin Islands. Ohio. Utah, and Virgin Islands should not STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 21 LESSON XIX. THE FLAG. The flag of a nation is the emblem of that nation. The American flag is raised every day over the White House, every executive department building, each of the two Houses of Congress, and all Government buildings in Washington City, the Nation's capital. It also floats from all State and Federal buildings throughout the United States, and on the ships of the Navy and Army and all American embassies, legations, and consulates all over the world. Gen. George Washington raised the first American flag on January 2, 1776, at Cambridge, Mass., when he took command of the American Army to fight the British. This flag had seven red and six white stripes, and the British crosses in the blue field where the stars now are. In the next year, by order of the Continental Congress, the British emblem was replaced by the white stars in the blue field. In 1794 the number of stars and stripes was changed to 15 each, after Vermont and Kentucky became States. In 181 8 Congress restored the original 13 stripes to represent the 13 original States and decided that there should be one new star added on July 4 of any year for each new State admitted during the preceding year. There are now 48 stars in the flag, representing the 48 States of the Union. Our flag is called the Stars and Stripes; the stars represent our present growth, while the stripes refer to America's history. The blue in the flag represents loyalty, which is the foundation upon which our country is built. The States rest upon this foundation of loyalty as truly as the white stars rest on the blue foundation. Betsy Ross, the daughter of an American patriot, made the first flag for our country and designed the star. Her home, on Arch Street in Philadelphia, where she made the flag, still stands and is carefully pre- served as the birthplace of the American flag. We have a national song to the flag, written by Francis Scott Key during our second war of independence. It is called the "Star-Spangled Banner." This is the first stanza: O, say! Can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous night, O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets' red glare, The bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. O, say! Does the star-spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 22 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. AMERICA. [By Samuel Francis Smith.] My country, 'tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing, Land where my fathers died, Land of the Pilgrims' pride, From ev'ry mountain side, Let freedom ring. My native country, thee, Land of the noble free, Thy name I love ; I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and templed hills, My heart with rapture thrills, Like that above. Let music swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees, Sweet freedom's song; Let mortal tongues awake, Let all that breathe partake, Let rocks their silence break, The sound prolong. Our fathers' God, to Thee, Author of liberty, To Thee we sing; Long may our land be bright, With freedom 's holy light, Protect us by Thy might, Great God, our King! LESSON XX. STORY OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. America is a free nation governed by its citizens. It is a sovereign State called the United States of America, composed of 48 States whose citizens owe their entire allegiance to the sovereign State as well as to the State in which they reside. The other residents of these States who are not citizens owe a partial allegiance to the State in which they reside and to the United States. Those owing a partial allegiance are of foreign birth. Citizenship may be obtained by all residents of foreign birth who can comply with the naturalization laws. I can become a citizen of the United States. When I came to America I knew that I would have a better opportunity to care for myself. Since coming to America I have learned to love it. I want to learn more about the people and the Government. When I have lived in America for five years I shall be able to become a citizen if I declared my intention soon enough after I got here. Many people call the declaration the "citizen's first paper." I student's textbook. 23 can not become a citizen until my first paper is two years old and I have lived continuously within the United States for five years. The United States is governed by its citizens. When I become a citi- zen I shall help to govern the United States. In the country where I was born I was a subject of the country. In this country I may become a sovereign of the country. Each citizen of the United States is a sovereign instead of being a subject. The citizens govern the country. They choose from among themselves those who shall administer the affairs of government. A person who is chosen for this purpose is elected to some office. This is called an election. The citizens vote for several who desire an office. The one receiving the largest number of votes is chosen. When I become a citizen I shall vote; and I shall vote for the one whom I believe to be most able to fill the office. When I become a citizen of the United States I shall be a citizen of my native country no longer. I may love my native land, but I love the Government of America better, because under its laws all citizens are free and equal. This is not only a law of man but it is a law of God. e ' e oSnctea* stated vecaccde c_y ttve an>aeb cti tawd ana am cti ctttfren,/ ana* itmetneb tt natiti me oi itmetAei, ct vene/£fo me etftf<» o/" ; . hereby filed, respectfully ihoweth, Krtt. My place of residence it . (Ctve oumhcr. street. dty or wn. end Sua.) Second. My occupation It , . .,- Third, I toot "born on the day of fourth. I emJ/rated to the United States from- •no Domini 1 , and arrived in the United Statet, at the port of.. anno Domini 1 , on the vettel '. ~ Seventh. lam not a disbeliever in or oppoted to organized government or a member of or affiliated with any organization or body of persons teaching disbelief in or opposed to organized government. I am not a polygamltt nor a believer In the practice of polygamy. I am attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United Statet. and It tt my intention to become a citizen of the United States and to renounce absolutely and forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and particularly to ofwhomatthll time I am a subject, and It it my Intsnticn to reside permanently in the United States. gighth. lam able to specie the English faaguago. fflnth. I have resided continuously In the United States of America for the term of five years at least immediately preceding the date of this petition, to Kit, tine* the) !_ day of , anno Domini 1 , and in the State of : _ , continuously next preceding the dot* of 4hls petition, since the day of , anno Domlnfi . being a residence within thit State of at least on* year next preceding the data ef this petition. Tenth. I have not heretofore mode petition for citizenship to any court. (I made petition for citizenship to the Court of at , on the ,. day of , anno Domini J , and the told petition wot denied by the said Court for the following reasons and < . . « . and the cause of such denial hat since been cured or removed.) Attached hereto and made a part of this petition are my declaration j>f intention to become a citizen of the United Statet and the certificate from the Department of later, together with my affidavit and the affidavit* of the two verifying witnesses thereto, required by law. Wherefore your petitioner prays that he may be admitted a citizen of the United States of America. (Complote end true signature of petitioner.) Declaration of Intention tfo and Certificate of Arrival Mo from Department of Labor filed thte day of. r Com.—U petitioner antral u the United Sutei oh on • MOBJt Jtnre ». uoo, strike out the e-ards reedlnj; "end Certlttoue of Antral No. ton Deperanoot o AFFIDAVITS OF PETITIONER AND WITNESSES The aforesaid petitioner being duly sworn, deposes and says that he it the petitioner in the above-entitled proceedingt: that he hat read the foregoing petition and knows the thereof; that the told petition Is tlgned with his full, true name; that the tome it true of hit own knowledge, except at to matters therein stated to be alleged upon information belief, and that as to those matter! he beUevet It to be true. , occupation :_ residing at . , , occupation , residing at . , duly, and respectively sworn, deposes and says that he it a citizen of the United Statet of America; that hf hat personally known.. , ,>*- petitioner above mentioned, to have resided in the United Statet < t preceding the date of filing hit petition, since the , day of , , anno Domini 1 , and in the Stat* in which th* above* mailed petition it mad* continuously eince the _^ day of -. anno Domini I ; and that he hat perianal knowledge the* the said petitioner u a perton of good moral character, attached to th* principles of the Conttttution of the United Statet, and that the petitioner It in ovary way qvallfitd. In kit •mptnlon. to be admitted a otttxan ofth* UniUd Statet. ejnbtortbed and noon to before me by the above-named petition*, and witnesses In th* office ofth* Clerk of told Court thit . •f anna Domini U student's textbook. 45 subject; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic, and that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same. (Note. — In renunciation of title of nobility, add the following as part of the renunci- ation and continue with the oath of allegiance before it is executed : " I further renounce the title of (give title), an order of nobility, which I have heretofore held.") When these things have been done the clerk of the court will make and give to the new citizen the certificate of naturalization. EXTRACT FROM ADDRESS BY WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. You have just taken an oath of allegiance to the United States. Of allegiance to whom? Of allegiance to no one, unless it be God — certainly not of allegiance to those who temporarily represent this great Government. You have taken an oath of allegiance to a great ideal, to a great body of principles, to a great hope of the human race. You ha^e said, "We are going to America not only to earn a living, not only to seek the things which it was more difficult to obtain where we were born, but to help forward the great enterprises of the human spirit — to let men know that every- where in the world there are men who will cross strange oceans and go where a speech is spoken which is alien to them if they can but satisfy their quest for what their spirits crave ; knowing that whatever the speech there is but one longing and utterance of the human heart, and that is for liberty and justice." 46 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. THE GENERAL STRUCTURE, The many powers of town, city, and State government might seem to be so complete that there is very little need of any higher political organi- zation. Taxes are levied by cities and towns, schools are maintained by them, protection of life and property is provided by their police and fire departments, civil and criminal laws are made by State legislatures and enforced by municipal and State police and courts. Industries and public health are regulated and controlled by local boards and State com- missions. The privilege of voting is granted to such inhabitants as each State may decide are entitled to it, and in many other ways the rights, privileges, and duties of the people are defined and controlled by the city or town or State. In addition to these governments, however, and above all is the great National Government under which each of the local governing powers exists and whose authority is supreme in certain matters, whose laws must be complied with by State, county, city, and town in those affairs which are considered of national and not merely of local importance. The coining of money, the making of treaties, levying of war and making peace, imposing customs duties, conducting the postal service, are matters the control of which is not left to States, cities, or towns, but is under the supervision of the National Government. These important matters and all business connected with them are directed by departments of the Federal or General Government. The laws governing them are made by the legislative assembly of the United States, the National Congress at Washington, D. C. The laws and regu- lations are enforced by the United States courts and by the United States executive departments, at the head of which is the chief officer of the Nation, the President. The President occupies much the same position in the National Government as the governor does in the State, the mayor in a city, or the selectmen in a town. He has general charge of executing the laws of the country and appoints such inferior officers as seem neces- sary to carry into effect the laws of the land. The Congress makes the national laws in the same manner as the State legislature makes State laws, and the United States courts try cases arising under these laws as the various State courts do cases arising under the State laws. Commis- sions and departments have charge of commerce, the Army and Navy, finances, and other matters which concern the people of the whole coun- try, and the relation of the various States to each other. These national departments, commissions, and bureaus are given powers by the Consti- tution of the United States and by the United States statutes and their authority in matters which come under their control is above the author- ity of States, cities, and towns. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 47 To understand how such power as is exercised by the National Govern- ment was first given to it by the States and by the people (for all govern- ing power in this country is given to the governing bodies by the people), it is necessary to study the early history of the country, when the States were colonies of England and when, after securing their independence, they for a time thought that sufficient government was provided in city, town, and State laws, courts, and officers. We shall see how for a time they struggled along without any real central National Government and how the impending ruin of America caused them to form a Con- stitution which established the great National Government and gave it power and authority and the means to enforce its laws. It is difficult for a European to understand the relation between our National and our State Governments, because there are no governments similar to ours among the European nations. Here we have two governments covering the same ground, each in its own sphere commanding obedience of the same citizens. A great writer has likened the American Government to a large building and the States to smaller buildings standing on the same ground, yet different from each other. As the land is covered by a number of smaller shrines and chapels built at different times and in different styles of architecture, each complete in itself, then over them and including them all is reared a new structure with its own loftier ceiling, its own walls which may perhaps be raised on and include the walls of the minor shrines in its own internal plan; the identity of the earlier buildings, however, has not been disturbed, and if the larger structure were to disappear the smaller ones would still remain as they were originally, separate and distinct buildings. So, the American States are now all inside of the Union and they have become subordinate parts of it; yet the Union is more than a number of States and the States themselves are more than mere departments of the Union. He suggests that the Union might be dissolved and the States might survive as independent self-governing communities. This was practically their condition before they formed the Union, and it was their inability to command respect from the world and to live peaceably among themselves which caused them to form the greater political organization — the Union. Town and city governments have been studied first, because those were the first forms of government in America, and as these small settle- ments grew into English colonies, colonial and later State government developed. These colonies afterwards combined for mutual advantage, and after gaining their freedom from English rule, united to form a new Nation. COLONIAL PERIOD. This great Nation began, as you know from your history reading, with small settlements along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia made by English colonists in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. 48 student's textbook. It is true that the Swedes had a small settlement in New Jersey and the Dutch had New Amsterdam at the mouth of the Hudson River, but the Swedes were early conquered by the Dutch and they in turn were con- quered by the English in 1 684. New Amsterdam then became the English colony of New York and the territory formerly occupied by the Swedes became the English colony of New Jersey. While the colonies were part of the English nation they nearly all had charters granted by the Sovereign of England which gave them certain rights and privileges — in fact, in most cases gave them the privilege of managing their own affairs. The governors in most cases, while they had a right to veto any laws passed by the legislative assemblies of the colonies, as a general rule did not do so because they generally depended upon the appropriation of money by the legislatures of the colonies for the salaries. In two of the colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, the people them- selves elected the governor, and there the colonial assembly could make laws without his consent. In fact these two colonies were practically little republics. The control which England exercised over the colonies was chiefly the regulating of their relations with other nations, particularly the regulation of the commerce. Up to the time George III became King of England there was very little difficulty with the government of the colonies, but he made up his mind to enforce more strictly the com- mercial laws of England. The principal difficulty, however, arose when the King and the Par- liament attempted to levy taxes upon the aolonies to pay for the expenses of the French and Indian war. They proposed to raise money from the colonies by compelling the purchase of stamps which should be put on all important law and business papers and newspapers. The colonists resisted this because they claimed that they could be taxed only by their own legislative assemblies, and in 1765, in order that their resistance might be more effective, delegates from nine of the colonies met in New York in the assembly known as the Stamp Act Congress, which drew up a declaration of rights of the American colonies. The resistance of the colonies led to the repeal of the Stamp Act, but as England persisted in trying to tax the colonies in other ways, resistance continued and eventu- ally the quarrel between England and the colonies developed into open warfare. THE REVOLUTION. Before the war actually began, however, delegates from all the colonies had met in 1774 in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, in the First Conti- nental Congress, which protested against the treatment of the colonies by England and drew up a declaration of rights. Shortly after this, how- ever, actual fighting began in Massachusetts, and then a Second Conti- nental Congress was called in 1775, which met in Independence Hall in Philadelphia, and made itself temporarily a National Government. student's textbook. 49 It took charge of commerce, national defense, organized a post office, raised an army, issued bills of credit, and in general made all such regu- lations as were necessary for the carrying on of the Government in time of war. This Congress had no authority given it by the people to per- form any of these acts — it was simply a revolutionary organization — but because of the necessity of conducting the war it was permitted to make laws and also to act as the executive department of the Government. Soon, however, the necessity was seen of having some plan of government that should define the rights and powers of this Congress. The Congress itself drew up a plan of union of the colonies into a permanent Govern- ment — the Articles of Confederation, which were finally ratified by all the colonies in 1781 and under which the Government was conducted until the adoption of our present Constitution in 1789. THIRTEEN NATIONS. While the Articles of Confederation gave the National Congress con- siderable power in the matter of making laws, it was given no power to enforce the laws that it made. Furthermore, the Congress could not pass laws of any kind without the consent of the State governments, and the taxes by which the Government must be carried on, although levied by the Congress, could not be collected unless the States saw fit to pay them. Furthermore, Congress had no power to regulate commerce with foreign nations or among the States, and the result was that, each State making its own customs regulations and collecting its own duties, the States were constantly quarreling. It was this commercial strife among the nations that led to the calling of a convention of delegates from the several States for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation. When this convention of delegates met, however, they decided that it was better to form a new plan of government than to try to amend the Articles of Confederation. ONE NATION. Therefore a constitutional convention was held in 1787, at which all the States were represented by their leading men, among them being such men as Washington, Madison, Hamilton, and Franklin. After various plans had been thoroughly discussed and many compromises had been made, they finally framed the Constitution as we have it to-day and submitted it to the States to be ratified. The principal sources of disagreement among the States with refer- ence to framing a constitution were whether or not representation in the Congress of the new Government should be in proportion to the population or should be equal for each State regardless of population; whether the negro slaves of the South should be counted in estimating the population; and whether Congress should have authority to forbid 42783°— 21 i 50 student's textbook. the importation of slaves. The small States wanted representation in the Congress to be the same for all States and the larger States wanted representation to be in proportion to the population. The matter was finally settled by a compromise whereby the representation in the upper branch of the National Congress — the United States Senate — should be equal, and in the lower house — the House of Representatives — in pro- portion to population. The question of counting negro slaves was finally settled by a compromise whereby five negroes were counted equal to three white people when using population as a basis for either direct taxation or representation. The other dispute was compromised by forbidding Congress to pass a law prohibiting the importation of slaves before the year 1808. These were the three principal difficulties to be overcome in framing the Constitution, but there were many other differ- ences of opinion which were settled by compromise. Before the Constitution should go into effect it was to be ratified by conventions called in the different States for that purpose, and when ratified by nine States it was to become binding upon those States. The Constitution was framed in 1787, and in June, 1788, the ninth State necessary for the establishment of the Constitution had ratified it, while the States that had not ratified it at this time did so later. In 1790 Rhode Island, the last of the States to do so, adopted it, and it became the fundamental law of the whole United States. The period between the framing of the Constitution and its ratification by the necessary nine States was the most critical period in the Nation's history. If it had not been adopted and the strong National Govern- ment established, it is almost certain that the various weak States strug- gling against each other would have drifted into anarchy and ruin. The objection which many citizens and some of the States had to ratifying the Constitution was that the National Government was given so much power that it might attempt to deprive the States and individuals of rights and privileges which they had long enjoyed. To remedy this dif- ficulty it was suggested that immediately upon its adoption such amend- ments should be made as would safeguard these rights, and therefore the first 10 amendments were ratified in 1791 as a sort of "bill of rights," securing freedom of religion, the right to trial by jury, and other safe- guards of personal liberty contained in them. Since then there have been added to the Constitution seven other amendments — one providing for the method of electing the President and Vice President as they are now elected; three after the Civil War abolishing slavery and making the negroes citizens and insuring them the right to vote. The last two amendments were passed within a com- paratively few years, one in 1909 authorizing Congress to lay and collect an income tax and the last one in 191 3 providing for the election of United States Senators by popular vote. student's textbook. 51 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In Congress, July 4. 1776, the Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths id be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men. deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established, shzuli not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable. than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same objects, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to pro- vide new guards for their future security-. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- lishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be sub- mitted to a candid world. He has refused to assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depositor}.- of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firm- ness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed hi all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encour- age their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to lavr; re- establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 52 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legisla- tion: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, estab- lishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering funda- mentally the forms of our governments; For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- worthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these Colo- nies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to ho., free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connexion between them and the State of Great student's textbook. 53 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- merce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honour. John Hancock. (signers.) Georgia. Button Gwinnett. Lyman Hall. Geo. Walton Virginia. George Wythe. Richard Henry Dee. Thos. Jefferson. Benjan. Harrison. Thos. Nelson, Jr. Francis Lightfoot Dee. Carter Braxton. Pennsylvania. Robt. Morris. Benjamin Rush. Benjn. Franklin. John Morton. Geo. Clymer. Jas. Smith. Geo. Taylor. James Wilson. Geo. Ross. Massachusetts Bay. Saml. Adams. John Adams. Robt. Treat Paine. Elbridge Gerry. North Carolina. Wm. Hooper. Joseph Hewes. John Penn. Delaware. Caesar Rodney. Geo. Read. New York. Wm. Floyd. Phil. Livingston. Fran's. Dewis. Dewis Morris. New Hampshire.) Josiah Bartlett. Wm. Whipple. Matthew Thornton. Connecticut. Roger Sherman. Saml. Huntington. Wm. Williams. Oliver Wolcott. South Carolina. Edward Rutledge. Thos. Heyward, junr. Thomas Dynch, junr. Arthur Middle ton. Maryland. Samuel Chase. Wm. Paca. Thos. Stone. Charles Carroll of Carrollton New Jersey. Richd. Stockton. Jno. Witherspoon. Fras. Hopkinson. John Hart. Abra. Clark. Rhode Island and Provi- dence, &c. Step. Hopkins. William Ellery. In Congress, January 18, 1777. Ordered: That an authenticated copy of the Declaration of Independency, with the names of the Members of Congress subscribing the same, be sent to each of the United States, and that they be desired to have the same put on record. By order of Congress. John Hancock, President. Attest: Chas. Thompson, Secy. A true copy. John Hancock, Presidt. THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH. CONGRESS. All legislative powers granted in the Constitution are vested in the Congress of the United States, which consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The House of Representatives is composed of citizens who are chosen to serve for two years. They are selected by direct vote of the people 54 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. j represented by the regularly qualified voters of the several States. Each Representative must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States seven years, and an inhabitant of that State in which he is chosen. The Representatives must not exceed one to 30,000 inhabitants, to be based on a national census compiled every 10 years, but each State shall have at least one Representative. On the basis of the census of 1910, Con- gress fixed the number of Representatives at 435, divided among the 48 States according to population. There is an average of 210,504 people for each Representative. The House of Representatives chooses from among its number one to be its presiding officer, who is called the Speaker. The Representatives from the Territories of the United States are called " Delegates." They have the right to take part in the discussions of Congress, but have no vote. Alaska and Hawaii each have one Dele- gate. The Representatives from the insular possessions of the United States are designated Resident Commissioners; the Philippine Islands have two and Porto Rico has one. The Senate must consist of two Senators from each State, who are elected by direct vote of the people and for a term of six years each. As there are 48 States, the total number of Senators is 96. The dates for the election of Senators are so arranged that one-third of the member- ship is elected every two years. A Senator must be at least 30 years old, 9 years a citizen, and an inhabitant of the State in which elected. The Vice President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Congress convenes or meets on the first Monday in December of each year unless it orders otherwise. It is within the power of the President to call a special session on extraordinary occasions. Each period of two years constitutes "a Congress," designated by the next higher numeral from the preceding period, as the First Congress, the Second Congress, etc., the period from March 4, 191 7, to March 4, 191 9, being the Sixty- fifth Congress. Each meeting during the period is called a session. There are two regular sessions which meet the first Monday in December of each year in the two-year period. These are called the long session and the short session. The last or short session must adjourn before March 4, as the terms of the Representatives and of one-third of the Senators elected to the new Congress begin on the 4th day of March of each second year. These sessions, together with any special sessions which may be called by the President for extraordinary reasons, are designated first session, second session, etc., of that Congress. All bills for raising revenues must originate in the House. The House has sole power of impeachment and the Senate sole power to try all impeachments, two-thirds of the members present being necessary to con- vict. (Study the Constitution for description of full powers of Congress.) Congress meets in the Capitol Building at Washington, D. C, the capital of the United States. The Senate chamber is 113 feet 3 inches student's textbook. 55 in length by 80 feet 3 inches in width and 36 feet in height. The galleries will accommodate 1 ,000 persons. The Representatives' Hall is 139 feet in length by 93 feet in width and 36 feet in height. The corner stone of the original building was laid Sep- tember 18, 1793, by President Washington and the corner stone of the extensions was laid July 4, 1851. The Supreme Court of the United States is also located in the building. The course which a bill takes through Congress is interesting. A bill that starts in the House of Representatives is prepared by a Representa- tive and placed in a basket near the Speaker's desk. This is all that is necessary to introduce the bill. Under the rules of the House of Repre- sentatives it is referred to the committee of the House having charge of the subject to which the bill relates. It is printed in the Government Printing Office in the form of a bill and given a number. The committee to which the bill relates is composed of a chairman and members from the different political parties represented in the House. These members consider the bill, and if they are favorable to its enactment report it to the House of Representatives and recommend its passage. After it passes the House it is sent to the Senate by the Clerk of the House of Representatives. When it is received in the Senate it is referred to the appropriate com- mittee of the Senate. This committee is composed of Senators repre- senting the political parties composing the Senate and a chairman. Upon being favorably considered by the committee members it is reported to the Senate with recommendation for its passage and enactment into law. When it has passed the Senate it is signed by the President of the Senate and reported back to the House of Representatives. Upon reach- ing the House of Representatives it is signed by the Speaker of the House and sent to the President at the White House for consideration. At this stage it is an act of Congress awaiting consideration by the President. If the President be fayorable to the legislation he may sign the bill, and it immediately becomes the law of the land. If he prefer not to sign the bill he may withhold his signature, and at the end of 10 days from the date of its enactment by the Congress it will become a law. This is true of all acts of Congress unless Congress should adjourn before the 10-day period expires. In this case the acts not signed do not become law. If the President be unfavorable to the act of Congress, and should dis- approve it, he will state his reasons for disapproval and return it to the House in which the bill originated. When it is received there the objec- tions of the President are entered on the Journal of the proceedings of that House. The Congress of the United States is the largest legislating body in the world that expresses the direct voice of the people. Through this body the people express their desires for their own self-government in 56 student's textbook. laws that are enacted for the direct benefit of the largest number of individual men and women to be found in any part of the world. Through this Congress the people express themselves in legislation whereby the government of the people is by the people and for the people in whatever form the majority may desire. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH. THE PRESIDENT. The President of the United States is the responsible head of the Gov- ernment and stands as its representative to the whole world. He is the Chief Executive of this great Nation, and is the most important citizen of the country. He is called the Chief Executive because all the executive power of the Nation is given him by the Constitution. The Constitution also makes the President the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He directs the administration of the laws of the Nation through the officers of the United States whom he appoints. These officers see that the laws are obeyed. They also see that the laws protect and benefit the people as they should. The Constitution requires the President to take care that the laws are faithfully executed. He also has the power given him by the Constitution to appoint ambassadors, ministers, and consuls to foreign countries, the judges of the Supreme Court, and of all other United States courts. He also has power to make treaties with foreign countries. The Senate must approve all of these appointments and treaties to make them effective. The Constitution requires the President to give information to Congress from time to time of the affairs of the Nation and to recommend laws for the good of the country. When the Congress convenes each year a committee from the two Houses notifies the President that they are ready for business. He then goes to Congress and reads his annual message about the Nation. He gives them special messages at other times during the session of the Congress. He calls Congress together at such special times as he deems necessary to consider extraordinary matters. He receives the ambassadors and ministers sent to America to repre- sent foreign nations. One of the most important powers which the President has is the right to veto any bill which Congress may pass. If he does not approve of the bill, he may send it back to Congress with his objections. This is the veto. A bill will not become a law unless two-thirds of the two Houses of Congress vote for it after the President has vetoed it. A vetoed bill that receives a two-thirds vote is said to have been "passed over the veto." He has power to grant pardons for offenses against the United StateSj except in cases of impeachment. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 57 The Constitution says that no person except a natural-born citizen shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 35 years and been 14 years a resident within the United States. The President is elected every four years, in November, and inaugu- rated on the following 4th of March. He holds his office for a term of four years and may then be elected again for another term. Woodrow Wilson became President of the United States March 4, 191 3; was reelected November 7, 191 6, and was inaugurated on Monday, March 5, 1 91 7, owing to the fact that March 4 came on Sunday. THE CABINET. The Constitution refers to "the principal officer in each of the execu- tive departments." It does not refer to these officers as the Cabinet or Council of the President. The First Congress, at its first session, which was held in New York City 1789, established four executive departments. These departments were the Department of State, Department of War, Department of the Treasury, and the Department of Justice. A Secretary was authorized as the head of each department except the Department of Justice, at the head of which an Attorney General was placed. Five years later the Post Office Department was established, with a Postmaster General at its head. No more departments were established during the terms of President Washington. In 1798 the Department of the Navy was created, with a Secretary at its head. More than 50 years passed before another executive depart- ment was established, when Congress, in 1849, created the Department of the Interior. Forty years later, in 1889, the Department of Agriculture was established. February 14, 1903, Congress established the Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, and on March 4, 191 3, the Department of Commerce and Labor was changed to the Department of Commerce, and the Department of Labor was created. The Secretary of State ranks first among the Cabinet officers, and by law succeeds to the Presidency in the event of disability of both the President and the Vice President. He has charge of the foreign affairs of the country. The Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy look after our national defenses. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of all the financial affairs of the Government. The public lands, Indians, patents, and pensions are under the Secretary of the Interior. The Attorney General is the chief law officer of the Government. The Postmaster General supervises and directs the postmasters, post offices, and mails, and the postal-savings system of the entire country. The Secretary of Agriculture looks after the welfare of the farming and related industries, the national forests, and the weather reports. The Secretary of Commerce has charge of the inspection of steamboats, the 58 student's textbook. lighthouses, the census, the coast and geodetic surveys, and of promoting the commerce, the shipping, and the fisheries of the United States. The Secretary of Labor directs the administration of the naturalization laws, the immigration laws, the investigations of the welfare of children, and child life, the collection of statistical and other information about labor, and acts as a mediator in the interest of industrial peace. He promotes and develops the welfare of wage earners, and advances their oppor- tunities for profitable employment, through the Bureau of Naturaliza- tion and the public schools, and in other ways. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT. A great many of the activities of the departments of the United States Government — as will be seen by reading the articles which describe them — are related directly to helping the individual. This is because the individual citizen of the United States is also the sovereign power of government in the United States. The citizen makes the laws, and in doing this he makes laws that are for the betterment of his condition. In this country there is no organization of classes of peoples — all are equal in the right to the protection and benefits which the Nation guar- antees. No distinction is made in the law against those of foreign birth who reside in this country in favor of those who are citizens in the protection which the laws of this country afford. The Government at Washington collects taxes, enacts laws, builds post offices and other public buildings, improves the navigable water- ways of the Nation, places all of the lighthouses and lightships and other warning signals to all vessels that travel on water. Many of the activities of the Government are not included in this issue. All who desire information about them, or any of the branches of the Government referred to in this book, should write to the Bureau of Naturalization of the Department of Labor and full aid will be rendered. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. The Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the President, with the duties appertaining to correspondence with the public ministers and the consuls of the United States and with the representatives of for- eign powers accredited to the United States, and to negotiations of whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the United States. He is also the medium of correspondence between the President and the chief executives of the several States of the United States; the Great Seal of the United States is in his custody, and he countersigns and affixes the seal to all Executive proclamations, to various commissions, and to warrants for the extradition of fugitives from justice. He is first in rank among the members of the Cabinet. He is also the custodian of the trea- ties made with foreign States, and of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 59 United States are issued through his office. He publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and proclama- tions declaring the admission of new States into the Union. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. Through this department the national finances are managed. The revenues of the Government are collected and all moneys appropriated by Congress are drawn through this department. The control of the public buildings all over the United States, the coinage and printing of money, the health of the Nation, the life-saving stations, and the Coast Guard are under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. He is also chairman of the Government banking system which is administered by the Federal Reserve Board and of the Federal Farm Loan Board. All the national banks are under the control of the Treasury Department and in the immediate charge of the Comptroller of the Treasury. MINT SERVICE;. Shortly after the organization of the Nation, the need of a national coinage was felt, and by the act of Congress of April 2, 1792, the first mint of the United States was established at Philadelphia. Subse- quently, as more territory was acquired and the gold and silver resources of the country were developed, other mints were established and Govern- ment assay offices opened to enable prospectors and miners more readily to dispose of their bullion, and also to protect them from avaricious private assayers who abounded in the mining regions in the early years of the mineral development of the country. Altogether, seven coinage mints were established in different parts of the country, of which two, located at Charlotte, N. C, and Dahlonega, Ga., have been discontinued entirely, while two others, at New Orleans, La., and Carson City, Nev., now operate only as assay offices, leaving in active coinage operation the mints at Philadelphia, Pa., San Francisco, Cal., and Denver, Colo. In addition to the assay offices operating at New Orleans and Carson City, the Government maintains other assay offices at Boise, Idaho, Deadwood, S. Dak., Helena, Mont., Salt Lake City, Utah, Seattle, Wash., and New York City, the last named being the largest of this class. All of these institutions are under the immediate supervision of the Director of the Mint, who, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, prescribes the rules for the transaction of business, directs the coinage operations, authorizes expenditures, approves appointments, removals, and does all things necessary to a good administration of this work. The headquarters of the Mint Service are in the Treasury Department at Washington, D. C, known as the Bureau of the Mint. This consists of the office of the Director of the Mint, an assay laboratory for the purpose of testing the weight and fineness of the coins made at the 60 student's textbook. several mints, and a clerical force which, under the Director of the Mint, reviews the accounts of the various institutions, prepares for publication, quarterly, an estimate of the value of the standard coins of foreign countries for customhouse and other public purposes, and works up the statistical data which go into the annual report of the Director of the Mint on the operations of the mint service for the fiscal year, in- cluding all statistics of the production of the precious metals in the United States and the world for the calendar year. The mints and assay offices have been established in localities suitable for the convenient acquisition of gold and silver by the Government for the purpose of coinage. Gold and silver bullion is received and paid for at its exact valuation (the price of gold remaining stationary while that of silver fluctuates) and the assay offices forward their receipts of the precious metals to the mints to be coined. Much of the metal is not suitable for immediate coinage, and refineries are maintained at the mints at San Francisco and Denver and the assay office at New York to purhy the metal. Such of the metal as may be needed for coinage is then alloyed with copper, the proportions being 9 parts of gold or silver to 1 part of copper. This makes what is known as 900 fine or "standard" metal, which has been found most suitable for coins, the pure gold or silver being comparatively soft and subject to appreciable abrasion or wear. Minor coins are manufactured from nickel or bronze, the stocks of necessary metals being bought in open market as required. As the stock of gold in the country has accumulated far beyond the needs for the metal as a circulating medium, it has been found most convenient and economical after filling the yearly demands for new gold coin to melt the remainder of this precious metal into bars of uniform and convenient size. It is then stored in the vaults of the mints and held as a reserve against which gold certificates may be issued. New coin usually gets into circulation through the disbursing offices of the Treasury Department and banking institutions in exchange for the larger denominations of money. The mints manufacture not only all of the domestic coin, but also the coinage for the Philippine Islands, and, as their business permits, the coinage of adjacent countries. At the Philadelphia mint there is maintained a complete engraving and medal-making establishment, where are manufactured all dies used in the domestic and Philippine coinage, and also dies and medals of a national character. BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING. All of the paper money issued by the United States Government is printed at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, as are all United States Government bonds, national-bank notes, Federal-reserve notes, internal- revenue stamps, postage stamps, and custom stamps. For this work all student's textbook. 6 1 of the steel dies are engraved in this bureau. The work is done mostly by hand, but some fine machinery is used in engraving the scroll work upon the different forms of money, bonds, and certificates. The postage stamps for the entire United States and insular possessions of the country also are printed in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE. The Public Health Service is that branch of the Federal Government which has to do with national matters pertaining to the public health. Its functions relate primarily to the prevention of the introduction of disease from foreign countries, the prevention of the spread of disease from one State to another, and the giving of assistance to State health authorities when such assistance is needed. History. — The Public Health Service had its origin in 1798, when the Congress of the United States enacted a law to provide for the care of sick and disabled seamen. By this law there was created a medical service which, together with the collectors of customs, made provision for sick and injured sailors, taking care of them in hospitals and giving necessary medical and surgical attention. Since the organization of this service in the latter part of the eighteenth century, in addition to the care of seamen, there has been given to it the medical and surgical treat- ment of the employees of various branches of the Government. Also from time to time duties directly related to the preservation of the public health have been added. The service was originally known as "The Marine Hospital Service." By the year 1902 the public-health functions of the service had become the more important, and its name was changed to "The Public Health and Marine Hospital Service." By 191 2 the public-health functions had assumed still greater importance, and the name was changed to "The Public Health Service." Organization. — The Public Health Service is under the Secretary of the Treasury. The official in immediate charge is the Surgeon General. Under the Surgeon General the service consists of trained medical offi- cers, pharmacists, chemists, and others, all of whom are appointed from those who successfully pass competitive examinations! There are in the service 438 medical officers and 50 pharmacists, besides numerous men especially trained in various scientific branches related to public-health work. Most of those in the service make it their life work. Activities. — Through the Public Health Service the Federal Govern- ment cooperates with the various State and local health authorities. When there is an unusual or difficult sanitary problem in a locality the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service will, upon the request of the State health department having jurisdiction, send experts to assist the local health officers. Acting in this cooperative capacity the Public Health Service maintains a corps of experts who can be used wherever needed in time of emergency or of unusual conditions. At least once a 62 student's textbook. year the representatives of the health departments of the States meet in conference with the representatives of the Public Health Service for the discussion of sanitary problems and of desirable methods of cooperation. The Public Health Service collects current information of the preva- lence and distribution of diseases and the occurrence of epidemics. It is responsible for the administration of the interstate quarantine laws and regulations and the prevention of the spread of disease from one State to another. The service investigates and studies the causes and means of spread of contagious and infectious diseases. It carries on researches of mat- ters pertaining to the public health and particularly of the problems peculiar to national health work and those which affect more than one State. It maintains the national quarantine for the prevention of the impor- tation of diseases from abroad. For this purpose it maintains what are known as quarantine stations. These are located along the seacoast, where vessels from foreign countries must stop to be inspected before entering United States ports. It also has officers stationed when neces- sary along the land borders of the United States to prevent the intro- duction of disease by people entering the country. The officers of the service examine, physically, arriving immigrants. This is done because of the law which requires that immigrants affected with certain diseases and physical deformities must be excluded from the country. The medical officers who make these examinations are stationed at the ports where immigrants enter. The Public Health Service regulates the manufacture and the sale in interstate commerce of vaccines, serums, antitoxins, and similar products. This is accomplished by requiring those who manufacture these product and sell them in interstate commerce to have a license issued by the Secretary of the Treasury. These licenses are issued only after the places where the vaccines and serums are produced have been inspected and the products themselves examined and found to be satisfactory. The licenses are good for one year, when reinspection and reexamination must be made. The service furnishes medical care and treatment to the seamen of the merchant marine and to persons employed in various branches of the Government service, among whom are the officers and enlisted men of the Coast Guard and the officers and crews of the vessels of the Light- house Establishment and of vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. For this purpose it maintains hospitals in the various seaports and river ports. The Public Health Service collects information of the prevalence of dangerous diseases throughout the world and of the sanitary condition of ports in foreign countries. It collects similar information regarding localities in the United States. It keeps informed of the trend of sani- student's textbook. 63 tary legislation and practices throughout the country by the collection and publication of the health laws and regulations adopted by the sev- eral States and cities. It also gives advice to State and city authorities regarding the better forms of health laws and regulations. THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD. The United States Coast Guard was created by the act of January 28, 1 91 5, and consists of the former Revenue-Cutter Service and the Life- Saving Service. The act constituted the Coast Guard a part of the mili- tary forces of the United States, which operates under the Treasury Department in time of peace and as a part of the Navy, subject to the orders of the Secretary of the Navy, in time of war or when the President so directs. In general, the duties of the Coast Guard may be classified as follows : Rendering assistance to vessels in distress and saving life and property; destruction or removal of wrecks, derelicts, and other floating dangers to navigation; extending medical aid to American vessels engaged in deep- sea fisheries; protection of the customs revenue; operating as a part of the Navy in time of war or when the President shall direct; enforcement of law and regulations governing anchorage of vessels in navigable waters ; enforcement of law relating to quarantine and neutrality; suppression of mutinies on merchant vessels ; enforcement of navigation and other laws governing merchant vessels and motor boats; enforcement of law to provide for safety of life on navigable waters during regattas and marine parades; protection of game and the seal and other fisheries in Alaska; and enforcement of sponge-fishing laws. THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR. The Secretary of War is the head of the War Department. He has charge of all matters relating to the national defense, including seacoast fortifications and highway bridges. GENERAL ARMY STAFF. The General Staff of the Army makes the plans for the national defense and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war. It aids in bringing about a uniform action of different parts of the Army. The Chief of Staff has supervision of all troops of the line, under the direc- tion of the President, or of the Secretary of War under the direction of the President, and of matters relating to the command and discipline of the military establishment in its various branches. There are other military bureaus of the War Department under the control of the Adjutant General, by whom military orders and instruc- tions are issued; the Inspector General, through whom the United States Military Academy, military posts and the camps, general hospitals, armories and arsenals, and other military establishments are inspected; 64 student's textbook. the Judge Advocate General, in charge of legal matters; the Quarter- master General, in charge of equipment and transportation of the Army; the Surgeon General, who advises upon all medical and sanitary affairs of the Army; the Chief of Engineers, by whom all military construction is supervised and conducted through the Corps of Engineers under his command; the Chief Signal Officer, under whose supervision are the military aeroplanes, radio stations, military telegraph lines and cables, and all other duties belonging to military signaling. The Chief of Ord- nance commands the Ordnance Department, under which every descrip- tion of artillery, including small firearms and all the munitions of war required for the forts of this country, the armies in the field, and the militia of the various States. The Militia Bureau has charge of organiz- ing, arming, instructing, equipping, disciplining, and all other matter relating to the National Guard. In the Bureau of Insular Affairs the civil government in the island possessions of the United States is directed. THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. The Attorney General is the head of this department and chief law officer of the Government. Through various assistants he represents the United States in matters involving legal questions, and in cases of especial gravity and importance he appears in the United States Supreme Court, gives advice on questions of law when they are required by the President or by the heads of the other Executive Departments, and provides special council for the United States whenever required by any department of the Government. The Solicitor General assists the Attorney General in the performance of his general duties, and when directed by the Attorney General may conduct and argue cases in which the United States is interested in any United States court and may appear to attend to interests of the United States in any State court or elsewhere. The Interior, State, Treasury, Commerce, and Labor Departments and the Internal Revenue, each have a solicitor, or chief law officer, who exercises his functions under the supervision and control of the Attorney General, advises the heads of the department on legal questions, and performs other duties. The Superintendent of Prisons has charge of all matters relating to United States prisons and prisoners including the United States prisoners' support in both State and Federal penitentiaries, in reform schools, and in county jails, and is president of the boards of parole for United States penitentiaries and for each State or county institution used for confine- ment of United States prisoners. The chief of the Division of Investigation has general supervision of examination of offices and records of Federal court officials and directs the work of examiners, etc., of the department whose compensation or expenses are paid from the appropriation " Detection and prosecution of student's textbook. 65 crimes," and who are employed for the purpose of collecting evidence or making investigations or examinations of any kind for this department or the officers thereof. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. The Postmaster General is the executive head of the Federal postal service, the management of all post offices, the carrying of mails on the trains, of the rural-delivery system, and letter carriers all over the United States, and the United States mails going to foreign countries. He has charge of the manufacture of all postage stamps and postal cards, the money-order and registered-mail divisions, the parcel post and the postal savings systems; and of the postmasters all over the United States. THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE. The Railway Mail Service of the Post Office Department has charge of the dispatch and distribution of mail matter in railway postal cars, terminal railway post offices and post offices; has jurisdiction over the moving of mails on railroad trains, and conducts the weighing of mails, on which the compensation to carriers is based. It employs a force of approximately 20,000 men, and supervises the transportation of mail by rail and steamboat on an average distance of approximately 1,700,000 miles per day. DOMESTIC MAIL MATTER. Addressing mail matter. — Great care should be exercised in addressing and preparing matter for mailing. The name of the person addressed, street and number, or number of rural route, post office, and State should be written in full and plainly. The sender's name and address should be placed in the upper left corner of the envelope or wrapper of mail matter of all classes in order to secure its return, if desired, when unde- Hverable. {Sample.) AFTER 5 DAYS RETURN TO J. H. SHEPPARD, 586 McGrory Street, New York. N. Y. (STAMP) 42733°— 21- Mr. Iorwerth J. Roberts, 372 Kalorama Avenue, Washington, D. C —5+6 66 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. Classification and rates of postage. — Domestic mail matter is divided into four classes — namely, first, second, third, and fourth — and includes matter intended for local delivery or for transmission from one place to another within the United States (which includes Porto Rico and Hawaii), or to or from or between the United States and its possessions, consist- ing of the Philippine Islands, Guam, and the Canal Zone. Domestic rates and conditions also apply to mail matter addressed to the United States Postal Agency at Shanghai, China, to other places where the United States mail service is in operation, and to officers or members of the crews of United States war vessels, and with certain exceptions to matter sent to Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and the Republic of Panama. The domestic rate of 3 cents for each ounce applies also to letters, but not to other mail, addressed to England, Ireland, Newfoundland, Scotland, Wales, Bahamas, Barbados, British Guiana, British Honduras, Domin- ican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Leeward Islands, and New Zealand. Prepayment of postage on domestic matter at time of mailing by stamps affixed is required. Postmasters are not required to affix stamps to mail. Matter of a higher class inclosed with matter of a lower class subjects the whole to the higher rate. Persons knowingly concealing matter of a higher class in that of a lower class for the purpose of evading payment of the proper postage are liable to a fine of not more than $100. First-class matter. — First-class matter includes letters, postal cards, post cards (private mailing cards), and all matter wholly or partly in writing, whether sealed or unsealed, except manuscript copy accom- panying proof sheets or corrected proof sheets of the same, and except certain written additions authorized by the law to be placed on matter of other classes. Other matter sealed or otherwise closed against in- spection is also treated as of the first class. The rate of postage on first-class matter is 3 cents for each ounce or fraction of an ounce. Drop letters — that is, letters intended for delivery at or from the office where deposited — are subject to the rate of 2 cents an ounce or fraction thereof when mailed at letter-carrier post offices or at other offices where the addressees are served by rural, star-route, or other carrier. The rate of postage on postal cards is 2 cents each, the price for which they are sold. On private mailing cards or post cards the rate is 2 cents each. Second-class matter. — Second-class matter includes complete news- papers and complete periodicals (incomplete copies are subject to a higher rate) bearing notice of entry as second-class matter, and the rate of postage thereon when sent by the public — that is, by others than the publisher or a news agent — is 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction thereof on each separately addressed, unsealed copy or package of unaddressed copies. There is no limit of weight for second-class matter. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 67 Third-class matter. — Third-class matter embraces circulars and other miscellaneous printed matter on paper, proof sheets, corrected proof sheets and manuscript copy accompanying same, and matter in point print or raised characters used by the blind. Books are included in fourth-class mail, as is also miscellaneous printed matter weighing more than 4 pounds. Reproductions or imitations of handwriting and type- writing obtained by means of a printing press, multigraph, or other mechanical process will be treated as third-class matter when mailed in the quantity and under the conditions which may be ascertained from the postmaster. The rate of postage on unsealed third-class matter is 1 cent for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof on each separately addressed piece or pack- age. The limit of weight of third-class matter is 4 pounds. Parcel post — Fourth^class matter. — Fourth-class matter embraces that known as domestic parcel-post mail and includes merchandise, farm and factory products, seeds, plants, books (including catalogs), miscellaneous printed matter weighing more than 4 pounds, and all other mailable matter not included in the first, second, and third classes. The rates of postage on fourth-class or parcel-post matter — to be fully prepaid, unsealed — are as follows : (a) Parcels weighing 4 ounces or less, except books, seeds, and plants, 1 cent for each ounce or fraction thereof, any distance. (b) Parcels weighing 8 ounces or less containing books, seeds, and plants r 1 cent for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof regardless of distance. (c) Parcels weighing more than 8 ounces containing books, seeds, and plants, miscellaneous printed matter weighing more than 4 pounds, and all other parcels of fourth-class matter weighing more than 4 ounces are chargeable according to distance or zone at the pound rates shown in the following table (except as provided in paragraph (d) below), a frac- tion of a pound being computed as a full pound : Local. Zones. Weight in pounds. First.— Up to 50 miles. Second. — 50 to 150 miles. Third- ISO to 300 miles. Fourth.— 300 to 600 miles. Fifth — 600 to 1,000 miles. Sixth — 1,000 to 1,400 miles. Seventh — 1,400 to 1,800 miles. Eighth.— Over 1,800 miles. $0.05 .06 .06 .07 .07 .08 .08 .09 .09 . 10 . 10 . 11 . 11 . 12 . 12 $0 « $0.05 .06 .07 .08 .09 . 10 . 11 . 12 •13 .14 •IS .16 •17 .18 .19 $0.06 .08 . 10 . 12 .14 .16 .18 .20 .22 .24 .26 .28 •30 •32 •34 $0.07 . 11 •15 .19 •23 .27 •31 •35 •39 •43 •47 •51 •55 •59 .63 $0.08 .14 . 20 .28 •32 .38 •44 •SO •56 .62 .68 •74 .80 .86 .92 $0.09 •17 •25 •33 .41 •49 •57 •65 •73 .81 .89 •97 1.05 I- 13 I. 21 $0.11 .21 •31 .41 •51 .61 •71 .81 .91 1. 01 1. 11 1. 21 i- 31 1. 41 1. 51 06 07 08 09 IO II 12 13 14 is 16 17 18 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 24 36 60 6 73 84 8 11 12 13 14 15 33 44 50 68 80 68 student's textbook. Local. Zones. Weight in pounds. 1 First.— Up to 50 miles. Second. — 50 to 150 miles. Third — 150 to 300 miles. Fourth — 300 to 600 miles. Fjfth.— 600 to 1,000 miles. Sixth.— 1,000 to 1,400 miles. Seventh— 1,400 to 1,800 miles. Eighth.— Over 1,800 miles, 16 17 18 19 20 21 $0.13 •13 .14 .14 •15 •15 .16 .16 •17 • 17 .18 .18 • 19 .19 .20 .20 .21 .21 .22 . 22 •23 •23 .24 •24 •25 •25 .26 .26 • 27 .27 .28 .28 • 29 .29 •3° $0.20 .21 .22 •23 .24 •25 .26 .27 .28 •29 •3° •31 •32 -33 •34 •35 r 3 6 37 .38 •39 .40 .41 .42 •43 •44 •45 .46 •47 .48 •49 •50 •51 •52 •53 •54 $0 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 3& 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 $0.36 •38 .40 .42 •44 $0.67 •71 •75 •79 .83 $0.98 1.04 1. 10 1. 16 1. 22 $1.29 1-37 i-45 i-53 1. 61 $1.61 1. 71 1. 81 1. 91 2.01 $1-93 2. 04 2.16 2. 28 2.40 22 23 24 26 27 28 31 34 35 36 38 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 5° 1 The limit of weight has been increased to 70 pounds within the first, second, and third zones, and to 50 pounds for all other zones. (d) Parcels subject to the pound rates, mailed for delivery within the first or second zone, are, when the distance bv the shortest regular mail route from the office of origin to the office of delivery is 300 miles or more, chargeable with postage at the rate of 6 cents for the first pound and 2 cents for each additional pound, a fraction of a pound being computed as a full pound. (e) The eighth zone rate of 1 2 cents for each pound or fraction thereof is applicable between the United States and Alaska, the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands, between any two points in Alaska, and to Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and the Republic of Panama. The limit of weight of fourth-class matter is 70 pounds in the first, second, and third zones, and 50 pounds in all other zones. Limit of size. — Parcel post matter may not exceed 84 inches in length and girth combined. The name and address of sender must be placed on the outside of parcels of fourth-class matter preceded by the word "From." Additions to fourth-class mail. — It is permissible to place on fourth- class matter any marks, numbers, names, or letters, for purpose of description. An invoice showing the name and address of the sender and of the addressee, the names and quantities of the articles inclosed, and the price, style, etc., thereof may be inclosed. Inscriptions such as student's textbook. 69 " Merry Christmas," " With Best Wishes," " Do not open until Christmas," or words to that effect, may be written on fourth-class matter. Books may bear simple dedications or inscriptions. Communications may be attached to parcels mailed at the third or fourth class rate of postage, provided the communications are inclosed in envelopes properly prepaid at the first-class rate and addressed to agree with the addresses on the parcels. Preparation of mail matter. — Second, third, and fourth class matter must be so wrapped that the contents may be examined easily by postal officials. Return of mail. — Letters and other mail of the first class prepaid one full rate, and reply double postal cards (but not single postal cards except when deposited for local delivery), when undeliverable, will be returned to the sender without additional postage, provided such mail bears the name and address of the sender. Matter of the second, third, and fourth classes may be returned to the sender only upon a new prepayment of postage. Forwarding of mail. — First-class matter upon being properly read- dressed may be forwarded from one post office to another without a new prepayment of postage. Other classes of matter may not be forwarded from one office to another unless additional postage is first prepaid. Insurance of fourth-class mail. — A person sending an unsealed parcel or package of goods through the mails to another person may be paid therefor if the contents are lost or broken before they reach the party to whom they are sent provided the parcel is insured. To insure a parcel the clerk at the post office must be asked to insure it. He should be told what is in the package, hew it is packed or wrapped, and how much money the goods inside are worth. The clerk will then charge 3 cents if the goods are not worth over $5 ; 5 cents if they are worth between $5 and $25 ; 10 cents if they are worth between $25 and $50; and 25 cents if they are worth between $50 and $100. This fee is to be paid besides the postage on the package and a receipt is given to show that the parcel is insured. If the parcel becomes lost, or the goods are broken, take the receipt to the post office and tell the facts. If you want to get a receipt from the person to whom you send the goods to show that he got them, tell the clerk at the post office or mark parcel "Return receipt desired." Collect-on-delivery service. — If a person wants to send goods to another person in the United States and have the goods paid for when they are delivered, he should not seal the parcel but merely tie it with string securely and present it to the post office and ask that it be sent collect on delivery. This will cost 10 cents besides the postage to send the parcel if the amount to be collected does not exceed $50, and 25 cents if the amount does not exceed $100. The value of the goods, if not more than $100, will be collected from the person to whom they are sent and the money returned by money order to the person who originally 70 student's textbook. mailed the parcel. This money order may be cashed at the post office. The Post Office Department pays the value up to the amount for which the fee was paid of parcels sent collect on delivery if they are lost or broken and no extra charge is made for this feature. The person to whom the goods are being sent can not look at them before paying the charges for the goods. Registered mail. — Any kind of mail, except parcel post fourth-class matter, sent to people living in the United States or in foreign countries, may be registered for 10 cents, which must be paid in addition to the postage. A letter to be registered must be sealed and bear the name and address of the sender in the upper left-hand corner. Valuable papers, notes, and all matter of importance should be registered. The clerk in the post office gives the sender a receipt for any article registered, and if request is made a receipt will be obtained, without any further cost, to show that the letter reached the party to whom it was sent. Whenever a registered letter addressed to a person living in the United States is lost or rifled the Post Office Department pays the sender the value of the contents which can not be found, up to $50. If the letter is addressed to a person living in a foreign country, the value of the article lost is paid for up to $9.65. Only a few letters are lost when sent by registered mail, because a receipt is taken from each employee of the postal service that handles the letter, and he must be able to show to whom he gave it. UNITED STATES POSTAL SAVINGS SYSTEM. Purpose. — The United States Government accepts deposits of small amounts of money from anybody, pays interest on these savings, and guarantees to repay them on demand. Who may deposit. — Any person 10 years old or over may open a postal savings account in his or her own name by depositing one or more dollars in any post office authorized to accept postal savings deposits. No person may at the same time have more than one account, either at the same office or at different offices. The account of a married woman is free from any control or interference by her husband. Post-office em- ployees are forbidden to disclose to any person except the depositor the amount of any deposits. Amount that may be deposited. — A person may deposit any number of dollars and at any time until the balance to his credit amounts to $1,000, exclusive of accumulated interest. Opening accounts. — A person desiring to open a postal savings account should apply to the post office, where full instructions will be given. If for any good reason an intending depositor can not apply at the post office a representative may be sent who will be instructed how to pro- ceed. A person residing at a post office not authorized to accept postal savings deposits may open an account at a depository office by mail, student's textbook. 71 through his local postmaster, who will give full instructions on applica- tion. Deposits. — After a postal savings account has been opened, deposits may be made either in person, by a representative, by money order, or by registered mail, if the money order service is not available. Postal savings deposits are acknowledged by postal savings certificates, which are made out in the name of the depositor and serve as receipts. These certificates are not salable or transferable. If certificates are lost, stolen, or destroyed new certificates may be issued. Withdrawals. — A depositor may at any time withdraw all or any part of his postal savings deposits', upon demand, from the post oflice where the deposits were made. He also may make withdrawals by mail or through a representative. Interest. — Postal savings certificates bear simple interest at the rate of 2 per cent a year. Interest begins on the first day of the month following the day on which the certificate is issued and becomes due and payable at the expiration of each full year from the day interest begins as long as the principal remains on deposit. No interest will be paid for a fraction of a year. Postal savings cards and stamps. — Amounts less than $1 may be saved by purchasing postal savings cards and postal savings stamps at 10 cents each. A savings card with nine postal savings stamps affixed will be accepted as a deposit of $1 either in opening a postal savings account or in adding to an existing account, or it may be redeemed in cash. Postal savings bonds. — A depositor may exchange the whole or a part of his deposits for registered or coupon United States postal savings bonds, bearing 2% per cetft interest, issued in denominations of $20, $100, and $500. When bonds are issued in exchange for postal savings deposits the balance to the credit of the depositor is reduced accordingly, and he may make further deposits until his account reaches $1,000. A circular on postal savings bonds may be had at any depository post oflice. RURAL MAII, SERVICE. In the Post Office Department in Washington City there is a division whose special duty it is to look after the mail service in rural districts. This division is called the Division of Rural Mails, and is under the charge of the Fourth Assistant Postmaster General. The rural mail service was first officially suggested in 1891 by the Postmaster General. The first experimental rural delivery service was established on October 1, 1896, The first complete county rural service was established December 2o f 1899, in Carroll County, Md. From that date the service grew very rapidly, and on June 30, 191 5, there were 43,877 rural routes, having a total length of 1,067,674 miles, costing the United States Government $50,000,000 a year, and carrying the mail practically to the doors of 25,000,000 people. 72 student's textbook. The principal purpose of rural delivery is to carry and collect mails on a fixed line of travel to and from people who would otherwise have to go a mile or more to a post office or to another route to receive and send their mail. From the begirrning it has proved to be a great blessing to such people, and it has saved the Government many millions of dollars by making possible the discontinuance of thousands of small post offices. In addition to delivering the mail to and collecting it from the boxes of their patrons, the rural carriers sell stamps and stamp supplies, deliver registered mail, receive mail for registration, accept applica- tions for money orders, and perform various other postal duties. In fact, a rural carrier's wagon might be said to be a traveling post office. Through the agency of this service the people residing in the remote localities are kept in close touch with current events as are the people living in the cities and towns, and the conditions under which residents of rural districts live have been rendered much pleasanter than they were before the development of the rural service. The salary of a rural carrier can not exceed $1,200 on an ordinary route, but if the route is 50 or more miles long and the carrier has to use a motor vehicle he may be paid as much as $1,800 a year. A rural delivery route is generally established as the result of a petition sent to the Fourth Assistant Postmaster General by the people who wish to be served by the route. No service is authorized until after the matter has been carefully investigated by the Post Office Department. Proper application blanks and full information about applying for a rural route are furnished by the Government free of charge. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. The Secretary of the Navy has general supervision of the building, arming, equipping, and manning of all the vessels of war of the United States, under the direction of the President of the United States, who is Commander in Chief. The Navy Department is divided into various bureaus and offices. The Office of Naval Operations controls the Radio Service and other systems of communication, the Aeronautic Service, matters relating to mining harbors and waters of the rivers and seas, the Coast Guard when in time of war it is transferred from the Treasury Department, target practice, drills, and the training of the fleet for war. The Bureau of Navigation has charge of the Naval Academy and various other naval schools, the Naval Observatory, the Naval Reserve and Naval Militia, and of the Hydrographic Office, where all surveys made in foreign waters are recorded. The Bureau of Yards and Docks has charge of the designing and construction of all things relating to the navy yards and dry docks, radio towers, and other public works of the Navy. The Bureau of Ordnance is in charge of all matters relating to ammunition, war explosives, torpedoes, and the defensive armor of ships. The Bureau of Construction and Repair determines the strength and stability of all STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 73 gllips of the Navy and has charge of many of the supplies that are needed for the ships, while in the Bureau of Steam Engineering the designing and building of the machinery of ships is cared for. All naval hospitals and the Hospital Corps, including the nurses, are under the charge of Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. Through the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts the vast stores of materials for the Navy, including clothing for the seamen, are bought and paid for, under the direction of the Pay- master General of the Navy. The Judge Advocate General of the Navy passes upon all legal matters of the Navy Department. The Marine Corps is a distinct branch of the Navy, under the direction of the Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps. The United States Marines are often referred to as the "Soldiers of the Sea" and are stationed on board the vessels of the Navy and in various shore stations. HYDRO GRAPHIC OFFICE. The Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department makes surveys of the waters of foreign coasts and harbors. From these surveys, and from information collected from various sources relating to these waters, it prepares navigators' charts and books of pilotage. The books of pilotage are directions by which ships sail in these foreign waters. These surveys are called marine surveys. It publishes notices to mariners every week. It also publishes charts of each ocean for steamships to use to guide them in sailing. It also furnishes lists of lighthouses in various foreign countries for the guidance of steam and sailing vessels. It issues manuals for navigation and mathematical tables for the use of the officers of the ships in finding their location at sea. These publications are distributed to the ships of the Navy and the vessels of other branches of the Govern- ment. They are sold to the ships of the merchant marine and to the public generally. It has five branch offices on the Great Lakes, located at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., Duluth, Minn., Cleveland, Ohio, Chicago, 111., and Buffalo, N. Y. These are for the convenience of those navigating the Great Lakes. There are also six branch offices on the Atlantic seacoast, at Boston, Mass., New York, N. Y., Philadelphia, Pa., Baltimore, Md., Norfolk, Va., and Savannah, Ga. Two branch offices are to be found on the Gulf of Mexico, at New Orleans, La., and Galveston, Tex., and three on the Pacific coast, at San Francisco, Cal., Portland, Oreg., and Seattle, Wash. At these branch offices various reports from ships, giving marine and nautical information, are obtained. Advice and information to insure safety of the ships navigating the seas are also furnished at these places. UNITED STATES NAVAI, OBSERVATORY. The Naval Observatory furnishes the United States east of the Rocky Mountains with standard time at noon, seventy-fifth meridian time, each day, both by telegraph and radio, while the chronometer and time 74 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. station at the navy yard, Mare Island, Cal., does the same for the country west of the Rockies. Through the Navy radio station, near Washington, the observatory furnishes vessels navigating the north Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico the standard time twice each day — at noon and 10 p. m. Persons having receiving wireless sets throughout the country are using these radio time signals in constantly increasing numbers, in preference to the telegraphic signals. Navigators, surveyors, and astronomers are kept supplied with the positions of the heavenly bodies in a form for practical use through the American Kphemeris and Nautical Almanac, and the American Nautical Almanac, a publication of the Nautical Almanac Office, which is a depart- ment of the Naval Observatory. In order to assist in furnishing data to keep the Almanac and Ephemeris up to the highest attainable standard of accuracy, continuous fundamental observations of the heavenly bodies are made at the observatory. When a mariner, a surveyor, or an astronomer wants to find his astro- nomical position on the globe, he does it by observations of the heavenly bodies, using the Nautical Almanac and a comparison of his local time with that of the observatory. The Naval Observatory also supervises the supplying of the vessels of the Navy and the naval air service with all the instruments used for navi- gating them. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. The Secretary of the Interior is at the head of this department. In this department the national parks, the Geological Survey, the Reclama- tion Service, the Indians, the Public Lands, the Government Railroad in Alaska, the Bureau of Mines, and the laws relating to patents for inven- tion and educational matters are administered. THE PATENT OFFICE. In the Patent Office more than a million patents have been granted and impetus has been given to invention and manufactures by the favorable laws of this country, which give great encouragement to inventors. They are protected in the enjoyment of the profits from the manufacture of their patented inventions for a term of 17 years. BUREAU OF PENSIONS. In this bureau about $150,000,000 annually are paid out by the United States Government to the soldiers or widows of soldiers who have engaged in the various wars against the United States. GENERAL LAND OFFICE. Through this branch of the Department of the Interior many millions of acres of land belonging to the United States Government have been given or sold at low prices to American citizens or aliens who have declared their student's textbook. 75 Intention to become citizens of the United States. These lands are of the richest to be found on the face of the earth. Many families have been established on these farms and have lived to enjoy the fruits of their work. There are still many farm lands which belong to the Government and which may be bought at low prices by any who may desire to go to them and live upon them. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs has charge of the Indian tribes of the United States. Through the Geological Survey the United States Government searches for the mineral resources of the United States and gives great assistance to those who would develop these great sources of mineral wealth. BUREAU O? EDUCATION. The Bureau of Education collects statistics and general information showing the condition and progress of education, issues an annual report, a bulletin in several numbers annually, and miscellaneous publications. It has charge of the schools for the education of native children in Alaska, and supervises the reindeer industry in Alaska. The Bureau of Educa- tion also administers the endowment fund for the support of colleges for the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts. THE RECLAMATION SERVICE. The Reclamation Service is the home making bureau in the Department of the Interior. It was organized on June 17, 1902, under the provisions of the act of Congress known as the national reclamation law. This law provides briefly that the proceeds from the sale of public lands in the 16 western arid States shall go into a fund known as the "reclamation fund," to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior , in the construction of irrigation works. The 16 States containing arid lands subject to reclamation are Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Wash- ington, and Wyoming. Texas was not included under the organic act, but has since been added to the list. In these western States there are approximately 450,000,000 acres of land belonging to the Government, and it is estimated that 40,000,000 acres are capable of being irrigated. Remarkable progress has been made by the bureau in charge of this work, and at the present time 1,500,000 acres are under ditches, and crops are being produced yearly on more than a million acres. The average gross return per acre from these lands annually is about $25. More than 30,000 families have been established in homes of their own on these lands. Cities, towns, and villages have sprung up in the midst of these agricultural communities. Railroads have extended their branches, and a vast region which a few years ago was an uninhabited desert has been transformed into a prosperous farming country. 76 student's textbook. The engineering works of the Reclamation Service rank with the greatest in the world, and include four of the highest masonry dams ever constructed. A summation of the work of the Reclamation Service to the beginning of July, 1 916, shows that it has dug 9,592 miles of canals and ditches and excavated 89 tunnels with an aggregate length of more than 25 miles. Dams of masonry, earth, crib and rock nil have been erected with a total volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards. These include the two highest dams in the world. The available reservoir capacity at this time is approxi- mately 6,500,000 acre-feet, or sufficient to cover the States of New Jersey and Delaware to a depth of 12 inches. The service has built 4,622 bridges with a total length of 19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714 and are 36 miles long. There are now in operation 298 miles of pipe line and 85 miles of flumes. The service has built 784 miles of wagon road, much of it in what was before inaccessible mountain regions, 82 miles of rail- road, 2,554 miles of telephone lines, 429 miles of power- transmission lines, and 1,068 buildings, such as power houses, pumping stations, offices, residences, barns, and storehouses. The projects now under way or completed embrace approximately 3,000,000 acres of irrigable land, divided in about 60,000 farms of from 10 to 1 60 acres each. During the year 1 9 1 5 water was available from Govern- ment ditches for 1,450,407 acres on 29,017 farms, and the Government was under contract to supply water to 1,088,003 acres. The excavations of rock and earth amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards. The Government has used 2,501,382 barrels of cement, and has manufactured 1,177,215 barrels of cement and sand cement. The power developed amounts to approximately 35,000 horsepower. The net investment of the service to date is approximately $100,000,000. UNITED STATES BUREAU OP MINES. The United States Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C, is one of the bureaus under the Department of the Interior. One of the main pur- poses of this bureau is to teach safety to the more than a million men who work in the mines and to another million men who are in some way connected with mining. Mining in the United States is growing very fast and each year requires several thousand new men. Many of these new men are foreign-born and do not understand mining. Most of them have worked on the farms in their native countries and have never been inside of a mine. These men do not know the dangers that are found in mines, and it often happens that they do something which causes accidents, perhaps killing not only themselves but also miners who are experienced. The Bureau of Mines sends out to the men in the mines little pam- phlets called "Miners' Circulars," which tell of the dangers in the mines and how a man should act to keep away from harm. These circulars STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 77 are free and are given to every man who asks for them. For the benefit of the foreign-born miners, each little pamphlet hereafter will be printed in a foreign language with the English on the same page, so that the miner will be able to learn English at the same time he learns the safety lessons. So far it has been decided to publish these papers in Italian, Polish, and Slovak. Since the bureau started sending out these little papers showing the dangers in mines the deaths in the mines have become fewer. The mining companies themselves have also given the miners pamphlets showing the dangers and have worked earnestly with the Bureau of Mines to make the miner's job safer. The Bureau of Mines does not make laws for the mines. It tells what is safe for the miner to do and the miner learns by reading the pam- phlets. The rules for mines are made by the States in which the mines are located. Each State has its own mining laws and a number of mine inspectors who see that the laws for safety are obeyed. These State inspectors know what the Bureau of Mines is doing for the miners and encourage its work among the men. They know that it takes their efforts and the efforts of the Bureau of Mines, the owners of the mines, and the miners themselves to bring about safety in the mines. The result is that a great many of the safety ideas of the Bureau of Mines have become a part of the State law and a better understanding among the miners as to what is safety. When the new miner learns more about his work, the Bureau of Mines has some papers which tell him more difficult things of mining. The miner studies these papers and soon he is enabled to get a better job in the mines. In that way the miner becomes more valuable to his employer and gets more money for his work. The Bureau of Mines does a great many more things than this for the mining industry. It makes experiments and gets out papers covering these experiments. Papers of this sort are of interest to engineers and operators. The bureau tries to show the people the best methods of mining and the best way of using the minerals after they are mined. In this way it tries to avoid the waste which comes with bad mining. It also means that if the waste is stopped the mines are more prosperous and the workmen are employed for a longer time. This finally means greater prosperity for the country. The national parks throughout the United States are cared for and protected from destruction and are the great public playgrounds for the American people, their beauties attracting many thousands of tourists annually. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Practically everything that it is possible to do to develop the agri- culture of the United States is being done in this department. There are many bureaus in this department that study all of the needs of the 78 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. farmer, including farm management, animals, plants, the soil of the farm, insects destructive to vegetation and methods of destroying them, wild birds and animals that are harmful or helpful to farmers, the forests, and the farming lands, the condition of the weather and its effect upon the farms, information regarding new discoveries of value to farming, chem- ical analyses of farm products, the development of scientific studies of farming in experiment stations in every part of the United States, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the small island of Guam in the Pacific Ocean; the establishment and betterment of public roads and the best methods of constructing them. In addition to all this, the best methods of marketing the products of the farm are carefully worked out. THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU. Man early began to take notice of the weather, as heat and cold, rain and sunshine directly affected his comfort and health. For a long time, however, he could not compare the weather of one day or month or year with that of another, as he had no means of measuring exactly the degree of heat or the amount of rainfall, and could keep no records except in his memory. After a time he invented a thermometer for measuring heat, a barometer for measuring the pressure of the air, an anemometer for measuring the velocity of the wind, a rain gauge for measuring the amount of rainfall, and other instruments of a like nature. From a study of many years' records of these instruments he discovered certain laws that govern the changes in the weather and was able to foretell the kinds of weather that followed certain other kinds. This knowledge was very important to him, and when the telegraph was invented men were able to send out information of the coming weather from 24 to 48 hours in advance. For the effective collection and dis- tribution of this information Weather Bureaus were organized in nearly every civilized country. The United States Weather Bureau was established by an act passed by the National Congress on February 9, 1870, and provided for taking weather observations throughout the country and for giving notice by telegraph and signals of the approach of storms, so that sailors and ship owners might be warned and take measures to protect their lives and property. Later the benefits of the bureau were extended to commercial and agricultural interests, and now the weather forecasts and the warnings of severe and injurious conditions sent out by the bureau benefit nearly every kind of business enterprise and add to the health and comfort of all the people. Weather forecasts for the United States are based on observations of local weather conditions at over 200 regular Weather Bureau observing stations throughout the United States and the West Indies, taken twice a day all at the same moment of time. Each of these stations is oper- ated by one or more trained observers and is equipped with the necessary STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 79 instruments for observing and recording the various phases of the weather. These observations are telegraphed twice daily, immediately after being taken, to the central office at Washington, D. C, and to other forecast centers where they are entered on maps, so that they may be studied by experts trained to forecast the weather for the coming day or two. The observations, as telegraphed, contains a record of the degree of temperature at the time, the pressure of the air, the amount of rain or snow since the last observation, the direction and velocity of the wind, the state of the weather — whether fair, cloudy, raining, etc. — and the highest and lowest temperatures since the last observation. By studying these reports and comparing them with the ones taken before, the forecaster is able to trace the paths of storms across the country and forecast very closely their future movements and the weather conditions that are likely to attend them. As soon as the forecasts are completed, which is usually within two hours after the observations are taken, they are sent out by telegraph, telephone, and mail to places all over the country. Nearly 90,000 addressees receive the forecasts by mail before 6 p. m. on the day of issue, and within an hour after being issued hundreds of telephone companies have received and telephoned them to their subscribers, over 5,500,000 people being served daily by this means. This distribution is in addition to that effected through the daily newspapers, nearly every one of which publishes the forecasts in some prominent place for the benefit of its readers. The invention of wireless telegraphy has made it possible for observa- tions to be taken on ships at sea and sent to receiving stations on the land and thence to the central observatory for study and use in forecasting. This service frequently enables the forecaster to have knowledge and give warning in advance of those severe storms and hurricanes that sometimes develop over the ocean in the tropical regions and that, before wireless telegraphy was known, were liable to approach our coasts without warning, causing great destruction of life and property. In some of the western States where very little rain falls during the summer the people have to depend on irrigation to raise their crops and it is useful for them to know how much water they can rely on for the coming season. As this water comes largely from the neighboring mountains, the bureau has established several hundred stations in the mountain regions to measure the amount of rain and snow that fall during the winter, and by this means it is able to give the people some idea of the amount of water they may expect. In order that it may have knowledge of the climate or average weather that prevails over the various portions of the United States the Bureau has established a great number of substations throughout the country — over 4,500 in all, or one in nearly every county. Observations of tempera- ture and rainfall are taken daily at each of these stations by persons 8c STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. who on account of their interest in science do this work without pay. The records of these observations are sent every month to one of the Weather Bureau stations in the State, known as the Section Center, and there published as a part of the climatological record of the State. By far the most valuable warnings issued by the bureau are those sent to sailors and shipowners announcing the expected approach of dangerous storms and hurricanes, thus enabling them to safeguard the lives and property intrusted to their care. By means of flags of different colors hoisted by day and white and red lanterns by night, these warnings are displayed in every port and harbor of any considerable importance along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, and the shores of the Great Lakes — over 300 in all — and the forecasters have become so expert in predicting these storms that scarcely one of marked violence has occurred for years for which warnings had not been sent out from 12 to 24 hours in advance, with the result that hundreds of lives and millions of dollars' worth of property have been saved from destruction. The following are some of the many methods employed in the protec- tion of property and the promotion of the health and comfort of the people as a result of weather forecasts and warnings issued by the Bureau : The railway companies ice their cars in summer and heat them in winter to protect perishable produce from extremely high and low tem- peratures. Shippers delay sending off perishable goods until the hot or cold spells have passed. When cold waves are predicted, heating and lighting plants prepare to meet the increased demands for service that is sure to follow. Water pipes and all fixtures liable to be injured by freezing are protected. Coal dealers lay in larger stocks. Charitable organizations prepare to meet the increased demands for food and clothing by the poor. In the farming and truck growing districts in the spring the young and tender vegetables are protected by various methods. In the fall cranberry bogs are flooded until the danger is over. In the sugar regions the cane is cut and put in piles to prevent it freezing. Crops of immense value have been saved by this means in the sugar dis- tricts of Louisiana. In California where raisins are grown, the crop, while drying, is greatly injured if rain falls on it, and the rain forecasts enable the producers to protect the fruit by stacking and covering the trays. All kinds of crops that would be injured by rain are cut on the days that fair weather is forecast. Certain kinds of building material, such as lime, cement, etc., are covered up when rain is predicted. When heavy snow is forecast, railroads and street railway companies get their men and tools ready to remove it from the tracks as soon as possible after it stops. Heavy rains often make floods in the rivers, sometimes causing vast injury. Forecasts of these are of immense value to people along the banks, and property of vast amount, and often lives, have been saved as a result of the warnings. student's textbook. 8 1 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Animal Industry carries on work relating to live stock. it conducts the Government meat inspection, which covers about 60 per cent of the meat produced in the country. This bureau maintains a system of inspection and quarantine of imported animals to prevent the bringing in of animal diseases from other countries, and also inspects animals for export from the United States to other countries. It studies the breeding and feeding of farm animals such as cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, and goats, as well as poultry, and gives information to aid people in raising live stock and poultry and in the production of eggs. It promotes the formation of clubs of boys and girls to raise pigs and chickens. It gives information about dairy farming, the care and improvement of dairy cattle, and the production and care of milk, butter, and cheese. It gives information and furnishes plans for the building of barns, silos, milk houses, etc. It also studies diseases of animals, and gives information and advice as to the nature of such diseases and how to prevent and treat them. It has undertaken system- atically to eradicate some of the diseases. Publications giving infor- mation on these various subjects will be sent without charge. FOREST SERVICE. The forests of this country are of great value. They supply material for lumbering, which is our third greatest industry. They bring large money returns and give employment to about 1,500,000 people. There are also many smaller industries which depend directly or indirectly upon the forest. The forests protect and regulate the flow of streams necessary for irrigation, power development, navigation, and domestic water supply. They lessen floods, prevent the soil from washing away, afford places for recreation by making these places more healthful and attractive. The forests bestow various other benefits upon the people of the country. In spite of these good things which the forest gives us, we have allowed them to be destroyed recklessly in the past. Vast wooded areas have been laid waste by fire, which has in many cases destroyed the land as well as the timber and left the country desolate. Besides, we have been wasting twice as much wood as we have used, and have been cutting three times as much timber a year as annually grows. Our timbered area is growing smaller and the population of the country and the need of timber are steadily growing larger. This means that if the loss of our forests continues it will not be many years before we will not have enough wood to meet home demand, and, further, that floods and soil erosion and other evils will greatly increase. About one-fifth of the wooded area of the United States belongs to the Federal Government. During the past 20 years most of this has 42783°— 21 6 82 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. been set aside in national forests. These national forests — which are not the same as the national parks — are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. On July i, 1 91 6, there were 168 national forest areas, embracing an area of more than 157,500,000 acres. These national forests occupy for the most part rough mountain lands which are not suited to farming, and most of them are in the far western States. As far as possible, they are protected from fire, insect damage, and other evils, and between 15,000 and 30,000 young trees are planted on treeless mountain sides within these areas every year, in order that the damage done in the past by fires and wasteful logging may be overcome. These national forests are managed and protected in such a way that the timber, the grazing lands, the water, and all of the other resources they contain are saved from waste, misuse, and abuse. All of the resources in these forests are for private individual use, at a very reason- able charge for commercial use, and for no charge at all for pleasure, sight-seeing, and recreational purposes. Where land more valuable for agriculture than for other purposes is found, it is not kept as a national forest, but may be entered by homesteaders for farms at the regular price of public lands to farmers. When wood is wanted for domestic use by local residents it is given away or sold at the cost of cutting it. Ripe timber is sold at a fair price to the highest bidder, and the cutting must be done under scientific regulation, to avoid waste and insure future growth. In a single year 604,920,000 board feet of timber have been cut from these national forests. Of this amount 119,483,000 board feet were cut and used by 42,055 individuals without charge. There were also 10,840 board feet of small quantities of wood. These privi- leges were given to farmers, homesteaders, ranchers, miners, those own- ing small sawmills, and others in need of a small amount of timber. The Forest Service carries on investigations for the purpose of improv ing stock ranges on the national forests. About 10,000,000 head of live stock owned by citizens graze upon ranges in the national forests at a small cost per head. Mineral deposits found in these forests may be developed by mining as freely as on any other public Government land. The development of water power along streams in national forests is allowed for recreational use by the public, and in every possible way they are made to serve public interest. Bridges, trails, roads, telephone lines, and other improvements are constructed in them. Almost one- half of the revenue from this source is used for schools and roads in the States where the national forests are located. The rest of this money goes into the National Treasury. The Forest Service also conducts special investigations relating to the growth and management of forests and the uses that may be made of them. One of its aims is to see that trees of the forest are put to their student's textbook. 83 best use with the least waste in the manufacture of all kinds of lumber and all kinds of articles made of wood. Nowhere in the entire world does the Government of the country give such free use and liberal treatment of its national resources to its citizens. Our Government treats the naturalized citizen as kindly as it treats the native citizen. The Forest Service tries to keep the public informed of the work which it is doing and of the important facts concerning forests and their use and protection which it finds out by its investigations. Free publi- cations are issued to applicants. Traveling exhibits of wood, charts, maps, photographs, and lantern slides with lecture outlines to accom- pany them, are loaned to schools, libraries, clubs, and other educational agencies. BUREAU OF SOILS. The organization of the Bureau of Soils comprises a field force engaged in surveying and mapping the soils of the country, a laboratory force employed in chemical and physical investigations of soils and fertilizers, and an office force carrying on the administrative work in Washington City. The soil survey is the principal activity of this office. Already 575,000,000 acres have been surveyed and reports and maps embodying the results of the work published. Ordinarily a survey covers a single county, and the work is distributed so that surveys have been made in every one of the States. Soil mapping and soil classification are primarily scientific, the results being fundamental and designed to furnish a sound basis for the investi- gations and experiments of agricultural workers connected with the Department of Agriculture, the State experiment stations, and other State organizations. But the reports and maps have an immediate practical value, as they furnish information concerning the character and value of land, the climate, and the type of agriculture in different parts of the country. In the laboratories of the bureau investigations are made of the mineral characteristics of soils, of their relation to internal moisture and air movements, their tendency to erode, and other fundamental questions. The fertilizer investigations, while primarily scientific, include the search for natural supplies of potash, the devising and perfecting of processes of manufacture of fertilizers, and a study of the present supplies, their value, and permanency. The field operations of the Bureau of Soils are published in an annual report showing the results of the work during the entire year. Advance sheets, showing the work by counties, are published from time to time as the surveys are completed. Scientific bulletins are published, also^ from time to time. 84 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY. Injurious insects cause a money loss to the United States of something over a billion dollars a year. They damage all kinds of agricultural crops; they injure live stock; they are destructive to stored grains and many other stored products; they damage forests; they injure wooden structures and implements; and they spread diseases among human beings. It is the work of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture to study these injurious insects carefully, in the hope of finding cheap and effective means of fighting them. To do this the bureau has a large organization in Washington City and employs some hundreds of men who are experts in the study of insect life and has established more than ioo field laboratories in different parts of the country where certain kinds of injurious insects can be studied at the center of their greatest abundance and where they are doing the worst damage. The several sections of the bureau deal with the insects affecting the health of man, such as flies, mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other household pests; those which damage fruits and fruit trees, such as scale insects, the codling moth (which makes wormy apples) , the borers in the trunk and those which feed upon the leaves, insects affecting cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, rice, and other southern field crops; those affecting the health of animals, including the cattle tick, the botflies, and the gadflies; insects affecting the grain and forage crops, such as grasshoppers, the army worm, the Hessian fly, and the alfalfa weevil; insects affecting forests and forest products, such as the bark beetles, which play such havoc in western pine forests; insects affecting vegetable and garden crops, like the Colorado potato beetle and the army of different species which bore into the stems and eat the leaves of nearly all such plants ; insects injurious to stored grains, such as the different grain weevils ; the different phases of handling and raising honeybees and studying their diseases; and another large section which tries to prevent the spread and reduce the numbers of the gypsy moth and the brown- tail moth, which for a number of years have caused extensive damage over large areas in New England States by feeding on the leaves of trees. In the course of this work many tests are made with different liquids, powders, and other preparations to destroy insect life, and with machin- ery used in the application of these preparations. The bureau also introduces into the United States from other countries beneficial insects, such as the Calasoma beetle, which has been brought over from Europe to feed upon the caterpillar of the gypsy and brown-tail moths in New England, and the Australian ladybird beetle, which was brought over some years ago from Australia to fight the fluted scale of the orange and lemon groves of California. Many pamphlets concerning these insects and including methods of destruction and control are published by the Bureau of Entomology for free distribution. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 85 THE BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. The work of the Bureau of Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture is distributed in four divisions. 1. The division of economic relations studies birds and mammals in relation to agriculture, investigates their food habits, recommends meas- ures for the protection of beneficial species, conducts experiments in fur- farming, devises methods for destroying harmful animals, and supervises this work on the National Forests and public lands in the West in destroy- ing prairie dogs, pocket gophers, wolves, and coyotes. 2. The geographic distribution division makes biological surveys and investigates the distribution of animals and plants, maps the natural life zones, studies migration of birds, and makes an annual bird census. 3. The division of game preservation supervises the enforcement of the Federal laws regulating interstate commerce in game and plumage and the law protecting birds on national bird reservations, regulates the importation of foreign birds and mammals, and issues permits for the collection and shipment from Alaska of specimens for scientific purposes and the capture and shipment of game for exhibition. It also main- tains four big-game preserves and 68 national bird reservations, distrib- uted in 23 States and Territories. 4. The division of migratory bird law is in charge of the Federal law protecting migratory birds, prepares the regulations, and supervises the work of the field inspectors and wardens appointed to carry out the pro- visions of the act. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. This bureau is charged with the enforcement of the Federal food and drugs act. Its inspectors collect samples of foods and drugs that are shipped from one State to another, or that are manufactured or sold within the District of Columbia or a Territory, or that are exported to or imported from other countries. The samples of foods and drugs col- lected by the inspectors are examined by chemists and if found to be adulterated or misbranded under the law the facts are reported to the solicitor of the department and proper legal action is taken. The Bureau of Chemistry has nothing to do with foods and drugs that are manu- factured or produced in the same State in which they are consumed. This bureau also makes chemical studies of the composition of crops. It develops methods for using waste products of the farm. It improves methods for preserving fruit juices and for packing, shipping, and handling poultry, eggs, fish, and other foodstuffs. It develops better ways to manufacture cane and maple sirup. It makes studies to learn what sub- stances in foods may be harmful to health. It makes chemical analyses and investigations for the various executive departments of the Gov- ernment. Other branches of the Department of Agriculture equally important in their various activities are devoted to considering systems of road 86 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. building and management, in building experimental roads, and in teach- ing engineers the latest and best developments of the science of road building in various parts of the United States. THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. The Department of Commerce is divided into eight bureaus. Each of these bureaus has a chief, all of whom are, however, under the control of the head of the department, who is called the Secretary of Commerce. Through these branches or bureaus the Secretary promotes, fosters, and developes the foreign and domestic commerce, the mining, manufactur- ing, shipping, and fishery industries, and the transportation facilities of the United States. Some of these activities of the Department of Com- merce are referred to in this book. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE. The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce is organized primarily to collect commercial information in foreign countries and to distribute it to American manufacturers and exporters. Its work partakes of the nature of a commercial survey. For collecting information it now relies mainly upon three agencies — its commercial attaches, special agents, and the American consuls. The commercial attaches are highly qualified business diplomats who are capable not only of reporting the minor incidents of commercial im- portance but of following up the bigger developments, and of detecting and understanding the undercurrents of the business and commercial life of the districts in foreign countries to which they are assigned. The special agent is a specialist in some one line of manufacture, and may be sent to every corner of the earth to study the markets for his particular line of goods. There are now about 20 such special agents in the employ of the bureau. There is a separate office in New York City where the work is brought personally to the attention of manufacturers and exporters. The Consular Service of the State Department has long been one of the chief aids of the bureau in gathering this information on commercial conditions in the countries where they represent the United States. There are 230 consuls, and they give part of their time to this work for the bureau, and in past years the publications of the bureau were based almost entirely upon the work of the American consuls. In connection with this work of collecting commercial information the bureau has found that it is just as important to distribute quickly the information obtained as it is secure it. To get into closer touch with the manufacturers and exporters it has established eight district offices and eight cooperative offices. The district offices are in New York, Boston, Atlanta, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, San Francisco, and Seattle, and the cooperative offices are in Cleveland, Los Angeles, Phila- student's textbook. 87 delphia, Chattanooga, Portland (Oreg.), and Dayton, with two such offices in Cincinnati. In distributing this information, the bureau relies chiefly upon the printed page. A daily paper, known as Commerce Reports, has long served to bring the reports from the consuls and special agents to the attention of the business public. Important news, much of it cabled, is now published in this daily paper within a few hours after its receipt in Washington. Bach daily issue carries a page or two of what are called foreign trade opportunities. These opportunities are sent in by consuls, agents, and attaches, and are outlined in the daily and numbered. Any American business concern that wishes full details about any of these opportunities may get them by writing to the bureau. Millions of dollars worth of American goods have been sold through these pages. THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. At the National Bureau of Standards are kept the national standards of measure. All measures of length, capacity, area, weight, electricity, light, heat, pressure, density, time, and many others are based on the standards of this bureau. Scientific researches of the most varied kinds are required to improve these standards and the methods of measurement involved in their use. Modern standards include also standards of quality for materials, standards of performance for machines and appliances, standards of prac- tice for public utilities and industrial engineering. The work of estab- lishing such standards upon a scientific basis is an important part of the function of the Bureau of Standards. The bureau's activities include researches and testing in the fields of heat, light, electricity, trade weights and measures, metallurgy, chemistry, structural materials, and mechanical appliances, and technical aspects of fire resistance, public utilities, refrigeration and similar engineering subjects. Within its field the bureau is the scientific adviser of the Government, a clearing house of scientific information for the industries and a research laboratory in the field of industrial technology. BUREAU OF FISHERIES. The Bureau of Fisheries is a branch of the Department of Commerce, and its chief object is to maintain and increase the supply of edible fishes in the waters of the United States, both along the coasts and in the rivers, lakes, and streams of the interior. It also has charge of the seal and salmon fisheries of Alaska and the care of the fur-bearing animals of Alaska. Its work is divided into four parts: (1) The hatching and rearing of food fishes and their distribution and planting in suitable waters; (2) studies and investigations of the fishing grounds and waters of the country to determine the abundance, habits and migrations of fishes, their growth 88 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. and food, and other facts concerning their lives; (3) investigations of the markets and prices for fish, methods of their capture, and bringing to the knowledge of the consumer new or little-known varieties which are suitable for food ; (4) fostering the salmon fisheries of Alaska, regulating the taking of fur-bearing land animals there, and the care of the fur-seals on the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. A large revenue comes to the Government from the sale of the skins of these seals. The bureau has 50 principal hatcheries, located at suitable places in the United States, which in the fiscal year 191 6 produced 4,800,000,000 fish and fish eggs. Young fish are furnished free of expense, for stocking purposes only, to any citizen who has suitable waters in which to plant them. For this purpose six specially constructed railroad cars are employed. Besides the hatcheries, three biological laboratories are maintained at which scientific investigations are carried on. In conducting its operations, the Bureau of Fisheries uses three sea- going steamers and one schooner, besides a number of smaller steamers and motor boats. BUREAU OP LIGHTHOUSES. The United States Lighthouse Service belongs to the Department of Commerce. The first lighthouse on this continent was built in 171 5-16, at the entrance of Boston Harbor, by the Province of Massachusetts. The funds necessary to pay for the expense of this lighthouse were raised by dues on incoming and outgoing vessels. These dues were called "light dues." There were several other lighthouses built by the Colonies, and Congress, by an act passed August 7, 1789, authorized the main- tenance of lighthouses at the expense of the United States. At that time there were in operation 8 lighthouses, that the Colonies had built, and 5 additional lighthouses were completed, making 13 in all, which were given by the States to the General Government. For over a century the lighthouses were under the Secretary of the Treasury. On July 1, 1903, they were transferred to the Department of Commerce and Labor. On March 4, 191 3, when the Department of Commerce was established, the Bureau of Lighthouses became a part of that department. The Lighthouse Service of the Bureau of Lighthouses has charge of establish- ing and maintaining all lights or aids to navigation on the seacoasts and coasts of the lakes, on the rivers and on the coast of all other territory under the jurisdiction of the United States, excepting the Philippine Islands and Panama. Lighthouses are maintained on such American possessions as the Samoan Islands, Guam, Porto Rico, and Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. There are two classes of aids to navigation: Lighthouses, lights of lesser importance called "minor lights," light vessel stations, gas buoys, float lights; there are over 5,000 of these. There are more than 9,000 other kinds of aid to navigation, called " unlighted aids." They are called STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 89 fog signals, submarine signals, whistling buoys, bell buoys, day beacons and other buoys. Nearly 50 vessels, called lighthouse tenders, are used to distribute supplies to the various stations and light vessels and for transporting the officers of the service on official business and materials for construction and repair and for placing and carrying for the buoyage system. On Staten Island, in New York Harbor, there is a general light- house depot, where many of the supplies for the whole service are stored and distributed to the points needed and where much of the special apparatus of the service is manufactured, repaired and tested. The Lighthouse Service publishes weekly notices to mariners, lists of lights for the various coasts, and buoy lists for each lighthouse district. These publications are distributed free. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. It is the duty of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to survey the coasts and make charts for the use of mariners for the coasts of the United States, the Philippines, Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. In order that the necessary data may be secured it is necessary to make accurate measurements of the distances over the areas to be charted and the fixing of points for the control of the surveys. The method employed for determining these control points is known as triangulation. The coast line and the land areas along the coast are then surveyed, using the control points for keeping the surveys in correct position. The process of mapping the land area is known as topography. The depths of the waters along the coasts are then measured with a sounding line and lead, and submerged rocks and other dangers to navigation are sought out and located. The survey of the water area is called hydrography. In connection with the survey of the ocean areas the Coast and Geo- detic Survey makes deep-sea soundings and current observations and ascertains the temperature of the ocean waters. Observations for the determination of the variation of the compass are made at thousands of places on land and on the sea. Continuous observations of the tides are also made at many places along our coasts in order to learn the variations in the depths of water due to tidal and also to meteorological causes. The results of the survey's work are published in annual reports and in special publications. Charts upon various scales are published, includ- ing sailing charts, general charts of the coast, and harbor charts. Tide tables are issued annually in advance. Books entitled ''Coast Pilots," which contain sailing directions covering the navigable waters of the country, and "Notices to Mariners," which are issued weekly and con- tain current information necessary for safe navigation. The Notices to Mariners are published jointly by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Bureau of Lighthouses. Catalogues of charts and such other pub- po student's textbook. iications as may be required to carry out the organic law governing the survey are also issued. Much interesting and valuable work is performed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in the surveys of land and harbors of the United States. In the land surveys the coast is surveyed with relation to the water of the coast. In the harbors of the country the depths of the water are measured and maps drawn showing these exact depths. Where there are dangerous rocks at the bottom of the harbor, they are specially marked on these maps or charts and buoys are fastened to them to warn the ships. In this bureau there is a machine that is a mechanical prophet. It foretells the tides of the ocean all over the world. Some time during 1917 it was working on the tides for the harbor of Bombay, India, for the afternoon of October 15, 191 8. It does not make the least difference to the machine whether the information desired is for 191 8 or 1958. It is just as easy for it to foretell the tide 100 years hence as it is for it to do so for two years hence. It required 15 years to perfect this machine, which was invented, constructed, and is operated in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in Washington City. This is the most highly perfected machine of its kind in the world. It is necessary for the captains of ocean-going ships to know what the tide will be in any port to which the ship is going at whatever time it reaches that port. Many channels are used only at high tide and at low tide other channels in the same harbor must be used. If a ship should come into a harbor without knowing the exact tide, it would be liable to be wrecked upon the rocks on the uneven bottom of the harbor which are dangerous at low tide but over which the ships may pass safely at high tide. This machine makes calculations in from 10 to 15 hours which would keep one human calculator busy six months. There are very few accountants who can calculate at the same time from 10 factors and give the result at once. This machine calculates from 37 factors at the same time and gives the result on paper by the turn of a crank. The use of the results of the work of this machine has made travel on board ocean- going ships perfectly safe wherever the condition of the tide causes any uncertainty. STEAMBOAT-INSPECTION SERVICE. Congress has from time to time passed laws requiring lifeboats, signal lights, fire pumps and hose on passenger vessels, for the better security of passengers on board vessels propelled in whole or in part by steam, and it established the Steamboat-Inspection Service, with inspectors to examine the hulls and boilers of all steamboats that carry passengers and report as to their safety. These inspectors also inspect the life- boats, signal lights, fire pumps and hose, the rafts, life-saving appliances and fire-fighting apparatus, and the structure of these steamboats to see that each steamboat is fully equipped according to the requirements. student's textbook. 91 Each steamboat is allowed to carry only a limited number of passengers, and the steamboat inspectors decide the number that may safely be carried. These inspectors examine all steam vessels navigating any waters of the United States excepting Government-owned vessels and canal boats. All coastwise, seagoing steam vessels on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, the Great Lakes, and the rivers and waters of the United States flowing into these great bodies of water must be inspected by the Steamboat-Inspection Service at least once a year, and a certificate is issued only after the boat has been found to be in lawful condition. Licenses are granted to masters of vessels, mates, pilots, and engineers by the Steamboat-Inspection Service and are good for five years. Whenever any steam vessel is being operated or navigated without complying with the provisions of the steamboat-inspection laws, the certificate of inspection is immediately revoked and no new certificate is issued until the law has been fully complied with. Any master or owner of a vessel whose certificate has been revoked may appeal to the Secretary of Commerce, who has power to direct the issu- ance of a certificate of inspection. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. The law creating the Department of Labor gives this department the authority to foster, promote, and develop the welfare of the wage earners of the United States; to improve their working conditions, and to advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The depart- ment was therefore created in the interest of the welfare of all the wage earners of the United States, whether organized or unorganized, whether native or foreign born. The supreme motive of all who represent the Department of Labor is fairness between wage earner and wage earner, between wage earner and employer, between employer and employer, and between each of these and the public. The department, through the Secretary of Labor, acts as a mediator in labor disputes whenever, in the judgment of the Secretary, the inter- ests of industrial peace require this to be done. The department aids the foreigners of the country in many ways. Through the Bureau of Naturalization it has had the public-school authorities in all of the principal cities throughout the United States open night classes which candidates for citizenship are invited to attend. In these classes these foreign-born residents are taught how to become useful citizens of the country. Through the Immigration Bureau it aids the foreigners coming to our shores in landing and in reaching the places to which they are destined ; and thousands of places of employment are constantly being secured for working people — laborers as well as mechanics of all kinds — all over the United States. 92 student's textbook. It gathers all kinds of useful information upon subjects connected with labor, showing hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social intellectual, and moral advancement. It also gathers full and complete statistics upon the conditions of labor, its products, and their distribution. Under the Children's Bureau investigations are made of all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life. The Bureau of Naturalization has charge of all of the foreign-born residents of the United States who take out their first papers and aids them through its naturalization examiners located in different parts of the United States in securing their American citizenship. Through the public schools all over the United States the Bureau of Naturalization is working so that the many hundreds of thousands of foreigners who annually are candidates for citizenship may learn of their rights and responsibilities as American citizens. As 90 per cent of these applicants for naturalization are wage earners, this work of the public schools enables them to understand their rights as laboring people, enables them better to understand their surrounding conditions, so that they may wisely and fairly consider the problems which flow from the relations of employer and employee. The administration of the naturalization law by the United States Government is accomplished without using the taxes paid by the citizens and foreigners for the support of the Government. The Bureau of Naturalization, and all of the cost of its support, is more than paid for by the foreigners who are applicants for naturalization. The Govern- ment gets over one-half of the naturalization fees which the candidates for citizenship pay to the clerks of the courts all over the United States. The amount that was turned into the Treasury of the United States in the 10 years of Federal supervision is $3,542,857.47. During this time the expense of the administration of the naturalization law was $2,880,- 778.42. A surplus has therefore been placed in the Treasury of the United States by the Commissioner of Naturalization of $662,079.05 from the naturalization fees collected. There were $65,129 in natural- ization fees collected in 1907, the first year of Federal supervision, and $635,037.02 in 1917. THE JUDICIAL BRANCH. The judicial branch of the Government is presided over by the Chief Justice of the United States. The judicial power of the United States is vested by the Constitution in the Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Supreme Court of the United States is composed of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices. All of these justices and the judges of the inferior courts which Congress ordains and establishes under the authority of the Constitution hold their offices during their student's textbook. 93 lifetime. They can be removed from office only by impeachment pro- ceedings, and the only ground for these proceedings is misbehavior on the part of the judge. The judicial power of the United States extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws and treaties of the United States. It also extends to all cases affecting ambassadors or public ministers and consuls, admiralty and maritime cases, controversies to which the United States shall be a party, con- troversies between two or more States, between a State and the citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or its citizens and foreign States, their citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, public ministers, and consuls, and in cases in which one of the States shall be a party to the suit, the Supreme Court of the United States has original jurisdiction. In all of the other cases mentioned the inferior courts ordained and established by Congress under the Constitution have jurisdiction with the right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. The Federal judiciary extends throughout the United States and includes the Territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and Porto Rico and the Canal Zone. There are nine judicial divisions of the United States, which are called circuits. In each of these divisions there are two kinds of United States courts. They are called district courts of the United States and United States Circuit Courts of Appeals. A suit that may be instituted in a Federal court is filed in the district court of the United States where the person lives. When it has been tried and decided by that court the decision of the court may be reviewed in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals for that circuit. When it has been tried and decided in that court it may be tried by the Supreme Court of the United States if it is a case that under the Constitution or laws of Congress is deemed of sufficient importance to have consideration by the Supreme Court of the United States. In a district court there is at least one judge, while three judges are provided for each of the United States Circuit Courts of Appeals. There are stated times and places for holding terms of the district courts of the United States and the United States Circuit Courts of Appeals. The Chief Justice and the associate justices of the Supreme Court are each assigned to a judicial circuit, and each may sit as one of the judges of the Circuit Court of Appeals to which he is assigned. A United States district court has been established for the Panama Canal Zone, which holds sessions at Ancon and Cristobal. A United States court for China has also been created, which holds sessions at Shanghai, with authority to sit at Canton, Tientsin, and Hankau, China. In addition to these Federal courts there is a Court of Claims of the United States, and a United States Court of Customs Appeals, that sit in the city of Washington, the capital of the Nation. The Court of Claims 94 student's textbook. has general jurisdiction of all claims founded upon the Constitution of the United States or any law of Congress, except for pensions, and of claims that arise under regulations of executive departments or upon contracts with the Government of the United States, or for certain damages where the claimant is entitled to redress against the United States. The United States Court of Customs Appeals decides cases arising out of the customs laws of the United States. MISCELLANEOUS INSTITUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. The United States owns its own printing and binding plant, which is located in Washington, D. C, and is known as the United States Govern- ment Printing Office. It is under the direction of the Public Printer, who is appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. This is the largest printing oSice in the world, employs 5,000 persons, and occupies several buildings, containing a floor space of 13^ acres. In this office is done the printing and binding of all publications for Congress and the departments of the Government. The Congressional Record, giving in exact detail the proceedings of Congress, is issued each day during the sessions of Congress. Each Member of Congress is en- titled to a certain number of copies, which are mailed free of cost to per- sons designated by them. During sessions of Congress from 20,000 to 25,000 bills and resolutions are introduced. These bills are printed, in addition to a vast quantity of other miscellaneous work. The work for the departments embraces all current publications, furnishing in- formation covering every imaginable subject, and also enormous quan- tities of miscellaneous work, including postal cards and money orders. Anyone desiring to secure a copy of any document of a public nature can do so by communicating with the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. These copies are sold at cost price. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. James Smithson, an Englishman, bequeathed his fortune to the United States "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." From the accumulated income of the bequest the Smith- sonian Building was erected in 1 847-1 855 on land given to the institution by the United States. The original endowment of $541,000 has been increased by other bequests and gifts to about a million dollars which is by law deposited in the United States Treasury. The annual income of this permanent fund is devoted to expense of maintenance, to explora- tion and research, and publication. Among its members are the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the President's Cabinet. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 95 The Smithsonian Institution has administrative charge of six branches which grow out of its early activities and which are now supported through appropriations by Congress. These are the National Museum (including the National Gallery of Art); the International Exchange Service; the Bureau of American Ethnology; the National Zoological Park; the Astrophysical Observatory; and the United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literatute. THE FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD. The Federal Reserve Board, located in Washington, is composed of five members. These members are appointed by the President of the United States by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Two of these members must have had banking experience. In addition to these five, there are two other members of the board. They are the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency. They are members ex officio (by virtue of their offices). The Federal Reserve law was passed by Congress and approved by the President on December 23, 191 3. Under this law the United States has been divided into 12 Federal Reserve bank districts. At a central point in each of these 12 districts, one of the 12 Federal Reserve banks is located. The object of the Federal Reserve act is to form one great banking system. All national banks are members of this banking sys- tem, and such State banks and trust companies as desire to do so may join it. Each of these 12 Federal Reserve banks has nine bank directors. Three of these are appointed by the Federal Reserve Board in Wash- ington and six are elected by the banks of the district that are members of the system. These directors manage the Federal Reserve banks in much the same manner as directors of smaller banks do their banks. These Federal Reserve banks are under the direct supervision of the Federal Reserve Board. These 12 Federal Reserve banks are some- times known as banks of banks, because they do no banking business directly with the general public, but only with the banks of the system. The banks of the system are known as member banks. They contribute to the capital stock of the Reserve banks in proportion to their own capital and surplus. The chief function of the Reserve banks is to lend money to their member banks by discounting acceptable collateral secur- ity. This security is specified in the law to represent commercial paper- having short maturities. Federal Reserve banks are also permitted to invest in Government bonds, city and town warrants having a short time to run, and in bankers' acceptances. Each Federal Reserve bank is, therefore, a central bank for its district, and after paying dividends to its stockholders, all further earnings go to the Federal Government. The stockholders are the member banks, and the dividend is limited to 6 per cent per annum. 96 student's textbook. THE PANAMA CANAL. On May 4, 1904, in accordance with an agreement with the Republic of Panama, the United States Government took possession of a strip of land 10 miles wide, running across the Isthmus of Panama, which is called the Canal Zone. Immediate steps were taken to dig a waterway- through this strip of land, and, as a result, on August 15, 19 14, the Panama Canal was opened to the commerce of the world. While there have been some interruptions to traffic due to landslides, it is believed that there will be no more serious trouble from this source in the future. A lock canal has been constructed with a large artificial lake covering about 167 square miles through which the canal passes. The entire length of the canal from deep water in the Atlantic Ocean to deep water in the Pacific Ocean is about 50 miles. Its length from shore line to shore line is about 40 miles. In passing through it from the Atlantic to the Pacific a vessel will enter a sea-level channel 500 feet wide and 7 miles long, extending to the Gatun Locks. Here it will enter a series of three locks and be lifted 85 feet to the level of Gatun Lake. It may steam at full speed through this lake in a channel varying from 1 ,000 to 500 feet in width for a distance of 24 miles, when it will enter the Gaillard Cut. It will pass through the cut, a distance of about 9 miles, in a channel with a width of 300 feet, to the Pedro Miguel Lock. There it will enter a lock and be lowered 30 feet to a small lake at an elevation of 55 feet above sea level and will pass through this lake for about 1% miles to the Miraflores Locks. There it will enter two locks and be lowered to the sea level, passing out into the Pacific Ocean through a channel about 8 miles in length, and with a minimum depth of 41 feet. The Government is equipping the canal with all requisite facilities for the accommodation of the shipping interests, such as machine shops, large dry docks, coaling plants, fuel-oil handling plants, and storehouses for supplies. The estimated cost of the construction of the canal is $375,000,000. The canal is of great commercial value to the world on account of the distances saved by vessels. The great United States Atlantic port of New York, for instance, is nearer to the great Pacific port of San Francisco through the use of the canal by 7,873 nautical miles. The distance of 13,135 miles by Magellan has been reduced to 5,262 miles by the canal. The canal makes San Francisco nearer to Liverpool by 5,666 miles, and New York to Guayaquil by 7,405 miles. The Panama Canal will un- questionably stimulate the world's trade and prove to be a great blessing to mankind. THE AMERICAN NATIONAL RED CROSS. The American National Red Cross is a philanthropic organization incorporated by the Congress of the United States for the purpose of furnishing voluntary aid to the sick and wounded of the Army and Navy in time of war, in accordance with the Treaty of Geneva, and to carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace, and to STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 97 apply the same in the mitigation of suffering caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same. The governing body of the Amer- ican Red Cross is a central committee of 18 members, six of whom including the chairman, are appointed annually by the President of the United States. Since January 5, 1905, the date of its present charter, it has con- ducted relief operations in the United States and in foreign countries after 94 different disasters, including famines, earthquakes, fires, cyclones, floods, mine explosions, epidemics, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, shipwrecks, and war. It has raised and expended in the above relief operations, including the campaign against tuberculosis, over $15,000,000 in cash and several million dollars' worth of supplies. It conducts a first-aid department- which has been the means of bringing first-aid instruction to hundred of thousands of people employed in the industrial pursuits. It conducts classes for women in elementary hygiene and home care of the sick in every section of the country. The Town and Country Nursing Service of the Red Cross has made possible the benefits of trained nursing in rural communities. It has enrolled a corps of over 6,000 of the best trained nurses of the country, and an organized medical service, both available to the Government in time of war or for relief work in epidemics or disasters. Any resident of the United States or its exterior possessions is eligible for enrollment as a member of the Red Cross. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION. The Pan American Union is the official international organization of the 21 American Republics. It is devoted to the development and advancement of commerce, friendly intercourse, and good understand- ing among those countries. It is supported by quotas contributed by each country, based upon population. Its affairs are administered by a director general and assistant director, elected by and responsible to a governing board, which is composed of the Secretary of State of the United States and the diplomatic representatives in Washington of the other American Governments. It publishes a monthly bulletin in four editions — one entirely in English, for circulation in the United States, and the others in Spanish, Portuguese, and French, for circulation in Latin America — each of which contains descriptive, commercial, general, and specific information regarding the progress and development of Pan America. The union prepares careful reports on the export and import trade of every American Republic ; makes special studies of the resources and material wealth and possibilities of each land, and publishes pam- phlets covering tariffs and laws which have to do with trade and the investment of capital. It organizes, prepares the programs, preserves the records, and executes the resolutions of the great international conferences of the American Republics held at varying intervals. 42783°— 21 7-f-8 98 student's textbook. THE CITY OF WASHINGTON, Bach one of the 48 States and the Territories has its capital. The city of Washington is the capital of the Nation, The city of Washington is located in the District of Columbia, which is the smallest independent political division of the United States. Although Washington is the capital of this Republic, it is the only city in the United States which does not represent either a republican or a democratic form of govern- ment. In every city in the Union except in the city of Washington the political affairs are regulated by the votes of the people. At one time the affairs of the city were controlled and administered by its voters, but in 1 87 1 the Congress passed a law taking away the right of suffrage from the citizens of the District of Columbia. It did this under its authority provided in the Constitution of the United States to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over the district of Columbia. The President of the United States lives in the White House at Wash- ington. The Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States meet and hold their sessions in the Capitol Building. All of the execu- tive departments of the Government occupy buildings in Washington, in which the affairs of the Nation are administered. Before 1871 the city of Washington had a mayor, who was elected in the same manner as mayors in other cities. Since 1874 tne govern- ment of the District of Columbia has been in charge of three commis- sioners, who are appointed by the President of the United States by and with the consent of the Senate. One of these commissioners is an officer of the United States Army, while the other two are selected from civil life. The Congress bears somewhat the same relation to the city of Washington as that borne by the common council, aldermen, or other equivalent mu- nicipal lawmaking body of any other city. As the citizens of the District of Columbia do not vote, they have organized a number of civic bodies representing the various sections of the District. These organizations study the needs of the community and make their recommendations to the commissioners; they, in turn, submit estimates for all cost of administration, including improvements of whatever nature, to the Congress through the Secretary of the Treasury. These estimates are submitted in what is known as the "budget" form, and contain all of the revenues as well as the proposed expenditures for the entire year. There is a committee in the Senate and one in the House of Represent- atives known as the Committee on the District of Columbia. These committees consider all measures that are proposed on behalf of the District of Columbia and city of Washington, except providing funds for the administration of the District government. These funds are provided for by the committees of the two Houses known as the Appro- priations Committees. They are called " Appropriations" Committees, because they prepare bills, called "appropriation bills," for Congress to STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 99 enact into laws for the administration of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the United States Government and for the govern- ment of the District of Columbia. Although there is no right of franchise in the District of Columbia,, the needs of the District, as presented to Congress through the Com- missioners and the various citizens' organizations, are uniformly cared for. As a result of this, the city of Washington is the most beautiful city in the United States, and by some it is held to be the most beautiful city in the world. The city of Washington is noted for its almost num- berless shade trees and public buildings. As seen from the dome of the Capitol, it presents the appearance, in many directions, of a con- tinuous forest, with beautiful buildings here and there showing out among the trees. Commencing at the Capitol Building, for miles one may see a stretch of forest extending across the Potomac River and over into the hills of Virginia. It has many large parks and hundreds of small ones dotting the city in all sections. Probably the most beautiful city park in the world will be found in the Zoological Park, Rock Creek Park, and Potomac Park, as they exist at the present time and are planned. They commence in the Potomac River, south of the city, and by a series of boulevards and parkways continue through the city and out into the hilly, rolling country for miles to the north. They contain thousands of acres of land and include many miles of beautiful drives and boule= vards. Washington may well be called the seat of learning of the United States 5 for it contains more educational institutions than any other city in this country. It is the great seat of scientific research of the world. The Library of Congress contains over 2,500,000 volumes upon every science, trade, profession, religion, and thought of the human race, which are open to public use without charge. In addition to these books there are numbers of maps, manuscripts, musical compositions, and rare prints in the Library. It has a population of about 430,000, about one- third of which belong to the Negro race. Every nationality is represented in the city of Washington, either in official life or among its residents. The site of the national capital was selected and the city founded by the great and good Washington and was very properly given his name to honor him throughout all time. General Washington also laid the corner stones of the Capitol and the White House. One of the most beautiful memorials to any human being is seen in the Washington Monument. Another memorial, not only to the person but to the principles for which he struggled and stood, is found in the one erected to Abraham Lincoln. The Capitol Building, the Washington Monu- ment, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Library of Congress are among the most impressive structures of their kinds in the world. ioo student's textbook. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen: I have come here for the simple purpose of expressing my very deep interest in what these conferences are intended to attain. It is not fair to the great multitudes of hopeful men and women who press into this country from other countries that we should leave them without that friendly and intimate instruction which will enable them very soon after they come to find out what America is like at heart and what America in intended for among the nations of the world. I believe that the chief school that these people must attend after they get here is the school which all of us attend, which is furnished by the life of the communities in which we live and the nation to which we belong. It has been a very touching thought to me sometimes to think of the hopes which have drawn these people to America. I have no doubt that many a simple soul has been thrilled by that great statue standing in the harbor of New York and seeming to lift the light of liberty for the guidance of the feet of men; and I can imagine that they have expected here something ideal in the treatment that they will receive, something ideal in the laws which they would have to live under, and it has caused me many a time to turn upon myself the eye of examination to see whether there burned in me the true light of the American spirit which they expected to find here. It is easy, my fellow citizens, to communicate physical lessons, but it is very difficult to communicate spiritual lessons. America was intended to be a spirit among the nations of the world, and it is the pur- pose of conferences like this to find out the best way to introduce the newcomers to this spirit, and by that very interest in them to enhance and purify in ourselves the thing that ought to make America great, and not only ought to make her great but ought to make her exhibit a spirit unlike any other nation in the world. I have never been among those who felt comfortable in boasting of the superiority of America over other countries. The way to cure yourself of that is to travel in other countries and find out how much of nobility and character and fine enterprise there is everywhere in the world. The most that America can hope to do is to show, it may be, the finest example, not the only example, of the things that ought to benefit and promote the progress of the world. So my interest in this movement is as much an interest in ourselves as in those whom we are trying to Americanize, because if we are genuine Americans they can not avoid the infection; whereas, if we are not genuine Americans, there will be nothing to infect them with, and no amount of teaching, no amount of exposition of the Constitu- tion — which I find very few persons understand — no amount of dwelling upon the idea of liberty and of justice will accomplish the object we have in view, unless we ourselves illustrate the idea of justice and of liberty. My interest in this movement is, therefore, a twofold interest. I believe it will assist us to become self-conscious in respect of the fundamental ideas of American life. When you ask a man to be loyal to a government, if he comes from some foreign countries, his idea is that he is expected to be loyal to a certain set of persons like a ruler or a body set in authority over him, but that is not the American idea. Our idea is that he is to be loyal to certain objects in life, and that the only reason he has a President and a Congress and a governor and a State legislature and courts is that the community shall have instrumentalities by which to promote those objects. It is a cooperative organization expressing itself in this Constitution, expressing itself in these laws, intending to express itself in the exposition of those laws by the courts; and the idea of America is not so much that men are to be restrained and punished by the law as instructed and guided by the law. That is the reason so many hopeful reforms come to grief. A law can not work until it expresses the spirit of the community for which it is enacted, and if you try to enact into law what expresses only the spirit of a small coterie or of a small minority, student's textbook. ioi you know, or at any rate you ought to know, beforehand that it is not going to work The object of the law is that there, written upon these pages, the citizen should read the record of the experience of this State and Nation; what they have concluded it is necessary for them to do because of the life they have lived and the things that they have discovered to be elements in that life. So that we ought to be careful to main- tain a government at which the immigrant can look with the closest scrutiny and to which he should be at liberty to address this question: "You declare this to be a land of liberty and of equality and of justice ; have you made it so by your law? " We Dught to be able in our schools, in our night schools and in every other method of instructing these people, to show them that that has been our endeavor. We can not conceal from them long the fact that we are just as human as any other nation, that we are just as selfish, that there are just as many mean people amongst us as anywhere else, that there are just as many people here who want to take advantage of other people as you can find in other countries, just as many cruel people, just as many people heartless when it comes to maintaining and promoting their own interest, but you can show that our object is to get these people in harness and see to it that 'they do not do any damage and are not allowed to indulge the passions which would bring injustice and calamity at last upon a nation whose object is spiritual and not material. America has built up a great body of wealth. America has become, from the physical point of view, one of the most powerful nations in the world, a nation which if it took the pains to do so, could build that power up into one of the most formidable instruments in the world, one of the most formidable instruments of force, but which has no other idea than to use its force for ideal objects and not for self-aggrandizement. We have been disturbed recently, my fellow citizens, by certain symptoms which have showed themselves in our body politic. Certain men — I have never believed a great number — born in other lands, have in recent months thought more of those lands than they have of the honor and interest of the government under which they are now living. They have even gone so far as to draw apart in spirit and in organiza- tion from the rest of us to accomplish some special object of their own. I am not here going to utter any criticism of these people, but I want to say this, that such a thing as that is absolutely incompatible with the fundamental idea of loyalty, and that loyalty is not a self -pleasing virtue . I am not bound to be loyal to the United States to please myself. I am bound to be loyal to the United States because I live under its laws and am its citizen, and whether it hurts me or whether it benefits me, I am obliged to be loyal. Loyalty means nothing unless it has at its heart the absolute principle of self-sacrifice. Loyalty means that you ought to be ready to sacrifice every interest that you have, and your life itself, if your country calls upon you to do so, and that is the sort of loyalty which ought to be inculcated into these newcomers, that they are not to be loyal only so long as they are pleased, but that, having once entered into this sacred relationship, they are bound to be loyal whether they are pleased or not; and that loyalty which is merely self-pleasing is only self-indulgence and selfishness. No man has ever risen to the real stature of spiritual manhood until he has found that it is finer to serve somebody else than it is to serve himself. These are the conceptions which we ought to teach the newcomers into our midst, and we ought to realize that the life of every one of us is part of the schooling, and that we can not preach loyalty unless we set the example, that we can not profess things with any influence upon others unless we practice them also. This process of Ameri- canization is going to be a process of self-examination, a process of purification, a proc- ess of rededication to the things which America represents and is proud to represent. And it takes a great deal more courage and steadfastness, my fellow citizens, to repre- sent ideal things than to represent anything else. It is easy to lose your temper, and 102 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. hard to keep it. It is easy to strike and sometimes very difficult to refrain from striking, and I think you will agree with me that we are most justified in being proud of doing the things that are hard to do and not the things that are easy. You do not settle things quickly by taking what seems to be the quickest way to settle them. You may make the complication just that much the more profound and inextricable, and, therefore, what I believe America should exalt above everything else is the sovereignty of thoughtf ulness and sympathy and vision as against the grosser impulses of mankind. No nation can live without vision, and no vision will exalt a nation except the vision of real liberty and real justice and purity of conduct,, CITIZENSHIP LABORATORY. CITIZENSHIP IN THE CITY. Assemble the classes of each school building in one room, men and women together, and tell them that they represent the city, that they will soon become citizens of the United States, and that they are to learn how to assume the responsibilities and rights and perform the duties of citizenship. For this purpose they are to be considered as the entire adult voting population of the city. Briefly outline the form of government in the city, defining the offices of mayor or commissioner, councilman, alderman, or their local equivalents, the various adminis- trative departments of the municipality, and describe the city judiciary. Explain how these offices have been filled by their incumbents and the relation of the individual voters to the incumbents. DUTIES OF OFFICIALS OF CITY. The mayor and other officials of the city government should be pre- vailed upon to define fully the duties of their respective offices. All of thL will be most interestedly and profitably received by the students, who should be encouraged to make as extensive notes as possible, and will prove a source of inspiration to those officials who are prevailed upon to address the student body upon the duties of their respective offices. The President, in his address to the newly naturalized citizens in Phila- delphia on May 10, 191 5, said, "I feel that is has renewed my spirit as an American to be here." DISCUSSIONS. Discussions of the subject of each of these addresses should be en- gaged in by the student body after each talk and the duties of the offices debated so as to fix them in the minds of the prospective citizens. Out- line for discussions will be found later in this course. FRANCHISE AND BALLOT. After the duties and responsibilities of the different offices of the city government have been described by the incumbents of these offices or their representatives, and the student body has fully discussed these subjects with evident understanding, the students should be assembled for instruction in the franchise, its rights, powers, purposes, and uses., The ballot, in the exercise of the franchise, both in primary and final elections, should be made known to them and the necessity for purity in its use fully dwelt upon by the teacher, followed by discussions upon the franchise and the ballot and their relation in this country to government and to the individual citizen; the good that will flow from its wise and 103 I04 student's textbook. proper use, and the evil from its unwise and improper use emphasized? the purposes and powers of the ballot and its relationship to the election of municipal, State, and national officials clearly shown. Bach of these subjects should be fully discussed and debated by pupils. In their treatment the teacher should always keep prominently in mind the necessity for developing the sense of individual responsibility and relationship to the whole political organization. Assignments of sub- jects should be made by the teacher so as to include and stimulate the diffident and backward to a participation in this work. NOMINATIONS AND ELECTIONS. When understanding has become general throughout the student body its members should be required to put into practice the lessons which they have learned. The necessity for purity of the ballot should again be fully emphasized. As an entire body they should be told that they will be expected to make use of their knowledge of the franchise and of the use of the ballot and will be guided through the steps of electing the city government, commencing with the mayor or the local equivalent. The local form of nomination may prevail, but as they have been taught both the convention and primary methods they should be allowed and urged to exercise the utmost freedom in their choice of method. Self-government should be the keynote in this entire course and should be developed to its fullest possibilities consistent with intelli- gent progress. The teacher should not dominate but steady and guide the students in their endeavors to emerge from their ignorance of our institutions into an intelligent comprehension of them. The only functions which the teacher should exercise in this stage of the course are to insure regularity and purity in the entire proceedings, to stimulate the backward ones to participate in some manner in the consideration of the subject, and to urge full discussions of both the qualifications of the candidate and the duties of the office, so as to bring out prominently the cardinal purpose of each election — the selection of the candidate best suited to the office. The teacher or principal should preside over this meeting. Tellers should be appointed for the election, both for the primary and final elections if the primary form of nomination should prevail. The pur- pose of this election is to remove the preconceived notions of govern- ment and former national prejudices and to unify and harmonize the different national views into one national spirit to accord with the spirit of our Government. The choice made will represent not a nationality but an expressed desire of a majority of the entire student body. The successful candidate should be only the one having a majority over all. The plurality should not be sufficient. The object of an absolute majority over all is to prevent the domination by one nationality by sheer pre- ponderance of numbers. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 105 City chief executive. — Nominations from the entire student body for the position of mayor should be invited. From three to five or more candidates should be placed in nomination, the number to be based by the teacher upon the size of the student body. But one candidate should be allowed for each group or nationality. The candidates for election should be the three receiving the highest number of votes on nomination. All should be encouraged to participate in the submission of names in nomination and to engage in large numbers in urging the qualifications of their respective candidates. In the entire student body assemblage activity should be stimulated by the principal, supplemented by each teacher individually endeavoring to inspire confident activity in the members of his individual class. This activity should take the shape of speeches in favor of the respective candidates whose names are put in nomination, not only by the one nominating and the one seconding the nomination, but generally through- out the entire student body. The individual teachers should devote their attention to the members of their respective classes and an effort should be made to elicit some expression from each member of each class, and in this way from each member of the student body. The greater participation on the part of the students the greater will be the influence of the spirit of the occasion on the entire body and correspond- ingly on each and every individual. The enthusiasm of the teachers will be reflected in the enthusiasm of the students. In proportion to the sympathetic interest of the teacher will be the response of the indi- vidual. The development of the responsibility of the individual to the entire State and entire Nation underlies all of this participation. The principal and teachers of the various classes should only guide in an advisory capacity. As but one candidate may be chosen and must receive a majority over all, it will at once be evident that at this point will commence the obliteration of the various national lines and prejudices. At this stage of this course in the laboratory of citizenship the school is a crucible in which the polyglot elements of American society have been placed in a scientific flux and are being fused in the refining fire of intelligent pa- triotic influences into true, comprehending, and hence loyal American citizens. The melting pot is what has been used in the past. There has been nothing but a dumping of the elements of society into the pot, with the resultant nondescript conception of our institutions. It should be abandoned and the crucible, with its scientifically prepared flux, sub- stituted to produce the pure and unalloyed American citizen. Assimila- tion of the fundamental idea of American government is here effected through the requirement of the various nationalities present to unite upon a representative, regardless of nationality, in the choice of their presiding officer. The common choice will force the obliteration of the national lines. The selection should be upon merit and an effort made 106 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. to prevent the development of vote trading or other practices. Cor- ruption of the ballot should be eliminated not only from the actions but from the thoughts of the candidates and their supporters. If the interest, enthusiasm, or circumstances be sufficient to warrant a unanimous rising vote, it may be taken upon explaining the circum- stances under which such action occurs and to remove from the minds the possibility of confusion from regarding this as usual in general elec- tions. Induction into office. — Upon election the mayor should be escorted forward by members of the student body, and with suitable ceremony inducted into office by the administration of the oath of office by the teacher. The custom usually prevailing should be followed, and the oath to well and faithfully perform the duties of the office should be administered in the presence of the entire school body. The teacher should place the burden of the responsibilities upon the student body and the mayor, who should preside at all subsequent general assemblages of the student body as one of his official duties. Election of other city officials. — As they have all learned of the duties of the officials of the departments of city government, the members of the student body should next select their city legislators and organize the appropriate departments of city government and select their respec- tive heads. This should include at least the health department, police department, and judicial department, with such others as local condi- tions may justify. In the election of the aldermen or city legislators the unit of representation should be the classroom, one or more repre- sentatives from each class being determined by the mobility and effi- ciency of the entire body. Duties of city legislative body. — The legislators should formulate rules of government for the observance of the student body. These rules should apply to the conduct of the students in and around the school buildings, relate to the disposition of their outer clothing, deportment in the classrooms, promptness and regularity of attendance, participation in debate (to insure sharing in the exercises by each member of the entire school body, even though but slight participation should result on the part of some of the most backward and diffident), and with special attention to rules requiring the students to bring in the large number of alien residents to the night schools. The advantages to be gained from this are too great and vital, too far-reaching in their effect for most substantial good, to pass by without a consistent emphasis being laid upon its accomplishment. The teacher should have papers prepared and debates arranged upon such topics as "Why should each student bring a new student?" and kindred topics. They should formulate rules governing their conduct in the places of their vocation, in their homes, and on the street, and rules relating to sanitary habits and practices. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 107 Discussions. — These rules should be discussed as much as possible in the entire assemblage. They may be worked out, however, in committee. The students should be given to understand the various methods and be permitted to follow their own choice of proceeding as long as progress is made. Papers dealing with housing, with especial reference to tenements, large and small, should be prepared and read by the students. This is referred to because of its intimate relation to the resident foreign body. The laws governing tenement houses, especially with relation to sanita- tion, should be made known to them and their merits discussed, in order to bring home to the individual his relationship to this phase of law and order for the betterment of his home life. The police department should be required to see that the rules are observed and the judicial department to impose penalties for failure of observance of the rules. The development of a regard for law and order and individual responsibility for their maintenance should be established. Other branches of government of intimate concern to the resident foreign body, such as recreation grounds and park commissions, should be brought prominently before the students. Appointive offices. — When appointive offices are to be filled by the mayor care should be taken to see that national lines do not influence the selection, but that, so far as possible, the class standing should have its place. SUMMARY. From the foregoing it is seen that the laboratory has been made pos- sible. The efficiency of its working is dependent largely upon the inspiration received by the students from the school authorities. This is the first opportunity presented to the entire system of the public schools for a direct cooperation with the National Government where the efforts of these two agencies are linked together. Each superintend- ent of schools, each principal of schools, each teacher of the public schools is called upon to lend his highest and most intelligent effort to the per- fection of this course by its thorough application. This call is made with the full knowledge that there is sufficient patriotic devotion to the cause of citizenship in each public-school teacher to insure its success and the development of this course to that state of high efficiency which charac- terizes every other vocation and profession except that of the profession of American citizenship. With the combined effort of all public-school authorities with this branch of the National Government success is assured. The students should be taken into the public buildings and adminis- trative offices of the city, so that they may become actually acquainted with the purpose of the buildings and the machinery of the municipal government. 108 student's textbook. No elaboration has been undertaken of county, State, and National Governments, partly because the new citizen will exercise the rights of citizenship oftener in the city in which he lives than in any other relation to government. The analogy of county, State, and National Govern- ment can readily be shown, so that he will not lose sight of his vital relation to the State and Nation. CLASS ALUMNI. When the students have completed their course and become citizens their experiences in the classrooms should induce them to return and further participate in this work so that the schoolhouse may be felt by them to be the legitimate place of assemblage for discussion of questions of public policy. This spirit should be inspired by the teachers during the early period of this course and be so developed as to bring about this result. Alumni or other public nonsecret organization should be en- couraged to implant in them a love for this, the alma mater of their school of American citizenship. The public schools have taught virtually every other subject relating to the vocations of life and they have developed these courses to the highest efficiency. These various phases of the city government are outlined generally with the knowledge that the local offices of the city government may differ in principle as well as in particularity. This is submitted, however, for adaptation to local conditions. FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE AMERICAN HOME. SOME THINGS THE HOUSEWIFE SHOULD KNOW. The work a woman must do in the home is so varied that sometimes she scarcely knows where to begin. She is busy all day caring for her children, cleaning, scouring, getting meals ready, and keeping clothes clean and mended. In order to keep herself and her family happy, she must not waste any steps or energy. She should plan to save her strength and energy by having things at hand — a place for everything and everything in its place. A well-thought-out plan of work saves steps and time. See that when one task is finished you do not have to go back over the same steps. Plan your work so that you will not be laying tools down and picking them up again and again. i. In general, use tools that take up dust rather than those that scatter it. 2. Use tools on long sticks so as to prevent stooping. 3. Plan order of work and have a definite place for everything used. 4. Dress sensibly for housework. This does not mean to wear out the old dress shoes and dresses. One-piece tub garments which allow the hands to be raised over the head without strain on the armholes, or a skirt and jumper, or a bungalow house dress, are all good styles. Shoes should have low heels. A neat cap to keep the hair covered should be worn. Concerning food. — You must eat if you would live, and what you eat not only must keep you alive, but must be taken in proper quantities and kinds to (1) keep you warm, (2) give energy to do needed tasks, (3) gi ve "the mineral substances needed, (4) make bone, blood, muscle, brain, (5) replace the worn-out parts of the body, and (6) keep it in a strong condition. Most food can do this work much easier after cooking, for it is then easier for the body to make use of it. 1 . What food shall we eat ? 2 . How can we get the most strength for the least money ? 3. How shall we prepare the food? These questions are continually before the housewife. "Feed a growing child properly and you have helped to make a good citizen." To have the right useful body and mind he must have the right kind of food at the proper time. 109 no student's textbook. No one kind of food will supply all the kinds of material needed for the health and growth of the body, although milk will supply more than any other one thing. Lean meat, milk, eggs, and cereals make muscle. Butter or oleomargarine, fat meat, sugar, and cereals keep you warm. Cereals, sugar, milk, butter, and any fats make you fat. Sugar and cereals make you want to work. Vegetables, fruit, and water keep your blood clean. Two or three well-made dishes will supply the variety needed. Fat is necessary, but you do not need cream, butter, and bacon all at the same time. Starchy foods are necessary, but ) t ou do not want cereals, potato, and bread at the same time. Muscle-making foods are necessary, but you do not need eggs and meat at the same time. Let your variety come over different days. There are certain foods which should be eaten every day. If the house- wife can serve some time during the day — (i) a well-cooked cereal (one cooked two or more hours); (2) thoroughly baked bread; (3) potatoes, or macaroni, or rice; (4) milk; (5) eggs; (6) some green vegetable; (7) some kind of fruit — she may feel pretty sure she is giving her family the kinds of food they need. If a great deal of milk is used, it is much easier to be sure of getting the right kinds of food, for it is rich in all kinds of body-building material but iron, and is one of the best sources of calcium needed for the bones and teeth. Children should have at least a quart a day, either as a drink or with a cereal, or in cooked vegetables, in soups, junket, custard, or pudding. A grown person requires as much calcium every day as is found in a pint of milk. If a milk rich in cream is used, it is particularly valu- able because of the fat it supplies. When the housewife cuts down her supply of milk she must be careful to supply other fatty foods and foods which will be builders of tissue. Eggs are rich in the iron which milk does not have and they also contain fat and building material. Every child should have at least one a day, but it should be soft cooked, never fried, or it may be used in custard, pudding, soups, etc. If the housewife will preserve them in water glass (silicate of soda) at the time they are plentiful, she will not need to pay high prices for them when they are scarce; or they may be packed, small end down, in bran, sawdust, lime, or sand; or may be coated with vaseline or fat. Some people keep them in lime water. They must be kept in a cool place. Dealers keep them in cold storage. Fruits and green vegetables supply the mineral matter needed and give bulk to the meal, which is valuable in avoiding constipation. Foods for children. — Meals should be eaten at the same time each day, and little eating between meals should be allowed. If a child is hungry give him milk, or bread, or crackers, or ready-to-eat breakfast food, or STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. Ill mild fruit. Children under 8 should not eat meat if milk and eggs can be supplied. Types of meals suitable for a day for three children in a family with an income of $800. The following types of meals are taken from the Feeding of Young Children, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph. D., (Teachers' College Bulletin No. 3): I. CHILD 2 TO 4 YEARS. Breakfast, 7.30 a. m.: Oatmeal mush, 8 oz. dry cereal. Milk, i}4 cups. Stale bread, 1 slice. Orange juice, 4 tablespoons. Lunch, 11 a. m. : Milk, 1 cup. Stale bread, 1 slice. Butte*, 1 teaspoon. Dinner, 1 p. m.: Baked potato, 1. Boiled onions, mashed, 1. Bread and butter, 1 slice,, Milk, 1 cup. Baked apple, 1. Supper, 5.30 p. m.: Boiled rice, 1 cup. Milk, % cup. Bread and butter, 1 slice. Substitutes. For rolled oats or rice: Other cereals such as rolled wheat, wheaten grits, farina 9 hominy, or corn meal. For orange juice and baked apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce. For onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower tops. An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or three times a week. II. CHILD 4 TO 8 YEARS. Breakfast: Oatmeal mush, i^ oz. dry cereal. Top milk, 4 oz. Stewed prunes, 4 or 5. Toast, 1 slice. Milk, 6 oz. Dinner: Pea soup, 1 cup. Croutons, 1 slice bread. Dinner — Continued . Boiled onions, 2 small. Baked potato, 1 large. Molasses cookies, 2. Supper: Cream toast, 2 slices bread. Rice pudding, with milk and sugar, 1 cup. Milk to drink, 5 oz. Substitutes. For rolled oats: Other cereals. For onions and peas: Strained dried beans, other vegetables carefully cooked, fresh lettuce. For prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well cooked. For rice pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc mange, bread puddings, and other very- simple desserts. For cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or plain cookies. 112 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. III. CHILD 8 TO 12 YEARS. Breakfast: Oatmeal mush, iX oz. dry cereal. Top milk, 6 oz. Stewed prunes, 6 or 7. Toast, 2 slices. Milk to drink, 6 oz. Luncheon : Pea soup, 1 cup. Boiled onions, 2 small. Baked potato, 1 large. Luncheon — Continued. Bread and butter, 2 slices bread. Molasses cookies, 3 cookies. Dinner: Baked haddock, small serving. Creamed baked potato, % cup. Spinach, y£ cup. Bread and butter, 2 slices. Rice pudding — milk and sugar, cup. Substitutes. For rolled oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked. For haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish, especially white varieties. For prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked. For onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or spinach : Turnips or cauliflower. Suggestive dietary for child who will not drink milk : age 5. (1 quart of milk incorporated in the menu.) Breakfast, J a. m.: Oatmeal, % cup cereal cooked in 1 cup milk. Creamy egg on toast, 1 egg yolk with Yt slice bread and X cup milk. Cocoa, 1 teaspoon cocoa and % cup milk. 10 a. m.: Zwiebach and cream, 1 piece zwie- bach and 1 tablespoon cream. i.jo p. m.: Spinach soup, 4 oz. Baked potato with cream, 1 potato and 2 tablespoons cream. Bread and butter, 1 slice. Caramel junket, 1% cups. 5.30 p. m.: Rice and prunes, 2 tablespoons rice cooked in ]4. cup milk and 5 prunes. Zwiebach, 1 slice. HOW TO BUY. First decide how to divide your money. It is much cheaper to buy in quantities all foods which will keep. Buy fresh things in season. Keep your eyes open and you can often find fresh fruits and vegetables for little money. Buy clean milk. Cheaper cuts of meat may be made tender by long slow cooking and are just as nutritious as expensive cuts. Beef dripping, the fat from roasting or frying, nicely seasoned, makes a good fat to take the place of more expensive ones. It is not necessary to buy large quantities of meat if you plan to spread the flavor through vegetables or any mixture. student's textbook. 113 HOW TO COOK THE FOOD. (a) Eggs. — Food containing much egg should be cooked at low tempera- ture, so that it will not be tough and hard to digest. For soft-cooked eggs, one of the best methods is to drop eggs in boiling water in a small saucepan (one small cup of boiling water to each egg) and remove from stove. In from 6 to 8 minutes they are ready to eat. The utensil should be small enough so water covers the number of eggs cooked. In custards the eggs should be thoroughly mixed but not beaten light; the sugar and salt added to them, then the scalded milk added gradually. All custards must be cooked at a moderate temperature. Soft custards should be cooked in a double boiler, or in a saucepan set in simmering water. Stir all the time it is cooking. When cooked it will be thickened, will coat the spoon, and no bubbles will be seen on the top. Take off as soon as done or it will curdle. If it does curdle, place the saucepan in a pan of cold water and beat the custard with a wheel egg beater until smooth. All custards should be strained, cup custards before baking, and soft custards after cooking. (b) Cereals. — To boiling salted water (one teaspoon of salt to each cup of cereal) add slowly the cereal and cook over direct heat until it thickens (about 15 minutes), then continue cooking over boiling water until thoroughly cooked — the time depending on the cereal. It may be cooked over night. Cook one, two, or more hours. Oatmeal and corn meal contain more fat than other grains and are good winter foods. Rice contains more starch and less fat. Amounts: A general rule is two and a. half times as much water as grain, and one teaspoon salt for every quart of water. Chopped dates, figs, prunes, etc., may be added, to give variety or to serve cold as dessert. (c) Vegetables. — Select vegetables of the same size, sound and firm. They are better when free from green spots or brown blight and have but few bruised leaves. If in pods, the pods should be crisp and easily snapped or well filled with tender seeds. Leaves and stalks should be crisp, tender, and juicy. Wilted vegetables may sometimes be freshened by soaking or sprin- kling with cold water some time before cooking. Summer vegetables when fresh do not require soaking in cold water, and it is better to prepare them just at the time you are ready to cook them. Clean all vegetables before cooking. Some of the best part is lost when vegetables are cooked in much water. You lose less of their value when you you bake or steam them. If cooked in water, all green above-ground vegetables, such as aspara- gus, should be cooked in boiling salted water, uncovered to keep their 42783°— 21 8 ii 4 student's textbook. color. Allow one level tablespoon of salt to each quart of water. This is true of all but peas and beans, which should not be salted until nearly tender, for salting hardens them. Underground vegetables should be cooked in boiling salted water and kept nearly covered. The water should be boiling when they are put in. Strong-smelling vegetables, like cabbage, onions, cauliflower, and turnips, are not so offensive if cooked uncovered. Drain all vegetables as soon as tender. As vegetables have no fat they need some added when served, unless they are cooked with fat meat ; most vegetables may be served plain with butter, salt, and pepper, or with white sauce. Cold vegetables may be used in soups or browned in a baking dish in a hot oven if one-half the quantity of white sauce, covered with crumbs, to which a little butterine or drippings has been added, is also used. When canned vegetables are used, empty the can as soon as opened, and let the vegetables stand some time to air. Beans, peas, asparagus, etc., should be drained and rinsed in cold water. When dried vegetables are used, soak in cold water several hours before cooking. Do not make a habit of buying many foods already prepared, for in paying for them you must pay not only the price of the food, but for the cost of production, which includes the labor and manufacturer's profit. You can do the labor much cheaper yourself. Experiments have proved that by cooking 10 cents' worth of dried beans at home almost three times the quantity is secured as you get from a io-cent can of beans. Time table for cooking vegetables in water: Asparagus: Young 20 to 30 minutes Old 30 to 60 minutes Beans: String 1 to 2 hours Shelled i>£ to 2 hours Lima 1 hour or more Beets: Young 30 to 50 minutes Old 3 to 4 hours Cabbage : New 30 minutes Old 2 to 2% hours Cauliflower. 20 to 45 minutes Green corn 12 to 20 minutes Carrots 35 to 45 minutes Celery 20 to 30 minutes Onions 45 to 60 minutes Parsnips 30 to 45 minutes Potatoes 25 to 40 minutes Potatoes (sweet). 30 to 50 minutes Green peas 30 to 45 minutes Rice 20 to 45 minutes Squash: Summer 20 to 50 minutes Winter 1 to z}4 hours Turnips 40 to 60 minutes Macaroni 45 to 60 minutes (d) How to cook meat — Wrappings should be removed as soon as meat is received from market, because they absorb some of the meat juices. It should be kept in a cool place, but not placed directly on the ice. Wipe with a clean damp cloth before cooking. To keep in the juices and keep the flavor in the meat, sear it on both sides, that is press it down quickly in a hot pan, then turn it and sear student's textbook. 115 other side. When it has turned a whitish color, a coating is formed which keeps in the juice. Finish cooking it slowly on a low fire. Tough meat requires long cooking and must be stewed or boiled. It must be cooked by putting on in cold water, bring quickly to boiling point, then cook slowly, a long time in a covered kettle, so as to become tender. Tough cuts properly cooked have a very high food value. For pot roast, put meat into boiling water, then let it simmer. Do not add salt to raw meat, for it draws out the juice. To draw out the juice, as for soups and broths, always use cold water. Crack the bones and cut the meat into small pieces so the juices will escape easily. Bring slowly to boiling point and cook very slowly for a long time, and keep the kettle closely covered to keep in the steam. Vegetables may be added if desired. Beef and mutton are the best meats for all persons. Pork, liver, heart, and kidney should not be given to young children nor people that are not well. Tender cuts of meat may be broiled by exposing them to a very hot heat, first searing then turning often while cooking. When food is browned in a frying pan, be careful to have the pan just oiled and no loose grease, and to see that it is sizzling hot before the food goes in if you do not want it soaked with grease and therefore harmful. Left overs. — No food, no matter how little, need be wasted. Some housewives have a habit of throwing away portions of food because not enough remains for another meal. Many attractive and desirable dishes may be made if one does a little thinking and planning. Small portions of different foods, that will blend well, may be combined to make a large dish. Tougher portions of roasts, chops, etc., should be cooked slowly until tender, in only enough water to cover; then cut fine and use in scalloped dishes, hash, croquettes, cottage pies, or warmed over in brown sauce or gravy. Potatoes combine well with beef or fish. Rice, macaroni, oysters, and bread crumbs go well with chicken, veal, or mutton. Onions and tomatoes may be added to many meats. White sauce combines best with light meats, while brown gravies are better for dark meats. All raw or cooked bones and trimmings from roasts and steaks, bits of any vegetables, parsley, etc., may be combined with the water in which meat or vegetables have been cooked to make stock for sauces and soups. A little grated onion and carrot boiled in water in which meat has been cooked makes a good soup. Hash makes an ageeable dish if well prepared. Use twice as much chopped or mashed potato as meat, or equal parts of each, season with Il6 student's textbook. salt and pepper, just moisten with milk, water, or stock. This may be placed in a buttered pan and baked or may be spread evenly in a frying pan in which has been melted a tablespoonf ul of fat for each cup of hash. If cooked slowly for about 20 minutes it will be nicely browned. Croquettes are made from almost any food material. They are rolled in egg and crumbs and fried in deep fat. A very thick sauce is added to meat or fish; sometimes egg is also added. When made of vegetables, egg alone is used to hold them in shape. Sometimes croquettes are made of both meat and vegetables, and frequently two or three kinds of both meat and vegetables are combined. They must be well seasoned. Celery salt goes well with veal and chicken; lemon juice with fish; cheese with macaroni and rice. Even meat which has become tasteless because its juices have been drawn out in stews and bouillon, may be made savory by the addition of tomato sauce and onion. Another way of using left overs of meat, vegetables, or fruit is to serve as salads when cold, mixed with suitable dressings, French mayonnaise, boiled salad dressing, or cream dressing. Pieces of bread and crusts left should be placed in a pan and set in a warm place to dry slowly, after which they are ready to use as bread crumbs. Cake and cooky pieces should also be dried and used in making desserts as one can do with small amounts of preserves, jellies, or canned fruits. Dried bits of cheese may be chopped or grated to add to cereals, omelets, souffles. Souffles are made by adding creamed meat to puffy omelet, or vegetables moistened with milk before folding in the beaten eggs. Fireless cooker. — Things that are usually cooked for some time in water may be cooked without using much fire if a fireless cooker is used. A fireless cooker is a great help to the busy housewife, as it saves her time and attention. Foods are not so apt to be overcooked and burned and hot foods are ready when wanted, even if she has been out two or three hours before meal time. To make one place some kind of packing — such as hay, excelsior, sawdust, ground cork, newspapers, wool, or cotton batting — in a box and pack about 3 or 4 inches firmly in the bottom. Place a large pail in the center, then place packing all around that, even with the top. The pail should have a tight cover. A pillow or cushion filled with pack- ing should be made to cover it all, and the cooker is finished. One or two shallow dishes, with or without covers, can be placed in the pail, supported by a wire stand, so that the cooker can be used for several things at the same time. In use, all foods are first cooked on the stove until thoroughly heated through; 10 minutes is enough for small vegetables and grains, but for large pieces of meat half an hour is needed. The food must be actually at boiling point all the way through when put into the cooker. student's textbook. 117 Very small quantities will not keep the heat, so do not try using it for small amounts. Covers of utensils must fit tight and not be lifted after taking away from the heat. The food must be put in cooker as soon as taken from the fire and left until done. No peeping to see if it is cooked or cold air will get in. If it is once opened it must again be heated to boiling point. You will need to experiment a little in using the cooker to find out just how long it takes to cook in the kind you have made. Steamed breads, puddings, cereals, stews, beans, soups, ham, or poultry are often cooked in cookers. Beef, lamb, and chicken, which are usually roasted, may be begun in the cooker and browned in the oven a few minutes before serving. When very long cooking is necessary it is sometimes wise to reheat to boiling point three or four hours after the first heating. When food is, left in the cooker overnight it will likely need heating before serving. Meat should not be kept in the cooker too long, as the warm temperature may spoil it. The cooker will also keep food cold. Ice cream may be set in the cooker, closely covered, and it will keep frozen for some time without ice. If you have steam radiators in your house and there is a steady heat all day you can make use of that heat for such dishes as baked beans, stews, baked apple sauce, rice pudding. Start them on the stove early in the morning, cover tightly. Set the pan on the radiator and pack papers and blankets all around it so as to keep in the heat, and by supper time your food will be cooked. Use of gas for cooking. — If you use gas for cooking see that it burns with a blue flame. If it is yellow the flame is too high or the burner is clogged and not enough air is supplied. It then smokes and wastes gas besides giving little heat. Do not keep it turned on full after things have commenced to boil. It can be turned much lower without stopping the boiling. Care of refrigerator. — Keep clean; let no spilled food remain on shelves; never put hot food into the refrigerator; no strong-smelling food should be kept there; greens should be wrapped in a cloth and placed on the ice; keep milk and butter in covered utensils and stand near the ice. Keep the refrigerator shut tight. Do not allow the doors to stand open, as warm air wastes the ice. Clean the drainpipe once a week and wash the inside with sodawater solution, then rinse with hot, followed by cold, water. Care of dish closets and drawers. — Keep dishes of one kind together, each in its own place. Scrub or wipe the shelves often. Keep drawers for towels, cloths, and soiled linen in order. Towels and dishcloths should be washed daily and hung in the fresh air to dry. Never allow them to dry without at least rinsing, if you wish them sweet for the next using. Dust cloths should be soaked and washed in soapy water. Il8 student's textbook. Dish washing. — Before washing dishes put away all food, clean the dishes, scrape and rinse dirty dishes, and pile all of one kind together. All dishes used for eggs, milk, and starchy food should be soaked in cold water. All those used for sugary, sticky, and greasy foods in hot water. Wash cleanest things first — glasses, silver, china — then wash sauce- pans and all cooking utensils in clean water. Use hot, soapy water and rinse dishes in clear, hot water. Garbage. — If you use a coal range, most garbage may be burned. Place it in the space above the oven and it will soon be ashes, if the draft is open. If it must be placed in a garbage pail, first wrap in paper or line the pail with several thicknesses of paper. Keep the pail clean by washing it every time it is emptied. The sink. — Try to keep it free from grease and scraps of food. Do not try to wash particles into the pipe. They do not belong there and may cause trouble. Keep the sink clean by washing in hot, soapy water. Clean back of sink pipes and keep the edges clean. Often pour boiling water down the pipe. Occasionally pour a hot solution of sal soda down the pipe to cut the grease, but be sure to follow it with a lot of boiling water, or the soda and grease will combine into a soap and clog the pipe. Table manners. — Spread the napkin across the lap. Do not talk with food in the mouth. Keep the spoon in the saucer, not in the cup. Do not make a noise chewing nor smack the lips nor drink noisily. Dip a soup spoon into a plate from you instead of toward you, and take the soup quietly from the side of the spoon. It looks greedy to tip the soup plate. Do not bite into slices of bread or rolls. Break off a small piece and eat separately. Spread with butter as needed. Lay the knife and fork straight on one side of the plate when not in use. Do not play with things on table. Keep your hands in the lap when not eating. When you have finished, carefully fold the napkin. Much information and many good recipes may be learned from the Farmers' Bulletins, published by the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. They are obtained free for the asking. Write a letter asking for the numbers you would like to have. The following are particularly desirable for housewives : No. 298. The Fireless Cooker. No. 342. The Model Kitchen. No. 353. The Ice Box. (Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.) No. 203. Canning Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. No. 388. Jelly and Jelly Making. No. 73. Cooking Vegetables. No. 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. No. 342. Cooking Beans and Other Vegetables in the Home. No. 316. Cooking Cereal Foods. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 119 No. 42. Facts About Milk. No. 363. Use of Milk as Food. No. 413. The Care of Milk and its Use in the Home. No. 87. Food Value of Eggs. No. 103. Preserving Eggs. No. 190. Cost of Eggs in Winter. No. 34. Composition and Cooking of Meat No. 162. Cooking Meat. No. 193. Cooking Meat. No. 391. Economical Use of Meat in the Home. No. 112. Bread and Bread Making. No. 3. Daily Meals for School Children. No. 375. Care of Food in the Home. No. 717. Food for Young Children. No. 712. School Lunches. No. 5. The Carpet Beetle or Buffalo Moth. No. 34. House Ants. No. 36. The True Cloches Moth. No. 47- The Bedbug. No. 51. Cockroaches. No. 71. House Flies. No. 412. The Typhoid or House Fly. Cleaning. — Pure air and sunlight aid the housewife in keeping homes sanitary. Germs grow much more rapidly in darkened damp places, and find it hard to live in bright, clean, sunshiny places, so let into your houses as much direct sunshine as possible, for it will help to show you where dirt has collected and destroy many germs which might cause illness, and it will dry up the moisture which disease germs need for growth. It is much easier to prevent dirt from collecting than it is to remove it. "One keep clean is worth a dozen make cleans" is an old adage we have all heard. Keep the house well ventilated, especially when cooking, and the smoke and oily vapors will be blown out and not deposit them- selves on the walls, woodwork, and furniture in the house. If one can not afford some of the devices like washers, vacuum cleaners, etc., which make housework easier in these days, one can at least use old methods the best way. Sweeping. — When sweeping use alternate sides and corners of the broom, so that it will wear evenly, taking care to keep it close to the floor and to use short strokes. This will carry the dirt along without scattering it in the air. If possible, burn the dirt immediately in the stove, opening the damper so smoke and odor wiM not escape in the house. If it can not be burned in heater or range, place it in the trash box. If the housekeeper leUrns how to sweep by taking up dust and holding it, not scattering it, and will provide herself with dust covers — old sheets or cheap muslin, or cheesecloth — and use them to cover articles dusted before sweeping, it will not bte necessary to remove furniture from one room to another when cleaning day comes. All that is "necessary is to move things just enough to allow sweeping where they stood. Brush the upholstered furniture thoroughly before covering, wipe back of 120 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. pictures with a cloth, and dust the walls with a very soft clean brush or a broom covered with a soft cotton bag. Use dustcloths of soft materials which do not shed lint, and fold the dust in, using clean ones as soon as soiled. Dampened newspapers may be placed on the floor so as to catch and hold the dust swept toward them. Finally, dust all things which have been exposed to the necessary dust, then wash the dustcloths. Wood- work if dusted carefully daily will not need cleaning very often. When house-cleaning time comes, a little extra work is needed to care for some of the things that a busy housekeeper can not do daily. To clean paints, wash with warm water and a little soap, and use a paint brush and some sharp-pointed instrument like an ice pick or skewer to clean out the corners. Never have cloth wet enough to allow water to run or stand in drops on the surface. Rinse, then dry with a cotton cloth, rubbing hard until dry. Remember, you can not clean with dirty water. Pa»:nted walls may be cleaned with water containing a little ammonia. Floors. — Do not walk through crumbs or dirt of any kind spilled on the floor — you scatter it. When grease is spilled, cold water poured on it will harden it so that you can scrape most of it off — or starch or borax will absorb it. It is best to wipe up at once, using hot water and soap. Hardwood floors, oil finished, may be cleaned with kerosene which slightly moistens a cloth. When clean, the floor should be rubbed dry with a clean cloth. Softwood floors must be scrubbed with soap and hot water. Frequent moppings with very hot, sudsy water will keep the floor in a condition that will not need hard scrubbing. Scrub or mop, then rinse, then dry small sections of the room at a time, and try to plan the work so you will not need to tramp over the wet parts of the floor, for trackings will show after drying. Glass. — When dusting windows, mirrors, and glass in pictures wipe with up and down or side to side strokes, not round and round. When they need washing, first remove dust, then wash with hot ammonia water, then clear hot water, then rub dry. Whiting paste may be rubbed on windows streaked after a rain, and after drying be removed by rubbing with a clean cloth. If you wish to avoid streaky windows, be sure that the washing is not done while the sun shines on them. Leather. — Wipe with a damp cloth or use a little kerosene. Good oil well rubbed in occasionally will keep it soft and glossy. Marble. — No acid, not even fruit juices, should touch marble. It may be scoured with fine sand soap or powdered pumice, or it may be covered with a mixture of turpentine and whiting, which is brushed off after drying. Metals. — Nearly all metals may be washed. Stoves and sinks may be scoured with coarse materials like ashes or pumice, but copper, steel, tin, silver, and zinc require a finer powder which will not scratch nor STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. . 121 wear them away too rapidly. Whiting and ammonia will keep metal bathtubs clean if rinsed with boiling water and wiped dry with a soft cloth. Emergencies. — When accidents happen, be calm; if serious send for a doctor, and in the meantime make patient as comfortable as possible. Bleeding. — Raise as high as possible the bleeding part of the body and apply pressure on the wound as it will keep more blood in other parts of the body. Ice helps to make the blood thicken so it will not flow so easily. When a person has a bad nosebleed if ice or very cold cloths are placed at the back of his neck and over the bridge of his nose or on the forehead, it will help to thicken the blood there. A teaspoonful of alum or of salt in a cup of water snuffed up the nose will help sometimes. Cuts. — First, stop the bleeding; try pressing on the wound. Second, apply something to wash away germs, some antiseptic like hydrogen peroxide or boric acid, then cover with clean gauze wet with the solution and bind with a clean gauze. Bruises. — When skin is broken, treat as for cuts. When skin is not broken apply cloths wrung out in hot water ; this keeps the blood flowing. Burns. — Fire can not live without air, so wrap the burn so as to shut out air. If a person's body is on fire wrap with a woolen rug or blanket, from head to the feet. If wrapped any other way the flames would shoot up to the face. Flames always go up, not down, so the best way is to stretch out on the floor and roll up in a rug or blanket. Do not use cotton things to wrap up in for they burn very readily. Air may be kept away from a burn on the hand or foot by placing it in warm water, but it must be held there sometimes a long time. Another way is to make a paste of baking soda or boric acid and spread over the burn. When the skin is broken in a burn, oil should be used. Cover with oil and wrap in soft cloths soaked in oil. Carron oil, which is made of equal parts of olive oil and lime water, or of linseed oil and lime water, is the best oil to use. Keep a bottle ready mixed. If as much as two- thirds of the body is burned, the accident will probably prove fatal. Blisters should not be touched for 24 hours, then they should be drained, which may be done by snipping the center of the blister with sharp scissors, pressing against the sides, then dressed with oil. Sunburn is treated like any other burn. Sprains. — Place the sprained part under a cold-water faucet. Change to very hot (not merely warm). Alternate hot and cold applications will make the blood keep flowing. Hold the injured part as high as pos- sible so the blood will flow away from it. Bandage so the pressure comes on the soft parts for they will fill up with blood and lymph. Re- bandage daily and rub joint each time. Faint — Stretch patient out flat and raise feet higher than head; loosen tight clothing; wipe face with cold water. Hiccough. — Stop both ears with fingers. Drink water slowly from a cup which some one else holds, or make yourself sneeze by scattering a few grains of pepper in the air. 122 student's textbook. Ivy poison. — Ivy poison causes itching, red, swollen, and blistered skin. One feels the effect some time between four hours and four days after exposure. The poisoning comes from a gummy oil in the plant. Wash the skin with plenty of soap and hot water to take off the oil. The washing must be thorough or it will only spread the infection. Al- cohol will dissolve the oil, so it helps to bathe the parts frequently in alcohol. Sugar of lead (lead acetate) dissolved in alcohol and water, half and half, is a good remedy, but care must be taken in its use, for it is also a poison. Careful soap-and-water washings after being near poison ivy will pre- vent poison if done promptly. Poisons swallowed. — First, send for the doctor; second, try to remove the poison from the stomach. This may be done by tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, or by giving an emetic — something which will make the stomach throw up its contents; e. g., one tablespoon of alum or mustard, or two tablespoons of salt in a tumbler of lukewarm water. Make the patient drink until he vomits. If none of these emetics are at hand the patient should drink water right away. If the poison is from an acid or an alkali it must be neutralized. When soda, which is alkaline, is added to vinegar, which is acid, the vinegar froths and soon loses its sour taste. It is then neutralized. The same thing will happen in the stomach if a person who has swallowed a poison- ous acid should drink some kind of alkali. If he has taken an alkali he should drink an acid. When the alkali and the acid become rightly balanced they become neutral and are not so harmful. Then mix whites of four eggs with a quart of water and drink as much as possible. A good dose of oil should be taken afterwards to get the mixture out of the system. Treatment for poisons. [Some from Literary Digest, March 25, 1916, and Emergencies, by Gulick.] Poison. Treatment. ACIDS: ] 1 An alkali, such as baking soda in water or lime water to drink, J ALKALIES: Do not give emetics. Give some mild acid, as vinegar in water. > or lemon juice and follow with olive oil (K pint to 1 pint of water) or with white of egg. Potash ARSENIC: Rough on rats \ Give emetic promptly. Follow with milk and white of eggs J or olive oil. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE: I Give large quantities of milk before giving emetics. After this > has been given empty the stomach thoroughly. White of Emetic, Epsom salts. OPIUM: 1 Emetic. Strong black coffee. Keep patient warm and awake > until doctor comes. Under no circumstances should he be allowed to relax into a stupor. student's textbook. 123 Concerning clothing and economy. — Besides taking care of health by knowing what to eat, we must know what to wear. Slovenly dressed women have no self-respect. A well-dressed woman never attracts attention to herself by the color or cut of her clothes. She knows what to omit from her costume. Just because she owns some articles of adornment she does not put them on every time she goes out. Party gowns do not make good street gowns. Clothes made of coarse material and covered with lace and embroidery to imitate more expensive ones are in bad taste. Simple clean neat clothing, appropriate to time and place, cultivate self-respect. In selecting materials and styles, decide first whether they are suitable and economical for all the times you expect to wear them and choose only those for which you feel a need. Women should know enough about textiles to be able to buy intelli- gently the materials used in the homes for clothing and furnishing. They can be efficient wage spenders by making each dollar produce full value. True economy is spending one's money wisely. The high cost of living can not be blamed for buying unreliable materials. If women really knew how to judge the quality of fabrics the merchants could not sell them poor stock. There are times when it pays to buy the best materials, but sometimes it is cheapest to buy inexpensive ones. For instance, if a child will outgrow garments before they are worn out and they can not be passed on to another in the family, it is cheaper to purchase the poorer quality, but you should know which you are securing. Do not pay for good fabrics and find that you have poor. You pay a good price for good materials, and they wear well if well taken care of. You can not afford to buy imitation goods thinking you are buying the real thing. You want to get what you think you are getting. When you want a cheap material which you know will not wear a long time you should see that you are charged the price that is right for it. Learn as much as you can about the feel of fabrics; if too slippery, cotton goods will be flimsy after washing. Look out for too much starch, which is put in to give body; scratch the cloth with the finger nail and rub in the hands. Handle with black gloves; when rubbed, the white filling will show on the gloves. If too much stiffening is used, wrinkles will not smooth out. Beware of woolen goods that tear easily. Rub your fingers against the nap ; if fibers come up in woolly fuzz, the cloth will wear rough in a short time. Beware of materials which seem too good for the price asked. Linen should not be stiff and crackly; it has a smooth surface and should not become fuzzy when rubbed between the fingers. If it does f it likely has cotton mixed with it. 124 student's textbook. If you want to become a better judge of fabrics, examine samples of standard weaves, then compare them with cheaper ones. The following are a few tests which will help you to decide about materials. i. If you ravel the threads of material, then pull apart — Cotton fibers are short and the ends fuzzy. Wool is kinky and stiff Silk fibers are long, straight, and shiny if of good silk. Linen is strong and long, ends are uneven when broken and more pointed than cotton. 2. Burning tests. — Wool and silk threads when burned smell like burned hair or feathers, and they burn rather slowly and leave a gummy ash. Cotton and linen threads burn quickly with a flame and leave but little ash. The cotton ends spread like a paint brush. The linen ends stay together. 3. Acid test. — Dip a piece of material in moderately strong nitric acid. Wool and silk turn yellow. (If ammonia is added the yellow changes to orange.) Cotton and linen will not be colored but slowly dissolved if the acid is hot. 4. Alkali test. — Boil samples ten or fifteen minutes in a lye solution (1 tablespoon Babbitt's lye in a cup of water). Wool and silk will be destroyed. Cotton and linen will remain. 5. Tearing test. — Linen quickly torn leaves straight smooth threads along the edge of the tear. Cotton will curl up. To be economical. — First of all, know how much you can spend and what you want before going to the store. Know how long you expect it to last. Select the best material for the purpose wanted. Know the least amount it will take. Do not depend on clerks to tell you how much to buy. Know what materials and colors wear best. Care of clothing. — If you really want to be economical take good care of your clothing by keeping things neat and clean, brush outer clothing when taken off. Air before putting away. Hang up or fold carefully to put away. Wash out stains and remove spots. Keep pressed. Keep mended. Sew on all loose fastenings. Hang clothes on hangers. You can not be a self-respecting citizen if you wear soiled, untidy clothing, nor will your health be good. Cleaning fabrics. — A. Washing white clothes: 1 . Remove stains. (a) Blood stains : Wash in cold water until stains turn brown, then rub with soap and wash in warm water. A little ammonia added helps. (b) Coffee: Spread stain over a bowl and pour boiling water on it. (c) Fruit: Same as coffee. (d) Grass: Naphtha soap and warm water, or ammonia and water if used at once, if not on delicate colors. If color may be changed use student's textbook. 125 molasses or a paste of soap and cooking soda spread on stain and allowed to stand several hours. Alcohol may be used for materials which can not be washed. (e) Iron rust: Sprinkle with salt and moisten with lemon juice, then lay in the sun. This takes time and will not injure the material, but it will take out color. (/) Mildew: Put on lemon juice and let stand in sun, or cover with a paste made of soft soap, 1 tablespoon of powdered starch, juice of a lemon and salt, and allow to stand 48 hours. (g) Scorch : Place in sunshine. (h) Vaseline : A fresh stain can be removed with turpentine. 2. Sort clothes. 3. Soak. They are then easier to wash for the dirt is loosened. 4. Wash. 5. Rinse. 6. Boil a few minutes in soapy water. 7. Rinse. 8. Blue. 9. Starch, if necessary. 10. Hang out to dry. 1 1 . Sprinkle and fold. 12. Iron. B. To wash woolen materials: "Wash one piece at a time. Do not boil or rub and use no dirty water. Be sure the washing and rinsing waters are all the same temperature. Squeeze as dry as possible, but do not twist ; do not hang near the fire to dry if you want to prevent shrinking. C. Colored clothes must not be soaked; set the color by rinsing in water containing salt or vinegar; wash quickly in clear water not too hot; use little soap. They must not be boiled. If starched, turn wrong side out. Hang in shade to dry. ' D. Laces look much better if fastened to a pillow or padding by pinning every point down after washing in soapy water and rinsing. K. Silk, undyed. Soak in cold water; wash in soap lather; rinse; wrap in a soft cloth and press as dry as possible with the hands; iron while still damp. To iron, cover with a thin smooth cloth; run iron over lightly at first, then iron until dry. F. To steam velvet, place a wet cloth over the flat surface of an inverted hot iron and lay the wrong side of the velvet next the wet cloth; then draw the velvet back and forth, and have a helper brush it with a soft brush, brushing against the nap. G. Between seasons carefully clean, repair, and put away clothing. Camphor and tar are often used to keep out moths, but if garments are carefully cleaned, well wrapped in newspapers, and then put in sealed boxes they are safe without them. 126 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. Repairing. — Garments kept in repair last much longer than those that are not. (a) Darning is a method of mending in which new threads are woven into a hole or a place worn thin by rubbing. Try to make the weaving as much like the weaving of the fabric as possible. When darning a tear in a dress use a thread of the material for mending, if possible. In any kind of darning be sure the mending thread extends far enough beyond the edge of the hole to prevent pulling out. See that every other mending thread goes under the edge of the hole, the alternating ones going over. (Jo) Patching is another method of mending. It is putting into a hole a piece like the cloth worn away. A square patch replacing a worn part of a garment, if the pattern matches, will not show as much as a round or an irregular one. Shrink your new piece before using it and match in color and texture the garment to be mended. If the garment is old, worth little trouble, and* is not often laundered, the right side of the garment may be hemmed to the patch. If it is good material, and the mend must be as little noticed as possible, cut the patch the exact size of the hole and use fine darning to hold it in place. When materials to be patched must be laundered often, the best method is to cover the hole and worn parts with a patch (matching pattern, if any). This is hemmed to the garment on one side, and the edges of the garment trimmed in straight lines, folded in, and hemmed to the patch on the other. Irregular edges are sometimes left on wool material and darned down to the patch. In all patching the mending should show as little as possible ; therefore use mending material matching that to be mended. Making new clothes. — After you have selected your material comes the making into garments. Garments made at home are usually better than ready-made. Those requiring much laundering should be sewed with the edges hidden and have little trimming. Cotton crape, which washes well, does not need ironing. Long cloth and muslin both wear well. If trimmed with simple stitches instead of lace and embroidery, the cost will be less and the work required to iron them will be much less. The French seam — a seam within a seam — is used on long seams of nightgowns, petticoats, sleeves, and thin shirt waists. It is made by making a seam first on the right side of the garment, then trimming and bringing the two right sides together so the first seam comes on the edge, and the stitching just far enough from the edge to take in the raw edges. The fell, or flat seam, is used on drawers, corset covers, tailored shirt waists, and shirts. This is also a twice-sewed seam, but the first seans is stitched on the wrong side of the garment, about three-eighths of am inch from the edge. Then one edge is trimmed to one-eighth of an inch, the wide edge folded over the narrow, and folded flat to the cloth. The student's textbook. 127 fold is hemmed or stitched. In men's shirts, tailored waists, and middy- blouses this entire fell is usually made on the right side of the garment. Seams made in either of the above ways in flannel would be too thick, so for the flannel seam a plain seam is made, the edges pressed open and catch stitched down flat to the cloth. The flannel fell is made by trim- ming one edge of the plain seam and catch stitching the wide edge over the narrow, flat to the cloth. The following are recommended for the study of detailed directions for methods in making stitches, seams, mending, etc. : "A Sewing Course," Mary S. Woolman; "School Needlework," A. Hapgood; "The Sewing Book," Butterick Publishing Co. ; "Clothing for Women," Laura I. Baldt. Patterns. — Select styles becoming to you. In these days commercial patterns are easily secured at little price and, after one learns how to use them, the same pattern may be used for several kinds of garments with but few changes. Before cutting into material, first lay all the pieces on the material, being sure to have the nap, if any, run toward the bottom of the gar- ment, or that the flowers all run one way. If there is a right and wrong side, be sure not to cut the parts for one side only. It usually takes more material to cut garments from material having figures and a right and wrong side. Follow directions given on pattern and be as saving as possible. The length of the material runs from top to bottom of most parts of garments. Corset covers and nightgowns are easily made from a plain shirt-waist pattern which you know is right size. For the corset cover cut out the neck about 3^ or4 inches lower and allow about 3 inches, or more if desired, on the front for fullness. It may be cut off at waist line and a peplum added. To cut the nightgown, cut out the neck 3% or 4 inches, and for the back allow 2 inches for fullness and add three-fourths of an inch at the top of the under-arm seam to make armhole larger. For the front allow 3 to 4 inches for fullness and add the same amount at the armhole. The length desired will equal the distance from top of shoulders to floor plus depth of hem. Slope side seams from end of under-arm seam, now three-fourths of an inch farther out, to ends of material. If lower end of front is pieced, 4 to 5 inches wide, the under-arm seams will hang straight; then side seams are made by cutting to lower edge of added pieces. The sleeve may be cut from the shirt-waist sleeve, adding an inch each side to make wider if desired, and cutting off for the length desired. Study your patterns. Patterns usually give but half of each part. Notice which parts must be placed on folds of material. Note whether your pattern allows for seams or not. Note the markings and what each one means on the pattern you are using. These markings look very com- plicated to one not used to them, but if you start with an easy pattern, one having few pieces, and learn to understand that one, it will not be 128 student's textbook. hard to use patterns of a greater number of parts if you gradually under- take harder pieces. To alter patterns which do not fit: Waist patterns. — If too narrow, cut apart from shoulder to bottom and separate enough to add width desired. If too wide, take a tuck from shoulder to bottom. A j^-inch tuck will make the patten i inch narrower. If too short waisted, cut pattern apart 2 or 3 inches above waist line and separate required distance. If too long waisted, take a tuck half as wide as amount to be shortened. Skirts. — Alter below hip line, taking tuck to make shorter or cutting apart and separating to make longer. Renovating. — If the material is worth it, faded garments or those of a color no longer desired may be dyed. They should first be thoroughly cleaned and wet before being put into the dye to insure even dyeing. Rinse carefully after the material has been in long enough. To be successful at dyeing colored materials you must know a little about the effect of one color on another. For instance, yellow goods in blue dye will turn out green, red in blue dye will give purple. It is best to experi- ment first with small pieces. A well-dressed business girl wears neat and carefully mended gloves, shoes, plain waists and suits, clean underwear and neckwear, neat hats, and has neatly dressed hair and clean hands and finger nails. Millinery. — A hat is the hardest part of the wardrobe to select. Select one when you can see your whole length in a mirror, for it must suit your whole figure and not the head alone. Be sure that it is becoming and not selected because it is the fashion. Select colors that are becom- ing. Large hats are not suitable to be worn with short skirts. A few lessons from some one who knows how will give you ideas about making and covering the different kinds of frames and making various trimmings. One may soon learn to make very attractive bows by doing a little practicing in cheap material or soft paper. If you once know how to tie a bow knot, any kind of bow can be made, the difference being only in the number and length of loops. By making a dozen or more loops you will have a rosette. After making your trimming, stand before a mirror with the hat on to adjust the trimming. Scraps of ribbons and silks may be used for making flowers and other fancies for hats. Study the kind you wish and see if you can't make it Sew trimmings firmly but with few stitches as possible. Old silks, velvets, and flowers can be renovated — silks by washing and pressing; velvets by steaming and brushing; and flowers by trimming frayed edges and retouching with water colors or oil paint thinned with gasoline. Old shapes can be changed by cutting away or adding to. Good straws can be washed in water and the shape changed while wet by reshaping. Light hats may be recolored with dye. STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 1 29 HYGIENE AND SANITATION. PERSONAL HYGIENE AND NEATNESS. Health has been defined as the "perfect circulation of pure blood in a sound organism," and in order to be healthy we must know how to be careful of our bodies. Blood can not be kept pure nor organs sound unless the laws of nature are obeyed. The health of an adult often depends upon the care received while a child, so it is important to know how to care for the little ones and to instruct them to care for themselves as they grow to adult life. Bathing.— A healthy baby should be bathed every day. This bath is continued daily until about the third year, then three or four times each week will be sufficient. In hot weather two baths daily are not harmful. A bath thermometer should always be used for a baby's bath and the water should be at body heat or slightly above; that is, from 98 to ioo°. Lacking a thermometer, the water may be tested by the elbow. No unnecessary exposure or delay should take place and the bathing should be done gently. Never bathe within one and one-half hours after feeding time. Use a good, pure, white soap and rinse thoroughly. Each person in the home should have his own soap, towel, wash cloth, toothbrush, and comb, so as to prevent contagion of any skin diseases. Hair. — The hair of both children and grown folks should be washed at least once a month with tar soap and water. After it has been well rinsed in warm water, it is well to spray it with cold water for just an instant, to close up the pores and prevent taking cold; then dried in the sun if possible. Should the head become infested with lice and nits, saturate the hair thoroughly with hot vinegar; wrap up for an hour or so; then comb with a nne comb. The vinegar not only kills the lice, but makes the life of the nit extinct. These nits can be pulled off the hair by separat- ing into small strands and using flannel or a piece of a black stocking, which readily shows the nits. The cloth used should be burned. Teeth. — The teeth of a child should be cared for each day, and when small marks of decay appear the child should be taken to the dentist. Each child has two sets of teeth. The first set, known as the "milk teeth," are replaced, beginning at about the sixth year, by the perma- nent or "second" teeth. It is believed that the health of the second teeth depends largely upon the care that is given the first set. As the baby grows into childhood, he should be taught the daily care of his own teeth. They should be brushed gently each day with a brush and some harmless tooth powder. Sleep, — Babies need more sleep than adults and people who are old and feeble need more than those who are strong. 42783°— 21 9 130 STUDENTS TEXTBOOK, Whenever possible only one person should occupy a bed, and espe- cially should this be true with children and invalids. A young baby should sleep 20 or 22 hours out of 24, and without a pillow. Children under 4 years old need to sleep about 12 hours. Children under 10 need to sleep about 11 hours. Children under 14 need to sleep about 10 hours. An adult should have from six to nine hours of sleep. Children should have regular hours for sleeping and they should be put to bed early. A child 12 years old or younger should be in bed by 8.30 o'clock, as the growing body and brain need a great deal of rest and quiet and should be provided with the most desirable sleeping accommo- dations. The temperature of the sleeping room should not be over 45 ° or 50 . Children should become accustomed to sleeping with the windows open even in freezing weather, but should be well screened. Personal appearance. — Children should be trained from babyhood into daily habits which are conducive to good health and neatness of appear- ance. Habits cling to us through life whether we are to blame or not for their establishment. The following habits could well be established : The daily bath; care of the hair, nails, and teeth; neatness of attire; healthful exercise; habits of walks and expression; order, attention, kindness, courage, and truthfulness. HYGIENE AND NEATNESS OF THE HOME. i. Selection of the house. — In selecting a city house there are several important things to be considered; especially is this true in homes where there are children. Living conditions. — In every case the house and its surroundings should be carefully inspected as to its sanitary condition. It should be sunny, well ventilated, and dry. Tenements with dark rooms are not fit for children. Flats and apartments do not usually afford enough freedom for growing children. Suburban homes, or those on the outskirts of cities or towns or close to public parks, give to the city children of the average family the best chance for proper growth and development. The plumbing, drainage, and other conveniences should be in a sanitary condition. The cellar and basement should be clean and dry. Pools of stagnant water and open cesspools are dangerous to health, and furnish breeding places for flies, mosquitoes, and other disease- carrying insects. Piles of garbage, manure, refuse, or rubbish of any sort should be avoided. Flies multiply rapidly in horse manure, garbage, and the like, and from these filthy dead things they travel to our homes ; and if the house is not properly screened they fly into the kitchen and dining room and walk over and contaminate the food we eat. student's textbook. 131 Light and ventilation. — Sunshine is as necessary for a human being as for a plant, therefore it should be considered in selecting a house. The rooms should have a constant supply of fresh air and the rooms occupied most should be the ones to receive the most sunshine and air. To "'air" the rooms at intervals by opening the windows and doors is well, but a far better plan is to have a continual stream of fresh air flowing through. When the outside temperature is so extremely low that comfortable temperature can not be maintained with the windows open, outside air should be frequently admitted by opening wide the windows on opposite sides and flushing every part of the room for a few minutes. Heating. — It is desirable to have a heating s}~stem which is readily controlled, so that the temperature of the room may be raised or lowered when necessary. Hot-air furnaces are considered more healthful than steam or hot water, because they provide for the circulation of fresh moistened air. Gas and oil heaters are to be avoided if any other method can be had, as such heaters exhaust the air of even a large room in a short time. 2. Furnishing the house. — Furniture should be simple and plainly carved. There should be no upholstered furniture nor heavy draperies to catch the dust. Floors should be covered with simple rugs which can be easily removed for cleaning. Beds should be of iron, the furnishings of which should consist of washable materials. Over the mattress put a washable pad of table padding and use washable blankets instead of heavy comforts. Feather beds should be avoided and pillows should be frequently aired. Among the most essential articles for furnishing the house are screens for both windows and doors. Everybody loves a neat home, and the poorest family can enjoy one if the following suggestions are carried out : 1. Sanitary condition both inside and outside. 2. Simple furniture, neatly arranged. 3. Well-ventilated rooms. 4. Regularly cleaned rooms. 5. Clean cellar. 6. Absence of dark places containing garbage, rubbish, or soiled clothing. 7. Well-screened doors and windows. 8. Absence of flies and mosquitoes. 9. Neatly served meals. 10. Clean, happy, healthy family. o