v^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O > 
 
 ^::y .cp' 
 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 
 p^ "-oTo' ^■^ 
 
 > 
 
 '•^^^ .:«!%'. %/ ^'>«^'. Vo^' ^:«^ %/ . 
 
 a" <J> . * » « 
 
 <^°^ 
 
 
 "^-c 
 
 .* 
 
 .^' 
 
 o 
 
 V" 
 
 
 
 
 .^' 
 
 A. o 
 
 
 
 0» o " c _ ^r- 
 
 ,'. -^bv^ "^-^6* ^ov^ - -^-^0^ -^bv** . 
 
 , Al - 
 
 ,, ,. \''^^\/ v^^%°' \'^^vy -o. ^^-^^ '^ 
 
 
 ■> V^ »l-°' C\ aO . 
 
 "*^ V*0-^^^' a'^ ^ 
 
 ^-%_ \s 
 
 aO^ . ' v-. ^> v^ . . • o, -^b. 
 
 o V 
 
 

 .0 .->•'' 
 
 -^^ ';''^>^. 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 'K^ 
 
 v>* <_*»■ *" 
 
 
 o > 
 
 ''U.C-' 
 
 
 
 ►.,,•' ,0-' "^d* »»„„' av 
 
 
 «5°<. 
 
 
 
 
 '> 
 
 
 c5 0o 
 
 
 
 A*- 
 
 o 
 
 3, ,-^*^ ^'\^, ^-p c 
 
 
 
 ^"•n^. 
 
 >0 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^•V 
 
 
 .V 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
\^^n 
 
 U. S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 
 
 GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 
 
 THE 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 BY 
 
 ^ CHAl'iLES H. STEVENSON. 
 
 Extracted from U. S. Fish Commission Bnlletin for 1898. Pages 335 to 563. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1899. 
 
U. S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 
 
 GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 
 
 /JJ- 
 
 THE 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES H. STEVENSON. 
 
 Extracted from U. S. Fist Oomtdssion Bulletin for 1898. Pages 336 to 563. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1899. 
 

 '•' .'i «•• 
 
 i 
 
c^ 
 
 THE 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 By CHARLES H. STEVENSON. 
 
 335 
 
SYNOPSIS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction 337 
 
 Preserving lishery products alive 339 
 
 Inclosed water areas 339 
 
 Well-smacks 341 
 
 Live-cars or live-boxes 344 
 
 Overland transportation of lire fish 348 
 
 Shipping live lobsters 35U 
 
 Shipping live oysters and clams 353 
 
 Shipping 11 vo craba 356 
 
 Terrapin and turtles 357 
 
 Ketrigt-ration, or preservation by low temperature 358 
 
 Cooling fish with ice " 359 
 
 Icing cod, haddock, and bluefish 363 
 
 Ifing lialibut 363 
 
 Ice in fresh-mackerel fishery 365 
 
 Icing shad 365 
 
 Icing oysters 366 
 
 Refrigerator cars 367 
 
 Freezing tish in the open air 368 
 
 Frozen-herring industry 36C 
 
 Artiticial freezing and cold storage 370 
 
 Development of cold storage 371 
 
 l>escri])tioa of ice-and-salt freezers 373 
 
 description of mechanical freezers 374 
 
 Process of freezing and cold storage 377 
 
 Freezing fisli in Kurope 3Sr> 
 
 Freezing herring for bait 387 
 
 Preserving lisherv products by drying and dry-salting. 389 
 
 Dried codtish". ' ". 390 
 
 Reddening of salted codfish 399 
 
 Preparation of boneless codfish 400 
 
 ForeiffU cniWish markets 406 
 
 Codfish curing in foreign cotintries 406 
 
 Stockfish 410 
 
 Dried and dry-salted salmon 411 
 
 Dry-salted niullet 412 
 
 Dry-salted chan nel bass 413 
 
 Dry-salted kinglish 413 
 
 Dry -sailed barracuda and honito 414 
 
 Chinese slirinip and fisli drying 414 
 
 Dried sturgeon products 417 
 
 Dried trepangs 418 
 
 Drviug tiali by artitieial means 420 
 
 Preservation ot fishery iirodueta by pickling 425 
 
 Development and nii-tliods of brine-salting 425 
 
 Regulations res pert ing brine-salting fish 427 
 
 liriiir-salted niit.k.-rel 430 
 
 liriuf -Sidled litTiing 436 
 
 Round herring 438 
 
 (jibbed and split herring 439 
 
 Impnrtaliim of foreign herring 440 
 
 Foreign methods of curing lierring 441 
 
 Brine-sal ttcl nitwit es or river herring 450 
 
 Brine-salted cod and haddock 453 
 
 Brine-sa 1 ted salmon 455 
 
 Brine sailed mullet 457 
 
 Brine-salt ed shad 458 
 
 Brine-sailed swoidtish 460 
 
 Brine-salting lisli on the Great Lakes 461 
 
 Brine-salted iuiliWnt fins 404 
 
 Miscellaneous brine salting 464 
 
 Pressed sitnlines 465 
 
 Salted pilehards or fumadoes 465 
 
 Italian sardels _. 466 
 
 Giihrfiseh or fermentation fish 466 
 
 SalilstrJim process of brine-salting fish 466 
 
 Pickling with vinegar and spices 467 
 
 Russian sardines 467 
 
 336 
 
 Preservation of fishery products by pickling— Cont'd. Page. 
 Pickling with vinegar and spices — Continued. 
 
 Christiania anchovies, etc 468 
 
 Pickled sturgeon 469 
 
 Pickled eels 470 
 
 Pickled salmon, etc 471 
 
 Pickled (^yst ITS 473 
 
 Pickled eianis, mussels, etc 473 
 
 Pickled lobsters 473 
 
 Preservation of fishery products by smoking 474 
 
 Smoked herring 478 
 
 Hard herring 478 
 
 Bloater herring 485 
 
 Kippered herring 488 
 
 Smoked alewives or river herring 489 
 
 Smoked lake herring and whiteflsh 491 
 
 Smoked salmon 493 
 
 Smoked hall but 497 
 
 Smoked haddock or Finnan haddie 500 
 
 Smoked sturgeon 501 
 
 Smoked catfish 503 
 
 Smoked eels 504 
 
 Smoked mackerel 505 
 
 Smoked shad, fiounders, lake trout, carp, etc 506 
 
 Preservation of fishery products b / canning 507 
 
 Development and methods of canning 507 
 
 Canning salmon 512 
 
 Canning oysters 516 
 
 Canning soft clams 519 
 
 Canning mackerel 519 
 
 Mackerel plain-canned 519 
 
 Broiled mackerel 520 
 
 Canning salt niiickerel 520 
 
 Canning lobsters 521 
 
 Canning shrimp 523 
 
 Canning crabs 524 
 
 Sardines 526 
 
 Sardine canning in Maine 526 
 
 Sardines on the Pacific coast 532 
 
 Menhaden as sardines 533 
 
 Foreign sardines 534 
 
 Canning eels 537 
 
 Miscellaneous canning 538 
 
 Herring 538 
 
 Menhaden 538 
 
 Smelt 538 
 
 Smoked sturgeon 538 
 
 Halibut 539 
 
 Spanish mackerel 539 
 
 Green turtle 539 
 
 Giant scallops 53St 
 
 Codfish halls, etc 540 
 
 Pre])aration of fish eggs for food 541 
 
 Caviar 541 
 
 Russian methods of preparing caviar 54 4 
 
 M n llet roes 546 
 
 Sail ed shad roes 547 
 
 Eggs of cod, haddock, etc 547 
 
 Food extracts of nmrine products _ 549 
 
 Extracts of fish 549 
 
 Extracts of clams aud oysters 553 
 
 Miscellaneous antiseptics and antiseptic processes 557 
 
 Boracio acid 557 
 
 Roosen process 558 
 
 Eckhart process 559 
 
 Jannaseli preservative 560 
 
 Mi.scellancous antiseptic compounds 560 
 
 Moss water 563 
 
 Compressed air 563 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 By Charles H. Stevenson 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Methods of preservation are of constantly increasius: importance to tbe prosperity 
 of tlie fisheries — more so, perhaps, than to any other food-sni)plying industry. In 
 agriculture, cereals arc cured sufQciently in the open air to keep for indetinite periods; 
 vegetables and fruits with proper care will generally remain in edible condition long 
 enough to reach distant markets, and some will last until the following season; the 
 domestic animals intended for food may be transported alive to the place of marketing 
 and theie slnughtered; but, under ordinary conditions, fishery products are subject 
 to rapid putrefaction after removal from the water. 
 
 It is now a generally accepted opinion that all putrefaction is caused by the devel- 
 opment of living organisms known generally as bacteria or putrefactive germs, this 
 theory being announced first in 1837 by tbe German physiologist, Theodore Schwann. 
 "Putrefa!'tion,' says Oohn, "begins as soon as bacteria, even in the smallest numbers, 
 are introduced, and progresses in direct proportion to their multiplication." In living 
 animals there is a tendency to counteract the development of these germs, and main- 
 taining marine animals alive is the simplest form of preservation, although rarely the 
 most economical. Afterlife is extinct, heat, moisture, and air are all more or less neces- 
 sary to the development of bacteria, and it is principally by removing one or all of 
 these ■ factors that ])reservatiou is accomplished. This gives us three principal 
 methods of preserving dead fish, viz: Itefrigeratiou, which diminishes the heat; desic- 
 cation or drying, which decreases the moisture; and canning, which separates the 
 preserveil ])roduct from the air. Another method of great importance is the applica- 
 tion of antiseptics, sucdi as salt, vinegar, etc., this process being known generally as 
 pickling. Other forms of preservation, the most important of which is smoking, par- 
 take of the characteristics of the preceding with the addition of further treatment 
 for the puriiose of flavoring. These six processes, viz, preserving alive, refrigeration, 
 desiccation, canning, pickling, and smoking, include practically all the general 
 methods of preserving flsheiy foods. 
 
 The (jualities of the original products, however, are so varied and subject to such 
 delicate influences that a process well adapted to the preservation of one article may 
 be impracticable or deleterious when applied to another, even of the same class. 
 Thus it would not do to refrigerate salmon, herring, and oysters in the same manner; 
 nor is the process of salting codfish, halibut, herring, and swordfish the same. The 
 manner of preservation also ditiers according to the market for which the ai'ticle is 
 intended. Codfish destined for the New England market would not be suitable for the 
 Gulf States, and that for the West Indies and Brazilian trades requires still different 
 
 F. C. B., 1808-22 ' 337 
 
338 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 treatment. Therefore, iu this report the general method of each form of preservation 
 is first noted, and then its particular i^rocess of application to each species and for 
 each of the principal markets is described. It shoukl be remembered, however, that 
 the excellence of any particular product does not arise wholly from the special mode 
 of preservation, but from care and attention in the process, guided by experience and 
 close observation. No matter what process is employed, careful treatment during all 
 the various stages is of fundamental importance, and without it no first-class article 
 will be produced. A serious difficulty with which the fishery trade has to contend is tlie 
 competition with products of careless or indifl'erent preservation. In too many cases 
 superior quality of the product is sacrificed entirely to cheapness of production, and 
 preparers who desire to maintain aliigh standard suffer from the resulting comi)etitioii 
 and frequently are compelled to cheapen their own process or retire from the business. 
 
 In few countries has greater attention been given to tlie preparation of fishery 
 food products than iu tlie United States. Iu the various international expositions our 
 exhibits of this class have excited favorable commeut because of the great variety and 
 excellencie of the products and the neat and convenient forms in which they are pre- 
 pared for sale. Tlie large representation of foreign nationalities in the United States 
 has probably been a factor in increasing the number of our methods of preparing 
 marine foods. People immigrating to America and devoting their time to handling 
 fishery products naturally make use of the ideas and methods in vogue in their native 
 countries. The smoking of haddock and some other species was introduced in this 
 way by Scotchmen; the Chinese on the Pacific coast and in Louisiana prepare fish, 
 shriini», etc., by methods similar to those practiced in the Orient, and the preparation of 
 sturgeon i)ioducts was first begun hereby natives of Germany and adjacent countries. 
 The congregation of i)eoplo of foreign birth in our coast cities also tends to increase 
 the list of fishery products; a small local sale for certain articles develoi)iiig among 
 those people, the trade gradually extends until such articles become of recognized 
 importance in the food markets. There are, however, many additional methods of 
 preserving marine food products that could be employed advantageously to meet the 
 wants of new markets. Numerous products highly valued in Europe and Asia are 
 never utilized here, although abundant in the United States waters; and a large part 
 of our fishery resources are undeveloped through a failure to appreciate and follow the 
 foreign methods of iireservation. Herring, for instance, is one of the most abundant 
 species of fish on the United States coast, being very frequently obtainable in much 
 larger (juantities than the fishermen make use of, yet the United States imports 
 aunually over $2,000,000 worth of herring products. 
 
 The purpose of this paper is not to instruct the various fishery i)reparators in the 
 methods of their particular trade, but rather to present the chief processes employed, 
 and tlius enable those who are interested to compare the different nielhods. The 
 author has carefully consulted the fishery literature and has freely availed himself of 
 the data contained therein, yet he has avoided giving a description without actual 
 knowledge of the i)resent processes or iiujuiry from persons familiar therewith. But 
 no care or labor can wholly avoid mistakes, and as the plan of this work embraces a 
 great variety of subjects concerning which much difference of oi)iniou and practice 
 exists among fishermen and marketmen it is altogether likely that it will be somewhat 
 open to criticism, but it is hoped that the errors will not be so numerous or so gross 
 as to materially impair its utility. 
 
PKESERVATION OF FISUEUY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 339 
 
 PRESERVING FISHERY PRODUCTS ALIVE. 
 
 In some foreign countries, e.si)ecially in (rcrniauy, a large portion of the fresh- 
 water tish and sonic salt water species are snpiilied to the markets alive. The live-fish 
 traile in China is very extensive, the fish being peddled abont the cities and villages 
 in buckets of water, and those not sold are returned to inclosures of water for future 
 sale. In the United States, liowever, live fish represent an inconsiderable portion of 
 the trade. A iuw of the New York market lishennen take their catch of cod, sea bass, 
 and blaeklish into port alive by means of well-smacks, and some of the shore Usher- 
 men at points along the coast or on the interior waters retain their fish for a few days 
 in live-cars or live-boxes; but the quantity of fish sold alive in this country is indeed 
 very small. However, lobsters, (aabs, oysters, clams, terrapin, and turtles are sold 
 alive, and unless in tliat condition are not generally considered marketable as fresh, 
 except in tlie case of shucked oysters and clams. 
 
 VVIien jiracticable, this is one of the most satisfactory methods of marketing 
 marine loods, not only because of the sui)erior quality of the ])roduct, but also because 
 it avoids costly processes of preservation. There is nj) general or uniform process 
 employed for keeping the animals, each species receiving such treatment as it particu- 
 larly rc(piires. Fish and lobsters are kept alive in large inclosures or in well-smacks 
 and live boxes, while oysters, clams, terrapin, ami turtles ordinarily require little care, 
 unless they are to be held a considerable length of time. 
 
 INCLOSED \A^ATER AREAS. 
 
 When wliitetish were abundant in Lake St. Clair and Uetroit Kiver, a practice 
 prevailed of buililing inclosures one eighth toone-half acre or more in extent, conform- 
 ing to tiie shore, for retaining the tish during October and November for sale during 
 the early winter. These pens were usually built of 2-iuch by (> inch hard-wood piles 
 driven into the bottom and iirojecting above the surface, with about i^ inch space 
 l)etween the piles to allow the water to freely pass through the area. A platform 
 with a barred entrance was arranged at one side to facilitate the handling of the seine 
 and the admission of the tish into the i)en, or this was accomplished by having a gate 
 hinged to a mudsill at the bottom and with tlie upi)er part about a foot above the 
 surface of the wiitcr and inclined at an angle of about 45°. The gate was opened by 
 pushing it beneath the surface, when the tish might be easily emptied from the seine 
 into the [lond. Tiie ponds were usually emptied liefore the end of December, the tish 
 being removed from the iuclosure as the market demand required. The introduction of 
 freezing and the increasing scarcity of wliitetish in Lake St. Clair led to the abandon- 
 ment of these ponds about 1S88. Wliitetish are still preserved alive in net inclosures 
 in Lake Krie, Init this is principally for the purpose of obtaining eggs for use in arti- 
 ticial jiropagation. 
 
 At Port Huron, in ISSl, Messrs. Friichtnicht & Neilson, of Sandusky, Ohio, 
 constructed a large pen for retaining sturgeon alive. This iuclosure covered an area 
 
340 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 of about one-fourth acre, aud was made by driving 2incli by 12-inch hard-wood 
 timbers into the ground about 2 inches apart on three sides of the pen, the beach 
 forming the fourth side. The cost approximated $5,000. At one time the pen con- 
 tained as many as 6,500 sturgeon. The iish were usually not fed at all, even though 
 retained four or five months, aud little, depreciation occurred either in weight or 
 quality. Feeding them on corn was attempted, but they did not appear to require 
 it. The sturgeon were caught for removal by means of a short seine having a cluiin 
 on the bottom. They had a tendency to burrow, aud it was sometimes difficult to 
 catch one even when there were a hundred or more m the pen. The business was 
 highly successful until the decreasing supply of these fish caused its abandonment 
 about 1887. 
 
 At several other points on the Great Lakes there were inclosures for retaining 
 sturgeon, and at some of them a regular ijractice prevailed of feeding the fish on corn. 
 In the fisheries of North and South Carolina it was formerly customary to provide 
 pens in which sturgeon were confined until a sufficient number had been accumulated 
 for a "killing." Some fishermen whose operations were less extensive, however, did 
 not resort to building a pen, bat would merely pass a rojie through the lower jaw of 
 each fish and fasten the other end to some convenient fixture. 
 
 The trai) fishermen of Rhode Island have large pounds, made of twine, and some- 
 times 00 feet square aud 30 feet deei), in which scup and other fish are held for two or 
 three mouths. Sometimes 12,000 barrels of fish are there held for a month or two. 
 The trap tisheruien of other localities so;iietimes have a similar contrivance on the 
 back of each trap net, in which a few barrels of fish may be held for several weeks. 
 
 Quantities of striped bass and perch were formerly kept alive for a week or more in 
 southern Delaware by inclosing them in pens built of pine logs aloug the river banks. 
 
 On the coast of Maine there are several inclosed coves or ponds for confining 
 lobsters several months, if necessary, the princi])al ones being at Viual Haven, South- 
 port, House Island, South Pond, Prospect Harbor, and Friendship. Their form aud 
 adaptability depend on the coastal formation. The first one was established at Vinal 
 Haven, in Penobscot Bay, in 1875, by Messrs. Johns(m & Young, of Boston, and that 
 is yet the largest and most successful on the coast. It is the small end of a cove 
 covering about 500 acres, communicating with the sea through a 150-foot channel, in 
 which the tidal range is about 10 feet and the depth from 30 to ISO feet, averaging 
 about 90 feet. The inclosure devoted to lobsters covers about 9 acres, and is separated 
 from the large cove by a natural shoal surmounted by a stout wire fence about 200 feet 
 long. Its bottom is of soft grayish mud and the water ranges from to CO feet in depth. 
 It has a capacity for about 300,000 lobsters, but a smaller quantity usually does better. 
 The capacity of the other ponds or coves ranges from 25,000 to 200,000 lobsters. 
 
 The lobsters are deposited in the inclosures when the condition of the market 
 warrants and are held for a higher price. They are fed quite regularly on cheap fresh 
 fish of various kinds, piincipally split hake, hake heads, small cod, herring, fiounders, 
 bream, etc. Fat herring are not desirable for lobster food, as practical experience has 
 shown that they cause the lobsters to decrease in weight. For the same reason, when 
 using hake, it is well to remove the livers, as they are rather too oily. The quantity 
 of food required depends largely on the temperature of the water, since lobsters do 
 not eat as freely in cold water as in that of a higher temperature. The food should be 
 well scattered over the pond, as throwing it in heaps causes the lobsters to congregate 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 341 
 
 in large numbers, resulting in their biting and injuring each otlier in their contests 
 for food. If not fed regularly it is quite dirticult to keep the lobsters in the inclosure, 
 but when properly supplied they seem contented and improve both in appearance and 
 weight: yet it is not generally ])rolitable to feed them for an increase in weight alone, 
 the profit coming from the ability to place them on the market when the prices are 
 the highest. In catching them seines, pots, or beam trawls are employed. The latter 
 are usually 12 feet across, with IS-inch runners. If properly attended, the mortality 
 is small and the lobsters improve in weight and condition. It is estimated that in 
 November, 1898, there were 700,000 lobsters retained in the i)ouds or iTiclosures in 
 Maine. 
 
 At several of the fishery ports along the Gulf of Mexico there are small inclosures 
 for retaining green lurtle and terrapin. These are usually 400 or 500 square feet 
 in area, and are made by driving rough poles into the ground near the slioi'e, where 
 the water is 6 or 8 feet deep at low tide, connecting and bracing them by nailing a 
 strii) along the line near the top, the poles being 1 or 2 inches from each other and 
 sutliciently long to project a few feet above the surface of the water. For convenience 
 in handling the turtle these pens are generally constructed adjacent to the landing pier 
 leading to a market house. The turtle are placed in the pen and removed therefrom 
 by means of a block and tackle attached to a swinging arm. They are generally fed on 
 alga*, fish, etc., until it is desirable to market them, when they are placed in boxes, 
 barrels, or otherwise secured, and shipped without further care. 
 
 WELL-SMACKS. 
 
 Well smacks were introduced in England in 1712, being first used at Harwich, 
 where 12 were in ojjeration as early as 1720, but the idea seems to have originated 
 with the Dutch fishermen many years beftn'e. According to Dr. Fuller's "History of 
 Berwick," well smacks were used in carryiug live salmon from Berwick to London 
 prior to 1740, those vessels being of about 40 tons burden each. 
 
 Previous to the general use of ice on vessels, which began about 1840, most of the 
 New England market vessels, especially those in the halibut fishery, were constructed 
 with a well in the hold, in which the fish were retained alive until delivered at the 
 fishing port. The use of well-smacks, or welled-smacks, in the halibut fishery began 
 at New London, Conn., and Greenport, N. Y., about 1820, and by 1840 the fishery had 
 extended to Georges Bank. Before the employment of these vessels the halibut 
 fishery was prosecuted only during cold weather, the fisli being carried in bulk in the 
 hold. 
 
 The first well-smack at (iloucester was built in 1835 and was designed to carry 
 about 12,000 pounds of halibut. The fish were caught by means of hand lines and 
 were handled very carefully, being placed in the well immediately on removal from the 
 water. Those dying before reaching market, through injuries or otherwise, were sold 
 at about one-fourth the price of live halibut. On account of the greater convenience of 
 using ice and the general adoption of trawl lines in the halibut fishery the well-smacks 
 have been entirely superseded by tight-bottomed vessels. 
 
 Formerly nearly all fishing vessels running to the New York market during cold 
 weather were constructed with wells. But the dwindling of the market cod fishery 
 from that port, due to competition with Boston and other New England points having 
 the benefit of the trade with drying establishments, has led to a large decrease iu the 
 
342 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 mimber of vessels engaged, and (hiring recent years there have been only eight or ten 
 vessels which during the winter and spring take their catch of cod, sea bass, and 
 blackfish into I'^nlton Market alive. Well smacks have been employed also in the red- 
 snapper lisheries of Key West and Pensacola, but they are being discarded, it being 
 found more satisf ictory to ice the fish than to keep them alive. The lobster trade 
 along the New England coast still uses a number of well smacks, and in some of them 
 steam has superseded the use of sails as a motive ])ower. 
 
 The well in which tlie tish or lobsters arc placed is situated amidships at the 
 bottom of tiie hold, extending from Just forward of the main hatch nearly to the 
 in.dnmast, and occupying about one-third of the length of the vessel. It is formed by 
 two stout, water-tight bulkheads at either end, 4 or 5 feet high and about .") inches 
 thick, extending from keelson to deck and entirely across the vessel. Midway 
 between tiiese is usually another bulkhead, wliicli assists in su])|)orting the deck and 
 divides tlie well into two compartments. Leading from the well to the deck is a funnel 
 curb, about 2i feet wide by 8 feet long at its upjier end and 4 feet long at its lower 
 end. The well has neither kei-lson 7ior ceiling, aiul the frames are usually the same 
 distance apart as elsewhere in the vessel, but on some smacks they are twice as tar 
 ai)art, in order to permit the water to circulate freely and to facilitate dii»ping the fish 
 from the well. About .'iOO auger-holes are bored in the bottom planking of the well, 
 through which the sea water freely enters, and it is kei)t in circulation and constantly 
 renewed by the motion of the boat. On the lobster smacks the auger-holes are gener- 
 ally 2 inches in diameter, wliereas those on tish smacks are more frequently 1 inch. 
 The vessels range from 13 to GO tons and those using sads are either schooner or sloop 
 rigged, though more ireiiuently of the former type. 
 
 On the liritish coast a number of "dry-well" smacks, having an artificial circula- 
 tion of water, are employed. In some of these there is a series of one or more lengths 
 of perlbrated su])ply i)ipes arranged near the bottom of the well and connected at 
 one end to a circulating pump operated by the main engine if on a steamer, or by a 
 donkey engine or otherwise if on a sailing vessel, a two-way cock being on the pipes 
 outside the well. The pipes, being at the bottom of the well, cause a continual circu- 
 latiou of water in an upward direction and thoroughly aerate the water as well as 
 cause all the scum and refuse to rise to the top, whence, along with the used water, it 
 escapes back into the sea through several bell-mouthed overflow pipes, the lower ends 
 of which pass through the vessel's bottom and are mounted so as to incline aft from the 
 top, and thus allow the force from the forward movement of the vessel to suck them 
 clear. The aeration of the water can thus be kept under i)erfect control and the well 
 be readily emptied of water by i)umping when it is desired to remove the fish. 
 
 The well-smacks running cod, sea bass, and tautog to the New York market, 
 which tish off Sandy Hook and Long Island shore, have capacity for 8,000 to 20,000 
 pounds of fish each, depending on the time of the year and the length of the trip. 
 Hand lines are employed for the most part and the fish are placed in the well as soon 
 as taken from the water, the hook being carefully removed. Each vessel generally 
 carries a small quantity of ice, with which to preserve such fish as may die, as well 
 as the surplus that can not be placed in the well, this ice being carried in pens at 
 either end of the well. The cod when caught in no great depth of water live in the 
 well, under ordinary couditious, a week or more, but the sea bass and tautog are not 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PROPUCTS i^OR FOOD. 343 
 
 SO Lardy and do not keep much more than half that long. The length of time which 
 the cod will live d('|>eiid.s also on the time they have been kept on the trawls, in case 
 that form of apparatus is used. On arrival at Fulton Market the fish are removed 
 from the well with hmg-haudleil di[) nets, and placed in wooden cars, which are kept 
 floating in the dock. For a des(;ri[>tion of these cars see next page. 
 
 Lobster smacks are employed mainly along the coast of Maine and Massachusetts, 
 but there are a few at New York, Greenport, and New London. Up to a few years 
 ago vessels of this tyi)e were used in bringing lobsters from Nova Scotia, but at i)resent 
 those shipments are made usually in barrels on regular commercial steamers. The 
 lobster smacks are mostly old vessels which were formerly employed in the live flsh 
 trade before i(;ing became the general practice; but many flue vessels are now coming 
 into use, and at Portland, Maine, four steamers are engaged in this tr:ule. About (iO 
 well-smacks are now employed in transporting lobsters along the coast, running to 
 Rockland, Portland, Boston, New London, New York, etc. Their capacity ranges from 
 3,000 to 10,000 lobsters, with an average of about 9,000 during c^old weather and about 
 two-thirds or half that number when the weather is warm. Tiie'loss in transit is 
 small, rarely amounting to 2 \)er cent, unless the weather is calm or the loaded smack 
 remains in still water very long, wlien the lobsters use up the air held in solution by 
 the Wiiter and smother. These vessels are not so extensively employed as a lew years 
 ago, on account of the comi)etition with steamer and railroad transportation, but they 
 are yet an important factor in connection with the lobster trade. 
 
 The well sm;i(;ks until recently employed in the Gulf of Mexico red-snapper fishery 
 were of the sa ne ty|)u as those in use on the New liJngland coast, indeed most of them 
 were designed for the New England fisheries. At Key West a number of smaller sail 
 craft, known locally as "smackees," are provided with wells. These boats average 
 about 25 feet long, S feet wide, and -1 or 5 feet deep, with sliarj) bottom, the dee]) draft 
 being necessary in order to submerge the hull suflicieutly for the water to cover the 
 flsh in the well, which occupies about a quarter of the boat's length measured on the 
 teel. 
 
 On account of the great depth from which red snappers and groupers :ire as a 
 rule obtained, considerable difficulty was at flrst experienced in keeping them alive, 
 the pressure of the water being so much less in the wells than at a depth of several 
 fathoms that the air bhidder would become greatly distended and the fish fioat belly 
 up. To overcome this the fishermen adopted a practice of puncturing the air bladder 
 as soon as the flsh reaches the surface, forcing a hollow metal tube j-inch in diameter 
 into the side of the fish a little behind and just above the pectoral fin, thus relieving 
 the air bladder ot its extreme buoyancy so that the fish may control its movements 
 in the well. Only those red snappers taken in less than 10 fathoms of water can be 
 successfully held in the wells for a week or two; if caught in more than 10 fathoms 
 they must be handled carelully, and if from over 20 fathoms they soon have a swollen 
 surface, the eyes i)rotruding and the scales becoming loosened and standing erect. 
 For the purpose of holding the surplus fish when the well became overcrowded, some 
 01 the smack fishermen also carried two or three cars, about 8 feet long, 4 feet deep, 
 and 4 feet wide, so constructed that they could be takeu apart and stowed below deck. 
 But, as before stated, the use of ice has almost entirely superseded the employment 
 of well-smacks in the red-snapper fishery. 
 
344 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 LIVE-CARS OR LIVE-BOXES. 
 
 The most usual metliod of keeping fishery products iu captivity alive is by means 
 of live-cars or live-bo.\es. Tliese are emi)loyed iu the market fishery of New York, 
 the lobster fishery of the Xew England States, the catfish fishery of Louisiana, the 
 seine fishery of the (Uilf of Mexico, and in numerous other small fisheries along the 
 coast and on the interior waters. Ordiiuirily they are plain wooden boxes, with open 
 seams or numerous auger-holes to permit a free circulatiou of water and yet not so large 
 as to permit the escape of the fish, their size and shape conforming to the requirements 
 of the fishes and the localities for which they are intended. The buoyancy of the 
 material entering into their construction keeps them at the surface of the water, with 
 little more than the upper portion exposed, this position being regulated if necessary 
 by attaching floats or weights, as the case may require. When it is desirable to move 
 them frequently from place to place they are made in the form of skififs. 
 
 Tlie live cars employed at Fulton Market, New York City, for retaining cod, sea 
 bass, and tautog or blackfish brought in by the well-smacks, are of various sizes, but 
 generally about IS- feet long, 12 feet wide, and from 2 to 3 feet deep, the depth being 
 greater iu the center than at the two ends. They are made of planking 1 inch thick 
 and G inches wide, nailed to a rectangular frame of joist, with spaces of 1 or 2 inches 
 between the planks to allow free circulation of water, aiul are without partitions on 
 the inside and without barrels or other buoys. Iu the top of each are two pairs of 
 doors, running the entire length of the car, but covering only about half the width, 
 and which may be fastened with a padlock. The cars are moored in the dock at the 
 rear of the market, and by means of tackle attacheil to the rear of each fish-house they 
 are raised occasionally and rested on a platform or float running the entire length of 
 Fulton Market, so that they may be cleaned and dried to prevent their becoming 
 water-logged. Tiiey cost about $24 each and have capacity for 3,000 or 4,000 pounds 
 of fish under ordinary conditions. No food is given the fish confined in the cars and 
 the length of time during which they may be kept depends on the weather. If bottom 
 ice forms, the tautog may all die in one night, but the cod are quite hardy. As soon as 
 the fish are removed from the cars they are killed, and being much fresher and firmer 
 they are sold at a higher price than that received for fish brought in packed in ice._ 
 These cars are used also for holding lobsters and green turtle alive. 
 
 At certain of the European fishing j)orts the retaining of live cod in floating cars 
 is quite extensive. From Holdsworth's "Sea Fisheries" is obtained the following 
 account of the business at Grimsby: 
 
 When the sniaiks arrive with their cargoes of live and dead fish at Grimsby, the cod in the well 
 are t.iken out hy means of long-handled landing nets, and .are jilacfd in wooden b ixes or chests which 
 are kei)t lioating in the doik; there the lish are stored till wanted for the marliet. These cod chests 
 are 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 feet deep; the ))ottom is made of stout battens placed a short distance 
 apart, so that the water jieuetrates freely to the interior, as it does also between the planks of which 
 the sides and ends are built up. The top is wholly planked over, except in the center, where there is an 
 oblong opening for putting in and taking out tisli. This opening is closed by a cover when the chest is 
 in tlie water. Two ropes or chains are fixed in tlie ends of each chest for convenience in moving it about 
 and hoisting it out of the water. About 40 good-sized cod, or nearly 100 suuiller ones, may he put into 
 one of these chests, and will live there without much deterioration for about a fortnight. There are 
 usnally as many as 400 of these chests in the Grimsliy fish-dock, sometimes all in use and containing 
 from 15,000 to 20,000 live cod. Every day during the cod season a remarkal)le scene is ]>resented here, 
 and the same thing occurs at Harwich, although on a sm:ilU"r scale, Grimsby and Harwich being the 
 two ports where the live cod are stored. A <(rlaiii inin lin of fish being wanted for market, the 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 345 
 
 salc'Hmen make their preparations accordingly, and tin' cod are taken out of the chests and killed. I 
 nay killi-d, because the fish are not merely taken out of tlie water and allowed to die, hut they are 
 dispatched in a very summary manner. A chest of cod is Iironght alongside an old hnlk kept for the 
 purpose, and moored in the dock clos(^ to the market place; tackles from a couple of davits are then 
 hooked on to the handles, and the chest is hoisted np till nearly clear of the water, which drains 
 throngh the bottom and leaves the fish dry. The cover is then taken off, and a man gets into the 
 opening and takes ont the fish, seizing them by the head and tail. As may be supposed, the commo- 
 tion among 50 or HO cod just out of the water is very great, anil it is often a work of diiHculty to get 
 a good hold of the fish ; but, one after another, they are lifted out and thrown np to the deck'of the 
 hnlk, when they come into the hands of another man, who acts as executioner: he grasps the fish 
 tightly behind the head with his left hand, holds it firmly on the deck, and, giving a few heavy blows 
 on the nose with a short club, kills it at once. 
 
 It is sometimes as much as can be done to hohl down a large and lively fish on the slippery deck 
 while giving it the couj) de grace; but the work is generally skillfully perfcu'iued, and the dead fish 
 rapidly accumulate into a large heap, whence they are t.iken to the adjoining i|";>.v to be packed in 
 bulk in the railway trucks waiting clo.se by to receive them. p]aeh truck will hold about twelve 
 score of good-sized fish, or a proportionately larger number of smaller ones. The lisli thus killed and 
 packed reached Killingsgate in time for the early market next morning, and are known in tlii' trade 
 by the name of " live cod," the manner in which they are killed aH'ectiug the muscles of the fish in 
 some way that enables the crimping process to be carried out successfully some hours after the fish 
 have been taken out of the water. These cod command a high price, and are looked upon as essentially 
 ''West End'' fish. There is, ofcour.se, a great advantage gained bythus storing the cod alive, for not 
 only is the market more regularly supplied than would otherwise be the case, owing to small catches 
 during bad weather, or clelays from calms or adverse winds, but the fish themselves also come into the 
 hands of the fishmongers in a fresher state than almost any other kinds supplied to them. 
 
 In coiuiectioii with its hatching: operations at Woods Hole, Mass., the U. S. Fish 
 Commission retains live cod in cars, and for protection in stormy weather these are 
 sheltered in ati inclosure. The method is as follows: 
 
 The fish are taken with hand lines fished from the deck while the vessel is drifting in water from 
 10 to 40 fathoms deep. Those taken in the shoaler water are preferable to those coming from deep 
 water, as the change to the shallow cars in which they are held at the station is less pronounced. 
 Great care is ,>xercised in catching the fish, for when hastily hanled ui> from deep water they are very 
 liable to be "poke-blown''; that is, they have their stomachs turned inside out through the mouth. 
 When drawn in with moderate speed, they become adapted to the gradually diminishing pressure and 
 do not suffer injury. It is also imjiortant in unhooking the fish not to injure its mouth any more than 
 is absolutely necessary, as the wound caused by the hook freijuently spreads and forms a large sore 
 and eventually kills the fish. All the vessels which collect cod for the station are provided with 
 wells, in which the fish are placed and held while in transit. When a vessel arrives at the station 
 with cod, the fish are immediately transferred with di]i nets from the well to live-cars Ki feet long, 
 6 feet wide, and .5 feet deep, which are constructed of wood and divided into two compartments by a 
 crosswise partition. As the fish obtained from smacks are paid for by the pound, it is customary to 
 weigh about 10 per cent of each load and estimate the total weight by the average of those weighed. 
 While being weighed, the cod are also counted, about 500 being put in each car. The cars are moored 
 in the middle of a pool or basin protected on all sides by a -wharf, which breaks the force of the sea 
 in stormy weather and affords a sheltered place for handling the fish and taking the eggs. Cod take 
 little or no food when spawning. The impounded brood fish are often tempted with fresh fish and 
 with fresh and salted clams. (Report IT. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 18!17, pp. 200-201.) 
 
 In the cattish trade centered at Morgan City atid Melville, La., very substantial 
 live-cars are used in transporting the (latch from the lishing-grounds to the markets. 
 These are built in the shape of a flat-bottomed skiff, sliarp at each end, the sides, top, 
 and bottom being formed of slats, with space between each slat for the free circulation 
 of water. They range in length from IS to -'50 feet and about 5 feet in width. At each 
 end there is a water-tight compartment with about 40 gallons capacity, and by empty- 
 ing or tilliug these compartments with water the buoyancy of the car may be regulated. 
 
346 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Since the cars are usually towed by steam tugs at a speed of G or 8 miles per 
 liour, tlie dt'termiiiation of the i)roper buoyancy at either end suitable for towinj;- 
 recpiires considerable judgment and experience. 
 
 These cars are divided by a slat partition into two or more comiiartnients, so 
 that the ftsh will not all crowd together. Their capacity is from f) to 10 tons of fish, 
 dependent on the temperature and condition of the water. During warm weather, or 
 when there is considerable sediment in the water, the tugs usually carry ice in which 
 the fish are packed in preference to cari-ying them in the live cars. 
 
 The fishermen catching hogfish along the coasts of Virginia aTid Nortli Carolina 
 usually transport them in live-cars to the marketing ports, and tlie sauui is true in a 
 number of other minor fisheries of the coast. In the sea bass and tautog fisheries 
 prosecuted on the southern coast of New England the fishermen occasionally use boat- 
 sha])ed cars made of wood, sharp at both ends, with auger-holes in sides and bottom 
 and with top covered with hinged lid. A common size is .5 feet long on top, 3 feet long 
 on the bottom, which is flat, and 2 feet wide on top at the middle. 
 
 Live-boxes are generally employed in the eel fishery of Connecticut, Long Lslaud, 
 and other places on the Atlantic coast, but the.se conform to no established shape or 
 size, suiting tlie convenience and needs of the individual fisherman. Several of the 
 catfish fishermen of Philadelphia retain their catch for several days or even weeks by 
 putting them in large boxes lined with tin, which are placed in their yards and kept 
 covered over, the water being changed frequently. 
 
 In this connection it may be well to describe the cars used in the Penobscot by the 
 United States Fisli Commission in transferring live salmon from the fishermen's weirs 
 to the retaining ponds, preparatory to stripping them of spawn for hatching purposes: 
 
 The car employed is niaile frnni the common dory, ilivideil tr.ansversely into three nompartiiieuts. 
 The central one, vhich is much the larger, is occupied by the tish, and is sumotlily limd with thin 
 boar<lH and covered with a net to prevent the fi.sh jumping out or being lost by the car capsizing, 
 which sometimes occurs, while to guard them from fright and the rays of the sun a canvas cover is 
 drawn over all. 
 
 The first cars of this form constructed had iron gratings to separate the central from the for- 
 ward aTid after compartments, the water being admitted through the forward and discharged through 
 the after compartment, but this was objectionable because the salmon were constantly seeking to 
 escape through the forward grating, and often injured themselves by rushing against it. Smooth 
 wooden gratings were afterwards used, and for many years cars wore employed iu which the 
 compartments were separated by tight board jjartitions, the openings for the circulation of water 
 communicating through the sides of the boat directly with the tish compartment, and being, of 
 course, grated. This was very satisfactory, but when it was found desirable and practicable to use 
 ice in transportation the forw .ard compartment became the ice room, .and it was necessary to jjcrforate 
 the partition again to .admit the cold water to the lish. Finally, stout woolen blanket cloth was 
 substituted in the partitions, with eyelet holes wrought in to afford passage to the water. This is the 
 form now iu use, in which the water is admitted through openings in the sides to the ice roiiin, 
 from which it passes through the tish room to the after room, whence it is discharged. The car is 
 ballasted so that the rail is just above water, or, in case of an unusually large load of tish, a little 
 below it. All the openings communicating with the outside are controlled by slides, which can he 
 closed so as to let the car swim high and light when it is towed empty. 
 
 To .avoid injury to the fish in transferring them to the cars, fine minnow dlj) nets, lined with 
 woolen tlanuel of open texture, are used. The bow on which the net is hnug is 22 inches in diameter, 
 ami to secure a net of ample width three ordinary nets, 36 inches in depth, are cut open down one side 
 quite to the bottom, and then sewed together, giving thus three times the ordinary breadth without 
 increasing the depth. 
 
 The collection of .salmon is begun each season usually from the 20th of May to the 1st of June, 
 but as the maximum temperature that the fish fresh from the weirs will endure is about 75° F., the ■ 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 347 
 
 tompeniturc of thi^ water tlirimj;h which the cars are towed must lie takeu into lonsidoratiou, and 
 the collectiim not he postponed nntil too late in the season. If tlie collection is prolonged, this 
 diHiciilty is ohviated by usinj; ice, as it has heen lonnd that liy moderiitinjj; the volnme of water 
 passing throngh the ear and introdnciug it all throngli the ice compartment it is possilile to keep 
 a nniform tempiTatnre iu the coni]iart!nent in which tin' fish are held several degrees helow that of the 
 water in the river, thereby insnring the safe transfer of the salmon. (Report U. S. Commissioner of 
 Fish and Fisheries for imi, pp. 32-33.) 
 
 Tlie live cars used by the lobster dealers on the New England coast are tisnally 
 substantially (•c)nstnicted, of large size, and divided into comj)artments. Those at 
 Portland, Me., are mostly 30 feet long, 12 feet wide, and ."5 feet deep, with capacity for 
 2,000 to 3,000 lobsters. The framework consists oi" six rectangular frames, feet apart, 
 to which are nailed boards (> inches -wide and 1 inch thick, forming the tojt, bottom, sides, 
 and ends, with spaces of 1 to 2 inches between the adjac^ent boards. 'J'he cars are 
 thus divided into five transverse coiupartments, each of which is provided with two 
 large doors entering from the top, omt door on eat-h side of the middle line of the car. 
 The cost of each approximates $ii(», and tliey last four or five years. At l^ortland 
 there are abont sixty of these cars, jiroviding storage capacity for IoO,000 live lobsters, 
 which may be retained for three or four weeks under favorable conditions. 
 
 The usual size of the loljster cars employed at lioston is 2S feet long. 11 feet wide, 
 and feet deep, divided into four compartments, each of which holds from 500 to 800 
 lobsters, according to the season. The compartments are separated from each other 
 by vertical lathes, and each has two doois opening from the top. Some dealers 
 omit two or three of the mi(l(ll<5 lathes iu eac'h jiartitioii l)otween the compartments, 
 so that when the doors in the two middle ones are opened tiie ligiit causes the active 
 and more healthy lobsters to scurry into the end coniijartments, where, huddled 
 closely together, they are more easily removed with a dip net. The weaker lobsters, 
 being less active, remain behind, and, thus separated from the sti'onger ones, may 
 be removed as desired. During the first year after its constrnction the buoyancy of its 
 material keeps the car afloat with the top slightly above the surface. But as it 
 becomes water-soaked it is necessary to buoy it, which is accomplished by placing an 
 empty water-tight barrel within the car at each corner. SuuiU marine ways are 
 usually built adjacent to the cars for convenience in raising them above the surface of 
 the water. The cars cost $!>() each. They last about live years only, their period of 
 usefulness being shortened by the desti'uctiveness of the teredo. There are 05 of 
 them in Boston, with an aggregate carrying capacity of about 170,000 lobsters. 
 
 At Friendship and Tremont, in Maine, lobsters are retained in cars constructed 
 on a plan invented and patented by J. R. Burns, of Friendsjiip, and differing from the 
 usual type in being divided horizontally into separate compartments, each about a 
 foot in height, thus i)reventing the lobsters from crowding and killing each other by 
 their own weight. Each compartment is provided with convenient openings at the 
 sides, so that lobsters and food can be introduced as desired. The cars are about 35 
 feet long, IS feet wide, and (i feet deep, with capacity for 5,000 lobsters each. 
 
 In New York the market floats already described as being employed in connection 
 with the live fish trade are also used for retaining lobsters. The aggregate storage 
 capacity of the floats at New York probably does not exceed 25,000 lobsters. 
 
 The cars used by the lobster fisheimen of the New P^ngland coast are generally 
 much smaller and more rudely constrmted than those of the dealers. It is desirable 
 to have them small, because of the convenience in removing the lobsters by hoisting 
 
348 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 the cars rather than by bailing; bat some are so large that bailing is necessary. In 
 general their capacity ranges from 100 to 1,000 lobsters, and entrance is made through 
 a door on the toj). At Woods Hole, Mass., the cars are about 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, 
 and 3 feet deep. At No Man's Land, Mass., the average size is about 10 feet hmg, n 
 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, and some of them are constructed for breaking^the foice of 
 the waves that beat against them, having the top and bottom converging toward tlie 
 ends, which are somewhat pointed. Old dories provided with a cover and with 
 numerous holes bored in the sides and bottom are frequently employed, but slat-work 
 boxes are the most common. 
 
 While the size and form of the live cars or boxes are largely matters of local fancy 
 and convenience, it is important that they be of sutticient capacity to hold the lobsters 
 without crowding. In estimating the capacity of live-cars several modifying conditions 
 must be considered, such as the roughness of tlie water, temperature, shade, etc. lu 
 localities where the water is still and quiet, fewer lobsters should be ])ut in a car of 
 definite size than in more exi)osed localities, because lobsters must have air as well as 
 water. When the water is still tlio air is quickly exhausted and agitation of the water 
 is necessary to replenish it. More lobsters can be carried in a given space during cool 
 weather than when it is warm. The number that can i)rofitably be put in a car depends 
 also on the length of time they will remain there. In general, 150 lobsters to each 
 100 cubic feet of space is most satisfactory, although sometimes 300 and even more 
 are placed in 100 cubic feet. In shallow cars a greater number of lobsters can be 
 carried per 100 cubic feet than in deep ones. When given sufficient room, lobsters 
 may be kept alive in these inclosures for several days or weeks, while awaiting the 
 arrival of the market boat or while holding them for better prices. If the length 
 of the conflnemeiit extends beyond a week or two it is desirable to feed the lobsters, 
 otherwise they will eat each other. Any refuse fish which is not very oily is used 
 for food. It is not advisable to confine them in live cars and feed them for the i>ur- 
 pose of increasing the weight, and nuless they are being held for a better market 
 price the sooner tliey are removed from the car the better. The practice of plugging 
 the claws of lobsters has been almost entirely abandoned. 
 
 OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISH. 
 
 Live fish are rarely shipped overland in the United States for commercial pur- 
 poses, owing to the expense and also to the difficulty in keeping the water properly 
 aerated and at the right temperature; but in connection with its work of stocking 
 streams, etc., the Tnited States Fish Commission is almost constantly engaged in 
 work of that nature, adiilt fish as well as fry being carried in si)eciiilly i)repared tank 
 cars on trips that last sometimes a week or more. The best type of these cars is 
 described as follows in the report of the Commissioner for 1898: 
 
 The dimcnsiciiis of car No. 3 as n-built aro as follows: Length of body, 60 feet; tot.al length from 
 end of platforin to end of platform, 67 feet 10 inches; width, 9i feet; height from top of rail to toji of 
 roof, 13 feet 8 inches. The frame of the car is so braced as to permit of the two large doors iu the 
 center extending from floor to roof. This feature very materially simplifies loading and nnloading. 
 The interior of the car is finished in ash, and iu one end i.s an office, an ice-box of U tons capacity, 
 and a pressure tank holding 500 gallons of water; at the other end are the boiler room and kitchen. 
 The boiler room is equipped with a .5-horsepower lioilcr, circulating water pump, and air and feed 
 pump. The tanks and caus used in transporting fish are carried in two compartments running along 
 
PKKSERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 349 
 
 the sides of the car between the office auil boiler room. They are 30 fc^et lonj:, .3 feet wide, and 25 
 inches deep. Under the car, between the trucks, is a re-servoir tauli holding liOO gallons of water, 
 and from which water is pumped into the pressure tank near the office; it thou passes from this tank 
 to the tish cans and tanks, and then back to the reservoir. lu the middle of the car, over the coni- 
 partinents referred to, arc four berths aud several lockers for the use of the crew. The office also 
 contains two berths, a writing desk, and a typewriter. These cars are fully ecinipped with all modern 
 improvements in the way of brakes, couplers, signal whistles, etc., aud have ruUman trucks and 
 :?:! inch Allen paper wheels. With the large water cajiacity provided, they are capable of carrying 
 miicli greater loads of fish than ever before. 
 
 In transi)ortiii,n' fresb-water .s))ecies both water and air circulation are used, but 
 with salt-water .species the salt water is usually kept tierated by circulation only as it 
 is not generally practicable to provide for a change of water. When the temperature 
 is liigh, ice is sotnetiines packed about the transportation tanks to keep them cool, 
 aud iu extreme cases a can tilled with ice is placed in the water. In this manner 
 marine species have been carried successfully for six days or more. • 
 
 In the above-described cars the carrying capacity is to some extent sacrificed for 
 the comfort of the crew, since. they live on the cars throughout the year. Al.so the 
 fish must not only reach their destination alive, but in a vigorous, healthy condition, so 
 that they may live and be used in reproducing. Neither of these conditions is essen- 
 tial iu transportiug live fish to market, consequently a greater carrying capacity could 
 be secured in cars designed especially for that trade. 
 
 A method of operating the air-pump by means of the rotary motion of the car axles 
 was attempted on the U. S. Fish Commission transportation cars. The experiment 
 is thus described on page 241 of the report for 1897: 
 
 An arrangement w.as adopted to furnish power for the pump and an air-blowcr by means of a 
 friction wheel placed on the truck at one end of the car. Tbis wheel was attached near one end to 
 the top of the truck, so that it rested on tlie tread of the car wheel aud was held there by two spiral 
 springs. When not in use it could be elevated above the car wheel by a lever operated from 
 inside the car. Power was transmitted from the friction wheel by means of a countershaft and 
 rubber belting. The friction wlieel gave a great deal of trouble, however, as it was impo.ssible to 
 make it strong enough to stand the wear to which it was subjected. As the action of tbe truck springs 
 while the car was in motion moved the truck frame up aud down, sometimes IS to 5 inches, the friction 
 wheel would be jidteil out of position, and so uncertain was its operation that it could not be relied 
 upon, and the i)unip and blower had to be worked by hand. 
 
 As a general rule fish will carry best in water of a low temperature. Cold water 
 absorbs more air than warm; it also les.sens the iictivity of tlie fish, causing them to 
 consume less oxygen, and it retards decomposition in the organic substances cou- 
 tained in the water aud the consequent generation of noxious gases. The lowering 
 of the temperature therefore offers a threefold iidvaiitage. Whenever practicabh^ the 
 fish should be ke[(t in confinement without food for a day or two before being trans- 
 ported, so that there may be no danger of the water being made imjjure by excrements 
 of the fish. 
 
 In Europe considerable attention has been given to transporting lisli alive. 
 Well-smacks are used iu the Nortli Sea fisheries prosecuted by Germany, Holland, 
 and England. Live cars are emi)loyed by many of the shore fishermen, and in many 
 of the fi.shmiirkets both fresh-water and marine siiecies are ke])t alive in tanks. The 
 diflicnlty of keeping sea lish alive when natural salt water can not be obtained is met 
 by the use of artificial salt water. Rut the most interesting feature of the European 
 fish mtirketing is the overland transportation of live fish. 
 
350 HULLETIN OF THE UNITKD iiTATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 In Germany fresh water species are transported alive in barrels about three- 
 fourths full of water, tlie quantity of flsh to each barrel depeudiug on the variety, the 
 length of the Journey, and the season of tbe year. During the journey the water in 
 the barrel is in almost constant motion, presenting considerable surface to the air, so 
 that during a short distance sufficient oxygen is in this manner introduced into the 
 water. But if longer Journeys are made air must be introduced, which is accom- 
 plished by filling a sprinkler with water and squirting this water into the barrel with 
 considerable force from a short distance, or the water is agitated by a vertical paddle- 
 wheel fastened ou the upper part of the vessel and separated from the fish by a per- 
 forated wall. Some of the barrels are provided with a tube running almost to the 
 bottom of the barrel, the lower end containing many openings, and through this tube 
 air is forced by means of a bellows on the outside. The last method is preferred, for 
 by its use tlie barrel may be filled with water and fish, the carbonic acid is driven off, 
 aiul agitation of the water is avoided. In the manner above described fish can be 
 kept alive for a considerable period in a quantity of water weighing much less than 
 tlieir combined weight. 
 
 In 1881 a company was organized in Germany for the wholesale transportation 
 of fresh salt-water fish from Cuxhaveu, on tbe border of the North Sea, to Berlin, iu 
 specially constructed cars. The form of car adopted was invented and patented in 
 Germany by Arno (iustav I'atihaly, a Bohemian. 
 
 The following description is from the German letters patent dated March 20, 1880: 
 
 The transportiuij vessel is a railroad car, wliich ean be talceu off tlie wheels, the walls of which 
 are double, tlie interveiiini; space being filled with iinui-ondiii'tors of heat. lusido the car, and resting 
 on the double Moor, there is a shallow tank of forged iron with a vaulted roof, in which is placed the 
 live lish with a iinantity of fresh sea water. Along tlie inside walls of the car are shelves for storing 
 the dead lish, and ice-boxes attached to tbe ceiling serve to keep the air cool. With a view to supply- 
 ing the live lish in tbe tank with the necessary oxygen, air is led by means of pipes from the top of 
 the car into the ice-boxes in which it is cooled and then by means of an air-pump it is forced into the 
 fish tank. This air-pump is counocted by means of a belt with one of the axles of the ear, so that 
 the necessary power may be obtained while the car is iu motion, and iu order to protect the fish from 
 suflbcation during the stop])ages the air pump is so arranged that it can be operated also by means of 
 a crank. To prevent violent motion of the water the air above the water in the tank is kept at a slight 
 pressure, this lieiiig regulafed by a suitable escape valve in the roof of the tank. 
 
 SHIPPING LIVE LOBSTERS. 
 
 1 
 
 III shipping lobsters alive well-smacks are employed to a. great extent where the 
 transportation is iu large quantities from one part of the coast to another, but much 
 of the coastal shipments, as well as the great buUc of those overland, are made in 
 barrels. Flour barrels holding about 140 jiounds, or sugar barrels with 185 pounds 
 capacity, are emiiloyed, in tlie bottoms of which several holes are bored to alford 
 drainage. In placing the lobsters in the barrels, each lobster is seized by thecarapax, 
 the tail is bent up uuder the iiody, and it is placed in the barrel with the back ujiper 
 most, being packed quiiikly and snugly together, so that they can not move from the 
 position in which they are placed. Unless the weather is cold along, narrow block of 
 ice, weighing from UO to 10 pounds, is placed iu the center, its length following the 
 axis of the barrel. On top of the lobsters a handful of seaweed is placed, and this is 
 covered with 5 to 20 jiounds of crushed ice, and the whole is inclosed by sacking 
 secured uuder the ux)per hoop of the barrel. Packed in this way, the lobsters readily 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 351 
 
 survive a trip lasting three or four days. Some dealers liave tried separating the 
 lobsters from the ice, using for this purpose ;i long, narrow box, divided transversely 
 into three compartments, of which tlie uiiildle is much the largest, and in tliis tlie 
 lobsters are placed, while the ice is jiut in the two smaller compartments; but lobsters 
 do better when in contact with the ice, the moisture appearing to be necessary for 
 their preservation. 
 
 The United States Fish Commission has successfully carried live lobsters in its 
 transportation cars for distances upward of 3,0(10 miles. The method pursued is 
 tlius described on pp. 243-244 of the rei)ort for 1897: 
 
 Large, mature lobsters, on long trips, are packed in seaweed in wooden trays about 6 inches high 
 anil of a size couvenient for handling. Strips of wood attached to the bottom of trays have open 
 si>aces between them to allow air circulation. About 2 inches of seaweed are spread on the bottom 
 of the tr.ay and the lobsters placed on it with their claws toward the outer ends, so that they can not 
 injure each other, and the trays are then filled with seaweed. Thej' are packed in tlie refrigerator 
 compartments, and the temperature of the air is kept, if possible, at from 40^ to 4S F. A supply of 
 salt watiT, liltered through cotton, is taken along, and the lobsters are sprinkled with it three or four 
 times a day, and they are also daily overhauled and repacked. If the desired temperature is main- 
 tained, 50 to 60 i)er cent can be carried for five or six days. 
 
 Attempts have been made to ship live lobsters in sea water by having a water tank 
 with a series of shelves eitlier communicating or separate, with supply ami di.scliarge 
 pipes connecting with the shelves, so that the lobsters on eacli shelf may be kept suj)- 
 plied with fresh sea water. This apparatus was intended especially for transirorting 
 lobsters on sliijjboard to England, but it has not been used to any gieat extent. 
 
 The following article from the Vanadiau Gazettf, of London, contains an account 
 of the experiments with it: 
 
 The t'anadian lobster has long been well known and appreciated in F.nglanil, but only in its pre- 
 served slate, packed in the tins familiar to all housekeepers. A snccessiul attempt has just been made 
 to import live lobsters from Canada, where they are aliuiidant and cheap, to England, where they are 
 so dear as to render tliem a positive luxury. Many attempts liave been made at ilitierent times to land 
 live CaiNulian lobsters in England, but none of them had jiroved su'cessfnl, owing to various causes 
 too numerous to explain here. The idea was, however, loo good, too tempting, to be definitely aban- 
 doned, and experiments were constantly being made, though with but little success. Finally Messrs. 
 Arthur and Harold McGray instituted careful inquiries in the principal lobster districts, the result of 
 which led them to the conclusion tliat the methods adopted by previous shippers had been defective, 
 owing to their ignorance of the habits and reiiuireineuts of the lobster. These shippers had simply 
 placed the fish in large tubs, renewing the salt water at frei|uent intervals. This was ilearly insufh- 
 eient, for the lobsters invariably died within 12 or l", hours. INiving concluded their inijiiiries and 
 carefully tabulated the inf rmation they had obtained, Messrs. Mc<iray coniineneed to experiment 
 with a system entirely difterent, devised by themselves. This improved apparatus, which .iiipears 
 simple in itself, is the outcome of patient observatimi and study of the habits of the lobster at various 
 points along the coast It enables the crustaceans to continue while in trausnort an almost identical 
 mode of lifo to that lid by them at the bottom of the sea. This' system constituted the inventor's 
 si'cret, which we cannot of course divulge at thc^ prc-seut moment. They commenced with ten lobsters, 
 which they placed in their improved receptacle and contrived to keep them alive for 4^1 hours. This 
 was a decidcMl improvement on the results previously obtained by other merchants. Thus encouraged, 
 they eontiniied their experiments with successive series of lobsters. In the course of the summer of 
 ISill thiy succeeded in keeping them alive 5, 8, II, 13, and ultimately 18 days. These exiierimeiits, 
 diversified by innumerable incidents, trials, failures, and partial successes, were coiidiicted on board 
 a lightship stationed ofi Barrington, with water always taken from the bay and naturally of about 
 the same tenipcrature. An important point was thus established — lobsters could be kept alive for 18 
 days on board a stationary ship. 
 
352 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The qucstirpu then arose, would similar lobsters live tho same length of time ou board a ship 
 crossing the Atlantic, and in water constantly ch;iugiug in tcmiierature ? Messrs. McGray were quite 
 convinced that they would. They, therefore, arranged to ship 50 lobsters by the steamship Historian, 
 running from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to London direct. The passage was expected to occupy 14 days. 
 This was more than sufficient to thoroughly test tlie system, seeing that steamers are available which 
 make the passage in 10 days. Tlie ship left Halifax at 8 a. m. on Thursday, December 10, Mr. Harold 
 McGray being on lioard to personally conduct the experiments. The lobsters were shipped under 
 rather unfavorable circumstances, they having then been out of water for 24 hours. The losses 
 during the voyage were as follows: Ou the first day 2 lobsters died; on the fifth day, 4; on the sixth 
 day, 1; on tlio seventh day, 3; on the eighth day, 1; on the ninth <lay, 1; on the twelfth day, 2. 
 
 The fifth day a receptacle containing 1.5 lobsters was swept overboard during a southwest 
 hurricane. The first 2 deaths were due to the unsatisfactory condition of the fi.sh when shipped; the 
 next 4 were Ivilled by the rapid change in temperature during tlie passage across tlie Gulf stream; 2 
 died from injuries iufiicted by larger and stronger ones, while the remainder <lied from some unknown 
 cause. 
 
 On leaving Halifax the temperature of the water was 44", and this was maintained for 4 days. 
 On the banks of Newfoundland it varied from 45"^ to 48", while, on arriving iu the Gulf stream, it 
 suddenly rose to 6,5". Mr. McGray was naturally anxious to ascertain the ell'ect produced on the 
 crustaceans by this rapid rise in temperature. Four of them succumbed, as we have said; but the 
 rest remained in good condition. 
 
 Strange to say, the cold air and the warm water exercise an equally fatal efl'ect on these delicate 
 fish, accustomed to live in depths where the air never penetrates, .and where the water never rises 
 above a certain temperature. Another curious point was that they traveled the entire di.stance — 
 2,800 miles — without requiring anj'thing in the shape of I'ood. When at the bottom of the ocean they 
 eat fish, and when brought to the surface to be kept for a certain time they can be fed on oatmeal. 
 They would, of coiuse,,eat fish, but it has been found that they light for this food like hungry wolves, 
 biting and serionslj- injuring one another. To avoid all possible risk Mr. McGray decided to give 
 them nothing to eat and found that they still remained iu good condition. 
 
 Up to the time of the arrival of the shipment in the Victoria docks, at noon on December 2t;, 
 everything had come up to the expectations of the exporters. Unfortunately, however, they reached 
 Loudon just at the time when, owing to the Christmas holidays, the markets were closed for 3 days. 
 They had consequently to bo kept on the ship for nearly 2 d.ays, until the morning of Jlonday, 
 December 28, and the wati.T iu the dock had to be used in the endeavor to keep them alive. That 
 dock w.ater, helped by the fog, killed all but four. It will, however, be admitted that these (jiiite 
 exceptional cinnmstauces do not detract from the value of the experiment, as showing that live 
 lobsters can be brought to this country in a marketable state, and Jlr. McGray is confident, from the 
 experience he has gained, that the next shipuient will establish beyond doubt the feasibility of a 
 successful and profitable trade. 
 
 The practicability of the transport of live lobsters having been thus far demonstrated, the 
 promoters will later on arrange fur the accjuisition of a 15-knot boat specially fitted with the necessary 
 .apparatus for the conveyance of live lobsters in large (juantities aiross the Atlantic. This will enable 
 them to supply the m.irkets of London and Paris with tirst-class lobsters delivered alive in those cities 
 at less than half the ])riie now paid for English lobsters of equal (|uality. 
 
 Mr. Adol|)h Nielsen, flslieiy expert conneiited with the Newfoundland Fishfries 
 Commission, thus discusses the priicticability of shiijpiiig live lobsters to Europe: 
 
 The exportation of lobsters alive to England and the European Continent is .a matter which has 
 occupied my attention very much, and is worthy of the Fishery Commission's greatest .attention, 
 beeau.se if it could be carried oat successfully it would mean a large increase in the value of the 
 lobster fishery. The greatest dillieulties to be overcome iu carrying lobsters .alive in large quantities 
 for a long distance is to prevent them from crowding together on top of each other if shipped in bulk, 
 in which way a large number of tlieiii suffocate, .and to keep them alive for any length of time in hot 
 weather iu the summer, esiiecially in water of a high temiieratiire. Several experiments have been 
 made iu the United States with shipments of lobsters alive in the hot season iu vessels built for the 
 purpo.se, fitted out either with wells or after other plans, but as far as I am aware the attempt has not 
 yet been successful. I saw a few years ago <a steamer fitted out to carry lobsters alive from Nova 
 Scotia to the States. She had her hold divided into compartments, which were intended to he filled 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOL). 353 
 
 ■with the live stock. Along the keelson was laid a pipe through which w:iter forccil in from the liow. 
 This pipe was fiirnishecl with a valve so that the water could he shut off and let in according to wish. 
 From tills main supply pipe smaller jierforated pipes were laid around the hottom of each < ompart- 
 ment. The idea of this system was to obtain a strong current of water upwanls, which it was tlionglit 
 would keep the lobsters from (■rr)W(ling together on top of each other and smothering. I was informed 
 that this system worked well enough in a cold season, l)ut uoticeil myself that it was condemned in 
 the summer months, and that the lobsters were packed in boxes with ice and shipped away to the 
 States in this way in the aamo steuuer. The diffiiuilties in keeping t\w lobsters from crowding 
 together and smothering, and in keeping the water cold in a vessel while crossing the Atlantic, I think 
 could easily be overcome, and I even think it would be sulKcient to bring the temperature of the water 
 down while crossing the Gulf Stream in the summer months. 
 
 My plan would be to divide the hold of the vessel into compartments and have each compartment 
 again floored over with bnards 3 to 4 inches a]>art through its whole height. These boards could be 
 put down and fasteneil according as the vessel was loaded, and taken up according as it was dis- 
 charged. In this way the difficulty of keeping the lobsti'rs from crowding on top of each other would 
 be overcome. The height of water in the compartments could be regulated according to wish while 
 loading or discharging. \ij means of refrigerators tht^ temperature of the water could be brought 
 down at a little expense whenever it was found too liigh. In this way I am of opinion that lobsters 
 could be kept alive in good condition for a considerable length of time. Steamers would be prefer- 
 able to .sailing vessels. The collection of lobsters could easily be arranged by haviug fixed stations 
 in a bay, at which the vessels cimld call and take in their cargoes, and I am sure there would not 
 be much trouble, nor would it take a long time to secure full loads when everything was well 
 arranged. • » » With the great demand and high ]irice8 jiaid for lobsteis alive in England and 
 on the Continent, there is the best reason to anticipate that a large and ])rolitahle business could bo 
 done in carrying these crustaceans across the Atlantic alive. When it can pay English people to send 
 their vessels up to the western coast of Norway, where the lobsters are far from plentiful and where 
 only a limited quantity can be secured, and purchase there at a high ligure and carrj' them alive to 
 England every year, it is reasonable to presume that it would pay very much better to ship them from 
 Newfoundland, where they can be secured in much larger quantities and at a very small cost, if the 
 difficulty in bringing them across the Atlantic alive can be overcome. (Report of Newfoundland 
 Fisheries CVmimissiou for ls;)0, i)p. 54-56.) 
 
 While lobsters are generally shipped alive, yet some are first boiled and then 
 cooled and placed in barrels or boxes, and if the weather be warm some ice is tidded. 
 Boiling before shipment is applie<l to about one eighth of the lobsters handled on the 
 United States coast. They are boiled in salt water in a covered box, to which steam 
 is admitted for 20 or 30 minntes, the temperature being about L'SOo F. On removnl 
 they are carefully folded and phiced in piles like cord wood for cooling, when they are 
 packed in a niiinner similar to live lobsters. They will keep a week or longer when 
 well iced. Only live lobsters are boiled, for after death the muscles so relax that the 
 fibers become short and the meat crumbles, not haviug suHicii^nt tenacity to hold 
 together, and the tail bends readily upon slight pressure. Lobsters that die before 
 being cooked are so much loss, since they are not then suitable for food markets. 
 
 SHIPPING LIVE OYSTERS AND CLAMS. 
 
 While the great bulk of oysters and clams produced in this country are opened 
 before being marketed, yet there is an extensive trade in these mollusks in the shell, 
 not only at markets near the source of supply, but at points quite inland, and even in 
 foreign countries. When out of their native element, oysters and clams will ordinarily 
 live only a few days, and in order to retain them alive during shipintMit and in storage 
 prior to consumption it is necessary to keep them cool and to prevent the loss of liipior 
 from the shell. With care they may be retained in this manner for months. Half a 
 century ago it was customary with many families in (Jonnecticut and New York to lay 
 
 F. C. U., 1898— 2Li 
 
354 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 in a supply of oysters every fall for use during tbe winter. Tiled up in some cool 
 place, usually in tbe cellar, wltli the deep shell downwards and between layers of 
 seaweed, they would live sometimes for three or four months. At present during 
 cold weather it is not unusual for them to remain in bulk in the holds of vessels for 
 two or three weeks without great deterioration of quality, and they are at times kept 
 as long in the holds of the oyster scows in the New York market, or in the cellars of 
 other wholesale depots. 
 
 At several points along the Atlantic coast, and especially at Franklin City, Va., 
 very convenient floats for storing oysters or clams are so arranged in the water adja- 
 cent to the market-houses that they may be raised or lowered by means of windlasses. 
 The most convenient size of the floats is 20 or 25 feet long, 8 or 10 feet wide, and 2 or 
 3 feet deep, the sides and bottom being of strong slats. Four piles are driven into the 
 ground, two at each end of a float, and on these rest the windlasses for raising the 
 float when it is desirable to remove the oysters. 
 
 An interesting feature in connection with the marketing of oysters is practiced 
 in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and a few other localities, viz, the 
 "drinking" or "freshening" of oysters. The oysters are removed from the reefs or 
 planting-grounds and placed in floats or on private areas near the mouth of a small 
 stream of fresh water. Here they at once eject the mud and other impurities within 
 tbe shells and clinging to the edges of tbe mantle and gills, and imbibe a large 
 quantity of fresh water, improving the color of tbe flesh, making it a purer white and 
 bloating it into an appearance of fatness. From 10 to SO hours is the usual length of 
 time the oysters remain in fresh water before being marketed. The same result is 
 accomplished in some places with tbe aid of platforms of rough planking set in tbe 
 river bank, on which oysters are thrown at high tide and are left bare by tbe receding 
 tide; a sluicegate is then opened and fresh water is allowed to flow over them. 
 
 A more elaborate affair is constructed in tbe following manner: The shore or bank 
 is excavated and piles are driven until a floor can be laid at a suitable level below 
 high-water mark. A tight shed is built over this, and on one side a canal is dug, into 
 which a boat may run and its cargo be easily shoveled through large openings in the 
 side of the shed upon tbe floor within. As tbe tide recedes it leaves the oysters upon 
 tbe platform within the shed nearly bare, a depth of 8 or 10 inches of water being 
 retained by a footboard at the seaward end of the shed. By an arrangement of sluu'es 
 the fresh water is then admitted and the freshening begun, and the bulk of salt and 
 of fresh water can be so proportioned as to impart the degr. e of freshness desired. At 
 a height of 7 or 8 feet above tbe oyster platform or pen is another platform or garret 
 where barrels, baskets, boat ge^r, and other small i)roperty can be safely stowed. 
 
 When oysters are removed from bulk, and subjected to tbe varying conditions met 
 with in transportation, greater care must be taken, especially to prevent loss of the 
 liquor, and, secondarily, to maintain a moderately low temi)eryture. 
 
 In shii>ping short distances, merely placing tbe moUusks in barrels or in bulk is 
 sufficient if the weather is cool. For longer shipments, or in warm weatber, they 
 must be packed more carefully, and some shii)pers place each oyster with the deep or 
 concave shell underneath and press tbe bead of tbe barrel down tightly. Kefriger- 
 ator cars are used to some extent during both warm and cold weather, and when tbe 
 destination is reached, if not intended for inimeiliate consumption, oysters should be 
 kept at a temi)erature between 35'^' and 45°. If they become frozen they should be 
 thawed gradually in a cool place. Oysters will not freeze as readily as clams; and 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 355 
 
 oysters and clams in transit during a snowstorm do not freeze as readily as when tbe 
 weather is clear and a stiff" wind prevails. 
 
 The European trade in American oysters depends on shipments of live oysters. 
 This began in 1861, and n trade lias been built up amounting to about 100,000 barrels 
 annually, small East River and Long Island oysters being selected, averaging 1,200 to 
 2,000 to the barrel. The oysters are i)acked as snugly as possible in tbe barrels, 
 sometimes witli the more concave shell underneath, to prevent escape of liquor, and 
 all are pressed down tightly by the cover, to keep the shells of the oysters closed. 
 In shipping, the barrels aie stowed, head up, in some part of the s*^eamer where they 
 may keep cool, and two or three weeks frequently elapse from the time of gathering 
 them until their bedding or consumption in England. 
 
 A large proportion of the oyster trade on the Pacific coast depends on the trans- 
 portation from New York of seed oysters, running from 2,000 to 7,000 to the barrel. 
 These oysters are transported during the spring and ftxll, carefully packed in barrels, 
 in carload lots, and are usually two or three weeks on the road, being carried on fast 
 freight trains. Unless the weather conditions be unusual they survive the journey 
 with small loss, nsiially about 10 per cent. It is not considered injurious if the liquid 
 about the oysters freezes, ])rovided the moUusk itself does not freeze. In illustration 
 of the vitality of these small oysters it is stated that several years ago, in a shipment 
 of several carloads, one car was missent through some blunder, and on reaching San 
 Francisco, after being two months on the way, the percentage of loss among the oysters, 
 which were already partly frozen, was but little more than ordinary. The cost of 
 the seed at New York is about $3.50 per barrel, and the transportation charges are 
 about $5 per barrel. During some years as many as 100 carloads, of 8.5 to 9.5 barrels 
 each, are i)lanted in I'acilic coast waters, i>rincipally in San Francisco Bay. 
 
 In 1882 a patent* was issued for a somewhat unique method of preparing oysters 
 and other moUusks for long shipments. It consists in binding the shells firmly 
 together, while the mollusk is fresh and alive, by means of a wire or wires made to 
 embrace the shells between which the animal is contained, the ends of the wire being 
 secured by being twisted. It is claimed that by this process the natural juices are 
 retained and the deterioration in (piality which ensues upon their evaporation is 
 prevented. 
 
 Prof, .lohn A. Kyder is (juoted as indorsing the value of the method as follows: 
 
 1 have l^xalllille(l ami hail iu my i)Ossessiou ii nuinl)er of wircil oystei-s, and I am satisfied that the 
 oyster can be preserved, when the shells are thus wired, for a considerable length of time. I liave 
 earefully examined oysters, whieh I am satisfied have been wired for KO day.s, and I tinil that their 
 vitality is fully i>reserved and the oyster in no way deteriorated in ipialitj- or flavor. I think the 
 process of priservinj; oystirs by placing a wire arounil them is a iiractieally useful process, and, iu my 
 opinion, would lead to the transportation of oysters to distant points as an article of commerce, whi'n 
 it wouhl ofherwise bo impossible to transport them alive iu the shell. 
 
 The method was employed on a small scale in Pliiladclpliia for several years, and 
 in 1888 a stock company was formed and a plant established at Cape Charles, Va, At 
 first the work of wiring was done with pliers, but in 18'J0 S[)ecial machines were intro- 
 duced, by means of which one man has been known to wire 48 oysters in a minute, 
 but the average is much less. The .sliiiitiieiits extended (juite over the country in an 
 experimental way, many being sold ofi the Pacific coast. A few oysters are yet shipped 
 iu this manner, but the i)ractice has not come into gei eral use. 
 
 •No. 2(J5255, dated October 3, 1882. 
 
356 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 A number of other methods have beeu proposed for fastening the shells of oysters 
 together, such as inclosing them in a batter of plaster of paris or similar material,* 
 securing a rivet of soft iron through the nib or bill,t inserting a plug of hard wood or 
 other suitable material between the shells immediately in the rear of the hinge,| etc. 
 
 A railroad car for the special transportation of live oysters, invented by Mr. A. 
 E. Stilwell, of Kansas City, Mo., has been used to some extent during the last year 
 or two on the Kansas City, Port Arthur and Gulf Railroad. The interior of the car 
 is 34: feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet high, the space being divided into four compart- 
 ments, each of which has two ventilators in the top through which the oysters are 
 loaded, and two unloading spaces in the side. The Hoor and sides of the car are 
 constructed of 3-inch white pine, calked and pitched in the manner of ships, so as to 
 make the compartments water-tight. These compartments are first nearly tilled with 
 oysters, and then sufficient sea water is added to cover them. 
 
 SHIPPING LIVE CRABS. 
 
 Hard crabs require little care in packing and shipping. They are placed, back 
 up, in barrels or boxes, usually without ice if the weather be cool, and covered with 
 cloth. Little mortality occurs if their destination be reached in two or three days. 
 But during warm weather a block of ice, weighing 5 to 15 pounds, is placed in the top 
 of the barrel and separated from the crabs by a double handful of wet seaweed. The 
 receipts of hard crabs in the markets are quite extensive, the supply being obtained 
 at various points along the coast, but principally from the shores of Chesajjcake Bay. 
 From that bay about 75,000 barrels are marketed annually, each barrel holding from 
 200 to 300 crabs, which weigh about 75 pounds. 
 
 Much greater care is required in handling soft-shell crabs. This industry origi- 
 nated about 1873, and it has reached its greatest development at Crisfield, Md., but 
 supplies are received al.so from New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Louisiana, and 
 various other points. The soft shell and "peeler" crabs are caught together, the 
 former being shipped at once and the latter impounded until after the shedding 
 process and then shipped to market. The present trade amounts to about 1G,0()0,000 
 crabs annually, worth 2 or 3 cents at the fishing port, and from 3 to 10 cents each in 
 the retail markets. The peeler crabs are impou7ided in floats made of light plank and 
 scantling, with plain board bottoms and latticed sides. The size of the floats varies 
 somewhat, but most of those at Crisfield are 20 feet long, 3 to 5 feet wide, and 15 inches 
 deep, with a projecting ledge at halt their height corresponding to their water line. 
 The average value is about $2, with a capacity for .JOO or 400 crabs each. They are 
 frequently inclosed by a board fence, which serves as a breakwater. The floats are 
 visited three or four times daily, and the crabs that have shed since the last visit are 
 taken out and at once marketed. 
 
 The following, in reference to the live-crab business, taken from an article by 
 Hugh M. Smith, in the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1880, is of 
 interest in this connection : 
 
 The one factor which, more th.an any other, tends to reduce the jirofits of (he shippers and indi- 
 rectly the receipts of the ti.shermen, is the high death-rate among the impoumled crabs. Owing to 
 the injuries which many cralis receive in being canght and handled, and, in a measure, to the severity 
 of the shedding process, a comparatively large number of crabs die after being purchased by the dealers, 
 
 • See Letters Patent No. 431212, dated July 1, 1890. 
 
 tSee Letters Patent No. 453144, dated May 26, 1891. 
 
 t See Letters Patent No. 459220, dated September 8, 1891- 
 
PKESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 357 
 
 and are a total loss. As an illustration of tlie Tincortainty of the business and of the risks which the 
 dealers have to run at times, it may he stated that of 3,U'tKI crabs jiurchased hy a firm one day in .Inly, 
 1888, no less than 3,000 died before shipment. Tliis, of course, is au unusually great loss, and is not to 
 be taken as a basis, although the individual dealers estimate their losses at from 10 to 30 jier cent, 
 and even as high as 50 per cent during certain periods. A few crabs die after leaving the hands of 
 the shippers on the way to their destination, bnt this element of loss is being overcome by greater 
 care and experience in packing the crabs prior to shipping them. A comparison of the total catch 
 with the aggregate shipments for 1888 gives a diti'erence of 628,766 crabs, with a market value of about 
 $23,600, which figures represent the mortality and conseijuent losses. The death rate in 1887 was even 
 higher than in 1888, being 21 per cent, as against 16 per cent in the latter year. It is impossible to 
 determine with accuracy the number of crabs which die during shipment to market. There seems to 
 be no remedy for this state of affairs. Although the sea.son of 1888 showed a small but gratifying 
 improvement over the previous year, it can hardly be hoped that the mortality will ever be reduced 
 below a somewhat high limit, owing to the methods of capture and handling, and to the normal vicissi- 
 tudes of the molting process, increased as they are hy the unnatural surronndings and conditions to 
 which the crabs are subjected. 
 
 Tbe crabs are shipped to market in crates or boxes. Tlie crates used in the 
 Chesapeake region are about 4 feet long, 18 to 24 inches deep, and the same in width, 
 and are provided with closely fitting trays, in which the crabs are carefully i)acked 
 side by side, with their legs well folded up and their bodies lying obliquely, so tliat 
 the moisture may uot run from their mouths, in rows between layi rs of cold seaweed, 
 on which finely crushed ice is sometimes placed. The capacity of each crate is from 
 8 to 10 dozen, and as tlie craljs possess little tendency to move when once packed in 
 position, they remain (iniescent for a long time. The principal markets for soft-shell 
 crabs are New York, Philadelphia, Baltiinore, and Washington, but the demand from 
 the interior is increa.siug. In .some lo<;alities the crabs are carefully placed in stout 
 boxes in rows and tiers or layers separated with cold, moist seaweed, and with crushed 
 ice in the top of the box over all, the entire contents being so arranged that the 
 respective positions of the crabs can not be disturbed. 
 
 TERRAPIN AND TURTLES. 
 
 Among fishery products that are nearly always marketed alive are the various 
 species of edible terrapin and turtles. These reptiles are remarkable for their tenacity 
 of life; with very little care they may be retained alive for six months or more. In 
 the Middle Atlantic States terrapin caught in summer or fall are usually placed in 
 dark inclosures, as in cellars, with a quantity of seaweed or grass, into which they 
 may burrow, and without food or water they are kept in excellent condition until the 
 following spring. 
 
 it may be remarked incidentally that terrapin and certain kinds of fresh-water 
 fish, as catfish and pike, may be frozen alive in a block of ice, and kept there for 
 several days at least, and on thawing the ice the animals are found to be unharmed. 
 I am not aware that experiments have been made to determine how long they will live 
 under these circumstances or the lowest temperature they will stand. 
 
 There are numerous inclosures along the Atlantic coast where terrapin are con- 
 fined throughout the year for growing and breeding purposes, but this interesting 
 feature of our fisheries is scarcely within the scope of the present chapter. 
 
any HULLKTIN OF THE UNITIC!) STATE^i FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 REFRIGERATION, OR PRESERVATION BY LOW TEMPERATURE. 
 
 The temperature of fish, unlike that of mammals and other warm-blooded animals, 
 (toriesponds to that of the medium in which they live. The atmosphere during the 
 day being usually wanner tlian the seas and rivers the temperature of fish is generally 
 increased on their removal therefrom and their coiiseciuent deatli, whereas in case of 
 most land animals deatli usually results in a decrease in the temperature. Thisincrea.se 
 in temperature, together witli the delicacy of the texture of Hesh and the very large 
 number of bacteria in the atmosphere to which the flesh is unaccustomed, makes fish 
 extremely susceptible to putrefaction .soon after life is extinct, especially if there be 
 considerable moisture in the stomach cavities. In order to overcome this tendency 
 it is important, in case fish are to be used fresh, that the temperature be kept at a low 
 l)oint while tliey are awaiting consumption. As the markets are generally situated at 
 some distance from the sources of supi)ly, preservation for a short time is a necessity, 
 and for this purpose the application of low temperature is so general that it is almost 
 coextensive with the fresh-fish trade in this country. 
 
 The importance of this method of preserving fisli is not readily overestimated. 
 It has resulted in a wonderful development of the Gulf and South Atlantic fisheries; 
 and, indeed, without its agency the fishery resources of tliose regions would be of 
 comparatively little value. It has enlarged and widened the general fishery trade 
 so extensively that at present salmon fresh from the Columbia liiver, halibut from 
 Alaskan waters, and oysters from Chesai)eake Bay and Long Island Sound, are sold 
 throughout the United States and in foreign countries, and numerous other fishery 
 products are marketed thousands of miles from the source of supply, and for weeks 
 after their capture, in condition not dissimilar to that wlien removed from the water. 
 
 It is only within the last half century that much attention has been given to the 
 fresh-fish traile. Prior to 1830 it was of very limited extent, being confined during 
 the warm months to a retail business in the towns near the fishing ports, while in 
 winter the fish were frozen naturally and transported to the neighboring markets, 
 the business being largely in the control of peddlers. Following the introduction of 
 ice, about ]83(», the handling of fresh fish developed more extensively than any other 
 branch of tlie fishery industries, and at present tte quantity of fish marketed fresh 
 in the United States is much greater than the quantity placed on the market in all 
 other conditions. The increase in this trade is one of the most noticeable features 
 ill connection with the fishery industries. An important factor in developing and 
 maintaining it is the improvement in transportation facilities — not only on shore but 
 also in bringing fish from the sea to the fishery ports, the improvements in railway 
 Iratfic, and the addition of fast types of vessels. This feature of the trade, however, 
 lA scarcely within the scope of the present paper, as it does not tend to preserve the 
 product, although it serves better than methods of preservation. 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 359 
 
 The processes geuerally employed for retardiug putrefaction in flsh by low temper- 
 ature are (I) simple cooling with block or crushed ice, (2) open-air refrigeration during 
 cold weather, and (3) artiticial freezing and subse(iiieut cold storage. The first 
 process is employed quite generally throughout all countries in whi(!h ice is obtain- 
 able, in transporting the flsh from the source of supjdy to the wholesale markets and 
 thence to the retail stauds, and in preserving the flsh while awaiting immediate sale. 
 The second is used principally in the winter herring and smelt trade with the British 
 North American Provinces, and the third in preparing them fresh for very long ship 
 ments and in storing them for several weeks or months to await a better market. 
 All of these methods are of comiiaratively recent develoj)ment, the oldest in general 
 use — cooling with ice^being used commercially only about 70 years, and doubtless 
 none of them have yet reached tlieir highest development. 
 
 COOLING FISH WITH ICE. 
 
 Probably half of the fishery food-products in the United States are preserved in 
 ice for transportation to the markets and in holding them for immediate sale, and this 
 is also true with respect to England and possibly some other countries of northern 
 Europe. The process does not result in freezing the flsh, the resulting temperature 
 being never less than .'52° F. The ice adds greatly to the expense, esi)ecially in 
 transportation, and confines the process to ])reserving fish for brief periods of time. 
 
 The use of ice for preserving flsh in the United States began in 1838, when a 
 Gloucester smack is reported to have carried ice with which to preserve the halibut 
 dying in the w ell or killed bclbrc being jjlaced there. For a number of years there was 
 a strong prejudice against iced fish, almost equal to the present opposition to frozen fish, 
 and it was not until 1845 that it became common for vessels to carry ice as a preserva- 
 tive. (Jare was at first taken that the ice be kept separate from the fish, being i)laced 
 in a corner of the hold. It was soon found, however, that stowing the fish in crushed 
 ice did not materially injure them, and this method was soon in general use and 
 largely superseded the trade in live flsh north of Cape God. 
 
 For many years after ice was introduced in the vessel fisheries it was still thought 
 inadvisable to shi|) iced flsh inland, and not until 1858 could New England dealers be 
 induced to experiment in sending them as far as New York Gity, but as the experiment 
 was successful a large trade was quickly developed, and iced fish are now shipped to 
 all parts of the United States. 
 
 The usual method of applying the ice is to crush it and mix it with the fish in 
 successive layers of ice and fish. The ])rocess requires no great skill, yet there must 
 be a good knowledge as to the quantity of ice necessary, the most economical size 
 of the jiieces, the convenient form of the receptacle, and the manner of packing — all 
 of whicli depend on the kind and quantity of fish, the length of time for which they 
 are to be held, and the temperature of the atmosphere. Fresh fish should have the 
 very best of care in handling at the originating point, be promptly and thoroughly 
 chilled, and so placed in the shi))i)ing box or barrel that bruising and the possibility 
 of an increase in temperature are reduced to a minimum. It is advisable tliat fish 
 be killed immediately after capture, as this prevents their thrashing about and bruising 
 themselves, and they remain firmer and bear shipment better than those allowed to 
 die slowly. Bleeding the fish is very frecjuently advantageous, but it is rarely done 
 unless the fish are to be dressed. The ])ractice of piling freshly-caught fish en masse, 
 
360 BULLETIN OF THK UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 one upon the other to the depth of several feet, is extremely objeetiouable, especially 
 when the weather is warm; since it nn necessarily bruises and heats the fish, causing 
 putrefaction to set in niucii earlier than would otherwise be the case. Absolute clean- 
 liness is essential at every stage in handlinf;- fish, care being taken to keep the 
 market houses and the shipping boxes or barrels free from every particle of putrefying 
 refuse, otherwise the fish will become infected with bacteria already developed and 
 natural i)utrefac.tion will be thereby accelerated by several hours. To secure the 
 highest degree of cleaidiness all stationary storage compartments should have metal 
 linings, since the wooden walls and floors of the compartments furnish a lodgment 
 extremely favorable to the developed bacteria. 
 
 Much dirt'erence exists as to the dressing of fish before shipment to the wholesale 
 markets, but in general it is best to ship them round, or just as they come from the 
 water. The choice grades of fish should never be eviscerated or beheaded when 
 intended for the fresh trade; but cod, haddock, bluelish, lake trout, and all large fish, 
 such as halil)ut, sturgeon, etc., are usually dressed before delivery. In every case 
 putrefaction would be retarded longer if the viscera were removed; but the round, 
 plump apiiearance of the tish is thereby imi)aired, and in case of certain species, as 
 shad and herring, the iocs, which arc highly prized, would thereby become wasted. 
 Dressing the fish also decreases the weight 15 or liO per cent, and sometimes even 
 more, and a correspondingly higher price is expected for the dressed fish than for the 
 round. The practice varies not only in different localities, but in the same locality 
 at different seasons of tiie year. Mackerel caught iu the vessel fishery between 
 June 1 and October 1 are usually dressed by drawing the viscera out through the gill- 
 openings, whereas those taken during the spring and fall are generally iced round. 
 The whitefish received at Detroit and some other lake ports are commonly split and 
 eviscerated, except that Lake Brie whitefish are nearly always sold round. These are 
 caught mostly in the fall, when they are full of spawn, and if eviscerated they would 
 decrease about 24 per cent in weight, and, moreover, many customers desire the spaw'u. 
 The yellow pike are received round mostly, but those coming from the Dominion of 
 Canada are usually dressed, iu order to lessen the import duties. 
 
 The importance of the careful handling offish and their arrangement in the ship- 
 ping boxes is scarcely appreciated by the majority of the fishermen. In discussing 
 this subject iu the National Fishery Congress, at Tampa, in January, 1898, Mr. E. G. 
 Blackford, of New York, said : 
 
 As an example of the imreaseJ returns to the shippers from careful liaudling, I call attention to 
 the fact that certain shipments of shad, going to the New York market from North Carolina, bring from 
 25 per cent to 40 per cent more than other shad from the same locality. For instance, a certain 
 shipper from Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, pursues the following method: His shad are carefully 
 taken from the nets and placed in a cold room until thoroughly chilled, then packed in boxes; first a 
 layer of fine ice, broken into lumps no larger than chestnuts, is placed iu the bottom of the box; then 
 the shad are placed in rows, lying on their backs, making a complete layer on the ice; then a layer 
 of tine ice is spread over the bellies of the shad, and on this layer is another row of shad; all the shad 
 .are packed in a similar way ; then the top of the box is filled with fine ice and the cover nailed 
 securely on. These shad reach the New York market in a perfect condition, and so well known has 
 this shipper's mark or brand become that buyers are always on the lookout for this particular l)rand, 
 and these shad are the first sold and bring the highest prices. On arriving in New York, the fish 
 have not moved from their position iu the box, the ice is still intact, and on opening the box we find all 
 the fish to be iu a jierfect condition, each scale undisturbed,, and the whole presenting the appearance 
 of a glistening jewel just taken from a casket. (Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1897, pi). 157-158.) 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 361 
 
 No matter what kind of fisli are shipped, they should be thoroughly ohilled before 
 being placed in the shii)ping box or barrel, whenever the time will admit. It too 
 fre(iuently haijjiens that fishermen place the lish in shipping packages immediately 
 after their capture or after they have lain in the boat several hours exposed to the 
 heat of the sun. Having to contend with the warmth of the lish as well as the atmos- 
 pheric heat, the ice packed with the lish melts very rapidly, whereas if the fish had 
 been chilled before being i)aeked they would carry for a much longer time, and less 
 ice would be necessary iu the shipping package, resulting in reduced transportation 
 charges. Cooling the fish is generally best accomplished by laying them thinly on a 
 clean floor or platform in the fish-house anil spreading finely chiseled ice over them; 
 but if the air is unusually warm they should be (iooled in a suitably insulated icebox. 
 
 It is of prime importance that the temperature of the fish be reduced as soon as 
 jiracticable after they are caught. The sooner they are placed with the ice after coming 
 out of the water the longer the fish will carry and the better their condition on reaching 
 the consumer. ( )n the death of the fish tlie tissues relax, anil otter a favorable lodgment 
 for bacteria, whereas the api)lication of ice as soon as the fish are removed from the 
 water hardens the tissues and counteracts the development of bacteria. 
 
 Mr. K. Le Clair, of the IJaltimore Packing and Cold Storage Company, of Minne- 
 apolis, Minn., in writing on this subject, states: 
 
 Whild at Liike of the Woods four years ago, during the month of July, when the weather was 
 warm, the writer took two boxes in the boat; one of the boxes was lillcd with lish as soon as they 
 were taken out of the nets, without ice; the other eoutained aV>out the same quantity of the same 
 kind of fish, whicli were immediately iced, while they were yet alive, and a test was made as to the 
 keeping qualities of the two. As soon as the boat reached the fish-house where the fish were drisssed, 
 tlie un-iced fish were immediately iced after" having the inwards and gills removed, and the fish that 
 had been iced in the box were also dressed and treated in the same way as the other un-iced fish were. 
 The lisli that were not iced when taken out of the nets becime unfit for human food in six days, and the 
 fish that had been promptly iced were kept in the shanty for two weeks and then shipped from Lake 
 of tlie Woods here, a distance of lillO miles, in a refrigerator car, the boxes marked; and when the fish 
 arrived they were found to be in good condition, and we reshipped the same fish to Butte, Mont., and 
 never had any complaint of them. The time that elapsed from the time that the fish were taken out 
 of the water until they were iced in the fish-house was two hours and ten minutes, but the weather 
 and water were warm. It therefore is evident that the greater care exercised at the originating point 
 as to the proper icing of fish, the better will be the result. 
 
 The quantity of ice used in shipping fish depends on the size of the package and 
 the season of the year. During the summer months, for a shipment covering one or 
 two days, 50 pounds of ice is generally required to each 100-pound box of fish, more in 
 proportion being necessary for smaller packages and less for larger ones. This ice 
 should be crushed quite fine, so as to completely surround the fish and yet not bruise 
 them. It is generally better to " chisel " the ice than to crush it, especially for packing 
 among the layers of fish, since crushed ice is generally somewhat coarse. '• Chiseling " 
 consists in planing the ice from a large block by means of a long-handled chisel, the 
 face or edge of which is formed by three or four thin, sharp teeth. 
 
 The most usual forms of shipping packages on the Atlantic coast are the flour 
 barrel, with 200 pounds capacity, and boxes holding 400 or 500 pounds of fish. The 450- 
 pound box, so popular in the Boston wholesale trade, measures 42 inches long, 24 inches 
 wide, and 18 inches deej), and the 500-pound box is 48 inches long, 26 inches wide, 
 and 18 inches deep. Auger-holes in the bottom of the barrels and the edge-cracks iu 
 the boxes suffice for drainage of the water resulting from the melting ice. After 
 
3G2 BULLETIN OP THK IINITEn STATES ?"ISH COMMISSION. 
 
 placing a shovelful of crushed ice in the bottom of the barrel, about 50 pounds of fish 
 are ]>ut in, followed by succeeding layers of ice and flsh, with a top layer of two or 
 three shovelfuls of ice. In packing in boxes a layer of crushed ice is ])laced in the 
 bottom, another in the middle, and a third on top, the lish being between, with their 
 heads toward the ends of the box. During cold weather, or when shallow boxes are 
 used, the middle layer of ice may be omitted. 
 
 The arrangement of the flsh in the boxes differs according to the species and the 
 individual ideas of the shippers. The common practice is to i)lace the flsh on their 
 backs if round, and on their bellies if dressed; but sometimes, in case of small flsh, 
 two layers are placed together, backs to backs and bellies to the ice. Cheap fish, 
 such as cod, haddock, etc., and other large split flsh are usually not arranged in any 
 particular manner, but are permitted to lie in the barrel as tliey fall, while shad and 
 other delicate species must be carefully placed. Small or medium-sized flsh are rarely 
 eviscerated before being marketed, as they sell much better in the round. 
 
 If the flsh are thoroughly chilled as soon as practicable after removal from the 
 water and carefully i)laced in the shipping package, so that they will not be bruised 
 or the temperature rise above 40° or 4.")° F., they will generally keep in good condition 
 for two weeks or more. 
 
 Natural ice, being usually less cold, is generally more desirable for shipping flsh 
 than artiflcial ice, since it gives off its coldness quickly and the moisture coming in 
 contact with the flsh acts as a good conductor, and the flsh are more rapidly cooled. 
 But as artiflcial ice lasts longer, it is better for longdistance shipments, provided the 
 flsh have been thoroughly chilled before being placed in the shipping-box. 
 
 Among the most eflective devices for holding and shipping fresh flsh cooled by 
 means of ice is the shii)pingcar used in the trade on the Great Lakes. This consists 
 of a large box mounted on a four-wheeled iron truck, the size of the boxes ranging 
 from 4 feet long, 2i feet wide, and 28 inches deep, to 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet 
 deep, with a corresponding capacity of from 800 to 3,000 jiounds of flsh. The walls 
 of the box are made double, of tongued-and-grooved boards, with an intervening air 
 space of 2 or 3 inches. The truck wheels range from to 12 inches in diameter. A 
 layer of ice is placed in the bottom of the box and then one or two layers of flsh, 
 succeeded by alternate layers of ice and flsh, the latter, in case of two layers together, 
 being placed backs to backs and bellies to the ice, and the whole covered by a layer 
 of ice. Some of the large boxes were formerly so constructed that the upper half of 
 one of the sides might be let down to facilitate placing the flsh near the bottom of the 
 box. But because of the tendency of this hinged side to become loose, that form of 
 box is no longer used, and flsh are placed in the bottom of the box bj' tilting it down 
 on one edge, the side forming an angle of 45° with the floor and resting on a triangular 
 frame or horse. 
 
 The cars average in value about $25 each, and about 2,000 are employed on the 
 lakes. They are used in transporting the flsh from the receiving ports to the large 
 wholesale markets and for distributing them to the various inland dealers. When 
 emptied, the cars are returned to the shippers. 
 
 The foregoing represents the general methods employed in icing fresh flsh at the 
 various marketing centers. In addition to these there are special methods of handling 
 certain important varieties of marine jiroducts which experience has proven to be of 
 value, such as icing cod, haddock, halibut, mackerel, shad, oysters, etc. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 363 
 
 ICING COD, HADDOCK, AND BLUEFISH. 
 
 During the last thirty years cod and liaddock have largely increased the fresh-fish 
 trade. Prior to 1860 haddock was very little esteemed, but at luesent it is the most 
 important fish in the fresh -fish markets of the New England States and one of the 
 most important in the United States. During 18S9 the quantity of fresh haddock 
 received at New England ports aggregated •41,155,481 pounds, and of cod, 30,108,643 
 pounds, nearly all being the product of the vessel fisheries. 
 
 In the fresh cod and haddock fisheries the liold of each vessel is generally fitted 
 up with twelve to fifteen pens, each about or 8 feet long and 4 or 5 feet wide, with 
 capacity for 1 or 2 tons of fish and the necessary ice. When the vessel is making a 
 long trip, from 10 to 20 tons of ice are carried, but during cold weather this quantity 
 is much reduced. When the fish are received on the vessel the men dress them, 
 seizing each fish by grasping it about the eye or some part of the head with the left 
 hand and ripping it dowu the throat, removing the viscera, which is thrown over- 
 board, while the liver and roes are placed in barrels. The fish are washed in tubs or 
 by pouring buckets of water over them as they lie on the deck, and are then ready 
 for icing in the pens. A layer of block ice is placed at the bottom of each pen, next 
 a layer of fish, backs up, and, sometimes, when the weather is warm, the abdominal 
 cavity of the fish is filled with fine ice. A layer of ice is i^laced over the fish and 
 about the ends and sides, and successive layers of fish and ice are added with a layer 
 of ice on top of all, the ice being chiseled or planed with a sharp dentated chisel 
 attached to a long handle. The care taken iu icing the fish conforms to the probable 
 lime that will elapse before the schooner reaches port; when the weather is very cold 
 and the wind favorable for a quick run to market the quantity of ice used is largely 
 reduced or it is even dispensed with altogether. 
 
 The method of icing blueflsh on the New York market vessels differs little from 
 the process applied to cod and haddock. The vessels carry 15 to 25 tons of ice each 
 in the pens, whence it is removed as the fish are stored. Immediately on landing on 
 the vessel's deck the fish are split from the pectoral fin to the vent, the viscera removed 
 and the stomach cavities washed thoroughly. At the bottom of each pen is placed a 
 layer of block ice, 6 or 8 inches thick, covered with a thin layer of chiseled ice. On 
 this is placed a layer of bluefish, backs upward, and inclined slightly on the side, so 
 that all moisture may run from the stomach cavity. This is succeeded by alteinate 
 layers of chiseled ice and blueflsh until the pen is nearly full, the whole being covered 
 with a layer of crushed ice. 
 
 ICING HALIBUT. 
 
 The fresh-halibut industry is one of the most extensive branches of fishery trade 
 depending almost entirely on the use of ice. On the Atlantic coast alone about 
 10,000,000 pounds of fresh halibut are handled annually, and there is also a consider- 
 able trade on the Pacific coast. In the •■arly years of the halibut fishery, on Georges 
 and other neighboring banks, no ice was used, the fish being simply eviscerated and 
 placed in heaps in the hold. Later, in order to prevent a bruised and compressed 
 appearance in those in the lower part of the heap, the fishermen suspended the fish by 
 the tails in the hold, this being practiced as late as 1840 in tight-bottomed vessels. 
 
364 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 From 1835 to 1850 well-smacks were employed, and though they were quite popular 
 with New London and Greenport fishermen, they were not generally used on the 
 Massachusetts coast. About 1810 a small quantity of ice was generally carried for 
 icing the fish accidentally killed, and with the development of the trawl fishery the 
 use of ice became general, both on suiarks and on the tight-bottom vessels. At first 
 the ice was not placed among the lish, being carried for the purpose of cooling the 
 hold, but about 1810 it became customary to crush it and mix it with the fish. 
 
 Tlie New England halibut vessels now usually carry from 15 to 30 tons of ice 
 stored iu pens in the liold of the vessel, similar to those used in the haddock fishery, 
 and the present method of handling and icing the halibut is as follows: In dressing, 
 each halibut is grasped by the gills with the left hand, the head raised from the deck, 
 and with quick strokes of the knife the gills are separated from the head and from the 
 napes. The fish is then ripped down the belly, and the gills and viscera are removed 
 with the left hand. A second operator takes the halibut and witli his bare right hand 
 removes the ovaries from their cavities and the blood from the backbone, pressing his 
 thumb aloug each side of tlie backbone to express the blood therefrom. The fish is 
 then passed to the scrub gang, composed usually of three men. One of these, hooking 
 an iron gatfinto the head of the fish and another gaff into one side of the nape, holds 
 the fish up and open, while a second workman, with a hickory or oak broom, scrubs 
 off all loose blood, slime, etc., from the spawn cavities and the backbone. During this 
 process a third man souses water into the fish, com])letely rinsing it out. 
 
 The halibut is next passed into the vessel's hold, which is divided by permanent 
 compartments into 10 or 1'2 pens or bins, half on either side of the vessel, with an 
 alleyway in the middle. A layer of ice is placed iu the bottom of the bin, and on this 
 is placed the halibut in rows or tiers, with heads toward the front and back of the 
 bins and tails overlapping in the middle. Tiie abdominal cavity of each fish is filled 
 with finely chiseled ice and the fish so placed in the bin that the ice will not spill from 
 the cavity. No ice is placed between the fish, as in case of fresh cod and bluefish, 
 because of its tendency to bruise the sides of the halibut. As each bin is filled, slide 
 boards are placed at the front and a quantity of ice is put about the heads of the fish, 
 both in the back and front of the bin, and on top of the fish is a layer to lli inches 
 deep. The amount used varies, of course, according to the temperature, much more 
 being reciuired during warm weather than when the temperature is low. When packed 
 in this nninuer, halibut will keep in good condition for three or four weeks. 
 
 On arriving in port the halibut are removed from the hold of the vessel to the 
 fish-house and assorted, the "white," "gray," and "seconds" or "poor" halibut being 
 kept separate. The "white" halibut are those having the under side pure white, the 
 "gray" are more or less tinged with gray or drab in the same place, while the "poor" 
 halibut or "seconds" are such as are slightly tainted in the vicinity of the abdominal 
 cavity. The "white" halibut ranges from 3 to 15 cents per pound out of the vessel, 
 the "gray" halibut is generally about two-thirds that allowed for white, and "poor" 
 halibut sells for about 1 cent per pound. The distinction bttweeu " white" and " gray" 
 halibut was made first in 1848, and while fishermen receive much less for the latter, 
 little distinction is made in the retail trade between the two, both selling at nearly 
 the same price, and it is impossible to distinguish them separately when cooked. 
 After assortment the fish are weighed and 11 per cent is deducted as the weight of 
 the heads to obtain the basis for settlement with the fishermen. The heads are cut 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PROnUCTS FOR FOOD. 365 
 
 ofi' and sold to oil and fertilizer factories for about $1 per 100 pounds. The lish are 
 then placed mostly in stout pine boxes containing each about 450 pounds, and also in 
 100-pound boxes and 200-pound barrels. In case a halibut is too long to go in the box 
 the tail may be cut oft"; otherwise the tail and tins remain on. As the fish are placed 
 in the box, the abdominal cavities are filled with crushed ice, and in summer time the 
 fish are surrounded with chiseled ice. The cover is nailed down, the box and its 
 contents weighed and shipped to its destination.* 
 
 ICE IN FRESH-MACKEREL FISHERY. 
 
 It is customary for vessels engaging in the fresh-mackerel fishery, especially in 
 the spring southern fishery, to carry from 5 to 20 tons of ice, according to the size of 
 the vessel and the time of the year. Usually from June 1 to September 30 the fish are 
 gibbed, the gills and viscera being drawn out together through the gill-openings, but 
 during the spring and fall the fish are iced round. The fish are stowed away as soon 
 as practicable after being caught, being packed in bins in the hold of the vessel 
 similar to those in the fresh cod and haddock vessels, except that each bin is divided 
 horizontally by movable platforms into two or three parts or shelves to prevent 
 crushing the lower layers of fish, as would be the case were they the full depth of the 
 haddock bins. A thick layer of ice is phiced in the bottom of the bin, and this is 
 followed by alternate layers of fish and fine ice, the topmost layer being of ice. 
 
 The extent of icing depends, of course, on the length of time that will probably 
 elapse before the fish are placed on the market. Ice-grinding machines are no longer 
 carried on any fishing vessels, since they take up much room and the ice may be 
 chiseled more ((uickly than ground. Those mackerel caught when the hold is full or 
 just before leaving the fishing-ground for niarket are sometimes placed with crushed 
 ice in barrels on the deck of the vessel. Each vessel also carries barrels for salting 
 such fish as are not to be carried to market fresh. 
 
 Vessels engaged in the salt-niackerel fishery occasionally take fresh mackerel into 
 port by placing them, after being gibbed, in bairels of water, but this is practiced 
 only to a limited extent. 
 
 ICING SHAD. 
 
 Few species of fish show greater increase in selling price as the result of careful 
 handling and icing than the shad, yet in the marketing of few valuable species is 
 greater carelessness shown by the average shipper. It frecpiently happens that the 
 fish immediately from the water are carelessly i)laced in the shipping boxes or barrels 
 with insurticient ice, nuich of which is melted in cooling the fish before the package 
 starts on its Journey. Tlie package then being not (juite full, the contents move from 
 their respective positions in handling, resulting in loosening the scales and bruising 
 the surface of the fish considerably. The shad trade is very large, the quantity mar- 
 keted annually on the Atlantic coast of the United States approximating 14,000,000 
 in number, or 52,500,000 pounds, nearly all of which are used fresh. 
 
 The following is the best method of handling fresh shad: If i)racticable the fish- 
 house should be raised 2 or 3 feet above the water or the sliorc, so that the wind 
 may freely circulate and cool the floor. The fish ought to be handled carefully, bruises 
 
 "See the Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. \', vul. 1, pp. 21-22. 
 
366 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 being avoided as muck as practicable, protected from the heat of the sun, laid on 
 the floor as received from the boats, the heads of each row resting ou the tails of 
 each preceding row, and a layer of crushed ice 1 or 2 inches thick spread over the 
 whole. Tlfere the fish i-einain until it is necessary to place them in the shipping 
 packages, which may be boxes or ordinary sugar-barrels. The former are preferred 
 if satisfactory shipping rates are secured, but because of more favorable shipping 
 rates barrels are more frequently employed. A layer of crushed ice is put in the 
 bottom, on whi(;h the shad are placed on their backs, with the heads at the ends if 
 boxes are used. This is followed by a layer of tine ice, succeeded by similar layers 
 of fish and ice, with a double quantity of ice at the top, the boxes being covered 
 with boards securely nailed and the barrels with bagging fastened under the top 
 hoop. 
 
 ICING OYSTERS. 
 
 Ice is very generally employed in preserving and shipping shucked oysters to the 
 retail trade. During cold weather only a small quantity is used, but the ice bill of 
 the oyster-dealers throughout the season is a considerable item. In using ice for this 
 purpose it was formerly considered important to keep it separate from the oysters — 
 generally by having a separate ice chamber in the package or keg containing the 
 oysters. In some packages the chamber occupied one side of the package, or it tilled 
 a space entirely surrounding the oysters, but usually the ice was in the central part, 
 the oysters tilling the annular space about the chamber. A variety of packages have 
 been invented for this i)urpose, diliering particularly in the manner of aflbrding sepa- 
 rate access to the two chambers. Many of these have been patented, and for further 
 description of them reference may be made to the following United States letters 
 patent : 
 
 No. of 
 patent. 
 
 Date. 
 
 In favor of— 
 
 No. of 
 patent. 
 
 Date. 
 
 In favor of— 
 
 103551 
 
 May 31,1870 
 
 Alfred Booth, Chicago, 111. 
 
 240281 
 
 Apr. 19,1881 
 
 Alvin Sqnires, Hartford, Conn. 
 
 111722 
 
 Feb. 14, 1871 
 
 Do. 
 
 250107 
 
 Nov. 29,1881 
 
 C. A. Sheridan, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 135U83 
 
 Jan. 21,1873 
 
 L. R. Corastock, Baltimore, Md. 
 
 255017 
 
 Mar. 14,1882 
 
 C. L. Pond, BuUalo, N. r. 
 
 142703 
 
 Sept. 9,1873 
 
 James C. Jones, New Tork. 
 
 265137 
 
 Sept. 26, 1882 
 
 Do. 
 
 158089 
 
 Dec. 22,1874 
 
 no. i 
 
 300061 
 
 June 10, 1884 
 
 S. L. Frazer, Toledo, Ohio, 
 
 190333 
 
 May 1, 1877 
 Jan. 22, 1878 
 
 Do. 
 
 300476 
 
 June 17, 1884 
 
 0. P. Johnson, AVashiugton, D. C. 
 
 199569 
 
 James J. Phillip.s, Norfolk, Va. 
 
 374119 
 
 Nov. 29, 1887 
 
 M. H. Dotson. Baltimore, Md. 
 
 209189 
 
 Oct. 22,1878 
 
 Frank PfeiHer, Norfolk, Va. 
 
 4054H8 
 
 June 18,1889 
 
 John P. Kuhu, Alton,Ill. 
 
 240143 
 
 Apr. 12,1881 
 
 0. V. Johnson, Cambridge, Md. 
 
 438391 
 
 Oct. 14,1890 
 
 John T. Store, Baltimore, Md. 
 
 A refrigerator oyster shipping package, patented by a leading oyster-dealer, and 
 formerly used to a considerable extent, is constructed as follows: 
 
 A slieet-metal cau is employed with a capacity of 20 gallons, Hanged edges projecting from the 
 top finis of the can. In the center of the can, extending from top to hottoni, is formed a rectangular 
 ice chamlier which is openeil at the top and has four side.i ex]io.sed within the liody and to the contents 
 of the can. This chamber is closed by means of a wooden cover of suitable dimensions to fit snugly 
 within the Hanged edges of the end of the can over the opening into the ice chamber and against the 
 screw-cap, and projecting a little beyond the ends of the Hanges, and secured thereto so as to be easily 
 removed. At the op[>osite end of the can a similar wooden cover or guard is fastened, these covers 
 also serving to protect the ends of the cau from injury during transportation. The can is placed in a 
 wooden case or enveloped with wooden covering to protect it during shipment and to more effectually 
 exclude heat from the contents of the can. The oysters are placed in the annular space about the 
 ice chamber, this space holding about 15 gallons: the ice chamber is filled with ice and the covers 
 fastened, when it is ready for transportation. (See Letters Patent No. 111722, dated February 14, 1871. ) 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 367 
 
 The use of thene intricate forms of shipping packages was abandoned several years 
 ago, and at present the trade tliroughout the country uses ordinary package-tubs in 
 various sizes, ranging in capacity from 1 to 10 gallons, the tubs being returned to the 
 wholesalers as soon as the oysters arc sold. The covers are loosely fitted on top and 
 fastened by tacking small tin clasps to the tops and sides. Handles are provided at 
 the sides of the tubs for convenience in transfer. The oysters are cliilled with chunks 
 of ice before being packed for shipment, and when placed in the shipping-tub a block 
 of suitable size to last through the journey is added. During cold weather ice is some- 
 times omitted, but it is poor economy to stint in its use. The size of the tubs should 
 be adapted to the quantity of oysters shipped, so that each tub may be quite full, to 
 prevent the agitation or slushing of the oysters. In order to prevent the cutting and 
 bruising of the oysters by the block of ice while the tub is being handled and in 
 transit, a flexible pocket of cotton cloth, muslin, or other cheap texture is occasionally 
 used by some shippers, the block of ice, of a size suited to the oyster package, being 
 placed in this pocket and the whole suspended rigidly from the sides of the tub.* 
 
 The oyster tubs are generally shipped in refrigerator cars, tliese leaving the prin- 
 cipal oyster markets regularly during certain days of the week. When the weather 
 is very cold, the refrigerator car is a protection against the oysters freezing. Fat 
 oysters will not freeze as quickly as thin ones, as the latter contain more water. But 
 freezing does not greatly injure shucked oysters when mixed with their own liquor, 
 provided they are consumed soon after thawing. 
 
 In many localities, especially along the Gulf coast and through the West, a prac- 
 tice prevails of shii)ping opened oysters in hermetically sealed sijuare cans, containing 
 from 25 to 1 00 oysters, these cans being then placed in boxes with the tops and sometimes 
 the sides in contact with crushed ice. This method is not so general as it was several 
 years ago, on account of the extra expense incurred, and the condition of the oysters 
 shipped in bulk is generally about as satisfactory. 
 
 KEFRIGERATOR CARS. 
 
 The large inland trade in fresh fish and the liability of frozen fish to rapid decay 
 when subjected to a higher temjierature have resulted in an extensive use of refrig- 
 erator cars for transportation puri)oses. The refrigerator car is little more than 30 years 
 old, the first American patent being issued on November L'O, 1807, to J. B. Sutherland. 
 His claim covered a car with double walls, roof, and floor, with ice chests at each 
 extremity, closed by hanging Haps, and having spaces so arranged as to produce a 
 constant circulation of air in the car. The air was admitted at the toi) of the car and 
 passed down throngh the ice chamber, and entered the room near the bottom at a low 
 tem|)erature. In Mai ch, 1868, George K. Wood, of Morristown, N. J., brougiit out a car 
 with a plurality of metallic chambers for the respective leception of way and through 
 freight, with an ice chamber above; while the car of A. L. Mc(Jrea, of Chicago (March, 
 18C9), had interior movable sections. Numerous other patents followed in quick 
 succession, scarcely any of which embody the features of those now in extensive use. 
 
 The following description of one of the most practical of the forms of refrigerator 
 car in general use at present gives an idea of their construction : 
 
 TLi^ ice anil salt receptacles are four };alvanize(l-iron cans stroiiglv .jacketed at each end of the 
 car, extending from the roof to within 6 or S inches of the lloor, and under tlieni is a i>an to catch 
 the drip, the overflow escaping throuj^h au aii'-tight trap. The walls, roof, and bottom are 7 inches 
 
 • See Letters Patent No. 43S391, dated October 14, 1890. 
 
368 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 in thickness, made with a dead-air space and three 1-inch layers of hair felt, the joints of the doors 
 being padded. No air enters the car when closed, and there is no provision for circulation of air 
 within the cooling chamber. Each car carries abont 6,000 pounds of <'rusbed ice mixed with about 
 600 pounds of fine rock salt, which is entered at the top and tapped down in the cans, after which 
 the covers are put on and the roof holes closed. In eight or ten hours the receiving room of the car 
 has become chilled, when additional ice and salt is added and the car is ready for the freight. 
 
 Tlie longest transportation of fresh tish in this country is the sending of salmon 
 from Columbia River to the Atlantic coast, requiring live or six days. The methods 
 are thus described by Messrs. Seufert Bros. Co., of The Dalles, Oregon : 
 
 We ship all our fresh salmon by express for New York and all points east in boxes 44 inches long, 
 20 inches wide, and 12 inches deep. We put in each box 175 pounds offish undressed, or Just as they 
 leave the water, and 75 pounds of crushed ice in each box. The express company refills these boxes 
 daily at certain icing stations along the line, and makes no extra charge on these icings, that being all 
 included in the express charge of 8i cents per pound on the net weight of the fish to Chicago, or lOA 
 cents to New York, or 7^ cents to the river or Union depot. Council Blnfls or .St. Paul, Minn. In 
 shipping carload lots we put 150 pounds in each box, fill the box with Ice, and load 12 tons of fish 
 in a car. We use about 8 tons of ice, and these cars .are not opened or re-iced until they reach New 
 York, by passenger train service to Chicago and fast freight from Chicago to New York over Erie 
 Railway, on Wells Fargo express trains, 30 hours' time. These cars reach New York in 5i days from 
 this river. 
 
 The shipment of fresh salmon in carload lots across the continent began in 1884, 
 during which year eight carloads of fresh salmon were sent east, all arriving in good 
 condition. On account of the high rate for freiglit service in refrigerator cars the 
 profits were so small that further shipments were postponed until a reduction in rates 
 was made in 1890. 
 
 FREEZING FISH IN THE OPEN AIR. 
 
 In cold countries tlie freezing of fish in the open air during cold weather is a 
 natural and doubtless one of the oldest forms of preservation. In the northern por- 
 tions of Europe and America fish are fre(iuently preserved in this manner. Prior to 
 the use of ice in the United States it was not unusual during the winter and early 
 spring for dealers to take fish frozen by natural cold from Boston or New A'ork 200 or 
 300 miles inland. But the uncertainty of depending on continued cold weather, and 
 the advent of the use of ice and quick transportation, have resulted in an abandonment 
 of that trade. 
 
 There is yet a very extensive trade in frozen smelt during the winter, especially 
 in December and Jauuaiy. These fish are frozen in Maine and the British Provinces, 
 boxed and shipped by steamer or rail to Boston or New York, whence they are supplied 
 to the retail trade. During the .season of 1807, 82,o06 boxes, each holding an average 
 of 2.J pounds of smelt, were received in IJo.ston. Most of these come from the British 
 Provinces, being admitted free of duty, and they are sold from 2 to 8 cents per pound, 
 averaging perhaps i cents per pound, wholesale. 
 
 FROZEN-HERRING INDUSTRY. 
 
 The most important industiy depending on open air refrigeration is the freezing 
 of herring on the Newfoundland and New Brunswick coasts for the United States 
 markets. This is scarcely more complicated than the usual method of packing in 
 crushed ice, and not by any means so intricate as the process of mechanical or chemical 
 refrigeration now employed in the large marketing centers of the United State.s. It 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 369 
 
 originated iluriny tbe winter of 1854-55, the itumediate object being to suiiply the 
 vessels engaged in the Georges Bank cod (isliery witli bait. At present those vessels, 
 as well as those employed in the bluefish fishery, depend almost entirely on this form 
 of bait during the winter and early sjiring, and in addition large quantities of frozen 
 herring are used lor food. 
 
 The jirocess of freezing is as follows: When the vessel has been moored in some 
 cove couveui. nt to the flshiugground, the ballast is thrown overboard, the hold 
 sheathed up around the sides with spruce bough.^, and a platform built in the bottom 
 of the hold several inches above the keelson. A bulkhead G inches thick, with the 
 space in the middle filled with sawdust, is placed across the forward part of the hold 
 to separate it from the forecastle. Sometimes the fish are frozen' ashore by the natives, 
 a clear, gravelly beach above high- water mark or a surface of crushed snow and ice 
 being chosen. But usually the freezing is done on a large scaffolding on the deck of 
 the vessel. This scaftblding is generally about 100 feet long by 25 feet wide and is 
 built of rough boards, most of which are purchased at Nova Scotia ijoints on the way 
 to Newfoundland, they being obtainable much cheaper there than in Gloucester. The 
 quantity of fish placed on the scaftbld varies according to the weather. 
 
 When the temperature is little below the freezing point, the fish must be spread 
 very thin, iu order that those underneath may be thoroughly frozen; but, with a lower 
 temiierature, the fish can be heaped together to the depth of a foot or more, though 
 in such cases it is necessary to turn them every few hours. A constant watch must 
 be kept to guard against loss from a sudden rise in temperature or a storm of rain or 
 snow. The watch usually turns the fish with a wooden shovel or stirs them with his 
 feet every few hours, and during a snow storm it becomes necessary to work constantly 
 among them to keep them from being covered up. Should the weather become so 
 warm that the fish would be thawed by exposure, it is necessary to j)lace them in piles 
 and cover them with canvas or other material, again exposing them when the tempei'a- 
 ture has fiillen sufficiently. The usual method of ascertaining whether a herring is 
 sufficiently frozen is by breaking. If the fish bends at all it is not thoroughly frozen; 
 but if it breaks short, like a dry stick, it is ready to be stowed in bulk. 
 
 The herring are roughly shoveled in the vessel, the hold, and sometimes even the 
 cabin, being filled, the crew in the latter case living in the forecastle on the homeward 
 passage. Formerly the fish were packed in snow, or a considerable quantity of snow 
 was placed around the sides .of the hold and the fish heaped together in the middle; 
 but for many years this practice has been wholly abandoned, and it is found that the 
 fish will keep equally well without the use of snow. 
 
 This trade at present averages about 25,000,000 herring annually, with a valuation 
 of $300,000. About one third are used for bait by the Grloucester fishermen, and those 
 remaining arc sold for food. The nmrket value varied for many years from 75 cents 
 to $.'5 per 100 fish wholesale, while the retail price was about double those figures. 
 During the past three years the fish have been sold by weight, two scales being on 
 the vessel, one at the main hatch and the other at the aft hatch; the average wholesale 
 price during those years has been from $1.25 to $2.50 per 100 pounds. 
 
 Frozen herring form cheap and wholesome food at a season when other fresh fish 
 are obtained with difficulty and only at a high iirice. They possess a great advantage 
 over ordinary fresh fish iu that they can be packed iu barrels without ice and shipped 
 to a considerable distance without danger of loss. With the exception of those sold 
 
 F. C. B., 1898—24 
 
370 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 in Gloucester for bait, nearly all the frozen lierriug are carried directly to Boston and 
 New York, and two or three cargoes are carried to Philadelphia eac^h season. At 
 these ])laces they are sold locally and packed in barrels for distribution, and sent as 
 far south as Washington, and as far west as the Mississijipi River.* After reaching 
 their destination, the great bulk are sold fresh, but some are pickled by the dealers, 
 while others are cured as bloaters or hard herring. After being frozen, herring are 
 not especially desirable for either of these purposes, as they become soft and the flesh 
 is rather dark and unattractive in color 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FREEZING AND COLD STORAGE. 
 
 The artificial freezing of fish and other food products with their subsequent 
 retention in cold storage is one of the most recent methods of iireservation, origi- 
 nating about thirty-five years ago; and while it has acquired considerable importance 
 in certain localities, its practical value is scarcely appreciated by the general public. 
 It is applied in the various marketing centers of the United States and to some extent 
 in the countries of Europe and South America. Its greatest development and most 
 extensive application in the fisheries exists along the Great Lakes in freezing white- 
 fish, trout, herring, pike, etc., about 3,500 tons of which are frozen each year. On 
 the Atlantic coast of the United States it is used in preserving blueflsh, squeteague, 
 mackerel, smelt, sturgeon, herring, etc., the trade in these frozen fish "tailing on" or 
 immediately following the season for fresh or green fish. On the Pacific coast large 
 quantities of salmon and sturgeon are frozen and held in cold storage until shipped, 
 the trade extending to all parts of America and northern Europe. At various points 
 throughout the interior of the country there are cold-storage houses where fishery 
 products are held awaiting demand from consumers. In Europe there is comparatively 
 little freezing of fisli, although the i)rocess is applied very extensively to jireserving 
 beef, mutton, and other meat products, and the marlcets of Hamburg and other conti- 
 nental cities receive annually several million pounds of frozen salmon from the Pacific 
 coast. In England large fish freezers were erected several years ago at Grimsby and 
 Hull, but did not prove successful and were finally dismantled. 
 
 By the use of ice alone during warm weather the temperature of fish can never be 
 kept below 32° F. While this low temperature retards decomposition, the fish acquire 
 a nmsty taste and loss of flavor and eventually spoil. To entirely prevent decomposi- 
 tion the fish must be frozen immediately after capture and then kept at a temperature 
 of several degrees below freezing. The belief held by some persons that freezing 
 destroys the flavor of fish is not well founded, the result depending more on its condi- 
 tion when the cold is applied and the manner of such ajiplication than upon the effect 
 of tlie low temperature. Fish decreases less in value from freezing than meat does, bui 
 it is especially subject to two difficulties from which frozen meat is free; first, the eye 
 dries up and loses its shining appearance after a very long exposure to cold, and 
 second, the skin, being less elastic than the texture of the fish, gets hard and becomes 
 somewhat loose on the flesh. Frozen fish is not less wholesome than fish not so pre- 
 served. The chemical constituents are identical, except that the latter may contain 
 more water, but the water derived from ingested fish has no greater food value than 
 water taken as such. The principal objection to this form of preservation is the ten- 
 dency to freeze fish in which decomposition has already set in, and the prosperity of 
 
 ' See Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 1, p. 451^56. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 371 
 
 the frozen-flsh business requires that any attempt to freeze fish already slightly 
 tainted should be discountenanced. When properly fi'ozen aiul held for a reasonable 
 period, the natural flavor of fish is not seriously affected and the market value approxi- 
 mates that of fish freshly caught. The process is of very great value to the fishermen 
 supplying the fresh-fish trade, since it prevents a glut on the market, and it is also of 
 benefit to the consumer in enabling him to obtain almost any variety of fish in an 
 approximately fresh condition throughout the year. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF COLD STORAGE. 
 
 The first practical device for the freezing and subsequent cold storage of fish was 
 invented by Enoch L'iper, of Camden, Me., to whom a patent* was issued in 1861. His 
 process was based on the well-known fact that a composition of ice and salt produces 
 a much lower temperature than ice alone, this knowledge having been applied for an 
 indefinite period in freezing ice creams, etc. 
 
 Thefollowiug is a description of Piper's apparatus and its application: 
 
 The fish were placed on a rack, in a box or room having double sides filled with charcoal or other 
 nonconducting material. Metallic pans containing ice and salt were set over the fish and the whole 
 inclused. The temporatMro in the room would soon I'all to several degrees below the freezing point of 
 water, and in about 24 hours (the mixt-.i re being changed once in 12 hours) the fish would be thoroughly 
 frozen. The fish were then covered with a coating of ice by immersing them a few times in ice-cold 
 water, or by applying the water with a brush, forming a coating about one-eighth of an inch in thick- 
 ness. After the coating of ice was formed the fish were sometimes wrapped in cloth and a second 
 coating of ice applied. In some instances they were covered with .a material somewhat like gntta 
 ])ercha, concerning which much secrecy was exercised. The fish were then packed closely in another 
 room, well insulated against the entrance of warmth, by means of double walls filled with some non- 
 conducting material. Fixed i)erpen<licularly in the second room were a number of metallic tubes, 
 several inches in diameter, filled with a mixture of ice and salt to keep the temperature below the 
 freezing point. 
 
 The process was also patented in the Dominion of Canada, and a plant was estab 
 lished near Kathurst, New Brunswick, in 1865, the output consisting almost entirely 
 of salmon, a large proportion of which were imported into^the United States. In 
 order to hold the frozen fish in New York while awaiting a market. Piper constructed 
 a storage room in a shop on Beekman street, that being the first cold storage room for 
 fish in the United States. The walls of the room were well insulated, and around the 
 sides were two rows of zinc cylinders, 10 inches in diameter at the top and decreasing 
 in size toward the bottom, connecting at the lower end with a drainage i)ipe. Tlie 
 cylinders were filled with a mixture of ice and salt, which was renewed whenever 
 necessary. Whatever may have been the imperfections in his process of freezing, the 
 system of storage was quite satisfactory and differs little from that in use at the 
 present time. Piper refused to sell rights to others for the use of his process, and 
 after maintaining a monopoly of the business for three or four years his exclusive 
 right to it was successfully contested by other fish-dealers in New York, who applied 
 it to storing other fish besides salmon. 
 
 The principal objection to Pipei's process is that the fish are not in contact with 
 the freezing mixture during the operation of freezing, and, couseiiuently, too much 
 time is required for them to become thoroughly frozen. Several devices have been 
 used for overcoming this objection, among which are covering the fish with thin sheet 
 rubber or other waterproof material, and packing them in the mixture of ice and salt. 
 
 •No. 31736, dated March 19, 1«G1. 
 
372 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The greatest improvement, and the one used almost exclusively when ice and salt 
 form the freezing agency, originated in 1868 with Mr. William Davis, of Detroit, 
 Mich.,* the description being as follows: 
 
 Two thin slieet-metal pans, or a box in two parts, are made one to slide over the other, the object 
 being to place the fish iu one pan, slide the other pan vertically over it, and the box is then placed in 
 direct contact with the freezing mixture. Hy having the box constructed in this manner, it is capable 
 of being expanded or contracted to accommodate the size of whatever may be placed therein, and 
 the top and bottom always be iu contact with the articles to be frozen. After the fish are inclosed in 
 the pans, the latter are placed iu alternate layers with layers of the freezing mixture Ijotween au<l 
 about them. When the fish are thoroughly frozen they are removed from the freezing pans and placed 
 in a cold-storage chamber in which the temperature is kept 12 or 14 degrees below the freezing point. 
 
 Another arrangement for bringing the fish in contact with the ice was devi.sed 
 and patented by a fish-dealer of Toledo, Ohio, t as follows: 
 
 A chest is so constructed that cells or compartments of various sizes may be formed in it for the 
 reception of articles to be frozen, this being accomplished by having the walls of each compartment 
 movable and each separated from the other by l)lock8 of sufficient size to closely contain the articles 
 placed therein, usually from 2 to 6 inches, and the freezing being effected by filling the spaces 
 between the cell walls with salt and crushed ice. The sides of the cells or compartments are made 
 of thin metallic plates, so that the upper end of each pair may be brought together, forming a closed 
 compartment, to prevent the entrance of the refrigerating mixture into the fish chambers while filling 
 the salt and ice compartments. To freeze a ijuantity of fish by this method, they are placed in the 
 open cells or compartments, head downward, as is most convenient. When each cell is full, the top 
 edges of the sides are brought together and held in that position by clamps. The spaces between the 
 cells, varying from 2 to 4 inches across, are then filled with the freezing mixture aud the cover of the 
 chest shut down. The cold produced passes through the wall separating the mixture from the fish 
 aud quickly freezes the latter. Provision is made for permitting the water formed by the melting ice 
 to flow in grooves to suitable outlets, tlie bottom pieces of the cells keeping the fish dry. When the 
 fish are frozen, the cover of the chest is raised, tlie contents removed, and the fish transferred to the 
 storage freezer. 
 
 This method of freezing was used only a few years, the pan process being found 
 much more practicable. 
 
 With a view to bringing the fish more closely in contact with the freezing mixture, 
 some dealers at first used thin sheet-rubber bags, or other waterproof sacks, in which 
 the individual fish were placed and then surrounded by the salt and ice, thus exposing 
 the entire surface of the fish, resulting in much more rapid freezing. When the 
 fish were frozen the sacks were removed and were dipped in water, which thawed them 
 sufficiently to permit the fish to be withdrawn. This method was abandoned after 
 a year or two. 
 
 To facilitate the shipment of frozen fish iu barrels, Messrs D, W. & S. H. Davis, of 
 Detroit, Mich., introduced! a process by which the fish are frozen in circular pans of 
 varying sizes suited to the measurements of the barrels. After being frozen, the 
 contents of each pan are removeil entire and placed in appropriate position in the 
 barrel, and the barrel headed and placed in cold storage. 
 
 In 1877 0. W. Gauthier patented § a modification of the preceding method, using 
 thin pliable partitions in the circnlar pans for separating each fisli Ironi its neighbor, 
 so that the individual fish in each pan may be packed in the barrel separately. 
 None of the last four processes has ever been used to any considerable extent. 
 
 * Letters patent No. 85913, January 19, 1869. 
 i Letters patent No. 109820, December ti, 1870. 
 t Letters patent No. 165590, dated April 6, 1875. 
 § Letters patent No. 187122, dated February 6, 1877. 
 
PKESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 373 
 
 As the trade developed, the size of the storage rooms was increased and improve- 
 ments were adopted in the arrangement and form of the iceand-salt receptacles and 
 ill the method of handling the tish. But the freezing with pans immersed in ice and 
 salt, as in the Davis process, and the subsequent storing of them in the manner used 
 by Piper, continued without any great modification until the introduction of ammonia 
 freezers into the fishery trade in 1892. At that time ice-and salt freezers and storage 
 rooms existed at nearly all the fishing ports ou the Great Lakes; eight or ten small 
 ones were in New York City, and several were in use on the New England coast. 
 Some of those on the (Ireat Lakes were very large, with storage capacity of 700 or 800 
 tons or more, and the aggregate storage capacity of all in the country approximated 
 8,000 tons. Ammonia cold-storage houses had been established at various places 
 along the coast and in the interior during the ten or fifteen years preceding, and in 
 these some frozen fish had been stored. But the first ammonia establishment for 
 freezing fish exiilusively was established at Sandusky, Ohio, in 1892. The method of 
 freezing dift'ers from the former process in that the pans of fish are ])laced on and 
 between tiers of pipes carrying cold brine or ammonia instead of being immersed in 
 ice and salt. In the storage rooms less difference exists, coils of brine pipes taking 
 the place of the ice and-salt receptacles, the blocks of fish being removed trom the 
 pans and stored as in the older process. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ICE-AND-SALT FREEZERS. 
 
 The outfit of an ice and salt freezer consists principally of temporary stalls or bins 
 where the fish are frozen, and insulated rooms where the frozen fish are stored at a low 
 temperature. In addition to these there are icehouses, salt-bins, freezing-pans, and 
 the various implements for the convenient prosecution of the business. The freezing 
 bins are usually temporary structures within the fish-house, and are generally without 
 insulation. The wall of the fish-house may form the back, while loose boards are fitted 
 in to form the sides and front as the bin is filled, in the manner hereafter described. 
 A better way is to build the bins with sides and back 4 or 5 inches thick, filled with 
 some uoncimductor, with double or matched floor and with movable front boards. 
 
 The storage rooms are commoidy arranged in a series side by side and separated 
 from each other by well-insulated partitions, the capacity of the rooms ranging from 
 25 to 200 tons each. The outer walls of these rooms, as well as the floors and ceilings, 
 are well insulated, made usually of heavy matched boards, with interior packing of 
 some nonconductor ot heat. Among the latter may be mentioned planing-mill shavings, 
 sawdust, pulverized cliarcoal, chopped straw, slagwool, etc. Most of the walls are Iti or 
 IS inches thick, filled with planing mill shavings or sawdust, and in some freezers the 
 damaging elfect of rats is obviated by placing linings of cement between the shavings 
 and the board walls. Most of these loose materials have their economic drawbacks, 
 chiefly because of their strong hygroscopic tendency, the material losing its insulating 
 liower and decaying, this decay also attacking the wood of the walls. Because of this, 
 many of the storage rooms recently constructed are insulated by having the walls 
 made up of a combination of mineral wool, insulating paper, air spaces, and inch boards. 
 
 The sides, and in some cases the ends, of the room are lined with the iceand-salt 
 receivers, consisting of galvanized sheet-iron tanks, 8 or 10 inches wide at the top, 
 narrowing to 3 or 4 inches at the bottom, and placed about 4 inches from the wall in 
 order to expose their entire surface t^ the air in the room. These tanks open at the 
 
374 
 
 lUTLLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 top, which extends above the ceiliug so that they may be filled without openiiij; tlie 
 storage room. At the bottom is usually a galvanized-irou slanting gutter, iutu wliich 
 the water resulting from the melting ice flows, when(;e it is conducted through the 
 floor of the room by a short pipe, protected from the entrance of air at its lower end 
 by a small drop cup, into which the brine falls and runs over at the top. In some 
 fish-houses this brine, which is otherwise wasted, runs into receiving tanks, where it is 
 stored and used as re(inired in pickling fish. The ice-audsalt tanks must be cleaned 
 from time to time in order to rid tliem of dirt and sawdust. Their capacity should be 
 ill proportion to the size of the room and the excellence of the insulation secured, 
 and they should be large enough to render it unnecessary to fill them oftener than 
 once a dav, even in the warmest weather. 
 
 The appliances used in the ice and-salt freezers are described at length in the 
 account of the processes of freezing and storage (see pp. 377-384). 
 
 While crushed ice and common salt are generally emi)loyed as a freezing mixture, 
 numerous other comiiouuds are available. The following compilation gives a number 
 of mixtures that may be employed in refrigeration, the initial point in the case of 
 crushed ice or snow being 32'^, and in the other mixtures oO'^ F. Most of these have 
 as yet been employed only in laboratory practice and for certain special purposes, 
 only a few of them having been applied commercially on a large scale. These formuhe 
 are obtained mostly from Leask's Ivefiigeratiug Machinery and its Management, pub- 
 lished in London in 1895. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Minimum 
 tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Minimum 
 temperor 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 5 
 5 
 
 5 
 5 
 16 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 } -^ 
 -12 
 
 I —18 
 
 -25 
 
 -10 
 
 } -3 
 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 OF. 
 } -» 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1} -12 
 
 1} -23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitric .icid (diluted) 
 
 
 
 Ammonium chloride 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 5 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 ) -" 
 
 } -30 
 \ —50 
 } -51 
 
 
 
 Ammoiiium nitrate 
 
 
 
 
 Potassium nitrate 
 
 
 
 Calcium chloride, cryatallized 
 
 Sodium sulphate 
 
 Sulphuric acid (diluted) 
 
 
 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL FREEZERS. 
 
 It is scarcely within the scope of the present paper to enter into a comprehensive 
 description of the numerous .systems of mechanical freezers. They are all ba.sed on 
 the principle that a liijuid passing into a gaseous state, or converted into a.'kpor, 
 carries away a definite amount of heat from the objects by which it is surrounded. 
 
 The compression system is in most general use, and consists of three operations 
 following each other in rotation, and which are practically the same in all refrigerating 
 machines. By means of a large compression pump, anhydrous ammonia, which is the 
 gas usually em^doyed, is compressed to a pressure varying from 125 to 175 i)ounds 
 to the square inch. During this operation heat is developed according to the amount 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 37;") 
 
 of the pressure exerteil upon the gas or to the relative volume to which it is reduced, 
 and this heat is withdrawn from the compressed gas by forcing it through coils of 
 pipe in contact with cold water, the heat being transferred to the water. The gas is 
 now ready to assume a liquid state, and in so doing transfers additional heat to the 
 water surrounding the pipes. The liquid gas thus obtained is allowed to enter coils 
 of circulating i)ipe at a pressure much lower than that required for retaining the gas 
 in a liquid state, wliereupon it reexpands and extracts from the pipes and the sub- 
 stances surrounding them a quantity of heate(iual to that which was previously given 
 np by the gas during the period of condensation and liquefaction. The gas is then 
 drawn from the exi>ansion coils by the i>umps at a jiressure of 10 to 15 pounds above 
 that of the atmosphere, and is again compressed in the condensing coils at a pressure 
 of 125 to 175 ijounds to the square inch, and the same cycle of operations is repeated. 
 Various moditicationsof the above, as well as auxiliary processes, have been introduced, 
 lint the principles are the same in all comj)ression machines, the ditferences being in 
 their application. 
 
 The absorption system, which is comparatively little used at present, is based on 
 the fact that many vapors of low boiling point are readily absorbed by water, but can 
 be separated again by tlie application of heat to the mixed liquid; and the machinery 
 in an absorption system differs from that in a compression plant priuci])ally in the 
 substitution of an absorber for the condenser and in applying heat to the ammonia 
 water to drive off the anhydrous ammonia at a high pressure. 
 
 Formerly, in order to avoid danger from leakage of gas through the circulating 
 l)ipes carrying the cold annnonia, those pipes were not passed through the freezing 
 and storage chambers, but were stored in a large tank surrounded by some liquid 
 whose freezing ]>oint is very low, such as salt brine, or, when lower temperature is 
 desired, a solution of chloride of calcium, and this cooled liquid is pumped through 
 pipes circulating in the freezing and storage rooms. The improvements in the manu- 
 facture of freezing machinery have resulted in the making of much tighter pipes, so 
 that at present in many freezers the ammonia coils pass directly through the freezing 
 rooms, and in some instances they also pass through the storage rooms, but brine or 
 chloride of calcium circulation is yet preferred for the storage rooms. 
 
 In the mechanical freezing-houses there is a machinery room containing the 
 boilers, compression pumps or absorption tank, according to the system employed, 
 brine pump, etc. Apart from these and within well-insulated walls are the cold rooms, 
 of which there are two kinds — one for the freezing of fish and the other for their 
 storage after being frozen, the caiiacity of the latter being usually much greater than 
 that of the former. In the freezing-room the circulating pipes containing the cooling 
 material are ^ inch to 2 inches in diameter and arranged in shelves or nests with hori- 
 zontal layers 1 or 5 inches, and sometimes 10 inches, apart, ranging from the floor to 
 the ceiling, the entire room being occupied with these nests, except sufficient space 
 for m.-^ving about. These pipes are sometimes made in separate coils, so that if desired 
 the brine may be circulated through only a portion of the pipes, and there is generally 
 a vertical row of pipes on each side of the freezing-room. The temperature deuends, 
 of course, on the quantity of green lish and the progress of the freezing process, but 
 with direct circulation, or using brine made of chloride of calcium as the circulatory 
 medium, a temperature of — 10° F., or even less, is obtainable. In this room the green 
 fish are frozen, and then removed to the storage rooms. 
 
376 HULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Tlie storage rooms are constructed similarly to tlie storage rooms in ice-aiul sail 
 freezing houses, tlic only difference being tliat circulating i)ii)es are substituted for 
 tbe ice-and-salt receptacles. Tbe iiipes in the storage rooms are usually larger, but 
 are not so numerous as in the freezing-room. They are arranged at the ceiling, and 
 sometimes about the ujjper sides also. 
 
 The freezing and storage rooms have well-insulated walls, ceiling, and floors 
 similar to the storage rooms using ice and salt as a freezing agency. The walls are 
 sometimes 10 or 18 inches thick, filled with sawdust or planer shavings; but usually 
 they are maile up of successive layers of boards, paper, mineral wool, and air space. 
 Ill one of the most recently constructed freezing establishments, that of the Cincin- 
 nati Oyster and Fish Company, the walls are constructed as follows: Seven-eighth- 
 inch boards, insulating paper, J inch boards, 2-inch air space, ^ inch boards, two sheets 
 of insulating paper, Jinch boards, 4 inches of mineral wool, ginch boards, insulating 
 paper, and 4-inch beaded boards. In the same establishment the ceiling is insulated 
 by J-inch boards nailed against the joists, two sheets of insulating jjaper, ginch 
 boards, 2 inches of mineral wool, J-incli boards, insulating paper, and Jinch boards. 
 On top of the ceiling and between the joists there are 3 inches of mineral wool, J-inch 
 boards, insulating i)aper, and 4-incli boards. Tlie floor is insulated by nailing J 
 by 3-inch strips between the joists and close to the bottom, on top of which are g-inch 
 boards, insulating paper, and 4-iuch boards, the whole being pitched throughout so 
 as to make it perfectly air-tight. Then come 2 inches of air space, J-inch boards, 
 insulating paper, g-inch boards, 4 inches of mineral wool, |-inch boards, insulating 
 paper, J-inch boards, 3 inches of concrete, and li inches of cement, llesting on tlu; 
 cement floor are § by 3 inch oak racks, to permit a free circulation of air under the 
 fish stored in the room. 
 
 In 1896 there was erected at Goble, Oregon, a freezing and cold-storage plant 
 differing from any other in the United States, in that cold air is used as the freezing 
 medium. There are similar plants at Montreal and Quebec, and there are several 
 used in Great Britain and Australia for refrigerating beef and mutton. 
 
 The following is a description of the Goble establishment: 
 
 The Imilding is 100 feet lougby 52 feet wide, exclusive of tbe boiler and engine rooms, which are 
 under auothc^r roof adjacent to tlie main structnre. The first lloor is well insnlated and divided into 
 8 storage coniiiartments insulated from cacii other, the dimensions of which are 40 feet in length, 10 
 feet in width, and 10 feet in height, the iloor space within each being occupied liy two parallel car 
 tracks with an alleyway between. The doors of tlicse rooms consist of IG inches of sawdust, 3 pieces 
 of |-inch bard felt and 5 air spaces, lloore<l over with linch plank; and tlie walls have two thick- 
 nesses of i'elt and 4 air spaces. The remaining portion of the width of the building, 8 feet on the 
 inside, is occupied by a corridor, in which is a car track with suitable turntables leading to each 
 track in the storage rooms; and tbe remaining 9 feet net in the length of the building is taken up by 
 an elevator, stairway, and tool i-oom. On the fourth lloor there is a tank, 22 feet long aTul tl feet wide, 
 tilled with brine cooled by ammonia circulation. In this tank there are 5 disks, 4 inches in diameter, 
 revolving on axles running across the tank. The air from the freezing and eold-storage rooms is 
 collected and forced over the revolving disks as the brine drops oft', and is then returned by other 
 channels to the freezing and storage rooms. 
 
 When the fish, consisting principally of salmon, are received at the dock, they are washed, wiped 
 dry, and placed on cars fitted up with 7 galvanizi'd-iron shelves, 5 feet 4 inches long and 3 feet wide, 
 the capacity of each car approximating 1,000 pounds, and its cost, with the necessary shelves, about 
 $34. When the shelves are filled, the cars are wheeled into the corridor leading to the freezing rooms, 
 and then to the proper conqiartmeut, where, still remaining on the cars, they are frozen by the colil 
 air forced over and among them. Each room has capacity for 7 cars on each track, or 14 cars in all, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 377 
 
 witli 7 tons of fish, giving an aggregate freezing c.apnoity in the 8 moms of 50 tons at one time. The 
 air introilnceil in these rooms has a temperature of 5- to 10"- F., anil is ch.mgeil every 2 or 3 minutes. 
 Freezing eau be accomiilislied in 12 to 14 linnrs, l)ut ordinarily from It to 24 hours are taken for the 
 operation to he completed, dejicniling soni('wh,at on the size of the iish. After the fish are frozen, the 
 cars are removed to an elevator and run up to the second floor, where the Iish .are glazed, being dipped 
 in water, and thus covered with a coating of ice about oue sixteenth of an incli thick. This glazing 
 is effected by transferring the tish to racks and tlien dipping them in a tank 20 feet long by 4 feet 
 wide, partly tilled with water at ii temperature several degrees below freezing. The Iish are then 
 usually wrapped in paper and neatly packed in paper-lined boxes, usually of 250 pounds capacity, 
 ready for shipment, and transferred to storage rooms on the third floor, having a capacity for about 
 SOO tons. 
 
 In addition to the machinery above described, there are two 80-horsfepower boilers and two 60- 
 horsepower engines, with a fire pump capable of delivering 18,000 gallons of water per hour, an ice 
 plant with capacity of 20 tons a day, and an auxiliary one with capacity of 3 tons daily. The cost of 
 the jilant is said to approximate $45,000. The machinery employees number 4, aud usually there are 
 20 men employeil in handling the fish. 
 
 PROCESS OF FREEZING AND COLD STORAGE. 
 
 In freezing fish, as well as iu preserving most food products, the superintendent 
 must give close attention to economy of tlie process as well as to the excellence of the 
 product, and the costliness of the best process sometimes prevents its u.se. To secure 
 the very best result, the stock to be frozen should be perfectly fresh' and free from 
 bruises and blood marks. It improves the appearance, and therefore increases the 
 value, if the fi.sh are graded according to size, but that is rarely done. All kinds of 
 fish keep and look best when frozen just as tliey come froai the water, with heads on 
 and entrails in, and it is better that the fi.sh be not eviscerated before freezing, except 
 in case of very large fish, such as sturgeon. But since the freezers receive the surplus 
 from the fresh-fish trade, many have been already split and dressed. Generally fish 
 that are frozen witli heads oft' and viscera removed are not strictly fresh; but this rule 
 has mauy exceptions. 
 
 Whether round or eviscerated, the fish are first washed by dumping them into a 
 wash box or trough containing fresh cold water, which is frequently renewed, and 
 stirring them about witli an oar-shaped paddle or cloth swab to remove the slime, 
 blood, etc. Some freezers consider it inadvisable to wash flatfish, because of their 
 being too thin. From the wash box the fish are removed by hand and placed in the 
 pans, or, better, they are removed with a dip net and deposited in trays situated on a 
 jjau-filling bench. The bench iu use in most of the freezing-houses of this country 
 is 12 or 15 feet in lengtli and about '2 feet wide, and at intervals of about 3 feet or so 
 there are square trays 3 or 4 inches deep, with lattice bottoms for drainage, in which 
 the fish are deposited from the wash tank. On either side of each fish-tray is room 
 for a fish-pan, at which stands an operative engaged in filling pans. 
 
 The pans are of various dimensions adapted to the size of the fish usually received. 
 In most houses they are about 20 or 28 inches long by 16 or 18 inches wide aud 
 2 or 3 inches deep, with capacity for about 40 pounds of fish, the material used 
 being generally No. 24 Juniata galvanized iron, with the corners turned down, riveted 
 and soldered. In some houses much s-naller pans are used, the smallest observed 
 by the writer being 10 iuches long by S inches wide. Geuerally at each corner in 
 the bottom of the i)aiis there is a small round hole for drainage ])urposes, but some 
 ])aus are made water tight. Each kind has its advantages. In the tight pan the 
 water remaining on the fish from the washing-tank accumulates in the bottom and 
 
378 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 adds so much to the material to be frozen, bat it also serves to hold the fish together 
 in tlie frozen block. In some freezing-houses using tight-bottom pans the weight of 
 the ice in the bottom of the frozen block amounts to more than 5 per cent of the total 
 weight. This, of course, increases the weight of the frozen flsh when they are sold. 
 An erroneous idea i)revails, to some extent, that in using ice and salt for freezing, it is 
 necessary to use tight-bottomed pans to exclude the brine. 
 
 The flsh are generally placed so as to make a neat and compact package entirely 
 filling the pan, so that the cover will come in contact with the upjier surface of the 
 fish. It is desirable to have the backs of the fish at the sides of the pan and the 
 heads at the ends, so as to protect the blocks in handling. It is also desirable, when 
 the size of the fish so admits and a cover is used, that the bellies be placed upward, 
 since that portion has greater tendency to decompose, and, as the cold passes down, 
 this areangenu^nt results in freezing the upper portion of the block first, and also in 
 less compression of the soft portion of the flsh by removing the weight therefrom. 
 This practice, however, is not by any means uniform. In case the flsh have been 
 split and eviscerated it is advisable to i)lace them slanting on the sides, but with 
 backs up, so as to permit the moisture to run from the stomach cavity, but that is 
 not the general practice. Large fish are necessarily })]aced on their sides, the fish 
 being curved, if necessary, so as to lie in the pan best. Some freezers place herring 
 and other small flsh on their sides two layers deep in the pans, while others place a 
 bottom layer of three transverse rows, the end rows with the heads to the edge of the 
 pan, and a top layer of two transverse rows laid in the two dei)ressions formed 
 between the bottom rows. In case of pike and some other dry flsh a small quantity 
 of water is sprinkled over them, since they do not ordinarily retain sutficient moisture 
 to hold together when frozen, as is the case with most other species. 
 
 Formerly all pans were provided with covers, as described in Davis's letters patent, 
 and this is necessarily so at present, where ice and salt are used for freezing, the cover 
 being required to separate the freezing materials from the flsh. These covers are 
 slightly larger than the pans, so as to slip on easily. The cover best adapted to a pan 
 20 inches by 14 inches by 2 inches is 20i inches by 14i inches by Ij inches, with the 
 sides slanting toward the base. But in some houses, where circulating brine or ammo- 
 nia is the freezing medium, the covers are being discarded, resulting in a more rapid 
 freezing of tlie flsh, as the cold does not have to pass through the metallic cover. But 
 in that case the top of the block of flsh does uot present so smooth an appearance 
 as when the trover is used, for the latter presses the fish down somewhat and unites 
 them more closely, making a firmer package. In order to make a compact block those 
 houses not using covers usually place the small fish bellies down. Only a few freezing 
 houses have discarded the use of the pan covers altogether, and in the more advanced 
 freezers covers are used when the fish can be placed so as to come in contact with 
 the cover, otherwise they are discarded. In many sharp freezers, including tlie one 
 shown in the illustration opposite page 374, the greater portion of the pans have 
 covers, while the others have none. 
 
 As soon as the pans are filled and the covers fitted on they are placed in the sharp 
 freezer. In houses where circulating ammonia or brine is used the sharp freezer con- 
 sists of a series of coils of small circulating pipes, through which the freezing medium 
 ])asses, on which the i)aus of flsh are placed, the wliole being inclosed in a room of 
 suitable size provided with insulated walls and with doors Where ice and salt are 
 
PKESERYATION OF FISHKRV PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 379 
 
 used, as iu most of tin* (Veeziiig-houses, tlic sliarp ireezer is usually a stall or bin, opeu 
 ill front and sometimes on the sides, the front and sides being' built up with loose 
 l)oards as the bin is filled. 
 
 The arrangement of the ice, salt, and flsh-pans in the bin is as follows: The ice, 
 after being passed through a grinder, where it is ciuslieil into small particles, is 
 mixed with salt in the proportion of from 8 to IG pounds of salt to 10(t pounds of ice. 
 The mixing is conveniently done by scattering salt over each shovelful of ice as the 
 ice is shoveled from the grinder to the handbarrow. Many varieties of salt are used, 
 most houses preferring a coarse mined salt because of its cheapness. Others use 
 liner salt because of its coming in clo^^e contact with tlie ice and resulting in a lower 
 degree of cold and the more rapid freezing of the flsb, although the salt does not last 
 so long. 
 
 The amount of ice and salt required iu freezing a given quantity of fish depends 
 principally on the fineness of the materials and tlie proportion in which they are used, 
 and to a less extent on the insulation of the freezing bin, the amount of moisture in the 
 atmosphere, and the size of the pans and the manner iu which the fish are placed 
 therein. The finer the ice and salt the cpiicker the freezing and the exhaustion of 
 their strength. A larger proportion of salt also results in quicker freezing. The most 
 economical quantities appear to be about 85 pounds of salt and 1,000 pounds of ice to 
 each 1,000 pounds of fish, altliough some freezers use much more salt and less ice. 
 Much larger quantities of ice and salt are required during warm weather, and also 
 more is necessary when the atmosphere is moist than when it is dry. Some of the ice 
 and salt generally remains unmelted and this may be used over again in connection with 
 fresh materials, additional salt being mixed witli it, and as it is weaker than new ice it 
 should be used mainly at or near the bottom of the pile, the top of tlie pile taking care 
 of the bottom since the cold descends. 
 
 In making the freezing pile an even layer of ice and salt, about 3 or 4 inches deep, 
 is placed at the bottom, on which is laid a tier or layer of pans filled with fish, about 
 3 inches of ice space intervening between the pans and the sides of the bin. This is 
 followed successively by a layer of ice and salt about 2 or 3 inches deep and a layer of 
 pans, the surface of each layer of ice being made even and smooth by means of a 
 straight edge. Sideboards ai-e placed as the height of the pile requires, and a wide 
 board laid on the i)ile furnishes a walk for the workmen in placing the fi'eezing mixture 
 and the pans. Some freezers place the pans in double tiers between the layers of 
 ice and salt, and in this case the thickness of the layers of freezing material must be 
 increased. In some freezers alight sprinkling of salt is thrown on top of the pans 
 before the freezing mixture is applied. The pile is built up as high as it is con- 
 venient for handling the pans of fish and the ice and salt, which usually does not 
 exceed G feet. A double quantity of the freezing material is ])ut on top, and the whole 
 should be covered with wood or canvass to exclude the air. The freezing is usually 
 completed in about 15 or 18 liQurs, but the fish usually remain one day, when they are 
 ready to be placed in cold storage. On one occasion, at a freezing house in Cleveland, 
 2,200 pans of herring, each pan containing about 19 pounds of fish, or a total of 41,800 
 pounds, were filled and placed in the freezing-bin in 14 hours. Twenty-seven men were 
 required, at a cost of 15 ceiits per hour each, makiug the total cost of labor $56.70, or 
 nearly 14 cents per 100 pounds. 
 
 In the sharp freezer the fish, being moivSt, are frozen solidly to each other and to 
 the surfaces of the pans. To remove them from the pan the latter is usually passed 
 
380 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 for a moment tlirougli cold water, which draws the frost sufficiently from the iron to 
 allow the flsli to be removed in a block without breaking apart. In one or two freezing- 
 houses the tliawing of the fish from the sides of the pan is omitted, the cover being 
 loosened and the block of lish removed by hitting the pan at the ends and sides. In 
 several houses each pan of fish is dipped for a moment in cold water, when the top is 
 lifted off. This is usually the case in ammonia freezing houses when the fish are 
 removed from the pans in a cold room where running water would be objectionable. 
 
 In most of the houses nse is made of a sprinkling trough or tank, 2.i or 3 feet 
 wide and 8 or iO feet long, with two parallel iron bearings on inclined scantling 
 6 or 8 inches apart on the inside, on which the pans may slide from one end of the 
 tank to the other. Kesting on top and near each end of this trough is a sprinkling 
 box about 3(5 inches long, IS inches wide, and 3 inches deep, which usually consists of 
 a box or a block of wood hollowed out from the under surface and with a sheet of metal 
 perforated with many small holes tacked on the bottom. At one end of the box 
 or block is a l-inch auger-hole, into which the end of a hose may be entered, sending 
 a stream of water into the sprinkling box and through the iierforated metal bottom, 
 falling into the trough and overflowing at the lower end. 
 
 Some houses substitute a 2-iuch pipe with perforated under surface in iilace of 
 the metal bottom to the box. 
 
 The pans of frozen fish are successively placed in the trough under the first 
 sprinkling box, where the water falling through thaws the top sufficiently so that a 
 workman standing at the middle of the trough may remove the cover, and, turning the 
 pan over, he permits it to slide under the second sprinkling box, where the descending 
 stream of water thaws the bottom sufQciently for a workman at the end of the trough 
 to lift it from the block of fish, which remains intact and is removed from the 
 trough and placed on a truck or other conveyance for transfer to the storage room. 
 Three men are required at tiie trough, one to place the pans under the first sprinkling 
 box, the second to remove the top and turu the pan over and to pass it under the 
 second sprinkling box, and the third to remove the bottom of the pan from the fish 
 and place the block of fish on the <'arryiiig truck. In order to avoid thawing the 
 surface of the fish, the water used must be cold and the pans are placed in the trough 
 rapidly, taking but a few moments for the removal of the blocks of fish at the other 
 end. In removing the fisL from the pans 8 men are usually required — 2 to remove tlie 
 pans from the sharp freezer and carry them to the sprinkler, 3 at the sprinkler, 1 
 passing the truck to storage room, 1 handling the blocks of fish in the storage room, 
 and 1 placing them in piles. To sprinkle, unpan, and store 40,000 pounds of frozen 
 fish requires such a force about 3i hours, and the cost of labor approximates $-1.20. 
 
 In passing through the trough considerable moisture adheres to the fish, which is 
 frozen by the surplus cold, forming' a coating of ice about 57, inch thick, entirely sur- 
 rounding the irregular block of fish. The process of freezing dries the fish to some 
 extent, the loss in weight amounting to about 2 per cent, but tlie ice coating placed 
 on them adds about 4 per cent to the weight. Some freezing houses, in order to make 
 the coating of ice thicker, pass the block of fish, on its removal from the sprinkling 
 trough, through a second trough nearly filled with ice cold water, which has suspended 
 in it a hmg box with perforated bottom filled with crushed ice. The blocks of fish 
 pass through a channel in the trough uiiderneafh the ice-box, coming out at the other 
 end with a coating of ice if^ inch or more in thickness. In houses where sprinkling 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 381 
 
 boxes are not used the fish are dipped by luiud in a tank of water after removal from 
 the pans. In some houses the frozen blocks of fish after removal from the ijans are 
 (lipped, then cross-piled in the cold-storage rooms, and on the following day, or even 
 the second day after, are again dipi)ed in cold water in order to form a thicker coating. 
 
 After the blocks of flsh are coated with ice they arc passed to the cold-storage 
 room, where they are ranged in neat piles, the blocks being placed vertically in some 
 houses, but more frequently they are ranged horizontally in piles extending from the 
 floor nearly to the ceiling. Strii)s 'J or 3 inches thick are laid on the floor to keep the 
 flsh slightly elevated and allow the cold air to circulate underneath. 
 
 Care must be exercised in piling the frozen blocks, lest the piles sag and tumble 
 down. When the room is lofty, to avoid heavy pressure on the lowev blocks, a platform 
 or floor is arranged about one-half the height of the ceiling, on which the upper blocks 
 of flsh rest. A better way of storing the fish is to pack them in boxes, 3 or 4 blocks 
 to the box, and place these in' the storage room. While placing the flsh in storage, 
 care must be taken to avoid raising the temperature of the room by the admission 
 of warm air. This is usually accom])lished by keeping the door closed as much as 
 possible and in. some cases by arranging a woolen flap over the entrance to prevent 
 the admission of a current of air, or by having in the door to the storage room an 
 opening just large enough to permit the passage of the paci;ages of fish. 
 
 The quantity of ice and salt required in the establishments which use those mate- 
 rials in the storage rooms is dependent on the outside temperature and the excel- 
 lence of the wall insulation and is independent of the amount of frozen fish in the 
 room, requiring no more freezing material to keep 5(t tons of frozen flsh at an even 
 temperatuie than to keep 2 tons in a room of equal size. With 16-inch or 18-inch 
 walls well insulated, it requires the melting of about 40 pounds of ice per day for each 
 100 square feet of wall surface when the outside temperature is GO^ F. to maintain a 
 temperature of 18° F. inside, this calculation leaving the opening of doors and the 
 cooling of fresh material out of consideration. All calculations as to the quantity of 
 ice used in ice-and-salt freezing are based on the use ot natural ice, for artificial ice 
 is rarely used in those freezers. Since artificial ice is usually colder than natural ice, 
 less would be required. The temperature in the storage room should be constant, and 
 about l(i° or 18° F. is considered the most economical. Above 20° the fish are likely to 
 turn yellow about the livers, a result generally attributed to the bursting of the "gall." 
 
 The storage room ^hould be free from moisture, since the latter otters a favorable 
 place for the settlement and development of micro organisms of all kinds, which tend 
 to mold the fish. To reduce excessive moisture, a pan of unslaked lime, chloride of 
 calcium, or other hygroscopic agency, may be placed in the room, the materinl being 
 renewed as exhausted. If the storage rooms are very moist, they should be dried out 
 before storing fish in them, this being readily accomidished by using a small gas, 
 coke, or charcoal stove. The storage rooins using ammoiua may be diied by passing 
 hot water through the pipes, which of course sheuld, under no circumstances, be done 
 when there are fish in the rooms. In case of mold- appearing on the fish it might be 
 well to try spraying them with a solution of formalin, which is a 40 per cent solution 
 of formaldehyde gas in water. The solution, containing 10 parts of formalin and 90 
 parts of water, should be sprayed over the fish at the first sign of mold. 
 
 All flsh deteriorate to some extent in cold storage, depreciating both in flavor 
 and firmness. The amount of this decrease is dependent primarily on the condition 
 
382 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 of the fish before freezing and the care exercised in the process of freezing, and, sec- 
 ondarily, on the length of time they remain in cold storage. The loss in quality during 
 storage is due principally to evaporation, which begins as soon as the fish are placed 
 in storage and increases as the ice coating is sapped from the surface. 
 
 Evaporation proceeds at very low temperatures, though not so rapidly as at 
 higlier ones; even at a temperature of O'^ F. the evaporation during two or three months 
 is considerable. The heavier the ice coating the less tlie evaporation, but it is almost 
 impracticable to entirely prevent it, and under ordinary conditions it amounts to 
 about 5 per cent in weight in six months, but the loss in quality is greater than the 
 loss in weight. 
 
 The method generally adopted of restricting evaporation other than coating with 
 ice is to wrap the fish in waxed or ))archment paper and place them in shipping 
 boxes whose length and width are slightly larger than the blocks and deep enough 
 to contain 4 or 5 blociis, or 120 to 150 pounds of flsh, the inside of the box being lined 
 with wrapping i>aper. 
 
 A method of largely reducing evaporation was invented and patented in 1880 by 
 Mr. W. B. Davis, of Detroit, Mich., but it is scarcely sufhciently practical for general 
 use, especially with cheap grades of lisli. It consists in freezing the flsh as above 
 described, cxcei>t that they are packed in fine pulverized ice in the pans before being 
 frozen, and when taken out of the i>ans the fish are found solidly imbedded and 
 incased in the block of pulverized ice. 
 
 Along the Great Lakes the most popular fish for cold storage are whitefish, lake 
 trout, lake herring, blue pike, saugers, sturgeon, perch, walleyed pike, grass pike, black 
 bass, catfish, and eels. In addition to these species the Great Lakes freezers receive 
 considerable bluefish and sipiefeague from the Atlantic. On the Atlantic coast 
 bluelish, halibut, s()nctcague, sturgeon, mackerel, fiattish, cod, haddock, Spanish 
 mackerel, striped bass, black bass, perch, eels, carp, and pompauo, are frozen. Salmon, 
 sturgeon, and halibut are the principal species frozen on the Pacific coast. 
 
 Some varieties of fish are so very delicate that it is not deemed profitable to freeze 
 them, especially shad, but even these are frozen in small quantities. Oysters and 
 clams should never be frozen, the best temperature for cold storage being 35^ or 40° F. 
 When stored in good condition they will keep about six weeks. As an experiment 
 they have been kept fi)r ten weeks, but storage fi)r that lengtli of time is not advisable. 
 Caviar also should never be frozen, but held at about 40°. Scallops and frog legs, 
 however, are frozen hard in tiu buckets and stored at a temperatuie of 16° to 18° F. 
 Sturgeon and other fish too large fitr the pans are frequently hung up in the storage 
 rooms by large meat hooks, and when frozen are dipped in cold water and stored in 
 piles. But when intended for shipment sturgeon are usually cut into pieces of suit- 
 able size for packing in the shipping boxes. 
 
 In some of the largest freezing houses on the Atlantic seaboard, which freeze and 
 store fish as well as other food proilucts, the fish to be frozen are simply hung up in 
 the sharp freezer, the heads being forced on to the sharp ends of wire nails protruding 
 from cross lathes arranged in series. After the fish are frozen they are removed and 
 piled in storage rooms, where the temperature is about 15^ or 18^ F. (See plate xii.) 
 
 Where the handling of fish is of minor importance comi)ared with other food prod- 
 ucts, the flsh are placed on slat- work shelves in either a special freezing room or in a 
 storage room where the temperature is kept below 20° (see plate xli, lower half), or 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 383 
 
 til ey are retained in bulk in baskets, boxes, or barrels in the same room; but these 
 methods are not productive of results even approximating those in the Great Lakes 
 fish-freezers and should not be used where quantities of fish are handled. 
 
 The cost of cold storage and the deterioration in quality make it inadvisable to 
 carry frozen fish more than nine or ten months, but sometimes the exigencies of the 
 trade result in carrying them two and eveu three years. In the latter case they are 
 scarcely suitable for the fresh-fish trade unless the very best of care has been exer- 
 cised in the freezing and storage, aud it is usually better to salt or smoke them. 
 
 The rate of charges in those houses which make a business of freezing aud storage 
 for the general trade is usually from i cent to 1 cent for freezing and storage during 
 the first month, and about half of that rate for storage during each subsequent month, 
 dependent on the quantity of fish. However, the cost of running a first-class plant 
 at its full capacity is probably less than one-third or even one-fourth of the minimum 
 above quoted, since it costs no more to run a storage room full of fish than one-fifth or 
 even one tenth full. 
 
 The refrigeration of fish on the Pacific coast, according to Mr.W. A.Wilcox, dates 
 practically from 1800, since when it has steadily increased, the aggregate shipments 
 irom Oregon and Washington in 1895 being 236 refrigerator carloads, or 5,872,533 
 pounds of fresh fish. This consisted chiefly of salmon from Columbia River and Puget 
 Sound, with 1,161,715 pounds of dressed sturgeon and a small amount of halibut and 
 smelt. Mr. Wilcox, on pp. 587-589 of the Fisii Commission Iteport for 1896, describes 
 the process of refrigeration and shipment as follows: 
 
 On the reception iif the lisli at the cold-storage plant they are washcil, wiped dry, and then 
 placed on racks attached to trucks; these are run into the freezing rooms where, in a round or 
 undressed condition, the fish are solidly frozen. From the freezing rooms the fish are taken to the 
 pa<-king and storage rooms and packed in cases holding 250 i)ouuds of fish each. In packing, no ice 
 is used. In some cases tlie fish are "glazed" with ice. This process consists in dipping the frozen 
 fish in tanks of water that are in a room with a temperature of 20- F. On removing the fish from 
 the water they are at once ghized or coated witli ice, repeateil dippings adding to the thickness of the 
 icy coat. Glazing is an extr.a precaution to keep the fish from the air. in some cases each fish is 
 wrapped in hrown rag paper, in oiled paper, and in hrown i)aper, as an ailditional protection from 
 tlie air. The fish having heen fro:^eu aud packed, the eases are removed to cold-storage rooms and 
 held until needed for shipment. When placed in the refrigerator cars the latter are charj,ed with ice 
 that, e.fcept from some unusual delay, lasts the entire trip to the Atlantic coast. 
 
 During the ]ia.st few years the experimental shipment of fresh frozen fish from America to Europe 
 has become of considerable importance. The pioneer shippers liad much to learn and their shipments 
 were often under many disadvantages. Sonu^times shipments arrived at their destination in prime 
 condition and again were only fair or poor. Frozen fish from America was a new article of food and 
 time was necessary to acquaint the peojde with them. The markets, as in this country, were often 
 lluctuating and shipments were sometimes sold at a loss. On the whole, results were satisfactory 
 enough to encourage aud build up this new branch of the fisheries. The shipments of 1895 included 
 300 tons of steelhead trout and 200 tons of silver and chiuook salmon. Until i|uite recently the stei'l- 
 head was but little thought of, but with the increasing demand for fresh fish it has grown to be the 
 most popular of the several 8|)eries shipped long distances. While not having as much oil as some 
 other S]iecies, it is a fine fish, and stands transportation much better than other fish of the salmon 
 family. One case is on record in which steelheads frozen solid and shipped to England, alter being 
 received and the frost removed, were placed on the market, and the fish had siiili a fresh look, as if 
 just from the water, that the dealer was arresteil for having on sale fresh fish illegally caught. 
 
 Hamburg is as yet the favorite point shipped to, from which the fish are distributed all over the 
 Continent. At New York the cases of frozen lish are traiisferreii from the ri^frigerator cars or cold- 
 storage rooms on shore to those on board of the steamer, the Hamburg steamers receiving and putting 
 in cold storage any number of cases of fish oBered. The distributions from Hamburg are made 
 
384 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 by packing cases of frozen fish into small truck cars holding from 1 to 2 tons each. The cars arc 
 taken upon local stc^amers that radiate from Hamburg to many far and near ports. During 1895 ship- 
 ments from Hamburg brought from 30 to 60 pfennig, (or from 7i to 15 cents) net a i)ound, freight 
 excepte<l. 
 
 In connection with the present quite large shipments of tish to Europe, notice of a small shipment 
 from New En.;land to Hamburg as far back as 1876 is of interest. During March of that year Mr. 
 J. L. Griffin, tlion engaged in the fish business at Eastport, Mo., maile an experimental shipment of 
 fresh frozen salmon that had been taken from the waters of New Brunswick. Mr. Griffin states: 
 
 "The salmon having been frozen solid were paclced in a box which was inclosed within a second 
 box with ail air chamber of li inches between thu Ipoxcs. These were placed inside of a third pa diing 
 case with a spaie of 1 ijii'li between, this space bring filled with sawdust. The fish arrived at HauL- 
 burgin good condition, hut could not find any market as fresh fro/.rn tish, smh an article then being 
 unknown. The frost having bjeu removed, the lisli were smoked and met a ready sale." 
 
 This small shipment not meeting with success, the attempt to introduce fresh frozen salmon from 
 the Atlantic coast to Europe was for the time discontinued. After many years, with new methods 
 of freezing, packing, and shipping, it has been successfully and extensively renewed from the Pacific 
 coast. 
 
 For the purpose of economiziug in freight charges on ice, the following method is 
 used for shiiiping frozen salmon and other fish from the Pacific to Atlantic coast 
 IJoints: The frozen fish are first carefully i)acked in boxes and placed in refrigerator 
 cars previously reduced to a low temperature, the floor of which is covered with 
 several inches of cold sawdust. Between the boxes of tish and the sides, ends, and 
 top of the car is a space of several inches, which is also filled with cold sawdust 
 tightly packed. When filled, the car is at once closed, and no ice is placed in the 
 tanks, as it is found by extensive experience that fish so packed for shipment reach 
 their destination in perfect condition, even after a passage of two weeks or more. 
 
 Messrs. Seufert Bros. Co., of The Dalles, Oregon, state: 
 
 With frozen salmon, the lish are frozen solid as soon as caught, piled in cold storage like cord 
 wood in a woodUouse, until time gives a chance for packing, which is done at our leisure. Then they 
 are dipped i '. cold water an 1 taken out at once. This forms a very thin coat of ice on them. They 
 are then wrapped in oiled paper with an extra heavy pajier wrapped over that. They are then put in 
 boxes of 300 pounds net tish, lined with paper, and held in cold storage as long .as one wishes. When 
 they are shipped in refrigerator cars we put 6 inches of sawdust on the floor of the cars. The boxes 
 are so made that we have about 2 or 3 inches space from the side of cars, which is filled with saw- 
 dust, and the top is tilled over with 6 inches of sawdust. This sawdust must be fine and dry. Then 
 we put 2 tons of ic(> in the car boxes with 2 sacks of salt, and the car is ready for a freight run across 
 the continent of from 11 to 14 days. On reaching New York the fish are put in cold storage. If they 
 go foreign, they go directly into the steamer's cold rooms and arc not opened until they reach their 
 destination. Frozen salmon will keep perfectly for 10 months; after that they lose ground. 
 
 The process of refrigeration api)lied to sturgeon on the Columbia Eiver when 
 shipped to eastern markets is as follows: 
 
 The fish are tirst Ijeheaded, eviscerated, and skinneil. The backbone is then removed and the 
 fish cut into suitable sections for freezing. The sections are packed into galvaiiized-iron pans 24 
 inches long, 16 inches wide, ai,d 5 inches deep. The pans are then put into a freezer charged with ice 
 and salt, and their contents frozen into solid blocks of fish weighing about 60 pounds to each pan. 
 The process is precisely similar to that in vogue on the (Jrcat Lakes for freezing fish. When frozen, 
 the fish are removed from the pans and packed in boxes, four blocks to each box, and then loaded into 
 refrigerator cars. The cars are charged with ice and salt to keep the temperature below the freezing 
 point. In winter the cars do not usually require to be recharged before they reach their destination, 
 but when the weather is warmer it is sometimes necessary to recharge with ice and salt once or more 
 while in transit. (Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1888, pp. 22(), 227.) 
 
 A process quite similar is applied to freezing sturgeon on the Delaware Eiver, 
 the frozen fish being then stored for the fall and winter markets. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 386 
 
 FREEZING FISH IN EUROPE. 
 
 An account of the condition of the frozen-tish trade in Europe has recently been 
 received from Mr. Nicolas Borodine, of tlie department of agriculture of the Eussian 
 Government, of which the followinf>" is a partial translation: 
 
 In the rogions of western Europe, not incliidiug Norway and Switzerland, the winters are so 
 mild that fish naturally frozen are not found on the market; hence a strong prejudice has arisen 
 among the (Jerujans and French against tish in that condition. They express the oi>iuion that frozen 
 fish lose their savory qualities, and they esteem them far less than the unfrozen. In consequence of 
 this prejudice frozen fish have not hitherto found much sale in the European markets, although efforts 
 have been made in that direction. 
 
 At the end of th(! eighties au attempt to procure fish in the frozen state throughout the entire 
 year was made at Marseilles. A company was organized there, under the name of the "Trident," 
 which had a sailing vessel furnished with apparatus for freezing fish caught on the west coast of 
 Africa. The selection of Marseilles as a market was unfortunate; in the first x'lace, beiauae the men 
 of the south, never having seen frozen fisli and not eating them, utterly refused to buy them; and, in 
 the second place, the inhabitants were entirely unaccustomed to the kinds of fish which were imported. 
 Hence the company was soon compelled to wind up its business. The spread of rejiorts of the worth- 
 lessness of frozen fish as food, of which the French were at that time convinced, contributed no little 
 to this failure. In their opinion tainted fish imported in warm weather were better than frozen fish. 
 Hostility was even aroused at first against fish brought in ice from Algiers to JIarseilles. These, they 
 said, are not fresh fish, but preserved fish, and therefore it must not bo sold in the market as fresh fish. 
 
 Another attempt of a simil.ar kind was made by the Norwegians in the Hamburg market in the 
 nineties. The North Cape .loint Stock Com|iany built a special steamer, the North Cape, with cold- 
 stoiage rooms (low temperature being obtained by means of machinery), which were filled with "Cadus 
 OflK^niis" (haddock). The steamer arrived at Hamburg with a full cargo. In the first year hardly 
 any customers wore found for the frozen fish, an-i a part of the cargo was carried back. According 
 to the reports for 1802-93 (see note by Mr. Heiuemann in Pisciculture of the World, 1893, No. 12, 
 p. 39.5), this company built a large cold-storage warehouse at Vardo, in Norway, at a cost of 200,000 
 German nuirks [$47,ti00]. The fish are caught on the sjiot, are frozen, and placed in the cold-storage 
 warehouse in a temperature of 5^ Reaumur [I8i ' F.]. The shipment on the steamer at that tempera- 
 ture is usually made in tlie autumn. A cold-storage warehouse for frozen fish, with a capacity of 
 21,000 poods,* was also built in Hamburg. A railroad goes to the warehouse, and the frozen fish are 
 shipped to any point in (ieruuiny by rail. 
 
 Fish are sent in a fresh state by rapid transit to Munich, Leipzig, anil Vienna. To give an 
 idea of the demand, it is stated in the note already quoted that of 9,000 poo<l8 shi|)ped to Hamburg 
 on the steamer North Cape, November 14 (26), 1892, 5,200 poods were sold in the first week and the 
 remaindiT of the cargo in the following week. 
 
 Judging by statements made in the German weekly, Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitiing, the prejudice 
 against frozen fish is rapidly diminishing, owing in great measure to the fact that frozen fi.sh are 
 sold much cheaper than fresh fish shipped in ice; and it may be .asserted that the same thing will . 
 occur in this case as in the case of the frozen meat from South America and Australia, which is now 
 sold in large quantities iu the gri'at C(uumercial centers. 
 
 In Paris the cobl-storage warehouse is under the Bourse, and is under the management of the 
 Compres.sed Air Company of Paris. The central station and the otlico of that company are 56 Rue 
 Etieune Marcel, from which point the compressed air is carried iu pipes to many places in the city 
 as a motive power. The employment of compressed air ior freezing purposes is Ijasod upon its rapid 
 expansion, by which the surrounding atmosphere is rendered extremely cold. For the rarefaction of 
 the com|iresse<l air conveyed into the basement of the Bourse a special engine is employed, by which 
 the refrigerated air is carried into the compartments formed liy the double wall of the refrigerating 
 rooms. The walls are lined on the inside with tin, painted a wliitish color, and on the outside with 
 materials which are noncoiuluctors of heat (layers of moss on wood). Every room is furnished with 
 a ventilator to carry off the damp air. There are 16 rooms, and each of them can be refrigerated 
 separately, and to any temperature near zero "or below zero. They are arranged on both sides of the 
 
 'One pood equals 36.112 pounds. 
 F. C. B., 1898—25 
 
386 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 main corridor. They are rented at 2 francs per square meter of surface if tlie goods are to be 
 subjected to a temperature above zero, and 3 francs per 9(|uare meter of surface if a temperature 
 below zero is "n'auted. 
 
 In London there are cold-storage warehouses at the Central Market, which lielong to a company 
 called "The Central Markets Cold AirStores, Limited." The iuunense cellars of the enormous London 
 meat market are used for these warehouses and liave a capacity of 1,000 tons. The warehouses are 
 used partly by the company itself, which does business in Australian frozen meat; and are partly 
 rented to butchers at .£2 per ton for four days. Besides meat a large quantity of game is stored here, 
 including 100 tons of poultry from Russia annually. The whole underground market consists of a 
 series of large rooms with thick insulated walls. A square wooden pipe, the sides of which are also 
 insulated, passes along the ceiling of all the rooms in the basement; and there are orifices in tliis 
 main pipe in every room through which cold air can be admitted. Here, too, the refrigerating 
 jjrocess is based upon the expansion of compressed air. At first the air is compressed by steam power. 
 It is then driven violently into a vacuum, where, as it expands, it lowers the temperature. From this 
 room the refrigerated air is conveyed into conducting pipes for general distribution. These engines 
 are built on the Bell &. Coleman system and are constructed in England by the firm of Holsam & Co., 
 Engineers, Derby. The temperature can he regulated at will. For meat it ranges from 14'^ to 9° F., 
 but never higher than 14-. 
 
 The exportation of frozen meat froiu .Australia has lately attained great dimensions. Forty 
 steamers, equipped with apparatus for the transportation of frozen fish, run to London. 
 
 Freezing by machinery, for the storage of fish, was first employed in Russia at Astrakhan, by Mr. 
 Supuk, who first built an ice barge for freezing by means of air engines of the Lightfoot system. 
 This occurred in 1888. In this new enterprise Mr. Supuk was subjected to great losses through his 
 failure to induce others to send their fish to his l)arge. Not obtaining any cooperation ou the part of 
 the fish-dealers of Astrakhan, and becoming convinced that he would have to procure fish for himself, 
 Mr. Supuk, in 1891, requested the aid of the Russian Fishery Association, which, however, could not 
 furnish him any material assistance, hut which, through its members and by articles in the press, 
 greatly contributed to tlie establishment of this new business. Recently Mr. Suj)uk's business has 
 been considerably enlarged and is ou a firm footing. 
 
 I borrow from Mr. A. K. Heinemaun, who inspected Mr. Supuk's ice barge at the time of its 
 construction, some of the chief details concerning it. Its capacity is estimated at 10,000 poods. 
 It is intended to freeze and to transport in the frozen state not only large but small fish. It is fit for 
 going to sea and for ascending the Volga as far as Nijni-Xovgorod. The cold-storage rOom occupies 
 nearly the whole length of the barge, and is formed by double walls with the space between them 
 filled with sawdust. The walls are at a little distance from the sides of the barge, and the ceiling of 
 the room does not reach the deck, so as to avoid heating. The engines stand, one in the bow, the 
 other in the stern of the barge. The chamber contains five sections, two of which serve for freezing 
 fish and the middle ones for storing fish. In the former the temperature is about 12 R., in the latter 
 it is kept at 2'-"' to 3- R. The capacity of the two freezing chambers is 450 to 500 poods [Xti,200 to 
 18,000 pounds]. The largest fish is I'rozen through and through in 24 to 3(i hours. The cold air, iu 
 its passage from the engines to the freezing chambers, is conveyed through a separate snow chambei-, 
 in which the superfluous moisture of the air is condensed in the form of snow ; from there the cold 
 air is conveyed through wooden pipes to the freezing chambers and the cold-storage rooms. The 
 admission of the air is regulated by espagnolettes. 
 
 Having procured the capital needed for the whole operation of the ]iurchase and sale of fish on 
 his own account, Mr. Supuk built at Astrakhan, ou the bank of the Volga, a stone edifice for freezing 
 fish and for storiug the frozen fish, and the barge is used exclusively lor the transportation of the 
 frozen fish from Astrakhan to Tsaritsin. On the whole, the undertaking proved very profitable, and 
 Mr. Supuk is extending his business, making improvements, and proceeiling to the construction of 
 a second barge, intended for the southern part of the Caspian Sea. The uew barge has a capacity 
 of 25,000 poods [450 tons] of fish. The freezing machine is ))laced in the middle of the barge. It is 
 furnished with electric light. 
 
 Freezing by machinery is carried on on a still larger scale by the great fish firm of Vorobieif, at 
 Petrovsk, which has built large cold-storage warehouses, at a cost of 185,000 rubles [.$71,865]. 
 
 A mixture, composed of ice aud salt, is employed for freezing fish at Mariupol and Henichesk. 
 
 Judging by the printed rejiorts, fish are frozen at Mariupol in tubs made for the purpose [4 by 2A 
 by 2 arshinesj with a capacity of 100 poods [3,611 pounds], in which the fish are kept for days in a 
 
PRESEP.VATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 387 
 
 mixture of ice and salt [10 per cent of the latter]. Wheu frozen, they are taken out and shipped in 
 Ijaskets by rapid transit to Kharkoff, JIoscow, and otlier great centers. 
 
 At Geuichesk the freezing of dolphins and sturgeon is carried on in an ordinary cellar constructed 
 on the seashore. lu the spring and autumn the cellar is nscd for salting the iish, and in the summer 
 when the dolphin fishery is mostly carried on in the sea, the chests from which the fish are taken are 
 used to freeze the fish. This is done in the following manner : A layer of ice, 1 arshine * in depth, is laid 
 on the bottom of the chest; this is covered with salt; on this is placed a layer of fish which is covered 
 with a fresh layer of ice and salt of half an arshine, and so on to the top. The fish remain in this 
 condition for 3 weeks, not longer, and are frozen, as in winter, in 24 hours after they are placed in the 
 chest. If it i3 necessary to keep the fish longer than 3 weeks they are taken out of the ice and placed 
 in boxes containing gratings in order that the cold may penetrate them aud to jirevent the fish from 
 becoming soft by not being sulSciently salted. If it is intended to take the fish out within a week, 
 the first layer of ice is made only one-half ar^shine deep and the others much less. The capacity is 
 7,000 poods of frozen fish. The whole shipment from Genichesk amounts to 20,000 poods every 
 summer. The frozen fish is shipped mostly to Kharkofi' where it arrives iu 24 hours, and may go as 
 far as Moscow. It is sent with great ra])idity, in baskets containing 10 jioods, with a mat over the top. 
 
 At the place of the catch the dolphins are sent direct iu fresh condition to the freezing establish- 
 ment, where they are frozen. On islands at a distance from Genichesk, ice is stored on the spot and 
 the fish are frozen there by being buried iu tlie ice, and are then shipped at night on sailing vessels 
 when the wind is favorable. 
 
 The same method has been employed recently at Uralsk for freezing sturgeon, and the frozen 
 sturgeon of the spring catch are shipped to Busuluk and Orenburg. In order to show the fish-dealers 
 the construction of the cold-storage rooms of the American typo, for the preservation of frozen fish, a 
 room of that kind was constructed at Uralsk after my plans. The whole operation of freezing the 
 fish and the construction of the room itself have been several times explained in this miniature ware- 
 house; aud an opportunity of inspecting it is ofi'ered at any time to those wishing to do so. 
 
 There is no doubt that freezing fish iu the ordinary ice-house appears to be the simplest 
 method, as it reijuires no special buildings and is done in the common cellar ice-house, part of the ice 
 in which serves for that purpose. The large fish, as I succeeded in ascertaining by personal observa- 
 tion, are frozen very thoroughly by this means and lose nothing of their external appearance. The 
 time during which the fish can be preserved by this method, however, is limited. The fish must be 
 taken out within a week or a week and a half; otherwise the brine acts upon the frozen fish, and it 
 becomes soft and dark. Besides, this method can only be applied where there is a large stock of ice 
 on hand, as is the case in vaults which are also used for other purposes. 
 
 In view of what has been said, we must conclude that for Russia, in i>la<es where there are 
 fisheries, the most expedient mode of cold storage consists in a combination of the vault and the cold- 
 storage rooms of the American type for the preservation of frozen fish. By means of such combination, 
 in the first place, the space may be used for the ordinary purposes of the spring and autumn salting; 
 in the second place, the largest fish caii be easily frozen by direct burial in the ice without any great 
 expense for labor; and iu the third place, when the frozen fish are taken out of the ice, they can be 
 stored for the longest period iu the cold-storage rooms of the American type. 
 
 FREEZING HERRING FOE BAIT. 
 
 The ileiiiaucl for fiesb lierriiifr as bait in the cod fisheries led, in 1890, to the build- 
 ing of a number of freezing bouses along the New lMii;laiid coast, \vhere shore herring 
 are frozen during the fall and kept for use during tiie winter and early spring. Jlost 
 of these wers of the direct anhydrous amniouia absorption system and were designed 
 by M. J. Paulson, of Gloucester. From 1800 to 1803 the foUowing plants, with the 
 designated capacities, were constructed : Gloucester, 4,500 barrels; Kockland, 10,000 
 barrels; Boothbay Harbor, 4,000 barrels; Provincetown, 3,000 barrels; North Truro, 
 3,000 barrels. The Kockland freezer did not pay aud was dismantled in 1894. The 
 walls of the storage chambers in these plants are thick and well insulated. About 
 the walls on the inside are ranged the ammonia pipes in nests of horizontal rows, the 
 
 * One arshine equals 28 inches. 
 
388 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 distance between the rows being 4 or 5 inches and between each pipe in th§ rows 3 or 
 4 inches. The herring are thrown on hand boards of lattice or small flake platforms, 
 which are placed on the various rows of pipes, and are frozen, the temperature during 
 the process being sometimes 15° F. or lower. They are afterwards stored in heaps on 
 the floor between the nests of pipes and additional fish are placed ou the lattice boards. 
 The plant at ^orth Truro, Mass., is thus described by the engineer, Mr. E. R. 
 Ingraham : 
 
 Our building is of wood, 100 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 3i stories high. Our sharp freezer is 
 on the third story; it is 70 feet long, 30 feet wide, 8 feet high, and contains 10,896 feet of li-inch pipe 
 arranged in four toils running the length of the building. The pipes are 12 inches from center to center. 
 Ujion these coils are placed wooden flakes, or shelves, 6 feet long and t feet wide. Upon these flakes 
 the fish are placed to be frozen. The capacity of the machine is 125 barrels in 24 hours. 
 
 As soon as the fish are frozen they are put down through scuttles into the storage rooms, which 
 are four in number and contain 8,400 cubic feet each. Here the fish are held at a temperature of 15'- 
 above zero. In our sharp freezer we carry a temperature of from 15"^ to 15- below. AVe have two 
 machines of the absorption type — direct expansion. The temperature of our condensing water is 52'-\ 
 We carry 140 pounds high pressure on the generator, 3 to 10 pounds on absorber, 40 pounds of steam 
 on generator, and liO pounds of steam on boilers. We burn on an average one ton of coal every 24 
 hours. The fisli are all caught in weirs about one mile from the storage. They are brought in boats 
 to the shore, where they are dressed and washed clean ; then they are hoisted to the top of the third 
 story, whence they go down through scuttles into the freezing room, where they are frozen solid. 
 
 There are also two iceand-salt refrigerator plants on the New England coast, one 
 at Gloucester, Mass., with capacity for 3,000 barrels of herring, and the other at 
 Boothbay Harbor, Me., for about 500 barrels. Some food-fish also have been frozen 
 in these refrigerators, but they are used principally for preserving herring for bait. 
 
 In the fall of 1S98 the schooner J. K. Manniny, 282 ton.s, and the barge TiIliiJ,425 
 tons, were fitted up at Gloucester with direct ammonia absorption freezers and sent to 
 Newfoundland for the purpose of freezing herring and squid for bait. The capacity 
 of the former is 3,000 barrels and of the latter about 2,000 barrels. 
 
 A very cheap and ingenious device, linowTi as the Wallems freezer, is used for 
 freezing small quantities of herring for bait in Norway and in Newfoundland. The 
 cost is small, the only materials required being ice, salt, and a stout barrel. Within 
 the barrel four wooden flanges are fastened to the sides and running diagonally or at 
 an angle with the axis. The barrel is one-half tilled with a mixture of crushed ice and 
 salt, in a proportion of about three parts of ice to one of salt, Iti case of ice not being 
 obtainable, snow will suffice. The barrel is loosely filled with fresh herring and headed. 
 It is then placed on its side and rolled on its bilge one or two turns forward and then 
 backward one or two turns, the rolling being continued for about 15 minutes, at the end 
 of which time the herring are generally thoroughly frozen, when they are placed in dry 
 sawdust until used. The flanges inside the barrel are placed at an angle with the axis 
 so as to aid in mingling the fish with the ice and salt when the barrel is rotated. 
 
 The rate at which the barrel should be rotated is easily determined by experience, 
 and the salt and ice may be used over again as long as they last, hut it is usually 
 desirable to add some additional salt and ice. For convenience in handling, the barrel 
 may be suspended from an axle and i-otated by means of a crank, the fish, ice, and salt 
 being admitted and removed through a hinged-lid opening in the side of the barrel. 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 389 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY DRYING AND DRY-SALTING. 
 
 Next to heat, moisture is the greatest aid in the development of bacteria, and its 
 removal constitutes one of the most important processes of preservation, being applied 
 to a variety of foods, as fruits, cereals, and occasionally to the curing of meats, but its 
 most important application is to the curing of fish. The moisture may be removed in 
 several ways — by exposure to the air, by iiressure, by combining with the fish certain 
 substances possessing a strong affinity for water, such as salt, by use of absorption 
 pads, etc. 
 
 Drying in the open air is the most ancient method of preserving fish, it being the 
 principal method in vogue among the PhcDuicians, and up to the present time it has 
 been emijloyed to a greater or less extent in nearly every fish-producing country, 
 either in its oinginal form or with certain modifications tending to assist in removing 
 the moisture. The use of salt performs a twofold function in curing fish, it acting as 
 an antiseptic as well as diminishing the amount of moisture. Fish can be cured 
 e(iuall y hard by resaltiiig with dry salt several times at suitable interv'als as by drying in 
 the open air. But the former is imprai'ticable on the score of economy and the latter 
 is not generally eaiployed exclusively, because of the unsuitable climatic conditions, 
 ;iiid in America it is most practicable to combine tlie two methods with the addition 
 of compression, the fish being first salted in butts and afterwards pressed and dried. 
 
 The original process of curing fish solely by drying in the sun is very little used 
 in this country, as there are few localities where the air is adapted to it. The Indians 
 of the Northwest dry a number of sijecies, among which are halibut, salmon, cod, 
 eulachon, smelt, etc., and at a few other localities some minor species are dried, but 
 the business is inconsiderable and there is no general trafBc in these products. 
 
 In Norway, Sweden, and liussia, and other countries of northern Europe, where the 
 air is comparatively free from moisture, cod are yet dried without the use of salt, but 
 Norway is the only country that prepares large quantities in this manner. The fish 
 are beheaded, eviscerated, and cleaned with sea water and suspended in the air on 
 stands about 8 feet high, where they remain for weeks, and even months, until they 
 are hard enough to withstand the strongest pressure of the tip of the thumb in the 
 thick of the flesh along the back without giving way, and it is necessary to soak them 
 in water for several hours before i)reparing them for the table. This is known as the 
 stockfish cure, and the annual product in Norway exceeds 400,000 quintals, which is 
 marketed in Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, and other countries, especially 
 those located in the Tropics. 
 
 In the TXjiited States, the British North American Provinces, France, Iceland, and 
 certain other countries the greater portion of the desiccation is performed by salt, the 
 fish being first salted and then dried ; but in each country the methods difter in some 
 particulars, as in the quantity and (quality of salt used, the extent of the drying, the 
 length of pressing, etc., depending not so much on the caprice and fancy of the 
 individual curers as upon the market for which the fish are intended, regard being 
 
390 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 paid to the appearance and keeping qualities of the product; In curing codfish for 
 the New Enghmd trade about 04 per cent of the moisture is removed — .59 per cent by 
 the salting and 5 per cent by pressing and drying. 100 pounds of split cod contain 
 about SO pounds of water; and, in the process of curing, .^l pounds are removed by 
 the action of the salt and Jri pounds by pressure and drying. Norwegian stockfish has 
 been freed from about DO per cent of moisture by atmospheric drying alone. 
 
 The principal marine i)roducts to which this process is applied are cod, liake, 
 haddock, cusk, pollock, mullet, shrimp, channel bass, banacuda, bonito, and salmon, 
 but as its ajjplication to the cod and its related species is the most extensive and 
 valuable, the methods of treating those S])ecies will be first described. 
 
 DRIED CODFISH. 
 
 In speaking of codfish generally the various species of Gadida common on the 
 New England coast are usually referred to, the most important being the cod (Gadus 
 callarins), haddock (Mchmogrammits a'i/iifini(s), i)ollock {PoJIacMus virrns), hake {Mvr- 
 lueius bilinearin), and cusk {Brosmius brosmc). Tlie pro])ortion of these entering into 
 the dried-fish trade is about as follows: Cod, 8i percent; hake, 10 percent; haddock, 
 '.J i)ev cent; pollock, 3 per cent, and cusk, 1 per cent. 
 
 The greater portion of the dry-salted codfish in America is obtained from the 
 bank fisheries, especially from Grand Banks and vicinity. Many are also received 
 from Georges and other neighboring banks, representing the surplus from the fresh-fish 
 trade. Gloucester is the principal market for this ai'ticle, while Portland, Province- 
 town, Boston, Boothbay Ilarbor, and other ports handle large quantities. 
 
 In large ports, especially Gloucester aiul Boston, most of the product is prepared as 
 boneless fish, but in the smaller places the fish are usually dried more thoroughly for 
 distant markets. During the eighteenth century and the early part of the jiresent cen- 
 tury codfish were prepared largely for export, and consequently were made quite dry, so 
 as to keep for several mouths in waiin, moist climates. At present, however, the great 
 bulk of the product is intended for domestic consunq)tiou and is not so thoroughly dried. 
 
 It was formerly customary for United States lishermen on the Grand Banks and in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence to land on the rocky shores of Newfoundland and other Bi'itish 
 Provinces to cure their fish. In that case the fish were split, salted, and kenched in 
 the vessel while on the banks, and ou landing they were dried upon the rocky beaches. 
 After curing the fish many of the vessels carried them directly from the provinces to 
 Spanish and other ports, where they were sold and a return cargo of merchantable 
 products was brought home. The privilege of lauding to cure fish was considered 
 quite valuable and occasioned much international controversy. By the treaty of 1818 
 the fishermen of the Ignited States were allowed to land and cure their fish within 
 certain prescribed limits, which were increased in extent by the Washington treaty 
 of 1871. But during recent years this privilege has been of no value, as the fishermen 
 have brought all their catch directly home to be pre])ared by regular fish-curers. 
 
 The present process of curing cod, haddock, hake, cusk, and pollock, which is 
 essentially the same as that in vogue a century ago, except in the amount of drying, 
 is as follows, this descrii)tion being especially applicable to the fishery on the Grand 
 Banks and to the preparation of fish for the domestic trade: 
 
 The dressing is begun as soon as the dories return to the vessel, or as soon as the 
 day's work is over when fishing from the vessel's deck or from shore boats. Unless 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 391 
 
 this be done the cured fish are likely to have a dark color and the flesh be broken and 
 loose, especially near the backbone. This is also noticeable in fish caught on trawl 
 lines wlien stormy weatlier prevents the overhauling of the trawls for two or three 
 days. Care should also be taken not to bruise the fish any more than is necessary 
 and to protect them from the sun by means of tarpaulin or otherwise, if they arc not to 
 be dressed for several hours. It would improve the appearance of the cured product if 
 the fish were bled as soon as practicable after removal from the water, but this is not 
 a common i)ractice in the 'Sew England fisheries, except in the vessel hand-line fishery, 
 when the tongues arc cut out, which is more particularly for the purpose of keeping- 
 count of each man's catch. The blood is subject to putrefactive action nuich more 
 readily than the flesh, and if it remains in the ])ores it causes the color of the flesh to 
 turn dark. The additional trouble of bleeding the fish would be slight, it being done 
 by cutting the throat and the large vein near the neck bone. 
 
 A dressing gang on the usual Grand Banks vessel consists of a "throater," a "gut- 
 ter," and a " splitter." The first named, taking the fish in his left hand by the head and 
 resting it on its back on the edge of the tub. makes a. transverse cut across the throat 
 immediately behind the gills, with a strong, sharp pointed knife. Introducing the knife 
 at this opening, he cuts down the belly, laying open the abdominal cavity, and making 
 also one cut on each side downward he separates the head from the sides. Then by 
 pressure simultaneously upon the head and the body, the neck resting on the edge of 
 the tub, he breaks ott' the head from the body at the first vertebra. The gutter, taking 
 the fish, opens the abdominal cavity with liis left hand and with his right haiul tears 
 loose and removes all the organs contained therein. The livers are thrown into a 
 separate recei)tacle, while the stomach and other organs are with the heads thrown 
 into the sea or into the gurry pen on the deck, whence they are discharged into the 
 sea on changing the berth of the vessel. 
 
 The fisii then passes to the splitter, who is provided with a knife rounded at the 
 end and with the blade slightly curved flatwise. With the back of each fish braced 
 against a cleat or batten nailed on the splitting board, he makes a long incision down 
 the ventral surface, continuing the opening made by the throater, and also makes 
 a straight, dean cut along the left edge of the backbone to the tail, inserting the knife 
 no deeper than is necessary for cutting out the backbone. With a horizontal stroke he 
 cuts through the backbone about two-fifths of the distance from the tail and loosens 
 it so that he can catch the end in his fingers. Grasping tliis with his left hand he 
 cuts under it toward the head of the fish and separates the upper thi-ee-fifths of the 
 backbone from the body, the lower two-fifths remaining in the fish. In this operation 
 the knife should be i)ressed close to the backbone, so that no flesh adheres thereto, 
 otherwise the fish will be thin through the back. In dressing pollock nearly all of the 
 backbone is removed because of the large quantity of blood along the bone. The 
 French curers leave more of the backbone in the fish than is customary in America 
 and elsewhere, and to remove the blood in the remaining portion they use a small iron 
 spoon. The cut through the backbone should be horizontal toward the head, passing- 
 through two or three vertebra, and it should not be deep enough to damage the muscles 
 lying. along the backbone and thus weakening the lower part of the fish. 
 
 After removing the sounds or air bladders the backbones are discarded. Sounds 
 sometimes sell at such a low price that it does not warrant saving them and they are 
 discarded with the backbones. A slight incision should be made along the remainiiig 
 part of the backbone to permit the escape of any blood that may remain. 
 
392 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The fish are then washed iu tubs of sea water or by sousing water over them, 
 especial care being talieu to clean the neck, the vemaiuing portion of the backbone, 
 and the vicinity of the dorsal fins, and to remove the dark membrane that adheres to 
 the napes. Even if the fish are dressel on shore, sea water is preferred for washing 
 them, as fresh water has a tendency to make them slimy. In washing them in tubs 
 the water should be changed frequently to prevent its becoming foul. 
 
 After the splitting and washing, with the subsequent draining, comes the salting, 
 which is accomplished in two ways, forming the kench cure and the pii:kle cure. In 
 the former the fish are placed with dry salt in regular j^iles or kenches, and the pickle 
 which forms is allowed to run off, leaving the fish dry, and in the pickle cure the fish 
 are salted in bntts or barrels which retain the brine. The kench cure makes a drier 
 product and one suitable for export to hot climates, but is rarely used in the United 
 States except in combination with the pickle cure. Generally in this country the fish 
 are salted in kenches on board vessel and in butts on shore. 
 
 In the Grand Banks fisheries, the fish, after draining, are passed to the Salter in 
 the hold of the vessel. Grasping eacli fish by the tail, he throws it upon the kench 
 or pile, flesh side or face up, and with a small scoop sprinkles over it a (luantity of salt. 
 The kenches are built up in regular order, the fish being laid head to tail, sjjread out 
 flat, with the back oi' skin down. 
 
 Salting requires considerable skill, the fish spoiling from insufiflcient salt and 
 deteriorating in flavor from an excess. As a rule, the less amount of salt required 
 for preserving the fish the better, but the salt should not be used S[)aringly. Some 
 fishermen, in order to nuxke their fish weigh heavy, put on too little salt and at times 
 lose the fish as a result. Thin fish require much less salt than thick ones, and less salt 
 is necessary in cold weather tlian in warm. Also those fish which are to remain a long 
 time before being used require more than those to be marketed quickly. Experience 
 is the only guide, but as a rule an even layer of salt thoroughly covering the fish and 
 leaving no vacant places or finger marks is sutticient. Coarse salt is ])referred to tine, 
 especially for fish that are not to be marketed for a considerable length of time, as it 
 does not go to brine so (]uickly. Formerly Cadiz salt, by which name all tlie Spanish 
 salts are called in tliis country, was used, but during recent years Trapani salt has 
 been employed ahnosr exclusively, the use of the former being abandoned on account 
 of its abundanci' of lime, which settles on the fish, and also its greater tendency to 
 impart to the fish a reddish color, attributed to some vegetable matter contained in 
 tlie salt, which develops rapidly during warm, moist weather. On an average, 1 
 bushel of Trapani salt is used to each hundredweight of fish in the Georges fishery, 
 while the Grand I'.anks fishery usually requires lA bushels to the hundredweight of 
 fish. Vessels engaged in the latter fishery usually carry about 200 hogsheads of salt 
 in pens or compartments, each pen holding 1.5 or 20 hogsheads, and as the pens are 
 emptied of salt tliey are used for storing the fish. The Georges lianks vessels, being 
 absent a much shorter length of time, do not carry so much salt. 
 
 The fish remain in kenches until the vessel arrives in port, care being taken that 
 no water reaches them. If the vessel is absent three or four mouths those fish caught 
 during the first month or so are generally rekenched and additional salt sprinkled 
 among them if it appears necessary. As the pickle accumulates and is driven out 
 from the fish in the middle and lower i)arts of the kenches by the pressure of those 
 above, the vessel must be punii)ed out frequently. Some fisherman claim that they 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 393 
 
 can determine from the quality of tlie pickle pumped out whether the fish are keeping 
 in good condition. If the pickle shows signs of being tainted, the fish must at once 
 be overliiiuled and repacked. 
 
 As soon as the cod are landed on the dock they are culled, the principal grades 
 being (1) large cod, which includes all over 22 inches in length salted; (2) medium or 
 small cod, between IC and 22 inches in length; and (3) snappers, which comprise 
 the lowest grade. If the trip is from other grounds than the Grand Banks, the "scale 
 fish" are separated from the cod; these comprise hake, haddock, pollock, and cusk. 
 Of the cusk, two grades have been made during recent years, namely : (1) large, cover- 
 ing all over 19 inches in length salted ; and (2) snappers, comprising all under 19 inches 
 in length. Each grade is weighed separately and the fish are washed with clean salt 
 water in tubs, vats, or old dories. If the fish have been kenched for two months or 
 more they are sometimes rubbed with bristle or palmetto brushes to remove surplus or 
 incrusted salt, etc. 
 
 They are next placed in large butts, usually old molasses or sugar hogsheads, 
 each having capacity for about 900 to 1,000 pounds of fish. From 2 to 4 bushels of 
 Trapani salt is sprinkled among the fish in each butt, this (juautity depending on the 
 degree and length of salting on the vessel. In the case of Grand Banks cod about 2J 
 bushels of salt are placed in each butt, whereas for Georges cod, which usually are not 
 so heavily salted in the vessels, about .3.J bushels are required. With the exception 
 of the bottom layer the fish are generally placed with the skin side up, but this is not 
 the universal custom, some turers placing all the fish fiesh up except the last two or 
 three layers. Fish in butts take the salt better if placed face or flesh side up, and 
 in case they have been only lightly salted it is best to place them face up; but if they 
 have been thorouglily salted on board the vessel it seems immaterial whether they 
 be placed face up or back up in the butts. The bottom layer is placed back down, to 
 protect the fish from the bottom of the butt, and the top layers have the backs up as 
 protection against dirt, dust, etc. On top of the pile is placed about half a bushel of 
 salt, to strengthen the weak pickle which floats up to the surface. In case the fish 
 have been but slightly salted on board the vessel, some curers hang over each butt a 
 baskefcontainiug about a bushel of salt, through which water is allowed to percolate 
 and, thus charged with brine, to flow into the butt, the salt in the basket being renewed 
 as it melts away. The fish remain in the butts under shelter until orders are received, 
 which may be a year or more, in that case inore salt being added from time to time; 
 but the sooner they are used after the first few weeks the better, otherwise they have 
 a tendency to turn yellow, or in case of pollock they turn dark. 
 
 When orders are to be filled the fish are removed from the butts and placed 
 flesh side down, except the first two layers, in kenches about 3 feet high, for the 
 purpose of pressing out some of the water and giving the fish a smooth surface, this 
 being known as " water-horsing." The following day they are again replied in a similar 
 manner, but with those fish in the upper half of the first pile placed in the lower half 
 of the second. The water-horse should be made a little higher in the middle than on 
 the sides, in order to facilitate the running of the moisture from the fish, and it 
 should be put on racks about 3 inches high, to protect the fish from the moisture, dirt, 
 etc., on the floor. In order to avoid water-horsing a second time, many of the curers 
 place weights on top of the first water-horse, this being most easily accomplished by 
 placing boards on the pile of fish and rolling empty hogsheads on top; but this is not 
 
394 BITLI,F,TIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 a desirable snbstitntioii for repiling, since the lower layers are thereby com]n'<'s.se<l 
 more tliau the upper ones. All handling of fish from the vessel's hold to l)e.i;iiining 
 the water-horse is generally done with pews or long-handled forks with one oi- two 
 prongs to each handle. 
 
 From the water- horse the fish go to the flakes, which are of two kinds, stationary 
 and canting, the former being the more common. They are about 2i feet high, 8 
 feet wide, and of convenient length, with passageways wide enough for handbarrows 
 between the stands. The horizontal top, resting upon ordinary wooden horses S feet 
 long and about 2 feet high, is in three i);irts: (1) The long joists 2 by 3.^ inches and 12 
 or 14 feet long; (2) the cross joists about I'j by 2 inches and 8 feet long; (3) the 1-inch 
 triangular strips, upon which rest the fish. Three of the long joists run lengthwise 
 of each stand, and to these are nailed the cross joists, about 12 inches apart, aTid to the 
 cross joists are nailed the triangular strips, 3 or 4 inches apart. At each end and 
 transversely at suitable intervals over the flakes are placed frames about 15 inches 
 above the flakes, upon which cotton awnings may be stretcheil when the sun is hot. 
 The canting frames ditfcr from the above in that they are fixetl only at the middle and 
 to a horizontal axis, so that they can be turned at an angle with the horizon, in order 
 to expose only the edge of the fish to the sun and to get the benefit of even a slight 
 breeze. With these flakes cotton awnings are dispensed with, but very few of them 
 are now used in this country, and they are practical only in yards running north and 
 south. At Gloucester many of the flakes are on platforms built over shallow water. 
 In Portland, Me., the roofs of the fish houses are used as resting places for the flakes, 
 and at Eockport, Mass., the flakes are built on tall posts overhanging the sloping 
 rocks, thus allowing the air to freely circulate beneath the fish. The old style of 
 brush Hake is not used at present on the New England coast, nor are codfish dried on 
 the beaches in the ITnited States, as is common in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. 
 About thirty years ago a form of flake was introduced having screens or slatted 
 frames, like those of window shutters, arranged to protect the fish from the weather 
 or to screen them from the rays of the sun, as circumstances may require, but its use 
 was never extensive. 
 
 In carrying the fish from the butts to the flakes they are placed on wheelbarrows 
 or on handbarrows, the latter being usually made of oak and consisting of two sticks 
 about feet long, with '> crossbars, each 21 inches long, 2i inches wide, and li inches 
 thick. For carting the fish from wharf to wharf a low platform 4- wheeled truck, called 
 a jigger, is in common use. 
 
 The principal troubles in connection with curing fish are flies, sunburning, and 
 softening. Flies are avoided by keeping the vicinity of the flakes clean and airy and 
 free from all putrefying refuse. During some years the flies are so numerous that it is 
 necessary to protect the slack-salted fish by sprinkling lime or salt about the flakes 
 and yard to destroy the maggots. Sunburning is prevented by protecting the fish from 
 the excessive action of the sun, and softening may result from a stinted use of salt on 
 board the vessel, or from wet, cloudy weather during the process of curing. Cod and 
 haddo(5k burn quite readily unless properly prote(;ted, but there is little danger with 
 hake and cusk, even on hot sunny days. Because of climatic conditions it is frequently 
 quite difficult to cure codfish during July and August on the New England coast, the 
 air being moist and the sun so hot as to sunburn the fish very quickly; but in October 
 and November little trouble is exxjerienced from this source. On the New England 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 395 
 
 coast the direction of the wind has considerable influence on the drying. Winds from 
 the nortliwest or soutlieast are usually dry and good for curing tisli, but under the 
 influence of southwest winds the fish are liable to burn, and when northeast winds 
 prevail it is extremely ditticult to dry the flsh. 
 
 Much difference exists in the extent to which the flsh are dried. 8ome are dried 
 for only a few hours and others for a week or more, depending on the market for 
 which they are intended. Some markets desire flsh from which 50 per cent of moisture 
 has been eliminated; others (JO |)er cent, and others 70 per cent, and since a larger 
 per cent of moisture removed represents a greater increase in labor and decrease in 
 weight of product, a curer endeavors to avoid drying them any more than necessary. 
 Those to be used in preparing boneless flsh are dried very slightly, 8 or 10 hours of 
 good sunning being sufticieut, while the export flsh must be dried for a week or 10 
 days. Every evening the flsh are placed, flesh side down, on the flakes, in small heaps 
 of 15 or UO, and a cover of wood, known as the flake box, is idaced over each heap to 
 prevent injury from dampness or rain. This cover consists of a rectangular box with 
 a peaked roof and is generally about 38 inches long, 22 inches wide, aud 14 inches 
 high, the whole being made of three fourths inch rough boai'ds. When the air is moist, 
 the fish are not spread out, but if the weather renders it necessary to keep the fish 
 l)iled up for several days, they are occasionally rearranged. 
 
 When preparing fish for export, after they have been on the flakes two or three 
 days they are placed in kenches under cover to "sweat," where they remain for two 
 or three days, when they are again spread on the flakes for a day or two. In some 
 instances the flsh are then dry enough for shipping, but usually it is necessary to 
 sweat them once more and again dry them for a day or so. The export flsh are 
 usually dried sufficiently hard to withstand the pressure of the thumb in the thick 
 part of the flesh without retaining the impression. During moist weather these fish 
 are likely to sweat and become soft; it is then necessary to "throw them," scattering 
 them over the flakes for a day or so. 
 
 Most of the export fish are what are known technically as "kench-cured." This 
 difi"ers from the above only in that the salted flsh on removal from the vessel's hold 
 are not placed in butts, but in kenches, skin down, in the warehouse, whence they are 
 removed as required, washed to I'eniove slime, undissolved salt, etc., and dried on the 
 flakes for three or four days in the manner last described. They are next replied and 
 sweated for two or three days, when they are dried again for a day or two, replied 
 and sweated for two or three days, and again dried for a day or two, when they 
 are ready for shipment. These flsh are slack-salted, but well dried, whereas fish for 
 the domestic trade are generally heavily salted, but only slightly dried. Hake and 
 haddock are rarely kenchcured, but the latter are not often exported from the United 
 States, although there is a steadily increasing exportation of them from Nova Scotia 
 to southern Brazil and to Cuba. 
 
 In case the flsh are fresh when received at the curing-houses, they are at once 
 beheaded, eviscerated, split, and washed in the manner described for vessels Ashing 
 on the Grand Banks. They are immediately placed in butts, with the flesh side up and 
 with about 7 bushels of salt to 1,000 pounds of fish scattered among them. The flsh 
 are piled in each butt until they extend a foot or two above the surfiice. On the 
 second or third day, after they have settled somewhat, a half bushel of salt is placed 
 on top. No pickle is added, as in case of Grand Banks fish, since the green flsh will 
 
396 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 make their own ijickle. The fish remain in these butts at least fifteen or twenty Qlays, 
 and as much longer as desirable, when tliey are removed, water-horsed, and dried on 
 the flakes, as already described. This is the true "pickle-cured" fish, the treatment 
 of the Grand Banks fish combining both the "kench cure" and the " pickle cure." 
 
 Pollock which have been salted only a few d;iys on the vessel are sometimes 
 placed in the butts and weak pickle is allowed to percolate through a basket of 
 salt over them for five to seveu hours. Or, if fresh, they are split, washed and 
 keuched, skiu down, with 1 or 2 bushels of salt to the 1,000 pounds of fisli, and on 
 the following morning they are placed in butts, back up, each butt being tilled with 
 weak brine, which leaks through a basket suspended over it. On removal from the 
 butts the fish are water-horsed over night and exposed on the flakes, back or skin 
 side up, for three or four days. By exposing them with the face down the danger of 
 sunburniug is removed and flies are less apt to injure them. Pollock cured in this 
 manner are always shipped whole for domestic trade and will keep for only a few 
 weeks. 
 
 In the vicinity of Jonesport, Me., a cure somewhat similar to tlie stockfish is 
 applied to haddock, except that the fish are first lightly corned. The method is 
 simple; the heads and viscera are removed, the bellies cut off, and the fish lightly 
 corned for a few hours. They are then tied together by the tails and suspended over 
 a pole or fence to dry, becoming quite hard and solid within a week or two. Small fish 
 are used, the average weight when dried being from 1 to 2 pounds, and the product, 
 which is very palatable, is entirely for local use. About -1,000 pounds of haddock are 
 annually prepared in this manner at Jonesport, yielding 1,300 x^ouuds of " clubbed 
 haddock," worth $125. 
 
 Dunfish is prepared in such a manner that the resulting article has a dun or 
 brownish color. It is of superior quality and is designed especially for use on the 
 table uncooked. The manner of curing is somewhat lengthy, and it requires umch 
 more care than curers ordinarily are willing to give to the preparation of fish for 
 market. The fish are usually caught in the winter or spring, and immediately after 
 being lauded are split and slack-salted, and then laid in piles for two or three months 
 iu a dark storeroom, covered for the greater part of the time with salt hay or eel- 
 grass and pressed with weights. At the end of that time they are dried for a few 
 days in the open air and are again compactly luled in a dark I'oom in the same 
 manner as before, for two or three months, when they are dried for two or three days 
 and are ready for market. The process of preparing dunfish made the Isle of Shoals 
 quite noted a century ago, but has fallen into disuse, though some is prepared there 
 each year. 
 
 Drake, iu Nooks and Corners of New England, says: 
 
 The "duu" or winter tish, formerly cnred here, were larger and thicker than the summer fish. 
 Great pains were taken in drying them, the lishermen ol'teu covering the "fagdts" with bedquilts 
 to keep them clean. Being cured iu cold weather, tliey required but little salt, and were almost 
 transparent when held up to the light. These fish sometimes weighed 100 pounds or more. The 
 dunfish were of great esteem iu Spain and in the Mediterranean ports, bringing the highest prices 
 during Lent. They found their way to Madrid, where many a platter, smoking hot, has doubtless 
 graced the table of the Escnrial. In 1745 a quintal would sell for a guinea. 
 
 The foregoing are the principal features in the curing of codfish on the New 
 England coast. The amount of salt required, the time for exposing the fish, the 
 length of the exposure, and so forth, are points which demand jjractical knowledge 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 397 
 
 obtainable only through long experience. The process of curing hake, haddock, cusk, 
 and pollock, except as above noted, differs iu no particular from that applied to cod. 
 They are dressed and split in exactly the same inaimer aud require about the same 
 amount of salting and similar treatment in every particular. Hake are not so likely 
 to sunburn as cod and need not be protected from the sun. Pollock turn somewhat 
 dark, and for that reason are not popular, but among connoisseurs are highly esteemed, 
 especially when slack-salted. 
 
 The loss in weight in dressing aud curing cod and other ground fish for the 
 domestic market ranges from ."iO to 65 per cent, according to the species, the season of 
 the year, and the extent of the salting and drying. The loss is greatest in case of 
 haddock and cod and least in curing cusk and hake. Generally, large fish decrease 
 more than small ones and large Shore decrease more than large Georges. From a 
 number of records made during different seasons, the following summary is obtained, 
 showing the average quantity of each kind of fish required to make a gross quintal 
 (114 pounds) of dried fish suited for the New England markets: 
 
 Speciea 
 
 Poiinds required to make a quintal 
 cured. 
 
 Round. 
 
 From the 
 knife. 
 
 From the 
 hutt. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 299 
 288 
 280 
 2S8 
 246 
 
 Founds. 
 206 
 193 
 184 
 190 
 178 
 
 Founds. 
 133 
 131 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 
 Cod . . .. 
 
 
 Hake 
 
 Cusk 
 
 Fresh split cod ready for curing contains about SO per cent of water and 1;^ per 
 cent of salt. A large percentage of this water is withdrawn by salting, some by drying, 
 and a much smaller quantity by compression, the latter process also removing a small 
 quantity of the salt in the form of pickle. The resulting product, when prepared for 
 the domestic trade, contaiii^s about 51 per cent of water and 19J per cent of salt. The 
 stockfish of Norway contains about 17 ])er cent of water and li per cent of salt. 100 
 pounds of cod, as they come from the water, will weigh about 00.9 pounds, dressed 
 ready for salting, of which about 53 pounds represent water and 1 pound represents 
 the weight of salt. The process of curing for domestic trade adds about 6.2 pounds of 
 salt and removes about .'U.l pounds of water, of which 31.1 iiouiuls are removed by 
 the salting and 3 jiounds by the pressing and drying. This results in 38.8 pounds of 
 dry-salted fish, of which 18.9 pounds represents water aud 7.2 pounds salt. By con- 
 tinuing the drying process and removing more water the keeping qualities of the fish 
 are improved, but since it decreases the quality of the flavor as well as the weight of 
 the fish, and adds to the cost of (iiiring, it is not desirable, unless the fish are to be 
 shipi)ed to a warui climate and held there for a long time. To make a quintal of 
 domestic-cured codfish reciuires 193 pounds of s,\A\t fish or 288 pounds of round fish, 
 whereas to make an equal (luantity of fish suitable for export to Brazil requires about 
 350 pounds split, and for 114 pounds of Norway stockfish about 474 pounds of split 
 fish or 708 pounds of round fish are reijuired. 
 
 Tiie co.st of the labor, salt, etc., varies in accordance with the fish being handled, 
 the condition of the weather, the amount of drying required, tiie facilities for hand- 
 ling the fish, etc., but generally runs from 38 to 50 cents per quintal, of which 15 to 
 
398 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 18 cents represents tlie cost of tlie salt. It usually costs more to cure fish in July and 
 August than in October, be(!ause of the greater difficulty in drying and consequently 
 the increase in number of times that the fish have to be handled. An examination of 
 a number of itemized accounts shows the average cost of handling cod from the round 
 to the cured ijroduct to be 43 cents per quintal; haddock, 46 cents; hake, 40 cents; 
 pollock, 43 cents; cusk, 43 cents. If the fish have been .salted on the vessel the cost 
 of handling ashore will be reduced by the labor required for dressing, splitting, and 
 .salting, and by the decrease in amount of salt useil, and ranges between -8 and 38 
 cents per quintal. When green split cod costs If cents i^er pound, a quantity suffi- 
 cient to make a quintal gross (114 pounds) would cost $3.84, and the cost of handling 
 averaging 43 cents per cpiintal, it is necessary to sell the cured product at $4.27 per 
 quintal gross to clear expenses. This cost of labor is so .small, compared with the 
 original cost of the fish, that it pays to take the utmost care in the process of curing. 
 
 The principal grades of dry fish are Georges cod, Shore cod. Grand Banks cod, 
 h;ike, cusk, haddock, and pollock. Each grade of cod is further divided into large, 
 medium, and small. Georges cod are generally the largest and choicest received, and 
 are taken on Georges Bank, South Channel, Bi-owns lUmk, and adjacent flshing- 
 grounds. The.se fish are usually heavily salted and dried only a day or so. The 
 Grand Banks cod or " Bank cod " are taken on Grand and Western banks and Ban- 
 quereau and are usually dried longer than the Georges or Shore cod. During recent 
 years cusk have been divided into two grades, hirge and small, the former comprising 
 all over 10 inches in length as received from the vessel. The prices of codfish vary 
 according to the conditions in which they are sold, and probably the best guide to the 
 comparative values of the different .species may be obtained from an examination ot 
 the prices received as they are landed fnmi the vessels. 
 
 The following shows the prices per quintal of the i)rincipal grades of salt fish on 
 the Boston and Gloucester markets in January, Aj^ril, July, and October, 1898: 
 
 Deaignation. 
 
 January. 
 
 April. 
 
 Jnly. 
 
 October. 
 
 
 $6.25 
 
 4. Oil 
 
 5. OU tn $.'•). 25 
 3.60 
 
 4. 00 to 4.25 
 
 3.50 
 
 2. 25 lo 2. 37* 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.50 
 
 2. 75 to 3.00 
 
 .$.5.50(0*5.75 
 4.00 
 
 5. 00 to 5.25 
 3.50 
 
 4. 00 to 4.25 
 3.50 
 
 2. 25 to 2.50 
 2. 00 to 2.25 
 3.50 
 2.75 
 
 $5.50 
 3.75 
 4.50 
 3.00 
 
 4. 00 to $4. 25 
 3. 25 to 3.50 
 2. 00 to 2.25 
 
 2. 00 to 2.25 
 
 3. 25 to 3.50 
 2. 75 to 3.00 
 
 $5. 75 to $6.00 
 
 3. 50 to 3.75 
 
 4. .50 
 
 3. 00 to :i.25 
 
 4. 00 to 4.25 
 3. 50 to 3. 75 
 1.75 to 2.00 
 
 2. 00 to 2.25 
 
 3. 50 to 3. S^ . 
 2. 50 to 3.00 
 
 
 Shore cod. large 
 
 
 
 Hake 
 
 Haddock 
 
 Pollock 
 
 For the local market or nearby trade the whole fish are packed in rough bundles 
 of one ipiintal, or 112 pounds, each, and tied with cords, or in wooden boxes holding 
 from 100 to 450 pounds each. The 4.'J0-pound boxes are 40 inches long, 22 inches 
 wide, and 16 inches deep, inside measurement. At Gloucester, Boston, Vinal Haven, 
 and Portland large quantities are prepared as boneless cod (see pp. 400-405). In 
 packing for expoit trade the fish are placed princii)ally in drums made of birch 
 staves, with ends of pine and 8 hoops on each drum, and with capacity for 1, 2, 4, 
 or 8 quintals, tightly compressed. 
 
 The curing of codfish on the Pacific coast of the United States began in 1864 and 
 has been continued with more or less success up to the present time, the annual yield 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 399 
 
 now amoiintiDg to over 5,000,000 pounds, at an average value of about 3A cents per 
 pound, most of the catcli being- made by vessels sailing from San Francisco and oper- 
 ating in Bering Sea or at fishing stations on the islands bordering that sea. The 
 methods pursued in the curing arc not dissimilar to those in vogue on the l^ew England 
 coast. A small percentage are marketed hard dried with the skin on and the bones left 
 in, being tied up in bundles of 75 to 100 pounds; but most of them are prepared as 
 boneless fish after tlieir receipt at San Francisco. The product is marketed through- 
 out the Pacific coast and exported to Australia, the Hawaiian Islands, and tlie Orient. 
 According to Mr. Wilcox, Pacific coast boneless codfish has been most favorably 
 received in Australia, where it has nearly driven the hard-cured stockfish of northern 
 Europe from the market. Large {piantities of dried codfish from New England are 
 shipped to the Pacific coast, especially to San Francisco. 
 
 REDDENING OF SALTED CODFISH. 
 
 Considerable trouble and loss have resulted to the dried codfish trade from the 
 tendency of the prepared fish to turn red some time after it has been dried. It is 
 especially noticeable with fish that have remained in the hold of the vessel for a long 
 time, and occurs but to a limited extent with fish brought in on ice and then cured. 
 It is attributed to various causes, among which are the removal of the gluten by 
 pressure and the oil becominir partly rancid through age, but the most generally 
 accepted theory is that it is due to vegetable organisms in the salt, especially in that 
 produced by the evaporation of sea water by solar heat. 
 
 At the instance of the United States Fish Commission, in 1878, Prof. W. G. Farlow, 
 of Harvard University, made an investigation of the cause of this color and the means 
 of remedying it. He attributed the trouble to a minute plant (Chilli roryntis romo- 
 persicina), consisting of minute cells filled with red coloring matter. This plant was 
 found on the floors and walls of the packing houses, and also in the holds of some of the 
 vessels. It exists to a considerable extent in Cadiz salt, but not in Trapani salt, and 
 when the latter is used the discoloration is not so likely to result. Consequently 
 Trapani salt has almost entirely superseded the use of Cadiz salt in curing codfish. 
 But even when Trapani salt is used the lish is likely to turn red, and in order to 
 destroy the organisms the buildings are usually whitewashed inside as well as outside 
 at least once a year. To overcome this diihculty it has been recommended that 
 boracic acid be added to the pickle in the proportion of not less than 3 per cent of the 
 water used. 
 
 With the view to counteract this reddish tendency in cured fish, a method was 
 patented* in 1883 by K. S. Jennings, of Baltimore, Md., by which the salted fish is 
 snbjectcd to the action of sui)erheated steam (u- hot air to destroy the organic life in 
 the salt with which the fish have been cured. He employed an endless woven wire 
 apron hung on lollers and having within it a narrow box or pipe with a perforated 
 toi). Into this box or pipe air or steam heated to a temperature of 400° or 450° F. is 
 forced and discharged from it against the fish placed on the endless apron, the apron 
 being revolved at such speed as will expose each fish to the action of the heat for 
 about two seconds. It is claimed that by this method the exterior of the fish is 
 heated sufficiently to destroj' the germs without iujuiiug the appearance or qualities 
 of the fish, but the process has never been adoiited by the trade. 
 
 * See Letters Patent No. 273074, dated Februaxy 27, 1883. 
 
400 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Many curers endeavor to prevent this redness by sprinkling a small quantity of 
 boracic acid and common salt over tlie flsli. About 1 pound of the acid is used to 40 
 pounds of fish. This article was introduced in the codfish business about 1881 and 
 is now quite generally used, particularly during the warm months, when it is found 
 almost essential in order to keep dry fish in good condition for a few weeks or even 
 days. It is generally employed in the form of a proprietary compound. 
 
 In discussing the cause of the discoloration of Pacific coast codfish a prominent 
 flsh-curer of New England states : 
 
 The Alaska codfish turn oft'-color for precisely the same reason that our Grand Banks codfish do, 
 when caught on long trips. The fish are piled very high in kecches, and the pressure of the upper 
 tiers offish crushes tlie fibers and sacs between the fibers and all tUe white gluten is pressed out. In 
 a Dutshell, the cause of codfish turning yellow is pressure. Our Georges codfisli are caught liy vessels 
 which are very seldom out over a month, and a fare of 30,000 pounds in that tinu? is considered a good 
 catch. These fish are all caught with hand lines. They are never piled higli in the kenehes, as there 
 is no need of it, for there is plenty of room in the vessel for 30,000 pounds witliout piling them high, 
 and so they are put into very shallow kenehes. They hold their weight, which is a saving to the 
 fishermen, and they hold tlieir color simply because the fibi'rs and sacs which hold the white gluten 
 are never crushed. Our (iraiul Banks fleet are gone from G loucester all the way from two to four months, 
 and if they have hard luck are sometimes gone six months. If one of them comes in with a full fare 
 in two months, her fish will be very much whiter on the average than one that has been out twice or 
 three times as long. The fish may be piled up to the deck of the vessel and the fish in the lower part 
 of the kenehes may be pressed very hard and the fibers and sacs crushed and then fish will turn yellow ; 
 but if she stays out twice or three times as long they will be yellower still, because tliey have been 
 pressed so much longer. But the greater part of her fish, viz, the latest ones that she caught and 
 the tops of the kenehes, will be white. The nearer the top the whiter the fish ; the nearer the bottom 
 the yellower the fish, and all due entirely to the amount of pressure they have received. I understand 
 that the vessels that fisli (m tlie Alaska fishing-grounds are very large vessels, brigs, or barks, and they 
 fish six months and bring in fares of half .i million pounds or more and they are pressed too much. 
 The only way that Alaska codfish can be m.ade to hold their color is to send smaller vessels and bring 
 smaller fares. The smaller tlic fare, if caught (jnickly, the whiter the fish. The longer the trip and 
 the larger the fare, the yellower the fish. If you will examine transverse sections of Georges codfish 
 and Grand Banks codfish from the top to the bottom of the kenehes with a microscope you will notice 
 that the fibers of the Georges arc full of white gluten while those of the Bank codfish are crushed 
 and flattened down, and there will be a variation in the fish according to the part of the kench they 
 come out of. Grand Banks codfish and Alaskan, I think, are caught on trawls and tbcy struggle on the 
 bottom ; while they are worrying on the hook and struggling to escape, the blood settles in against 
 the skin. They may be very white on the face for all that, if they are well washed and soaked before 
 salting. 
 
 PREPARATION OF BONELESS CODFISH. 
 
 The preparation of boneless codfish is doubtless the most important development 
 in the handling of dried fish during the present century. For several years prior to 
 1870 the need was felt of .some method of packing dried fish in neat packages of small 
 but definite weight. A number of processes were devised and patented, but very few 
 of them were found of i)ractical value. 
 
 In 18G.S William D. Cutler, of Philadelphia, Pa., patented* a process by which the 
 flsh were divested of skins and bones and run through a machine adapted to grinding, 
 so as to thoroughly disintegrate the fiber of the fish, and if very fat and oily the 
 disintegrated mass was then subjected to pressure to remove the sujierabundance of 
 oil. It was then spread upon metal, stone, or other suitable surface, heated by means 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 81987, dated September 8, 1868. 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 401 
 
 of steam pipes passing beueatli the slabs, where it remained until thoroughly dry, 
 probably from ^ to 3 hours, when it was placed iu close paper or woodeu boxes, each 
 coutaining 1 pound or other suitable quantity. The product was somewhat similar 
 to the article prepared in JTorway from stockfish and sold as "fish meal." Several 
 thousand [)ounds of codfish were prepared in this manner and sold under the name 
 "desiccated fish." This method was expensive, and the article lai;ked ijreservative 
 qualities, being affected by atmospheric conditions to such au extent as to impair 
 its food qualities; yet while the process extended little beyond the experimental 
 stages, it was suflicient to attract the general notice of the trade and encourage the 
 invention of methods of preparing a similar article. 
 
 A few mouths later Elisha Crowell, of New York Uity, invented* a process that 
 difl'ers little from the present method of preparing boneless codfish. 
 
 The following description is given by Mr. Crowell : 
 
 The object of this invcutiou is to so prepare coil auil other tish that it shall he. divested of every- 
 thing not edible -which iiunecessarily adds to its weight and bulk, aud shall Ive redueed to the most 
 convenient form for handling and transportation, while at the same time it is sufficiently protected 
 from the action of the air. The nsiial method of iirepariiig such lish heretofore employed consists 
 simply in salting and drying the fish in large pieces, each piece being generally one-half or the wh(de 
 of a fish. In this condition It can not be conveniently packed iu small boxes, .and is therefore exposed 
 to atmospheric influences wnlch injure its quality and taste. From the same cause it is not in a 
 convenient condition for transportation or handling, and the refuse portions atld unnecessarily to 
 its weight, while also deteriorating the ((uality of the article as an article of sale and common use. To 
 obviate these disadvantages one manufacturer has ground up the fish, but when treated thus the air 
 reaches directly every fiber of the lisli and soon destroys its taste, besides drying it up to such a 
 degree that it becomes hard and "stringy" aud after a timealmost unfit for use. It can also be easily 
 adulterated, eitlior with foreign sul)stances or with the ground skin aud bones or fish improiierly 
 cured. In order to overcome all these disadvantages and produce au article which shall jiossess and 
 retain all the delicate flavor of the codfish, while entirely clear of useless matter, aud in the most 
 convenient possible condition for transportation, I remove the bones and skin, either liefore or after 
 salting, and then cut up the fish into long, narrow strips. These strips I expose to the drying action 
 of a current of air either naturally or artificially induced, so as to remove the moisture from the fish 
 sufficiently for its preservation. The fish may bo cut up or stripped still more between one drying 
 operation and the next. Salt is not usually applied during the operation. The strips thus produced 
 are then cut into suitable lengths aud packed in boxes, kegs, or barrels to exclude the atmospheric 
 iullueuces as far as possible. The retailor can pack the article in small boxes containing half a pound 
 or a pound, etc., for the convenience of himself and his customers. 
 
 In 1869 Benjamin F. Stephens, of Brooklyn, N. Y., patented t a modification of the 
 process invented by William D. Cutler during the preceding year, this being a satura- 
 tion of the compressed and granulated lish with glycerin to keep it moist and prevent 
 extreme dryness. During the same year Joseph Nickerson, of Boothbay, Me., intro- 
 duced a somewhat similar process, J consisting in removing the skins, bones, etc., from 
 the salted fish, reducing the flesh to a granulated state, and then steeping it in 
 brine until every particle of the mass was completely penetrated by the brine, after 
 which it was pressed into molds, the pressure serving the double puri)ose of forcing 
 out all surplus moisture and reducing the tish to hardened cakes of convenient size. 
 Neither of these two processes has ever been used to any noticeable extent. 
 
 • Letters Patent No. 84801, dated December 8, 1868. 
 t Letters Patent No. 87986, dated March 16, 1869. 
 t Letters Patent No. 88064, dated March 23, 1869. 
 
 F. C. B., 1898—26 
 
402 15ULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 A somewhat novel idea is set forth iu Letters Pateut No. 90334, granted ou May 
 25, 1SG9, to John Atwood, of Provincetown, Mass. He states: 
 
 The object of my inveiitiou is to produce a wholesome article of food iu tlio nature of pre])ared 
 fish that shall be reasouable iu price, couveuieut for cookiug, aud free from ott'eusive odor. The old 
 method of drying fisli is well kuown, aud is open to many apparent objections. The new method of 
 lircjiariug fish by desiccation is so expensive as to nuakethe price of the article to consumers a serious 
 olijcctiou to the method. The cause of ordinarily cured fish haviug an offensive odor at all times, 
 but more especially when the atmosphere is nn>ist, is the mucous membrane between the skin aud 
 the flesh, which, when dried and afterwards moistened, becomes slimy and ofi:ensive. This is peculiar 
 to the old method of curing and bundling fish. My method of preparing fish, which is particularly 
 applicable to cod and haddock, is as follows: When the fish is fresh I take out the principal bones 
 and fins, the fish remaining whole or split in halves. When partially dried or cured with salt I 
 remove the skin, aud with it the entire mucous membrane, the cause of the ofteusive odor of salt 
 fish. I then jiack iu light wooden boxes of convenient size — for instance, from 10 to 100 pound boxes, 
 i'ish prepared after this method is white, clean, and sweet, aud will keep for any length of time. It 
 will not dry up aud lose its flavor like the desiccated article, but remains moist and keeps the palatable 
 flavor.of freshly cured fish. It can be freshened for the table in a few minutes, and can be brought on 
 whole, as it is often desired to do so. This can not be done by fish cured by the old method, nor by 
 any other modern process. 
 
 It appears that these numerous patents were obtained all within a period of nine 
 months, and it is claimed that about the same time other persons prepared dried fish, 
 stripped of skins and bones aud packed in small boxes, without applying- for patents. 
 At first only the inferior grades of fish were used, but as the new article met with a 
 ready sale greater attention was given to tlie quality of the preparation. In 1870 
 three fl.shdealers iu Gloucester ])repared this article, besides several concerns iu other 
 parts of New England. The trade increased considerably, and in 1875 over 500,000 
 pounds of boneless fish were prepared in Gloucester aloue. Nearly all of these fish were 
 prepared in a manner somewhat similar to that of Elisha Orowell, and at first the 
 preparers paid a royalty to him. Becoming dissatisfied with certain di.scriminiitions 
 made by Crowell iu favor of particular firms, several dealers in Boston successfully 
 contested his right to the royalty. Almost immediately the business assumed large 
 proportions, and in 1879 about 12,000,000 pounds of boneless fish were prepared iu 
 Gloucester, and over (5,000,000 pounds in other New England ports, giving employment 
 to nearly 400 persons. At present the output of boneless cod amounts to about 
 25,000,000 pounds annually, most of which is prepared in Gloucester, the remainder 
 beiug put up at Boston, Provincetown, Portland, Vinalhaveu, etc. 
 
 The geueral process of preparing boneless fisli is as follows: From the fiake yard 
 the dried fish go to the "skinning loft." In skinning, each fish is placed flesh side 
 down ou the skinning board, consisting of a soft piue block about 30 inches long, 20 
 inches wide, and 2 or 3 inches thick, or of an inch pine board of similar length and 
 width resting on two end supports. The dorsal, anal, and ventral tins are first cut 
 away with a knife mnch like a splitting knife; theu grasping the skin at the napes 
 the workman strips it off, usually in two pieces. The nape bone is sometimes torn out 
 in the operation of removing the skin, but generally it is removed with a small iron 
 gaff called a "bone hooker," which is about 8 inches long, with a curved shank and 
 sharp point. The workman then turns the fish flesh up and cuttiug under the lowei' 
 end of backbone or tail bone removes it. The dark membrane is then torn from the 
 napes and any dark portion of the flesh cut away. Sometimes in dressing very choice 
 fish a workman removes all the ribs and other small boues, making what is known as 
 "absolutely boneless" fish. Aud in boning hake aud other small aud cheap fish the 
 
PRESERVATION i)F FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 403 
 
 tail lioiie is freiiueiitly left in, and sonicl lines the nape bones also, this being known 
 as "(Iiessed fish." Hake and haddock are the easiest tish to preitare, and cusk are 
 the most ditiUcult. The cost of skinning and boning ranges from 25 to 40 cents per 
 100 pounds of prepared fish, depending on the class of fish handled. 
 
 Tlie ordinary knives for catting boneless fish have hook-tipped blades from to 7 
 inches in length, with white pine handles. For cutting cusk, which have tough bones 
 and skins, a special knife is required, called a "cusk-bone knife," the blade of which is 
 of finely tein[)cred steel, about If inches long, f inch wide, and -^\ inch thick at the 
 back, with a square end. The handle is about -ti inches long by lA inches thick at the 
 butt, tapering to a point at the blade end. 
 
 The following summary shows the result (in pounds) from skinning and boning a 
 quintal of the various grades of fish : 
 
 Condition. 
 
 Large 
 
 Georges 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Large 
 
 Bank or 
 
 Shore 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Small 
 
 Georges 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Small 
 
 Bank or 
 
 Shore 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Had- 
 dock. 
 
 Hake. 
 
 Cask. 
 
 PoUook. 
 
 Tail and nape bones in 
 
 Tail bone in, n.ipe bones out. . 
 Tail and nape bones out 
 
 Potinds. 1 Pounds. 
 96 93 
 
 Poundt. 
 
 Pounds. 
 90 
 85 
 82 
 
 Pounds. 
 90 
 82 
 
 78 
 
 Pounds. 
 91 
 85 
 82 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 97 
 94 
 
 93 92 , 85 
 
 gg A7 1 H^ 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 After being skinned and boned the lish are sprinkled with an antiseptic powder 
 composed principally of boracic acid and chloride of sodium or common salt, and 
 placed ill many sizes and styles of [)ackages, containing from 500 pounds down to 2 
 pounds. The boxes are made of siiruce or pine, and the small ones, 5 pounds and 
 under, usually have a sliding cover. The most popular sizes are 40 and GO jiound 
 boxes, the dimensions of the former being usually 20 inches by 12 inches by 5 inches, 
 inside measurement, and of the latter 20 inches by 12 inches by 8 inches, inside. In 
 the larger size boxes the fish are usually placed without being cut. A neat way is to 
 place two halves together, as in the round fish. Others are loosely rolled aud placed 
 with the shoulders at the ends of the box and the tails overlapping, and choice 
 Georges fish look very nice in that manner. Frequently when i)acked in the 40 or 00 
 pound boxes each individual fish is cut transversely the width of the box aud folded 
 over itself. Thick flsh are sometimes cut transversely and each piece split and folded 
 over in such a manner that the clean cut appears outside. The fish are also sometimes 
 cut transversely across the fiber, and tightly packed in boxes with the fiber running 
 perpendicularly. In the small boxes the fish must of course be cut in much smaller 
 pieces. The Spound boxes usually measure 10 inches by 8 inches by 4 inches. 
 
 During the past fifteen years the packing of boneless codfish in 1 -pound and 
 2 pound ''bricks" has become very iwpiilar. The skinned and boned fish are cut into 
 small pieces (J inches long and 3 inches wide, as nearly as practicable, the cutting being 
 done either by hand, by treadkiiives, or by special machinery. Two pounds weight 
 of these are carefully placed in press compartments inches long by 3 inches wide 
 aud 3^ inches deep, care being taken to have choice square pieces at the bottom and 
 at the top, and either two or four strings of cotton twine are run through slits in the 
 compartment, so as to pass under and around the brick of fish. The fish are then 
 tightly compressed for a few moments, and ou removing the compression the strings 
 are tied and the brick is removed. Many formsjsf presses are employed, the most 
 usual cousisting of a sliding box having two or three compartments, each of the size 
 
404 BULLETIN OF THE ITNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 noted, and so arranged that a band or foot lever forces a block down in one compart 
 inent at a time. The |)rc.ssiire remains while the lisli are being- placed in the second 
 compartment, and when it is released the box is slid along until the second compartment 
 comes under the press, when the brick is removed. When 1-pound bricks are desired, 
 the 2-pouud packages are cut in lialf. The bricks are then sprinkled with antiseiitic 
 powder, wrapped in parchment or waxed paper, anil placed in the packing boxes. 
 
 A pound of parchment, costing 14 cents, contains about 172 sheets of tlie size 
 necessary for l-jwiind bricks, and 113 sheets of the size necessary for 2pound bricks, 
 thus nniking it cost 8.1-t cents to wrap 100 pounds of tlie former and C.2 cents for 100 
 pounds of the latter size. One ream, or 4 pounds, of waxed paper for 1-pound bricks 
 costs 30 cents, and 1 ream for 2-pound bricks costs 40 cents, making- the cost of using 
 wax paper 0.2 and 4.2 cents, respectively, for 100 pounds of 1 and 2 pound bricks. 
 
 Cutting into bricks was greatly facilitated in 1885 by providing a cutting board 
 with pins at stated intervals to hold the fish when pressed down by hand, and with 
 two sets of parallel grooves at right angles to each other cut into the board sutlicieutly 
 deep to give direction to a knife which is drawn through the fish, these longitudinal 
 and transverse grooves being separated by uniform distances conforming to the size 
 of the bricks. In 1886 a somewhat intricate machine* was introduced at Gloucester 
 for this purpose, and is now used in one or two of the establishments. It consists of 
 a large rotating drum, the surface of which is provided with pins which enter the fish 
 placed thereon and thereby hold them in position. On this the fish are fed, and the drum 
 revolves intermittently, and at regular intervals a knife located above and parallel 
 with its axis descends to cut the fish transversely, the drum rotating intermittently 
 to permit the knife to cut the fish without heing crowded by them. These strips of 
 fish are then carried forward by the drum beneath a series of rotary knives mounted 
 upon a shaft, the axis of rotation of which is parallel with the axis of rotation of the 
 drum, the strips being thereby severed into blocks. The length of the bricks is deter- 
 mined by the distance covered by the fish between each descent of the vertical knife>, 
 and the distance between the rotary knives determines their width. The pieces of fish 
 are then carried forward beyond the rotary knives and are removed from the pegs by 
 suitable strips or rods entering grooves in the surface of the drum and thus coming 
 between it and the blocks of fish. 
 
 A few months thereafter another machine t was introduced for the same purpose, 
 but was never extensively used. This consisted of two revolving drums carrying a 
 jdatform made in sections with longitudinal grooves, having small pegs in its surface 
 to hold the fish placed upon it, skin side down, and so revolving as to press the fish 
 against circular knives placed at suitable distances apart. The knives were rotated 
 by the motion of the fish, and the latter were cut into longitudinal strips equal in 
 width to the distance between the knives. As these strips passed beyond the knives 
 they were raised off the pins and the platform by rods entering between the strips and 
 the surface of the endless platform. A quantity of fish having been thus cut into 
 longitudinal strips, they were returned to the front end of the machine and by means 
 of a guide were again placed on the movable platform so as to approach the rotating 
 knives at right angles, and as they passed under were cut transversely, forming 
 rectangular blocks. The circular knives were so arranged that alternate ones might 
 
 * See Letters Patent No. 346871, dated August 3, 1886, in favor of J. L. Shute and W. O. Taylor. 
 t See Letters Patent No. 356725, dated January 25, 1887, in favor of Walter S. Moses. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 405 
 
 be easily raised for the second cuttiny, raakiug the length of the blocks of fish double 
 their widtli. 
 
 During 1885 a machine* was devised for splitting or cutting these blocks hori- 
 zontally, so as to provide suitable layers for the tops and bottoms of tlie bricks and to 
 give a smooth, regular appearance more acceptable to the trade. This consisted of an 
 endless belt adapted to hold and carry the blocks of fish to an endless cutting ribbon 
 traveling parallel to and an inch or so over the belt, but it was not found sufficiently 
 practical for general use. 
 
 The cost of preparing and ))acking boneless cod in 1-pound bricks is about $2 per 
 100 pounds, aside from the cost of the cured fish, apportioned as follows: Skinning 
 and cutting, 30 cents; labor at press, 32 cents; wrapping paper, (5 cents; antiseptic 
 powder, 10 cents; boxes, G3 cents; labor for cutting, powdering, aid wrapping, 10 
 cents; miscellaneous labor, 10 cents, and plant and superintendence, 37 cents. The 
 refuse skins and bones are used in the jireparation of fish glue and fertilizer, and their 
 sale constitutes an item of considerable importance. 
 
 It is stated that of the total quantity of boneless fish, an average of 00 per cent 
 is prepared from cod, 28 per cent from hake, 8 per cent from haddock, and 1 per cent 
 from cusk. Pollock are sometimes prepared as boneless fish, but the flesh is rather 
 dark for this purpose. 
 
 During the past six or eight years dried fish have been disintegrated and placed 
 on the market under a number of trade names, such as "desiccated codfish," "fibered 
 codfish," "flaked codfish," and "skriggled codfish." In jirepariug these specialties 
 the fish are dried somewhat more than in case of boneless fish and all the bones are 
 removed, a (juintal of fish as it leaves the butts making about 00 pounds of dried fish 
 for this purpose. By means of a disintegrating or shredding machine the fibers of 
 the flesh are thoroughly separated, giving it the appearance of fine wool. This is 
 spread out under cover an inch or two deep on a platform table for further drying, all 
 dark portions being picked out in the meantime. It is then placed in small paste- 
 board boxes, usually coated with a varnish of rosin or paraffin and sometimes lined 
 with waxed paper or i)archment, each box holding usually half a pound. This product 
 is especially desirable for fish balls and creamed codfish. 
 
 In 1885 a process! was introduced by which the disintegrated codfish was subjected 
 to the action of hot water and then formed into cakes or blocks under pressure, in the 
 following manner: 
 
 Take cnreil or salted fish, remove the skin and the bones thoroughl}-, and then disintegrate the 
 flesh by shredding, grinding, or some other convenient way of reducing it to small pieces. When in 
 this condition, apply heated water to it, and immediately thereafter submit it to sufficient pressure 
 in molds to expel the water and compact the lish and press the small pieces closely together, thereby 
 funning the luass into cakes or blocks, the size of whicli can be regnl.ated as desired, from 1 pound 
 upward, by the size of the molds employed. Subjecting the disintegrated fish to the action of hot 
 water sufficiently dissolves the gelatin in the fibers to cause the small pieces of flesh to adhere to one 
 another when they are firmly pressed together. Water heated to any temperature above 100" will 
 produce the result, and even steam may be used; but it has been found that the most successful and 
 satisfactory results are obtained by the use of water heated to a temperature between 120"-^ and 200°. 
 If steam is used, the fish will be partially cooked thereby, which should be avoided. 
 
 It is claimed that when fish has been treated and prepared iu this manner, the salt will not 
 collect upon the outside of the cakes or blocks, as it does upon salt fish prepared by the methods in 
 general use, and that the fish will not become discolored. 
 
 * See Letters Patent No. 317469, dated May 5, 1885, in favor of Walter S. Moses and Oscar Andrews. 
 t See Letters Patent No. 326099, dated September 15, 1885. 
 
406 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 FOREIGN CODFISH MARKETS. 
 
 The world's iiiumal product of dried (lodlisli uow amoiants to about 600,000,000 
 pounds, cured weight, the equivalent of 2,500,000,000 pounds of round flsli, ol)tained 
 principally by the fishermen of Norway, Newfoundland, Canada, United States, aiiil 
 France. The chief markets are France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Brazil. In 1S03 
 France imported 04,218,948 pounds of codfish, valued at $4,940,037, without counting 
 the large quantity cured by fishermen of that country. During the same year Spain 
 imported 97,811,488 pounds, worth $4,795,278, and Portugal, 43,120,385 pounds, worth 
 $1,789,500. The imports into southern Europe are xjriucipally from Norway and New- 
 foundland; those into Brazil and other South American countries are largely from 
 Newfoundland, and the West India trade is almost monopolized by shipments from 
 Canada. While a steadily increasing export trade has been conducted by Norway, 
 Newfoundland, and Canada, especially with the West Indies and Central and South 
 America, the exports from the United States have very greatly decreased. 
 
 A hundred years ago our exports of cod appioximated 500,000 quintals annually, 
 at an average value of $4.50 per quintal. lu 1804 the exports were 507,825 quintals, 
 worth $2,400,000, the largest quantity ever exported from this country in any one 
 year. The annual exports decreased to about 300,000 quintals during the ten years 
 following the war of 1812, and since that time up to the present they have approx- 
 imated about 130,000 quintals annually. The exports during the ten years ending 
 June 30, 1894, averaged 1(!, 200, 008 iionnds, worth $737,084, annually, or 20 per cent of 
 the total quantity cured. Over half of these were sent to Haiti, and much smaller 
 quantities went to Cuba, Dutch and French Guianas, Colombia, Santo Domingo, 
 Jamaica, and various other countries, and especially to ports in the West Indies and 
 South America. 
 
 It thus appears that at present this country has only a small share of the 
 trade in the principal codfish markets. Brazil, for instance, consumes about 500,000 
 quintals of fish annually, of which the United States supplies less than 2 percent; 
 and none whatever are sent from this country to the Catholic countries of southern 
 Europe, the great fish-markets of the world. A century ago a large part of that trade 
 was controlled by the United States, bnt since the domestic market will receive fish 
 containing .50 per cent of moisture, while the Brazilian trade reipiires fish containing 
 less than 25 per cent, greater profit has been found in supplying the home market, and 
 nearly all the curers have contributed to that trade, resulting in a decrease in exports. 
 
 CODFISH CURING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In the British North American Provinces the codfish are cured in nearly the 
 same manner as on the New England coast, except that they are dried much more 
 thoroughly, and in many instances they are not salted in butts, but are spread on the 
 flakes immediately after removal from the kenches. Bach morning they are spread 
 out, flesh side up, and at night they are gathered in piles of 15 or 20, with skin side 
 up, and with the largest on top as a cover to the rest. If the sun becomes too hoi 
 during the middle of the day, they are turned with the flesh side down to prevent their 
 being burned, but as soon as the great heat is over they are reexposed as before. 
 When the fish are sufticiently dry, large piles are made, containing a ton or more, the 
 whole being c;>vered with birch bark and heavy stones, which serve to express much 
 of the moisture then remaining. After compression for two or three weeks the fish are 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY T'RODUCTS FOR FOOD. 407 
 
 placed in a dry warehouse awaiting' a market. Before l)eiiig shipped tkey are spreail 
 out oil the gravel during one midday to extract any dampness they may have con- 
 tracted in the warehouse. 
 
 For tliepur[)ose of comparison with our own methods the following notes on the 
 methods of curing codfish in the in-incipal I'hu'ojjean countries are presented, the notes 
 being abridged by Adolph Nielsen from volume ill of Norsk Fiskeritidende, Bergen, 
 January and April, 1884: 
 
 NORWEGIAN METHOD. 
 
 As a rule the greater part of tho codtisli cau-^ht at Lofodeu is loft ia salt from three weeks 
 to two months, all acconling to how the fishery turns out, and how quick tlie vessels purchasing 
 fish can succeed in gettiiij; a full cargo. After the fish are taken from the salt they are generally 
 washed out at the l)eaches, close to the drying places, which, as a rule, ciuisist of smooth and low 
 rock, in the vicinity of the seaboard. In washing the fish woolen iiiittens are worn on the hands. 
 After being carefully washed and the bl:i(d\ membrane removed from the napes, the fish is put in 
 small sloping heaps on the rocks for tweuty-four hours, in order to allow the water to run off. In 
 each heap are put from G to 8 lish, the undl^rmost with the skin side turned down, the rest with tlie 
 skin side up. As soon as the weather allows the fish to be spread, after being in the heaps twenty-four 
 hours, it is carried up to the drying place and spread out, face up If the weather is fair and safe, the 
 fish is left out the first night, but the skin side is in that case turned up toward evening. Next morning 
 the fish is again turned, face up. After being left out the second day it is gathered together toward 
 evening and ]>ut in heaps, 'M or 50 fi.shin each. The next morning it is spread again, and in tlie evening 
 is put in a little larger heaps. When the fish has been spread two or three times it is stretched well, 
 especially in the abdomen, before being put in heaps, in order to remove all the wrinkles and give the 
 fish a smooth appearance. This work is considered to be of much importance in regard not only 
 to appearance but also to the durability of the fish, because the dampness always gathers in those 
 wrinkles and is \ cry ditUmilt to get removed entirely if not done away with in time. It is slow work, 
 liut they consider it better to devote one day to this than to go through it in a hurry in the evening when 
 the fish are gathered in heaps for the night. Every time the fish are gathered in the evening in heaps 
 these are uuide larger. After tbe fish has been spread three or four times, or when it is dry enough to 
 stand i)ressiMg ( which is noticed on the abdomen of the fish that crack when the fish is bent), it is put 
 into the first pile for jiressiug. These piles are built round, and a small round peaked roof or cover of 
 wood, about a foot larger in diameter than the pile of fish, is made to cover the piles with. On these 
 roofs weights of stones are applied. These piles or pressing piles, as they generally are named, are 
 built from 3 to 3i feet high, the first time. 
 
 After the fish has remained in those piles from five to eight days, according as the fish was more 
 or less dry when it was put in piles, it is piled over into another and laiger pile in this way, that the 
 undermost fish in this first pile is placed uppermost in the second, in which again the fish is left the 
 same length of tinll^ as in the first one. If the weather after that time is suitable, the fish in these 
 piles is spread every second day to dry, and for every time it is spread it is set in larger piles. If the 
 weather is not suitable for spreading the fish, it is as often as possible piled over into new piles, 
 in order to accelerate the cure and prevent the fish from afterwards turning slimy. The fish is not 
 reckoned to be properly dry until it keeps itself dry underneath the dorsal fins, or is capable of 
 withstanding the pressure of the thumb without leaving marks in the thick of the fiesh. After the fish 
 has Ijeiu put in pressing piles and has been spread out for drying four to five times, it will, under 
 fair circumstances, be reckoned to be properly cured. The usual time, under favorable conditions, 
 taken to cure fish in Norway is about six weeks. 
 
 FRENCH METHOD. 
 
 The fish which is brought to Fiance is for the greater part bank fish, caught on the banks of 
 Newfoundland and on the coast of Ireland. With the exception of the fish cured in St. Pierre and 
 Miquelon, all this fish is cured in France, and the greater part of it in Bordeaux. To this port it is 
 brought salted in bulk, in compartments in the vessel's hold, and cured as the orders arrive for 
 certain quantities of fish. In splitting the fish the French cut the backbone a little farther from the 
 tail than most nations do, and for this reason an iron spoon made for the purpose is used for removing 
 the blood in the remaining part of the backbone. The fish is always washed well before it is put in 
 
408 BULLETIN OF TIIK UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 salt. Tliey geniirally reckuu on using 100 tons of salt (Mediterranean) to 2,000 hiinilrt-dweiglit of fisli, 
 including tlie salt wliieli is nscil in preserving tlieir bait. While all other nations either nse rock 
 beaches, or dirterent kinds of ll.akes to cnrc their tish on, the Frenchmen in Bordeanx nse scalfoUls. ou 
 which tlie tish is hung liy the tail. This is held to he the most practical in France, liecause in this 
 way the lish is cured exceedingly ((uick (from two to six days) with a minimum of labor expenses, 
 and gives a real good article, although, .as before mentioned, not so durable. These scaffolds are made 
 in the following way: A number of sticks are <lriven down perpendicular in the ground about IJ 
 yards apart in a straight line from west to east, .across which are fastened a row of two laths, far 
 enough apart to admit the tail of the tish to be pushed through. About seven-eighths of a yard 
 above this first row of laths another row is fixed in the same manner. These laths are from three- 
 (^ighths to five-eighths of an inch thick and from IJ to 2 inches wide. The arrangements of these 
 scaffolds vary a little; some are fixed in sciuare compartments with laths fastened alternatidy on the 
 north and south sides of the posts, and with a gangway .about 2 feet wide between each row of 
 compartments. On others, again, the laths are all fastened on the north side of the posts .and each row 
 of scaffolds about 3 yards apart, in order to prevent the shad<' liom the row in front reaching the one 
 behind. Small cleats of wood are fastened across each ])air of laths, for the purpose of keeping them 
 together. The tail of the fish is ])nshed in between the laths from the north side, with the back of 
 the fish turned upward; by its own weight it will beml down, .and the face of the fish show toward 
 the sun, while the tail is jammed l)etween the laths. When the fi.sh is getting a little dry it will hang 
 tliis way even in a strong breeze of wind. Some have a roof covered with straw over their scaft'olds 
 when the sun gets rather hot; othi'rs again use no covering, hut when the sun threatens to burn their 
 lish the,v only twist it a little, so tliat the edge of the fish shows toward the sun instead of the face. 
 In heavy rain, or when the sun is too hot, the tish have to be taken down and put in the stores. In 
 France no pressing of the fish is used; as a rule it is taken down from the scaffolds and .shipped to 
 m.arkets after being hung there from two to .six days. 
 
 SCOTCir METHOD. 
 
 In Scotland nearly .all of the fi.sh is pickled, very little of it is kench-cured fish. As soon as the 
 lish is caught and unhooked it is bled and gutted. Some of the fishermen bring with them boxes in 
 which to keep the lish; but if boxes are not used the fish is covered up in order to prevent the sun 
 and air from affecting it. When brought to the shore it is headed and cleansed with brushes in fresh 
 water, and split. The backbone is cut slantwise, 20 to 22 joints from the tail, so that the cut extends 
 over two joints, in order to give the fish a better look and strengthen it. A cut is made along the 
 bone which is left, thus allowing the blood that remains in the veins about that part of the fish to 
 escape or be extracted. When split, the tish is again washed in sea water and. the black membrane 
 removed. After the fish is cleansed it is pickle salted in tight-covered vessels. To 100 pounds of 
 dry-cured lish is used 45 to 50 pounds of Liverpool s.alt. If less salt is used the fish is left in the 
 pickle a couple of days more. 
 
 In regard to the amount of salt used, the fjoard of fisheries remark that many of the curers 
 salt their fish very heavily in order to increase the weight; but this is a great mistake, because not 
 only is the juice of the fish extracted thereby and tlie weight reduced, but also, as the drying adviinces, 
 incrustation of salt forms on the face of the fish, or, in other words, the fish gets s.alt-burned, and 
 this debases the value of the fish very much. Lately, however, this wrong method of salting fish too 
 heavily is abandoned in Scotland, because the curers find it to be in their own interest not to use too 
 much. The fish is as a rule left in the salt for three days. The salting of the fish is a difficult work 
 when the climate is damp. If the fish under such circumst.ances gets too little salt it will soon 
 bcMome dun. Whether the fish has taken sufficient salt or not, and whether it has got the required 
 stittness before being taken from the brine, the curer must be able to judge himself. Quite fresh fish 
 never take more than just the proper amount of salt they claim, no matter how much salt is put on 
 it; whereas old fish very soon get salt-burnt, if too much salt is used. 
 
 When the fish has taken a sufficient quantity of salt it is taken up .and washed out again in sea 
 water and placed in piles that slope a little for a day or two, in order to give the water a chance to 
 run ort' before the drying commences. The fish, as a rule, is dried on flakes 3 feet high and i feet wide, 
 the top of which is formed of wooden Laths 6 inches apart, something like the American flakes. 
 On these flakes the fish is put out the first time with the b.ack or skin side turned down. Toward 
 evening it is turned over, skin side up, and before sunset it is gathered in small heaps, always bearing 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR POOD. 409 
 
 in niinil to leave the back side of the fish ttirnoil up. Tlie (ish is turned move frequently as the drying 
 advances. The lioaps.are .'ilso made l.iiger every time tlie fush issjiread, and weights are put on top of 
 eacli heaj) in order to give the lisli a litth' pressing and a .smooth face. The heaps are always covered 
 with mats or canvas. The Scottish curers are also of the opinion that the lish gets frangible or 
 brittle and presents a bad appearance if it is dried too rapidly in the beginning of the cure. When 
 the fish is half-dry, one is able to tell whether it is salt-burnt or not. If the fish is salt-burnt they 
 turn it back up in the middle of the day when the sun has the most power, by moans of which the salt 
 gets extracted from the face of the fish. Mr. Ross, inspector of fisheries, recommends always to dry 
 the fish with the skin side turned up from the time it is half dry. After it has been dried a fortnight 
 it is put in large piles for ten days in order to allow the fish to sweat. The piles are covered 
 well. Alter being taken from these piles it is spread out to dry for one week, after which it is again 
 put iu large piles for another four to six d.ays. When after this it gets two or three days' drying it 
 is considered to be properly cured and ready for shipment. The average time for making fish is 
 reckoned to be from six to eight weeks. 
 
 ICELAND METHOD. 
 
 The cod fishery in Iceland is conducted by the natives in small open boats in the bays, and in 
 some places a short distance from the shore. The gear employed by them consists of hand-line and 
 bultows. As soon as the fish is caught it is bled; brought inshore, it is split iu this way, that the 
 remainder of the backbone is left on .the opi>osite side to what is usual in Newfoundland and many 
 other countries. The Icelanders split their fish very deep. After being split, the fi.sh is washed with 
 brushes in cle.an sea water, the black membrane and all blood being carefully removed. A few also 
 used to w.ash their fish in fresh water. The backbone is cut slantwise, over two Joints, and 18 to 22 
 joints from the tail, according to the si/e of the fish. The salting of the fish takes place iu sheds as 
 soon as the water has run oft' it, and it is salted in kenches with (me barrel of Liverpool salt to about 
 350 pounds of large dry fish ; if the fish is small less salt is used. After the fish has remaineil two or 
 three days in this salt it is resaltcd in new kenches; very little salt (about one eighth of a l>arrel of 
 salt to 350 pounds of fish) is nsed. In this salt it remains for five or six days, and is then ready to be 
 washed out and made, if the weather and the season of the year are suitable. The fish that is caught 
 ■so late in the fall that it can not be made before the next year, is salted in kenches so heavily that 
 one fish docs not touch the other. This fish, they claim, will then, in the spring, be of about the 
 sam(^ (luality as if it was caught the same year, provided it is washed or cleaned properly and all 
 blood carefully removed. 
 
 After the fish has remained a sufficient time in salt it is washed out and laid in small heaps, until 
 the water has run oft' and a little stifl'ness is felt in the fish, which generally is so the next day, and 
 if the weather then is fair the fish is spread out to dry; if not, it is relaid in square piles, from 100 to 
 150 fish in each. If the weather should continue to be wet the fish is piled over in new piles every 
 day, as long as the bad weather lasts, or until it can be spread. When the fish has been spread and 
 got two good days' sun, it is put in pressing piles and the pressing is iucrcased according as the 
 making of the fish proceeds. AVhen the cure is so far advanced that the fish is what they call three- 
 parts dry, it is put in large piles, about 7,000 pounds of fish in each. These piles are covered with 
 mats or boards in shape of a roof, and a weight of stones, which corresponds with the weight of the 
 fish in the pile, is jjlaced on top of the mats or boards. In this state the fish is allowed to remain five 
 to six days, after which time it is spread again, if the weather permits, and the same weight applied 
 every time it is gathered and put back into the piles. In case the weather does not allow the fish to 
 be spread, after it has been put in the first large pressing pile, it is replied every day and the same 
 weight applied to each pile every time until it is considered cured. 
 
 The fish is cured on beaches, which in most places are made of round rocks. The reasons why the 
 Icelanders use such a heavy pressing in their cure of fish are: (1) That the climate is damp and 
 not very warm (as a rule the sun is seldom hot enough to burn the fish, although this may happen 
 occasionally) and that the weather is mostly cloudy or foggy; (2) that their fish is heavily salted; 
 (3) that their fish is rich and thick, and stands a good deal of pressing. On account of the climate 
 being chilly and damp, the pressing is therefore the principal part in their cure, and by frequently 
 pressing and repiling the fish the cure is al *o accelerated. The Iceland fish is a fine, white-looking, 
 good eating and durable article which commands good prices in the markets of the Mediterranean. 
 Although it always is a little pliable, or not cured as hard as the Newfoundland and Norway fish, still 
 
410 lUILLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 it keei>8 well iu Imt cliiiiates, ;iud is preferred to the liard-cnrod fish, because it is not ao apt to gut 
 lirittle and break. Fish cured in the early spring or in the fall of the year when the climnte is chilly, 
 are, if sutliciontly ])rcssed and salted, superior to the hard-cured fish iu summer time, even if it is a 
 little plialde, and will keep well in hot climates. Complaints of the hard-cured fish being brittle and 
 difficult to hau<lle aie often made in the Mediterranean markets. 
 
 When the fish is stored in Iceland it is kept well covered with mats or canvas in order to prevent 
 the moist air from attecting the fish. The principal market for Iceland fish is the southern part of 
 Spain, while a part is also exported to Copenhagen and Great Britain. 
 
 STOCKFISH. 
 
 In preparing stockfish in Norway each fish is bled as soon as taken from the 
 water, care being taken that it be not bruised or mutilated. In dres.siug, tlie fish is 
 split from the pectoral fin to the vent, thus leaving the sides connected about the 
 napes and near the tail. The head and entrails are removed, after which each fish 
 is well cleansed outside and inside with sea water. They are next tied together by 
 the tails in pairs and susjieiided from thick strips about 2 feet apart, on top of stands 
 about 8 feet high. The fish are hung on each side of the strips, care being taken that 
 they are not .so close as to prevent the air currents from acting upon them. A two- 
 pronged stick is generally used iu hanging them up aud taking them down. The 
 grounds about the fiakes should be clean, airy, and devoid of all putrefying refuse. 
 During summer the fish are generally split quite through, leaving only enough meat 
 aud skin at the tail to support its own weight. The backbone is cut out from about 
 three joints below the vent, and the fish hung up individually bj^ the tail in such a 
 way that one half of the fish hangs on each side of the pole. Large fish, over 28 inches 
 in length, are also split during the winter and spring. By far the greater portion of 
 the stockfish, however, are cured round. 
 
 The fish receive no further attention, being left out iu all sorts of weather, aud 
 are not taken down from the time they are hung up until perfectly dry; that is, hard 
 enough to withstand the strongest pressure of the tip of the thumb in the thick of 
 the flesh along the back without giving away. In taking the fish down from the 
 flakes, dry and fair weather should be selected in order not to leave any moisture 
 aboirt the fish when it is stored. In preparing for exjjort, the stockfish is usually 
 pressed and tied by wire into rectangular bundles, 20 by 24 by 29 inches, containing 
 100 kilograms or about 220 pouTids. Bundles of 50 kilograms are also prepared. 
 Norway is the only country in which stockfish is extensively prepared, about 400,000 
 quintals being cured annually, the species used being cod priucipnlly, but also cusk, 
 pollock, had<lock, and ling in smaller quantities. The chief markets are in Italy, 
 Spain, Germany, Holland, and the tropical sections of the continents of America. 
 
 The Russians ])repare stockfish in a somewhat diHerent manner from that of the 
 Norwegians. The fish is split through the back and left solid in the abdomen. A cut 
 about an iiich long is nnule through the upi)ermost part of the fish, and through this 
 the fish is tied up on the flakes. They also prepare them in a manner similar to the 
 Norwegian split fish, except that they do not usually take out the backbone. 
 
 Before cooking, the stockfish should be soltened or disintegrated by beating with 
 a wooden club and all bones removed. The flesh is then soaked for several hours, 
 washed and (bained. In Italy thin fish are preferred to thick ones and the disinte- 
 grated flesh is placed iu cold water over a fire and removed before the water reaches 
 the boiling point, since boiling makes it tougli. Steaming is even a better method of 
 cooking, making the flesh white aud soft. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 411 
 
 DRIED AND DRY-SALTED SALMON. 
 
 On the Alaskan coast the Indians dry many sahnon for their home use during tne 
 winter, and also at times ))repare cod and other fish, tiie work being ])erformed mostly 
 by the women. As soon as the salmon is caught the backbone is broken just back of 
 the head, so as to kill the flsli at once and prevent its thrashing about and bruising the 
 flesh. The fish is dressed by slivering the two sides from the head and liackbone, but 
 leaving them connected at the tail, the knife being inserted just below the nape bone 
 and drawn closely along the backbone to within 2 or 3 inches of the tail, when 
 a similar cut is made on tlie other side and a stroke of the knife severs the backbone 
 close to the tail. Frec^uently the large fish are marked by a number of transverse 
 cuts in the thick portion of the flesh to facilitate the drying. The fish are then sus- 
 pended from a pole or frame a few feet from the ground with the flesh outward, where 
 they remain until ipiite dry. Sometimes when i)oles are not conveniently obtainable 
 the two sides of the tish are separated and laid face up on the beach. 
 
 The iirocess of drying requires from ten days to two weeks in ordinary weather. 
 During rainy or cloudy weather the fish are placed under cover or turned with the . 
 skin outward. After being thoroughly dried these fish are stored under cover out of 
 I'each of dogs and children and form the j)rincipal food supplies of the natives during 
 the winter, especially in the villages somewhat isolated from the trading stations. 
 
 Salmon when salted are commonly held in pickle in tight barrels, but a few are 
 dry-salted for especially clioice trade, in the following manner: The fresh flsii is placed 
 in a cool place until the flesh is firmly set, when it is eviscerated and split down the 
 back, so as to layout flat, and the head and three-fourths of the backbone are removed. 
 If desired, the flesh may then be smeared with blood of the fish to impart a reddish 
 color in the cured product; otherwise it is wiped clean and placed skin down in a 
 salting tub having a layer of salt in the bottom and a layer of ¥0. 2 salt spread 
 evenly over the fish. Other fish similarly salted may be placed in the salting tub, but 
 not so many as to compress the bottom layers too much. The flavor is improved by 
 adding sugar or saltpeter to tlie salt, about an ounce of either for each fish, and 
 crushed peppers may also be added if desired. The fish remain in the salt from l.J to 
 3 days, when they are removed, trussed in the manner so usual in smoking (see 
 page 494), in order to keep them out flat, and suspended in a sliady but windy place 
 until dry. The fish should be kept in a cool, dry place until used, which need not be 
 for 2 or 3 months, according to the extent of the salting and the adaptability of the 
 place where it is stoied. Some persons jtour a glass of cognac over the dry tish and 
 allow it to soak in to improve the flavor, but this is a matter of taste. The prepara- 
 tion of salmon in the above manner is of very small extent, and none of the product 
 goes upon the general market. 
 
 The first volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland describes 
 the method of drying salmon in vogue in Scotland a century ago as follows: 
 
 Kippered salmon .are prepared liy cutting tbem smoothly along the Imck from the tall to the 
 head. The chine, or backbone, is then cut out and all the blood and garbage cleared away. The 
 fishes are then salted and laid above each other, witli the fleshy sides in contact, in a trough, commonly 
 scooped out of a solid piece of beech, placed in a cool situation. A lid which exactly fits the aperture 
 is placed above them and pressed down by heavy weights. After the fishes have imbibed a sufficient 
 quantity of the pickle they are stretcheil npon small spars of wood and hung up to dry where there 
 is a current of air. Sometimes they are hung in the smoke of a kitchen fire, which preserves, indeed, 
 but conveys a bad flavor. Some, in order to communicate a particular flavor, mix spices with the 
 salt, or they rub the fish with spices before they are hung up to dry. 
 
412 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 
 
 DRY-SALTED MULLET. 
 
 In the extensive miillet fisheries of the southern coast from North Carolina to 
 Florida large quantities of this species are dry-salted or kench-cared, the annual 
 output on the coast of Florida amounting to nearly 2,000,000 pounds. Some are 
 pickled in brine, but the majority on the west coast of Florida are dry-salted. The 
 process employed is as follows: 
 
 Dressing begins as soon as the fisli are landed at the station, which is generally 
 within a few minutes after they are removed from the water. In splitting, each fish is 
 taken in the left hand with the tail toward the splitter, and by means of a knife it is 
 opened along the left side of the backbone from the head to the tail, in nmch the same 
 way that mackerel are split. All viscera are then removed and a gash or "score " is 
 cut along the right side of the flsli, which contains the backbone, in order that the salt 
 may the more readily penetrate the Hesh. In some localities the heads of mullet are 
 removed before the fish are sjdit. When roe-mullet are taken the roe bags are carefully 
 removed while the fish are being eviscerated and are salted sei)arately. The blood and 
 black stomach membrane adhering to the napes are then scraped away and the fish 
 are thrown into a trough of clean salt water, where they remain tor a few minutes and 
 are thoroughly washed, all particles of blood being carefully removed. On removal 
 from the washing tank or barrel the fish are rubbed thoroughly with salt, Liverpool salt 
 being most commonly used. They are next piled up under cover in kenches, with a 
 sprinkling of salt between each layer, with the backs placed downward, as is the case 
 with green cod, so as to retain the dissolved salt. These kenches are ranged in regular 
 (U-der, with the heads of tlie fish outward, and extend 3 or 4 feet in height. In some 
 localities, after the salting and before kenchiug, the two sides of the fish are brought 
 together again, leaving the fish in natural shai)e, with the abdominal cavities filled 
 with salt. 
 
 When a large haul of nuillet has been made the work of dressing and salting 
 must be rushed to prevent the fish from becoming tainted; and in warm weather, 
 es])ecially during August, if the fish are not salted within a few hours after landing 
 they are apt to l)ecome discolored or to rust. The fish remain in these kenches until 
 they are to be placed on the nuirket, which may not be for three or four months. 
 
 In preparing for shipment the salted mullet are placed in boxes or tied up in 
 bundles. No uniform style or size of package is used, resulting naturally in much 
 confusion and inconvenience to the trade. Some fishermen simply bundle the mullet 
 in such a way that the skin side is outward, while others cover the bundles with a 
 single layer of matting or palmetto leaves. When carefully jirepared these fish are of 
 excellent quality, except that those cured during the warm weather of July and 
 August sometimes rust. 
 
 The following method of curing mullet is recommended to those who wish a really 
 choice product without regard to the cost of preparation: 
 
 Tlie fri^sh fish are cut aloug the ventral part aud eviscerated. Tliey are next soaked for two 
 honrs or so in salt water, beheaded and split down the back, and the backbone removed. Four or five 
 cuts are then made transversely across each half of the fish on the inner surface, and the fish are 
 packed in dry salt, where they remain for about one week. On removal they are washed to remove 
 the slime, undissolved salt, etc., and then suspended in the shade, where they are allowed to dry 
 for live or six weeks. Each tish is then sprinkled witli line table salt and carefully wrapped with 
 waxed or paraffin paper to exclude the .air, and sus])eiided in a well- ventilated room, where it m.ay be 
 kept for several months under favorable eiinditions. 
 
PRESERVATION OK FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 413 
 
 DRY-SALTED CHANNEL BASS. 
 
 Channel bass or drumflsh are caught in considerable numbers along the south 
 Atlantic coast during the late summer, and the small demand for them in the fresh- fish 
 trade results in many of them being salted for local use during the winter, especially 
 along the North Carolina Banks. The following process is employed: 
 
 Each fisli is split ilowu the belly and eviscerated, the head is cut oft' with a hatchet or large 
 knife, the backbone is removed, and the fish split in halves. Each half or fletch is then scored 
 lengthwise from the napes to the tail on the flesh side, the cuts being about 2 inches from each other 
 and penetrating the flesh to the skin. The lletches are washed free from blood, etc., and placed iu 
 barrels or vats with dry salt sprinkled in abundance .among them and with strong brine poured over 
 tlieui. When sufliciently cured the lish are removed from the pickle and placed iu the open air on 
 boards, benches, or any convenient place for drying. Care must be taken to shield them from rains, 
 and they should be placed under cover at night to protect them from heavy dews. When sufficiently 
 dried they are stored in a cool, dry place until marketed. 
 
 The reduction in weight through dressing amounts to about 50 per cent, and 
 through curing and drying about .'j.'i per cent additional, making the dried weight 
 about 35 per cent of the round weight. The only market is among the coast people — 
 among the fishermen and their neighbors on the mainland. They sell for 8 to 15 cents 
 per side, or 15 to 30 cents per fish, an equivalent of 1 to 2 cents per iiound. 
 
 DRY-SALTED KINGFISH. 
 
 The great bulk of the kiugtish caught in this country is .sold in a fresh state; but 
 at Key West and some other points on the coast, when the fresh-fish market is fully 
 supplied, the suri)las catch is salted. The nn-thoil usually employed at Key West in 
 drying and salting the fish is thus described by Mr. W. H. Abbott: 
 
 If the fish are not disposed of the first day after being caught, they are lightly salted and dried 
 in the sun, in which condition they will keep for a week or two, and if tbo weather is favorable they 
 will probably keep a week longer, and if quite thoroughly dried the fish will Iccep a much longer 
 period. Generally the fisherman is a man of very little means and has no capit.-il to work with; 
 consequently the supply of salt which he is able to buy is very small. The salt used is from the 
 Bahama Islands. The fi.sh are laid on a box or bench and the thick part of the fish cut transversely, 
 nearly through to the skin, at distances of 1 to li inches .apart. After the fish have been prepared iu 
 this waj', the fisherman takes a small amount of salt and carefully sprinkles it over the entire surface 
 of the fish and into the cuts, bo as to make sure of their being properly cured. He is very careful not 
 to waste the salt by scattering it about otherwise than on the tish. If the fish are to be sold iu a few 
 days, they are not exposed to the sun; but if to be kept for a longer period it is necessary to have 
 some of the moisture taken out by the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 Ill a rejiort on the Gulf fishing-grounds and fisheries, by J. W. Collins, the follow- 
 ing description occurs: 
 
 • 
 As a rule, the great bulk of the kingfish taken by the Key West fleet is sold and eaten in a fresh 
 C(mdition, but occasionally some fish arc salted on the boats, and a greater i|iiautity arc S]dit and salted 
 after thi>y are landed, the surplus being disposed of in this manner. These salted lish arc often dried 
 and to facilitate this and to insure the more thorough drying of the fiber the thick part of the flesh 
 is cut transversely nearly to the skin, at a distance of about an inch apart. There is no systematic 
 method of drying, as iu curing cod, but the fish are hung .across rails, spread on wood piles, or 
 disposed of in any other manner where they may have a chance to dry, a favorite method being to 
 suspend them Ijy the tail. Cured in this way they make tolerably good food, but it is altogether 
 probable that a much finer article of food might be obtained by smoking the fish. 
 
 The amount of kingfish prepared for market iu this way is uot known, but it is 
 relatively small. 
 
414 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 DRY-SALTED BARRACUDA AND BONITO. 
 
 On the southern coast of California, in the vicinity of San Diego, from 150,000 to 
 300,000 pounds of barracuda {Sithyra'na argentea), about half that quantity of bonito 
 {8arda chilcnsis), and some yellow-tail or aniberfish (>SerioIa dorsalis) are annually 
 dry-salted and sold in the markets at 3 or 4 cents per pound. As soon as practicable 
 after they are removed from the water, they are split down the belly and dressed like 
 cod, only the backbone is not usually removed, and heavily salted in kenches similar 
 to those on the New England coast. When the weather is favorable the tisli are 
 washed and spread on drying flakes, the cure being completed in two or three days in 
 case of barracuda, while a greater length of time is usually required for bonito. lOil 
 pounds of round tish make about 50 pounds dried. When properly cured barracuda 
 present an iuviting appearance, being white and dry, and the flavor is excellent; but 
 most of the California i)roduct is said to be dark in color and with a strong flavor, 
 due probably to faulty methods of curing. 
 
 CHINESE SHRIMP AND FISH DRYING. 
 
 In the Barataria region in Louisiana, along the shores of San Francisco Bay in 
 California, and at other points on tlie Pacific coast, there are camps of Chinamen whose 
 principal occupation is the drying of shrimp and fish, mainly for Oriental markets. 
 Their output also includes miscellaneous varieties of fish, oysters, squid, etc., the 
 aggregate annual product amounting to about $100,000 in value. 
 
 Tlie drying of shrimp was begun in Louisiana in 1873 by Ciiin Kee, whose plant 
 was located on the western bank of the Mississippi lliver opposite New Orleans. The 
 following season he moved to Bayou Dupont, nc^r the head of Grand Lake, about 80 
 miles below New Orleans. In 1880 a second establishment or " platform" was built near 
 Bayou Cabanage. A third platform was built in 1885 at Bayou Aiulrc. The business 
 continued fairly prosperous until 1803, when the severe storm in October completely 
 destroyed the Bayou Aiidr*' platform and camps and severely damaged the other 
 two platforms. The latter, however, were immediately repaired, and in 1897 another 
 platform was erected about a mile above Cabanage. 
 
 The.se shrimp-drying establishments consist of a large platform, on which shrimp 
 are dried, the necessary furnaces and kettles for boiling, warehouses, living apartments, 
 storehouses, wharfage, apparatus, etc. The platforms range in area from 25,000 to 
 80,000 square feet, and are substantially built of i)iue boards 1 inch thick with close 
 joints. The number of employees at each establishment ranges trom G to 12. 
 
 Prior to 1S8(! the shrimp were boiled in kettles over open fires, but since that date 
 greater neatness and economy of fuel have been secured by the use of a grate with a 
 chimney, somewhat similar to the old form of sugar-boiling. The kettles over the 
 grates are 5 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 18 inches deej), with a division in the center. 
 
 The shrimp are received from the fishermen each day, thus insuring their fresh- 
 ness and rendering the use of ice unnecessary. Prior to 1888 the price paid was 80 
 cents per basket, containing about 84 pounds; but since that date the price has been 
 uniforndy <!5 cents per basket. VVlien measured and received from the boats, the 
 shrimp are rinsed and placed witli water and tlie necessary quantity of salt in the 
 kettles, each kettle holding about 5 baskets of shrimp. About 4 or 5 pounds of salt 
 are used lor boiling 100 pounds of shrimp, Liverpool salt being preferred, but coarse 
 American salt is also used. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY T'RODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 415 
 
 The brackish lake water suffices for cooking, and it is used for several successive 
 boilings, additional water and salt being added as necessary. The shrimp are boiled 
 for live or ten minutes, when the cover is removed and the shrimp stirred thoroughly 
 with a paddle or other appliance. The cover is then replaced for 10 or 15 minutes 
 longer, when the shrimp are removed with perlorated skimmers or shovels ;ind spread 
 on the platform, where they are exposed to the aitiou of the sun, being turned and 
 separated at intervals during the day and covered, when necessary to protect them 
 from moisture, until the drying is completed, this usually requiring two or three days. 
 When shrimp are coming in plentifully tlie boiling is frecjneutly kept up all night, the 
 boiled shrimp being placed in heaps on the platform and covered with canvas until 
 morning. When thoroughly dry, the Chinamen, with clean shoes or moccasins, tiead 
 them for a time to detach tlie shells and heads from the main part of the flesh. These 
 shells and light panicles are fanned off by throwing the shrimp upward through the 
 air, somewhat in the same style as that practiced with wheat, rice, and other similar 
 grains. The meats of the shrimi) are tlien placed in sacks, beaten and thoroughly 
 shaken to complete the breaking up and removal of the shells, after which they are 
 again winnowed or passed through hand sifters, so as to remove all dust and particles 
 of shells adhering to them. They are next made ready for shipment by placing them 
 in flour barrels, containing about 200 pounds each, and are sent to the various markets. 
 In packing, the shrimp should be graded, the whole bright meats being kept separate 
 from those broken or discolored on account of rains during the process of curing. 
 
 Each basket of green shrimp yields about 9A pounds of dried shrimj), which sells 
 for about 14 cents per pound. The market is among Asiatic races almost exclusively. 
 The great bulk is sent to San Francisco, but some are shipped to New York, Philadel- 
 phia, Chicago, and Havana. From San Francisco the shrimp are sent to China, Japan, 
 and throughout the west coast of the United States. The quantity dried during the 
 jtast four or live years in Louisiana has been much less than iirevious to 1893, and the 
 profits have greatly decreased, owing to competition with Mexican ports. 
 
 The following summary shows the quantity prepared in Louisiana during each 
 year since 1886 : 
 
 Tear. ! P'}^'^ 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Dried 
 ahrimp. 
 
 1887 
 
 Povnds. 
 304, 200 
 319, 1100 
 346, 400 1 
 293, 600 
 280, 200 
 285, 200 
 
 1893 
 
 Pounds. 
 121, 800 
 83, 200 
 116,000 
 144,400 
 151, 400 
 
 1888 
 
 1894 
 
 1889 
 
 1895 
 
 1890 
 
 1896 
 
 1891 
 
 1897 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 The method of drying shrimp pj-acticed by the Chinese at San Francisco is thus 
 described by Mr. Kichard Eathbun: 
 
 Alter the day's fishiug is over it is usually customary to carry the fresh shtiini) to the Vallejo 
 street marUet iu Sau Francisco iu live-baskets covered with a uettiug, which has a hole in the center 
 closed by means of a puckering string. At the market the live shrimj i sell at the rate of about 10 cents 
 per pound, and those remaining unsold are carried back to the Chinese settlement and put at once into 
 boiling brine. The kettle for boiling the shri inp is a rectangular iron tank 6 feet long by 4 feet wide and 
 2 feet deep, with a fireplace underneath. After sufBcient boiling, care being taken to prevent over- 
 cooking, the shrimp are taken out and spread to dry upon level plats of hard ground, which have been 
 previou.sly stripped of grass and reudiTcd jierfectly smooth. They are spread out and turned oicasion- 
 ally by means of a hoe-like broom. After four or live days, or when per,eetly drj-, they arc crushed under 
 
416 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 large woodeu pedestals, or trod upon by tlie Chinese in wooden shoes, for the purpose of loosening 
 the moats from the outer chitinous covering, after which the entire mixture is put through a fanning 
 mill for the ;ictual separation of the meats and shells. The fanning mill, a somewhat crude affair, is 
 constructed of wood by the Chinese on precisely the same principle as the one used for winnowing 
 grain. It measures about 8 feet long by 5 feet high, and consists of a square box, divided on the inside 
 for the passage of the separated shells and meats, with a hopper above, and a large fan wheel worked 
 by a crank at one end. The meats are partly used at home or at the various inland Chinese settle- 
 ments, but are mostly shipped to China. The shells are also utilized as manure to some extent about 
 San Francisco; but, like the meats, are mostly sent to China, where they serve as a fertilizer for rice, 
 tea plant, etc. In San Francisco they sell at about 2.5 cents per hundredweight. Both the meats and 
 shells are shipped to China in sacks. The trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese merchants, who 
 ship by way of Hongkong. The meats are eaten by all classes in China, but are cheaper and less 
 esteemed than the native shrimp, which are comparatively scarce. 
 
 Dried shrimp form a very popular article of food amoug Asiatic races and are 
 worthy of more exteuded use in this country. They are very nice rolled in butter and 
 fried, good for making curry, and for " jumbalayer" they are excellent. In China many 
 of the broken shrimp are made into paste by grinding between stones. 
 
 In 18S5, in connection with their shrimp drying, the Chinese on the Louisiana 
 coast dried a quantity of oysters for market, but the venture was unsuccessful on 
 account of the high price at which it was necessary to sell the product in order to 
 reimburse them for their outlay, 50 cents per pound for the dried oysters being 
 scarcely sufficient to meet expenses. 
 
 The tails of the rock lobsters or salt-water crayfish (Panulirus interruptus) arefre- 
 (jueiitly dried in the sun without previous boiling or salting by the Chinese on the 
 Pacific coast, but the aggregate of the business is not large. 
 
 Since 18S5 the Chinese located at Barataria Bay, Louisiana, have dried a quantity 
 of fish each summer. In doing this they make teinporary ([uarters on Timbalier 
 Island, in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, using old material from the permanent camps 
 in Jefter.son Parish. Tarpanliu or palmetto supi)lies sheltering for the workmen, and 
 small slat- work frames, about 8 feet long by 4 feet wide, are used for holding the fish, 
 which are turned every few liours by placing a second frame on the one holding the fish, 
 turning both together and then removing the first frame. The season exteuds usually 
 from May 1 to June 30, and from one to three weeks is necessary for the drying. 
 
 All varieties of salt water fish are there dried except the small bony ones and 
 those excessively fat. Few of the fish are dressed before drying, the head, scales, fins, 
 and viscera remaining, except that the large redfish or channel bass are eviscerated 
 and have the heads and fins removed. The fish are purchased from the seiners at a 
 cost of .$1.4(1 per basket, containing about 08 pounds. A basket of green fish yields 
 about 47 pounds of dried, which sells for 4 or 5 cents per pound wholesale. In 1897 
 the two companies operating on Timbalier Island received about 1,300 baskets of fish, 
 which yielded 61,100 pounds of dried fish, valued at $2,930. 
 
 On the Pacific coast the Chinese usually remove the heads and viscera from the 
 large fish, and jn some localities they salt the fish in brine and then dry them, much 
 like the juescnt method of curing cod. Some of the larger sharks and skates are 
 split through the back and hung on poles. The barracuda, albacore, and bonito are 
 split lengthwise along the back, soaked for 2 days in brine, and then dried in the sun, 
 losing about 50 per cent of their weight in drying. The flesh of the dried barracuda 
 resembles codfish somewhat, being white and firm. They usually sell in San Francisco 
 at 3 or 4 cents per pound wholesale. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PivODUCTS FOR FOOD. 417 
 
 The redfish [Ti-ochmiipun pulrher) are dressed by opening the abdomen and 
 removing the viscera, and Ohiuaincn exliibit much ingenuity in giving a picturesque 
 appearance to the head and teeth of this species. According to Dr. D. S. Jordan: 
 
 A "juuk" witli the deck covered with drying redfish seems at a little distauce to be full of frogs 
 ;il>oiit to leap. Somelimes I have noticed that the fatty protuberance on the forehead of the redfish 
 has been cut off. This is valued .is a delicacy and used for fish chowder. 
 
 Squid are dried in small (juantities by Chinamen on the coast of California. They 
 are washed and spread out on small slat-work platforms or flakes. The large squid 
 are iirst split, but the small ones are dried in the condition in which removed from the 
 water. The largest squid-drying establisliment is located at Point Alones. There 
 some of the Hakes are placed on the ground, but the majority are elevated on posts 2 
 or 3 feet high, and resemble somewhat the codfish flakes of New England, the jirin- 
 cipal difference being that the squid Hakes have the slats much closer 1;ogether than 
 those used for codfish. About 10 days are required for the process of curing, and no 
 salt whatever is used. When thoroughly cured they are packed in bundles, each 
 containing about 135 pounds and upward, and each package is covered with matting. 
 They are sent to San Francisco, where some are sold to the domestic trade, and the 
 remainder exported to the Hawaiian Islands and to China. 
 
 DRIED STURGEON PRODUCTS. 
 
 In the sturgeon fisheries of Russia and of Asiatic countries, and quite recently, 
 to a small extent, in the Columbia Kiver fisheries the spinal cords of the sturgeon 
 have been utilized. After being cleaned and dried this substance is excellent for fish 
 l^ies, soups, chowders, etc. The method of its preparation in Russia is as follows: 
 
 After the fish has been eviscerated an incision is made in the llesh, and by means of a hook enough 
 of the spinal cord is drawn out to furnisli a good hold for the fingers, by means of which the whole 
 is extracted in a baud, 4 or 5 feet long, consisting of a round whitish substance, marked or slightly 
 disconnected at intervals like sausage links. It is carefully washed in fresh water to remove the 
 blood and slime, and is then drawn by a workman between the edge of the washtub and his left hand, 
 or similarly compressed, to remove the soft viscous matter or nerve tissues contained within; or some- 
 times it is cut open and those tissues scraped away and discarded. After this operation the substance 
 is rinsed in another tub of fresh water until it becomes quite clear, and it is then exposed in a free 
 circulation of air until it is thoroughly desiccated. For marketing, it is cut into pieces 4 or 5 inches 
 in length, or it is tiad in bundles composed of a number of spinal cords. Go the Columbia River it 
 sells for about 40 cents jicr pound, and in Ru.ssia it sells for the ei|uivalent of 40 to (!0 cents per pound, 
 25 of the common sturgeon of Russia {Jcipeiiser yuUhiistiidlii} being reiiuired to furnish 1 pound of 
 v^ziga or viaziga, as the product is commonly known in the European markets.' 
 
 The prei)aration of the spinal cords of sturgeon on the Columbia River is thus 
 described by Mr. W. A. Wilcox :t 
 
 One product of the sturgeon is used 'entirely by the Chinese, namely, the spinal marrow. As 
 soon as the fish are landed at the packing establishment a Chinaman, armed with a hook, pulls out 
 enough of the marrow to furnish a good hold; then, seizing it, draws the remainder of it out, hand over 
 hand. In the average-sized sturgeon the spinal cord is 4 or 5 feet long and consists of long, white con- 
 necting links resembling sausages. These are cut open and the jelly-like substance contained within 
 is scraped ofi' and thrown away. This m.irrow is known by the Chinese and the trade under the name 
 of "bone." It is thoroughly dried, and if not sold to the Chinese in this country it is exported to 
 China, where it is much prized for making soups. The Chinamen pay 4 cents a pound for this " bone" 
 and remove it from the fish themselves. 
 
 * See Rapport sur les Expositions Internationales de Peche, par J. L. Soubeiran, Paris, p. 151. 
 t Report U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1893, p. 252. 
 
 F. C. B., 1898-27 
 
418 BULLETIN OK THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The following description of the methods of drying sturgeon meat — or, more prop 
 eriy, the dorsal portion of the fish — in Kussia is extracted fiom Alexandre Schult/.'s, 
 "Notice sur les jjC'cheries et la chasse aux phoques dans la Mer Blanche, I'Ocean 
 Glacial et la Mer Oaspienne," St. Petersbourg, 1873: 
 
 For making good "balyk" a large and tolerably fat fish is selected, whose bead, tail, sides, anc^ 
 belly are taken oH'. That which remains, the dorsal part, has to undergo'a special salting, while tlio 
 other parts are salted in the usual manner. The backs of the common sturgeon ( Acipenser guhlenstiidHi 
 and of the "s<5vriouga" {Acipenser stellatiis) remain entire, while those of the large sturgeon (Acipeiiser 
 huso) are cut, either lengthwise only or else both lengthwise and crosswise. The pieces are placed in 
 a tub so as not to touch each other nor the sides of the tub ; and they are left thus after having beeu 
 covered with a thick layer of salt from 9 to 12 days, and even 15 days when the pieces are large and 
 the weather is hot. The salt l.s mixed with a little saltpeter, to give to the balyk a reddish color, 2 
 pounds of saltpeter to 50 poods [1,800 pounds] of balyk. Allspice, cloves, and bay leaves are 
 frequently put into the brine. When the salting is finished, tlio balyk is put into water for a day 
 or two, in order to detach all particles of the brine from it. Thereupon it is dried, first in the sun 
 and then in the shade, on roofed scatfoldiugs, which are erected for the purpose. This last-mentioned 
 operation requires from 4 to 6 weeks, and is considered finished wlien the balyk begins to cover with 
 a slight mold, the absence of which shows that it has been salted too much. 
 
 Good balylv must be as soft and tender as smoked salmon; must have a reddish or orange 
 brown color; and must have an odor something like that of the cucumber; it must also bo trausijarent, 
 show no traces of putrefaction, nor have a bitter taste; and, finally, it must not be too salty. 
 There are very few manufacturers who can prepare balyk that has all these qualities. 
 
 A pood (36 pounds) of good balyk costs at the manufactory at least 18 rubles ($12.60), and at 
 retail it can seldom be bought for less than 1 ruble (70 cents gold) a pound. The balyk made in 
 March is considered the best. On the banks of the Koura, and in the trans-Caucasian waters, where 
 the scvriouga {Acipenser steUatus) is caught iu large numbers, balyk is made of at least 300,000 of 
 these fish every year. This balyk, commonly called "djirim," is not of the first ([uality. It is dry, 
 very salty, and is much sought after by the inhabitants of Kachetia, because it produces thirst and 
 gives them occasion to qneuch it with the excellent production of tlieir vineyards. A large sturgeon 
 of 20 poods (720 pounds) yields 5 poods (180 pounds) of balyk; a very large sdvriouga, 15 pounds; 
 a common-sized scvriouga, 4 pounds; and the couimon sturgeon, from 8 to 12 pounds. 
 
 DRIED TREPANGS. 
 
 The preparation for market of the soft echinoderm variously designated as sea- 
 cucumber, sea-slug, beche de mer, trepang, etc., was once attempted on the Florida 
 coast. The trepang is a very popular food product in oriental countries, esteemed 
 not only by tlie natives, but by foreigners residing in those countries. China imports 
 annually about 5,000,(l(Mt pounds, at an average valuation of 20 cents per pound, from 
 the South Pacific Islands and Japan, where the holothurian is very abundant. In 
 preparing trepangs for market, they are boiled iu water for from 10 to 30 minutes, 
 according to varieties and sizes, split down on the side, eviscerated, ami then exposi'il 
 to the sun until perfectly cured. In some countries, as iu Malay Islands, they aif 
 dried over a wood fire, but this product is less desirable than if dried in the sun. It 
 is important that they be kept dry until they reach the coTisuuiers, otherwise they 
 become flaccid and decay. 
 
 Mr. Silas Stearns described the fishery attemi>ted on the Florida coast as follows : 
 
 In 1871 an Englishman came to Key West, Fla., for the purpose of gatlaring and preparing ti'c- 
 pang for the Cliinese market. He erected a shed, under which were built fireplaces, witli large kettles 
 and otlier arrangements, and also frames for drying. He arranged with the fisliermen, and fishermen's 
 boys particularly, to bring him all the sea-slugs they could obtain, for whicli he was to pay a certain 
 price. As the slugs were very abundant ou the shoals about Key West, and the pi ices paid for them 
 
PUESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 419 
 
 were lilieral, no froiilile wiis exporii'iii-i'd in nlitniiiing laif;;e supplies. The sea-sliigs, still ali^e and 
 fresli, were thrown into tlie kettles ;in<l Imileil :i <-ertain IcMigtli of time, hnt as to the composition of 
 the liquid in which they weri5 cooked, my intormaut could not tell me. Then they were taken out, 
 the outer rough skin rubbed oft', and the body split with a knife, after which tlie intestines were 
 removed and tln^ body spread on canvas in the sun to dry. The next oiioratiou alter drying, and the 
 final one, w:is to smoke them. This was done in a smokeliouse of the ordinary kind, in which they 
 were suspended on slats. After the final process the trepang were packed in bales, covered with 
 s.icking, and shipped to New York, where they^were probably resbipped to China. For two seasons 
 (winters) this industry was kept up, and apparently with much success; but at the close of the 
 second season the houses and apparatus were sold, and the operator left Key West. Since then 
 nothing further has been attempted in the trepang industry there.* 
 
 Trepangf^ are abiiiidant on several other portioii.s of the United States coast, and 
 especially so on the northwest coast and among the Alexander Islands, and there 
 seems no reason why these supplies should not be utilized and an industry of consid- 
 erable importance developed. 
 
 The following description of the method of curing trepangs among the Bast 
 Indies is from The Commercial Products of the Sea, by P. L. Simmonds: 
 
 The first thing to be done on arrival at an island where the slug is plentiful is to erect on shore 
 a large curing-house about 90 feet in length, 30 feet in breadth, and about 10 feet high. These houses 
 are generally built of island materials and thatched with mats of cocoanut leaves; this thatch must 
 be well put on, so as to prevent the rain from penetrating. The sides are likewise covered with those 
 mats, and a small door should be left in each end. Platforms for drying the slugs are then erected 
 along one side of the house. They should run the whole length and bo about 8 feet in breadth, 
 the lower one about breast-high from the ground, and the upper 3 feet above that. The frames are 
 generally made of cocoanut trees and covere 1 with two or three layers of si>lit bamboo or reeds, sized 
 close so as to form a sort of network for the slugs to lie on. Much care and skill is required in the 
 construction of these platforms, so as to prevent the biche do mer from burning. A trench about 6 
 feet in breadth and 2 feet in depth is then dug the whole length of the platforms for the fires. Tubs 
 filled with salt water are placed at short distances along the side of the trench and a supply of buckets 
 kept in readiness to prevent tlie fires from blazing up and burning the fish or platforms, as well as to 
 regulate the degree of heat necessary for drying the slugs. 
 
 The process of curing is this: The b&che de mer is first gutted, then boiled in large pots, and, 
 after being well washed in fresh water, carried into the curing-house in small tubs or baskets and 
 emptied on the lower platform, where it is spread out (about .^i inches thick) to dry. The trench is 
 then filled with firewood, and when the platform is full of trepang the fires are lighted and the drying 
 process commences. From this time the fires must be kept constantly going day and night, with a 
 regular watch to attend to them. On the afternoon of the following day tlie fires are extinguished for 
 a short time and the slugs shifted to the upper platform, having been first examined, and splints of 
 wood put into those which may not be drying proj)erly. Wh('n Ihis is done, the lower platform is 
 again filled from the pots, the fires immediately lighti'd, ami the drying process continued as before. 
 The slugs (m the lower })latlbrm must be turned frequently during the first V2 hours. On the second 
 day (the fires having been extinguished as l)efore) the slugs on the upper platform are shifted close 
 over to one end to make room for those m\ the loner platform again, and so on as before for the two 
 following days, by which time the first day's produce will be properly cured. It is then taken ofi' the 
 jilatform, and, after having been carefully examined, and those not dry put uji again, the quantity 
 cured is sent on board the vessel and stowed away in bags. Hut should the ship be long in procuring 
 a cargo it will require to be dried over again every three months in the sun, on platforms erected 
 over the deck, as it soon gets damp, unless when packed in air tight casks. 
 
 If the bi'cho de mer is plentiful and the natives bring it daily in large quantities, 40 men will 
 be requisite to perform the work of a house of the above size, and the pots will want two hands to 
 attend them. These curing-bouses consume a large (juautity of firewood daily. When beche de mer 
 is cured and stowed away great care should be taken to prevent it from getting wet, as one damp 
 slug will speedily spoil a whole bag. 
 
 ' Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 2, pp. 815-816. 
 
420 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 It appears that tlieru are two ways of lioiling biche do nier, equally good. Tlio lirst is to take 
 thom out when boili^d about a minute, or as soon as they shrink and ferl hard; the othi^r method is 
 to boil them for 10 to 1") minutes; but in boiling either way the slugs ought, if properly cooked, tu dry 
 like a boiled egg immediately on being taken out of the pot. Bi'che de mer dried in the sun fetches 
 a bigher price than that dried over a wood tire. Bnt this method would not answer in curing a ship's 
 cargo, as they take fully 20 days to dry, whereas by smoking them they arc well cured in 4 days. 
 Much skill is required in drying bil'che de mer, as well as in boiling it, as too much heat will cause 
 it to blister and get porous like sponge, whereas too little heat again will make it spoil and get putrid 
 within 24 hours alter being boiled. There is, likewise, great care and method reiiuisite iu conducting 
 the gutting, for if this be not jjroperly attended to by keeping the lish in warm water and from 
 exposure to the sun it will, when raw, soon subside into a blubbery mass and become putrid in a few 
 hours after being caught. 
 
 DRYING FISH BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 
 
 A number of devices have been invented for drying fish by artificial means, by 
 the use of heat, dry air, absorption pads, etc., but none have come into practical use 
 on a large scale. In 1878 there was introduced a diier,* consisting of one or more 
 horizontally revolving wheel-like tables, having two outer rings with a bottom of 
 network on which to place the fish and a corresponding covering of network to overlie 
 and retain the fish during the rotation of tlie table. The tables are in sectional form 
 to admit of the fish being removed from any portion without disturbing that in any 
 other portion; the whole is supported by converging arms radiating from a v^ertical 
 spindle. After the fish are placed within the network frame the structure is rotated 
 at a speed to be regulated by circumstances, thus creating a current of air, causing a 
 rapid drying of the fish. 
 
 A system modeled somewhat on that used in fruit-driers was introduced in 1877.t 
 The fish are dressed and placed in a tight vessel on a false perforated bottom a few 
 inches above the real bottom. Steam is admitted and the fish cooked until freed from 
 the bones. The flesh is then spread on hurdles, which are introduced successively 
 into a chamber, into the lowest part of which is admitted a current of air heated to 
 about 200'^. After the first has been exposed to this temperature about 10 minutes, 
 it is moved up about i inches and a second introduced, and so on successively until 
 there are 10 or 12 hurdles in the chamber, and thereafter as each additional hurdle 
 is placed at the bottom the top one is removed. 
 
 During this operation the moisture eva[)orating from the fish forms a vapor which 
 fills the drying chamber, thus'keeping the fish in a humid atmosphere and preventing 
 it from becoming suddenly dry and hard on its surface, and the texture is kept loose 
 to aUow the water to evaporate freely. 
 
 This process did not prove a success, and in 1880 Mr. Alden, the patentee of the 
 above, introduced an improveil method, as follows: 
 
 Take fresh fish and remove the heads, tails, fins, entrails, and skins, and also the larger bones, 
 leaving the clear fresh fish meat, which should be cut in pieces of suitable size, thoroughly cleansed 
 in pure cold water, and then placed iu an evaporating |)an i>Iaced upon and surrounded by a heating 
 coil or a steam jacket, and having one or more movable blades revolving around on the inside of the 
 pan, so arranged that when in motion the blades will operate upon the principle of the jdow, so as to 
 avoid shovingthe mass while throwing a furrow in such manner that the fresh fish meat is preventeil 
 from adhering to the bottom or the sides of the pan, and is kept constantly in a revolving motion, so 
 as to admit free access of the drying atmosphere for rapidly removing the vaporized moisture, in aid 
 
 * See United States Letters Patent, No. 207913. t See Letters Patent, No. 186893. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 421 
 
 of which .1 fail or vacuum cluimber may be used, and the mechanism may lie operated by steam or 
 other power. When the evaporated fresh fish meat has been placed in the evaporating pan, steam is 
 applied to tlie heating coils or steam jacket, and the revolving blades are imniediati^ly set in motion, 
 the operation or effect of which is within a few minutes to dissolve the lish ment into a jelly-like mass, 
 in which condition, when kept in motion, it soon loses all its free moisture, rapidly disintegrates, and 
 becomes dry ^Jr soliililied fresh fish libril, having much the appearance of fine broken vermicelli. 
 Under this method the lish tiliril separates and entirely frees itself from the minute or smaller bones, 
 so that they may readily be removed. The fresh fish fibril slionld be kept in rapid motion until suffi- 
 ciently dry to remove from the pan (which is determined by its failure longer to throw off vapor), 
 when it sliould lie spread upon cooling screens or muslin until cold, when it may be packed in tin, 
 wood, or paper boxes for kee]iiug or for transportation. Under this process the time required is from 
 thirty to forty minutes, and the temperature must be kept below the cooking point, so as to prevent 
 coagulation of the fish gelatine, and the product, or fresh fish fibril, will, in proportion by weight, be 
 as 1 pound to 10 pounds of live fish, and .5 pounds of prepared fresh fish meat. The greatest possilile 
 celerity should be had and care taken that the prepared fresh fish meat is entirely fresh, pure, and 
 without taint. Fresh fish put np after evaporating its free moisture and being fibrilized in the 
 manner described retains its entire nutriment and flavor, is free from all foreign and injurious sub- 
 stances, contains no salt, has no affinity for moisture, and will keep in any climate for a long time. 
 
 A plant was e.stablislied at Gioucester, Mass., in 1881, for the preparation of Alileii's 
 specialty, but it did uot compete successfully with the boneless codfish, then being 
 preiiared iu such large quantities at that port. 
 
 By 11 process designed in 1879 by Mr. J. M. Reid,* of Canada, fish previously brine- 
 salted arc jiiaced iu a tight receiver and subjected for a time to compressed heated 
 air for the |iuri)ose of extracting the moisture. 
 
 Another method that ])roiiiised success was put in operation at Gloucester iu the 
 spring of ISS.i, it being the invention of Halifax parties.! Two apartmeuts were fitted 
 «!> with fiakcs, the floors being partly open to allow the air to circulate. By means 
 of ])iston blowers, or of fans operated by steam power, the external air was drawn iu 
 from one side of the building and forced over the fish and out on the other side, when 
 the atmosphere was in suitable condition for drying. But when it was loaded with 
 moisture both the inlet and outlet connecting the room with the outside air were 
 closed and communication opened with a cooling room overhead, the temperature of 
 which was lowered by cakes of ice, and the air contained in the drying and cooling 
 rooms was forced over the fish, thence through the cooling room, and back again over 
 the fish and so on, continually keeping the fish cool. The inventor claimed that the 
 fish were brighter and contained less dirt and dust than those dried on flakes, but the 
 expense of the process was considerable and consequently it was soon abandoned. 
 
 In 1890 Mr. Gathcart Thompson, of Halifax, brought to notice a process by which 
 he claimed that codfish can be dried by absorbent pads, thereby obviating the dangers 
 and delays of the present method. This process was originally as follows: 
 
 A layer of greeu-salted fiab is spread evenly on an absorbing pad. Common gunny cloth makes a 
 good, cheap, and effective one. Another pad is laid over this, succeeded by another layer of fish, followed 
 again by a pad, anil so on successively until the whole (luantity of fish is spread, a pad being placed 
 over the last layer. A platform of boards is then laid on this, and weights or other appliances are 
 used to cause a slight, continuous, and uniform pressure. The pile is allowed to remain from 24 to 48 
 hours, during which time the pads become saturated with moisture, which they have extracted from 
 the fish. Repiling then takes place, dry pads being substituted for the wet ones, the latter being 
 dried for further use. Repiling with the sulistitution of dry pads is continued till the fish have 
 become sufficiently dry, a week or ten days being long enough to effect this object if intended for the 
 home or West Indian market. For more distant markets a somewhat longer period would be required. 
 
 • Letters Patent No. 221357. t See Letters Patent No. 250382, dated December 6, 1881. 
 
422 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATRS FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 In 1892 Mr. Tli()iiii)soii introduced tlie lollowiiig iinprovciiicnt on liis method: 
 
 A nuiiilicf of lijilit frames of 2 by 11 inch lumber, fi feet in length and 3 feet in width, are 
 constructed. One of the.so is laid upon the Hoor and a layer of dry moss and sawdust is spread 
 thereon. Tliis is covered with a sheet of cotton cloth large enough to envelop the frame, a layer of 
 tish is .spread flesh down thereon, and the whole is covered by another sheet of cotton. A second 
 frame is placed over the first one and the .same processs is continued till a height of 3 or 4 feet is 
 attained, then a thick layer of moss or sawdust is placed over the Last tier of lish and a cover of boards 
 sutticiently large to go in.sidc the frame is laid over all. Pressure is then ap]died, by screw or lever, 
 to thoroughly enibe<l the fisli in the absorbent. The spreading of the moss and sawdust over the 
 layer of fish fills up the interstices between them and brings every part in contact with the .absorbent, 
 and at the same time prevents the fish from being pressed out of shape. 
 
 Ill tlie tweiity-fiftli aiiiiual report of the Canadian Department of Marine and 
 Fi.slieries the folh)wing aci-ount of the above-described pioce.ss i.s given: 
 
 A ciuautity of 200 pouuds of cleaned fish, put under Thompson's process, gave the following 
 weights: 
 
 Duration of test. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Percentage 
 of loss. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 170 
 155 
 144 
 134 
 128 
 
 15 
 
 22i 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 After 312 hours pressure 
 
 
 Thus, 200 pounds of cleaned fish, after a pressure of 312 hours, is reduced to 128 pounds, 36 per 
 cent moisture being extracted. This seems suflScient to establish the fact that in this way enough 
 moisture can be extracted by simple and cheap means to secure the fish against damage at times whcu 
 drying under the ordinary process would be impossible. This method could be employed with great 
 advantage by fishermen at the places of catch, as the moisture could be removed from the fish con- 
 tinuously aud quite independent of weather. Tliey could then be placed in piles, and the first fine 
 day takeu .advantage of for final drying. For fish which have been cured lij' .Mr. Thomp.son's experi- 
 ment, six hours in the son should suffice for he United .States market, and from 24 to 48 hours to 
 render them suitable for the Brazil markets, where hard and very dry fish are reciuired. Mr. Thompson 
 intends to continue his experiments on a larger scale, to enable him to make the final test of sales in 
 foreign markets, whcu a further report will be made, and, if successful, a bulletin will be issued by 
 this department. The ditl'erent experiments were inspected by experienced fish-merchants, who have 
 certified that in their opiuiou the extraction of 30 per cent will secure the fish from damage until 
 suitable weather ofiers for their final drying by exposure to sun aud air — for the removal of the remain- 
 ing 10 per cent to 15 per cent. This they consider would not require more than from 6 to 48 hours of 
 good drying weather, according to the market for which the fish are intended. 
 
 Mr. Thoma.s S. Whitman, of Annapolis, Nova Scotia, obtained letters patent on 
 May 10, 1892, in the Dominion of Canada, and on the l.'>tli of February, 1894, in the 
 United States, for an improved proccs.s of curing and drying cod by exposing the fish 
 alternately to artificial heat and to currents of fresh, cool air. The inventor claims 
 that by his process fisli can be cured much quicker than by the present system and 
 without any of its injurious effects, and that the exact (juantity of moisture desired 
 can also be removed from the fish, so as to suit the taste of consumers in diflercnt 
 countries. 
 
 The following description applies to Mr. Whitman's process: 
 
 The wet-salted fish are taken from the kench and washed, after which the surface water and 
 pickle is pressed out of the fish by steam press or otherwise. After having been in press for a few 
 hours the fish are ready to be spread on the wire flakes or trays that are placed in rows about 9 
 
PRESERVATION OP FIRHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 423 
 
 inches apart, tbo rows of llakos or trays being contiiined in compartments that are traversed by pipes 
 in wbiili steam or hot water is ]ieriiiitted to liicnlate. The maxiiuuni temperature which the steam 
 or hot water in the pipes should iiiijiart to the compartments is about !t5' F. 
 
 The lish having been spread npou the trays or HaUes in tlie compartments are allowed to remain 
 in a temperature of !iO to 95 degrees for a lew hours, until they are thoroughly warmed, whereupon 
 currents of cool, diy air ari^ forced over and under the lish on these hakes or trays. These currents of 
 dry air come from i hannels or Hues that open into the compartments. Hy opening and closing these 
 cold dry-air Hues at ))roper intervals of, say. two or three hours, thus alternately cooling and heating 
 the lish, from 1 to 2 per cent of moisture per hour is taken from the tish. The products of evaporation 
 are carried off from the comiiartments by flues running to a chimney, or suitable ventilators may be 
 placed in the tops of the compartments fiT carrying oft' the moisture to the roof of the building, or 
 otherwise. It will be perceived that if the heating process were carried on by itself continuously 
 instead of interruptedly, the atmosphere surrounding the fish would soon lie charged with moisture 
 to such an extent as to prevent :iuy further evaporations, and the fish, too, would be injured by being 
 warmed for too long a time or too thoroughly. The currents of fresh air which alternate with the 
 heating process describi^d serve to bring down the temperature of the fish and also to carry oH' the 
 moisture-laden atmosphere which surrounds the fish, bringing into action fresh air which is readv to 
 be charged with new moisture carried away from the fish by the next heating process. 
 
 The following account of the application of the Whitman process to curing cod- 
 fish is abridged from a report made by the owners of the patent in the United States: 
 
 The first apparatus for practical working of the Whitman process was put up by the patentee at 
 Annapolis, Nova Scotia, in a building 40 by 80 feet of 2i stories. This fish-drying establishment 
 has been in constant active operation for four years, and has turned out from thd green and kench- 
 salted fish about 10,000 to 1.5,0(10 (juintals of dry fish annually for export to West Indies, Central and 
 .South America, and long-voyage tropical fish markets with very profitable results, giving employment 
 to large numbers of men .lud fishermen, causing a large increase in Bay of Fundy hake and haddock 
 lishiug, and a steady advance in prices, till now these fish are actually commanding higher prices at 
 the Bay of Fundy ports of Nova Scotia than the hake taken by United States fishermen off the New 
 Kngland coast are selling at in Gloucester or Boston; all this being the result of drying the fish 
 suitably for tropical markets, which it has been found impossible to do in the ordinary way by the 
 sun, owing to the humidity of the atmosphere and prevalence of fogs on the Nova Scotia and New 
 Mngland coasts. The same successful results have followed with all the fish-driers Mr. Whitman 
 lias had erected for his own account or for others at Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
 
 At St. Johns, N(^wfoundlaud, for Messrs. Bowring Bros., and for Messrs. Job Bros. & Co., two of 
 the largest fish-exporting firms in America, these drying establishments have been in active operation 
 almost constantly, night au<l day, since erected, about three years ago, and Messrs. Bowring Bros, have 
 purchased Mr. Whitman's patent right for the island of Newfoundland and dependencies of Labrador. 
 
 At St. Pierre, Minuelou, under Mr. Whitman's French patent in 1897, he erected a drier for 
 Messrs. Beust & fils, of Granville, France, who have a large fish establishment at St. Pierre and a fieet 
 of vessels employed in fishing on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. This drier they operate on a 
 royalty, and have m.ade a good success of it, drying fi.sh for export to Madagascar and other French 
 colonies in tropical countries, which it was impossible to do on the Newfonn<lland coast in open air, 
 owing to humid climate and fog. At Paspibeac, Quebec, Canada, Mr. Whitman erected for Messrs. 
 Charles Robin. Collas & Co., Ltd., an extensive drier, costing $5,000, which h.as been most successfully 
 ojierated for two years past by Charles Robin, Collas & Co., who, only two months after they had 
 commenced operations, bought of Mr. Whitman the patent rights for the Province of Quebec and 
 Bale de Chaleur coast and paid £1,000 in cash. 
 
 A small drier was erected at Halifax, in 1896, for Messrs. Geo. E. Boake & Co., especially to dry fish 
 for their Jamaica trade, which has been in constant use over two years and proved a great success 
 in saving of time and labor. At Halifax Mr. Whitman erected, in 1895, a large drier building, GO by 
 I'iO feet, which has been in very successful operation ever since, and has enabled his company to open 
 up large and profitable fish markets in Central and South America, formerly largely controlled by 
 Norwegian fish-dealers. Mr. Whitman is now erecting a fish-drier at Gloucester for Messrs. John 
 Pew & Son, and is about to organize a joint-stock company to operate a large drier at Boston, not only 
 to dry fish for the cutting and other branches of the domestic trade, but for export fish trade. 
 
424 BULLETIN OV THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 A correspondent writes as follows iu the Yarmouth Herald of July 18, 1893, 
 respecting the success of Mr. Whitmau's tish-drying apparatus at Halifax: 
 
 Within till' last few days I have bad tbe privilege of visiting the extensivf new fish-iliying appa- 
 ratus that has been jiut in operation in this city (Halifax) by the inventor, Mr. Thomas S. Whitman, 
 of Annapolis. The bnildiug containing tbe apparatus and storage rooms has been constructed and 
 completed and operations have commenced witbiu the last month. It is a very large building, 50 by 
 120 feet, and is situated on Liverpool wharf, where there is ample wharfage, and where a large amount 
 of fish can be taken cai'e of. Entering the building a very busy scene meets the eye; thousands of 
 quintals of fish are seen in the various processes of washing, drying, and x>acking for the largest fish 
 markets in the world. I was particularly struck with the rapidity of the operation. Mr. Whitman 
 buys all the green-salted fish that otters; by his jirocess they are dried perfectly in 48 bonis, and are 
 ready to ship in less than a week from keucbing. It is certainly a new departure in tbe handling and 
 curing offish. The uew system invented and introduced by Mr. Whitman is a perfect drier, and at 
 the same time tbe fish are so kept apart from each other during tbe entire process of drying that they 
 are also kept cool, the atmosphere by which they are dried being of about tbe same temperature 
 required in the natural .system of drying. It is astonishing to note the vast quantities of fish that can 
 bo cured in a short time; several thousand quint.als per week is the capacity of this large concern, 
 and it is certainly a busy hive of industry, one of the busiest in the provinces. To-day your corre- 
 spondent was shown about 8,(X10 quintals of fish that were being dried, and most of theui were in the 
 sea only a short time ago, and before the week closes they will be shipped in perfect order to the fish 
 markets of tbe West Indies. Considering tbe large amount of foggy, wet weather that the people of 
 the western counties generally have to meet during their fish-drying .season, it would evidently be to 
 the advantage of our largest fish-packers if they were to adopt tbe methods now used and invented by 
 Mr. Whitman, for it is evident that a vast amount of time is thus saved in the curing of fisb, while tbe 
 nuiformity of the curing is maintained throughout, every fish appe.aring in perfect order as a result of 
 this process. As I stated before, it only reciuired 48 hours to thoroughly dry the fish, and they are 
 then ready for shipment to any part of the world. 
 
 It is estimated that the cost of drying codfish by the Whitman process from the 
 water-horse to the finished product is about 30 or 35 cents per 112 pounds for fish 
 suitable for the West India trade, this covering two dryings of 21 hours each and a 
 sweating of 10 to 12 days. In jjieparing fish for Central America or northern Brazil, 
 2i days' drying is necessary, and the cost approximates 40 or 45 cents, while for 
 southern Brazil the fish must be dried for 3 days by the Whitman process, and the 
 cost is about 45 or 50 cents per (juintal of 112 pounds. 
 
 A number of other processes of prtiticial drying have been devised, but none of 
 them have been adopted to any extent by the trade. 
 
PKESERVATION OF KISUEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 425 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY PICKLING. 
 
 Pickling foods consists in their preservation and subsequent retention in some 
 antiseptic flavoring solution, such as brine, vinegar, etc. Brine made of common salt 
 is used almost exclusively iu pickling tish, while for mollusks, crustaceans, and a few 
 preparations of flsh, vinegar with certain spices added is generally employed ; but 
 pickling with vinegar is of small imi)ortauce compared with brine-salting. 
 
 A variety of flavoring solutions used for pickling in foreign countries are com- 
 paratively unknown iu the United States. In Japan small flsh are frequently boiled 
 and placed in shoyu or soja, a sauce made from fermented wheat, beans, and salt. In 
 the same country salmon, cuttletish, etc., are frequently slightly salted and then boiled 
 and placed in a tight package with rice partly fermented, the development of the 
 ferment being checked by the removal of moisture. The rice, taking moisture from the 
 fish, begins again to ferment and the flsh imbibes products of the fermentation, such 
 as dextrine, sugar, and alcohol, and is thereby very delicately flavored. 
 
 A number of other antiseptics have been introduced for the purpose of preserving 
 food products, among which are boracic acid, salicylic acid, etc., but as these do not 
 flavor the product, and as they are not generally employed as a solution, their use is 
 not considered as pickling. A discussion of them is therefore reserved for the last 
 chapter of this report, the present chapter dealing with methods of pickling with 
 brine and vinegar. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND METHODS OF BRINE-SALTING. 
 
 The origin of pickling fish with salt is of somewhat uncertain date. It was known 
 to the Phceniciaus on the Spanish coast, and was employed by the Greeks to some 
 extent, and the Romans carried it to a high degree of ])erfection, especially in preserv 
 ing swordfish from Sicily, tunny from Byzantium and Cadiz, mackerel from Spain, 
 and mullet from Exone. Brine-salting received its greatest development during the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries at the hands of the Dutch in preserving herring 
 caught in the North Sea, and since that time it has become one of the most important 
 methods of preserving fish. Its principal application in the United States is in the 
 preservation of mackerel, herring, alewives, salmon, mullet, cod, lake trout, whiteflsh, 
 bluefish, shad, etc. It is also used in preserving certain miscellaneous products, as 
 cod tongues, halibut fins, sturgeon eggs, mullet eggs, etc. 
 
 The general method of brine-salting is to dress the fish and place them with salt 
 iu tight vats or barrels, the salt uniting with the moisture in the fish forming a pickle, 
 in which they remain for a few days until cured, after which they are usually removed 
 and idaced iu market packages with new brine. But tliere are many exceptions to 
 this practice, depending on the species of flsh and the markets for which they are 
 intended. Some fish, sea herring and river herring, for instance, are usually not 
 dressed at all, being brine-salted iu the natural or round condition. Others are 
 gibbed, or split to the vent and eviscerated. But most pickled fish are split either 
 on the back or the belly from the head to the tail, so as to lay out flat; some have 
 the heads removed, and a few have a large portion of the backbone cut out. 
 
426 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 However they may be dressed, it is importaut tluit the tish be salted as soou as 
 practicable after removal from the water — in the uieantiiiie being protected from the 
 snii, from bruising, etc. In case the fish have been dressed they are usually washed 
 and soaked to remove all the blood. In salting, the lish are placed in tlie barrels or 
 butts, with dry salt sprinkled among them, the quantity used ranging from 20 to 25 
 pounds to 100 pounds offish. On the New England coast Trapani salt is generally 
 used, except in the case of mackerel and one or two other species, for which Liverpool 
 salt is preferred. On the Great Lakes, Syracuse and Warsaw salts are preferred, 
 but the other kinds are used to some extent. Along the Middle and South Atlantic 
 coast Liverpool salt is usually employed. The dry salt unites with the moisture in 
 the flsh, making a pickle which soon strikes through the flsh. If thin, dry fish are 
 being cured, it is sometimes well to add strong brine to aid in forming the pickle. 
 
 After a time, averaging for most species about a week or ten days, the fish are 
 cured, and should then be placed in packages suitable for the market with additional 
 salt sprinkled among the fish, and the package completely filled with strong brine. 
 The principal difficulty encountered is the liability of the fish to rust; but by using 
 strong pickle and tight barrels, so that the fish are covered with pickle all the time, 
 this tendency may be easily overcome except during very warm weather. 
 
 The quantity of salt used in pickling fish varies according to the size and condi- 
 tion of the species handled, and experience and knowledge of the particular market 
 for which they are intended are the best guides in every instance. A mild-cured tish 
 is preferred to one heavily salted; but if too little salt is used the jiickle is likely to 
 slime or sonr and the fish become rusty. It is therefore usually desirable to err on 
 the side of too much salt rather than too little. Occasionally, to insure perfect pres- 
 ervation, it is necessary to use so much that the flavor of delicate species is more or 
 less injured. Sugar is sometimes employed to modify the action of the salt and to 
 improve the flavor of the articles pickled when it is not desired to keep the product 
 for a considerable length of time, as in case of pickling salmon. But the use of sugar 
 is sometimes attended with fermentation unless the pickled products be kept at a low 
 temperature; and glucose is now sometimes substituted. The fl.sli are first struck in 
 salt and then packed in a suitable receptacle with a solution composed of about 3 
 pounds of glucose, 10 pounds of salt, and 5 gallons of water, the glucose being 
 dissolved in the water before the salt is added. 
 
 Pickled fish are i)lace(l in a great variety of packages adapted to the trade for 
 which they are intended and ranging in capacity from tierces, each containing 300 
 pounds, to small kegs containing oidy a pound. Mackerel, sea herring, salmon, cod, 
 and the like, are mostly put up in whole barrels of 200 pounds net capacity. River 
 herring or alewives are generally placed in lOO-pound barrels, while the bulk of mullet, 
 lake herring, whiteflsh, trout, and other lake species are usually packed in half-barrels 
 of 100 pounds capacity. Most of these species, however, are also placed in packages 
 varying from 50 pounds to 10 pounds, suitable for the various requirements of the 
 retail trade, each package being branded with the weight of the fish therein. 
 
 Carefulness in the selection of the packages is of great importance. Those used 
 on the New England coast are manufactured mostly in Maine, Bangor being the 
 center of the industry, and the 100-pound barrels or half-barrels used on the Great 
 Lakes are made principally at Sandusky; but while the products of those two cities 
 arc the standards, many fish barrels are made at various otlier points. Wood which 
 imparts a peculiar flavor to the fish should not be used for making the barrels, unless 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 427 
 
 for preparing fish for those markets which exhibit a preference for fish having such a 
 flavor. The staves and lieads may be of white piiie, white or red oak, spruce, poplar, 
 or chestnut, and they are sent to the lishiug ports either ready for use or, to economize 
 freight, in shooks ready to be put together. The Bangor barrel has staves 28 inches 
 in length and the heads 17 inches between the chimes, and is bound with 3 hoops on 
 each bilge and the same number on each chime. In packing valuable fish, such as 
 mackerel, much stouter barrels are necessary than when packing herring, for instance. 
 The average cost of the Bangor barrel used in the mackerel trade approximates 55 
 cents, and the Sandusky barrel coats about 50 cents. 
 
 REGULATIONS RESPECTING BRINE-SALTING FISH. 
 
 With a view to maintaining the reputation of the output, and incidentally to pre- 
 venting fraud on the consumers, statutes affecting the packing of l)rine-salted lish 
 have been enacted in several of the States, especially in Maine, New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, and Ohio. The pickling of mackerel is regulated in Maine, New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. The laws of Connecticut attempt to regulate the 
 pickling of shad. In Ohio it is required that all iJickled flsh be inspected except 
 herring, mackerel, and shad; also in Chicago and some other large cities there are 
 municipal regulations relative to the same matter. Few of the State or municipal 
 reguliitions are strictly enforced; and since there are no national laws protecting 
 inspected flsh after leaving the jurisdiction of the State where packed, it frequently 
 happens that fish inspected and uniformly graded according to the regulations of the 
 State where prepared are repacked in other States and sold with short weights and 
 under wrong grades, low-grade fish being sold for choice ones, short fish for li)ng, and 
 even herring for mackerel, much to the injury of the trade. Tliere is nothing to prevent 
 mackerel, for instance, which has been pickled and inspected in accordance with the 
 regulations of Maine or Massachusetts, from being repacked and sold under false brands. 
 
 A barrel of fish signifies 200 pounds of fish exclusive of pickle, but without proper 
 iusiiection many dealers are disposed to place less than that weight of fish, adding brine 
 to keep the gross weight of the barrel's contents the same. The faulty grading of fish 
 IS much more frequently practiced, fish improperly cured or those of small size being- 
 branded higher than the quality or size warrants. This is the principal reason why 
 so large a iiroportion of the pickled herring sold in this country are of foreign 
 importation; many dealers preferring to handle those cured and packed under careful 
 foreign inspection, even though the cost be nearly twice as great, since the brand 
 indicates exactly what they are buying. 
 
 Inspection regulations are of very early origin, those in Massachusetts dating 
 from 1651. They generally i)rovide for inspectors, who are appointed by the governor 
 or chosen by the towns in which they are to serve. There was an inspector-general in 
 Maine prior to 1875, but the office was abolished that year, and at ])resent the governor 
 is lecjuired to "appoint, in i)laces where pickled fish are cured or ])acked for exporta 
 tion, one or more persons, skilled in the quality of the same, to be inspectors of fish, 
 who shall hold their office for a term of five years, unless sooner removed by the gov- 
 ernor and council." 
 
 The regulation in New Hampshire respecting the appointment of inspectors is 
 almost identical with that of Massachusetts. The inspector general is appointed 
 by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, fur the term of Ave 
 
428 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 years, unless sooner removed. He may appoiut deputy inspectors, removable at his 
 pleasure, in every town wliere fish are i)acked for exportation. 
 
 In llhode Island "the electors in each town shall, annually, on their town election 
 days, choose and elect » * * one or more i)ackers of fish." 
 
 In (Jonueeticut "the superior court in the several counties may appoint in each 
 town therein not exceeding 15 insijectors and packers of fish." 
 
 In each of these States the inspectors are required to give a bond for the faithful 
 peiformance of their duties, the amount of the bond ranging from .$1(»,000, in case of 
 the inspector-general of Massachusetts, to .$100 for the local inspectors in Connecticut. 
 Their duties consist generally in inspecting and branding the fish salted under their 
 supervision, and the fees are: Tn Maine, 7 cents per barrel; in New Hampshire and Mas- 
 sachusetts, 9 cents, of whicli 1 cent per barrel goes to the inspector-general. In l\hode 
 Island "the packers [inspectors] of fish shall be paid for opening, assorting, inspecting, 
 weighing, pickling, packing or repacking, heading up, nailing, and giving a certificate, 
 if pickled codfish or mackerel, 20 cents for every barrel, and 15 cents for every half- 
 barrel * * * ; and for all other, except codfish and mackerel, * * * 25 cents 
 for every cask." The Connecticut insjjectors receive " for packing, heading, plugging, 
 pickling, and branding each barrel of fish 20 cents, and for each half barrel 10 cents." 
 
 While the foregoing are the fees fixed by law, yet generally, as there is no limit 
 to the number of inspectors, each packing house has one as a member of the firm or 
 employed in some capacity, so that the local fees are rarely paid. 
 
 The inspection in Maine is made under the following provisions: 
 
 Every inspector who inspects any kind of lish tliat are split or pickled for packing, shall see that 
 they are in the first instance free from taint, rust, or damage, and well struck with salt or ]iickle; and 
 such of said fish as are in good order and of good quality shall be pickled in tierces, barrels, half- 
 barrels, (luarter-barrels, and tenths of barrels, or kits; each tierce containing 300 pounds, each barrel 
 200 pounds, and so on in that proportion; and the same Khali be packed in good clean coarse salt, 
 snflicient for their preservation; and then each Ciisk shall be headed ui) and filled with clear, strong 
 pickle, and shall be branded by the inspector with the name and quality of the fish therein. Mackerel 
 of the best ijuality, not mutilated, measuring, when split, not less than 18 inches from the extremity 
 of the head to the crotch or fork of the tail, free from taint, rust, or damage, shall be branded 
 "number one"; the next best quality, l)eing not less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, free from 
 taint, rust, or dam.age, shall be branded "number two''; those that remain after the above selection, 
 free from taint or damage, and not less than 13 inches, measuring as aforesaid, shall be branded "num- 
 ber three, large" ; those of the next inferior ((uality, free from taint or damage, not less than 10 inches, 
 measured as aforesaid, shall be branded "number three"; all other mackerel, free from taint or 
 d.amage, shall be branded "number three, small." The inspector shall brand, in plain letters, on the head 
 of every such cask, the weight, the initials of his Christian name, the whole of his surname, the name of 
 his town, and the letters "Me." au abridgment of the mouth and the year, in figures, when packed. 
 
 Every inspector who inspects pickled .alewives or herring, packed whole or round, shall see that 
 they are struck with salt or pickle, and then put in good casks of the size and material afuresaid, 
 packed closely therein and well salted, and the casks filled with lish and salt, putting no more salt with 
 the fish than is necessary for their preservation ; and the inspector shall brand all such crsks with the 
 name of the inspected fish as aforesaid, but in no case shall the inspector brand the casks unless the fish 
 contained therein shall have been packed and prepared under his immediate supervision. 
 
 All ti(^rces, barrels, and casks which are used fen' the purpose of packing pickled fish shall be 
 made of sound, well-seasoned white oak, white ash, spruce, pine, chestnut, or po]>lar staves, with 
 heading of either of such kinds of wood, sound, well planed and seasoned, and when of pine to be 
 free of saj), and the barrels to be hooped with at least three strong hoops on each bilge and three also 
 on each chime; the barrel staves to be 28 inches in length, and the he.ads to be 17 inches between the 
 chimes, .and made in a workmanlike manner to hold pickle. 
 
 If any person takes from a cask any fish pickleil, cured, lawfully inspected and branded, and 
 substitutes therefor or fraudulently intermixes other fish ; or any insivector marks any cask out of his 
 town, or which he has not inspected, packed, and prepared himself aecoriling to law; permits other 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS F<1K FOOD. 429 
 
 persons unlawfully to use Lis brands, or willfully and fraudulently uses the same himself after the 
 expiration of his commissiou, he shall forfeit $20 for each cask or box so dealt with. 
 
 If any person lades or receives on hoard any vessel or other carriage, for any transportation from 
 this State, any pickled fish, or cured or salted whole fish, packed or not packed, not inspected and 
 branded as aforesaid, except such as is described in the exception of section 13, he shall forfeit at the 
 rate of not less than $5 nor more than $10 for every 100 pounds thereof; and any justice of the peace 
 may issue his warrant to the proper officer, directing hira to seize and secure any such prohibited fish 
 and convey it to any inspector within a convenient distance for inspection; and every person refusing 
 to give necessary aid in the service of such warrant, when reijuired liy the officer, shall forfeit $5 to the 
 person suingtherefor in an action of debt; and such inspector shall open, inspect, jiack, and brand such 
 fish according to law and detain the same till all lawful charges of seizure and inspection are paid. 
 
 The flsh iiLspectiou laws of New Hampshire follow very closely tliose of Maine. 
 The inspection laws of Massachusetts date from 1651, but have been modified from 
 time to time. The following are among the principal provisions at present: 
 
 Under the supervision of the inspector-general and his deputies, respectively, all kinds of split 
 pickled fish and lish for barreling except herrings, and all codfish tongues and sounds, halibut fins 
 and napes, and swordfish, whenever said articles are intended for exportation, shall be struck with 
 salt or pickle in the first instance, and preserved sweet and free from rust, taint, or damage; and 
 when the same are found in good order and of good ([uality they shall be jiacked either in tierces con- 
 taining e.ach 300 pounds, in barrels containing each 200 pounds, in half-barrels containing each 100 
 pounds, or in packages containing each less than 100 pounds, on which the number of puunds therein 
 shall be plainly and legibly Iiranded. Every cask, kit, or package shall be packed with good, clean 
 salt suitable for the purpose, and, after packing with sufficient salt to preserve its contents, shall he 
 headed or well secured, and filled up with a clean, strung pickle. 
 
 Casks used for packing or repacking pickled fish intended for exportation, except casks contain- 
 ing less than 2.'5 pounds weight, shall be made of sound, well-seasoned white oak, ash, red oak, spruce, 
 pine, or chestnut staves of rift timber, sound and well seasoned, with heading of either of said kinds 
 of wood, and when of pine such heading shall be free from sap and knots and be planed. The barrels, 
 half-liarrels, and tierces shall be well hooped with at least three good hoops of sufficient substance 
 on each bilge and three hoojis of the like quality on each chime. The barrel staves shall be 28 inches 
 in length and the heads shall be 17 inches between the chimes. The barrels shall contain not less than 
 28 nor more than 20 gallons each ; the half-barrels not less than 15 gallons each ; and the tierces not 
 less than 4."i nor more than 4(i gallons each. Each cask shall be made in a workmanlike manner, and 
 branded on its side, near the bung, with the name of the nuiker. 
 
 There shall be five qualities of mackerel, three of salmon and shad, and two of other kinds of 
 pickled fish. Mackerel of the best ijuality, not mutilated, measuring nol; less than 13 inches from the 
 extremity of the head to the crotch or fork of the tail, free from rust, taint, or damage, shall be 
 branded "number one." The next best ciuality, being not less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, 
 free from rust, taint, or damage, shall be branded "number two." Those that remain after the above 
 selections, if free from taint or damage, and not less than 13 inches, measuring as aforesaid, shall be 
 branded "number three, large." Those of the next inferior quality, free from taint or damage, not 
 less than 10 Indies in length as aforesaid, shall be branded "number three." All other mackerel free 
 from taint or damage shall be branded "number four." Those salmon and shad which are of the best 
 quality for family use, free from rust or damage, shall be selected for "number one" and "number 
 two," the best of them selected and branded "number one," the residue "nnmbir two"; all that 
 remain I'ree from taint, and sound, shall be branded "number three." Of all other pickleil fish the 
 best, which are free from taint and damage, shall be braudcd "number one"; those that remain, free 
 from taint and sound, "number two." 
 
 Each cask, kit, or package shall bo filled with fish of the same kind or parts of the same kind 
 of fish, and whoever intermixes, takes out, or shifts anj' inspected fish which are packed or branded 
 as aforesaid, or puts in other fish for sale or exportation, shall forfeit $15 for each package so altered. 
 If any casualty renders it necessary to repack a cask of inspected fish it shall iu all cases be done by 
 an insi)ector of such fish. 
 
 The inspector shall brand, in plain, legible letters, on the head of each cask of fish inspected by 
 him, the denomination of the fish ])acked or repacked therein, the initials of his Christian name, and 
 the whole of his surname ; and, if a deputy, the nainc of the place for which he is appointed, the letters 
 
430 BOLLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 "MasB.," and the year in which the fish are packed; and sliall also, when in his judgment it may he 
 necessary, nail in a suitable manner any cask in which fish are packed. Pickled fish duly inspected 
 in the State or country iu which it is packed shall not he subject to reinspectiou in this State. 
 
 Small fish, which are usually packed whole with dry salt or pickle, shall he put iu good casks of 
 the size and materials required in this chapter for the packing of split pickled fish, and shall be packed 
 close in the cask and well salted. The casks shall befilled full with the fish and salt, and no more salt 
 shall be put with the fish than is necessary for their preservation, and the casks containing such whole 
 fish shall be branded with the denomination of the fish, and a like designation of the qualities as is 
 before described in this chapter iu respect to the qualities of other pickled fish. 
 
 In Rhode Island provision is made for the election annually of one or more packers 
 of fish in each town, who shall see that all fish packed in the State are properly 
 pickled and repacked in casks in good shipping order, with good salt, sufficient in 
 each cask to preserve such fish from damage, to any foreign port. Other provisions of 
 the law are as follows : 
 
 Pickled fish, whether codfish, mackerel, menhaden, herrings, or other fish, shall be sorted and 
 one kind only be put into one cask. 
 
 Every cask shall be well seasoned and bound with 12 hoops; these of menhaden and herrings of 
 the capacity to hold 28 gallons, and those for other fish of the capacity, if a barrel, to hold 200 pounds, 
 and if a half-barrel, 100 pouuds weight offish; each cask to be full, and the fish sound and well cured. 
 
 Every cask being first searched, examined, and approveil by a packer shall, when packed or 
 repacked for exportation, be branded legibly on one head with the kind of fish it contains and the 
 weight thereof; or the capacity of the cask, with the first letter of the Christian and tlie whole of 
 the surname of the packer, with the name of the town, and with the words "Rhode Island" in letters 
 not less than three-fourths of an inch long, to deuote that the same is merchantable and in good 
 order for exportation. 
 
 Every cask of pickled codfish and mackerel oft'ered for sale or for exportation from this State 
 shall also be branded "No. 1," "No. 2," or "No. 3," to deuote the quality of such fish. 
 
 Nothing in this chapter contained shall hinder any fisherman or owners of fish coming to this 
 State from their fishing trips from selling or reshipping their fish to any other of the United States 
 without being packed into barrels or half-barrels. 
 
 Connecticut regulations for the inspection of pickled fish relate especially to the 
 curing of shad, and since none of those fish are now pickled in that State except for 
 home consumption the regulations are inoperative. The pickled-fish inspection laws 
 of other States are either iii()i)erative or they relate to certain species, and will be 
 noted in the account of the methods of preserving those particular products. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED MACKEREL. 
 
 In the preparation of few marine products iu this country are such nice distinctions 
 made as in pickling or brine-salting mackerel. Not only has the work been reduced 
 almost to a science by the fishermen and dealers, bitt it has been surrounded with a 
 mass of legislation (jualifying the manner of j)reparation almost witliouta parallel in 
 the preservation of food products. Mackerel salting in the United States is confined 
 almost entirely to Massachusetts and Maine, and four- fifths of the product is prepared in 
 the first-named State, Gloucester and Boston being the principal centers of the trade. 
 A few barrels are prepared also in New Ibimpshire, Ithode Island, and Connecticut. 
 
 The pickling of mackerel was of but little extent prior to the beginning of the 
 present century, the anuual product on the entire coast previous to 1810 rarely 
 exceeding 15,000 barrels. The first salt-mackerel trip from Gloucester is said to have 
 been made by the schooner President to Cashes Ledge, in the Gulf of Maine, about 1810. 
 From that time to 1831 tlie industry rapidly increased, tlie output of Maine, New 
 Hampshire, and Massachusetts during the last-named year reaching 449,950 barrels, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 431 
 
 the largest product in the history of the fishery. The value of the yield during that 
 year was $1,862,793, while the vahie of the 324,454 barrels packed in those States in 
 1804 reached $7,001,098. lu 1881 the yield was 391,057 barrels, with a reported valu- 
 ation of $2,447,556, The increasing demand for fresh fish in this country has aiiected 
 the trade in salt mackerel, a much smaller proportion of the catch being salted during 
 recent years than formerly. Of the 131,939,2.55 pounds of mackerel taken in the 
 United States fisheries in 1880, 80 per cent was salted, whereas during very recent 
 years the salted mackerel represents less than half of the total yield. The quantity 
 of these fish caught lias also decreased greatly, so that at present the trade in salt 
 mackerel is very much less than it was fifteen years ago. In 1887 the domestic product 
 was 93,582 barrels, valued at $1, 004,124; in 1890 it decreased to 20,742 barrels, worth 
 $306,731; while in 1892 it numbered 46,946 barrels, worth $611,486. The yield was 
 24,939 barrels in 1895, 77,464 barrels in 1890, 13,154 barrels in 1897, and 14,286 barrels 
 in 1898, less than 5 per cent of the animal average during the 40 years preceding 1886. 
 
 During the last thirty years ciuantities of salted mackerel have been prei)ared in 
 the British North American Provinces, the annual product during the past three or 
 four years averaging about 25,000 barrels. The mackerel taken on the coasts of 
 Europe are generally sold fresh, but in Ireland, Norway, England, and Scotland many 
 barrels are salted each year, especially in Ireland. Of the 399,3(J1 barrels taken in 
 those four countries in 1895, 46,500 barrels were salted, nearly all of which found a 
 market in America. In 1897 the European product of salt mackerel was 57,352 
 barrels, and in 1898 it approximated ,50,000 barrels. The European method of salting 
 mackerel was until recently considered somewhat inferior to that in vogue in the 
 United States, differing from the American method principally in that the fish were 
 split down the belly instead of down the back, they were not soaked to remove the 
 blood, and in packing in the barrel they were placed face up. The packers, however, 
 have rectified these mistakes and the foreign mackerel ai'e at present more carefully 
 prepared than formerly, and those received in this country from Ireland and Norway 
 now compare very favorably with the domestic product. 
 
 The domestic mackerel that find their way into the salt-fish trade ai'e taken 
 principally in purse seines, most of those caught by means of lines, gill nets, pound- 
 nets, etc., being marketed fresh. When salted, however, they are prepared in the 
 same manner as those taken in purse seines, excei)t that, the yield being usually much 
 less in quantity, facilities for handling the fish rapidly are not of so great importance. 
 
 Mackerel taken by seines or gill nets do not usually keep so well when salted as 
 those taken by lines, as the hitter are taken in smaller quantities and greater care 
 can be used in handling them, and they may be readily salted before deterioration 
 begins and very shortly after being removed from the water. 
 
 The methods of salting as here given relate especially to fish taken by purse seines. 
 
 When the lish are removed from the seine by means of a large dip net they are 
 thrown on deck; or, if the catch be large, they are placed in a "pocket" or "s[)iller," 
 rigged along the side of the vessel, where they can be kept alive until the crew have 
 time to dress and salt them. So many fish are sometimes taken at a single haul that 
 if at once removed to the deck many would spoil before the tislu-iinen could properly 
 care for them, and the purpose of the pocket is to jjrovide a receptacle in which fish 
 may be kept alive for several hours. This pocket was iutroiiuced in 1877 in a simple 
 form on the schooner Alice, of Swan Island. An improved form was invented by 11. E. 
 WillardjOf Portland, Me., and jjatented in April, 1881, but valuable improvements and 
 
432 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 modifications have been made in its construction since that time. The following is 
 a description : 
 
 The mackerel pocket is a large rectangular net bag, usually 36 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 30 feet 
 deep, with 2-inch mesh, hung to IJ-inch rope. On the portion of the rope next to the vessel wooden 
 floats are strung for the purpose of securing the edge of the pocket to the rail of the vessel, this edge 
 being fastened over the rail and between it and a board held in position by wooden pins. The outer 
 corners of the pocket are supported by ropes running through blocks attached to outriggers 4 inches 
 in diameter, by means of which the outer edge of the pocket may be elevated or depressed. To the 
 outer edge of the pocket is attached a rope bridle, the ends of which are fastened about 9 feet from 
 each outrigger. A thimble is attached to the middle of this bridle, and when the mackerel have been 
 turned into the pocket the fore and after staysail halyards are bent into the thimble and the outer 
 edge of the pocket thus supported and the outriggers relieved from considerable strain. In getting 
 the fish into the pocket the latter is slacked down to the surface of the water and the outer edge is 
 fastened to the cork rope of the seine. By gathering the twine of the seine, beginning at the side 
 farthest from the pocket, the tish are readily turned into the pocket, and the edge of the latter is then 
 raised above the surface of the water. 
 
 Unfortunately the fishermen have found little use for these pockets during the 
 last six years, the catch of mackerel being so small that they can be readily cared for 
 before any of them s|)oil. The fish are removed from the pocket in quantities ranging 
 from 2.'» to 100 barrels at a time. If the weather be warm and moderate the quantity 
 removed at a time is small, but when the air is cool or the water rough or when 
 dogfish are abundant the quantity is very nuich larger. 
 
 For dressing the fish, the crew is divided into working gangs of three men each, 
 one of whom splits and the other two, known as "gibbers," gill and eviscerate the 
 fish. Bach gang of men is provided with a splitting board from (J to 10 inches wide 
 and with two wooden tiays about 3 feet square and f> inches deep, which are generally 
 suppoited on the tops of barrels. Some crews, especially in the hand-line fi.shery, have 
 only two men in each s))littiiig gang, the splitter or some one else getting the barrels, 
 filliug them with water, and otherwise aiding tiie gibber. The splitter with his left 
 hand, which is nsual'-y covered with a cotton mitf en for protection as well as to prevent 
 the fisli from slipping, takes the fish round the center of the body, with the tail toward 
 him, and splits it down the back on the left side of the backbone from the head to the 
 tail, so that it will lie open and fiat after the viscera havt^ been removed, the knife being 
 held by the fingers and guided by the thumb sliding along the upper side of the fish. 
 On splitting each fish he tosses it to the tray of the gibber, who, with hands 
 covered with gloves to protect them against the bones, opens the fish with a jerk, 
 causing it to break lengthwise along the lower end of the ribs if it is fat, thus making 
 a crease on each side. He removes the viscera and gills and throws the fish, open and 
 face down, into a barrel partly filled with clean salt water, in which the blood is soaked 
 from the fiah, whence they are called " wash barrels." There the fish remain until the 
 splitting is finished, which nmy be 6 or 8 hours or even longer after the first fish have 
 been split. Tlien the deck is cleaned up and the men proceed to salting. 
 
 A good splitter can handle from 2,000 to .'^,500 mackerel per hour, and under 
 favorable circumstances L'OO barrels of mackerel can be cared for by a crew of lli or 1.5 
 men without dllliciilty before any of them spoil. Sometimes, when a large haul has 
 been made, the ciew may work steadily for 24 or even 3(i hours in succession, losing 
 only the brief time given ti) meals. By practice they can split and dress the fish as 
 well at night as during the day. 
 
 If the men have time they "plow" or ream tlie fish, making a cut in the abdominal 
 cavity on each side near the backbone, in imitation of the natural cracks or breaks 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 433 
 
 which occur in fat fish, thus giving the ttsh a fat appearance. "Plowing" was begun 
 about 1S30, and although for a number of years there was great opposition to the 
 innovation, it is at the present time recognized as a legitimate feature of the trade. 
 The fatness of mackerel as well as the size determines the quality, and the degree of 
 fatness is most readily ascertained by noting the portious covering the abdominal 
 cavity. When the fish is very fat these portions crack open about halfway from the 
 backbone to the center of the abdominal cavity, and the depth of these cracks 
 indicates the relative fatness of the fish. By making the break or crack nearer to 
 the backbone than where it would ordinarily occur and where the flesh is considerably 
 thicker, the fish is given the ai)pearance of being much fatter than it really is. At 
 first these cracks were made by using the thumb nail, and later by the back of the 
 point of the splitting knife, the cut by degrees being made higher than it naturally 
 belonged. The use of the knife led gradually to the introduction of the plow or 
 reamer, of which there are many styles, some made wholly of wood, others with the end 
 tipped with pewter and with fine teeth on the edge, so as to make the crease rough, 
 as though it were broken naturally. A poi)ular form consists of a small cutting 
 blade about 1^ inches in length, cut square forward and tapering to a point at the heel, 
 attached to a curved iron shank, to which a wooden handle is fixed. 
 
 In salting, the mackerel are emptied from the wash barrels upon the deck and 
 rinsed by throwing buckets of water over them. A man jjlaces them, a few at a time, 
 on a gib tub containing a half bushel or more of No. '2 Liverpool salt, while another 
 man, taking a fish in each hand, rubs the flesh side of the fish in the salt and, 
 with the back of one fish against the flesh of the other, places them in the sea barrel 
 with the flesh side down, excei>t that the two or three bottom layers or tiers have 
 the flesh side up. Formerly it was customary to place all the fish with flesh side up, 
 but this has been abandoned. The salt is carried in the hold in barrels that are sub- 
 sequently used for packing the mackerel. Liverpool salt is used almost wholly, Cadiz 
 and other coarse salts having a tendency to tear and give a ragged appearance to the 
 mackerel. It is quite important that every i)ortiou of the surface of the fish be in 
 contact with the salt, and care should be taken not to leave finger marks where the 
 lingers or thumb cover portions of the fish during the process of salting and prevent 
 the access of salt. 
 
 Formerly on some vessels, especially those from Cape Cod, the mackerel were not 
 rubbed in the salt, but were placed in the barrel with the flesh side up and the salt 
 scattered over them. In salting the fish in that manner, Cadiz salt was used prin- 
 cipally. The present method is much more rajHd and leaves the fish in much neater 
 condition, because the coarse salt pressing against the fish indents and lacerates it. 
 l>y either i)rocess a barrel of mackerel may be salted in from 8 to ir> minutes, about a 
 bushel of salt being used. After standing for a day or so and settling, the barrels are 
 topped up by adding more struck fish to each barrel. When convenient, the barrels 
 are headed and stowed in the hold or secured on deck until the vessel reaches port. 
 
 On arrival at porl the barrels of mackerel are removed and placed on the wharf 
 or in a storehouse until opportunity arises for repacking them, which may not be for 
 months. Then the top of the barrel is removed, the brine poured ofl' and discarded, 
 the fish emptied out, several barrels at a time, into a culling crib or box of planed 
 boards with slat bottom and usually 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 8 to 10 inches deep, 
 placed on legs about 3 feet high. The fish are there culled into the several grades 
 recognized by the trade and thrown into two weighing tubs, each holding about 100 
 
 F. C. B., 1S98— 28 
 
434 lU'LLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION 
 
 pounds, wbicli rest on ii beam scale. These tubs have wooden staves and have the 
 bottom perforated with iueh holes to permit drainage, or, better still, a rope net-work 
 bottom, and are bou!id with two iron hoops and have an iron handle on each side. 
 The diameter of the tub is 24 inches at the top and the height is about 15 inches. 
 When the ijroper weight of fish is placed iu the tubs the iish are removed to a packing- 
 crib, somewhat similar to the culling crib, and usually 38 inches long, 20 inches wide, 
 and 14 inches deep, where they are packed in barrels or smaller packages, the various 
 grades being kept separate from each other and placed iu difterent packages. 
 
 In packing, a small quantity of salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel, next 
 two or more layers of tish, with the Hesh side up and succeeding layers of fish with 
 the back up. Over each layer of fish a large handful of salt is sprinkled, about 35 
 pounds being used for each barrel of fish, which is recjuired by law to contain 200 
 pounds of mackerel, exclusive of the weight of the pickle: while half, (juarter, and 
 eighth barrels must contain proportionate quantities. The total shrinkage on salt 
 mackerel from the' round to the marketable state is about 33 per cent. After being- 
 tilled the barrel is headed and moved to some appropriate place on the wharf or in the 
 storehouse, where it is "pickled''; that is, a hole is bored in the side or head of the 
 barrel and as juuch brine as the barrel will contain is poured iu. This brine should 
 be made quite strong, at least of 95° salinometer test, and it is conveniently introduced 
 by means of a water bucket with a copper nozzle in the bottom, forming a funnel, the 
 end of whicli is placed in the hole made in the side of the barrel, a vent on the side 
 permitting the air to escape. The hole is then plugged up and the barrel turned on 
 end and branded. The branding kettle most commonly used is of stout sheet iron, 
 cylinder shaped, inches in diameter and 12 inches high. A rod with a wooden 
 handle at the top passes through the center of the kettle and furnishes the means for 
 handling it. A charcoal lire is made in the kettle and when the brand, usually made 
 of brass at the bottom, is sufficiently heated, tlie barrels are stamped with the legal 
 inspection marks. Because of leakage and evaporation it is frequently necessary to 
 add additional pickle to the barrel after it has stood several days, the deficiency being 
 noted by the sound produced by striking the barrel with a stick. 
 
 The total cost of repacking mackerel, including- barrels, salt, and all labor, from 
 the time the fish are received from the vessel, ranges between $1.25 and $1.60 per 
 barrel, depending on the market price for barrels, labor, etc. 
 
 The general average of cost approximates $1.44 per barrel, apportioned as follows: 
 
 Labor — -weigliiiig .and culling $0.25 
 
 Labor in packing 10 
 
 Sal t in packing 10 
 
 Cooperate 06 
 
 Kepickling 08 
 
 Bangor barrel 55 
 
 Supervision, use of plant, etc 30 
 
 The laws of most of the New England States recjuire that the work of culling, 
 weighing, packing, and pickling be all performed under the personal supervision of a 
 State inspector, who places his brand on the head of each barrel or package, indicating 
 the kind and grade of fish, name of inspector, name of town and State where packed, 
 and date of jiacking. In Maine and New namjjsliire it is necessary that the date 
 include the month as well as the year in which the fish are i)ackcd, but in Massachu- 
 setts the year is deemed sufficient. If by becoming rusty, or the pickle leaking out, 
 the fish require repacking, they must again be inspected. There is much difference in 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 435 
 
 the quality of mackerel taken dmiiiy dittercut seasons of tlie year. TLe early spring 
 catch is generally very poor aud shrinks considenibly when salted. The fish increase 
 ill fatness as the season advances, and those taken during the fall usually improve in 
 weight in pickle. Full grown fresh mackerel measure 17 or 18 inches in length, but 
 some over 20 inches and weighing 3 or 4 pounds are caught. The average length is 
 about 12 inches and the weight a trifle less than u pound. Salted mackerel measure 
 considerably less, due to the loss of the head and the slight shrinkage in salting. 
 
 The grades of salted mackerel are very carefully defined by the statutes of various 
 New England States, and with little difference in one State from those in another. In 
 Maine salted mackerel of the best quality, not mutilated, measuring, when split, not 
 less than 13 inches from the extremity of the head to the fork of the tail, free from 
 taint, rust, or damage, are branded as "number one"; the next best quality, being not 
 less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, free from taint, rust, or damage, are 
 branded as "number two"; second quality mackerel, but free from taint or damage, 
 and not less than 13 inches, are branded as "number three, large"; those of the same 
 quality, not less than 10 inches in length, are branded as "number three," and all 
 other mackerel, free from taint or damage, are branded as "number three, small." 
 The grades required by the laws of New Hampshire and Massachusetts are almost 
 identical with the aforegoing, except that in the last-named States the fish are branded 
 as "number four" instead of " number tliree, small." The regulations of Rhode Island 
 are somewhat indefinite in this particular, reciuiriiig merely that every cask of mack- 
 erel offered for sale or for exportation from the State shall be branded "number one," 
 "number two," or "number three," to denote the quality of such fish. 
 
 In addition to the grades designated by law, packers of mackerel prepare 8i)ecial 
 grades known as "extra ones," "extra twos," "bloaters," etc. Extra ones are superior 
 in size and fatness to legal ones, and are sold at a much higher price; aud the same 
 ditterence exists between extra twos aud legal twos. Bloaters are the choicest mackerel 
 prepared, and only a few barrels are secured each season. 
 
 Mess mackerel are also prepared as an additional form of the other grades. These 
 are principally the best and fattest mackerel that would pass as numbers one and 
 trwo, with the heads aud tails removed, and with the slime, etc., carefully brushed off 
 before being repacked. There is an average loss of about 17 per cent in weight in 
 preparing mess mackerel from the customary condition of pickled mackerel, but this 
 varies considerably, depending on the size and degree of fatness of the fijsh. 
 
 The laws of most of the New lingland States regulate the character and size of 
 the barrels in which pickled mackerel are packed and the materials of which they are 
 made. The law of Maine requires all barrels and casks to be made of sound, well- 
 seasoned white oak, white ash, spruce, pine, chestnut, or ])oplar staves, with heading 
 of either of such kinds of wood, sound, well planed, and seasoned, and the barrel or 
 cask to be hooped with at least three strong hoops on each bilge, and three also on 
 each chime; the barrel staves to be 28 inches in length and the heads to be 17 inches 
 between the chimes. In Massachusetts all packages, except those containing less 
 than 25 pounds weight, must be made of white oak, ash, red oak, spruce, pine, or 
 chestnut, and the number of the hoops and the size of the barrel staves and heads 
 are the same as set forth in the Maine laws. In each State the barrel must hold 
 between 28 and 2!) gallons, and the half-barrel not less than 15 gallons, and the tierce 
 between 45 and 46 gallons. The regulations in New Hampshire are identical with 
 those of Massachusetts as to the ijuality of the material and dimensions of the barrel, 
 
436 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 but require tlmt it shall contain between 29 and 30 gallons. Each cask must be made 
 in a workmanlike manner so as to bold pickle, and be branded on its side near the 
 bung with the name of the maker. 
 
 Most of the barrels used for luckling mackerel are manufactured iu Bangor, Me., 
 but a few are made in various other parts of N^ew England. The price is generally 
 from $40 to $5.') per 100, but when an unexpectedly large demand for them exists they 
 sometimes sell as high as $1 each at the fishing port. Barrels once used are sometimes 
 repaired and used over again, but this practice is not commendable. 
 
 For convenience in marketing, brine-salted mackerel are frequently placed in half, 
 quarter, eighth, and sixteenth barrels, after they have been prepared in the regulation- 
 size barrels. In recent years a considerable market has been developed for much 
 smaller packages, and when the fish are sufticiently cheap, they are frequently put up 
 in 5 pound and 3i)ouud tin cans, for a description of which see page 520. 
 
 The following summary, compiled from the flies of the Gloucester papers, shows 
 the fishermen's price per barrel of the principal grades of mackerel during the first 
 week of September iu each year from 1830 to 1898, representing generally the average 
 for the year : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 No.l. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 1830 
 
 $5.00 
 5.75 
 5.00 
 5.72 
 5.72 
 7.0U 
 9.00 
 7.75 
 11.00 
 12.50 
 12.75 
 
 12. 00 
 9.00 
 
 10.12 
 9.50 
 
 13. UO 
 9.12 
 
 12.75 
 9.00 
 12.00 
 10. 12 
 10.00 
 9.00 
 
 $4.50 
 4.75 
 4.00 
 4.72 
 4.72 
 6.00 
 8.00 
 6.50 
 9.25 
 10.50 
 10.50 
 10.00 
 0.00 
 8.12 
 7..iO 
 10.50 
 6.25 
 8.25 
 6.00 
 7.00 
 8.12 
 6.50 
 7.00 
 
 $2.62 
 2.62 
 
 2.75 
 2.85 
 3.35 
 4.00 
 5.00 
 4.12 
 5.50 
 7.00 
 5.50 
 6.00 
 4.00 
 6.00 
 5.50 
 6.87 
 3.87 
 4.25 
 3.37 
 3.50 
 5.00 
 5.12 
 5.75 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 18:13 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1853. 
 1854, 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859. 
 1860 
 1861. 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 
 No.l. 
 
 $11. 50 
 15.00 
 19.00 
 13.00 
 15. 00 
 15.50 
 14.50 
 16.00 
 8. ,50 
 8.25 
 14.00 
 30.00 
 22.00 
 22. 75 
 17.00 
 17.00 
 23.00 
 23.00 
 11.25 
 14.50 
 20.00 
 13.25 
 16.25 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 $9.50 
 
 12.25 
 
 11.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 12.50 
 
 12.59 
 
 8.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 9.25 
 
 20.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 13.25 
 
 12.25 
 
 13.00 
 
 11.50 
 
 9.75 
 
 7.25 
 
 9.50 
 
 12. 25 
 
 11.00 
 
 10.25 
 
 No. 3. ': Year. 
 
 $7.50 
 5.00 
 6,25 
 6.00 
 8.50 
 8.50 
 8.50 
 5.00 
 2.75 
 4.50 
 6.50 
 
 No.l. 
 
 9.75 
 '7.50' 
 
 6.25 
 7.00 
 9.00 
 7.00 
 7.50 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 1 887 
 1888 
 1889 
 1890 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1894 
 1895 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 
 $15. 00 
 16.50 
 18.00 
 16.00 
 14.00 
 14.00 
 18.00 
 20. 00 
 14.00 
 13.75 
 22.00 
 17.50 
 22.00 
 28.00 
 21.00 
 18.00 
 20.00 
 16.50 
 18.00 
 20.00 
 17.50 
 16.00 
 17.00 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 $6.75 
 12.50 
 
 8.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 5.75 
 
 12.50 
 
 14.00 
 
 18.50 
 
 25.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 13.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 14.50 
 
 14.50 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 $3.50 
 8.00 
 5.00 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 8.00 
 10.60 
 3.50 
 3.75 
 9.50 
 11.00 
 14.00 
 17.011 
 13.00 
 8.00 
 10.00 
 12.00 
 12. 50 
 
 11.50 
 
 BRINE-SALTED HERRING. 
 
 Several different species of the Clupeidie family are known locally in the United 
 States as herring. The principal ones are the sea herring (Glupea harengtis), so 
 abundant in the Gulf of Maine; two kinds of alewife (PomoloJyns pseudnharemiun and 
 P. (I'stivaUn), known on many parts of the coast as river herring, and the herring of 
 the Great Lakes (Argyrosomus artedi). The sea herring occurs north of xMontauk, 
 while the alewife inliabits the rivers and bays all along the Atlantic seaboard, the 
 fishery being of the greatest imijortance in the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay and 
 Albemarle Sound. The herring of northern Europe are of the same species as those 
 of the New England coast. 
 
 In this report the name "herring" refers to the Clupea harengiis, the other species 
 bping known as alewives or river herring and lake herring. 
 
 It is impossible to assign even an approximate date for the first salting or pickling 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 437 
 
 of lierriiig. Francis Day, iu his well-known work on the Fishes of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, jiarts v-ix, p. 222, writes as follows on this snbject: 
 
 Atthi' beginniug of the twelfth century there were herring fisheries in the Baltic, to which many 
 foreign vessels resorted; these herring must, therefore, have heen sailed; in fact, iu 1155 Louis Vll, 
 of France, prohibited his subjects purchasing anything but uiaclierel and salted herrings at Estampes. 
 
 The manner of curing these fish is considered to have been very crude until the 
 time of William Beuckels, or Beuckelzon, a fish merchant of Biervliet, in Flanders, 
 who, during the fourteenth century, greatly improved the methods in use and laid the 
 foundation of the great wealth ac(iuired later by Holland in this business. r>eu(;kelzou 
 died in 1397, and a monument was erected to his memory by Charles Y iu his native 
 village, Borgo; while Mary of Hungary, duriug a visit to the Low Countries, is said 
 lo have paid a more characteristic tribute to his memory, iiamely, that of eating a salt 
 herring at his tomb. 
 
 The first mention we have of ])ickled herring iu America is by Josselyn, in the 
 seventeenth century, who, iu his Chronological Observations of America, says: "We 
 used to qualify a pickled herring by boiliTig of him in milk." It is almost self-evident, 
 however, that the pickling of herring was carried on by the earliest settlers of America, 
 and possibly by the fishermen who resorted to these shores from Europe before the 
 country was settled, as it was an old-established business in Europe. 
 
 The quantity of herring preserved by the process of pickling is greater than that 
 of all other species combined, aggregating nearly 3,000,000 barrels anuually, but the 
 yield in tlie 1 • iiited States (about 30,000 barrels annually) is small compared with the 
 product of iScotland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Half a century ago the outjjut 
 iu New England was many times greater than at present, and there was a considerable 
 export trade, amounting at times to 00,000 barrels; but, owing to carelessness in the 
 method of pickling and absence of uniformity in the quality of the product and iu 
 weight of the packages, the trade has been captured by the foreign curers, who now 
 sell about 150,000 barrels annually in the United States, at double the price received 
 for the domestic article. In view of the large quantities of herring on the New 
 England coast and the extensive markets that already exist in this country as well as 
 in the adjacent couutries to the south, it seems extremely desirable that more care 
 should be given to the curing of this fish, and the preparation should be governed by 
 fixed standards applicable to both quality and quantity. 
 
 The quality of pickled herring varies greatly, depending almost entirely on the 
 quality of the fresh fish and the promptness and care exercised iu curing them. Few 
 fish are more difficult to properly cure than this species; the flesh is very delicate and 
 tender, and not only does it iujure readily, but it is much less able to take the salt if 
 the pickling be long delayed alter removal from the water. If placed in pickle 
 before they have been much exposed, they take the salt quickly and the natural 
 quality and flavor of the fish are better preserved. Another important rule iu pre- 
 paring this as well as other kinds of fish is to have the greatest possible cleanliness 
 iu the salting houses and in the tubs and barrels used for salting. 
 
 There is no uniform method of curing herring in this coirntry, but most of them 
 are salted just as removed froui the water, without splitting or dressing, and are known 
 as "rouud herring," to distinguish tliem from the "gibbed herring," which have the 
 gills, heart, etc., removed, and the " split herring," which have the gills and all viscera 
 removed. The method of preparing each will be described separately. 
 
438 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH f'OMMISSION. 
 
 KOUND HERRING. 
 
 Tlie Imlk of tljf Leniug salted ou the New England coast are taken in the vessel 
 gill-net tisheiy, and the fish are usually salted on board the vessels. Some are taken 
 also by small boats making daily trips to the flsliinggrounds, and these are necessarily 
 salted on shore. The methods of salting the tish on the vessels and ou shore ditter 
 only according to the facilities for handling tlieiu. 
 
 In the vessel fishery, as the herring are removed from the nets they are placed ou 
 deck and water is soused over to remove loose scales, blood, etc., and sometimes salt 
 is sprinkled over them. They are next ])laced in hogshead tubs with about 3 pecks 
 of salt to the barrel offish scattered among them, when they are covered with briue and 
 left standing for four or five days, or until they are struck. It is important that the 
 salting be done as soon as practicable after the fish are removed from the water, and 
 in the meantime they should be protected from the sun. After being struck, the fish 
 are repacked in market barrels, where they remaiu for twenty-four hours for settling, 
 when the barrels are topped up by adding a few struck tish to eacli barrel. It requires 
 about 330 salted fish to fill a barrel, the number of fresh herring required beiug about 
 300. In packing the fish in the barrel, they are usually placed with backs slanting 
 upward. Occasionally, however, those in the lower half of tiie barrel are placed back 
 down, and sometimes a few upper and lower layers are carefully placed and the middle 
 portions arranged with less care. After the barrel has been topped up it is filled with 
 brine, headed, aiul stored in the hold. On arrival at port, if it apjjcars from sounding 
 that some of the pickle has leaked out, more is added through a hole bored in the 
 bilge and the hole plugged up, when the barrel is nrady for branding and marketing. 
 Sometimes at the port the tish are repacked, so as to insure full weight and good flsli, 
 new brine being made, if necessary, butif the old pickle is clear it is used over again. 
 
 To determine the proper amount of salt required for curing herring requires 
 considerable skill and experience, and the quantity varies according to the condition 
 of the fish, the season of the year, etc. If too much salt be used the fish will soon 
 become hard and dry, with greatly diminished fiavor, but if the quantity of salt be 
 insuflflcient the fish will become tainted and unfit for food within a short time. During 
 warm weather more salt must be used than when the temperature is low, and thin 
 small herring re<juire less salt than thick or large ones. As a general rule, about 5 
 pecks of salt are required for curing each barrel of herring. 
 
 In pickling on shore, the fish ou their arrival are dumi)ed into tanks or wash 
 barrels of sea water, from which they are at once removed with a brail net, the fish 
 being rinsed up and down at the same time, and placed in a pickling butt or vat with 
 about 3 pecks of salt scattered among each 200 pounds of fish and a heap placed 
 ou top. In two or three days a workman with high rubber boots passes over the 
 butts, treading ou the heaps of fish to separate them if massed together. Or, iu 
 some localities, the masses are separated by stirring them with a spudger, consisting 
 of a thick board 10 inches long and 2 or 3 inches wide, nailed in the center to a wooden 
 handle. The fish remain in the butts eight or ten days, being examined occasionally 
 and more salt beiug added to keep the pickle sweet. After being thoroughly struck, 
 the fish are removed with dij) nets and placed on a packing table, whence they are 
 packed in the market barrels, 200 pounds to each barrel, sometimes with backs up and 
 sometimes with bellies up, according to market demands, about half a bushel of salt 
 being scattered among them during the process of packing. The barrels are then 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 439 
 
 licadcd ;uhI a hole bored in the bilge or Lead and sufficient strong brine added to fill 
 tlio barrel; tlie liole is tlien plugged and the barrel is ready for shipment. It is 
 important that tiie herring be packed so tight in tiie barrel that their relative positions 
 are not disturbed in handling the barrel, thus removing the scales and breaking the 
 fish. There is little decrease in weight in pickling herring, 211 pounds of fresh fish 
 making a barrel of 200 pounds of round herring. The jnarket price for round herring 
 during recent years has ranged from $3 to $5 per barrel. 
 
 The cost of preparing a barrel of pickled round herring in New England is about 
 $2,37, ajiportioned as follows: 
 
 Cost of 200 pounds of fiesli herring $1.00 • 
 
 Labor of pickling iu butts 07 
 
 Salt used in pickliug iu butts 20 
 
 Barrel 50 
 
 Salt used iu packing in barrel 09 
 
 Labor of packing in barrel 08 
 
 Cooperage 06 
 
 Cartage 07 
 
 Wear and tear, loss, etc • .30 
 
 GIBBED AND SPLIT HKRRTNG. 
 
 Although most of the herring taken on the New England coast are salted round, 
 some of them are either gibbed or split before being salted. This method of curing 
 the fisli is much more effective than salting them round, the latter being objectionable 
 because all the blood is thereby retained in the fisli and undergoes a slight decompo- 
 sition before the salt thoroughly strikes through the skin and flesh. It is very infre- 
 quent that herring are salted round in Europe, the usual practice being to gib them 
 before salting. Less salt is also required for preserving the flsh when they have been 
 Llibbed, and thus the flavor of the i)roduct is improved. Gibbing consists iu removing 
 the gills, heart, and sometimes the viscera from the fish by means of the thumb and 
 forefinger. It requires 228 pounds of round flsh to make 200 pounds of gibbed flsh. 
 (;ibbing is very little jiracticed now in the New England States, because the flsh are 
 usually not very fat, and look thin and jwor when gibbed. Splitting is jjerformed by 
 cutting the flsh down the belly to the vent, removing the gills and viscera, and usually 
 the roe bags and milt of spawning herring. In some localities, especially at Eastport, 
 Me., it is customary to immerse the fish in brine for a few moments before they are 
 cut. This causes the herring to keep their scales Wetter and brighter, and they can 
 also be handled more readily in splitting. Splitting was originally applied only to the 
 extra large herring iu order to i)ermit the salt to more readily strike through them; it 
 is now commonly practiced in Newfoundland and Canada, but herring for pickliug 
 are rarely split down the belly in the extensive fisheries of Europe. 
 
 After evisceration the fish are immersed in tubs of salt water for a couple of 
 hours to allow the blood to be soaked from them, when they are packed in butts or 
 tight barrels, back down, with the stomach cavities filled with salt and with a layer 
 of salt sprinkled between the layers of fish, about 3 pecks of salt being used for each 
 barrel of fish. When properly struck the flsh are repacked in the same manner as 
 the round herring above described. In packing in the barrel some fishermen place 
 them on their backs and slightly inclined to one side. Others place them fully on the 
 back. The latter appears to be the better method, as it gives the herring a more 
 round and thick appearance and the pickle has a better chance at the abdominal 
 cavity. The split herring usually sell at about $1 per barrel more than round herring, 
 
440 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 l)ut in 1898 the price was approximately tlie same. A -00-ponnd barrel of fre.sli 
 herring' will weigli 144 pounds when split and eviscerated, losing 50 pounds in dressing. 
 Sometimes, in order to till ont a shipment of split herring, round salted herring are 
 split and eviscerated and added thereto. In this ojieration care must be taken not to 
 tear the fish. 
 
 The present condition of the pickled-herring industry in this country is far from 
 satisfactory. Great improvements in the methods of cure are desirable, and unless 
 the (juality of the product be bettered there seems little probability of an increase in 
 the pros[)erity of the business. The abundance of these tisli on the Sew England 
 coast during certain seasons of the year, and the large market demand for pickled 
 herring in this country, should encourage our fishermen to put up a product that will 
 compare favorably and compete with the foreign cured herring, the great necessity 
 l)eing a flxcd standard, applicable to quantity as well as quality, with proper culling 
 and grading of the different kinds. Usually during September and October there is 
 a run of tine herring on the ^STew England coast, which if i)repared with that care 
 exercised in the curing of Euro])ean herring would probably be nearly if not equally 
 as good; but at present their value is depreciated by too long exposure to the sun 
 and air before salting, by carelessness in the manner of salting, failure to separate 
 the tish into the various grades, and by using weak barrels in the packing. 
 
 THE IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN HERRING. 
 
 The great bulk of the pickled herring consumed in the United States is prepared 
 in the Netherlands, Norway, and Scotland. Of the 1,321,020 barrels received during 
 the ten years ending June 30, 1898, 377,480 barrels came from the Netherlands, 231,098 
 larrels from Norway and Sweden, and 111,198 barrels from Scotland. 
 
 The Holland herring are the most popular of those received in the United States, 
 and the demand for them is constantly increasing. The tirst of the Holland herring 
 arrive here in June. These are known as "matties," having small roe or milt. 
 The "vol" herring, which have the roes fully developed, arrive usually about the 
 latter part of July. The trade becomes brisk toward the end of August and continues 
 until near the end of November. Tliere is also considerable demand during February, 
 March, and April, and usually all are sold before the 1st of June. The great bulk of 
 the receipts, probably four fifths, are in suiall liegs, containing from 45 to 55 herring, 
 about loi pounds of fish. These kegs are made of hard wood and measure 9J inches 
 in height on the outside, 7f inches at the bilge inside, and 7 inches at the ends inside, 
 with staves and bottoms ^ incli in thickness. At the top of the keg tlie staves are 
 slanted oft" at the ends, but at the bottom they are of the same thickness out to the 
 ends. They are bound with C, 8, 14, or 10 hoops, but more frequently with 6 or 8. 
 When only G hoops are used the two end ones are usually of galvanized iron and the 
 others of willow or similar material. On the head of the keg is branded the description 
 of the contents, with some distinctive trademark. 
 
 In addition to the kegs, many Holland herring are received in barrels, containing 
 from 242 to 254 jjounds of fish, exclusive of the pickle. A few half-barrels and quarter 
 barrels are also received, but they do not take so well as the barrels and the sixteenths. 
 
 The price ranges from 45 to 75 cents per keg and $7 to $11 per barrel. Packages 
 containing "milkers."' or milt herring oidy, usually sell for 10 to 15 cents more per keg 
 and from $1 to $2 more i)er barrel than those containing mixed herring. 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODIH'TS FOR FOOD. 
 
 441 
 
 The imports of Scotch herring have increased considerably during recent years, 
 from 180 barrels in 1885 to 3:2,03(i in 1898, most of which are received at the port of 
 New York. A few years ago they usually sold for somewhat less than the Holland 
 herring, but during the past two or three years they have sold for $2 to li more j)er 
 barrel. These are also packed in small kegs, but the keg trade is not so extensive 
 as in case of the Holland herring. The consumption of Norwegian herring is also 
 increasing. Practically all the Norwegian and Scotch herring are sold in barrels, the 
 former containing 400 to 800 tish or 221 pounds, and the latter i'rom .'^.JO to 700 fish or 
 250 pounds, exclusive of the i)ickle. The demand for these is greatest from September 
 to November and from February to April. 
 
 Nearly all the receipts are on consignment, the consignee forwarding the account 
 and remittance as soon as tlie herring are sold, receiving 5 per cent commission there- 
 for. The expense of handling foreign herring at New York City approximates $2.45 
 per barrel, made up as follows : Duty (at J cent per pound), $1.25; brokerage, 25 cents; 
 cartage, 20 cents; clearance, cooperage, storage, insurance, etc., .30 cents, and commis- 
 sion, at 5 per cent, 45 cents. The following summary shows the ruling prices during 
 October, 1898, for the various classes of foreign herring in the New York market: 
 
 Description. 
 
 Number 
 to barrel. 
 
 Number 
 to keg. 
 
 Half-barrels, 
 price. 
 
 Barrels, 
 price. 
 
 Holland herring: 
 
 
 52 to 54 
 62 to 65 
 
 $4. 00 to $4. 50 
 
 4. 75 to 5, 00 • 
 
 5. 00 to 5. 25 
 4. 75 tn 5. 00 
 4. 50 to 5.00 
 
 $7. 25 to $7. 50 
 
 8. 25 to 8. 50 
 
 9. 00 to 9. 50 
 
 9.00 
 9. 00 to 9. 50 
 8. 25 to 8.50 
 
 10.50 
 8.50 
 
 10.00 
 9.50 
 7.00 
 6.00 
 0.00 
 
 
 
 Scotch herring: 
 
 Large fulls, E. C 
 
 Fulls.E.C 
 
 550 to 675 
 050 to 750 
 500 to 550 
 300 to 350 
 
 425 to 475 
 550 to 600 
 7U0 to 800 
 800 to 900 
 
 
 Lar<'o fiilla W C 
 
 
 
 
 Nor\vegt:in herring: 
 
 K. Iv. K. K 
 
 
 
 K K K 
 
 
 
 K K 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I'.rllv I'Uta 
 
 
 
 
 Bristling 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOREIGN METHODS OF OUBING HERRING. 
 
 The importance of improvement in our methods of pickling herring is sufficient 
 reason for introducing in this connection some notes on the methods of curing herring 
 in foreign countries. Mr. Adolph Nielsen, who has had considerable experience with the 
 various methods in use, furnishes the following accounts of the processes of pickling 
 herring in Scotland, Norway, and the Netherlands: 
 
 THE SCOTCH CURE OF HERRING. 
 
 As soon .as tlie lieiring is landed aud sprinlcled witli salt the gibbing and cutting take place. 
 Tliis is performed in the following manner: The herring i.s held in the left hand, stomach up, in such 
 way that tlie head reaches beyoud the thumb anil forefinger (index). With the other hand a small 
 straight-edged aud sharp-pointed knife is puslied in .just below the gill lid on that side of the herriug 
 that shows toward the right hand and forced right through the throat, close to the neck bone, so that 
 the point of the knife conies well out on the other side. The forefinger is then jiressed against the 
 he.ad aud the thumb across the pectoral fins. A little cut with the knife is first made down in the 
 direction of the tail, after which it is given a twi.st and a, cut made close up tinder the pectoral fins. 
 The throat is grasped between the index and middle finger (on the right hand), with a smart jerk, 
 the intestiuals ( stomach, crown gut, liver, ;(ud heart), aloug with the gills and pectoral fins, .are torn 
 out, leaving only the milt or roe to remain in the herring. When the herring is intended for export 
 to Contiueiitiil markets the crown gut is often allowed to remain. 
 
 Another way of gutting herring, when these lormerly have been clipped, is to jiut the thumb 
 
442 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 behind the gills and with a jerk from the top and downwards break the gills loose from the head; 
 when thfse are thou taken out the o-sophagns (gullet) and the stomach follow, because all these are 
 cohesive; but this way is seldom iu use anywhere else than iu souio cases in Norway. 
 
 Accordiug as the herring are gibbed and gutted they iire sorted iu baskets and put into the 
 sousing tubs, where they are rolled in suiall Liverpool salt before beiug packed in barrels, gmierally 
 made of birch. In these the herring are i)acked fully on their backs, with a small platcliil of salt 
 sprinkled over each layer of fish. The oue layer of herring is put across the other the xvliole barrel 
 through, .and e.ieh layer furuishi^l with two "he.adherrings," put on their sides. The barrels are 
 tilled uutil a couple layers of fish extend above the chime or top, and covered with wooden covers made 
 for that purpose. In this way they remain two or three days, .after which time, when the herring has 
 settled, the barrels .are filled up .again with fish from the same packing, headed up, and ])ut down on 
 their sides. Every secouil d.ay, as a rule, the barrels are given a little turn around until the last 
 packing (bung packing) takes place. A lookout is during this time kept upon the barrels, that 
 none of them are le.akiug. Iu order to obtain the official crown brand the herring must have beeu in 
 salt at least ten days, exclusive of tlie first-day packing. AVheu the barrels, after such time or later 
 on, are going to be made ready for shipment, the pickle is drawn oft" tlirough the hungholes and these 
 plugged up; the barrels are then opened and more herriug of the same packing pre.ssed into the 
 barrels, either by means of a common press or by pressing the herriugs down either by hand or by 
 trampling them down after a small barrel head has been placed ou top of the herring. Care is in the 
 meantime taken thiit the herring is not pressed so tight that no room is left for the pickle. The object 
 with this last ami tight packing is to i)revent the herring from beiug shaken about in the barrels 
 during the time of conxeyance and to save the recipient from the trouble of lepacking the barrels 
 after they hiive reached their place of destination. After a sufficient quantity of herriug is pres.sed 
 into the barrels, they are he.aded up and filled tlirough the buughole with the same pickle that was 
 dr.awn oft' formerly, after beiug strained. The buugs are then put iu tight, the hoops driven home, 
 and the barrels blowu; after they are joined tight the uppermost hoop is nailed fast, the blowhole 
 stopped up, and they are in a condition re.ady for shipment. If the herriug is to be exported to 
 countries outside the European Continent or to hot climates, it is generally, when the bung packing 
 takes place, emjitied out of the barrels altogether; the crown gut is removed if it has been left, and 
 the herring rinsed in clean water and repacked with coarse Liverpool salt. In place of using the 
 original pickle, the barrels are then filled with new pickle made of clean salt. All these barrels are 
 full-banded and furuished with a 1-inch-wide iron hoop ou each end. In order to obtain the official 
 crown brand, such barrels should contain no less than 212 pounds of herriug, exclusive of salt and 
 pickle. A good many of the Scotch herring are .also packed in half-barrels. 
 
 The system of culling, along with the offici.al crown mark on all exported herring barrels, has 
 contributed more to the good reputation the Scotch herrings have gaiued iu the continental markets 
 than many may imagine. The dealers, on reception of S<'otch herring with the crown brand, are 
 satisfied that the barrels really contain what tliey are branded for iu regard to quality and weight, 
 and this has given them such confidence in the Scotch herring that these are received and approved 
 of without even being opened, while the Norwegian herring barrels, since the official branding was 
 abolished iu 1851, must be opened aud repacked before the recipient can sell them, which often causes 
 a good deal of inconvenience. The Scotch herring are sorted and branded accordiug to the treat- 
 ment or cure and the development of the sexual organs. 
 
 Crown P, Full Brand: Barrels obtaining this brand must contain all fine, well-cured, large, 
 full herring, and not mixed with herring of a poorer quality, nor with spent herriug, nor matties, 
 which have not got their roe or milt fully developed. 
 
 Crown r, Matties Brand: Barrels with this brand must contain fine, rich herring, with small milt 
 or roe, must be well cured, and not mixed with full, spent, broken, or dismembered herring. 
 
 Crotvn r, Spent Brand: Barrels with this brand should contain spent herriug (herring with 
 their sexual organs more or less collapsed after spawning), properly gibbed and cured, and all full 
 herring, matties, brokeu or dismembered herring sorted out. 
 
 Croion P, Mixed Brand: This brand is used for mixed herring (such herriug as can not be sorted 
 as full, matties or spent). The mixed herriug should also be properly gibhed, packed, and cured, 
 and no dismembered herring be packed in the barrels. 
 
 Croicn PP, Repacled Urand : Barrels with this brand .should coutain herring which have been in 
 salt at least ten days, exclusive of the day of packing aud the day of repacking and br.auding. 
 Further, this herring should, when they are repacked, be emptied out of the barrels in which they 
 were first packed or cured, the crown gut be removed, and the herring be rinsed and repacked, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 443 
 
 with sufficient salt, in tlie same barrels, ami supplied with new, strong pickle made of clean salt. 
 The barrels should be full-branded and furnished with a 1-inch wide iron hoop on each end. 
 
 [.ozenije Brand: This brand is used for herring which formerly have been bung-packed and 
 branded but afterwards repacked in the same way as is required in order to obtain the repacked 
 brand. The lozenge is branded just below the crown brand. lu ease new barrels are employed, they 
 are branded with the crown brand and thi^ lozenge in the same way. 
 
 THE DUTCH CUUE OF HERKING. 
 
 The most of the Dutch herring are caught at sea in drift-nets and cured on board of the vessels. 
 If there is a chance, the dressing (gibbing and cutting) takes place according as the nets are hauled 
 on board and the herring picked out of them. The Dutch way of gibbing and cutting herring is about 
 the same as the Scotch; the only ditference is that the crown gut is alloweihto remain in the herring 
 and it is considered that the fat which is attached to tliis gives the herring a nice flavor. After the 
 knife is put through the throat the cut is at once made up toward the pectoral fins; thus the opening 
 is made smaller than in the Scotch herring. 
 
 According as the herrings are dressed they are sorted in baskets, and from these about 200 at a 
 time are put into large trays tilled with tine Lisbon or St. Ybes salt and rolled in this salt. After 
 the herring is carefully and well rolled in the salt it is packed in barrels, back down, the same way 
 as the Scotch, with Lisbon salt sprinkled on the top of each layer of fi.sh When the whole catch is 
 salted down a bucket of hlood-pickle (made of sea water and the intestines from the dressing) is put 
 over the herring, and the barrels headed and put down in the vessel's hold. 
 
 The object of heading up the barrels so soon is to prevent the herring from being affected by 
 the air. lu this state the barrels remain for from six to ten days, when they are taken up and 
 filled with herring of the same packing, after the pickle is first drawn. This filling or sea-packing is 
 pretty compact, and it takes about four barrels to fill three of them. After the barrels are filled, the 
 original pickle, after being strained, is put over the herring, and the barrels headed up and blown, 
 and if found tight, put back into the hold of the vessel. It is considered of importance not to under- 
 take the filling of the barrels too irarly, as the herring in such cases will be shriveled; but, on the 
 other hand, it should not be performed too late, because if so the herrings, by being tossed abont in 
 the pickle while the vessel is rolling in the sea, lose a great deal of their scales. After the vessels 
 arrive home, the barrels are again filled with herring and supplied with the original pickle. In this 
 last filling, it is generally estimated that thirteen barrels of herring in a fit state for shipment are 
 obtained from fourteen sea-packed barrels. A large quantity of herring is also rej^acked in small 
 kegs — one-sixteenth part of a barrel — and containing from 45 to 50 herrings. This is especially for 
 the American markets. A smaller <juantity is also packed in half-barrels, but these do not take very 
 well. A Dutch barrel of full, selected herring, with milt and roe, contains about 800 herrings, which 
 weigh from 110 to 115 kilograms (242.2 to 254.6 pounds) net, exclusive of salt and pickle. 
 
 Dutili herrings arc sorted, according to the development of the sexual organs, in four qualities: 
 Full herring (vol herring, branded VOL) ; matties (maatjis, branded M) ; spent herring (Ijlen, branded 
 IJ or IJLE), and herring which have recently spawned (Ruit, branded KZ). Besides, herrings which 
 have not bien packed before the day after they were caught are Ijrandcd O. Each of the first three 
 brands are again sorted in three or more (|ualities, and branded Ko. 1, 2, and 3. All herring which on 
 account of so large a catch could not be cured the same day, but had to be left over a night before 
 they were packed, together with torn bellies, or chafed herring, are assorted according to quality, as 
 No. 3, while all herring in good condition and free from faults, as No. 1 and No. 2, according to i[uality 
 and treatment. Distinction is also nuide between herring caught in the open sea, near the coast, and 
 in the Zuider Sea; and the barrels are generally furnished with a mark signifying the place and the 
 year in which the herrings were caught. Before the official system of culling was abolished, in the 
 year 1878, this was branded on the bilge of the barrels (or if the herring were packed in smaller 
 packages on the most C(mvenient place) by the culler in such manner that a royal crown was brandeil 
 in the middle, and the other directions in letters on either side of the crown. 
 
 THE NOHWEGIAN CURE OF HERRING. 
 
 The largest quantity of herring in Norway is caught in the fjords by seines, and kept barred 
 until what food the herring may contain is worked out in the natural way before they are taken up, 
 dressed, and salted. As a rule the herring are salted in the vicinity of the places when' they are 
 caught, so that they can be put in salt almost alive, whicli is of the utmost importance in order 
 to obtain a good article. In this way they have an advantage over the Scotch, who have to go far 
 
444 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 ott' the coast for their herring and cau not get thetn in salt before they reach the shore, which often 
 takes a long time. They have an advantage over the Dutch, because, although they salt their 
 herring on hoard of their vessels soon after they are caught, still tliey may have been dead several 
 hours in the nits before they are hauled on board, and at all events none of the herring taken lu 
 drift-nets or other nets can be deprived fully of the injurious food they may contain, as they can 
 when barred in a seine. When brought to the shore or salting places from the seine the herrinii-s 
 are gibbed in this way: That a triangular piece of the throat, large enough to admit the licart and 
 the pectoral llns to be removed, is cut out by me.ans of scissors made for that purpose, or l)y a small 
 knife (some also use the fingers). This cut should l)e ni.ide deep enough to divide the large blood 
 veins, situated close to the nock bone, in order to remove the blood they contain. Sometimes, also 
 the gills are removed, especially on the full herring caught in the spring. 
 
 Generally a large enough crew is emjUoyed to admit the gibbing and the salting to take place at 
 the one time. On account of the herring caught in seines being always mixed, every gibber has got 
 placed before him or her so many barrels or tubs as the herring are to be sorted in (I'rom three to five) ; 
 and, according as they are gibbed, every herring is also at the same time, by the gibber, sorted and 
 placed in the various barrels or tubs to which t)-ey belong. The Salter then takes the herring and 
 packs them in new barrels, which lately have been soaked in sea water, slantwise on their back, with 
 one-fourth barrel of St. Ybes salt to 1 barrel of herring. The herring are packed loosely, one lies 
 across the other the whole barrel through. The uppermost layers .are packed sometimes slantwise 
 back up. Some packers put from 1^ to 2 gallons of pickle (made of one-fourth barrel of salt to 1 
 barrel of sea. water) on the Iierring soon after it is salted, and head up the barrels immediately. 
 Others, again, let the barrels remain unhe.aded for one day befoie they fill them with pickle. Hefore 
 the b.arrels are headed up a layer or two of Iierring are generally put into the barrels in order to fill 
 up the empty room caused by tlie shrinking of the lierriugs. By putting the pickle on the herring 
 soon after they .are packed the salt dissolves quicker and saturates the herring more speedily, so that 
 the contents of the stomach (provided the food is liberated) hardly has any injurious eft'ects upon 
 the durability of the herring. After the b.arrels .are headed up they .are broached in the head and 
 blown into by means of a lirass pipe containing a valve, which is put down in the hole, and, if found 
 tight, the hole is plugged up as soon as the air has escaped; if not, they are made tight in the ])laces 
 where they are leaky, and blown over again before they are stowed down on board the vessels. 
 
 After reaching the port of shipment and before being exported the herring are repacked and the 
 barrels filled with the original pickle which was formed first; and if this does not hold out, new 
 pickle is made to supply what is wanting. As a rule the herring are rep.acked in such a w.iy that out 
 of 4 barrels salted in the fishing-places from '.ii to 3i barrels of herring are obtained when packed for 
 shipment. They never, as a rule, pack their herring as light as the Scotch or Dutch do, except the 
 herring is specially to be put up in such style. 
 
 The following notes on i)ickling Iierring are from Nielsen's Eeport on the (Jure 
 of Herring: 
 
 Qualities of the good hcrrixfi. .-C'oncerning the nature of the fresh herring, it is required, in order 
 to obtain a good article, that the herring also possess certain qualifications, such as sufficient size and 
 maturity, fleshiness, and fatness. A lean, dry, dismembered or half-rotten herring can never give a 
 good article, even if it is cured ever so well. A small herring, which h.as not reached the full state 
 of maturity, fetches only small prices in the markets. Of much importance is also the development 
 of the sexual organs. If these are in a far advanced stiite, the herring loses in fatness and flavor. 
 These should be firm and the whole flesh penetrated with a certain quantity of fat. Large amounts 
 of fat around the blind-gut is a sign of the herring being fat right through the flesh. As a rule, 
 ocean herring (such herring as i)ass most of the time in the ocean, and only approach the coast for 
 reproductive jiurposes) are considered superior to the herring that keep themselves close to the coast 
 or in the bays all the time. Of these herring, again, those which are caught in deep water are better 
 than those caught in shoal water. A first-class h<'rriug is known by its small head, short and plnmp 
 lioily ; is broad across the back, and plump toward the tail, and has got a great depth from the back 
 to the abdomen, which gives this well-rounded shape. 
 
 Imporianie of early satiin;/. — In order to obtain a good article of salt-cured herring it is necessary 
 that the herring be liberated from its food and [lut in s.alt as soon as possible after heing brought out 
 from the water. Even if the quality is ever so fine, a good article can never be had if it ia not 
 properly treated during the whole cure. The .Scotch herring can not get the official crown brand 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHEHY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 445 
 
 except they are Baited at least tweuty-foui- liunrs after being biougbt out from the sea. As a rule tlio 
 cnrers do not care about herring which is more than twenty-four hours out of the sea before they are 
 landed, and only take those at a low ligure. In Holland, even, a distinction is made between herring 
 which are taken out first and those which are taken last from the nets. The cure of herring on 
 board the fishing crafts commences, therefore, if circumstances allow, soon after the nets are hauled 
 ill. To leave the herring exposed to the hot sun while being conveyed to the salting-place, or to leave 
 tlie herring in the nets until the shore is readied, if the catch has taken place a long distance off the 
 shore, is objectionable. An old law in Norway, of 1775, even prohibited people from t.aking such 
 herring from their seines in the summer time before 10 o'clock in the evening and after 5 o'clock in 
 the morning, if it was going to be ^altc■d for export. 
 
 Beat salt for heirinij. — In regard to what kind of salt is the most suitable for salting herring, it is 
 difficult to give any one sort the preference. The choice of salt depends much upon how the herring 
 is going to be cnred, and upon the size and quality. The main thing is that the salt is clean, and that 
 it is used in proper ([uantities. Fine and watery salt melts quicker, but gives weaker pickle. In 
 cases where it is of importance to form jiickle speedily, fine salt is preferable, while coarse salt is 
 better for use in filling and repacking, or when the herring is intended for export to hot climate, or 
 to be kept in stock for any length of time. The Scotch curers use Liverpool salt, the Dutch light 
 Cadiz or Lisbon suit, while the Norwegians use St. Ybes salt. It is of much importance, as formerly 
 stated, to put the herring in salt as quick as possible, if a first-class article shall be obtained. For 
 this reason the Scotch, as the herring is landed, sprinkle it heavily with salt in bins or vessels made 
 for that purpose, before it is gibbed and gutted, (ienerally they use 1 barrel of Lisbon or coarse 
 Liverpool salt (or sometimes both mixed) to about 10 barrels of herring. By this means the herring 
 keep their scales better and brighter, and can also he handled better and (juicker when they are 
 afterwaids gibbed and gutted. The Hollanders roll their herrings in trays filled with fine Liverpool 
 or St. Ybes salt as soon as they are gibbed and gutted, before they pack them in barrels; and this 
 work is done very precisely. In Norway no sprinkling with salt, as a rule, is used before the 
 herrings are gilibed or packed in barrels, but instead thereof they have to use more salt in packing 
 than tlie Scotch and Dutch. The sprinkling of herring with salt as soon as they are landed or 
 brought on board of the vessels is considered also to improve the flavor of them very much. 
 
 I'nckimi herriny. — In packing the herring in barrels it is re';ommeudable not to pack them too 
 tight belbre they have shrunk in the salt, and also to pack herring of the same size and quality right 
 through the whole l):irrel. The packing is performed difierently among dirterent nations. In Norway 
 the herrings are packed slantwise on their back, wliile the Scotch and Hollanders pack them fully on 
 their back. By this last mode (which no doubt is the best) the herring get a more round and thick 
 appearance in the jiaek; and it has also this advantage, that the pickle has got a better chance to get 
 in and saturate through the abdominal cavity of the gutted htrring. After the herring has shrunk in 
 the salt the barrels are filled U]> again and put away, but care is taken that the herring is not packed 
 too hard. As long as the barnds are left to remain still there is no need (jf hard packing, but when 
 they are to be shipped it is recoiiimendable to repack the herring so tight that they do not move about, 
 even if the barrels are handled ever so roughly, so that the receiver m.ay be exempted from filling the 
 barrels again after they have reached their place of destination. 
 
 Herrinij barrels. — The quality of li;irrels used for salting herring in is of much importance in 
 order to obtain a. desirable product. If too soft wood is employed, the pickle will work through the 
 staves, the herring become dry, and l)e ilamai;ed within a short time. Auioug the foliferons wood in 
 Europe the populns (poplar) is considered least answerable, and among the conifers the sjiruce or fir 
 are less suitable than the red pine wood, because the former is generally knotty and more ready to get 
 saturated with pickle or water. Good hard and clean spruce, which is cut fresh and has not been 
 soaked in water, may compete with the pine when it gets properly seasoned. The Hollanders use 
 mostly barrels made of oak; the Scotch use barrels of birch or beech, aiul the Norwegians use barrels 
 of spruce and red pine wood. Staves made of birch are brittle and apt to twist. In Scotland the 
 regulations for making herring barrels are that the staves shall be not less than half an inch thick and 
 not wider than 6 inches, except the oak staves, which may be 7 iuches wide, and that the bottoms should 
 be at least of the same thickness as the staves, and uoue of the pieces of which it consists be made 
 wider than 8 inches. Thc^ usual thickness of the staves in the Scotch herring barrels are from nine- 
 sixteenths to ten-sixteenths of an inch, and the bottoms are generally made three-fourths of an inch 
 thick. In Holland there was a law passed enacting that a herring barrel slnuilil be manufactured of 
 at least 13 staves (which makes every stave on an average 5^ inch wide), and that no stave should be 
 
446 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 less than three-eighths of an inch in thickness. In Norvray the staves, as a rule, are made five-eighths 
 inch thick, and the barrels are mostly made by machinery. Scotch barrels are generally full banded 
 for export to hot climates in the summer time. They are also furnished with an iron hoop on each end. 
 The Dutch barrels are furnished with 18 to 20 hoops, divided 5 or G on each end and 4 on each side of 
 the middle, while the Norwegians have only 12 to 16, divided .3 and 3 or 4 and 4. 
 
 In Norway a movement has been made lately to get a law according to which all barrels for 
 shipment of herring shouhl be manufactured of a certain kind of wood and of certain dimensions, but, 
 so far as I am aware, such act has not been passed yet. If the barrels are made of fat spiucc or red 
 pine, and also of oak, the herring will take a Havor from the barrels, which some people like very 
 much, but others, again, do not care for. In Scotland it was prohibited to salt herring in barrels 
 manufactured of red pine until the year 1874, and lor many years back a similar act or law existed in 
 Norway; but this law was repealed again on account of the Russians, who consumed large (luantities 
 of salted herring, and valued the Norway cure very much on account of the resinous taste the herring 
 got from the red pine barrels. Some people, again, value the Dutch herring very much on account of 
 the taste or flavor they receive from the barrels. To keep the barrels from shrinking, it is recommended 
 to put a little pickle in them while they are kept in stock. 
 
 Ill 188!) the govenijueiit of tlie Dominion of Canada appointed delegates to visit 
 Scotland and the Netherlands for the purpose of studying- their methods of curing 
 herring. After making a careful investigation they summed up their conclusions in 
 part as follows: 
 
 We consider the Scotch system of treating herring, as an article of commerce, to be as perfect 
 as any system can be when honestly carried out in all its integrity, and that improvements in the 
 herring industry of Canada can saf'elj' be made after the Scotch mod<'I, so far as our somewhat dirt'ercnt 
 ciroumstances may permit. In one most important respect the Scotch fishermen have an immense 
 advantage over the Canadian fisherman, and that is in having all the curing and 2)ackiug of hirrings 
 performed by a distinct and independent class of merchants known as fish-curers. We have seen that 
 the herring industry of Scotland never amounted to anything— never prospered — until an enterprising 
 and energetic body of men came forward and assumed the position of fish-curers, taking that part 
 of the business entirely out of the hands of the fishermen, to the great relief of the latter, and the 
 promotion of this important business. In order, therefore, to place this industry in Canada upon a 
 satisfactory and permanent basis we are of opinion — 
 
 (1) That while some slight degree of improvement in the details of curing and packing herrings 
 may be at once attained by changes in the pre.sent methods, yet no real permanent improvement can 
 take place, nor can the herring industry in Canada be placed upon a satisfactory commercial basis 
 until the fisherman ceases to be his own fish-curer, and until the business of curing is taken in hand 
 by a class of merchant fish-curers, as in Scotland — men of energy, business experience, and capital, 
 witli all the necessary appliances to carry on the business on fixed principles and in accordance with 
 such regulations as may be jironiulgated for the lienefit of the trade from time to time. In Scotland 
 nearly all tlie curers devote their whole time to the supervision of their own curing operations. In 
 former times if a fish-curer did not so superintend his own curing business he made arrangements 
 with a master cooper to furnish the barrels, and generally to suiierintciul the cure and putting up, 
 guarant(^eing that the same would pass the Crown brand; or he hired jiuuneymen coopers and a 
 foreuuin, laid in materials for the manufacture of barrels, and the foreman attended to the curing ior 
 the nuirket. This was the nu'thod to a great extent in Scotland .55 years .igo, and to some extent still. 
 
 When a fisherman cures his own fish, it is done with the least possible laljor and cost, and once they 
 pass into the hands of the merchant or trader, paying up so much of his indebtedness to the former, he 
 feels no more interest in the matter. But it is difi'erent with the merchant or curer; his cai>ital, his 
 credit, and his good name are at stake, and unless his fish are properly cured he will be the loser. 
 Thus the strongest of all motives, self-interest, would induce him to cure and put up for market an 
 article calculated to render a return for his outlay. 
 
 (3) The barrel. — That the present Canadian l)arrel, licing too weak to stand the rough handling 
 to which it is exposed on the railways in transportation, should be greatly improved. We think the 
 jpresent capacity of the barrel should be retained; that it should contain not less than 200 pounds of 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOn. 447 
 
 herriiijjs, exclusive of salt; that it should be made of stro]i{;cr material ; that the staves should be of 
 hard wood wherever possible, and that if spruce is permitted to be used, the staves should be thicker 
 aud stronger than the present stave. Fir and pine should be prohibited. The rule in Scotland has 
 been that the barrel might be made of any kind of wood, fir excepted. It seems very probable that 
 a fir or pine barrel may ''sour" fish or other auimal food packed in it for the first time. If a new 
 pine barrel or cask be filled full of pure water and covered up aud allowc 1 to stand for some weeks 
 there will be formed in the water a pretty firm gclatiuous substance, which, if allowed to remain for 
 some time, becomes very ofieusive, as has been the case often in reg.ird to i)ipes made of tamarac and 
 pine used for conveying water underground, where freiiueutly pipes with a 3-inch bore have been 
 nearly clogged up from end to eud with this oHensive matter. If cleaned out, however, and the 
 pipes relaid, the gelatinous substance will not again form. 
 
 It is universally conceded that oak barrels are the best of all, and, where procurable, the Dutch 
 use no other kind. The preseut barrel wo think, after suHicieut notice, should be proaibited. We 
 are of opinion that a little more bilge would add to the strength of the barrel. The hoops should 
 be of better quality than they are now and there should be more of them; and all barrels intended 
 for transportation beyoud the province where the fish are put up should have at least one iron hoop 
 at the top; and should the barrel be of spruce or Norway larch, then, iu addition to a thicker stave, 
 there should be au iron hoop at each end. If, however, liard wood staves can be procured iu sufficient 
 quantity, we think that soft-wood barrels should not be allowed. The knot of the hoop should be 
 longer than it is in the case of the preseut hoop, to prevent it suddeuly springing off. There shonld 
 be iu the side of the barrel, above the bottom hoops, 15 or 16 inches from bottom, a buughole about 
 1 inch in diameter, with well-fitting bung, and the usual rule as to crossing the heads should he 
 observed. The new standard barrel, when decided upon, should be made a legal standard by act of 
 Parliament, as is intended to bo done in Britain at the next session of the Imperial Parliament. 
 There shonld also be a legalized half-barrel built of the same material aud iu proportion to the 
 size of material used iu the large barrels. 
 
 (4) Smiill paclcages.—We are of opinion that in addition to the barrel aud half-barrel, there 
 should be established a grade of small packages in which to put up repacked herrings, after the man- 
 ner of the Dutch and Germans; that these packages or kegs should be integral parts of the large barrels, 
 say one-fonrth, one-eighth, aud one-tenth parts of the full-sized barrels. We believe that kegs iu 
 every way suitable for this purpose may be procured in Canada. A gentleman largely interested iu 
 the sugar-refining business told us that he gets a very neat, small keg or kit, for holding siruji, made in 
 Ontario, at reasonable prices, and he considers that the small herring keg can be made here as well and 
 nearly as cheaply as in Hollatul. If so, then a very great step is assured toward the establishment of 
 what we believe to be a nu)st iniportaut and profitable branch of the herring industry of the Dominion. 
 
 We are of opinion that the very first nioM'uient toward improvement in this industry shonld be 
 ill the direction of improving the herring barrel and cou.se(iucut discouragement to the manufacture 
 of the present barrel. 
 
 As already stated, there can be no doubt that a very large business can be done in the small 
 package line, if properly g(uui into and taken hold of with energy aud iu a business manner. Canada 
 should be able to largely supply the ileinand on this Continent for hen iug put up in this way. 
 
 (5) Curing. — That next in importance to the catching of the herring is the proper curing of them. 
 This process commences in having the salt brought into contac't with the herring as soon as caught; 
 and if it could be done at sea as soon as the herring come out of the water, so much the better and so 
 much more thorough the cure. All the printed evidence, all the experience of the Dutch, the Yar- 
 mouth fishermen, and others, and all that we heard ou the subject goes to confirm this. If attention 
 to this preliminary salting be necessary, and so salutary in results iu Hritain, how mueh nmre neces- 
 sary is it in the maritime provinces, where the temperature iu summer is so much higlier? In order, 
 therefore, to preserve the herring from ineijjient taint and to retain all the delicate llavor and natural 
 excellence of the fish, it is absolutely necessary that at the earliest possible monu:nt the curing 
 process shall eommence, ami that the herring be scrupulously shaded and sheltered from the damaging 
 etfects of the sun throughout all the stages of gutting, curing, packing, etc. This is most important 
 because injury caused to the herring by exposure to the sun can never be remedied. The injury 
 sustiiined liy hiMring iu this way is beyond the jiowerof man to iiMiiedy. Inordinate quantities of salt, 
 soaking and washing iu water )iiay cover U[i tlje damage ilone and pi'eveiil further taint, but the lost 
 
448 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 excellence of the fish can never be restored. There can be no doubt that the great bulk of the injury 
 sustained by the herriug of the Maritime Provinces is caused in this way; and if this can be avoided 
 in the future by the adoption of some feasible inexpensive measures to protect the herring from the 
 sun, from the time of catch to the time of shipment, a great point will be gained and much done to 
 redeem the character of the Canadian herrings. The next step in the curing process is the ''roosiug" 
 of the herring after gutting and the proper salting of the fish when being packed. Should it happen 
 that the preliminary salting can not be ettected before delivery, then the herring should be well 
 sprinkled with salt during delivery. The western consumer is about tired of eatiug herrings, out of 
 which all excellence has been extracted by soaking iu water and oversaltiug, and if these western 
 markets are to be retained the quality of the fish must be improved, and that at once. 
 
 (6) GuiliiKj. — That we consider the Scotch mode of gutting to be as good as any for all commer- 
 cial purposes, and all that can be desired when properly carried out and the curing ]>ropcrly attended 
 to. In Scotland the early lierrings are very fat, and are not branded. These are the herrings which 
 are in such request by tlie wealthy families of Russia, and they are hurried over to Stettin for imme- 
 diate sale and use. A fish-curer told us that some of these herrings sold in June, 1889, for £ 10 sterling 
 ($50) per barrel. There is no material difference in the mode of curing these herriugs. In Canada, 
 however, it appears that in the case of fat herrings caught in July and August special treatment 
 has been found necessary. Mr. Gordon, of Pictou, who has had much experience in the herriug 
 busine.ss in Scotland and in Nova Scotia, says : 
 
 "I beg to advert to the only additional detail, which, in my experience, I have discovered as 
 applicable to the perfect cure of herriugs in tlie months of .Inly and August, on the coasts of Nova 
 Scotia. Having engaj^ed on my own account iu a sailing vessel trading ou the coast of Nova Scotia 
 and Cape Breton, and provided witli salt and barrels, I pieferred ]>nrchasiug the lierrings in their 
 green state, and cured a few barrels after the Scotch manner. On examination of tho fish after being 
 struck, 1 discovereil an incipient taint along the backbone of the fish, which would increase with 
 age, so as to render them nnsuitable for a distant market in a tropical climate. I came to the 
 conclusion that the taint was owing to excess of temperature here over that common on the Scottish 
 coasts, and besides the herrings are larger and fatter in the months of .Inly ami .\ngust on this coast 
 than on the coast of .Scotland. Thereafter I ripped with a sharp knife the belly of the Hsli, and 
 filled the belly with salt, and immediately packed them in tight barrels, with one bushel of Liverpool 
 salt to each barrel, and protected the barrels from sun and raiu." 
 
 Another gentleman, referring to the same subject, says: "Herrings should be all opened with a 
 knife .and filled with salt ; otherwise they can not be properly cured." This Latter statement, as apply- 
 ing to all herrings, seems rather general. Mr. Conlon only rec(nnmend8 this treatment in the case 
 of herrings caught in .Inly and August on the coast of Nova Scotia, when the fish are very fat. Even 
 then it can hardly be possible that the belly of every herring need be filled with salt. To fill a herring 
 with salt most cfiectually destroy the fiavor of the herring and leave it as innutritions as a piece of 
 basswood. It may be, however, that some of these .Inly and August herrings may be utilized for the 
 manufacture id' kip])ered herrings. In October, 1889, a very line and well-tlavorcd kipper, said to 
 come from lialtimore, U. S., was for sale in Toronto at high prices. It was very fat. The "ciscoes" 
 of Lake Ontario are very fat, fully one-fonrth or one-third oil, yet they make most delicious kippers, 
 are in great demand, and sell at high prices. The "ciscoe" is a herring and is taken in deep water 
 in the fall of the year. Many of them .are put up as bloaters. 
 
 All of this shows how necessary it is that some one or more com|)eteut men, experts, technically 
 and practically, iu all jiertainiug to the classification of herring, should full.v investigate all the 
 different kinds of herrings on our Atlantic coasts, and decide upon the ilifferent modes of cure adapted 
 to special kiuds of herrings in special localities and at special seasons of the year. 
 
 (7) Bound or iingiiUed herrinys. — That between the mode above recommended by Mr. Gordon and 
 the mode of putting up round or unguttcd herrings there must exist many degrees of difference. 
 We have already referred to ungntted herring, and to the fact that the Scotch curers strongly disap- 
 prove of packing nngutteil herriug, and expressed their surprise that any people of the present day 
 would waste salt and time for such a purpose. In the case of the best packed herrings, if a stave 
 breaks .and the brine runs ott', the herrings uiulergo very serious deterior.ition, but in the case of 
 ungntted herrings, under similar lirenmstances, total destruction of the contents of the barrel would 
 take place from the setting free of the eleuients of decomposition contained in the ungntted herring 
 theretofore held in check by the preservative qualities of the salt and pickle. Round or ungntted 
 herrings put on the market in any quantity can only do harm by damaging the character of the whole 
 catch of any given locality. We therefore consider the putting up of all snch herring for commercial 
 purposes should be strictly forbidden. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 449 
 
 (17) TVashing of herring. — As stated elsewhere, the washinjj of herring before curing is not 
 pr;ictii-eil in Scotland, and so far as we can learn never has been. The Scotch curcrs with wliom wo 
 conversed on the subject were surprised to hear of herring in Canada being washed before curing. 
 They conhl hardly believe such a practice possible. To show what ha.s been the practice in the 
 Maritime Provinces in time past, we quote from the answer of Mr. Gordon, Pictou, to question No. 4, 
 in 1869. He says : 
 
 "It is the universal practice of Nova Scotia iishermen to steep the fish for lionrs before salting 
 down, and expose them to the action of the sun during the hottest period of the season until the 
 water becomes warm, under the erroneous impression that they are thus benefited by the extraction 
 of the Idood. Under this treatment herring part with their .scales and juice, and are deprived of that 
 flavor peculiar to herring properly cured. IJesides the body of the fish thus saturated with water is 
 ren<lered tasteless, brittle, and short, and not calculated to turn out satisfactorily at the end of a long 
 .sea voyage. The Scotch cnrers take every precaution to keep the herring from contact with water 
 before and after salting. Salt the fish in their blood and the salt will extract the blood." 
 
 Now, it must be quite clear to every man who realizes the importance of retaining intact all those 
 <iualities of substance and flavor which render the herring so valuable as a wholesome and pleasant 
 article of food, and which are so highly prized in Europe as already stated, that there could be no 
 more eflectn.al mode devised or adopted for the total destruction of all those qualities than the mode 
 above described by Mr. Gordon. What would be thought of any man or boily of men who should 
 treat any kind of animal flesh, beef or pork for instance, in such a manner, and what would be 
 thought of any one who would subject those articles of food to such treatment? Who would think 
 of selling or buying meat so treated? Then, to cover up the damage done by the water soaking to the 
 herring, inordinate quantities of salt are used, and this extracts any vestige of flavor the water may 
 have left, and destroys all the nutritive qualities of the herring. 
 
 Here we may be permitted to refer to another pernicions habit, already adverted to — the practice 
 of putting brine on the newly packed herring, in addition to the salt in which they have been cnred. 
 This practice is highly objectionable, and is one also th.it etiectu.ally destroys the good qualities of 
 the herring in flavor and substance. This practice may arise from the custom of putting herring 
 down in largo casks or vats, and then, after a time, repacking into the common tight herring barrel. 
 Herring treated in this way can not be nuu-h better than those soaked for hours in warm water. 
 The herring should bo packed in tight herring barrels in the first instance, and fully salted, when 
 the necessary ([uantity of pickle will be formed from the dissolution of the saltcau.sed by the moisture 
 in the fish. The addition of newly made pickle not only interferes with the curing process going on 
 iu the barrel, but, as already stated, as effectually destroys the natural iiualities of the herring as 
 soaking iu water, or the action of the sun's rays acting through the medium of water. We therefore 
 consider that the practice of washing and soaking herring in water and of adding newly made pickle 
 to newly packed herring should be strictly prohibited. 
 
 Having already described the Scottish method of curing and packing herrings, and having 
 expressed our opinion of that system as being entirely adapted to the curing of herrings on our Atlantic 
 coasts, we feel convinced that its general adoption and its legal enforcement would, in a very shiu t 
 time, give Canadian herrings a very high standard and character in the markets in which they are now 
 held in very low estimation. We have given this subject our best consideration, and so convinced are 
 we of the vital importance of proper curing and protection from sun and rain, that we would again 
 urge that every diligence and care be exercised in these respects, as well as to the quality, selection, 
 anil separation of the fish m the first instance. It is most desirable that the fish, especially during the 
 liot season, should bo handled and shifted as little as possible, as every time they are turned over they 
 part with a portion of the scales and liecome softer and softer, more flabby, and less ready to absorb 
 the salt. 
 
 In the matter of packing pickled herrings for the purpose of repacking into small packages, very 
 great caro should be taken to have the fi.sh of the best quality in every respect. In Holland and Scot- 
 laud, as we have shown, "fulls" and "crown fulls," the highest brands, are taken for this purpose. 
 Tho repacking should be done well and neatly aud the kegs, as already stated, filled up with the brine 
 from the large barrel out of which the fish has been taken. A slight sjirinkling of salt on the bottom 
 of the keg and the top tier of the herring should be given. 
 
 This branch of the business is worthy of the special consideration and effort of all who may 
 engage in tho curing of herring. We know that in western Ontario there is now a demand for herring 
 put up iu small packages, especially in the rural districts. It can readily l>n seen that in a cmmtry 
 where there is so much beef and pork not many families will purchase whole barrels of herrings, while 
 many would gladly purchase herrings in half-barrels, quarter-barrels, and the suuUler packages. 
 
 r. 0. B.. 1898—29 
 
450 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 If the Dutch and Germans can afford to pay freight and shipping charges on herrings from Scot- 
 land to Holland and Germany, unpack and repack into small packages, pay freight and shipping 
 charges to New York, and sell these herrings in Quebec and Ontario, with a gnod margin of proHt, 
 surely the herring traders of the Maritime Provinces should he able to supply herrings in this shape 
 as good in quality, at lower i)rices, and with a better margin of prolit. By supplying a proper article 
 this branch of the trade can bo increased immeasurably both in the Uni*ed States — the Western States 
 especially — and in the inland provinces of the Dominion. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED ALEWIVES OR RIVER HERRING. 
 
 At various points aloug the Atlantic coast more or less alewives or river herring 
 are brine-salted each year. They are prepared in greatest abundance in the tribu- 
 taries of Chesapeake Bay and the coastal waters of North Carolina, wliere they are 
 known only as herring, and also to a less extent in Maine and Massachusetts. At 
 the head of Chesapeake Bay 30,000 barrels of herring are brine-salted annually, the 
 number of flsh required for the pack a[)proximatiug 20,000,000. It is not unusual for 
 300 or 400 barrels of pickled herring to be prepared as the result of a single haul of a 
 seine, and 900 barrels were salted from one haul in 1893. The Chesapeake product is 
 used mostly in the South, and is distributed princii^ally from Alexandria, Fredericks- 
 burg, and Eichmoud. The alewives salted in New England are sold also through 
 the South to some extent, but many of them are sent to the West Indies and South 
 American countries. 
 
 The methods of pickling river herring or alewives do not differ greatly from those 
 applied to the sea herring on the New England coast, except that the market i)rice 
 being lower necessitates that they should be prepared in a cheaper manner. The 
 flavor of the alewife does not equal that of the sea herring, consequently there is 
 little need for the nice discrimination required in case of the latter. Usually more 
 salt is used in preserving them than for sea herring, and as a result they will keep 
 much longer". Mr. Joseph Farris, of Eastport, Me., states: 
 
 The chief dift'erence between the alewife and the herring in their capacity to keep fur a long time 
 is that the alewife has less flavor than the herring. It is almost without tlavor. When the herring 
 loses its flavor it becomes insipid and unpalatable, although it may be sound ; but so long as the alewife 
 is sound it is as suitable tor food as at any time in its preserved condition. Alewives are sometimes 
 kept on hand three years before being 8hii>ped, but if herring are not shipped within one year after 
 being cured they are usually turned out of the barrels and used for fertilizer. 
 
 The three principal classes of pickled alewives are, (1) "gross," the entire flsh 
 being salted, corresponding to the round herring of the New England coast; (2) 
 "split" or "cut," the head and viscera having been removed before salting; (3) "roes," 
 the head being removed and the main gut drawn, but with the roe left in the fish. 
 Each locality has its particular process of preparing the different grades. 
 
 THE CHESAPEAKE PROCESS. 
 
 The main object is to get the tish in salt as quickly as possible after they are 
 removed from the water, but first the scales niust be removed and the fish washed. 
 In case the seine is hauled on a sandy beach the movements of the dying fish about 
 the sand are sufficient for removing the scales. But when the seine is hauled on a 
 float, sand is sprinkled among the flsh, and a few Workmen, with higli rubber boots, 
 shuffle about among them or they are drudged back and forth by means of a board 
 attached to a long handle. The tish are next washed or rather rinsed to remove 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 451 
 
 tlio. sand, loose scales, etc. This may lie arcoinplislicd liy dipping basketfuls of them 
 in I lie water or by placing tlieni in a slat work box; and nuuiiug water through the 
 mass, stirring them about in the meantime. Some curers scale and wash the fish at 
 the same time, the fish being placed with sand in tubs of water and washed with 
 brooms and then i)laced in halfbarrel tubs with holes in the bottom and sides for 
 draining. About thirty years ago a machine was introduced for scaling fish which was 
 used for a while, but is now discontinued. This consisted of a revolving lattice-work 
 cylinder, having projecting metallic blades arranged iipon its inner periphery and 
 sides. The cylinder was tilled with lish and revolved in a tank of water, the scales 
 and slime falling through the lattice work and being carried away by the water. 
 
 The salting is done in large vats or hogsheads, a convenient size for the vats being 
 Hi feet in length, .") feet in width, and 2 feet deep, having capacity for about 32 barrels 
 of fish. The bottom of these is first covered with 4 or 5 inches of very strong briue; 
 then put in S or Id bariels of fish, stirring them about as they are being dumped in, 
 and sprinkling more salt on top, following this up with fish and salt, with a heavy 
 covering of salt on toj), G barrels of salt being used for 3li barrels of fish. In case the 
 fish are being cured in hogsheads, the latter sboiild be half-filled with strong brine, 
 then 4 half-barrel tubs of fish are dumped in, and these covered with half a barrel 
 of Liverpool salt. IMore fish and salt are then added until the hogshead is filled. 
 After remaining thus for twenty-four hours tlic herring are stirred with a "bieaker," 
 a long stick or pole, flattened at the end, which is about .'*> inches in width, and twelve 
 hours thereafter the fish are again stirred. In stirring or -'breaking"' them in the 
 vats the breaker is run under the mass and then elevated to the surface, the object 
 being to bring the lower layer of fish lo tlie surface and break up the masses which 
 have become bunched together, so that the salting may be imiform throughout. 
 
 After remaining over night the fish are "muddled," for the purpose of "pump- 
 ing" or drawing forth the blood from the gills. This consists in pushing them back 
 and forth with a rectangular board, 5 inches long and 3 inches wide, attached at the 
 upper surface to a long handle, and is done twice daily for six or eight days. Each 
 time the fish are "muddled,"' during the first four or five days, a quantity of salt is 
 sprinkled over them, about 2 bushels being used the first day, and the quantity 
 gradually decreased. 
 
 At the end of seven or eight days, when the fish have become thoroughly struck 
 or cured, they are removed with scoop nets and thrown on racks or stands having 
 open-work bottoms, where they drain for one or two days before packing. When the 
 herring are very abundant and the workmen exceedingly busy the fish sometimes 
 remain on the racks for eight or ten days, but in such cases they are liable to rust. 
 The fish are packed in barrels, with layers of salt between the layers of fish, from 2i 
 to 3 pecks of salt being used for each barrel. Turk's Island salt is preferred, but 
 Liverpool salt is used to a considerable extent. The former is larger-grained and 
 does not dissolve so quickly, and it also makes the fish sweeter. The fish are placed' 
 backs down, excepting the top layer, and those in each layer are placed at right 
 angles to those in the preceding layer. When the barrel is filled it is allowed to 
 settle for a day or two, then topiied up with another layer, strong brine added, and 
 the barrel coopered and stored ready for market. The usual number of herring to 
 each barrel is 40[l, and the weight is generally 100 pounds. 
 
 The cost of preparing a barrel of liver herring in the Chesapeake region approx- 
 imates $1.10, of which 35 cents represents the cost of salt, 50 cents the barrel, and 25 
 
452 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES F1!?H COMMISSION. 
 
 cents the labor; the transportation to market costs about 10 cents per barrel, and the 
 commission for selling is 10 cents, making a total cost of $1.30 for j)repariug and 
 placing the fish on the market. In 1897 pickled river herring sold for about $1.40 per 
 barrel, giving the preparer only 10 cents per barrel for the cost of the green fish, the 
 superintendence, use of plant, and outlay of money. The average selling price in 
 1808 was advanced to $2.19 per barrel, which gave a fair margin of ijrotit to the curer. 
 Select "all roe" herring sell for about $G per barrel. 
 
 The preparation of '-cut" or dressed river herring differs from the above mainly 
 in that the heads and viscera are removed before the fish are washed preparatory to 
 salting. In dressing, the fish are held in the left hand on a cutting board, with the 
 back from the workman, and with one stroke of a knife held in the right hand the 
 head is removed, and a continuation of the stroke cuts off the edge of the belly, laying 
 the fish open from the napes to the vent, the viscera being exti'acted by a single move- 
 ment of the fingers. The cutters in the Chesapeake fisheries receive usually 20 cents 
 per 1,000, and an experienced workman can dress 12,000 to 20,000 per day. The fish 
 are then washed and soaked, and in every other particular of salting and packing in 
 the barrel the process is the same as in preparing the gross or round lierring. Less 
 salt is required for cut herring, and the number of fish placed in a barrel is about 050, 
 the weight being 160 pounds, as in case of gross herring. The price in 1897 a^jproxi- 
 mated $2,15 per barrel, but in 1898 it was advanced to about $3 per barrel. 
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND PROCESS. 
 
 About $15,000 worth of pickled alewives are prepared annually on the Maine coast, 
 mostly in the vicinity of Eastport. To Mr. Ansley Hall 1 am indebted for the following 
 account of the methods in use at that point: 
 
 For packing in Iiarrels the alewives are suited ri'und as they come from the water. The parties 
 who handle them at Eastport nsually have an agent in the locality where the fish are caught who 
 buys them from the fishermen and salts them temporarily in liarrcls to preserve them until thev 
 reach Eastport, where they are taken out of thi' barrels and ])rop«'rly cured l>efore being finally 
 packed for shipment. Occasionally the agent cures and packs them, but more frecjuently he does not. 
 In some instances they are placed on board a transporting vessel wliich has been sent especially for 
 them and are salted in tubs or hogsheads liy the crew. In such cases they are afterward cured and 
 rejjacked in barrels by the dealer at Eastport. 
 
 In salting them temporarily a small quantity of water is first put into the barrel or hogshead, 
 about one bucket in a barrel and four or five buckets in a hogshead. The fish are then put in loosely 
 in layers with salt between each layer and well covered with salt at the top. The quantity of salt 
 required is about half a bushel to each barrel of fish. If they arc packed by au agent to be sent 
 to Eastport for curing and repacking, barrels arc used. They are allowed to stand about four days 
 before being headed up and the salt is renewed at the top of the barrels as fast as it dissolves. This 
 first salting is done with Liverpool salt. The effect upon the fish is not to permauently cure them, 
 but to strike them so they will keep in good condition for a short time. 
 
 When they reach Eastport they are taken out of the barrels and i)iit into the large lierriug tanks, 
 which hold about 4 hogsheads or 20 barrels each. Each layer of lish is covered with a layer of Cadiz 
 salt and a heavy layer of salt at the top of the tank. In all, al)Out one-half bushel of salt is used to 
 each baiTcl offish, or approximately 10 bushels to the tank. A strong pickle is then made and turned 
 in. The pickle contains about 1 peck of Cadiz salt to the barrel of water, and .5 barrels of pickle 
 are necessary to cover the fish in the tank. Boards are then laid across the tank, with heavy stones 
 on them for weights to keep the fish down under the pickle. If the salt on top dissolves, more has 
 to be added. The fish remain in the pickle al>out 8 weeks. They are then taken out and closely 
 packed in lish barrels, 200 pounds of fish to the barrel A layer of Cadiz salt is placed between each 
 layer offish and a heavy layer of salt at the top of the barrel. About 3 i)ecks of salt are used to each 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 453 
 
 bnnel of fish. The barrels are lilloil above the cliiiues and have to stand two or tbreo days to settle 
 before tUe head can be i>ut in. They are then headed and are ready for shipment. In some instances 
 buyers desire pickle pnt in, .and if so. the barrels are turned over on their side and a l^-iuch lioL> 
 bored in the bilge, through which pickle is turned in by means of a funnel until the barrel is 
 completely filled. The hole is then plugged. If the liuyer does not request it no pickle is put in. It 
 is generally considered that the lish will keep longer without the pickle than with it. It is claimed 
 that the ])ick]e has a tendency to make the fish soft It is estimated that from the time the alewives 
 are taker fresh until they are cured and packed for shipment about 3 bushels of salt are used to each 
 barrel of lish. 
 
 At Waldoboro they are not kept in pickle longer than two or three weeks at most, and are con- 
 sidered in a suitable condition for packing after being in pickle eight or ten days. The quantity of 
 salt used in curing and p.acking was estimated not to exceed 2 bushels to the barrel. 
 
 PICKLING KIVER HERRING IN RUSSIA. 
 
 The following rnetbod of pickling tbe large, fat river herring of Eussia prevails 
 on tbe Caspian Sea, this description being furnished by Mr. Scbrikler, of Stettin, 
 Germany: 
 
 The lish are s.alted in layiis, in large reservoirs dug in the ground, protected by a wooden shed, 
 and holding from GO to 100 barrels. No ]iickle is ponreil on them, as it forms of itself, after a few 
 days. In the course of six or eight days the fish are taken out of the reservoirs and packed in barrels, 
 a little salt being sprinkled over each layer. When about three-fourths of the barrel is filled, a mat or 
 sack is laid over the fish, the packer gets into it and tramps them together, the vacant space is packed 
 with tang [a seaweed], tbe end pressed in by means of a screw and closed. In the uppermost end 
 a bunghole is made, through which is poured a quantity of new boiled pickle, ccmtaining from 20 to 25 
 per cent of salt, the whole being then ready for the market. When the fish are to lie for an indefinite 
 time, ice cellars are made, very conveniently fitted up, and the reservoirs dug beneath them. The 
 Norwegian method, which is much superior, has been tried during the last year and is found to give 
 good results. The salt used in tln^ (uuiug is obtained from salt lakes on the banks of the Vidga, and 
 costs from 10 to 15 kopecks jier pood. It is found in great abundance, especially ou the banks of Lake 
 Basknntschak. The barrels are made of lime wood, about three-quarters of an inch thick, and are 
 fastened with 14 to 10 wooden or 4 iron hoops. When u.sed for sending a long distance they are made 
 of o.ak, and it is ]iurposed to try birch- wood barrels, as it is thought that birch keeps the pickle better 
 than lime wood. In size they are .a little larger than the Norwegian barrels, and contain about 400 
 fish of averag(! size. A barrel with wooden hoops costs a ruble, iron hoops costing 10 to 15 kopecks 
 more. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED COD AND HADDOCK. 
 
 The trade in brine-salted cod on the New England coast is small and is confined 
 exclusively to the small fish, under IC inches sjilit, measured on the back of tbe fish 
 from the hollow of tbe nape to the hollow of the tail. A few haddock are also pickled, 
 but bake, i)ollock, and cusk are rarely placed on the market in this condition, except 
 possibly a few barrels representing a surplus from the Fulton and other fresh-fish 
 markets situated in places where it is not convenient to dry-salt the fish. In pickling 
 cod or haddock the fish are dressed, split, washed, and salted in butts with about 2 
 pecks of salt to the 100 pounds of fish, in the same manner as lias been heretofore 
 noted in preparing dry-salted cod. When orders are received, the fish are removed 
 from the butts, cleaned with brushes, and placed in tight barrels, 200 pounds to the 
 barrel, face side up, except the top layer, which is placed back up, the fish being bent 
 to follow the curve of the barrel, pressure being applied, if necessary, to place the 200 
 pounds in the package. It is imjrortant that the fish be not repacked until thoroughly 
 struck through, otherwise the flesh will be marked with yellow spots caused by contact 
 
454 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 of till' imperfectly ciiied lisb witb one another. Coarse Trapani salt is placed at tlie 
 bottom of tbe barrel and over eaeli layer of flsb, about 1 peck of salt l)eing used to 
 eacb barrel of fisli. Tbe barrel is then beaded and strong brine is added tbrougb tbe 
 bungbole, wben tbe package is ready for sbipment. Tbe gross weigbt of a barrel of 
 codfisb, including barrel and pickle, approximates 325 pounds. 
 
 It requires about -i'oi) pounds of round cod or 290 pounds of split flsb to make 
 a barrel of 200 pounds pickled. If tbe green fish cost 40 cents per 100 pounds, the 
 cost of preparing a barrel of pickled cod approximates $3.05, divided as follows: 
 
 Fish, 430 pountls, at 40 cents per 100 pouiiils $1.72 
 
 Labor, dressing, splittinj;', aud pickling 14 
 
 Salt used in pickling 32 
 
 Barrel used in packing 50 
 
 Labi>r of repaiking 07 
 
 Cooperage 05 
 
 Wear and tear, loss, etc 25 
 
 Total 3.05 
 
 The average price of pickled cod is about $4 per l)arrel, while haddock are usually 
 worth from 25 to 50 cents less. The market is principally in New York and tbe West. 
 The annual product ou the New England coast ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 barrels. 
 
 It appears that there is scope for enlargement of the tiade in pickled cod, 
 especially if prepared with great care. Considerable quantities are pickled in I lolland, 
 Scotland, Sweden, IJelgium, France, aud the British North American Provinces. The 
 jirocess employed in eacb country differs somewhat from that in the United States; the 
 business is conducted more systematically, and the output is much more extensive. 
 
 It is generally conceded that the choicest pickled cod are prepared in Holland, 
 those fish selling on the European markets at an equivalent of $11 to $10, and some- 
 times as high as $25, per barrel of 250 pounds, compared with which tbe average price 
 of our pickled cod ($1 per barrel) seems very small. Following is the usual process: 
 
 As Boon as caught each lish is Ided by cutting the thro.at and is then split down the belly from 
 the throat to the tail, the knife running somewhat on the sideof the ventral line so as to have the flesh 
 on one siileof the dorsal line much larger than the other. The head and three-fourths of the backbone 
 are removed, and tbe lish immediately washed. The abdominal cavity is well brushed, and to 
 thoroughly cleanse the parts about the remaining portion i>f the li:i( kbone the tail is twisted from left 
 to right and from right to left, and also bent up aud down during the process of washing. After being 
 cleansed the fish are jjaoked with dry salt in butts and allowed to make their own pickle. When 
 well struck, usually in five or si.K days, the fish are repacked in market barrels with some fresh salt 
 between them and with the old pickle poured over all. In packing, the tail of each fish is held in 
 the right hand aud the upper jportiou in the left hand, aud the fish so folded that about one-half of 
 ■ the left side is underneath the right side, the body of the lish being bent to follow the curve of the 
 barrel, each layer in the barrel being formed by two fish. The fish should be firm aud free from a 
 sodden or flabby condition. 
 
 In Scotland the fish are usually bled as soon as caught, and after being split aud 
 washed, as in the United States, are placed in butts or barrels with about 75 pounds 
 of Liverpool salt to eacb 250 pounds of split fish. After remaining there two or three 
 days they are removed, cleansed with brushes, aud packed in shipping barrels with 
 about 50 pounds of salt scattered among tbe fish in each barrel, and strong pickle is 
 then added. Most of these fish are sold in London at from £2 to £3 per barrel. 
 
 The process used by the Swedes in pickling codfisb differs little from that employed 
 in Scotland, except that Lisbon salt is generally used, and the fish are subjected to 
 considerable compression during the first salting. In Belgium St. Ybes salt is used, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 455 
 
 and ill repacking', the old pickle from the first salting is added through the bmighole, 
 it being claimed that this old pickle is better than new brine, because it prevents the 
 lish from turning yellow and also gives it a better flavor. 
 
 A century ago quantities of codfish were salted in barrels provided with holes 
 near the bottom to permit the brine to leak away. The product was not generally 
 considered so delicately flavored as cod retained in the brine, but in dressing it for 
 the table it swelled, whereas the latter shrinks. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED SALMON. 
 
 During the last century and the early part of the present a large portion of the 
 salmon taken in the rivers of New England were salted in barrels for local use during 
 the winter and for distant markets. At present, however, practically the entire catch 
 on the Atlantic coast is marketed fresh. Many salmon are salted on the racific; coast 
 of the United States, especially in Alaska, where the business originated ten years 
 ago, and at one or two points on the coast of Oregon and California, the business in the 
 latter State dating from 1853. In Alaska the red [Oneorhynchm nerla), the humpback 
 {(). fl(>rhii.\cli((), and the king or chinook salmon {(). Ischairytsclui) are salted, while 
 lower down the coast the silver salmon (O. limifch) is the 8|)ecies generally used, but 
 some chinook are also salted. The annual product is about 25,000 barrels, valued in 
 San Francisco at about ■§10 ))er barrel. 
 
 Quantities of salmon are also brine salted in the British North American Provinces, 
 especially on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, as well as in the Uudson Bay 
 territory. These fish are known in the ITuited States as " Halifax salmon." The trade 
 began early in the present century, and since 1840 has ranged betsveen 3,000 and 
 10,000 barrels annually, the present annual receipts averaging 5,500 barrels, valued 
 at about $l'> jier barrel. In the fisheries of northern Europe and Asia salmon are 
 also salted, but it is unusual for any of the product to be received in this country. 
 
 In dressing salmon for pickling on the Pacitic coast, the heads are removed and 
 the fish split along the belly, the cut ending with a downward curve on the tail. The 
 viscera and two-thirds of the backbone are removed, and the blood, gurry, and black 
 stomach membrane scra])ed away. The fish are then thrown into washing tubs, the 
 red-fleshed and the pale fleshed fish being jdaced in separate tubs and soaked suffi- 
 ciently to make them perfectly free from blood, and thoroughly cleaned with a brush 
 or broom. They are next placed in pickling butts with about 15 pounds of salt to 
 every 100 jjounds of fish, and sometimes a little saltpeter is used to increase and set 
 the pink color. The fish i-emain in the salting butts about one week, when they are 
 removed, rubbeil clean with a scrub brush, and repacked in market barrels, one sack 
 of salt being used to every three barrels of 200 pounds each. At some of the salting 
 establishments the fish are salted in the barrels without being first placed in butts, but 
 these are usually repacked in San Francisco. The barrels used in packing salted 
 salmon in Alaska are generally made of native woods at the salteries, a stock being 
 prepared before the salmon season. 
 
 The following notes on salting salmon in Alaska are furnished by Mr. A. B. 
 Alexander : 
 
 Tlie demand for salt salmon is yearly increasiuj;. A few years ago there was bnt little call for 
 it, probably owing to the fact that little etfort was made on the part of those engaged in the business 
 to introduce it in the East. Seeing the absolute necessity of taking steps to place their products on 
 
456 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 the Eastern market in urder to increase the ilemand and establish a trade for salt-enred saliiuin, eli'orts 
 have been pushed in tbat direction, and the encouragement met with has induced many who had not 
 the means or desir(^ to enter into the expensive business of cannini; salmon to establish sahnon salteries 
 iu various jiarts of Alaska. The amount of capital reijuired to start on a small scale in this business 
 is not large. One or two boats fitted with driig seines, a cabin on shore for living qnarters, a rough 
 shed or lish house in which to dress and salt the fish and for performing snch general work as may be 
 required in a limited business of this kind will suffice for all purposes. Many of the well-established 
 salteries were first startc d in this manner and have since grown to be of considerable importance. 
 Two or three men with only a small amount of capital, if they are fortunate in selecting !i good locality 
 where the run of salmon can be relied upon — for the success of tlic entire business dejiends upon the 
 location — can, if they display the required amount of energ3', build up a paying business. They of 
 course must appreciate the I'act that for at least seven months out of the year they must content 
 themselves with lieing cutod' and isolated from civilization ; but the class of men who seek a livelihood 
 in this remote part of tlie world care little for social life, or, if so, the prospect which looms up before 
 them forniaking money is fully equivalent toany hardships of this nature they may undergo. Several 
 small vessels manned by men of small means have, ilnriug the past fc^vv years, made annual voyages 
 to Alaska, 8])ent the fishing season there, and in the fall brought back the summer's catch. At first 
 they temporarily located tlieinselves by way of an experiment where it was thought to be a good 
 jiosition for carrying on the business. If the experiment proved a success, the next year greater 
 jirep-arations were made, and iu this way from a small beginning quite a number of valuable plants 
 have been established. The greater part of the salmon put np .at the salteries are caught in drag 
 seines, although a few are taken iu gill nets and traps, but at most places where s.alteries are situated 
 the drag seine hiis been found to be the most profitable apparatus of capture, owing to the great 
 number of smooth beaches where the fish can be easily taken. 
 
 All barrels used for putting up salmon in southeastern Alaska are manufactured at the salteries. 
 Suitable wood being abundant, thc^y can be iiiade at a rcasonalile price. During the winti^r months 
 enough barrels are made to meet the demand for the coming season. A cooper is an indispensable 
 person about .a salmon saltery, for, besides performing his regular duties as a cooper, he is often called 
 upon to assist in various mechanical jobs, and is paid by the piece, or so mncli per barrel — 85 cents 
 for making a whole barrel and Go cents for a half barrel. At this price he can earn good wages, for 
 he is under no expense for board. It being the obje<t of every man owning a saltery to enlarge on the 
 plant and increase his business as rapidly as possible, several weeks of each year, before and after the 
 fishing season, are spent in building wharves, if needed, erecting buildings, and making snch Improve- 
 ments as ale required to keep a place of this kind in good order. Many salmon salters h.ave gained a 
 firmer foothold iu Alaska th.an the meri^ business of salting s.almon would give them. They have 
 branched out into general trade and have stores well stocked with goods of .all kinds. In this way 
 they have drawn arouu<l them the neighboring tribes of Indians, who are ever ready to buy .and trade 
 for snch commodities as they require. 
 
 In Sweden the choicest pickled salmon are the "ice-house salted salmon," These 
 are killed as soon as caught, split and eviscerated, and the head anil larger portion of 
 the backbone removed. Each tish is then rubbed with a mixture of salt and sugar 
 and carefully jdaced, skin upward, except the bottom layer, in barrels and covered 
 with brine. These barrels are stored in icehouses or cool cellars and kept at a low 
 temperature. 
 
 The following method of brine-salting salmon was practiced in Scotland a hundred 
 
 years ago : * 
 
 The Scotch salmon is not too fat, a circumstance which contributes much to its preservation. 
 As soon as possible after thej' return from fishing, they split the salmon in the same manner as is 
 done with flat cod, except that cod is cut along the belly, and salmon along the back from the head to 
 where the fin of the tail begins, and often leave the large bone sticking to the flesh of one of the sides. 
 Having cut the ti.sh in this manner, taken out the gills, emptied it, and, sometimes, taken oft' a part of 
 the largo bone, they wash it in sea water, if they have it convenient to them, or, if not, iu fresh water, 
 
 * A treatise on fishing for herring, cod, and salmon .and of curing or preserving them, published 
 by order of the Dublin Society, Dublin, 1800. pp. 140-141. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 457 
 
 to tMl<e out ull tUo bliioil, -svUicb lias a great tendency to ]inlret'action. This seems to be a miioU b(!tter 
 nietbod than th.itof washing the lish in its own blood, as is used in the North, jirobably for the puriHise 
 of Miaking the llesh reililer. When the lish has dripped they pnt it into large tubs, with French or 
 Spanish salt over it and under it. It is supposed that Spanish salt gives it a more reddisli coh)r than 
 French salt, but that French salt gives it a less sharp taste. Some leave the fish in ^ilt for eight or 
 ten days and th(Mi barrel them. Others put them without salt iuto large tubs, filled with strong brine, 
 and leave them there for a month or six weeks and sometimes longer, waiting until there may be a call 
 for them, for it is thought that salmon keeps better in those large vessels than in barrels, but care 
 must be taken to have it constantly covered with brine. Lastly, it is to be taken out of tlie tubs and 
 barreled. In the bottom of the barrel they put four or five small salmon and then lay on the large, 
 good salmon, pressing them together as much as i)ossilile and putting a little salt between them. In 
 the toj) of the liarrel, likewise, they jiut some small salmon. When the barrel is full they j)Our in a 
 small nuantity of strong brine and immediately closi^ it up, for it is necessary to guard the fish against 
 the contact of the air and to prevent the brine from being lost. Without these precautions the siilmon 
 would grow yellow and rusty and would contrai t a bad smell. Large salmon is more liable to these 
 ineonveniiuces th.aii the smaller sort, and, therefore, requires more salt in the barreling of it. It is 
 more difficult to preserve salmon than cod. The Scotch take care not to mix salmon of different sorts 
 and i|ualities in the same barrels, and not to export such as are had. There is a bounty on every 
 barrel exported, and there are inspectors in every port of Scotland whose business it is to iui|iiire into 
 and certify the good quality, species, etc., of the fish. When the barrels arrive at their place of 
 destination, they ought to be tilled again with fresh brine. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED MULLET. 
 
 Mullet is the most important fish brine-salted in the Southern States, more of 
 this species being pickled than all others combined, the product being especially large 
 on the coasts of North Carolina and Florida, where about (>,000 barrels are prepared 
 annually between the middle of August and the end of November. 
 
 As soon as removed from tlie seines and carried ashore tlie midlet are dressed. 
 This consists in sjilitting them down the back and underneath the backbone from tlie 
 head to the tail, .so that the fish will lay out flat, and removing the viscera, stomach 
 membrane, and gills. On the coast of Florida, where the mullet are very large, the 
 heads are removed, and sometimes the backbones, but this is not the case on the Caro- 
 lina coasts. A horizontal gash is .sometimes cut in tlie thick portion of the flesh on 
 the side in which the backbone is left, in order that the brine may easily penetrate it. 
 The flsh are ne.xt immersed in tubs or barftls of clean salt wsiter and soaked for about 
 half an hour and the blood and .slime washed off. Tliey are removed one at a time 
 and salted with the hand, the salt being rubbed both inside and outside. Then they 
 are usually placed, flesh side up, in old boxes or barrels of any description that are 
 clean, with salt sprinkled over each layer of fish. Generally this work is done by the 
 fishermen and their assistants, and on tlie North Carolina coast they take them to 
 market in two or three days and sell them to the packers, who are usually wholesale 
 grocers or dealers in fresh and salt fish, by whom the mullet ai'e at once repacked. 
 Ill other localities, and especially on the west Florida coast, the repacking is generally 
 done by the fishermen. 
 
 In repacking the mullet are removed from the first package and placed in layers, 
 with the face or inside of the fish nj), in new white pine barrels, 100 pounds being 
 put in each package. In order to permit the brine to easily permeate the contents 
 of the barrel, the fish of one layer are sometimes placed at right angles to those in 
 the layer below. Strang lirine of not less than 95'^ test, or, as usually determined by 
 the fishermen, strong enough to float a mullet, is then poured in until the barrel is 
 
458 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 full, when the barrel is coopered and set aside and sold to the trade. lu some cases, 
 instead of making new brine, the pickle resulting from the first salting is boiled in 
 large kettles, strained, cooled, and poured over the lish, and dry salt is frequently 
 sprinkled over each layer of fish as they are jjlaced in tlie barrel. It requires half a 
 bushel of salt to strike and pickle 100 pounds of mullet. The decrease in weight by 
 dressing, when only the viscera and gills are removed, approximates 15 jjer cent, and 
 the decrease iu weight by curing is about 10 per cent. 
 
 The fishermen sell the partly salted mullet to the dealers at prices ranging from 
 $1.50 to $3.50 per 100 i)Ounds, and after pickling them the dealers usually sell them 
 for from 82.50 to $1.50 per barrel of 100 pounds, the quality and full weight of the fish 
 being guaranteed by the dealer who puts them up. According to the inspection laws 
 of North Carolina, mullet are divided into tbree grades — those taken in gill nets of 
 2iuch mesh being called 2-inch mullet and branded as "number one"; IJ-iuch mullet, 
 "number two''; 1-incli and under, "number three"; and fish of different lengths and 
 kinds are designated "mixed." 
 
 In North Carolina it is required, by an enactment of 1879, that barrels used in 
 l)acking mullet shall have staves 25 inches in length and heads 13 inches in diameter. 
 They are made generally of Maine white ])iiie, and cost from 45 to (iO cents each. 
 Packages made from the long-leaf i)ine grown iu the Southern' States should never be 
 used, since the fish are liable to be flavored with the turpentine. Mullet are also 
 placed in quarter barrels containing 50 pounds, in full barrels of 200 pounds capacity, 
 and in kits of 10 and 15 pounds each. 
 
 If tlie fish are kept oil hand long they are examined from time to time by remov- 
 ing the barrel heads, and if the pickle has leaked out more is added, for the fish must 
 be kept under pickle to prevent their rusting and spoiling. They are also liable to 
 rust if kept in the first salting longer than one week. Pickled mullet are at their 
 best after they have been pickled from one to six weeks; after that they begin to 
 deteriorate in quality, and after six jnonths they, become so strong that they are not 
 very palatable and few are then sold. 
 
 The full value of pickled mullet is scarcely appreciated on our South Atlantic and 
 Gulf of Mexico coasts, and there are stretches hundreds of miles in extent where none 
 whatever are prejiared, notwithstanding tlie fact that the fish are abundant and 
 the industry would yield remunerative employment to the fishermen of the locality. 
 Even where mullet are prejiared many of the fishermen are unfamiliar with the best 
 methods of cure, and some mullet are put up in so crude a manner as to injure the 
 trade by prejudicing the public against eating these fish. Pickled mullet properly 
 cured are among the choicest of our Southern fishery products, and if careful attention 
 be given to their preparation, with suitable restrictions against marketing inferior 
 l)roducts, a large trade in them could be establislied, and, because of their great abun- 
 dance, without in any way conflicting with the supply for the fresh-fish markets. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED SHAD. 
 
 During the early part of the present century pickled shad was an important 
 fishery product, large quantities being salted in barrels, either for local use during 
 the winter or for shii)nient to distant markets. It was a staple winter food for the 
 people living near the shad streams, most of the fainilies who could afford it laying 
 iu from 1 to 5 or C barrels. People living 50 miles or more inland came to the streams 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 459 
 
 to obtain their winter supi)ly of (isb, bringing their products to exchange, such as 
 maple sugar and salt, or cider and whisky; and sometimes the fishermen sold to 
 traders, who carted the fish inland, exchanging them for what they could get. 
 
 Shad are yet salted to some extent on Kennebec River, in Casco Bay, on Delaware 
 River, the tributaries of the Chesapeake, and in the Carolinas. The bulk of those ou 
 the Boston mi'rket come from Canada, while of the domestic product the coast and 
 rivers of Maine and the Chesapeake region furnish the greater number. Those salted 
 in the Southern States are usually eaten in the homes of the fishermen or in the imme- 
 diate neighborhood. There is no uniform method of preparation, the dressing of the 
 fish, the salting, and the i)acking varying according to the experience or fancies of 
 the different curers; but the following are the most general processes when the fish 
 are to be placed on the market. 
 
 KENNEBEC RIVER PROCESS. 
 
 The shad are first beheaded and split along the belly, eviscerated, and about G 
 inches of the upper i)ortion of the backbone removed. They are next washed thor- 
 oughly, some curers washing tliein in two waters, allowing tliem to soak five or six 
 hours in the second washing. After the soaking tiie end of the tail is sometimes cut 
 off". The shad are then ready for salting. In this operation a layer of salt is placed 
 in the bottom of a barrel or butt, and this is followe<l by successive layers of fish and 
 salt, the former with the backs down, about a bushel of salt to each 200 pounds of 
 split fish. It is desirable to rub the salt over the face or flesh side of the shad before 
 placing in the barrel. In a few days the fish in the top layer are turned backs up and 
 a weiglit is put on them to keep them beneath the pickle, and a small quantity of 
 salt placed over all to strengthen the weak jjickle floating at the toj). The shad may 
 remain in the pickle a month or more, but usually two weeks or even less is sutticient 
 time for the curing. On removal they are rinsed ott' in the pickle, culled if the quan- 
 tity warrants, weighed in lots of 200 pounds each, and packed backs down in tight 
 barrels, with salt -scattered at the bottom of the barrel and over each layer of fish, 
 about half a bushel of salt being used for eacli barrel. 
 
 Liverpool salt is used almost exclusively, for striking or curing and for repacking. 
 Trapaui salt is objectionable, as its coarse grains lacerate the smooth surface of the 
 shad. After 200 pounds of fish have been i)laced in the barrel, the latter is filled 
 with strained pickle from the curing or first packing and the head is put on, when 
 the barrel is ready for branding and shipment; or, better still, after the barrel is 
 headed and its contents have settled somewhat it is turned on its side and additional 
 pickle added through the bung. When properly prepared, pickled shad should keep 
 from 12 to 24 months. The shrinkage from dressing and salting is about 50 per cent, 
 400 pounds of round shad being required to make a barrel of 200 pounds salted, the 
 number of fish to the barrel ranging from 75 to 120. The price received is usually $8 
 or $10 per barrel. 
 
 THE CHESAPEAKE PROCESS. 
 
 On the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay the roe shad are rarely salted, on account 
 of the demand for them in the fresh fish markets, and as a rule it is only during a glut 
 in those markets that the bucks or males are salted. In preparing the fish the heads 
 and tails are cut off aiul the fish cut down the back to the tail and thrown in tubs or 
 
460 BULLETIN OF THE TTNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 vats of water wbere tbey soak for an hour or so, tlie blood witbiii the backbone being- 
 scraped out witb a knife in tbe meautime, wbeii tbe water should be renewed or the 
 flsb placed in other tubs. Upon completion of the washing and soaking, the fish are 
 drained and put in vats with dry Liverpool salt at the bottom, and over each layer 
 of fish, and on top. Every 12 hours thereafter for 7 days the fish are stirred with a 
 pole, to separate them from each other and to have all portions uniformly salted, thus 
 ;ivoiding spots caused by salt burning. 
 
 On the eighth day the fish should be removed, drained, and i)acl<ed in barrels. 
 First is placed a sprinkling of Turks Island salt, then a layer of shad, backs down, 
 then a si)rinkling of salt and another layer of fish, backs up, and so on until tbe 
 barrel is full; and after the fish have settled for a day or so the barrel is topped up 
 with other flsh and then filled with strong pickle made of Liverpool salt, when it is 
 coopered and stored ready for market. The usual wholesale price for salted buck 
 shad is $7.50 per barrel of 180 pounds. 
 
 The salting of shad was once an important industry on the Connecticut River 
 and on Long Islaiul Sound near the mouth of that stream, and there is a provision 
 among the laws of Connecticut requiring that — 
 
 Pickled shad intended for market sh.all besjilit and well cleansed and pickled in strong brine, and 
 shall remain in such brine at least 15 d.iys before they shall be jint up for market, and shall be put up 
 in barrels or half-barrels, the barrels containing 200 pounds each, and the half-barrels 100 pounds each, 
 of fisli well packed, with a sufficient quantity of salt, and filled with strong brine; and shad so i)ut 
 up shall be of three denouiinatious, to wit: Shad " number one," to consist wholly of shad well saved, 
 free from rust or any defect, with the head and tail cut otf and the backbone cut out, each barrel to 
 contain not more than 80 shad, and each half-barrel not more than 40. The second denomination shall 
 be shad "number two,'' to consist wholly of those well saved, trimmed, pickled, and prepared for 
 packing in the same manner as shad number one, each barrel to contain not mo:e than 90 sbad, and 
 each half-barrel not more than 45. The third denomination shall be shad " number three," to consist 
 of such .as will not answer for either of the two former numbers, well saved, with the heads taken oH'. 
 
 The legislature of Maine, in 1S28, required that shad pickled in that State should 
 be branded as follows: 
 
 Those of the best (Hiality, caught in the right season, to be most approved and free from damage, 
 having their tails cut oft" and backbones out, shall be branded " cargo mess"; those which remain after 
 the best have been selected, being sweet and free from taint, rnst, or damage, with their backbones 
 in and tails on, shall be branded "cargo No. 1''; and there shall be a third (juality, which shall 
 consist of the thinnest and ])Oorest of those that are sweet and wholesome, which shall bo branded 
 " cargo No. 2." 
 
 BRINE-SALTED SWORDFISH. 
 
 Most of the swordflsh captured on the New England coast are sold fresh, yet 
 sometimes a glut in the market or the exigencies of the fishery make it desirable that 
 they be preserved in more permanent form, and pi'ckling in brine is the process usually 
 adopted. In dressing, the swords are sawed off and discaided and the heads removed 
 with a large knife and saved for the oil factories. The fish is then split down the 
 belly and the viscera removed. The splitting is continued down to the tail and 
 around the back, the backbone removed, and the fins and tail cut oft'. The flsh is 
 then cut into pieces weighing 4 or .5 pounds each and placed in butts with a heavy 
 sprinkling of salt, about 2^ bushels of Trapani salt being used to each 1,000 pounds 
 of fish. Any time after 10 days or 2 weeks the flsh are repacked in shipping 
 barrels — 200 i^ounds to the barrel — with a small quantity of salt sprinkled among 
 them. The barrel is then filled with pickle and headed up. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 461 
 
 Because of its being so fat, the shrinkage of swordflsh in pickling is very great, 
 amounting sometimes to 30 per cent of the weight after it has been beheaded and 
 eviscerated. When the pickling is done on board vessel the fish are placed with salt 
 in barrels in the same manner as in the butts, and are repacked ashore in order to 
 insure the projier weight in the barrel, a small fjuantity of salt being added usually in 
 the repacking, or the fish may be repacked in the original pickle. 
 
 The market for the i)roduct exists principally in the interior of New England, 
 and especially in Connecticut, where many persons consider it more palatable than 
 salted mackerel. The wholesale price is generally about the same as for No. 3 mack- 
 erel, averaging from $6 to $8 per barrel. 
 
 A fair idea of the cost and jirofit in pickling swoidfish ashore may be obtained 
 from the following figures, representing the handling of 4,043 pounds of pickled fish, 
 the shrinkage from dressing and pickling amounting to 1,787 pounds: 
 
 Swordflsh (5,830 pounds, at IJ cents) . . $72. 87 
 
 Salt 3.07 
 
 Labor, cutting and pickling 5. 84 
 
 Barrels, 15 at 25 cents 3. 75 
 
 Half-barrels, 10 at 16 cents 1.60 
 
 Cartage, 15 barrels, at 7 cents 1.05 
 
 10 half-barrels, at 3i cents. . . .35 
 
 Interest, wear and tear, and profit 44. 87 
 
 133. 40 
 
 Pickled swordflsh : 
 
 15 barrels, at $6.50 $97. .50 
 
 10 half-barrels, at $3.45 34. 50 
 
 43 pounds, at 3^ cents 1. 40 
 
 133. 40 
 
 BRINE-SALTING FISH ON THE GREAT LAKES. 
 
 Large quantities of trout, whitefish, herring, pike, pickerel, saugers, suckers and 
 other species of Great Lakes fish, were formerly salted each year, but the increased 
 trade in iresh fish and the development of the frozen-fish business have resulted in a 
 large decrease in the product of salt fish. The most i)rofitable disposition of fish on 
 the Great Lakes is in the fresh-fisli markets, and when the supply is in excess of the 
 demand the surplus is generally frozen, the salters receiving only the surplus after 
 both the fresh and frozen trades have been supplied, the fish that, are salted being only 
 such as can not be sold with profit, cither fresh or frozen. Many of these fish are 
 salted immediately after removal from the nets; others are sent to the large ports 
 packed in ice for the fresh trade, hut on a glut developing in the market they are 
 salted, and a small (piantity consists of fish which have been frozen, but are finally 
 salted because of exigencies in the frozen-fish trade or because of fault in the freezing. 
 Frozen fish are not so satisfactory lor pickling as are fresh fish, because of their great 
 tendency to rust, but they are equally good for smoking. 
 
 The niethoils of salting fish on the Groat Lakes are essentially tlie same for the 
 various species, ditlering only slightly in the manner of splitting. They are laid open 
 flat by splitting down the back or down the belly to the tail, or in case of ciscoes they 
 are split down the belly only sufficiently to remove the viscera, similar to the split 
 herring on the New England coast. The fish bring a higher i)rice if sjjlit down the 
 back, and when salted directly from the nets that is the usual method of dressing, 
 but many of the large ones have already been split down the belly to the vent in 
 dressing for the fresh fish t'ade, and in that case the splitting is continued down to 
 the tail, so that the fish may be laid out flat. Trout are generally s])lit down the back 
 if salted by the fishermen, but most of tho.se on the market are from the fresh-fish 
 
462 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 houses and consequently Lave been split down the belly, and the same is to some 
 extent true in regard to whiteflsh, but the proportion of salted whitefish split down the 
 back is greater than in case of trout. Blue pike, yellow pike, mullet, sheepshead, 
 perch, and carp are usually split down the back, even though prepared as surplus 
 from the fresh-fish trade, since they are usually sold round in the fresh fish markets. 
 Herring split down the belly to the vent sufticiently to remove the viscera are com- 
 monly called ciscoes, but many herring are split down the back and sold under the 
 trade name of " family whitefish." The difference in value of fish when split down the 
 back and when split down the belly is shown in that species. Although the ciscoes 
 and the family whiteflsh are prepared from the same grade of fish, yet the latter 
 usually sells for about 50 cents per 100 pounds more than the ciscoes. It is much 
 easier and quicker to split herring for ciscoes than for family whitefish, 500 pouTids 
 of ciscoes being readily split in one hour, whereas twice that length of time is required 
 for splitting an eijnal quantity of family whitefish. Not so many ciscoes are prepared 
 now as a few years ago, since the increased value of the fish makes the better method 
 of cure profitable. 
 
 On arrival at the saltiug house, if the fish have already been eviscerated, the 
 heads are cut oft' and the splitting continued down to the tail, so that the fish will lie 
 flat. In case the fish are round when received, they are beheaded and cut down the 
 back along the left side of the backbone, so as to lie flat, except in case of ciscoes, as 
 above noted, and the rough edges of the backbone are cut oft". The flat edge of the 
 knife is run around the abdonunal cavity to scrape away the blood, etc., and if the fish 
 are large, one or t« o horizontal deep cuts are made in the thick flesh of the l)ack. The 
 fish are then thrown into a trough containing fresh water, where they soak for a few 
 minutes and are removed with a pew or fork and thrown on a draining and salting 
 table, three-fourths of the top of which consists f>f strips on edge, on which the fish lie 
 to drain, and the remaining one fourth of the width is solid for holding the salt. After 
 draining a few moments, each fish is taken separately, laid back down on the salt 
 if large, and a quantity of salt spread evenly over the face, and the fish carefully 
 placed face up in a tight barrel. For protection from <lust, etc., the top layer is placed 
 skin up. In saltiug small fish, one is taken in each hand and rubbed in the salt, as in 
 salting mackerel. 
 
 In case of ciscoes, the stomach cavities are scraped fall of salt and closed and the 
 fish are thrown into the pickling barrel. 
 
 In order to avoid lacerating the flesh of the fish it is necessary to use fine salt, 
 either Syracuse or Warsaw being preferred. The former is a solar salt and weighs 
 about 336 ])ounds per barrel, and the latter, a pan salt, weighs about 2!tO pounds per 
 barrel, and the cost of each ranges from 90 cents to $1 per barrel, the Warsaw being 
 usually a few cents cheaper than the Syracuse. Cleveland salt is also used to some 
 extent in striking. Some salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel and several 
 handfuls i)laced on top of the fish, and weights placed thereon to keep the fish down 
 in the pickle, these weights consisting usually of stones on top of boards. No brine 
 is added, the fish making their own pickle. The entire quantity of salt used for each 
 100 pounds of green fish ranges from 12 to 15 i)ounds, according to the size and 
 condition of the fish and tlic season. Fish that have been frozen do not require so 
 much salt as fresh fish, since they are somewhat drier and the texture is to some 
 extent disintegrated, in'i-mitting the salt to strike through the fish more readily. 
 Within four or five days the fish are struck through, dexjeuding on the grade of sail, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 463 
 
 size of tbe flsb, mid the temperatui-e, and at any time thereafter they may be removed 
 and repacked. This should be done at the fu'st convenient opportunity, for the longer 
 the fish remain in the pickling barrel or vat after being cured the darker they will be, 
 which detracts from their value. 
 
 On removal from the pickling barrel the flsh are rinsed in the pickle to get rid of 
 tbe surplus salt and at once weighed and repacked in the shipping i>ackages, which 
 consist almost entirely of half-barrels with capacity for 100 pounds. These are made 
 mostly in Sandusky, and cost from 40 to 45 cents each. The fish are carefully placed 
 face up, except the two top layers, which are placed with the skin side up as a protec- 
 tion from the head of the barrel. Salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel, at tbe 
 top, and at intervals among the layers of fish, about S pounds being used for each 100 
 pounds of fish. Syracuse salt No. 2 is usually preferred for packing, even though 
 Warsaw or Cleveland salt has been used in striking. When the package is full of 
 flsh strong brine is poured in to fill tbe interstices between tbe fish. This brine is 
 made by i)ermitting water to percolate through a box or tank, tbe lower part of which 
 is filled with some filtering substance, such as straw or plane shavings, and tbe upper 
 part filled with salt; or tbe filtering box may have a false bottom covered with burlap, 
 tbe salt resting above the builap and the brine percolating through and remaining in 
 a tank below. In case the salting establishment is connected with an iee-and-salt 
 cold storage the surplus brine from the iceandsalt receptacles may be used with 
 excellent result, this brine being permitted ti> flow from the receptacles into a large 
 filtering tank sunk in tbe ground, froia which it may be pumped as required. The 
 strength of the brine usually depends on the season of the j'ear and tbe grade of flsh 
 being packed. In the summer packing of wbitefish or trout the brine should be of 
 100° salinometer test. But in October and November packing of herring, brine of even 
 60° test is frequently used, this being made by weakening stronger brine with fresh 
 water. This use of diluted or weak brine is satisfactory when the packer is assured 
 that the flsh will be used before spring; but in packing flsh for the general trade, 
 where they may not be used until the following summer, the brine should not be 
 weaker than O.^o, and 100'^ test is much better. 
 
 When tbe package is fllled with brine the top is coopered on and additional pickle 
 admitted through a hole in the head of the barrel by means of a funnel watering-pot, the 
 barrel being overfllled to permit tbe i)ickle to soak in. In a few^ hours a plug is driven 
 in the bole and the tightness of the head is tested by pressing on it in the center. 
 
 The decrease in dressing fish ranges from 15 to 35 per cent of the round weight, 
 according to the species of flsh and the season of the year. The decrease is least 
 in case of herring and blue pike and is greatest with mullet and carp, but it varies 
 in different seasons of the year, according to the development of the ovaries. The 
 decrease in weight of Great Lakes flsh in pickling ranges from 8 to 13 per cent of tbe 
 dressed weight, according to the fatness of the fish and tbe extent of the salting. 
 The decrease in herring is about 9 per cent of the dressed weight, 110 pounds of split 
 flsh being necessary to make a 100-pound package of salted flsh. Wbitefish, being 
 fatter than herring, decrease more in weight in salting and consequently are drier, the 
 salt absorbing the fat. Generally, in case of wbitefish, trout, and herring, about 132 
 pounds of round flsh are required for each 100 pounds of i)iekled flsh. In brine- 
 salting trout, 130 pounds round, 115 pounds from the ice, or 105 pounds from the 
 knife are required for each 100- pound package. 
 
464 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Aside from the first cost of the fish and the cost of plant, superintendence, etc., 
 the expense ia preparing pickled Great Lakes fish is about the same for the various 
 sjjecies and approximates 69 cents jter jiackage of lUO pounds, divided as foUows : 
 
 Labor in dressing and salting $0. 12 
 
 Salt in striking and pacljing 07 
 
 Labor in packing, coopering, etc 08 
 
 Barrel 42 
 
 Whitetish are generally divided into three grades — Nos. 1, 2, and 3. In the first 
 class are placed all weigliing 2 pounds and over; No. 2 includes all weighing between 
 1 and 2, and No. 3 includes all under 1 pound in weight. 
 
 Trior to 1891 there was only one grade of trout, but it has since been cus- 
 tomary to brand trout weighing li pounds or more as No. 1 and all under that 
 weight as No. 2. 
 
 BRINE-SALTED HALIBUT FINS. 
 
 Tiie strips of Hesli attached to tlie inner boues of the dorsal and ventral fins of 
 the halibut are cut off in dressing these fish for use by the smokers, and are subse- 
 quently pickled; but in case of the fresh-halibut trade the fins are not removed, but 
 are shipped with the fish. In dressing halibut for the smokehouses, the " feathers" 
 or "fly" of the fins are first cut away, tlien with the point of the fletching knife the 
 skin is cut on eacih side of the fin about 2 inches from the edge, and by a sharp 
 stroke near the tail that end is separated, and catching hold thereof the whole fin 
 is pulled ott', the two fins representing about 3 or -t per cent of the weight of the 
 round halibut. They are placed in tiers in tight barrels, with salt sprinkled in the 
 bottom and over each layer, about 1 bushel of salt being used to each 200 pounds. 
 On being lauded from tlie vessel the pickled tins are frequently repacked in half- 
 barrels and other small packages, and they are used n)ostly as ship stores. 
 
 Several years ago pickled-halibut tins sold at $8 to $10 per barrel of 200 pounds, 
 but the price gradually decreasetl to about half that amount. In 1898 they sold at 
 about $8. This fliu-tiiatioii is due to the fact that during the Iceland fishery a large 
 percentage of the halibut were too small to warrant saving the fins, and the demand 
 for ship stores being good, the market was not overstocked. When the Iceland 
 fishery was abandoned Cor Bacalieu and other western banks the average size of the 
 fish caught was nuicli increased, so that many more tins were salted. This, together 
 with a decreasing demand, greatly overstocked the market and rau the price down 
 very low, so that in 1897 and 1898 very few vessels saved the fins. The small product 
 resulted in equalizing the supply and demand, and in 1898 the price was advanced to 
 nearly its former standing, 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS BRINE-SALTING. 
 
 All along the coast of the United States a small local business is carried on in 
 pickling fish for use during the winter in the homes of fishermen and their neighbors. 
 Among the species thus i)repared are bluefish, squetague or sea trout, channel bass, 
 croakers, perch, sheepshead, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, black bass, hogflsh, etc. 
 There is no uniform method of pickling, the fish being dressed, salted, and packed 
 according to the fancies and convenience of the carers, aiul the product rarely goes 
 on the general market. In general, the fish are dressed by removing the head and 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 465 
 
 viscera, aiul are split down tlie back or sometimes tbe belly, so as to lie out flat. 
 They are next washed and soaked until the blood is removed and then covered with 
 salt and placed in barrels, first a sprinkling of salt and then a layer of fish, and so on 
 until the barrel is filled. Then brine is poured in to till the interstices and the barrel 
 is headed and coopered. 
 
 In Europe a large variety of marine products are brine-salted, most of them being 
 prepared Iroiu species of the herring family. The following descriptions apply to the 
 method of preparing a number of them : 
 
 PRESSED SARDINES. 
 
 The "pressed sardines" of Sweden are prepared in the following manner: 
 
 As soou as tbe sanliiics are raugbt tbcy aio tborouybly iviswrateil, cleansed, and salted in biyers 
 in Large vats, 65 jionnds of salt being nsed to 100 pounds of lisb, tbis salt being tboiougbly sprinkled 
 between tbe layers of iisb. Witbin two or tbree days brine forms and covers tbe fish, and tbere tbey 
 remain for one or two, and sometimes tbroe. montbs — the longer tbe better. Wben ready for repacking, 
 tbe sardines are laid flat in tbo barrel witb tbeir tails pointing toward tbe center, while before they 
 w»ere placed in layers. Tbe barrel is thus filled to witbin 4 inches of tbe top, and over the fish is 
 placed a sheet of paper, and npon that a thin board which is smaller than tbe opening of tbe barrel, 
 and lastly a wooden block which measures one-fifth the height of tbe barrel. By means of a screw tbe 
 wooden block and the fish underneath are slowly pressed down; then tbe block is removed and tbe 
 space filled with more sardines, until the barrel is overfull. .\ sheet of paper and another thin board 
 are put on the fish and [ireased down like tbe first, when the barrel hoops are loosened, tbe cover 
 placed on, and the barrel tightly sealed. Tbo barrels are provided witb small boles, so that tbe oil 
 and moisture may run otf. A barrel of 10 gallons capacity \\ ill hold from 3,000 to 8,000 pressed 
 sardines. 
 
 SALTED PILCHARDS OK FUMADOES. 
 
 Somewhat similar to the above is the English process of preparing pilchards 
 [Glnpea pilchardus) in the form of fumadoes* for the Italian markets, which is thus 
 described in Holdsworth's Sea Fisheries: 
 
 The curing is the esi)ecial work of the women, who pack the jiilcbards in alternate layers of 
 coarse salt and fish on the stone floor of tbe curing bouse until tbe " bulk" has reached a height of 5 
 or 6 feet. Here the fish remain for a month, and the oil and brine draining from them are carried off 
 by gutters in tbe floor to a cistern. When the fish have been sufficiently salted, tbey are washed and 
 packed in hogsheads, each layer of fish being placed witb their heads outward and with a "rose" of 
 fish in the center. A circular piece of wood called a "buckler," and rather smaller than the head of 
 the cask, is then placed on the top of the fish and strong but gradual pressure is .applied by means of 
 a lever until the mass of fish is reduced one- third in bulk and a great quantity of oil squeezed from them. 
 This drains through the sides and botton; of tbe cask, the hoops of which are not at that time very 
 tightly driven, and is collected as before. The quantity of oil obtained from the pilchards depends on 
 tbe season, but at least 2 gallons of oil are expected from eacli hogshead. It is principally used by the 
 leather-dressers. The cask is filled up three times belore the pressing is finished, which is not until 
 after eight or nine days, and then the hogshead (.50 gallons) of fish should weigh 4 cwt. gross. The 
 average number of fish packed in a hogshead is about 2,r)00. The pilchards cured at St. Ives in 
 the early i)art of tbe season are mostly taken by drift nets, but the seine fishery at a later period is 
 mainly depended on to provide tbe fish for exportation. 
 
 A large trade in pickled pilchards is carried on between Cornwall and the Italian 
 ports, according to Francis Day, the idea having originated at Mevagissey, as follows: 
 
 In ISTO [iawd aud IValer, November 18, 1882], a fish-curer here found there was a demand in the 
 Mediterranean fish markets for bright salted pilchards, lie first thought the matter out and then 
 cured several tons of pilchards by throwing them, with salt, into barrels, and allowiu-g the brine to 
 
 * As may be inferred from the name, those fish were formerly smoked. William Borlase noted, in 
 1758, "fuming them being for many years laid aside." 
 
 F. C. B., 1898-30 
 
466 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 rise over tUem. After keeping tbom steeped for some weelis tUey wore washed, packed, and jiressed 
 into clean barrels, just as was formerly done to the old-fasbioned fumadoes. On their being put on 
 the market it was at once seen they were the article wanted; for these fish, instead of having the 
 dirty yellow hue of the fuinado, had the desired bright and clean silvery color, hence they have been 
 in demand ever since. The (ish-curer in question took out no patent rights, but allowed all to use his 
 discovery; so much so that for some seasons past not less than 1,01)0 hogsheads of hsh yearly have 
 been shipped for the Mediterranean from Mevagissey alone TLe barrels iirst used have been super- 
 seded by large steeping vats, one of which here will h(dd over 500,000 lish. Since the business in 
 question has been progressing, it has been discovered that the Spaniards cure sardines much after 
 the same manner. 
 
 Pickled pilchards are not so well flavored as salted pilchards, or fumadoes, but 
 they will keep a much longer time, it being necessary to dispose of the latter within 
 a short time after curing. 
 
 ITALIAN SARDELS. 
 
 The method of preparing the celebrated and deliciously-flavored sardels of Italy 
 is as follows : 
 
 After the freshly caught sardels or anchovies (EnyratiUs encrasicholus) have been well salted and 
 washed they are cleaned and the lower jawbone is removed and the fish strongly salted in a barrel 
 with 50 pounds of salt to 100 pounds of fish. There the fish remain for two or three months, wh«n 
 they are removed and loosely packed in the market barrel or package, being resalted at the same time, 
 25 pounds of salt being used to each 100 pounds of &s]i. The barrel is set upright, and after three or 
 four months the blood pickle is poured oft' through a bunghole. During this time the barrel is placed 
 in the sun, so that the pickle has become quite strong, and sometimes a little ocbcr is added to the 
 pickle to give it a dark-red color. The fish may then be used within a few weeks, but to acquire its 
 best flavor about three years are required. 
 
 GAHRPISCH OR FERMENTATION FISH. 
 
 In some of the districts of northern Sweden there is a uniipie method of preserving 
 fish, the. product being known as " gahrfisch " or fermentation fish. Various species are 
 used, but mostly the stromling or Swedish anchovy. The freshly caught anchovies, 
 after being dressed and thoroughly washed, are lightly salted and loosely packed 
 in tight wooden barrels. A blood pickle made from the dressings of the fish is then 
 poured over them until all the fish are covered, when the barrel is tightly sealed. 
 It is then placed where the sun's rays can reach it, and there it remains four or five 
 weeks, the fish undergoing fermentation. If this fermentation be too rapid the barrel 
 is removed to a cooler place, and as soon as the -fermentation has taken ])lace the 
 barrel is opened and its contents repacked in smaller packages, which must be kept 
 securely sealed, otherwise putrefaction ijuickly ensues. Tlie.se fermentation fish are 
 eaten either raw or cooked, but the market is limited to northern Sweden. The odor 
 is very strong and excites a feeling of disgust among persons unaccustomed to eating 
 them, but when a taste for the fish has been acquired they are highly relished. 
 
 SAHLSTROM PROCESS OF BRINE SALTING FISH. 
 
 A method of pickling fish, intended especially for herring, was devised about 
 fifteen years ago by Carl A. Sahlstriim, and has been n.sed to some extent in Norway 
 and Scotland. It is somewhat similar to the Roosen process of preserving fish fresh 
 by means of an antiseptic, and consists, first, in placing the dressed fisli in si dosed 
 cylinder, into which brine is introduced until the cylinder is full. Additional brine is 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 467 
 
 tlieii forced into this cylinder under a pressure of from GO to 100 pounds to the square 
 incii, (hus forcing it into the tissues of the fish. The fish cau be salted sufficiently to 
 suit the necessities of the market, aud the operation requires a less number of hours 
 tlian the ordinary process requires weeks. The tissues are thoroughly permeated by 
 the preserving liquid and are quite incapable of supporting organisms of putrefaction. 
 
 PICKLING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES. 
 
 Pickling with vinegar and spices is one of the ancient forms of preserving fishery 
 products, probably antedating even the pickling with salt. It was well known to the 
 Greeks and liomans, tlie latter applying it especially to preserving mullet, swordfish, 
 tunny, etc. The most costly spices were used, and the products frequently sold at 
 fabulous prices. At present comparatively few fish are preserved in this manner and 
 tlie business is done on a small scale. Many small herring are compounded with 
 vinegar and spices and marketed as Russian sardines, and there is some importation 
 from Europe of herring somewhat similarly prepared, which are sold as Christiania 
 anchovies, marinated herring, spi(!ed herring, etc. A small business is done in pickling 
 eels, sturgeon, and one or two other species with vinegar; and oysters, clams, and 
 mussels are frequently put up with this antiseptic in glass jars, but the business is 
 of small extent. 
 
 RUSSIAN SARDINES. 
 
 The preparation of Russian sardines, or small pickled herring in vinegar and 
 spices, is of comparatively recent origin in this country, being first undertaken by Mr. 
 Henry Sellman in 187-i, at about the time of the beginning of the Maine sardine 
 industry. The business, which is not very extensive, is carried on in connection with 
 the ])reparation of sardines on the coast of Maine. The fish used are similar to those 
 canned in oil, varying in length from 7 to 12 inches alive and from .5 to 9 inches when 
 dressed. As the herring are more valuable when canned they are so prepared when 
 l»racticable; but when more fish are received than the canneries can handle the 
 surplus is salted and prei)ared under the tiade name, llussian sardines. 
 
 For many years previous to 1800 liussian sardines were i)rep;ired at various points 
 in Europe, and especially at Hamburg, tiermany, and the trade extended to this 
 country. By 1870 the importation of this product into the United States amounted 
 to 50,000 kegs per annum, nearly all of whicli came from Hamburg. In consequence 
 of the blockading of the (lerman ports in the early jiart of tlie Franco-German war 
 the importation was necessarily abandoned for a time, and an effort was made to 
 supply the deficiency with a domestic product, with such good results that at present 
 few foreign-prepared Russian sardines enter into the United States trade. 
 
 The i)resent method of i)reparation is as follows: 
 
 As soon as jiiactioablc after being removed from the water tLe lisli are placed in strong brine 
 contained in siiital)le easks. It is desirable that this bo done while the iisli are yet alive, so as to 
 remove any possibility of putrefaction starting in. There they remain for about teu days, depending 
 on the size of the lish and state of the weather, or until thoroughly otruck. The fish are then 
 scaled, beheaded, eviscerated, aud ch^ansed in clear water, after wliich they are placed on sieves or 
 other suitable receptacles for draining. After draining for several hours the fish are spread upon 
 packing tables and assorted according to their size, each size being packed separately in kegs, with 
 a mi.xture of certain iireservatives combined with llavoring substances. The preservative substances 
 are vinegar, allspice, and chile pepper, or their ecjuivalents. The llavoring substances are sliced 
 
i68 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 onions, liay leaves, horse-radish, cloves, ginger, coriander seed, and capers or their equivalents. When 
 all are used, the following (according to Mr. Henry Sellman) is about the usual proportion for every 
 120 pounds of fish; Vinegar, 2 gallons; allspice, IJ ponmls; sliced onions, 4 pounds; .sliced horse-radish, 
 2 pounds; bay leaves, 1 pound; cloves, i pound; ginger, A i>ound; chile pepper, | pound; coriander 
 seed, i pound ; capers, 21 ounces. 
 
 The fish are jiacked in kegs of uniform size, containing about 7 pounds. A small cjuantity of 
 vinegar and a thin layer of the other ingredients are placed in the bottom of the keg, and a layer of 
 fish, placed back upward, are put in and gently pressed down. Another small ([uantity of vinegar and 
 thin layer of the other ingredients are then put in and another layer of fish, and so on until the keg 
 is full, when a small quantity of vinegar is poured over the whole and the keg headed up. In order 
 that the fish may be well ilavored they should be prepared some days before being placed on lh<! 
 market. This length of time varies, according to the temperature, from about four days in summer to 
 three or four weeks in winter. When projierly prepared the fish will readily keep a year or longer 
 without spoiling. 
 
 The preparation of herring in this manner was begun at Bastport, Maine, in 1874, 
 and since then has been confined to the eastern portion of that State. Later it was 
 found convenient to simply salt and dress the herring at Eastport and shij) them in 
 barrels to New York City dealers, who pack them in kegs for the market, and this is 
 the way in which the business is generally conducted at present. 
 
 The tish are either shipped in the barrel in which they are being salted, or, as is 
 more commonly the case, they are packed in shipping barrels after being dressed. In 
 packing, each layer of fish is sprinkled with dry salt. On arrival in Xew York City 
 they are subjected to the same treatment described above. The quantity of Eussian 
 sardines prepared annually in this country amounts to about 60,000 7-pound kegs, 
 worth about $27,000. 
 
 The following is a popular method of preparing these herring on the shores of the 
 Baltic Sea in Norway: 
 
 The fish are placed in vinegar weakened by the addition of 25 per cent of water, and to which 
 a particle of salt has been added. In this bath the fish remain for about 24 hours, when they are 
 removed and the vinegar drained oflf. Some persons place the Hsb for 12 hours in vinegar which has 
 not been weakened with water, the important point being that they must be talvcn out before the 
 skin becomes flal)by. The fish are then carefully packed in kegs or jars with the following preserva- 
 tives and spices, the quantities given being sufficient for 80 herring: Fine salt, 1 pound; powdered 
 sugar or sometimes brown sugar, 1 pound; black pepper, i ounce; bay leaves, i ounce: saltpeter, i 
 ounce; sandal, i ounce; cloves, J; ounce; ginger, ^ ounce; .Spanish hops, | ounce. Others use the 
 following spices: Salt, 1 pound; sugar, i pound; allspice, 1 ounce: pepper, 1 ounce; cloves, i ounce; 
 Spanish hops, i ounce. In this mixture the herring should be left for at least two months before 
 using, and if the brine should leak otT, additional brine made of LUneburg salt should be added; and 
 under favorable conditions the piodnct will keep for years. 
 
 CHRISTIANIA ANCHOVIES, ETC. 
 
 In the preparation of Christiauia anchovies many methods and flavoring ingredi- 
 ents are used, depending on the skill and ideas of the curer and the markets for 
 which the prei)aration is intended. The following is one of the most popular processes : 
 
 The fresh sprat or anchovies are immersed iu briuo for 12 or 18 hours, 15 pounds of Liverpool 
 salt being used for each 100 pounds of fish. On removal, the fish are drained in a sieve and then 
 loosely packed iu a barrel, with the following ingredients, which have previously been finely crushed 
 and well mixed: 4 pounds of Liiueburg salt, 6 units of pepper, (5 uuits of sugar, 6 units of Kuglisb 
 8])iccs, 1 unit of cloves, 1 unit of nutmeg, aiul 1 unit of Spanish pepper. The anchovies remain 
 s;iturated witli the.se ingredients for 2 weeks, when they are repacked tightly in kegs or barrels, 
 being earel'ully arranged in layers, with the backs downward. \ (juantify of the ingredients above 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 469 
 
 ininlidned is s))rinlileil over c:ich layer, with the addition of a few cut hay leaves or cherry heaves. 
 At the Ixittniii and the top of the package is placed two whole hay leaves, hut hefore the top leaves 
 are laid on, hriue is poureil over the fish. The barrels or kegs are then coopered and rotated daily 
 for the first few days, and after that every other day for two or three weeks. 
 
 The following process is also used to some extent: 
 
 Tlie fish are salted for 24 hours and next immersed in sweetened water, 20 parts of water to 1 
 part of sugar being used. The fish are then packed with a mixture of Liineburg salt with 90 units 
 or parts of allspice, 60 nnits of pulverized sugar, 19 units of whole peppers, 15 units of cloves, an 
 equal quantity of nutmeg or mace ami of hops {Origanum creticum), and some bay leaves. 
 
 The followiug is a choice method of preparing " Miitjesheriag " in Germany: 
 
 Fresh full herring, both spawners and melters, are well washed, and the gills, stomach, and 
 intestines are removed in such a way as not to necessitate cutting the throat or abdomen, this being 
 accomplished by pulling tiieni through the gill flap. The fish .are next immersed for 12 or 18 hours in 
 a 7 ijer cent solution of wliiti -wine vinegar, from which they must be removed before the skin becomes 
 flabby and be wijied dry and covered with a preparation composed of 2 pounds of salt, 1 pounil of 
 powdered sugar, and a small quantity of saltpeter, this quantity being sullieient for 75 herring. The 
 fi.sh are then p.acked in a barrel as upright as possible, in layers, with a sprinkling of salt over each. 
 The followiug day the fish are returned with the original brine to the barrel, which is sealed. When 
 there is not sufticient brine to fill the barrel, additiimal should be made of 1 part of the above 
 mixture and 4 parts of water which has been boiled. 
 
 Spiced herring [Gewilrzhering) are prepared in Germany in the manner above 
 described, with the addition of spices mixed with the salt. The spices commonly used 
 consist of 1 i>art of Spanish pepper,' 5 parts of white pepper, 4 parts of cloves, 2i 
 l)arts of ginger, an e(|ual ([uantity of iiiu.stard, and ai particle of mace and of Spanish 
 marjoram, with a few bay leaves scattered between the layers. 
 
 PICKLED STURGEON. 
 
 In the early history of New England pickled sturgeon was an article of home 
 trathc, and considerable quantities of it were exported to the West Indies. During 
 the early half of the present century comparatively little use was- made of sturgeon, 
 either fresh or otherwise, but since 1800 there has developed a considerable demand 
 for the flesh, especially when smoked. 
 
 A small quantity of sturgeon is brine-salted along the Southern coast and on the 
 Great Lakes in the manner described for swordfish, but the smokers take nearly all 
 the surplus from the fresh-fish market. 
 
 It is probable that the pickled sturgeon referred to in the early New England 
 history was prepared in practically the same manner as is still in vogue among the 
 Germans in the West, i. e., by boiling the meat and preserving it in weak vinegar 
 flavored with suitable spices. 
 
 In 1029 Governor Endicott, of the Massachusetts Colony, was "ordered to .send 
 home to the company in London two or three hundred firkins of sturgeon and other 
 flsh"; and by 1033 a considerable export trade existed in pickled sturgeon, most of 
 which were caught in the Merriniac Kiver. An early description of the town of 
 Newburyport, Mass., says: "At the mouth of the river stands Newbury, pleasantly 
 situated, where abundance of sturgeon are taken, and pickled after the manner 
 used in the Baltick." The Indians called that river Monomack, signifying sturgeon. 
 In 10.50, " a keg of sturgeon, ten shillings," was among the charges for entertaining an 
 ecclesiastical council at Salisbury. 
 
470 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 lu 1680 the couit licensed Thomas Eogers "to make sturgeon, ijrovided he shall 
 present the court u bowl of good sturgeon every Michaelmas court." The business 
 was (juite extensively carried on along the Merrimac River as late as 1733, and quite 
 a large trade was established with England and the West Indies. They sold for 10 
 or V2 shillings per keg, and one sale is recorded of "15 kegs of sturgeon for a small 
 cask of rum and a cask of molasses." 
 
 The genera] court of Massachusetts, at Boston May 7, 1C73, was petitioned by 
 William Thomas for protection in putting up sturgeon. The petitioner stated: 
 
 After sundry experiments and travels into forreigue countries upou great expense to bis estate 
 liMtli tlirough ye blessing of God npou his industry therein, attained unto the act of boyling and 
 iiickliug of stnrgeou by means whereof it is a couiniodity not ouly iu this country but in Kngliind 
 and other parts for transportation and purposes of traffic for the procuring of goods more useful and 
 needful to this country. (Massachusetts Maritime Manuscripts, ii, p. 3.) 
 
 At the same session of the general court the following law was enacted: 
 
 Forasmuch as sundry uuskilfull persons ha\'e of late yeares taken upon them to boyle, pickle, 
 &. sell sturgeon for transportation, of which sundrj' keggs & other caske have prooved corrupt & 
 wholly unservice.able, to the disappointment «.V damage of sundry merchants & others, as also to the 
 debasement of that comodity, A repro.ach of the country, wch, if duely ordered, might be beueficlall 
 to the inhabitants for transportation A otherwise, it is therefore ordered A enacted by the authority 
 of this Court, and be it hereby ordered A enacted, that no jjerson whatsoever shall henceforth boyle, 
 pickle, or packe np any sturgeon for sale in this jurisdiction but such as shall be licensed thereunto 
 by the County Court where such persons inhabit, on jioeualty of forfeiture thereof, one halfe to the 
 informer, and the other halfe to the county. And to the end there may be no fraud or abuse in the said 
 comodity, every such licensed person shall brand marke all caske wherein it is packed svth the letters 
 of his name; and that there he searchers appointed & sworne to view all sturgeon made heere, or 
 imported, before it be sold or in kinde passed away, who shall sett their liuirke on such as they finde 
 sound & sufficient in all respects, both .-is to the quallity of the sturgeon & gage of the caske; and 
 that only such so marked as above shall be exported, on penalty of lorfeitnre of the whole value 
 thereof; fl'or whose care A labour the sturgeon boyler or importer shall pay, for the vei wing A. heading 
 thereof, after three shillings fower jieme per score for all kegs A firkins, from time to time. And if 
 any shall counterfeit the sturgeon boylers or packers marke, they or he shall forfeit five pounds to the 
 country for every such defect. And it is referred to the respective County Courts to license able A. 
 fitt persons to boyle A pickle sturgeon for sale, as likewise to ajipoint searchers to view & marke the 
 same as aforesaid. (Records of Massachusetts, vol. iv, part ii, page 553.) 
 
 PICKLED EELS. 
 
 Notwithstanding the abundance of eels in the United States, comparatively few 
 are marketed except in a fresh condition, and even the demand in the fresh-flsh 
 markets is rather small in many localities, owing to their snake-like appearance. In . 
 New York City and a few other points some are pickled, and at various places they 
 are smoked to a small extent. In Europe there are a number of valuable eel fisheries, 
 the most celebrated of which is that of (Jommachio, near Venice, where pickled eels 
 are i)repared in large quantities, as follows: 
 
 The fresh eels are dressed and well cleiinsed with a brush ; they are placed in salt brine for 2 or 
 3 hours, and on removal arc dried thoroughly with a towel, cut iu pieces of suitable length, immersed 
 iu Provence oil, and cooked in a frying pan. On the cooking being completed, the eels are removed 
 from the oil and allowed to cool upon blotting paper, and to the oil iu the ])au are added some white 
 peppercorns, whole mace, bay leaves and lemon, .and a quantity of weakened vinegar, this mixture 
 being cooked for 15 or 20 minutes. The pieces of eel are laid in glass jars or stone .jugs, and over 
 them is poured the above mixture after it has cooled, the quantity of which must be siifficieut to 
 coverall the pieces and half an inch more. The j.ars are then carefully scaled and put aw.ay in a 
 cool place. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 471 
 
 Another method of pickling eels is the following: 
 
 The dressed eels are sprinkled with salt, which is soou rubbed or wiped off; then the eels, cut in 
 pieces of suitable length, are spread with butter and broiled brown upon a gridiron. The pieces are 
 next placed in suitable reeeptacKs, such as jiirs, kegs, etc., and among them is spread a mixture of 
 bay leaves, whole cloves, pepper, English spices, and a little mace. A weight is placed on the eels to 
 keep them compressed and the receptacle covered. After 24 hours the weight is removed, vinegar 
 added to cover the pieces, and the receptacle tightly sealed. 
 
 PICKLED SALMON, ETC. 
 
 The following description of an old method of pickling .salmon, in nsein northern 
 Europe to some extent at the present time, is from "A treatise on Ashing for herrings, 
 cod, and salmon, and of curing, and preserving them," published in Dublin in 1800: 
 
 As soon as the .salmon is caught they cut oft' the jowl, which they split into two parts, and cut 
 the rest of it (as far down as below the anus) into ))ieces about 3 inches thick. The tail may be left 
 long at pleasure. All these pieces are put into a large vessel full of fresh water, in which they are 
 washeil with care; the water is changed three times, so as to take out all the blood. Each piece is 
 fastencil separately to small laths, to prevent their touching one another. They then boil, apart, "as 
 much water as may serve to cover all the fish, to which they add two bottles of Khenish wine, a bottle 
 of good vinegar, some mace, cloves, pepper in grain, or long Portuguese pepper, coriander seed, 
 thyme, leaves of laurel, a clove of garlic, and more or less salt, according as they intend that the 
 salmon should keep for a longer or shorter time. When this water boils they put the pieces of salmon 
 into it, jilacing the. jowls uppermost, as they boil sooner than the rest, and when the whole is boiled 
 they take it out and let it drip on a linen cloth. When tlie water has cooled they pass it through a 
 tearce, or sieve; then they put the salmon, in ]>ieces, into an earthen Jar or pot, u])on a bed of leaves 
 of laurel, and throw between the pieces a little salt and some slices of lemon. They then pour upon 
 it the sauce in which the salmon was boiled, until it is iiuite covered, and fill up the vessel with the 
 Jowls and tails; after which they pour good oil upon it and close the vessel. Salmon prepared in this 
 manner will keep a considerable time. 
 
 Among tbe proprietary compositions for preserving fish in vinegar, spices, etc., 
 was one patented* in 1881 by Paul Brick, of Cape Elizabeth, Me. This method was 
 intended particularly for mackerel, but it is claimed to be equally applicable to other 
 species of fresh lisli. Brick's process is as follows: 
 
 The fish after being scaled and dressed are cut into pieces of about 2 inches in length, cleansed 
 .and pla<ed for about 12 hours in a cold sauce of pickle made of 1 gallon of strong cider vinegar, 
 one-half ounce of green parsley, eight bay leaves, 4 ounces of onions, one-half pound of salt, and 1 ounce 
 of the following spices mixeil in ecjual parts: Mustard seed, cloves, allspice, mace, cinnamon, and 
 pepper. At the end of 12 hours the (ish are removed from this pickle and placed in air-tight pots or jars 
 with another sauce or pickle I'ompo.sed of similar ingredients to the first and in the same jiroportion, 
 and to which have been added 1 gill of capers, a half-pint of olive oil, 1 gill of Worcester sauce, 
 2 li-mons, and a small quantity of extract of anchovy, and allowed to simmer for 5 or G hours at a tem- 
 perature of about 140"^ F., when the jars are sealed. 
 
 From Bayerische Fischervi- Zeifung, No. 30, Munich, 1885, is taken the following 
 method of pickling fish, applicable to sturgeon, salmon, and other large species: 
 
 The tish is cut into piec(^s, strongly salted down, fried rather quickly in Initter and oil, then laid 
 upon a ]date, each piece by itself. Before the pieces have cooled oft' they are put in layers in a 
 porcelain or glass vessel, with some "tan liquor" (beize). This covers all the pieces. To 1 kilo of 
 fish a sauce is made from 3 deca of the finest olive oil and finely sliced onions. This is cooked until 
 the onions turn yellow. To this is then added heated strong vinegar, whole spices (white pepper, 
 cloves, and .lamaica pepper), a few bay leaves, and shalot. All this is cooked together and then put 
 away to cool. Enough vinegar is used to make sufficient pickle aiul also to cover well the pieces of 
 
 'See Letters Patent No. 241187, dated May 10, 1881. 
 
472 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 iish. The vessel has either a tight cover or it is tied up with paper. When some of the pieces are 
 taken out and there is not euongh "tan li(|UOr" in the vessel to cover the remaining pieces, either 
 some more of this liquor is added or a sulScient amount of vinegar is used. 
 
 With a view to softening the bones of small pickled fish so that they may be freely 
 masticated, a method was introduced about thirty years ago in which the dressed fish 
 are placed in a suitable receptacle with a mixture of vinegar, salt, cloves, and cayenne 
 pepper. The receptacle is then closed and the contents subjected to a temperature 
 of about 170"^ P. for 24 hours.* The acid of the vinegar neutralizes or dissolves the 
 phosphate of lime and the heat serves to reduce the coherence of the particles of 
 animal matter contained in the bones, so that the latter may be masticated and swal- 
 lowed without inconvenience. This process was used to a limited extent only and is 
 uo longer in vogue. 
 
 PICKLED OYSTEKS. 
 
 In pickling oysters, clams, mussels, etc., the mollusks are usually cooked a short 
 period either before or after removal from the shell, cooled, and placed in glass jars or 
 other receptacles with vinegar, spices, etc., according to the ideas of the preparer. 
 
 A generation or two ago large quantities of pickled oysters were put up for use in 
 and about New York City, the consumption being especially large during the Clirist- 
 mas holidays; but their popularity has greatly decreased, and during recent years 
 probably not over 50,000 have been pickled annually, mostly in New York City, to fill 
 special orders. The choicest oysters are generally used. The process is as follows: 
 
 The raw oysters are removed from the shells in the usnal manner, as much as practicable of the 
 li(|nor being saved. The oysters, with their liiinor, are boiled in an open kettle for 5 to 'M minutes, 
 according to the length of time that will elapse before they .are to be used. It is important that the 
 boiling be reduced as much as practicable for good keeping, since the longer they are boiled the 
 smaller and hardir they bcciuue and the Uiore difficult to llavor. When boiled sufficiently the oysters 
 and li(|Uor are separated, the lormor spread on shelves to cool and the latter strained and mixed with 
 sufficient vinegar to impart the llMVor desired, to which may bo added mace, lemon, and other flavoring 
 ingredients, if desired. When both the oysters and liijuor are iiuite cool, they .are combined and sealed 
 up in glass. jars or other suitable receptacles and stored in a cool jdacc If the cooling of the oysters 
 and liquor after boiling be not done separately, the oysters become soft and disintegrate, aftecting both 
 the apx>earance and keeping cjualities. 
 
 An objection to the above method of pickling is that when the oysters are cooked 
 they become shriveled and somewhat tiusightly, and if merely scalded the vinegar 
 soou acts upon the tissues, rendering them soft and equally unsightly. 
 
 In 1870 the following process of preparing "jellied oysters" was patented! by 
 Katherine L. Jewell, of New York: 
 
 A quantity of freshly opened oysters are slightly cooked so as to plump them. They are immedi- 
 ately placed in the vessel in which they are to be marketed and covered with a lii|uid prepared in the 
 following manner: A suitable quantity of oyster liquor containing a few fresh oysters is boiled until 
 the liqnoris so far inspissated as to form a jelly (sididify) wh<'n cooled. This liquor is strained and 
 while warm is mixed with its weight of heated vinegar, to which spices are added to suit the taste. 
 This liquor is poured over the plumped oysters so as to cover them, and it will, when cooled, form a 
 jelly sufficiently tirm to support the oysters and form with them a senns(did uuiss impervious to air. 
 
 The small oyster crabs {Finnotheres ostreum) found at times in the oysters are 
 sometimes pickled at Chesapeake ports in a manner similar to that applied to oysters, 
 but they are so scarce and the price for them fresh is so high that the quantity pickled 
 is very small. 
 
 ♦Letters Patent No. 70135, Novembers, 1867. t Letters Patent No. 215628, May 20, 1879. 
 
PRESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 473 
 
 PICKLED CLAMS, MUSSELS, SCALLOPS, ETC. 
 
 The process of pickling clams, mussels, <iud scallops is quite similar to that 
 employed iu preserving oysters, diftering principally in the manner of removal from 
 the shell and iu cooking. The trade in these i)roducts is very limited and is centered 
 about 'New York City. 
 
 Clams or (piahogs are generally steamed in the shell, a basketful being placed in 
 the steam box at a time, where they remain for 10 to 30 minutes, according to the time 
 for which they are to be kept. On removal the clams and liquor are cooled separately, 
 the latter being lirst strained and flavored with vinegar, lemon, mace, etc., and then 
 combined and sealed up in suitable rece[)tacles. The object in steaming tlie clams is 
 to avoid cutting and bruising tlie meats, which would result if they were opened raw. 
 
 The shells of mussels are usually covered with dirt, which sliould be thoroughly 
 rinsed off. The mollusks are then generally scalded in brackish water iu the shell for 
 10 or 15 minutes aiul on removal therefrom the dark tilameut or beard is pulled off, 
 when the meats and li(iuor are cooled separately and treated similarly to the process 
 of pickling oysters or clams, the flavoring ingredients being selected according to the 
 individual fancies, but consisting usnally of mace and cloves iu addition to vinegar. 
 
 The quantity of ingredients .suitable for 100 mussels is about a pint of white 
 vinegar, an ounce of mixed cloves and allspice, with a large re<l pepper and a few 
 blades of mace. These should bo boiled with the liquor from the mussels, and when 
 cooled the whole is poured over the meats. The quantity of vinegar used is small, 
 only sufficient for flavoring. While almost any vinegar might be used,.'white wine 
 or cider vinegar is preferred. Pickled mussels should be kept in a cool, dark place, 
 for if not well excluded from the light they will turn dark. 
 
 PICKLED LOBSTERS. 
 
 When a lobster dealer is overstocked with boiled lobsters or with lobsters so 
 weak that they must be boiled to save them, or less frequently when a fisherman 
 desires to dispose of short lobsters caught contrary to local regulations, the usual 
 method is to pickle them. For this iiurpose the live lobsters are first boiled and the 
 meats extracted, 100 pounds of rouTid lobsters yielding about 25 pounds of meat. The 
 meat in the tail and the large i)art of the claw is the only portion used, that in 
 the knuckle being discaixled, siiu'e the quantity is so small that it does not pay for the 
 work of removing it. One man can usually pick out 100 jiounds of meat in three 
 hours. The meat is immersed in vinegar for two or three days, then replaced in 
 fresh vinegar and placed in suitable packages, which are usually glass jars with cork 
 stoppers when prepared by the dealers, and barrels, kegs, or stoue jars when the 
 pickling is done by the fishermen. White-wine vinegar is preferred to cider vinegar, 
 since the latter has a tendency to make the meat dark, and the vinegar may be weak- 
 ened to suit tlie taste desired unless it is proposed to keep the lobsters a long time. 
 If carefully protected in tight packages, the pickled meat will keep several months 
 under ordinary conditions. It sells for about 12 or 15 cents per pound, representing 
 an equivalent of 2 or 3 cents per pound for the live lobsters. 
 
474 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY SMOKING. 
 
 Fish and other food products have been preserved by smokiugfroiu time immemorial. 
 The process was well known in Europe during the fourteenth century, and it appears 
 to be used by savage tribes of many difl'erent localities. It consists in exposing the 
 articles fresh or, as is more frequently the case, slightly salted, to the action of smoke 
 'produced by smolderinj^' wood, bark, or sawdust. Its efliciency depends upon the 
 drying as well as the action upon the texture of the fish of the pyroligneous acid pro- 
 duced by the smoldering, which at the same time imparts an agreeable flavor to the 
 jjroduct. Smoking is practiced to some extent by nearly all nations, especially in 
 curing oily species of fish, snch as herring, haddock, halibut, salmon, etc. 
 
 In the United States smoked flsh are cured either round, eviscerated, split and 
 beheaded, or cut into small pieces with or without the skin removed, according to the 
 species. Small sea herring, cured as hard lierring, and biickliug, alewives, fresh 
 mackerel, etc., are usually not dressed at all; bloater herring, lake herring, eels, salt 
 mackerel, flounders, etc., are usually split down the belly to the vent and eviscerated; 
 salmon and haddock are usually split so as to lay out Hat like dried codfish, and 
 halibut, sturgeon, and sometimes catfish, are cut up into small pieces before smoking. 
 
 After being dressed the flsh are at once struck with salt, the length of the salting 
 differing according to the species being prepared, but ranging from an hour or two 
 to a week or more, and in case of halibut, salmon, mackerel, etc., they may be smoked 
 after being salted a year or two, the excess of salt being removed by soaking in water. 
 On removal from the pickle the flsh are cleansed and attached to smoking sticks and 
 after drying for a few hours are placed in the smokehouse, or, in case of halibut, tliey 
 may be dried on cod flakes for a day or so and then strung on sticks and placed in the 
 smokehouse. All flsh cure better and present a neater appearance when cured, if 
 dried in the open air a few hours before being placed in the smokehouse. 
 
 Both cold-smoking and hot-smoking are employed, the result of these two ])roc- 
 esses being quite dittereut. In the former, the flsh are suspended at a distance from 
 the fire and smoked at a temperature less than 80° F.; in the latter process the flsh 
 are jiartly or entirely cooked while smoking, being hung near the fire. In cold-smoking 
 the exposure may be only a few hours, as in the case of salmon, or it may continue 
 for weeks, as in curing hard herring, the length of exposure depending on the article 
 prepared and the time that will probably elapse before it is consumed, whereas 
 hot-smoking is always completed within it few hours, usually within three or four. 
 Gold-smoking is used i)rincipally in the United States, England, Norway, Holland, 
 Russia, and Scotland. It is applied to herring, alewives, lialibut, haddock, salmon, 
 salt mackerel, flouiidois, butter flsh, etc. hi (Jermany and Sweden hot smoking is the 
 more important, but it is not extensively employed in the United States, being confined 
 mainly to New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, and other centers of foreign population, 
 the species so treated being sturgeon, lake herring, wliitefish, eels, catfish, fresh 
 mackerel, etc. 
 
PRESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 475 
 
 The style of the smokehouse depends on the particular product for which it is 
 inteuded. The large houses used for smoking herring, halibut, and Finnan haddie 
 are described in the paragraphs relating to the preparation of those respective 
 products. The houses for smoking sturgeon, lake herring, eels, etc., are generally 
 much smaller. Three or four smoking chambers are usually ranged side by side and 
 are commonly built of brick with 8-iuch walls with a ceiling of tin or zinc. The 
 height ranges from 6 to l-i feet, inside measurement, the width 3i to 5 feet, and 
 the deiHh or length to 12 feet. In most cases provision is made for smoking 
 only three rows of flsh, the lowest of which is from 3i to OA feet above the floor, 
 and the others at intervals of 13 to 18 inches above that, the uppermost one being 
 from 8 to 18 inches below the ceiling, so that tlie tish will be removed somewhat 
 from the body of hot air which accumulates at the top. In the ceiling there are 
 eight or ten small holes, an iucli or so in diameter, leading to the flue or chimney. 
 
 Most of the houses are of the larger size above given, and when smaller sizes are 
 used it is sometimes necessary to protect the fish from the heat, or they are liable to 
 become too hot. This may be done by placing two small stands of bricks, about l-l 
 inches high, on the floor and building the fire between these, and when necessary to 
 protect the fish from the heat a metallic pan is placed over tlie fire, the ends resting 
 on the brick piles. In places where the smoking is of small extent the houses are 
 generally cheaply constructed, and some curers do their smoking in an old dry-goods 
 box, the top of which is covered with boards, mats, or sacking. The fish are placed 
 on sticks, and these are placed crosswise inside the box. This is suitable only for 
 hot-smoking, and to adapt the box to cold smoking the smoke is admitted to the box 
 at its lower end through a trough or channel of boards. Years ago the old-fashioned 
 open kitchen chimneys were used for hot-smoking by arranging the sticks of fish 3 
 or 4 feet above the fireplace. This form of chimney is being gradually discarded, but 
 a few are still used in smoking fish for home consumption. 
 
 The hogshead smokehouses used iu a few localities for hot-smoking sturgeon, 
 eels, herring, etc., are quickly and cheaply constructed and well adapted to the pur- 
 pose. An old sugar or molasses hogshead, with the head removed, is placed on end on 
 the ground, 2 or 3 bushels of earth being first removed so as to form a pit for the 
 fire. For convenieuce in placing the fuel and in making the fire, 12 or 14 inches of the 
 lower end of one or two of the staves are removed. Across the top of the hogshead 
 in the middle is an iron rod or a piece of old gas pipe, on which rests one end of the 
 smokesticks containing the fish, the other end of the sticks resting on the chime of the 
 hogshead. After the fires are built and the fish x^laced in the hogsliead, the latter is 
 covered with old sacking, such as discarded salt sacks, to confine the smoke. The 
 capacity of each of these hogshead smokehouses is 200 pounds of fish at one time. 
 They are intended especially for hot-smoking, and a mixture of oak and hickory wood 
 is used for fuel. Usually two or three hogsheads are ranged side by side, and for pro- 
 tection against the weather they should be inclosed within a shed or house. 
 
 . The foreign smokehouses are quite similar to our own. The following is a descrip 
 tion of two, the first being situated at Masnedsund, and the other on the island of 
 Bornholm, in Denmark: 
 
 The oven, with the fireplace below, is feet broad, 5A feet high, and 3 feet deep. Iu front there 
 are iron doors. There is room in the oven for three rows of poles; the distance fiom the fire to the 
 lowest row is ?<l feet, .anil the distance between the rows 14 inches. At the top the oven can be dosed 
 by a lid, which opens outside, toward the back wall of the chimney. The chimney projects about a 
 
476 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 foot beyond the frout of the ovcii, aud tliereforo forms an opening for the escapo of the siiperfluons 
 smoke. The oven is about 6 feet high, and grows narrower toward the top, which is about 1 foot in 
 diameter. The chimney is held together by a strong iron bar. When the fish have been dried in the 
 air, smoking may be done on all three irons, therefore in three rows. The lid at the tup is then ki'pt 
 closed. If, however, the oven is to be used for drying, the two upper rows are used for this purpose, 
 and in that case the lid must remnin open, and the opening is covered by bags or pieces of board. 
 Gradually, as the two lower rows have been smoked, the two upper ones are put a row farther down, 
 and a new row is hung on the upper iron. 
 
 A larger smokehouse iu Svanike, on the island of Bornholin, is about 18 yards square and 4 yards 
 high, while the chimney is (i feet high and 4 feet broad. There are seven smoke rooms, or ovens, for 
 hot-smoking, and one for cold-smoking. The herring are hung in pairs over poles 3 feet long, one 
 herring's head being stuck through the gills of the other and coming out at the mouth. If necessary, 
 a thin stick of wood serves as a skewer. On each pole about 40 herring can be hung, which must not 
 touch each other. The poles are arranged crosswise over square frames, 3 feet broad and 7 feet long, 
 which are run into tlie oven on ledges. Each frame contains 26 poles, and about 1,040 herring can be 
 smoked in it at the same time. The entire smokehouse can contain 22,400 herring, which are smoked 
 by the hot method. The lowest frame is about ',i feet above the fireplace. In the cold-;imoke chimney 
 about 12,000 herring can be smoked. 
 
 A few smokebouses, which are devoted principally to smoking river herring or 
 alewives, are constructed with the fire-box outside of the house containing the fish, to 
 avoid heating or burning the lish aud to more carefully regulate the smoking. One of 
 these is constructed as follows: 
 
 A foundation is made of brick, 9 feet square, 2 feet deep, and 12 inches thick, on which rest 
 brick walls 8 inches thick and 1.5 feet high on the rear or furnace side, and 16 feet on tlie front or 
 entrance side, giving the roof a pitch of one foot in eight. About 9 feet from the floor there is set 
 into the walls, ou the inside, a ledge of iron, on the front as well as on the rear wall, on which rest 
 pieces of scantling for holding the herring sticks. These are followed by other ledges 12 inches 
 apart until within a few inches of the top of the rear wall. The house is ventilated by a door in the 
 roof, 12 by 15 inches in area, which may be opened or closed by means of a long rod. The furnaces are 
 constructed in the rear of, and adjacent to, the smokehouse, and are 3 feet high, the end and division 
 walls 4i inches thick, the four grates 20 inches wide and 28 inches deep, and the doors of cast iron 11 by 
 12 inches in area. The smoke generated passes into four inclined flues, 8 inches square, connecting with 
 the smoke or fish room. These smoke flues are 6 feet long and project two-thirds across the width of 
 the house. In the top of each there are two openings which may be stopped with caps when but 
 little smoke is needed, or each may be covered with a smoke spreader, which consists of a circular 
 ]>Lece of tin or iron supported by Avirea attached to a rim made to fit the openings, and is 12 or 15 
 inches iu diameter and set about 18 inches above the tin to which it is attached. In such a building 
 5,000 river herring may be smoked iu 3 days. 
 
 The material which is used for producing the smoke consists of some hard wood 
 or hard-wood sawdust. Oak or hickory mixed with sawdust is the most common 
 in this country, but a variety of other woods are used, depending on the facilities for 
 obtaining it as well as its suitableness for the purpose. In the extensive herring 
 smokehouses at Eastport, Maine, white birch is generally preferred, but driftwood 
 which has been soaked with salt water is used to a considerable extent. At Gloucester 
 and Boston ship carpenter's chips of oak or oak edgings, with sawdust to smother the 
 flames, are used principally. In New York City mahogany aud cedar sawdust ai'e 
 used extensively, and at Buffalo maple wood is used exclusively. At Sandusky and 
 Detroit the smokers use hickory wood and sawdust. Shavings and sawdust of pine 
 wood are not very desirable, as they are apt to impart a resinous flavor to the fish. 
 Dry chips of oak are used in Holland, and when those are not readily obtained, poplar, 
 birch, or ash are used. In Denmark the fuel used is alder wood slightly moistened 
 so as to make more smoke, and oak and beech sawdast is used to keep the flames 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 477 
 
 down when they blaze up too high. The smokehouse should always be warm and 
 dry before the tish are put iu, as the development of steam is apt to injure the fish. 
 Even when using the same kind of wood, the length of time requireil to smoke an 
 article of uniform grade depends largely on the condition of tlie weather, much 
 longer time being required when the weatlier is sultry than when it is clear and windy. 
 
 The length of time that smoked hsh will keep depends on the extent of the salt- 
 ing and smoking, and on temperature conditions. Hard herring will keep for a year 
 or more; smoked halibut and haddock will keei) only a few weeks, and those products 
 smoked only a few hours are not likely to keep more tliau a week or so. If the 
 weather be cold and dry, smoked flsh keep very much longer than when it is sultry. 
 Some curers, especially halibut smokers, prevent a liability to mold by sprinkling a 
 small quantity of fine dry salt over the fish after smoking; others use compositions of 
 boracic acid, salicylic acid, and other antiseptics sold under various trade names, but 
 the best preventive is to keep the fish in a cool, dry place and dispose of them as 
 soon as practicable after smoking. 
 
 Not content with the somewhat slow process of smoking, some dealers have intro- 
 duced methoils by which they reduce its extent, or else do away with it altogether, 
 thus saving in time and in loss of weight of fish. Tlieir process consists in coating 
 the flsh with a form or composition of pyroligneous acid to impart a smoked flavor, 
 and a coloring substance to give the fish tlie appearance of having been smoked. It 
 is gratifying to know that these devices have not been favorably received in the 
 United States. 
 
 For the puri)ose of preparing a choice product especially for exportation to warm 
 climates, the tbllowing process* of treating smoked tish has been introduced, but as yet 
 its application in this country is of small extent: 
 
 The tish, after being smoUetl, are cooled oif and placed in layers in wooden barrels. Between 
 each layer of fish a layer of dry salt is placed iu a quantity of abnut 6 pounds of salt to 100 pounds 
 of iish. The barrels, after having been filled, are kept in a cool place until the fish have become 
 completely hard in couse(inenee of the salt combiniuj; with the natural fat of the tish. This process 
 of hardening must take place tlirongh the whole body of each tish, and can be ascertained bj' pressing 
 the fish with the finger, which must leave no recess or impression whatever on the surface of the fish. 
 After the process of hardening has taken place, which will be, according to the sort and size of fish, 
 from within 3 to 15 days, the barrels are filled up with brine and tlien closed by a cover fitting tightly. 
 Tlie ])reparation of the brine must be executed carefully in the following manner: Filtered water is 
 boiled with salt to a saturated solution, which latter is allowed to cool otf, after which it is skimmed 
 and drawn otf as far as it appears fully clear and pure. If the brine is not carefully prepared, as 
 above stated, the fish will not keep for so long a time, which will likewise not be the case if the 
 process of hardening, before de8<'ribed, has not completely taken place. Fish prepared in the mode 
 described will keep for many months and can be sent to hot climates without danger of spoiling. 
 For making such preserved fish eatalde it must be taken from the barrel and placed iu fresh water to 
 remove its rigiduess. This will, aecordiug to the size of fish, take place within from 3 to 8 hours, 
 when the salt will be sufficiently removed from the fat. The fish is then dried in the open air and 
 will now fully resemble newly smoked tish. By first taking the fish iu their natural condition and 
 smoking them the juices are retained and the fat of the fish is brought to such condition that tlie salt 
 when applied will re.adily combine with it and make the fish perfectly hard and solid, especially cm 
 the exterior. After the fish are thus smoked and hardened with salt they are brought to a condition 
 in which liriue will simply preserve and protect them from atmospheric inllueuces without changing 
 their character iu any material way. By thus treating the fish they are preserved without having 
 the entire body of the fish permeated with salt, as after being smoked the dry salt in which they are 
 packed combines chiefly with the fatty substances and forms a hard exterior surface which is not 
 nuich peuetr.ated by the brine. 
 
 ' See Letters Patent No. 35266G, dated November 16, 1886. 
 
478 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 For use iu smoking cbuuks or ijortious of large flsb, such as sturgeon, previous 
 to ciinuiug them, a wire disk-form receptacle, iu which the chunks are compressed to a 
 size adapted to the cans in which they are to be placed, is here described: 
 
 This receptiule is so airangcil tliat it may be rotated during tlie sinokiug process, thus causing 
 the dripping juices to pass through the mass. The product of the usual method of smoking docs not 
 remain sufiiciently juicy for canning and the irregular chunks retjuire a large amount of oil or other 
 liquid to till the interstices within the can. The receptacle is drum-sliaped, with n cross section equal 
 to the cross section of the can wherein the product is to bo packed. It has a movable or inner head 
 and a spring clasp for forcing the head inward, and is so suspended that it may be frequently rotated 
 on the spring clasp. In c.irryiug out tliis jirocess the sturgeon or other fish is cut up into suitable 
 pieces, salted in brine for the proper length of time, and tlicu neatly pl.aced iu tlie drum until the latter 
 is filled. Tlie head and clasp is then placed iu position and the drum suspended in the smoking-room. 
 While subjected to the action of the smoke, and as the fish becomes more and more compact, it 
 assumes tlie shape of a disk with comparatively flat ends. During the smoking the receptacle is 
 turned from time to time so that the juice that settles at the bottom is frequently brought to the top and 
 again compelled to ilow through the mass. These disks may be much thinner than the height of tlie can 
 iu which they are placed, in whicli case two or three or more are superimposed until the can is tilled.* 
 
 SMOKED HERRING. 
 
 The process of smoking is almost as important in the cure of herring as the use 
 of salt iu preserving codflsli. This was one* of the earliest marine products to which 
 smoking was applied, and at present the various species of this family are probably 
 smoked in greater (luantities than all other species condjined. By varying the process 
 of smoking different products are obtained, almost wholly unlike iu appearance, flavor, 
 and keeping qualities, instances of which are the hard or red herring and the bloater 
 herring, both i>repared from the sea herring of tiie New England coast ( Glupea haren- 
 gus). Tlie former are smoked three or four weeks, nutil (juite dry, while the latter are 
 exposed to the smoke for only a few hours and will keei> but a limited time; the 
 sooner they are eaten the better their flavor. Kippered herring differ from bloater 
 herring principally in that tbey are split and eviscerated before being smoked. The 
 biickling or piclding prepared in New York City from frozen Newfoundland herring 
 are somewhat similar to the bloaters of Boston, differing principally iu that they are 
 smoked at a higher temperature and for a much shorter time. A few Labrador herring 
 pickled in barrels are smoked iu New York City, and along the Great Lakes and in 
 the near-by localities quantities of lake herring are smoked. The smoked herring of 
 the Southern States is made from the alewife ( Glupea rfirnalis), so abundant in rivers 
 of that region. The methods of smoking applied to each of these various species will 
 be described iu detail in the following pages. 
 
 HARD HERRING. 
 
 The original process of smoking hard herring, or red herring, as practiced iu the 
 United States, is said to have been derived from Scotland by way of Digby, Nova 
 Scotia. In 1795 a Scotch fisherman located at the last-named place and devoted his 
 attention to smoking herring as practiced in his native country, the product being 
 sold in Nova Scotia and the adjacent parts of New England under the name of 
 "Digby chickens." Others went into the business and tlie process gradually extended 
 to the United States, the business being established at Bastport in 180S and at Lubec 
 in 1812. The trade gradually increased until the beginning of the Washington treaty 
 in 1873, being particularly extensive during the civil war. The average annual output 
 
 " See Letters Patent No. 423545, in favor of Max Ams. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 479 
 
 / 
 
 from 1815 to 1S72 was not less than 500,000 boxes. The Washington treaty had a very 
 serions effect ou the smoked-herring industry, the product in Maine in 1880 being only 
 370,(il5 boxes, or 4,431,111 pounds, worth $99,973: whereas importations increased 
 from l,029,0!t5 pounds, valued at $34,C70, in 1874, to 10.441,355 pounds, worth $129,034, 
 in 1885. After the abrogation of the treaty in 1885 the business again reached its 
 former proportions and has been more exteusi\ e during the past few years than ever 
 before. The annual product amounts to about 1,300,000 boxes, containing 6,500,000 
 pounds of cured fish, the wholesale value of which ai)proximates $115,000. 
 
 The smoking of hard herring in the United States is confined principally to the 
 State of ]Maine and to Washington, Hancock, and Knox counties, the business being- 
 centered at Eastport and Lubec. The mature Clupca harengus is used, taken almost 
 wholly by weirs, the season extending generally i'rom the first of September until late 
 in December. The smoking is done principally by the persons catching the fish, who 
 also depend partly on farming for a livelihood. Usually several of them own a weir in 
 common, dividing the herring equally and preparing them on their separate premises. 
 
 The following desc.rii>tiou of the process of smoking hard herring at Eastport and 
 Lubec is from an account of the industry by Mr. x\usley Hall :* 
 
 Description of smokehouses. — The sraokehonse is generally only one of a number of buildings used 
 in carrying on the smoketl-herring industry. In addition to it there are sheds and shops of various 
 kinds, in which is done a variety of work incidental to the business. Tliere is a shed for pickling 
 and salting herring, a sliop in which tlie smoked-herring boxes are made and where the herring are 
 packed, and there is sometimes a cooper shop for making herring barrels. The buildings are usually 
 located on a wharf or near the sliore for convenience in landing the lish from tlie boats. The frame of 
 the smokeliousc is covered witli boards and made sulbciently tight to prevent the smoke from escap- 
 ing. There are lioard windows iu either end and ventilators in tlio roof. The latter are provided by 
 arranging thi^ lioards ou either side of the ridgepole so tli.at they can lie raised or lowered by means 
 of cords attached to levers. The building is entered by large doors in the end. The value of the 
 smokehouses, inclndiug the .sheds and equipment.s, varies from $60 to $3,500 each ; lor an entire stand 
 of buildings the average value is from about $200 to $500. 
 
 In the early days of the industry the smokehouses were very inexiiensive, being built of slabs 
 obtained at small cost from the sawmills iu the vicinity. A very few of these primitive structures, 
 now almost a century old, are still iu use, but in most instances they have been replaced by better 
 ones. As the business increased larger smokehouses were built, in order to make it possible to meet 
 tlie greater demand for the product. The largest one now iu use is at Lubec. The length of the 
 building is 231 feet, 115 feet of which is included iu the smokehou.se and 110 feet in sheds of various 
 kinds. The width is 25 feet, the length of posts 10 feet, and the height of the ridgepole 29 feet. 
 The smokehouse is divided into three compartments, each having 10 "bays'' or spaces in which to 
 hang herring, and its capacity is about 45,000 boxes of mediuai or ')0,000 boxes of large herring. It 
 is as large as three smokehouses of the ordinary size. The smokehouses have no lloors, as the area 
 has to be used for the (ires. The interior is arranged with a .series of vertical rows of 2 by 4 inch 
 scantlings. The spaces between the rows are termed "bays" and are 38 inches iu width. The 
 scantlings in each row begin near the ridgepole and extend horizontally crosswise of the building, 
 each one being placed from 13 to 14 inches below the other, to within 6 or 8 feet of the ground. Iu 
 smokehouses of the average size there are usually 10 "bays," and the capacity is about 15,000 boxes 
 of medium or 20,000 boxes of large herriug. 
 
 Eiliiipmeut. — The only equipment used exclusively iu a smokehouse are the herring sticks. A 
 large number of these are necessary iu the larger houses, as it requires on an average about two sticks 
 to each box of lierring. The sticks are prepared at the sawmills in long strips. The size of the sticks 
 as they come from the mill is one-half inch square for medium and five-eighths inch square for 
 large herring. After being cut into lengths of 3 feet 4 inches each, the edges taken oil', and one end 
 sharjieneil they are ready for use. They cost at the rate of about -$3 per 1,000 at the mill, and are 
 estimated to be worth from $4 to $5 per 1,000 after beiug made at the smokehouse. 
 
 *"The herring industry of the Passamaquoddy region, Maine," by Ausley Hall, United States 
 Fish Commission Report for 18'JG, pj). 454-4G3. 
 
1:80 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The pickliug and salting shed Is supplied with wooden tanks for nse in pickling the herring. 
 These are from 7 to 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 31 feet deep, having a capacity of about 4 hugsheails, 
 or 'M barrels, of herring each. From 2 to 9 tanks are required in each salting shed. In many instances 
 hogsheads are used instead of tanks. There is also a variety of other utensils, such as tubs, baskets, 
 shovels, and "herring horses." The latter consists of an oblong wooden frame having four legs, the 
 sides extending far enough beyond the end to serve as handles. It is used to hang the herring on to 
 dry after they are strung on the sticks and before putting them into the smokehouse. Its capacity is 
 from 25 to 30 sticks of herring. The cost of the whole outtit for a smokehouse and salting shed varies 
 from $50 to $500. * » * 
 
 IJvrriiii/ Klilhed. — The herring utilized for smokiug and salting are derived chiefly from the weiis 
 ill Passamaiiuoddy Hay and its tributary waters. In 1805 the quantity obtained from the American 
 weirs in the bay for these purposes was 5,903 hogsheads, valued at $12,121, and from the Canadian 
 weirs 5,571 hogsheads, which cost $20,03li. Tlio average value per hogshead of the former was $2, and 
 of the latter about $3.60. This difference is explained in a measure by the fact that a largo part of 
 the American fish was smoked by the fishermen, who carried them to the smokehouses in their own 
 boats, while those from the Canadian weirs were collected at the rate of $1 per hogshead. A consid- 
 erable quantity of herring was also obtained from other sources. From Machias Bay there were 1,296 
 hogsheads, costing $4,605; from Grand Manan, 935 hogsheads, $2,323; from the Magdalen Islands, 768 
 hogsheads, $4,669, and from Newfoundland, 174 hogsheads, $1,740. The total quantity used was 
 14,647 hogsheads, or 7.3,235 barrels, the cost of which, landed at the smokehouses, w.as $45,494. Of 
 these, 12,148 hogsheads, costing -$36,215, were smoked and packed in boxes, and 2,499 hogsheads, costing 
 $9,279, were salted in liarrels. The herring from Passamacj noddy Bay, Machias Bay, and (Jraud 
 Manan are received in a fresh condition, while those from the Magilalen Islands and Newfoundland 
 are cured on board the vessels and need no further salting after they arrive at the smokehouses. The 
 Newfomidland herring are used largely in preparing the grade of smoked herring termed "bloaters," 
 but those from the Magdalen Islands do not serve that purpose so well and are generally either 
 packed in barrels as round herring or smoked aud packed in regular boxes lengthwise. 
 
 rickliiig. — When the fresh herring intended for smoking are landed at the salfing sheds, they 
 are immediately put into tlie pickling tanks, which have first been partially filled with a weak pickle. 
 I'lie pickle is made of salt water with about It bushels of Liverpool salt or a smaller quantity of Cadiz 
 or other coarse salt in each tank. The salt is stirred in the water until it is wholly dissolved. If the 
 lish are poor the water is sometimes used without the salt being added. The iiuantity of fish which is 
 at first put into the tank is geuerally from 2 to 3 hogsheads, or enongh to be of sufScient weight to 
 rest, or, as the fishermen term it, "ground" on the bottom. A light layer of salt, or about one-half 
 oushel, is then distributed over them, after which another layer of fish of from 1 to 2 barrels is put 
 ill. This is again covered with a layer of salt rather heavier than the first, being from 1 to li bushels. 
 The remainder of the fish necessary to till the tank is then put in and covered with from 3 to 5 l>ushel8 
 of salt. Each tank when filled contains 4 hogsheads of fish, aud the i|uantity of salt used on them 
 varies from 6 to 9 liushels, according to their size and fatness aud the coudition of the weather. It is 
 also necessary to have the greater part of the salt at the top of the tank, so it will not work down 
 through the fish and lodge at the bottom without being dissolved. In that case the fish at the bottom 
 are liable to become too salt and those at the top not salt enough. For smoking purposes the fish are 
 pickled in a round condition as they come from the water. When hogsheads are nsed instead of tanks 
 the quantity of fish and salt in each layer is regulated to correspond with the capacity of the hogshead. 
 
 The small herring are generally allowed to remain submerged in the pickle from 24 to 36 hours, 
 and the larger ones, especially if they are very fat, about 48 hours, and sometimes a longer period. 
 If the herring are small and not fat the length of time required for them to "strike" may not exceed 
 from 12 to 15 hours. Fish will also absorb salt more readily in warm than in cold weather, and if 
 they have been caught a few hours before being salted they do not require so long a time in the 
 pickle as when immediately taken from the water. 
 
 When the fish have been ]iroperly "struck" or salted, if the weather is fine, so as to afford them 
 an opportunity to dry before being put in the smokehouse, they are taken out of the pickle; but it 
 sometimes happens that the weather is rainy, aud they have to remain in pickle much longer than 
 would otherwise be necessary. As a result they become more or less oversalted. In such cases, when 
 favorable weather returns, they are taken out and put in tubs of salt water to bo freshened or " soaked 
 out." Newfoundland and Magdalen herring, which are heavily salted on board the vessel when 
 caught, invariably require to be treated in this manner before being smoked. Generally about lour 
 tubs of water are used, which are in succeasion filled with fish. As soon as the last tub is filled the 
 
PEESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 481 
 
 fish arc takmi nut of tUo first (ine and then out of the others in regiUar order, each tub beino- at once 
 relilk'd with other tish, and this process is ooutinued until all the oversalted fish have passed throuo-h 
 the water, remaining there only long enough to secure the desired result. If the (luantity of fisli 
 is large the water in the tubs is changed whenever renuisite. It is customary to use salt water for 
 ne;irly all purposes. The fishermen and smokers claim that fresh water has a tendency to make the 
 gills of the herring tender and more liable to break and allow the fish to fall from the sticks after 
 being hung in the 8mokehou.se. They also think that the salt water makes the flesh of the fish more 
 firm and not so apt to become soft after being smoked. The salting sheds are, therefore, sometimes 
 furnished witli steam pumps for obtaining the necessary supply of salt water. * » » 
 
 Scaliny. — It was formerly customary to remove the scales from the herring intended for smoking 
 purposes before taking them from the boat. The fisheruien, with their rubber boots, walked through 
 the mass without lilting their feet, and the contact of the fish with each other and with the le"8 of 
 the men riimoved the greater part of the scales. This laborious process was called "treading them 
 out.'' It is said to have begun in 18l;0 and was continued until aliout 1880. Another method of 
 scaling the fish diiriug that period was to stir tbeiii with a spudger. lu recent years it has not been 
 considered necessary to resort to these or other methods for removing the scales, since the frei|uent 
 handling which the fish uudergo renders them practically scaleless when they reach tlie smokehouse. 
 The scales of the herring come otf very easily when the fish are first taken from the water, but if 
 allowed to dry they become set and are removed with difiiculty. Tlie mrthods for removinn- them 
 above described insured a more thorough and uniform scaling of the fish than would otherwise be 
 efl'ected, but if tlie work was not carefully performed it was liable to result in bruising the fish and 
 in an increased loss in " broken-bcdlied " herring. 
 
 Stringing. — When proi)erly salted the fish are taken out of the pickle to be strung on herrinf 
 sticks preparatory to being hung in the smokehouse. This is done with ordinary dip nets, or "wash 
 nets,'' as they are called in this locality. As the tish are dipped out they are washed or riused in the 
 brine with the nets, after which the pickle is allowed to run oft of them and they are laid on the 
 stringing tal>les. The dipping and stringing proceed simultaneously. 
 
 The " stringers," or persons who string the herring, are of both sexes, the females often i>redomi- 
 nating in number. In some instancis the fishermen do the work themselves, but generally men and 
 women and boys and girls are liired for tliis jinrpose. The number of stringers employed in each 
 smokehouse varies from 2 to 8 and sometimes more, according to the amount of work to be done. 
 They receive 20 cents per 100 sticks for stringing large herring and bloaters and 25 cents for small herring 
 The cost of stringing is estimated to average one-half cent per box, but is probably a little less than 
 that. At these prices each stringer can earn from $1 to $2 per day. There are from 25 to 35 herring 
 on each stick, and a person can string from 500 to 1,000 sticks in a day. The work is performed very 
 rapidly. The herring is taken with its back in the palm of the right hand, the stick being held by 
 the blunt end in the left hand; the left gill-cover is then raised by a movement of the right thumb and 
 the pointed end of the stick is inserted and passed through the month, the fish being moved down to 
 its proper place. The work is often done by reversing this order, the fish being taken iu the left and 
 the stick in the right hand, but in either case the herring wheu strung hang on the stick with their 
 backs toward the stringer. 
 
 llrainiug and rf/i/iHi/.— After the herring have been strung on the sticks they are washed in a 
 trough of clean salt water and hung on the herring horses. They are then carried out into the 
 open air, where they are allowed to remain until the water drains off of them and they have lieconie 
 sufficiently dry to hang iu the smokehouse. The time reijuired for drying varies according to the 
 condition of the weather, but is usually from one to several hours. The drying not only hardens the 
 gill-covers and prevents the fish from falling from the sticks in the smokehouse, but also improves their 
 quality when smoked. The work of stringing and drying the herring is generally done iu the fore 
 part of the day and in the afternoon they are hung in the smokehouse. If the weather is not fine it 
 is sometimes necessary to dry the fish in the smokehouse after leaving them iu the open air loni' 
 enough for the water to dr.iin from them. When this method is resorted to, the doors and windows 
 are opened to give a free circulation of air and fires are kept burning until the drying is completed. 
 
 Fillinjl the smokehouse. — The smokehouse is not usually filled all at one time, and it often happens 
 that the work occupies several weeks. The herring are taken care of as fast as they are obtained 
 from the weirs, the time recpiired to fill the smokehouse depending somewhat on the abundance and 
 constancy of the sujijily. If the supply is steady, the work progresses as rapidly as lierring can be 
 prepared, otherwise the period may bo extended to three or four weeks and perhaps longer. 
 
 F.C. li., 1898-31 
 
482 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 When tlio herring have been sufficiently dried in the sun they are carried on the herring horses 
 to the smokehouse, where the sticlis are placed in the " bays," their ends resting on the scantlings or 
 beams on either side of each "bay." The work of " hanging" the herring requires the services of at 
 least two men, and if a larger number are engaged in it they work in pairs. One man stands in the 
 "bay " with his feet on the beams, while the other stands on the ground or floor and hands the sticks 
 of herring up to him, two at a time, keeping the sharji end of the stick downward so the Iierring will 
 not slip off. The sticks are made loug enough to reach across the " bay '' and to nearly the center of 
 the beams which support them at either end. 
 
 The lower part of the "bays" is usually tilled first. The fires are then kindled and the herring 
 smoked until they acciuire a good color. When this is etfected the tires are allowed to go down, the 
 doors and ventilators are opened to let out the smoke, and the herring are shifted to a place nearer 
 the top of the smokehouse. The lower part is then ready to receive another lot of fish. This prelim- 
 inary smoking occupies from about 12 to 15 hours. The work is continued in this manner until the 
 smokehouse is filled. Two smokehouses are very often tilled at the same time. In that case, after the 
 toi) of the house has been filled by shifting the herring, the lower part is completed by putting about 
 three tiers of herring in each house on alternate days. When two houses are tilled together, the work 
 can be done in almost as short a time as would be required to fill one alone. 
 
 The object of putting the herring into the honse by degrees, instead of all at one time, were that 
 practicable, is to insure their becoming thoroughly dry before being subjected to the smoke, and also 
 to smoke them more evenly and secure a greater uniformity of color. If a large body of fish were put 
 into the smokehouse at once they would gather dampness and great difficulty would bo met with in 
 preventing them from spoiling. To fill a smokehouse holding 20,000 boxes of herring in a proper 
 manner requires at least two weeks and a somewhat longer period if two such houses are filled at the 
 same time. The length of time also varies according to the size of the smokehouses. Small houses 
 may sometimes be filled in a few days. After the smokelmuses have been filled the additional length of 
 time refjuired to complete smoking the. herring is about three weeks. Regular herring are placed as 
 close together on the sticks as possible without touching each other, the gill-covers generally keeping 
 them far enough apart. The sticks, when hung, are placed about 3 inches from each other. 
 
 Fires and wood. — The fires for smoking the herring are built on the ground at equal distances 
 apart over the entire area of the smokehouse. The wood used is of various kinds, but white birch is 
 generally preferred; driftwood which has been soaked with salt water is also used. The main consid- 
 eration is to have wood that will burn slowly and jiroduce an abundance of smoke. The fires are kept 
 burning very slowly, the smokehouse being visited every few hours during the night as well as the 
 day. If too much heat is generated the herring are soon damaged and may be comiiletely spoiled. 
 
 Previous to 1820, only two brands of smoked herring were Icnowii, namely, "number 
 ones" and "number twos." On the introduction of scaled lish, a third brand was 
 added, the "medium scaled," including all the best tish of medium size that were well 
 scaled. At present there are three principal brands of hard herring, viz, "length- 
 wise," "medium-scaled," and "No. 1." Auother brand known as "tucktails" is also 
 prepared to some extent. The lengthwise herring are the largest of the hard herring 
 prepared, and must be packed lengthwise with the box, hence the name. Of this 
 grade each box contains only about 15 or 20 fish, weighing about 6 pounds, the boxes 
 being of uniform size, 12 inches long, 6i inches wide, and 2^ inches deep, the thickness 
 of the ends being flveeighths inch, and of the other iiarts one-fourth inch, the cost of 
 the boxes approximating $1.5 jjer 1,000. The tucktails are also longer than the width 
 of the box, but they are packed crosswise of the box, the tails being tucked or bent 
 over them, as indicated by the name. The medium-scaled form the popular size and 
 sell for the highest prices. They are packed crosswise of the box and are usually 
 divided into two sizes, viz, large and small medium herring, 30 to 40 of the former and 
 40 to 50 of the latter filling a box. The "No. 1" grade is composed of the. smallest 
 tish, each box containing from 55 to 75 tish. 
 
 Several of the New England States have very extensive and prec-ise regulations 
 affecting the grading, packing, iusi)ecting, and branding of smoked fish, but these 
 
PRKSERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 483 
 
 regulations are rarely euforced. In ^I.iiiic regulations were made from time to time 
 begiuuing in 1821, afteuting the smoking of herring, but in 1871 it was provided — 
 
 Hereafter no iuspection of smoked herring shall lie leciuired, but all smoked herring put up in 
 boxes or casks for sale in this State shall be branded on the cask or box iuclosing them with the first 
 letter of the Christian uauie and the whole of the surnauie of the person putting up the same, aud 
 ■with the uame of the State and the place where such person lives, and all such fish oft'ered for sale or 
 shipping not thus branded shall l)e forfeited, oue-half to the use of the town where the oft'ense is 
 eomniitted, and the other half to the person libeling the same. 
 
 Early iu the jireseut ceutury the price realized by the lishermen varied from $1 
 to $1.25 per box, 18 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 7 inches deep, inside measurement. 
 From 18.'>0 to 1850 the average price was about $1.10 for "scaled herring," 80 cents for 
 "number ones," aud 35 to 40 ceuts for " number twos," the size of the box being 17 
 inches long, 8r^ inches wide, and inches deep, measured on the inside. From that 
 date the price decreased quite rapidly for a number of years, and Ush of good (juality 
 often sold as low as 7 and 8 ceuts per box. Later, with the revival' of trade, it agaiu 
 improved, until in 1880 it ranged between 12 and 25 cents, according to the quality 
 of the tish, good scaled herring averaging fully 22 cents, while lower grades usually 
 sold at 15 or 10 cents. The boxes in 1880 were usually 15.i inches long, 7i inches wide, 
 and 4 inches deep, inside measurement. Since 1880 the prices have decreased con- 
 siderably. In 1894 medium-scaled herring sold for 9 ceuts, and No. 1 for about G cents. 
 
 A. choice method of packing smoked herring, introduced in 1878, has met with 
 much favor. After the herring have been salted aud smoked in the usual way, the 
 skin, head, and viscera are removed and the bones extracted. The flesh is then 
 packed eight to twelve in small wooden boxes with glass fronts or tied in bunches of 
 about one dozen fish each, six of such bunches being packed in a neat wooden box, 
 which also sometimes has a pane of glass introduced iu one of the sides to render the 
 contents visible without opening the box. By skinning the herring and placing them 
 together their tlesh is brought in close contact, preserving their inherent moisture 
 and flavor, this effect being further increased by packing them in a box. The fish 
 also present a much neater appearance when oft'ered for sale and are more attractive 
 to customers. This process was protected by Letters Patent No. 207080, dated Sep- 
 tember 10, 1878. 
 
 Large quantities of foreign smoked herring are imported into the (Tnited States, 
 approximating 4,000,000 pounds auuually, worth about $100,000 — mostly from Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick, tliough large (juantities are received also from Newfound- 
 land, Norway, Gieat Britain, and the Netherlands. The exports of smoked herring 
 are eijual in quantity to the imjjorts, the great bulk of them being sent to Haiti, and 
 smaller (|uantities to Santo Domingo, Cuba, and other tropical countries. 
 
 Tlie following notes on the methods of smoking hard or red herring in Holland 
 and in England are furnished by Mr. Adolph Nielsen: 
 
 SMOKING HERRING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 The greater part of the herring are caught iu the North Sea and salted round on board of the vessel 
 in barrels. After they are brought to the smoking-houses the barrels are opened aud the herring put 
 into hirge vessels to be steeped iu fresh water. The length of time in which the herring are steeped 
 depends upon the ditt'ereut markets for which they are prepared. For the local markets, Antwerp and 
 Urussels, they are steeped for two days, while for the Italian markets they are steeped one day, 
 ami sometimes not steeped at all, but only washed. In order to liberate the herring as much as 
 I>08sible from scales they are stirred about several times during the day with a stirring pole. The 
 herring which are salted heavy or have remained iu salt over the ordinary time are first steeped one 
 
484 HULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION 
 
 (lay, then t;ilvcn up and put in baskets for 12 hours, and after this again steeped another 24 hours. 
 AftiT the herring are sufficiently steeped the water is drawn off and the herring sorted and put in 
 liaskets, which contain about half a barrel, and are left in these in the balcony for 18 to 21 hours. The 
 objectof this is that the herring, by their own weight, in the baskets, shall press out some of the water, 
 .•md serve instead of drying, and thereby facilitate the smoking. Subseijuently the herrini;- are 
 threaded on willow twigs, as in Englaml, and lironght into the smoking-rooms, where they in the 
 meantime, until they can be hung up in the raftwork, arc placed on stands made for that purpose. 
 When hung up to be smoked, the fattest, and such herring as are to be snu)ked strongest, aic. jilaced 
 nearest the roof The fire is made on the lloor in a dozen sr.iall heaps (according to the size of the room) 
 in each room, and chips of oak are generally used for that purpose if they possibly can be obtained; 
 if not, a mi.xture of poplar, ash, <lm, and birch. Sawdust of oak is applied in order to smother the 
 lire and keep it from flaming, .also to form a good body of smoke. After the tire is kindled the small 
 windows close to the roof and the lower part of the door are kept open in order to give a better 
 draft, and also to give the dampness from the herring a chance to escape. The fire is renewed when- 
 ever the glowing chips are getting low. When the water after a couple of hours has evaporated 
 from the herring, the small windows close to the roof and the lower part of the door are shut if 
 sufficient draft can be had through the ventilators in the roof. The temperature is kept as near 
 ().')'- F. as possible and is regulated by opening and closing the small windows and the doors. 
 
 Herring prepared for the two principal markets, Antwerp and lirussels, are generally smoked for 
 12 hours, and supposed to keep good for two weeks. Tliese markets want the herring to be lightly 
 smoked and of a bright bronzed color. Herring prepared for Germany, Italy, and other Belgian 
 parts are smoked for 21 houi-s, au<l are supposed to keep good from one month to six weeks. They are 
 dark-colori'd. After the herring are smoked the small windows and doors are opened and the herring 
 loft to cool, either in the smoking-rooms or in the balcony in the raftwork erected there, for a couple 
 of hours before they are packed. The herring are ])acked in liaskets, made of willow twigs, 28 inches 
 long, 17 inches wide at the top, and 12 inches at the bottom, the Iieight about? inches, containing 200 each, 
 for the Belgian, German, and home markets; while for the Italian markets boxes and drums made of 
 soft wood are used. The boxes are 21^ inches long, 12 inches high, and 9A inches wide, and hold about 
 200 herring. The drums are 20 inches high aiul 12 inches in diameter and contain from 300 to 100 her- 
 riu". The herring are paeked slantways, back down, across the boxes or baskets, with the exception 
 of the two uppermost layers, which are packed back up. The packing in the drums is just the same 
 as the common packing in barrels. As a rule a little straw is put in the bottom of boxes and baskets. 
 The bowed basket lid is sewed fast by the Iielp of long needle and twine. The herring are sorted for 
 the Bebnau and German markets in full and spent, with no regard to size. For the Italian markets 
 they are sorted in large full, medium full, and spent herring. Of the large full it takes about 300, of 
 the medium about 100, and of the spent about 370 to till a drum of the above-mentioned dimensions. 
 Bc8id<'S the herring caught in the North Sea and treated and smoked in the manner descrilied, a lot of 
 smaller herring caught in the Zuyder Zee is also smoked for local consumption. These herring are 
 generally brought to the smoking-houses fresh, are pickled in strong pickle for about an hour, left in 
 the baskets to dry a while and smoked for 1 to 8 hours. The smoking of hen iug for export to foreign 
 countries has iiot been carried on in Europe to any extent, except in (ireat Britain and Holland, until 
 of late years, when a lot of this article has also been exported from Norway and Sweden. 
 
 SMOKIN(i UERIUNG IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Red herring are for the nujst part prepared of fresh herring, which are salted dry on the floor 
 in the saUing-room connected with the smoking-house, and allowed to renuiin in the salt 2 to 6 days, 
 according to the length of time they are intended to keep, and according to nuirkets tor which they 
 are prepared. After being left a sufficient time iu salt they are rinsed in clean water and then 
 threaded on sticks in the same way as the bloaters and hung up in the smoking-rooms, where they are 
 smoked for about 1 weeks. If high dried are wanted, the time of smoking is about 6 weeks. The red 
 hcrrin" are smoked with a small tire made of chips of oak and sawdust, and the fire only renewed once 
 every day. The average temperature in the smoking-rooms is kept at about 62° F. Sometimes red 
 hi'rring are prepared from herring which have been pickled in large cisterns. These are soaked iu fresh 
 water before they are hung up to be smoked, but otherwise treated iu the same manner as the dry- 
 salted red herring. The pickle-salted are called Scotch reds, and are lower iu price than the dry-salted 
 herring. Herring which have fallen down or are headless are smoked on the same sticks of wood as 
 the kippers, and are called " red tenters" and "plucks." 
 
PRESKRVATION OF FISHICRY PRODUCT!^ FOR FOOD. 485 
 
 In pr.'puring red or )i:n<l lierring at Yarmouth, England, for the Mediterranean 
 markets, the fish on arrival at the cnring-house are, if previously salted on board of the 
 vessels, rinsed to remove the incrnsted salt, and then, without other preparation, 
 are again put iu salt, that from Liverpool being iireferred. After remaining in salt 
 for 10 to 14 days the herring are washed, strung on smoke-sticks, 25 fish to each 
 stick, which is generally about 50 inches long, and placed iu the smoke-room, which 
 may be 10 or 18 feet square. A dozen or more fires are made on the fioor, the fuel 
 generally being small sticks of oak or ash. Tlie fires are kept burning for two days, 
 when they are permitted to go out and the fish allowed to drip for a day. Then the 
 fires are again lighted for 2 or 3 days, and this process of alternate smoking and 
 draining continued for L! weeks or even longer, when, after cooling, the fish are ready 
 for packing. For the home nuirket Yarmouth hard hei-ring are packed iu fiat boxes or 
 in kegs 10 inches high, holding from 80 to 100 fish, and for the Mediterranean markets 
 in barrels and half-barrels. In the latter case, when the barrel is filled to the top, by 
 means of a screw i)ress the fish are pressed down and an additional number placed in, 
 GOO or 700 full-sized fish being the usual unmber to each barrel. 
 
 BLOATER HERRING. 
 
 Scotland has always led in the preparation of bloater herring, as in most of the 
 smoked fishery products. It is not known when this article originated, but doubtless 
 as cAvlf as the sixteenth century. For two centuries or more it has been an important 
 product in Europe, but it has been pre])ared in the United States during the last 40 
 years only. The lousiness is said to have begun at Boston in 1859, as an outgrowth 
 of the importation of large salted herring from Bay of Islands, Newfoundland. The 
 l)rocess was similar to that employed in Scotland, and the trade increased until iu 
 1808 10,000 barrels of large herring were smoked and sold as "Yarmouth bloaters." 
 During that year the business was started at Eastport, Me., and on account of the 
 convenience of carrying it on in connection with the extensive smoking of hard 
 lierring in the vicinity the trade has largely centered at that port. The i)reparation 
 of bloaters was begun at Gloucester in 1883, the fish being received salted from 
 Newfoundland, and at present the business at that port is quite large and is carried 
 on principally in connection with the smoking of halibut. Several ports in Maine 
 also prepare quantities of this product, among which are Portland and Lubec. Some 
 are also prepared in New York City. 
 
 The Washington treaty in effect from July 1, 1873, to June 30, 1885, had a very 
 disastrous effect ou the bloater-herring industry, large quantities being prepared at 
 (Jraiul Mauan, Canipobello, and other islands in the British North American Provinces, 
 and shipped to Boston and New York. Since the abrogation of that treaty, however, 
 the duty of h <'ent per pound has restricted the preparation of the supply for United 
 States markets almost exclusively to this country. The present annual product 
 approximates 5,500,000 pounds, valued at $170,000 wholesale. 
 
 Two geueral grades of bloater herring are prepared iu this country, those from 
 the large Newfoundland salted herring and those from herring caught along the coast 
 of Maine. The business at Gloucester and Boston depends almost exclusively ou the 
 salted herring from Newfoundlaiul, while Eastport, Lubec, and Portland use mainly the 
 herring caught on the Maine coast, most of which are received in a fresh state. The 
 Newfoundland herring are obtained from Bay of Islands, Boon Bay, Fortune Bay, 
 Placentia Bay, St. Morris Bay, etc., being purchased of the fishermen at about 00 cents 
 to $1 per barrel, and from 1 2,000 to 20,000 barrels being imported each year. The 
 
486 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 vessels eugaj^ecl iu that trade arrive in Newlbundlaud during October \yitli from 1,200 
 to 1,800 bushels of salt eacli and are moored iu some couvenieut cove. As the fresh 
 herring are lauded ou deck, a barrel at a time, about li bushels of Trapaui salt is spread 
 amoug them, tiie mass drudged back and forth several times and then shoveled 
 into the hold iu bulk until a cargo is secured amounting to 1,000 or 1,500 barrels. There 
 they remain until the vessel reaches port, the pickle being pumped out when necessary. 
 The lish are then removed and stored iu bulk ou the floor of tlie warehouse, where 
 they may remain until the following April if not required in the meantime. 
 
 There are two general processes of treating these salted herring preparatory to 
 smoking, the dilferenee being in the manner of soaking. At Boston the salted fish 
 are soaked in large square tanks sufficiently to I'emove the extreme saltiness and 
 all dust, slime, etc., the lengtli of tlie soaking depending on the degree of saltiness 
 and varying from 15 to 24 hours. On removal with a dip net they are thrown on 
 a stringing table, wliere a gang of men stand ready to place tliem on small square 
 sticks about .'5i feet in length. In stringing tliem the stick is held in the left hand, 
 the lower end resting under the left elbow; each fish is grasped with the riglit hand 
 about the head, and by pressing it vertically the gills are opened, when the flsh is 
 entered on the stick at tiie left gill opening and out at tlie mouth. Usually about 
 15 herring are ]tlaced on each stick. Each stick with its load of herring is then 
 dipped in water for a inonu'ut and allowed to drain, and placed in the smokehouse. 
 At (iloucester the salted heriing are soaked for only a few moments before stringing, 
 and round sticks, i inch iu diameter and 2 feet long, are used. The sticks with the 
 attached herring are then immersed in tubs or vats which are filled with fresh water, 
 and the fish are soaked from 8 to Ki hours to freshen them. On removal they are 
 allowed to drain for a few juomeuts, and are then placed iu the smokehouse. 
 
 When fresh herring from neighboring points are used, as at Portland and Eastport, 
 they are immediately pickled on their receipt at the smoking establishments, about a 
 bushel of salt being used to each barrel of fish. After remaining in the i)ickle for 2 
 or .'5 days they are removed, drained, and placed on the ordinary herring sticks, and 
 hung in the smokehouse and smoked like the Newfoundland salted herring. 
 
 In order to "bloat," the herring must be thoroughly moist, and after they have 
 commenced to dry in the smokehouse the heat must be increased. If they are i)er- 
 mitted to hang 10 or 12 hours without heating they will not bloat, but will become 
 hard herring. The smoking is continued from 2i to 6 days, when the flsh are usually 
 sufficiently cured. They are i-enioved from the houses, allowed to cool for a few hours, 
 and placed in boxes holding 50 or loo flsh each, the larger size being by far the most 
 numerous. The average weight of 100 bloaters prepared from jSTewfouudlaud herring 
 is about 4:0 pounds, whereas an equal quantity prepared from Gulf of Maine flsh weighs 
 from 25 to 35 pounds, according to their size and the extent of the smoking. The 
 Eastport bloaters weigh about 25 i)ounds per 100 fish, being smoked 2 or 3 days longer 
 than the Boston bloaters, as they are intended to keep a greater length of time and in 
 warmer climates. They are placed in boxes IS^ inches long, IH inches wide, and 7i 
 inches deep, inside measurement. The thickness of the ends is generally J inch and 
 of other parts | inch, and the cost of boxes approximates $12 per 100. The boxes at 
 Boston, Gloucester, and Portland are usually considerably larger. One barrel of round 
 fresh herring yields about 5 boxes of 100 bloaters each. Those smoked 2i or 3 days 
 will keep usually 3 or 4 months under favorable conditions, while those smoked 5 or 
 days will keep until warm weather. Very few bloaters are sold after the month of May. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 487 
 
 The market for bloaters is principally in Boston, New York, Canada, and the 
 West, and the average wholesale jirice for those prepared from Newfoundland salted 
 herring is aljont .$1.20 per 100 lish. The Bostou-cured bloaters sold in 1850 at $1.25 
 to $1.50, and in 18(i5 at $1.80, per 100. In 1880 the value of the Eastport bloaters was 
 about 05 cents, in 1S0.> it was 77 cents, and in 1898 it was about SO cents per 100. 
 
 The cost of preparing bloaters at Eastport is considerably leas than at Gloucester 
 or Boston. At Boston it approximates 84 cents per box of 100, as follows: 
 
 Salted lisU (at $2.30 per barrel of 550) $0.45 
 
 Cost ol'smokin;;' aud packing 25 
 
 Bos 14 
 
 Total 84 
 
 During the past two or three years some curers have packed bay leaves between 
 the layers of bloaters in the boxes, but fisb so packed have a tendency to mold when 
 placed in cold storage. Choicest bloater.s are very little salted, and are smoked so 
 slightly tnat there is little dis(;oloration of the skin, but prei)ared in that way they 
 will keep only tiiree or four days. These mild cured bloaters are very popular in 
 Cireat Britain, but are not prepared in this country to any great extent. 
 
 The "pickling" or "biickling"' prepared in New York City are quite similar to the 
 bloaters ])repared at Boston. The large fat frozen herring from Newfoundland are 
 used, their average weight being nearly a pound each. These are placed in cold stor- 
 age, whence they are removed from time to time, as the trade requires. On removal 
 they are thawed out and pickled round for 10 or 12 hours and ])laced on rods in the 
 smokehouse, and alter smoking cold for 8 or 10 hours they are placed in the smoke 
 oven and hot-smolied or cooked tor an hour or two. About 10,000 pounds of these 
 aie prepai'cd in New York City annually, selling at about 12 cents per pound. These 
 fish are sometimes beheaded and eviscerated before being smoked, and are then sealed 
 in tin cans, small fish being selected for this purpose. 
 
 Labrador and Newfoundland split herring, salted in barrels, are also smoked in 
 New York City and a few other points, but the business is not so extensive as formerly, 
 probably not exceeding 12,000 pounds annually. These are soaked out, strung up, and 
 cohl-smoked for s or 10 hours, just enough to give a slight color to them. In New York 
 they are generally tied 3 in a bunch and sold to the stores at or 7 cents per bunch. 
 
 The preparation of bloaters is much more extensive in Creat Britain than in the 
 United States, Yarmouth being the principal place where they are cured. Usually 
 they are prepared for immediate consumption and are smoked for 10 or 12 hours only. 
 When using fresh herring, the fish are placed in strong brine for G or 8 hours, then 
 washed in clean water to i-emove scales, slime, etc., ])laced on smoke-sticks by pressing 
 the latter through the gills, dipped or rinsed in water, and suspended in smokehouses, 
 where they are smoked for 10 or 12 hours at a temperature of about 80°. When using 
 salted herring, they are soaked for a time to remove the excess of salt, the length of 
 the soaking depending on the degree of saltiness of the fish. 
 
 The delegates appointed in 1389 by the Canadian government to inquire into the 
 herring industry of Great Britain and Holland, state as follows regarding the Yar- 
 mouth bloater industry, on pages 30-31 of their report: 
 
 One of the best bloater curers in Yarmouth informed us that one reason why his fish stood so 
 high in the market was that he was always very careful, in the first place, to select the very best 
 fish for the manufacture of bloaters, reserving for other purposes all inferior and unsuitable fish. 
 Then he is very careful in salting, curing, and smoking them. We saw in the lish stores in Yarmouth, 
 
488 BULLETIN OF TIIK UNITKD STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 also on BiUiiin'SiCiito market in Ldiulou :iu(l cm tin' tables in tlio hotels, a. bloater very slij;htly salteil, 
 and smoked so slightly that there was iin iliscoloratioii at all of the herring. This bloater so 
 prepared is a most delicious lish. It is prepared iu this way for immediate use in the nearest eities, 
 towns, and country places, and will only keep some three or lonr days. Other classes of bloaters, 
 intended for eonsumptiou at greater distances and therefore designed to keep longer, arc more highly 
 salleil, snmked in various grades. The bloaters wo saw were fairly fat, hut very fat herring -will not 
 do for bloaters. Bloaters are salted in heaps on the stone lloors of the warehouses — some for a few 
 hours, some for one or two days or more. They are never so highly smoked as the mildest red herring. 
 There is no difiicnlty iu manufacturing bloaters. All that is required is intelligence, good .jndgmeut, 
 (juick observation, and lionesty of purpose, together with a knowledge of the tastes of the consumers ; 
 and also whether the lish is required for immediate use near by or for exportation to jdaces at a 
 distance. The gentleman who gave us so much information said that first of all he rec|uired to know 
 exactly the kind of bloater re<iuire(l and that he then did his best to sujiply the article. When 
 the herring have been <iuite Buliliciently salted, they are washed clean on the outside, but are not 
 opened, gibbed, or gutted. They are then strung on rods and hung up to drip and dry, .and then 
 smoked. The fuel preferred in Britain for smoking purposes is the sawdust or the waste from the 
 turning lathe of birch, although oak and elm are sometimes used. All agreed that the birch made 
 the sweetest smoke. The white bloaters put up for immediate use are packed in neat light boxes, 
 containing 50 herrings each. Those more highly salted and smoked are pnt up in larger packages. 
 The bloaters we saw were considerably smaller than our own herring; tliey are deep from back to 
 belly, and are an excellent tish. Too much attention can not be given to the selection of the herring 
 used for bloaters and to the respective curing processes. The excellence of any particular curer's 
 bloaters does not arise from any special mode of curing, but from special care .and attention and th.at 
 practical knowledge which close observation and experience alone can confer. At the hotel bloaters 
 were opened au<l split from the belly to the backbone, the gills and viscer.a taken out, •■iiid the herring, 
 without being washed, cooked with the milt and the roe. The roe furnishes pleasant eating. 
 
 In the case of bloaters for immediate use, the herring may be put, immediately after being landed 
 and selected, into a strong pickle from six to eight hours. They are then put on the spits and washed by 
 dipping in large tubs of salt water or very weak brine, and then hung up in the smokehouse. The 
 fires should have been burning previou,sly, therefore emitting only a light smoke. A few hours — six 
 to ten— in the smoke room will sultice. They should be cooled off before being packed for the market. 
 
 The bloater business in Biitaiu is simply enormous and uses up an immense amount of herrings, 
 thus greatly benefiting the fishermen and the curers, who realize .at once on this branch of the herring 
 industry, while the public are supplied with herring in an agreeable and jiopular form. 
 
 KIPPEKED HERRING. 
 
 Comparatively few kippered lieiriiig are prepared in the TTiiited States, the 
 round bloaters being so much more popular. The kippered Iierriug are split along the 
 back from tiie head to the tail, like mackerel, eviscerated, washed, and salted iu a 
 manner similar to that ai)iilied to bloaters, excei)t that they are not kept in the pickle 
 so long. They are nest hung up to dry for a few hours, then smoked for C or 8 hours 
 at a temperature of 80° or 85°, each fish being suspended by the napes to keep its 
 abdomen open. With the exception of splitting, the cure is similar to that of bloaters. 
 They sell for about $'2 per 100, but the trade is of very limited extent. 
 
 The Canadian delegates previously referred to reported as follows regarding the 
 kippered-herring industry of Great Britain : 
 
 There is a very large business done in kippered herring in Britain. Herring put up in this way 
 are in great demand everywhere and are preferred by many to the bloater. The Aery best herring are 
 required for the kippering process. The herring of the west coast of Scotland are in great request 
 for this ]iurpose. The fish used for kippers should be had as soon as possible after they are taken out 
 of the water. They are then carefully selected as to size and quality. Where we saw them at work 
 an active girl stood at a bench laying the herring on its side with the back toward her; with two cuts 
 of a sharp knife she split it from mouth to tail, and with a third motion of the knife she scraped out 
 the stomach and gut and any loose blood inside the fish. She did her work with great rapidity. The 
 herring were then placed carefully into vats of pickle, where, being for immediate use, they renuiined 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 489 
 
 for 35 minutes, and were then carefully taken out and placed in liasketa to drip. They were then 
 spitted on fine rods eontiiining from 12 to 20 licrrings each, and hung up in the smokehouse and 
 smoked for a few hours — five or six — then loolcd off .and packed up in small hoxes .and disp.atched to 
 London by train before niidnijiht of tlie day on which the lish were caught. When tlie fish are 
 intended to be kept longer more salt .and more smoke .are applied. Where circumst.ances aie favoriible 
 kippering may be carried on to advantage either on a larger or smaller scale. Herring put up in this 
 way are most delicious. They cost a tride more, because of the extra labor and the greater care requi- 
 site in handling them. The same materials are used for smoking kippers as are used for smoking 
 blo.aters and the same conditions apply, only that kippers, presenting a Larger surface to the smoke 
 as tiiey do, do not re<iuire to be so long exposed to the smoke. As in the case of bloaters and red 
 herring, the tastes of the consumers must be ascertained and the curing as to s.alt and smoke regulated 
 accordingly. The manufacture of kippers is greatly on the increase in Britain. It is an important 
 branch of the herring industry .and utilizes a large proportion of the Briti.sh latch of herrings. 
 
 SMOKED ALE\WIVES OR RIVER HERRING. 
 
 River herring (»r alewives are saioked iu a mimber of localitie.s, but principally in 
 Maryland and Virginia, and to a les.s extent along the Delaware and Hudson rivers 
 and in the waters of North and South Carolina. In New England .smoked alewives are 
 prepared at Taunton and at Boston, as well as on the Connecticut Eiver; but most of 
 the supply of these fish in the New England States is from New Brunswick. The 
 trade is mainly during the spring and early summer months, more particularly in 
 April, May, and June, when there are few other smoked fish on the market. The 
 business is not concentrated, but is participated in by many small smokers located at 
 numerous points on the Atlantic seaboard. For this reason it is difficult to estimate 
 the quantity smoked annually with any great degree of accuracy, but it is probably 
 not far from .5,(»00,(»0(», their wholesale value being about •'*90,()0(). 
 
 In preparing these fish iu the Chesapeake region they are washed in vats and 
 scaled with a knife as soon as practicable after removal from the water. They are 
 next immersed over night in strong brine, containing V2 to 1-4 pounds of Liverpool 
 salt to each IIIO pounds of fish, with some dry salt on top to strengthen the weak 
 pickle that rises to the surface. The following morning the round fish are strung on 
 smoke sticks, the stick being usually entered at the left gill opening of each fish and 
 out at the mouth, as in case of hard herring or bloaters on the New England coast. 
 The strings of ttsli attached to the stick are then dipped in fresh water to rinse them 
 off", and after draining and drying for a few hours are suspended in the smokehouse 
 about (> or 8 feet above the fire, and exposed to a den.se but cool smoke made of pine 
 shavings or similar material for about li or 3 days. Care must be taken to prevent the 
 fire from becoming too hot, thus causing the fish to crack at the lower end or possibly 
 to fall frotn the sticks to the floor. rrei>ared in this manner the river herring will 
 usually keej) in good condition in the Chesapeake region for 30 days during the spring 
 and for a somewhat less period in the sunnner. As the fish are not eviscerated before 
 smoking the decrease in weight is small, 100 pounds of round fish yielding about 85 
 pounds smoked. The wholesale price is about 20 or 22 cents per dozen, according to 
 the size and condition. 
 
 In Washington, Baltimore, and one or two other places the river herring are pre- 
 pared in the following manner: 
 
 The fresh herring are scaled with a knife, gibbed like the pickled herring of Scotland, washed, 
 and pickled for 3 hours in brine, about 20 pounds of Liverpool salt being used for each 100 
 pounds offish. <*n rcmci' :il from tbi' pickle tliey arc strung on small iron rods, the rod passing 
 
490 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 through the eye sockets of the fish, draiued for an hour or so, and hung in the hogshead smokehouses, 
 in the bottom of whicli a fire has been made of equal quantities of oak and hicliory wood. The fish 
 are dried for a few minutes and thin the tops of the liogsheads are covered with old salt sacks or other 
 suitable material. From time to time the fire is sprinkled with water to produce a vapor and the fish 
 thus exposed to heat, smoke, and steam for about 3 hours, when they are removed and cooled and are then 
 in condition to be eateu. Ouly oak andhickory should be used as fuel, as other materials do not produce 
 the proper flavor. If the fire becomes too warm it should be smothered witli oak or hickory sawdust. 
 
 Herring thus prepared sell for about 40 cents per dozen wholesale, and the trade 
 is at times quite extensive. During the season l,00(t dozen are usually sliipi)ed each 
 week from Washington to New York City. 
 
 The process of smoking alewives commonly employed in the New England States 
 differs from the Chesapeake process in a few minor particulars. The smokers are 
 usually not so careful about removing the scales with a knife, depending generally on 
 the frequent handling of the fish to scale them if cured soon after removal from the 
 water. It is also customary in salting the fish to permit them to make their own 
 pickle, the fish remaining in tlie pickle for 3 to 5 days. On removal they are soaked in 
 fresh water for 5 to l> hours and strung on hard- wood sticks, the stick entering through 
 the left gill-opening and out at the mouth. They are next rinsed, drained, and dried 
 for a short while and suspended in the smokehouse, where they are expo.sed to a smol- 
 dering fire of liard wood and sawdust for '.i or i days, when, after cooling, they are 
 ready for sale. 
 
 The wholesale price in New England is usually from $1.50 to $2 per 100. 
 
 In Massachusetts so few smoked alewives are prepared that little attention is i)aid 
 to the following law respecting the methods of inspecting and i)acking: 
 
 Sec. 48. Alewives or herrings intended to be packed for sale or exportation shall be sufliciently 
 salted and smoked to cure aud preserve the same, and afterwards shall be closely packed in boxes in 
 clear aud dry weather. 
 
 Sec. 4SI. Smoked alewives or herrings shall be divided aud sorted by the inspector or his deputy, 
 and denominated, acciirding to their quality, " number one" aud ''number two." Number one shall 
 consist of all the largest and best-cured fish; number two, of the smaller but well-cured lisli; and iu 
 all cases those which are belly-broken, tainted, scorched or buiiit, sl.ack-salted, or not sufificiently 
 smoked shall be taken out as lefuse. 
 
 Sec. 50. Boxes uuide for the purpose of packing smoked alewives or herrings, and containing the 
 same, shall be made of good sound boards sawed ami well seasoned, the sides, top, aud bottom of not 
 less than 5-inch boards, securely nailed, and shall be 17 inches in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 
 6 inches in depth, in the clear, inside. 
 
 Sec. 51. Each box of alewives or herrings inspected shall be branded on the top by the inspecting 
 officer with the first letter of his Christian name, the whole of his surname, the name of the town 
 where it was inspected, with the addition of "Mass.," aud also the qu,-ility of "number one" or 
 "number two." Herrings taken on the coast of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Labrador, or Magdalen 
 Islands, and brought into this State, shall also be branded with the nainc^ of the ])lae(^ or coast 
 where taken. 
 
 Sec. 52. The fees for inspecting, packing, and branding shall be 5 cents for each box, which shall 
 he paid by the purchaser, and the inspector-general may require from his deputies 1 cent for each box 
 inspected, packed, and branded by them. 
 
 # * * * ^ -Jr * 
 
 Sec. 54. No smoked alewives or herring shall be exported from this State unless inspected .and 
 branded .as aforesaid, under a penalty of $2 for each box c.vported, nor shall alewives or herrings be 
 taken from a box, inspected aud braiuled as aforesaid, aud replaced by others of an inferior quality, 
 with intent to defraud any person in the sale of the same, under a penalty of $5 for each box so 
 changed: Proi'ided, That all smoked herrings aud alewives arriving from any other State in the United 
 States, and having been there ius]iected, nuiy be exported iu a, vessel from this State without being 
 reiuspected. (General Statutes of Massachusetts, ISSSt, ch. 49.) 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 491 
 
 New Hampshire has laws somewhat on the same lines as the preceding, but very 
 few alewives are smoked in that State. 
 
 SMOKED LAKE HERRING AND WHITEFISH. 
 
 Formerly along the shores of the (Ireat Lakes and in the flsh markets using 
 sui)plies therefrom, many whiteflsh were smoked, but the increasing scai-city of that 
 species gradually led to the substitution of lake herring, and during recent years 
 very few whiteflsh have been prepared in this manner. The trade in smoking lake 
 herring is quite extensive, amounting to probably 2,000,000 pounds annually, prepared 
 Ijrincijially at Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Sandusky, Cleveland, liuffalo, Cincinnati, 
 Erie, New York, Baltimore, and Washington. 
 
 The process of smoking lake herring and whiteflsh is identical. If the flsh are 
 frozen when received at the smokehouse, they are thawed in the open air or, better, 
 by immersing and stirring them in a barrel of water of medium temperature. After 
 thawing they are s|)lit down the belly to the vent, eviscerated, washed thoroughly, 
 and i)ickled in butts or barrels, about 4 pounds of fine salt to 100 pounds of fish being 
 scattered among them and sufficient briiu^ of !tO ' salinity to cover them. Either dry 
 salt or brine alone may be used, the former being preferred in warm weather and the 
 latter during the winter. In case brine alone is used, some dry salt should be placed 
 on toil fo strengthen the weak pickle floating at the surface. After renuiining in the 
 pickle from 10 to 10 iiours, according to tlie strength of the pickle and the flavor 
 desired, the flsh are removed and strung on the smoke rods, 10 to 20 fish to each rod, 
 according to its length and the size of the fish. 
 
 In stringing, some curers ])ass the rod through the body immediately below the 
 nape bone, efiectively preventing the flsh from falling down in smoking, but also 
 marring its appearance somewhat. A more usual way is to pass the stick in at the 
 right gill-opening and out at the mouth. Others pass the rod through the head near 
 or through the eyes, and a few pass it immediately back of the throat cartilage. The 
 latter leaves a neat appearance, yet it i)ermits more flsh to fall in the smoking process 
 than when the rod is passed through the head or the shoulders. In some houses the 
 smoke-stick is not passed through the fish, but instead a stiff iron wire, curved in S 
 shape, is used to attach the fish to the stick, one end of the wire itassing through the 
 flsh at the head or beneath the nape bone and the other hung over the smoke stick. 
 At Grand Haven, and to some extent in Chicago, Milwaukee, and one or two other 
 places, the flsh are secured by having stout smoke-sticks, about 1^ inches thick and 
 2J inches wide; in the top of each, and about three-fourths of an inch from the edge, 
 is driven a row of tacks or small wire nails at intervals of about 3 inches, projecting 
 about one half inch above the surface. Ordinary cotton wrapping cord is tied to the 
 wire nail at the end of each stick, and by means of this cord passing around each nail 
 a single herring is held in place between each two nails throughout the length of the 
 stick, the flsh being placed with the back of the neck against the stick and the cord 
 passing from one nail around the throat of the fish, entering under the gills on each 
 side, and then around the next nail, and so on to the end. By having the stick of 
 sufficient width, a row of small nails may be placed on each edge, so as to attach a 
 row of flsh at each side. This removes nearly all risk of the flsh falling, and their 
 appearance is not marred by holes through which the smoke-stick has been passed. 
 
492 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Some markets prefer the herring well smoked on the inside, and to accomplish 
 this the sides of the abdoiniual cavity are stretched open by means of small wooden 
 sticks or toothpicks, either one or two sticks to each fish. This jDcrmits the smoke to 
 permeate the stomach cavity better and results in a more durable article. In general, 
 the Western trade prefers the stomach cavity stretched open, while the Eastern markets 
 prefer them without the sticks; but there are exceptions. The smoked lake herring 
 sold in Washington are mostly extended by means of a small stick, or, in case of large 
 iish, by two small sticks. 
 
 The fish attached to the sticks are dipped in fresh water to remove surplus or 
 undissolved salt, loose scales, etc., unless they have been rinsed before stringing, 
 drained, and suspended in the smokehouse 4 to 8 feet above the tloor, and subjected 
 to a gentle smoke for 4 or 5 hours. The door or damper is then closed, the fires s])read 
 or built up and the fish cooked for 1 or 2 hours according to the amount of fire, the 
 height of the fish, and the particular cure desired. After cooling, which is accom- 
 plished either by opening the doors of the smokehouse or by removing the fish to the 
 outside, they are ready for the trade. 100 pounds of round fish, or 85 pounds dressed, 
 yield about 05 pounds smoked. Ordinarily these fish keep one or two weeks, and even 
 longer, and the wholesale price ranges from 6 to 12 cents per pound, according to the 
 locality and the season, the former being the price for the Great Lakes and the latter 
 for New York City. In New York about 100,000 pounds of these fish are smoked 
 annually and they sell throughout the year,beiug known usually as ciscoette, competing 
 with pickling or biickling. In Washington the smoked lake herring are usually sold 
 by the number, averaging about 50 cents per dozen wholesale. 
 
 In some of the north European countries the sea herring are smoked in a manner 
 similar to the lake herring in this country. The following description of a smolie- 
 house in Holbek, Denmark, and the methods used therein, is from Fiskeritidende, No. 
 41, Copenhagen, October 7, 1884: 
 
 As soon lis tlie lierring are brought iu from the boat, they are placed in stroug brino for 3 or 4 
 hours, or they are left over niglit in a weaker brine. Some people also use the dry-salting niethoil, 
 Tlie fish are then washed and strung on round, wooden sticks, three-fourths of an inch thick and 
 3 feet long. This stick is stuck through the gills and comes out at the mouth. According to the 
 size, from 18 to 21 fish are strung on every stick, always in such a numner as not to toucli e.ach 
 other. Tliey are then hung in tlie open air and dried iu the sunshine, if possible, and then put in the 
 oven for smoking. Tlie smokehouse has four ovens, built from time to time as the demands of the 
 trade recjuired. From 10,000 to 24,000 herring can be smoked per day. In one of three large ovens 
 1,600 herring can be smoked at the s.aiiie time. The chimney itself should not be less than one yard 
 square on the inside, as otherwise it is not capable of receiving the steam from the tish when they are 
 dried in the oven. The top should be covered with a thin pLate of cast iron, so that the rain can not 
 fall on the fish. For supporting the front part of the oven it is best and cheapest to nse an old iron 
 rail; any other bar will scarcely be strong enough. The oven can easily be only half the size of one 
 of the larger ones, but the larger it is the more profitable it will be as regards the quantity of fuel 
 consumed. In front of the oven iron pl.ates are hung on .an iron pipe, and these plates are taken oil' 
 when shavings are put on the fire. From these plates and up to the iron bar the opening is covered by 
 a piece of linen cloth, as it is necessary to look into the oven frequently iu order to see that the flames 
 do not rise too high and bum the tails of the fish. If this should be the case, tlie flames must at once 
 be quenched by moist sawdust. The fuel used is exclusively oak and beech slmvings, particularly 
 from coopers who make large barrels, as the shavings must not be too fine; beech and oak sawdust 
 are also used, but shavings and s.awdnst of pine wood should never be employed, as it is apt to give 
 to the fish a, resinous flavor. The smoking process may take from 3 to G hours, according to the 
 drying which the fish have undergone iu the air. After the lisli have been smoked they are generally 
 allowed to hang one night to coed otV, and arc in the morning packed in boxes holding 80 fish each. 
 
PEESEKVATION OV FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 493 
 
 SMOKED SALMON. 
 
 Smoked salmon is among the choicest of fishery products, and its cure represents 
 the highest development in flsh-smoking as practiced in this country. The annual 
 product approximates 2,800,000 pounds, which is sold at fioin 16 to 45 cents ])er pound 
 wholesale. It is prepared princi|)ally in New York, Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia, 
 there being 8 or 10 smokiug-houses in New York City and vicinity, 4 in Boston, 2 or 3 
 in rhiladelphia, 2 in Chicago, and several on the Pacific coast and other points. 
 
 The great bulk of the supplies for the sniokiiig-houses consists of salmon pickled 
 ill barrels, which come principally from Labrador, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay, 
 and more recently from Alaska and other Pacific coast points. The trade in pickled 
 salmon from the east coast of the British Provinces, known to the trade as Halifax 
 salmon, began early in the present century, developed principally between 1830 and 
 1840, and since has ranged between 3,000 and 10,000 barrels annually, the receipts 
 during the last 30 years averaging 5,500 ban els, valued at about $15 per barrel. 
 The Pacific coast salmon have been used for smoking in the Eastern 8tates only since 
 1885, and the extent of their use was of little conseijueuce prior to 1800. The favorite 
 pickled salmon for smoking are those from Hudson Bay, with Labrador and New- 
 foundland ranking next in order. They range in weight from 5 to 13 pounds salted, 
 exce[)t that some few from the Hudson Bay weigh even 20 pounds, and the wholesale 
 price in Boston or New York during tlie past few years has been from $17 to $20 per 
 barrel of 200 pounds. Practically all of the pickled salmon from the east coast of 
 the Britisli Provinces are smoked, the quantity going to the consumers in brine being 
 less tliaii 2 per cent. While not so red as tlie Pacific coast salmon, they are richer 
 and finer-grained. The Pacific salmon cost on the Pacific coast usually about $9 or 
 $10 per barrel of 200 jiounds, while the cost of transportation to the Atlantic coast 
 by rail is $3.30 and by vessel $1.20 per barrel. 
 
 The choicest salmon for smoking are those received fresh or frozen from Nova 
 Scotia .and New Brunswick, especially from the Restigouche River and vicinity. They 
 are quite large, averaging 12 or 14 ])ounds each, some attaining a weight of 40 pounds 
 or more. Some curers use fresh salmon only when the New Y'ork market is so glutted 
 as to run the price down below 10 cents per pound dressed, the fish being then pur- 
 chased, brine salted, and kept for the smoking season. But the best class of smokers 
 receive regular shipments from the liestigouche and vicinity and place them in cold 
 storage, whence they are removed for smoking as the trade demands. Many years 
 ago, when salmon were abundant in the Penobscot, Kennebec, and Connecticut rivers, 
 they were smoked in Maine and Connecticut, but practically all New England salmon 
 are now consumed fresh. Since the salted fish constitutes the bulk of the receipts at 
 the sniokinghouses, the methods of their treatment are first described. 
 
 As the daily needs of the trade re(iuire, the salmon are removed from the barrels, 
 immersed in vats of fresh water for 2 or 3 hours, then washed with a bristle brush to 
 remove incrusted salt, slime, etc., and immersed in another vat of water for 10 to 00 
 hours, according to the temperature of the water and the degree of saltiness of the fish. 
 If desirable, the length of the soaking can be shortened by using warm water. In 
 some houses they are soaked for 12 hours in running water. The fish are theu water- 
 horsed in piles, skin up except the lower layer, the piles being 2 or 3 feet high, with 
 boards on top on which stones are placed for compressing the fish, but water-horsing 
 is not practiced by all curers, xVfter this pressure has been applied 4 or 5 hours the 
 
494 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 flesh of the fish is smoothed with the side of a flat knife, all ragged parts being pressed 
 down. Each fish is then trussed with two or three thin, flat wooden sticks, so as to 
 keep it spread out, the rough-pointed sticks being fastened transversely across the 
 back on the skin side, the end of each stick slightly entering but not passing through 
 the skin. If the lieads have been left on, as in case of northern or Halifax salmon, a 
 small stick or pin of hickory or other hard wood is shoved through the head at the eyes. 
 A roiJe-yarn cord is nest passed around this pin and about the gills, or about the upper- 
 most of tlie flat stretching-sticks, in such a manner that when suspended thereby the 
 weight is distributed jiroportionately and by means of which the fish may be hung 
 from the sticks in the smokehouse. The Pacific coast salmon, which have the heads 
 removed, arc usually tied up by a cord passing through the napes or around the tail, 
 and if very large they are sometimes cut into strips before being smoked. Some 
 carers hang the fish up by means of five or six iron or wire hooks passing through the 
 flesh, thus doing away with the sticks and cords above described. 
 
 The fish are permitted to drain for several hours, when they are hung in the upper 
 part of the smokehouse, away from the heat, but not so high as to be in the warm air 
 which accumulates at the top of the bay. I^sually only two rows or tiers are smoked 
 at a time, and in tlie lofty smokehouses the smoking is continued for 18 to 30 hours. 
 About 2i hours are usually required, but on dry windy days 1(J to 18 hours are 
 suflflcient, and during sultry weather 30 or more are necessary. Wlien low smokehouses 
 are used, in which the fish are hung within 8 or 10 feet of the fire, as at AVashington, 
 D. C, the smoking is usually completed in about 12 hours. The smoke should be even 
 throughout and with little fire. In some houses a light fire is built under the fisli as 
 soon as placed in the smokehouse, and this is continued for C or 7 hours, wlien a 
 shovelful of sawdust is added and the smoking continued 12 or 11: hours. 
 
 When sufficiently smoked, the fish are permitted to cool and are then packed, 
 usually with paper or nuitting wrapped about them, the si>reading-sticks at the back 
 being left in. A barrel of pickled salmon yields about 180 pounds of smoked fish if the 
 smoking be done in October, but if postponed until the following June it will yield 
 only about 165 pounds. The average wholesale price in New York or Boston for 
 smoked Halifax salmon is about 18 to L'O i-ents per pound, and for Pacific coast fish 
 about 12 to 14 cents per pound. They will keep in good condition for 10 days or 
 longer under favorable conditions, but are used mostly in the vicinity where cured. 
 Smoked salmon have been shipped to New York from Nova Scotia, but although they 
 looked well on being opened they had a tendency to mold soon after being unpacked. 
 
 The ibllowing general metiiod of smoking salted salmon in Sweden and Germany 
 differs from the foregoing in several particulars: 
 
 The fish are immersed for 48 hours iu soft cold water, which duriug tliat time is changed at least 
 three times. Then with a medium stiff brush and warm water each fish is well cleaned outside and 
 inside, and by means of a cord about the tail is liung in a tub of clear cold water, where it remains 
 for 12 hours, when it is suspended in the air for 6 hours to dry. After that it is laid on a clean table, 
 and when well drained it is trussed or braced with three sticks along the back, as iu case of Halifax 
 salmon, and suspended for 2 hours in the smokehouse over a gentle heat, then sulijected to a dense 
 smoke for 24 to 36 hours, until it accjuires a dark-red color. The cure is then complete, and after 
 cooling the fish is ready for the market. 
 
 In preparing frozen salmon for smoking, the fish on removal from cold storage are 
 thawed out either by immersing them in water over night or laying them on boards 
 iu a moderate temperature and turning them over every 2 or 3 hours for 8 or 10 hours, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 495 
 
 when they are usually sufiicieutly thawed for handling. The fish are then split down 
 the belly from head to tail, so as to lie out flat, the viscera removed, and in some cases 
 the head and four-flfths of the backbone. This is customaiy with the Pacific coast 
 salmon, but iu New York and Boston, where Nova Scotia salmon are used principally, 
 the head and backbone generally remain. In some instances the fish are split down 
 the back, depending on the state of their ijreservation. 
 
 If the fish must be handled with little expense, so as to sell at a low price, they 
 are next placed in tight barrels or butts with about 50 pounds of No. 2 salt and from 
 5 to 10 pouiuls of granulated sugar to 200 pounds of fish. On the second day add 
 brine made by dissolving 30 pounds of salt in 5 gallons of water. After the fifth or 
 sixth day the fish are removed and soaked in fresh water for about 3 hours, and are 
 then attaclied by five or six hooks to the smoke-sticks, dried, and smoked in the 
 manner described for salted salmon. Tiie product by this method sells for 20 to 30 
 cents per pound wholesale, but sometimes much lower. In Chicago in 1898 the writer 
 saw salmon which had been held in cold storage for three years and then smoked after 
 the above method and sold at 16 cents per pound, resulting, of course, in uo i)rofit 
 because of the heavy cold-storage charges. 
 
 Us.ially nuKih more care is exercised in preparing smoked salmon from fresh or 
 frozen fish, and especially when using Nova Scotia fish. Immediately after thawing, 
 or after removal from the ice, if fresh, the fish should be sponged dry and a mixture 
 of equal parts of saltpeter and salt introduced into the thick portion of the flesh. 
 This may be accomplished by making 3 or 4 cuts about S inches apart through the 
 skin, but not so far as to penetrate the stomach membrane, after which the oj)enings 
 are closed as well as practicable by bringing the cuts together; or it nuiy be intro- 
 duced by means of a small hollow tube with a plunger to force it in as the tube is 
 withdrawn. The fish are next split and eviscerated and carefully rubbed by hand with 
 a composition of salt and saltpeter, 2 parts of the former to 1 part of the latter. 
 This mixture is tlioroughly spread over each fish, and at the same time wherever the 
 surface is cut or broken tlie fibers are brougiit together, so that the fish presents a 
 smooth, neat appearance. A curer on tlie Pacific coast runs a small instrument down 
 the thick i)art of the flesh on each side of the backbone and thus removes about one- 
 fourtli inch of skin on each side the full length of the back, so that the saltpeter and 
 salt may quickly permeate the flesh. The fish are next placed in hogshead butts, skin 
 down and 3 or ■! fish to tlie layer, with one half inch of salt in the bottom aud sprinkled 
 over each layer of fish. Pickle of about 90° test is then added to cover the fish, 
 and after remaining in pickle about 2 days they are removed and ijrepared for 
 hanging u]), by placing a wooden pin through tlie liead and 2 or ;» flat sticks at the 
 back to stretch the fish out in the manner already described. After passing a rope 
 yarn about tlie sticks the fish are suspended in running water for .30 or 40 minutes 
 and then liung in the open air about (» hours to drain and be partly dried by the wind, 
 when they are suspended in the upper part of the smokehouse, away from the heat, and 
 subjected to a gentle smoking for about 24 hours under normal corulitions. Salmon 
 cured in this nmnuer are known usually as Nova Scotia salmon, in contradistinction 
 to the salted salmon from the north, generally knowu as Halifax salmon. 100 pounds 
 of round fish 7uake about (5.") or 70 pounds smoked, which sell for 30 to 45 cents j»er 
 pound wholesale and (iO to 75 cents per x)ouiul retail. 
 
 With a view to preventing the inner surface of salmon and similar fish from crack- 
 ing, which injures its appearance and also makes it liable to mildew quickly, aud to 
 
496 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 prevent the flsli from falling from the smoke-sticks, and to retain the natural juices, 
 a process has been invented by which a piece of membranous material, such as animal 
 bladder, etc., is placed in contact with the inner surface of the fish, which by means of 
 its natural glutinous ingredients is held there securely. Then the fish, covered on the 
 outside by its natural skin and on the inside by the artificial coating, is placed horizont- 
 ally in a frame consisting of a number of triangular transverse metal-frame standards 
 having base ledge projectionsaiid wire screen surfaces fitted thereon, inclined in opposite 
 directions and open at the back and bottom, for exposing the fish to the smoke.* 
 
 In smoking fresh salmon in Holhmd each fish is wiped clean, split down the back 
 from the nose to the tail, the bead being left on, and several incisions made inside of 
 the abdominal cavity in the thick of the flesh, but not sufficiently deej) to i)enetrate 
 the skin. The blood is carefully washed out, the stomach cavity well cleaned, and the 
 whole fish washed several times. The skin is then cut or gashed laterally nearly the 
 length of the fish, and on each side of tliis cut several short ones are made, this being 
 done to permit the salt to penetrate the tlesli more readily, so that each part of the 
 fish may become equally salted. In salting, the fish are placed on top of each other 
 in heaps of about 6 salmon each on tables, with the flesh upward. 
 
 In making the piles, each fish is well sprinkled with fine Lisbon salt, and to prevent 
 the stomach from forming a receptacle for the brine by sinking down, a thin, curved 
 oak board is laid between the fish. The fish remain in piles from 2 to -4 days, when 
 they are struck through sufficiently for smoking; but if they are not needed at once, 
 they may be kept in ice houses or cold cellars for 2 or 3 months. Before the fish are 
 smoked they are well washed and hung up to dry in the air, or during damp weather 
 they are dried in the smokehouse. A tire is made from small pieces of oak wood in 
 the center of the floor, and after this has burnt half an hour a smoke is made with 
 oak shavings and fagots, over which ashes are scattered. For some markets the fish 
 need not be smoked more than 12 or 14 hours, but for other markets it is necessary 
 to smoke them 3 or 4 days. 
 
 The following method of smoking fresh salmon prevails in Germany: Each fish is 
 first rubbed free from slime, etc., with a towel which has been dipped in salt or brackish 
 water; tlien it is split down the belly, eviscerated, and thoroughly cleaned inside as 
 well as outside. Most of tlie backbone is removed with a sharp knife, some being- 
 left near the tail to strengthen that part of the fish, and the flesh adjacent to the back- 
 bone is pressed flat so as to present a smooth appearance, or as though there had 
 been no backbone. Bay leaves, from which the stems have been removed, are next 
 spread thickly with salt on the inside of the fish and tlie sides brought firmly together. 
 It is then packed in dry salt and bay leaves and a weighted board laid upon the fish. 
 After 30 hours or so under this pressure the fish is immersed in fresh water for half an 
 hour, the salt, etc., in the meantime being wiped oft', after which it is laid out flat and 
 trussed in the usual manner with 3 flat sticks and suspended in the air for about G 
 hours. When sutficiently aired the fish is placed in the smokehouse and dried by a 
 moderately warm smoke for .'5 hours, when the smoke is increased and continued for 
 about 30 hours or until the flesh assumes a briglit red color. 
 
 A somewhat novel method* of prei)aring saltnon for smoking was introduced in 
 this country in 1878 by Lyman Woodrutt', of Ellensburg, Oreg., by means of which it 
 is claimed that much of the original flavor, color, and plumpness of the fish may be 
 retained. 
 
 *See Letters Patent No. 577672, February 23, 1897, in favor of C. Waldemann, of Coslin, Germany. 
 
PKESEKVA.TION OK FISHERY PKODUCTS FOR FOOD. 497 
 
 The inventor's description of the inocess is iis follows: 
 
 After tlie fisli is caught I opeu aud cleau it. I tliuu place it iu cloau lime water, in which I let it 
 remain for about 20 minutes. After removing it from the lime water I wash it clean and place it 
 on the table, flesh side up, where I let it lie for about 10 minutes, when I wipe it dry, both inside and 
 outside, with a clean dry cloth. For au ordinary salmon, weighing 10 jionnds, 1 take 1 teaspoouful 
 of finely grouiul black pepper and rub it well into the Hesh side of the fish; next I rub in one-fourth 
 of a teaspoouful of pulverized saltpi'ter iu the same way, and then 1 tablespoonful of fiue salt. 
 These substances I rub iu separately, rubbing each one until it disappears. The Jish having been thus 
 ]irepared, I sprinkle a thin layer of brown sugar over it and fold the two sides together. I let it lie iu 
 this condition lor IJ hours, when I wipe the back of the fish dry and apply a coating of linseed 
 oil to the back with a paint brush, when it is ready to be smoked. In smoking the fish I commence by 
 creating a heavy smoke, and allow it to gradually subside in quantity until the proper volume is 
 obtained, in order to keap off the flies. 
 
 SMOKED HALIBUT. 
 
 The preserviug of halibut is effected principally by salting, but iu that condition 
 these fish are not readily marketed and smoking' is applied to improve the flavor. 
 The iudustry is contiued almost exclusively to Gloucester, Mass., but during the past 
 few years small nuautities have been smoked at Boston and other points. Originally 
 the smokers utilized only the surplus halibut from the freshtish trade, but the popu- 
 larity of the article increasing, the Bank vessels began, about IS.jO, to salt the halibut 
 taken by them when it was inconvenient to take them to market fresh. Jn 1855 the 
 quantity of smoked halibut prepared approximated 400,000 pounds. The business 
 reached its maximum in 1872, when about 3,000,000 pounds were prepared. Since 
 that time the increasing scarcity of the fish and the enhanced demand for it in the 
 fresh-fish trade have diminished the quantity. In 1880 it amounted to about 2,000,000 
 l)ounds, while in recent years it has averaged about 1,000,000 pounds, selling at about 
 10 cents per pound wholesale. 
 
 Although most of the halibut for smoking is received iu a salted condition froin 
 Grand Bank, Western Bank, Iceland, Greeuland, aud more recently from Bacalieu 
 Bank, some are received from the vessels sui)i)lyiug the fresh-lish market, when the 
 market is glutted. That was the exclusive source of the supply prior to ISGO, when 
 the halibut fishery on Grand Bank and Western Bank was begun. Since the origin of 
 the I5acalieu Itank fishery, iu 181)5, the smokers have received ({uantities of surplus 
 gray halibut too large for the fresh fish market. 
 
 Many of the.se fresh halibut are known among the trade as " seconds " or " sour hali- 
 but," the coating or membrane of the abdominal cavity becoming slightly tainted, and 
 since the taint will ([uic'kly spread to tlie entire fish it is necessary that they be salted 
 at once. When the tlesh sours it puffs out, and is good for notliing except fertilizer. 
 
 The i)rocess of dressing and salting halibut is as follows: A dressing or fletching 
 gang consists of two men, and there are four gangs to the vessel. Each being x)rovided 
 with a strong gall liook having a garden spade handle, they place the lialibut on a slant- 
 ing cutting board on its dark side. One of the fletchers thrusts a thin knife, about 
 16 inches long and l.l inches wide, into the body of the fish near the base of the dorsal 
 fin through to the bjickboue, the blade being held horizontally, and cuts close to the 
 ribs, removing a broad streak from one-half of the upper side of the fish. The fietcher on 
 the opposite side of the table makes a cut similar to the above, separating the whole 
 upper half of the fish from the backbone and the ribs. Two gashes are then cut in 
 
 •Letters Patent No. 204647, dated June -1, 1878. 
 F.C.B., 1898-32 
 
498 BULI.ETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 tbe tietcb, one at each end, by meaus of which it is reuioved fVoiu the cutting board. 
 The other side of the fish is then treated lilfewise, making two lietches i'vmn eacli 
 halibut. Formerly iu tishiug near Iceland, when all the fins were saved, the tietcliing 
 knife was entered not so close to the fins, and when the tletches were removed the lins 
 were cut off. During the four or five years preceding 1898 few nf the fins were saved 
 on account of their large size and fatness. 
 
 The whole tletches are at once salted in kenches in the vessel's hold, iu the same 
 manner as codfish, with the skin side down and a layer of Trapani salt over each layer 
 of fish, 8 or il bushels of salt being used to each 1,000 jioiinds of fish. The whole 
 fletches are supposed to hold the pickle better than if they were cut in smaller pieces, 
 and consequently weigh more. After remaining about 15 days they are rekenched, 
 during which time the surplus salt is shaken off. To avoid com])i'essiou some fisher- 
 men place the fletches in large 400-pound boxes and pile the boxes on top of each 
 other. On reaching port the fish are removed from the vessel's hold and placed 
 back down, with salt, in kenches 3 feet high in the fish-house, where they may remain 
 for a year or more without further handling. It is not unusual for smokehouses at 
 Gloucester to have half a million pounds or more of salted halibut on hand at one time. 
 When it is necessary to hold them over during July and August, the appearance of 
 the fish is improved if they are kept cool, and for that purpose one of the halibut 
 smokers at Gloucester has a small ammonia refrigerating plant, with suitable cold 
 chambers connected, where the temperature is kept about -15° or 50"^ F. 
 
 The fresh halibut received at the smokehouses from the market \essels are cut in 
 small fietches and salted in butts, back down,sim lar to those used for salting (-odfisli, 
 with about 5 bushels of Trapani salt scattered among 1,000 jjounds of fish. There 
 they remain from one to two weeks, when they are removed and salted in kenches 
 similar to those on the vessels; or they may be scrubbed, soaked, water-horsed, and 
 smoked at once; but this is not usually done, because of the desirability of working 
 off the old stock. It is important that the fietches be thoroughly salted, otherwise 
 the smoked product will be liable to spoil quickly. 
 
 When the market demand warrants their use, the fletches are removed from the 
 kenches, washed thoroughly in fresh water with corn brooms or bristle brushes, and 
 soaked in water for 3 or 4 hours. The water is then changed and they are again 
 soaked for about the same length of time. This soaking is necessary in order to 
 remove the coating of salt from the fish, and to soften its fiber so that the smoke may 
 penetrate the flesh. On completion of the soaking they are water-horsed, skin side 
 up, for 5 or 6 hours with weights on top. They are next placed on flakes similar to 
 those used in curing codfish, where they are exposed to the sun's action for about 24 
 hours, which may extend through several days, the fish being placed in small piles 
 and covered with flake boxes during the night or rainy weather. After drying the 
 fletches are cut in small pieces, from 2 to G pieces to the fletch, with a gash in each 
 piece where the flesh is thin and the skin appears tough. 
 
 The fletches are then strung on smooth, round, hard-wood stic'iis about 2 feet long 
 and !| inch in diameter, or, as at Boston, small iron or steel rods 3.\ feet long, the sticks 
 passing through the splits or gashes cut in the tletches, and froni*5 to 7 pieces to each 
 stick 2 feet in length, and 8 to 12 pieces to those 3;\ teet long, each i)iece being 2 or 3 
 inches from the adjacent ones to permit the smoke to i)ass freely among them. The 
 sticks witli the fietches attached are then i)asscd into the sniokeliouse. 
 
 The imncipal smokehouse at Gloucester consists of a series of 10 comijartments 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 499 
 
 side by side, and feet wide, 14 teet long, and about L'O leet liigli. Tlie flooring is of 
 lattice work, under wliicli is a \ ault about <i feet deep for generating tlie smoke. 
 Witliin each compartment is a lane or passageway extending the lengtli of tbe room, 
 on each side of which are arranged 3 sets of parallel bars, one end of each set resting 
 on upright poles forming the side of tlie lane and the other resting against the wall of 
 the compartment. The first set of jiarallel bars is about 4 feet from the lattice floor, 
 the second ;> feet above the first, and the third 3 feet above the second and an equal 
 distance below the roof. Upon these bars are placed the ends of the sticks which hold 
 the halibut. Each stick will carry from 5 to 7 Hetches and about 20 sticks will rest on 
 each pair of parallel bars. The capacity of each of (he 10 comjiartments is about 120 
 sticks, or (iOO to ,SO(l Hetches, equivalent to about 3,0UO pounds of smoked halibut. 
 
 The fuel for smoking consists principally of ship carpenters' chips of oak, though 
 recently oak edgings have been u.sed, with sawdust to smother the flames. Some houses 
 use sawdust exclusively. This fuel is arranged along tlie sides of the vault, the entire 
 middle siiace being left vacant, and the fires are built and continued until the sraokiiig 
 is completed, usually in from 2 to 5 days. In damp weather moisture collects on the 
 fish and the process may then requiie a week. During the winter it is jiossible to 
 keep the fires hotter, and the smoking may be completed in 2 days. Oare must be 
 taken not to let the fires get too hot, for then the fletclies may become too soft to hang 
 on the sticks, dropping to the floor. At all times the doors are kept slightly open to 
 l)ermit a circulation of air to keep the halibut cool, and they will also "take the smoke" 
 better. The entire decrease in weight by dressing and smoking is about 70 per cent, 
 a live halibut weighing 100 pounds producing about 30 jiounds of smoked fish; but 
 as received from the kenehes iii the vessels 100 pounds yield about 82 pounds. 
 
 There are three principal grades of smoked halibut, namely, " heavy chunks," 
 "medium chunks," and "strips," classiflcatiou being made according to the thickness 
 of the Hesh. The napes and the thin parts of the tail do not go to the regular grocery 
 or fish trade, being used mostly for " free lunch" at restaurants. While connoisseurs 
 prefer the meat somewhat dark in color, yet the bulk of the trade requires it of a light 
 straw-color. It is packed in boxes ranging in size from 1 pound to 500 pounds, the 
 30-pound boxes being the most papular. About 4 years ago <iuite a busiuess was 
 started in packing it in 1-pouud and 2-pound "bricks," similar to boneless cod, but the 
 trade was destroyed by persons placing smoked pollock on the market as halibut. 
 During hot weather a snuiU f^uantity of salt is sprinkled over the halibut as it is 
 being packed in the boxes, and under ordinary conditions the product will keep for G 
 or 8 months, or even longer. When intended lor warm climates, smoked halibut is 
 sometimes placed in hermetically sealed zinc boxes incased in wooden boxes, the 
 zinc boxes having cai)acity for .50 pounds each. There is a little trade in smoked 
 halibut placed in small glass bottles, with wide tops covered with cork stoppers. 
 
 The market is confined to the northern parts of the United States, none being sent 
 south of Washington except in small quantities to Louisville and Memphis. The prin- 
 cipal demand is from New England, New York, Chicago, and the West, the value 
 approximating !• cents per pound wholesale. In 1876 an eflbrt was made to introduce 
 smoked halibut into tbe l^uropean markets, and samples were sent from Gloucester to 
 London, Livei'pool, (ilasgow, Cadiz, and St. Petersburg. No returns were received 
 except from London, and IjUgUsh dealers expressed the opinion that it was too salt for 
 their trade. At the IJerlin Fishery Exposition in 1880, smoked halibut was exhibited 
 by Messrs. VVm. H. Wonson & Sons, and a medal was awarded for its sujierior quality. 
 
500 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 SMOKED HADDOCK OR FINNAN HADDIE. 
 
 The curing of haddock by smoking originated about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century at Findon, Scotland, the cured product being known in the English markets as 
 "Fiudon haddie," which later was modified into "Finnan liaddie." Originally it was 
 salted and dried, and afterwards soaked and placed over a smoldering lire of dried peat. 
 But the demand soon becoming very great, it was cured in special buildings erected 
 for the purpose, and at present large quantities are prepared at Aberdeen, Scotland, 
 at Grimsby and Hull, England, and at other places in northei-u Europe in a manner 
 similar to that employed in the New England States. 
 
 Finnan haddie was first prepared in the United States at Eockport, Mass., about 
 ISoO, but the business was soon abandoned. About ten years later Thomas McEwan, 
 a Scotchman, began to cure it in a small way, at Portland, Me., the product being 
 marketed principally in Canada. D. Weyer engaged in the business about 1865, 
 and on Mr. McEwan's death in ISTli he was succeeded by John Loveitt. From time 
 to time other firms came into the business, and as the product became better known its 
 sale in the United States increased. In 1878 about 2,250,000 pounds of dressed had- 
 dock were smoked in Portland alone, making about 1,200,000 pounds of Finnan haddie, 
 whereas in 1889 the five companies engaged in this business employed 48 men and 
 utilized ;',,57(),000 pounds of dressed haddock, costing $71,400, which yielded 1,903,500 
 pounds smoked, worth $88,357 wholesale. The facilities for obtaining haddock at 
 Boston led to the establishment of the business tliere in 1887, and at present the output 
 at Boston equals that at Portland. Finnan haddie are also prepared at Eastport, Me., 
 at New York City, and at Gloucester, ^lass., where flhe business was established in 
 1893, and at St. Johns and Digby in the British Provinces. The present annual 
 product in this country approximates 4,000,000 pounds, worth $200,000. 
 
 While the North American Provinces still receive a large part of the output, the 
 consunn)tion of Finnan haddie in the New England, Middle, and Central States is 
 increasing, especially in Chicago and Cincinnati, some being sent as far as California. 
 Formerly they were sold by the dozen, and conseciuently only the small fish were 
 smoked, but at present the sales are made by weight, and haddock of all sizes are 
 used. A singular feature in connection with the Finnan haddie trade in the winter of 
 1898 and 1899 was the exi)Ortation of small haddock from Boston to Digby for smoking 
 purposes, those fish being obtainable cheaper in Boston than on the Nova Scotia coast. 
 
 To make a good product of Finnan haddie requires experience, as well as much 
 care and attention, especially in the pickling and smoking. When received at the 
 curing house the fish have usually been split down the belly to the vent and evis- 
 cerated, as if prei)ared for the fresh-fish market. They are first beheaded and washed 
 thoroughly with a stiff brush, all the black membrane lining the abdominal cavity 
 being removed. They are next sjdit down to the tail and a cut made along tlie right 
 side of the backbone so that they will lie out flat, and the rough edges of the back 
 bone are removed. They are then immersed in strong salt brine, made of Liverpool, 
 Cadiz, or Trapaui salt, for 1 or 2 hours, according to the weather and the temperature, 
 as well as to the size and condition of the fish and the particular tlavor desired, the 
 exact length of time for iiickling being learned only by experience. 
 
 On removal fiom the brine they are fastened to the sticks from which they are 
 suspended in the smokehouses, the napes being stretched out flat and ])ierced by two 
 small iron spikes or nails fixed in the smoke-sticks. These sticks are about 1.1 or 2 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 501 
 
 inches square at tlie end and 4 feet long, 3 fish being usually hung fi-om each. The 
 sticks with the lish attached are placed on frames for a few hours to allow the moisture 
 to dry from the fish, wlien they are suspended in tlie smokehouse, which is generally 
 like those used in smoking herring, the sticks being placed in tiers, one above another, 
 with space between to allow the smoke to circulate. A fire of hard wood, usually 
 oak, is started over the floor of the smoking kiln and allowed to burn from 8 to 18 
 hours, when sawdust is applied, smoldering the fire and producing a dense smoke, 
 which thoroughly impregnates the fish. In smokehouses with a low ceiling the smok- 
 ing can be completed in 4 or 5 hours. In some smokehouses no wood is used, the 
 curing being effected by burning hard-wood sawdust, rock maple or beech being 
 preferred, and the temjierature is kept as high as practicable without burning the 
 fish, which are placetl high up in the bays. The time of cooking or smoking depends 
 on the condition of the fish, temperature of the air, and the probable time to elapse 
 before consumption, but never exceeds one night. 
 
 When the smoking is completed the fish are removed from the smokehouse and 
 placed on racks for cooling, and when thoroughly cooled they are packed in boxes 
 containing from 20 to 400 pounds each, but mostly .^O pound boxes, and shipped to the 
 trade, usually by express. Only enough are cured at a time to supply the immediate 
 demand, as it is important that they reach the retail dealers in good condition. During 
 warm weather they will keep only a few days, but when the weather is cool they will, 
 under ordinary conditions, keep from 10 days to 2 or even 3 weeks. If it is desirable 
 to keep them longer tliey must be smoked much harder. 
 
 The season for Finnan haddie begins in October and lasts until the following April. 
 100 pounds of round fish yield about 55 pounds smoked, and the wholesale jn-ice ranges 
 from 3i to cents per pound. The choicest haddie are tender. The inside is of a 
 light yellowish-brown or straw-color. It is alleged that some curers add saffron to 
 the jjickling brine to improve the color of the fish. 
 
 SMOKED STURGEON. 
 
 Practicallj'^ all of the sturgeon flesh used in this country is smoked before going to 
 the consumers. This is usually done in the large centers of (ierman population, and 
 principally in New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, Sandusky, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. 
 Tlie business was started in 1857 by Mr. B.K. Peebles in New York City, and reached 
 its greatest height about 1890, the scarcity of sturgeon during recent years restricting 
 the extent. In New York alone about 1,000,000 pounds are smoked annually, consti- 
 tuting over one-half of the fish smoked in tliat city. Along the Great Lakes tlie 
 smoking of sturgeon began about 1865, these fish not being used tiiere prior to that 
 time. As first prepared at Sandusky and Toledo they were dressed, salted, and 
 smoked in large strips for 8 or 10 days and sold as smoked halibut. But the smokers 
 soon adopted ni3thods similar to those in New York, and the business increased and 
 was of considerable extent ten or filteen years ago. In 1872 Mr. J. W. Milner reported 
 to th& U. S. Fish Commission that 13,800 sturgeon, averaging 50 pounds each in 
 weight, were smoke-cured at Sandusky, and in 1880 it was found that the business had 
 increased to 1,258,100 pounds; but the decreasing abundance of sturgeon on the lakes 
 has resulted in a ftilling off in the quantity smoked. The total annual product in the 
 United States is now about 4,000,000 pounds, worth $720,000. 
 
 Sturgeon lor smoking are received from the Delaware River and other estuiirics of 
 the Atlantic coast, from the (ireat Lakes, and irom the Columbia liiver. The lake 
 
502 BULLETIN OF THE T'NITEn STATES FISH COMIMISSION. 
 
 sturgeon (Acipenser rubicundus) is the most desirable for smoking, the product selling 
 ill New York Oity for 24 or 26 cents per pound. Columbia Eiver sturgeon ranks next, 
 with an average value of 3 or 4 cents less than the Great. Lakes. The Atlantic coast 
 sturgeon {Acipenser stHvio) shows yellow streaks when smoked, and the meat is also 
 somewliat more coarse and red than the delicatessen trade desires, and sells in New 
 York for G or 8 cents less than the smoked Great Lakes sturgeon, or about IG to 20 
 cents per pound. The prices prevailing in New York are quoted, since that is the 
 principal market in the country for smoked sturgeon and the choicest product is there 
 prepared, but these prices are somewhat higher than those ])revailing at other points, 
 especially along the Great Lakes. In Chicago smoked lake sturgeon usually sells at 
 18 to 20 cents per pound wholesale. 
 
 In the early history of the industry the sturgeon intended for use after the iishing 
 season was over were dressed and salted in butts or barrels, whence they were removed 
 as reipiired, being soaked out belore smoking, as is now the case with Halifax salmon. 
 At present, however, the surplus sturgeon are almost invariably kept frozen in cold 
 storage until required. Before freezing, the fish are dressed, the heads, tails, vi.scera, 
 tins, and backbones being removed. Practice differs in the various localities in regard 
 to removing the skin. Until the last G or S years all sturgeon were skinned, and that 
 is at jn-esent tlie common practice with the Atlantic coast fish. But about 1890 the 
 practice of leaving the skin on was introduced along the Great Lakes, and is now 
 general in that locality. Formerly the Columbia IMvcr sturgeon were skinned before 
 being frozen, but at present nearly if not quite all of those i)laced in cold storage have 
 the skin left on. Before freezing, the fish are usually cut into four piecres, about the 
 size of the freezing pan, or in smaller pieces suitable for smoking, the former being 
 more frequent. The methoilsof freezing and subsequent <'ol(l storage have already 
 been described. 
 
 On removal from cold storage the fish are thawed by exposure to air of moderate 
 temperature, being turned once or twice duiing the operation, or, better still, by 
 immersing them in water of medium tein])erature. They are then treated exactly as 
 though received fresh from the fishermen. They are cut into suitable chunks, 2 or 3 
 inches wide and weighing l.l or 2 jjounds, the width varying accoiding to the thickness 
 of the meat. These chunks are then brine salted in barrels oi- hogshead butts, about 
 5 jwunds of No. 2 salt to 100 pounds of fish being sjirinkled among the chunks and 
 sufficient brine of about 8,")^ strength being added to cover the fish. 
 
 Some smokers, however, use no dry salt, depending entirely on very strong brine in 
 which the tish remain from G to IG hours, according to the temperature and strength 
 of the brine as well as the size of the pieces. One vi^ry successful smoker uses dry 
 salt without brine during the summer, and in the winter uses brine only of about 98^ 
 salinometer test in order to economize time, since it takes about IS hours to strike the 
 fish in dry-salting, whereas 10 hours are sufticient for striking in brine. In general 
 dry-salting is preferred, since its tendency is to make the flesh harder and firmer. In 
 some localities the trade requires very light, salted fish, and they remain iii brine only 
 15 or 20 minutes, being stiri ed about during the immersion. 
 
 On removal from the pickle the jiieces of tiesh are strung on steel or iron rods 
 about one-third of an inch in diameter and 3 feet long, the rod passing through the thin 
 part of the chunk and S or 10 chunks being strung on each rod. They are at once 
 dipped in fresh water to remove surplus salt, slime, etc. In some establishments the 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 503 
 
 pieces arc soused in fresh water immediately ou removal (Vom tlic pickle. In case tlic 
 (ish liavc lu'cii salted only 15 or 20 minutes, they are not dipped or rinsed. After drain 
 ing for a few moments, or, better still, drying in the open air for several Lours, they are 
 susiteiided in the lower part of the smokehouse from 4 to feet above the fire, where 
 they are exposed to a gentle smoke with doors open anywhere from 1 to 5 hours, 
 according to the weather and the flavor of the product desired. When the weather is 
 sultry it requires twice as long as when it is clear. Then the doors or dampers are 
 closed and a hot hickory, maple, or oak fire is built and the fish cooked from 1 to 2 
 hours, care being taken that it does not become too hot and melt or fall from the rods. 
 On completion of the cooking process the meat is allowed to cool, either by opening the 
 doors of the smokehouse or by removal to the open air, when it is ready for the trade. 
 
 While the foregoing are the methods in general use, yet many smokers have special 
 processes of tlieir own. One of the most successful smokers on the Great Lakes ojicrates 
 as follows: The small pieces of flesh, 1^ to 2 pounds iu weight, are first rubbed with 
 No. 2 packers' salt and put in tight barrels with salt sprinkled among them, abouj 
 2{t pounds of salt in all being used to each 100 pounds of fish. In about 7 or S hours, 
 when the fish are saturated with the salt, they are removed, rinsed in two waters, 
 strung on wire hooks, and suspended from the smoke-sticks. After draining for an 
 hour they are placed in the smokehouse in 2 or 3 rows, 5 to 7 feet above the floor, and 
 subjected to a hard wood smoke for 7 or 8 hours at an even temperature. 
 
 One hundied pounds of dressed sturgeon yields from (i.3 to 70 pounds smoked, 
 and the i)r()duct usually keeps one or two weeks under ordinary conditions. 
 
 Notwithstanding tlie great scarcity of sturgeon and its consecpient high price, 
 tiie consunii)tion of smoked sturgeon amounts to about 4,000.000 i)ounds annually. 
 
 It is not practicable to hold smoked sturgeon in cold storage, because of its 
 tendency to mold, but it is canned to a small extent. 
 
 SMOKED CATFISH. 
 
 Tiie increasing scarcity of sturgeon with the consequent high price has resulted 
 in the smoking of channel catfish as a substitute. These are obtained chiefly from 
 the Mississipiii lliver, especially in the vicinity of Memphis, and they are smoked in 
 Chicago, St. TjOuIs, and the Middle Mississip[)i Valley. This industry is of very recent 
 development, but as it furnishes a satisfactory substitute for sturgeon, which are 
 becoming so costly, it will probably grow to considerable proportions. 
 
 Being intended jvs a substitute, the catfish are smoked iu identically the same 
 manner as are sturgeon. The fish as received at the smokehouse are usually beheaded 
 and eviscerated. They are skinned and cut into small i)ieces, weighing about I or li 
 pounds each, and are pickled for or 8 hours in tight barrels. This may be accom- 
 plished by rubbing the pieces with salt and placing them in the barrel either with dry 
 salt scattered among them, or simply by placing them iu the barrel with dry salt or 
 with strong brine. On removal from the brine the pieces are rinsed by dipping in 
 fresh water, to remove slime, surplus salt, etc.; they are then attached to the smoke- 
 sticks and drained for an hour or so, and placed in the smokehouse, where they are 
 smoked for 7 or 8 hours in the same manner as sturgeon are treated. 100 pounds of 
 dressed catfish yield from G5 to 70 pounds smoked, and the product sells usually at 
 about 15 or 16 cents per pound. The total annual product of smoked catfish in the 
 United States probably does not exceed 50,000 pounds, and its sale is confined prin- 
 cipally to those who are willing to acce])t a substitute because of its being cheaper. 
 
504 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 At several points in the Mississippi Valley the small catfish are smoked whole, 
 like lake herring. They are split to the vent and eviscerated, the head and in some 
 instances the skin being left on, strnck with salt in tight barrels, and smoked for a 
 few hours in the manner described for lake herring. The demand is small, the busi- 
 ness amounting probably to 10,000 or 15,000 pounds. 
 
 SMOKED EELS. 
 
 Smoking eels is one of the industries introduced into this country by German 
 residents, and it is carried on in New York, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Sandusky, Chicago, 
 Milwaukee, Washington, and various minor i)]aces. The product will keep only a 
 week or two under ordinary conditicnis in cool weather, and the extent of the business 
 In each locality is generally limited to the local demand. 
 
 Generally the eels are received at the smokehouse fresh, directly from the fish- 
 eries, but some are also received frozen from cold storage. In the latter case they are 
 thawed by immersing them in water a few hours or by exposure in the open air. 
 ■Some smokers '-slime" the eels with salt; that is, rub the skin with a small (juantity 
 of fine salt to remove the slime therefrom. In dressing, the fish are split from the 
 head to the vent and the viscera lemoved. It is desirable to continue the splitting 
 down to the end of the tail sufficiently deep to remove the large vein along the back- 
 bone, but sometimes this may be pulled out without sijlitting the fish more than an 
 inch or two beyond the vent. Few smokers, however, give attention to this item. The 
 eels are immersed in strong brine from If to 7.i hours, according to strength of brine, 
 size of fish, and the desired flavor. This brine should be quite strong, about 20 pounds 
 of Liverpool or other good salt being required for each 100 pounds of fish. 
 
 In New York the eels are usually pickled for 3 hours, while on the Great Lakes 
 the length of the time is generally about 7 hours. On removal of the fish they are 
 washed, bristle brushes being used by some smokers, while others simply dip the fish . 
 in water for removing the slime and surplus salt. A few smokers throw them in a 
 tub of water and beat them with a net for several minutes to acconiplish the same 
 purpose. The eels are next strung on iron or steel rods one-third inch in diameter, 
 the rod passing through the head of each eel, or through the throat cartilage and out 
 the mouth, and hung in the ojien air a few hours for drying. But if the atmosphere be 
 moist or the saving of time necessary they may at once be i)laced in the smokehouse. 
 
 In New York, where small brick ovens are used, the fish are subjected to a mild 
 smoke for about 4 or 5 hours until tliey have acquired the proper color, when the fires 
 are gradually increased and they are hot-smoked or cooked for 30 or 40 minutes. At 
 Bnti'alo and some of the other Great Lakes ports, the smoking is usually at an even 
 temperature throughout and continues for <i or 8 hours. Mahogany or cedar sawdust 
 is used in New York for making the smoke, while hickory or white-oak wood is used 
 for cooking, the latter being preferred. In Washington the eels are suspended in the 
 hogshead smokehouses over a fire made of oak and hickory wood and dried for 20 
 minutes, when the hogshead is covered with sacking and thus hot-smoked for 3 or 4 
 hours, the fires being sprinkled with water from lime to time to produce a hot vapor. 
 The smoking must be carefully attended, for if tlie heat becomes too great the fish will 
 curl up out of shape. A good test to determine whether the cooking is sufficient is 
 the ease with which the skin may be separated or peeled from the flesh whei-e the eel 
 has been split. 
 
 Tlie decreasf in weight by dressing and smoking is about 3.~i per cent, 100 pounds 
 of round eels yielding <'>5 to 75 iiounds smoked. In New York the i)r()duct sells for 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 505 
 
 about 20 ceuts per pound, while at Buffalo and other (Ireat Lakes points the price is 
 usually 14 to 15 cents per pound. When eels have been pickled G or 8 hours they 
 ordinarily keep 10 or 12 days; but when the salting has been only 2 hours, as is usual 
 at New York, they are liable to mold after 5 or G days. Smoked eels keep a shorter 
 length of time than almost any other smoked fish. 
 
 Eels are sometimes skinned before being smoked, the process being the same as 
 above described, except that less salting and smoking is required, and it is also very 
 difficult to keep them from falling down off the rods in the smokehouse. 
 
 The trade in smoked eels in New York is probably not 30 per cent of what it was 
 15 or 20 years ago, but along the Great Lakes it appears to be increasing. The annual 
 product in the entire country is probably about 150,000 pounds, worth .f 27,000. There 
 is some demand for smoked eels in cans, which is met bj' two fish-canning establish- 
 ments in New York City. The smaller eels are used for this purpose, and tliey are 
 smoked somewhat more than those sold to the delicatessen trade. 
 
 The following method of smoking eels prevails to some extent in northern Europe, 
 especially in Germany: 
 
 The head, skin, tail, and viscera are removed, and the eel is split open the entire length, and the 
 backbone and many of the smaller bones attached to it removed. It is then laid In strong salt brine, 
 where it remains for 6 lionrs, and is then wiped dry with a linen towel and is covered with the follow- 
 ing preparation, which has been pounded in ,1 porcelain mortar: One large anchovy, 1 ounce of fine 
 salt, 8 ounces of powdered sugar, 1 ounce of saltpeter, and sufficient butter to make a paste of the 
 ingredients. The eel, thoroughly cured with this prejiaration, is rolled up tightly in the ibrm of a 
 disk, beginning at the tail end, tied with a cord to hold it in position, .and sewed up in a linen cloth, 
 which covers the disk and allows the cud to project. These disks are next suspended in an ordinary 
 chimney smokehouse and subjected to a strong smoke for 5 or 6 days, then allowed to cool and become 
 linn, when they are ready for the table. 
 
 SMOKED MACKEREL. 
 
 There is a small business in smoking both fresh and salt mackerel in New York 
 City and a few other points on the Atlantic seaboard, the output amounting to prob- 
 ably 8,000 pounds of the former and 35,000 pounds of the latter. The fresh mackerel 
 are cured in very nearly the same way as lake herring, except that usually they are 
 not split, being prepared round. The fish are first struck in brine, in which they 
 remain for 12 or 14 hours, then removed and opened at the vent with the point of a 
 knife to let the pickle in the abdoniirial cavity escape. They are next put on smoke- 
 sticks, drained and dried for 2 or 3 hours, and jilaced in the smokehouse, where they 
 are subjected to a gentle smoke for 4 to 5 hours, until properly colored, when fires are 
 built and the fish cooked for a couple of hours, as in case of ciscoette or lake herring. 
 
 In preparing salt mackerel for smoking, the fish are cleaned and the dark stomach 
 membrane removed, when they are soaked in fresh water for 6 to 12 hours, or in some 
 localities from 15 to 24 hours, according to the size and the degree of saltiness. On 
 completion of the .soaking they are washed, strung on rods or smoke-sticks, drained, 
 and hung in the upper part of the smokehouse and subjected to a gentle smoking for 
 5 to 15 hours at a low temperature. 
 
 No. 2 mackerel bring about IG cents per pound and extra large smoked mackerel 
 20 to 30 cents per pound, but generally it is the smaller fish that are used for this pur- 
 pose. The trade in these fish is very much less than formerly, the (|uantity used in 
 New York City being only about one-tenth of what it was from 1880 to 1885, but the 
 business timing that period was mncli greater than theretofore, resulting from the 
 salted mackerel being received at tlie inMrkets in .Tune and .July instead of accmpleof 
 mouths later, as formerly. 
 
506 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 SMOKED SHAD, FLOUNDERS, LAKE TROUT, CARP, ETC. 
 
 In tlie (Jliesapeake region and at various points along the coast small quantities 
 of shad are smoked, usually in precisely the same manner as already described for 
 river herring or alewives. Formerly many barrels of "economy shad" salted on tlie 
 Kennebec Kiver were smolied, but the demand ceased about 1880. A superior (piality 
 of smoked shad may be made by rubbing flue salt, saltpeter, and sugar or molasses 
 over the fresh fish, and after they are struck, smoking them a few days at an even 
 temperature. These are far superior to those prepared from salted shad. 
 
 A few flounders are smoked each year in New York and other populous centers of 
 the Atlantic seaboard, the quantity probably amounting to about 15,000 pounds 
 annually. The small tionnders weighing half a pound or less are used, and these are 
 eviscerated, pickled with brine in butts for about 2 hours, strung on smoke rods, 
 drained, and cold-smoked for 8 to 10 hours. Sometimes these fish are hot-smoked 
 for half an hour or so after the color has been set bj' the cold-smoking. 
 
 Menhaden and butterlish have been smoked to more or less extent during the 
 past few years, but few arc so prepared at present. 
 
 Smoked lake trout and carp are prepared to a small extent in the manner already 
 described for lake herring or whitefish, but little demand exists for these products. 
 
 Efforts have been made to produce marketable articles of smoked hake and pol- 
 lock, but the business has never assumed any commercial importance. There seems 
 no valid reason why smoked pollock at least should not become popular, the tlesli of 
 that species seeming well suited to this method of curing. Smoked mullet is a very 
 choice article, but practically none is prepared for the general inarket. 
 
 In lS.Sr> experiments were made by the United States Fish Commission to intro- 
 duce smoked kingfish, which abound off Key West. The Fish Commission report 
 for 1885, p. Liii, states, in substance: 
 
 These (isli were prepared with much care at Gfoucester, and proved to he an excellent smoked 
 tish, being tested by many experts, some of whom pronounced tliem e([Mal or even superior to smolced 
 halibut or salmon, being free from the rather rank taste that the smoked halil>uf sometimes has. 
 
 Tileflsh have been smoked as an experiment by several persons, but experts differ 
 as to their qualities. The Fish Commission report for 1882, p. 247, states: 
 
 In the summer of 1879 Cajit. George Friend, of Gloucester, smoked some of the tilefisli, and he, 
 as well as several others who ate them, stated that they weie excellent, rivaling smoked halibut in 
 richuess and llavor. On the, other hand, Mr. William M. Wonson, 3d, does not speak so highly of its 
 fine qualities .as a food-lish under the same conditions. Ho says that while it is certainly very good 
 and wholesome, .as well as a desirable article of food when smoked, it can not compete with the 
 halibut, and is no better, in fact, than smoked haddock. 
 
TEKSERVATION 01-' FISHERY I'RODUCT.S FOK FOOD. 507 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY CANNING. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND METHODS OF CANNING. 
 
 The various processes of canning arc all directed essentially (1) to preserving 
 foods in hermetically sealed vessels from which the atmospheric air has, so far as 
 practicable, been driven otf, and (2) to destroying by heat or otherwise such germs as 
 may be in the food l)efoieor after it is sealed up. Heat is applied to destioy the germ 
 within the food, and the entrance of other germs or putrefactive organisms la prevented 
 by sealing the can. 
 
 The credit for the introduction of this method of iireserving foods is shared between 
 a Mr. Soddington, wlio in 1807 presented a description of his piocess to the English 
 Society of Arts, under the title "A method of preserving fruits without sugar, for 
 house or sea stores,"* and Francois Appert, who in 1810 published a book giving 
 directions for a process for which he was awarded a i)rize of 1-!,(HK) francs oflered in 
 the i)receding year by the I'^reuch Government for a method of preserving perishable 
 alimentary substances. Tlie methods of Soddington and of A])pert were essentially 
 the same, and as follows : (Jlass bottles were tilled almost to the top with the food, 
 which in some cases was partly cooked, the bottles corked loosely and placed up to 
 their necks in tepid water, the heat being gradually raised to a temperature between 
 17(t'^ and 190'' F., and being maintained there for a, period varying from 30 to 00 minutes. 
 The l)ottles were then corked securely and allowed to cool slowly in the bath. In some 
 cases Soddington filled the bottles with boiling water before sealing, and he recom- 
 mended further that the corks be covered and the bottles laid upon their sides, so that 
 the hot liipiid might swell the corks I'.asedon the erroneous im])ression that exhaustion 
 of the air is the essential feature of preserving foods, a number of methods were soon 
 after and have until quite recently been devised for ai-coini>lishing the result. Among 
 these methods are the use of air pumps, introducing carbonic acid or hydrocarbon gas 
 into the vessel containing the food, etc.; but none of them have come into general use. 
 
 This general i)rocess of preservation does not appear to have been very extensively 
 employed until the substitution of tin cans in place of glass bottles. These seem 
 to have been used first in 1820; and in 1823 a patent for them was issued to Pierre 
 Antoine Angilbert.f Preserved fish had been placed in tin cans for many years 
 previouSj but not in the manner known at present as canning. 
 
 In "A treatise on fishing for herring, cod, and salmon, and of curing or preserv- 
 ing them," published in Dublin in ISOO, the following method of preserving salmon is 
 noted as being practiced in Holland: 
 
 As soon as the fish is caught they cut off the end of the snont [head] and hang it up by the tail 
 to let the Ijlood flow out as much as possible. A short time after they open its belly and empty it and 
 wash it carefully. Then they boil it whole in a brine of white salt, often skimmed. Before it is quite 
 
 *Hassell: Food and its Adulterations, London, 1855, 432. 
 fLetheby: Chemical News (American reprint), 1869, i, 74. 
 
508 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 boiled thoy 1.m1;(^ it out ol'tlio liriiio auil are carel'iil not to injure tlie skin, after -whiuli tlicy let it cool 
 and drip on a linrdle. Then tboy expose it for a day or two to the smoke of a fire made of juniper, 
 which must make no llame. Finally, they put it into a tin box, the sides of which must be an inch 
 hj>;her than the thickness of the Msh, and lill up the box with fresh butter, salted and melted. When 
 the butter is coagulated thoy put ou the cover aud .sidder it to the lower part of the box. Some])ersons 
 eat the fish without boiling it again, but it i.s better wheu it gets a second boiling. lu winicM' good 
 oil of olives may be used instead of butter. 
 
 Angilbeit'w method was very similar to tlie preseut processes, wliicb clifi'er in some 
 minor features, but are uniform iu principle. A definite amount of tbe article to be 
 Ijreserved, with some liquid, is placed in a tin can, over which the cover, containing a 
 minute hole, is soldered, and the can and contents are placed iu a bath of boiling 
 water. Through the small hole the air and steam escape from the can in boiling, and the 
 heat also kills the bacteria. The hole is closed with a drop of solder, and the process 
 of cooking is completed. 
 
 A number of modiflcatious and improvements have been adopted, principally in 
 reference to shortening the time of cooking, xjermittiug the heated air in the can to 
 escape, softening the bones of small fish, filling and handling the cans, etc. 
 
 While it is necessary that the fisli be thoroughly cooked, yet in a majority of 
 cases it is equally important that they remain as short a time as practicable under 
 the action of the heat. This is facilitated by increasing the temperature of the 
 boiling water. Formerly the cans of fish were boiled in salt water, by which a tem- 
 perature of 2.30° F. is attainable, or in water containing chloride of calcium, or sulphide 
 of soda, whereby 250° F. may be secured. But these agents are each prejudicial to the 
 metal of the can and the kettle, causing them to rust or wear rapidly, and by using the 
 ma.ximum of heat secured by the chloride of calcium process the cans often burst, with 
 dangerous effects to the workmen. About 1874, steam-tight cylinders were introduced, 
 in which the cans are subjected to a very high temperature by introducing steam from 
 adjacent boilers, thus shortening the time of exposure to heat and removing liability 
 to burst, the outward i)ressure in the can being counterbalanced by the inward pres- 
 "Sure of the steam in the cylinder. This was first applied iu 1S74 iu canning oysters. 
 At first steam only was used, but it was soon found that the contact of the steam 
 with the call results, to some extent, in scorching the contents tliat lie next to 
 the inner surface of the can, and the oysters or fish have a slightly burnt fiavor in 
 consequence, the can itself also exhibiting a bluish color on the inside. This was 
 remedied "by placing the cans in water, below the surface of which the sui)erheated 
 steam is admitted. The i)ressure upon the intermediate water is transmitted to the 
 outside of the can and counterbalances the pressure from the inside until the cooking 
 has been completed. The fish or oysters ou the inside of the can are also acted ujjou 
 uniformly by the heat, and neither cans nor contents injured, even if the temperature 
 be raised to 250° F. or more. By this process, which has been generally adoi>te(l, the 
 cooking is done in much shorter time and at greatly reduced expense. 
 
 To remove the air from the can it was formerly customarj' to leave a minute hole 
 in the lid, heat the can and contents by nearly submerging the can in boiling water, 
 aud then solder the small hole. At present the cans are hernn^tically sealed and boiled, 
 then punctured to permit the expanded air to escape, when they are resealed, aud 
 the process of cooking completed. An improved method has been devised, in which 
 the air is extracted from the can by means of tubes connecting the tin with a vacuum 
 chamber, but it is little u.sed in canning fishciy products. 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHEUY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 509 
 
 . All objection to the cauuiuy of small fish is the lai-ge uumber of bones. Ordi- 
 narily the heat dev^eloped in the process of canning destroys the cohesion of the 
 particles of the bones, so that they may be masticated and swallowed without incon- 
 venience, but the bones of some small flsh are not so easily softened. About 1867 
 it was found that by placing the flsh in vinegar and subjecting them to a temperature 
 of ITO"^ F. for several hours, according to the size of the bones, the acid of the vinegar 
 dissolves the lime salts contained iu them. This process is somewhat costly and the 
 vinegar is objectionable to some consumers. 
 
 In 1S72 it was found that the bones could be softened without using \inegar, by 
 successive steamings for several hours, with an intervening cooling. A patent for 
 this process was issued J\Iay 21, 1872, to Isaac L. Stanly, of New York City, who thus 
 describes the process with special reference to canning menhaden: 
 
 First put the fish, after being dressed and prepared, into open tin or other snitahle boxes or 
 vessels, and place the same iu a steam chest, which is afterwards closed. In this couditio:i steam the 
 fish with steam of 212'^ F., or thereabout, for 5 hours, more or less, after which they are taken out of 
 the steam chest and put on taldos to cool and drain for about 5 or 6 hours. The fish arc then jjacked 
 in tin boxes filled with olive or other oil, and the boxes afterwards closed and the covers soldered or 
 sealed. Said boxes containing the fish are next put into a tank or chest, which is afterwards closed, 
 and heated by steam or otherwise to a temperature of from 217^ to 220" F., or thereabout, for a period 
 of from 2 to 5 hours, according to the size of the fish or its bones. 
 
 An objection to the use of tin cans in preserving food products is the liability of 
 the lead in the can to affect and taint the contents, which sometimes results in lead 
 poisoning. This danger is not great when good materials are used in making the 
 cans, except when they are filled with such articles as shrimp, the acid iu which acts 
 upon the tin. This is remedied by introducing a lining between the inner surface of 
 the can and its contents. This lining may be textile fabric or a coating of asphaltum 
 cement. Silver plating has been employed, and a lining of selected corn husks has 
 also been used to a limited extent. For an account of these methods see iip. 523 et seq. 
 
 The most satisfactory way of overcoming this liability to lead poisoning is by 
 using cans sealed without the use of solder. There are several varieties of these cans 
 on the market at present, the joints being made tight by introducing a gasket or 
 washer of rubber, paper or similar material between the overlapping tin and crimping 
 or folding the edges so as to hold them together. Some of these cans are drawn by 
 machinery out of one solid piece of tin plate, and others have an outside soldered 
 seam in the body only. The additional cost of these cans has confined their use to 
 the preservation of the more costly varieties of marine i>roducts. 
 
 A great ini])rovement in canning was the introduction, about 2,5 years ago, of 
 the use of solder in the form of twisted strands cut into rings of the proper size 
 and containing on its surface the proper quantity of tiux. By twisting a strand, or 
 by iiidting two or more strands into a cord, the exterior will contain a. multitude of 
 small depressions. The wire is converted into rings by winding it on a wooden 
 cylinder of the required diameter, a cut is made through the wire the whole length of 
 the cylinder, and the rings are slii)ped off. The rings are coated with resin or other 
 suitable fiux, the depressions become filled with it and hold a sullicient (pmntity for 
 soldering purposes. This quantity is regulated by the method of twisting tho wire 
 or the manner of applying the finx. If to be used for square tops, the wire is wound 
 on a rectangular block of the required size and then cut. It is appaient that when 
 these rings are aiiiilied to the cajiping of tin cans no more solder or resin need be used 
 
510 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 tbiiii i.s actually uecessaiy to solder ou the cai), saving a large quantity of material 
 over the old method of using bar solder and avoiding smearing the top of the can. 
 
 In 187!) Charles 0. Lane, of New Westminster, British Columbia, introduced au 
 improvement in cans, conforming to the natural shape of the fish, to avoid cutting it 
 into small pieces. The can is in two parts, approximating resjjectively the shape of 
 the two halves of the fish divided transversely to its length, and is so titted that it 
 may be adjusted longitudinally to the length of the lish, one half being somewhat 
 smaller than the other at the open end, so that it will lit into the other. The patentee 
 thus describes his invention; the claim relates especially to the method of constructing 
 the pieces forming the can, so as to avoid waste and reduce the amount of soldering 
 to a minimum : 
 
 The can is minle iu two parts, out- part being somewhat smaller than the other at the open end, 
 so that it will lit into the other. Kacli of the.se parts is made iu two pieces, the pieces heinjj stamped 
 out of slioet metal and soldered at the. joints or meeting longitudinal edges. These halves of the ends 
 have each stamped in them a recess or llatteued portion, which admit of a certain cxjiansion during tlio 
 boiling process, and of contraction when the air is blown otf and the can and (ontents are liiially 
 cooled. This llatteneil portion or recess formed in these pieces makes a flat place on the outside; and 
 facilitates p.jckiug of the cans or storing on the shelves of the dealers in good order. When lying on 
 either side the can rests on these Hat parts, and thej- may be placed one above another without sliding 
 about on account of the irregularity of their general shape. 
 
 Each can is formed of four jjieces, two of which are stamped out to be approximately of the form 
 of the head and shoulders of a lish, while the other two are shaped to lit the tail half of the fish. 
 These are got out in cjuantities, and the two halves of each part are united, and the longitudinal seam 
 is soldered by the aid of the mechanical bath, which is easily accomplished when the can is empty. 
 This enables me to do the largest portion of the work of can-making, including the long side seam or 
 joint, mechanically, with but little hard labor, and during the idle season and before the fish commence 
 running. When the two halves are thus :nade ready to receive the lish it will be seen that the sur- 
 rounding transverse joint is all that is left to be done, and this renders the labor to be performed iu 
 the actual canning so slight that the fish may be put U]i in this manner to^^onijietc wilh any other 
 form of canning. 
 
 After the separate ends are made iu the manner described the fish is placed in the open end of 
 one in the pr^'pcr position, and the other half is ])laeed over the other end of the fish. The two open 
 ends thus come together, the smaller slipping inside the larger. At this central joint I place a V- 
 shaped piece or strip of a scddering metal, which fits between the two ]iarts to form the transverse 
 joint in the final soldering, both by filling it up and by partially melting. 
 
 As the fish vary somewhat in size, it will be seen that the jiarts must be telescoped or pushed 
 together until they fit the fish snugly before the transverse or central joint is soldered. This will 
 insure a perfect fit to every fish, and will prevent it from sliding ab(uit in the can. 
 
 By making the can in this manner small sheets of tin may he used with very little waste in cut- 
 ting, and at the same time cans can be made which will correspond to the size and shape of the fish. 
 It will be manifest that either of the halves may be sealed up independently of the other by simply 
 fitting a tlat head or cover to the large, open end and soldering it in place after the can is filled.* 
 
 Among the devices contrived during the last fifteen years to facilitate the 
 canning process, machines for filling the cans are numerous. But these have not been 
 so generally adopted in the canning of fish as iu preserving vegetable products, the 
 fish in hand tilled cans presenting a neater appearance than those filled by machinery. 
 However, on account of the great saving of labor, they are used in a number of 
 salmon canneries of the Pacific coast. 
 
 One of the fir.st of these, invented! in 1880 by A. H. Moore, of Ellen.sburg, Oreg., 
 is so arianged that the fish, after being cut up iu suitably sized pieces, is placed in a 
 
 ♦Letters Patent No. 221325, November 4, 1879. t Letters Patent No. 227283, May 4, 1880. 
 
PKESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 511 
 
 hopper and forced or fed by a pluuger into a mold correspoudiug in size to tlie can. 
 A knife then cuts ofl' the mass, and another xilunger forces the mass of fish from the 
 mokl into the can, which is then removed and sealed. The principal objection to 
 this is that the portion of fish is not properly shaped to tit the can, being left flat on 
 one side and great pressure has to be exerted to force the fish into the mold. 
 
 During the same year an improvement on this process was invented* by Robert 
 1). Hume, the well known salmoncanner of the Pacific coast. This improvement 
 consists in the employment of a carrying belt operated by an automatic pawl and 
 ratchet, whereby the material is carried forward into a chute, through which it is led 
 into ai shaping and compressing cylinder. In combination with this chute there is 
 employed a pair of slim cylindrical shearing 1-iiives, arranged to rotate about a longi- 
 tudinal axis, one within the other, in concentric circles, which cut the material to 
 the exact cylindrical shape necessary to fill the can without unequal compression. 
 
 Numerous other can-filling machines have been invented, for a description of 
 which see the following letters iiateut: 
 
 Patent 
 
 Ku. 
 
 Date. 
 
 lu favor of— 
 
 Patent 
 Ko. 
 
 Date. 
 
 In favor of— 
 
 259442 
 
 June 13, 1882 
 
 Wm. West, Keeno, Can.ida. 
 
 356122 
 
 Jan. 18,1887 
 
 John B. Hodapp, Maukato, Minn. 
 
 202.575 
 
 Aug. 15, 1882 
 
 AugURlinu Cro.'ihy, lieiiton. Me. 
 J. Stevens, Wootistown, N. J. 
 
 358498 
 
 Mar. 1, 1887 
 
 H. K. Stickney, Portland, Me. 
 
 291799 
 
 Jim. 8,1884 
 
 36U541 
 
 Apr. 5, 1887 
 
 Do. 
 
 297549 
 
 Apr. 29, 1884 
 
 Gf.o. Ackerniauu, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 361177 
 
 Apr. 12,1887 
 
 G. L. Merrill, Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 301897 
 
 July 15. 1884 
 
 EdranntlJordan, iJrooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 372870 
 
 Nov. 8,1887 
 
 H. R. Stickney, Portland, Me. 
 
 3041163 
 
 Aug. 26, 1884 
 
 Voluey Barker, rortlaiul. Me. 
 
 373306 
 
 Nov. 15, 1887 
 
 D. D. llauney, Lewistown, 111. 
 
 300658 
 
 Oct. 14,1884 
 
 J. Stevens, Wuodstowu, N.J. 
 
 
 
 
 The preservation of foods by the canning process has now become one of the 
 world's great industries, it being applied to alimentary substances of almost every 
 description, and the product is of enormous extent. It was early used in the preserva- 
 tion of sardines, lobsters, etc. In 1824 John Moir & Son, of Aberdeen, Scothmd, began 
 the canning of salmon, game, and other meats. 
 
 Canning was first employed on the American continent by Charles Mitchell, at 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1841, and in 1842 by IT. S. Treat at Eastport, Me. The canning 
 of oysters was commenced about 1844; Pacific coast salmiui were canned first in 180(!, 
 and the preparation of sardines in this country dates from 1875. Yet at present tlie 
 total value of the domestic output of these three products as canned approximates 
 $15,000,000 annually. 
 
 There are five general classes of canned marine i^roducts — viz, (1) plain-boiled, 
 steamed, or otherwise cooked; (2) preserved in oil; (3) prepared with vinegar, sauces, 
 spices, jellies, etc.; (4) cooked with vegetables, etc., and (5) preserved by some other 
 process, but placed in cans for convenience of marketing. 
 
 The first class includes salmon, mackerel, herring, menhaden, cod, halibut, smelt, 
 oysters, clams, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, green turtle, etc. 
 
 Sardines almost exclusively make up the second class. 
 
 The third class includes various forms of herring prepared as "brook trout," 
 "ocean trout," etc., mackerel, eels, sturgeon, oysters, lobsters, crabs, etc. 
 
 The fourth class comi>rises fish chowder, clam chowder, codfish balls, green-turtle 
 stew, terrapin stew, and deviled crabs. 
 
 The fifth class is made up of (a) smoked herring, halibut, haddock, carp, pickerel, 
 lake trout, salmon, eels,.sturgeon,etc., and (b) brine-salted mackerel, cod, and caviar. 
 
 ' Letters l'att;ut No. 23344'.), dated Oetubcr UK 1880. 
 
512 BULLETIN OF THK UNITKD STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 CANNING SALMON. 
 
 The canning of salmon appcai-s to liave oiigiuatecl at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1824; 
 but prior to tbe establisbmeiit of salmon canneries in the United States, in 1864, the 
 application of tbe i)rocess to this fish was very limited. Daring the last 30 years 
 this industry has been confined to tbe western coast of tbe Nortli American continent 
 and to certain Asiatic countries bordering tbe Pacific coast. It has become one of 
 the great fishery industries of tbe world, tbe annual output exceeding $10,000,000 in 
 value, over 09 per cent being prepared on the American continent. 
 
 On tbe western coast of tbe United States tbe industry was begun in 1864 by 
 Messrs. Hapgood, Uunie & Co., at Washington, on tbe Sacramento Eiver. A member 
 of this firm bad been engaged in canning lobsters in New Brunswick, on tbe shore of 
 tbe Bay of Chaleur, and methods somewhat similar were applied to the canning of 
 salmon. The machinery and appliances were very crude as compared with modern 
 devices. The fish, cut into transverse sections of suitable lengths, were placed in tlie 
 cans and tbe cover attached, with ventholes open. The cans were then nearly sub- 
 merged in fri'sb water contained in large round-bottomed iron kettles and boiled for 
 an hour, after which they were removed and tbe vent closed. They were next placed 
 without arrangement in an iron bath kettle containing salt water heated to a temper- 
 ature generally from 228° to 230° F. After an hour's bath tbe cans were removed and 
 placed in a tank of cold water. When cooled they were wiiied off, the ends painted 
 with red lead, the sides labeled, and tbe cans packed in the cases. No process was 
 employed for testing for leaks, and consequently about one half of the product of the 
 lirst year spoiled.* Much difficulty was experienced in placing the canned salmon on 
 I lie San Francisco market, but eventually tbe entire pack was sent in separate lots to 
 Australia, where it netted $10 per case to tbe shippers, t 
 
 Tbe trade gradually increased from year to year with the improved transportation 
 facilities and the development of markets for the product. In 1806 thie first Columbia 
 River cannery was established at Eagle Clitt', about 40 miles above Astoria. In 1874 
 canning was begun in British Columbia, and in 1SS2 Alaska began to make a showing. 
 Tbe total pack on tbe west coast of North America in 1892 was 1,323,000 cases of 48 
 1-pound cans each, approximating in value $6,549,000; and in 1895 it was 2,175,986 
 cases, worth $10,081,997 at first hands. 
 
 During the first years of the trade South America and Australia furnished the 
 consumers of the canned salmon, but as tbe output increased an English market was 
 .sought. Tbe latter did not at first take kindly to the American jiroduct, but after 
 persistent ettbrts on the part of some of the most extensive London wholesale dealers 
 the article became better known and the people of Great Britain soon became the 
 principal consumers, sometimes using 500,000 cases in a single year. 
 
 Several species of salmon are utilized in the canneries of the west coast, the 
 principal ones being chinook or quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchns tschairyfscha), blueback 
 salmon or redflsh {(). iirrl-K), silver salmon ((>. Idsutch), steelbead {S<tlmo </airdneri), 
 dog salmon {0. Iceta), and humpback {0. gorbusvha). 
 
 * Hume's Salmon of tbo I'licilic Coast, p. 8. 
 
 t Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1888, pp. 167, 168. 
 
PRESKRVATION OK FISHEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 
 
 513 
 
 The following .sumiiiiuy shows the iiiuiiber of cases of each species canued oii thf 
 Pacific coast daring the four years cmling in 1895: 
 
 states. 
 
 Chinook. 
 
 Blue- 
 back. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Steel- 
 head. 
 
 D"^- ^aS."- 
 
 Total. 
 
 1892 Washington 
 
 134, 253 
 
 237, 684 
 
 14, 334 
 
 19,441 
 51, 106 
 
 28,708 
 
 60, 293 
 
 1,550 
 
 26,945 
 45, 403 
 
 29,411 
 
 
 238,758 
 
 394, 480 
 
 15, 884 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 386, 271 
 
 70, 647 
 
 90, 551 
 
 72,348 
 
 29,411 
 
 
 649, 128 
 
 1893 "Wiishington 
 
 
 129, 078 
 176, 024 
 26, 436 
 
 55, 237 
 23, 074 
 
 31. 707 
 
 62, 913 
 
 600 
 
 25, 663 
 39, 563 
 
 23, 480 
 9,230 
 
 17, 530 
 
 282, 695 
 310, 804 
 26, 936 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 331, 638 
 
 78,311 
 
 95, 120 
 
 65, 226 
 
 32,710 
 
 17,530 
 
 620,435 
 
 1894 Washington 
 
 156, 549 
 
 216, 507 
 
 31, Ii63 
 
 53,717 
 25, 623 
 
 32, 118 
 100, 087 
 
 500 
 
 23, 209 
 38, 829 
 
 33,952 
 3,102 
 
 9,049 
 
 308, 594 
 
 384, 108 
 
 32, 163 
 
 
 Calitbrnia 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 404, 719 
 
 79, 240 
 
 132, 705 
 
 62, 038 
 
 37,114 9,049 
 
 724, 865 
 
 1895 W'ashinf^on 
 
 157, 187 
 
 316, 284 
 
 28, 635 
 
 70, 304 
 12, 854 
 
 81, 957 
 138, 981 
 
 18, 985 
 30,693 
 
 48 686 1 '>^ fi-'ts 
 
 400, 752 
 
 525, 839 
 
 29, 035 
 
 
 27, 027 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 502, 106 
 
 83,158 
 
 221, 338 
 
 49, 678 
 
 
 955, 626 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — 468,970 cases of salmon were packed in Alaska in 1892 and 619.379 cases in 1895, making the total 
 pack for the United States in 1892 1,118,098 cases, and in 1895 1,575,005 cases. 
 
 The extent of the salmon-canuiug industry of the Pacific States in 1895 is shown 
 in the following table: 
 
 States. 
 
 Persons 
 
 em- 
 ployed. 
 
 No. of 
 can- 
 neries. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Cash 
 capital. 
 
 Total in- 
 vestment. 
 
 Salmon utilized. 
 
 Salmon canned. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Valtie. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Value. 
 
 California 
 
 198 
 1,960 
 1,146 
 
 4 
 26 
 17 
 
 $62, 000 
 719, 225 
 374, 650 
 
 $64, 000 
 942, 500 
 001, 000 
 
 $126, 000 
 
 1,661.725 
 
 075, 650 
 
 1, 906, 525 
 35, 299, 241 
 27. 441, 724 
 
 $52, 591 
 
 1, 184, 529 
 
 731, 523 
 
 29, 035 
 525, 839 
 400, 752 
 
 $128, 632 
 2, 456, 698 
 1, 638, 938 
 
 Washington 
 
 Total 
 
 3,304 
 
 47 
 
 1,155,875 
 
 1,607,500 
 
 2,703,375 
 
 64,647,490 
 
 1,968,642 
 
 955,026 
 
 4,224,268 
 
 In Japan about 200,000 cans of salmon {Oncorhynchus perryii and O. haberi), 
 amounting in value to 24,000 yen (-$12,000), are prepared annually, principally at Hok- 
 kaido and by the Sumitara and Fujino Company. 
 
 The following description of the methods of salmon canning is from Mr. W. A. 
 Wilcox's "Xotes on the Fisheries of the Pacific coast," (U. S. Fish Commission 
 Eeport for 189(3, pp. .583-587): 
 
 As at present conducted there is but slight diHerence iu the manner of preparing canned salmon 
 in any of the canneries. As a rule the factories are located adjacent to or very near the lishing- 
 grouuds, so that at the most hut a few hours elapse from the time the lish are freely swiniiuing until 
 they are caught, delivered at the cannery, dressed, canned, cooked, and packed, thus insuring a, 
 perfectly ficsh product, old or stale fish never Lcing met -with at a salmon cannery. The neatness 
 and cleanliness of tlie canneries is one of the first things noticed by visitors during the packing season. 
 
 The notes here iircsented on the methods of salmon canning wore taken in 1891) at a cannery on 
 the Columbia River, .and with few exceptions represent the canneries of the entire west coast. 
 
 The buildings connected with a 8.almon cannery are always built ,at tht^ water's edge or partly 
 over the water, so that vessels or boats may come alongside and deliver their fish and supplies or 
 receive the packed products. As a rule they are large, roomy, one-story frame structures, the busi- 
 ness of receiving, cooking, and packing of salmon all being in the one large, high, and well-lighted 
 room. The lofts are used for the storage of empty packing-cases, empty cans, nets, etc., and in some 
 instauccs lar"-c rooms are there used for the manufacture of cans. Adjacent to the cannery are the rude 
 quarters in which the Chinese employeis live and near by is usually the home of the superintendent. 
 
 F. C. B., 1898—33 
 
514 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 Chinese have a monopoly in the canning of salmon, but never eniijage in their capture. Before 
 the season opens contracts are made with some large Chinese firm of San Francisco or Portland to do 
 the work so far as relates to receiving raw products and turning the same over canned, packed, and 
 ready for shipment. 
 
 As a rule the tish are bought from the fishermen at so much apiece or per pound, a price for the 
 season having previously been agreed on; but in some cases the fishermen are liired by the month, 
 with or without board, the fishing boats and nets in that event being furnished by the cannery. 
 
 Contracts with the Chinese usually call for the packing of at least a certain number of cases, of 
 48 pounds each, at prices ranging from 30 to 40 cents a case for Ipouud cans, and higher for half- 
 pound oval or other special cans. 
 
 A working gang of from 30 to 75 Chinese, in charge of a native expert foreman, is sent to the 
 cannery in advance of the opening of the season. The men are constantly under the orders of the 
 Chinese foreman, and he in turn is under the supervision of thesuperiutendent. The foreman divides 
 up the duties, assigning a gang for each part of the work from the time the fish are lauded until they 
 are cased for shipment. These gangs follow their particular part of the work all through the season, 
 only in exceptional cases being called to any branch except their own. The receiving and dressing 
 "■an", being the first to begin, are the first to finish their labor, while the jiackers are the last to begin 
 and end the work of the day. If fish are plentiful, all of the men work from about 7 a. m. to 6 ji. ni., 
 with only a stop for the midday meal. If .salmon are scarce, the men may have but a few hours' work. 
 
 On the completion of the work of any gang the men must before leaving thoroughly clean their 
 section. In doing so a hose is used, with abundance of water, brooms, and scrubbing brushes, and 
 when the day's work is over the interior, platforms, and wharves are left scrupulously clean and ready 
 for the work of the following day. 
 
 As the fishermen arrive their catch is thrown out on the wharf, where it is received by tlie 
 Chinese and carried inside the cannery and thrown into boxes on the scales. Having been weighed, 
 a receipt is given to the fishermen, and the tish begin their journey through the cannery, that only 
 ends after they have been canned, cooked, packed, aud cased ready for shipment. 
 
 From the weighing scales the fish are thrown out on the door aud receive their first washing from 
 a stream of water that is played on them from a hose, the fish being turned over with a pitchfork, as 
 may bo necessary, to thoroughly remove all gurry and dirt. In some instances, where fish are rociiived 
 faster than they can be immediately handled, they are kept cool and fresh by having, as needed, a fine 
 spray of ice-cold water thrown over them from an overhead levolving pipe. The first gang receives 
 the fish on the dressing tables, which are near the door. Here the first of the work begins, and to 
 follow it through from its entrance to its exit, canned and cased, is an interesting sight to thousands 
 of visitors during the packing season. The first operator seizes fish after fish, and with a few quick 
 strokes of a large butcher knife severs head, fins, and tail. The next man opens the fish, removes the 
 viscera, and scrapes the carcass inside and out. Through an oijcning in the lloor all oti'al and waste 
 are at once thrown into the river and quickly consumed by schools of scavenger fish or the large num- 
 ber of gulls that hover in the vicinity waiting for their food. At some of the canneries near Astoria 
 receptacles for waste are provided by those interested in oil and fertilizer factories. 
 
 The fish is then shoved along to the man standing by the side of the lieader and cleaner for the 
 next washing, aud at the same time is scraped with a knife that removes the scales. The fish is tlieu 
 passed along into a secoiul tank of clear water, where it receives its linal washing and cleaning and 
 is made ready for cutting in proper-sized pieces. A series of semicircular knife-blades is attached to 
 a roller, the blades being equal distances apart, corresponding with the size or depth of cans to be 
 filled. One end of the roller is hinged, to the other end a handle is attached. The knives are raise<l 
 by means of the handle, the lish is placed under them, and with one <juick, sharp blow the fish is 
 entirely cut up into lengths suitable for canning. For 1-pound tall cans, 7 knives are attached to the 
 roller; for 1-pouud fiat cans, 13 knives; for i-pound cans, 17 knives. The fish are now in suitable 
 lengths, but must be sliced into sizes proper to enter the cans. This is quickly jierformed, and the 
 pieces are i)assed on to the filling gang. 
 
 Several men stand at one or both sides of the filling table, each supplied wi th small scales adjusted 
 to the weight of the cans to be filled. In some canneries cans are tilled by machinery, but this is 
 usually done by hand. As soon as filled the can is placed on the scale. If it shows full or over weight 
 it is passed on, no fish being removed; but if short weight, the can is put one side to receive enough 
 to make up the deficiency. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHING PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 515 
 
 From the filler tbo cau jiasses to ii man who places it ou a swiftly revolviug plate having a 
 closely tittiiig cap, and a small but strong stream of water is made to play against the revolviug can, 
 removing all grease and dirt. A small scrap of flat tin is put im top of its contents, and the iire2)ared 
 top is fitted on. In order to keep the top in place pending soldering, the can next goes to a man who 
 places it on a revolving jdate, while, liy means of a lever operated with his foot, the top piece is forced 
 down and securely held at the same time the edges are being smoothly crimped. The sealing of the 
 top is ingeniously accomplished. A brick furnace has on its top a long V-shapcd trough that is kept 
 filled with molten sohler. At the upper end of the solder trough and a few inches higher is a similar 
 one filled with muriatic acid. From the crimping machine the cans drop in an almost continuous 
 stream into the trougli with acid. A heavy endless chain passes along just over the troughs, and by 
 the friction from the chain the cans are carried on first through the acid, which touches only the outer 
 edge of the top of the can and prepares it to receive the solder through which it next jiasses. The 
 top of each can has a small hole punched in it to permit the escape of air as the can becomes heated 
 in its passage through the trough of molten solder. Here may be noticed the utility of the small 
 piece of tin before mentioned as being put in the can, without which the hole is liable to be clogged 
 up with fish, and, the vent being closed, the cans are liable to be badly strained, made leaky, and 
 have the entire top blown out. 
 
 The endless chain, having rolled the cans through the solder, drops them on an inclined plane 
 some 30 or 40 feet in length. Shortly before reaching the bottom of this incline the cans are met with 
 a shower bath of cold water from perforated pipes alongside of the incline. The bath is simply to 
 cool them so that they cau be instautly handled. The cans are at once placed on iron trays, known 
 as coolers; they consist of an iron frame 35 inches square, 3 inches deep, with slatted iron bottom. 
 One cooler holds 86 one-pound flat cans, or 160 one-pound tall cans. The small venthole on top of 
 the can is next sealed. The cooler tilled with cans is then attached to an overhead rail track and 
 transferred to a large wooden vat filled with water, having a temperature of 212"^ F. The cans remain 
 in this bath only a few moments, which is ample time to test them for leaks. If a can is not perfectly 
 air-tight, this fact is at once made evident by small air bubbles rising from the can while In the bath, 
 and it is at once removed for repairs, another cau being substituted. When the test is completed, the 
 cooler is placed on a small iron-iramed car haviug a capacity of 8 coolers, one on toji of another. 
 The cans are now ready for the cooking of the salmon in large retorts. 
 
 Retorts are made of wood or iron, but are usually of boiler iron, have a round shape, and are 
 about 13 feet long and 5 feet in diameter. A steam pipe extends along near the bottom. This is per- 
 forated for the escape of steam, which passes through a small amount of water with which the pipe Is 
 covered. On an iron track just over the pipes the loaded ears are run. Retorts usually have an oi)en- 
 ing or door at only one end, but in the cannery now being described there was an opening at each end 
 and two retorts were used, the few feet separating them being connected by a track by which cars of 
 coolers having passed through the first retort cau pass on into the second. Each retort has a capacity 
 of 4 cars, or 3,200 one-pound tall cans or 2,9.52 one-pound fiat cans. Cans of salmon remain in the first 
 retort under a steam temperature of 230'^ for one hour. They are then run out, vented, and at once 
 rescalcd. As the top of each can is perforated with a small, sharp-pointed iron, the heated air or 
 steam is expelled, and before its place can he taken with cold air the veut is olosedby a drop of solder, 
 and the can may be said to be free of air and air-tight. The cans are now ready for another cooking 
 in the second retort. Here the temperature is 240 , in which one-pound tall cans remain 1 hour and 
 flat cans IJr hours. Retorts are under a steam pressure of 7 to 10 pounds to the sc|uare Inch. 
 
 On removing the cans from the retorts they have a stream of cold water thrown ou I hem, by 
 which they are cooled and cleaned. They are now iiually tested for hMks or Imperfections by tapping 
 each can on the top with a small piece of Iron, an experienced ear quickly detecting by sound any 
 imperfection. Imperfect cans are replaced by others, .and the cans i)ass ou to be lacquered, labeled, 
 and packed in boxes, each holding 48 one-pound cans or 24 two-pound cans. They are then ready for 
 a distributiou that reaches almost every portion of the civilized globe. 
 
 The cannery at which these notes were taken was provided with electric lights and ample steam 
 power; the rooms were well ventilated and lighted; its walls were white with paint or whitewash. 
 It is located on the Columbia River with the Cascade Range of mountains towering from 1,500 to 2,500 
 feet just at its back. From these mountains the icy-cold and very pure water used at the cannery is 
 brought. 
 
51(3 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATED FI^II COMMISSION. 
 
 Much attentiou is given to variety and styles in cans and labels, which yearly show improve- 
 ment in style and design. Sixteen varieties of cans were used in the pack of 189.5. Brands also receive 
 much consideration, and in many cases have a high value on account of the enviable roputaiion of the 
 goods previously packed under them. 
 
 To supply the annual demand for 60,000,000 to 80,000,000 tin c:in8 in which to pack the salmon 
 caught in the waters of the United States on the Pacific Coast is of itself a large business. Many 
 packing firms make a part or all of the cans they need. This is more for the jiurpose of keeping 
 desirable men employed between seasons than for any saving in expenses for cans. The bulk of the 
 cans are turned out from factories at San Francisco. In April, 1893, the Pacific Can Company of Sau 
 Francisco, by opening a branch factory at Astoria, filled a long-felt want of the packers in Oregon 
 and Washington. For ten months in the year this Astoria branch gives employment to 80 persons, of 
 whom 25 are females and 55 males. Chinese are not employed in this establishment. The weekly 
 payroll averages $750, or $30,000 a year. The plant represents an investment of $80,000. 
 
 Of late each year finds some new shape or size of can used in salmon packing, there being 16 
 varieties of cans for salmon manufactured by this company in 1895. The total number of cans turned 
 out in 1895 amounted to 18,500,000, of which 2,000,000 had the key attachment, on which the royalty 
 is 75 cents per 1,000 cans. A large quantity of the various cans is kept on hand, from which the 
 canneries of the Columbia and coast rivers and those of Puget Sound are supplied as needed. The 
 tin plate used amounted to 45,000 boxes, of which 10,000 were of American manufacture and 35,000 
 were imported. The average price of plate during 1895, including an import duty of $1.20 a box, 
 was $4.10 a bos, averaging 100 pounds with 112 sheets each. American-made plate is 50 cents a box 
 lower at Chicago than that imported, but 50 cents higher by the time it reaches Astoria, owing to the 
 difference in freight — by sailing vessel from Europe of $7 a ton, or by rail from the East of $14 a ton. 
 
 Conimauder Jefferson P. Moser, U. S. Navy, commanding tbe IT. S. Fish Commis- 
 sion steamer Albatross, has given a description of the processes of canning salmon in 
 Alaska, in the Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898, pages 22-34. 
 
 CANNING OYSTERS. 
 
 Preserving oysters by cooking and hermetically sealing them originated in the 
 United States in 1844, in the establishment of Thomas Kensett, Baltimore, Md., but 
 the trade appears to have been develoiied by A. Field & Co. of that city. From the 
 beginning of the industry up to the present time it has been prosecuted mainly at 
 Baltimore, probably not 3 jter cent of the total i)roduct since 1844 having been pre- 
 l^ared outside of that city. In addition to Baltimore, oysters are canned at one or two 
 other Chesapeake ports and at Apalachicola, Fla., Biloxi and Bay St. Louis, Miss., 
 and Morgan City, La. The term "cove" is sometimes a))iilied to oysters prepared in 
 this manner, and the higher prices prevailing in the fresh-oyster trade usually re(inire 
 that the medium and small size oysters be used. 
 
 Originally in the canning business the raw oysters were opened by hand, but 
 about 1858 Lew McMurry, of Baltimore, began scalding them, this process cansing 
 the shells to open and allowing the oysters to be removed with far less labor than 
 would be required if they had not been heated. Steaming originated about 18(i(», the 
 oysters being placed in baskets holding about 3 pecks each, and these to the number 
 of about 300 were placed in a large box and there steamed. In 1862 Henry Evans, oi' 
 Baltimore, devised the present method of using, in combination with the steam box, 
 large cars, in which the oysters are placed. The sides and bottoms of these cars are 
 ■made of iron bars, so that the steam may readily pass among the oysters, partly 
 
 * See Letters Patent No. 35511, dated Juno 10, 1862. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 517 
 
 cooking tliem and cansing the shells to oneii freely. The track on which the cars 
 rnn is laid from the wharf to and into the steam box, and thence to the shucking room. 
 
 The details of the present process of steaming and canning follow, this description 
 ajiplying especially to the business at Baltimore. 
 
 The oysters when taken from the vessels are placed in cars of iron framework, 6 
 or 8 feet long, with capacity for about 20 bushels. These cars are run on a light iron 
 track, which is laid from the wharf through a steam-tight chest or box, to the shucking 
 shed. This steam chest is a rectangular oak box, 15 to 20 feet long, lined with sheet 
 iron, fitted with appliances for turning on steam to any desired pressure, and with a 
 door'at either end which shuts closely and is so packed with felt or some other material 
 as to make the Joint between the door and box as nearly steamtight as practicable. 
 When a car is filled with oysters in the shell it is run into the steam chest and there left 
 for 15 minutes, with the doors closed and steam admitted. The chest is then opened and 
 the car run into the shucking room, its place in the chest being immediately occupied by 
 another car. 13y having a sufficient number of cars the laborers may be constantly 
 employed, loading and unloading in succession as they are steamed and emptied. 
 
 lu the shucking sheds the cars are surrounded by the shuckers, sometimes to the 
 number of several hundred, each provided with a knife and a can arranged so as to 
 hook to the upper bar of the iron framework of the car. The steaming causes the 
 oyster shells to open more or less widely, and the meat is readily removed. 
 
 The opened oysters are then washed thoroughly in cold water and transferred to 
 the "fillers' table," and the cans, when filled, after being weighed individually, are 
 taken to the soldering table and there "capped"; that is, hermetically sealed. From 
 the "cappers" they are jjlaced in a cylindrical crate or basket and lowered into a large 
 cylindrical kettle, called the "process kettle" or "retort," which is partly filled with 
 water, where they are again steamed to such a degree as to destroy all germs of fermen- 
 tation. After this they are placed, crate and all, in a vat of cold water, this serving 
 the double purpose of arresting the operation of cooking by cooling them and of testing 
 for leaks. When suificiently cool to be handled the cans are transferred to another 
 department, labeled, and packed in boxes for shipment. 
 
 The shuckers usually work iu gangs of 6 or 8 persons, comprising sometimes whole 
 families of men, women, and children. Those iu Baltimore number about 4,000, rang- 
 ing in ages from 12 to 60 years, and are mostly women and children, the work being 
 light and peculiarly adapted to them. They are mainly of foreign parentage. Few 
 scenes are more interesting than those observed on a visit to the shucking room of 
 any one of the large canning houses. At one end the cars of steaming hot oysters 
 are received, and as these are arranged in long rows covering the length of the room 
 the shuckers, numbering GOO or more in some establishments, surround the cars and 
 with rapidly working knives hastily and skillfully remove the yet steaming oysters. 
 These employees are extremely industrious, and hundreds of small dwelling houses 
 have been purchased in Baltimore with money obtained by the women and children 
 at work in the oyster houses. The shucking is ilone in a cup known legally as the 
 "oyster-gallon cup," which holds 9 pints, wine measure. Tlie shuckers are paid at 
 the rate of cents per "cup," averaging about 65 cents per day, the total wages 
 paid those iu Baltimore amounting to about $80,000 annually. 
 
 About 800 other persons are engaged in the Baltimore canneries, of whom about 
 three fifths are men. These employees are paid from $5 to $25 per week, their total 
 
518 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 wages amounting to about $90,000 annually. The largest item of expense in the 
 canning houses, aside from the cost of the oysters, is the jjurchase of tin, labels, etc., 
 this amounting to about $315,000 annually. The incidental expenses of the Baltimore 
 canneries amount to about $20,000. The total cost of handling a bushel of oysters 
 in the canning houses is about 29 cents. 
 
 The cost of the oysters for tlie canning trade at Baltimore has averaged during 
 recent years about 55 cents i)er bushel. Each bushel yields about 50 ounces of " solid 
 meats." These are packed in 1-pound and 2 pound cans and cans of miscellaneous 
 sizes, most of the latter being a trifle larger than the 1-pound cans, which contain 
 about 5 ounces of solid meats, the 2-pound cans containing 10 ounces each. The price 
 received during the last seven or eight years for the 1 pound and 2-pound cans has 
 averaged about 75 cents and $1.40, respectively, per dozen. 
 
 Tlio following summary shows the extent of the oyster canning at Baltimore 
 during the most recent year for which detailed returns are available: 
 
 Extent of Baltimore oyster canning in 1S91-93. 
 
 Capital invested, employees, etc. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Products. 
 
 Establishments, etc. 
 
 Kumber, 
 value, etc. 
 
 Items. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Cans. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Number of establish- 
 
 20 
 
 Cost of oyster-s 
 
 Wages paid slmckers. 
 Wages paid to others. 
 Tin cans, labels, etc .. 
 
 $1, 201, 600 
 
 73, 680 
 
 97, 500 
 
 320, 000 
 
 25, 000 
 
 Sounce cans, 9, 388.6.n0 ... 46, 943, 250 
 10-ounce cans 4 643 822 1 4fi iWR 920 
 
 • $764,450 
 725,515 
 366, 545 
 
 Valiie of property... 
 
 $1, 255, 000 
 $1, 170, 000 
 
 Miscellaneous cans 
 
 Total 
 
 22, 635. 000 
 
 Persons employed . . - 
 Oysters received, 
 
 4,848 
 2, 396, 763 
 
 Total 
 
 1,717,780 
 
 110, 016, 470 
 
 1,856,510 
 
 
 
 
 The oysters on the Gulf of Mexico are large and less iirm in structure than those 
 of Chesapeake Bay; consequently, when canned in the ordinary manner, they tend to 
 disintegrate and have a somewhat slimy appearance. In 1880 a process was invented 
 by Mr. J. T. Maybury by which the texture of the oysters may be hardened so that 
 they may be boiled without disintegrating.* This process is as follows: 
 
 To 10 gallons of pnre water add one half gallon of goo<l commercial vinegar and l,^o gills of 
 a saturated aiiueous solution of salicylic acid, to which mixture sufticieiit common salt is added to 
 idipart the requisite salty llavor to the oysters. Tlie mixture is boiled a few minutes and poured over 
 the oysters iu the cans, which are at once sealed and placed in a steam bath, the temperature of which 
 is 202^^ F. This temperature is gradually raised to 240" and maintained at that degree for about 45 
 minutes. The cans are then vented, resealed, and steamed as before for about 30 minutes, when they 
 are ready to be labeled and packed. 
 
 The acids serve to coagulate the fatty portion of the oyster and thereby render 
 its body more dense and firm. The acids are harmless and the quantity is so small 
 that they are not perceptible to the taste. 
 
 The term canning is frequently applied incorrectly to a much less permanent 
 method of preserving oysters, viz, placing them in hermetically sealed tin cans or 
 small wooden kegs, which contain from 25 to 200 oysters, without cooking them. By 
 this method the germs within the can or keg and its contents are not destroyed, and 
 the oysters will keep for only a few days, and even then the cans are usually shipped 
 in iced boxes. Twenty years ago a very large part of the oyster trade was carried on 
 
 »See Letters Patent No. 230r)(?l, dated July 27, 1880. 
 
PRESKRVATION OF FISHERY PRODITCTS FOR FOOD. 519 
 
 in tliis way, but the extra cost of packages and the increased facilities for handling 
 oiieiied oysters in larger packages have almost entirely done away with the shipment 
 in cans. It is yet practiced along the Gulf of Mexico, especially on the Texas coast, 
 and at a few points along the Atlantic coast and in the interior of the United States. 
 
 CANNING SOFT CLAMS. 
 
 The soft clams {Mya arenaria) of the New England coast have been canned in 
 qnantitii's of greater or less extent for thirty years or more, principally by establish- 
 ments ill Maine as a minor part of tlieir output. There are also a few canneries of 
 whicli the principal output consists of clams. The first clam cannery iu this country 
 was established at Pine Point, Me., S miles west of Portland, by Messrs. P.urnham & 
 Morrill. 
 
 The process of canning in general use is as follows: First the siphon or "snout" 
 is cut off, tlie thin skin or film covering removed, and the dams cleaned in the same 
 manner as when prepared for the table. They are then placed in tin cans, holding 
 from (Ji to 12 ounces, after which the cans are nearly filled with the liquid, diluted 
 with eitlier fVesh, salt, or sea water, and the covers soldered on. The cans are next 
 placed iu crates and the coutents are cooked in, a tank of boiling water, the time of 
 boihng depending on tlie freshness of the clams, usually continuing about 2 hours 
 when tlie clams are fresh, and a trifie longer if they have been out of water several 
 days. Tlie cans are at once vented and again sealed and boiled about li hours, when 
 they are ready for labeling and boxing. 
 
 In some establishments a lining of white paper is placed on the bottom, around 
 the sides, aud at the top of the can, to prevent the contact of the contents with the 
 tin, which sometimes results iu the clams turning dark. 
 
 Tlie product of canned clams in the United States at present amounts to about 
 40,0()(t cases annually, valued at $2.50 to $3.50 per case. 
 
 CANNING MACKEREL. 
 
 There are three distinctive varieties of canned mackerel prepared iu this country, 
 differing entirely in tlie methods of preparation and alike only in that they are .sealed 
 in tin cans: (1) fresh mackerel cooked in the manner usually applied to salmon — the 
 oldest aud most extensively used process; (2) broiled mackerel; (3) brine-salted mack- 
 erel, which are placed in tin cans simply for convenience iu marketing. 
 
 MACKEKEL PLAIN-CANNED. 
 
 The preparation of the first variety of canned mackerel was begun in this counti-y 
 in 1843 by Messrs. Treat, Noble & Holliday, of Eastport, Me., and was carried on 
 by them incidentally with the canning of lobsters. During several years following 
 1843 the output was very small, averaging about 5,000 1 pound cans per year, the 
 public being somewhat slow to fully appreciate the qualities of the ])roduct, but from 
 that date to the present time the busiuess has been continued on the Maine and 
 Massachusetts coasts in connection with lobster and other canneries, and the extent of 
 the jiroduct has fluctuated from year to year according to the abundance of mackerel 
 on the coast. 
 
 In canning fresh mackerel it is quite es.sential that the fish be prepared as soon 
 as practicable after being removed from the water. In dressing them the heads, tails, 
 
520 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 fins, scales, and viscera are removed, the fisli cleaiiscil, and soaked for a short time 
 in strong brine to acquire a salty or " corned'' flavor. Tliey are next placed and sealed 
 ill tin cans which are at once immersed in boiling water until their contents are 
 thoroughly cooked. The cans are then "vented," resealed, cooled, and prei)ared for 
 the market. The cans are usually 4i inches iu height and 3 inches in diameter, and 
 hold about 1 pound of tish; 2-pound and 3 pound cans arc also used to some extent. 
 
 The price runs from $1 to $1.30 per dozen 1-pound cans, and the product from 
 r>,()()() to 3,000,000 cans annually. In 1879 the output in New England was about 
 !>()0,()00 1 -pound cans; in 1880, 1,342,008 pounds, worth $150,449, and in 1881, 2,804,000 
 pounds. 
 
 The decreasing abundance of mackerel has resulted in considerable falling off in 
 the output since 1885. The product in 1892 was about 1,000 cases, and in 1S98 very 
 few were put up, probably not over 200 cases, prepared at rroviucetown and Boston. 
 
 BROILED MACICEBEL. 
 
 Canning "broiled " mackerel was begun in the spring of 1880 by Eastport sardine 
 canners. Two methods are ]iracticed. The first, which originated with Mr. Julius 
 Wold', of the Eagle Preserved Fish Oomioany, is almost identical with that used for 
 sardines. The fish are dressed, washed, assorted according to size, dried, fried in oil, 
 and sealed in tins with vinegar and si)ices. 
 
 The second method, which is in more general use, originated with Mr. Henry 
 Sellman, of the American Sardine Company. The small mackerel are split down the 
 belly, the heads and tails being removed, and then cleansed and put in strong brine 
 for half an hour or so. When suflScient salt has been absorbed they are rinsed, spread 
 on wire trays, and placed in a steam box, where they are steamed for a few minutes. 
 The fish, yet on the trays, are baked in the rotary oven described on page 527, and are 
 then packed with nuistard, tomato sauce, or spiced vinegar, in oval-shaped tin boxes 
 holding from 1 to 3 pounds each. The cans are sealed and subjected to a hot water 
 bath, after which they are vented, cooled, and labeled. These mackerel are far supe- 
 rior to any of the brands of herring, and the demand has always been greater than 
 the supply. From 10.000 to 15,000 cases were prepared in 1808, about equally divided 
 into mustards, tomatoes, and spiced vinegars. They are sometimes placed in fancy 
 glass receptacles and are sold at high prices. 
 
 CANNING SALT MACKEEEL. 
 
 The demand for small packages of salt mackerel led, about 1875, to the prepara- 
 tion of them in tin cans. In 1879 the equivalent of about 280,000 5-pound cans was 
 prepared in Gloucester aiul Boston, about equally divided between the two places. In 
 other parts of the country about 80,(100 cans were prepared during the same year. 
 These sold wholesale at about §5 per dozen 5 |)onnd cans. 
 
 In preparing this article, the commercial, brine-salted nuickerel, usually of the 
 better grades, aie used, No. 2 being the most popular size. These are washed and 
 scraped, to give them a neat appearance, and the heads and tails are cut oif, ami if 
 large the fish are sometimes cut transversely in two pieces. In packing, a/small quan- 
 tity of fine salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the can and the fish are carefully arranged 
 flesh side up, except the top layer, which is placed tlesh side down. A small quautity 
 
PEESERVATION OF FISHKRY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 521 
 
 of salt is then sprinkled o\er tlie fish and the to]) is soldered on. A xiuncture about 
 oue-third inch in diameter is tlieii made at the side of the can, through which the 
 can is completely filled witii salt brine. A tin button is soldered over this puncture 
 and the can is cleaned and labeled for market. A barrel of mackerel will " mess" about 
 ISO pounds, which will fill 3 cases each containing 1 dozen opouud cans. This work 
 is usually done at the salting houses, tlie necessary cans being purchased of the 
 can-makers, and a solderer is employed by the hour. 
 
 In addition to the 5-pound cans, 3 pound, 4^ pound, and 10 pound cans have been 
 used. The .5 pound cans are of two shapes, each of which is about 3i inches deep; the 
 first is round ami 9 inches in diameter, the second is oval and 6i inches wide and 9.J 
 inches long. The scarcity of mackerel during the past few years has resulted in very 
 few being put up in this way. When mackerel were abundant, as 12 or 1~) years ago, 
 a single firm used to ship 1,500 to 2,.')00 cases of canned salt mackerel each week, but 
 probably not more than 1,200 cases were prepared in 1898. 
 
 CANNING LOBSTERS. 
 
 On the American continent lobsters were first canned in 184:2, at Eastport, Me., 
 by Messrs. Treat, Noble & Holliday. As is frequently the case in the establishment 
 of new industries, the capital was limited, the appliances were crude, and the quality 
 of the product could not always be depended upon. In 1813 the firm secured the 
 services of Mr. Charles Mitchell, wiio had engaged in canning during the i)receding 
 year at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and who had ten years' experience in the same business 
 in Scotland. Mr. Mitchell improved the processes according to methods employed in 
 his native country, and no further difficulty was ex])erienced in preparing a desirable 
 grade of goods. Letters patent were applied for, but the matter was not in-essed and 
 the claim was not granted. During the few years following the origin of the business 
 the 1-pound cans of lobsters sold at o cents each, and 3J pounds, live weight, were 
 required to make a 1-pound can. No lobsters under 2 pounds in weight were used. 
 
 In 18S0 there were 23 lobster canneries on the United States coast, and the 
 output amounted to 2,OJ:!),8()(3 cans, worth $238,000; in 1SS9 it was 1,170,501 cans, 
 worth $ 112,613, and in 1892 it equaled 1,235,160 cans, valued at $195,941. Since that 
 year the output has been very small, the product daring 1897 and 1S98 on the whole 
 of the United States coast not exceeding 20,000 cans annually. While there appears 
 to be no accurate data as to the output of canned lobsters prior to 1880, yet it is well 
 known to have been of much greater extent than at present. 
 
 Prior to 1870 the industry was confined almost exclusively to the United States, 
 but the growing .scarcity and the increased price of lobsters on the Maine coast 
 soon resulted in the establishment of numerous canneries in the British Provinces by 
 New England capitalists. The number of these canneries has greatly increased, and 
 they now furnish nearly the whole supply of this product. The quantity of canned 
 lobsters produced in the Dominion of Canada during the year 1892 amounted to 
 12,524,498 1 p(mnd cans, valued at $1,758,425, and in Newfoundland 1,258,308 cans, 
 valued at !t''*l7(>,083, making, with the 1,235,100 cans produced in the United States, an 
 aggregate of 15,017,966 l-])ouud cans, worth $2,130,449. From 1870 to 1893, inclusive, 
 the total product of canned lobsters in the Dominion of Canada was 254,106,936 
 1-pound cans, with a total value approximating $38,116,000. 
 
522 liULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH rOMMISSlON. 
 
 Ifc is cheaper to can lobsters iu the British Provinces than iu the United States. 
 In this country lobsters, when obtainable, do not cost mnch more than in the Prov- 
 inces, but wages are at least 50 i)er cent liigber here than in Canada, where tlie men 
 receive about $1 ])er day and the women and children abont 50 cents per day. In 
 addition to this, there is a duty on tin in the United States, while that article is free 
 of duty in the Provinces. 
 
 The process of canning lobsters on the coast of Maine and in the British North 
 American Provinces is as follows: 
 
 The lobsters are tirst boiled in a large vat or kettle about 20 minutes, after which 
 they are heai)ed on large tables, usually with the backs up, care being taken to have 
 the bodies more or less straightened out. The boiling is frequently done in the after- 
 noon, in order that the lobsters may have sufficient time to cool during the night. The 
 next morning certain men, designated as "breakers," break off the claws and tails from 
 the bodies, throwing the latter witli the refuse, for the reason that, though tlie carapax 
 contaijis some good meat, it is difficult toextr;\ct and clean it. The sweetbreads, how- 
 ever, are generally saved. The claws are then split by the "crackers," using a small 
 hatchet or cleaver, which opens them so that the meat can be readily taken out. 
 Formerly the tail was split in a similar manner to the (;laws, but at present the meat 
 is punched out from the tail by means of a small "thole" pin, or other suitable pointed 
 implement. The meat is next thoroughly washed iu water, the tin cans tilled and 
 weighed to insure uniformity, and then covered and cleaned, after which they go to the 
 sealers, who solder the covers down. Next comes the bathing, the most difticult part 
 of the process. The cans are immersed in boiling water for about an hour, when they 
 are taken out and " vented," a small hole being punched in the cover to release the air, 
 after which they are sealed again and boiled for 2 hours longer. They are afterwards 
 allowed to cool, tested to insure their being tight, and then scoured, painted, and 
 labeled. If the cans are boiled in a retort, say at a steam pressure of 1.5 pounds 
 to the square inch, which is equivalent to 250° F., the time of boiling is reduced about 
 one-half.* 
 
 The preservation of " shell lobsters" was originated as early as 1840 in Ohristiania, 
 Norw.iy, by Jacob March. In that year he took out a patent in his native country 
 for putting them up iu such a manner as to exhibit the red color of fresh-boiled lobsters. 
 It appears that he dipped them in boiling salt water until they reached this color, and 
 then made an incision in the soft part under the tail, thus releasing the water within 
 them, and then ])laced them iu hermetically sealed vessels. The process was never 
 emi)loyed extensively and was abandoned within a few years. 
 
 The canning of shell lobsters iu this country was begun iu 1879, at Southwest 
 Harbor, Me. This product is the outgrowth of a demand in the British market. for 
 whole lobsters for garnishing purposes. Finding difficulty in obtaining lobsters, as 
 commonly prepared for the trade, sufficiently fresh for this purjiose, the London agent 
 for one of the leading packing establishments in Maine suggested the idea of meeting 
 this demand, and satisfactory results were obtained after many experiments. The 
 lobsters, 12 and 11 inches in length and of good condition, are selected from the general 
 stock and boiled, the tail bent under the body, and without being removed from the 
 shell are packed in long cylindrical cans suitable for this purpose. The method of 
 boiling is similar to that ordinarily used in canning lobsters, the only difference being 
 
 *See The Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 2. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PROnUCTS FOR FOOD. 523 
 
 t'uit tliey are boiled a little longer in order th;it tiie heat may thorongbly penetrate the 
 shell and i)ieserve the meat. 
 
 "Deviled lobsters" in half pound cans have been prepared at several canneries, 
 the article originating in 1871.* 
 
 Twenty years ago London was the principal distribnting market of the world for 
 canned lobsters, England, France, and (ieruiany receiving about three-fourths of the 
 entire product of the world, which at that time amounted to about 400,000 cases of 48 
 1-pouiid cans. The consumption in the United States, then comparatively small, has 
 steadily increased; so that while the total pack has decreased to abimt 2.")0,000 cases 
 a year, tht^ United States consumes about 100,000, or 40 per cent. 
 
 CANNING SHRIMP. 
 
 The shrimp-canning industry was established in this country in 1875 by Messrs. 
 Gr. W. Dunbar & Sons, at New Orleans, La. Their factory was occupied mainly with 
 the canning of various fruits, and utilized shrimp only during the months in which 
 they are most abundant. As the product became better known the extent of the 
 business increased and canned shrimp is now, next to oysters, the most valuable of the 
 marine products canned on the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The quality of the product during the tirst year of the business was unsatisfac- 
 tory, as the direct contact of the shrimp with the tin caused, during the pi-ocess of 
 cooking and thereafter, a i)recipitation of black or dark matter which discolored the 
 shrimp and detracted from their flavor and richness, and the li<iuid in the shrimp 
 constituted a medium for diffusing the coloring matter throughout the can, so that all 
 portions of the contents were equally att'ected and discolored. This precipitation or 
 coloring is believed to be caused by the action of sulphur contained in the shrimp on 
 the metal of the can. After much experimenting, Messrs. Dunbar overcame the 
 trouble by interposing a lining between the meat and the can, which protected the 
 tin from the action of any acids contained in the shrimp. They also place the shrimp 
 in the lined can while they are in a dry or moist condition and devoid of free liquid, 
 and seal the can without adding any liquid to its contents. The lining consists of 
 any textile fabric in the form of a cylindrical bag or sack, the diameter of which, when 
 filled, permits it to fit snugly within the can. The use of this lining was protected by 
 Letters Patent 178910, dated June 20, 1870, and Eeissue 9957, dated December G, 1881. 
 
 The process of canning shrimp at that time, according to the specifications 
 accompanying the letters patent, was as follows: 
 
 The shells having heen removed from the shrimp in the usual manner, the fish is thrown into 
 salt water of about 6^, and there remains for an hour, more or less, and from thence to kettles filled 
 with water and brought to a bciiling heat, after which they are placed on drippers and cooled and 
 thoroughly rinsed with fresh coM water, from which, so soon as thoroughly dripped and in a moist 
 condition and without the addition of salted or otlierwise prepared licjuid, they are placed in the sack, 
 the same having been previously arranged in the can. So soon as the saelc is filled, the month theret f 
 being jiroperly secured, tlie lid or head is placed in position on the can and immediately sealed. Tlie 
 cans are thru snlijeeted to a steam bath or placed in kettles containing boiling water and boiled for 
 two hours at the highest temperature attainable, and which completes the process. 
 
 The present method differs somewhat from the foregoing in a few minor particu- 
 lars. As soon as practicable after being landed from the luggers, the shrimp are 
 
 " The Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol.2. 
 
524 P.ULT;ETIN OF THK TTNITE11 STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 boiled in salt water for 30 niiuutes, aiid separated from tlie sliells by girls, who use 
 only their Angers for this purpose. The slirimx^ are then dunii)ed on a small platform, 
 and the shell particles, tentacles, etc., are i^icked off, after which they are passed 
 through a blower on an endless platform, where the remaining dust and other foreign 
 matters are removed. They are next placed in 1 pound cans containing 10 ounces 
 each, the lining having been inserted. When the cans are filled, the lining covers 
 are adjusted and the lids sealed on and the cans placed in a batli of boiling water 
 for 2 hours. On removal from this bath they are ready for labeling. 
 
 Messrs. (t. W. Dunbar's Sons (successors to G. W. Dunbar & Sons) now have the 
 only shrimp cannery in Louisiana, though for a few years prior to 1891 a factory 
 owned by Messrs. A. Booth & Co., of Chicago, was operated at Morgan City. At 
 Biloxi, Miss., are three canneries which devote considerable attention to preparing 
 shrimp, the first of these having been established about 1880. 
 
 In 1897 the output of canned shrimp in Louisiana and Mississip]n was 1,39.5,168 
 1, IJ, and 2 pound cans, which sold for $156,190. 
 
 In 1879 a shrimp cannery was established at Galveston, Tex., by Messrs. Pecor 
 Brothers. To prevent discoloration of the shrimp, instead of placing a lining of some 
 textile fabric between the fish and the can, as in the Dunbar process, this firm lined 
 the can with a coating of asphaltum cement, which was permitted to dry thoroughly. 
 Strips of paper were then cut, and, after being coated with a hot solution of paraffin, 
 were placed within the can so as to fully cover its interior surface.* The can was 
 filled with shrimp, and the subsequent treatment was substantially as liereinbefore 
 described. In 1880 this cannery was reported as having put up 7."),000 1 pound cans 
 of shrimp, worth $13,000, but a large decrease in abundance of shrimp in Galveston 
 Bay necessitated its closing down a few years later. 
 
 Another method of lining the inside of tin cans to prevent the direct contact of 
 the shrimp with the metal was devised by Louis Lenglet, of St. Louis, Mo. This con- 
 sists in providing a lining of corn husks, covering the inside annular body of the can 
 as well as the top and bottom. It is claimed that corn husks have the advantage of 
 requiring no jjrevious treatment with acids to neutralize or destroy any peculiar odor 
 or flavor of the material, and that such lining keeps its shape well, is sufficiently thin 
 and flexible, and not expensive. 
 
 Shrimp are also canned in Japan by a process similar to that employed in this 
 country. Specimens of the Japanese product were exhibited at the World's Fair, 
 Chicago, 1893. 
 
 CANNING CRABS. 
 
 The canning of crabs originated in this country about 1878, with Mr. James 
 McMeuamin, then located at Norfolk, A^a. He first attempted to follow the methods 
 used in canning lobsters, but not meeting with satisfactory results he started out on 
 original lines, the product being first placed on the market in the fall of 1878. On 
 account of the greater abundance of crabs in that vicinity, Mr. McMenamiu moved to 
 Hampton, Va., in April of 1879, and began operations on a large scale. In that year 
 another cannery was established at Hampton by Jlr. T. T. Bryce. In 1879 these two 
 canneries used 6,000,000 crabs, producing 84,000 2 pound cans, worth $1(),800. One 
 
 • Letters Patent No. 226347, dated April 6, 1880. 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 525 
 
 or two other canneries have beeu established since, the principal one being at Biloxi, 
 Miss. The present annual output in the United States is valued at about $45,000. 
 
 The season for crab canning in the Chesapealie begins iu April and continues 
 until October, except that sometimes the work is discontinued during June and July 
 on account of the large number of crabs with spawn, in which condition they are not 
 suitable for canning. 
 
 The crabs are placed in opeu slat-work cars, usually of a size suflBcient for hold- 
 ing about 2.")0 dozen, and are rolled into a steam box, where they are cooked 20 or 30 
 minutes, when tliey become red. Tlie cars are then rolled out of tlie steam chest and 
 the crabs passed to the "strijjpers," who remove the outer shells, viscera, and small 
 claws. The crabs next jiass to the "pickers," consisting principally of women and 
 children, who remove the meat from the bodies and the claws, crusliing the latter with 
 the handle of the knife employed in the work. Different operatives are employed for 
 picking tlie bodies and the claws. The pickers generally receive from 2 to 3 cents per 
 pound for this work, and the most skilled among them i^repare 40 or 50 pounds per day, 
 but the average quantity is about one-half of this. 
 
 After being weighed the meat is placed into cans of two sizes, 1 pound and 2 
 pounds, about 12 crabs being required to each 1 pound can. The cans are sealed, 
 boiled for half an hour, and then vented. They are at once resealed and boiled for a 
 second time (making the third time that the meat has been cooked) for about 2 hours. 
 The length of the second boiling inay be shortened by increasing the possible tempera- 
 ture of the water, which is usually done by adding chloride of calcium thereto. 
 
 When the cans have been properly cleaned and labeled, they are packed in cases 
 holding 48 1 -pound or 24 2-pound cans, and sold wholesale at about $8 and $G per 
 case, respectively. A package of shells usually goes with each case of cans, four 
 shells being allowed for each 1-pound can.* 
 
 It is stated that in 1891, 3,838 barrels of crabs, worth $6,141, were canned in 
 Virginia, yielding 1,095 cases of 1-pound cans and 2,880 cases of 2-pound cans, worth 
 $7,884 and $16,128, respectively. In 1890, (J,303 barrels, or 2,386,256 crabs, worth 
 $5,090, were used, producing 1,277 cases of 1-pound cans and 5,472 2 pound cans, 
 worth $9,194 and $30,643, respectively. In 1897 the output was 1,992 cases of l-jwund 
 cans and 3,898 cases of 2-pound cans, worth $14,177 and $22,064, respectively. 
 
 When intended for nearby markets, and for consumption within 4 or 5 days, the 
 crabs are not usually canned, but the meat, after being removed from the shell, as in 
 case of canning, is placed in 10-gallon tins, a piece of ice placed in each tin to keep 
 the flesh cool, and the tins placed in refrigerators. When orders are received, the ice 
 is removed and the meat repa(tked in tin or wooden buckets of suitable size, contain- 
 ing .i gallon, o gallons, 8 gallons, and 10 gallons, and the buckets placed in a small 
 barrel in much the same way that ice cream is packed for shipment, ice being placed 
 all about the can or bucket. Sometimes a small lump of ice is jilaced in the bucket, 
 and some dealers also use an antisei)tic, such as boracic acid. The crab meat is sold 
 at $1 to $1.50 per gallon, wholesale, and with each 10-gallon bucket half a bushel of 
 empty shells are sent without extra charge. This trade is carried on at Annapolis, 
 Crisfield, Hampton, Norfolk, and other ports on the Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 'Fishery Industries of the Uflited States, sec. v, vol. 2, pp. 646-617. 
 
526 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 SARDINES. 
 
 The most valuable of the mariue i)roducts cauued in oil is the preparation of 
 small fishes of the herring family, in the form known generally as sardines. This 
 industry was established at Nantes, France, about the year 1834, and it was introduced 
 in the United States about LS75. It has reached its greatest development in Brittany, 
 the most costly brands on the market being canned on that coast. Sardines are now 
 prepared in France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, United States, Brazil, Mexico, etc., 
 but the industry has three principal geographical centers: (1) the Mediterranean 
 coasts, (2) the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic coasts of Spain, and (.5) the coast of 
 Maine. In each one of these regions methods are employed quite at variance with those 
 used in the others. 
 
 The preparation of sardines began in the United States about 1875 and has grad- 
 ually increased in extent, though it was confined within comparatively luirrow limits 
 until 1880, when 13 new canneries were established, there being only 5 operated pre- 
 viously. In 18SG there were 4,5 canneries, and since that year the value of the output 
 has averaged about $2,000,000 annually, all prepared on the coast of Maine, and 
 nearly all in the counties of Washington and Hancock. On the Maine coast 37 factories 
 were engaged in canning sardines in 1880, 4G in 1892, and 60 in 1898. A few sardines 
 are prepared also on the Pacific coast of the United States. 
 
 SARDINE CANNING IN MAINE. 
 
 The herring used in the sardine industry in Maine are from 5 to 10 inches in 
 length, and are taken from the middle of April to the middle of December, by means of 
 weirs, and to some extent in gill nets and seines. Tlie present method of preparing 
 these fish as sardines is as follows: 
 
 On reaching the factory the fish are at once distributed along the middle of the 
 cutting tables where tiiey are quickly decapitated and eviscerated. It was formerly 
 customary to remove the tails, but this is no longer practiced. As each fish is dressed 
 it is thrown into a cutting box placed under the edge of the table. They are next 
 washed by being dipped with a scoop net into a washing tank, through which water 
 is constantly running, and are immediately immersed in strong brine from 15 minutes 
 to 1 hour, the length of time depending upon the size and fatness of the fish, their 
 freshness, and the condition of the weather. In cold weather, owing to their firmness, 
 they must be salted longer than in the summer. As soon as they are sulliciently 
 "struck" the herring are removed from the brine and allowed to drain in baskets. 
 Tiiey are afterwards carried to the Haking room and arranged upon flakes, which are 
 wooden frames about 3 feet long and 22 inches wide, filled in with wood or galvanized 
 wire stretched across and sei)arated by 1 or 2 inches, so as to give a free (circulation of 
 air and to touch the fish at only a few points, in order that evaporation may go on 
 from ail parts of the body. Each Hake holds about 110 fish, placed in rows with the 
 tails in tlie same direction, so that when fixed in the drying room, with the anterior 
 part lowest, the moisture will tnore readily drip from them. 
 
 Next comes the drying process, which is of much importance, and great care must 
 beobser\ed that no decomposition occurs before it is completed. Originally the fish 
 were dried in the open air by action of the sun, as is the present practice in France, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 527 
 
 but owing to the moist atmospheric conditious about Eastport, eveu those factories 
 that make use of this method whenever possible are obliged to supplement it by 
 artificial means. The factories are, one after another, discarding entirely the sun-drying 
 process, occasionally using a drying room, but more frequently adopting a patented 
 drying apparatus similar to a baker's rotary oveu. Drying rooms are usually located 
 on the top lloor of the cannery, with movable racks for holding the flakes oblic^uely, 
 each rack containing 40 or 50 flakes, placed about 3 inches apart and directly over 
 each other. The room is supplied with a constant current of warm, dry air, brought 
 from stoves or furnaces in the lower part of the l)uilding by means of large pii)es, and 
 which finally escapes through ventilators in the roof. 
 
 The oven that has been quite generally adopted in the sardine canneries was 
 introduced by Henry SeUman in 1880,* and is similar to an ordinary rotary oven of 
 large size, and serves not only to dry but at the same time to cook the fish. It is 
 about 15 feet square and IS feet high, and contains or S skeleton iron frames 
 attaclied to arms extending from a cylinder and which remain in a horizontal position 
 while revolving in the oven, like the cars of a Ferris wlieel. In these ovens the fish 
 are subjected to a temperature of about 250° F. for 10 to 25 minutes, according to the 
 size of the fish, but the time re<iuired for drying varies. In open air or in a drying- 
 room it may take the greater part of a day ; in a furnace-heated drying apparatus from 
 2 to 7 hours, and in an oven only a few minutes, as before stated. The use of ovens 
 is becoming more popular, and most of the canneries are now fitted with them. 
 
 When fish are oven-dried they need no further cooking, but are at once cooled 
 and packed in cans. In other cases they are placed in shallow wire baskets or other 
 l)roper recei)tacles and immersed in oilof suitable quality and heated to a temperature 
 of about 220"° F. This is for the purpose of frying and ex])elling from the fish all 
 moisture remaining in them after the drying process. Cottonseed oil is used mostly, 
 and it is placed in a pan to the depth of about 2 inches and the fish inmiersed in 
 it from 1 to 3 minutes. This oil can be used only a short time, since water and 
 gluten from the fish pass into it and injure its flavor. For this reason the pan must 
 be cleaned fre(iuently and the oil renewed. The oil is boiled either by direct furnace 
 heat or by the passing of steam through coils of pijjc in the frying tank. The latter 
 was introduced in 1S84 and has many advantages over the old method of direct furnace 
 heat. About half of the factories which fry their fish do so by means of steam, and, 
 as is the case with other improved methods, the number is increasing. 
 
 Mr. 11. E. Earll states on page 178 of U. B. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1887: 
 
 It is s.aiil that the lish which liavc been fried havo a l>etti'r flavor, ami, liaviDg .absorbed more oil, 
 keep lotif^er than those baUed in au oven. It is claimed, however, by those usinj; ovens, that by the 
 baking proeess very nineh dejiends njion the skill of the baker, and that at its best it may j)roiliice 
 results e(|nal if not suiu'rior to those of the old system. It appears that the first fish fiied in a given 
 ([uantity of oil are better than the best baked fish, but that, as it is necessary, in order to kee]) the 
 expenses within reasonable limits, to use tlie same oil for frying successively a great many pans of lish, 
 the Huid soon becomes lilled with scales and small jiarticles of lisli, which burn on the bottom .and 
 impart to the product a bitter .and uiipleasaut taste. In baking, on the other hand, when it is ]iroperly 
 done, the fish are all of a (juality equally good. 
 
 Instead of the ordinary methods of cooking, .some factories employ an endless 
 belt, 200 feet long, which runs in a wooden case 100 feet long. At one end of this case 
 is a revolving fan which forces a blast of hot air over the lish that have been sx)readou 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 223GS2, dated January 20, 1880. 
 
528 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 the belt at the other end of the case. After passing along the belt once the fish go 
 into the batli of boiling oil and are treated in the usual manner. With this apparatus 
 the several rtakers reipiired by the old method are represented by one woman, who 
 spreads the fish on the belt, and a man who turns a crank which moves the machinery,* 
 
 After leaving the frying-pan or the oven and draining and cooling, the fish are 
 assorted according to size, and those of like size are placed in tin cans or boxes pre- 
 viously filled with oil, or, in some cases, mustard sauce or vinegar with spices. Up to 
 within a few years, although other oils were used in the frying, the sardines were 
 packed in oliv'e oil, eitlier alone or mixed with inferior kinds, but at present its use 
 has been almost entirely superseded by cottonseed and nut oils. Tiiis change is 
 accounted for by the facts that the heavy duties make olive oil very expensive, that it 
 will not keep as well as cotton-seed oil, and that the latter can be made exceedingly 
 palatable. It is claimed by some cauners that even at the same price cottonseed 
 oil is more desirable for the Maine sardines, because the fish imparts its distinctive 
 herring flavor to olive oil much more readily than to cotton seed, the latter covering 
 it up somewhat. It is stated that at some of the canneries even tallow oil and herring 
 oil have been used. Peanut oil, which is sometimes used, is said to be even better than 
 cotton-seed oil. The oil is usually flavored to the taste by adding lemon, sugar, and 
 various spices. The olive oil used in France for sardines is said to be often largely 
 adulterated with American cotton-seed oil, as well as with palm and other oils. 
 
 In packing the fish, those of the most desirable size are packed with a dozen in 
 each can; the number is never smaller than seven or eight. Tlie smaller fish are 
 generally x^acked in oil in "quarter-cans," which are 4.^ inches long, 3 inches wide, 1 
 inch deep, and contain from 9 to 12 herring measuring from 3^ to 4 inches when dressed. 
 The larger fish, measuring from 8 to Di inches in length when whole, or from 4 to 4J 
 inches dressed, are occasionally placed in oil, but more frequently are put in mustard, 
 spices and vinegar, tomato sauce, or other condiments, in "half cans," holding from 
 10 to 10 fish. These cans are 4J inches long, 3i wide, and 2 inches deep. Occasionally 
 "three-quarter" cans of oil sardines, or in tomato sauce, and " half" or " three-quarter" 
 cans in spices are put up, and in rare instances small fish are put up in mustard or 
 spices in quarter-cans. 
 
 When the cans have been filled with fish the covers are sealed on, and the filled 
 cans are then ready for bathing, and are placed in boiling water, where they are 
 allowed to remain from li to 2 hours, according to the size of the cans. Fish jjrepared 
 with spices mnst be boiled longer than those prepared entirely with oil. The time of 
 boiling may be considerably reduced by introducing a proper quantity of chloride of 
 lime or other chemicals into the water, by which the temperature may be raised to 
 upward of 2.50^ in the open air. Some canneries accomplish this by using a closed bath. 
 By either of these methods the time can be reduced to about 30 minutes. 
 
 Formerly, alter the bath, the cans were punctured, to allow the inclosed air to 
 escape, and the puncture was thereupon closed with solder. In this process, when the 
 cans are punctured the escaping air carries a portion of the oil with it, so that when 
 the cans are opened the fish are found to be only partly covered with oil, and conse- 
 quently not in a state of perfect preservation. If the can has been properly sealed, 
 the top and bottom become level or horizontal when boiled the second time. The fact 
 that it does not expand into a level position is sufficient evidence that there is a defect 
 
 • Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1890, p. 117. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 529 
 
 iu the soldering, and it i.s at onue resolderiid, paiietured in two or more places, and 
 placed in liot oil until it is again lilled with oil, when the pnuctures are soldered. 
 
 In 18SJ: it was discovered* tbat the process of venting could be avoided by making 
 the can with concave top and botto:a. The depression of the middle part causes the 
 air in the cans to collect about the edges of the top, and the heat of the soldering 
 tool heats the air and causes it to expand and escape in front of it as it passes along 
 the edge, so that when the soldering is completed the air will be sufficiently expelled. 
 Venting is no longer jiracticed iu preparing the ordinary quarter size, but it is gener- 
 ally adhered to in the treatment of the half and three-(iuarter cans, t Some of the 
 factories partly immerse the half aud three-quarter cansiu boiliug oil, driviug out the 
 air aud rendering venting unnecessary. 
 
 In the specilications forming a part of the Letters Patent No. L'-'^OSL', dated 
 January 20, ISSO, issued to the inventor of the rotary oven for baking, the following- 
 account is given of the methods of preparing sardines on the Maine coast, and the 
 improvements effected by using that oven: 
 
 After the fish aro lauiled they aro subjected to the process of decapitatiou aud diseutrailment 
 and salting for :i suitable ])(U'iod. They are tbeu washed clean and placed iu shallow baskets to draiu, 
 after which they are separately spread ou lath or other suitable frames for drying to a certain extent. 
 After the fish have beou eufificiently dried by exposure to the atmosphere or to an artificial curreut of 
 warm, dry air they are placed in shallow wire baskets, or any other suitable receptacle, and innuersed 
 iu oil, suitalde iu (|uality aud heated to a certain degree, for the purpose of fryiug and expelling from 
 the tish auy parts of water which remain iu them after the drying process. They are thin allowed to 
 draiu, aud are packed iu tin cans. This mode of drying by natural or artificial currents of air and 
 frying the fish iu oil is, for reasons hereinafter stated, very deleterious to the ijuality of the article of 
 fish to be put up, ami the iuventiou herein sot forth tends to do away with aud overcome the former 
 objectionable method. The fish used for the pnri)03e indicated are of a very tender aud delicate 
 nature. They do not admit of much handling, aud, owing to this delicacy of uature, are subject to 
 very rapid decomposition, as they should bo salted but very slightly. 
 
 The process of drying the fish, either in ojien air or by an artificial current of warm dry air, 
 takes so much tinu;, that decomposition of the fish to a greater or less extent is unavoidable, as 3 to 24 
 hours are consumed in drying the fish sufficiently by the modes indicated. 
 
 In frying the fish in oil, as now practiced, the quality of the oil in which (jiiantitics of fish are 
 fried is rapidly deteriorated by the water from the fish, which is not evaporated, aud froju the gluten 
 from the tiah passing into it. A large percentage of the fish is also lost by breaking during the ]>rocess 
 of fryiug iuoil. In our improved process the fish, after landing, are decajiitated, disentrailed, salted, 
 and washed. They are then spread on wire netting or other frames made of suitable metal and of any 
 suitable size. They are then subjected to a process of steaming by live steam, which is injected from 
 a steam-boiler into an upright chamber of suitable size, lined with sheet metal, and provided with 
 narrow internal fianges or shelves, upon which rest the wire frames which hold the fish. The steam 
 passes through the closed box and escapes through an opening iu the side or end opposite to where it 
 is introduced. A door opening outward is also provided for obvious reasons. 
 
 The tiuu! consumed iu this process is from 10 to 20 minutes, according to the power of the 
 steam employed, and may be performed within 2 hours after the fish are first landed. This steaming 
 process has the effect of evaporating the water from the lifli in a much more thorough manner than 
 by the old process. It has also the effect to prepare the fish for the subsequent baking process, and by 
 killing any germs iu them preventing rapid decomposition, keeping them sweet, and retaining their 
 natural fiavor. After the steaming process the fish (which remain ou the same frames ou which they 
 were steamed) aro subjected to the baking heat of a revolving reel oven, operated by steam or any 
 other i)ower, uutil they are fully cooked or baked. They are then taken from the revolving reel oven, 
 cooled a certain time, and packed in tin cans, which are supplied with fine oil, mustard, sauces, spices, 
 
 *See Letters Patent No. 2!m710, dated .lune 3, 1«RI. 
 
 tSee the I'ishery Industries of the United States, section V, vol. 1, pp. 511-518, aud Bulletin U. S 
 Fish Commissiou, 1886, pp. 177-179. 
 
 F.C.B., 1898—34 
 
530 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 or vinegar, as desired. The cans are then soldered and subjected to the action of a liath of hoiliiig 
 water for a certain period, for the purpose of expelling all air from the cans by the usual process. 
 
 The essence of the whole mode of procedure consists in preserving the ilsli against decomposition 
 by steaming and baking, as set forth, thus i)reventiug breaking of the skin, curling and breaking of 
 the body, and thus evaporating from the Hsh all water, and then, while iu this baked condition, 
 subjecting theiu to the preservative process of canning similar to that jiractieed with sardines, inclosing 
 in tin cans with oil, mustard, spices, etc. 
 
 Au appliaace receatly devised for testing- the cans before they iire filled is tLii.> 
 described by Mr. Ansley Hall : 
 
 Itcousists of a cylindrical tank about 5 feet in length and 1 foot in diameter, fixed in an iipright 
 position at the end of a table. The tank is lilleil with water to within about 18 inches of tlie top by 
 means of a pipe leading from the boiler of the engine. Air is forced through another pipe into the 
 space above the water by the air pump which supplies air for oxygenizing the llame of the kerosene- 
 oil stoves used in soldering. The pressure of air, which requires to be about 12 pounds, and the 
 quantity of water are regulated by steam and water gauges. On the table, a few feet from the tank, 
 is a tin pan or tray, in the center of which is a rubber pad, a little larger than a sardine can. A pipe 
 litted with a valve leads from the tank and passes up through the pad from the underside of the 
 table. The can when tested is placed bottom upward over the nozzle of the pipe and held it; position 
 by pressure applied with a lever worked by the foot. The operator then turns a thiimli piece on the 
 pipe, which opens the valve and lets a small stream of water into the inverted can. If it is not per- 
 fectly tight, the leak is immediately disclosed by the tine jet of water which passes through it. The 
 water, after being used, escapes by a waste pipe iu the tray. One advantage of this method is that 
 it shows which class of solderers has done the poor work, whether the seamers or can-makers, and 
 the defective cans are returned to them for the leaks to he mended, after which thej' are again tested 
 in a similar manner. If any cans are imperfect after coming from the bath, the fault is known to lie 
 with the sealers. An improvement is contemplated by arranging the valve to open with the lever 
 when the pressure is applied, and thus avoid the movemeut of the hand in turning the thumb piec&. 
 The apparatus costs about $15, and is operated by one person. 
 
 On the Maine coast many sardines are put up in mustard and in spices, usually 
 with ;i quantity of the best quality of vinegar. While these are considered e(inal to 
 the sardines in oil, they are usually sold at a lower price. Iu 181)2, 1.")4,0.j1 cases of 
 sardines in mustard were prepared, the value of which was $457,445; and 10,020 cases 
 of sardines in spices, worth $32,425, were prepared. 
 
 Nearly every year a small quantity of sardines are put up in tomato sauce, but 
 these do not keep very well and the demand for them is small. In 1SS9 the Maine 
 canneries prepared 279 cases of them, worth $762. 
 
 The following shows iu detail the sardine output of Maine in 1889 and 1892: 
 
 Description. 
 
 Sardines in oil : 
 
 Quarters 
 
 Halves 
 
 Three-quarters 
 
 Sariliues in mustard: 
 
 Quarters 
 
 Three-quarters 
 
 Sardines in spices: 
 
 Quarters 
 
 Three-quarters 
 
 One pound 
 
 Two pound 
 
 Three jtound 
 
 Odd sizes 
 
 Sardines i u tomato sauce : 
 
 Oue pound 
 
 Two pound 
 
 Total 1,070,105 
 
 Cases. 
 
 201,940 
 8,881 
 1,025 
 
 4, 127 
 
 158, 069 
 
 1.0G2 
 
 5,009 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 256 
 23 
 
 Value. 
 
 $1,013,877 
 66,716 
 4,100 
 
 20, 635 
 553, 242 
 
 5,310 
 
 21, 034 
 277 
 
 26 
 
 125 
 
 1892. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 300, 428 
 6,614 
 
 5,031 
 149,020 
 
 Value. 
 
 $1,455,245 
 31, 870 
 
 21,582 
 435, 863 
 
 543 
 6,705 
 
 2.145 
 18,011 
 
 730 
 1,042 
 2,000 
 
 1,643 
 
 :;, 120 
 
 7,500 
 
 
 
 1,1)70,985 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY I'UODUCTS F( >R FOOD. 
 
 531 
 
 From Mv. ILiirsiVKrclIciit. rcixnt. uii the '■ rieniii<;- Iinliistry of the PassaiuiKiHoddy 
 Region" is cxtrarted tlic following tiimliu- stiiteiueiit, showing the cost per ease of 
 (jiiai'ter oil sardines in 1S05, the statement being prepared on u basis of seven eases 
 for convenience in manix)ulating some of the items. 
 
 Statement of the cost ^^er case of quarter-oU sardines in 1S95. 
 
 Material: 
 
 Tin plate for 7 cases, at $U.40 per box $3.43 
 
 Decorating 35 sheets of tin ])iato 58 
 
 Oil for 7 cases, at 30 cents jicr gallon 2. 10 
 
 S<jl(ler for 7 cases, at 25 cents per case 1. 75 
 
 Fuel for soldering;, .soldering coppers, and acid... . 21 
 
 Shook sand uails lor 7 cases 53 
 
 Fish, at $3.14 per hogshead 1. 10 
 
 Coal, wood, sawdust, and salt 12 
 
 "Waste of material, 1 per cent 10 
 
 Material for 7 cases 9. 92 
 
 Material for 1 case 1. 42 
 
 Jjabor: 
 
 Cutting, rimming, and heiiding tin 20 
 
 Cutting two-thirds of 1 box of tin on dies 14 
 
 Seaming cans for 7 cases, at 5 cents per case 35 
 
 Making cans for 7 cases, at 12 cents per case 84 
 
 Sealing cans for 7 cases, at 30 cents per case 2. 10 
 
 Cuttmg and flaking lish lor 7 cases, at 10 cents 
 
 per case 70 
 
 Packing? cases, at 10 cents per case 70 
 
 Making 7 cases, at 1 cent per case 07 
 
 General labor on 7 cases, at IS cents per case 1. 26 
 
 J^o6 or— Continued. 
 Trucking 7 cases, at 1 cent per case 07 
 
 Labor for 7 cases 6. 43 
 
 Labor for 1 case 02 
 
 Expenses of sldpping and selling: 
 
 Freight on 7 cases, at 10 cents per case 70 
 
 Commission on 7 cases, at 5 per cent 87 
 
 Discount i)f I per cent for cash i)ayment 17 
 
 Fire and mariuo insurance '. 06 
 
 Expenses on 7 cases l. 80 
 
 Expenses on 1 case 25 
 
 Total cost of 7 cases 18. 15 
 
 Total cost of 1 case 2.59 
 
 Su7iimary of the cost 2)er case: 
 
 Material i. 42 
 
 Labop 92 
 
 Cost at cannery 2. 34 
 
 Expenses of shipping and selling 25 
 
 Total cost per case 2. 59 
 
 Mr. Hall further states: 
 
 An estimate similar to the above, made in 1S86, showed the cost of quarter-oils at that time to be 
 $4 per case at the factory. The material then cost $2.S3and the labor $1.17, whereas the mat<^,rial now 
 costs $1.42 and the labor 92 cents, a total of $2.34 per case. The cost per case Avas therefore $1.6(j or 
 41^ percent less in 1895 than in 1886. In the estimate for 18S6the tish were reckoned at $6 per hogshead, 
 but tlie average for that year was abont $9; hence it is probable that theactnal ditlerence in the cost 
 of production was even greater than these tignres show. It will be noticed that the reduction in cost 
 since 1886 has bia-n more largely in material than in labor, the cost of material in 189,") l>eiDg nearly 
 50 per cent less than in 1886, while that of labor was only 2H per cent less. Of the total ditterence, 85 
 per cent is in material and 15 per cent in labor. Prior to 1886 the cost of mannfacturiug sardines 
 was somewhat greater than it has been at anj' time since, but it was probably never more than about 
 $7 per case. The price of the products has therefore fallen much more rapidly than the cost of pro- 
 duction, and conse(]uently the profits have been constantly diminishing. It was not until after 1880 
 that the cheapening of the cost of the products became an imperative necessity. 
 
 In the strong competition between the various manufacturers the quality of the goods has in a 
 measure l)ecn sacriiiccd to the interest of producing large quantities. When the industry was first 
 cstablishe<l, it was the atnbition of the packers to make the quality of the domestic product equal, if 
 possible, to that of the sardines imported from France and other countries, and thus secure at least a 
 part of the trade which was then wholly supplied by the foreign manufacturers. It was also hoped 
 that when the supply should exceed the demand of the home market thi^ surplus stock might be 
 exported. To this end, therefore, the best (luality of material was used, and the greatest care was 
 exercised in the methods of i)reparat ion, and for a few years the (piality of sardiues put up at Eastport, 
 while somewhat inferior to the best, was equal to that of the average brands imported. Had these 
 ehbrts been continued until the present time, it seems not improbable that a still higher standard 
 of excellence would have been attained. Attention was, however, soon directed toward reducing the 
 cost of the jiroducts. One of the most important changes made was that of substituting cotton-seed 
 and nut oils of various kinds for olive oil. This practice began to some extent before 1880, but 
 did not become general until after that date. The cheaper oils were first introduced for i'rying the 
 fish, but in a short time they were also used for packing them in the cans. Changes have also been 
 made, iu the methods of preiiaring sardines in order to render the performance of the work more rapid 
 and thus increase the capacity of the canneries at a reduced ratio of cost. 
 
532 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 There appears to be some doubt in the minds of the packers whether or not the herring (Cliipea 
 haniigun) which is used for sardines on the coast of Maine is susceptible of being so jirepared that it 
 will lie eiiual in quality to the best imported sardines. It may be ciuite safely asserted that the 
 character of this species does not oll'cr any insurmountable barrier. The sardine ( Clnpanodon pUcliardiis) 
 used in France, which is the young of the pilchard, the English sprat (Clupea sprattiis), and the Cali- 
 fornia sardine (Cliipanodci cwntleHu) all belong to the same family of lishes as the herring, and it is 
 probable that auy superiority which one m.ay have over another, when packed in oil, depends more 
 on the (juality of the oil and the method of treatment than on the natural characteristics of the species. 
 That the experiment is a hopeful one as to its effect on prices is indicated by the fact that in 1895 
 considerable quantities of goods were so improved iu quality that they were sold for at least 50 cents 
 more per case than the best average brands. This improvement consisted mainly in frying the fish and 
 in the exercise of greater care in their preparation. There i< no doubt that their value might have been 
 still further enhanced by the use of either olive oil or olive oil Mended withotlieroilsof a delii ate flavor. 
 
 For further information regarding the prei>aration of sardines in Maine, and tht) 
 present condition of that industry reference is made to Mr. Hall's above-mentioned 
 report (The Herring Industry of the Passamaquoddy llegion, Maine, by Ansley Hall, 
 United States Fish Commission Report for 189G, pp. 4^3-487). 
 
 SARDINES ON THE PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 Within the past few years sardines of choice (jnality have been prepared at San 
 Pedro, Gal. The following account of the species utilized aud of the industry is from 
 a recent report (Bulletin for 1894, pp. 227-230) of the United States l-'isli Coniniissiou: 
 
 The California sardine {Clupea sagax) is very closely related to the sardine of Europe (C 
 pilchardim), from which it chiefly differs in having no teeth and less strongly serrated scales on tlir 
 bellv. It attains a length of nearly a foot. It is found along the entire Pacific const of the llnitei! 
 States. The fish is, however, most constant iu .appearance and most abundant on tlie southern pail 
 of the coast, and it is doubtful if it exi-sts in suftieient numbers to maintain a regular fishery north o( 
 San Francisco. Even at that place the supply is uncertain. While there have been periods of years 
 in which the sardines were found in San Francisco Pay in large quantities, and for a considerable 
 time in each season, for the past five years they have been very scarce. 
 
 The distribution of the anchovy {Stolephorus ringens) is similar to that of the sardine. It occurs 
 in abundance along the entire coast, and is often found iu enormous quantities in Puget Sound, San 
 Francisco Bay, and elsewhere. It reachc^s a maximum size of about 7 inches. In most places it is 
 known as the anchovy, l)ut in Puget Sound, according to Swan, it is called "sardiM<'." 
 
 The natural advantages which the west coast possesses for (he canning of sardines and other 
 similar fish are unMsu.ally good, and are superior iu some respects to those of the east coast. At least 
 the two fi.shes named, the sardine and the anchovy, suitable for canning as "sardines," occur in large 
 quantities, the first named very closely resembling and being an excellent substitute for the sardine 
 of southern Europe. The dry atmosphere and other climatic conditions of the southern coast of 
 California are very favorable for the preparation of a good grade of canned fish. The culture of the 
 olive supplies a native oil of superior iinality, which is essential in the canning of the best goods. 
 Another item of importance to cauners in this connection is the abundance of cheajj labor. The chief 
 desideratum in the establishment of a factory for the canning of sardines (and other similar species) 
 is a regular supply of fish during a certain period. This is thought to be of greater importance than 
 an abundance of fish at uncertain or irregular intervals. 
 
 While the sardine ranges along the whole western coast of the United States, and is at times 
 very abundant even as far north as Puget Sound, it is doubtful if iu Washington or Oregon a supply 
 sufficiently large and regular exists to warrant the machinery, etc. This nuitter has already received 
 the consideration of some salmon cauners; but tlie general canning of sardines by salmon jiackers is 
 not anticipated as long as the supply of salmon lasts. 
 
 Personal observation and inquiry, the testiuumy of fishermen and dealers, and the studies of 
 ichthvolo^ists nrtord ground for the belief that the successful operation of a sardine cannery can not 
 be expected any farther north than .San Francisco, and the history of the industry at that place seems 
 to indicate that the northern Hunt of satisfactory work is even farther south. South of San Francisco, 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOE FOOD. 533 
 
 ^tbe prospects of jnolitnlilo Imsiiipss appear to bo iu direct relation to the latitude; the more sontherii 
 the location of the cannery the more constant and abundant the supply of fish. 
 
 In 1889, a canniui; factory was est.ablishcil in .San Francisco which continued in operation until 
 August, 1811.3. During the live years in which the cannery was run the yearly pack was from ."),000 to 
 15,000 cases. The canned lish consisted chlelly of anchovies in oil iu i-pound cans and large sardines 
 iu 1-ponud and 2-pounil round cans. The fish consumed at the factory were caught in San Francisco 
 I5ay with haul seines. In the earlier years sardines small enough for use in i|narter-pouud cans were 
 obtained, but during the last two years of the cannery's existence no sardines of size suitable for 
 "quarter oils" eonld bo had. This was the chief reason for closing the works. 
 
 In this region sardines are found throughout the year. They "show" at the surface at times, 
 and thns permit the use of the purse seines. They sometimes go in immense schools. Single hauls of 
 several tons are often made, and 10 tons have on several occasions been taken at a single set of the 
 seinSj such a catch being obtained about May 1, 1894. In December, 1893, several very large bodies 
 of sardines were observed, and a haul of 10 tons of small-sized fish was taken. From .Jann.iry to .June 
 the fish appear to gradually increase in numbers. Some schools are made up of fi.sh of uniform size, 
 ■while in others they are mi.xed. The smallest fish caught are 4 inches long, the largest 12 inches, the 
 averag<i 7 inches. 
 
 The condition of the fish in regard to fatness varies cousideral)ly with the season. Mr. J. H. 
 Laphain, the president of the lish company operating the cannery, states that iu Deicmber. 1893, 
 when tlie canning began, the smaller fisli were poor, while the larger ones were fat. In January and 
 February conditions were about the same. In March the smaller fi.sh began to imiiro\ e, continued to 
 grow fatter through .\pril aud May, and in .June sardines in excellent condition, suitable for ''iiuaiter 
 oils," were taken. In May 4 or 5 tons of large fish that were poor were seined on one occasion. The 
 factory is under the superintendence of an exiierienced fish-eanner from Maine. It is a large two- 
 story structun^, with a. salting house attached The plant is worth about $10,000. 
 
 The principal ])rocesses to which sardines are subjected before emerging as the canned product 
 are as follows: When the fish are unloaded from the vessel they are received into a large, airy room, 
 where the cutting and washing are done, aud then transferred to the second floor by means of an ele- 
 vator. There they are next arranged on latticed trays (32 inches square) and dried. If the weather 
 is fair and the atmosphere- dry, the drying is done in the open air, occupying. ,as a rule, about 2i hours. 
 On rainy days, or when tha air is especially linmiil, drying is accomplished insiele the building by 
 means of steam, which re<inires about 10 hours. 
 
 After drying, the fish are jdaced in wire baskets (22 inches long, 18 inches wide, 3 inches deep) 
 and innuerscd in boiling oil for 2 to fi minutes, depending on their size. The oil is contained in a 
 shallow sink, into which the wire baskets fit aud are lowered and raised by means of long wire handles. 
 The boiling of tlie oil is done by means of a steam pipe entering at the side and running under the 
 sink. After draining and thoroughly cooling, the fish go to the packers, thence to the sealers, thence 
 to the batbmen, and, after cooling and testing for leaks, to the boxing ro(nu. 
 
 The cutting of the lish is done by men and girls, the average number of whom employed is 25. 
 They are paid by the l)asket or the bucket of cut fish, and by working steadily earn about 25 ceut.s an 
 hiuir. The flakcrs number 12 to 14, and are the same girls who pack the fish in the cans. Ten men 
 act as sealers and can-makers, and 10 others are employed in the remaining branches of the work. 
 
 The sizes and grades of canned sardines placed on the market from this cannery, and the whole- 
 sale prices received, are as follows: (Quarter oils, 100 cans to a case, $6. .50 to $8.50 ]ier case, according 
 to the quality of the oil; half oils, 50 cans to a case, $D.bO per case; 2-pound oval cans, with mustard 
 spices, aud tomato sauce, $2.25 i)er dozen cans. 
 
 MENHADEN AS SARDINES. 
 
 Someyears prior to the estahlishiiicut of the Maine sardine industry the extensive 
 market iu the United States lor sardines led to numerous attempts to obtain an article 
 that would compete with the foreign product. Among other species the immature 
 menhaden was tried with considerable success. The American Sardine Company pre- 
 pared this species quite extensively from 1872 until the development of tlie sardine 
 industry at Eastiiort. In 1871 the comitany located a iactory near Port Monmouth, 
 N. J., and for nearly a year experimented with various processes with a view to reniov- 
 
534 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 ing or softening the nutnerons bones in the menhaden ■without the use of vinegar or 
 other acids. They adopted a process, described in Letters Patent No. 127115, dated 
 May 21, 1872, which consisted in successive steaming, combined with an intervening 
 cooling, which softened the bones so that they might be eaten without inconvenience. 
 
 Tlieir treatment of the iish was as follows: Wlien landed, which must be very 
 soon after they are removed from the water, the fish are cleaned, scaled, and dressed, 
 and slightly salted in hogsheads. After remaining in salt a few hours, dejiending on 
 the temperature and the size of the fish, they are i)laced in cooking cans, which are 
 a little larger than the market cans, and put in a steam chest, where they are sub- 
 jected to a temperature of 220° F., or thereabouts, for 2 or 3 hours. On removal they 
 are placed on tables to cool and drain for 5 or G hours, when they are packed in tin 
 cans suitable for market, and the cans are then filled with oil, after which the covers 
 are soldered on. The cans and their contents are heated in a steam chest for a length 
 of time depending on the size of the fish, then vented, when the cans are ready for 
 labeling and boxing. 
 
 In 1873 the American Sardine Company prepared about 30,000 dozen cans in the 
 manner above described, and several other factories were also engaged in this business 
 in the same locality.* During the last fifteen years, however, menhaden have not 
 been used for the preiiaration of sardines in this country, herring having been found 
 much more suitable for this i^urpose. 
 
 FOREIGN SARDINES. 
 
 The importation of sardines into this country was begun about 1830. By 1858 it 
 had reached a value of $250,000 annually, and from that year to 1898 it aggregated 
 $29,807,457. The great bulk of these came from France, with much smaller quantities 
 fi'om Portugal, England, and Noiway. 
 
 The general method of preparing these fish in France is as follows: On arrival of 
 the fish at the factory they are placed on tables or platforms and lightly sprinkled with 
 salt, just enough salt being used to prevent the fish from becoming slimy. The heads, 
 tails, and intestines are removed, and the fish are immersed in weak brine for IJ to 2 
 hours, when they are thrown into small baskets and rinsed in clear water. Next they 
 are placed on small gridirons, and again rinsed and laid aside to dry. The drying is 
 best done in the open air, but when the weather prevents it is done in a specially 
 prepared oven. As soon as sufticiently dry the fish are cooked in oil and then packed 
 with olive oil in tin boxes and cooked and vented, as in case of the Maine sardines. 
 
 In France sardines in oil are sometimes mixed with truffles. They are also pre- 
 pared with tomatoes and sent in small quantities to the New York market, but the 
 chief export in this form is to Mexico. Sardines preserved in butter are quite good, 
 but the butter is generally of inferior quality, and it is necessary to remove it before 
 serving the sardines, and the box must be heated to melt the butter, so that each fish 
 may be removed entire. Sardines preserved in vinegar require to be washed before 
 ■ serving. The adilition of oil renders the fish more palatable, though tlie sardine 
 retains the taste of the vinegar and its flavor is partly destroyed. 
 
 Boneless sardines (put up at Concarneau and Davorneney, France) are quite 
 popular in the United States markets, but they are not prepared in this country. 
 T\ib method of preparing them is only a slight modification of the general i)rocess. 
 When the sardines are about half dried in the sim (if dried in an oven they can be 
 
 Koport of II. S. Fish ('oiiiiiiissiiin, 1X77, pp. 137-138. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 535 
 
 boned only with difficulty and loss), the backbone is broken with a pair of pincers 
 near the root of tlie tail; then by evenly and tightly squeezing it with the fingers it is 
 loosened along the entire lengtli. By this manipulation the whole bone system is 
 loosened, and, commencing at the neck, by the use of a pair of pincers the backbone 
 and the connecting bones can be readily removed. 
 
 The present unsatisfactory condition of the Maine sardine industry suggests the 
 advisability of |)reparing the flsh after the manner of the Norwegian smoked sardines. 
 The fish used in Norway is the sprat (Clupea spraftHs), which is very much like the 
 small Maine herring (Glupea luirengus) ; but among the sprat the seines catch many 
 herring (Claped. harcii(/i(s), which are treated in the same manner as the sprat. The 
 industry is prosecuted along the southern and southwestern coasts of Norway and is 
 centered at dtavanger. Wlien the Norwegians began canning these small fish they 
 copied the French methods and put u]) a product somewhat like the Maine sardine on 
 the market at the present time. But the fish lacked the delicate flavor necessary for 
 competition in Europe with the products of France and Portugal, and in order to cover 
 up the herring flavor they tried smoking them. Tlie quality of the article proved 
 exceedingly satisfactory, and the output now amounts to several hundred thousand 
 cases annually. The method of preparation is as follows: 
 
 The fi'e.sh fish, as soon as practicable aftei' capture, are put into strong brine for 
 4 or .5 hours, and then strung on a small iron rod, drained and dried in the open air. 
 They are next i)laced in the smokehouse, where they are dried for a few minutes by 
 liglitly warmed smoke, the temperature not exceeding 100'^ F. Then the fires are 
 increased and the flsh are hot-smoked, being cooked without breaking the skins, so 
 as ti) hold all the juices. The completion of the smoking is determined by pressing 
 the flesh of the fish, which should separate into flakes. The cutters then remove the 
 heads and tails and pass the fish to the packers. The latter assort and put them 
 in the cans with olive oil, after which the cans are soldered. In steaming, a large 
 number of sardine cans are placed at one time in the cooking tank, where they 
 i-emain from 20 to 30 minutes, and are then removed and the air-hole soldered. They 
 are next again steamed for a few minutes, cleaned and labeled. Before selling, the 
 cans must remain for 2 or 3 months in storage, so that the oil may have sufficient time 
 to penetrate through the flesh. 
 
 As a result of his investigations into the French methods of preparing sardines 
 in oil and his subse(iuent experience with the preservation of pilchards in Cornwall, 
 Mr. G. K. Fryer, inspector of fisheries for England and Wales, makes the following 
 suggestions for the preparation of sprats {Clupea .sprattii.s), which in many particulars 
 resemble the small herring of Maine: 
 
 The fish Khoiilil be landed in as fresh a state as possible, spread on the floor, and sprinkled with 
 salt. They should then, without delay, be beheaded and gutted (all bruised fish being rejected), 
 thoroughly washed, and immediately placed carefully in v.ats, with a thin layer of coarse British salt 
 between each layer of lish. Here they should remain for 1 or 2 hours, after which they should be 
 taken out. ai^ain washed, and ranged in specially prepared wire baskets (grilles) to dry. 
 
 One great object to be aimed at is to handle the fish as little as possible, and to pass them through 
 the prelinunarj' stages with all speed. With this object the baskets into which the fish are thrown 
 by the "gutter" should lie of a size to be easily handled, and should be ciinstructcd of open wicker- 
 work, so that the fish in them can be efl'ectually washed by merely plunging the baskets into nu open 
 tank plentifully supplied with fresh water. The wire drying baskets are so contrived that the fish 
 will not need to be touched by the hand again after they are once pl.aced in them till they are ready 
 to be packed in the tins. As the wire receptacles are filled with fish they are ranged in Ihe sun, or 
 
536 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 
 
 under shelter in a dry atmosplien^ in wet weather, and in a free current ol' air, till the fish are thor- 
 oughly dry. The (jrlUe is then taken to the cooking stove. This consists of a sericvs of shallow jians 
 (each lai'go enough to hold a grille full of fish) containing boiling olive oil, in which the iish are 
 cooked. This will take from 2 to 3 minutes, according to the size. 
 
 After standing a uiiuute or two, to allow the saperlluous oil to drain oft", the yrille is hung up to 
 cool, when the Iish are ready to be tinned. In the bottom of the tin a piece of bay leaf aud a clove 
 head or allspice (pimento) seed arc placed, 2 or 3 hands being specially told oft' to prepai'e the tins 
 and pass them ou to the packers, who carefully but firmly place the fish in the tins in layers, 
 with their tails right aud left alternately. The tins are next passed to the oil fillers, who fill them 
 up with cold olive oil. After standiug sufficiently long to enable the oil to settle down into all the 
 interstices, aud filling up, if necessary, the tins reach the hands of the tinmen orsolderers, who fasten 
 down the lids. This operation requires the greatest care, and is the only one (except the analogous 
 one of making the boxes) which calls for the services of skilled workmen. AH the other operations 
 of working and packing, etc., require neatness and dispatch, but need no technical skill; but the 
 smallest air-hole left by the solderer in the joint of a tin will spoil it. 
 
 After closing down, the tins are collected in a crate and lowered in a large boiler, where they are 
 kept boiliug for 2 or 3 hours, according to size. This operation serves a triple purpose — it completely 
 cooks and softens the fish, it expels any remaining air from the tins, and it proves whether or not 
 they are hermetically sealed. Ou emerging from the boiler, all the tins are bulged, but a." they 
 cool they naturally contract, the toji aud bottom of the tin becoming slightly concave. Any (ins, 
 however, which have been imperfectly soldered remain bulged and are spoiled. A rub in sawdust 
 will cleanse the tius, when cool, .and they then are ticketed (unless made of decorated tin ]datet aud 
 packed in wooden cases ready for the market. 
 
 Having thus described in general outline tlie method of preserving fish in tins a la sardine, I may 
 perhaps usefully refer to two points of detail which it would bo well to observe in the arrangement of 
 any factory established for its adoption. 
 
 The buildings should be so arranged that the fish can find their way directly from the hands of 
 those who perform one stage in the process into the hands of those who complete the next stage. 
 When necessary, an arrangemeut of flues from the cooking range aud boiler (and oven from the solder- 
 in" room) may be made to utilize the waste heat to assist the drying process. The tables on which 
 the iirUles are allowed to drain after cooking, and those at which the operation of "oiling" the boxes 
 is carried on, should be covered with tin plate aud fitt((d with gutters aud collectors for saving waste 
 oil, which is marketable. The oil should be stored ou the floor above and conveyed to the "oiling" 
 tables through a series of pipes with taps, so that tin' supply may be under immidiate control. Only 
 olive oil of the best quality should be iised. Oil of a second quality may be used for working 
 purposes. (Hive oil adulterated with cotton-seed oil, or even the latter alone, is often used in 
 preparing French ''sardines,'' but for the best brands the best olive oil only is employed. This is 
 the most costly item in the wliole process of manufacture. In cooking the fish, care should be taken 
 to renew the oil before it becomes thick (U- discolored. 
 
 For soldering the tins the only special apparatus required consists of an ingenious but simple 
 turn-table revolving on a pivot and furnished at the top with a "cage," into which the tin fits closely 
 while the top is being soldered. A footplate at the bottom enables the workman to rotate the table 
 at will while, with the soldering iron in one hand and a thin stick of solder in the other, he rapidly 
 closes the ".joint" between the body of the box and the lid. As already st.ated, this operation is the 
 crucial one in the whole jirocess of preparation. In order to keej) a check on ditt'erent workmanship, 
 it is usual to pay the tinmen so mueh for every 100 boxes "made" and "soldered down," and to 
 deduct so much for every tin that remains bulged after boiling. As a means of idcntilicatiou, each 
 workman marks the tins he makes .aud the lids he solders down with a special mark, and it is easy for 
 the foreman, when examining aud counting the tius, to check the number turned out by each work- 
 man and to trace to its author every flaw that leads to the rejection of a tin. 
 
 Other methods of making and closing tius are being introduced, aud in this and various other 
 details the process of preparing fish a la sardine is open to modification. The system above described, 
 however, is that commonly adopted in France, and was successfully applied by me to the preparation 
 of pilchards in Coru wall. In some French sardine factories the fish are baked in hot ovens, instead 
 of bein" boiled iu oil. Occasion.illy, again, the fish, whether baked or boiled in oil, are soldered down 
 as soon as packed, without the addition of oil iu the tins. Sometimes the fish are not subjected to any 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 537 
 
 preliminary cookini;, but aro packed as soon as dry and thoronjjbly cookeil by prolonging; fbi> opera- 
 tion of boiling in tbo tins. How far sprats can bo treated in tliis and other varions ways inn only be 
 detornilucd by aotnal experience. The exact length of time dnring which thoy mnst lie snbjected to 
 the several operations of salting, cooking, and boiling, and the proper proportions of spice, etc., 
 ■nill dc'pend on the size of (he lish, the size of the tins in whiidi they are paekcil, and other considera- 
 tions which mnst also bo determined by iMrefnl experiment. That sprats can, however, be preserved 
 in tins (I Ja sardine is jirovcd by the fact that at least one factory of the kind already exists on the 
 sontheast coast of England, and a ready nnirket can no donbt be found for a largely increased supply 
 abroad, if not at home, and more jjarticnlarly in India and in our southern colonics, where suj)plios of 
 fish are scarce. But owing to the shortness of thos]>rat season no curing establishment could probably 
 aft'ord to be dependent solely on the supplies of this one fish. During a great part of the year the 
 tinmen would no doubt find continuous employment in making the tins in anticipation of the curing 
 season; but it would be found economical to keep the other hands at work in the tinning of other 
 kinds offish in their season. In Scotland, herrings, hake (in slices), cod, ling, and other kinds offish 
 besides crabs and lobsters, would no doubt readily lend them.selves to modifications of the mode of 
 cnre above described. The tinning of vegetables .also .serves in Cornwall and in France to keep the 
 works going at times when lish an^ scarce. 
 
 Considerahl<> f|nantities of young herrings are, I believe, taken at certain times in the garvie or 
 sprat nets. Tliis admixture of the two species has the etVcct of reducing the value of tlie catch under 
 ordinary circunistauccs, but there is every probability that young lierrings would make :i. valuable 
 article of food if pn'served <i /« sardine; and as each fish has to b(^ individu.illy handled in the process 
 of cure it would jjrobably not be difticnlt to distinguish the herrings from the sprats and ''tin" them 
 separately. On the other hand, it could be easily ascertained by experiment wliether for the ])Mrpose 
 of preparation in tins any such separation would be neiessary. 
 
 It will be understood that there are various circumstances under which the application to .siirats 
 of the French system of preserving sardines must be attended with disadvantage. In the first place, 
 the sariline season in France is in the summer months, when the fish can be readily dried without 
 artificial heat. In Cornwall the pilchard harvest takes place later than that of sardines in France, 
 and toward the end of the season the occurrence of rainy or damp weather is a groat drawback. 
 The sprat season is later than either, and the provision of artificial means of drying the fish will 
 become more necessary. On the other hand, the heat of a French or Cornish summer is a disadvan- 
 tage as compared with the comparative coolness of the weather at the time of the sprat harvest 
 while the sprat has the ailditlonal point in its favor that it is less delicate, and will stand earriao^e 
 an<l handling hotter than tln^ sardine. The binies of the sprat, however, are much harder than those 
 of the small immature s.ardines generally preserved in France. The bones of I he i)ilchard (which is an 
 adult sardine) are much harder than those of its French r(dative, and those of the sprat are ]irobably 
 harder still. This is one of several points which must be taken into consideration in any proposal to 
 place tinned sprats into comiietition with tinned sardines. The greater cheapness of sprats will, no 
 doubt, be a qnestimi of some imi>ortance in determining the i,ssne of such competition. (I-^ifth Report 
 of Fishery Board for Scotland, pp. 218-221.) 
 
 CANNING EELS. 
 
 At several of the canneries on the Athmtic coast small quantities of eels are 
 prepared each year. The extent of this branch of the canning trade has been limited 
 on ac(!0unt of the small demand for the product and the scarcity of eels in those 
 localities in which the process has been tried. For this purpose the salt water eels 
 from the Gulf of Maine are used and especially those from Washington County, Me., 
 and Barnstable County, Mass., and small or medium sized ones are selected. After the 
 head, skin, and viscera are removed, the eels are cut in suitable lengths and placed on 
 wire trays and cooked in a steam retort, or, in some cases, fried in au oven for 20 
 or 30 minutes. They are next placed in cans, either plain with a small amount of 
 jellies to hold them firmly together or with a sauce made of vinegar and s])ices. The 
 cans are eitlicr tall round, large oval, or similar in shape to those in which saidines 
 are packed. Canned eels are iJiepnieil principally at Eastport and Camden, Me., and 
 
53.S I'.ULLKTIX OK THE UNITED STATES FISH fOMMISSION. 
 
 New York City. With a cannery located on some portion of the United States coast 
 where eels are abundant and the demand for other purposes limited, as at the mouths 
 of some of the rivers emptying into the Chesapeake Bay, it seems probable that an 
 important and profitable business could easily be developed. 
 
 There is a small output in New York City of smoked eels in cans. These fish are 
 eviscerated ami smoked in the usual manner, with head and skin on (see i)age 504), 
 after which they are cut into 6 or 8 inch lengths, or sliglitly less than the height of 
 the can, and these pieces placed close together in the cans, the interstices being filled 
 with diluted cotton-seed oil suitably flavored with vinegar, cloves, etc. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS CANNING. 
 HERRING. 
 
 Owing to the scarcity of mackerel on the United States coast, and the consequent 
 high cost of canned mackerel, herring are frecpiently used as a substitute therelor, it 
 going on the market under the brand of " herring mackerel," "blueback niackerel," etc. 
 The method of preparation differs in no particular from that applied to the mackerel. 
 The principal factories for their preparation are on the Maine coast, and the product 
 amounts to about 20,000 cases annually. Herring are also put up in spices, in 
 mustard sauce, and in tomato sauce, the output approximating 12,000 cases annually, 
 and the process of canning is substantially the same as that applied to mackerel. 
 These tish are usually branded "brook trout." 
 
 MENHADEN. 
 
 At several canneries on the Maine coast menhaden have been canned and placed 
 on the market in 1-pound cans as "ocean trout," "herring mafkerel," "l)lueback mack- 
 erel," etc., and have met with ready sale at about 05 cents per dozen cans. In 1889 
 378,272 cans of menhaden were prepared in Maine, but since then these fish have been 
 so scarce on that coast that comparatively few are canned. 
 
 SMELT. 
 
 The canning of smelt was first begun late in the fall of 1879 in Boston. They 
 were thoroughly cooked in butter and i)ackcd in 1-ponnd cans, 5 dozen cans in a case.* 
 This business has been abandoned, and at the present time no smelt are canned in 
 this country. In 1885, when the jiack of oil sardines was smaller than usual, owing 
 to the scarcity of small tisli suitable for quarter cans, experiments were made in the 
 canning of smelt as a substitute for herring in the manufacture of sardines, but they 
 were found to be dry and hard, and deficient in flavor, and ett'orts in this line were 
 soon discontinued.! 
 
 SMOKED STURGEON. 
 
 In the canning of smoked sturgeon the fresh fish are cut into ])ieces adapted to 
 the size of the can for which they are intended and placed in a wire drum, the cross- 
 section of which is equal to the cross-section of the can. Tliis drum is so arranged 
 that one side or head enters the receptacle, and by means of a spring or clasp is 
 pressed into the drum, thus slightly compressing the contents. While it is subjected 
 to the action of the smoke, and as the fish becomes more and more compact, the 
 movable head will gradually press it against the fixed head, so that the contents 
 take the shape of a disk with comparatively flat sides. The drum is so suspended 
 
 * Fishery IndustiiiN of ITnited States, sec. ii, p. lOS. t Hull. V. S. Fish Commission, 1887, p. 179. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. f>39 
 
 that it maybe turned or rotated from time to time, so that the jiiiee that settles to the 
 bottom is brought to the t()[) and comi)elled to How tlirongh tlie mass again, tlius 
 retaining it in the ilesh. On eompletiou of tlie smoking the disks of fish are removed 
 from the drum and iilaced in cans with a small quantity of cotton seed oil, and the 
 cans are hermetically sealed. On account of the scarcity and the consequent high 
 priceof sturgeon during recent years, comjiaratively small quantities are canned. The 
 product is very palatable and will keep for a year or two under favorable conditions. 
 
 HALIBUT. 
 
 The generally brisk demand for fresh and smoked halibut has prevented many 
 attempts in New England to preserve them by canning. On the Pacific coast, both 
 in Alaska and in the State of Washington, and at Klawak, Prince of Wales Island, 
 fresh lialibnt liav(> been canned, but in no great quantities. There is no doubt but 
 that the tish is suitable to be thus preserved. 
 
 SPANISH MACKEREL. 
 
 In 1879 the owner of an oyster and clam cannery at Ocracoke Inlet, North Car- 
 olina, i)urchased small quantities of Spanish mackerel and put up a few hundred 
 2pound cans. Shortly afterwards, at the suggestion of Professor Baird, experiments 
 were made in canning Spanish mackerel at Cherrystone, Va., to ascertain their relative 
 value as compared with other kinds of canned fish. The reports of tlie canneries were 
 that they are no better tiian flsh of ordinary grades, and that as a canned fish they 
 are inferior to the common mackerel (Scomber scombnis).* 
 
 GEEEN TURTLE. 
 
 The canning of green turtle (Ghehmia mydas) in this country was first begun in 
 18()9 on the coast of Texas at the beef packeries located on Aransas Bay. When 
 th'.'se canneries were closed, about 10 years afterwards, a small factory was estab 
 lished at Fulton, on the same bay, for preparing turtle meat in tin cans for market. 
 This cannery was in operation up to 180G, using annually about 1,(»00 turtles, weighing 
 ;350,0(l(l pounds, and preparing about 40,000 two pound cans of turtle meat and 800 two 
 and three-pound cans of "turtle soup." On account of the increasing scarcity of 
 green turtle on the Texas coast, the cannery has not been in oj)eration since ISOC. 
 
 Small quantities of green turtle meat are incidentally canned at times at various 
 other places. Each cannery uses methods peculiar to itself, so that it is scarcely 
 practicable to describe any general method of preparing this product. To prepare 
 it so tliat it will keep a suitable length of time, requires close attention and the 
 greatest cleanliness. 
 
 GIANT SCALLOPS. 
 
 The Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1889 contains the following account 
 of experiments in canning the giant scallop {Pecten magellanicun) : 
 
 About 187G the Castine Pai'kiiig Company umlertook to put scallops ou the market in a canned 
 condition, as is now so ooninionly done with clams in many localities on the coast of Maine. It is said 
 that the company was nnable to properly preserve the thick, solid meats, and the effort was abortive. 
 Six years ago, however, the attempt was renewed and was iu a measure sncc'cssful. It was found 
 that by previously frying the meats tliey could be canned without dilliculty, but the metbod was 
 considered too costly and was not put to much practical use.t 
 
 ■ i;.e|«>rt U.S. Fish Conuuissinu, 1880, p. -1 14; 18H1, pp. 221-227. 
 t liuUetiu of the U. S. Fisli Couiiuissiou for 18S!), p. 320. 
 
540 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 CODFISH BALLS, ETC. 
 
 In 1S78 tlie preparation of codflsh balls was begun by a Boston canner. This 
 prodnct consi.sts of codfish and potatoes cooked with beef tallow, with the addition 
 of a small quantity of saltpeter, the whole being hermetically sealed in tin cans. The 
 usual method of preparation is as follows : For 100 pounds of salt codfish, 12.5 jxiunds of 
 potatoes, 10 pounds of raw onions, and 13 pounds of pure beef tallow are reiinired The 
 fish are soaked in teiiid water to remove the salt and then reduced to a i)ulp; the pota- 
 toes are boiled, skinned, and mashed; and these ingredients are warmed and mixed 
 thoroughly with the chopped raw onions and beef tallow, adding pounds of saltpeter 
 and ounces of pepper or other suitable flavoring coudimeuts. While the ingredients 
 are being mixed they are chopped as fine as practicable by machinery. The warm 
 mixture is then placed in 1,2, or 3 pound tin cans and sealed. The cans and contents 
 are boiled at a very high temperature for 2 or 3 hours. On cooling and labeling the 
 product is ready for market. In 1870, 11,000 cases, etjuivalent to 204,000 two-pound 
 cans, were prepared by Boston canners, the value of which was $38,500. The present 
 annual output is somewhat less, owing to the increased popularity of boneless codflsh. 
 
 Among numerous other fishery products preserved in cans are clam chowder, fish 
 chowder, Ilnnau haddie, smoked lake front, smoked pike, smoked carp, caviar, etc. 
 
 The following summary shows some of the varieties of canned fishery products 
 on the New York market and the average wholesale price in 1898 : 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Price 
 
 per 
 dozen. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Price 
 
 per 
 
 dozen. 
 
 $2.70 
 1.70 
 3.15 
 2.20 
 3.45 
 
 1.15 
 .70 
 1.10 
 1.05 
 .70 
 1.30 
 2.50 
 
 .80 
 1.45 
 1.40 
 1.15 
 1.10 
 
 .90 
 1.15 
 1.20 
 
 2.00 
 3.75 
 1.75 
 
 L90 
 2.20 
 £.00 
 
 Price per 
 100 tins. 
 $2.85 
 3.25 
 6.25 
 9.00 
 4.70 
 2.75 
 3.00 
 5.25 
 3.35 
 5.20 
 3.25 
 8.50 
 
 
 $2.50 
 
 1. 85 
 3.15 
 5.10 
 9.20 
 2.10 
 H.90 
 7.00 
 
 .00 
 1.45 
 1. 00 
 1.90 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 
 1. :i5 
 
 1.30 
 1.75 
 2.75 
 2. 25 
 3.50 
 G.50 
 1.60 
 2.62 
 6.25 
 2.25 
 3.20 
 7.50 
 3.25 
 6.00 
 1.05 
 1.75 
 10.00 
 8.00 
 
 .95 
 1.10 
 1.40 
 1.50 
 1.40 
 2.25 
 2.75 
 6.00 
 10.00 
 2.50 
 
 Lobsters : 
 
 One-pound cans, tall 
 
 Caviar: 
 
 UnarttT-iumiid runs 
 
 Half-pound cans, tlat 
 
 One- pun nd cans, flat 
 
 
 Two-poinul t;ans 
 
 Oue-iiglitli- kilo, cans 
 
 I'iekled, two-pound cans . 
 
 MackeFol : 
 
 JIall'-kilo. rans 
 
 Clams : 
 
 l''jisteni, .soft-aholl, onc-poiind cans 
 
 Kasteni, soft shell, 1 wo-pountl cans 
 
 Litlli-rH-ck, liardahell, one-pound cans 
 
 Little-neck, lianl-sln-tl, two-pound cans 
 
 "Herrinii mackerel," one iionud cans 
 
 Sonsed, tliree-quarter- pound cans 
 
 
 Oysters, standard, two-pound cans 
 
 Pickerel, smoked, one pound cans 
 
 iSaliiion: 
 
 Coluniliia Iliver, half-pound cana, flat 
 
 Columbia Kiver, one pound cans, flat 
 
 Columbia River, one-j)ound cans, tall 
 
 Alaska, red, one-pound cans 
 
 Alaska, medium, one-jiound cans 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crab meat, two-pimnd cans 
 
 
 Alaska, sockeye, one-pound can.s, tall 
 
 Alaska, sockc'ye. one pound cans, flat 
 
 SardeU: 
 
 
 Eels, in jel ly, one pon ml cans 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stui-p:eon : 
 
 Eels. Hamluirt;, ti\'o-j)o[ind cans 
 
 
 Eel soni», iinjKHted, two pound cans 
 
 
 Sardines : 
 
 Finnan liaddie, Srotrli, ..jii- j)ound cana 
 
 
 Herring : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ScoU-t, in tomato sauce, one-pound cans... 
 
 Mustarils,qu;irters, extra large 
 
 Bii^m:irk, Ilirec-pound cans 
 
 Spiced, quarters 
 
 Spiced, three quarters 
 
 In tomato sauce, <piarters 
 
 Kieler sprotten, three-pount'. cana 
 
 
 
PKESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 541 
 
 PREPARATION OF FISH EGGS FOR FOOD. 
 
 The roes or eggs of fish are among the most valuable of the miscellaneous food 
 products of the fisheries. The most important are the roes of the sturgeon, mullet, 
 herring, shad, whitefish, cod, and haddock. Some of these eggs are sold to the con- 
 sumers while fresh, especially the eggs of shad, river herring, whitefish, and haddock. 
 In pickling sea herring the roes are usually left in the fish and no special treatment 
 is applied to them. The eggs of the sturgeon, mullet, and of a few other si)ecies are 
 nearly always removed from tlie fish and separately prei)ared, and it is to the treat- 
 ment of these that the i)reseut chapter more particularly relates. Sturgeon eggs are 
 salted in brine and sold under the name caviar, the domestic product approximating 
 300,000 pounds annually, worth $225,000. Mullet roes are dry-salted or pickled in 
 brine ;dl along the United States coast from North Carolina to Fhu'ida, The Indians 
 of the Northwest coast dry considerable quantities of roe from various species of fish, 
 the product being stored for winter use, when it is pounded between two stones, 
 immersed in water, and beaten with wooden spoons into a creamy consistency, or it is 
 l)oiled with sorrel and dittereut dried berries and molded in wooden frames into cakes 
 about 12 inches square and 1 inch thick. 
 
 CAVIAR. 
 
 Caviar is made from the eggs of sturgeon or similar si)ecies of fish, which are 
 suitably salted and held in tight packages in brine. It is the most costly food product 
 obtained in the United States fisheries, and while highly relished by many persons, a 
 liking for it must usually be acquired. For many years the manufacture of caviar 
 was monopolized by the Russians, most of it being prepared on the Volga Elver and 
 Casjiian Sea, where large quantities are even now annuallyputup, the trade centering 
 at Astrakhan. The product in Kussia amounts to aboixt 8,000,000 pounds annually, 
 and it is in great demand in Europe, especially in those countries bordering the eastern 
 half of the Mediterranean. 
 
 The abundance of sturgeon in the United States led to the preparation of caviar 
 on the Hudson liiver about 1850, and three years later on the Delaware liiver. It 
 was pre])ared at Sandusky, Ohio, first in 1855, and soon afterwards its manufacture 
 was begun at other points on the Great Lakes and the various rivers on the Atlantic 
 coast; in 1885 its preparation extended to the Columbia River on the Pacific coast, and 
 subsequently to Lake of the Woods. x\.n acquaintance with its peculiar process of 
 manufacture became of considerable value, sums ranging from $100 to $500 being 
 frequently paid for instructions in the secret method. At present, on account of the 
 high price at which the article sells — from 50 to 00 (sents per pound — every locality in 
 Ameiica in which sturgeons abound is vigorously fished, ami on the Delaware River 
 female sturgeons with ovaries in suitable condition sell ordinarily for $10 each, and 
 as high as $00 worth of i)rodacts has been made from one fish. 
 
542 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The best caviar made in tlie Uuited States is from the eggs of the lake sturgeon 
 [Avipenser ruMcimdus), these being larger than those of the commou species (A. stiirio). 
 Tlie hitter is the sole source of caviar iiroiluced on the Atlantic coast, the short-nosed 
 species {A. hrmnrostrix) not being found in sufficient quantities for tliis purpose. The 
 lake caviar sold iu 1S9S for about 80 cents per pound, whereas the Delaware product 
 sold for GO cents, and the Southern Atlantic for 50 cents per pound. 
 
 The caviar prepared on the Pacifio coast is from the ^1. transmontanus, and sells 
 usually for 40 cents per pound. During the jjast three or four years the eggs of 
 the shovel-nose sturgeon (A. scaphirhynchnx) have been used to a small extent for 
 making caviar, most of this product coming from the Mississippi River, especially in 
 the vicinity of Memphis. This caviar is not choice and usually sells for about 30 cents 
 l^er pound, or half that of Delaware caviar. 
 
 The increasing scarcity of sturgeon and the high price of caviar have led to many 
 attempts at finding a substitute for sturgeon eggs, but so far with very little success. 
 The eggs of horseshoe crabs [LimuluH pnlyphenuis) have been used, but they are small, 
 and become hard and tasteless when salted. Garfish eggs have also been tried, and 
 while of good size, they are without flavor and have a disagreeable and even repulsive 
 odor. The most successful substitute yet found is shad eggs, which have been prepared 
 iu identically thi; same manner as those of sturgeon and mixed with the latter. The 
 resulting product sells for a lower price than caviar made entirely from sturgeou eggs, 
 but the decreased value is more than counterbalanced by the increased quantity. 
 
 The product of caviar in the United States amounted in 1898 to about 2,800 kegs 
 of 125 to IGO pounds each. Of these, 400 kegs were of the large grain variety from 
 the Great Lakes, Lake of the Woods, Lake Winnipeg, etc.: 100 kegs from Columbia 
 and Fraser rivers; 200 kegs, of small grain, from the South Atlantic coast, and the 
 remaining 2,100 kegs, of the medium-grain variety, Irom the Delaware, south coast 
 of Long Island, and other waters of the Middle States. About 500 kegs were consumed 
 in this country, the remaining 2,300 being exported to Europe. 
 
 Small (j^uantities of caviar are imported into this country annually, the su])plies 
 coming from the Volga and the Elbe. The wholesale price in New York varies from 
 80 cents to $4 per pound, depending on the quality of the grain and the extent to 
 which it has been salted. The higher-priced varieties ai-e very lightly salted and 
 must be kept at a low temperature. 
 
 Thee(iuipmcut for making caviar is simple and inexpensive, consisting, in addition 
 to the floats, slaughter-house, etc., necessary for handling sturgeon meat, of several 
 sieves with wire meshes, a few large-sized buckets, tubs, and a number of tight kegs 
 for holding the product. The first step in the process is to remove the roe from the 
 sturgeon, which should be done as soon as practicable after the fish is caught. The 
 sturgeon is turned on its back or side, a gash is cut from the neck to the vent, and the 
 eggs are removed. Care must be taken to avoid bringing the eggs in contact with fresh 
 water, since it softens them and breaks the shells. The quantity of roe removed from 
 each fish varies considerably. The Delaware stui-geon yield from 6 to 12 gallons, 
 including the investing membranes of the ovaries and the supporting tissues, the latter 
 being only a very small i)art of the organ, so that there is but little waste from this 
 source. The Columbia River sturgeon yield nearly as much as the Delaware sturgeon, 
 but those from the Great Lakes average only 2 or 3 gallons. 
 
 The masses of eggs and membranous tissue are at once ])laccd upon u wire sieve, 
 the meshes of which are just large enough for the eggs to pass through as the masses 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 543 
 
 are rubbed back aud foi'th by the workman's hand. A tub, can, or box is placed under 
 the sieve to receive the eggs as they pass througli. It is convenient, where uuiuh 
 caviar is prepared, to fit the sieve over a zinc-lined trough, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet 
 wide, and -4 feet long, with its bottom sloping to one end, where an outlet is arranged. 
 As the eggs are gently pressed by the hand and worked back and forth across the 
 meshes, they become separated from the membramnis tissue and IVom each other and 
 fall into the receptacle, whence they are removed and i)laced in clean half-barrel tubs. 
 
 In the tubs the eggs are at once mixed with a compound of Liineburg salt, 100 
 pounds of eggs rei[uiring 13 pounds of Liineburg salt, to which is added 1 pound 
 of "preservaliue," a proprietary composition of certain antiseptics, such as boracic 
 acid, salicylic acid, etc. The Liineburg salt costs about 84 per cask of 300 pounds, 
 and the preservaliue costs about $l'.i per 100 pounds. The preservaliue has been 
 in use for about twelve years, and since it gives satisfaction and costs only a 
 trifle compared with the value of the caviar, no disposition exists to experiment 
 with a substitute. The mixing of the eggs with the salt is accomplished by gently 
 stirring the mass by hand for a few minutes. The immediate effect of the salt is to 
 cut the slime or glutinous coating from the eggs and to dry the mass, but very 
 soon its strong affinity for moisture causes it to extract the watery constituents 
 of the eggs, and in 10 or 15 minutes a very copious brine is formed, and upon its 
 surface a frothy substance collects. This is skimmed off and the eggs i)laced in 
 sieves of a finer mesh, about 8 or 10 pounds of eggs in each sieve. For convenience 
 in draining, these sieves may be placed on a sloping plank, with strips nailed on each 
 edge to elevate them, or in some houses they are placed over an oi)ening in the floor. 
 The draining must be thorough, and requires from 12 to 20 hours. 
 
 The process is now complete and the caviar is at once placed in small, clean oaken 
 kegs, which have been thoroughly steamed, with capacity for holding from 125 to 160 
 pounds. The kegs cost about |1 each, being made of red or white oak or Norway or 
 Oregon pine. The Delaware kegs hold about 125 or 130 pounds, those used on the 
 Great Lakes about 100 pounds, and those on the Columbia liiver about 145 or 150 
 pounds. The kegs when filled with caviar should be kept in a cool but not freezing 
 temperature and be allowed to stand for a considerable time, in order that the gas 
 may escape. During this time the caviar settles several inches and the keg should 
 be again filled before being headed up. 
 
 Exijerience is essential to the preparation of a high gTade of caviar, as the extent 
 of the salting, draining, etc., depends on the condition of the eggs, the temperature, 
 and the state of the weather. It is usually customary to keep light and dark varieties 
 of roe separate, since mixing the two gives a speckled appearance to the product. In 
 storage the caviar should be held at a low temperature, 38^ to 40^ F. being found most 
 satisfactory, and under favorable conditions it may be kept for several years. 
 
 The principal market for caviar in kegs is New York City. There are numerous 
 buyers at various fishery points on the coast and in the interior, who collect the ontput 
 of the smaller manufacturers ami ship it to New York dealers, who export the greatei- 
 part of it to (iermany. Occasionally a manufacturer on the Delaware may shi^) his 
 product to Germany direct, but more frequently it passes through the hands of New 
 York dealers. 
 
 Caviar is packed in kegs for tlie wholesale inarlvct, and is never handled in any 
 other tbrm of package by the original ])riidncer, but a keg holding more than a cus- 
 tomer usually desires, the large ilcalcis prepare it in hermeLically sealed tin cans for 
 
544 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 retail trade. When prepared in this manner it is sometimes subjected to a process 
 difiereiit from that employed for packing it in kegs. 
 
 In 187.5 Max Ams, an extensive dealer in fishery products in New York, devised 
 and patented* a process, which is as follows: 
 
 After tlie eggs have boeu aieved and salted in the usual manner, except that preservaliue is not 
 generally used, they are placed in tin cans, which are immediately soldered and then exposed to water 
 iu a gentle heat, which is very gradually increased to not less than 140^ nor more than 200^^ F. The 
 can is tlien vented and immediately reclosed to retain the caviar in an air-tight pacliage. Hy this 
 process the! salt mixed with theeggs will lie combined with theextraneous matter sufficiently to protect 
 it against decomposition and to constitute a protective covering for the eggs. If the temperature lie 
 less than 110 , tliis etfect would not be obtained and decomposition would probably ensue; and if the 
 heat exceeds 200^', the essential oils would evaporate and the eggs be left dry, brittle, and tasteless. 
 
 The usual size of cans for the retail trade in this country is rj pound, .\ jKiund, 
 1 pound, and 'J |)ounds. The price received for j pound cans is about sjsl.S.j i)er dozen, 
 and for l-pouiul cans I.I.IO i>er dozen. Other sizes sell at proportionate rates. 
 
 A very choice product of caviar, which, however, seems to be little known in this 
 country, is the freshly salted eggs. The fresh eggs on removal from the fish are at 
 once mixed with a small (luaiitity of .salt and .served in that condition within li or 3 
 hours. Tiiis makes a delightful dish, quite sajterior to the usual caviar of commerce. 
 In order to obtain the article in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the living sturgeon are 
 transported from the Volga iu tank cars, so that the eggs may be had perfectly fresh. 
 
 A special method of preparing caviar was patented in this country iu 1851, t which 
 docs not appear, however, to have ever been employed to any great extent. This 
 process is as follows: 
 
 The roe, being removed from the fish, are sejueezed gently by hand in order to remove the individual 
 ova from the membranes by which they are covered. Sjirinkle a small (luantity of fine salt in a clean 
 tub and place iu the tub a layer of ova and a layer of salt, to the extent of 100 pounds of roe and about 
 5 pounds of salt. When it has remained about 6 liours, pour ("> (piarts of strong brine-pickle over the 
 mixture. After 12 hours a like iiuantity of pickle is again poured over. In from SO to !50 hours, 
 according to the state of the weather, the ova will rise or float on the pickle, while certain refuse 
 matter will settle to the bottom of the tub, the extraneous uiatter being separated from the ova by a 
 process similar to fermentation. The ova are then spread about half an inch thick on sheets, and are 
 exposed to the air from 20 to 40 hour.s, being turned over iu the sheets in the meantime 4 or ."> times 
 a day. When dry, uiix with it about 2 ounces of black pepjier and 3 pints of oil extracted from the 
 liver or milt of the male sturgeon, the purpose of the oil being to restore to the roe the sturgeon flavor 
 removed by the salting process. Let it stand for 10 or 12 days and then pack in kegs for market. 
 
 RUSSIAN METHODS OF PREPARING CAVIAR. 
 
 Large quantities of caviar are manufactured in Russia, especially in the vicinity 
 of the Caspian Sea, not only from the eggs of sturgeon but of various other species. 
 Of the sturgeon caviar two kinds are prepared, (I) fresh or grained, and (2) hard or 
 pressed caviar; the former is more valuable than the latter, selling at Astrakhatt from 
 $21 to $2.5 per pood (30.112 pounds), while pressed caviar sells at $15 to $17 per pood. 
 The method of jireparing each kind is as follows :J 
 
 In preparing by either nuthod the roe of the sturgeon is spread on a net stretched on a wooden 
 frame and with narrow meslies formiug a sieve. The grains are passed through the meshes by slightly 
 pressing the whole mass with the hand till nothing remains on the sieve liut the cellular tissue, the 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 169668, November 9, 1875. t See Letters Patent No.78;B, January 7, 1851. 
 
 t See Notice sur les Pecheries et la Chasse aux Phoques dans la Mer Blanche, TOceau tilacial et la 
 Mer Caspienne. Tar Alexandre Schultz, St.-P<;tersbourg, 1873. Also R.apport sur les Expositions 
 Internationales de PccUe, par J.-L. Soubeirau. Paris. 1871. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHEUY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 545 
 
 fat, and the muscle, the grains falling into a wooden roceptaclo placed luidcriieath. If grained caviar 
 is to he made, the roe is sirinkled with very clean and fine salt, and the wluile mass is stirred with a 
 wooden fork having eight or ten prongs. The quantity of salt reqnired varies, according to the 
 season, from 6 to 15 pounds per 100 pounds of roe; more salt heing required in warm than in cold 
 weather. It is de8iral)le that as little salt lie used as is ahsolutely necessary for preserving the caviar. 
 The roe mixed with salt tirst presents the ajipearance of dough when stirred, hut when each grain 
 has heen impregnated with salt the whole iliass swells, and in stirring a slight noise is perceptihle like 
 that produced by stirring grains of corn. This noise is a sign that the process is completed.' The caviar 
 is packed in casks made of linden wood, as this imparts no disagreeahle flavor to the contents. 
 
 For manufacturing pressed caviar a tub half filled with brine is placed under the sieve, the 
 strength of the lirine varying with the temperature and the season. To impregnate the grains evenly 
 with brine the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork, always turning it from the same side. This is 
 continued for 10 rmuutes in summer and about half that long in winter. Theu the roe is removed 
 with line sieves and, after the brine has drained therefrom, it is put in receptacles made of the bark 
 of the linden, 3 jioods ( 108 pounds) to each sack, each of which is placed under compression to remove 
 all the brine fnun the roe and to transform it to a solid mass, remaining under compression for about 
 6 days. During tlie jiressing many grains are crushed and a portion of their contents flows out with 
 the brine, tlio loss iu weight amounting to about 3(1 per cent. The pressed caviar is then removed 
 from the sacks and packed in casks ccmtaining usually .30 poods (1,080 pounds) each, the inside of 
 which is covered with "najikin linen," this being the reason why the caviar is fre([uently called 
 cnridi- <T ?rt Sfcric^r (napkin caviar). The finest ipiality of jiresseil caviar, that which has been least 
 salti'd and pressed, is jiacked iu straight linen bags of cylindrical shape, and is called caciar a, sac 
 (sack caviar). Caviar is also shii)ped in hermetically sealed tin cans. 
 
 Mr. Scluiltz states: 
 
 The fatness of the roe depends on the quality of the tish and the season when it is caught. The 
 fattest is that made from the roe of sturgeon caught in the Caspian between .Inly 8 and Au^'ust l.'i. 
 This roe is left only a few hours in the brine and theu taken out and packed, without beino' iiresscd 
 iu casks holding from 5 to 10 poods (180 to 3()0 pouiuls) each. If the flsh h.as been dead so lono- that 
 the roes are somewhat spoiled, the roes and ovaries are jdaced in the brine until they are thoroughly 
 impregnated with salt and then jiressed and packed iu large casks containing about 1,000 pounds. 
 This is sold at a very low jiriee, from 5 to 8 cents per poiuid, wholesale. 
 
 The choicest ciiviar iu the Russian trade is from the roe of. the bclouga {Acipen- 
 ser huso), the eggs being large and of good ap])earance; but for the bulk of caviar the 
 roe of the cominou sturgeon ( A.gnhlenstiidtii) and of the sevriouga (.4. sieJUitux) is u.sed. 
 Choice caviar is made from the eggs of the steri.ul (A. ruthemts), which, however, does 
 not enter into commerce, being used by the fishermen and their neighbors. 
 
 The eggs of the bream (Abramis hrama), of the perch {Lnclopcrca mndra), and 
 of the "vobla" or chub [Lcueiscus rutilitu) are also used for making a form of caviar 
 which finds a market principally iu Constantinople and Greece. Merchants from 
 Greece visit the fishing estaldishments near Astrakhan, purchase the fresh eggs, and 
 have the caviar prepared under their own supervision iu a manner cpiite similar to 
 the salting of mullet roes iu the United States. The roe bags with the eggs therein 
 are carefully removed and mixed with dry salt in bulk. After sufficient salting the mass 
 is placed between boards weighted down by heavy stones, and after remaining thus for 
 a month is shipped iu casks. In the retail trade it is usually cut into disk-like slices and 
 is much sought after in Greece. From 500,000 to 700,000 pounds of the caviar frcim 
 perch eggs are prepared every year in Kuban. During recent years the Greek Island- 
 ers have prepared large (juantities of roes from the above named species of fish. 
 
 Day states* that the roc of carp (Ci/priiu(.s carpio) is made into caviar by Jews iu 
 Italy and Eastern Europe, as by their regulations they may not eat caviar ujade of 
 sturgeon, that flsh being destitute of scales. 
 
 "The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, by Francis Day, vol. ii, p. 162. 
 
 F.C. B.,1S98— 35 
 
546 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The fisherineu of the Dardanelles prepare a kind of cheese lioiu tlie roe of several 
 species of fish by dryiiij,^ it iu the air and then pressing it. By dipping it in luelted 
 wax, a crust is formed over it which jtrevents its being affected by the air. Inside 
 this crust the roe undergoes a sort of fermentation, giving it so piijuant a Havor tliat 
 one can eat but little of it at a time. It is said to taste like a mixture of flue sardines, 
 caviar, and old cheese. Before it is eaten, the crust of wax is taken off, and if it has 
 become moldy, which frequently happens, it is soaked in strong vinegar.* 
 
 In Germany a form of caviar is made from the eggs of the pike, in the following 
 manner. The fresh eggs on removal from the fish are rinsed iu cold water and rubbed 
 through a coarse sieve to separate them from the membranous tissues enveloping 
 them. Ou completion of this, they are rinsed two or three times and are placed iu a 
 liuer-meshed sieve to drain. Next, they are well mixed with fine salt and llavoring 
 ingredients, there beiug added to each 100 pounds of eggs about 3J pounds of fine salt, 
 2J ounces of citric acid, and a small quantity of lemon oil. After being thoroughly 
 mixed with these iugredients the eggs are put iu a cool place, and after remaining 
 undisturbed for eight days the jars or tubs coutaining them are tightly sealed. 
 
 MULLET BOES, 
 
 Mullet roes are considered great delicacies in nearly all countries' in which this 
 fish abounds, and large quantities are prepared along the southern coast of the United 
 States and in countries bordering the Mediterraneau. At maturity, which occurs in 
 September and October, the roe of the Southern Atlantic mullet is from .") to 8 inches 
 long and li to 2J inches in diameter. These are saved iu nearly all the mullet fisheries 
 of the United States, and are sold either fresh or dried, about 300,000 pounds, worth 
 $20,000, being salted annually on the west coast of Florida. 
 
 Dried mullet roes are prepared along the southern coast from North Carolina to 
 Florida, inclusive, in a manner quite similar to the drying of mullet. The roes utilized 
 are from the matured females which have not begun spawning, for as the spawning 
 time approaches the eggs soften and burst the surrounding membranes or roe bags, 
 when they are useless for salting or drying. Nothing but firm roes should be used 
 for salting, and soft roes, roes from fish which have been caught some hours, as well 
 as roes from roe bags half emptied should, if used at all, be salted separately. 
 
 In removing them care should be taken to avoid breaking the roe bags or injuring 
 or bruising the eggs, but they should be free from portions of the surrounding viscera. 
 If the tubs in which the roes are gathered have holes through which the water can 
 run ott', some salt is saved and a better product is secured, the water making the roes 
 soft and less liable to keep. The roes still in the roe bags are then placed in boxes or 
 barrels with salt sprinkled among them, or in some cases they are placed in brine, 
 where they remain for ten or twelve hours, but the former method is ]ireferred. An 
 excess of salting must be avoided, since it causes the eggsacs to break and the eggs 
 are ruined on exposure to the sun and to pressure, or they become dark and brittle. 
 If ijropcrly treated a good article can be made of roes that have become somewhat 
 soft by salting it immediately on removal from the fish, by using more salt than for the 
 firm roe, or by resalting it. Medium grain salt is preferred for salting. Coarse salt 
 should be avoided, since it is liable to become imbedded in the roe membrane and give 
 
 * Norsk Fiskeritidende, vol. v, No. 2, Bergen, April, 1886. 
 
PRESEKVATION OF FISHKUY PKOlJUCTS FUR FOOD. 547 
 
 it a burnt look. About 1 peck of Turks Island or Liverpool salt to KiO pounds of eggs 
 usually gives the best results. 
 
 On removal from the salt the rocs are spread out ou boards and exposed to the 
 sun for about one week, being- taken in at night to prevent the moisture and dews 
 from falling on them, and every morning they are turned over to thoroughly aid in 
 drying them. Care nuist be taken to preveiit them from becoming wet after the 
 drying has begun, and upon the first indication of a rain they should be placed under 
 shelter. Sometimes after oue day's exposure other boards are laid on top of the roes 
 so as to slightly compress them. When properly cured, they are i to 8 inches long, 2 
 to 4 iuches wide, and one-half to two-thirds of an inch thick, and vary in color from a 
 yellowish brown to dark red, according to the freshness of the roe, carefulness of hand- 
 ling, degree of saltness, and length of drying. The i-oes are then sent en mossr. to 
 market in baskets, boxes, or the like, and sold from 40 to GO cents per dozen, according 
 to the size and carefuluess in curing. 
 
 In the West Indies and in many countries bordering ou the Mediterranean 8ea, 
 mullet roes are prepared by methods similar to those employed in this country. In 
 Greece almost the same process is used, except that when dried the roes are generally 
 dipped in melted beeswax. Those obtained from Tunis are very highly esteemed, 
 about 150,000 being sold iu Italy each year at about 20 cents each. 
 
 Mr. Day states : 
 
 In Italy, the hard roe of mullet is converted into cakes termed bolarge or bolargo, which are 
 prepared by washing and sprinkling with salt and pressing between two boards. This may be 
 smoked or sun <liied and is considered a good appetizer to promote thirst. Bnt in India the same 
 article is somewhat similarly treated and considered excellent for curries. 
 
 Readers of Pepys will recall the eating of bolargo in England, as the gossip says: 
 
 Sir \V. Penn came out iu his shirt on to his leads and there we stayed talking and singing and 
 eating bolargo, bread and bntter till twelve at night, it beiug uioouahiue, and so to bed very nearly 
 fuddled. 
 
 SALTED SHAD ROES. 
 
 A small quantity of shad roes are brine-salted in North Carolina, Virginia, and 
 Maryland each year, these being so i)repared only when the state of the fresh fish 
 market or the transportation facilities makes it necessary to pickle the female fish. 
 The roes are removed from the fish in dressing the latter, care being taken not to cut 
 or injure the roe bags. As soon as practicable thereafter they are washed by stirring 
 them with the hands iu tubs of water, and are then placed iu tubs of strong brine with 
 dry Liverpool salt sprinkled among them and at the toj). Every 12 hours during the 
 ensuing 5 days the roes are gently stirred to separate them from each other and to have 
 them uniformly salted. The sixth day they are removed from the pickle, drained, and 
 placed in suitable packages, with dry Turks Island salt sprinkled at the bottom, through 
 the roes, and at the t<Ji). The package should then be filled with strong brine iiuide 
 of Liverpoiil salt. A variety of packages are used, the most convenient beiug 20-pound 
 kits, which wheu tilled with salted roes sell usually for about $2 each. 
 
 EGGS OP COD, HADDOCK, ETC. 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that the roes of cod, haddock, and other ground fish 
 are not raor^' extensively used for commercial purposes in this country. A large trade 
 exists in cod roes in Norway, the eggs being salted and shipped to France to be used 
 
548 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 as a bait in the sardine fishery. About fifteen years ago a small trade developed iu 
 e.xportiug cod roes from this country for use in the same fisheries. The price received 
 was about $2.75 per barrel net, and the price usually paiil in France is about 50 francs 
 per barrel. In 1879-80, 3,200 barrels of cod and pollock roe were salted at Gloucester 
 and shipped to France via New York, but on account of discriminative duties these 
 shipments were soon abandoned. Au attempt has been made to introduce cod roe as 
 a bait in the Eastport sardine fishery, but without success. 
 
 The only roe now saved in the 'New England fisheries is that of the haddock, 
 which is brought ashore fresh, especially by the shore vessels, the proceeds from the 
 sale usually going to the cook or to the crew. It is taken principally in the spring, 
 from 35 to 75 pounds being secured for each 1,000 pounds of dressed fish. It is sold at 
 l^rices ranging from 25 cents to $2.25 per backet of 25 pounds, and the annual product 
 is about 000,000 pounds, for which the fisliermen receive $14,000. It is purchased by 
 consumers while fresh, and does not receive any special method of preservation. 
 
 The possibilities for utilizing a part of the roe now wasted iu our New England 
 fisheries furnish sufficient reason for incorporating herein the following description of 
 the methods of making cod caviar in Norway: 
 
 For the i)reparation of cod caviar the Norwegians use the whole ovaries of the cod 
 which are salted in barrels, and mostly in the Lofoden winter fisheries. The roe must 
 be salted whole without injuring or breaking the enveloping membrane, and must not 
 be salted too much, just sufficient to imi)art a nice orange red color. When the salted 
 ovaries are removed from the barrels they are first thoroughly washed several times 
 in fresh water, and then hung on wires or ropes in the oi>en air, but protected from too 
 strong sunshine. After they have dried about 24 hours t hoy are taken down lor snnik- 
 ing. For this purpose they are hung in the same way in the smoking-house on sticks 
 or rods or put on frames covered with old nets or wirework and cold smoked for two 
 or three days, or until they become of a dark-brown color. After smoking, the envel- 
 oping membrane or skin of each roe sack is torn and removed, and the eggs packed 
 in good, tight barrels, which are then tightly closed and placed iu a normally cool 
 place for a month or six weeks. At the end of that period the eggs begin to ferment 
 somewhat, which may be detected by the swelling of the barrel. It is well not to 
 wait too long, but to examine the barrels every week or so, and as soon as fermenta- 
 tion has begun a sufficient quantity of salt should be put into the roe, to prevent the 
 Ijrodnct from spoiling. 
 
 By the fermentation the roe receives a slight acid fiavor and a taste resembling 
 that of fermenting beer or wine, and this fermentation must be stopped by adding salt 
 at a definite point, which is to be learned by experience only. The salt used to stop 
 the fermentation must be of the very best qaality, and if the roe seems to be dry 
 a little good French olive oil is added to moisten the product. After the roe has been 
 thoroughly mixed with the salt it is put in 1-pound glass bottles that arc sealed with 
 cork stoppers. 
 
PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 549 
 
 FOOD EXTRACTS OF MARINE PRODUCTS. 
 
 VarioUvS methods have been introduced for preparing extracts of the alimentarj' 
 principles of marine products, especially of those that are otlierwise wasted. In 
 Norway and other countries of northern Europe a number of preiiarations in the 
 nature of pastes or extracts are made from fish. A well known instance is tlie fish 
 meal of Norway, which is composed of the tiesh of fish reduced to i)owder, in which 
 all of the nourishing' materials are concentrated and condensed, with the addition of 
 certain other substances. It is claimed that it contains 4 times as much nutritious 
 matter as beef, and !•> times as nnu;h as milk or rye bread. On the coast of Cochin 
 China, large quantities of a fish ))aste are prepared Iroiu the shrimp and small fish 
 inhabiting the inshore waters. It is stated that this sauce is brought to perfection by 
 being buried in the earth for several years. About $500,000 worth is consumed in the 
 French provinces alone. 
 
 EXTRACTS OF FISH. 
 
 Following the idea of liaron von Liebig in preparing the well-known article of 
 commerce known as "extract of meat," several attempts have been made to prepare 
 a similar article from fish. In the case of meats, the substances soluble iu water arc 
 extracted from the tissues, and tiie albumens are then coagulated by the aid of heat 
 or by the addition of dilute acid. The fluid remaining after the coagulated albumen 
 has been skimmed off consists of tlie extractives and the salts soluble in water, and 
 this is evaporated down to a semitluid condition, in which it is placed on the market. 
 
 In 1870, Stephen L. (ioodale, for many years secretary of the Maine Board of 
 Agriculture, i.itroduced a method of preparing a food extract from fish, especially 
 ajiplicable in connection with tlie use of menhaden for oil and fertilizer. His process, 
 as improved iu 1880 and covered by Letters Patent No, 248586, dated October 25, 
 1881, was as follows : 
 
 Cle.an tbo fisli and boil fcir ,^ short time to coagulate the allmmeu contained in the niiiscli' juices. 
 Separate tlic liqnid from the Bolid matter by drainage and pressure and allow the li(iiiid to stand in 
 asuitaljle vessel nntil any oil which may havc^ passed over iu the ii(juid has risen to the surface 
 and Ijeeu removed. The liquid is then aerated at tlie highest practicable teui[ erature, either by intro- 
 ducing a current of heated air or of heated steam, or by ebullition with free access of air, when a 
 substance causing tnrbidity is precipitated, the complete iirecipitatiou being ascertained by ex.amining 
 samples taken out from time to tim(\ iu a glass tube or heater. If gelatine be present in the liquid, 
 which is the case if skins and bones are not excluded in cleaning the lish, the proj;ipitate will ho finer 
 and slower in falling ibau if iiinscnlav llcsh alone were used. The liquor will also a.ltain a somewhat 
 darker color, resembling that of liglit wine, and be reduced iu bulk by the further concentration inci- 
 dent to the means used to effect precipitation. When the precipitation is completed the precipitate 
 should be removed from the liquid either by drawing off or by filtration in any convenifut manner. 
 The clear liquid thus obtained is evaporated, as is customary iu making meat extracts, the evapora- 
 tion to be continued until the desired cousisteucy has been reached, which is usually about that of 
 honey. The product may be put up in cans, bottles, or other closed vessels. 
 
550 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 The inventor states that a barrel of menhaden yields about 3 pounds of tlie 
 extract, that the article compares favorably with Liebig's extract of beef and retains 
 its Havor under any ordinary condition of temperature or climate. While it has never 
 been prepared for the general market, it seems not improbable that it might have a 
 considerable patronage if i)roperly introduced. 
 
 A saniewhat si mi hxr process was invented* in 1882 by Carl Adolph Sahlstrom, of 
 Jcinkiiping, Sweden, for producing a nutritious extract from the flesh of the shark, 
 whale, seal, and other sea animals. This process was as follows: 
 
 The raw materi.il is cut up into as small pieces as possiltle by mechanical means ami is placed in 
 a vat provided with stirring apparatus. A (quantity of clean water, free from lime, is boiled and 
 cooled down to from 6-" to 15^ C, and to this is added so much dissolved hypermaugauic alkali as 
 will imiiart to the water a light-red color (s.iy from 1 to 10 grams for every 100 liters of water) 
 and from 20 to 100 grams of water of ammonia. Sufficient of this liquor is added to the finely cut 
 raw material to give thereto the consistence of thin gruel, and the stirring apparatus is then set to 
 work. After a period of from 10 to 30 minutes the mass is removed from the vat and is placed in a 
 centrifugal apparatus for the purpose of separating the liijuor, which carries the fat with it. The inner 
 T)art of the centrifug.al apparatus is preferably covered with cloth. When all the lluid is sepiirated 
 the mass is again soaked in fresh licjucir and passed through the centrifugal apparatus, and this is 
 done as often as may be necessiiry to remove all the fat. All the linid obtained is mixed together and 
 left to stand iu a deep tank for ii period varying according to the temperature and until complete 
 separation takes place. The fat and oil rise to the top of the liquid and are removed for further 
 treatment. The oil is separated for special treatment. The solid nuiss remaining iu tlie centrifugal 
 machine is also reserved for further treatment. The fluid thus obtained, free from any jiarticle of fat, 
 is then mixed with 1 to 10 grams of common s.alt to each 100 liters of the lluid, is boiled as quickly as 
 possible until the albumen coagulates, and is then filtered. The <lear lluid is evaporated iu vacuo or 
 otherwise till it attains the consistence of treacle. It is then poured into a shallow vessel, which can 
 be heated by ste.am. From 0.1 to 8 per cent of sugar is then added, for the purpose of preserving the 
 extract and of imparting a taste thereto similar to that of Liel)ig'8 extract of meat. The extract is 
 heated to a temperature of 100° C, and kept constantly stirred until the desired consistence is 
 att.ained. Vegetables or extracts thereof, or any other flavoring matter, or flour or other material 
 for imparting a higher nutritive power or to give solidity, may be added at pleasure. 
 
 A factory was established at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1885, under the superinten- 
 dence of Sahlstriim, in which quantities of the extract were prepared from whale 
 flesh. It was reported that the product i)Ossessed no flavor of the crude flesh what- 
 ever, and was quite similar to that prepared from ox flesh. It does not appear that 
 anything is done in this line at present. 
 
 In a discus.sion of extracts of fi.sh, published in 1885, Prof. William Stirling, of 
 Owens College and Victoria University, Manchester, states: 
 
 The Normal Company, under the superintendence of Mr. Sahlstrom, has recently established a 
 factory in Aberdeen, and has nuinufactured large quantities of a similar extract from whale flesh. 
 This extract presents all the characters of an extract made from the flesh of the ox. Such an extract 
 forms an excellent basis for a soup, having all the flavor of an extract of ox flesh. But extracts of 
 fish can be made in a similar way, the product being, as far as sensible characters are concerned, 
 indistinguishable from that of ox flesh. These are points of difiereuce dejiendiug on Ihe slightly 
 dift'erent chemical compositiou of fish and flesh; for, even iu the same animal, there is a difiereuce in 
 the chemical composition of individual muscles. Such fish extracts have no fl.avor of fish whatever, 
 and possess all the aromatic flavor of meat extract, and I understand that they can be made much 
 more cheaply th.an extract of meat. At a certain point iu the process of extraction .all the fishy 
 flavor disappears. As a general rule, these extracts are made by boiling a watery extract of the fish 
 muscles, after acidulatiou and precipitation of the proteids or albumins, in an open vessel with a 
 double jacket, so that steam can be admitted between the layers of the jacket, .and thus keep up 
 
 » Letters Patent No. 3.53822, dated December 7, 1886. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 551 
 
 ebullitiou. Such extracts will l^eeji for a very long time, and they are available for all the purposes 
 for which uicat extract is available. The fiuestiou has still to be tested dietetically whether such 
 extracts are in any w,iy superior to those of meat. In any case they are quite ecjual to meat extracts 
 iu stimulatiug and restorative iiroperties. 
 
 Such extracts, however, can also be made from other marine animals, e. g., crabs and shellfish 
 generally. In these cases th<', extract is so made that it retains the llavor of the crab or shelltish. 
 Thus there m.iy bo manufactured on the spot .a large amount of extract which undoubtedly has a 
 connnercial and dietetic value. In a properly adjusted dietary, however, mere stimulants and ri'stor.a- 
 tivi's are not sutticient, but there must be a proper amount and adjustmeut of the jiroteids (albumins) 
 carbohydrates (such as starches and sugars), fats, and mineral salts. The ([uestion arises, then. Can 
 not a cheap and useful food be made so as to combine these substances iu jiroper ]iroportiouf The 
 whole order of the legume tribe, reprcseute<l by peas, beans, and lentils, have a, high dietetic value 
 and this fact was made use of by the (iermans in the n)anufacture of the famous " Erbswurst," or " iron 
 ration," which played so prominent a part in the dietary of the Prussian soldiers during the Franco- 
 German war. 
 
 As a matter of fact, in most soups what one obtains is really the extractives and salts and some 
 flavoring materials. The substances iu meat which give rise to the sens.ations of flavor and s.ipiditv 
 are really most important from a physiological point of view, for they excite powerfully the secretion 
 of the digest ivejuici^s, and this greatly aids the process of digestion. Hence the value of mixing even 
 highly nutritions food with sapid articles. Every one is familiar with the fact that tasteless articles 
 very soou pall on one's palate, and how nauseating they become after a time. (Fourth Annual K'eport 
 of the Fishery P.uard for Scotland, pp. 257,2.58.) 
 
 With a view to producing a more digestible and nutritious as well as a more 
 economical article of food tlian tlie dried cod of commerce, L. M. Haskins, of Boston 
 Mass., introduced iu ISSI a combination of fish tlesli, bone, tiud salt, ground together 
 and desicciited. Ilis process of manufacture was as follows: 
 
 The edilile ruiiiposition consists of fish bone aud fish flesh ground together with common salt in 
 a mill or between grinding rolls, so as to be reduced to a powdered state and thoroughly ujixed or 
 combined. Sixty pounds of the tiesh, 20 jjounds of the bone, and salt sufficient to give the mixture 
 the requisite savor and preserve it from decay under ordin.ary circumstances .are found to aflford in a 
 ground state an excellent edible composition. The proportions of the ingredients of the composi- 
 tion may, however, be varied, as occasion may require, to produce a palatable and suitable article 
 of food.' 
 
 The inventor claims that this composition, by containing the alkaline and gelatinous properties 
 of the bono in ajjowdered state, is not only readily digestible, and, from asanitary point of view, better 
 as an article of food than salted tiah without any osseous additions, but that it can b(^ manufactured 
 anil sold at a cheaper rate comparatively. It is well known that wheat or other Hour without the 
 admixture of the bran is not so digestible or beneficial as food as it is with a due aumunt of the bran, 
 the latter c-(uitainiug the constituents necessary to the form.ation of bone. So this composition, by 
 containing osseous elements in a finely reduced state, is rendered thereby not only easier digested but 
 better as a food, es|iecially when suitably cooked. 
 
 Tlie following method of preparing fish meal was introduced by F. P>. Nichols 
 aud C-athcart Thom.son, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and i^atented May 1, 1883: 
 
 The fish are headed aud split and a portion of the backbone is removed in the same manner as for 
 making the ordinary dry-salted fish. The pieces are then washed and all bloody portions renmved. 
 Very little salt should, it is said, be used in curing, as heavy siilting miikes an inferior meal, oven 
 when the excess is removed by water previous to drying. For some qualities of meal it is preferred 
 to dry without salt. In this stiite the fish would soon spoil .and very rapid drying must bo resorted to 
 in order to save them. The immediate application of currents of hot air would accomplish this, but 
 woulil render the skin so fri.able .as to defeat the after process aud in other respects injure it for m.akin" 
 mc:il, and open-air drying would not be speedy enough to keep the fish from tainting. In order to 
 obviate these dlfficnlties the fish-drying house .and apparatus of the patent granted this inventor 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 241357, dated May 10, 1881. 
 
552 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 December 6, 1881, No. 260382, is employed. The drying must be more tUorougli tliau for ordiuary dried 
 fish ill Older to make the fish hard .and crisj). The hard-dried fisli are made small enough to be fed 
 into the hopper of a mill to he coarsely ground. Almost any kind of grinding mill may be used, pro- 
 vided it is not too sharp and is set high for coarse grinding for the first run. This run should be bolted 
 through sieves having about 144 meshes to the square inch. About 75 per cent of it should pass 
 through the bolt. The remainder, which is too coarse to pass, copsists of the bones and the skin with 
 considerable fish flesh adhering to it. In order to utilize this it is legrouud with the mill set closer 
 and again iiassed through the bolt. If on examination ranch fish adheres to the skin it should be sub- 
 jected to another grinding with a still closer set of the mill and again passed through the bolt. The 
 residue from this, consisting priuciiially of skin, bones, and scales, should not amount to more than 
 10 per cent of the weight of the dried fish and may be utilized as manure. The product of the 
 last grindings contains considerable of the white portion of the skin, with fragments of bone and 
 enough of the bhuk skin to give a coarse, dirty appearance to the meal. In order to remedy this it 
 should be again ground in a sharper and closer set mill to redui-e it to a fine nu^al, and this, being 
 passed through a bolt having about 400 meshes to the Ki|ua,re inch, gives a fine product and contains 
 the most nourishing portion of the fish. The last product can be either used alone or incorporated 
 with the first by uniform mixing. 
 
 The inventors siiy: 
 
 We are aware that fish meal has been previously made; but in all previous processes, so far as 
 we are aware, the fish used have been so s.alt as to reijuire soaking the meal to remove the excess of 
 salt before cooking, and the skin, fins, tail, and larger bones removed before grinding. We propose 
 to use fish dried with little or no salt, and to grind them without removing either skin, bones, or 
 other refuse contained in fins or tail, and to separate them liy bolting. 
 
 In Eurojte "pastes" are made of anchovies, l)loaters, shrimp, etc., tlie output 
 being considerable. Tlie following is one of the metiiods u.sed in preparing anchovy 
 paste. For each gallon of ft.sh take 1 i)onnd of salt, .\ ponnd of saltpeter, 1 ounce of 
 sal prunella (saltpeter deprived of water of crystallization by heat) and a few grains 
 of cochineal, and pound the whole well together in a mortar. In astoue jar iilace a 
 layer of the ingredients, then a layer of fish, and so on until the jar is filled, press 
 them hard down and cover up carefully, and let them remain for sis months, when the 
 paste is ready for use. 
 
 Somewhat similar to the above are the very delicious sardine butter {Sardellen- 
 hulter), crab butter ( Krebsbutter), and crawfish butter prei)ared in Europe. These sell 
 very high, 00 or 75 cents being the usual price for a 2-onnce bottle. Mrs. M. von 
 Eisenhardt furnishes the following process for making crawfish butter: 
 
 Kemove the meat from 100 boiled crawfish, dry the shells, put them with one pound of butter into 
 a mortar and pound them line. Then place in a saucepan over a fire and stir 5 minutes, add 2 quarts 
 boiling water and cook for 5 minutes. It should then be strained through a napkin into cold water, 
 and as soon as cold and firm remove it from the water and stir it in a saucepan over the fire for a few 
 minutes, when it is ready for use. It should be placed in small glass jars and stored in a cool place. 
 
 In Japan lean pieces of fresh flatfish, eels, shark, etc., are freed from the bones, 
 pounded in a stone mortar, and at the same time mixed with a certain quantity of 
 salt, flour, sweet wine, white of an egg, and sacchariferous alga^ [Laminaria)^ until 
 the mixture assumes a paste-like consistency. Tliis mixture is molded into various 
 shapes, such as semicylindric, on a curved wooden plate; hollow cylindric, around a 
 bamboo stick; discoid, on a circular plate, etc. These are heated over a charcoal fire, 
 and then steamed and baked. The product may be kept from 3 to 20 days, according 
 to the amount of the desiccation and the season of the year. 
 
 The secret of preparing several choice forms of fishery products has become lost. 
 The method of preparing the garum sociorum of the Romans, a kind of fish sauce, is 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOn. 553 
 
 now unknown. Athenanis and several other ancient writers speak of it in most glow- 
 ing terms, and Pliny, who states that it is an extract from the entrails of certain fish 
 that had undergone tlie process of fermentation, further says: 
 
 The Greeks, in loimer times, prepared "garum" from the tisli called by that name. The best 
 "garum " comes now from Carthago, in Spain (Carthagena), and is called " garnm sociornm." You can 
 scarcely hny two boxes (each containing about 10 pounds) for a thousand pieces of money. No iiuid, 
 except scented waters, sells for so high a price, au<l It is in great demand by all classes of society. 
 The lishcrnicn of Mauritania, Hetica, and Cartega prep.are it from mackerel fresh from the ocean, 
 which alone are fit for this purpose. The " garum "' from Klozoiriene, Pompeii, and Liptes is also 
 highly praised; and the prepared tish from Antipolis, Thnrium, aud Dalniatia are no less to be 
 recommended. (I'liiiy, Hist. Nat., xxxi, 8.) 
 
 EXTRACTS OF CLAMS AND OYSTERS. 
 
 It is generally conceded that clams, both hard ( Venus mercendria) and soft (Mya 
 arenaria), form one of the most nourishing and easily assimihited of all foods, espe- 
 cially when the hard indigestible portions are eliminated. For tliis reason there are 
 many preparations of these marine produ(;ts on the nuirket, i)ossessing excellent 
 medicinal and restorative qualities, making tliem almost iuviiluabie for invalids or 
 convalescents. In making tliese prei)aratious the solid matter is usually separated 
 from the liquid and the latter reduced in bulk by evai)oratioii. The extract thus 
 obtained is rich in nutriment, is easily assimilated, and is a valuable tonic for x^eople 
 of weak or impaired digestive organs, and also as an article of food either alone or 
 combined with water, milk, etc. The Juices of oysters and other mollusks are also 
 used at times for pieparing similar articles, but they do not possess the nutritive 
 qualities of clam extracts. 
 
 The first of these i>roiuietary C(miiiounds was introduced by Butler (1. Noble in 
 1807,* the extract being prepared in the following manner: 
 
 The clams are removed from the shells, rinsed so as to remove grit or sand, cut into small pieces; 
 a small quantity of fresh water is .added and the whole boiled for abont an honr. The free liquor 
 is then poured otf, the fibrous mass snbjected to pressnre, and the liquid obtained by this pressure is 
 subjeited to a process of ev.aporatioo at a temperatnre not exceeding IftC^ F., and as much lower as is 
 practicable, until it is reduced to a tliick ])aste, which is fnrtlicr rednced to a state of dryness in 
 proper drying chaniliers. During the process of mal<ing, salt, pepper, and other coniliments may be 
 .added if desired. This extr.act, which can be made into cakes ol' any size or reduceil to powder, is 
 readily soluble in water and cont.ains the essential elements of nntrition and flavor ])eculiar to the 
 clam. It is recommended that it be used in the making of soup, in flavoring, or for a v.aricty of other 
 purposes in cookery. 
 
 A patentt was granted to the same inventor for a similar process of drying the 
 juice or natural liquor of oysters, which in the shuckinghouses is generally drained 
 off and thrown away. This waste material was to be reduced to comparative dryness 
 by any of the means of evaporation, and then pres.sed into cakes or any other desired 
 form. It is stated that a 2oance tablet may contain the nutritive ingredients of 4 
 quarts of fresh oyster juice and produce, with the addition of boiling water, 4 quarts 
 of strong oyster soup, retaining the natural flavor of the oyster, to which may be 
 added some freshly cooked oysters foi- verisimilitude. It does not appear that either of 
 these processes is now used to any commercial extent. 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 66616, dated July 9, 1867. 
 t Letters Patent No. G67;?3, dated .July 16, 1867. 
 
554 lUJLI.ETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 In 1S7.") Charles Aldeu iutroduced a process * of preserviug desiccated oysiers, 
 clams, etc., tor food in combiaatioii with vegetable or other alimentary matter. His 
 process is as follows : 
 
 The clams or other shellfish are taken from the shell and the natural liquor separated from the 
 meat by straining through a sieve, or by any other convenient moans. The body or meat is then 
 desiccated by evaporation to a dry condition, so that it can be pulverized or granulated by crush- 
 ing or grinding. The li(|Uor, after separating the body or meat of the fish, is str.ained, to separate 
 impurities, and sufficient bread ernmbs or other farinaceous or alimentary material to absorb the whole 
 of it added to the same, after which the mass is desiccated by evaporation in the same manner as the 
 meat of the clams, and, when dry, is pulverized and granulated and added to the desiccated meat. 
 Salt and other desired seasoning substances may be added to the compound, and the whole, after 
 being thoroughly mixed, is put in suitable packages for use. 
 
 By this process it is claimed that all the natural elements of oysters or clams 
 are preserved In suitable condition for use in making soups, chowder, fritters, and 
 for other culinary purposes. 
 
 Letters patent! issued in 1877 to H. W. Buttles, of New York City, cover a 
 process differing little from Alden's, and consisting in cru.shing the flesh of shellfish 
 and desiccating it with the juice, then combining the residuum with salt and certain 
 farinaceous substances. The method is thus described by the patentee: 
 
 lu preparing the clams for desiccation according to this process the meat is reduced to a pulp' in 
 its own Juice by passing the meat and juice of the freshly- opened clams tbrongh a mill constructed on 
 the principle of the "beating engine" used by paper-makers in the preparation of paper pulp from 
 rags, the clam meat, flowing in its juices, being caused to p.ass between a revolving cylinder armed 
 with knives arranged parallel to its axis, and stationary knives fixed below it, the two sets of knives 
 being so approximated as to readily cut that which passes between them, the pulp being made to 
 circulate in a suitable channel from the knives back again to the opposite side thereof by means of 
 the revolution of the cutting cylinder. Or tlie clams may be crushed and thus reduced to pulp by 
 means of a wheel revolving in a circular trough, or by means of any of Hhv improved forms of meat- 
 chopping machines known to tho art. 
 
 Having reduced the clam meat to a pulp in its own juice by any suitable me.ans, substantially as 
 described, it is next desiccated, either by subjecting it to strong currents of moderately-heated air 
 upon revolving cylinders or disks, as in the process for desiccating eggs patented by Laiuout, Quick, 
 and others, or by exposing it to a moderate heat in suitable vessels placed in a receiver wherein a 
 vacuum more or less perfect has been produced. In either case the clam pulp must not be subjected 
 to a temperature so high th.at the albumin in the pulp shall be cooked or in the least coagulated 
 and hardened while desiccating. 
 
 The clam meat thus desiccated in its own juices is prepared for market and use by reducing the 
 resultant h.ard brittle mass to an impalpable powder, and then admixing it with common salt, finely 
 powdered, anil with a proper jiroportion of pure and unadulterated, cooked and uncooked, pulverent 
 farinaceous substance, derived either from cereals, such as wheat flour, or from roots, such as potato 
 starch, a proportion of about 60 per cent of cl.am, 32 per cent of farinaceous material, and 8 per cent of 
 salt, yielding .m excellent product. Or thc^ elam pulp, prepared substantially as above described, may 
 be admixed with bread crumbs, cracker dust, or other farin.aceous jireparation, before desiccation, in 
 sufficient proportion to form a paste or dough, and the resultant hard, dry conipouiid be reduced to a 
 powder for use. 
 
 Another process of desiccating clams and other shellfish was introduced f in 1890 
 by S. (r. Van Gilder, of Thiladelphia: 
 
 In carrying out tliis method the clams, oysters, or other shellfish are first removed from their 
 shells .aud separated from their natural li(|Uor by a draining process, accompanied by slight compres- 
 sion, if necessary, to expel all the liciuor. After this separation, the meaty portion of the fish is 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 168703, dated October 11, 1875. 
 
 t Letters Patent No. 101024, dated May 22, 1877. 
 
 i Letters Patent No. 4.10."')19, dated November 11, 1890. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 555 
 
 reduced to a fiuoly coiiiminuted, pulpy mass V>y oUoppiii!?, grinding, or in any other suitable nianiifr, in 
 ■whi<'U stiite it is mixed witli ;i purtion of the natural liquor previously separated from the fish, and 
 then subjected to a boiling heat — say 212°. After this cooking process the solid matter is again 
 separated from the !ii|uid and the latter combiued with what remains of the raw lii|uor. Then the 
 combined juices are subjected to a boiling and skinmiiug process to remove all superlluous matter 
 and concentrate .and refine the liqiuir. This boiling and skimming process serves to elimin.ate objec- 
 tionable matters floating in the liquor and concentrate and cook the juices, so that the resultiiut 
 product will be nu)re refined and will keep in a prime condition for any length of time. To this refined 
 and concentrated liciuor is then .added a suitable ipiautity of some farinaceous suljstance, such as 
 flour, meal, cracker dust, bre.ad crumbs, etc., after which the whole is subjected to a boiling temper- 
 ature, which will serve to cook the same .and thicken and coagulate the .albuminous and starchv 
 matters contained therein. Then this coagulated mass is thorouglily mixed with the pulpy mass, 
 and the whole subjected to a moderate degree of heat to evaporata all the moisture from it, and 
 thereby desiccate it. The heat for the purpose of desiccation m.ay be .applied by steam, hot air, the 
 vacuum process, or otherwise, in order that the desiccation m.ay be thorough, .\fter desiccation the 
 product is reduced to a granular form and put up into suitable cans or packages for the trade. 
 
 It is rlaimed tliat this concentrated food product will keep in a prime condition for 
 au indetinite lenj^th of time, and when used for such purposes as soujjs, chowders, 
 fritters, sauces, dressings, etc., the original flavor will be retained and greatly aug- 
 mented by concentration. 
 
 One of the most successfully introduced of the proprietary clam extracts is made 
 by the following process: 
 
 The uncooked clams are placed in a retort or receptacle, which is preferably air and steam ti^ht 
 and live steam is admitted into said retort for 20 minutes, or more or less, ,as may be desired. The 
 steam causes the shell or cl.am to open, thus liberating the liquid or juice inuu the solid meat of the 
 clams, and said liquid drops into suitable pans placed for the purpose under the clams, the latter being 
 supported by suitable open racks or gratings. The juice or li([nid extract thus obtained is next piissed 
 through a suitable filter, and is then boiled to evajiorate a part of the w;iter and concentrate the 
 extract, tlius making a given (juanl Ity of it richer than it would otherwise be. The boiling also rooks 
 the nutritive elements in the licpiid sufficientlj' to prevent re.ady decomposition when exposed to the 
 air. The liquid is finally put, while hot or cold, into cans or jars and iiermeticiilly sealed, the time of 
 processing or cooking the jais or cans, so as to exclude the air and have it keep in any climate, varyiu"' 
 as to whether the concentrated juice or extract is filled into the cans or jars hot or cold. (Letters 
 Patent No. 39519!!, dated Decemlx-r 25, 1888.) 
 
 Large quantities of extract are made from soft clams at several points on the 
 Maine and Massachusetts coast after the last-described process, the jjiodact being 
 placed on the market in pint, (juart, and gallon tin cans and selling at about >i2.r)0 per 
 dozen pint cans, and at proportionate prices for cans of other sizes. Tiie surplus 
 li(|uor from chims used in the canning factories forms the crude material and this is 
 evaporated and prepared in the manner described above. In discussing the iiitroduc- 
 tiou and use of this extract the inventor states : 
 
 It lias been adopted in very many hospitals, hotels, .and liirge public institutions; it is bcin<' 
 prescribed as a valuable stomachic by thousauils of i)hysiciaus, ami is already being sold liy viu-y many 
 of the leading grocers throughout the United .States and foreign countries to families who use it .as 
 foo<l in its various forms upiui their i.ibles. .\nother use to which it is getting to lie largely put is in 
 making instantaneous hot clam broth or bouillon by dispensers of temper.auce drinks, being in this 
 w.ay used in conjuuetn)n with water or milk, making, with the addition of pepper or s.alt, a very 
 nutritious and palatable drink. Although this "extract of clams" is of recent introduction, yet the 
 sales have already reached several thousands of cases per year, and the demand is stea<lily incrcasiu"- 
 as the people find out the merits of the article. The prices of this new food are reasonable, so that 
 those wlio are in moderate circumstances can afford to purchase it, the retail price for pint tins not 
 exceeding 30 cents per tin and for the gallon tins not exceeding $1.50 per tin in the United States and 
 the priucijial Kuroi)ean centers of trade. 
 
55n BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 There are several brands of clam extract or bouillon on the market, made from 
 hard clams or quahogs. These are prepared in various ways, and usually, as in case 
 of extract of soft clams, as a by-product in the canning of the quahogs. At one 
 establishment in New York State the hard clams are steamed for the purpose of 
 opening them, the escaping liquid being saved and placed in tin cans, processed 
 heavily, and sealed, the meats being similarly treated and canned separately. It is 
 claimed by spme that this jirocess is objectionable, especially in the manner of open- 
 ing the clams by steaming. The hot steam coming in contact with tlie cold shells 
 condenses somewhat and adds to the bulk of the liquor, tliereby weakening it; also, 
 when the shells are heated they impart a peculiar flavor to the li(juor. As this 
 preparation is not evaporated, diluting it with the condensed steam is especially 
 undesirable. It sells for about $1.75 per dozen 1-pound cans. 
 
 At another factory in New York State for preparing clam juice the clanjs were 
 formerly opened with a knife, all the frc^e liquor being saved and tlic meats cliopped 
 and compressed to obtain ad<liti()nal ]i(jn<ir. This was compressed and the liquid 
 condensed, leaving the clear Juice somewhat coucentraied. It was soon found more 
 profilable to use tlie meats in preparing clam chowder, and at present that is one of 
 the principal products of th« establishment. The raw clams are opened with a knife, 
 all tlie lifjuor being saved. The meats, with sufficient liquor, are tlieu mixed with 
 disks of white potatoes, onions, and other vegetables to suit the taste, just as in 
 preparing cliowders at home, placed in tin cans, processed, vented, ami hermetically 
 sealed. The sui'plus li(|uor is condensed by evaporation and placed in glass Jars, 
 which are then sealed. A large spoonful of this Juice is sufficient for a cup of bouillon 
 after mixing with water. 
 
 Some clam Juice is prepared on the North Carolina coast, and occasionally in the 
 Chesapeake region a few cases are prepared experimentally and an attempt is made 
 to market them. This usually results in a loss because of the article being unknown, 
 considerable work being necessary to build up a market for a new brand of clam 
 juice. 
 
 In 1897 there was introduced in Scotland a method of preparing an extract of 
 clams or other shelllish mixed with a sufficient quantity of seaweed, such as Irish 
 moss or carrageen, to convert it into a Jelly,* for use as a "stock" in making soups, 
 sauces, and the like. 
 
 The process of preparation is as follows : 
 
 Boil a qiiiintity of clams or other sbelllish in a close-covered vessel, using the smallest quantity 
 of water necessary for the purpose. After the niollusks are sutliciently cooked, remove the shells, 
 bruise or reduce the flesh to a pulp, and strain off all the extraited liquor from it. To this licpiid 
 extract add the water used in cookiug and tlio liiiuid resulting from opening; tlie mollusks. Then 
 boil this li(|uid with a ([uautity of Irish moss or carrageen, or any seaweed havinj; similar properties, 
 which has been well bleached to remove color, apportioning the quantity of Irish moss and timing' 
 the boiling ojieration toobtaiu a jelly of th(^ desired consistence. f5efore boiling the moss anil liquid, 
 or during that operation, aild salt, jiepper, .and other flavoring condiments desired. Strain the product 
 while hot and store It in stoneware jars or otlier receptacles, which may be sealed up. 
 
 * Letters Patent No. 585395, dated June 29, 1897. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 557 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ANTISEPTICS AND ANTISEPTIC PROCESSES. 
 
 There are a number of antiseptics which have been bronjiht to the attention of 
 lish-curers for use in pieserviug tlieir products, in additiiui to those already noted. 
 The most desirable are those that do not change the texture of the fish, as common salt 
 does, among these being boracic acid, salicylic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, etc. 
 The flrst i.s considered a valuable preservative, as it keei)s fish and other food stuffs 
 fresh for a week or more without great injury either to the appearance or (juality of 
 the articles preserved, and it is used more (extensively thau all others, but usually 
 only as an aid to other methods of preservation. 
 
 BORACIC ACID. 
 
 For many years the value of boratiic acid as a preservative agent has been recog- 
 nized. Its extensive use with articles of food ap[)ears to have originated in Norway 
 about 1S7(I. Among the articles preserved by its agency were herring, and the success 
 with them was such that the trade gradually extended beyond the boundaries of the 
 country ami in 1885 they were shi|)ped to England in large (luantities, successfully 
 comi)eting witli fresh herring from Y'armonth and other points ot Oreat Britain. 
 
 The general method of apiilication is as follows: The round herring are arranged 
 in layers in a barrel and each tier covered with a thin layer of a mixture made of 
 5 pounds of boracic acid and 10 pouiuls of fine salt. When full the barrel is tightened 
 down in the usual way and the contents pickled with a weak solution of boracic acid 
 and fresh water. The fish should then be kept in a cool place at an even temperature. 
 In treating a barrel of herring in this way, Hi pounds of boracic acid and 5 i)ounds of 
 salt are re(iuircd tor spreading on the fish during packing, and about 10 ounces of acid 
 for dissolving in the water ixsed for pickling. The cost is about 8 or 10 cents per 
 pound, wholesale. 
 
 Some objection has been raised to the use of boracic acid as a preservative 
 because of its alleged injury to health. In opposition to this it is stated that it has 
 been used for years, especially to preserve milk in hot weather, and no evidence has 
 appeared to indicate injurious effects upon the health. The Norwegian herring pre- 
 served with boracic acid are said to be of good quality ami to be in fair condition when 
 placed on the markets, even after being two weeks out of the water. 
 
 In discussing the curing of lish with boracic acid, the British Medical Journal 
 states: 
 
 Large quantities of herring preserved with salt and horacic acid being at present imported from 
 Norway .and sold in the London and Newcastle marlcets, attempts have been made to jirevent their 
 sale. Tlie National Sea Fisheries Protection Association discussed the question :it a recent conference 
 at Fishmongers' Hall, but no decision as to snch fish was arrived at. It may, therefore, be worth 
 while to point out that boracic .acid being the essential ingieilient of our many food preservatives, 
 br it iu the form of the acid, of boroglyceride, or of borax, has been used for years, especially to pre- 
 serve milk in hot weather, and uo evideucu has ever been brought forward even to suggest injurious 
 
558 liULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 ell'octs tiiiijii the health ; it may, therefore, be taken to be ijerfcctly harmless. The Norwegian herrings 
 preserved with salt and boracic acid are of exceptioually fine qnality, are perfectly fresh when brought 
 into the market, and are, of course, subject to the usual process of inspection by the market inspectors, 
 whose power of rejection is almost absolute. If, nevertheless, an outcry is heard against their sale, it 
 is difficult to resist the belief that it is dictated liy the jealousy which is notoriously rife in Billings- 
 gate circles. The introductiou of cheap food from new sources, welcomed as it always is by the 
 public, is invariably opposed by the trade, who, after all, reap the chief advantage in the long run. 
 One has but to recall the sneers of the meat venders at American and Australian meat to value the 
 agitation against Norway herrings at its proper worth. Hitherto, happily, we have been spared the 
 bitter discussions which have on the Continent led to legislation against certain food preservatives, 
 such as salicylic acid, which wo in England admit without hesitation. The question is mainly one 
 of public economy. Shall good food be wasted for want of a preservative, even if certain objections 
 may be urged against their use, or shall we put up with these objections and aim at cheapening food 
 for the masses, provided, always, that nothing which could injuriously aft'ect their health is allowed 
 to be present? A sufficient guaranty is afforded by the vigilance of medical officers, puVilic analysts, 
 and market inspectors against the abuse of antiseptics and I'ood preservatives. 
 
 On the other baud, a flsb-dealer writes to the Fish Trades Gazette: 
 
 Hundreds of barrels of herring from Norway out of one cargo were condemned, and there were 
 about 1,500 barrels unsold lying in London at that time. France will not admit Swedish and Norwegian 
 herring, nor any other tish cured by the process named. Many shopkeepers soon fin<l out to their cost 
 that onee their customers have tasted herring cured with acid they don't ask for them a second time 
 
 A couibiijittiou of boriicic aud acetic acids for preserving food products was 
 introduced in the United States in 1S77 by 0. (t. Am Ende, who thus describes his 
 invention : 
 
 The invention consists in compounding boracic acid, either in a liquid or pulverous state, with 
 acetic acid, in the proportion of about one drop of acetic acid to every ounce of boracic acid; but 
 the proportion may be f aried, according to the nature of the substance to be preserved, and of the 
 atmosphere to which the same is to be exposed. The acetic acid may be used more or less diluted. 
 Other salts may be added to the mixture if desired. The composition is applied to the substances 
 to be preserved in substantially the manner in which preservatives are usually applied. The acetic 
 acid in the composition prevents the formation of fungi, while the boracic acid prevents putrefaction 
 ohieily by hindering the formation of bacteria. (See Letters Patent No. 187079, dated February 0, 1877. ) 
 
 ROOSEN PROCESS. 
 
 This process, invented by August Roosen, of Hamburg, consists in placing the 
 freshly caught tish in an :iir tight barrel, and then forcing the preservative solution 
 into the tissues of the tish by using a pressure of several atmospheres. The details 
 of the process are as follows: 
 
 A strong cask of galvanized iron with an adjustable lid is provided. This resembles somewhat 
 the well-known cans used for conveying milk, but is much larger. As many fresh tish as the cask will 
 conveniently hold are placed therein, and the cask is tilled with water and certain proportions of 
 boracic aciil and tartaric acid. The purpose of the tartaric acid is to neutralize the taste of the 
 boracic acid, which, however, is quite harmless. The lid, fitted so as to be air-tight, is next adjusted 
 and secured to the cask. A small force pump is connected with a hole in the lid, and additional 
 quantities of a solution of the antiseptic in water are jiumped into the cask, expelling all air, which 
 escaiies at a second hole in the lid. As soon as the cask is couipletely full and the air expelled, the 
 liquid begins to How through the second aperture. An air-tight cap is then screwed tightly over this 
 hole to prevent further escape of the liquid. The pump is again set to work forcing in the mixture 
 until a gauge fixed to the pump indicates a jjressure of 00 pounds to the square inch. By means of a 
 stopcock the opening is then closed and the air pump removed. The eliect of the high pressure 
 is to force the mixture into the veins aud tissues of the fish and thus prevent organic change in any 
 part. The tisli are shipjied lu the cask, and it is stated that they will keep for any reasonable length 
 of time in any climate. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 559 
 
 It is claimed that the cost of utensils required for the preservation of fish accord- 
 ing to the above process amounts iu this country to about -ISO, the cost of a cask 
 being B-0 and of a pump $10. The cask should be made of stout steel, and capable 
 of containing 200 or 300 pounds of fish. The utensils should last five years, and one 
 pump is sufficient for a large number of casks. If the cost of materials be distributed 
 over five years, the average cost will be $6 per year, so that in case the cask is tilled 
 only once a year the cost of uteusils and materi.als is a tride over li cents per pound of 
 fish. But as each cask may be filled twenty times a year, and one jjump will suffice 
 for a large number of casks, the cost is reduced to one-tenth of 1 cent per pouiui. 
 
 The following extract is from an article iu the Fish Trades Gazette, of London, 
 July 31, 18S6: 
 
 The Roosen process is now jiretty well kiiowu iu England, aud it is generally ac-oepted as being 
 far the most successful attempt to keep fish not ouly fresb, but also sweet, wbolesomc, and attraotivo 
 for long periods. The; process, it nuiy be added, is not confined to fish, but has been applied with 
 equal success to meat, game, fruit, etc. Experiments have been carried out in Scotland, aud public 
 demonstrations of the value of the process made in Edinburgh and Glasgow, where its merits have been 
 recognized by the very highest authorities on the subjects of fishing and the fish trade. Messrs. 
 Dufresne & Luders, the agents of Mr. August R. Roosen, of Hamburg, the inventor of the process, 
 lately decided that it would be well to make the process better known iu London, and accordingly 
 invited a nnmber of representative guests to witness the opening of several casks of fish preserved 
 by the Roosen process and to taste the same when cooked. There was an excellent res]ionse to the 
 invitation, the guests including many famous autliorities in science aud in medicine, as well as others 
 holding important governmental positions or being connected with connnerc<', not only in England, but 
 also in the colonies and Indian Empire. Two casks, which had been closed for seventeen days, were 
 opened liefore the company, and the fish when taken out were found to be perfectly sweet and fresh, 
 bright-looking, and as attractive as the daj' they were caught. On being eaten they were pronounced 
 excellont, and the advantages of the process were highly commended. 
 
 A process somewhat similar to that introduced by Roosen was devised* by 
 Magnus Gross, of Washington, I). C, in 1850. Gross's method differed IVom Koosen's 
 in employing hydrostatic pressure instead of a force pump aud in using a strong 
 solution of common salt (100 j)ouuds) mixed with carbonate of soda (-1 pounds) and 
 carbonate of potash {2 pounds). This method was intended for the preparation of 
 salted fish, the product being packed in dry salt after the curing process, aud it was 
 never used to any commercial extent. 
 
 ECKHART PROCESS. 
 
 In 1877 John Eckhart, of Munich, Germany, patented t a ])rocess of preserving 
 fish and meats by introducing a solution of salicylic acid with an apparatus similar to 
 that used in the IJoosen process for preserving fresh fish. The solution was made by 
 dissolving half a pound of salicylic acid iu 100 pounds of water. A hydraulic pressure 
 of 12 atinosj)heres was applied for from one to two hours. In 1882 Eckhart introduced 
 another antiseptic compouud|: for fish, salt, boracic acid, tartaric acid, and salicylic 
 acid being used instead of boracic acid alone. The mixture was composed of 'tO per 
 cent salt, 47.1 per cent boracic acid, 2 x)er cent tartaric acid, and i per cent salicylic 
 acid. Iu its application the fish are stripped of skin aud bones and mixed with the 
 compound in the proportion of 2 pounds antiseptic to 100 ])ounds of fish. They are 
 next packed in cases of animal tissue or i>;irchiiicnt and put into casks filled with a 
 gelatin solution made in tlie proportion of 10 pounds of gelatin, 4 pounds of the anti- 
 
 * Letters Patent Xo. 2ti427, Decemlier 13, 1859. 
 t Letters Patent No. 104.550, Angust 28, 1877. 
 t Letters Patent No. 251772, January 3, 1882. 
 
560 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 septic, and 25 gallons of water. The casks are then headed and connected with a force 
 pump and more of the solution is forced in until the contents are well saturated. The 
 lish may then be sliiijped in the casks or they may be removed from the cases, sprinkled 
 with dry salt, and marketed dry. 
 
 JANNASCH PRESERVATIVE. 
 
 A compound patented by Hugo Januasch, of Germany, and in use at Gloucester 
 and some other ports, is said to be prepared in the following manner: 
 
 Equal parts of cliloride of potassiuui, uitratu of soda, aud cbeiiiically pure boracic acid are 
 dissolved in the proper (inautities of water. A solutiim of chloride of potassium is then heated iu a 
 kettle up to the boiling point, and a solution of nitrato.of soda added thereto. This solution is l<e|il 
 on a brisk lire until the lye has become perfectly clear. The solution of boracic acid is then added 
 under continual stirring. By the intluence of the boracic acid, at a temperature of 212- F., a 
 reaction takes ]>lace, which is indicated by the mass assuming a yellowish color, and by the escapi! of 
 chlorine gas. After the I'eaction has taken place tlu' solution is slowly evaporated at a low tem))era- 
 ture, until a dry salt is obtained, which is composed of a combination of hypouitrate of potash, 
 hyijochlorate of soda, borate of soda, borate of potash, and free boracic acid. 
 
 In the ;ipplicatioii of this compound to the preservation of fresh, pickled, smoked, 
 or dry-salted lish the following directions are given: 
 
 In preserving fresli li.sh which are to be shipped or kept on the stand for sale, remove the entrails, 
 sprinkle some of the preservative inside the fish, also iu tlie l)ottom of the box or barrel iu which the 
 fish are to be packed; then place the fish in the box an<l sjninkle the preservative over each layer. 
 If the entrails and gills are not taken out, insert, aicording to the size of the fish and the season of 
 the year, more or less of the conii>onnd in the mouth of the lish, pushing it down as far as posssibic; 
 then sprinkle some on the gills, after which treat the lish as above when packed in liox or barrel. 
 Use 1 pound of preservative to 100 pounds of fresh lish. Tickled fish, if packed in kegs or barrels, 
 are treated fust iu the way directed above. The barrels are then headed uj) and allowed to stand 
 from 4 to 6 hours; then the pickle, which can be made much milder than the present pickle for tish, 
 is added, aud the barrels are rolled to facilitate aud (juicken the ilissolving of the preservative. The 
 ])ickle should be admitted through the bunghole only, to prevent the preservative from being washed 
 ort'. Ill prevent the brine fiom souriug and to enable its being used several times over again, it is 
 recommended that to every 6 gallons of brine 1 pound of preservative be added, first dissolving the 
 compouud in a gallon of hot water, and after it has cooled ort' i)Ouring it into the brine. Every time 
 the pickle is used over again add sutificient salt to bring it back to the rei[ni8ite strength; then use 
 oulv half the i|uantity of preservative taken the first time, w hich would be i pound of preservative 
 for every 6 gallons of pickle. By this treatment the pickle will remain sweet and free from slime for 
 a long time, and thus save the labor and expense of making new brine. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ANTISEPTIC COMPOUNDS. 
 
 While boi'acic acid and other chemicals have not beeu extensively used in the 
 United States for preserving fresh fish, they have been employed to a considerable 
 extent since 1S81 in connection with other processes of preservation. Boracic acid 
 has long been used in a powdered form on dry salted cod, especially those put up as 
 boneless fish. Its popularity has increased under various names, and it is now 
 employed at several boneless-cod, oyster-shucking, and other establishments. It has 
 been used to some extent in the preservation of caviar, but salicylic acid seems better 
 adapted for this purpose. Most of the preservative autiseiitics used are proprietary 
 comi)ouiids sold under various trade luxmes, such as " Preservaline," "Itex Magnus," 
 etc. The following antiseptic comxjounds have been introduced. This smnmary has 
 no pretensions to completeness, there being scarcely any limit to the number of 
 compounds brought to the attention of lish-curers. 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 561 
 
 IIydro<arlw7i gas. — Tliis is substituted for the air which occupies tlie space iu and 
 around the substance to be preserved, subjecting tlie same to a tenjperature of about 
 30O p^ ijiig oas is let into the package tlirough a hole iu the top and the air escapes 
 through a hole in the bottom, and both holes are theu closed. (Letters Patent No. 
 •157G5, dated Jauuary 3, 186.5.) 
 
 Sniphifles of carbon. — Fish are placed in a receiver and the air exhausted. Gase- 
 ous bisulphide, protosulphide, or other suli)liide of carbon is then let into the receiver 
 under pressure and permeates the flesh. In combination with the sulphide is used 
 phenic acid, methyl or other product of the destructive distillation of wood. (Letters 
 Patent No. 85184, dated December 22, 1868.) 
 
 Gelatin, lime, glycerin, etc. — Put the flsh in an air-tight compartment aud exhaust 
 the air with a vacuum ]nimp, then by means of a force pump Introduce a solution of 
 gelatin and bisulphite of lime. When conijiletely saturated remove the lish and diji 
 them in a concentrated solution of gelatin containing bisulphite of lime, glycerin, 
 sugar, and gum. (Letters Patent No. 9091:4, dated June 8, 1869.) 
 
 Glycerin. — Remove from the fish all the refuse matter, such as skin, bones, etc., 
 aud then grind the residue and compress from it the watery pi)rtions, blood, and oily 
 matter to whatever extent may be desirable, and then treat it with glycerin, regriuding 
 the material during this process. The flsh is then pressed into a compact mass and 
 placed iu any suitable wrapper of tin foil or other material, or boxed. (Letters Pat- 
 ent No. 87986, March 16, 1869.) 
 
 Glycerin and antiseptic salts. — Oysters, fish, and meats may be preserved by use 
 of a mixture of glycerin with phosphate of soda, or other antiseptic salt in connec- 
 tion with aldehyde, formic ether, or acid in a solution of carbonic acid, water, glycerin, 
 etc., and the preserved substance is then covered with parafin or stearin. (Letters 
 Patent No. 93183, dated August 3, 1869.) 
 
 Saltpeter and alum. — The tish, either after or before they have been salted, are 
 placed for 4 hours iu a solution of saltpeter and alum, made in proportion of 5 pounds 
 of saltpeter and 4 ounces of alum to 60 gallons of sea water. They are then dried either 
 in the sun or by artificial means. If they are to be smoked, 2 hours in the solution 
 is said to be sufBcient. It is claimed that this process removes all tendency to sweat 
 or decay. (Letters Patent No. 95179, dated September 28, 1869.) 
 
 Soda and carbolic acid. — After being cleaned the flsh are dipped in a solution in 
 proportion of 5 gallons of water, 2 pounds of sulphite or bisulphite of soda, and 2 ounces 
 of carbolic acid in crystals. Oysters, clams, etc., may be dijiped in a solution of their 
 own liquor and the chemicals. (Letters Patent No. 86040, January 19, 1869.) 
 
 Thymol or thymate salts. — Place the flsh, oysters, meats, or other animal substances 
 to be preserved in solutions of thymol, thymic acid, or any of the thymate salts and 
 water, alcohol, or glycerin, etc. (Letters Patent No. 108983, dated November 8, 1870.) 
 
 (Jhloroforin and ether, etc. — The meat or flsh is placed iu air-tight packages, into 
 which is poured a small quantity of chloroform, which becomes vaporized and sur. 
 rounds the substance with an atmosphere of vapor which acts as a preservative. The 
 cans are then sealed and are ready for shipment. When needed for use the (chloroform 
 is removed by means of an air-pump. ( Letters Patent No. 128371, dated June 25, 1872.) 
 
 Borax, saltpeter, etc. — By the Ilerzen preserving ]3rocess, meat is soaked from 
 24 to 36 hours in a solution of 3 parts borax, 2 boracic acid, 3 saltpeter, aud 1 salt, in 
 100 parts water, then packed in some of the solution. Before use the meat must be 
 soaked 24 hours in fresh water. 
 
 F. 0. B., 1898—36 
 
562 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 
 
 BisvlpMte of lime. — The Medloch & Bailey method of preserving is said to be one 
 of the most successful of antiseptic processes. The solution used is made of equal 
 parts of water and bisulphite of lime of 105 sp. gr. Fish cured in this solution are 
 claimed not to have all unpleasant tiavor. 
 
 Acetate of aliimiua. — Meat and fish are covered with a coating of gum, then 
 immersed in acetate of alumina, then a solution of gelatin, allowing the whole to dry 
 on the surface. The antiseptic acetate of alumina forms an insoluble compound with 
 the gelatin and prevents decomposition by excluding air from the substance. 
 
 Benzoin and alum. — In the preservation of meat and fish by the Pagliare ])roces8 
 they are immersed in a compound of gum benzoin boiled in a solution of alum, and 
 excess of moisture is driven off by a current of hot' air, leaving the antiseptic on the 
 surface of the fish or meat. 
 
 JSaUcyliv acid and alcohol. — To 50 grams of salicylic acid is added 300 grams of 
 rectified alcohol. White blotting paper is well saturated in this mixture and left to 
 dry. By this mixture the ])aper becomes full of little red pricks and has a sweetish 
 taste. The fish are wrapped in this paper ami packed rather loosely in dry hay. By 
 this method it is claimed that fish or game can be transported at any time during 
 the summer without danger of spoiling. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda and mceharine matter.— Take 40 parts of bicarbonate of soda 
 and GO parts of saccharine matter, such as sugar, and mix them in enough water to 
 form a thick paste or sirup, which is applied with a brush to the surface of the fish 
 to be preserved. The fish so coated are suspended in a shady place for an hour or so 
 and then exposed to an air current until the surface is thoron.uhly dried. By soaking 
 the fish in water for 3 hours or more the coating is dissolved, when the fish may be 
 prepared for the table. (Letters Patent No. 4745S1, dated 1892.) 
 
 Fluoride of sodium and chloride of sodium. — A mixture made of 80 parts fluoride of 
 sodium with '20 parts of common salt gives the best results, but the proportions may 
 be varied according to conditions. This may be used either in the form of a powder or 
 dissolved in water. When the fisli are to be preserved a considerable length of time 
 they should be soaked in the antiseptic solution; but when they are to be i)reserved 
 for a short time only they may be sprinkled with the powder. It is claimed that this 
 antiseptic does not exert an injurious influence on the digestive fluids, but on the 
 contrary is rather beneficial. 
 
 Miscellaneous.— The following is said to be the composition of a number of propri- 
 etary antiseptics used in Europe and to some extent in this country: 
 
 CoiiH)08ition. 
 
 Sozolithe: 
 
 Sulphite of araraonia 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 Soda 
 
 Water 
 
 Concentrated berlinite: 
 
 Crystallized borax . . . 
 
 Boracic acid 
 
 Chloride of sodium .. 
 Paechel berliuite- 
 
 Chloride of sodium . . 
 
 Nitrate of potash — 
 
 Boric acid 
 
 AVater 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 37.3 
 
 39.7 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 82.7 
 
 9.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 45.9 
 
 32.3 
 
 19.3 
 
 2.5 
 
 Composition. 
 
 The "Minerva" Chinese preserra tire 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 Boric acid •. 
 
 Sulphate of soda 
 
 Sulphite 
 
 Water 
 
 Australian salt: 
 
 Crystallized borax 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 Some hydrocarburet 
 
 Rugers barmeiiide: 
 
 Bnric .acid 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 25 
 17.7 
 38.8 
 9.2 
 9.3 
 
 94 
 5.5 
 .5 
 
 50 
 50 
 
PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 563 
 
 MOSS WATER. 
 
 Among the "Paper.s in Colonies and Trade" for 1820 a somewhat novel method of 
 preserving herring by means of moss water was described by J. Fred. Denovan, one 
 of the pioneers in developing the pickled-herring trade of Scotland. His description 
 is as follows: 
 
 Having often observed the stroug autiseptic powers of mo.s8 water on vegetable and animal sub- 
 stances, I conceived that it might be used with ettect in the cure of herrinL's, particularly of those 
 intended for a warmer climate, and I resolved to try the experiment on a small scale: I first cured a 
 few kegs of th<' later herrings (in October, 1»18) iu tlie usual way; but instead of throwing away the 
 gut, gills, and bloody part, as is customary, I put them into a small cask with a proportionate 
 quantity of Lisbon salt, aud pressing down the whole by means of an iron ]date a dissolution of the 
 salt took place iu a few hours, aud a stroug red pickle was produced, on the top of which the fixed oil 
 was floating. After carefully skimming off the oil, I added one-third of stroug brown moss water 
 taki'U from a natural pond formed in the moor near Eyemouth; aud having taken the herrings out of 
 the original pi<'kle, I packed them anew and filled up the kegs with this pickle. On opening them 
 some mouths afterwards I not only found they were iu excellent preservation, but that the scales 
 (wliieh always proves the iinality of the pickle) were as bright as when the fish were taken out of the 
 water. — ("Papers iu Colonies and Trade" for 1820, p. lil.'i.') 
 
 PRESERVATION BY COMPRESSED AIR. 
 
 Varions experiments have been made in preserving meat and fish by compressed 
 air. One of the most important i)rocesses is that known as Brandt's method, devised 
 by Martin Brandt, of Denmark, A brief review of this process aud its imi)ortance 
 to the tish trade appears in the Deiitnehe Fischcrei-ZcituiKj .Inly 8, 18S4, from which we 
 quote the following: 
 
 Martin Braudt's new method is said to have tliis .adv.mtage, that it does not change the shape, 
 looks, and flavor of the fish, aud prevents tlie development of fungus. It is done by compressed air. 
 It may lie continued for an unlimited ]>eriod aud be employed in tlie holds of vessels, railroad cars, 
 warehouses, etc. For lining the rooms where the fish are kejit metal or cement is nsed. 'I'he pre- 
 serving medium weiglis very little, as 1,000 cubic feet of compressed air weigh but 10 jiounds. In 
 Mr. Braudt's warehouse a pipe runs along the wall from the Hoor to the ceiling, and back again, 
 twisting several times, aud finally ending on the floor. The umchiue or development apparatus consists 
 of an iron cylinder connected with a, so-called vacuum air filter. The cylinder is tilled with air 
 compressed by about 200 atmospheric ])ressnre. By means of the v.acuum apparatus the machine is 
 connected with the Jiipe iu the warehouse, and the compressed air flows, after a valve has beeu opened, 
 with great velocity through the filter and the pipes. New air is also introduced in the vacuum appa- 
 ratus tlirougii cotton filters, thus purifying it of all matter apt to decay, and, united with the stream 
 of compresseil air, it continues to pass through the pipes. As the air expands it loses Some of its 
 warmth and is gradually cooling oft'. When let out of the pipes th(i air, which h.as now become quite 
 cool, rises evenly throughout the room and drives the warm air, filled with germs or fungi, through an 
 opening in the ceiling. As the inveutor claims, fish and meat can be kept fresh for an unlimited period 
 in rooms whose air has been purified in the manner described above. (Translated in U. S. Fish Com- 
 mission Bulletin, 1884.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page. 
 
 Abbott, "W. H., on Dry -salting Kingfish 413 
 
 Absorption System used in Freezing Fish 375 
 
 Acetate of Alumina used in Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Albacore Dry -salted 41C 
 
 Aldeu, Charles. Patentee of Desiccating Process 554 
 
 Alewives Brine-salted 45iM53 
 
 Smoked 489-491 
 
 Alexander, A. B., on Salting Salmon, in Alaska 455 
 
 Alive, Fishery Products Preserved 339-357 
 
 Alum and Saltpeter used in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Amber-fish Dry-aaltod 414 
 
 AmEnde, C. G 558 
 
 Ammonia Freezers, Description of 374-377 
 
 Ams, Max 478.544 
 
 Anchovies, Christiania 468 
 
 Swedish 466 
 
 Ancho\'y Paste 552 
 
 Angilbert, Pierre Antoiiie 507 
 
 Antiseptics, Miscellaneous 557-563 
 
 Appert. Frauyoia 507 
 
 Artificial Freezing and CoUl Stomge 370-388 
 
 Means of Drying Fish 420-124 
 
 Atwood, John 402 
 
 Australian Salt 562 
 
 Bacteria 337 
 
 "Balyk" Prepared from Sturgeon 418 
 
 Barracuda Dry-salted 414,416 
 
 Barrels for Pickled Fish 426 
 
 Herring 445,447 
 
 Mackerel 435 
 
 Mulletw 458 
 
 B^che de Mer, Dry ing 418-420 
 
 B6louga, Caviar fnun Eggs of 545 
 
 Benzoin and Aluiu used in Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Beuckils. orBouckelzou, AVilliam 437 
 
 Bicarbonate of Soda used in Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Bismark Herring 540 
 
 Bisulphiti- of Lime used in Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Black Bass, Urine-salting of 464 
 
 (.'old Storage of 382 
 
 Blackford .E.G., on Shipping Shad 360 
 
 Bleeding Codtish for Drying 391 
 
 Fish before Icing 359 
 
 Bloater Herring 485-488 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Paste 552 
 
 Prepared in Great Britain 487 
 
 "Blueback Mackerel" Canned 538 
 
 Bluefish Brine-salted 464 
 
 Icing 363 
 
 Preserved in Cold Storage 370. 382 
 
 Blue Pike, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Bolargo 547 
 
 Boneless Codfish 390 
 
 in Australia 399 
 
 Preparation of 400-405 
 
 Sardines 534 
 
 Bonito Dry-aalted 414,416 
 
 Booth, Alfred, Patentee of Oyster Package 366 
 
 Boracic Acid 557. 561 
 
 used with Codfish 399, 403 
 
 Borax used in Preserving Fish 501 
 
 Borodino. Nicolas, on Frozen-Fish Trade in Europe .. 385 
 
 Bream, Caviar from Eggs of 545 
 
 Bricks, Codfish Packed in 403-405 
 
 Halibut I'acked in 499 
 
 Brine-salting Alewives or Kiver Herring 450-453 
 
 Blucfish 464 
 
 Channel Bass 464 
 
 Cod and Haddock 453-455 
 
 Croakers 464 
 
 Development and Methods of 425^27 
 
 Fish on the Great Lakes 461-464 
 
 HalibutFins 464 
 
 Herring 436-450 
 
 Hogfish 464 
 
 Mackerel 430-436 
 
 Miscellaneous 464-467 
 
 Mullet ^ 457 
 
 Porch 404 
 
 Regulations respecting 427-130 
 
 Sahlstriim Process of 406 
 
 Salmon in Alaska 455 
 
 Scotland 456 
 
 Shad 458-460 
 
 Sheepshead 464 
 
 Spanish Mackerel 464 
 
 Squeteague ; 464 
 
 Striped Bass 464 
 
 Swordtish 460 
 
 (Also see Pickling.) 
 
 Broiled Mackerel 520 
 
 "Brook Trout" Canned, Prepared from Herring 511, 538 
 
 Biickliug 487 
 
 Burns, J. R., Patentee of Lobster Car 347 
 
 Butter-fish Smoked 506 
 
 Buttles. H. W"., Patentee of Extractive Process 554 
 
 Can -filling Machines 510 
 
 Canned Fishery Products on New York Market (Tabu- 
 lar Statement) 540 
 
 Marine Products Classified 511 
 
 Canning ' ' Blueback Mackerel " 538 
 
 I 
 
II 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Canning Broiled Slackerel 520 
 
 Caviar 540,544 
 
 Codfisli Balls 540 
 
 Crabs 524,540 
 
 Development and Methods of 507-511 
 
 Eels 537 
 
 Fishery rrodiicts 337,507-540 
 
 Giant Scallops 539 
 
 Green Turtle 539 
 
 Halibut 539 
 
 Herring 538 
 
 "Herring Mackerel" 538 
 
 Lobsters 521-523 
 
 Mackerel 519 
 
 Menhaden 509,538 
 
 "Ocean Trout" 538 
 
 Oysters 516-519 
 
 Salmon 512-516 
 
 Salt Mackerel 520 
 
 Sardines 526-537 
 
 Shrimp 523-524 
 
 Smelt 538 
 
 Smoked Sturgeon 538 
 
 Soft Clams 519 
 
 Spanish Mackerel - 539 
 
 Carbolic Acid and Soda used in Preserving Fish 661 
 
 CarpCauued 540 
 
 Caviar I'rom Eggs of 545 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Cars for Transporting Live Fish Overland 348 
 
 Refrigerator 367 
 
 Catfish, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Frozen, Remaining Alive 357 
 
 Held Alive in Cars 345 
 
 Smoked 503 
 
 Caviar 541-547 
 
 Canned 540,544 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Channel Bass Brine-salted 464 
 
 Dry-salted 413 
 
 Cheese Prepared from Fish-roe - 546 
 
 ChillingFish before Shipment 362 
 
 Chinese Shrimp and Fish Drying 414-417 
 
 Chiseling Ice 361 
 
 Chloride of Calcium used in Freezing 375 
 
 Chloroform and Ether used in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Christiania Anchovies 468 
 
 Cincinnati Oyster and Fish Company 376 
 
 Ciscoes Brine-salted .- 461, 462 
 
 Clam Chowder Canned 540 
 
 Extracts 553-556 
 
 Juice 540 
 
 Clams Canned 519,540 
 
 Cold Storageof 382 
 
 Marketed Alive 353 
 
 Pickled 473 
 
 Cod Brine-salted 453-455 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Held AUve for Market 342,344 
 
 Icing 363 
 
 Live at Grimsby 344 
 
 Woods Hole 345 
 
 Koe Salted an d Smoked in Norway 547 
 
 Codfish Balls Canned 540 
 
 Dried, Grades of 398 
 
 Drying in Foreign Countries 406-410 
 
 Page. 
 
 Codfish Drying on Atlantic Coast 390-398 
 
 Pacific Coast 398 
 
 Markets for 406 
 
 Cold-smokiug Fishery Products 474 
 
 Cold Storage and Artificial Freezing 370-388 
 
 of Fish, Development of 371-373 
 
 Collins, J. W., on Dry. salting Kingtish 413 
 
 Compressed Air used in Preserviug Fish 563 
 
 Compression System used in Freezing Fish 374 
 
 Used in Desiccating Codfish 389,393 
 
 Concentrated Berlinite 562 
 
 Cooling Fish with Ice 359-367 
 
 Corn Husks for Lining Tin Cans 509 
 
 Crab Butter 552 
 
 Soup 540 
 
 Crabs Canned 524,540 
 
 Shipped Alive 356 
 
 Crates for Shipping Crabs 357 
 
 Crawfish Butter ., 552 
 
 Croakers Brine-salted i 464 
 
 Crowell, Elisha 401,402 
 
 Culling Codfish 393 
 
 Curing Codfish 390-410 
 
 Cudlish on Pacific Coast 398 
 
 Herring, Foreign Methods of 441-450 
 
 Cu8k,Drying 390,394 
 
 Cutler, 'William D 400 
 
 "Cut" River Herring 452 
 
 Davis, William 372,382 
 
 Day, Francis, quoted 437,465,545,547 
 
 Denmark, Smoking Herring in 492 
 
 Denovan, J. Fred 563 
 
 "Desiccated Codfish" 405 
 
 Desiccating Clams and other Shellfish 554 
 
 Desiccation or Drying 389-424 
 
 Development and Methods of Brine-salting 425-427 
 
 Canning 507-511 
 
 Smoking 474-478 
 
 of Cold Storage 371-373 
 
 Fresh-fish Trade 358 
 
 Deviled Lobsters 523 
 
 Discoloration of Canned Clams 519 
 
 Shrimp 523 
 
 Codfish 399,400 
 
 Dried Mullet 412 
 
 Dressing Cod for Drying 391 
 
 Fresh Fish before Shipment 360 
 
 Fish for Pickling 425,462 
 
 Smoking . 474 
 
 Halibut for Smoking 497 
 
 "Drinking" Oysters for Market 354 
 
 Drying 389-424 
 
 Albftcore 416 
 
 Barracuda 414,416 
 
 Bonito 414,416 
 
 Channel Bass 413 
 
 Codfish 390-410 
 
 Cask 390 
 
 Fish Artificially 420-424 
 
 Haddock 390,397 
 
 Hake 390,397 
 
 Kingfish 413 
 
 Mullet 413 
 
 Oysters 116 
 
 Pollock 390,396 
 
 Redfish 417 
 
 Rock Lobsters 416 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Page. 
 Drying Siilmon 411 
 
 in Scotland 411 
 
 on Alaskan Coast 411 
 
 Sardines for Canniuy; 527 
 
 Shrimps 414^16 
 
 Skates 410 
 
 Squid 417 
 
 Sturgeon Meat in Russia 418 
 
 Products 417 
 
 Trepanga 418-420 
 
 Yellow-tail or Aniber-lisb 414 
 
 Dunbar, G. W., &. Sons 523 
 
 Dunfisli 39C 
 
 Dutch Cure of Herring 443 
 
 Earll, R. E.. on Sardine Canning 527 
 
 East Indian Method of Curing Trepanga 4 419 
 
 Eckhart, John 559 
 
 Eckliart Process of Preservation 559 
 
 Eel Soup 540 
 
 Eels Canned 537,540 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Held alive lur Market 346 
 
 Pickled - 470 
 
 Smoked 504 
 
 Eggs, Prt-paration of. for Food 541-548 
 
 Eisenbardt, Mrs. M. von, on Preparing Crawfish But- 
 ter 552 
 
 English Method of Smoking Herring 484 
 
 Etiier and Chloroform used in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Europe. Frozen-fish Trade in 383. 385-387 
 
 European Trade in Anieriean Oysters 355 
 
 Evaporation in Freezing Fish 382 
 
 Extracts of Clams and Oysters 553-556 
 
 Fisli 549-553 
 
 "Family Whitefish" 462 
 
 Farlow.W.G 399 
 
 Farris, Joseph, on Salted Alewives 450 
 
 Feeding Lobsters Confined in Pens 340 
 
 Sturgeon Confined in Pens 340 
 
 Fermentation Fish 466 
 
 "Fibered Codfisli " 405 
 
 Finnan Haddie 500 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Fish Chowder Canned 540 
 
 Curing by AVhitman Process 422-424 
 
 Dried by Chinese in Louisiana and California . .. 416 
 
 Eggs Prepared as Food 541-548 
 
 Meal 549,551 
 
 Transported Alive 348 
 
 Flakes for Codfish 394 
 
 Flatfisli, Freezing of 377, 382 
 
 Flavoring Solutions used in Pickling Fish 425, 467-473 
 
 Flrteh.ng Halibut 497 
 
 Floats for Storing Oysters or Clams 354 
 
 Flounders Smoked 506 
 
 Fluoridr of Sodium and Chloride of Sodium 562 
 
 Fond ExtraciM of Marine Products 549-556 
 
 Foreign (.'odtisli Markets 40C 
 
 Herring, Importation of 440 
 
 Methods ol Curing Codfish 406-410 
 
 Herring 441^50 
 
 Sardinf-8 531-537 
 
 Smoked Herring in the United States 479, 483 
 
 Smokehouses 475 
 
 Formalin, to prevent Mold on Frozen Fish 381 
 
 Freezing, Artificial and Cold Storage. 370-'i88 
 
 Freezing PMsU in Europe 385-387 
 
 Page. 
 
 Freezing Fish in the Open Air 368-370 
 
 Herring for Bait 387 
 
 French Metliod of Curing Codfish 407 
 
 Sardines 534 
 
 ' ' Freshening ' ' Oysters for Market 354 
 
 Fresh-fiah Trade, Development of 35S 
 
 Fresh Mackerel Fishery, lee used in 365 
 
 Fresh-water Fish Transported Alive in Germany 350 
 
 Frog Legs, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Frozen Herring Industry 368-370 
 
 Used for Bait 369. 387 
 
 Fryer, C. E., on Preparation of Sprats as Sardines . . . 535-537 
 
 Fuel for Smoking Fish 476,482,488,499.501 
 
 Fulton Market Live-cars 344 
 
 Funiadoes 465 
 
 Giihrfisch or Fermentation Fish 466 
 
 Garfish Eggs as Caviar 542 
 
 Garum sociorum 552 
 
 Gelatin used in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Germany, Smoking Eels in 505 
 
 Salmon in 496 
 
 Gewiirzhering 469 
 
 Giant Scallops Canned 539 
 
 Gibhed Herring 435) 
 
 "Gibbing" Mackerel 432 
 
 Glucose used in Brine-salting 436 
 
 Glycerin used in Preserving Fiah 561 
 
 Goble, Oregon, Cold Storage Plant 376 
 
 Goodale, Stephen L., Inventor of Fish Extract 549 
 
 Grades of Codfish 393, 398 
 
 Halibut. Fresh 304 
 
 Smoked 499 
 
 Hard Herring 482 
 
 Mackerel, Brine-salted 435 
 
 Mullet, Brine-salted 458 
 
 Trout. Brine-salted 464 
 
 Whitefish, Brine-salted 464 
 
 Grass Pike, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Great Lakes. Brine-salting Fish on 461-464 
 
 Green Turtle Canned 539,540 
 
 Soup 539 
 
 Penned Alive on Gulf of Mexico 341 
 
 Gross, Magnus 559 
 
 Groupers Preserved in Well-smacks 343 
 
 Haddock Brine-salted 453 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Cured as Clubbed Haddock 396 
 
 Drying 390,394,396 
 
 Icing 363 
 
 Roe in New England Fisheries 548 
 
 Smoked 500-501 
 
 Hake, Drying 390,394 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Halibut Canned 539 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Fins Pickled 464 
 
 Grades of Fresh 364 
 
 Smoked 499 
 
 Icing 363-365 
 
 Smoked 497-499 
 
 Halifax Salmon 455,493 
 
 Hall, Ansley, on Brine-salting Alewives 452 
 
 Preparing Sardines 531 
 
 Smoking Hard Herring 479^82 
 
 Testing Sardine Cans 530 
 
 Hamburg, Shipments of Fish to 383 
 
 Hapgood, Hume &.Co 512 
 
IV 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 rage. 
 
 H.nr(] Herring 478-485 
 
 llaskins L M 551 
 
 Herrin;.' HarrcLs 445,446 
 
 Urainlrd as '• lironk Trout " 538 
 
 nriue salleit 436-450 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 as Mackerel 538 
 
 Foreign Metlunl ol" Itriou-salting 441-450 
 
 Frozen for I tail 387 
 
 in < )ii.u A i r 368-370 
 
 Tinports of Pickled 338, 440 
 
 in Norway. rrop:t ration of 468 
 
 of Northern Europe 436 
 
 Pn-servt'd in Cold Storage 370 
 
 Smoked 478-493 
 
 "Herring Mackerel' Canned 538 
 
 Herzen Preserving I'roceas 561 
 
 Hogfiali liri no salted 464 
 
 Held A live on Virginia Coast 346 
 
 Hogshead Sniokeliuiises 475 
 
 HoUlswitrtli, on Liv*-cara at Grimsby 344 
 
 I*ieparing Fumadoes 465 
 
 Holland Herring - 440 
 
 ProeeM>4 <d' Picklin;; Cod 454 
 
 Smoking Herring 483 
 
 Smoking Salmon in 496 | 
 
 Horseshoe CraVt Eggs as Caviar 542 ! 
 
 Hot-snioUing Fishery Products 474 ', 
 
 Hume. lt(d)ert 1>., Patentee of Can-filling Machine 511 
 
 Hydroearlmn Gas usi-d in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Iceand-salt Freezers, Description of 373,379 
 
 Ice, Cooling Fish with 359-367 
 
 in Fresh Mackerel Fishery 365 
 
 Introdu<*ed in the Vessel Fisheries 359 
 
 "Ice-house sal toil S Imon " of Sweden 456 
 
 Iceland Method of Curing Codfish 409 
 
 IcingCod, Haddoek, and liluefish 363 
 
 Halihut 363-365 
 
 Oysters 366 
 
 Shad ,.365 
 
 Importation of Caviar 542 
 
 Piekled Herring 440 
 
 Pickled Salmon 455 
 
 Kussian Sardines 467 
 
 Sardines 534 
 
 Inclosed Water Areas for Preserving Fishery Prod- 
 ucts Alive 339 
 
 Indians of the Northwest, Fish-drying by 389,411 
 
 Ingraham. E. K 388 
 
 Inspection of Mackerel 434 
 
 Pickled Fish 428-430 
 
 Insulation ot Cold-storage Walls 376,381 
 
 Italian Sardels 466 
 
 Jannascli Preservative 560 
 
 Japanese Canned Shrimp 524 
 
 Methods of Pickling Fish 425 
 
 Preparing Fish Extracts 552 
 
 Jellied Oysters 472 
 
 Jennings, R.S 399 
 
 Johnson &. Young, Lobster Pond established by 340 
 
 Jordan, David S., on Drying Kedfish 417 
 
 Kegs for Caviar 543 
 
 P^ireign Herring 440 
 
 Kenchcured Codfish 395 
 
 Mullet 412 
 
 Kenselt, Thoraas 516 
 
 Kieler Sprotten 540 
 
 Page. 
 
 KiiiLilish Dry-«alted 413 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Kippereil Herring 488 
 
 Salmon 411 
 
 Labradiir Split Herring 487 
 
 Lake Herring lirine-salted 461-464 
 
 Freezing of 370-382 
 
 Smoked 491 
 
 Lake Trout, lirands of 464 
 
 Brine-salted 461-464 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Freezing of 370-382 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Lane, Charles (!., Inventor of Fish Can 510 
 
 Lead Poisoning Irom Canned Fish 509 
 
 Leask'slUfrigerating Machinery and its Management. 374 
 
 LeClair, E., on Icing Fish 361 
 
 Live-cars or Live-boxes 344-348 
 
 Live Crabs, Transportation of 356 
 
 Fish Transported Overland 348-350 
 
 Lobsters Transported 350-353 
 
 Oysters anil Clams Transported 353-356 
 
 Terrapins and Turtles 357 
 
 Lobster Live-cars 347 
 
 Ponds on New England Coast 340 
 
 Smacks 343 
 
 Lobsters Boiled before Shipment 353 
 
 Canned 521-523,540 
 
 Pickled 473 
 
 Preserved in Coves or Ponds 340 
 
 Live-cars 347 
 
 Transported Alive 350-353 
 
 Louisiana Catfish held Alive for Market 345 
 
 Shrimp Drying 414 
 
 Mackerel Urine-salted 430-436 
 
 '■liroiled" 520 
 
 Canned 519,540 
 
 Cold Storage of 370,382 
 
 Icing Fi-esh 365 
 
 Pocket 432 
 
 Smoked 505 
 
 Maine Regulations as to Brine-salting 428 
 
 Massachusetts Regulations as to Brine-salting 429 
 
 Smoking Alewivea . 490 
 
 Matjeshering 469 
 
 McCrea, A. L .,. 367 
 
 McEwan, Thomas 500 
 
 McMenamin, James 524 
 
 Mechanical Freezers for Fish, Description of 374-377 
 
 Medloch and Bailey Method of Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Menhaden as Saidines 533 
 
 Canned as "Ocean Trout." etc 538 
 
 Canning 509 
 
 Food Extract from 550 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Mess Mackerel 435 
 
 "Minerva" Chinese Preservative 562 
 
 Moldnu Frozen Fish 381 
 
 Smoked Fish 477 
 
 Moore, A. H 510 
 
 Moser, Jetlerson F 516 
 
 Moss Water used in Preserving Fish 563 
 
 Mullet Brine-salted 457 
 
 Dry salted 412 
 
 Roes Salted 546 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Mussels Pickled 473 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Natural Ice Preferred for Shipping Fish 362 
 
 Newloiiiulland Split Herring 487 
 
 Nickerson, Joseph .' 401 
 
 Nielseu, Adoii)b, on Brine-salting Herring 441-446 
 
 Curing Codtisli 407 
 
 Shipping Live Lohstera to Europe. 352 
 
 Smoking Hard Herring 483 
 
 Noble, Butler G 553 
 
 North Carolina, Brine-salted Mullet in 457 
 
 North Truro, Mass., Frozen Herring Plant 388 
 
 Norway, Preparing Russian Sardines in 468 
 
 Norwegian Cod Caviar 548 
 
 Cure ol' Herring 443 
 
 Herring ^ 441 
 
 Method of Curing CodBsh 407 
 
 Sardines 535 
 
 Stocktish 410 
 
 Nova Scotia, Smoking Salmon in 495 
 
 "Ocean Trout "' Canned 538 
 
 Oil in Sardine Canning 527,528,531 
 
 Open-air FreeziMg of Fish 368 
 
 Oyster Canning 51G-519 
 
 Crabs Pickled 472 
 
 Trade on Pacific Coast 355 
 
 Tubs \ 367 
 
 Oysters Canned 540 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Drii-il by Chinese 410 
 
 Extracts of 553-556 
 
 Icing 366 
 
 Pickled 472 
 
 Shi pped A live 353-356 
 
 Vitality of 355 
 
 Wiring of 355 
 
 Pachaly, Arno Gustav 350 
 
 Pacific Coast Oyster Planting 353 
 
 Product of Canned Salmon 513 
 
 Salmon Canning 512-516 
 
 Sardine Canning 532-533 
 
 Package Tubs for Oysters 366 
 
 Pagliare Process of Preserving Fish 562 
 
 Pan Freezing, Origin of 372 
 
 Pans used in Freezing Fish 377-379 
 
 " Pastes " made from Fish 552 
 
 Paulson, M.J 387 
 
 Peebles, B.K 501 
 
 ' ■ Peeler ' " Crabs 356 
 
 Perch Brine-aalted 464 
 
 Caviar from Eggs of 545 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Preserved Alive 340 
 
 Pickerel Smoked, Canned 540 
 
 Pickle-cured Codfish 396 
 
 Pickling Clams 473 
 
 Eels 470 
 
 Halibut Fins 464 
 
 Lobsters 473 
 
 Marine Products 337,425-473 
 
 Mussels 473 
 
 Oyster Crabs 472 
 
 Oysters 472 
 
 Kiver Herring in Kussia 453 
 
 Salmon 455-457,471 
 
 Scallops 473 
 
 Sturgeon 469 
 
 with Vinegar and Spice 467-473 
 
 (Also see Brine-salted.) 
 
 Page. 
 
 Pike, Brine-salting 461-464 
 
 Caviar from Koe of 546 
 
 Frozen Alive in Ice 357 
 
 Pilchards Salted 465 
 
 Piper, Enoch, Patentee of Refrigeration Process 371 
 
 " Plowing " Mackerel 433 
 
 Pocket or "Spiller" for Mackerel 431 
 
 Pollock Dry -salted 390,396 
 
 Smoked 499,506 
 
 Pompaun, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 "Preservaline" 543,560 
 
 Preservation of Fishery Products Alive 330-357 
 
 by Canning 507-540 
 
 Drying and Dry -salting 389-424 
 
 Low Temperature 358-388 
 
 Miscellaneous Antiseptics 557-563 
 
 Pickling 425-473 
 
 Smoking 47-4-506 
 
 Pressed Sard i nes 465 
 
 Prices of Briue-salted River Herring 452 
 
 Canned Fish, Tabular Statement 540 
 
 Codfish, Tabular Statement 398 
 
 Foreign Herring, Tabular Statement 441 
 
 Mackerel, Tabular Statement 436 
 
 Smoked Herring 483 
 
 Quarter (Jil Sardines. Cost per Case .531 
 
 Railroad Car for Transporting Livi- Oysters 356 
 
 Kathbun, Richard, ou Drying Shrimp at San Fran- 
 cisco 415 
 
 Reaming Mackerel 433 
 
 Reddening of Dry-salted Mullet 412 
 
 Salted Codfish 399,400 
 
 Redfish Dry-salted 417 
 
 Red Herring, Preparation of 485 
 
 Red Snappers Preserved in Well-smacks 343 
 
 Refrigeration 337, 358-388 
 
 Applied to Salmon 384 
 
 of Fish on Pacific Coast 383 
 
 Refrigerator Cars 367 
 
 Regulations as to Brine salted Fish 427-430 
 
 Inspecting and Packing Smoked 
 
 Herring 490-491 
 
 Smoked Herring 483 
 
 Reid, J. M 421 
 
 "Res Magnus" 560 
 
 Rhode Island Regulations as to Brine-salting 430 
 
 River Herring, or Ale wives, Brine-salted 450-453 
 
 Smoked 489--401 
 
 Rock Lobsters, Drying 416 
 
 Roosen Process 55s 
 
 Rouud Herring 438 
 
 Ruger's Barmen ide 562 
 
 Russian Method of Drying Sturgeon Meat 418 
 
 Pickling River Herring 453 
 
 Preparing Caviar 544 
 
 Product of Caviar 541 
 
 Sardines 407 
 
 Stockfish 410 
 
 Rust on Brine-salted Fish 4*J6 
 
 Ryder, John A., on Wiring Oyster-shells 355 
 
 Sahlstriim Prttcesa <)f Rriucsaltiug Fish 46ii 
 
 Preparing Food Extracts from 
 
 Fish 550 
 
 Salicylic Acid used in Preserving Fish 557, 559, 562 
 
 Salmon Brine-salted 455-457 
 
 Brine-salting on Pacific Coast 455 
 
VI 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Salmon Canned on Pacific Coast 513,540 
 
 Canning - 512-516 
 
 Dried and Dry -salted 411 
 
 Frozen on Pacific Coast 370,384 
 
 Picltled 471 
 
 Sbipped from Colnmbia River to Atlantic Coast 368 
 
 Smoked 493-497 
 
 Transferred Alive by TJ. S. Fish Commission . . 346 
 
 Salt-and-ice Freezers, Description of 373 
 
 Salt Mackerel Canned 520 
 
 Saltpeter and Alum used in Preserving Fisli 561 
 
 Used in Smoking Fish 495 
 
 Salt-water Crajtisli, Prving 416 
 
 Fish Transported Alive in Germany 350 
 
 San Francisco, Sbrimp-drying by Cbinese 415 
 
 Sardels - 466 
 
 Sardine liutter 552 
 
 Canning in Maine 526-532 
 
 on Pacific Coast 532-533 
 
 Output of Maine in 1889 and 1892 530 
 
 Sardines 526-537,540 
 
 Foreign 534-537 
 
 Prepared from Menhaden 533 
 
 Russian 467 
 
 Smoked, Norwegian 535 
 
 Saugers, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 ScaUops, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Pickled 473 
 
 Sclmltz, Alexander, on Drying "Balyk" 418 
 
 Schwann, Theodore 337 
 
 Scotch Oiro of Herring 441-443 
 
 Method of Curing Codfish 408 
 
 Scotland, Brine-salting Salmon in 456 
 
 Drying Salmon in 4U 
 
 Process of Pickling Cod 454 
 
 Method of Preparing Extract of Clams 556 
 
 Scup held Alivo in Pounds 340 
 
 Sea Bass held Alivo for Market 344,346 
 
 Sea-Cucumber, Drying 418-120 
 
 Sea Slug, Drying 418-420 
 
 Seal Flesh, Food Extract from 550 
 
 Seed Oysters Shipped to Pacific Coast 355 
 
 Sellman, Henry 467,520,527 
 
 Seufert Brothers Co. on Transporting Salmon 368,384 
 
 Sevriouga, "Balyk " made from 418 
 
 Caviar from Eggs of 545 
 
 Shad Brine-salted 458-460 
 
 Cold Storageof 382 
 
 Eggs as Caviar 542 
 
 Icing 365 
 
 Roes Salted 547 
 
 Smoked 506 
 
 Sh.irk Flesh, Food Extract from .550,552 
 
 Sheepshead Brine-salted 464 
 
 "Sliell Lobsters," Canning of 522 
 
 Shipping Car used in Great Lakes Fish Trade : . . 362 
 
 Fresh Fish 359-362 
 
 Frozen Salmon from Pacific Coast 384 
 
 Live Crabs 356 
 
 Lobsters 350-353 
 
 Oysters and Clams 353-356 
 
 Packages for Fish 361 
 
 Packages for Oysters 366 
 
 Shrimii, Canning 523, 540 
 
 Drying 414-417 
 
 Paste 552 
 
 Siuimonds, P. L.,on Curing Trepangs in East Indies .. 419 
 
 Page. 
 
 Skates Dried 416 
 
 Sniackees ,_ 343 
 
 Snuall Fish, Canning 50D 
 
 Smelt, Canning 538 
 
 Preserved in Cold Storage 370 
 
 Smith, H.M 356 
 
 Smoked Alewives or River Herring.-. 489-491 
 
 Bloater Herring 485-488 
 
 Butter-fish 506 
 
 Carp 506 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Catfish 503 
 
 Eels 504 
 
 Flounders 506 
 
 Haddock or Finnan Haddie 500 
 
 Hake 506 
 
 Halibut 497-499 
 
 Hard Herring 478-485 
 
 Kingfish 606 
 
 Kippered Herring 488-489 
 
 Lake Herring 491 
 
 Lake Trout 506 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Mackerel 505 
 
 Menhaden 506 
 
 Mullet 606 
 
 Pike Canned 540 
 
 Pollock 499, 506 
 
 Salmon 493-496 
 
 Sardines of Norway 535 
 
 Shad 506 
 
 Sturgeon 501-503 
 
 Canned 538 
 
 Tileflsh 506 
 
 Whitefish 491 
 
 Smokehouses, Description of 475-476, 479, 499 
 
 Smoking Fishery Products 474-506 
 
 Soda and Carbolic Acid used in Preserving Fish 561 
 
 Soft-shell Crabs Shipped Alive 356 
 
 Sozolithe 562 
 
 Spanish Mackerel Brine-salted 464 
 
 Canned 539 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Spiced Herring 469 
 
 Spices, Pickling with Vinegar and 467-473 
 
 Spinal Cords of Sturgeon utilized 417 
 
 Split Herring 439 
 
 Sprats Prepared as Sardines 535 
 
 Sprinkling Trough 380 
 
 Squeteague Brine-salted 464 
 
 Preserved in Cold Storage 370, 382 
 
 Sqtiid Dried by Chinese 417 
 
 Stanley, Isaac L 509 
 
 Stephens, Benj. F 401 
 
 Stearns, Silas, on Drying Trepangs 418 
 
 Stilwell.A.E 356 
 
 Stirling, William, on Extracts of Fish 550 
 
 Stockfish 389,410 
 
 Storage, Cold 370-388 
 
 Striped Bass Brine-salted 464 
 
 Cold Storage of 382 
 
 PennedAlive in Souihem Delaware 340 
 
 Sturgeon, Caviar from Eggs of 540-545 
 
 Fed on Corn 340 
 
 Meat Dried in Russia 418 
 
 Penned Alive on the Great Lakes 340 
 
 Pickled 469 
 
INDEX. 
 
 VII 
 
 Page. 
 
 Sturgeon Preserved in Cold Storage 370, 382, 384 
 
 Products Dried 417 
 
 Smoked 501-503 
 
 Canned 540 
 
 Sugar used iu Briuc-aaltiiig 426 
 
 Sulidiidcs of Carbon used in Preserving Fisb 561 
 
 Sutherland, J. P.. Patentee nf He frige ra tor Car 367 
 
 Sweden, Pressed Sanlines of 465 
 
 Swedish Process (if Pickling Cod 454 
 
 Salted Saltnon 456 
 
 Sniokeil Salmon 494 
 
 Swordfieh Brim- salted 460 
 
 Tautog held Alive for Market 344,346 
 
 Tempeniture for Cold Storage 381,382 
 
 '"•rrapius Canneil 540 
 
 Penned Alive on the Gulf of Mexico, etc. 341,357 
 
 Thompson, Cathcart, Patentee of Artificial Drier 421 
 
 Fish Meal Process . . 551 
 Thynidl nr Thyinate Salts used in Preserving Fish - . . 561 
 
 Tiletish Sniuked 506 
 
 TrepangM Dried 418-420 
 
 Turtle rield Alive for Market 341,357 
 
 Soup Cnnned 530 
 
 Van Gild.ir, S. G 554 
 
 Variety of Fish-food Pi'odiicta in United States 338 
 
 Vinegar, Pickling with 467-473 
 
 "Wallem's Freezer for Hait , 388 
 
 Wall-eyed Pike, Cold Storage of 382 
 
 Water-horsing Codliali 393 
 
 Halibut for Smoking 498 
 
 Page. 
 
 Water-horsing Salmon for Smoking 493 
 
 Well-smacks 341-343 
 
 Early use of 341 
 
 in Halibut Fishery 341 
 
 Lobster Fishery 343 
 
 New York Market Fishery 342 
 
 North Sea Fisheries 349 
 
 Red Snapper Fishery 343 
 
 Whale Flesh, Food Extract from 550 
 
 Whitefish Brine-salted 461-464 
 
 Dressed fnr Market 360 
 
 Freezing of 370-382 
 
 Grades of 464 
 
 Preserved Alive in Ponds 339 
 
 Smoked 491 
 
 Whitman Process of Curing Fish 422-424 
 
 Whitman, Thomas S., Patentee of Artificial Dryer 422 
 
 Wilcox, W. A., on Drying Spinal Cord of Sturgeon ... 417 
 
 Freezing Fish on Pacific Coast 383 
 
 Salmon Canning on I'aeific Coast. 513-516 
 
 Willard, H. E 431 
 
 Wiring Oyster-shells 355 
 
 Woltf, Julius 520 
 
 Wonson. Wm. H,, &.S0D3 499 
 
 Wood, George K 367 
 
 Woudrutf, Lyman, Process of Smoking Salmon 496 
 
 Yarmouth Bloater Industry 487 
 
 Yellow Pike Dressed for Market 360 
 
 Yellow-Tail Dry -salted 414 
 
c/ 
 
 "R !_-. 'C\M 
 

 -> 
 
 
 
 "^bV^ 
 
 
 ■<^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o V 
 
 
 
 A*" 
 
 
 
 •»*o<*- 
 
 o V 
 
 .0. 
 
 
 .^ ^^^^^' -^^ -' *^ 
 
 
 
 4 o^ 
 
 .0^ 
 
 
 -^^c 
 
 ^4c 
 
 A 
 
 A^ 
 
 k"" '^'js 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 <''^ 
 
 :'^^ 
 
 
 
 oo it.. - 
 
 .^^ 
 
 '^^^0^ 
 
 <^°^ 
 
i • • f C- r>^