•36535" 
 
w to Write 
 Sentence 
 
 S Ml T 
 
How to Write a Latin 
 Sentence 
 
 APPLIED GRAMMAR 
 
 By 
 
 LUTHER T. SMITH, A. B. 
 
 Classical Master in 
 Bordentown Military Institute 
 
 Address: 
 Bordentown Military Institute, N. J. 
 
 July 1 to Sept. 15, Hardwick, Vt. 
 

 Copyright, 1922 
 
 By LUTHER T. SMITH 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 &? 
 
 \8\9# 
 
 C1A685247 
 
LATIN ORDER OF TRANSLATION 
 
 [1] 
 
 Clause Order :-Subject [or object] of the main clause, only if the same as subject [or 
 object] of the dependent clause: [1] Dependent clauses: [2] Main clause: [3] Sub« 
 stantive or Adverbial "that-clauses" , including Indirect Statement "that-clauses" ; 
 Indirect Questions [who, what, whether, how, etc.]: "From-verb-ing" clauses: [4] 
 Relative clauses following their antecedents. 
 Word Order within Clauses: [but this normal order may be constantly varied for em* 
 
 phasis by putting emphatic words either first or last in the sentence.] 
 [2] 
 
 Dependent Clauses: [when the subjects of the Main and of the Dependent Clauses art 
 different persons or things]: -but if the subjects are the same, Dependent Clauses 
 usually follow the subject of the Main Clause]. 
 [A] Conjunction [if any], see 53: Relative [if any], see 22: Interrogative [if any], 24 
 [1] Subject Nominative [with modifying Adjectives; Genitives; and Relative 
 Clauses]; or Appositives ["as"]. 27 
 Participles Nominative [if any]: -"ing M : "having-verb-ed": "verb-ed"; 
 see 36. [Preceded by their prepositional phrases,-Object Accus.-Object Infim 
 -Adverbs, etc]. 
 Dependent Clauses: "When, since, etc. [-when the subject of the Dependent 
 Clauses and the Main Clause are the same :-[but if the subjects differ, Depend- 
 ent Clauses usually precede the main clause]. 
 [5] Prepositional Phrases: Ablatives, Adverbial Accusatives ["for, during, 
 
 to"-with names of towns]. See 37. 
 [5] Indirect Object ["to, for, as-an aid, etc."]: Not used after verbs of mo- 
 tion. See 39. 
 [3] or [4] Object Accusatives [with modifiers] : 40 or 
 
 Predicate Nominative: [Noun: or Adjective agreeing with the subject]. 40, 
 [with est, sunt, erat, erit,fuit, etc.: videntur [seem]: fit [become]: certior fit [is in- 
 formed]: and many passive verbs.] 
 [4] Participles Accusative [preceded by their Prep. Phrases, Object, etc.]: see 3€, 
 [3] J or [4] Infinitive Object [preceded by its Prep. Phrases,-Accus. subject-Accus, 
 
 object-adverbs, etc.]: see 10. 
 [5] Adverbs [non]:-"ly": see 43. 
 [2] Verbs: [but sum, est, sunt: erat, erit,fuit, etc., may stand where found in English]. 
 
 See 44. 
 [3] Object Clauses: "that-clauses": "who, what, whether, etc.-Indirect 
 Questions: "from-verb-ing-clauses. ,, See 5 or 6. 
 
 [3] DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 1st.: silva, -ae, -ae, -am, -long-a: -ae-arum, -is, -as, -is. [Romae] -locate 
 
 2nd. hortus, -i, -o, -um, -o: -i, -orum, -is, -os, -is [Marce]. 
 
 pilum, -i, -o, -um, -o: -a, -orum, -is, -a, -is [Neuter]. 
 
 3rd.: dux, ducis, -i, -em, -e [i] : -es, -um [-ium], -ibus, -es [-is], -ibus, 
 
 mare, maris, -i, -e, -i: maria, -ium, -ibus, -ia, -ibus [Neuter.] 
 
 maior, maioris, maiori, etc. [Masc. or Fern.]: maius, maioris, -ori, maius, 
 etc. [Neuter]. 
 
 iens, euntis, eunti, etc., [going] Masc. or Fern.]: iens, euntis, -nti, iens, etc, 
 4th: lacus, long-us, -ui [u], -um, -u: -long-us, uum, -ibus, long -us, -ibus 
 
 cornu, long-us, -u, -u, ~u: -ua, -uum, -ibus, -ua, -ibus. 
 
 5th.: res, rei, rei, rem, re: res, rerum, rebus, res, rebus, 
 
[4] 
 HOW TO WRITE A LATIN SENTENCE: Summary. 
 
 CLAUSE ORDER: A — Subject of main clause, only if same as subject of dependent 
 clause: [1] Dependent clauses; [2] Main clause; [3] Substantive and adverbial 
 "that" clauses. Indirect Questions [who, what]: "from-verb-ing"-clauses. 
 
 Word Order within Clauses: [but this normal order may be constantly varied for 
 emphasis by putting emphatic words either first of last in the sentence.] 
 
 Dependent Clauses: whenever the subjects differ from subject of main clause. 
 
 [A] Conjunction 53: Relative [who, which] 22, 23; or Interrogative [who, what, 
 how.] 24-26. 
 
 [1] Subject Nominative: [with modifiers: Noun-Adject.: Adject.- Noun-Gen- '• 
 
 Bel. Clauses]. 27. 
 
 [a] Tell the [1] principal parts and [2] declension of all noun's. 
 // third declension: Is it an i~stem noun? 28. 
 Adjectives: 29-34. 
 
 [1] Tell the gender of the noun it modifies. 17. 
 
 [2] Principal parts and declension of the adjective. 
 "his or their [own] men or things", referring to the subject: suus, sua, suum. 
 
 [but when used in a Dependent Clause to refer to the subject of the Main Clause [as In- 
 direct Reflexive], if the meaning of suus would be doubtful, use ipsius, ipsorum.] 
 "his or their"-not referring to the subject: eius [his]: eorum [their]. 
 Participles Nominative: preceded by their Prep. phrases-Ob j. -Ob j. Infin. -Adv., 36 
 
 "ing": [Pres. or Perf.]: "having-vb.-ed.": Perf. Part. Pass, in Ablative Absolute 
 
 [unless deponent: -Perf. Part. Pass, in Nominative, etc.] 36 
 
 "having-been-vb.-ed": or "verb-ed": Perf. Part. Pass. 
 Dependent Clauses: [1] "When, because, etc." [if the subjects of both clauses are the 
 
 same.] 
 
 [5] Prepositional Phrases: Ablatives: Adverbial Accusatives [ u for, during, to"] 
 [but phrases are often placed elsewhere for emphasis.] 37. Dates 38. 
 
 [5] Indirect Object: Dative [to, for.] 39. 
 
 •-3] Object Accusative [followed by modifiers] first asking: 
 
 Unless passive verb, should English verb or its Latin equivalent be used 
 with some case other than Accus.? [1] Dat. "favor, help, etc.,; ad, ante, 
 
 etc. 40 
 [2] Ablat.: "utor, potior, etc., lack, 40 
 [3] Gen.: "remember, etc.; impersonal 
 [it] vbs. ["It repents, 
 pities, etc."] 40 
 [4] Nom.: sum, est, videor [etc.] 40 
 Participles Accus.: [-ing] [Pres. or Perf.]: -ed [Perf. Part. Pass.]: 36 
 
 [preceded by their Prep. phrases-Ob j. -Obj. Infin. -Adv.. etc.] 
 See Participles Nom. above or 36. 
 
 [Who, which [or when since, etc., clauses whenever the subject is "he, they"] 
 with a passive verb [or active deponent]: Use Perf. Part. Pass, modifying 
 antecedent of "who", etc. 
 
[5] 
 
 [3] or [4] Infinitive Object: Is the English verb followed by an English Infinitive? 
 
 [to-vb.]. 
 
 If not: See Adverbs below. 
 
 If so: Caesar or Second- Year Latin Students: See Infinitive Object Testa 
 [10] below. 
 
 First- Year Latin Students: If you have already written [3] the Object Accusa* 
 tive [in reality Subject Accusative cf the Infinitive [to-vb.]; next write the Object 
 Accus. of the Infinitive [if it has an object]; and the adverbs [5] [if any]; then 
 [4 or 5] the Latin Infinitive [to-verb], usually present tense [the second principal 
 part.] 
 
 [5] Adverbs [-ly], etc.: In Latin 2nd Declen.-long-e; 3rd-ter; or Neuter Accus, of Adject, 
 
 [2] Verb: What mood and tense does the English Conjunction, ReL or Interr. require*} 
 53. Prin. parts? Conjugation ? Write the verb, ■ 
 
 Is the English verb followed by a 
 
 [1] "that-clause If so; see 6 below or 
 
 [2] "Who, which, what: whether, whither: how, when, where, why, etc. 
 
 Indirect Question Subjunctive :Combined Test; See 9 below or 24. 
 
 [3] "from-verb-ing": 5 
 
 [5] 
 
 "FROM-VERB-ING": Noun Object Clause of Purpose; quominus, ne, quin. 
 
 [1] Use prohibeo, prevent, or impedio, hinder: preceded by Accus. and Ir.fi i ; 
 [Object Infin.] or 
 
 [2] After hinder, prevent, hold, restrain, keep, check, etc. — quominus or ne-Subjiu c. 
 [English Object becomes Latin Subject] Double Test 7 below. 
 Object Clause cf Purpose. 
 
 after u not hinder, not prevent, not hold, etc.": quominus, or quin-Subjunc. See 7 
 
 Object Clause of Purpose, 
 [except prohibeo, impedire, preceded by Accus. and Infin.] 
 
[6] 
 
 6 THAT-CLAUSE TESTS: "Is the that-clause used— 
 [1] After Impersonal [it] Verbs: 
 
 [1] It happens, is added, etc.: 11 ut, ut non Subjunc. See Double Test 7 below. 
 
 Result Clause used as Subject. 
 [2] Other "it-verbs": followed by Accus. and Infin. [usually Pres.] 
 Infinitive Clause used as Subject. 10-5. 
 Xote: "It is permitted or may" [licet] may take either the Dative or the Accus. with the 
 Infin. or the Infin. alone: or the subjunctive [without ut but with ne.] 
 "It is necessary' 1 [oportet] necesse esse] may take the Accus. and Infin. or the Infin. 
 alone: or the subjunctive without ut. 
 [2] Answering: "Main- erb-what?" 7s the clause used after — 
 
 [1] order cr command, persuade, etc. 13-Dat.-ut, ne-neve '-Subjunc. See Double Test 7; 
 [except iubec-Infin. : vetare-Infin.] 
 
 Object Clause of Indirect Command [or Purpose]. 
 [2] fear-that, ne: that not, ut:-Subjunc. See Double Test 7. "not fear thatnot:-ne 
 
 hon." Object Clause cf Purpose [or Indirect Wish.] ["fear fo"-Infin.] 
 [3] not dcubt-quin '-Subjunc. See Combined Test 7. "Doubt-whether: utrum-' 7. 
 
 Object Clause of Purpose [Deliberative Subjunc] 
 [4] decide, determine, resolve, decree, etc. [when subjects differ]-ut, ne: See 7. 
 Object Clause of Purpose [or Indirect Command.] 
 Xote: With "decide, determine, etc," when the subjects of both the main verb and the 
 verb of deaihing are the same ["He decided to"-vb., or "He decided that he-vb"]: 
 use Infin. without subject Accus. But if the subjects differ ["He decided that 
 they-vb"]: use ut, ne-Subjunc. So also nitor, niti [strive] and temptare [try]. 
 [5] wish, potior, sinere, cogere, conor, etc.: preceded by Accus. and Infin. [Usually 
 Pres.] 10 
 
 Object Infin. Clause with Subject Accus. 
 [6] Other " brain and sense action verbs": 14 Unless a short clause: 
 Test and write the main verb first: then apply Triple Test 8, and write— 
 Accus. Subject-Prep. Phrases- Accus. Object-Infinitive. 
 Indirect Statement Infinitive Object Clause. 
 [7] facio and its compounds 12 -ut, ut non-Subjunc: See Double Test 7. 
 Object Result Clause. 
 [3] Meaning- "in-order-that": auswermg "main-verb-whyl" 
 [1] ut, ne-neve-Subjunc: See Double Test 7 or 16. 
 Adverbial Clause of Purpose. 
 [4] Meaning "so-or-such-that": [answering "With what result."] 
 [1] ita or tarn-Adject, -ut, ut non-neque-Subjunc. See 7. 
 Adverbial Result Clause. 
 [5] Meaning "the fact that : as for the fact that": Quod-Indicative, 
 
 Xoun Clause of Fact used as Object, etc. 
 [6] In apposition with a noun or "this, these": 
 
 Usually Subject Accus. ond Infin. [cften-ut, ne; qucd, ut non]. 
 "that" when equivalent to who, which: with a definite antecedent: expressed by 
 qui, quae, quod and Indicative: Additional Relative Clause. 
 With an indefinite antecedent: ^expressed by qui, quae, qucd and Subjunctive: 
 Relative Clause of Characteristic. 
 Provided that: [not-ne]: Bum, dummodo, raodo,-Subjunctive: Double Test; see 7 
 Granted that: [not-ne]: No conjunction :-Subjunctive Pres. or Perf. [Concessive 
 
 Subjunctive] 
 
m 
 
 [7] 
 
 DOUBLE TEST: for "subjunctive." [ut, ne\ ut non] quin) qaommus, etc.) 
 [1] Is [main verb] Primary [Pres.; Fut,; Fut, Perf.]? 
 
 or Secondary [Imperf.; Perf.; Pluperf.; Perf. Infin. 
 or Perf. Subjunctive.]. 
 [2] Is [dependent vb.] incomplete at time of [main vb.]? 
 
 or completed before [main verb]? 
 [3] Write P. Pres. [Incomplete]; S. — Imperf. [Incomplete], 
 
 [in Result Clause often Perfect Subjunctiv^ 
 Perf. [Completed]; Pluperf., [Completed]. 
 
 [4] Write dependent clauses [within the subjunctive clause] in the 
 subjunctive [by attraction]. 
 Violations of the Rule for Tense Sequence: 
 
 [l]The Perfect Infinitive or Perfect Subjunctive, since they denote action completed 
 
 before the main verb, may [but do net always] take the seccr.dcry setuer.ee, 
 
 even when the main verb on which Infinitive cr Subjunctive depends is Primary. 
 
 [2] Perf ect Subjunctive in Result Clauses [ut, utnon-so that-subject- u has cr have-vb"] 
 
 after a secondary main verb denotes the "Actual Result": while the Imperfect 
 
 Subjunctive denotes the " Natural Result" 
 
 [3] The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive after a primary main verb is used in 
 
 the si clause of a Contrary to Fact Condition. 
 ]4] The Perfect Indie, usually takes Secondary sequence like any past verb: but 
 sometimes [when meaning "has, hare"], the Pres. Perf. may take Primary 
 sequence . [Since the action, though begun in the past, was not completed till 
 the present.] 
 
 [8] TRIPLE TEST: [for Indirect Statement Infin.] 
 
 [1] Is ["that-clause-verb."] going on at time of [main verb] Present Infin. See II 
 completed before [main verb] Perfect Infin. See II. 
 
 future to [following] main verb] Fut. Act. Infin. See II. 
 II Omit "that" and write : Subject Accusative cr 
 
 [he-eum] or se [if "he" refers to subject of main verb.] 
 
 [it-id, or if passive intransitive verb used impersonally, use no Latin word [-tern, 
 
 it-amatum esse, etc.] 
 [they-eos, or se [if "they" refers to the subject.] 
 
 Active Passive 
 
 Pres. Inf.: ama re [ was, were, vb.-ing]] amari [regi] [ was, were being vb.] 
 
 [ is, are vbAng] [ is, are being, vb.] 
 
 Perf. Inf.: ama visse [had, has vb.] ama-t-um esse [had been, has been vb.] 
 
 Fut. Inf. : Act. ama turum, am, um esse [would, ivill vb.] 
 cr amaturum fuisse [would, would hove] 
 
 [conclusion of active contrary to fact condition.] 
 jcut. Passive: futurum esse [fere] ut-pass. subjunctive; that [the result] 
 
 would, will be that — cr [2] that [subj.] would be or will be-9b. 
 or futurum fuisse ut- — pass, imucrf. subjunctive 
 that [subject] wadd le cr ucidd here teen-vb. 
 [conclusion cf pass, contrary to fact erudition.] 
 f ass. Periphrast : amandum, am, um esse [had, has to be, must be-by-dat. : ought to be -by -dat.] 
 
 If active in English [has to, must, ought] See 47 
 Write Dependent Clauses in Indirect Statement in Subjunctive 
 
 Perfect Infinitive cr Subjunctive is usually followed by Secondary sequence [even 
 when main verb is primary]. [Double Test: See 7] 
 
[8] 
 [9] 
 
 COMBINED TEST: [for Indirect Question Subjunctive and "non dubitat quia"]. 
 [1] Is-main verb-Primary or Secondary? 
 
 [2] Is-dependent verb [1] going on at the time of; [2] completed before, or [3] future 
 /o-main verb? 
 
 If Fut. : Use Active Periphrastic Subjunctive [-urus: P-Pres.) S-Imperf.] 
 
 amaturus sim, essem, etc. 
 Write P — Present [Incomplete] S — Imperfect [Incomplete] 
 
 Perfect [Completed] Pluperf. [Completed] 
 
 Act. Peri. Pres [Fut.] Act, Peri. Imperf. [Fut.] 
 
 Write Dependent Clauses [within the Indirect Question] in Subjunctive by Attraction. 
 In Indirect Questions and "Non dubitat quin": the Present or Im- 
 perfect Subjunctive usually denotes action going on at the same time as the leading 
 verb of asking: but sometimes as Future to the leading verb: [2] The Active Peri- 
 phrastic Subjunctive: [Present or Imperfect] -urus sit or esset] denotes regularly 
 action future to the time of the leading verb. 
 
 [10] 
 
 INFINITIVE OBJECT TESTS: 7s the In fin. [or "to-verb"] used— 
 [1] After Impersonal [it] Verb: First test and write the main "it-verb"; then-if — 
 [1] It happens, etc. W-ut, ut non-Subjunc. See Double Test 7, above. 
 
 Result Clause used as Subject. See 5 below. 
 [2] Other "it-verbs") followed by Accus. and Infin. [usually Pres.]. 
 Infin. or Infin. Clause used as Subject. [5] below. 
 
 [2] Answering "main-verb-what?" Is the Infin. [or to-vb.] used after — 
 
 [1] order or command, persuade, etc. 13 -Dat. -ut, ne-Subjunc. See Double Test 7, 
 [preceded by main verb, unless a short clause.] 
 Object Clause of Indirect Command or Purpose: 
 [2] hope, promise, expect, threaten, swear, etc. 
 
 se-Fut. Infin. [-urum esse], preceded by main verb. 
 Indirect Statement Infinitive Object Clause. 8 
 [3] cause [facio and its compounds 12]-ut, ut non-Subjunc. See Double Test 7. 
 [preceded by main verb.] 
 Object Result Clause. 
 [4] All other verbs [including "fear, hesitate, decide, wish, know [how] to, teach to"]. 
 Use Infin or Accus. and Infin. [Pres. or Perf.] preceding main verb. 
 Complimentary Infinitive [without Subject]: or Object Infin. [with subject 
 Accus.] 
 [5] Use. Present Infinitive: Amare: to [verb]: amari [regi] to be [verb], or 
 
 he or they [not it]seems [videtur,] is said, [dicitur], is thought [putatur]; — 
 Perf.: amavisse: to have [verb]: amatus esse: to have been [verb]. 
 
 Fut. Act.: amaturus esse to be going to [verb]: "to intend to"-vb. 
 Passive Periph. : amandus esse: to have to be [verb]: to be necessary to be-vb. _ 
 
 Note: Ought to have: debuit-pres. infinitive: could have: potuit-pres. infin. 
 
 [3] Meaning "in order to-vb.": answering, "main verb-why!" First test and write 
 the main verb: 
 [1] ut, ne-neve-Subjunc. See Double Test 7 or 16. [ Never use /7i/m-[except"hasten 
 
 to"-with Infin., preceding main verb]. Adverbial Purpose Clause. 
 [2] send-no un-to: Use mittit-qui-Subjunc. See Double Test 7. 
 Relative Purpose Clause. 
 
Infinitive Object Tests — continued, 
 
 [4] Meaning "so or such as to-vb.": answering "With what result!" 
 
 Usually ita, or tarn-Adject, -ut, ut non-Subjunc. See Double Test 7. 
 Adverbial Result Clause. 
 
 [but sometimes loosely used for "in order to-vb." -ut, ne, not ut non]. 
 [5] In Apposition with a noun or "this, these", etc.: 
 
 Use Infinitive; or Accus. and In fin. 
 [6] "worthy to : unworthy to: fit to: suitable to, etc.:" 
 
 Use qui-Subjunc. See Double Test 7. Relative Clause of Characteristic. 
 [7] "Prepared to:" Lse Infinitive [Complimentary] trr cd-Accus. ncun-Accus. Gerundive 
 [-ndum, am, etc]: or Accus. Gerund [ndum]: Accustomed to: Use Infinitive 
 [Complimentary.] etc. 
 [8] Parenthetical Phrases: ut, ne-"so to speak," ut ita dicsnn:"not to speak of 
 other things," ne alia dicam: "not to be tedious"] ne longum sit: "to return to 
 the same point" ut eodem revertar, etc. 
 [9] Idioms: "a man to", is qui-Subjunc, "such men as to", ii qui: "the one to", 
 unus qui: "the only one to," solus qui, etc. Use qui, quae, quod with Subjunc- 
 tive [Double Test -7] in a Relative Clause of Characteristic. 
 [10] "too high to" [comparative-gwam ut-Subjunc.-l ': or quam qui-Subjunc- 7 '. 
 
 Result Clause. 
 [11] "is to-vb," "was to-vb", really mean "must" or Passive Periphrastic [-ndus, a, 
 
 um est, erat]: [Rarely "is to" means "is able to," potest, etc.] 
 [12] "wait for him to^vb": Express by dum, until [wait until he]. See until 53. 
 [13] "What -to do"] "Whom-to see": [Deliberative Question in Indirect Statement.] 
 Use Subjunctive [or rarely Infinitive, if the Rhetorical Question originally 
 had the Indicative instead of the usual subjunctive.] 
 [14] "very easy to-vb.": perfacile — tu [factu]: Supine in Ablat. [of Respect] 
 "best to-vb.": optimum — tu, etc. 
 Supine in-u [Ablat.]: depending on facilis, difficilis, horribilis, incredibilis, 
 mirabilis, or on the nouns, fas, nefas, opus: — [cognitu, dictu, factu, natu, visu: 
 "to learn, say, do, etc."] Ablative of Respect ["easy-to-vb."] 
 
 [11] 
 
 VERB LISTS 
 
 Impersonal [it] Verb of Result \-ut, ut non, -neque: it happens-ut, ut non [but "it hap- 
 pens fortunately or unfortunately" -ben e, male-qucd-dndicative]\ there is added-ut, ut 
 non [sometimes quod with Indicative, if an actually known fact], fore [futurum esse] 
 [less often] it remains, it follows, it is possible or impossible, it is a custom, right, or 
 fact [est] [but it remains, it follows, etc., when the that-clarse expresses not a foci 
 already known, but looks forward to something yet to ccme, take ut, rze-Subjunctive]. 
 
 Use ut, ut non [result]-Subjunctive: For tense: Use the same tense that you find 
 in the English "that-clause" : or see Double Test 7 [remembering that "verb-ed" 
 or "has-verb" may be Perf. Subjunc, even in secondary sequence [Actual Result]: 
 but "was, were-verb-ing" is Im^erf. Subjunctive. [Natural Result.) 
 
 [12] 
 
 Verbs followed by Result Clauses: ut, ut non-neque: cause, accomplish, bring it 
 
 about, effect, render, [facio and its compounds]: [2] a few impersonal [it] verbs :-it 
 
 happens [Dat.], there is added, fore, it remains, it follows, etc. 
 
[10] 
 
 [13] 
 
 Verbs followed by an Indirect Command [or Purpose] Clause: "should* ' 
 
 With Dat.:-ut, ne,-neve: order or command [iubeo with Accus. and Object Infin.]: 
 
 persuade [permit] : 
 With Accus. -ut, ne-neve: induce, urge or encourage, advise or warn: 
 With ab-Ablat.-ut, ne, neve: ask, demand, obtain one's request, [atain]. 
 Rarely used verbs: [1] strive [nitor], attempt [temptare], when the subjects differ: 
 [" He strove that they"-]; [2] obtain, take care or pains, see to it that, plan, be sure or 
 beware, contrive :-whether the subjects differ or not: -ut, ne, neve-Purpose 
 Clause-Double Test. 7. 
 
 NotezWith "wish" [volo, velle: note, nolle: male, malle: cwpio, cupere]: Use the In- 
 finitive [object] [omitting the subject Accus. whenever the subjects of both the 
 main verb and the verb of wishing are the same]; or less often use the subjunc- 
 tive without ut but with ne. 
 With other verbs of wishing: If the subjects of both the main verb and the verb of wish- 
 ing d'ffer, use ut, ne-Subjunc: but if the subjects are the same, use Infin. 
 
 [14] 
 
 Verbs followed by an Indirect Statement Infinitive [with subject Accus.] 
 
 [1] Brain Action Verbs: say, [say-not, negare], think, know, perceive, inform, reply, 
 announce, learn, etc: [2] Sense Action Verbs: feel, see, observe, hear: rejoice, 
 grieve, etc. [also used with quod and indicative]: [3] Verbs followed by Fut. 
 Infin.: hope, promise, expect, threaten, swear, etc. 
 
 [15] 
 
 Verbs followed by Indirect Question Subjunctive: 
 
 ask, demand, tell, doubt, fear, think, perceive, etc. 
 
 [16] 
 
 Different ways of expressing "in order that": "in order to": [purpose clauses.] 
 
 [a] after "mitto" express "in order to," by qui [relative clause of purpose] and sub- 
 
 junctive. See 7. 
 
 [b] "in order the more [easily or any comparative] "-quo [facilius, etc.]-subjunctive. 
 
 See 7. 
 
 [c] Short phrases: [1] ad-Accus. Noun- Accus. Gerundive [-ndum, -ndaim -ndos] : 
 
 or if no noun : ad-Accus. Gerund [-ndum]. 
 or [2] causa-following Gen. Noun-Gen. Gerundive [-ndi, -dae,- -ndorum] 
 or if no noun: Gen. Gerund. [-ndi]-causa. 
 
 [d] After verb of motion [venire, convenire, conlocare, mittere]: express "in order to" 
 
 by supine [o.matum]. 
 
 [e] After see to, curare; give over, dare, tradere, mandare; surrender, concedere; 
 
 leave, relinquere; undertake, suscipera; contract for, locare: 
 express purpose by Accus. Fut. Part. Pass. [Gerundive], -ndum, 
 etc., modifying the Accus. Object *oi the Main Verb. 
 
 [f] Rarely: u tn orderthat-no one:" ne quis: "that no-noun") ne ullus: "in order that- 
 
 nothing;"ne quid: that-never, ne-umquam [but "so that no one" 
 [ut nemo], nothing [ut nihil], no [ut nullus], never [ut numquam]. 
 
 [g] "in order', or so that there" -ubi-Subjunc. See 7. 
 "in order, or so that thiiher" -quo-Subjunctive, 7. 
 "in order, or so that thence" -unde-Sub']urictive 7. 
 
[11] 
 t 17 l 
 
 Rules for Gender of Nouns [not applicable if noun is obviously a man or woman, 
 Masculine or Feminine.] 
 1st Declension-a : Feminine except names of men [agriccla, nauta]; rivers, winds, 
 
 months-M&sc. 
 2nd Declension-us [vir, puer]: Masculine except vulgus, vulgi-neut, [crowd]; 
 
 pelagus-neut. [sea]: humus-Fem. [ground]: countries, islands, towns, trees-Fern. 
 
 Don't confuse vir, viri, viri [man], with vis, vis, vires [viris], strength. 
 2nd Declension: -um: -a [plural] Neuter. 
 4th Declension-us: Masc. except domus [home], manus [hand], tribus, Idus [Ides]. 
 
 and trees>Fem.: portions , colonnade, -Fern. 
 -u: Neut. [cornu, genu]. 
 5th Declension-long-es: Feminine except cfe-Masc but sometimes Fern 
 
 Sing, [constituta die]. 
 
 3rd Declension: 
 
 Masculines: 
 
 long-os: Masc. [Oscar] -except os oris [mouth] ora [face]-neut.: short os 
 
 ossis [bone], neut. 
 short-or, -er Masc. [like puer, vir] except arbor [tree] -Fern: cor cordis [heart]- 
 
 neut.: aequor [sea]-neut. : iter, itineris [march, road]-neut.: uber [breast]-neut. 
 short-es, -ex: Masc. [Esau] except seges, segitis [crop, corn-field^-Fem. : but 
 
 long es-Fem, 
 -nis, quis: Masc. ignis [fire], sanguis [blood]. 
 
 Feminines: All 3rd Declension Nominatives with long vowels except long-os 
 
 are Fern, [long or tall women]. 
 
 long^-o: Fem. [especi ally-do, -go, -io: abstract and collective nouns [multitudo]: 
 
 except or do [rank]. Masc: 
 
 cardo [hinge] Masc: sermo, [speech] Masc: leo [lion] Masc: turbo [storm] Masc 
 long-as: Fem. except fas [right], nefas [crime]-Neut indeclinable. 
 Jong-es: Fem. except pes [foot], aries [ram], paries [wall]-Masc: but short-es, -ex- 
 
 masc. 
 long-us : Fem. except ius, iuris [right], rus,ruris [country]-Neut. : but short-us- Neut. 
 short-is, ~ys: Fem. [Isabel] except nouns in -nis and -quis-Masc.) also Masc 
 
 are-a [stone], lapis, [starting on a hill], collis, [rolling in a circle] orbis, [for a 
 
 month] mensis, [hitting a sword] ensis- Masc: rarely pulvis [dust], 
 
 fascis [bundle] piscis [fish] postis, [post], axis [axle.] -Masc 
 -X: Fem. Pax, Goddess of Peace: but-ez: Masc. vertex [summit], latex [fluid], 
 
 grex [flock]-Masc 
 -s [preceded by a consonant] and laus [praise]: Fem., except pons, a bridge and 
 
 mons, a mountain: dens, a tooth, and fons, a fountain,-ilfasc. 
 
 Neuters: 
 
 short-us: neuter [United States-Neut.] except pecus, pecudis [sheep]-Fem., but 
 
 pecus, pecoris [cattle]-Neut. 
 C-[i]-T-[y]-L-[a]-N-E-ar,-ur: Neut., except sol [sun]: sal [salt]: Masc. vultur [vul- 
 ture] Masc 
 
[12] 
 HOW TO WRITE A LATIN SENTENCE: With Applied Grammar. 
 
 I 21 l 
 
 [A] Conjunction [if any]: See Latin Conjunctions, 53. 
 
 Note: — [Enim [for], autem [moreover], quidem [certainly], vero [but], quoque [also], 
 igitur [therefore] are postpositive [never the first word]. 
 [22] 
 
 Relative: Who, which, whose, whom [sometimes what, as, that]: not used in a 
 question either Direct with a question mark: or Indirect [after ask, tell, etc.] 
 [1] What is the Gender and number of its antecedent! 17 
 
 [or rarely the gender and number of the predicate noun [if any within the 
 
 Relative Clause itself?] 
 The Relative will be the same gender and number as its antecedent: [or Predicate 
 Noun] 
 [2] Bow is the relative used within its own clause? [as subject, object, etc.] 
 This will give you the case cf the Relative. 
 V ho, which, whose, whom: qui, quae, quGd: cuius, cui: qui, quae, quae. 
 Quern, quos: whom, which [-noun Rel. modifies, if any.] 
 
 After period or semicolon: "this or these] or "the man-whom; thcse-whom." 
 Cuius, quorum: whose-[noun. Rel. modifies, if any]: or "noun-of whom, of which"; or 
 
 "of which-noun." 
 Cui: to or for whom or which-[no\ui Rel. modifies [if any]. 
 Quae: [1] [the things]-which [as Subj. or Object]. 
 
 [2] After period or semicolon: "these things," or "the things-which." 
 [3] What or which-noun Interr. modifies, if any: Interr. Adject, spelled like 
 the relative: For mood, see Interr. 25 
 Quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque: whoever, whichever, whatever. 
 
 For mocd, see 54. 
 Quisquis, quicquid or quidquid: quoquo: whoever, whichever, whatever. 
 
 For Mood see 54. 
 [23] 
 Mood in Relative Clauses: 
 
 Is the Antecedent: [1] a definite or particular [person or thing]: [Indie] or 
 [2] Indefinite, Negative, or Interrogative? [Subjunc] 
 Use Indicative: depending on definite or particular antecedent — , Additional [Ad- 
 jectival]Relative Clause: [Tense sequence depends on main verb]: 
 depending on a definite or particular antecedent but indirectly dependent on a 
 mental or sense action verb [or "He cr they said" supplied]. Additional Relative 
 Clause with subjunctive because Dependent Clause in Indirect Statement [or Im- 
 plied Indirect Statement [with "He or they said" supplied], 
 or depending on a definite or particular antecedent but indirectly dependent on a 
 subjunctive or on an infnitive, equivalent to a subjunctive [Object or Subject Infin.] 
 Additional Relative Clause with Subjunctive by Attraction. 
 
 Attraction: Roma quae urbs-[urbs is in apposition with Roma]. An antecedent 
 which is itself in apposition is attracted into the relative clause : _ 
 [2] Superlative adjectives [-issimus, a, um] or unus, solus, agreeing with the ante- 
 cedent, are often attracted into a relative clause: 
 [3] A relative, used as subject cf est, sunt, etc., often by attraction, agrees with the 
 predicate noun instead cf with the antecedent. 
 
[13] 
 
 Mood in Relative Clauses— ^continued. 
 
 Use Subjunctive: same tense as in English, or see Double Test 7. 
 
 [1] Depending on Indefinite Antecedent [often omitted]: sunt qui — There are some 
 who: unus-one solus-the only one or thing: Adjectival Relative Clause of 
 Characteristic. [Depending also on est quod-there are grounds why: non 
 nullus-some: multi-many: quidapi-a certain one: ullus-&ny : non quisquam, 
 quicquam: not anyone or anything: is, ea, id when mesuiing-the man to; such men 
 as to-vb., etc. [All these except sunt qui, unus and solus are also used with 
 Additional Relative Clause [Indicative], depending on the shade of meaning]. 
 
 [2] depending on a Negative Antecedent [nemo, nullus,-noone: m'/ii7-no thing which 
 nihil est quod: nihil est causae quod: there is no reason why: or a virtual negative^ 
 vix, scarcely: cegre, with difficulty]. Adjective Relative Clause of Characteristic. 
 
 [3] depending on Interrogative Antecedent [Quis est qui, who is there who? Quid est 
 quod, quae causa est quod, quid est causae quod, quae causa est quod ["or qua re or 
 cur"] What is-the reason that ? or why is it that ? 
 
 [4] depending on the adjectives: dignus, worthy-to-vb.: indignus, unworthy to-vb: 
 aptus, fit to-vb.: idoneus, suitable to-vb.: Relative Clause of Characteristic 
 [or Purpose]. 
 
 [5] Used with mittit, etc. : in order to-vb. or in order that-he, they-should-vb, 
 Relative Clause of Purpose, depending on antecedent: Tense sequence depends 
 on main verb. 
 
 Rare Uses: 
 
 depending on antecedent and meaning "so or such as to] or so that-he they": 
 
 Relative Clause of Result [often difficult to distinguish from characteristic clause 
 and then best called characteristic clause] Quam qui, depending on compar ac- 
 tive [-ior -'than so as to-vb. or than so that-he, they".] Relative Clause of Result, 
 depending on any antecedent [-] and meaning u since-he, they" [qui, ut qui, utpote 
 
 qui, quippe qui] Relative Clause of Cause, 
 depending on any antecedent and meaning il although-he, they": Relative Clause of 
 
 Concession, 
 depending on antecedent and meaning whoever, whatever [qui, quicumque, quae- 
 cumque, quodcumque, quisquis, quicquid]: Conditional Relative Sentence with 
 any of the constructions of conditions [either particular or general. [See 54] 
 Usually a General Conditional Relative Clause: Indicative Perfect translated 
 as if Present: and Pluperfect, as if Past, 
 
[14] 
 
 [24] 
 
 [A] I NTERROGATIVES : Ini err. Pronoun: quis, quid: cuius, cui: qui, quae, quae. 
 
 Interr. Adject.'. qui, quae, quod, etc., like Relative. 
 
 Translate: Interr. -with noun it modifies [if any]: 
 
 Quis: who: quid, what-[eiS Subj. or Object]. [2] rarely "why". 
 
 Cuius, quorum: ivhose-nouu it modifies; or of what-noun) of which-nounl 
 
 Cui: to or for whom: or to or for ivhat-noun. 
 
 Quern, quos: whom or [2] what-noun [as object.] 
 
 Uter, utra, utrum: which [of two]; or what-noun. 
 
 What: quid or quae [quod]: 
 
 [1] Does what follow a verb of "brain or sense action" [ask, find out, tell, know, etc.]; 
 meaning, What is or was it that-subject-verb? [Use quid-Indirect Ques- 
 tion Subjunctive]. 
 
 [2] Does what follow some other verb [net of mental action, "give, do," etc.] mean- 
 ing "the things or thing which'*? [Use quae [or quod; Relative with In- 
 dicative in Additional Relative Clause.] 
 
 Contrary -to what: contra-ac [or quam]-Indic . [Clause of Comparison.] 
 
 What sort of: qualis, -e -noun Interr. modifies: 
 
 Introduce a simple question by -ne [attached to first and emphatic word] 
 
 or [expecting an affirmative answer [yes] nonne 
 
 or [expecting a negative answer] [no] num. 
 
 Introduce an alternative question by: utrum, -ne [or] an,annon [necne, indirect 
 
 question] : 
 
 Whether, num, ne [or in a double question: whether-or: utrum]. or 
 [an] or not, necne-[but in a direct question, use annon], await [to see] whether, 
 expecto si whither, quo, how, quo modo, quern ad modum, how-Adject, or 
 Adverb, quam- Adjective cr Adverb, how long, quam diu, quo usque, how great, 
 how large, how much, quantum, a, um, how greatly, quantopere, how many, 
 quot [indeclinable], how often, quotiens, when, quando, ubi, whence, unde, 
 where, ubi, why, qua re, quent ob rem, qua de causa. 
 
 Note: haud scio an: nescio an: "probably": nescio quis: someone: nescio quo 
 modo; nescio quo pacto: somehow: nescio quando: at some time. 
 
 Si quis df any -noun) or if 'anyone) or whoever: si quid: if any-noun) or if anything) or 
 whatever. 
 
 Ne quis: in order that-no one: re quid: in order thai-nothing. 
 
 After si, nisi, ne, num-quis and ciuid mean any or anyone or anything. 
 
 An Indirect Question may often be best translated by an English abstract 
 noun. Quid difTerat, the difference, quae causae sit, the cause, quantum sit 
 periculum, the extent of the danger, unde bellum ortum sit, the origin of the war, 
 quo in loco res sit, the position of affairs. 
 
[15] 
 
 [25] 
 
 Interrogative Clauses: Mood: 
 
 Indicative: Direct [real] Question [followed by question mark). 
 
 Rarely, a Rhetorical Question [often in First Person-"I or we"] and asked only 
 for effect. 
 
 Subjunctive: Indirect Question Subjunctive [Object Noun Clause]: without a question 
 mark: subjunctive translated like Indicative [or rarely:" would, should :will,shall," ] 
 if Deliberative Subjunctive Question] depending on ask, tell, know, think, per- 
 ceive, doubt, fear, etc.] For unusual reasons for tense, see below 26. 
 
 [2] Deliberative Subjunctive Question: [with question marh\\ 
 "Should-subject-verbV ' 
 
 or "Is or was-subject-to-vh." used either as a Direct Deliberative Question 
 or as a Deliberative Question in Indirect Statement, depending on " say, think, " 
 etc.; not on ask, etc. 
 
 Note: Nulla causa est cur, [qua re, quin]: non est cur: 
 
 There is no reason why: Deliberative Subjunctive Question, used in a noun clause 
 as predicate noun. 
 
 Infinitive: Rhetorical question in Indirect Discourse: depending on say, think, etc., 
 [not on ask, etc..]: but Indirect Question Subjunctives and [Deliberative Sub- 
 junctive Questions remain Subjunctive [not Infin.] in Indirect Statement. 
 
 [26] 
 
 Tense of Indirect Question Subjunctive: or of [quin clauses 
 
 after "not doubt"]: 
 
 Pres. or Imperf.: depending on [-], in Primary or Secondary Sequence. 
 [1] action going on at the same time as the leading verb : 
 
 [translated like Indicative — "was, were verb-ing"] 
 [2] sometimes: action future to the time of the leading verb: 
 
 [translated "would, should,: will, shall"]. 
 
 Perf. or Pluperf.: depending on [-], in Primary or Secondary Sequence. 
 
 action completed before the time of the leading verb. 
 
 Active Periphrastic: [-urus sim; esset]: Primary or secondary sequence and ac- 
 tion future to the time of the leading verb [translated 
 - u was or were going to-\b.: is or are going fo-vb.: in- 
 tends to, etc." [This construction is also common after 
 non dubito-quin to express action future to the time 
 of the main verb]. 
 
 See Combined Test, 9. 
 
[16] 
 
 [27] 
 
 [1] SUBJECT NOMINATIVE [followed by its modifiers and Adject. Rel. Clauses]. 
 
 Tell [1] the principal parts and [2] the declension of all nouns. 
 
 If 3rd Declension: Is it an I -stem noun? 28. 
 He, himself '^ipse: they, themselves, ipsi. 
 
 The one— the other: alter — alter: One — -another: alius — alius. 
 So me — -others : alii — alii : 
 One [seeks] one thing, another, another [thing]: Alius aliud. 
 
 [28] 
 
 Rules J or i-stems [3rd Declension]: Gen. Plur -ium: Accus. Plur, long-is ores: Neut. 
 Plur. -ia. 
 
 [1] Nouns ending in short-is or long-es, not increasing in length in Gen. [navis, nubes]. 
 [2] One syllable nouns in -s or -x preceded by a consonant [pons, arx: also nox, nix, vis.] 
 [3] More than one syllable, in -ns, -rs [cliens, cohors]. 
 [4] Neuters in -e, -al, -ar [Ablative Sing, long-i not -e]: mare, animal [Plur. maria, 
 
 animalia.] 
 [5] Third Declension Adjectives except comparatives [Ablat. Sing, long-i] and Present 
 Participles Active [amans, amans: amantis: amantes, amantia: amantium], 
 [Plus though comparative, has Gen. Plur. plurium, but Nom. Neut. plura]. 
 
 [29] 
 
 Adjectives: For comparative ["more"], or superlative ["most"]; see 30, 31. 
 
 Tell the Gender of the noun which the Adjective modifies: see 17. 
 
 Principal parts and declension of the Adjective. 
 If Adjective agrees with two nouns: 
 
 // Attributive Adjective: it usually agrees with the nearest. 
 
 If Predicate Adjective: it is plural and Masc. [if persons]: Neut [if things, or persons 
 and things], 
 
 [30] 
 
 Comparative Adjectives: 
 
 "more, too,-er" [higher]: Comparative Adjective. 
 
 [altior, altius: altioris, altioris; altiores, altiora.] 
 
 often with preceding Ablat. [of Measure of Difference]: "[by]-ten feet taller"- and 
 
 with following Ablat. [of Comparison]: "than-a noun": or quam [with same case 
 
 as that of the word with which comparison is made.] 
 
 After plus, minus, amplius, longius: omit quam: but use same case as that of the 
 
 word with which comparison is made [or use Ablative]. 
 
 "too-adjective-to-vb": quam ut [or qui]-Subjunc. of Result [larger-than-that]. 
 
 "the more-Adjective — the more-Adjective" : quo [Comp.] — eo-[Comp.]: or quanto- 
 
 Comp . — tanto-Comp . 
 
 Adjectives ending in-us preceded by a vowel [idone-us], participles, and often com- 
 pound Adjectives: use magis [more], maxime [most]: magis idoneus, maxime idon- 
 
 eus, etc. 
 [31] 
 Superlative Adjectives: 
 
 "most, very- Adject.: — est" [highest]: Superlative Adjective [altissimus, a, um.] 
 "as-Adject.-as possible": quam [potuit \xndevstood]-Superlative Adjective. 
 "as soon as possible:" quam primum: All the noblest: "nobilissimus quisque. 
 "Every single one": unus quisque, etc. 
 
 
[17] 
 
 [32] 
 
 Order of Adject.: often noun- Adject.: noun-Gen.: or Gen. noun: but Adject. -noun-Gen 
 Prep. -Adject. -Noun [but often Adject. -Prep.-Noun]. 
 Adjectives which precede noun: this [is, hie] that [is, ille, iste] same [idem]: [unus-duo: 
 omnis, totus, pauci, multus, non nullus [some], aliquis, ullus, nullus: other 
 [alius], another [alter]: magnus, etc.: ulterior, ciierior, inferior [but my, your, 
 his, etc., follow nouns.] 
 [33] 
 
 Note:- — Superlatives: "the highest [part of the] hill": "the top [of the] hill" } summus 
 xnons: all [of the] men", omnes viri: "all of the city", tota urbs: "the rest [of the] cap- 
 tives"; reliqui captivi: "in the middle [of the] hill," halfway up the hill [in colle medio] 
 "the end of the ditch", extrema fossa: "the first men," primi viri, etc.: 
 one of, two of [cardinal numbers except milia] -e, ex, de- ablative: Milia with 
 
 Genitive. 
 certain oi-quidam-ex or cfe-Ablat.: 
 "part of us": [pars nostrum [partitive] but "mindful of us" [memor nostri] 
 
 [objective Gen.] 
 [34] 
 
 Adjectives used with Genitive, Dative and Ablative: 
 
 GENITIVES WHEN DEPENDING ON ADJECTIVES: translated "f or or in,etc." 
 [1] Objective Gen. with adjectives: desirous [of], conscious [of], or ignorant [of]; 
 skilled or unskilled [in]; mindful [of] or unmindful [of]; snaring [in] [parti- 
 ceps], or without a share in, free from [expers]; [expers with subjective 
 Gen.]: ruling over [potens] or weak [in]; guilty [of] or innocent [of]: Par- 
 ticiples in-ns,-ntis] : 
 [2] Subjective Gen. with Adjectives: like or unlike [also used with Dat.]: 
 equal [to] [par] or unequal :[ to] :near [proprius-also with Accus, or ad-Acc] 
 opposite: common [to]: full [of] [plenus,l or destitute of, [inops, egenus]. 
 Partitive Genitive used with neuter Adjectives [multum, plerumque, plurimum, 
 amplius, plus, paulum, minus, minimum, tantum, quantum, nihil, quid, quod, 
 etc.] 
 Datives with Adjectives: [riear-nnitimus, proximus; fit, suitable 
 
 [idoneus, aptus], useful, friendly, pleasing, like [equal-par] and 
 their opposites; obviam [to meet; in the way for.] 
 Indirect Object [to] or Purpose [for the purpose of.] 
 Ablatives with Adjectives: 
 
 dignus, worthy of, indignus, unworthy of, [Ablat. of Re- 
 spect]: contentus, satisfied with, fretus, relying on, innixus, leaning on [Ablat. 
 of Means], plenus, full of, oftertus, crowded with, etc. [Ablat. of Means.] 
 Opus, usus, need of [Ablat. of Separation]: Liber, free from, vacuus, empty of, 
 etc, [Ablat, of Separation]. 
 
[18 ] 
 
 [36] 
 
 PARTICIPLES NOMINATIVE, [or other cases]: preceded by their Prepositional 
 
 Phrases-Object Accus.-Object Infinitives-Adverbs, etc. 
 Does the Participle follow an English Preposition? 
 
 "ing" [1] Following an English preposition: [for purpose oi-ad.] 
 
 [a] If used with an English Object: 
 
 Use gerundive, modifying English object: [amandus, a, urn], 
 [except Genitive or Ablative, which may be used either with 
 Gerundive modifying the Genitive or Ablative Noun; or with 
 Genitive or Ablative Gerund with Accusative Object [and 
 without a Latin preposition]. 
 
 [b] If used without an English Object: 
 
 Use gerund: [amandi,-ndo, -ndum, -ndo.] 
 
 [c] following "from"; See 5 
 
 [2] Not following an English preposition. 
 
 [a] Is the "verb-ing" the same time as [main verb]? 
 or completed before [main verb]? 
 
 Same time: — Pres. [Amans amans] [amantis amantis] [amantes, amantia] 
 
 [iens, iens: euntis, etc. ,-" going"] 
 Completed before: Perf. [Fourth Principal part-amatus, a, um] 
 
 [b] "Who or What — was, were — verb-ing?" 
 [Answer is noun participle modifies] 
 
 [c] Use same gender, number and case as noun participle modi- 
 fies. 
 
 Ratus, thinking; solitus, being accustomed, veritus y fearing; arbitratus, thinking; 
 fisus, trusting; ausus, daring; secutus } following; are used where in English 
 we use a Present Participle. 
 
 Note: — After "Not let pass [without-quin] : not delay-verb-ing: just missed [paulum 
 af uit] ; came near [multum non af uit] ; cannot help [f acere non potest] : use quin- 
 subjunctive: cease-desistere-Infin: not stop, interrupt--vb-ing; intermittere,- 
 -quin-sub junctive : See Double Test. 7 
 [b] After "see to" [curare]: give over: [dare] surrender [concedere]: leave [relin- 
 quere]: etc.,— the-verb-ing : use Accus Object modified by the Gerundive [aman- 
 dum, am, os]. 
 
[19] 
 
 II "having — [verb]: 
 
 [1] If Latin verb is deponent. [If not deponent: See 2 below]. 
 
 [a] Use Perfect Pass. Participle [profectus, a urn]. Fourth 
 
 PrincipalPart. 
 
 [b] "Who or What— having [verb] ?" 
 
 Answer is noun participle modifies. 
 
 [c] Write Participle in the same gender, number and case as 
 noun participle modifies. 
 
 [2] If Latin verb is not deponent. 
 
 Is the object of participle the same person or thing as object [or 
 
 any other noun] of the main clause? 
 If not: Change to Perfect participle passive and use Ablative 
 Absolute [amato, a, o, is.] Fourth Principal Part. 
 
 [Ablative] noun-having been-verb [abl.], enclosing phrases 
 [if any]. 
 // so: Use Perfect Passive Participle, modifying this noun, used 
 as object, etc., of main clause [amatum,-am-um]. 
 Ablative Absolute: Perfect Passive Participle or Present Active Participle [2] in 
 Ablative case modifying [Ablative noun] : [3] used in Ablative Absolute Construc- 
 tion: [4] expressing [1] Time [when, after, while-Pres.] [2] Cause [since, because]: 
 [3] Attendant Circumstance [with or without [non]; usually a Present Parti- 
 ciple, if not clearly expressing time-while: [4] Condition [if, unless: [5] Conces- 
 sion [although]: [6] Means [by]: [7] Manner [with or without [non], answering the 
 question "how". Note: Ablative Absolutes do not depend on any word but the 
 Ablative Participle modifies the Ablative Noun. Note: Since the Ablative Ab- 
 solute, though literally passive, is often translated as if it were a Nominative 
 Participle Active ["having-vb.-Ablat. noun"], the English translation of Ablat. 
 Absolute, but never the Latin, modifies a noun. 
 
 III. having been [verb]: [or when, since, although, if — verb, -ed]. 
 
 [a] Use Perfect Pass. Participle [amatus, a um]: Fourth Prin. Par!, 
 
 [b] "Who or What — having been [verb]"? Answer is noun par- 
 ticiple modifies. 
 
 [c] Write Participle in same gender, number and case as noi.n 
 participle modifies. 
 
[20] 
 
 [37] 
 
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Ablatives: Adverbial Accusatives, etc. 
 
 Prepositions with ablative: 
 
 Ab [a], cum, coram, de: — prae, pro, sine, ex or e. 
 With accusative: 
 
 ante, apud, ad, adversum: — circum, cis, ob, trans, secundum; — 
 
 post, prope, per: — and all in -a and-ter. 
 Adverbial Accusatives: without a Latin Preposition. 
 
 [a] FOR: DURING: depending on main verb. 
 
 [1] annum, diem, noctem, tern/pus or name of time: Accus. of Duration 
 
 of Time. 
 [2] mille, milia, pedes, passus or name of space: Accusative cf Extent 
 
 of Space. 
 
 [b] TO : Romam, [towns, small islands], domum, rus : Accus. of Place to Which . 
 
 [c] Like an Adverb: Neuter Pronoun or Adjective: [plurimum, multum, 
 
 quid [why] ; also 
 
 [bonam partem, [in a great measure] ; maiorem partem, [for the greater 
 
 part]; nihil [not at all]: id temporis, [at that time]. 
 
 dextrum [on the right]; laevum [on the left]: quod si, [but if], etc. 
 
 Ablatives without a Latin Preposition. 
 
 die, nocte, tempore, anno-[Sing.]-"iw, on, at >y :[Phir.]- l -within- / noun" [Ablat. 
 
 of time.] 
 
 Roma, [towns, small islands], ruri, loco, parte, partibus, nouns modified 
 
 by toto,totis;-"at,in"-noun [Place where] [2] from,-noun [Place whence] 
 
 without a Latin preposition. 
 
 Romae [1st Declen.], Corinthi, [2nd Declen.], domi, [names of cities, towns 
 and small islands]: "in, a t", -Locative Case: [though spelled like the Gen, 
 Singular in the first and second declension, but in the third Declen. like the 
 Ablat. Sing.] Put nouns in Apposition with L ocative in the Ablative: 
 
 Prepositional Phrases; 
 
 ab [1] from; [2] by; [3] in-on: a fronte [front]; a tergo [rear]; ab novissimo 
 agmine, [rear]; a dextra, sinistra [right, left]; ab parte, latere [side]-in, on. 
 [4] with towns "from the vicinity of"; ad [1] to [2] with gerund or gerundive-ior 
 [the purpose of]; [3] at, near; [4] with numerals, about; [5] with towns in the vi- 
 cinity of; apud [1] at, near; [2] among; [3] before : causa, gratia ]1] for the pur- 
 pose of, for the sake of [preceded by possessive Gen.];de [1] from; [2] concerning, 
 about; in [1] with ablat. "in"; [2] with Accus., into; [3] against; [4] among;inter 
 [1] between; [2] among; [3] within; [4] inter se, to each other; ob [1] on account cf ; 
 [2] before, prae; [1] before; [2] in comparison with; [3] for; per; [1] through; [2] by 
 pro; [1] before; [2] in behalf of, for the sake of, propter; [1] on account of; [2] 
 near, sub; [1] under; [2] about, close to; super [1] Accus. -above, over; [2] upon; 
 [3] Ablat.-aboxit. 
 
 For Prepositions used with Ablative or Dative, see "How to Translate a Latin 
 Sentence", 63 or 60. 
 
 Note: — To determine whether a preposition , following a verb should be expressed 
 by a separate Latin preposition: or really is a part of the Latin verb: — Turn 
 the English verb into the Passive: if the preposition still remains attached to the 
 verb, one may be sure that the two words form one transitive verb. 
 Ex.: u He waits for his brother" "His brother is waited for." [expecto]. 
 
[21] 
 [38] 
 DATES: 
 
 The Calands [Kalendis [Martiis, etc.] — are the first of any month. 
 
 The Nones [Nonis [Martiis, etc.] — On March, July, Oct., May; the Nones fell 
 
 on the seventh day [other months-5th]. 
 The Ides : [Idibus [Martiis, etc.] — And the Ides on the fifteenth [other months-13th] . 
 
 [1] On the 1st — Kalendis [month in Ablat.]: 
 Other dates before the Nones: Or before the 5th [or 7th of March, July, Oct., May] 
 — ante diem — date in Accus. [Subtract the English date from the 5th [or 
 7th of March, etc.] and add one] — Nonas — Accus. of the month: [or ab- 
 breviated: a. d. — date — Non. — accus. of month] except 
 On the 4th [or 6th of March, July, Oct., May]: pridie Nonas [month in accus.] 
 
 [2] On the 5th [or 7th of March, July, Oct., May]: Nonis [month in Albat.] 
 
 [Ablat. of time] 
 Other dates before the Ides: or before the 13th [or 15th of March, July, Oct., May] 
 — ante diem — date in Accus. [Subtract the English date from the 13th 
 [or the 15th of March, etc. and add one] — Idus — Accus. of month: [or ab- 
 breviated, a. d. — date — Id.-Accus of month.] except 
 On the 12th [or 14th of March, July, Oct., May:] pridie Idus month in accus.] 
 
 [Idus-4th Declen.]: accus. plural. ] 
 
 [3] On the 13th [or 15th of March, July, Oct., May]: Idibus [month in Ablat.] 
 
 [Ablat. of time] 
 
 [4] Other dates before the Calends [or before the 1st] — ante diem — date in Accus 
 
 [Subtract the English date from the number of days in the preceding month. 
 
 and add two] — Kalendas — Accus. of next month: [or abbreviated, A. D. — 
 
 date-Kal.-Accus. of month] except 
 
 On the 31st — pridie Kalendas [accus. of next month]. 
 
 [39] 
 
 Indirect Object: Dative-" to; for; for the benefit or injury of :" 
 
 For -THE PURPOSE OF: [or AS: [auxillo, subsidio, praesidio, impedimento; 
 usui, curae, saluti, castris, receptui, etc.] 
 
 But after verbs of motion express to by ad with Accusative. 
 
[22] 
 [40] 
 OBJECT ACCUSATIVE: first asking; 
 
 Unless a Passive Verb, should the English verb or its Latin equivalent be 
 
 used with some case other than Accusative? 
 [1] With Dative: 
 
 with est sunt, belongs to-:orDa£, [as subject]-/ias, had [as if habet]- iVom. noun 
 [as if object] [Dat. of Possessor.] 
 as English object [Latin indirect object of intransitive verbs.] 
 
 [a] favor, help,[laedo-accus.] injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, com- 
 
 mand, [impero, not iubeo-accus.] obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, 
 pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, yield, and the 
 like, also studeo [desire], permitto, licet: [heal, marry]. 
 
 [b] With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, con; 
 
 de, in, circum, inter; ob, post, prae; pro, sub,super, [occurro, meet.] 
 
 [but trans.-accus.] bene, male, satis with facio, dico. 
 
 Often these compounds are used with both Accus. and Dat. or even with Accus. 
 
 alone: especially compounds of eo, go, adgredior,-di: convenire, convocare, inter- 
 
 ficio, oppugnare; Verbs of motion, etc., [eo, go, venio, sto] with ad, circum, 
 
 in, praeter, sub with Accus., not Dat.] 
 
 [c] from with verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, [rarely ad] 
 
 Note: Iuvare, aid, help-Accus.: laedere, injure-Accus. : iubeo, order, Accus.: 
 delectare, please, Accus.: offendo, offend, Accus.: temperare, restrain, Dat.: 
 probo, approve, Dat.: praesto, excel, Dat. 
 [2] With Ablative: 
 
 [1] Utor [uti, usus, "use"]: Potior [get possession of]: Fruor [enjoy]; Fungor, 
 [perform]: Vescor [feed on, eat:[ and some of their compounds. 
 
 Ablative of Means: [utor, serve myself by]. 
 [2] lack [careo] : Albat. of Separation: There is need [of]: [opus est, usus est]: 
 -means, want, [egeo], free from [libero]: deprive of [deicio]. Ablat. 
 of Separation. 
 [3] fill with [compleo, etc.] Means 
 [4] buy [for] or sell [for] or exchange [for] [muto,] fine [damno]: 
 
 Ablative of Price [often with pretio supplied.] 
 [5] condemn for [damno]: Ablat. of Penalty. 
 
 [3] With Genitive: 
 
 [1] With est, sunt, erat, esse: "It belongs to-is the part or duty o/-noun". Predicate 
 
 Genitive of Possessor [or Description], modifying the subject. 
 [2] Genitive, usually Objective, used as the English Object of 
 [1] remember, forget, remind-acc.-of-Objective Gen. 
 [2] potior,-^ possession of: Objective Gen. or Ablat. of means. 
 [3] Impersonal [it] verbs: miseret, "It pities-him [ace. ]-of -Objective Gen.: 
 or "He pities, etc, Paenitet [it repents], piget, pudet, taedet, etc.; [b] in- 
 terest, refert, "-it concerns-the, or "it is for the interest of" -Subjective 
 Gen.-greatly [magni, etc.] Gen. of Indefinite Value [but the ablatives mea, tua, 
 sua are used instead of the Genitives mei, etc.] 
 
 [4] pity, misereor-miseresco, -Objective Gen. 
 
 [5] accuse, condemn, acquit-Gen. of Charge [or rarely of penalty-capi- 
 
 tis, "to death", pecuniae, etc.]. 
 [6] estimate, value [facio, pendo, habeo-tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris]: 
 
 "so highly, etc.": Gen. of Indefinite Value. 
 [7] fill [compleo], need [indigeo]-Subjective Gen. [or Ablat. of Separation 
 

 [23] 
 
 [4] With Predicate Nominative [Noun or Adjective, agreeing with the subject:] 
 [with est, sunt, erat, erit, fuit, etc. : seem [videntur] : become [fit] : is informed [certior 
 fit]: and many passive verbs. 
 
 Except: Do not use a 3rd Declension Adjective as a Predicate Nominative. 
 Ex. : "It is wise" [3rd Declension] should be written: "It is -of wisdom" : Predi- 
 cate Genitive or Ablative of Description. 
 If a Predicate Adjective agrees with a compound subject: the Adjective is plural — 
 and Masc. [if persons]: Neut. [if things, or persons and things], 
 [5] With Two Accusatives: 
 depending on a verb compounded with TRANS — 
 [1] Direct Object and [2] Secondary Object. 
 
 depending on "name, choose, appoint, make, render, esteem, show, 
 elect, offer, etc.: "chose him [to be] king." 
 [1] Direct Object and [2] Predicate Accusative [Appositives]. 
 
 depending on ask, [rogo], demand, teach [doceo], conceal [celo]. 
 
 [1] Direct Object and [2] Secondary Object. [Never Appositives], 
 
 himself or themselves: se [referring either to the subject of the same clause or of 
 preceding clause, but if se would be ambiguous, use ipsum, ipsos.] 
 
 him [eum] or them [eos]: [not referring to the subject.] 
 
 his or their [when referring to the subject] suus, sua, suum [but when referring 
 from the dependent clause to the subject of the main clause, if the meaning would 
 be doubtful, use ipsius, ipsorum.] 
 
 his or their [not referring to the subject]: eius, eorum. 
 [41] 
 
 Participles Accusative, preceded by their Prep. Phrase-Object-Object Infin- Adverbs, 
 etc. 
 
 See Participles Nominative, 36. 
 
 Note: — "Who, which; or when, since, although, if, etc. -clauses, whenever the subject 
 is "he or they" [or the same as the Object Accusative] and the verb passive [or 
 even when active if the verb is deponent] may be expressed by Perfect Par- 
 ticiple Passive, or in the usual way. 
 
 I 42 l 
 
 Infinitive Object or Compliment: Is the English Verb followed by an English 
 
 Infinitive [to-vb.]? 
 
 If not: see Adverbs below, 43. 
 If so: see 10. 
 
 [43] 
 
 ADVERBS [non]-ly [1] often neuter Accus. of Adject, [multum, facile, quid [why], 
 
 facilius ["more easily"], etc. [or rarely Ablat. Sing.] 
 
 [2] 1st and 2nd Declen. Adject, adds long-e to the stem [corus-care]. 
 
 [3] 3rd Declen. Adject, drops from Genitive and add-teror -er [-mt-er]. 
 
 [4] sometimes expressed in Latin by adjectives: ["He gladly- 
 
 He-glad-laetus."] 
 
[24] 
 
 [44] 
 
 VERB: [preceded by Adverbs [non] [if any]; first testing, 
 
 [1] What mood does the English conjunction, relativ 
 [or its Latin equivalent] require? 
 
 [2] What tense? 
 
 [3] Tell the principal parts and conjugation and write verb. See 45 
 For Irregular Principal Parts of Verbs: See D 'Ooge 267, : A. and G. 209. 
 
 [45] 
 
 // Indicative : 
 
 Pres: 1st. conjugation-a; 2nd.-e; 3rd. and 4th -i [unt.] Added to 1st Prin.. Part. 
 Future: 1st. and 2nd.-abo, [ebo], abis, [ebis], etc.; 3rd. and 4th-am, es, et. 
 Imperf.: "was, were-verb-ing" : would, kept, began to-vb": 1st Prin. Part.- 
 [1] -abat; [2]-ebat.; [3]-ebat; [4] -iebat: Usually express a past tense by the Per- 
 fect, not by the Imperf. 
 Per}.: [1] "verb-ed") [2] "has, have^verb-ed [or Pass, "was, were verb-ed."] 
 
 Use 3rd Prin. Part., adding -it, erunt: Pass, -amatus, a, um est, sunt, etc. 
 Pluperf. : "had-vb." : 3rd Prin. Part., adding -erat, erant: Pass, amatus erat, erant. 
 Put. Perf.: "shall have-vb.": 3rd Prin. Part., adding -erit, erint: Pass, amatus, a, 
 um erit, erunt. 
 // Subjunctive : 
 
 Present: 1st. conjugation-e; 2nd., 3rd., 4th.-a. 
 Imperf.: Write present infinitive -m [second prin. part] [amare-m]. 
 If Deponent: Change pass, infin. to the missing act. infin. 
 proficisci-proficiscere— tur. 
 Perfect: Active: like Fut. Perf. Indie, except erim [not ero] eris, erit. 
 
 Passive: Perf. Pass. Participle -sim, sis [last prin. part] [amatus sim]. 
 Pluperf.: Active: Write the Perf. Infin.-m [3rd. prin. part-sse-m]. [amavissem]. 
 
 Passive: Write the Perf. Pass. Infin. -m [4th, prin. part-esse-m] [amatus 
 essem]. 
 
 [46] 
 [47] 
 
 'is going to, intends to, is likely to, is about to-vb. ": 
 
 Active Periphrastic: [ama-turus, a, um est, sunt, erat, etc.] 
 
 'had to, has to, must, ought to": Passive Periphrastic Conjugation: 
 
 [a] change English Active to Passive — has to be, must be, 
 
 [b] using English Object of Active as Subject of Passive, 
 
 [if no Object [intransitive]: use it-um as Subject: amandum], 
 
 [c] Amandus, a, um-est, sunt, esse, etc. 
 
 [d] Write English subject as Bat. [of agent]- "by-noun" ;sibi [or ei, eis not referring to 
 
 subject]. 
 
 [e] If the Latin verb is intransitive [favor, help, etc., ad, ante, con, etc.; utor, etc.] 
 [1] Use it-um as subject; [2] Put the English object in the Dat. or Ablat. [as if the verb 
 
 were, still active]. 
 [f].or "must, ought, etc." may be expressed actively as in English by 
 
 oportet, necesse est, opus est, [it is necessary [for]; or debeo [I or he ought.] 
 -Accus. -Pres. Infin. [or subjunctive without ut, but with ne]: ought to have: 
 oportuit — Pres. Infin. 
 
[25] 
 
 [48] 
 
 [1] Intransitive verbs in the passive are always impersonal and retain the Dat, etc.- 
 
 as if active [I am persuaded: it is persuaded to me]: He is spared 
 
 [it is spared to him]: There was fighting [it was fought]: They came [it was come], 
 
 [2] The Passive of facio, facere, feci, f actus [do, make] is fio fieri, f actus sum 
 
 [but compounds of facio have a regular passive [conficior, confici, confectus sum 
 except benefacio, satisfacio, benefio.] 
 
 [3] "It seemed, it is said, thought, etc.": In the Pres. Imperf. or Fut. always use per- 
 sonally [He or they seem, have said, thought, etc.]: but in the Perfect Tenses 
 use impersonally [It seemed] or seemed best, visum est) it was said, thought, etc.] 
 
 [4] With two or more singular subjects, use plural verb [also with multitudo [col- 
 lective noun] but senatus populusque Romanus: singular verb: With neque- 
 neque-Smg. verb. 
 
 [5] If the verb is used with a prepositional phrase, if possible, use a compcurd verb, 
 repeating in the verb the same preposition which you used in the phrase, but 
 trans-across is usually used in the compound verb preceded by two nccrsaiives; 
 [without a second trans.]. 
 
 [6] Where in English two finite verbs are joined by "and", we may often 
 substitute for one of the verbs a Latin Perfect Participle Passive modi- 
 fying the subject [or object] and omit the "and": 
 
 [49] 
 
 Subjunctive used in a main clause [without a conjunction]. 
 
 Pres. "Let-subject [or "us"]^verb: ne, not [Hortatory Subjunttrvt]. 
 
 "let-subject [or "him, them"]-verb: ne, not [Jussive 1 
 
 "May [subject] verb "[Optative]"; ne. [rarely, utinam]. 
 "I, you [one]-should, would, may-vb. [Potential]; non. 
 Cave, cave ne-"take care that-not : also Fac [ne] : See to it that-not. 
 Don't -verb: Noli or nolite with Pres. Infin. 
 Rarely ne: Don't-verb [2nd person] Sub June, in a Prohibition. 
 Earely Granted that-Concessive Subjunctive. 
 Imperf. "I wish-[subj.]-were-vb. [Optative; contrary to fact wish] ne 
 Wish contrary to fact in present time. [utinam] 
 
 "I, you [one]-should, would have [said, thought, wished, etc.; 
 
 [potential]: non 
 Pluperf. "I wish [subj.] had-vb. [Optative] ne; [utinam]. 
 
 Wish contrary to fact in past time. 
 Perf. [1] ne- a Don't-vb. [Prohibition] [2] Granted that-[Pres. or Perf .] 
 
 Indicative: Unusual meanings of tenses. 
 
 Present [1] often best translated as past time: Historical Present: Takes either 
 
 primary or secondary sequence. 
 Rarely [2] iam, iam diu, iam dudum-pres. tense: Translated as if Perfect: "have 
 now for a long time." 
 [3] "tries to-vb, starts to-vb.: Conative Pres. 
 Imperf.: [1] "kept^verb-ing: used to-vb.) would^vb.: Repeated Action. 
 
 [2] iam, iam diu, iam dudum-Imperf: Translated as if Pluperf. "had now 
 
 for a long time." 
 [3] tried to-vb.) Conative Imperf. 
 Perf: "have, has [Pres. Perf. because action begun in the past but not completed till 
 the present.] 
 [2] verb-ed [Perfect Past Absolute or Historical Perfect.] 
 
[26] 
 
 VERBS— Principal Parts. 
 
 [4] 
 
 1st Conjugation, -are: 2nd Conjugation, -eo, -ere [long-e]: 3rd Conjugation 
 
 -ere [short-e], changing to -i in the Pres. Indie: 4th Conjugation -ire. 
 Pres. Indicative: lst-a: 2nd-e: 3rd-i [unt]: 4th-i [iunt.] 
 Principal Parts: amo, amare, amavi, amatus: utor, uti, usus sum, if Deponent. 
 First Principal Part: Present Indicative Active: "He loves, uses, etc" 
 
 If Passive [-or, utor] : Present Indie, of Deponent Verb with active meaning. 
 Second Principal Part: -re: Present Infinitive Active: // Passive [-ri or -i [if 3rd 
 conjugation] Deponent Verb. 
 
 "to-verb": or [2] "that-Accus. [or "he, it, they]-was, were-verb-ing." 
 -re-t, re-nt: Imperfect Subjunctive Active [formed by adding -m-s-t to 
 the Pres. Infin.] Note: esse-t, posse-t, velle-t, nolle-t, malle-t, 
 "Like Past Indie. -verb-ed" ', or [2] "might, would, should-verb. 
 -ri [or -i [if 3rd Conj.]: Present Infinitive Passive. 
 
 "to be-verb" or [2] "that-Accus. [or "he, it, they"] -was, were being^verb-ed" . 
 -i [if added to 2nd principal part]: Present Infin. Pass, of 3rd Conj. [See 
 
 above.] 
 [if added to Uh principal part] : Perfect Participle Passive, [-ti-si.] 
 Third Principal Part: Perfect Indicative Active: "Has, have verb-ed." [Pres. Perf.] 
 or [2] "verb-ed" [Perf. Past Absolute.] Note: amasti [for amavisti]; nosti 
 for novisti: audit [for audivit]; iit [for ivit]: -vi of the Perf. is often dropped 
 before s or r. 
 Fourth Principal Part: -tus, a, um: Perfect Passive Participle: What case and 
 number? 
 
 -ti, -si: Perfect Passive Participle: Nom. Plur. only. [Not 
 Gen. Sing.] 
 If Nominative; "having [been]-verb. If Deponent, omit "been". 
 If Ablative: "having-verb-ablat. noun: or [2] "when, since-Ablat. noun 
 
 -had been-verb or was-were-vb. 
 If Accusative: "Accus. noun [or "this, those"] -who, which-had been^terb 
 or-when, since-he, they-hadbeen-vb.: or was, were-vb, 
 
 or [2] "that-Accus. noun [or "he, it, they"]-had been-verb: or 
 
 was, were-verb-ed." [Supply esse.] 
 
 or rarely "to have been-verb": if depends on "seem, [videtur] is said, 
 
 thought, etc. [Complimentary Infin. in Nom. Case] 
 
 Principal Farts in the Passive: [moror, morari, moratus sum: utor, uti, usus sum 
 
 [3rd Conj.] 
 
 Deponent Verbs with active meaning: Note: Deponent Verbs have all four 
 participles, both active and passive; and three Infinitives-Pres. Pass.; Perf. 
 Pass. ; and Fut. Active [-urus esse]. Note : revertor, reverti [infin.], reverti [Perf. 
 Act.], reversus sum [return]. 
 First two principal parts in Active and third principal part in Passive: [audeo,] 
 audere, ausus sum -"dare"]: Semi-deponent verb: Pres. Imperf. and Fut. are 
 Active; Perfect, Pluperf . and Fut. Perf. are Passive in form but with active 
 meanings. Semi-deponents are audeo, audere, ausus [sum], -"dare": 
 fido, fidere, fisus sum, trust: gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, rejoice: 
 soleo, solere, solitus be accustomed. 
 Frincipal Farts in the Active but with passive meanings: pessum-aw able: soleo 
 am accustomed constat-"is evident or agreed" etc, 
 
[27] 
 
 Meaning of Prefixes: amb-am--circum- about, around, com-con-"together, forci- 
 bly, completely", de-down, utterly, dis-, di-apart, away, utterly, e-, ex-out, 
 in- [with adjective], not, un-; [with verbs] in, against, inter-, between, together, 
 intro-, within, ob-, obs-oc-, toward, to meet, against, per-through, thorough- 
 ly, very, praeter-, beside, past, prae-, before, pro-, prod-, por-, forth, before, 
 re-, red-, back again, retro, back, se-, sed-apart, sub-subs-under, somewhat, 
 super-, supra, over, upon, trans, -tra-across, ve-not, without: -sco, begin- 
 to -to, -ito, tito, -so, kept- esso, eagerly, earnestlv. 
 
 [50] 
 
 IS THE ENGLISH VERB FOLLOWED BY A SUBSTANTIVE [Noun] OR AD- 
 VERBIAL CLAUSE? 
 
 [1] THAT; [2] WHO ,WHAT, WHETHER, HOW, etc.; [3] FROM-verb-ing. 
 If so: see 5 or 6. 
 
 [51] 
 
 Imperatives 
 
 Verb stem, ama, mone- [or present infinitive dropping the-re]: Present Imperative 
 Active: "love, advise, etc.," [except "die, due, fac, fer], 
 
 -te: ama-te, mone-te; regi-te, capi-te, aud i-te: Present Imper. Active [plural]: 
 "love, advise, etc." 
 
 -to, ^to, amato: Rare Fut. Imper. Active: "Thou cr he shall-verb." 
 
 -tor: Rare Fut. Imperative Pass.: "Thou or he shalt be-verb-ed." 
 
 -tote: Rare Fut. Imper. Active [plural]: "You shall^vb" 
 
 -nto [amanto]: Rare Fut. Imperative Active [plural]: "They shall-vb." 
 
 -ntor [amantor]: Rare Fut. Imper. Pass, [plural]: "They shall be-vb" 
 
 fore or futurum esse: Future Active Infinitive of sum: "would or will be." 
 
 Verbs with peculiar meanings: cognosco, learn, but cognovi [perf.] know: facio, 
 make f do, but its passive is no, fieri, f actus sum is made, become. The com- 
 pounds of facio [conficio[ have a regular passive [conficior,confici,confectus sum]; 
 except satisfaciOjbenefacio: Passive satisfio, fieri, f actus sum: coepi, coepisse, 
 coeptus sum has no Pres. and is Perf. -began: with passive infinitive, coeptus 
 sum, has an active meaning "began": odi, memini though Perf. tenses, have 
 present meanings: hate, remember: ii stands for ivi: i-erat for iverat, isse for 
 ivisse: video, see, but video r, seem or is-seen: videtur, [1] he seems; [2] 
 is seen or [3] it seems best [impersonal]: do, dare, dedi, datus, give but com- 
 pounds of do [condo,-dere-didi-ditus mean "put" like pono: Intransitive 
 Verbs [permitting no Accus. Object] when used in the passive, are impersonal 
 [it] verbs: ventum est, " it is come" or "they came"; contendo, [1] hasten with 
 Infin.; [2] struggle with infinitive or ut, ne, constituo [1] decide; [2] establish: 
 instituo, begin, establish. 
 Some verbs have active forms, but meanings which seem to be passive: soleo, is accus- 
 tomed; pateo, is open, etc. 
 
[53] 
 
 [28] 
 English Conjunctions: How Written in Latin. 
 
 Xote: Any conjunction, though ordinarily used with indicative, must be used with 
 Subjunc. [according to Sequence of Tenses] as fellows: Use Subjunctive, 
 [1] If a Dependent Clause in an Indirect Statement [cr Implied Indirect 
 Statement], depending on a verb of "brain or sense action"; cr [2] an implied 
 " He or they said"; [for the truth of which the writer does not vouch]. 
 [But a Dependent Clause inserted by the writer himself, and not part of the 
 quotation, for the truth of which the writer himself vouches, retains the original 
 indicative.] 
 [2] If Attracted to Subjunctive [because written within another clause whose 
 verb is already subjunctive [or an object infinitive equivalent to Subjunctive.] 
 [But if a second dependent clause is merely explanatory or parenthetical, 
 inserted on the writer's own authority and for the truth of which he vouches, — 
 -this dependent clause may retain the original indicative: also dum [while], ut 
 [as] retain indicative : also clauses depending on a Hortatory or Optative Subjunc. 
 [used in a main clause], retain the indicative. 
 After: followed by noun and verb: Adverbial Temporal Clause. 
 
 Postquam [ubi, ut]: Perfect indicative even though English uses "had"; 
 [or Historical Present]: 
 or Ablative Absolute or Perfect Passive Part., modifying 
 
 some noun in the main clause. 
 Subjunctive, if Indirect Statement or Attraction. 
 After: followed by a noun without verb: Post-Accus; After wards-postea [adv.] 
 
 11 A few years after or Zater "-[by]-paucis- post annis- [Ablat. of Measure of 
 Difference]. 
 or-post paucos annos-quam pervenerat [Pluperf . Indie] to denote a definite 
 interval of time after. 
 Although [the fact that]: Quamquam- indicative-followed by tamen- 
 [nevertheless] in the main clause with Indie. 
 
 [unless Subjunc. in Indirect Statement or Attraction]: Concessive Clause. 
 " [the circumstances may be such that]: Cum-Subjunctive- sequence of tenses 
 
 but usually same tense as in English. 
 " [However much], if imaginary case: Quamvis-sub]unc. 
 " [it may be conceded that]: Ztce^-present or perfect subjunc. [primary], 
 qui [although he or they] subjunc. : or Ablative Absolute or Part. 
 As long as: Dum [donee, quoad, quamdiu]: Indicative, any tense [unless Subjunc. in 
 Indirect Statement or Attraction.] 
 
 [But if the main clause has Fut., then use the Fut. Perf. or Fut. in the 
 dum clause, even though English is present.] 
 As often as: Quotiens: Indicative: P-Perf.: S-Pluperf. [like cum, whenever, Condi- 
 tional Relative Clause]. 
 As soon as: cum primum [simul ac, simul]: Perf. Indie, even though the English 
 uses "had" [unless Indirect Statement or Attraction]: But if the main clause has 
 Fut. tense, then use Fut. Perf. or Fut. Indie, in the cum primum clause.] 
 As possible: Quam-superlative adjective [with or without potest]. 
 As soon as possible: quam primum. 
 
[29] 
 
 As if, as though: quasi, velut [si], ut si, tamquam [si], perinde-ac si 
 
 Subjunctive [following rules of Sequence]: even though English is Past. 
 "As if -[subject] were: P-Pres.; S-Imperf. Subjunctive. 
 11 As if -[subject] had: P-Perf.; S-Pluperf. Subjunctive. 
 Conditional Clause of comparison. 
 As [followed by a noun without a verb]: [1] Appositive: Use same case for both 
 
 nouns. 
 [2] If meaning "for the purpose of- Use Dat. 
 
 of purpose. 
 As [followed by both noun and verb]: ut-indicative [Not changing to Subjunc.^ in 
 
 Indirect Statement or Attraction]. Clause of Comparison, or Parenthetical 
 Clause. 
 So [if manner] — as: sic-ut-Indicative 
 
 So [if degree] — as: tarn [bonus]-quam-Indic. 
 
 [unless Indirect Statement or Attraction]. 
 So — as to-vb.: ut, ut non-Subjunc.-Result. 
 
 So [or as] great, large — as: tantus — quantus — Indicative, [Rel. Adject.] 
 So [or as] — man? —as: tot — quot — Indicative, [Rel. Adject.] 
 
 Such— as: talis— qualis-e— Indicative, [Rel. Adject.] 
 
 or is ea, id — qui— Sub junc. of Characteristic. 
 The same— as: idem — ac. [qui]: Indicative. 
 
 In proportion — as: Pro eo — ac. : Indicative. 
 
 Just, exactly — as: Perinde, juxta, pariter, aeque — ac: Indicative. 
 
 Because [as the writer or speaker thinks]: Quod-quia- indicative: Causal, reason of 
 
 writer. 
 [as he or they think]: Quod-subjunctive: [reason of someone 
 
 else, for the truth of which the writer assumes no responsibility.] 
 Not because: non quod, non quia, non quo: usually subjunctive , because 
 
 possible but rejected reason. 
 Neither because: neque quod. 
 Before [followed by noun without verb] ante-accusative [or prae, pro- Ablat. : ob, apud-Acc] 
 "a few years before 11 : [before by a few years] : paucis-ante-annis . [Notice the order.] 
 Ablative of Measure of Difference. 
 Before [followed by noun and verb]: Priusquam [antequam] or prius-quam. 
 
 If Present or Future: Use the Pres. or Fut. Perf. Indie. [If the main clause 
 has future, use the Fut. Perf. in the priusquam clause, even though the Eng- 
 lish uses the present]. [Subjunctive, if Indirect Statement or Attraction.] 
 If Past: Does the clause mean 
 "Before-subject-actually-verbl [See A] or 
 "In expectation that-subject-should or could-verbV 1 [See B or C]. 
 
 [A] If an actual past fact: Use priusquam- Perf. Indie, [unless Sub junc. in Indirect 
 
 Statement or Attraction.] 
 
 [B] // expected or anticipated action: Use priusquam-Imperf . Subjunc. [incomplet- 
 
 ed action]. 
 
 [C] If "could 11 or action expected but prevented: Use priusquam-Imperf . Subjunc. 
 
 How, how long, how much, great, large, often, etc.: See Interrogative. 24 
 
 However [much, etc.]: Quamvis- Adject. -Sub junc. Concessive Clause. 
 If: See 54. 
 
 Provided that: Dum, modo, dummodo '.-Subjunctive [not-ne]. 
 
[30] 
 
 Since: [probably] :cum-Subjunctive: or Ablat. Absolute or Perfect Passive Part., modi- 
 fying some noun in the [main clause] :or quoniam, quando-Indic. 
 " [actually] : quod-Indicative. 
 
 Since-he, they: qui-Subjunctive of characteristic [or ut qui, quippe qui, ut pote 
 
 qui.] 
 
 Than: more [co?nparative]-c{u&m followed by the same case as that of the noun with 
 which comparison is made. 
 [2] or Ablative without quam [but quam must be used if the two ncuns compared 
 
 are in Gen. Dat. or Ablat.] 
 [3] than [if followed by a noun and verb:] quzm-Indic, unless Indirect Statement or 
 Attraction. Clause of comparison. 
 than if: quam si: See 54 
 
 than to: quam ut or ut non or qui-Subjune. of Result. 
 other-than: alius, a, um-ac- Indie. 
 other wise-than: aliter-ac- Indie. 
 unless: nisi: See 54 
 Until: Dum, quoad, donee. 
 
 If Present or Future: Use dum or quoad-Subjunc: P-Pres.; S-ImpevL-" should" to 
 indicate intention or expectancy. 
 
 If Past: Does the clause mean 
 
 " Until-subject-actually-verb? [See A] or 
 
 " Until-In expectation that-subject-shouldV [See B]. 
 
 [A] If an actual past fact: use donee or quoad-Perf. Indie, [unless Subjunc. in Indirect 
 
 Statement or Attraction.] 
 
 [B] If expected or anticipated action: Use dum, or quoad-Subjunc. Imperf. [incompleted 
 
 action]. 
 
 When: If used in a question: qu&ndo-Iridicative in Direct Question [followed by a 
 question mark] :or Subjunctive in Indirect Question, after ask, etc. [not followed by 
 a question mark]. 
 
 " If a conjunction: cum: 
 
 If Pres. or Future: Cum: Indicative only [unless Subjunc. in an Indirect Statement or 
 by Attraction]. 
 
 Tense: 7s the verb of the main clause Pres. or Put P. 
 If Pres.: Use Pres. Indie, in the cum clause. 
 If Put.: Use Put. Perf. [or Fut.] Indie, in the cum clause. 
 Note: Fut. Perf. is often used in Latin instead of the Fut. to 
 indicate that the action of the cum clause was completed 
 before that of the main clause. In Indirect Statement this 
 Fut. Perf. Indie, becomes P-Perf.) S-Pluperf. Subjunc- 
 completed action. 
 
 If past tense: Test as follows: 
 
 "Would [subject of main clause]-have-[main verb], 
 Unless [subject of "when" clause]-had-[verb of "when" clause]V } 
 Usually: "NO'Vcum-subjunctrve: imperf. if incomplete at time of main vb, 
 
 pluperf., if completed before main vb. 
 [cum temporal describing circumstances of main verb] 
 or Ablative Absolute or Perfect Passive Participle, 
 
[31] 
 
 sometimes "YES"-cum-indicative [past tense] [unless Indirect Statement 
 or Attraction.] 
 
 [Cum Temporal, dating time of the main verb, not often used, and with 
 eo tempore, eo die, nunc, olim, turn, nuper in the main clause.] 
 or ubi, ut-perfect indicative, even though English uses "had" 
 or Ablative Absolute or Perfect Passive Participle. 
 Whenever: cum [ubi, ubicumque, ut, quando]. Conditional Relative Clause. 
 If primary sequence: cum-perfect indicative [Pres. Indicative in main clause], 
 [or "if you or anyone": 2nd person only of Pres. Subjunc] 
 If secondary sequence: cum-pluperfect indicative [imperfect indicative in main 
 clause.] 
 Where: [1] with a definite antecedent, meaning "in which" [loco in quo loco]. 
 
 ubi, qua, usually indicative [in Additional Relative clause, but ubi may 
 have any of the uses of a relative]: See 23 
 [2] in questions: ubi indicative in Direct questions, subjunctive in Indirect 
 questions: See 25, 26 
 Whence: Unde [ex quo] or Unde [in questions]: See "where." 
 Whether-or: // Indirect Question, following "ask, tell, know, etc." 
 
 [1] num, ne [utrum in double questions]— or [an] or not [necne]-Subjunc. Triple 
 
 Test. See 8 
 [2] Meaning: if -or if: sive-sive: See If for mood. 54 
 Whither: with a definite antecedent and meaning "to which." 
 
 Quo, usually Indie, [in Additional Rel. clause, but quo may have any of the 
 
 uses of a Relative [the place to which]. See 23. 
 [2] In questions: Quo with Indicative of Direct question and Subjunctive in In- 
 direct questions. See 25, 26 
 While: Dum: Historical Present even though English is Past. [Use Indicative, also 
 in Indirect Statement or Attraction]: or Ablative Absolute with Pres. Participle 
 Active : or Present Active Participle, modifying some noun in main clause. 
 Who, which, what, whose, whom, etc.: If used with antecedent: See Relative. 23 
 
 If used in question: See Interrogative. 25, 26 
 Why: See Interrogative 25, 26 
 [54] 
 
 If [si]: If not [unless], nisi: 
 If -si: If not [unless]-msi [si non only when non modifies some one word in the clause]. 
 But if -Quod si [at the beginning of a sentence]: sin [following another si], 
 If -or if: sive-sive: If any one, any thing: si-quis, quid. 
 Even if: etsi, tametsi, etiam si: As if: see AS: If only, see "provided that." 
 [1] Is the condition [if-clause] used in a Direct or in an Indirect Statement [in 
 
 a "that-clause", after say, think, etc]? 
 [2] Find whether the Main Clause has: 
 
 "Will or shall'' or Future tense: See I. 
 "Would or should* ' in both clauses: See II-A. 
 
 [but if "should" in the main clause: See V.] 
 "Would", used with "were [or a past tense] or Had" in the If-clause: 
 
 See II-B. 
 Present or Past Indicative in both clauses: See III-A. 
 [but "if ever, if any, whenever, whoever, whatever": See III-B.] 
 If the main clause has [1] "ought, must, had or has to-vb.": or 
 [2] "is going to, intends to, is likely to, is about to-vb.": or 
 [3] "would be or would have been long, fair, difficult, better, etc.": See IV. 
 
32 
 
 If the main clause [or apodosis, not the if-clause] has "will or shall", or 
 Future: 
 
 Future More Vivid Condition : 
 In a Direct Statement: If [si] Clause: VseFut. Perf. orFut. Indie, even though 
 
 the English is Present: Note: Fi^. Perf. is often used 
 in Latin, instead of the Future, to indicate that the 
 action cf the si clause was completed before that of the 
 main clause.] 
 Main clause: Use Fut. Indicative. 
 In an Indirect Statement: In the If [si] Clause: Use Subjunctive — 
 If Secondary [Past]: Pluperf. Subjunc. [representing the original Fut. Perf. 
 
 Indie] 
 
 Invperf. Subjunc. [representing the original Fut. Indie] 
 
 // Primary [Pres. or Fut.]: Perf. Subjunc. [representing the original Fut. Perf. Ind.] 
 
 Pres. Subjunc. [representing the original Fut. Indie] 
 Main Clause: If Active Voice: Fut. Infin. with subject Accus. [-urum, os esse]. 
 Note: Since possum has no Fut. Infin., use posse. In the case 
 of any other verb which happens to lack the Fut. Part, in the 
 principal parts, use "fore ut-Subjunc. Active — 
 S-Imperf.: P-Pres. [incompleted action.] 
 S-Pluperf.: P-Perf . [completed action] would have]. 
 Rarely: If the main clause of the original statement had Fut. 
 Perf. Indie, [will toe-completed action], then instead of the Fut. 
 Infin. use fore ut-Subjunc- Active . 
 S-Pluperf.: P-Perf. [completed action]. 
 If Passive Voice: Use fore [futurum esse] ut-Subjunctive Pass. 
 S-Imperf.: P-Pres. [incompleted action-would]. 
 
 II- If the main clause [not si-clause] has "should or would", then 
 
 In case the if [si] clause has also "shoidd or would." See [A]: but 
 In case the if [si] clause has u were or had": See [B]. 
 
 [A] "Should cr would" in both clauses [Future Less Vivid Condition]. 
 
 In a Direct Statement: If [si] clause: Use Primary Subjunctive: Pres. [should]; 
 
 Perf. [should have]. 
 Main clause: Use Primary Subjunctive: Pres. [would]; 
 
 Perf. [would have], 
 [but use the Pres. Indie, of the Active Periphrastic [urus 
 est] and Passive Periphrastic [-ndus est]; and of 
 oportet, decet, debet, necesse est, cpus est; potest, 
 possunt [can, could]. 
 In Indirect Statement: Write exactly like a Future More Vivid [shall, will] con- 
 dition in Indirect Statement. 
 In the si [if] Clause: use subjunctive- 
 If Secondary [Past:] Imperf. Subjunc. [should] or Pluperf. Subjunc. [should 
 
 have.] 
 If Primary [Pres or Fut.]: Pres. Subjunc. [should]: Perf. Subjunc. [should have.] 
 
Main Clause: If Active Verb: 
 
 If Passive Verb: 
 
 [33] 
 
 Use Fut. Infin with subject Accus. [-wrum, os 
 
 esse]. 
 
 Note: Since possum has no Fut. Infin. use posse. 
 
 Rarely if the main verb of the original Statement 
 had Perf. Subjunc. Active, [would have-com- 
 pleted action] then instead of the Fut. Infin. 
 use fore ut-Subjunc. Active. S-Pluperf.; P- 
 Perf. [completed action]: or if the verb lacks 
 a Future Active Part, use fore ut-Subjunc. 
 Act.; S-Imperf.; P-Pres., etc. 
 
 Use fore [futurum esse] ut-Subjunc. Passive. 
 S-Imperf.; P-Pres [incompleted action] 
 
 [would]. 
 S-Pluperf.; P-Perf. [completed action] [would 
 have]. 
 
 [B] "Were or had" [or any past tense], in the if [si] clause and "would" in the 
 
 main clause. Contrary to Fact Condition. 
 
 In Direct Statement: If [si] clause: Use secondary subjunctive: 
 
 Imperf. [was, were-vb]: Pluperf. [had]. 
 Main clause: Use secondary subjunctive: Imperf. 
 [would]; Pluperf. [would have]. [But use the Perf. 
 or Imperf. Indie, of the Active Periphrastic [-urus 
 fuit, erat] 
 
 and of [2] longum, aequum, difficile, melius erat 
 [would be], fuit [would have been] ; [3] and you may 
 use either the Imperf. or Pluperf. Subjunc. or the 
 Perf. Indie, [would have] [but not the Imperf. Indie] 
 of oportuit, decuit, debuit, necesse fuit, opus fuit, 
 potuit, potuerunt, etc. 
 and Passive Periphrastic [-ndus esset, fuit] 
 
 In Indirect Statement: If [si] clause: Use secondary Subjunc. [Imperf. -were: 
 
 Pluperf. -had] even when the sequence is primary 
 and of course when it is secondary. 
 Main Clause: If Active: [would or would have]: Use Fut. Part, with fuisse 
 [-turum fuisse] with Subject Accus. 
 Note: "could or could have" is potuisse: "must or must have" is -ndum fuisse. 
 And if the verb lacks a Fut. Part, use futurum fuisse ut-Subjunc. Active Im- 
 perf. 
 
 If Passive: [would be or would Jiave been]: use futurum fuisse ut 
 and the Imperf. Subjunctive Passive, in both primary and 
 secondary sequence. 
 
 Ill- If the main clause has Present or Past Indie, for "if 1 ', see A: for "if ever, 
 
 whenever, If you or anyone^ If any": see B below. 
 [A] If: Particular Condition in Pres. or Past time. 
 
 In Direct Statement: Use Indicative Pres. or Past in both clauses. 
 In Indirect Statement: If [si] clause: Use Subjunc: 
 
 S-Imperf. [or Pluperf.]: P-Pres. [or Perf .] Subjunc. 
 Main clause: Use Pres. or Perf. [have] Infinitive. 
 
[34] 
 
 [B] If ever, whenever [cum, ubi] whoever, whatever [quicumque: quisquis, quicquid]: 
 In Direct Statement: 
 
 If the main clause has the Present Indie.: Use the Perfect Indie, in the si-clause; 
 
 [or if "you or anyone" ', use 2nd person only of the Pres. Subjunc] 
 If the main clause has the Imperf. Indie.: Use the Pluperf. Indie, in the si-clause. 
 In Indirect Statement: Use the Pres. Infinitive in the main clause and the Per}. or 
 Pluperf. Subjunctive in the si clause. 
 IV-If the Main Clause has: 
 
 [1] "ought, must, had or has to-vb. M : or 
 
 [2] "is going to, intends to, is likely to, is about to-vb.": or 
 
 [3] "would be or would have been-long, fair, difficult, better, etc." 
 
 [1] In a Future More Vivid [shall, will implied]: or Future Less Vivid [should or 
 would] Condition. 
 
 In a Direct Statement: In the Main Clause: Use the Pres. Indie, [instead 
 of the usual Fut. Indic.or Pres. Subjunc] of the Passive Periphrastic [ndus est] : 
 [changing the English Active to Passive :-"it-um"]: or Pres. Indie, of oportet, 
 decet, debet, necesse est, opus est: potest, possunt: or 
 [2] the Pres. Indie, of the Active Periphrastic [-urus est]. 
 
 In the If [si] Clause: Use the Fut. Perf. or Fut. Indie, [shall or will implied]: or the 
 Pres. or Perf. Subjunc. [should or would], as usual. 
 
 In an Indirect Statement: In the Main Clause: Use the Pres. Infin. of the 
 Passive Periphrastic [-ndum esse]: or posse or fore ut possit, posset, oporteret, 
 etc., [lacking a Fut. Part.] 
 
 In the If [si] Clause: Use the Subjunc. P. -Perf '. or Pres.: S. -Imperf. or Pluperf. 
 
 [2] In a Contrary to Fact Condition in Pres. or Past Time. 
 ["If -subject-were"; or past tense: or "had"]. 
 
 In a Direct Statement: In the Main Clause: Use the Imperf. or Pluperf. Sub' 
 junc. [as usual], [or the Perf. or Pluperf. Indie] of the Passive Periphrastic 
 [changing the English Active to Passive; with subject^it-um, if the verb is in- 
 transit ive]-ndus esset: fuisset or fuit,fuer at: or the Imperf. or Pluperf. \Subjunc, 
 [or the Perf. or Pluperf. Indie, but rarely the Imperf. Indie] of oporteret, 
 deberet, posset, etc. 
 
 [Remember "ought to have, must have, could have-vb." are Pluperfect Subjunc. 
 or Perf. Indie, preceded by the Pres. Infin. [not by the Perf. Infin., as you 
 might expect]: 
 
 or the Imperf. or Perf. or Pluperf. Indie, [instead of Subjunc] of the Active 
 Periphrastic [-turns erat, fuit or fuerat.] 
 
 or the Imperf., Perf. or Pluperf. Indie, of longum, aequum, difficile, melius 
 erat or fuerat [fuit]. 
 
 In the If [si] Clause: Use the Imperf. or Pluperf. Subjunc. as usual. 
 
 In an Indirect Statement: In the Main Clause: Use the Infin. -ndum fuisse, 
 -ndos fuisse [of the Passive Periphrastic [changing the English Active to Pass- 
 ive]: or the Present [could, etc.] or Perf. [could have] Infin. of posse, potuisse, 
 oportere, oportuisse, etc., or the Pres. Infin. of longum, aequum, difficile, 
 melius esse, etc. 
 
 In the If [si] Clause: Use the Imperf. or the Pluperf. Subjunc. [as usual]. 
 
 V- If the main clause has Imperative or Hortatory or Optative Subjunctive: 
 
 In the si clause use the mood and tense indicated by the if-clause. 
 "shall, wiU"-Fut. Indie; [2] "should, would" -Primary Subjunc; [3] "were, had"- 
 Secondary Subjunctive; [4] is, was, etc.-Pres. or Past Indie or Fut. Indie 
 [but if Indirect Statement, use the Subjunctive, according to sequence] 
 
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