Class Ji£aXV\ Book GofyrightN COPYRIGHT PEPOSfT. 9 &W&. Eastman's English Grammar Practical Grammar for Schools and Colleges By H. P. EASTMAN, A. M. DENNIS PRINTING COMPANY Greenville, Texas ?o i JAN |6 1905 jU~-2 6, /qo5~ Cls \Xc. No: COPY B. fat Copyrighted A. D. 1004 By H. P. Eastmax, AM. Preface. It has been the object of the author of this gram- mar to supply the teaching public w ith a text-book that is easy to teach, easy to learn, and easy to retain. That it may be easy to teach, every subject is arranged in natural order, and treated in terms most commonly understood by teachers. Many teachers complain, and justly too, we think, that for years the texts on English gramma)' have been so obscure in their terms, so promiscuous in their arrangement, and so incomplete in their development of the various sub- jects, that they have been very unsatisfactory to both teacher and pupil. Authors, trying to render the work easy to the pupil by treating a little here and a little there, that the pupil might take it up, as it were, by absorption, have actually brought about obscurity rather than clearness. Many authors have ransacked the world for some new treatment of the different subjects, and have brought in useless terms and methods, suited only to confuse the teachers and pupils. The author of this work has tried to keep in the "middle of the road;" to avoid useless extremes and to adhere to the golden mean. That it may be easy to learn, the work is so classi- fied that the student knows when he begins a subject and when he has finished it. The outlines at the be- ginning, and the definitions and review questions at the close of a subject, enable the pupil to understand ii Eastman's Practical Grammar the nature and treatment of the matter before him. It is not promiscuous knowledge, but knowledge classified, that may be best utilized. That it may be easy to retain the principles taught, not only must the matter be so arranged as to furnish the pupil a classification of his acquired knowledge, but he must have an application of theory to practice by being supplied with copious exercises and careful drills. While it is believed that the exercises herein con- tained will, in general, be sufficient, the teacher is ex- pected to be the judge of this, and if the class needs more exercise on any point, he may supply the defi- ciency with blackboard drills. It is hoped that the extensive exercises under "Use and Misuse" will be of incalculable benefit to the pupils. It is believed that the analysis and diagram- ming is sufficiently exhaustive to furnish an excellent discipline for the mind, as well as to render the pupil thoroughly familiar with sentences. Figurative language, punctuation, and prosody are not so exhaustively treated, but sufficiently so, perhaps, for practical purposes. The further treatment of these subjects is left for composition and rhetoric. This work presupposes some knowledge of English grammar on the part of the pupil; but it can be taught to those who have not studied grammar before. It has been the author's intention to omit every- thing unnecessary, and to treat every necessary prin- ciple of the language; and having had a continued experience for a quarter of a century in all grades of schools from the district school through high schools and colleges, he hopes to present a work to the schools that will prove very practical. Grateful acknowledgements are tendered to Prof. J. E. Abney for many valuable suggestions, and for the critical reading of the manuscript. That this work will commend itself to the favorable notice of his fellow-teachers, is the sincere hope of The Author. Contents. PART 1. -ORTHOGRAPHY. Page Language . . 1 Definitions . . . . . . . 3 Divisions of Grammar 5 ETYMOLOGY. Classification of the parts of speech— The noun . 7 Definitions . 9 Adjectives 10 Definitions 14 Pronouns 16 Definitions 20 Exercises on Pronoun and Review Questions . 22 Verbs— The Sentence 23 Phrases and Clauses— Definitions . . . .25 Adverbs 26 Definitions . 28 Prepositions 29 Conjunctions . .30 Definitions 32 Review Questions 33 Interjections . 34 IV Eastman's Practical Grammar PART II. -ETYMOLOGY. The Properties of The Noun .36 Gender . 37 Person 42 Number . 43 Definitions 46 Review Questions . 47 Case 49 The Nominative . 50 The Possessive 52 The Objective '. 52 Notes on Case 55 Apposition . 56 Definitions 57 Exercises in Gender and Number . . 60 Exercise in Case 61 Parsing Exercises . 61 Review Questions 64 The Adjective . 65 Comparison 66 Cautions . 67 Notes on Limiting Adjectives . 68 The Article . 69 Review Questions 71 The Pronoun . 71 Personal 72 Relative . 73 Long Forms 74 Adjective . 77 Models for Parsing 77 Notes on the Pronoun .... . 78 Review Questions 80 Eastman's Practical Grammar v The Verb 81 Properties of the Verb— Mode .... 83 Tense . . . 84 Number, Person ...... 85 Voice . ' . .86 Definitions 86 Review Questions . . . . . . .89 Modes and Tenses . . . ... 8Q Indicative , . . .89 Potential 90 Subjunctive 91 Imperative 92 Infinitive .94 Participles . . . . . . . . 95 Review Questions . 98 Models for Parsing ...... 99 Parsing Exercises 101 Conjugation 101 Verb "be" 102 "Love" . 104 List of irregular verbs 110 Errors to be avoided 118 Adverbs . . .122 Notes on the Adverbs 124 Parsing Exercise . . . .... . 125 Inflection . 126 Prepositions ... . 127 Notes on Prepositions 127 Conjunctions 128 Interjections . . . . . . . 129 Review Exercise 130 Review Questions . . ... . 132 vi Eastman's Practical Grammar PART III. -SYNTAX. Word Influence 135 Government 139 Agreemert 145 Modification 152 Independent Relation 159 Rules of Syntax 160 Review Questions 161 Parsing Exercises 164 Kinds of Sentences 167 Definitions 170 Elements of the Sentence 171 Definitions 175 Subordinate Elements 177 Order of Analysis 180 Model of Analysis (Shorter form) . . . 186 Review Questions 187 Special Examples for Analysis . . . . 187 Miscellaneous Examples for Analysis . . . 192 Analysis by Diagrams 193 Exercises in Diagramming and Analysis . . 199 Exercises on Preceding Principles . . . 211 Exercises in Analyzing, Diagramming and Parsing 228 PART IV. Use and Misuse 231 General Exercise in "Use and Misuse" . . 234 Contractions 242 Figures '. 245 Review Questions 250 Capital Letters ....... 251 Exercises in Capital Letters .... 254 Punctuation 255 Exercises in Punctuation 265 Prosody 267 Eastman's Practical Grammar ® n s? & i a. * 5 1 Single vowels, Diphthongs, Triphthongs . Spoken Primary i Sound! ^ Labials, Dentals, Mutes ^Linguals, [Gutturals, Nasals. Semi vowels. Single vowels, Diphthongs, Tripthongs. Labials, .Dentals, ^NLinguala, I Gutturals, Nasals. S«mi-row«ls. Natural Ungual* Inarticulate lang«ag« PART 1-OTHOGRAPHY 1. Language. Language is the expression of thought. Artificial Language is acquired; whether it be spoken, or an ac- quired gesture, or signaling; such as, by a common un- derstanding, is used by r ; I road men, etc. A person that is l.e followed l>y a pro- noun or verh in the plural, when reference la made to the Individuals of the collection, ia onlj true of collections of individuals that have animal life. We >ay of a committee, they wen- divided in their opinions, etc. We never si»y ol I grove, "tl. V or "were". Eastman's Practical Grammar 11 The Positive Degree merely denotes quality without expressing or implying a comparison with any- thing else. The Comparative Degree shows comparison be- tween two things, or sets of things; and implies a great- er or less degree of quality in the one than in the other. This degree is formed, if it implies an increase of quality, by adding r or er, or by prefixing more to the postive. If it implies a decrease of quality it is formed by prefixing less to the positive. The Superlative Degree expresses comparison of three or more things, or sets of things, and indicates the greatest degree of quality possessed by the things thus compared. It is, however, sometimes used to express merely a very great degree of quality, without comparing. It is then called an absolute superlative; as, Most learned judge. This degree is formed by adding st or est, or by prefixing most to express increase of quality; and by prefixing least to express a decreasing comparison. The above is the regular method of forming the de- grees of comparison; but some adjectives are compared very irregularly, e. g., good is compared as follows: Pos. Good, Com. Better, Superl. Best, 12 Eastman's Practical Grammar The folloiving illustrates regular methods: OLD Pos. Old, Cow. Older, Superl. Oldest. GRACEFUL. fading. Descending. Pos. Graceful, Pos. Graceful, Com. More graceful, Com. Less graceful, Sujh rl. Most graceful. Superl. Least graceful. Some authors object to using the adverbs more, most, etc., to compare the adjective, but together they express the same idea as single words in other lan- guages, and for that reason they may he taken together. The method has the virtue of simplicity, at least. We seldom add er and est to adjectives of more than one syllable. Words of two syllables accented on the last or end- ing in the le may add i r and est. A shade of meaning below the positive may b made by adding ish or //; e. g.. sweetish, bluish, salty, rhese words are used when but little of the quality is possessed. Compare: Old, young, sweet, sour, discreet, able, beautiful, handsome, kind, remote, quick, long, short, salubrious, treacherous, broad. Some adjectives are superlative by nature, and hence are not compared; as supreme, eternal, universal. Other* that have a superlative signification are compared; as, perfect, white, round, black, straight, etc. Such adjectives are used with objects that really do not possess the superlative quality, but merely ap - Eastman's Practical Grammar 13 proximate it. We say: He is the most perfect gentle- man I ever met; or. of a tree, that it is round; of cloth, it is white, etc. , when the truth is, they only approxi- mate perfection, roundness, whiteness, etc. Point out the words that may be compared: Supreme, thorough, universal, extreme, divine, square, absolute. Descriptive adjectives describe without expressing quality. They are proper, participial, compound, etc.^ Proper Adjectives are derived from proper nouns; as, French, Methodist, etc. Participial Adjectives are such as describe by suggesting action, being, etc.; as, the rising sun. Compound Adjectives are compound descriptive words; as, blue-eyed, laughter-loving, etc. Limiting Adjectives merely limit the application of the noun. They are divided into: Distributives; as, each, every, either, neither, many a, etc. Demonstratives; as, this, that, these, those, former, latter, etc. Indefinites; as, some, any, all, such, none, few, many, etc. Numerals: (a) cardinals; as, one, two, etc.; (b) ordinals; as, first, second, etc.; (c) multiplicatives; as, two-fold, etc. Articles; (a) the definite '"the"; (b) the indfinite "a" or "an". Distributives modify nouns in the singular number only. Demonstratives are ntsed in showing or pointing out. 14 Eastman's Practical Grammar Indefinites modify indefinitely. Numerals express number. If they are used merely in counting, they are cardinals. If in giving the order, thej are ordinals. If in telling how many fold, they are multiplicatives. EXERCISE II. Point out and classify the adjectives, and, it qual- ify ing, compare them. 1. Ten tall slim saplings stood near that spot. 2. A unanimous vote elected this great man to the respon- sible position. 3. Each boy must study his own les- son. 4. The moss-covered bucket hung in the old well. 5. A sunny smile conquered the angry father. 9. Definitions. An Adjective is a word used to modify nouns or pronouns, or to limit their applications.* A Qualifying Adjective is an adjective that ex- presses quality. Comparison is the property of the qualifying ad- jective by virtue of which it changes its form to show two degrees of comparison (besides the positive). The Positive Degree asserts a simple quality. The COMPARATIVE Degree is that form which shows comparison, between two things, or sets of things. The SUPERLATIVE Degree is that form which shows comparison of three or more things, or sets of things. •It it evidently eironeous to My that the limiting adjective qualifies. 1 merely limit* the application to the ol.ject Eastman's Practical Grammar 15 A Descriptive Adjective is an adjective that de- scribes without expressing quality, as proper adjec- tives, participal and compound. A Limiting Adjective is an adjective that limits the application of a noun or pronoun. The limiting adjective is divided into five classes. The distributive adjective is a limiting adjective that expresses the idea of one only, but that one as- sociated with others. The demonstrative adjective is a limiting adjective used in pointing out, or showing. The indefinite adjective is a limiting adjective that expresses the application indefinitely. The Numeral Adjective is an adjective used to express number. It is either cardinal, ordinal, or mul- tiplicative. The Cardinal Numerals are those used in count- ing. The Ordinals are those used in telling the order of things. The Multiplicatives are these that tell how many fold. The Article: A or an and the are called articles. EXAMPLES. Distributives: Each, every, either, neither, many a, such a, etc. Demonstrative: This, that, these, those, former, latter, yon, and yonder. 16 Eastman's Practical Grammar Indefinite: Some, other, any, all, such, none, many, etc. Cardinal Numerals: One, two, three, four, etc. Ordinal Numerals: First, second, third, etc. Multiplicatives: Two- fold, three- fold, etc. The Definite Article: "The." The Indefinite Article: "A" or "an." EXERCISE III. Point out and classify all the nouns and adjectives r and tell what nouns the adjectives modify: 1. The old iron-bound, moss-covered bucket hung in the well. 2. Remembered well is that dear home of my early boyhood. 3. A harmless, necessary cat. 4. Ten little Indians stood in a line. 5. The first In- dian went home and then there were nine. 6. Each student must attend to his own lesson. 7. Be kind to each other. 8. The German language. 9. A moving object. 10. Pronouns. J Comix mini. ™«*+ | ConSun, in >.\< i N- C In terrogative, I>. ni.'iiHtrative, Imli-Hnite. J DixtributiTe. ( .. .._.. 1 Nuin.-ral, ,' r>rdlual. \ OMliual, | Multiplicative. Eastman's Practical Grammar 17 A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its form whether it is of the first person, the second person, or the third person. Note.— Many students acquire the notion, in some way, that this kind of pronoun is called personal because it is used for the name of a person. The teacher should correct this idea at once. "He" may refer to a horse or a dog. "She" may refer to a cow, etc. A Simple Personal Pronoun is a personal pro- noun unconnected with any other word; as, he, she, etc. A Compound Personal Pronoun is formed by adding "self" or "selves" to the simple pronoun; as, myself, himself, yourself, herself, itself, themselves. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which relates to some word going before called an antecedent, and introduces a subordinate clause. EXPLANATION: A sentence is a collection of words containing a subject and a predicate; as, "The boy plays in the house. " Here "boy" is the subject because it represents that of which something is as- serted. Plays is the predicate because it represents what is said of the boy. Now, a subordinate sentence represents an element of a sentence, and contains a subject and a predicate; as, "The boy (who stays at home) plays in the house." Who, here relates to boy for its antecedent, and is the subject of stays. Note. — The teacher should illustrate this with various examples till the class understand it. A Simple Relative Pronoun is a relative that is unconnected with any other word; as, who. which, that, what. A Compound Relative Pronoun is a relative pro- noun connected with ever, soever, or so, as whoever, whosoever, whichever, etc. 18 Eastman's Practical Grammar An Interrogative Pronoun is a relative pronoun in form, (who, which, what) used in a question, and the word for which it stands, occurs in the answer; as, "Who wants this apple?" Answer. "I" (want it). An Adjective Pronoun is a limiting adjective used for the noun it would limit if it were expressed; as, This (book) is my book. For convenience it is divided into classes just as the limiting adjective is, viz,, distributive, indefinite, de- monstrative, numeral. The Article is never a pronoun. Note There seems to be no good reason for treating the limiting adjective thus, to the exclusion of the qualifying adjective but we prefer to avoid innovation. Commit to memory in order as they occur: A LIST OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. I. wo. my or mine. our or ours, me; us. You, you, your or yours, your or yours you; vou. thou, ye, thy or thine, your or yours. thee; you. he, they, his, their or theirs, him. them. Eastman's Practical Grammar 19 she, her or hers, her; it, its, it. they, their or theirs, them. they. their or theirs, them. himself, Compounds: Myself, yourself, thyself, herself, itself, themselves. EXERCISE IV. Point out the personal pronouns: 1. John goes to school, he learns fast, and his teacher likes him. 2. I try to act by you as I would act toward myself. 3, "To thyself be true" and thou canst not then be false to me. 4. My friends, go with us; we will do you good. 5. "0 ye of little faith", 6. They storm the fort. 7. Their steeds are fiery. 8. Blessings upon thee. 9. I go with you. List of relative pronouns to be committed in order: Who, whose, These pronouns refer to persons. whom. Which, whose, which. That, What, As, These refer to animals and inanimate objects. This pronoun refers to persons, animals, or inanimate objects. J.-.-v-i This pronoun refers to inanimate ob- objects. This word is a relative after many, such, same. 20 Eastman's Practical Grammar List of compound relatives to commit to memory. Whoever or whosoever or whoso, Whosever, whosesoever, Whomever, whichsoever, Whatever, whatsoever. List of adjective pronouns to commit in order: Distributives: Each, either, neither. Demonstratives: This, that, these, those, former, latter, yon, yonder. Indefinite*: Some, other, any, all, such, none, many, few. Numerals: (a) Cardinals: One, two, three, four, etc. (b) Ordinals: First, second, third, etc. 11. Definitions. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which shows by its form whether it represents the speaker, the per- son or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. A Simple Personal Pronoun is a personal pro- noun not connected with the word self or selves, A Compound Personal Pronoun is a personal pronoun united with the word self or set vs. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that relates 'to an antecedent word and introduces a clause. A Simple Relative Pronoun is a relative pro- noun not united with the words ever, soever, or so. Eastman's Practical Grammar 21 A Compound Relative Pronoun is a simple rela- tive pronoun united with ever, soever, or so. An Interrogative Pronoun is a relative pronoun in form used in a question, having its antecedent in the answer. This antecedent is properly a subsequent. An Adjective Pronoun, or Pronominal Adjec- tive, is a limiting adjective used instead of the noun, understood, which it would modify if expressed in full. Distributives are adjective pronouns used distribu- tive^ for nouns in the singular number. Demonstratives are adjective pronouns used in pointing out or showing. Indefinites are adjective pronouns which express a reference to the noun in an indefinite manner. Numerals are adjective pronouns used in number- ing. Of these the cardinals merely number and the ordinals tell the order of number. EXERCISE V. Point out and classify the nouns, pronouns and adjectives. 1. The assembly manifested great agitation among themselves. 2. They were expecting the greatest event of the nineteenth century. 3. Her beauty is equaled by her goodness. 4. Gold is more precious than silver. 5. Mary and her little lamb, whose fleece was so white, has been the occasion of much com- ment. 6. "Whosoever will, let him come and drink of the water of life freely. 7. Some say this, others, that, but I have my own opinion. 8. Each student must prepare his own lesson. 9. Every blade of grass, every shrub and every tree was destroyed. 10. Do not trust the first man that smiles upon you. 11. 22 Eastman's Practical Grammar Columbus did not know he had discovered a great continent. 12. Doing gives power to do. 13. A sea- faring* man must undergo many hardships. 14. Ten men did the work. 15. Who said that I was angry? 16. "Who told thee that thou wast naked?" REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. 1. What is a noun? 2. A proper ncun? 3. A common noun? 4. A substantial noun? 5. An ab- stract noun? 6. A verbal noun? 7. A collective noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. A qualifying adjective? 10. A descriptive adjective? 11. A limiting adjective? 12. A distributive? 13. An indefinite? 14. A demon- strative? 1"). A numeral? 16. A cardinal? 17. An ordinal? IS. A multiplicative? 19. What is an article? 20. Which is definite? 21. Which is indefi- nite? 22. What is a pronoun? 23. A personal? 24. A simple pronoun? 25. A compound personal? 25. A relative pronoun? 26. Simple relative? 27. A com- pound relative? 28. What is an interrogative pro- noun 7 29. An adjective pronoun? 30. A distribu- tive? 31. An indefinite? 3"\ A demonstrative? 33. A numeral? 84. Name in order the simple personal pronouns. 35. The compound personal pronouns. 36. The simple relative. 37. The compound relative. 38. The mterroga- tives. 39. The distributives. 40. The demonstratives. 41. The indefinite?. 42. The numerals, both cardinal and ordinal. ♦Descriptive adjective Win ! Eastman's Practical Grammar 23 12. Verbs. Principal J Transitive | Intransitive Copulative A Yerb is a word that expresses action, being or state of being. As no sentence can exist without it, the verb is so-called because it means the word, being derived from verbum in Latin which signifies word. In consequence of its importance, it is sometimes called the root, or the life of the sentence. To understand this, it is necessary to explain the sentence further. 13. The Sentence. We have seen that a sentence is a collection of words expressing a thought. A thought cannot exist without these two parts: Something to constitute the subject of thought, i. e., something to think about; and something to be thought of this subject, i. e., some action, being, or state of being, attributed to the sub- ject of thought. Take the sentence, John writes. Here the idea of something to perform the act is expressed by the word John. This is the subject of the thought. 24 Eastman's Practical Grammar The id. a of the act attributed to John is expressed by the word writes. The two ideas, taken together, constitute a thought; and the expression of a thought in words is called a sentence. A thought may contain other ideas associated witn the two principle ideas ; as we may think of John as old and black; these ideas taken collectively would be expressed by the words, "old black John." The idea of the action may be associated with the idea of rapidity ; and the attributed idea of action, we will say, is that of chopping, the idea would be chopping rapidly. The two groups of ideas would then consti- tute a thought expressed in words: "Old black John chops rapidly. " Here chops is the verb as is also write* in the former sentence. It is easy to see that if we re- move these wordfl from the above sentences, there will be no sense expressed ; hence these words are called "verbs" (the word). The above n-marks do not apply, however, to copu- lative verbs; such as, am, are, is, etc., as these are only used, as the name implies, to couple the attributed idea to the subject of thought, thus : "John is sick." Here the attributed idea is not expressed by the word is, but by the word sick. It is his sickness we think of, and speak of, and not his existence. These words being sometimes principle, however, and not copulative, are called verbs. In "John chops wood," we have three ideas expressed by the three corresponding words in the sentence ; 1st, an idea of a subject of action ; 2nd, an idea of action, and 3rd, an idea of an object upon which the action is exerted. This third element of the sentence is called the ob- ject ; and when it occurs, or may occur, the verb is calle I transitive ; if the verb has no such object, it is called an intransitive verb. Eastman's Practical Grammar 25 14. Phrases and Clauses. The separate ideas, contained in a thought, are rep- resented by words, the signs of ideas. These words are elements in a sentence, according to the offices they perform. But sometimes it requires a group of words to constitute an element or to per- form a single office; as. "Men of industry succeed." / Men of industry \ Here of industry is equal to \ industrious men / industrious and so perform a single office, and is a single element, even though sep- arable into its parts. Sometimes a group of words forming an element of a sentence contains a subject and a predicate; as, Men who are industrious succeed. Here again, who are in- dustrious, is equivalent to the adjective industrious placed before the noun men. Industrious men succeed, Men who are industrious succeed. Such groups of words, forming elements of sentences, and yet contain- ing within themselves each a subject and a predicate, are called clauses. 15. Definitions. A Verb is a word which express action, or being, or a state of being. Principal Verbs are verbs that express the prin- cipal attributed idea. Copulative Verbs are those that merely connect the real attribute, or predicate to the subject. Transitive Verbs by use are those that show an act done to an object. 26 Eastman's Practical Grammar Transitive Verbs by nature are those that natur- ally admit an object. Intransitive Verbs by use are those that are used without objects. Intransitive Verbs by nature are those that do not naturally admit an object. 16 Adverbs. I Tempore], ADVERBS 5jod»i. 1 Manner, Decree [nterrogatire Negative, Beeponsirei Correlative, Conjunctive, Expletive. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; by telling: when, where, how and t<> what exli fit. It also has the further use of asking, denying, an- swering, correlating, connecting and of merely fillinsr out expressions. Temporal Adverbs are those that refer to time when. Sometimes they occur in an affirmation, and sometimes in a question, and sometimes in a denial; as. He will soon arrive (affirmation). When will he ar- rive? (question). He will never arrive, (denial). Local Adverbs are those that refer to iiht<< whi re; and they may be used in affirmations, in ques- tions and in negations; as, Take me to my childhood home irhcrc I once was so happy. Wherr is your home? It is not there. Modal Adverbs are those that express the manner Eastman's Practical Grammar 27 of an assertion; as, surely, certainly, perhaps, prob- ably, etc. Adverbs of Manner express the manner of ac- tion, etc. Adverbs of Degree are those that tell the extent; as, He is very sick. Interrogative Adverbs are adverbs used to ask questions. For example see above. Negative Adverbs are adverbs used in denying. Note. As they require special attention further on, in correction of false syntax, special drill should be given by the teacher, till the students understand negatives. Responsives* are yes, no, and amen. They are usually treated as adverbs modifying a whole sentence. By some they are considered as equivalent to whole sentences. Correlative Adverbs are adverbs used in pairs, correlating in such a way that one suggests the other. They are often used with the word the, which then ceases to be an article and becomes an adverb; as, "The more we play, the less we learn." "The farther he goes, the faster he travels". Conjunctive Adverbs are abverbs used to connect like conjunctions and to modify at the same time. In such sentences as "Dew glitters when the sun shines," "Work while it is day," etc., when and while connect like conjunctions, and each word will expand into two phrases; one of the phrases modifying the verb in one sentence, and the other, in the other. Dew *l see no good reason to 1reat them as anything but interjections except to avoid innovation Interjections are independent — these words seem to be much so. 28 Eastman's Practical Grammar glitters when the sun shines. Dew glitters (during the time) (in which) the sun shines. "During the time" modifies gutters, and "in which" modifies shines. The same may be shown of while in the second sentence. An Expletive Advepb is an adverb that loses its modifying force, and merely fills out the expression. 17. Definitions. Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, adjec- tives and other adverbs. Temporal Adverbs are adverbs that relate to time. Local Adverbs are adverbs that relate to place. Modal Adverbs are adverbs that relate to man- m r qf assertion. Adverbs of Manner express the manner of act- tion, etc. Adverbs of Degree are adverbs that tell to what Interrogative Adverbs are adverbs used in ask- ing tj)i< stin/is. Negative Adverbs are adrerbs used in denying. Responsive Adverbs are adverbs used in re- tpom Correlative Adverbs are adverbs used in pairs. Conjunctive Adverrs are adverbs that connect a principal preposition to a subordinate one. Expletive Adverbs are adverbs used merely to fill out an expression, and are independent in construction Eastman's Practical Grammar &9 EXERCISE VI. Point out the verbs and adverbs, and classify each; also tell what the adverbs modify: 1. He soon fell into bad habits. 2. He still stands where I left him. 3. The boats moved smoothly over the sea. 4. I am very tired. 5. Where is your boy now? 6. Taste not of the forbidden fruit. 7. Are you now happy? Yes; perfectly happy. 9. I will come very soon. 10. The more we talked the less we found to say. 11. Let us labor while it is day. 12. Now, he was learning very well. 13. There are four genders. 14. "Retire or taste the folly. " 15. lam very well. How is your mother? 17. Why do you speak? 18. I certainly told you. 18. Prepositions. If I say, "John ran around the house, and through the hall, into the back yard;" the words "around" "through," and "into" show the relation of the act of running, to the house, the hall and the back yard. Around the house, through the hall, and into the back yard are adverbial phrases, each modifying the verb ran. The words house, hall, and yard are placed as objects after the words, around, through, and into like objectives after transitive verbs except that they are objects of relations instead of actions; hence they are called the objects of the prepositions. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation of an object, to the word which the phrase modifies. A preposition may consist of more than one word, or of one word only. 30 Eastman's Practical Grammar LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. About, before, during, touching, above, behind, except, toward, across, below, excepting, towards, after, beneath, for, under, against, beside, from, underneath, along, besides, in, unto, amid, between, into, up, amidst, betwixt, instead of, upon, among, beyond, notwith- standing, with, around, but. of, within, as, by, off, without, at, concerning, on (never onto) as to, down. to, with respect to Noi e.- 1 a jiirt ial list which shoul< 1 lie committe i to mcmory. l ^. Conjunctions. i Cupulativ.-. I Co -Mill ll.llll it. ( Di~,un "the, I Correlative. Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. They usually connect elements of the same construction ; as, nouns and pronouns that :u the office as Buhiect, or as object, etc., but this is not always th ca Copulative Conjunctions not only connect the parts by filling up a space that would otherwise inter- ith the harmonious flow of the sentence, but ex- press an idea of something a Ided. They are some- Eastman's Practical Grammar 31 times called augmentatives ; and, also, as well as, etc. Disjunctive Conjunctions are conjunctions which, while they connect the parts so as to prevent a break in the flow of the sentence, they express a separation of the parts thus connected. In the sentence John or James will come, if or b: omitted ths sentence is broken; thus John— Jame i will come. Or connects these parts so as to prevent this; yet it conveys the idea that one or the other —not both— will come. Or, nor, yet are examples. Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect elements of equal rank; i. e., words with words, phrases with phrases, clauses with clauses, and sentences with sentences, There are some exceptions to this principle, as, A man that is sick, and on the bed of affliction, etc. Here sick and on the bed of affliction are the parts con- nected. Subordinate Conjunctions connect elements of unequal rank; usually principal propositions to depen- dent or subordinate ones; as, "They protected him for he was a good man." Here for connects the subordi- nate clause to the leading proposition and is called a subordinate conjunction. For, because, etc., are ex- amples. Correlative Conjunctions are connectives used in pairs; the first introduces the sentence or part, and intensifies the connection made with another; as, "Both John and Mary have come." 32 Eastman's Practical Grammar LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. Co-o rdinate Conju notions: Also, but, moreover. so, although, either, neither, still, and, else, nor, though. besides, furthermore, or, yet, both. likewise, otherwise. Subordinate Conjunctions. After, if, provided, therefore. because. see. since, unless. except. in case, than, whether, for. but. that. REMARKS. Prepositions and conjunctions are both connectives; but the connection shown by the preposition is slight as compared with that of the conjunction. 20 Definitions A Preposition is a word wwich introduces a phrase, connects its object to the word modified, and shows the relation between them- A Conjunction is a word which connects words. phrases, and clai A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one which con- nects elements of equal rank. A Subordinate Conjunction is one that connects elements of unequal rank. Eastman* 's Practical Grammar 33 k Correlative Conjunction introduces a sen- tence or a part of a sentence and intensifies the con- nection of another conjunction with which it is paired. these three are classed according to use; the fol- lowing, according to meaning: A Copulative Conjunction is one that couples parts of sentences together, and expresses the idea of addition or continuation, etc. A Disjunctive Conjunction couples the parts of a sentence together, but expresses a separation, or con- trast of ideas. EXERCISE VII. Point out the prepositions and conjunctions; classify the latter: 1. John and James capered and laughed, but Mary sat and wept; for she had broken her doll. 2. Both poverty and wealth are temptations. 3. In America we boast of our freedom and independence; but many are slaves to vicious habits, as well as to the dictates of fashion. 4. He is a gentleman notwith- standing he is poor, and dressed in "seedy" clothes. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 2. 1. What is a verb? 2. What kinds have thus far been explained? 3. -What is a principal verb? 4. A copula verb? 5. A transitive verb? 6. An intransi- tive verb? 7. In what two ways may a verb be tran- sitive? 8. Explain and give examples. 9. What is a sentence? 10. Distinguish between the principal proposition ahd the subordinate clause? 11. What is the subject of a sentence? 12. What the predicate? 13. What the object? 14. What is a phrase? 34 Eastman's Practical Grammar 15. What is an adverb? 16. A temporal adverb? 17. A modal adverb? 18. A local adverb? 19. An adverb of degree? 20. An interrogative adverb? 21. A negative adverb? 22. A responsive adverb? 23. Give the substance of the foot note concerning respon- sives? 24. What are correlative adverbs? 25. Conjunc- tive adverbs? 26. Expletives? 27. What is a conjunction? 28. What are the di- visions of conjunctions according lo use? 29. Accord- ing to meaning? 30. What is a co-ordinate conjunc- tion? 31. A subordinate? 32. A correlative? 33. What is a copulative conjunction? 34. A disjunctive. 35. Define a preposition. 36. Repeat the list of prepositions. 37. Of conjunctions. Note. The teacher should give such drills on the parts of speech a s to make the pupils Familiar with them. 21 Interjections Interjections are used:— (a) Te express emotion; as, Oh! Alas! Ah! (b) To attract attention: as. Halloo! ho! hem, llhl 1)1. (c) To ask questions indirectly; as, Eh? hey? (d) To answer questions; as, Yes, no, dr.* •Aab ," etc f are variously treat* 1 oy gr.im. maiiar r they are the equivalent* of whole scntenrcs; as, Are yo« liungr) '.' Yes. Here it is said that "yes" = "I am hungry." As well SSJ, when a speaker says something that pleases his hearers and they cry "goud."' or '•hurrah!" that these words are equivalent to the sentence, We likew! that remark heartily." etc. Eastman's Practical Grammar 35 (e) To express approval; as, Amen! hurrah! * DEFINITION. Interjections are used to express emotion, at- tract attention, to ask questions indirectly, to answer questions, and to express approval and disapproval. *We do not try to expand "good," "hurrah " etc , into sentences, but are content to parse them as interjections. Then why not parse "yes," and •'no" as such? Some grammarians teach that 'yes," 'no." etc.. are adverbs, modi- fying a whole sentence. Sometimes, though rarely, a word may modify a whole sentence; but these words never do. Three natures of the interjections are: Firsi, they are words that have no meaning. Second, they are always used for a purpose, such as to let others know we suffer, to call, etc. Third, they are used independent- As "yes," "no," etc., lossess exactly these characteristic!;, we shall rail them interjections. PART II ~ ETYMOLOGY 1 The Properties of the Noun i'ruperti'** ol ih.< Nona *j Number Masculine, Feminine. Common, Neater. First. Second, Third. .' Singular ) Plural. Nominative '•N, ^ Pi Subject, Predicate, Predicate after a i ciplf, Independent (a) l>y address, (i>) i>>- exclamatiou, (o) by pleonasm. Absolute. Possebsioo, AotbonUp Origin, Kind. < )f tram itiv verbs, of transitive participle* of prepositioua. Indirect, or Kuk- dative. Complement. Kubiect cf innuitiv • Predicate, Independent, Adverbial , Oognata* A Noun is a name. A Property of a Fart of Speech is whatever belongs to it. These properties cause words to undergo change of form; and these changes are called inflections. The noun is inflected for gender, number and case. Person does not cause any inflection in the noun. Eastman's Practical Grammar 37 2 Gender There are four genders, three persons, two num- bers, and three cases. These cases are further divid- ed as follows: The nominative has seven constructions, the pos. sessive has four, and the objective has ten. These latter divisions, however, effect no further inflection of the noun. Gender is the property of a noun or a pronoun with regard to sex. If the noun or pronoun has the nature to be applied to males only it is of the masculine gender (or nature). If it has the nature to be applied to females only, it is of the feminine gender. If it has the nature to be applied to things which are neither masculine nor feminine, it is of the neuter gender. If it has the nature by which it may be applied to males and females alike, that is, common in its appli- cation, such nature is called common gender. Examples of Masculine Gender: Man, boy, drake, gander. Examples of Feminine Gender: Woman, girl, duck, goose. Examples of Neuter Gmider: Book, bench, glass, stone. Examples of Common Gender: Friend, relative, student. The lack of accuracy, and, indeed, common sense, in the treatment of gender by some authors has been surprising. 38 Eastman's Practical Grammar For example, one author says that gender is sex. Now sinr.e nouns have gender, therefore nouns have sex; then we have male nouns and female nouns. It is no wonder that they have multiplied. Another author, or perhaps several, trying to dis- pense with the very necessary common gender, and have only three, has denned gender as a modification that denotes sex; the masculine denoting the male sex, the feminine denoting the female sex, and the neuter denoting a want of sex. In the name of reason how could it denote sex by denoting a want of sex? By the same masterly (?) reason- ing they omit the common gender. The fact is, the noun shows four things with re- gard to sex; either that it will apoly to a male, to a fe- male, to neither, or is common in its application to either; hence the four genders. Then urethra ways of forming the masculine and feminine genders; by different words, by different end- ings, and by different words placed 1> fore or after the principal word. Examples ,,J ({',['■ WOTdsi i »<• i. wtinint »/n-. ii (mi. l\ in ini M Bachelor maid. horse, mare. boy, girl. husband, wife. bridegroom, bride. king. queen. brother. sister. lad. lass or lassie bull, cow. lord. lady. bullock or heifer. nephew. niece. steer. buck, doe. Sir. Madam. dog, bitch. sloven, slut. drake, duck. uncle, aunt. gander. goose. wizard, witch. Eastman's Practical Grammar 39 Examples of different endings: Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Abbot, abbess. instructor, instructress. actor. actress. Jew, Jewess. adulterer, adulteress, . lion, lioness. arbiter, arbitress. Marquis, Marchioness. baron, baroness: . Master. Mistress. benefactor, benefac- tress. patron, patroness. conductor, conductress, poet, poetesp. count. countess. priest, priestess. deacon, deaconess. prince, princess. duke, duchess. prophet, prophetess. Emperor, Empress. shepherd, shepherdess. giant, giantess.. tiger, tigress. god, goddess. sultan, sultana. governor, governess . Czar, Czarina. heir, heiress. Don, Donna. host, hostess. administrator , administratrix executor, executrix. landgrave, landgravine. testator, testatrix. margrave, margravine. hero, heroine. Examples of different words placed before or after : Male relative, female relative. man servant, maid servant. turkey-cock, turkey-hen. peacock, peahen. Examples of the common, the masculine and the feminine combined: Common Masculine Feminine Person, ;. man, woman. child, * son, daughter. parent, father, mother. 40 Eastman's Practical Grammar deer, buck, doe, deer. stag, hind, deer, hart, roe, sheep, ram, ewe, hog, boar, sow, fish. milter, spawner, fowl, cock, hen, goat, he goat, she goat, kine, bull, cow. 3. Notes on Gender Some nouns which are neuter in fact, may be per- sonified, and in that case gender should be attributed according to the nature of the thing personified. If it has masculine attributes, it should be given the masculine gender; if it has feminine attributes, feminine gender; as, of the sun use he; of the moon, she; thr> ship, she-, a storm, lie, etc. The masculine is sometimes used to include both sexes, as, The heirs were not of age; The lion is fero- cious. Under tliis head may be considered such words as poet, author, actor, etc. These words are wrongly treated by many grammarians, who teach that they have lost (heir corresponding feminine forms; as, poet- ess, authoress, etc.. and are used only in the masculine. A rule may be ^iven for their use as follows: When a word implying the feminine is to be used, use the feminine form if the word stands alone, or nearly so; as, She is a poetess, or an authoress, or an actress. If, however, the word is to be associated with Eastman's Practical Grammar 41 others in such a way as to render the feminine ineu- phonious, use the masculine; as, She was the leading poet, or author of the age. To say she was the leading poetess would imply that she was foremost of the poet- esses but not of the poets; hence poetess (or authoress) in such use would be not only ineuphonious, but it would convey the wrong idea. Use the masculine in such cases. Some nouns are masculine in form, and have no corresponding feminine; as, soldier, carpenter, etc. Some nouns are feminine in form and have no cor- responding masculine; as, seamstress, milliner, etc. Masculine or feminine pronouns often refer to the names of animals according as they have masculine or feminine attributes; as, "The bear is eager for his prey;" "The rabbit hides herself m the grass." The masculine often represents both sexes, when used in a generic sense; i. e., to denote a race or kind; as, "The horse is a noble animal;" "Man was made to mourn." The neuter pronoun, it, often refers to animals, and very small children, regardless of sex; as, The child lisps its father's name; The deer broke its leg. The collective noun is neuter when reference is made to the collection, and not to the individuals; as, The mob is to be dreaded for it sweeps everything be- fore it. When reference is made to the individuals, how- ever, it is masculine when it is composed of males, feminine when composed of females, and common when composed of both. Personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are common gender, unless they are known to refer to 42 Eastman's Practical Grammar males or females; in which case they take the gender of their antecedents. Personal pronouns of the third person singular have distinct forms for the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter; as, "He is here;" "She came with him;" "It is very sweet." The personal pronoun of the third person has no form for the common gender in the singular. This is a fruitful source of error. We often hear a speaker, wishing to conceal the identity of the sex of the one spoken of. say "The one that told me said they (he or she) knew it to be true," making the pronoun they, representing more than one, refer to one only. 4. Person The noun and the pronoun have the same proper- ties, but the noun is not inflected for person at all, while the personal pronoun is inflected for each grammatical person. Person is that character of a noun or pronoun which shows whether it represents the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. Tin-: First Person denotes the speaker; as, "I, even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a decree," etc. The Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, Charles, come to church. The Third Person denotes the person or thing *poken of; as, Charles was at church. Note. A person often speaks of himself as in the third person: I am bc; We are friends; Mrs Johnson presfnts compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Tones, etc. Eastman's Practical Grammar 43 5 Number Number is that property of a noun or pronoun which indicates whether one or more than one is meant. There are two numbers, singular and plural. The Singular Number denotes one thing only. . The Plural Number denotes more than one. The plural is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular. Some nouns form their plural very irregularly; as, Man, men; goose, geese; ox, oxen, etc. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change yto i before adding es, as, City, cities; country, countries. A few nouns ending in/, or fe change / to v and add es, as, Wife, wives, knife knives; loaf, loaves. Most nouns in this class, however form their plu- rals regularly; hoof, hoofs; roof, roofs, etc. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add es; as. potato, potatoes; cargo, cargoes. Letters figures, signs, etc., form their plurals by adding f s. It is better to write out - such words in full when possible. Compound words without the. hyphen form their plurals regularly; as, cupfuls, dewdrops, cornstalks. Compounds that take the hyphen pluralize the principal part; i. e. the part modified by the rest of the word; as, sons-in-law, courts-martial, mocking-birds. Some compounds pluralize both parts of the word; as, man-servant, men-servants; ignis^-fatuus, ignes- fatui. 44 Eastman's Practical Grammar The following rule seems to conform to the best usage, in pluralizing nouns with titles: In case of titles, when more than one peison have the same name, pluralize the name if the given name or initials are omitted; as, The Dr. Dunbars, The Miss Hacklers, etc. But if the names are given with the different given names or initials, pluralize the title; as, The Drs. W. and A. Dunbar. The Misses May and Bes- sie Hackler. If the names are different, pluralize the title; as. Messrs. Brown and Smith. Nouns from foreign languages usually retain their original plurals. (a) Nouns from the Latin, ending in U8, change us td Ex. radius, racii; terminus, termini; focus, foci, etc. (b) Nouns from Latin, ending in um or on, change to a; as, erratum, errata; automaton, automata, etc. (e) Nouns from Latin, ending in is, change is to 88 or idea; as, thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides, etc. (d) Nouns from Latin, ending in x change to 088 ; as, index, indices; calix, calices, etc. Shnu nun, is hare two plurals irith different mean- ing. „ ., 1 brothers, (in family). Brothers, \ I brethren; (in church). ,, 1 cannons, (separate guns). ( annon, I cannon. ( pieces ot artillery, I flies, blacksmiths' instruments for Die cutting screws). I dice, (cubes use for gaming). Eastman's Practical Grammar 45 t^-i. j fishes, (in number). * lsn ' I fish, (in quantity). Genius, i geniuses, (men of genius) . { genii, (spirits). Head j heads, (parts of the body). [ head, (of cattle). Horse S horses, (animals). \ horse, (mounted soldiers). Inelex J indexes, (in books). ( indices, (algebraic characters) . p ennv f pennies, (pieces of money). ( pence, (expression of value). Some nouns have two plurals with the same mean- ing: Bandit, banditti or bandits; Cherub, cherubim or cherubs; Encomium, encomia or encomiums; Formula, formulae or formulas. 6. Notes on Number. Some nouns have no singular; as, Tongs, gallows, pants. Some nouns have no plural; as, Molasses, gold, purity. Names of substances are singular, but they may be pluralized when the different kinds or divisions are meant; as, I examined his wines, his steels; He has too many irons in the fire; He has sailed on many waters. Some nouns have the same form for both numbers; as, One deer, ten deer; also sheep, swine, etc. 46 Eastman's Practical Grammar 7 Definitions Inflection is the changing of the form of a word. Gender is the property a noun or pronoun has with regard to sex.- Masculine Gender is that character of a noun or pronoun which implies the male se.\. Feminine Gender is that character of a noun or a pronoun which implies the female sex. The Neuter Gender is the character of a noun or pronoun which shows it to be c >mmon, in its applica- tion, to botli sexes. PERSON is that character of a noun or a pronoun which shows whether it represents the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. The First Person is the property which shows that the speak* r is meant. The Second Person is the property which sh >ws that the one spoken to is meant. The Third Person is the property which shows that the person or thing spoken <>ms meant. NUMBER is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows whether one, or more than one, is meant. The Singular Number is the property of a noun or pronoun that shows that only one is meant. The Plural Number is the property of a noun or pron i hi' m >iv than one are meant. EXERCISE I. Point out the nouns and pronouns and name the classes to which tl ey bt long: Tell the ami, if masculine or feminine. give the opposite gender form. Tell the number, giv- ing the opposite number form: also cell the person. 1. McKinley was brutal!) ited. -• ^ Vt ' Eastman's Practical Grammar 47 never know ourselves. 3. You are my friends. 4. I live at the terminus of the road. 5. James killed a buck in a thicket, 6. We have sufncent data to pro- ceed. 7. Rome was saved by the cackling of geese. 8. This was an unkind cut. 9. Each protected his own home. 10. ' 'Many are called but few are chosen . ' ' 11. The landlady presented her bill. 12. The molas- ses is scorched and this injures its taste. 13. The gentlemen wore black pants. 14. Who said, "I would rathe** be right than president?" 15. The horse is a friend that seldom disobeys his master. 16. The sun drives his golden chariot across the heavens. 17. The moon smiles in her beauty. 18. The city was in flames. 19. That calf has lost its mother. 20. The ignis-f atuus has been a source of fright to the ignorant people, who thought it an apparition. REVIEW 1. 1. What is gender? 2. Tke masculine? 3. The feminine? 4. The neuter? 5. The common? 6. What is person? 7. The first person? 8. The sec- ond? 9. The third? 10. What is number? 11. The singular number? 12. The plural number? 13. How many ways of distinguishing between the masculine and the feminine? What are they? 14. How may neuter nouns have gender ascribed to them? 15. How may the masculine be made to include both sexes? 16. What is taught with reference to such words as poet, author, actor, etc., used for both sexes? 17. Give some nouns that are masculine only. 18. Feminine only. 19. Give the substance of notes on gender. 20. Ex- plain the generic use of nouns. 21. How is the gen- der of small children and animals often considered? 22. What pronoun then refers to them? 23. Explain how the gender of the collective noun is treated. .24 48 Eastman's Practical Grammar What is the gender of the personal pronouns of the first and second person? 25. What gender form is want- ing in third person singular of personal pronouns? 26. Explain the error to which this often leads. 27. How is the plural number regularly formed? 28. Illustrate some irregular formations. 29. How form the plural of nouns ending in y, in/, or/e? 30. Latin deriviation in a? in us? in is? in xl 31. How form the plural of letters, figures, etc? 32. Is there a better way? 33. How form the plural of compound words? 34. How pluralize in case of titles? 35. Give the list of double plurals. 36. Give an example of a noun which has no plural. 37. No singular. ?>8. When may the names of substances be pluralized? 39. Give some noun which has the same form for both numbers. To The Tp.achp.r — Take your time on this review and work it up thoroughly. Divide into a> many lessons as may be necessary. Eastman's Practical Grammar 49 8. Case. Case is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows its relation to other words. Nominative, Objective. Subject, Predicate after an intransitive verb, Predicate after an intransitive participle, Independent by address, Independent by exclamation, Independent by pleonasm , Absolute. Ownership, Authorship, Origin, and Kind. Obj. of a transitive verb, Obj. of a transitive participle, Obj of a preposition, Indirect object or Eng. dative. Object subject of an infinitive, Object predicate after infinitive Complement, Independent, Adverbial, Cognate The noun is not completely inflected for case; that is, it has not a different form for each case. The nom- inative and objective are alike in form; their difference being in construction. 50 Eastman's Practical Grammar The possessive is formed by adding 's to most nouns in the singular, and the (') alone to plural nouns ending in "s". If a noun in the singular number contains as many as two hissing sounds, its possessive case is formed by adding the (') only; as, Moses' law. Some nouns in the singular that have but one hiss- ing sound, (aspirate), if it be at the last, take the (') only; as, Barnes' History. This is a matter of taste. The personal pronoun, and the ielative and inter- rogative, who, are thoroughly inflected for case. 9. The Nominative Case. The Nominative Case has seven constructions: 1st. It may be the subject of the verb, as ex- plained on a previous page. 2nd. It may come after the copula to complete the predicate; as, It is Father. I am the wan, etc. 3rd. It may be used as a complement after a par- ticiple, thus completing an assumed predicate, instead of an asserted predicate. Take the following: "I had no thought that it was John." Here John is nomina- tive predicate after the copula was. Again, "I had no thought of its being John." Here the copula verb is converted into a participle, but the word John bears the same relation as before, that of nominative predi- cate. Intransitive verbs take this construction. 4th. It may be used independently: fa) By address; as, Mary, bring me some water. (b) By exclamation; ss, 0, Father! Father! (c) /.'.'/ pleoniasm; as, "John, he was a piper's son." Eastman's Practical Grammar 51 (d) Absolute with a participle; as, The general being wounded, the army retreated. The first of the group, address, may be explained as follows: When we speak to anyone or anything and call the name, such name is put in the nominative case independent; as, My friends, I must leave you. The nominative independent by exclamation, is the use of a noun as an exclamation. We may use a noun as an exclamation and as an address, at the same time. In such case, it should be considered, according to the leading idea as independent by address, or by exclama- tion. The nominative independent by pleonasm is, as the name suggests, a superfluity. It is the use of a noun and a pronoun together, either of which would be the subject if used alone, but for poetic measure, or for emphasis, both are used and the pronoun becomes the subject; leaving the noun independent in] its construc- tion. "The night, it was dark and the wind, it was high;" The prisoner at the bar, he is as innocent as you. Note. To understand the nominative absolute, and also the nomina" tive predicate after an intransitive participle, it is necessary that there be given here some explanation of the participle: We have seen that the verb expresses action, being or state. We have further seen that it makes an as- sertion about the subject. The verb thus used is called the finite verb. The participle is a kind of "hybrid" or "cross" be- tween the finite verb and the adjective, or the finite verb and the noun; partaking of the nature of both at once. The imperfect participle always ends in "ing,"and the perfect participle, if regular, ends in ed. 52 Eastman's Practical Grammar The finite verb asserts a predication, the participle merely assumes a predication. In, " The general being wounded, the army retreated," two predications are made; one, that the general was wounded; the other, that the army retreated; but the first of these is not asserted, as the general ivas wounded, but assumed, taken for granted. The nominative absolute is the use of a noun or pronoun with a participle, to express an additional, as- sumed predication, implying an attendant circumstance; as, My Father arriving, the trouble was over. 10. The Possessive Case The Possessive Case denotes: (a) Possession; as, Father's horse; My ball. (b) Authorship; as, Webster's Dictionary. (c) Origin; as. Mariotte's law; The moon's rays. (d) Kind; as. Men's hats; I sell boy's shoes and suits. 11. The Objective Case Tin noun may be in the objective ease in ten d[tf> ways: (a) The Object of a Transitive Verb is that use of a noun or pronoun which represents the object as receiving the act as exerted by the subject; as, Mary writes a letter; They burned Moscow; She studies Grammar. Eastman's Practical Grammar 53 (b) The Object of a Transitive Participle is the object of an assumed predication, instead of an as- serted one; as, I found my friend writing a letter', Were the citizens wrong in burning Moscow? (c) The Object of a Preposition is the object of a relation instead of an action. It is the word following the preposition, which forms the base of the phrase; as; He walked into the garden; A rose between two thorns; In the house; Under the table. (d) The Indirect Object has been wrongly sup- posed by some authors, to be the object of the preposi- tion to or for understood. A comparison of our lan- guage with other languages will satisfy any one that it is merely a dative. We may call it the English Dative. The Indirect Object or English Dative is that use of a noun or pronoun after verbs of giving* which shows the action indirectly received. It is placed be- fore the direct object in the same sentence. If we move this object from before the direct object to a place after it, the preposition to or for must be used. Examples: Please give me your name. Changed, Give your name to me. Pass John the bread. Chang- ing the position, Pass the bread to John. Write him a letter; Write a letter to him. Solve me this problem; Solve this problem for me. When placed after the direct object, it is not an indirect object or dative but the direct object of a preposition. *The word dative comes from the Latin word dare The third person singular of this Laiin word is DAT. Hence dativk. This Latin words means "he gives." Hence, nouns and pronouns after verbs of giv- ing are in the dative case, or are indirect objects. By giving we mean aU such words as have this signification. '-Pass John the bread", means give John the bread, in a sense, so with, "write me a letter", give me, etc. 54 Eastman's Practical Grammar The Objective Complement completes the pred- icate and refers to the same person or thing as the ob- ject. In the two sentences: "They made the wall white", They whitened the wall", the meaning is the same. Now placing the two sentences together and lhey made the wall white, r I hey whitened the wall. taking away the same words from both, it leaves whitened=made white. "White here completes the verb made, as they did not make the wall, but "madewhite" or"whitened" it. White, here, is a complement. Ncnms an also used as complements, as well as adji dives. Take the sentences, They made Victoria queen, and, They crowned Victoria. Taking away the same words from both sentences, we have modi queen equal to crowned. Queen here is a complement of made, and since it refers to the same person (Victoria) as the object it is an Objective Cask COMPLEMENT. The Objective Case Subject of an Infinitive is the noun or pronoun used as the subject of an infini- tive, which is another form of assumed predication; unlike the participle, in that it has a different form, being merely the root form of the verb preceded by the word to expressed or understood; as, to write, to eat, to walk, etc. It makes an implied predication. Examples of objective subject: He desired Labienus to occupy the hill. He ordered his servant to saddle the horse. In the sentence, "He desired that his son should be a lawyer." we see from what has already been Eastman's Practical Grammar 55 taught, that lawyer is nominative predicate, beeause it is in the predicate and refers to the same thing as the subject, son. In the sentence, "He desires his son to be a law- yer," taking away the words common to both sentences, and the conjunction, that, we find that lawyer is still in the predicate; but because the subject of the infini- tive verb, (son) is objective, lawyer is also objective and is The Objective Predicate. The Objective Independent is merely the use of the pronoun me, as an exclamation; as, 0, me! Ah me! Me miserable! When a noun is used as an adverb to tell when, where, to what extent, etc. , it is put in the Objective Case Adverbial; as, He went home; He came yester- day; I live ten miles from the city; The river rose two feet. The old plan of trying to supply prepositions in such constructions has gone out of use. The Cognate Objective is the use of a noun with a verb of kindred signification; as, He ran a race; I have fought the good fight; He must die the death. In such a construction, a verb that is intransitive by na- ture becomes transitive by use. 12. Notes on Case. Nouns and pronouns of the third person are in the nominative case when used as exclamations; as, mis- ery! must I lose that too? thou! etc. When the first person is used as an exclamation, it is in the objective case; as, Ah me! 56 Eastman* s Practical Grammar POSSESSIVE. Compounds take the possessive sign at the last; as, Son-in-law's book. When two or more nouns together are in the pos- sessive, add the sign to each, if the possession is not common; if it is common add the sign to the last only. Mary's and Susan's father (not sisters). Mary and Susan's father (sisters). Caudle and Shelby's store. Banister's {store understood) and Davenport's store. A possessive followed immediately by a preposi- tional phrase, does not take the sign, but it is placed upon the object of the preposition; as, The Secretary of State's business; The Queen of England's death. The adjective else takes the sign in such express, ions as, Do not mind anyone else's business. The sign is not used with personal and relative pro- nouns, but it is used with some adjective pronouns; as, One's opportunity; Another's offense. The name of the object possessed is often under- stood: as. I went to my brother's (home). Such expressions as, A friend of mine, has friends understcod; as, A friend of my friends; but such ex- pressions as, That father of mine is idiomatic, we would not say, That father of my fathers. In case of apposition, the appositive generally takes the sign. 13. Apposition A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun, or in any way to identify it, must be in the Eastman's Practical Grammar 57 same case as the word modified. Such a noun or pro- noun is called an appositive, EXAMPLES. Nominative, Wilson, the jeweler, calls. Possessive, His majesty, the King's, decree. Objective. I called on Wilson, the jeweler. Declension: Nouns are declined to denote num- ber and case. Singular. Plural. Nom. Boy, Boys, Pos. boy's, boys', Obj. boy, boys. Singular. Plural. Nom. Mary, (None) Pos. Mary's, Obj. Mary. 14. Definitions A Property of a part of speech is whatever be- longs to it. Inflection is the change of form a word under- goes on account of some property. A Noun is a name. Gender is the property of a noun or pronoun that has reference to sex. The Masculine Gender is the property a noun or pronoun has, to denote the male sex. The Feminine Gender is the property a noun or a pronoun has, to denote the female sex. 58 Eastman's Practical Grammar The Neuter Gender is the property that a noun or a pronoun has, to be applied to that which is neithe r male nor female. The Common Gender is the property a noun or a pronoun has that makes its application common to both sexes. Person is the property of a noun or pronoun that shows whether the speaker, the person or thing spok- en to, or the person or thing spoken of, is meant. The First Person is the property that denotes the speaker. The Second Person is the property that denotes the one spoken to. The Third Person is the property that denotes the one spoken of. Number is the property of a noun or pronoun that shows whether one, or more than one, is meant. The Singular Number is the form of a noun or a pronoun that denotes one only. The PLURAL NuMBEB is the form of a noun or a pronoun which denotes more than one. Case is that property of a noun or pronoun that shows its relation to other words in the sentence. The Nominative Case is the property that repre- sents the noun or pronoun as the subject, or the pred- icate, (the complement) or as having an independent construction. The Nominative Subject is the use of the noun or pronoun as the subject of a sentence. The Nominative Predicate is that use of the noun or pronoun that makes it the complement of eith- er an assumed, or an asserted predicate. Eastman's Practical Grammar 59 The Nominative Independent is that use of a noun or pronoun that renders it independent in con- struction; such as, address, exclamation, and pleonasm. The Nominative Absolute is the use of a noun or a pronoun with a participle, so as to express (an at- tendant circumstance. The Possessive Case is used to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind. The Objective Case is used for the most part, to denote the object of an action or a relation. The Object of a Transitive Verb or a Partici- ple is the noun or pronoun which denotes that to which the act is done. The Object of a Preposition is a noun or pro- noun that follows the preposition as the base of the phrase. The Indirect Object or English Dative is the noun or pronoun used to show that to or for which something is done, or to be done,, without the use of a preposition. The Objective Complement is the noun or pro- noun used to complete the predicate, and represent the same person or thing as the object. The Objective Subject is -the use of a noun or pronoun as the subject of an infinitive. The Objective Predicate is a noun or pronoun used after an intransitive infinitive to refer to the same person or thing as the objective subject before it. The Objective Independent is the pronoun me used as an exclamation. The Objective Adverbial is a ndun or pronoun used as an adverb. ' ■ 60 Eastman's Practical Grammar The Cognate Object is the use of an object with a verb of kindred signification. EXERCISE IN GENDER II. Tell the gender of the following nouns and pronouns, and correct such errors as occur: 1. She was the administrator of the estate. 2. The milter deposits the eggs, but the spawner assists her to guard them. 8. The gobbler peafowl is proud of his tail. 4. The sun shines in her glory. 5. They were brothers in the church. 6. The lion roars in her an- ger. 7. A friend is known by their actions. (The common noun so used should be followed by the mas- culine pronoun, A friend is known by his, etc.) EXERCISE IN NUMBER III. Tell the number, and correct the errors of the f 61- Unving nouns and pronoun&t and give reasons: 1. It is ten mile to town. 2. That well is forty foot deep. 3. That pole is ten foot high. 4. That is a thirty-foot rope. (Correct; when a noun preceded by a numeral is used as an adjective, it must be in the singular.) 5. This is a ten-inch globe. 6. Many citys lie in ruins in the old world. 7. A bushel of po- tatos. 8. These molasses are excellent. 9. This is the best pant in the market. 10. Let us swap knifes. 11. Dot your "is" and cross your "te;" change your ■ s to -8 and include all in parenthesises. 12. They are brothers in the church. 13. Go to the blacksmith and borrow Ins dice to cut those screws. 14. He bought a wagon load of fishes. 15. Take two spoons full of this mixture. 16. Bring two arms full of wood. 17. I have two son-in-laws. 18. The Drs. Johnson. Eastman 's Practical Grammar 61 EXERCISE IN CASE IV. 1. Gentlenen of the Jury: I am the prisoners' defence. You cannot consider him a guilty man, with the proofs before you. mercy! Has Justice fled? He has lived a Christian life, but is tried this day for his life. Give us justice. His wife, she could not have been his accomplice. But I want you to be the judges, etc. 2. The provisions exhausted, we marched to the next town. 3. Which do you prefer, Websters' or Worcesters* dictionary? 4. Perhaps they are wolves in sheep's clothing. 5. My son's- in- laws advice, 6. 0, that mother-in-law of mine. 7. Mary's and Ellen's book. (Both own one book.) 8. Mary and Susan's mother (not sisters). 9. Paul's the apostles letters, 10. The Duke's of Buckinghams opinion. 11. Johnson sells mens' hats. 12. The moons' pale light. PARSING EXERCISE V. Parse all the nouns and pronouns, giving their classes and properties: Order of Parsing: Name and class, Gender, Person, Number, Case. Construction. Model,— Subject and Object: "John caught a rat in the trap". John is a proper noun, masculine gender, third 62 Eastman's Practical Grammar person singular number, and in the nominative case, the subject of caught. Rat is a common noun, common gender, third person, singular number, in the objective case, the object of caught. Trap is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and objective case, object of the preposition in. EXAMPLES. John threw the ball into the garden; Lillie broke her doll; He tore the leaf from his book. Model , — Possess ive case. "Henry's father lost his friend's bridle." Henry's is a proper noun, masculine ge.ider, third person, singular number, and in the possessive case modifying the noun father. His is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, third person singular number, possessive case, mod if y- mgfriend8. Friend's is a common noun, common gender, third person, singular number, in the possessive cas e, modifying bridte. EXAMPLES. My brother heard of his loss yesterday; I bought my suit at Davenport's (store); Amelia's doll lies in Jane's cradle; where is mine. Model, Indirect Object: "Write me a letter from home." Me is a personal pronoun, common gender, third person, singular number, in the objective case, indirect object of write. Eastman's Practical Grammar 63 EXAMPLES. Lend me your ears; Son, give me thy heart; I wrote John a long letter; Please pass the butter to Willie (not indirect object) ; Please pass Willie the but- ter. M parsing the other objectives, parse as above, but give the case as follows: If the complement, say, it is in the objective case, the complement of such a verb'. If a subject of an infinitive, say, objective case, subject of the infinitive, etc. If it is objective predi- cate, say, objective case, predicate after the infinitive. If independent say, objective independent by exclama- tion. If adverbial, say, objective adverbial, modifying- etc. If cognate, say, objective cognate with such and such verb. Of the nominative independent, parse as any nom- inative but saying nominative independent by address, exclamation, pleonasm; or nominative absolute with the participle, etc. If a nominative predicate, say, nom- inative predicate after the intransitive verb. Classify the following nouns and pronouns: 1. Caesar was a general and statesman but he lost his life through treachery. 2. The committee was appointed to attend to the matter, but the question was still unsettled; and another committee put forth their best efforts, and all was adjusted by their agreeing among themselves, etc. 3. His goodness hurts him. 4. Chopping is tiresome work. 5. Gold is more precious than silver. 6. Co- lumbus discovered America. 7. The United States Congress adjourned, (Collective proper noun) . 8. I did not dream of its being John. 9. "The boy, where was he?" 10. "Father forgive them." 11. 0, Heaven! my bleeding country save. 12. "Give me 64 Eastman's Practical Grammar a home in the far distant West." 13. I saw Esau kissing Kate. 14. We made McKinley president. 15. They called him a fool. 16. We wanted him to be a gentleman. 17. The river is a mile wide; I crossed it yesterday. 18. Sleep the sleep that knows no waking. 19. "In my Father's house are many mansions." REVIEW QUESTIONS. 2. 1. What is case? 2. The nominative? 3. The possessive? 4. The objective? 5. Illustrate the nominative subject. 6. Define and illustrate the nom- inative predicate, nominative independent by address, by exclamation, by pleonasm; the nominative absolute. 7. Define the possessive case. 8- Illustrate the pos- sessive denoting (a) possession, (b) authorship, (c) origin, (d) kind. 9. How is the possessive formed in the singular? The plural? 10. How in case of sev- eral nouns denoting possession not common? 11. In compounds? 12. In appositives? 13. In case a pos- sessive is followed immediately by a prepositional phrase? U. Define and illustrate the object of a transitive verb; of a preposition. 15. The indirect object or English dative. 16. The objective comple- ment. 17. The objective subject; predicate. 18. The objective adverbial; independent. 19. The cog- nate object. Eastman's Practical Grammar 65 15. Adjectives. 1 Positive degree, Qualifying < Comparative degree, I. Superlative degree. ADJECTIVES ^ Descriptive < Compound, ' I Participial. Demonstrative. Distributive, I Indefinite. Limiting /Numeral.. \ Cardinal, Mulptiplicative. icle. ... | Definite— "the 1 ' , I Indefinite— "a" or "an ' As has been shown in Part I of this work, an ad- jective is a word used to qualify a noun or a pronoun, or to limit its application. Any word placed with the noun to make one know more about the thing represented by the noun, is an adjective. When I speak the word "apple," you form an idea of the object, but when I say Red apple, you know still more; and, Large red apple still more. Sometimes the additional meaning is very obscure; as, "Even John could solve that problem." Here even conveys the idea of John that he is no very great mathematician. If a word conveys any additional meaning to a noun or pronoun, be it much or little, such a word is an adjective- A Qualifying Adjective is used to express the quality of a thing. A Descriptive Adjective is used to describe 66 Eastman's Practical Grammar without expressing quality; as, A seafaring man; A ivillow tree; French soldiers. The Limiting Adjective does not describe, but merely limits the application of the noun. When I say "this knife" I limit the application of knife to this particular knife and no other. 16. Comparison. The qualifying adjective is inflected for comparison regularly as follows: Words of one syllable, and some dissyllables, add er for the comparative and est for the superlative. Nouns ending in e drop the e on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, is a rule of spelling; hence an adjective ending in e drops the e before adding cr and est; as, brave, brav-er, brav-est. Some adjectives prefix more or most for com- parison ascending, and less or least for compar- ison descending; as, graceful, more graceful, most graceful; or. graceful, less graceful, least graceful. 17. Notes on Qualifying and Descriptive Adjectives. Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and are called proper adjectives. A slight degree of qualitv is expressed by adding ish or y or by prefixing rather, somewhat, etc.; as, blu- ish, salty, rather large, somewhat handsome. Some adjectives have a superlative signification and hence, are not compared; as, supreme, universal, etc. Eastman's Practical Grammar 67 Some adjectives that have a superlative meaning are compared because they are used to imply, not that the object has the quality in full, but only approxi- mates it; as, perfect, white, black, round, thorough, etc. Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives; as, A gold ring. Some adjectives are formed from nouns by the addition of like or ly; as, Godlike, kingly, etc. A participle placed immediately before the word it modifies loses its verb nature to some extent, and be- comes a participial adjective; as, The rising sun. A superlative is sometimes used without a compari- son with anything else, but merely to express a great degree of quality. It may then be called an absolute superlative. 18. Cautions. 1. Avoid double comparison; as, He is more wiser. 2. Avoid the erroneous use of "other" with com- paratives and superlatives. Solomon was wiser than any man, means that he was wiser than himself or that he was not a man. "The serpent was more subtile than any beast of the field", means that he was not a beast of the field. Had he been a beast of the field it should have been, "The serpent was more subtile than any other beast of the field." Solomon was the wisest of all other men, is wrong, as he was not of other men. Solomon was the wisest of men, or the wisest man. 3. Do not use adjectives for adverbs; as, I feel badly. Do not make adjectives modify the wrong word; as, Have you any gray ladies' gloves. 68 Eastman's Practical Grammar EXERCISE V. Correct the errors by the above principles: 1. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 2. The horse is more stronger than man. 3. Washington was more patriotic than any man. 4. Mathematics is the most fascinating of all other sciences. 5. They arrived safely. 6. The rose smells sweetly. 7. The air looks coldly. 8. I want a black spool of thread. 9. Give me a hot cup of coffee. 19. Notes on the Limiting Adjectives This: and these refer to something near the speaker, that and those to something remote; as, this is my ball, that is yours. Also: This and these refer to the last mentioned of two things; that and those to the first mentioned; as, Both poverty and wealth are temptations: this excites pride, that discontent. Fore has the comparsion former, foremost or first, although the for mer and first are limiting adjectives which generally are without comparsion. Also latter is a comparative of late— superlative last. Each, every, cither, neither, such a, many a, etc., followed by nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the singu- lar, as, Every blade of grass, every shrub, and every tree was robbed of its vitality. Either means one of two; any, more than two. So with neither and none. Other, like this and. that, is inflected for number. Eastman's Practical Grammar 69 Few and little have very different meanings, ac- cording as they are used with or without the article a. Example: He acted so badly that he had few friends; You will find, by aski \g, that he has a few friends. The three first pages would mean that the book has more than one first page. Say, the first three. The ordinal must precede the cardinal. 20. The Article. A, an, and the are adjectives and belong to a class known as the article. A or an are contractions of the old word ane. When used before a vowel sound, the e only is dropped; but when used before a consonant sound n and e are both dropped. Hence, use a before consonants, and an before vowels. A or an modifies a noun in the singular number only. The may be used before nouns either singular or plural. Because a or an refers to no particular thing, but is taken in an indefinite sense, it is called the indefinite article. The is called the definite article because it points out some particular thing. Notes on the article : The is an adverb when used with correlatives ; as, The more we talk, the more we find to say. A is sometimes a preposition ; as, He drove the team afield, i. e., into the field. 70 Eastman's Practical Grammar When it is desired to distribute the qualities be- longing to the different things, we should repeat the article; as, A white and black cow means a spotted cow; but a white and a black cow means two cows; one white and the other black. CAUTIONS: 1. Do not use a before vowel sounds, and an before consonant sounds. 2. Do not use a before a generic term; as, A lion is the king of beasts. 3. Avoid using the pronoun them for the adjective those. 4. Avoid using this here and that there for this and thai. 5. Avoid placing the cardinal before the ordinal in such expressions as the three first. 6. Avoid the omission of the article when needed; as, A large and small man. 7. Avoid using a few, etc., tot few, etc. 8. Avoid a plural adjective before a singular noun. Correct these errors: 1. Envy and malice are evils; this causes us to covet, that to hate. 2. A ink stand. 3. A hour. (h is silent.) 4. A horse is the noblest of all other animals. 5. Them marbles are mine. 6. Those mo- lasses are bright and clear. 7. This here line is par- allel to that there line. 8. You may gather the three first rows, and I will take the two last ones. 9. A red and black flag waved over the fort, (two flags.) 10. He has been doing so well that he has little money. 11. Every man were killed. Eastman's Practical Grammar 71 EXERCISE. VI. Classify aud parse all the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives; giving the properties of the nouns, and com- paring the qualifying adjectives. 1. I spent my happiest hours at that old spot. 2. A grayteh tint is seen at dawn, 3. That mule has fits. 4. Everything that has animal life has spirit. 5. Many people went to the baptism of John. 6. The first man takes nine apples. 7. She was a most beau- tiful woman. REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. 1. Define every term in the diagram on page 65. 2. Give the substance of the notes on the qualifying adjective, the teacher aiding your memory at the be- ginning of each. 3. Also give the notes on the limit- ing adjective in the same way. 21. The Pronoun. Personal, J Simple, Compound . Relative, } g^,. PRONOUNS < Interrogative, Demonstrative, Indefinite, , Distributive. ( _ 1 ' w™«. J Cardinal, Ordinal. 72 Eastman's Practical Grammar A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. DECLENSION. Common Form Simple Personal FIRST PERSON. Singular Plural Norn. I, Nom. We, Pos. My or Mine, Pos. Our or Ours, Obj. Me. Obj. Us. SECOND PERSON. Singular Plural Nom. You, Nom. You, Pos. Your or Yours, Pos. Your or Yours, Obj. You. 06/. You. THIRD PERSON— Mainline and Feminine. Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Masculine or Feminine Nom. He, She, Nom. They, Pos. His, Her or Hers, Pos. Their or Theirs, Obj. Him. Her. Obj. Them. THIRD PERSON— Nevtn: Singular Plural Nom. It, Nom. They, Pos. Its, Pos. Their or Theirs, Ofiy. It. Obj. Them, Eastman's Practical Grammar 73 Add self or selves to the possessive case of the first and second person, and to the objective case of the third, for the compound personal pronouns. These have the nominative and objective cases only, which arealike. Myself, yourself, himself, themselves, etc. 22. Relative Pronouns. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which intro- duces a subordinate clause and relates to an antecedent in such a way as to connect this clause to the leading or principal proposition. In the sentence, "The man who steals cannot be trusted, " who stands for the word man. Supplying the equivalent, we have: The man cannot be trusted — the man steals. The conjunction for might be used to connect them; thus, The man cannot be trusted for the man steals. Now for is a subordinate conjunction, and if the relative form be restored, we find that who supplies the place of the noun man, and also of the conjunction, and, hence, has a connecting force. Because of this, some authors call }'t a conjunctive pronoun; better name than relative pronoun, but relative is bet- ter known. The relatives are who, which, that, what, as, and the compounds. DECLENSION. Singular and Plural. Singular or Plural Singular or Plural Nom. Who, Nom. Which, Pos. Whose, Pos. Whose, Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. 74 Eastman's Practical Grammar Singular or Plural. Nom. Whoever, Pos. Whosever, Obj. Whomever. The compound relatives are declined like the sim- ple relatives with the addition of ever, soever or so. What, that and as, are indeclinable. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what, when used to introduce a question. Some authors define them as being who, etc., "used in questions." This is incorrect. In the question, "Where is the man who stole the sheep?" who is not an interrogative, and yet it occurs in a question. The interrogatives are declined like the relatives. The word for which an interrogative stands is a subse- quent. 23. Long Forms. It is interesting to notice how the pronoun is in- flected, or changed, when an ellipsis occurs. The personal pronoun in the possessive, takes the long form. Example: This child is my child (common form); This child is mine (elliptical). From this we mav give the following rule: Use the short form of the personal pronoun in the posses- sive case, when the name of the thing possessed is ex- pressed. Use the long form mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, Eastman's Practical Grammar 75 theirs, etc., when the name of the thing possessed is understood. Some authors say that mine, thine, yours, etc., are simply nominative or objective. We think this very illogical, to say the least. Take the sentence, ' 'Mary, Charles is carrying his load and yours," can we make yours the object of carries, and ignore its possessive nature? Besides, for what does yours stand? Or, if you please, what is its antecedent? Evidently, Mary. Now supplying Mary in the place of yours, Mary would be the object if yours is, for we may logically inter- change the pronoun and its antecedent. Again, others say that it stands for the possessive, and the name of the thing possessed. I ask, in the name of logic, if it stands for both, as in the above example it would stand for Mary and the noun load, what gender has it, since one is neuter and the other feminine? The only logical treatment of such forms is an in- flection which denotes omission; as, Charles is carrying his load and yours (load) . The compound relatives are long forms used when the antecedent is understood— not embraced in them. Which changes to what when the antecedent is understood, not embraced in what. Common Form. Inflected Form* This is my hat, This is mine (hat) . We found your knife, We found yours (knife). You strike your child. I will strike mine (child). In scripture and poetry, mine and thine are used before the name of the object possessed, if it begins with a vowel; as. Thine enemies; Mine eyes; otherwise the long form is not used with the noun expressed. *In parsing the long form of the possessive say it is a long form used to denote that the name of the thing possessed is omitted. 76 Eastman's Practical Grammar Common Form. The person who comes will stay. Take the things which he gives you. Inflected Formt (Person) Whoever comes will stay. Take (the things) what he gives you. Here we see that which is used in the first sentence and the antecedent is expressed, and what in the second, after an omitted antecedent, as who and whoever next preceding. The common way of treating what is to make it equivalent to that which, and treat these last two words instead of which. As the doctor who said he could not cure chills, but could throw the patient into fits and cure the fits; so these authors say they cannot parse what, but they can throw ii into that which and parse that which. Sometimes the antecedent is omitted without changing the form of the pronoun; as, "Who steals my purse steals trash." Which, what and that, are often pure adiectives; as, Which man will go? What reason did he give? What is sometimes an interjection; as, What! Dare you say that? As is a relative after many, such, and same, fParse "whai" and the compound relatives as reeling to antecedents understood. Eastman's Practical Grammar 77 24. Adjective Pronouns. Adjective Pronouns, or Pronominal Adjectives, are mere limiting adjectives used for the nouns they would modify if they were expressed. The article and the adjective every are not pro- nouns. One and other are declined like nouns; thus, Nom. One, Pos. One's, Obj. One. 25. Models for Parsing. The manner of parsing a personal pronoun in its common form was shown in a previous lesson. Long Form: Example; "This ball is mine." Mine is personal pronoun, common gender, first person, singular number, in the possessive case— long form — modifying a noun understood. Simple Relatives : ' 'Those who consume the amounts which they earn remain poor. ' ' Who is a relative pronoun, relating to the word those for its antecedent, common gender, third person, singular number, in the nominative case to consume. Which is a relative pronoun, relating to amounts for an ante- cedent, third person, singular number, in the objective case, the object of the transitive verb earn. '* Whoever is invited will come." Whoever \s a compound relative pronoun, relating to an antecedent understood, common gender, third person, singular number, nominative case to is invited. "Take what Comes." What is a relative pro- 78 Eastman's Practical Grammar noun, a form used for which when the antecedent is omitted; neuter gender, third person, singular num- ber, nominative case to comes. EXERCISE VII. Parse the nowis, adjectives and pronouns: 1. "Who steals my purse steals trash; it is some- thing — nothing; it was mine, it is his, and has been slave to many. ' ' 2. Whoever would be happy, must be honest. 3. Is he the gentleman of whom you spoke? 4. "Lives there a man with soul so dead, who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land'?" 5. What, am I to be reproved by you? 6. What shall I say? 7. Tell me what you want, poor man. 26. Notes on Pronouns. 1. Do not use they to refer to a singular noun. This is a common error with nouns of the common gen- der; as, Every student must prepare their own work. Always use the masculine in such case, unless the in- dividuals are known to be females. .'. Never use the compound personal pronoun ex- cept in a reflexi as, I hurt myself; or in em- phasis; as, I myself did that. 3. "We" often refers to a singular noun, or stands for the name of a tingle person. It is used in this way by editors and public speakers. "We think there should be retrenchment;" We arise to address you, etc." b. "Methinks" for I think, is an idiom peculiar to poetry. Eastman's Practical Grammar 79 , 5. ' ' What" is sometimes an adverb equivalent to partly. "What with work and what with worry, lam exhausted." 6. Excepting the ivords "one" and "other", no pronoun, of whatever class, takes the sign of the possessive. 7. Do not use objective forms of pronouns as sub- jects of sentences, or nominative forms as objects. 8. Do not use the solemn style with the common form; as, If you will go, I will go with thee. 9. Use "who" to refer to persons, "which" to refer to animals and inanimate objects, and "that" to refer to persons, animals or inanimate objects. 10. "That" must always be used instead of "who" or "which", (a) When a clause is closely restrictive. (b) When there would be a repetition of who; as, Who who repents? (c) After adjectives in the superlative degree; as, He was the wisest man who (that) ever lived, (d) After two antecedents; one a person and the other an animal or an inanimate object; as, The man and the dog who passed (use "that"). 11. Do not use "you all" for "you" except for emphasis. EXERCISE VIII. Correct the errors, giving reasons: 1. Every teacher must attend to their own depart- ment. 2. An enemy is sure to get in their work. 3. May Lula and myself study together? 4. It's color is too dark. 5. May him and I go? 6. Let you and I go. 7. They sent for Mary and I. 8. Between you and I, he is dishonest. 9. You may go abroad to get thine education. 10. Our Father which art in Heaven. 11. The woman and the pony which we saw 80 Eastman's Practical Grammar in the circus. 12. That is the thing what I wanted. 13. John and myself went. 14. I hurt me with that stick. 15. I went to you all's house. REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. 1. Make the diagram, page 71, showing the divi- sion of the pronoun and its classes, and define each term; remembering that the adjective pronoun is the limiting adjective used for the noun; hence, the defini- tions applicable to the limiting adjectives are also ap- plicable to the pronoun of this class. Example: The demonstrative adjective pronoun is a demonstrative ad- jective used for the noun, etc. 2. Name the relative pronouns that are declinable and those that are inde- clinable. 3. Give the method of treating "mine" and "thine," etc. Also other methods and their objections. 4. How are the compound relatives treated? 5. How is "what" treated? 6. Name some limiting adjectives that are never pronouns. 7. How is the compound personal pronoun used? Note on the Relatives Who, WHICH and That: Some grammari- ans, apparently with good reasons, call the relatives "who" and "which," coordinate relatives, and "that" a subordinate relative; for the reason that these words, who and which, introduce clauses that seem to be co-ordinate. For example take the sentence "The old gentleman, who is an eloquent speaker, then addressed the audience," etc. Such sentence, it is thought, is eqnivalent to, The old gentleman then addressed the au dience, and he is an eloquent speaker. The latter clauses being co-ordin- ate, the former mmt be also. Good usage, however, seems to authorize the use of "who" and "which" in subordinate clauses; it is certain, however, that the word "that" introduces the more re-tricttve clauses. Eastman's Practical Grammar 81 28. The Verb. Classes with respect to use. THE VERB Classes with re.=p"ct to form. ) * rre S u ' ar \ * Redundant. Transitive, Intransitive. Copulative, Auxiliary. Regular, Irregular. Redundac Defective. We have seen in the preceding pages that: (a) A verb is a word that expresses action, being, or state. (6) A transitive verb by nature is one that read- ily admits an object. (c) A transitive verb by use is one that actually has an object. (d) A copulative verb does not make an assertion, alone, but merely connects the real predicate word back to the subject. Now an auxiliary verb is one used to help form the principal inflections of the verb. They are; Am, are, is, was, ivere, will be, ivill have been, have been, has been, had been, be, did, have, has, had, may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. We have also seen that there are two participles ; the present, . ending in "ing" and representing an act as present, or unfinished, at the time specified. The past represents action, etc., as finished at the time referred to. The past tense form, like the past participle, shows an action, being, or state, as finished; but, unlike the participle it asserts instead of assuming, the predica- tion; as, Washington, loved and honored by all, passed 82 Eastman's Practical Grammar into Eternity. Here "loved" and "honored" assume the predication; bat "passed" makes an assertion. "Passed" is said to be in the past tense which asserts, action, being, or state as indefinitely past. The simple verb, or root form, the past tense, and past participle are known by all grammarians as the principal parts of the verb. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF I^OVE.* Present, Love, Past, Loved, Past Part. Loved. 29. Regular Verbs. A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding "ed;" as. Walk, walked, walked. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding "ed;"as, Eat, ate, eaten. There is an unfortunate tendency to try to dis- pense with this classification, and to substitute the Ger- man division of weak and strong verbs. We do not approve of such classification, but will give the ex- planation for the benefit of the curious: Weak verbs are those whose past tense and past participle end in "ed," *A verb ending in "c" seems only to add -'d" but we must remember that words of one syllable, ending in the vowel "e" drop the hnal vowel on receiving the suftix beginning with a vnwe!; Love, lov-e, ■<>/» i /• and by the subject. 1. Americans fought for freedom. 2. I have written my letter. 3. I had reached the depot before ♦Logically there is no present time. Every instant of time that is not past, is coming. The present is as a movable point. The only present time that may be conceived of, is made op of apart of the past and a part of the future, making a present period; as, this day, or year, etc. The pres- ent perfect tense denotes what happens in the past part of such period. Eastman's Practical Grammar 89 the train came. 4. I hold to you my hands to show you they are free. 5. I shall perish. 6. I shall have copied the letter before you start. 7. "To thine own self be true." 8. I wish I owned the Klondike mines. 9. May I quit? 10. I was struck with her beauty. 11. I am well pleased. REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. 1. What is a verb? 2. The properties of a verb? 3. What is a transitive verb? 4. Intransitive? 5. In what two ways may verbs be considered as transi- tive or intransitive? 6. What is a copula? 7. An auxiliary verb? 8. What is a regular verb? 9. An irregular verb? 10. Redundant? 11. Defective? 12. Define mode, tense, number, person, voice. 13. What two ways of considering the verb with regard to voice? Which do you prefer? Why? 37. Modes and Tenses. 1. The Indicative Mode The Indicative Mode has dix tenses which have already been explained. They have their special dif- ferences of form. The tenses are known by what are called tense signs. TENSE SIGNS: {Present, (has no sign), Ex. I Jove my mother. Past, "ed,' if regular. Ex. I loved my mother. Future, "shall" or ■'will". Ex. I shall love her better, The word "have", in its proper form, is used in all tenses denoting perfected action, being, etc., and so helps to form what is called perfect tenses; as, 90 Eastman's Practical Grammar (Present Perfect, "have 1 ' . Ex. I have loved my home. Past Perfect, "had". Ex I had loved my home. Future Perfect, '"shall have" Ex. 1 shall have learned to or "will have." like home. When "have 7 ' denotes possession, it is not an auxil- iary verb but a principal verb; as, I have money; I had money. 2. The Potential Mode. This mode has only four tenses, or tense forms. The present signs are "may", "can", or "must "; as, I can read; I must go. "May", though always present, can be used to de- note future probability; as, It may rain to-morrow. "May" also denotes present permission; as, You may go. "Can" denotes present ability; as, I can read and write. "Must" denotes present necessity to do something in the future; as, I must repair that gate soon. "Might", the past of "may", denotes future contin- gency, i. e. that something might happen in conse- quence of something else; as, I would apologize, but he might insult me. Should such contingency not exist use "may" in- stead of "might"; as, I would go to church but it might rain, would imply that your goiner would cause it to rain. Say it may rain "Could" besides denoting the past of "can" is also used to denote the conclusion of an hypothesis; as, If he would try he could do that. "Would", the past of "will", may also express a present or a future supposition; as, If he would go, etc. "Should", the past of "shall", may have the same construction as "would", except that it does not refer Eastman's Practical Grammar 91 to the will, or willingness. If he would do so, implies a lack of willingness; If he should do so, merely means to imply chance. "Have", in the indicative mode, in fact, in all the modes, is the sign of the perfect tenses. SIGNS. Present, May, can, must. Past, Might, could, would, should. Present Perfect, May have, can have, must have. Past Perfect, Might have, could have, would or should have. 3. Subjunctive Mode. The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses. The past tense in i his mode is used to express a wish, or a supposition of something contrary to fact. When I say I wish I had — or, If I had a pen I would write, it is a way of saying I have no. pen. This way of making the assertion is peculiar to the subjunc- tive mode. When the past tense is used for past time, no sueh thing is implied as is in the above instance, and the verb is in the indicative mode. Take the two sentences : "If I owned a mule I would sell my horse;" If I owned a mule I had a horse, also. Which is subjunctive? Why? The present subjunctive points to future time, and uses the plural form of the verb wherever the number is shown, whether the subject is singular or •plural. This form conveys the idea of a future uncertainty. The subjunctive generally follows the words* "if" "though," "unless," "till," etc.; but these words are no part of the verb. 92 Eastman's Practical Grammar Examples of the Present Subjunctive: I will love him though he abn.se me. This would be indicative stated thus: I will love him though he abuses me. In the first sentence "abuse" looks to the future while in the latter it implies a present custom, and is indicative. Take the two sentences: "If that glacier moves, I cannot see it;" "If he move from this country, I shall go." Which is indicative? Which subjunctive? Why? The past perfect subjunctive, like the past, implies what is not the case, by wishing, or supposing some- thing contrary to fact; as, "If I had known him, I would have liked him." This implies that I did not know him. Unlike the past, however, the past perfect does not represent the present, but corresponds with the same tense in the indicative; i. e.. it denotes a past, prior to another past. Some authors say that the subjunctive is going out of use. This is a very unscholarly statement. It is a conclusion to which they have rushed, because the present subjunctive, which is always plural in form, is being more and more Carelessly used in the singular. If it were to be used entirely in the singular, there would still be sufficient grounds for the use of the sub- junctive mode. -4. Imperative {Mode. The Imperative Mode is used to express: (a) emu ma nd: as, Leave the room. (b) Entreaty; as, Spare me this disgrace. (c) Exhortation; as, Turn from your evil ways. (d) Prayer; as. Thy kingdom come. Eastman's Practical Grammar 93 The imperative mode has the present tense only; not because the command, etc., is given at the present time, as most grammarians say, but because usage warrants this form. Most grammarians have fallen into another gross error in regard to the person of this mode; teaching that the imperative mode has the second person only. This is the person generally used in the imperative, but it really has three persons. Examples of the first person: "Now, tread we & measure"; "Then turn we to her latest tribune's name"; "Proceed we to the subject"; "Go we in and rest awhile." Examples of the second person: "Charge, Chester, charge;" "Be silent that ye may hear." Examples of the third person: "Laugh those who may, weep those who must"; "Ruin seize thee, ruthless king;" "Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Texas;" "Thy kingdom come." The subject "you" or "thou" is nearly always omitted. The case of address must not be mistaken for the subject; as, John, come to me. John is not the sub- ject, but it is in the nominative case independent by address. "You", understood, is the subject. The indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative, constitute what is known as the finite verb. The infinitive mode and the participle are not in- cluded in the finite verb, but constitute what is known as the infinite. 04 Eastman's Practical Grammar 5. The Infinitive Mode. This mode does not make an assertion. It has the word "to" for its sign, which is, however, only an idiomatic attendant upon the verb; being neither a part of the verb, nor a preposition. After the active voice of "bid", "dare", "feel", "see", "hear", and some others, this word "to" must be omitted, except in certain constructions. The Infinitive Mode has only two tense forms: (a) Present, To write; to eat; to like; to hate, etc. (b) Present Perfect, To have written; to have eaten, etc. The present is used when the action, being or state is not limited by another action, being, or state. It has no reference to time, for we may say, I ex- pected to write; I expect to write; I shall expect to write. Hence we see it has nothing to do with time. The present perfect is limited by some other time, action, or being, etc.; as, I hoped to have arrived before the train started. This mode has the following constructions; (a) That of a Norn Subject; aa, To play is pleasant. fold etymology: as a noun subject, and at the same tune, as a verb governing an object. Example: To play ball is pleasant sport. ' Words often have this twofold etymology; as, Ten thousand men came. Here ten as a adjective modifies the noun nature of thousand, while the word thousand, in its adjective nature, modifies men. The infinitive, in this twofold nature, may be an adverb modifying a verb, and a verb governing an , object; as, He goes to school to get his education. To get, as an adverb, modifies goes, and as a verb it takes the object, education. 39. Participles Participles are verbs as they express action, be- ing, or state; yet they are like adjectives as they qualify nouns v and pronouns, by assigning to them a condition of aetion, being, or state. Examples: ' 'A wife always scolding, is disagree- able;" "A scolding wife is always disagreeable." In the first example we have the participle, scold- ing, describing wife like an adjective, and yet express- ing action like a verb. 96 Eastman's Practical Grammar In the second example, scolding is placed before the word wife; and then it is a pure adjective. A participle placed before the noun it modifies, is called a participial adjective. In the sentence; "She made herself sick dancing;" and, "Dancing made her sick." The first dancing is a participle; but in the second example, 'lancing is a noun, the subject of made sick. A participial noun partakes of the nature of a verb and a noun. It is sometimes called a gerund. A particii.lo may take any case for its subject, as, He fell fijrhting; We found him fighting; His tighting was heroic. In these examples, the cases are nominative, ob- jective, and possessive. Sometimes a word that usually BS action, is used as a pure noun losing all verbal nature; as, His writing is so bad 1 can hardly read it. parciciple carries a twofold etymology; as, Playing ball : i hying is a noun, the sub. I a verb it takes the ob- ject ball. Participles are of two kinds; one showing an act as incomplete at tbeiime referred to. This is called the im- perfect or present partitive. The other shows an act finished or complete at the time referred to by the finite verb. This is called the perfect or past participle. The imperfect or present participle in the active voice ends in ing. The perfect or past participle ends in ed if reg- ular, and if irregular, it most often ends in n or t, but ont always. Eastman's Practical Grammar 97 EXAMPLES OF FORM. Present. Past, or Perfect. Active, Writing, Active, Having written, Passive, Being Passive, Having been writ- written, ten. or written. EXAMPLES OF USE: Present active, I found him writing a letter. Present passive, Letters are being written daily. Past active, Having written the letter, I mailed it. Past passive, The letter having been written, I mailed it. The past, active and passive, above, are called by- some grammarians, compound participles; but they convey but one idea and should be taken together as simple in idea. The simple form of the past passive is called the auxiliary perfect, as it is used to form the perfect tense, and the passive voice. 40. Active and Passive Forms. While mode depends on use, and tense depends on form, voice is known both by use and form. The regular form for the passive voice is the auxil- iary perfect participle preceded by some form of the verb be; as, Is loved; Are refused; Was drowned. "The goods are sold at cost." This sentence may be expressed in the passive sense, but in the active form; as, Goods sell at cost. 98 Eastman's Practical Grammar EXAMPLES. Passive inform and use: Passive in sense, active inform: Wood is split for kindling; Wood splits easily. Ground is plowed for planting; The ground plows well. The above is true of the participle. Goods selling high, the farmer bought none of them. Not all verbs, however, can be so used. The rule for forming the passive voice is, (a) Take the object of 'ne transitive verb in the active voice, and make it che subject; (b) change the verb from the active form to the passive, and (c) place the subject as the object of the preposition by; as, The boy drowned the kittens; changed to the passive. The kittens were drowned by the boy. Sometimes when the indirect object occurs in the active, and is used for the subject passive, it leaves the passive verb transitive; as, I taught John grammar; John was taught grammar by me. REVIEW QUESTIONS. VI. 1. How many tenses has the indicative mode and what are they? 2. Give the tense signs of the indic- ative. •".. What auxiliary is used as the sign of all the perfect tenses? 1. When is have not a princi- pal verb, and when is it a principal verb? 5. How many and what tenses in the potential mode? G. What auxiliaries are used as tense signs? 7. Do they de- note time as indicated by their name? 8. What does may denote'.' can? must? might? could? would? should? !». Give, in order, the tense forms of the po- Eastman's Practical Grammar 99 tential? 10. What is the subjunctive mode? 11. How many tenses has it? 12. How is the past tense used? 13. How the preseit? 14. When the verb shows a number form, what number is always used in the subjunctive? 15. How is the past perfect sub- junctive used? 16. Is the suojunctive mode going out of use? 17. Why do some grammarians think so? 18. How is the imperative mode used? 19. What is its person usually? 20. Is it confined to the second person? 21. Give examples of its use in the first, and third persons. 22. What is meant by the finite verb? 23. Does the infinitive mode assert? 24. What is its sign? 25. When is the sign omitted? 26. What tenses has the infinitive? 27. Does tense in the infini- tive refer to time? 28. How are the two tense forms used? 29. Give the eight constructions of the infini- tive with original examples. 30. What is meant by a word having twofold etymology? 31. What is a par- ticiple? 32. What two kinds? 33. What endings have they? 34. What is a participial adjective? 35. A participial noun? 36. Give examples. 37. What voices has the participle of a transitive verb? 38. Give examples. 39. Which participle is used to help form the perfect tenses, and the passive voice? 40. Give some examples of active forms with passive mean- ings. 41. Can all verbs be used in this way? 42. Give the rule for forming the passive. 43. When may a passive verb b? transitive? ORDER AND MODELS FOR PARSING. Order of parsing the verb. 1. Part of speech, 2. Regular or irregular, 3. Transitive or intransitive and how (by nature •r use) ? Lof C. 100 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 4. Voice, 5. Mode, 6. Tense, 7. Number and person, 8. Agreement if finite, 9. Construction if infinitive. Model for a Finite Verb. Smith & Co. had ordered the goods before the crash came. Had ordered is a verb, regular, transitive, both by nature and use, active voice, indicative mode, past perfect tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with the subject, Smith cv Co. Model /<>/■ an infinitive: "To be honest is to be happy. " To >» i.-s a verb, irregular, intransitive, without voice, infinitive mode, present tense, used as the sub- ject of is. To be (parse as above except construc- tion). It is used as the complement of the predicate. Order for participles', 1. Part of speech, 2. Kind. 3. Voice, 4. Tell what it modifies. "John caught cold skating." Skating is a participle, present, active, and modifies John, Eastman's Practical Grammar 101 EXERCISES IN PARSING. IX. Parse all the verbs: 1. The army swept over the country and devastated the farms, and burned the dwellings. 2. I have heard that we shall live in a life beyond the grave. 3. I have heard thee speak of a better land. 4. Trv to be happy while you live. 5. I must tell him though he strike me. 6. I would tell you but you might become offended. 7. He may have done the deed. 8. He could have written more legibly. 9. Had I known of his suffering, I would have pitied him. 10. This wool spins well. 11. Molasses pours slowly from a faucet. 12. If I had a pen I would write. Parse the participles: 1. The General being wounded, the army retreated. 2. He died, loved and respected by all who knew him. 3. He fell fainting, having been exhausted with losing so much blood. 4. He played a losing game. 5. His crying attracted a crowd. 6. Eating onions makes the breath bad. 7. The boy went tumbling down the hill. Note — It is possible for participles to have the construction of adverbs. Example: He sent the ball rol'ing; I threw the purse whirling. To give them this construction, however, is a little forced. Review the above exercises, parsing all nouns, pro- nouns, adjectives, and verbs including participles. 45. Conjugation. Conjugation is the arrangement of verbs in regu- lar order, so as to show their modes, tenses, numbers, persons, and voices. 102 Eastman's Pi^actical Grammar CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "BE." Principal Parts. Present Tense, Be or am, Past Tense, Was, Past Participle, Been, INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense: MODERN STYLE. ANCIENT OR SOLEMN STYLE. First Person, I im, We are, Sfcon<-. They will !»•. 1 /'■ r. 1 shall 1.-. :: Per. Thou wilt be ;; Per. He will be, They will be. They atoll be Y.- will !..■. Or, to express determination, i . I will be. We will be, ft. Yon -hall be, You thai] be. ih- sha'l in.. They ah ill be. I will in.. We will be, rhon shalt be, Ye shall be, H.- -ball be, Thoy will be. You was originally plural. It now stands for either a singular or a plural antecedent, but the verb agreeing with it is always plural. Eastman's Practical Grammar 103 Present Perfect Tense. Singular, Plural, First Person, I have been, We have been, Second Person, You have, or thou hast. You or ye have been, been, Third Person, He has, or hath, been; They have been, Past Perfect Tense. 1. I had been, We had been, 2. You had, or thou hadst, You or ye had been, been, 3. He had been; They had been. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 2. Yoxi will, or thoti wilt, have You or ye will have been, been, 3. He will have been They will have been, POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. 1. I may be, We may be, 2. You may or thou mayest be, You or ye may be, 3. He may be; They may be. Past Tense. 1. I might be, We might be, 2. You might or thou mightest be, You or ye might be, 3. He might be; They might be. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I may have been, We may have been, 2. You may, or thou mayest, You or ye may have been, have been, 3. He may have been; They may have been Past Perfect Tense. Singular, Plural, First Person, I might have been We might have been, Second Person, You might, or thou mightest You or yc might have been. have been, Third Person, He might have been; Th^y might have been. 104 Easinan's Practical Grammar SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present 2 Singular. Plural. 1 Kit*, IfW I- . I • ..-be, 3. It he be; Past T< ... [i tu ■ / 11:1.' -ii. •1 If J ;j. If be iiaa : b id ' «• IMPERATIVE MODE. Singula!*.. Plural. i IX i DE. i i be; PARTICIPLES, OR PAR riCIPIAL MODE. TH1 \i: CONJUG B "LOVE." A< TIVK VOICE. /'/■ Pa I ved. Eastman* s Practical Grammar 105 INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. First Person, I love, Second Person, You love, Third Person, He lovea, Past Tense. We love, You love, They love. 1. I loved, 2. You loved, 3. He loved, We loved, You loved, They loved. Future Tense. 1. I shall love, 2. You will lov« 3. He will love, We shall love, , You will love, They will love. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I have loved, 2. You have lovei, 3. He has loved, We have loved, You have loved, They have loved. Past Perfect Tense. 1. I had loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved. We had loved, You had loved, They had loved. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved, We shall have loved, You will have loved, They will have loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Use may, can, or must for the present— might, could, would or should, for the past. 106 Eastman's Practical Grammar Present Tense. Singular. Plural. First Person, I can love, We can love Stcond Person. You can love , You can love, Third Person, He can love. They can love. Past Tense. 1. I might love, We might love, :.'. You might love Ya may have loved. B. i He in iy have loved, They may have loved. Past Perfect Tenet . 1. I might have loved, We might have loved, Sou might have loved, Xbo might have loved. I He mik'iit have loved, They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. Firtt Person, li If welov. Second Parson, It roil love, It' von love, Third Person, If he love, it" they love. Post Tense. 1. If I loved. If wo loved, ' If yon loved, If you loved, :t. If ho loved: If they loved. Post l'< rfect Tense. 1. If I had loved, or H:i'l I It " w.- liail loved, .>r Had wo loved, loved, _' If you had loved, or Had if you had loved, or Had you you loved, loved, 8, if hi' h:t«i loved, ox Bad i>- if tbej had loved, or Had they loved; loved Eastman's Practical Grammar 107 IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular, Plural, passive VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular, Plural, First Person, I am loved, We are loved, Second Person, You are loved, You are loved, Third Person, He is loved ; Thev are loved . Past Tense. 1. I was loved. We were loved , 2. You were loved, You were loved, 3. Hewaslcved; They were loved. Future Tense. 1. I shall be loved, We shall be loved, 2 . You will be loved , You will be loved , 3. He will-be loved, They will be loved. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 2 . You have been loved , You have been loved , 3. He has been loved, They have been loved. Past Perfect Tense. 1 . I had been loved, We had been loved, 2. You had been loved, You had been loved, 3 . He had been loved , They had been loved. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall have been loved, ' We shall have been loved, 2 . You will have been loved , You will have been loved , 3. He will have been loved. They will have been loved, 108 Eastman's Practical Grammar POTENTIAL MODE. Present T< Singular. Plural. First Perto We can be loved, Th<-\ ■ ] . I would be loved, Yon \\ 1.1 loved, NCTIVE MODE. Singular. Plural. li we ' ■ i /',,,' /'. rfect ZfeflM. I. if i had been loved, I " ->. If yon bad been loved, if rm, :i if be had be d loved, if tin-v bad b • Eastman's Practical Grammar 109 IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. Beloved, Beloved. INFINITIVE MODE. Present. To be loved; Present Perfect, To liavo been , lovod. PARTICIPLES, OR PARTICIPIAL MODE. Present, Being loved ; Past, Having been loved, or Loved. 46. Verbal Forms. The Progressive Form is made by prefixing to the present participle, some form of the verb "be." SYNOPSIS. Present, I am loving. Past, I was loving. Future, I shall be loving. Present Perfect, I have been loving. Past Perfect, I had been loving. Future Perfect, I shall have been loving. The remaining modes are easily understood. The Emphatic Forms are made by prefixing the auxiliaries, do and did. They are only used in the present and past; as, I do love; I did love. 47. Irregular Verbs. Irregular Verbs are conjugated like regular verbs; the difference being in the past tense forms, and such forms as use auxiliary past participles. That these 110 Eastman's Practical Grammar may be known, we give the following list of irregular verbs, which are taken from "Harvey's English Gram- mar." Present, Abide, am awake, arise, bear, bear, beat, become, befall, beget, begin, behold. belay, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, bid, 3f Irregular Verbs. Past, Past Participle abode. abode. was, been. awoke. 1 awoke, 1 awakened. arose, arisen. ( bore, horn. i bare, bore. borne. beat, 1 beaten 1 beat. became, become. befell, befallen. \ begat. ' begotten. 1 begot, I begot. .■an. begun. beheld, beheld. belaid. belaid. bereft, bereft besought, besought. bet. > betided, j bet ided. - beti I betid. j bid, | bid. i back-. I bidden. Eastman's Practical Grammar 111 bite, bit, j bitten. Hit. bind, bound, bound. bleed, bled, bled. bless, f blessed, X blest, f blessed. 1 blest. breed, bred, bred. break, f broke, X brake, f broken. 1 broke. bring, brought, brought. built, f builded, X built, ( builded. 1 built. burn, (burnt, f burned. \ burnt. X burned, burst, burst, burst. buy, bought, bought. cast, cast, cast. catch, caught, caught. chide, chid, j chiden. {chid. choose, chose, chosen. cleave, j cleaved, 1 clave, cleaved. (cleft, ( cleft. cleave, ■j clove, -! cloven. ( cleaved. (. clave, cling, clung, clung. clothe, f clothed, I clad, /clothed. 1 clad. come, came, come. cost, , cost, cost. creep, crept, crept. crow, crew, crowed. cut, cut, cut. 112 Eastman's Practical Grammar dare, durst, deal, dealt, dig, ("digged, I dug, do, did, draw, drew, dream, f dreamed, 1 dreamt, f dressed, dress, (drest, dwell. dwelt, drive, drove, eat. ate, fall, fell, feed, fed, feel, felt. fight, fought, find, found. forbear. forbore, forget, forgot, forsak-'. forsook, fiee, fled, fling, flung, ily, flew, freeze, froze, freight. freighted get, give, gave, .did. 1 gilded. 1 .rill- gird, \ girded, (girt, dared. dealt. ( digged. I dug. done. drawn. I dreamed. ( dreamt. ( dressed. { drest. dwelt. driven. eaten. fallen. fed. felt. fought. found. forborne. i forgotten, i forgot. forsaken. fled. flung. tlown. frozen. I freighted. I fraught. I got, ( gotten. given. \ gilded i. gilt. \ girded. I girt. Eastman's Practical Grammar 113 go, grave, grind, grow, hang, have, heave, hew, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, kneel, knit, know, lay, lead, lean, leap, learn, leave, lend, went, graved, ground, grew, f hanged, I hung, had, f heaved, /hove, hewed, heard, hid, hit, held, hurt, kept, f kneeled, I. knelt, /"knitted, /knit, knew, laid, led, f leaned, 1 leant, /leaped; \ leapt, (learned, 1 learnt, left, lent, gone, f graved. (. graven. ground. grown. f hanged. I hung. had. /heaved. L hove. f hewed, /hewn. heard. f hidden. I hid. hit. ( held. ( holden. hurt. kept. knelt. f knitted. Unit. known. laid. led. { leaned. (. leant, f leaped. 1 leapt, /learned, /learnt. left. lent. 114 Eastman's Practical Grammar let, let, let. lie, lay, lain. light, /lighted, Hit, flighted. 1 lit. lose, lost, lost. load, loaded, /loaded. \ laden. make, made, made. mean, meant, meant. meet, met, met. mow. mowed, f mowed, /mown. pay, paid, paid. f passed, \ passed. pass, I past, 1 past. /penned, J penned. 1 pent. pen v (pent, -I..J f pleaded, /pleaded. plead, I pled, 1 pled. put, put, put. quit. /quitted, 1 quit, /quitted, tquit. f rapped, Trapped. rap, 1 rapt, I rapt. read, read, read. reave, reft, reft. rend, rent, rent. ride, rode, ridden. ring, J rang, (rung, rung. rise, rose, risen. I rived. rive, rived, 1 riven. Eastman's Practical Grammar 115 saw, • sawed, /sawed, t sawn. say, said, said. see, saw, seen. seethe, seethed, S seethed, /sodden. seek, sought, sought. set, set, set. shake, shook, shaken. shape, shaped, /shaped, /shapen. j shaved. shave, shaved, 1 shaven. J* sheared, \ shore, ( sheared, /shorn. shear, shed, shed; shed. f shined, /shined. / shone. shine, /shone, shoe. shod, shod. shoot, shot, shot. show, showed, shown. f shred, /shredded, ( shred, /shredded. shred, shrink, / shrank, / shrunk, /shrunk. / shrunken. shut, shut, shut. sit, sat, sat. sing, f sang, /sung, sung. sink, f sank, /sunk, sunk. sow, sowed, /sowed. / sown. slay, slew, slain.! sleep, slept, slept. 116 Eastman's Practical Grammar sling, slink, slit, smell, smite, speak, speed, spell, spent, spill, spin, spit, split, spread, spring, spoil, stay, stand, stave, steal, stick, sting, stride. slung, slunk, slit, smelt. smote, spoke, sped, < spelled. < spelt, spent. I spilled. I spilt, l spun, I. span. I spit, i spat, split. spread. I sprang. 1 sprung. f spoiled. I spoilt. I stayed. i staid, stood. I staved. L stove, stole, stuck, Btung, strode, slung. ' slunk. slit, f smelled. \ smelt. smitten. spoken. sped. f spelled. I. spelt. spent. I spilled. [ spilt. spun. I spit. i spat. split. spread. sprung. I spoiled. { spoilt. I stayed. I staid. stood. J staved. I. stove. stolen. stuck. stung. stridden. Eastman's Practical Grammar 117 strike, struck, f struck. ( stricken. string, strung, strung. strive, strove, striven. strow, strowed, J strowed. L strown. swear, J" swore, 1 sware, sworn. /sweated, / sweated. sweat, 1 sweat, 1 sweat. sweep, swept, swept. swell, swelled, j swelled. ( swolen. swim, j swam, ( swum, swum. swing, swung, swung. take, took, taken. teach, taught, taught. tear, tore, torn. tell, told, told. think, thought, thought. thrive, j thrived, ( throve, /thrived. 1 thriven. throw, threw, thrown. thrust, thrust, thrust, tread, trod, /trodden. 1 trod. wax, waxed, /waxed. 1 waxen. wear, wore, worn. / weaved, /weaved. weave, I wove, 1 woven. weep, wept, wept. wake, / waked; I woke, / waked. 1 woke. 118 Eastman's Practical Grammar wed, f wedded, Xwed, /wedded. 1 wed. wet, wet, wet. whet, f whetted, 1 whet, J whet, t whetted. win, won, won. wind, wound, wound. work, / worked, I wrought, f worked. 1 wrought. wring, wrung, wrung. write, wrote. written. Impersonal Verbs are those used with an indefi- nite subject; as, It rains; It snows. Compound Verbs are verbs combined with other words, usually prepositions, to express a single idea; as, Cast up your accounts. 50. Errors to be Avoided. 1. Use the subjunctive mode instead of the indica- tive to express a wish, or a supposition contrary to fact, or a future doubt or uncertainty. Correct the Errors: 1. If he was rich he would be generous. 2. Though he falls he shall not be utterly cast down. 3. If it rains, * stay till morn- ing. 4. If he is encraged he should not be flirting with others. * There is a growing tendency to use the indicative present for the subjunctive present, i. c. , to put the verb into a singular form by the ad- dition of "s"; as, If he loves her when they raeer, he may marry her. Eastman's Practical Grammar 119 2. Use the present to express a general truth con- nected with the past. Correct the Errors: 1. Columbus knew that the world was round. 2. He discovered that gravita- tion was a constant force that pervades the universe. 3. Who was that gentleman that sat by you? 4. Who was that lady before she was married? (Correct; why?) 3. Do not use the past participle and the past tense interchangeably. Correct the Errors: 1. 1 seen James when he come. 2. I have saw much trouble. 3. He was anxious to see it did. 4. The tree had fell, it was broke before. 5. We taken cold. 6. We have took too much off him now. 4. Do not use the wrong tense forms in the indica- tive. Correct the Efrors: 1 He was absent several days this week. 2. After [ ate my dinner I returned. 3. I shall live here a week tomorrow. 5. Do not use "will" or "would" in the first person and "shall" or "should" inthe second and third, unless you ivish to express determination. Correct the Errors: 1. I will drown; no body shall help me. 2. I should regret it if you would lose your property. 3. If I would inherit a fortune, I should squander it. 6. Do not use ' l isn't, ' ' ' 'aint' ' or ' 'haint' ' for ' 'is not"; "don't" for "does not", or "do not"; "haint" for "has not" or "have not" . Correct the Errors: 1. Ain't I pretty? 2. Don't he s:o? 3. Hasn't he been there? 7. Do not use "done" or "have got" for "have." 120 Eastman's Practical Grammar Correct the Errors: 1. I done studied my les- sons. 2. I have got plenty. 3. He done told you so. 4. He has got a bad cold. S. Do not use "can" or "might 1 " for "may". Correct the Errors: 1. Can I be excused from the room? 2. Can I go home? 3. Can I speak? 4. I would promise to visit you on that day, but it might rain. 5. I would kiss you but you may get angry. .9. Do not use "-have" in the infinitive unless the action is limited by tinu . Correct the Errors: 1. I expect to have en- joyed myself. 2. I hopo to write the letter in time for the train. :!. We hope to have seen you well. 10. Do not make irregular ilar, or regu- lar. Correct the Errors: l. [ seed him do that. 2. knowed better. ::. He drinked all the water. 4. They drug him across the yard. 5. They hung that man for murder. //. Do notiue theintr >erbs f "lie," "rise," "si i," i h-.. with an "/'./' ct. Correct the Errors: 1. I lie me down to rest 2. Sit th<> chairs to the table. :'>. I have sat the table. /.'. Donotust tin tra erbs"lay," "raise," vithout ob, Setisnot transitive when it refers to heavenly bodies: The sun sets: The moon sets, etc. Correct the Errors: 1. Here 1 Bet. 2. Lay down and rest. • '•. Raise up a moment, 4. I laid on the l" d a week. 5. He set in a chair asleep. IS. Xnthi present tense of the mode, it Eastman's Practical Grammar 121 the subject is singular, add ' V ' to the verb in the third person; leave it off if the subject is plural. Correct the Errors: 1. The boys of this town loves home. 2. The patriotism of the men and women cf this country surpass all others. 3. Many men goes home drunk. 4. Men' and women stares and run. lb. Compound subjects separated by * 'or' ' and ' 'nor' ' and those whose parts are modified by a distributive adjective, take verbs in the singular. Correct the Errors: 1. John or James are at home. 2. Every tree, every shrub, and eveiy flower were dead. 3. Many a flower are born to blush, etc. 15. Collective nouns take singular verbs when t he whole collection is meant; but plural verbs when the in- dividuals are meant. Correct the Errors: 1. The committee was divided on the question. 2. The army w T as scattering and seeking winter quarters in private homes. 3. The Jury bring in the verdict, GENERAL EXERCISE X. Correct all the errors and 'parse all the corrected words. Some of these sentences are correct; tell why. Parse all verbs, participles included of course: 1. If I was in town yesterday, I did not see you. 2. If I was in town, I would attend to some business. 3. If it rains, I do not hear it. 4. If it rains he will not come. 5. If I had eaten my dinner, I would not be hungry. 6. Harvey discovered that the blood cir- culated. 7. Who was the man that spoke today? 8. 122 Eastman's Practical Grammar I seen him when he done it. 9. I took cold. 10. I have come to school yesterday and today. 11. I called you, but you would not come. 12. I will go but I pre- fer to stay. 13. Aint he got any sense? 14. I done said that. 15. Can I go to play now? 16. I hope to have earned a fortune some day. 17. I seed that he knowed all about it. 18. Sit the pitcher down. 19. The sun sets in a cloud. 20. There it lays on the table. 21. Some men likes to make mischief. 22. Every boy and every girl studies his lesson. 23. You or I is mistaken. 24. Walk up;* and take some cider. 25. The ship went down.t 26. Jack and Jill went upt the hill. 51 Adverbs. f Tun.'. ADVERBS OP.. M»im-r. i modal) (' DM, I Degree. ADVERBS modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Adverbs have comparison like adjectives, although many adverbs are without this property. Some add i r and est; as, soon, soonn r, soon-eat. For the nu»st part, however, they are compared by prefixing mon or most, or lees or least; as, gracefully, gracefully, most gracefully: or, gracefully, less efully, least gracefulhf. Many adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, betti r, best. » In parsing M Walk up," the two wordi - compound vcili I'. ir.se it M JTOU WOUld "walk." |* 4 Weill down" is a compound verb-^sank. Imple, with '•upthe hill" i Eastman's Practical Grammar 123 An Adverb of Time may consist of a noun in the objective case adverbial. Tomorrow, Yesterday, To- night, etc. Adverbs of Place tell where; as, there, hither, thither. They may also consist of an objective adver- bial; He went home. Adverbs of Manner are generally formed from adjectives by adding ly. Modal Adverbs show the manner of Assertion, as, positive, negative, or doubtful: Surely, Nowise, Probably, Adverbs of Cause tell why; Wherefore, Therefore, Why. Adverbs of Degree tell to what extent, or how much. These may also consist of an objective adver- bial; as, She is ten years old. Adverbs may modify prepositional phrases;* as, He swam nearly across the river, ( Interrogative, . . | Negative, ADVERBS ma> be < Expletive, I Correlative, I Conjunctive. EXAMPLES. Interrogatives: When, where, why, wherefore, etc. Negatives: No, not, never, etc. Expletive Adverbs or adverbs used merely to fill out the sentence, having no modifying force; as, There were giants in those days; Well, I can tell the story; Notv,he was a man of great skill. *Rome grammarians say ihe adverb modifies the preposition in such cases, but we think this is very illogical. 124 Eastman's Practical Grammar Correlative Adverbs, or those used in pairs; The more we study, the more we learn. Conjunctive Adverbs; or adverbs used to intro- duce clauses and connect them to principal clauses modifying a word in each*; He earns money when he works; Work while it is day; We will reach home before the sun sets. If the conjunctive adverb introduces a clause im- mediately after a noun, it modifies in one clause only; as, I love the home >rh< n 1 was born=I love the home in which I was born, Tn which modifies iras born. 52 Notes on Adverbs. * t •/.', dverbwhen it means "only;" as, I ■ • friend. Some adverbs an used as adjectives; as, only theca: \ett,lalo7u am responsible. g ••'!'!>, " is» m das an adverb; the more, etc. an often used for adverbs; as, The clouds will pass over. etc-. mons with the com- v that "any other treatment should be than money v,hpn b » ** M e«ra« monej I ,ak e itta sentences, snd I iiN M =(w , n,.«. -m. the time," evidently modifiei 'earns," nnd "r Doln - Eastman's Practical Grammar 125 pound verb; as, Go up=ascend; come down=descend; pass by=pass. etc. 6. It is often a difficult question with the student ivhether to use the adjective or the adverb ■ after certain intransitive verbs; as, I feel badly — or bad? , One feels badly when his sense of touch is imper- fect; but he feels bad when he is sick. Bad is here used in the sense of ill. The rose smells sweet— qr sweetly? Evidently sweet; for we wish to describe a quality of the rose, not an act. In all such cases when we can substitute the verb be and make sense, with the adjective, we should use the adjective instead of the adverb; as, I feel bad =1 am bad, or sick, The rose smells sweet=The rose is sweet; The morning air looks cold=The air is cold, etc. 7. Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for 'adverbs. 8. Do not use two negatives in the same sentence unless you wish to affirm. Correct the Errors: 1. I am tolerably well. 2. The meat tastes well. 3. Speak slow and distinct. 4. She looks very neatly. 5. The train don't stop at no small station. 6. He never said nothing. 7. I never want no help. 8. I don't do nothing. EXERCISE XL Order of Parsing Adverbs: 1. What part of speech, 2. What kind of adverb, 3. Degree, if any, 4. What it modifies. -'She sings very sweetly." Very is an adverb of degree, is not compared, and 126 Eastman's Practical Grammar modifies the adverb, sweetly. Sweetly is an adverb of manner, of the positive de- gree and modifies the verb sings. Parse all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and ad- verbs. 1. He soon fell before the malignant tempter, 2. They quickly left the scene of their great misfor- tune. 3. Those who came to scoff remained to pray. 4. The congregation went out one by one* to their re- spective homes. 5. To cheat is very wrong. 6. Working vigorously causes us to become tired. 7. There are four genders. 8. Well, I suppose so. 9. They went home. 10. There is the rub. 11. Why do you ask? 12. We will never say good bye m Heaven. 12. Frost forms before the sun rises. 14. Wha- goes up must come down. 15. He went to France to complete his education. 16. Only one es- caped. 53. Inflection. We have learned that the inflection of a part of speech is its change of form on account of its properties. Thus the noun and pronoun are inflected for gender, person, number e. That the adjective is inflected for comparison, and also to some extent, for number. That the verb is inflected for voice, mode, tense, num- ber, and person. That the adverb is inflected for com- parison. •One by one is ai phrase which Bhould be paised as a single word. Eastman's Practical Grammar 127 We now come to the three parts of speech, not in- flected at all; the preposition, the conjunction and the interjection. 54. The Preposition. 1. The Preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation of the object to the word modified by the phrase, 2. The object of a 'preposition may be: (a) A word; as, They sent for the doctor. (b) A phrase) as, He kicked the cat from under the table. (c) A clause; as, Have we a clear idea of how birds fly? 3. Some times the preposition may consist of more than one word; as, I know nothing as to his character. .4. Sometimes the preposition is an expletive, i. e., it is merely used to fill out the expression; as, For one to lie is base. 5. "Near," "like,' and "worth" may be parsed as prepositions, though they are not logically such. 6. "A" is a preposition in such words as a-fishing. 55 Notes on Prepositions. 1. At is used with reference to a small place, and in with reference to a large place; as, I lived at Camp • bell; I; live in Dallas, or Boston. 2. Between is used with two things, and among with more than two; as, Between you and me, there is no choice among the three. 128 Eastman's Practical Grammar 3. During is used when the event continues through the whole period, and in, at, or within, when it does not continue through the period; as, I labor during the day, and rest during the night; I have not seen him in the last three days. 4. Of is used with its object for the possessive case; as, Mr. Johnson's house=the house o/Mr. John- son. 5. Into denotes entrance, and in, place of rest; as, He was in the house when the child fell into the fire. 6. To should follow verbs of action instead of at; as, He went to the barn; he is at the barn. 7. From should be used after differ; as, This dif- fers from that. With may be used in case of differing in opinion. 8. 0/ is used after the word disappoint, — when we fail to obtain a thing and in when we get it and it does not suit us; as, I was disappointad of getting a house; I was disappointed in that buggy. Correct the Error*: 1. Divide it among the two girls. 2. We will meet during next week. 3. He threw the cat in the well. 4. He lives at New York. 5. I staid to home. 6. He went d)wn at th* spring. 7. Between us three there can be no mistake. 56. Conjunctions. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. They are divided according to rank, into co-ordinate conjunction*, or those that connect elements of equal Eastman's Practical Grammar 129 rank; and subordinate, or those that connect elements of unequal rank. They are classed according to meaning, as copula- tive, or those that connect additively; and disjunctive, or those that connect parts to be considered separately, or contrastea ideas. The further division into adversative, alternative, illative; and causil, temporal, local, etc., is unneces- sary to the teaching of the underlying principles of English. Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs The occurence of the first suggests the second, and emphasizes its natural force; as, Both James and John have come; Either James or John has come; Though he slay me, yet will I trust Him; I do not care whether you come or stay. Expletive Conjunctions are mere introductory words; as, And they did get married. 57. Interjections. Interjections are used without any grammacical connection with the sentence. They have no meaning within themselves, but are merely used for a purpose. EXAMPLES. (a) They may show the speaker's disgust or con- tempt for a thing; as, Pshaw! Tell me no more. (b) They may serve as a call; as, Halloo there! (c) They may modestly attract attention; as, Ahem or hem. 130 Eastman's Practical Grammar (d) They mayaskforarepatition; as, Eh? hey? in- deed? (e) Amen expresses what applause usually does, and hence is an interjection, rather than a re- sponsive adverb. Yes, and no, express the speaker's assent or dissent; and are interjections rather than adverbs. Order of Parsing Prepositions: 1. What part of speech, 2. What relation it shows. Order of Parsing Conjunctions: 1. What part of speech, 2. Which cla :;. Show what it connects. order <>/ ftirsing Interjections: 1. What part of speech. 2. For what used, 3. Tell that it has no grammatical connection with the Bentence. REVIEW EXERCISE XII. A parsing of tfu more difficult constructions previ- ously givt /'. Required to parse i very word: 1. The young mar. went to study law in Boston, as his father wanted him to he a lawyer. {Him is ob- jective subject, to bt is the assumed predicate, lawyer is the objective pr idicate.) 2. The exp >sure gajre my brother a cold. (Broth- er is the indirect objecl of gave; often called the English dative. | :;. o. me. How sad I feel. [Me is objective case independent. Sa use, or from the house, etc. But when we say John ran into the house we know exactly the relation, and that this relation is harmoniously associat- ed with the other ideas expressed. Such relation is called depend* nt. Independent Relation: in the sentence, Mary, you may go to your seal; we find that the idea. Mart/, is related to the sentence but forms no part of it. Such is independent relation. CONNECTIVE Relation: "1 have trinkets and tresses of hair." Here and associates the idea of trin- kf-ts and tresses in a conn:cted manner. In the sen- tence. John or James will come, they are not thus ad- dliivrhi connected; but, the word or preventsa break in the hormonous flow o\' the Bentence, and in this sense connects the parts but it expresses a separation in the is; [fone come the other will not POSITION. Can you place the words. Bees make honey, so as to make che m sahing clearer or more forcible? Take the sentence, Good books only teach the prop. per use of books, which is the meaning, That pood Eastman's Practical Grammar 139 books do nothing except to teach the proper use Of books, or, That good books alone, teach the proper use of books? Evidently the latter. If we take the word only from its present position, and place it at tlie beginning, the meaning will be clear, Only good booTts teach the proper use of books. In the sentence, "To-day shalt thou be with me in paradise," observe that the position of the words re- semble a question. On this account, some have mis- taken this for a question, thinking the interrogation point had been ommitted by mistake. If we change the position, or order of the words, the meaning will be clear; thus, "To-day thou shalt be With me in paradise." 3.. Rules of Syntax. OF GOVERNMENT. Rule 1. The subject of \a sentence- is in the norm- native case, and governs ■ the- verb in person and number. . ■ . • Remark 1. Anything that may b3 used as a nyim may be the subject of a sentence; as, Is is a verb. Remark 2. The subject is often omitted; as, Come and see. - . Remark 3. The subject and copula are omitted after if, while, though, than, etc.; as. I will g) if [I am] not prevented; He fell asleep while [he was] smoking, etc. Position: 1. The subject usually precedes the verb; as, Solomon was wise. 140 Eastman's Practical Grammar 2. The subject is placed after the verb, (a) In the imperative mode; as, Go thou and do likewise, (b) After the expletive there; as, There was a man. (c) In questions; as, "Come ye in peace or come ye in war?" The subject is placed between the verb and its auxiliary: (a) la questions containing auxiliaries; as, Shall man be more just than God? (b) In the subjunctive mode when if is omitted; as, Had I known him better, I should now be safe, (c) When a wish ia expressed in the potential mode; as, May God bless you. 3. Use: When the nominative is used, it must be the subject of a finite verb, in all cases except the nom- inative predicate after an intransitive verb, or after a participle, or in a independent construction, or in apposition. 4. Pleonasm should not be used except in strone emphasis, or in poetry; as, Milton he was blind. The subject should not be omitted when it would improve the sentence to use it. Correct the errors and pane all the subjects, (jiving the rule. 1. Him and I went. 2. I am older than him or her. 3. Me and Mary played together as children. 4. Whom besides I did you slander? 5. Who is there? Me. 6. He is as good as her. 7. You are no better than me. 8. Us girls will go. 9. Apples is ripe now. 10. I who am before you is the man. 11. Who did he come with? 12. Martha, she is a fine girl. 13. Hope to see you soon. RULE II. Transtive verbs and participle* govern the objective case. Eastman's Practical Grammar 141 Remark 1. Verbs that are intranstive by nature are used transitively: (a) When used in a causative sense; as, He Hies his kite; That is, he causes the kjte to fly. (b) When the object is of kindred signification to the verb; as, He ran a race. Remark 2. Some verbs in governing an object re- quire a complement; as, He made the wall white. Here it is not supposed he made the wall, but merely whitened it. Made white tells what was done to the wall. In the same way a noun may be used as the complement of the verb; as They made McKinley president. They did not make McKinley, but they elected=(made pres- ident) him. Remark 3. Participial nouns may govern objects; as, Sawing wood is hard work. Remark 4. There may be several objects governed by the same verb or participle; as, I see men, women and children. Remark 5. The rule applies to verbs in the active voice; but a verb in the passive voice sometimes takes an object. This occurs as follows: In a sentence con- taining both a direct and an indirect object when in the active form, if it be made passive, and the in- direct object be taken for the subject, it leaves the direct object still to be governed by the verb; as, You taught me grammar, I was taught grammar by you. Correct the errors: 1. Who did you see? 2. They sent for Mary and I. 3. Let you and I go. 4. He Who is guilty should be punished, not I. 5. I saw she and him in conversation. Rule III. The object of a preposition must be in the objective case. Remark 1. Anything that can be used as a noun may be the object of a preposition. 142 Eastman's Practical Grammar Examples: That word ends in X. He came from behind the house. We know but little of how he did it. I shall go away from here. Remark 2. Some words combine with the prepo- sitions to form inseparable phrases; as, hi vain, etc. Position. The preposition is generally placed be- fore the object. Exceptions: | (a) In interrogative sentences, es- pecially when the object is an interrogative pronoun; as, Whom did he send for? Such expressions are in- elegant; better, For whom did he send, (b) In poetry the order is often inverted; as, "From crag to crag, the rattling peaks among, leaps the live thunder.'' "Come walk with me the jungle through." Remark 3. Prepositional Phrases should be so placed as to render [the [meaning clear. I rented a house from a man with seven gables. This would im- ply that the man had seven gables. Say, 1 rented a house with seven gables from a man. Remark 1. A preposition should never be placed between a verb and its object: as, You shall not want /<>/• anything. Say. You shall not want anything. Correct the Errors'. 1. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 2. The Northern army did not want for supplies. 3. Whom did they send for? 4. It is our duty to visit and sympathize with the needy. 5. It is furnished to. and for. the benefit of the poor. 6. I saw a boy catching a chicken with black pants on. 7. I could see that the horse had been curried with half an eye. 8. They sent for Mary and I. 9. Be- tween you ; nd I, he is a rascal. Rule IV. THa possessive case is governed by the noun it modifies: Eastman's Practical Grammar 143 Remark 1. The possessive is placed immediately before the noun it modifies, except when an adjective intervenes; as, Ladies' gray gloves. Remark 2. We may substitute for the possessive, the noun in the objective after the preposition of; as, Mr. Smith's residence. The residence of Mr. Smith. Remark 3. Two or more nouns denoting common possession, take the sign after the last only; as, John and William's father (brothers); but when the posses- , sion is not common, each takes the siern; as, James' and Joseph's father. Remark 4. When a noun contains more than one hissing sound, the (') only is used as the sign of pos- session; as, Moses' law, Jesus' love, etc. Remark 5. The ('s) is not used in pronouns, except the adjective pronouns, one and other. One's; other's. Remark 6. The noun modified is sometimes omitted as, I bought these at Mr. Jones' (store). Remark 7. A noun in apposition with the posses- sive, usually takes the sign, but not always; as, Paul, the apostle's, conversion; This was Pike's opinion, the most eminent lawyer in the South. Remark 8. There should be no intervening words between the possessive and the name of the thing pos- sessed, when it can be avoided; as, She praised the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding. Remark 9. It is not well to unite two or more possessives in succession; as, Simon's wife's mother, etc. Remark 10. Compound words take the sign at the last; as, A mother-in-law's rule. Correct the errors and parse the possessives, giving the rule: 1. The boy's report was accepted. 2. The 144 Eastman* s Practical Grammar daughter-in-law's behavior was not the best. 3. It was now the tramp's, as she thought him, time to speak. 4. Mary and Ellens arithmetics did not agree. 5. Susan's brother's wife's feelings were hurt. 6. That horse is you all's. 7. It's song was sweet. 8. The Bishop's of Dublin's palace. 9. Hi's foot is larger than your's. 10. The mens' courage failed. 11. Those elegant ladie's gloves were burned. 12. New York and Chicago's water works differ. 13. I bought these at Boyd's & Co's. Rule V. The subject of the infinitive is put in the objective case. Remark 1. When the subject of an infinitive is also the subject of a finite verb, it is in the nominative case; as, I want to go; I expect to meet him. In such cases, there is nothing said of the subject of the infinitive, in parsing. Remark 2. The objective subject may be goverened by a transitive verb or its participle, or by a prepo- sition; as, We wanted him to leave us; We sent for him to wait upon the sick. Remark 3. Other infinitives and participles have constructions of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, in their various relations. feel, sci. hear, let, make, need, etc, the sign to is omitted Remark 4. After the active voice of bid, dare. with the infinitive. Remark 5. The infinitive always retains its verbal nature, so that as a noun, it may be modified by a pred- icate adjective, or take a predicate nominative after the verb of which it is subject, and, at the same time, govern an object, and be modified by an adverb; as, Eastman's Practical Grammar 145 To squander money needlessly, is wrong. Remark 6. The sign to should not be separated from the verb; as, To truthfully state a thing. Remark 7. The sign to should not be used alone; as, I have never worked, and I never intend to. Remark 8. Some grammarians say that the infin- itive is not a verb; but as it is regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive, and has voice, mode, tense, governs objects, and is modified by adverbs, it certainly is a verb. Correct the errors: 1. What went ye out for to see? 2. I have always labored and always expect to. 3. To carelessly make one's toilet is inexcusable. 4. I bade him to come to me. 5. I saw the cai to catch the rat (correct if it is meant that I saw the proper cat for catching that rat). 6. I have known him to fre- quently leave home. 7. You need not to remain long. 8. I intended to have written to you. 9. I intended to write to you before train time. 10. They had hoped to have seen you before they left. Parse the infinitives: 1. To be good is to be happy. 2. I wish to be good. 3. They are to visit us soon. 4. They ordered him to leave. 5. It was his delight for her to play with him. 6. We wanted him to be a lawyer. 7. He is the very man to do that work. 8. James will go to the university to finish his education. 9. To speak plainly, I do not like him. RULES OF AGREEMENT. RULE VI. Pronouns agree ivith their antecedents in gender, number and person. Remark 1. When a collective noun is used 146 Eastman's Practical Grammar with reference to the individuals, a pronoun referring to it must be in the plural number; as, The committee disagreed as to what they should report. Remark 2. When a collective noun is used with reference to the collection rather then the individuals, the pronoun must be in the singular; as, The company had its orders. Remark 3. When theie are two or more antece- dents connected by and, the pronoun must be in the plural number; as, The man and the lion went their way. Remark 4. When two or more antecedents are connected by or, or nor, the pronoun must be in the singular number; as, Neither temperance nor prudence had its reward. Remark 5. When the two antecedents are of different genders, it is improper to use a singular, mas- culine pronoun referring to them; as, No boy or girl should neglect his lessons. Better substitute a noun of the common gender, and then use the mascu- line pronoun in the singular; as, No pupil (boy or girl) should neglect his lessons. Remark 6. When two or more nouns express the different characters of the same person, a pronoun re- ferring to them should be in the singular number; as, A good husband and father has gone to his rest. Remark 7. When objects are taken together and the nouns and pronouns are of different persons, the plural pronoun referring to them must be of the first person if one of the antecedents is of the first person; but if the first is not included, the pronoun must be of the second person; as, John and you and I must go to our work: or. You and John must go to your work. Eastman's Practical Grammar 147 Remark 8. The pronouns must be singular when their antecedents are modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, such a, etc. Remark 9. It is often used to refer to the smaller animals and to children. The child hurt its finger; The cat washes its face with its paw. Remark 10. As subject of the verb be, it may refer to a noun or pronoun in the predicate, of either number and of any person; as, It is I; It is you; It is he; It is men we want. Remark 11. It is used impersonally, i. e. , without any definite antecedent, in such sentences as, It rains: I hope it will not go hard with him. Remark 12. It is sometimes an expletive; as, Come and trip it as yon go. On the light fantastic toe.— Milton. Remark 13. Relatives and interrogatives should be placed at the beginning of their clauses; or as nearly so as possible; This is the man that I saw. Remark 14. The relative is often omitted; This is the man I saw. Remark 15. The relative who. refers to persons, or things personified; which refers to animals, and to in- animate objects; that refers to either persons, animals, or objects. Remark 16. The relative that, should be used in. stead of which or who (a) after adjectives in the super- lative degree; (b) after all, very and same; (c) after two antecedents, one requiring who, and the other which. The man and the monkey that I saw; The wisest man that lives; The same man that, etc. Remark 17. The relative what is used in prefer- 148 Eastman's Practical Grammar ence to which when the antecedent is omitted; Take (the things) what you want. Remark 18. The compound relatives, whoever, whichever and whosoever, etc., are used in preference to the simple relatives when the antecedent is omitted, though who is often so used; Whoever asks will be heard=The person who asks, etc. In such sentences the compound relatives relate to their antecedents un- derstood. Remark 19. It is inelegant to use the solemn and familiar styles of pronoun in the same sentence; as, Thou art beautiful, but I hate you. Remark 20. Care should be taken to avoid ambig- uity in the use of pronouns: John told James that his father was sick. Whose father is meant here? Better use the language of the Bpeaker thus, John said to James, my (or your) father is sick. Correct tfu errors and parse the pronouns: 1. Every person Bhould be careful in handling their m >ney. 2. Rebecca took goodly rai nent and put them upon Jacob. 3. Every man retur led to their homes. •1. I felt his pulse and they beat 125 times in a minute. 5. The man that sold me them molasses, said they o«..l. 6. Susan as well as Mary have lost their dolls. 7. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture as well as t<» read them in a book. 8. I hope your mother or father will favor us with their company soon. !>. This is the tree whom I planted. 10. She is the prettiest woman who ever came here. 11. The lady and the poodle who were in the carriage. 12. He is the very man whom I met on the way. 1 •"•. The lady whom we saw today, and that was at our house yesterday has been seriously hurt. 14. Eastman's Practical Gram-mar 149 Smith told Jones that his hogs were in his corn. 15. He is the man that had the buggy what I told you of. Rule VII. A finite verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Remark 1. Except in the solemn style and the verb be there is but little inflection of the English verb for person and number. Indeed there is none, except in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, where the verb adds s in the singular. Remark 2. When a collective noun is the subject of a verb, the verb must be plural if the individuals are referred to, and singular if the collection, and not the individuals, is indicated; as, The army were seek- ing homes in private families; The army was well or- ganized. Remark 3. The finite verb, having two or more subjects connected oy and must be in the plural, un- less the nouns express different characters of the same person; Father and motner were there. An honest man and useful citizen has left the town, in the person of Mr. Johnson. Our president is dead: a Christian man and a noble patriot has gone to his final home. Remark 4. A finite verb, having two or more singular subjects connected by a disjunctive conjunc- tion, must be singular. Either a letter or a package is in the office for you. Remark 5. Every finite verb must have a sub- ject expressed or understood. Remark 6. When the subject is a mere word, or a phrase or a clause, the verb must be singular; as, They is a pronoun; Horses is a .noun; To play is pleasant; That he should prove false is improbable. 150 Eastman's Practical Grammar Remark 7. A finite verb having several subjects modified by a distributive adjective, must be singular; as, Every shrub, every flower, and every blade of grass ivas destroyed. "Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." Remark 8. A very common error is to make the verb plural, notwithstanding the subject is singular, when a prepositional phrase intervenes, the object of which is plural; as, The train with all its passengers were lost. Here train is the subject and the verb should be teas lost. Comet the errors and parst the verbs: 1. The committee were appointed. 2. The corporation is in- dividually responsible. 3. The hogs has been fed. 4. The board of trustees have a meeting tonight. 5. Many a person were disappointed. 6. A good soldier and noble patriot were killed. 7. War or pestilence were sure to prevail. 8. John, and also James, were there. 9. A collection of valuable prizes were dis- tributed. 10. The boys or I am going. 11. Boys are noun. Rule VIII. A noun or a pronoun, used' to explain or identify another noun or pronoun, is in the *ame '-.'/ apposition. Remark 1. The position of an appositive is imme- diately after the noun or pronoun modified, though it is sometimes placed elsewhere. Remark 2. A noun may be in apposition with a sentence; as, I promise to love and cherish a resolu- tion I have ever kept. An appositive may be a phrase or a sentence; as, To b< or n>>t to be, that is the ques- tion; Remember the golden rule: "Whatsoever ye Eastman's Practical Grammar 151 would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them." Remark 4. Sometimes the appositive is introduced by as, denoting rank, office or capacity; as, Mr. Smith, as my agent, bought the cotton. Remark 5. Sometimes the appositive is introduced by or, denoting an equivalent; as, The llama or South American camel, etc. Remark 6. A word repeated for poetic measure or for emphasis, should not be regarded as an apposi- tive unless it modifies the word after which it is placed. Remark 7. The compound terms, Mississippi river, Old Carolina State, etc. , need not be separated into a noun and an appositive, but may be regarded as a single word. Correct and parse the appositives: 1. Will you reject me; I whom you have known so long? 2. Who is this doctor; him you like so well? 3. I sent it to Mrs. Banks; she who lives across the street. 4. Joe Brown, him whom you punished was not to be blamed. Rule IX. Intransitive verbs and verbs in the passive voice, may have the same case after them as be- fore them, when both ivords refer to the same thing. Remark 1. A noun or pronoun in the predicate after a finite verb must be in the nominative case; but after an infinitive and after an intransitive participle, the predicate noun may be either nominative or objec- tive; as, I told John to be a good boy; John is said to be a good boy; Jones being a good lawyer soon found a strong defense. Remark 2. A predicate noun or pronoun usually follows the verb; but it sometimes precedes it: (a) 152 Eastman's Practical Grammar In interrogative sentences; as, Who are you? (b) "The wages of sin is death." • Correct the errors and parse the predicate nouns and pronouns: 1. It is me. 2. We thought it was her. 3. I took it to be he. 4. If I was him I wou!d want it to be she. 5. Who did you say he was? 6. You thought it was me. 7. Whom do men say that I am? 8. If it had been me I would have quit. 9. His being a teacher* seems very strange. 10. I did not dream of their being robbers. 11. His father wants him to be a lawyer. RULES OF MODIFICATION. Rule \. Adjectives and participles modify nouns and pronouns, Remark 1. An adjective used to complete the pred- icate may modify the subject; as, The fields were green] To lie is sinful, That all men were created equal is untrut . Remark 2. An adjective may be used to complete the predicate and modify the object; as, I found the fields 0r< Remark 3. After infinitives and participles, adjec- tives are frequently used that do not modify any noun or pronoun expressed; as, "To be good is to be happy. " "The main secret of being sublime is to say great things in few and plain words. " These adjectives may be made to modify nouns understood; as, For a per- son to be good is for a person to be happy. Remark 4. Such adjectives as are inflected for •When the subject of a participle is in the possessive case, the predi- cate noun may not agree with it in case. Eastman's Practical Grammar 153 number, must agree with the noun they modify; as, That kind; those kinds; one man; two men. Remark 5. A singular adjective may precede a collected number; as, Every seven years. Remark 6. By poetic license, the adjective may be used for the adverb; as, "They fall successive and successive rise . ' ' Remark 7. Adjectives are used as nouns; The good shall inherit eternal life. Remark 8. Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called proper adjectives, and should begin with capital letters; The French, the English etc. Remark 9. Of the demonstratives, this and these refer to something near the speaker, and that and those to something remote; also, in contrasted expresbions, that refers to the first mentioned and this to the last mentioned; as, Money and prayer accomplish much ; that moves mankind, this, God and his angels. Remark 10. Each, every, either, neither, such a, many a, etc., modify nouns in the singular. Either and neither refer to two things only; as, Either of the two roads; neither of the two men. Any and none are used when more than two are meant. Remark 11. Ordinals should precede cardinals; as» The first four pages; not the four first pages. Remark 12. The article a or an and the are placed before other adjectives; as, The large red apple; the white cow. An is used immediately before vowel sounds, and a before consonant sounds; i. e., The word, whether a noun or other part of speech, which immediately fol lows an must begin with the vowel sound, or else a must be used instead of an. 154 Eastman's Practical Grammar Remark 13. A or an modifies a noun in the singu- la**: The, a noun in the plural or singular. A man; the man; the men. A or an refers to no particular thing; the to some particular thing. Note the difference in meaning of, The son of a king, and A son of the kin^.. Remark 14. The should be used to modify a gen- eric noun, i. e., names denoting a race or kind; as, The lion (not a lion) is a native of Africa. The negro is black. Remark 15. When two or more adjectives refer to the same noun the article is used bafore the first; as. A black and white cow. When they refer to separate nouns, expressed or understood, the article must be placed before each; as, The black, and the white cow. Remark 16. When two or more nouns are connect- ed by and, the article is placed before the first only; as, The buys and girls; but when connected by or or nor the articles are used with each; as, The boys or the girls. Remark 17. In comparison, wtiera both words re- fer to the same person or thing, the article is used be- fore the first only; as, He is a better blacksmith than teacher. Remark is. A before few and little gives an affirm- ative meaning while the emission of it actually emphasizes their meaning. He had a few friends implies the tact that he had some friends; He had few friends, implies thac they were very few. Remark 19. The comparative degree of an adjec- tive is used when two things are compared, and the superlative when three or more are meant. Eastman's Practical Grammar 155 The following is incorrect: Of the two epic poets, Homer and Virgil, Homer was the most original. Say, Homer was the more original. Remark 20. The latter term of a comparison must exclude the former when the comparative is used, and include it wheri the superlative is used. If we say, The United States is more powerful than any republic, we make it more powerful than itself. We should say, The United States is more powerful than any other republic. To use the superlative we would say, The United States is the most powerful of all republics. Remark 21. Errors often occur in, (a) Misplacing adjectives; as, A hot cup of coffee. (b) Using adverbs for adjectives; as, They landed safely. (c) Using adjectives for adverbs; as, He reads very distinct. (d) Double comparison; as, More sooner; most unkindest. (e) Using them for these; as, them marbles. (f) Using this here and that there, for this and that. ■ (g) -Using 'the plural of this and that for the sing- ular; as, All- these kind of things. Correct the errors and parse the adjectives: 1. He has not a enemy in the world. 2. An har- bor was reached. 3. We waited a hour. 4. He bought an old and young horse. 5. An elm puts forth its foliage earlier than an oak. 6. He is a better mathematician than a musician. 7. These sort of mornings are unpleasant. 8. Those kind of hens are like ours. 9. That barrel will hold five bushel. 10. It is three mile to town. 11. She appeared splendidly. 156 Eastman's Practical Grammar 12. Samson was stronger than any man. 13. Lying is the meanest of all other vices. 14. He is the best man of the two. 15. I want afresh sack of flour. 16. A red large apple. 17. Put up them toys. 18. Each may enter in their turn. 19. No pupil will be allowed to cut their desks. 20. He speaks slow. Rule XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. Remark 1. The adverb should be so placed as to give the proper meaning with clearness, for~e and euphony. Remark 2. Sometimes adverbs perform the office of adjectives; as, He is the only man. Remark :*>. Adverbs may limit phrases and clauses; as, He swam nearly across the river', Verily I say unto you. Remark I. )'<.-■_ no, and amen may be parsed as responsive adverbs modifying the whole sentence to which they respond; but they have every characteristic of interjections, and should be parsed as such. Remark 5. The conjunctive adverb connects like a conjunction, introduces a clause (usually an adverb clause), and modifies a word in each of the clauses con- nected. Sometimes, however, it introduces an adjec- tive clause and modifies in only one. This may be determined by expanding it into equivalent phrases; as, He fought till he died=He fought until the time at which he died. Since one of these phrases modifies fought, and the other died, till modifies both words. He lives at the place where my father died. In this sentence, where introduces an Eastman's Practical Grammar 157 adjective clause and will expand into but one phrase; hence it modifies in one clause only. This occurs when a conjunctive adverb follows a noun. Remark 6. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. If I never said nothing I said something. Sometimes it is well to use double negatives; as, He is not disinterested; but, usually, double negatives should be avoided. Remark 7. Avoid using no for not; as. I have for- gotten whether it is so or no. Remark 8. Like is a CDnjunctive adverb when actions are compared but when objects are compared it is a preposition. He walks like (or as) his father (walks) ; He is like his father. It may be said of like, that it is a preposition for convenience, rather than in fact; for it is really an ad- jective in such constructions; and to or unto is under- stood, and sometimes .expressed after it; as, The Kingdom of Heaven is like unto, etc. Remark 9. Adverbs are frequently mere exple- tives. When there is so used it changes the order of the subject and predicate, placing the subject after the predicate; as, There was a boy. Correct the errors and parse the adverbs: 1. He won't give me no peace. 2. We didn't find nothing. 3. Velvet feels smoothly. 4. Speak slow and distinct. 5. She looked beautifully. 6. You did splendid. 7. I am tolerable well, thank you. 8. His voice sounds harshly. 9. I care not whether it is he or no. 10. They reached land safely. 11. God only deserves praise. Rule XII. Nouns denoting when, tvhere, to what extent, are in the objective case adverbial. 158 Eastman's Practical Grammar Examples: He will go home tomorrow; Mary is ten years old. Rule XIII. Prepositions connect words, and show the relation between them. Remark 1. A preposition may be used as an ad- verb; as God dwells above. Remark 2. A preposition may be used as a mere expletive; as, For one to be refused, is embarassing. Remark 3. The sentence should not end with a preposition when it is possible to avoid it; as Whom did he send for? Remark 4. Avoid the superfluous use of the preposition; as, Where did my ball roll to? Remark 5. Care should be taken to select the proper prepositions. Remark 6. The object of a preposition may be a word; as, In (own; or a i phrase; as. From behind the houst , or it may be a sentence; as, 1 have a poor notion of how, they pick cotton. Remark 7. Several words may serve as one prep- osition; as, I know nothing as to his education; I failed on account ou Caesar was ambitious; if So It was a grievous fault, and grievously Bath Caesar answered it. " — Shakespeare . One summer's eve we wandered out, My mother and her thoughtless boy ; la pensive mood she strayed about. While I in heedless, childish joy, Would pluck the flowers that 'round me grew, And hold them up into the air, To watch the sunbeams stealing through Their modest petals, fresh and fair. At length we to a graveyard went, Where all seemed given to holiness; And there the mourner's knee was bent In prayer to Him our hearts to bless ; I looked around, on every eide I saw the sweetest flowers wave ; I grasped for one, when mother sighed ' 'My child, you're treading on a grave! 'Ah me, " she said, "and yet 'tis true In after years, my darling boy. You'll find each flower so fresh and new, Each flower of hope and love and joy. That you would pluck with such light heart, And in the air so gaily wave When from its kindred blown apart , Is blooming o'er a lonely grave." Alas! I've found from that sad hour, Her words of prophecy too true; I've never reached to grasp a flower Of joy, that near my pathway grew, But that an angel voice would say. "Look down and see; the joy you frave, Blooms o'er a murdered hope today, And you are treadiag on its grave. ' ' — The Author, 166 Eastman's Practical Grammar 11 . The curfew tolls the knell of patting day ; The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; The plowman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me.— Gray. 12. Lives of great men all remind us, We c«n make our lives sublime: And departing, leave behind us. Footprints on the sands of time.— Longftllotr. 13. O joyous day! the golden band Of the revolving years of time' Well may earth to its fairest laud. Grot thy return with merry chime —Greene. 14. Ah: distinctly I remember. It was in the bleak December. And each separate dying ember t its ghost upon the floor. - Pot . 15. There's a hanntel va'e ni> the Btr «i D at rim*. Where ghosts of nif morv w»ni r: As they stalk along in their man n sublime, Y' .11 •an bill Btop and jsmder. Many am robed in garments of white. And many in crimson, gory; The former appear like visions of light . The latter, like demons of story. — The Author. m storming fury rose, and clamor, such As heard In heaven till now was never. Arms Ob armor clashing, brayed horrible discord; And the madding wheels of brazen chariots raged I >:t>- mi the DOtM Of <'<>iiflirt ; overhead The dismal hiss of fl ry darts, in flamiug Volleys, flew; ami dying, Tauh-d either htMl With ' Eastman's Practical Grammar 167 4. Kinds of Sentences. With respect to use. SENTENCES -\ Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative. Exclamatory. With respect to form, . I Simple, J Complex, \ Compound, 1 Partially compound. Sentences are divided with respect to use, into declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence used to declare something as a fact; as, My brother is sick. An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used to express a command; as, Be silent! An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used to ask a question; as, Where is your boy to-night? An Exclamatory Sentence is one used to ex- press einotion; as. How the wind blows! Classify the following sentences with respect to use: 1. How many men were present? 2. How it rains! 3. It rains. 4, Let it rain. 5. How that sign-boar^ creaks! 6. Come to see me. 7. The quality of Vnercy is noc stained. 8. Joy to the world, the Lord Ins come! 9. Take me back to the days of childhood. \10. Shall we not seek the truth, rather than belie ve\ a lie? 11. We should. 168 Eastmans Practical Grammar With respect to form, sentences are simple, com- plex, compound, and partially compound. A Simple Sentence is a sentence which contains but one subject and one predicate; as, Many hallowed memories cluster around the dear old home. A Complex Sentence is a sentence which con- tains a principle proposition and one or more subordi- nate oropositions; as, The men who came to scoff at him remained to pray with him; Dew glitters when the sun shines; I would go if I were able. A subordinate proposition is generally introduced by a relative pronoun, a conjunctive adverb, or a sub- ordinate conjunction, expressed or understood. A Compound Sentence contains two or more principle propositions connected by the necessary con- junctions, expressed or understood; as, "Wealth may us but wisdom must be sought." A Partially Compound Sentence is a sentence which has two or more subjects, or two or more predi- cates; or, it may have two or more subjects and two or more predicates. Examples: Wives, sisters and moth- ers wait for the news (Compound subject). The moon revolves and keeps the same side toward us (Compound predicate). Men, women and children, stare, cry out, and run (Both parts compound) Tell tin kind Oj Wnii nrr and why: 1. The ear is the open gateway of the soul. 2. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest po^m of antiquity. 8. Slang is always vulgar as it s an af- fected way of talking. 4. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. Eastman's Practical Grammar 169 In complex sentences, the subordinate clause may be an adjective clause modifying the subject or object; as, Men who are educated are needed. We need men who are educated. The subordinate clause may modify the predicate; as, They boarded the train while it was running. The subordinate clause may modify other parts of the sentence; as, I shall vote for the man who wiil ad- vocate temperance. A compound sentence may consist of two or more simple sentences; as, I shall go but you must stay; or it may consist of a complex and a simple sentence; as, Those who wish may remain; but I shall go; or it, may consist of two or more complex sentences; as, Those who wish may practice fraud; but I shall be honest while I have my reason. A compound sentence containing one or more complex sentences, may be called a complex compound sentence. A compound sentence may be made up of two or more lesser compound sentences; as, "Men may come and men may go. but I go on forever". Here the ac- tion of men is contrasted with the action of the brook. Tell in what way the following sentences are com- plex or compound, of what compounded, etc. : 1. They call me ' 'Butter cup" though I could never tell why. 2. "The evil that men do lives after them, but the good is often interred with their bones; and so let it be with Caesar." 3. The boys and girls went out to play while the daylight lingered. 4. There is little difference between those who work and those who play. 5. Come to the mother while she weeps. 170 Eastman's Practical Grammar DEFINITIONS. A Sentence, or Proposition, is a collection of words expressing a thought. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence that states something as a fact. An Imperative Sentence is a sentence that ex- presses command. An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence that is a question. An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence that expresses an exclamation. A Simple Sentence is a proposition consisting of one subject and one predicate, used alone or with modifiers. A Complex Sentence is a sentence which con- tains a subordinate proposition, or subordinate propo- sitions. A Compound Sentence is a sentence composed of two or more simple, complex, partially compound, or minor compound sentences. A Major Compound Sentence is a compound sen- tence containing one or more minor compound sen- tences. A partially Compound Sentence is a sentence whose subject or predicate, or both, are compounded. Make three sentence* conforming to each <>f the oboM dejlni- tiona, and explain them Eastman's Practical Grammar 171 Elements of the Sentence. Subject Predicate Object Complemental ELEMENTS ( Copulative } Adjective Adverbial Connective Independent An Element is one of the component parts of a sentence. Elements are of three classes: (a) An element of the first class is a word. (b) An element of the second class is a phrase. (c) An element of the third class is a clause. A Word is the sign of an idea. A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing a thought but performing a single office in the sentence; as, A man of industry, an industrious man. A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a sub- ject and a predicate; as, A man who is\indxtstriou&, will succeed. An industrious man will succeed. Any element of a sentence except the predicate and connectives may be of the second or third class. That is, they may be phrases or clauses. The principal or essential elements'fof a sentence, are the subject and predicate; so called because a sen- tence cannot exist without them. One of them may be omitted, however, in which case it is understood. 172 Eastman's Practical Grammar A sentence may consist of only two words; all others being" unnecessary; as, Jesus wept. • The subject is that of which something is said. SUBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. A subject may be of the first, second or third class. It is called simple when it has no modifier. This is also called the gramm a tical subject. It is the sub- ject nominative of the verb. The subject is complex when it has subordinate elements, i. e., modifiers. This is also called a modified subject, or logical subject. The subject is compound when two or more subjects of the same verb are connected together. Each part of the subject may be simple, complex or even compound. EXAMPLES. Simple Subject: Bees make honey; Me* make money. Complex Subject; Practical nun prosper- are wanted. Young mm J .< /■ references are wanted, etc. Compound Subject, each part simple: Mothers, rs mourn I'm- them. Compound Subje part complex: Loving mothers, <>■ d ajffecti mourn for them. Compound Subject, each part compound: Jew and Greek, male and fen i and/oe, must stand before the judgment bar of God; John Smith and from G and Mary Simkins and Tmn Pinkney from Piano were among the delegates. Eastman's Practical Grammar 173 PREDICATE ELEMENTS. The Predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. The predicate is asserted of the subject, (a) As a declaration; as, Life is dear to us; Tops spin. (b) As a supposition; as, If I were you; If I knew. (c) As a command; as, Turn from your ways; Leave me. (d) As a possibility; as, He can learn; He could learn. (e) As a probability, etc. , etc. ; as, It may rain. (f) As a question; as, Have you a knife? It may be asserted in many other ways, but these 11 ustrations will suffice. The Predicate may consist of the verb alone; as He writes. It may consist of the verb be, or any other copula verb, and a complement. Henry is sick. The Complement may be an adjective modifying the subject; as, The rose is red. It may be an adjective modifying the object; as, We made the wall white; We found the fields green. The Complement may be a noun or pronoun re- ferring to the subject (predicate nominative) ; as, I am the man; It is he. It may be a noun referring to the object; as, Pharaoh made Joseph ruler over Egypt Here made ruler is the predicate. The Complement may be an adverb; as, Spring is here. The Complement may be a phrase; as, They are to visit us. It may be a clause; as, The question is, has he money? 174 Eastman's Practical Grammar The copula affirms the complement of the subject. In the sentence, John is sick, we predicate John's state of him, i. e., we affirm the sickness of John. Infinitives and participles do not affirm a predica- tion, but merely assume the action, being, or state, as true without asserting it. If the predicate consists of a verb, it will be an element of the first class, of course; but if it consists of a verb and a complement, the complement may be of the first, second, or third class. The predicate may be simple; as, God is; I wal!:. It may be .complex; as, Charles walks in his sleep. It may be compound; as, Charles reads and writes. When the predicate is simple it has no modifiers; as, Great men think-. When complex, it may have modifiers of any class; first, second, or third. When compound, each part may be simple, complex or compound. Example of a simple predicate: Birds fly. Examples qf complex predicate: (a) Modified by a word — Birds fly swiftly. (b) By a phrase Birds.//// in the air. (c) By a clause Birds fly to their nests when night comes on. Example of a compound predicate, parts simple; You may eat, drink and be merry. Example of a compound predicate, each part com- plex: That woman mashes and irons for us; or, That woman cooks for you and washes for us. Eastman's Practical Grammar 175 Example of a compound predicate, each part com- pound'. Happy children cat and drink, skip and play, and then lie down and sleep. Tell the kind of sentence, point out the subject and tell ivhat kind and ivhy •; the predicate, what kind and why: 1. He sent his daughter home that way. 2. Shakespeare was fifty-two .ears old the very day of his death. 3. Tha emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. 4. Mecca, a city in Arabia, is sacred in the eyes of Mo- hammedans. 5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, And his cohorts wfre gleaming in purple and gold. T1 7. Men, women, and children stare, cry out, and run. 8. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 9. The air is quickly compressed; enough heat is evolved to produce combustion. 10. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand, and the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 11* John reads. DEFINITIONS. An Element of a sentence is one of its compo- nent parts. An Element of the First Class is a word. An Element of the Second Class is a phrase. An Element of the Third Class is a clause. A Word is the sign of an idea. A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing a thought but performing a single office. 176 Eastman 's Practical Grammar A Separable Phrase is one whose parts may be treated separately. An Inseparable Phrase is one whose parts cannot be treated separately. A Clause is an element of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate. The Principal Elements are the subject and the predicate. The Subject is that of which something is asserted, The Simple i r Grammatical Subject is that which is the subje.'t nominative of the verb. The Complex or Logical Subject is a subject which contains modifiers of any class. A Compound Subject is a subject composed of two or more simple, complex, or even compound subjects. The Predicate is that which is asserted of the Bubj< The Simple or Grammatical Predicate is the verb, or verb and complement, without the subordinate elements; i. e., without the object or modifiers. The ComPli ical Predicate is the pred- v.ith all its subordinate elements. A Compound Predicate is a predicate composed oftwoor mqre simple, complex, or even compound predica A COMPLEMENT is an clement of any class, used to complete the predicate and refer to the subject or object. A COPULA is a verb used to connect the subject and complement and afhrm the complement of the subject. Eastman's Practical Grammar 177 Subordinate Elements OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. Objective Elements (either the objects of verbs and participles, or of prepositions), and adjectives, par- ticiples, possessives, appositives, and adverbs, or any- thing used as such— all these are classed as subordi- nate elements. An Objective Element may consist of a word, a phrase or a clause. They are therefore of the first, second, or third class. EXAMPLES. (a) Objective elements of the first class: You please your teacher; I saw the butcher killing the beef with an axe. (b) Objective elements of the second class: I like to read; He came from behind the barn. (c) Objective elements of the third class: He said, "I am a soldier"; Do you have any knowledge of how the case will be decided? (d) Simple objective elements: Monkeys eat candy; God loves us; He labors for wages. (e) Complex objective elements: They found good business in the oil fields; We visited the tomb where the pilgrim lay. (f) Compound objective elements, simple parts: They came for John and me. (g) Compound objective, parts complex: I saw "the cow ivith the crumpled horn," and "the dog that worried the cat. ' ' 178 Eastman's Practical Grammar (h) Compound objective, parts compound: There is salvation for Jew and Greek, male and female, bond and free. COMPLEMENTAL ELEMENTS. Complemental Elements may consist of words, phrases, or cla tses; they are, therefore, of the first, second, or third class. Complemental Elements may be simple, com- plex, or com pou nd. EXAMPLES. (a) Complemental elements of the first class: God is love; I am sick, (b) Complemental elements of the second class: I am to decicU tomorrow. (c) Complemental elements of the third class: The question was. Where does tin Nile rise! (d) Simple complements: Mary is sick; He is candid. (e) Complex complements: He is brave in his own opinion; Time is eternity cut offal both ends. (f) Compound complement, parts simple: He is brave and generous; He iagood and kind* (g) Compound, porta complex: He is brave m the time of daH0*T and generous to a fault. (h) Compound, parts compound: Some people are drunken and debauched during the week, and are long- fated and jrrai/erful on Sunday. THE COPULA. The Copula is always an element of the first class being a simple verb, generally the verb be. Eastman's Practical Grammar 179 It may be simple; as. My son-in-law is wise. It may be complex; as, He is now a good citizen. It may be compound; as, He was then, and is now, the best man in the town. ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. Adjective Elements are of the first, second and third class, and are simple, complex and compound. EXAMPLES. (a) Of the first class and simple; as, That hand- some man. (b) Of the first class and complex; as, A very handsome mam. (c) Of the first class and compound; as, He is a kind and benevolent man. (d) Of the second class and simple; as, A man of notoriety. (e) Of the second class, complex; as, It is chiefly of danish origin. (f ) Of the second class, compound; as, Washington was a man 0/ a religious nature and 0/ a patriotic spirit. (g) Of the third class, simple; as, Boys £/m£ are dishonest cannot be trusted. (h) Of the third class, complex; as, Boys that will steal a penny when they are little will steal a pound when they are grown. (i) Third class, compound; as, Boys that lie and that steal, are worth nothing to the world. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. Adverbial Elements are of the first, second and third class, and are simple, complex and compound. 180 Eastman's Practical Grammar EXAMPLES. (a) Of the first class, simple; as, Make haste slowly. (b) Of the first class, complex; as, The glacier moves very slowly. (c) Of the fir it cla ?3, c impound; as, They advance '. kindness and //-///m/ spirt* of generosity. (g) Of the tfcirrf class, simple; as, Work uiMe ft (h) Of the /A ('/•'/ class, complex; as, You may assist me if //«/' //•,'// stay //// / „ „,,/ dinner. (i) Ofthef/uVtf class, compound; as, When all eady, and when the command was given', he fired. CONNECTIVE ELEMENTS. Connective Elements arc simple elements of the first class. They are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs and relatiin pronouns; the preposition is also a connec- tive. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. Independent > lementa may be thejffrd class, second class, or t/urd class; sinfple, complex or comjxmnd. The principal independent elements are expletives, ections and /"-"//sand pronoun*, used indepen- dently. ORDER OF ANALYSIS. TVir stmpfe sentence: 1st. The fctnd o/* sentence with respect to use and/erm. Eastman's Practical Grammar 181 2nd. If simple, point out the subject. 3rd. Tell whether the subject is simple or complex, i. e., whether it has modifiers or not. 4th. If complex (logical), p^infc out khibi,33 (gram- matical subject). 5th. Tell how many and what subordinate elements it has and give the class es. 6th. If the subordinate elements are complex, point out their bases, and subordinate elements, giving kind and class. 7th. If the subordinate elements are compound, separate them into simple elements and analyze them. 8th. Point out the entire predicate. 9th. Tell whether the base (grammatical predicate) is composed of a simple verb, or of a copula and comple- ment. l(/th. If the predicate is complex, point out the subordinate elements, tell kind and class. 11th. If the subordinate elements are complex, point out their bases, and the subordinate elements to these, giving h'nd and class. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. If- the sentence is complex, and the principal and subordinate propositions are simple, separate them into simple propositions, and analyze them as above. The compound sentence: If the sentence is compound and composed of simple sentences separate it into its parts and analyze each part. If the parts are complex, separate each complex sentence into its principal and subordinate propositions and analyze them. 182 Eastman's Practical Grammar If the sentence is a major compound, separate it into its minor compounds, and these again, into their simple parts, and analyze as before. MODEL FOR THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Containing no subordinate elements: Birds fly. This is a simple sentence because it contains but one subject, and one predicate. The subject is birds; it is simple, having no sub- ordinate elements. The predicate is fly, simple, having no subordi- nates. Containing subordinate elements of the first class: Many birds fly very swiftly. This is a simple sentence becau The subject, many birds, is complex. The base ia birds. It has one subordinate element, many, which is a simple adjective element of the first class. The predi- cate is. fly r> ry swiftly, which is complex. Fly is the base, and it has one subordinate element, very swiftly, which is a complex adverbial element of the first class. The base of this element is swiftly. This has one subor- dinate element, which is a simple adverbial element of the first clasdt Containing subordinaU elements of the second class : "Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United Stat This is a simple sentence because, etc. Eastman's Practical Grammar 183 Subject, cotton; simple subjective element of the first class. Is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States is the predicate. The predicate is complex — one subordinate element— "in Egypt, in India, and in tl e United States." Compound adverbial element of the second class. First part of the compound, In Egypt; simple ad- verbial element of the second class. The base, Egypt, is a simple objective element, of the first class. In is the preposition. Second part of the compound, in India; simple ad- verbial element of the second class. The base, Indi%, is a simple objective element of the first class. In is the preposition. Third part of the compound, in the United States; simple adverbial element of the second class. In is .the preposition. The base, the United States, is a complex objective element of the first class. Of this, United States is the base, having one subordinate element, the; a simple adjective element of the first class. The con- nectives are and understood between in Egypt and in India, and and expressed between in India and in the United States. Model for the analysis of the complex sentence : ■ 'Those who are honest in childhood will be honest when they are old." This is a complex sentence — one leading, and two subordinate sentences. Those who are honest in childhood, is a complex subject. Those, the simple subject. Who are honesfi in childhood is a simple adjective element of the thiri 184 Eastman's Practical Grammar class, consisting of a clause. Who is the subject, simple. Arekonest in childhood is the complex predi- cate. A., the simple predicate, of which arc is the copula, and honest, the complement. In childhood a simple adverbial element of the second class. In is the preposition, and childhood is the base. Childhood, a simple objective element of the first class. Will be honest when they are old, is the complex predicate. Will he honest is the simple predicate, will be the copula, and honest, the complement; simple, first class. When they are old is a simple adverbial element of the third class. They, the simple subject; are old, the simple predicate, consisting of the copula, are, and the complement, old. Old is a simple adjecHvi clement of the first class. Wlicn is a connective, a conjunctive adverb, connecting the subordinate to the principal proposition, and modi- fying will be honest, and are old. Model for tin analysis of the compound sentena : "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, and his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold." Compound sentence, composed of one complex, and err: simple Bentence. The Assyrian came down like a ivolf o)i the fold, is the complex, and his cohorts were steaming pi and gold, is the simple sentence. Of fhe complex sentence, The Assyrian came down is the principal proposition, and like a wolf on the fold, the subordinate Of the principal proposition, The Assyrian is the complex buI tyrian, the ban-, one subordinate element; the, a simple adjective element of the first class. Canu downlike a wolf on the fold, is the com- plex predicate in the first sentence of the compound. Eastman's Practical Grammar 185 Came doivn, the simple predicate, which has one subordinate element; like a wolf on the fold, a simple adverbial element of the third class, consisting of a clause. The complex subject, a wolf, base ivolf, which has one subordinate element, a, a simple adjective element of the first class. The verb in the predicate of the clause is omitted, which, when expressed, gives the predicate, came down on the fold. It is complex. Came down* is the simple predicate and has no subor- dinate element. On the fold, is a simple adverbial element of the second class. On is the preposition, and the fold its object, a complex objective element of the first class. Fold, the base, which has one subordinate element. The, a simple adjective element of the first class. The second part of the compound is the simple sentence, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. Subject, his cohorts. Complex. Base, cohorts. Subordinate element, his, simple adjective element of the first class. Predicate, were gleaming in purple and gold. Complex. Base, were gleaming. Subordinate element, in purple and gold, a simple adverbial element of the second class. Preposition, in.' Object, purple and gold, compound objective element of the first class. First part, purple. Second part, gold, both simple. Connectives, and, connecting; the parts of the object, and and, connecting the sentences. Also like connect- ing the principal to the subordinate sentence. *Came down is a compound verb=descended ■#* r 186 Eastman's Practical Grammar MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. SHORTER FORM. '•Thi< Assyrian came down like.a wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming iu purple and gold Kind of sentence, compound. Consists of one complex and one simple sentence. Subject in the first, The Assyrian. Kind, complex. Base, Assyrian. Subordinate, the. Kind and class, adjective-first class. Predicate, canu down like a wo\j on fin fold. Kind. Complex. Base, canu down. Subordinate, like a woJj on the Sold. Kind and class, adverb third class. Subject, a wolf. Kind, complex. Base. wolf. Subordinate Kind and class, adjective first class. Predicate (came down) on the fold. Kind, complex. Base cairn down, understood. Subordinate, on thjfold, adverb second class. Preposition, on. Object, //" fold. Kind, complex. Base, fold. Subordinate the. Kind and class, adjective first class. Eastman's Practical Grammar 187 Connectives, like, a conjunctive adverb. The other part of the compound may be analyzed as this part has been. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 3. 1. What is a subordinate element? 2. What an objective element? 3. Give two examples of the ob- jective elements of the first class. 4. Two of the second class. 5. Two of the third class. 6. Two simple objective elements. 7. Two complex. 8. Two compound. 9. Give an example of a compound objective element, with parts complex. 10. With the parts compound. 11. What is the complemental ele- ment? 12. Of what may a complemental element consist? 13. Give an example of an adjective used as the complement of a verb. 14. Of the same as the modifier of the object. 15. Give an example of a noun or pronoun used as the complement of the verb and re- ferring to the subject. 16. In what case must it be? 17. Give the rule of syntax relating to it. 18. Give an example of a noun complement referring to the ob- ject. 19. In what case must it be? 20. Give an ex- ample of the simple complement. 21. Of a complex complement. 22. Of a compound complement. 23. Of a compound complement, the parts simple. 24. The parts complex. 25. What is a copula? 26. Give an example of an adjective element of each class, simple, complex, and compound. 27. Give an exam- ple of an adverbial element of each class, simple, com- plex and compound. 28. Give an example of three kinds of connective elements. 29. Of three kinds of independent elements. SIMPLE SENTENCES. Analyze the following simple sentences: 1. The captain is drilling his company in the suburbs of the town. 2. I saw an aged beggar, in my walk. 3. The first permanent settlement on the 188 Eastman's Practical Grammar Chesapeake was made in the beginning of the reign of James the First. 4. The ambition of most men is to become rich. 5. The bells make iron music through the land. G. "The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky." 7. He sighed for a home on the rolling deep. Partially compound sentences are analyzed like simple sentences, after separating the compound sub- ject or predicate, into simple elements. PARTIALLY COMPOUND SENTENCES. III. the following partially compo 1. The moon revolves and keeps the same side to- ward us. 2. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves of the nut palm. telieu exiled the mother, op- pressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. When the object is compound, separate it into its parts and analyze thi I pie object 1. Hunger rings the bell and orders up coals in ape of br butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 2. alk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. in study and recite grammar and arithmetic. COMPLEX SENTENCES. IV. ollotiring complex s< 1. Have we a perfect knowledge of how birds fly? 2. We arc not sure that an open sea surrounds the poles. Eastman's. Practical Grammar 189 NOUN CLAUSES. When a clause is a subject or object, consider tke whole sentence as the principal proposition, and tfe clause as the subordinate proposition. Analyze: 1. That the earth rotates is not doubted, (in this sentence that is an expletive. The earth rotates is the subject in the leading or principal proposition). 2. Galileo taught that the eartn moves. {That is a connective. ) 3. No man knows when the poems of Homer were written. 4. "When were the odes writ- ten"? is not so simple as it sounds. When a noun clause is an appositive, separate it from the principal clause and analyze each clause. In such noun clauses, the expletive, that, often occurs. 1. It has been proved that the earth is round. 2. It, that the earth is round, has been proved. Analyze: J . It is believed by some that the spirits of the dead are constantly with us. 2. Shakespeare's met- aphor, "Night's candles are burned out," is one 0f the finest in literature. 3. The advice that St. Am- brose gave St. Augustine was in substance this: "When you are in Rome do as the Romans do." 4. ThisI know, that I was blind, but now I see. Sometimes a noun clause is the object of a preposition. Analyze: 1. There has been some dispute about who wrote Shakespeare. 3. There has been much debating among theologians as to how one should be baptized.' 3. When I think of how he acted it disgusts me. Eastman's Practical Grammar 190 Sometimes a noun clause is an independent element: 1 That telegraphic messages can be sent without wires has been proved; the world stands in expectation and says, "What next." 2. How calm is the nit- it! All nature seems asleep. 3. That the world rotates, having been proved, we can understand the phenom- ena of the seas THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. The adjective clause is usually introduced by a relative pronoun, which serves as a connective and also as seme other clement; subject, object, etc. Ancttffiu : 1 Those who are moderate drinkers, may become »ots ' 2 Slander is a crime which may be forgiven, but cannot be forgotten. 3. 1 met the man to whom you referred. I. A.n isosceles triangle is a triangle whose legs ate equal. Sometimes the connecting pronoun is omitted. A,"thiv: 1 The roses 1 gathered have faded. 2. He is the handsomest man I ever saw. 3. The courtesy you show to others will be returned in due time. Wheniuhat, or the compound relatives occur, the antecedents are understood. Anatjpu ■ 1. John did what was right. 2. I shall do what i xpecU'd of me. 8. Whosoever will may come. The a&Cttoe clause is often introduced by a con- Eastman's Practical Grammar 191 junctive adverb. This occurs when the conjunctive adverb follows a noun. Analyze: 1. I remember the pla^ where I first met you. 2. It was a time when people /ere starving. 3. I wait for the time when all sh al be made equal. 4. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply the place before where) . ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. An adverbial clause may be introduced by a subor- dinate conjunction, or by a conjunctive adverb. Analyze: 1. He wanted to stay because he feared it would rain. 2. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands of their skeletons. 3. Washington retreated because his army was outnumbered. 4. That man is so tall that his head is out of the county. 5. I called her Mary for I did not know her real name. COMPOUND SENTENCES. Analyze the following compound sentences: 1. He tried, but he tried in vain. 2. Sin has a great many tools; but a lie is a handle that fits them all. 3. The man who is trusted should be honest; but the man who is dishonest should be watched. 4. Stars can shine while the nnon shines; but when the sun rises, they disappear. 5. Smith and Johnson disagree; but their wives are very intimate friends. 6. Little girls nurse dolls, aid little boys ride stick horses; but women 192 Eastman's Practical Grammar nurse real children, and men ride real horses. (Several sentences used as examples and illustrations of preced- ing principles were taken from Reed and Kellogg's grammar.) MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE III. 1. "Tl lathe knell of parting day; The winds slowly o'er tin- lea; The plowman boinewanl plod a his weary way. And leaves tho world bo darkness and to me" (When the conjunction is omitted, supply it.) 2. ' 'There is a fierce gray bird with a bendii p beak, With an angry eye and a tartllng That domm - ber br ' in :, i.i enow. ' ' (The subj <:' the whole stanza except flu H Hen and not a copula. Then is ind< went down; I. ••] dew; ■ authentic history, porn .bout the cities <>f the ■ uthern Italy, Sicily, the 6. .. Shakesp John Harvard, a i ding at the dim ited by 7. The trojan war \'. a ip posed to bi myth, but ■ I >•■. S :hli of the ..■ that it had a historic 1 Eastman's Practical Grammar 193 8. Paris, the son of Priam, King of Troy, carried off Heilen, the wife of Menelaus, King of Lacedaemon. 9. ' 'I stooped upon a pebbly strand To cull the toys that 'round me lay ; And, as I took them in my hand, I threw them one by one away. Ah! thus, I said. In every staee, By 1 oys our fancy i-i beguiled; We gather shells from youth to age, And then we leave them 1 ke a child. ' ' 10 . " Wob worth tbe chase ! woe worth the day That cost ihy life, my gallant gray I" 11. "When mnsi^ arose with its voluptuous swell. Soft eyes looked love to e\es which s.ake again, And all went merry as a marriage bell. ' ' Analysis by Diagrams. Subject, Predicate, Object, Complement. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE { opula. kdj ctive, Adverb. Connective. Independent. To analyze a sentence by the use of a diagram, is to make a picture of the analysis, by ceriain lines that represent the elements by their forms and their posi- tions. All nouns, pronouns, and verbs are written on horizontal lines. Those forming the subject and predi- cate, are double, to indicate the importance of the elements. Ail modifiers have dependent vertical lines. A number of modifiers of the first class may be written by one vertical line. 194 Eastman's Practical Grammar All connectives have dotted lines. Dotted dependent lines indicate both connection and modification. The short vertical line separates the subject from the predicate; thus, Subject Pt'cilicate. A short vertical line likewise separates the verb from its object, but does not extend below the horizon- tal line; thus, 1 v-l. I object The complement has a line like that of the object, except that its under part u broken; pointing- towards the word to which the complement refers, either sub- ject or object, as the case may be; thus, A line, pari of which is solid and part dotted, is adverb, which has the two offices, connective and modifi The elements shewn in the out lines are only simple element of i h<' first i prepositional phrase is placed on ^ base line connected with a dotted vertical Eastman's Practical Grammar 195 line. The preposition is placed by the dotted line, and the base of the phrase, on the horizontal line; thus, A collection of words forming, together, a single element, is diagrammed according to relations sustained to each other, and the whole placed on a support that rests on the line denoting the single element it repre- sents; thus, in the sentence, Have birds any knowledge of why they sing? the sentence would be represented in diagram as follows: Birds have 1 knowledge t hey a The object of the preposition is a clause, and stands as a single object, on the base line of the phrase. Participles, on account of their verb nature, should be placed on horizontal lines, but on account of their adjective nature they should be placed by vertical lines; both nature s can be shown by using a broken line, a part of which is vertical, and a part horizontal; thus, I The participial noun, having the nature of a noun and of a verb, both of which require horizontal lines, 196 Eastman's Practical Grammar m.iy ba placed on a line like this, The infinitive phrase is represented in diagram just as a prepositional phrase, except chat both lines are solid. A relative pronoun is placed on a dotted horizontal line, one of the double lines if it is a subject, and its connective nature is still further shown by a dotted line connecting it with its antecedent. Compound subjects, predicates, or objects, are represented in diagrams by forked lines; thus. Sui.' verb Subja I v.-i i. I ,1,J. The co-ordinate conjunction l> 'tween two sentences ia represented thus, Between the subordinate and principal clause a dotted vertical line ia used. The correlative conjunction is placed on a continu- ation of the conjunctive line. Independent elements are diagrammed separately from the sentence to show that they have no grammatical connection with the sentence. Eastman's Practical Grammar 197 EXAMPLES. The simple sentence with simple subject and predicate : Birds fly. Birds fly. The simple transitive sentence: Jesus loved him. Jesus I loved h im _ __. Simple sentence, parts complex: That good boy is sick. boy That good Simple sentence, compound object: Farmers raise cotton and corn. Far m ers ! raisa The partially compound sentence: John and James study well; or John studies hard and learns well. and. Jam ps study and leurns 198 Eastman's Practical Grammar The partially compound sentence, compound in both subject and predicate: Mary and Susan sing and dance. Mary sing and 1 and >-'r)^f)!) 1 dance Subject, predicate and object compound: Mary and Susan cook and eat pies and puddings. Mary cook jiics and J au 1 .at 1 : and ^n-an : pudding run : Those who run may read; Dew glitters when the sun shines. iuht r.-Hrs I u If I Tin compound sentence: The man dies but his memory lives. Eastman's Practical Grammar 199 Sentences containing participles and infinitives as modifiers: Old men, bending under the weight of many years, are often eager to leave this world. men 1 are ( eager II 1 benainer It j. lea^e f world : b ■ a : $ weight n EXERCISE I. Analyze and diagram: 1. The gentleman from Texas is now speaking. 2. At day light the army began to move. 3. England was conquered by the Normans in the eleventh century. 4. The old ship of state rides securely over the turbulent waters. 5. His mental, moral, and physical powers were injured. powers were injured mental moral and physical Explanation: The ( ) indicate a word understood. Tne dotted lines show the words connected. All first class modifiers may, or may not be placed by the same vertical lint . 200 Eastman's Practical Grammar C\ Both friend and foe suffered from the invasion. Roth ro<1 Explanation: ' 'Both 1 ' is placed abjvo the sentence as au introductory w. rl. :' r.iauection. 7. Mush and milk is good diet. Maafa mil i roil* inittfin: "Mash and milk' ' taken as one subject as it uoo9 D that llllisl) : : 'Hot. 8. The man could both speak and write the lan- guage. 9. The prisoner swam nearly across the river be- ; overtaken by the boatman. rtoken >:nnriuii. "Nearly "modlfl . acro=a thj rivor Before connect* tbfl olsnaoa and modifies swam anil overtaken. Eastman's Practical Grammar . 201 10. ^hnv Ijye jiist beyond the bridge. 11. She died while the summer was in its glory. 12. The power of the United States was not known until she engaged in war with Spain. 13. The sheriff captured and imprisoned the bur- glar. captured 1" and imprisoned burglar 14. The old man raised and educated the youth. 15. He moves a god amongst his fellows. {God is nominative predicate, complement after moved.) 16. He went to Europe as my interpreter. w3nt j Europe Explanation: It is plain that "interpreter 1 ' is nominative predicate referring to the same person as ' 'he *' "As," then, is an expletive conjunction used as an introductory word. 17. Silk feels smooth and looks pretty. 18. They made the wall white with lime. They j made | white j wall. Explanation: "Made white"=" whitened. " "White" completes the predicate and modifies the object Tin brok -n liae3 between "mide" and "white" points toward ''wall" to show what "white" modifier. 202 Eastman's Practical Grammar 19. They called the old man a tramp. (Tramp is an objective complement as white is in example above. ) 20. We call life a battle but seldom want it ended. 21. President Hays chose W. T. Everts Secretary of State. 22. The people created the worthless plebean, king. 23. Scipio was called Africanus. (Africanus is not an objective.) 24. They called Scipio, Africanus. (Africanus is objective.) 25. I found my fields green. 26. Mr. Wilson, the merchant, keeps school books. Mr Wis., n imiTiiiHDi i I? Eqptan alion : An eppoaitiT^ i» placed after the Donn it modifies, and in I-an-ntl 27. Teddy, the rough rider, became president. 28. Bryan, the great Democratic leader, was de- feated. 29. The puma, or American lion, is found in South America. (Or, is an expletive conjunctive introducing the appositive. 30. Washington, the general, became Washington, the president. Eastman's Practical Grammar 203 31. I resolved to be absolutely truthful, a pledge that is hard to keep. I .. be \ truthful (pledge) ,5* that I" 1 - ~l 32. Write me a letter from home. Explanation: The subject is nacUratJol. Th9 indirect object, "me" seems to be the object of a preposition understood, but it is not ; hence, no ( ) must be used, and the line is drawn solid. 33. Sing me a pretty song, and I will tell you a story of the Revolutionary war. 34. Will you give us some information on the sub- ject? 35. You all do know that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown. 36. Anthony offered Caesar the crown three times. Anthony offered I crown Explanaticn: The objective adverbial is diagrammed like an indirect object. 204 Eastman's Practical Grammar 37. The boy, leaving his companion, ran. boy ran 1 , leaving companion Explanation: The participle "leaving" partakes of the nature Of bothTerb and adjective; and hence, a broken line; one part horizontal and one part ver- tical. 38. The men that journeyed with him stood speechless, hearing a voice but seeing no man. ^ 39. The old gentleman looking up, recognized his long lost son. 40. 1 saw Esau rliing look. (The >ipialadjec1 diagrammed as any , run ninety years. stopped. {Gra an adjective element and having run is a participle.) 43. | [_| n-«_- Ki-k J — : 11. V i n is a good opinion of you. Eastman's Practical Grammar 205 46. Chewing wax in Lime of school is a Bad ! habit. 47. We learn to do by doing. 48. Portions of the brain may be removed without producing death. 49. His writing was illegible/ {Writing ,heve has no participial nature, but is merely a common noun,:) 50. Their efforts to quiet the mob were.vain. .,,;. efforts were vain quiet | Explanation: The infinitive is here used as an adjective, modifying efforts. 51. Ha is the lawyer tj take that case. 52. The first attempt to lay the Atlantic Cable, failed. 53. An effort to appear wise sometimes renders one ridiculous. 54. Joy is a flower to be blighted. 55. He goes to school to learn. (To learn, is used' as an adverb.) 56. She lingered to see the last rays of the setting sun. 57. An angel left her home in heaven, to cross the wanderer's sunless path, 58. To be virtuous is to be happy. r bo J virtuous be T n i .. ~i n 206 Eastman's Practical Grammar 59. To know him is to love him. 60. A nobel revenge is to forgive. 61. Many people like to visit the theater. (To vint is the object.) 62. The doctor said, my patient is about to leave this world. I" leav* 1 world -i i* n i-~i h i ~* i n 63. My son-in-law and daughter are to visit me Christmas. 64 65. For a man to boast is f >lly. 1 I I ad. "Mia" 1 1 the a I >tloa that Um vprti.-ii lias of tfas tofloll robjac' /r<>m its pre i|e Eastman's Practical Grammar 207 66. For a man to make a promise and break it seems dishonest. o m ike promise :aml 1- break 1 it n j seems | dishoo^t 67. It is wrong to deceive intentionally. 1-9 It (1 1)1 is Explanation: The infinitive is in apposition with " it. ' ' 68. It is pleasant to do an act of kindness. 69. To be, or not, to be, that is the question. 70. That makes all further efforts useless. (Makes useless is the completed predicate.) 71. I consider all further effort to ba useless. o I I be I useless I j consider 1 1 Lf efforts I I all I further 208 Eastman's Practical Grammar 72. James ordered the horse to be saddled. 73. She wanted the hat to be trimmed in blue. 74. To confess the truth, I believe them both guilty. (The phrase is independent and should stand detached.) 75. To be candid, I never saw the man. 76. It is right to pray to God for forgiveness. 77. Having such a small army, Washington decided to retreat. 78. The night being dark the robbers escaped. 79. I took him to be a tramp. 80. The boy, oh! where was he? (Boy is inde- pendent.) 81. "0. Heaven!" he cried, "my bleeding country save." 82. The sun rose and the stars shut their eyes. | -il.lt ' T' « |Sl 1 83. Bees make honey but men make money. M I Up I'Hrk thai heM th- jirioc.' w.'ijt down. The ->»'•■ ptng \»-\ ■■■- r..n*.i on. Eastman's Practical Grammar 209 'Lives of great meu all remind ua We can make our ives subline, And, departing, leive behind ns, Poo prints on th« eands of time . " ' Live* I remind I u« all treat 1 ran make 1 sublime J lives and 1 • li leave footprints L d»psrtng :p t, s Explanation: The participle "departing" modifies the subject as it re- bates to the sea nd part of th*- cmpomd predicate, but not as it relates totbs first part. We would not say. We. departing. can make our lives sublime; bat-. We, departing, ca" leave footprints, etc T his makes it nee ssary to p!a--ethe lines stparating tbe subject and predicate, ba< k on the predicate line far enough to receive tha participle on oue pron^, that it m iy modify th* subject as it re- lates to this part of the predicate. 86. Smith gave a farmer forty cents a bushel for his corn, and sixty cents a bushel for his wheat. I' I? 87. We will give him credit for his good deeds and censure for his evil ones. 210 Eastman's Practical Grammar 88. The ancient Hebrews required an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. 89. Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God,- the things which are God's. 00. the glimmering laud capeon th < sight. And all the air a a .lemnetilln ■*■ I 91. Theenemj must be shelled when ever they show the; i ft give indications of their presence, number of tugs undergoing re- pairs at the yard. 93. I wish, conscrip • not to appear neg- ligent am >-s to the stale; but I do now ac- e myself of remi rod culpable inactivity. 94. The goddess by herself revolving such thoughts in herinflami "> Aeolia, the native l ;i!l , sgnant with the boisterous wim 1 1 thetr life. ■ 96. At that time Jesus went on the sabbath day through the corn; and his dhcipleg were anhungred, and began to pluck the ears of corn and to eat, ;, 7 analon** swarthy eheektlkeflre, | It HO." H i . tar I Will " 99. The mil! can never grind with the waters that are past. 100. Jov forever! my task is done. Eastman's Practical Grammar 211 6. Exercises on Preceding Principles. NOUNS. GENDER. Give the feminine, if any, of the following words: Actor, author, tiger, panther, peacock, gobbler, bear, carpenter, tailor, beau, drake, dude, milter, hart. Give the masculine, if any, of the following words: Spinster, bell, mantuamaker, seamstress, milliner, maid, doe, czarina, Mrs. Jones, alumna. Give both masculine and feminine of the following: Sheep, whale, cat, friend, relative, baby, child, bear, mule, fish, eagle, pup. Distinguish between: 1. A friend is known by his conduct toward us, and, A friend of mine lost his arm. 2. Every student must account for his own time, and, Every student wore his coat and vest. 3. The (executor or executrix) will look after the matter. 4. She is the author of her own shame, and, She is an authoress. NUMBER. Insert the proper word: 1. The committee (was or were) pleased with {this or these) news. 212 Eastman's Practical Grammar 2. "The murderous gallows, black and grim, (is or are) cheated of (its or their) dead." 3. Tidings (was or wore) Drought of their arrival. 4. The com is or were/ poured out. 5. Toe good women raised money by (this, these) means. 6. The widow's m^ms (was, were) ample. 7. Measles (was, w jre) sw \ \ >ing the country. 8. Athletics (is, are) over 1 >.ie here; Mithemat- ics (is, are) good to develop reason. DOUBLE PLURALS. Distinguish bet ween : 1. They are (brothers, brethren), 2. They crossed the river with twenty (cannon, cannons). 3. I found two (dio.s. dice). 4. Five hundred I lannl (horse, horses). 5. Fifty (head, heads) of cattle lay there. 6. Refe* to the (indexes or indi !es). 7. How many (shot, shots) were there. 8. Take two (spoons full, spoon fulls). 9. He counted six (pennies, pence). PERSON. the noun has no infl action for person, there can be no mistake in regard to it. CASE. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are alike in form. Possessive Case: Sometimes it is better to use the possessive case, Eastman's Practical Grammar 213 and sometimes the preposition of with the objective. Form the possessive of: Moses, Jesus, Barnes, box, Miss Houston, The Secretary of State, son-in-law, conscience (sake), James, William the Conqueror, Alexander the Great, Paul the apostle. Distinguish between: 1. The love of God, and, God's love. 2. The reception of the governor, and, The gov- ernor's reception. 3. A father's care, and, The care of a father. 4. Elia and Clara's books, and, Ella's and Clara's books. 5. The son-in-law's, and, The sons-in-law. PRONOUNS. There are only seven words in our language that have different forms for the nominative and objective cases; these are personal and relative pronouns. They are: Nom. Obj. I, me, we, us, thou, thee, he, him, she, her, they, them, who, whom. It should be remembered that the compound per- sonal pronoun should be used only emphatically, or reflexively. It is incorrect to say Mary and myself will go. Say Mary and I will go. 214 Eastman's Practical Grammar Insert proper pronouns, giving reason: 7, me, mytelf. 1. John and • • • • will do that work. 2. I hurt • • • with that old hoe. 3. They have sent for you and . 4. They wanted James and to visit them. 5. Between you and 1 cannot trust him. 6. Let Charles and ■ • -go to the theater. 7. Who is there?- ■ • -. How could you treat- • • thus?- who had so often befriended you. 8. The bishop spoke encouraging words to the girls, - -among the rest. 9. It was that told it. 10. I was beside . 11. What would you do if you were- • • • ? 12. Was it that you saw? 1. The Johnsons and- • • -live I - ;ir the church. 2. They called on our friends and. They have a larger income than- 4. The Yankees are more ingenious than — . 5. There were none present except- • • . You can change that as well as- • • . 6. This is for you and to do. 7. We must do that. II r, him, /■• 1. Alexander could not conquer them. 2. I am not so old as • . 3. There is something wrong between you and- • • ■ 4. I know it was- for you told me. 5. He will hurt- • with the stick. 6. What were you and talking about? Eastman's Practical Grammar 215 7. I can stay as long as — . 8. who always loved her, she now believes false. 9. I want it to be — . 10. Whom can I trust if not — ? She, her, herself. 1 • ■ • • And her husband will visit us Christmas. 2. I would try to control my temper if I were 3. They sent for my sister and — to sit ud with the sick. 4. She would better do that — . 5. She will please — before she tries to please others. 6. If any are to go it is not to be • • • . They, them, themselves, 1. are learning to play well. 2. We shall soon be as happy as . 3. will render unpopular. 4. There is no friendship between Smith and Who, whom, whoever, whomever. 1. — did she marry? 2. — do men say that I am? 3. do you take him to be? 4. is she to be in the play? 5. I do not know to employ. 6. I do not know will do that work. 7. Ask you please. 8. will may come. 9. ] do not know you mean. ._ 10. ... -do you wish to respond? 11. He is the man everybody dislikes. 216 Eastman's Practical Grammar Which, what, that. 1 man among you would not do the same? 2. • - - man do \ >u mean, the tall one or the short OEfC? 3. The things are mine I shall keep. 4. is mine I shall keep. 5. Solomon was the wisest man- • • -ever lived. 6. That is the very horse 1 saw on the lawn. 7. The man and lion are mentioned in the Latin story, walked the streets of Rome together. 8. All glitters is not gold. 77" 1 p038e '"' ' )!.*«d ho for 4 a participial noun, while the now • objective forms are used as the subject of pure participles. Insert th* , giving th • reason : 1. rapid marching and retreating puzzled them. 2. I found shaving with a dull razor. 3. being the judge he had all the advantage. 4. I found — dying of thir 5. We saw the Mexicans in their homes, and watched- • baking their cakes. Distinguish betufa 1. Do you remember Mary's singing? Do you •rememoer Mary singing? 2. I dislike Ins playing; I dislike him playing. 3. His reading was all that could be wished; He reading was all that could be wished. 4. I heard of his coming home; I heard of him coming home. 3. We heard his coughing; We heard him coughing. Eastman's Practical Grammar 217 6. The man, asking to be admitted, started a quarrel; The man's asking to be admitted started a quarrel. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS." Insert the proper adjective pronouns: 1. We may choose between religion and irreligion; elevates us, degrades us. 2. I saw three persons that heard the sermon and of them were pleased with it. 3. I know two persons that went to school to him, and of them could teach him. 4. We have asked both the boys and of them seemed to know. 5. of the three will answer. 6. The one that told me said (he or they) did not see it. 7. animal wore the mark and brand. 8. Here is room for you all; I have two places reserved for you all. (What is wrong and why?). 9. Each of the twelve apostles (was, were) full of zeal. ADJECTIVES. Select the proper word: 1. Who is the (best, better) calculator, you or I? 2. Which of the two horses is the (faster, fastest) ? 3. He is the (better, best) man of all. 4. This meat is too (salt, salty. ) 5. This water seems to have a (sweet, sweetish) taste. 6. That water has a (blue, bluish) tint. 218 Eastman's Practical Grammar Tell whether to use or omit " other." Why? 1. God is wiser than any other man. 2. The serpent was more subtile than anv beast of the field. 3. Samson was the strongest of all men. 4. She sings more sweetly than any one I ever heard. Explain the Errors: 1. "This was the most unkindesi cut of all." 2. I have the supremest contempt for such men. 3. He is miehty weak. 4. I think it is awful cute. 5. All these kind of things is wrong. 6. Either of the three roads goes to my house. 7. Take the three first pages for a lesson. Insert t)>r t ,y <>n: ", in. 1. • • hour passed. 2. -man came and asked for dime. 3. " horse! horse! My kingdom for a horse!" 4. I have- • • uncle living ti. 5. historical Btat ment about honored men. 1. prince is... son of kingor queen. 2. dog is sagacious animal. 3. Livingston says — lion is. . . arrant coward. 4. — eagle is — bird of prey. 5. The Boldiera Buffered from — want of food. 6. This is species of • • • rose. Eastman's Practical Grammar 219 7. To — student of Latin language, knowl- edge of difference of meaning in English, between indicative mode and subjunctive is important. Tell where the article should be used and tvhere omitted: 1. Is he entitled to the name of Christian? 2. I am not acquainted with that kind of flower. 3. The queen conferred on Tennyson the title of — • -baron. 4. fourth and •••• fifth chapter. 5. fourth and fifth chapters. 6. Spaniards scoured South America in search of gold. 7. I do not not know which teacher I like best. Distinguish between: 1. A son of the king, and, The son of a king. 2. I saw the fire from my window, and, I saw a fire- from my window. 3. He told of an accident, and, He told of the accident. 4. A lion may be seen in the forest, and, The lion may be seen in the forest. 5. A black and a white cow, and, A black and white cow. 6. A good husband and a father died, and, A good husband and father died. 7. The world lost an orator at once, and a states- man, and, The world lost an orator and statesman. 8. A cotton and a woolen coat, and, A cotton and woolen coat. 220 Eastman's Practical Grammar ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Insert the proper ivord and give your reasons: Good and Well. Good is an adjective, well an adverb. 1. He behaves very . 2. The class reads 3. My health is very . 4. I can not do that as- • • as he. 5. Her painting is very . 6. That is all very . Likely, Probably, Likely is an adjective, probably an adverb. 1. We will have to review this work. 2. Ik' is to change his mind. ::. Wo will visit the world's fair. 4. An accident is to happen to us at any time. Dangers are to threaten us at any moment. 6. you have forgotten. 7. You are to forget (tit, Feuer, Smaller. Less refers to quantity, fewer to number and smaller to Bize, 1. He has gold than brass. 2. The teacher has Btudents than he had last year. 3. The pupils of the primary department are than those of the grammar school department. !. : the country have things to talk those of the city, and hence have chanc to gossip. There were wagons in the square than usual. Eastman's Practical Grammar 222, Most, Almost. Most never means nearly, almost does. 1. He is crazy. 2. He is calmer than men. 3. The farmer was beside himself with joy, 4. I am persuaded to be a Christian. 5. You will find him at home any day. 6. men love money as well as they do their lives. Some, Somewhat Something. Some is an adjective, somewhat, an adverb. 1. My wife is better than she was yesterday, 2. has happened; I feel uneasy. 3. He was encouraged by news he heard. 4. You resemble your aunt , about the mouth. Select the proper word and give reason: 1. They arrived (safe, safely). 2. The rose smells (sweet, sweetly). 3. The moon shines (bright, brightly). 4. I am (tolerable, tolerably) well. 5. She is a (remarkable, remarkably ) good player. 6. He talks very (different, differently). 7. It tastes (bad, badly). 8. He will talk (plainer, more plainly) to me than to you. 9. We found the way (easy, easiiy). 10. He appeared (prompt, promptly). 222 Eastman's Practical Grammar VERBS. Select give your reasons, Did, Done. 1. John that, for he said others had so t J ). 1. I have — all that you . 3. • ■ • ■ he take the bread up before it was ? 1. I have ■ • him before. 2. We him at church, and he — us. 3. Wheal discovered ho had* •••me, I- •••there was no 1. We him I man. 2. : the hor the pi r. 3. John medicine for he had cold. nd why: 1. I kno .en him my- self. 2. I seed him when he taken it. 3. They hung a man for murder. ■1. Jane drinked ah the water up. 5. I >r by the collar. 6. Charles div to the bottom of the lake. s. j ian laid in bed a month. 9, Mr r ■ ad up and looked at me. 10. It was did for your < r <..,d. 11. II" Eastman's Practical Grammar 223 Tell which is the indicative and which is the sub- junctive and why: 1. If I was at the show I behaved well. 2. If I were at the show I would see a baboon. 3. If it rains I do liDt hea ■ it. 4. If it rain I shall not go. 5. If I had known that, I would have acted other- wise. Tell the difference betv n: 1. You can read; You may read. 2. You may read; You shall read. 3. I will go; I shall go. 4. We would learn; We should learn. 5. It may happen; It might happen. 6. I expected to meet you; I expected to have met you. Change the present tense to the past tense: 1. I see you. 2. You are walking in the garden. 3. They are dragging the log in the streets. 4. Susan does all the house work. 5. He lies on the sofa while I sit and sew. 6. I bid you go; you usually do as I bid. 7. The young people take their baskets and hie to the woods. 8. The pigeon flies swiftly. 9. They flee to the mountains. 10. The river overflows once a year. 11. The cock crows in the morning. 12. He swims and dives well, and climbs like a cat. 13. The sun sets at six o'clock. 224 Eastman's Practical Grammar Change the verbs from the present to the present perfect tense, and transitive verbs from, the active to tfi£ passive voice: 1. I sleep on feathers, 2. The patient awakes. 3. I wonder if I disturbed him? 4. The bird fl^w across the meadow. 5. The army is marching through Georgia. 6. The boy chops wood and his mother praises him for it. 7. He leaves his home and flees to the mountains. 8. This facl r guilty. 9. Boil burst when the pressure is too great. ison: wm, Shall. 1. 1- • • -help me. t. You ■ • • -have a q larrel with him, 3. S I she- . ..8t to church. 4. 5. [•••be obliged; you- — 'do as [say. 6. ' •om? You 3. -1 to >harp m my pencil? 4. ... change his skin? i to dine wit h us? May, Might 1. I \w\Ui\ spit in his face but he (leg me. 2. I would promise to go but it • rain. :'.. lie become offended if I should do that. Eastman's Practical Grammar 225 Would, Should. 1. If I promise, you- • • -abuse the privilege. 2. He should do more work; he could if he . 3. You be better off if he leave town. Correct the number and person of the verb, giving reasons: 1. If I was you I would rest. 2. Horses are a common noun. 3. The tone of men's characters were very low. 4. The sun with all its attendant planets are but a speck in this great universe. 5. John as well as James and the other boys, learn well. 6. The concord of sweet sounds please the ear. Tell the difference in meaning between: 1. I have got a canary bird, and, I have a canary bird. 2. The house stood twenty years, and, The house has stood twenty years. 3. I was in the city three days, and, I have been in the city three days. 4. The norther has come, and, The norther came. 5. I expect it, I suspect it, and, I think it. 6. I accept him, and, I except him. Use the correct form and give your reasons: 1. What did you tell me a geyser (was, is) ? 2. Who (was, is) that man that wore his hat in church? 3. It was proved in olden times that the world (was, is) round. 4. Harvey discovered that blood (circulated, cir- culates). . 226 Eastman's Practical Grammar 5. I do not think he said that money (was, is) a curse. 6. I hope (to form, to have formed) his acquain- tance before leaving. Correct the following, giving reasons: 1. I expect he said it. 2. I gu ss you were pleased? 3. I su >pect he is a good friend. 4. He allowed he would go any how. PREPOSITIONS. Insert the pr position: Amon 1. A father divided his estate- • ■ his four sons. 2. There is now enmity • • • .the two. 3. The. kind of rivalry — Europe and America. 4. One apple was to be divided three boys. 5. The "forty thieves" had a custom them. At, In 1. He spent his summer vacation- •• -the univer- sity. '1. His home is. . . . Now York. 3. A man- • • -the village of Enloe wrote to a firm • • Chicago. At, To. 1. He is down the ferry. 2, He went the ferry. ::. My father stays • home. In, Into 1. They went down the river, and while they stood the water, there came a voice from Heaven. Eastman's Practical Grammar 227 2. The boy threw a cat • • • • the cistern. 3. Shooting paper wads- • • the school room is bad order. 4. He found his way the garden. 5. A man •• ■ • West Texas can get- -a prairie-dog town at any time. Correct the errors, giving reasons: 1. The cat jumped onto the table. 2. Hr is read y over x. (Should be y divided by x. ) 3. Where is my hat at? 4. Where did he go to? 5. He died with starvation, she from pneumonia. 6. We live in a little town at the "Sunny South." 7. No one could help from loving her. 9. Has any one past as you have seen of? 9. When I was a girl of about twelve years old. 10. He took his coat off of his back. 11. On one day he does one thing and on another something else. CONJUNCTIONS. Insert the proper conjunction: 1. Poverty fosters discontent wealth is the cause of much anxiety. 2. They were foot-sore and weary, — they never faltered. 3. While saloons were in the town many were drunk much crime was committed. . 4. I have called — I have found her absent. 5. Either Jane — Susan will do that for you. 6. — the river is deep. I will ford it. 228 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 7. ye repent ye shall all perish. 8. I called him stranger • • • • I did not know his name. Correct the errors: 1. She is handsomer but not so intelligenc as her sister. 2. Ha is as h ■ wy or heavi »r fh^n I am. 3. I never haard any one play so well or sing more sweetly than she. 4. He reads as well and speaks batter than I. 5. He acted so badly till no one liked him. INTERJECTIONS. There is but little danger of error in the use of interjections. Analyze, diagram and parse the following: 1. You strike your child and I'll strike mine. 2. I did not dream of his being my enemy. 3. This is a grand and glorious country. 4. The boy, 0! where was he? 5. Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy name. 6. 0, Heaven! my bleeding country save! 7. All things being now ready, the army resumed its march. 8. The clock struck the hour for retiring. "J. Playing tennis is excellent exercise. 11/. Write me a letter from home. 11. We made Mr. Brown chairman of the meeting. 12. Gen. Lee saw the field wet with the blood of his faithful heroes. Eastman's Practical Grammar 229 13. They expect a man to do every thing. 14. Jones wanted his boy to be a lawyer. 15. 0, me! my brother will come tomorrow! 16. I have forght the good fight. 17. The mule kicked himself loose from the plow. 18. He jumped his horse over the ditch. 19. To be honest is to be happy. 20. Have you found a man to chop the wood? 21. He went to Washington City to obtain a copy- right. 22. My daughter is to have company to-night. 23. She ordered the tramp to leave the house. 24" It is wrong to annoy a neighbor. 25. To die! To sleep! Perchance to dream! Ay! there's the rub. 26. Her singing was better than her playing. 27. The question with Hamlet was, "Whether it was nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take up arms against a sea of troubles and, by opposing,. end them." S3. And darest thou then To beard the lion in his den, The Douglas in his hall? And hoposc thou hence unscathed to go'' N 1 By Saint Bride of Bothwel. no! Up drawbridg », grooms! vVhat, warder, ho! Let the portcallis fall \— Scott. 89. Then came wandering by A shadow, like an angel with bright tiair Dabbled in blood, and shrieked out aloud: " Clarence is come! fa'se. fleeting, perjured Clarence! That s abbed me in the fluid by Tewksberry: Seize on him, f uries, take him to your torments!— Shakespeare. JJO. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn. The swalltw twitfering from the straw-built shad, The cock's shrill clarion «r the ech in* horn, No more shall rouso them from their lowly bod.— Gray. 230 Eastman's Practical Grammar :tl . Forth from his park and lonely hHing place, ( Portentous sight ! ) the owlet atheism Sailing on obscure wings athwart the moon. Drops his b'ue- fringed lid? . and ho'ds them close. ADd hooting at tbe x'.oriou-i sun in heaven. Cries out. "Where is it?"— Coleridge. o,'i. How dear to my heart are th3 scene3 of my chi'dhood. When fond recollection presents them to view; The orchard, the meadow, the do-'p-tangled wildwood. And every loved spot that ray infancy knew.— Wordsworth. -< lf-love, the spring of actioi moves the soul; Reason's comparing balance rules the world.— Pope. 84. At the foot of Pompey 's Btatue whicn all th.-> ti n«> Ran blood, groat Cae-tar fell ! O, what a f ill Wai there, my countrymen; then you and I And all of us fell down, while hi >ody treason Triumphed OTer us!— Shaketpea re. 86. Can Htori^il urn or animated bn«t Back to it« mansion c*U the fl >.-tiQ< breath? (' in Hon • -i nt dtnt. Or 1" | fctw doll '1 1 -vir of il ath?- Gray. 'i 1 1 - bat tii" left A record in tbe deeert-oolamns strew i Onthewael itataee fallen mdc'eft. Heaped like a host in battle orertbrn Vast ruin-<, whero the mounuin's nl>- ' Were hewn that spread III the dark earih. When DOT IT Die itu w:is blown, Of bi i ir. ear foot of m m Th»- lon^ bm 1 iieriloiis w.»ys— th<- ic ;re li w lat he said. 2. I calculat » to tr ::. Carry th 4. i ■ " ! > cl ■ ;>. ; ; ! him d wn al ,; | it ivi; :. iy at all. 7 | m v ^ .Ul sold. 8. it was s> - and i' allovi 9, I), »u Jlaim that animiU hava sduU? Yes; I rat itain i b i ill ani nals h i> 10. Halli • a imits th i >rk i i diffi: lit, but says th it she me \ i * it. ' u ..ii" in i IsDna ■• than I thought. 12 | ,: •' ik v l8 I 9U . , v , || i ;, . i. .. ,1 , u • that to the church. 14. i expect lu> is slandering me. 16. I suspect they are happy now. Eastman's Practical Grammar 239 16. You can not think how I evaded him. 17. I suppose you may go then. 18. I will learn you your tables. 19. I love cabbage, but they disagree with me. 20. Where are you stopping? ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Insert the proper word jiving reasons: Apt, Likily, Liable. Apt implies a natural tendency; Likely implies probability, and Liable implies an unpleasant probabil- ity or obligation. 1. He is an — scholar and — to succeed. 2. Bad associations are • • • • to corrupt good man- ners. 3. We were — to be stopped at any moment. 4. You are — to have to pay for that. 5. She is very in music. Quite, Very. Quite means entirely; Very means to a considera- ble extent. 1. It is- •• -cool this morning. 2. My friend and his new wife are • • • • happy. 3. The snow has- •• -covered the ground. 4. He is sick but not dead. Average, Ordinary . Average is an arithmetical term to denote a mean; Ordinary means of common occurrence, usual. 1. An- • • -thinker could never solve it. 2. He is a man of — intellect. 3. The — temperature of the place is 72 F. 4. My — daily expenses were $2.50. 240 Eastman 's Practical Grammar Bound, Determined. Bound means obliged or obligated; Determined means personal determination. 1. I am • • • • to conquer that habit. 2. I am — to go; my word is out. 3. George was • • • • to win the medal. 4. They were — by a solemn oath. Fum\y, Odd. Strange. Funny means comical; Odd means unusual; Strange implies that with which we are unfamiliar. 1. It is - • the power that changes the potato into blood, bone, fiber, etc. 2. It was- -to see that negro mimic an ape. 3. It was that he should fail to know me. 1. His behavior was very- • ll.nlthy. Healthful. Wholesome. One is healthy that is in good health; that is health- ful which produces health or is healthgiving; Whole- some means about the same as healthful, but generally applies to food, etc. 1. That is a very- • climate; the people all look 2. That is a very - - ■ diet. 3. You gave him very advice. 1. It is like the complexion of a child. liar, I. nHlicvll. Dilliiirntly. Hani applies to substance, also to fate or lot; Difficult is the opposite <>f easy; DUligently means with dilligence. 1. This is a- • • lesson, but I will study- - - ■ 2. He tried -for the mastery. 3. His lot was a one, but he labored •1. That is a • • • ■ question and • • • • to answer. Eastman's Practical Grammar 241 Mad, Angry. Mad means insane; Angry means filled with wrath. 1. The bull fought, but against such odds. 2. The man would be — who would attempt it. 3. I thought you were • • • . about it. 4. Now, do not be — for it is my best. 5. "Don't b« mother, mother, Don't be with your hoy. ' ' Scared, Afraid, Scared is a participle from scare; Afraid may be followed by of or that, but the word scared may not. 1. I am — of that dog. 2. It — ed me yesterday. 3. I am not — of you, although you — ed my brother. 4. I am that it will rain. 5. The poor man was senseless. Excellent, Splendid. Excellent means very, very good ; Splendid has reference to a display of splendor. 1. This is an lesson and now you may view the array of chariots and richly caparisoned horses. 2. Caesar's triumphal processions were • 3. That is an stove. 4. You delivered an oration. Very, Mighty, Awful. Very has been defined ; Mighty, possessed of great power ; Awful, dreadful, awe-inspiring. 1. It was an — sight; blood flowed in rivers. 2. A cyclone is in appearance and in its power. 242 Eastman's Practical Grammar 3. That is a — pretty hat. 4. He is- •• -nice in his manners. Correct the errors and give your reasons : 1. You are apt to be mistaken. 2. Jones i , liable to receive a fortune. 3. Yo i are likelv to pay the cost. 4. It is quite pleasant to-day. 5. My friend has quiet a nice home. 6. An average man can pick tnree hundred pounds of cotton each day. 7. I am bound and determined to win the prize. 8. It is mighty funny that he should try to kill his wife. 9. He is a very heathf ul man and lives in a healthy climate, and eats the healthiest food. 10. The lesson is hard but you must study hard. 11. You got mad. then I got mad. 12. lam scared that you don't mean what you say. 1 '.. I am scared of that horse. 14. I am mighty glad you have such an awful nice dress. 15. She is a dreadful pretty girl but she is mighty weak. CONTRACTIONS. Compound sentences may be contracted by using the common parts but once and connecting the parts not common, with the proper members; as, He is a lartreman and he is a portly man, He is a large portly man; John came and James came, John and James came. Thus a compound sentence may be contracted into a simple or a partly compound sentence. Eastman's Practical Grammar 243 A complex sentence may be contracted into a simple sentence, if its subordinate clauses are subjects or ob- jects, by contracting the clauses into phrases; as, That one should steal is wrong=To steal is wrong; I expect that I shall see him=I expect to see him. If the clause is adjective it may be contracted into a phrase or even a word; as, I want a man who is in- dustrious; I want a man of industry; I want an indus- trious man. Simple sentences may be contracted by, (a) Omitting the subject; as, Strike=Strike thou» or ye, or Strike you, or You strike. (b) By omitting the predicate; as, Who is there? [ (am). (c) By omitting both subject and predicate; as, Fire!=There is a fire; Away!=Go away or You go away! There are many ways of contracting sentences and as many ways in which errors may occur. In contracting we may remove too many words, There is a red flag and there is a black flag. Contracted, There is a red and black flag. Observe that the two senten- ces do not mean the same; the first means there are two flags, a red one and a black one; while the second means there is one flag which is red and black. Clauses may be contracted into ; phrases that have not the exact meaning. . Likewise phrases may be contracted into words that have not the exact meaning. But the most common errors in contractions occur in contracting words; and we will illustrate by exercise. Most of these that are not absolutely incorrect, are ad- missible only in conversation or in poetry. 244 Eastman's Practical Grammar INADMISSIBLE CONTRACTIONS. Ain't for Is not, Are not, Am not. Correct the errors giving reasons: 1. That ain't what I said. 2. You ain't rroing home, are you? 3. I ain't as old as she is by two years. Wan't f i Was not, Were not. 1. You wan't in town Monday. 2. They wan't as angry as they looked. 3. Wan't he in a hurry to marry. Won't for Will not. 1. Large circuses won't come to this town. 2. We won't go home till morning. 3. Won't you come with me to the garden? Hain't for Have not, or Hat not. 1. Hain't you told your mother yet? 2. You hain't been to sleep these three hours. 3. Johnie hain't said his prayers. The following may be used in ordinary conversa- tion, and writing representing such conversations, but they are inelegant contractions. ADMISSIBLE CONTRACTIONS. Am I tot Are mot, Wrrn't. for Were not, lint for I* not. Wasn't for Wmi not, Don't for Do not. (plural)* Domnt for Does not, (singular), Haven't for Havtnot, (plural). Hasn't for Hut no!, (singular), Ca n't for Can not. Didn't for Pid not. Insert the word that may be used in conversation: 1. you going? 2. you there yesterday? 3. He a friend now. 4. you care if he goes? Eastman's Practical Grammar 245 5. John need new shoes? 6. I a better suit than this. 7. He forgotten it. 8. I remember it. 9. Jane, leave that there. (There are others that may be used with equal propriety. ) 2. Figures. ADMISSIBLE IN WRITING. There are other contractions still better than the preceding examples, which are used in poetry by a figure of etymology called syneresis. By this figure two syllables are contracted into one; as, e'er for ever; 'tis for it is; seest for see-est. By another figure of etymology apocope, the last letter or letters of a syllable is omitted; as, th' for the; tho' for thought. By another figure a letter or letters may be omitted from the middle of a word; as, slumb'ring. FIGURES IN LANGUAGE. By Figurative Language is meant any deviation from the ordinary modes of expression, generally for the purpose of beautifying or strengthening the lan- guage. A Figure of Etymology is the deviation from the ordinary form of a word. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordi- nary construction of a word. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the or dinary sense of a word. 246 Eastman's Practical Grammar FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. Apheresis consists in the elision of a letter or let- ters from the beginning of a word; as, 'round tor around 'gainst for against, etc. Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters from the middle of a word; as, ne'er for never. Apocope is the omission of the last letter or letters of a word; as, th* for the; tho' for though, etc. Prosthesis consists of prefixing a letter or let- ters to a word; as, adown for down; agoing for going. Tmesis consists in separating a compound word by inserting a word between its parts; as, God's love to us ward', How much so* Paragoge is the addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word; as, bounden for bound. Svneresis is the contraction of two words or sylla- bles into one; as, 'tis for it is. DLERESIS is the separation of t ■ > contiguous vowel letters, to prevent them from forming a diphthong. It is indicated by two dots over the latter vowel; as, aerial \tic. figures of syntax. ELLIPSIS is the omission of a word, phrase orclause which is necessary to the construction. Such words, phrases, and clauses are said to be understood; as, Conn come thou; Help! I want help. Pleonasm consists in using unnecessary words; as, I feel it with this heart of mine; John, he was a piper's son. Ploysyndeton is the superfluous use of the con- junction; as, I came and I saw a)id I conquered. Eastman's Practical Grammar 247 Asyndeton is the omission of connectives; as, I came, I saw, I conquered. Anadiplosis is the use of a word at the beginning of a sentence, that closes the sentence next preceding; as, You shall have protection; Protection such as the snake gives his victim. Anaphora is the repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive clauses; as, ' 'Strike till the last armed foe expires; Strike for your altars and your fires ; Strike for the green gra Yes of your sires , God and your native land. ' ' Epizeuxis the emphatic repetition of a word; as, Onward! Onward! Onward! And forever. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of one modification for another; as, Bright the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. Syllepsis is the agreement of one word in its lit- eral sense with another in its figurative sense; as, The Word was made flesh and we beheld his glory . FIGURES OF RHETORIC. Simile is a formal comparison introduced by like, as, etc. "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 11 ' ' They come as fleet as mountain deer, We'll drive them back as tame. ' ' A Metaphor is the application of the name, action or attribute of a thing to something else, on account of a fancied resemblance; as, He is the lion of the town; She is a little rosebud. An Allegory is a fictitious story told to illustrate or teach a lesson. It is common in the allegory for 248 Eastman's Practical Grammar animals, inanimate objects, passions, emotions, etc., to figure as persons. Example: The Pilgrim's Progress; The Vision of Mirza. Fables and parables belong to the allegory, the difference between these being that parables are true to nature, even though fictitious in fact; fables are wholly fictitious. Example: jEsop's Fables; The parables of the Bible. Personification consists in attributing life and in- telligence to inanimate beings, or human attributes to animals; as, Freedom shrieked as Cosiusco fell; The monkev said to the cats, etc. METONOMY consists in giving the name of one thing to another, not on account of resemblance, but on ac- count of relation; thus, The cause for the effect, or The effect for the cause', A place for its inhabitants; Thesign for the thing signified, etc., as, The sword is mighty, but the pen is mightier; He wore the crown forty years. THE Svnechdoche is a kind of metonomy in which the name of a part is put for the wliole, or the whole for the part, or the container for the thing coyitained; as, I see a sail, f«r I seeaship; He likes the bottle, for He likes the contents of the bottle. Atonomasia is the use of a proper name for a com- mon name; or the name of some office, rank, or profes- sion for the true name of a class; as, The Umpire State; Many a Washington i3 in school to-day. Euphemism is the substitution of a delicate word for one more harsh; a*. Fallen asleep for dead; He is in Eastman's Practical Grammar 249 embarrassed circumstances, for he is in debt; Prevaricate for lie. Antithesis consists in placing expressions in con- trast with each other; as, A confessed Catholic, he im- prisoned the Pope; The good shall live forever, but the wicked shall be destroyed. Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the meaning in- tended to be conveyed; as, He has shed rivers of tears; He flew like lightning to the spot. Irony is the saying of the opposite of what is meant for the purpose of ridiculing; as, You are an industrious boy; You haven't known your lesson for a week; You are a pretty thing with your face all out of shape like that. Interrogation is asking a question not to be an- swered but to make an affirmation; as, Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Apostrophe is the abrupt turning away from ordi- nary discourse to make a direct address; as, There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, There is a rapture by the lonely shore, There is society where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar; I love not Qod the less, but nature more, For these, my solitary wanderings. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean roll! Ten thousand fleets sw*ep over thee in vain, etc. (The last two lines form the apostrophe in the ex- ample). Vision is the narration of something past, or future as present. Example: Caesar crosses the Rubicon and carries victory before him. 250 Eastman's Practical Grammar ' ' For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight. And the clans of Culloden are scattered in flight." (The second example is predicting the future.) Climax is a series of expressions increasing in force of meaning from first to last; as, Days, months, years and ages shall circle away. Exclamation is the expression of some strong emotion of the mind; as, Joy! Joy!; Oh, what a fall was there my countrymen! Paralipsis is the pretended omission of something which one is really telling; as, I say nothing of his cruelty to his family, and nocturnal orgies in which he most constantly indulges. Paronomasia or Pun is a play upon the different meanings of a word; as. This pepper is half peas (p-e-p- p-e-r). There are very many ways in which errors may oc- cur in the use of figures of speech, but it Is not the object of this work to deal with them. It is left to works on composition and rhetoric to trout more min- utely of this feature of the language. Some authors give fewer figures than are explained herein, and others give a greater number; but these will, perhaps, give the pupil a fair idea of figurative language. KkVIKW QUESTIONS 1. 1. How is correct usage determined in language? 2. What is meant by present usage? ''. By national usage? 4. By reputable usajre? 5. Do the writers of grammars or the authors of dictionaries make usage or merely record it? 6. Is it possible for both to err? 7. How? 8. What is common usage? Is it a standard Eastman's Practical Grammar 251 of correctness? 9. How may common usage, though incorrect, finally become good usage? 10. What errors are to be avoided besides those of etymological and syntactical relations? 11. How may a language become corrupted, especially in its pronunciation? 12. How may a compound sentence be contracted? 13. Give an example. 14. How may a complex sentence be contracted? 15. Give an example. 16. How may a simple sentence be contracted? 17. Give an exam- ple. 18. In what ways may errors occur in contrac- tion? 19. Give examples. 20. Are all contractions of words inadmissible? 21. Name some that are. 22. Name some contractions that are not admissible in dig- nified writing, but may be used in ordinary conversa- tion. 23. Name some contractions which as figures of etymology may be used in poetry. 24. What are fig- ures? 25. What are figures of etymology? 26. Name and define each. 27. What are figures of rhetoric? 28. Name and define each and illustrate each with an example. 3. Capital Letters. THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. There are many different kinds of letters in use, but those with which the ordinary writer has to deal most are CAPITALS, small capitals, the ordinary small letters and, italics. In manuscripts intended for publication, the writer should draw three lines under the words he intends shall be printed in CAPITALS, those intended to be 252 Eastman's Practical Grammar printed in small capitals should have two lines under them ;and those to be in italics should have one line under them. The first letter of a word must be a capital letter under the direction of the following RULES. Rule I. Begin every proper name with a capital letter; as, Martin Van Buren; Austin, Texas. Remark 1. Compound proper names begin each word with a capital letter; as, The Mississippi River. Remark 2. In the titles of books and headings of chapters, every important word must begin with a cap- ital letter. RULE II. Every proper adjective mutt begin with a Capital letter', as, The Austrian phalanx. RULE III. All appellations qt the Deity, and all pronoun* and adjectives referring to his name, should bc- gin with capital Utters; as. Eternal One, Jehova, The Word. etc. Remark 1. Heaven, when it means the abode of the blessed, is sometimes capitalized,- but not always. Rule IV. The first a-ord of every new sentence must begin with a capital Utter; as, The quality of mercy is not strained. Rule V. Capitalize ■■ >ord cf every line o poetry; as, "Backward, Bow backward, obi ti'leof years, I have grown vr.'ury "f toil and of tsars, Voll without recompense, tears all in rain; Take tbem auil nire me my ebildttOOd -'tfuui ' RULE VI. Capitalize all titles of office, honor or distinction; as. Ihm. V. W. Grubbs; Dr. Dunbar. Eastman's Practical Grammar 253 . , . i Remark. If the title is used without reference to- the individual person, it is a common noun and should not be capitalized; as, Send for a doctor. Rule VII. Capitalize the words north, south, east and west and their compounds when they refer to the people of such districts; as, The North and the South engaged in bloody war. Remark. The names of the points of the compass begin with small letters when they do not refer to the people of the countries thus referred to. Rule VIII. Capitalize the names of all religious denominations, creeds, or sects; as, Methodist, Catho- lic, etc. Rule IX. Capitalize common nouns when vividly personified; as, Come, 0, Spring with your lap full of flowers. Rule X. The names of the days of the week and the months, but not the seasons, must be capitalized. Rule XI. Capitalize the first word of a direct quo- tation; as, The old man said with great solemnity, "The almond tree is flourishing." Remark. The quotation should form an entire sentence and not be connected with what precedes by that, if, or any other conjunction. Rule XII. The words I and must be written with capitals; as, 0, me! I am ruined. Rule XIII. Capitalize the names of well known historical events or eras, remarkable physical phe- nomena, etc.; as, The French Revolution; Aurora Borealis. 254 Eastman's Practical Grammar Capitalize the following, giving reasons: 1 . the bark that h«ld the prince went down ; the sweeping waves rolled on; and what wasenglana's glorious cr >wu to him that wept a son? 2. the catholic church of the north is identic il with the catholic church of the south, it is not so wi:h the methodists; yet all worship the same god and seek his divine blessings Sundays and week-days, in June or december. 3. o. me! i am tired! i know now how gen. Lee felt. 4. an indian wigwam was seen in the distance. 5. burns said, "a man's a man for a' that." 6. the dark ages were followed by the revival of learning. 7. act well your part, there all the honor lies. 8. the cabbots discovered the main land of north america. 'J. an emp Tor after all, is but a man. 10. where are those powerf il trio is thatonce lived east of the mississippi river? 11. peace, thy olive wand extend and bid wild war his ravage end. 12. those who trust in providence, he will not desert. 1".. the wars of the roses lasted from 1155 to 1485. Eastman's Practical Grammar 255 4. Punctuation. Punctuation is the use of certain characters, other than letters or figures, to aid in developing the thought of the writer. Punctuation is of three lands : Referential, or that used to determine the sens ; Diacritical, or that used to aid in spelling or pronouncing ; and Rhetorical, or that used for reference. The points used in rhetorical punctuation are : The comma, (,) The exclamation, (!) The semi-colon, (;) The dash, ( — ) The colon, (:) Parenthesis, ( ) The period, (.) Brackets, [] The interrogation, (?) Brace, Hyphen, (-) Quotation marks, (" ") Apostrophe, (') We leave the diacritical marks to be taught in spelling books and dictionaries. The referential marks are : The asterisk, (*) The section, (§) The dagger, (t) The paragraph, (H) The double dagger, (t) The index, (jb®*) The parallels, (||) Small letters or figures. RULES FOR THE USE OF POINTS. THE COMMA. Rule I. Short parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas. Remark 1. The comma must be placed after the parenthetical expression if it comes at the beginning, before if it comes at the close, and on each side if it comes in the middle of a sentence. 256 Eastman's Practical Grammar Examples : Unquestionably, he is a man of genius ;. He is a man of genius, unquestionably ; He is, unques- tionably, a man of genius. Remark 2. Any expression is parenthetical if it can be omitted without injury to the sense, whether it be at the beginning, the middle, or the end of the sen- tence- Rule II. Appositires should be set off from the word they /nullify, by commas; as, Caesar, the greatest man of Rome, was assassinated. Remark 1. Such appositives are parenthetical. Remark 2. If an appositive is not parenthetical the comma should not be used ; as, The river Nile flows northward. Rule III. Words, phr I clauses out of their hould /" set iff by commas, unless the connection ■ as not tomato* an interruption in the harmonious flow of tht sentence; as, To those who labor, sleep is indispensable. RULE IV. The complex subject must be separated from th> predicaU by a comma when the subject ends with a verb, or contains parts thai an separated by the comma . as, He who tries, succeeds ; A life of troubles, of cares, and of temptations, IS hardly \voi\h the living. Rule V. When a * ries of phrases or clauses that would bi the subject are followed by the words, These, All these, "/• Such. grammatical subjects, the vrated from each other by semi-colons, and t'i ■ vratedfrom the words, These, Such, etc., by a comma, followed by a dash. nple : To be scorned and neglected ; lo be the object of the contempt even of the unworthy; to be slandered, and even persecuted, by those who claim Eastman's Practical Grammar 257 superiority because of position, — such is too often the fate of the unfortunate. Rule VI. Words and phrases, not exclamatory, but used independently, are set off by commas; as, May, how is your mother? His conduct on this occasion, how disgraceful it was ! The war being- over, the sol- diers returned to their homes. Rule VII. A comma must be placed between the members of a compound predicate, unless short and closely connected ; as, I have wandered in the pathless woods, have found a rapture by the lonely shore, and society where none intrudes, etc. Rule VIII. A comma is used where a verb or con- junction is omitted ; as, Days, months, years and ages ; Theory makes a visionary man, practice, a practical one. Remark 1. In a series of words and phrases in which the comma is used to denote the omission of a conjunction, the comma followed by the conjunction are both, placed between the last two ; as, Blue, green, yellow, red, orange, indigo, and violet, are the seven primitive colors. Rule IX. Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as, The high and the low, the rich and the poor, the old and the young, were all mingled in a pro- miscuous mass. Rule X. Words repeated for emphasis, or as a kind of echo to the thought, are set off by commas ; as, Strike, strike, while the opportunity lasts ; Backward, flow backwaid. Remark 1. Sometimes the repetition is so abrupt, or proceeds from hesitation, or indicates such a break 258 Eastman's Practical Grammar in the sentiment, as to require a dash ; as, The days of my youth have departed— departed never to return. R?mark 2. Sometimes the repetition is an excla- mation, and th?n it is followed by the exclamation point ; as, A horse ! a horse ! My kingdom for a horse ! Rule XL An infinitive denoting purpose is set off with all its s ibordinate elements, by the eomma; as, He went to the University of Texas, to complete his study of mathemati Rule XII. I >■ and passages resembling d by the comma : as. Then he said, "I am a Roman citizen." Remark. Parenthetical expressions often occur in the midst of a quotation : as, " 1 warrant ", quoth he, • hank of the well betim Rule XIII. Carry contrasted ex- as, Though , l iv brings its labors, night bring L.E XIV. i • ./ an example, d by a comma. See the examples to the preceding rules. Rule XV. ' vfu n a short pause is rendered proper by tl q and the sense is incom- TlIK SEMI-COLON. Rule I. ZVu //"• mem- bers when the conjunction is unless (>'■ close as to require • ; as, My troubles are greater than I can but if I do not bear them, nobody will bear them for me. Eastman's Practical Grammar 259 Remark. It is often a matter of taste whether to use the semi-colon or the comma. It must be de- termined in such cases by the degree of separation in- dicated. Rule II. The semi-colon must be used between the great divisions of a sentence when the sub-divisions are separated by commas ; as, Good spelling is regarded as a thing to be expected, not an ornament ; and good penmanship, a thing not to be expected, though much desired. Rule III. In a series of clauses, the members are separated from each other by semi-colons ; as, Those who abstain from all the pleasures of life to make money ; those who, having made it dread to spend it ; those who, having spent it, find its loss a source of constant regret, can never be happy, here or hereafter. Rule IV. A formal enumeration of particulars, introduced by as follows, The following, This, These', etc., expressed or understood, takes a colon before the particulars, and the semi-colon between them ; as, Man is a three-fold being: he has his physical being ; he has an immortal soul ; he has an intellect that is God-like in its nature. Remark. If the particulars consist of single words, or are very short, use the semi-colon before, and commas between them. Rule V. As, viz. , etc. , used to introduce an exam- ple or enumeration of particulars, take the semi-colon before them, and the comma after them. For examples of as, see the examples given to the preceding rules. Viz used before an enumeration of particulars is punc- tuated just like as. 260 Eastman's Practical Grammar THE COLON. Rule I. A colon must be placed between the great divisions of a sentence when the sub-divisions are sepa- rated by semi-colons ; as, "Be wise to-day: 'tia madness to defer: S-xt dav the fat .1 precedent will plead: Thus on. all wisd -m is probed ont of life." Rule II. A colon should be placed after Thus, Fol- lowing, As Follows, etc., expressed or understood, when they introduce examples, enumerations and quotations; as, Pope states a good maxim: "Know then thyself ; presume not God to scan. " Remark. In the application of this rule, if the ex- ample, enumeration, or quotation begins on the next line below, the colon and the dash are both used. Rule III. The colon is vised to set off an additional explanatory r< mark; as, Never say anything of a per- son, unless you can say something good: leave the evil for others to say. Rule IV. A formal address is toll, need by a colon and a dash; as. Ladies and Gentlemen: - Remark. This rule is often applied at the begin- ning of a letter. THE PERIOD. RULE I. Th< period must be placed after every de- clarative ami imperative sentence when detached, and tin is complete; as, I was in New York when I first heard the story; never in my life had I heard anything half so affecting. Rule II. A period must be placed after every ab- breviated word\ as, Gen. Washington; Boston, Mass. Eastman's Practical Grammar 261 Remark. The mere shortening of a name must not be mistaken for an abbreviation; as, Ben Johnson, Joe Johnson; Tom Johnson. Rule III. A period is placed after Roman num- erals; as, I. V. XL, etc. INTERROGATION POINT. Rule I. An interrogation point must be placed after every direct question; as, Who will be there? Remark. The interrogation point should not be used unless the exact words of the question are given; as, They asked him if he would stay all night. Rule II. An interrogation point is used after an expression to throw doubt upon it; in such case the in- terrogation point is inclosed in parenthesis; as, I have examined his arguments (?) and am not afraid of them; His thoughtfulness (?) is a guaranty for what he says. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. Rule I. The exclamation point is placed after every exclamatory sentence or expression; as, How the wind blows! ah me! Remark. The exclamation point is used after oh but not after O. The latter expresses little emotion, and is generally used in connection with a noun or pro- noun. Rule II. More than one exclamation point may be used after the expression of an ordinary degree of emo- tion; also to express irony or sarcasm; as, That great and eminent scholar!! 262 Eastman's Practical Grammar THE DASH. Rule I. The dash is used to denote a break in the construct ion, a suspension of the sense, an unexpected transition, an interruption or a hesitation; as, I would tell you but — ; He felt the keen edge of the knife, cast one glance toward heaven, as if to ask forgiveness be- fore he committed the deed, and lifting the gleaming blade began to trim his nails. Rule II. A dash man be used after other points to (hunt, a greater separation or pause than usual. For examples of its use after the period see the "re- marks'' under these rules. It is also used with the period in giving the name of the author of a quoted passage. For its use with the colon and comma, see Rule II. for the colon, and Rule V. for the comma. Rule III. The dash is used to inclose a parentheti- cal expression, too long for the comma, but too short for pan nth i PARENTHESES. Rule I. Parentheses an used to inclose additional thoughts when used in such a manner as to break the connection between tfu dependent parts, or to interfere with their harmonous flow; as, The tramp (for she did not know it was her father) was not invited to be seated. Remark Matter within the parentheses must be punctuated like any other matter, and the points which belong to the whole, are not supplanted by the marks of parenthesis Rule II. Obst rvations thrown in by a reporter arc s mi)' ti)i>< s im'irs<U Hi m&umi Thia is a stanza, consisting of four ▼erses. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS II II II 003 232 195 1