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THE FRONTIERS OF 
 
 LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 IN EUROPE 
 
 BY 
 
 LEON DOMINIAN 
 
 PUBLISHED FOR 
 
 THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 
 
 OF NEW YORK 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1917 
 

 Copyright, 1917, 
 
 BT 
 
 THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK 
 
 / 
 MAY 26 1917 
 
 ©CI.A467263 
 
To my Alma Mater 
 Robert College of Constantinople 
 
<$- sv 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This book is submitted as a study in applied geography. Its 
 preparation grew out of a desire to trace the connection existing 
 between linguistic areas in Europe and the subdivision of the 
 continent into nations. The endeavor has been made to show 
 that language exerts a strong formative influence on nationality 
 because words express thoughts and ideals. But underlying the 
 currents of national feeling, or of speech, is found the persistent 
 action of the land, or geography, which like the recurrent motif 
 of an operatic composition prevails from beginning to end of 
 the orchestration and endows it with unity of theme. Upon 
 these foundations, linguistic frontiers deserve recognition as the 
 symbol of the divide between distinct sets of economic and social 
 conditions. 
 
 The attention bestowed on the Turkish area has been deter- 
 mined by the bearing of the Turkish situation on European inter- 
 national affairs and in the earnest belief that the application of 
 geographical knowledge could provide an acceptable settlement of 
 the Eastern Question. Never has it been realized better than at 
 the present time that an ill-adjusted boundary is a hatching-oven 
 for war. A scientific boundary, on the other hand, prepares the 
 way for permanent goodwill between peoples. 
 
 My effort has been directed to confine the work to a presen- 
 tation of facts, as I have felt that the solution of the boundary 
 problems involved could not be reached satisfactorily by individual 
 opinion. Should these pages afford a working basis, or prove 
 suggestive, in the settlement of European boundary conflicts, I 
 shall feel compensated for the time and labor bestowed on the 
 collection of the material herein contained. 
 
 My thanks are due to the American Greographical Society for 
 the liberal spirit displayed in promoting my efforts and particu- 
 larly for the colored maps which illustrate the text. I am under 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 special obligations to Councilor Madison Grant of the Society for 
 new views and a better insight into the significance of race in 
 European history. To Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Director of the Society, 
 the extent of my debt would be difficult to estimate, as his interest 
 in my work has been unfailing in spite of the pressure of his 
 many duties. I owe him many alterations and suggestions which 
 have greatly improved the text. Neither can I allow the volume 
 to go to press without thanking the American Oriental Society 
 and the Geographical Society of Philadelphia for the reproduc- 
 tion of portions of my articles printed in their publications. 
 Acknowledgment of important criticism on two articles forming 
 the nucleus of the present volume and published in Vol. 47 of the 
 Bulletin of The American Geographical Society is also due to 
 Professors Palmer, Le Compte and Seymour of Yale as well as 
 to Professors Gottheil and Jordan of Columbia. Many friends, 
 whose work has helped mine, I have never seen. To them also 
 I extend thanks. 
 
 Leon Dominian. 
 
 The American Geographical Society, 
 New York. 
 
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Figs. 1, 4, 23, 24, P. L. M. Railways of France. 
 
 Figs. 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, Swiss Federal Railroads. 
 
 Figs. 36, 37, American Scandinavian Review. 
 
 Figs. 40, 42, 46, Travel. 
 
 Figs. 45, 56, 58, Messrs. Sebah & Joaillier, Constantinople. 
 
 Figs. 52, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, Photos by Dr. E. Banks. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Introduction xiii 
 
 I. The Foundations 1 
 
 II. The Boundaries of French and Germanic Languages in 
 
 Belgium and Luxemburg 19 
 
 III. The Franco-German Linguistic Boundary in Alsace- 
 
 Lorraine AND Switzerland 35 
 
 IV. Borderlands of Italian Language 59 
 
 V. Scandinavian and Baltic Languages 93 
 
 VI. The Area op Polish Speech Ill 
 
 VII. Bohemian, Moravian and Slovakian 141 
 
 VIII. The Lands of Hungarian and Rumanian Languages . . 154 
 
 IX. The Balkan Peninsula and its Serbian Inhabitants . 174 
 
 X. Language Problems of the Balkan Peninsula . . . 192 
 
 XI. The Geographical Case of Turkey 221 
 
 XII. The Peoples op Turkey 271 
 
 XIII. Summary and Applications 314 
 
 Appendix A. German Settlements in Russia 343 
 
 Appendix B. The Balkan States Before and After the Wars 
 
 op 1912-1913 345 
 
 Appendix C. Classification of Languages Spoken in Europe . 346 
 
 Appendix D. A Selected Bibliography 348 
 
 Appendix E. Key to Place Names 357 
 
 Index 367 
 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 I. The Franco-Flemish linguistic boundary 22 
 
 II. The Franco-German linguistic boundary in Alsace-Lorraine . 46 
 
 III. Austria-Hungary and parts of southeastern Europe showing 
 
 languages 82 
 
 IV. The area of Polish speech 118 
 
 V. Railroads in Turkey showing their connections and extensions 248 
 
 VI. European spheres of influence and territorial claims in 
 
 Turkey 266 
 
 VII. Part of Asiatic Turkey showing distribution of peoples . . 274 
 VIII. Distribution of Armenians in Turkish Armenia . . . 294 
 IX. Part of Europe showing languages having political signifi- 
 cance 334 
 
 xi 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 By Madison Geant 
 
 Me. Dominian's book on ''The Frontiers of Language and 
 Nationality" is the logical outcome of the articles written by him 
 in 1915 in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society 
 under the titles of ''Linguistic Areas in Europe: Their Bound- 
 aries and Political Significance" and "The Peoples of Northern 
 and Central Asiatic Turkey." In the present work the problems 
 arising from the distribution of main European languages and 
 from their relation to political boundaries are discussed with 
 clearness and brilliancy. The text embodies a vast collection of 
 facts and data laboriously collected by the author, who has applied 
 to the subject his familiarity with Eastern languages, as well as 
 an impartial vision which is hard to find in these days when our 
 judgments are so warped by the tragedy of the Great War. 
 
 The difficulty of depicting conditions geographically in colors 
 or with symbols is of necessity very great. The peasants who 
 form the majority of the population of most European states 
 often speak a different language or dialect from that of the 
 educated upper classes, and such lines of linguistic cleavage fre- 
 quently represent lines of race distinction as well. For example, 
 in Transylvania the language of about sixty per cent of the 
 inhabitants is Eumanian, while the literary, military and land- 
 owning classes speak either Magyar or German, and these Hun- 
 garians and Saxons, in addition to forming everywhere the ruling 
 class, are gathered together in many places in compact communi- 
 ties. A similar condition of affairs exists along the eastern 
 boundary of the German Empire, except that here the speech of 
 the peasants is Polish and that of the dominant classes German. 
 
 The preparation of the maps which accompany this volume 
 has been a task of peculiar difficulty. It is an easy matter to 
 show by colors the language spoken by actual majorities, but 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 such a delineation frequently fails to indicate the true literary 
 language of the nation. Mr. Dominian's solution of these diffi- 
 culties has been a very successful one, and the resultant maps 
 are really of great value, especially where they deal with little- 
 known frontiers and obscure lines of demarcation, such as the 
 eastern and western frontiers of the German Empire. 
 
 In spite of exceptions, language gives us the best lines for the 
 boundaries of political units whenever those frontiers conform to 
 marked topographical features such as mountain systems. In 
 many cases where the boundaries of language and nationality 
 coincide they are found to lie along the crest of mountains or a 
 well-defined watershed, often along the base of plateaus or ele- 
 vated districts, and very seldom along rivers. But the boundaries 
 of nationality and of language, when they do coincide, seldom 
 correspond with those of race, and political boundaries are more 
 transitory and shifting than those of either language or race. 
 
 There are a few nations in Europe, chiefly small states, which 
 are composed of sharply contrasted languages and races, such 
 as Belgium, where the lowlands are inhabited by Flemish- 
 speaking Teutons, and the uplands by French-speaking Alpines. 
 Belgium is an artificial political unit of modern creation, and 
 consequently highly unstable. The Belgian upper classes are 
 bilingual, a condition which precedes a change of language, and 
 unless Flanders becomes united to Holland or Germany it is more 
 than probable that F'rench speech will ultimately predominate 
 there also. 
 
 Among the Celtic-speaking peoples, we have in the highlands 
 of Scotland, in the mountains of Wales, in western Ireland and 
 in the interior of Brittany, remnants of two distinct forms of 
 Celtic speech. These diverse populations have, in common, only 
 their Celtic speech, and are not related, one to the other, by race. 
 As a matter of fact, the Scotch, the Welsh and the Bretons are 
 excellent representatives of the three most divergent races of 
 Europe. The Armorican-speaking Bretons are Alpine by race, 
 the Cymric-speaking Welshmen are Mediterranean, while the 
 Gaelic-speaking Scots are Nordic. In short, there is today neither 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 a Celtic race nor any recognizable remnant of it. If one of these 
 three peoples be Celtic in bodily characters, the other two must 
 of necessity not be Celtic, and furthermore, if we designate any 
 one of the three as Celtic by race, we must include in that term 
 other distant populations which by no stretch of the imagination 
 can be so regarded. 
 
 The literary revival of some Celtic dialects may be interesting, 
 but it will only serve to keep the Celtic-speaking populations still 
 more out of touch with the march of modern progress. In the 
 long run the fate of Erse, Gaelic, Cymric and Armorican is cer- 
 tain. They will be engulfed by the French language on the 
 continent, and by the English speech in the British Isles, just as 
 Cornish and Manx have become extinct within a century. 
 
 In eastern Europe, the Slavic tongue of Bohemia and Moravia, 
 known as Czech, was fifty years ago on the point of utter collapse, 
 but the literary revival of Bohemia has been successful because 
 it had for support on the east a solid mass of Slavic speech and 
 the political power of Pan-Slavism, and in consequence was able 
 to hold its own against the encroaching German. These Slavic 
 dialects all through eastern Europe and the minor tongues else- 
 where are greatly handicapped by the lack of books, newspapers 
 and good literary forms. In the case of Erse and Cymric the 
 difficulties of the spelling are an almost insuperable obstacle. The 
 French language in Quebec and the various languages spoken 
 among newly arrived immigrants in the United States will ulti- 
 mately meet the same fate, since a few million illiterate and 
 poverty-stricken habitants of Canada and a few million laborers 
 in the United States must in the long run inevitably succumb to 
 the overwhelming power of the world language of the English 
 people. 
 
 Although race taken in its modern scientific meaning — the 
 actual physical character of man — originally implied a common 
 origin, it has today little or nothing to do with either nationality 
 or language, since nearly all the great nations of Europe are 
 composed of various proportions of two and sometimes all three 
 of the primary European races. The population of England owes 
 
xvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 its blood to the Mediterranean and to the more recent Nordic 
 race. Germany is composed of a combination of Nordic and 
 Alpine, Italy of a mixture of Alpine and Mediterranean, while 
 France unites within her boundaries the Nordic in the north, the 
 Mediterranean in the south and the Alpine in the center. Spain 
 and Portugal, however, are overwhelmingly of Mediterranean 
 blood, while the Scandinavian races are purely Nordic. Thus it 
 is quite evident that nationality and language are independent 
 of race, and in fact the meaning of the word **race" as used not 
 only by the man in the street, but also by the historian, is based 
 on the spoken language. So far as race is concerned in its scien- 
 tific sense, there exists no such thing as a ''Latin," a ''Celtic," 
 a "German," a "Slavic," or even an "Aryan" or "Caucasian" 
 race. These are linguistic terms, and are not correlated to bodily 
 characters. 
 
 Throughout Europe, as pointed out by Mr. Dominian, there is, 
 however, a close correspondence between topographical and geo- 
 logical land features, on the one hand, and the extent and spread 
 of language on the other. A similar close connection has been 
 noted between geographical features and race. Man's topo- 
 graphical surroundings are among the most potent elements of 
 environment, and have operated powerfully in the selection and 
 development of man, but they do not transform or change one 
 race into another. We have now discarded the old conception 
 that blondness has anything to do with latitude, or altitude. 
 fWhere two distinct races compete in a given environment, it 
 generally happens that one or the other is better adapted to its 
 surroundings, and that race tends to increase at the expense of 
 its rival, with the result that one ultimately replaces the other. 
 The races of Europe were originally adjusted to a certain fixed 
 habitat, and when through conquest or commercial expansion they 
 moved out of their native surroundings into unfamiliar ground, 
 they tended to disappear. In short, race supplies the raw 
 material, and environment is the molding force, or to use another 
 simile, "the oak tree and the poplar tree are both wood, but the 
 one can be polished by rubbing, while the other cannot." In 
 
INTRODUCTION xvii 
 
 other words, the Greek genius and Hellenic culture were not 
 created by the irregularity and broken configuration of Greece, 
 and if the Greeks had been transplanted at an early time to 
 Arabia, it is hardly conceivable that the world would have seen 
 classic civilization in its most typical form. On the other hand, 
 we have no reason to believe that if the Arabs had settled in 
 Greece, they would have produced either Homer or the Parthenon. 
 If England had remained exclusively in the hands of its original 
 Mediterranean inhabitants, and if the Teutonic Nordics had not 
 conquered it, or even if the Nordic Normans had not reinforced 
 the Saxon strain, it is more than probable that the British Empire 
 would not have achieved its triumphs. 
 
 Geographical situation, conditions of soil and of climate, 
 mountain barriers, navigable rivers and abundant seaports have 
 a powerful, even a controlling environmental influence on the 
 raw material supplied by heredity, but in the last analysis it is 
 race that manifests itself by characteristic achievement. 
 
 The prevailing lack of race consciousness in Europe compels 
 us to disregard it as a basis for nationality. In the existing 
 nations, races are generally scattered unevenly throughout the 
 map, and are nearly always grouped in classes, as originally race 
 was the basis of all class, caste and social distinctions. Eace 
 therefore being not available as a test of nationality, we are com- 
 pelled to resort to language. As a matter of fact, language is 
 the essential factor in the creation of national unity, because 
 national aspirations find their best expression through a national 
 language. 
 
 At the close of the Great European War the question of 
 national boundaries will undoubtedly come to the front and the 
 data collected and set forth in this book will be useful to a 
 thorough understanding of the problems involved. There is 
 reason to believe that if, at the termination of the Franco- 
 Prussian war, the international boundary in Alsace-Lorraine had 
 been run in conformity with the linguistic facts, much of the 
 bitter animosity of later years might have been avoided. Similar 
 problems will press for solution during the next few years, and 
 
xviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 if a permanent peace is to be assured neither the Allies nor the 
 Central Empires can afford to create new Alsace-Lorraine or 
 Schleswig-Holstein problems by disregarding national aspirations 
 as expressed and measured by a common language or literature. 
 In the Balkan states the difficulty of finding any political 
 boundaries that in any way correspond to race or language has 
 heretofore been insuperable, but when the Congress of the Nations 
 convenes, whether this year or next, or the year after, every 
 member of it should be familiar with all facts that bear on the 
 case, and above all with the meaning of such facts, and there 
 exists today no book which covers these questions so fully, so 
 accurately and so impartially as Mr. Leon Dominian's "Frontiers- 
 of Language and Nationality." 
 
THE FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND 
 NATIONALITY IN EUROPE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The site of populous cities and of trim little towns was once 
 wild waste or sunless woodland. Our rude forefathers, w^andering 
 upon uninliabited tracts, converted them into fair fields and 
 domains which their descendants rounded out eventually into 
 nations. Humanity has prospered and today we often think of 
 countries in terms of their characteristic landscape and scenery. 
 But the thought naturally suggested by the name France or 
 England is that of a nation whose people speak French or Eng- 
 lish. To separate the idea of language from that of nationality 
 is rarely possible. 
 
 To say that a man's accent betrays his nationality is another 
 way of stating that every language has a home of its own upon 
 the surface of the earth. A word or an accent will thrive or 
 wither like a tree according to region. In the earliest forms of 
 Aryan languages, words for fish or sea appear to be wanting — 
 a want which points to inland origins. The natives of the scorch- 
 ing equatorial lowlands have no word for ice in their dialects. 
 A further glimpse into the past is required for a proper estimate 
 of these facts. Man's conquest of a region is achieved in two 
 distinct stages. The first settlers rarely accomplish more than 
 a material hold. Their task is exclusively that of exacting sus- 
 tenance from the soil. Intellectual possession is taken at a later 
 stage. The land then becomes a source of inspiration to its 
 dwellers. Having provided for his material wants, man is now 
 able to cultivate ideals and give free rein to his artistic propensi- 
 ties. Instead of brooding in gloomy anxiety over future support 
 
2 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 or becoming desperate through sheer want he is able to bestow 
 a leisure hour on a favorite recreation. In both of these stages, 
 his thoughts and the words used for their utterance are in har- 
 mony with their surroundings. 
 
 We therefore turn to the land for intimate acquaintance with 
 man and his culture. His very character is shaped in the mold 
 of his habitual haunt. And language is little more than the 
 expression of his character. The earnest Scotchman and the 
 steadfast Swede, both hardened by the schooling of a vigorous 
 climate, contrast strikingly with the impulsive Andalusian or the 
 fitful Sicilian trained to laxity and carelessness in the midst of 
 jjlenty. The revengeful Corsican is the native of an unblest 
 island, while the Russian, bred in the vast and monotonous steppe, 
 cannot avoid injecting a strain of melancholy into the literary 
 treasures which he contributes to the human brotherhood. 
 
 The emotional ties which bind man to his country or to his 
 mother tongue are the same because they "are rooted in the past. 
 A citizen of any country is conscious of his nationality whenever 
 he realizes that he has a common origin with his compatriots. 
 Language is merely the outward form of this feeling. But with- 
 out its unifying influence national solidarity cannot be perfected. 
 
 The growth of modern European nations and the spread of 
 their languages have been parallel developments. This parallelism 
 is founded on the material ties no less than on the spiritual 
 affinity which bind men to the earth. To furnish evidence of this 
 relationship lies within the province of geography. Historical 
 testimony is also at hand to show that political and linguistic 
 frontiers have tended to coincide during the past two centuries, 
 except where artificial measures have been brought into play. 
 Broadly it may be submitted that the advance of civilization in 
 most countries has been marked by the progress of nationality, 
 while nationality itself has been consolidated by identity of 
 speech. 
 
 Language areas, in common with many other facts of geog- 
 raphy, have been largely determined by the character of the 
 surface or climate. Occurrences such as the extension of Polish 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 3 
 
 speech to the Carpathian barrier or the restriction of Flemish 
 to the lowland of northwestern central Europe, are not the work 
 of mere chance. An investigation of linguistic boundaries, there- 
 fore, implies recognition of the selective influence of surface 
 features. But the influence of region upon expansion or confine- 
 ment of language is far from absolute. The part played by 
 economic factors will be shown in the following pages to have 
 been of prime importance. 
 
 Considered as political boundaries, linguistic lines of cleavage 
 have twofold importance. They are sanctioned by national 
 aspirations and they conform to a notable degree with physical 
 features. Every linguistic area considered in these pages bears 
 evidence of relation between language and its natural environment. 
 A basis of delimitation is therefore provided by nature. Eastern 
 extension of French to the Vosges, confinement of Czech to a 
 plateau inclosed by mountains, uniformity of language in open 
 plains and river basins, all are examples of the evidence provided 
 by geography for statesmen engaged in the task of revising 
 boundaries. 
 
 Europe may be aptly regarded as a vast field of settlement 
 where the native element has, again and again, been swamped by 
 successive flows of immigrants proceeding from every point of 
 the compass. The wanderings of these invaders have been 
 directed, in part, into channels provided by the main mountain 
 ranges of Eurasia. Valleys or plains which favored expansion 
 of nationality were, at the same time, the avenues through which 
 languages spread. The barrier boundary of the Mediterranean 
 basin contains a number of important breaches on the north * 
 which facilitated the mingling of the Nordic race with Mediter- 
 ranean men after it had mixed with Alpine peoples. Within 
 historic times men of Celtic speech have been driven westward 
 by Teutons, who also pressed Slavs in the opposite direction. The 
 consequence is that few Frenchmen or Germans of our day can 
 lay claim to racial purity. Northern France is perhaps more 
 
 * E. C. Semple: The Barrier Boundary of the Mediterranean Basin and Its Northern 
 Breaches as Factors in History, Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr., Vol. 5, 1915, pp. 27-59. 
 
4 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Teutonic than southern Germany, while eastern Germany is, in 
 many places, more Slavic than Kussia. To ascribe political sig- 
 nificance to race is therefore as difficult today as it was when 
 Roman citizenship meant infinitely more in comparison. 
 
 Nationality, however, an artificial product derived from racial 
 raw material, confers distinctiveness based on history. It is the 
 cultivated plant, blossoming on racial soil and fertilized by his- 
 torical association. In the words of Ossian: ''It is the voice of 
 years that have gone; they roll before me with all their deeds." 
 Men alone cannot constitute nationality. A nation is the joint 
 product of men and ideas. A heritage of ideals and traditions 
 held in common and accumulated during centuries becomes, in 
 time, the creation of the land to which it is confined. 
 
 Language, the medium in which is expressed successful 
 achievement or hardship shared in common, acquires therefore 
 cementing qualities. It is the bridge between the past and the 
 present. Its value as the cohesive power of nationality is super- 
 seded, in rare instances, by ideals similarly based on community 
 of tradition, hope, or in some cases religion. In speech or 
 writing, words give life to the emotion which nationality stirs 
 in the heart or to the reasoning which it awakens in the 
 mind. 
 
 The distinction between the conceptions of race, language and 
 nationality should, at the very outset, be clearly established. 
 Race deals with man both as a physical creature and as a being 
 endowed with spiritual qualities. Tall, blond men constitute a 
 race distinct from their fellows who combine stockiness and 
 brunetness. The basis of differentiation in this case is anatom- 
 ical. Hence, to talk of an English or Persian race is erroneous. 
 Every nation contains people endowed with widely different 
 physiques, owing to the extensive intermingling of races which 
 has taken place in the course of the million years during which 
 the earth has been inhabited. To be precise, our conception of 
 racial differences must conform to classifications recognized by 
 modern anthropologists. We shall therefore consider the Mediter- 
 ranean, Alpine and Nordic races — to mention only those com- 
 
Fig. 1 — View of the " route d'ltalie " or road to Italy at the extreme south- 
 eastern border of France and well inside the small area of Italian language lying 
 within the French political boundary. 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 5 
 
 posed of white men — and we shall find that they all blend in 
 European nationalities. 
 
 Take, as an example, the racial elements entering into the 
 composition of French nationality. The dominating type, in 
 northern France, belongs to the tall, narrow-headed Nordic race, 
 with blue eyes and fair hair. Frenchmen with these character- 
 istics are descendants of Franks and Gauls who settled in the 
 northern plains of the Paris basin. In Brittany and the Massif 
 Central, however, a round-headed and dark type, short and 
 stockily built, is scattered over the two main piles of Archean 
 mountains which still remain exposed to view. In the Aquitaine 
 basin, as well as in the Lower Ehone valley, the narrow-headed 
 Mediterranean race, with dark eyes and hair, is everywhere 
 evident in the short, brunet inhabitants. 
 
 Ripley adheres to the racial segregation of European man in 
 the three groups enumerated above. But a further reduction 
 can be established on a purely geographical basis, with the result 
 that Europeans may be classed primarily either as highlanders 
 or lowlanders. Anthropological classification fits admirably in 
 this dual distinction, since the inhabitants of European mountain 
 lands belong to the round-head type while the dwellers of the 
 depressions north and south of the central uplifts have long 
 heads. 
 
 From the conception of race we attain that of people by con- 
 sidering the second as derived from the mingling of the first. 
 Intercourse between the three great races of Europe has always 
 existed as a result of migratory movements. The impulse to 
 wander, however much it differed in each known instance, can 
 usually be traced to a single determining cause, definable as the 
 quest after comfort. This was the motive which led men of the 
 Nordic race to abandon their uncomfortable habitat in the north. 
 The same feeling was experienced by Alpine mountaineers as 
 they descended towards attractive lowlands north and south of 
 their rough mountain homes. 
 
 Nordics moving to the south and Alpines crowding toward 
 the lowland converged upon one another. No meeting of human 
 
6 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 beings, in the entire history of mankind, has been fraught with 
 consequences of wider reach than the contact between members 
 of these, the two hardiest races which the world has produced. 
 European nationalities and Aryan languages were born in those 
 momentous meetings. The zone of contact extended from the 
 northwestern, lowland fringe of continental Europe to the saucer- 
 shaped land of Polesia. Along the depressed margin of western 
 Europe a heavy flow of Mediterranean men, moving constantly 
 northward, introduced a third element in the racial constituents 
 of French and British populations. Each of the three races 
 contributed a characteristic share of physical and moral traits to 
 the spirit of nationality in Europe. The Nordics left the impress 
 of their northern vigor wherever they passed. Their native 
 restlessness, the joint product of cold weather and a hard life, 
 became converted into a magnificent spirit of enterprise when- 
 ever it blended with Alpine hardiness or Mediterranean ambition. 
 The Alpines, often considered as the intellectual type, also 
 imparted the virility of highland physiques as they migrated to 
 the lowland. Last, but not least, Mediterranean men contributed 
 the softness of their native character as well as the fine qualities 
 due to a keen artistic sense. The fusion of the three races was 
 accompanied by the creation of the three great groups of 
 European peoples, known as Celts, Teutons and Slavs. The 
 differentiation of these peoples from the fused group occurred 
 at an early period and was probably in full swing towards the 
 close of the Neolithic. 
 
 We are thus led to picture the early home of Celtic dialects 
 on territory now falling under French, Dutch and German rule. 
 It is not unlikely that England and Ireland are areas of expan- 
 sion of this language. Eastward, it is known that the Celtic 
 territory extended at least as far as the Elbe. Beyond, in the 
 same direction, an ever Avidening wedge of Teutonic area inter- 
 posed itself between Celts and Slavs. The prehistoric home of the 
 Teutons will be found in the region around the western extremity 
 of the Baltic Sea. It comprised southern Sweden, Jutland, the 
 German Baltic coast to the Oder and the Baltic islands as far as 
 
mmtLMM 
 
 Copyright by Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 2 — Schwarzwald scenery. A region of transitional dialects between High 
 and I-ow German. 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 7 
 
 Gothland. The Slav 's original homeland had its site on an 
 imperfectly drained lake-bed extending westward from the middle 
 Dnieper valley to the Niemen and Priepet marshland. 
 
 From east to west on the Eurasian land mass the three main 
 forms of language occupy strictly geographical settings. Mono- 
 syllabic Chinese lies rigid and lifeless within its barriers of high 
 mountains and vast seas. The static condition of Chinese civili- 
 zation is reflected in the changeless form of its language. A new 
 idea requires a new word and a corresponding symbol. In the 
 wild and wide-stretching steppes of Siberia, communication of 
 thought or feeling is maintained through the medium of agglu- 
 tinative forms of speech. Grammatically, this marks an improve- 
 ment over the monosyllabic language. In the case considered 
 here it expresses the restlessness and mobility of steppe life. At 
 the same time inferiority of civilization is revealed by poverty 
 of ideas and consequently of words. In the west, however, 
 whether we consider western Asia or Europe, we deal with the 
 world's best nursery of civilization. In those regions are found 
 the highly inflected and flexible languages of the Aryan and 
 Semitic families. The grammar of these languages — a mere 
 adaptation to superior requirements of order and method — ren- 
 ders them particularly responsive to the constant improvement 
 in thought which characterizes western countries. 
 
 Aryan languages are spoken all the way from northern India 
 to Europe's westernmost confines. This territory comprises the 
 western extension of the central belt of high Eurasian mountains 
 together with its fringing lowlands. In its elevated portion it is 
 the domain of the Alpine race and of the Nordic in its depressed 
 northern border. On the other hand, that portion of the northern 
 Eurasian grasslands which extends into Europe forms part of 
 the area of Uralo- Altaic languages. It is sometimes contended 
 that the original home of Aryan languages was situated in north- 
 ern Europe, where full-blooded northerners now speak lang-uages 
 belonging to this family. But the weight of evidence in favor of 
 a central European origin will seem almost decisive when we 
 remember that culture and civilization have invariably proceeded 
 
8 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 from temperate regions. The Aryans issued at first from the 
 contact of northern European lowlanders with the highlanders of 
 central Europe, subsequently mingled with the inhabitants of the 
 Mediterranean basin. As they migrated southward they must 
 have changed continually in race. Every absorption of southern 
 elements tended to modify their racial characteristics. A given 
 type therefore corresponds to a definite period and place. The 
 vagueness conveyed by the term Aryan, whether applied to lan- 
 guage or people, is to be explained by the inherent instability of 
 the subject. • 
 
 A theoretical representation of the operation of this change 
 may be offered by assuming that NA is the offspring of the first 
 Nordic N having come in contact with an Alpine A. The tendency 
 for NA is to migrate southwards. His offspring may be repre- 
 sented as NAA as the likelihood is that NA will have taken an 
 Alpine wife to himself. This is the prelude to a long series of 
 generations to each of which an A strain is added. At the same 
 time the steadily maintained migration of Nordics in a southerly 
 direction towards and beyond the territory occupied by the Alpines 
 tends to bring new N strains to the mixed product. At a given 
 stage contact with Mediterranean races becomes established and 
 the process of obliterating Nordic traits is intensified. 
 
 We thus see that as the northern invaders pressed southward 
 they became more or less absorbed in the indigenous populations. 
 Their physique changed and their individuality vanished. How- 
 ever great the strength of the invaders, they could bring rela- 
 tively few women in their train. This was especially true 
 whenever they operated in a mountainous country. The passes 
 through which their advance was made were open only to the 
 more vigorous in the bands of fighting men or adventurers. 
 
 At the end of the Neolithic, about 5,000 years ago,- Europe 
 was the home of a type of man physically similar to any average 
 European of our day. This type is the product of long-continued 
 contact between the original human product of Europe, Asia and 
 Africa. The dawn of history finds him speaking Celtic in western 
 
 * The Neolithic lasted longer north of the Alps. 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 9 
 
 central Europe. An immense variety of dialects must then have 
 been spoken on the continent, since intercourse was slight. Their 
 fusion into modern languages has been the work of centuries. 
 Out of the linguistic sifting of the past two millenniums, three great 
 groups of languages have emerged: the Romanic, Germanic and 
 Slavic, distributed over Europe from west to east. In these three 
 groups French, German and Russian occupy respectively the 
 leading rank. 
 
 The distinction between the languages spoken in northern and 
 southern France was highly marked in early medieval days. The 
 langue d'oil in use north of a line starting at the mouth of the 
 Gironde River and passing through Angouleme, L'Isle-Jourdain 
 and Roanne eventually acquired ascendancy over the langue d'oc 
 spoken to the south.^ The dialect of this northern language 
 which prevailed in Ile-de-France was the precursor of modern 
 French. It spread rapidly throughout the country after the 
 acquisition of Aquitaine by French kings and the consolidation 
 of France by the annexation of Burgundian lands. The French 
 of Paris thus became a national language whose linguistic and 
 literary prestige is still strongly felt over the rest of the country. 
 
 * The dialects or patois spoken today in France all fall under one of these two 
 languages. They can be classified as follows: 
 
 Langue d'Oo 
 Patois Spoken in the Departments of 
 
 Languedocian Gard, H^rault, Pyr(:'n^>ea-0rientale3, Aude, Ari&ge, Haute-Garonne, 
 
 Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn, Aveyron, Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne. 
 
 Provencal Drome, Vaucluse, Bouches-du-RliOne, Hautes- and Busscs-Alpes, Var. 
 
 Dauphinois Is&re. 
 
 Lyonnais Rhone, Ain, Saone-et-Loire. 
 
 Auvergnat Allier, Loire, Haute-Loire, Ardfeche, Lozfere, Puy-de-D5me, Cantal. 
 
 Limousin Cor^^ze, Ilaute-Vicnne, Creuse, Indre, Cher, Vienne, Dordogne, 
 
 Charente, Charente-Inf^rieure, Indre-et-Loire. 
 
 Gascon Gironde, Landes, Hautes-Pyr6n6es, Bas8es-Pyr6n§es, Gcrs. 
 
 Langue d'Oil 
 
 Norman Normandie, Bretagne, Perche, Maine, Anjou, Poitou, Saintonge. 
 
 Picard Picardie, Ile-de-France, Artois, Flandre, Hainaut, Lower Maine, 
 
 Thi6rache, Rethelois. 
 
 Burgundian Nivernais, Berry, Orl^anais, Lower Bourbonnais, part of Ile-de- 
 France, Champagne, Lorraine, Franche-Comt6. 
 
10 
 
 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The Eoman conquest of Gaul brought Latin to the country 
 because the civilization of the south was superior. At the time 
 of the coming of the Franks, the Latinized Gaulish language was 
 taken up by the conquerors because it also was the symbol of 
 
 Fig. 3 — Sketch map of France showing mountain areas and basins. 
 
 superior intellectual development. The conversion of barbarian 
 invaders to Christianitj^ helped to maintain Latinized forms of 
 speech. The Latin of the Romans was modified, however, by the 
 different local dialects. Thus the patois of langue d'oc and of 
 langue d'oil acquired resemblance through the leavening influence 
 of Latin. 
 
 As long as southern France exercised a preponderating influ- 
 
3 
 
 • 0) 
 
 
Fig. 5 — A farmhouse 
 which High German is spoken. 
 
 in the Blaclc Forest, a typical habitation in districts in 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 11 
 
 ence in national affairs, the langue d'oc occupied the first place 
 in the country. In the eleventh century it was spoken by the 
 leading classes in the north, as well as by the masses in the south. 
 Such, at least, is the testimony of manuscripts of this period. 
 But with the passing of power into the hands of northern French- 
 men, the langue d'oi'l came into wider use, until one of its patois 
 gave rise to the French which was subsequently to become the 
 medium of expression for the genius of Moliere and the notable 
 host of his literary countrymen. 
 
 Between the langue d'oc and the langue d'oil the difference 
 was that of north and south. The southern idioms expressed 
 feeling and harmony, hence they were preferred by poets. The 
 troubadours favored them exclusively during the Middle Ages. 
 The " parlors" of the north, on the other hand, were endowed 
 with the staying qualities of lucidity, order and precision. • The 
 beauty of modern French, as well as the attraction it exerts on 
 cultivated minds, is due to its well-balanced blend of northern 
 and southern elements. French of our day is the shrine in which 
 the treasured remains of earlier centuries are still preserved. In 
 it the sunshine of the south pierces with its warm rays the 
 severity of northern earnestness. No other European language 
 can boast of an equally happy composition. In this respect it is 
 a true mirror of the French mind as well as of French nationality. 
 
 As spoken at present, French is derived in direct line from a 
 sub-dialect of the Picard patois formerly spoken in Paris and 
 Pontoise and which spread throughout all Ile-de-France. This 
 province may be aptly described as the bottom of the bowl-shaped 
 area of northern France. It owes its geographical distinctiveness 
 to the convergence of a number of important valleys which empty 
 the products of their fertility into the Paris basin lying in its 
 very center. Five of these irregular furrows, the Seine, Loing, 
 Yonne, Marne and Oise, radiate outwardly from the low-lying 
 Paris center. The ebb and flow of national power and language 
 sped its alternate course along their channels until, from being 
 the heart, Paris, always inseparable from its lang-uage, became 
 also the head of France. 
 
12 
 
 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The Frankish dukedom founded on such a site grew naturally 
 into a kingdom. And along with the establishment of a royal 
 court, the language of the region acquired part of the kingly 
 prestige. Herein we find the explanation of the derivation of the 
 name French from that of Franldsh as well as of the language 
 from the local sub-dialect of the Picard patois. Already in the 
 thirteenth century, from this magnificently situated base as a 
 
 Fig. 6 — Part of France showing the contact between " langue d'oc " and " langue 
 d'oil " countries. The shaded area represents the " langue d'oil " or northern lan- 
 guage. " Langue d'oc " prevailed in the unruled area. Between these two regions a 
 transitional zone, shown by broken ruling, intervened, in which a mixture of the 
 two languages was spoken. 
 
 center, both language and nation had absorbed additional terri- 
 tory by a process of steady outward growth. It was French 
 unity in the early making. As early as the twelfth century, no 
 northern nobleman dared appear at the French court without 
 having previously acquired familiarity with its language and 
 manners. The precious literary monuments of this century show 
 that this court language was already known as "FranQois." A 
 hundred years later, about 1260, French had acquired so much 
 polish and importance that we find Italian writers using it in 
 preference to their own dialects. So in 1298, Marco Polo, a 
 Venetian, gives out the first account of his eastern travels in 
 French, while Brunetto Latini, who was Dante's tutor, writes his 
 Tesoreto in the same language, explaining his preference by 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 13 
 
 remarking that French "est plus delitaubles languages et plus 
 conununs que moult d'autres."^ 
 
 German was to become the language of central Europe. Inter- 
 posed between the territories of Eomanic and Slavic languages, 
 the area of German speech occupies a magnificently commanding 
 position. Originally the language spoken west of the Elbe and 
 Saale rivers, it had advanced considerably to the east in the first 
 century of the Christian era. The imposition of Teutonic lan- 
 guage on Slavic populations is one of the results of this ancient 
 expansion of Germanic peoples. During the past thousand years^ 
 very little change in the distribution of the main German dialects 
 is believed to have taken place. 
 
 Modern German is generally divided into three sub-branches. 
 Low, High and Middle German. Low German, Niederdeutsch or 
 Plattdeutsch,^ the language of the plain, is restricted to the exten- 
 sive northern lowland. Dialects spoken in the northeastern corner 
 of Ehenish Prussia, Holstein, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and 
 Prussia enter into its composition. High German, Oberdeutsch 
 or Hochdeutsch, is the German of the highland. It comprises the 
 Bavarian, Swabian and Alemannic dialects of Bavaria, Wiirttem- 
 berg and Baden. Its use as the literary language of all German- 
 speaking people became well established in the Middle Ages. 
 Luther's translation of the Bible written in Saxonian dialect, a 
 combination of High and Middle German, contributed no mean 
 share to the diffusion of the language. Its use has been favored 
 by Germany's most noted writers since the seventeenth century. 
 Schools and newspapers tend to convert it eventually into the 
 only speech that will survive within German boundaries. 
 
 A fact of special importance can be traced among the causes 
 leading to the supplanting of Low German, the language of the 
 German plain, by High German as the national tongue. The 
 superiority of the highland dialect is due to its greater assimila- 
 
 * The terminal s, a distinctly Latin form, is seen to persist in this early stag© 
 of the language. 
 
 ' Niederdeutsch is derived directly from Old Saxon, the language which entera 
 into the composition of the Anglo-Saxon current in England at the time of the- 
 Norman Conquest. 
 
14, FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 tion of Celtic words. This civilizing influence of Celtic culture 
 is by no means a modern development in Germany. In the proto- 
 historic period it was mainly through contact with the Celts that 
 the Teutons became civilized. This intellectual dependence of the 
 Germans is revealed for the period about 300 b.c. by the then 
 existing civilization, which was entirely Celtic. The history that 
 spans the intervening years naturally brings to mind the influence 
 which French language has always had in Germany. Voltaire's 
 sojourn at the Prussian court does not rank among forgotten 
 episodes and it was not so long ago that Leibnitz had to resort to 
 L'rench or Ijatin as tlie medium of his written expression. 
 
 The transit ion from the nortliern plain of Germany to the 
 high central regions is represented, on the surface, by a zone of 
 intermediate uplands in Saxony, Lusatia and Silesia. This area 
 is characterized linguistically by a transitional form of speech 
 between Low and High German." The similarity, however, of 
 this midland German to High German is observable to the extent 
 to which the rising land over which it is distributed presents 
 analogy to the mountainous region towards which it trends. The 
 transitional dialects include East, ]\liddle and Rheno-Franconian, 
 as well as Thuringian. They occur in the middle Rhincland, the 
 banks of the Moselle, Hesse, Thuringia and Saxony. 
 
 A bird's-eye view of the area of German speech shows that 
 the language prevails wherever a well-defined type of dwelling is 
 found. This representative habifalion consists of a frame house 
 with an entrance in the middle of one of its long sides. The 
 hearth generally faces (he threshold. Barns and outlying build- 
 ings do not connect with the main house, but form with it the 
 sides of an open inner yard. German houses can furthermore 
 be subdivided into three distinct sub-types which correspond to 
 the linguistic divisions of Low, ]\liddle and High German. The 
 Saxon sub-type, which rarely rises above a single story, prevails 
 in the northern lowlands, while Ihe Bavarian sub-type dots the 
 mountain districts which resound to High German. Between the 
 
 • Cf. Sheets 12a, Europe, Fluaz-Gobirpaknrto, niul 12o, Europa, Sprnchon- xind 
 VulkiM-kiirlo, bo(l\ 1:12,000,000, in Dibes: llniul-.illns. 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 
 
 15 
 
 two an inteiTnediate sub-type of construction exists in the zone 
 of Middle German. 
 
 Russian language while Slavic, and as such Indo-European, 
 is at the same time the transition speech between the Indo- 
 European and Uralo- Altaic groups. Its inflections connect it with 
 the western group. But the dominant use of vowels bears impress 
 of the strong influence exerted by Asia in the formation of the 
 
 'JO. 7 — Sketoli map showing relative position of the tiiree main areas in which 
 tlie dialects of German language are grouped. 
 
 language. The very consonants in Russian are liquid and softened 
 so as to shade insensibly into vowels. These are characteristics 
 of Turkish and Finnish. The singular charm with which the 
 melodious sounds of the Russian language greet a stranger's ears 
 is derived from this Asiatic strain. In spirit also the funda- 
 mental fatalism of Russians increases in the eastern sections of 
 the country. The trait can hardly be characterized as Slavic. In 
 the case of the Poles or Bohemians, it gives place to buoyant 
 hopefulness which helps to color life and the world in roseate 
 hues. The fatalism of the Russian is a relic of past habitat in 
 the interminable steppes of central Eurasia. The Turks whose 
 
16 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 former roaming ground was the same are also imbued with this 
 spirit. It is the sophism of the level land. No matter how far 
 the horseman urged his mount, the same monotony met his gaze. 
 No effort on his part could ever change the prospect. 
 
 As late as the twelfth century the peoples of the basin of the 
 Volga spoke purely Tatar dialects. The wide and open steppes 
 of Siberia, extending without break into eastern Europe, poured 
 the overflow of their populations into the valleys of the Russian 
 rivers which flow into the Black Sea. The great Russian cities 
 of the borderland between Europe and Asia were either founded 
 or Slavicized after the eleventh century. About that time the 
 Slavic dialects of the Vistula and the Dnieper began to blend 
 with the Asiatic languages of the Oka, Kliasma and Volga valleys. 
 Modern Russian, a mixture of Slavic and Tatar or Mongolian 
 words, was born of this blending. In a broader sense it is the 
 expression of the union of Europe and Asia to create a Russian 
 nation, for Russia is the product of the ancient Russ or Ruthenian 
 principalities and the old Muscovite states. The former were 
 Slav and lay in Europe. The latter were Tatar and belonged 
 physically to Asia. As a nation the Russia of our time sprang 
 into existence at the end of the seventeenth century. Prior to 
 that period, its western section is known to history as the land 
 of Russ or Ruthenia. Its eastern part was Muscovy. Through 
 the union of the eastern and western sections the Russian Empire 
 of modern times came into being. No literary monuments ante- 
 date the birth of its nationality. 
 
 In Russia the Slav who is free from Asiatic contamination is 
 rarely met east of the 35th meridian. A line from Lake Ladoga 
 to Lake Ilmen and along this meridian to the mouth of the 
 Dnieper forms the divide between the Russians of Europe and 
 of Asia. The parting of the waters belonging respectively to 
 the Don and the Dnieper is, from a racial standpoint, the bound- 
 ary between the two groups. The Tatar in the Russian appears 
 east of this frontier. The Oriental customs which permeate 
 Russian life, the Tatar words of the Russian language, all begin 
 to assume intensity east of this dividing line, while to the west 
 
Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Copyi'njht hij liiderwood & Underwood 
 
 Fig. 8 — This group of Russian officers conveys an idea of the excessive racial 
 mingling in Russia. Alpine and Tatar features can be recognized as dominant. 
 
 Fig. 9 — The heart of Moscow with the buildings of the Kremlin in the background. 
 
THE FOUNDATIONS 17 
 
 the spirit of the vast stretch of north Asiatic steppes disappears. 
 Thus the commonly accepted Ural frontier of European and 
 Asiatic Russia is unwarranted in the light of ethnic facts. The 
 inhabitants of the Volga lands are essentially Asiatics among 
 whom the numerically inferior Slav element has become dominant. 
 
 Asia's linguistic contribution to Europe is the gift of its 
 unwooded steppelands. The immense tract of monotonous country 
 extending west of the Altai Mountains to Europe is the home of 
 a family of languages known as the Uralo-Altaic. Among these 
 the highly vocalic branch of Finno-Ugrian traveled west mth the 
 nomadic herdsmen who used it. In Europe it acquired the polish 
 which brought it to the forms recognized respectively as Finnish 
 or Suomi and Hungarian. Both enjoy the distinction of being 
 the most cultivated of the great northern Asiatic family of lan- 
 guages. The case of Finnish is especially remarkable owing to 
 its high development without loss of its original agglutinative 
 character. 
 
 The picture of this linguistic evolution can be painted only 
 Avith the colors of geography. The well-defined individuality of 
 the Hungarian Puszta has its counterpart in the Siberian steppe 
 region. The one is the reproduction of the other in small — a 
 miniature. Both consist of undulating land, devoid of mountains 
 or hills, and covered by deep sand. In Finland too a remarkably 
 level stretch of granite land, marked by gentle swelling, lies under 
 a sandy glacial mantle. The two European regions have only 
 one advantage over their Asiatic type. They are better watered. 
 The furthest penetration of Eurasian lowlands into Europe is 
 obtained through them. The approach to Hungary is made 
 without a break, through the valley of the Danube. To Finland 
 access is equally easy once the Urals are crossed. That this range 
 proved no obstacle to the westerly spread of central Asiatic 
 peoples is indicated by their presence west of its axis and their 
 settlement in the Volga valley prior to Slav inroads. But neither 
 in lake-dotted Finnish lands nor within the limited and mountain- 
 hedged area of Hungary could the Asiatic invaders find room 
 for expansion or nomadism. From herdsmen they became 
 
18 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 farmers. The change is the dawTi of their history as a European 
 nation, and of the development of every manifestation of their 
 culture, A more advanced language became the measure of the 
 increasingly complex character of their needs — that is to say, of 
 higher civilization. The whole story, traced from its origin, 
 illustrates the superior civilizing power vested in European 
 geography. In the sterile steppes of the northern half of Asia 
 man led an easier life than in the cramped regions of diversified 
 Europe. On the broad flatlands of the east he roamed with little 
 thought of the morrow and without incentive to improve his 
 condition. In the west he was spurred to activity by the very 
 limitations of his homeland. 
 
 In our day about seventy different languages are spoken in 
 liussia. In this fact is found a serious drawback to effective 
 national unity. Fortunately the spread of the dialects belonging 
 to the Slavic group of languages is steady. The thorough Slav- 
 icization of the peoples of the basin of the Volga is not yet ended, 
 but Great Russian is gradually uprooting the native Uralo-Altaic 
 tongues. It is also imposing itself upon Asiatic languages in 
 Caucasia and Transcaspian territory. Wherever there has been 
 a thorough blending of dialects into Russian, nationality has 
 • sprung into existence. Elsewhere unity is in process of forma- 
 tion. The problem before the governing class consists in hasten- 
 ing the assimilation of the different elements to the original 
 Slavic nucleus. Not until this consummation has taken place will 
 the country have developed its full strength. And the measure 
 of progress will be indicated by the growing replacement of the 
 numerous dialects by a single national language. 
 
 Looking back over the stormy centuries during which French, 
 German and Russian nationalities were elaborated, we behold the 
 formative influence of language everywhere. Aspirations which 
 precede the period of free and unfettered national life give way 
 to achievement when national hopes are crowned. This we shall 
 find in greater detail in the succeeding chapters. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE BOUNDARIES OF FRENCH AND GERMANIC LANGUAGES 
 IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 
 
 The western section of the Franco-German linguistic boundary 
 extends over Belgian territory through a country in which the 
 formation of nationality has been exceedingly laborious. Flemish 
 and "Walloon, two languages within a single political boundary^ 
 represent the obstacles which stood in the way of national growth. 
 Physically Belgium also consists of diversified regions. Its his- 
 tory is the long drawn-out struggle between two powerful neigh- 
 bors. Over and over again its inhabitants have found themselves 
 drawn into foreign quarrels against their will. 
 
 The country is a marshland in which the mountains and plains 
 of Europe meet. The main divisions which correspond to this 
 background have inherited the names of Flanders and Wallonia. 
 The clashing-ground of men of the Alpine and Nordic races, 
 Belgium received wave after wave of northerners who came to 
 colonize its broad flatlands. At the time of the conquest, the 
 Romans came upon long-established colonies, but found to their 
 cost that Teuton mvasions were not ended. In the fifth century 
 of our era the northern lowland was cleared of Romans by the 
 Franks; but to this day the dualism of its people has not been 
 obliterated. To whatever extent inbreeding has destroyed racial 
 purity, the Fleming of our day represents the Nordic race, while 
 the Walloon is mainly Alpine. Of the two, the fair-complexioned 
 product of the north speaks a Teutonic language, whereas the 
 swarthy highlander is both the user and disseminator of French. 
 
 At the partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843,^ the Schelde 
 became the dividing line between Lotharingia and France. 
 
 ^ The importance of the treaty of Verdun of this date with regard to the conflict 
 between the French and the German languages is pointed out in the next chapter. 
 
 19 
 
20 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Flemings and Walloons, who had been thrown together for cen- 
 turies, were separated into an eastern and a western group. 
 Nevertheless their struggle for unity and independence continued 
 to fill Belgium's history. In the ensuing period of national trials, 
 the political disruption of the country is manifested by the growth 
 of civic communities. Belgium became in turn a Burgundian, an 
 Austrian and a Spanish province. The golden age of the Bur- 
 gundian period brought prosperity to the land, but economic 
 decadence accompanied the prolonged strife between Hapsburgs 
 and Bourbons. It was Belgium's misfortune to be the scene on 
 which the rivalry was fought out. With a population reduced by 
 the horrors of war, Belgium emerged from under the heel of 
 Spanish oppression only to fall successively under Austrian, 
 French and Dutch domination. But the seed- of nationality, 
 planted upon its uncertain soil when the valley of the Schelde 
 became part of Burgundy, sheltered a smouldering vitality which, 
 finally, in the nineteenth century was fanned to independence. 
 
 The line of contact between French and the languages belong- 
 ing to the Germanic group begins at the sea on French soil. 
 Starting a few miles west of Dunkirk,^ the linguistic divide fol- 
 lows a direction which is generally parallel to the political 
 boundary between France and Belgium until, a few miles east 
 of Aire, it strikes northeast to Halluin, which remains within 
 the area of French speech. From this point on to Sicken-Sussen, 
 near the German border, the line assumes an almost due east 
 trend. 
 
 This division corresponds broadly to the mountainous and 
 depressed areas into which Belgium is divided. The upland has 
 always been the home of French. Walloon is but a modified form 
 of the old langue d'oil.^ Flemish, on the other hand, is a Ger- 
 manic language which spread over Belgian lowlands as naturally 
 as the Low German dialects to which it is related had invaded 
 
 * G. Kurth: La fronti&re linguistique en Belgiqiie et dans le nord de la France, 
 M^m. couronnfs, Acad. R. Sci. Let. et Beaux-Arts de Belg., XLVIII, Vol. 1, 1895, 
 Vol. 2, 1898, Brussels. 
 
 * Cf . Map, " Ausbreitung der Romanischen Sprachen in Europa," 1:8,000,000, 
 in Grober: Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie, Triibner, Strassburg, 1904-1906. 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 21 
 
 the plains of northern Europe. This east-west line also marks 
 the separation of the tall, blond, long-skulled Flemings from the 
 short, dark, round-skull Alpine Walloons. 
 
 The remarkably straight course of the linguistic divide, in 
 Belgian territory, is generally regarded as an effect of the plain 
 over which it extends. Whatever ruggedness it may have once 
 possessed has been smoothed away in the course of centuries by 
 the ease with which either Flemish or French could spread in the 
 low-lying flatland. The two languages have now been facing each 
 other for about four centuries. Place names indicate that the 
 variations of the line have been slight. It is a rare occurrence 
 to find Eoman village names north of its present extension. 
 Teutonic roots, in locality names to the south, are likewise 
 unusual. A few can be traced. Waterloo, Tubize, Clabecq, Ohain 
 were once Flemish settlements. Tubize was originally known as 
 Tweebeek and became a Walloon center in the fifteenth century. 
 Ohain likewise is known in the form of Olhem in twelfth century 
 documents. 
 
 [Belgium's linguistic dualism prevailed throughout the five 
 centuries of the Roman occupation. Intercourse at that time 
 between the Belgae dwelling south of the Via Agrippa, and the 
 Eomans who were pushing steadily northwards was frequent and 
 intimate. The Latin of the Eoman invaders, modified by the 
 Celtic and Germanic of native populations, gave birth eventually 
 to the Walloon of subsequent times.* The Belgae of the lowlands 
 farther north, however, successfully resisted the efforts made by 
 the Romans to conquer them. The marshes of their nether coun- 
 try, and the forested area which was to be laid bare by the monks 
 of the Middle Ages, constituted a stronghold in the shelter of 
 which Germanic dialects took root. This forested area — the Sylva 
 Carbonaria of the Eomans — was the chief geographical feature 
 which prevented thorough fusion of Flemings and Walloons. It 
 was the westernmost extension of the Ardennes forests and its 
 
 * The Belgae of Caesar are probably represented by the Teutonic populations of 
 northern France — Flanders and Batavia — rather than by the Walloon. They are a 
 Germanic tribe who made their appearance in Belgium about the third century, B.C. 
 
22 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 gloomy solitudes covered the largest part of the territory which 
 has since become the province of Hainaut. Beyond its northern 
 boundary lay the lands of Teutonic culture and language. To 
 the Flemings, living north of the wooded curtain, the Gallo- 
 Eomans, who became known as Walloons, were the Walas or 
 "foreigners" who dwelt south of the tree-studded barrier. A 
 sharply defined line of separation intensified, in this manner, all 
 pre-existing racial difl:erences._j 
 
 At a later date, the growth of the temporal power of the 
 Roman Church resulted in the establishment of a number of 
 bishoprics over districts segregated irrespectively of linguistic 
 diiferences. Perhaps one of the most striking features of Belgian 
 history is found in the fact that its linguistic and political bound- 
 aries have never coincided. Every century is marked by renewal 
 of the age-long clashes between the northern and southern races 
 which have been thrown in contact along the western end of the 
 line which separates the plains of northern Europe from the 
 mountainous southland of the continent. 
 
 It may be gathered from all this that the linguistic line of 
 cleavage has undergone very little modification in the course of 
 centuries.^ It now divides the country into a northern section, 
 the inhabitants of which consider Flemish as their vernacular, 
 but who also generally understand French, and a southern section 
 peopled by French-speaking inhabitants, who adhere to the use 
 of Walloon dialects in the intimacy of their home life. To the 
 east, the political frontier between Belgium and Germany does 
 not divide the two countries linguistically. Within Prussian terri- 
 tory, Malmedy and a group of fifteen villages are inhabited by 
 a French-speaking folk. As though to offset this intrusion of 
 French speech on Prussian soil, a corresponding area of German 
 speech is found in the Belgian province of Luxemburg around 
 Arlon.® Altogether about 31,500 Belgians employ German as a 
 vernacular. 
 
 • G. Touchard: Les langues parlies en Belgique, Le Mouv. Gdogr., May 11, 1913, 
 pp. 226-229. 
 
 ' N. Warker: Die deiitsche Orts- iind Gewassernamen der Belgischen Provinz 
 Luxemburg, Deutsche Erde, Vol. 8, 1909, pp. 99, 139. 
 
Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. I 
 
The American Geographical Sociefy of New Yorl( 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. / 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 23 
 
 The figures of the last (Dec. 31, 1910) Belgian census ^ show 
 that the Flemish provinces are bilingual, whereas the Walloon 
 region is altogether French. Knowledge of French as an educa- 
 tional and business requirement accounts for its occurrence in 
 Flanders. The Romance language, therefore, tends to supersede 
 the Germanic idiom as a national vernacular. The utter absence 
 of Flemish in the Belgian Congo constitutes perhaps the strongest 
 evidence in favor of French as Belgium's national language. 
 
 In northwestern France, the language of the plain has, since 
 the thirteenth century, steadily receded before the uplander's 
 speech. At that time Flemish was spoken as far south as the 
 region between Boulogne and Aire.^ The area spreading east of 
 the Atlantic, between the present linguistic boundary and a line 
 connecting these two cities, is now bilingual with French pre- 
 dominating. It might be noted here, however, that Boulogne has 
 been a French-speaking city since Frankish days. 
 
 The use of Flemish in France is restricted to the two arron- 
 dissements of Dunkirk and Hazebrouck as well as to a few 
 communes of Lille. Dewachter's studies" in this locality have 
 been summarized by Blanchard.^" According to these investi- 
 gations, the arrondissement of Dunkirk contains 41 Flemish- 
 speaking communes, four of purely French language and 20 of 
 dual speech. Of the last, only five reveal a majority of Flemish 
 speakers. In Hazebrouck there are 36 Flemish communes, eight 
 French and nine bilingual. Five of the latter show French 
 predominance. In the arrondissement of Lille, Flemish is spoken 
 only in six bilingual communes, four of wiiich have a majority 
 of French-speaking residents. Furthermore a few Flemish- 
 speaking families are found in the suburbs of St. Omer as well 
 as in a commune near by. About one-third of the inhabitants 
 
 ' Statistique de la Belgique, Recensement General de 1910, Vol. 2, 1912, Vol. 3, 
 1913, Brussels. 
 
 * G. Kurth: op. cit. Kurth's work is based partly on place names. See also L. 
 De Backer: La langue flamande en France, Samyn, Ghent, 1893. 
 
 • Le flamand et le frangais dans le nord de la France, 2me Congr^s international 
 pour I'extension et la culture de la langue francaise, Weissenbruch, Brussels, 1908. 
 
 ^^ Le flamand dans le nord de la France, Ann. de Geogr., Vol. 20, Dec. 15, 1909,. 
 pp. 374-375. 
 
24 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of Tourcoing understand Flemish. This is also true of one-half 
 the population of Eoubaix. In each of the cities of Lille and 
 Armentieres, the ratio falls to one-quarter. Outside of the 
 Flemish-tainted communes of the arrondissement of Lille, the 
 boundary of this language is indicated by the course of the Aa, 
 the canal of Neuffosse and the Lys. 
 
 The progress of French, in the Flemish-speaking districts of 
 France, may be followed through the growing invasion of French 
 words in the local vernaculars. The Flemish spoken in Dunkirk 
 or Hazebrouck is an archaic dialect which is growing further and 
 further away from the Flemish of Belgium, as this language 
 tends to identify itself with Dutch in order to acquire literary 
 form. As a rule, French is gradually replacing the Germanic 
 idiom throughout the line of linguistic contact. The Frenchifying 
 of the communes between the Aa and Dunkirk has taken place 
 within the last fifty years. In the same period, Flemish has 
 almost entirely disappeared from the suburbs of St. Omer, and 
 the progress of French towards Cassel and Hazebrouck becomes 
 yearly more apparent. The bilingual aptitude of the inhabitants 
 in all of these localities is on the increase in the sense that many 
 of 'the Flemings are acquiring proficiency in French. Business 
 requirements in a large degree account for the change. 
 
 The only opposition to the advance of French is found in the 
 Flemish immigration which brings fresh linguistic energy in its 
 train. Fortunately for the Eomance language, the tide of this 
 innnigration is weak and the newcomers are easily assimilated by 
 the French-speaking element. A locality in which the decline of 
 French is noticeable is found in the vicinity of Menin on the 
 Lys river. The number of Flemish immigrants is particularly 
 heavy in this region. Coromunes which have been French since 
 immemorial times are fast becoming Flemish. Everywiiere else, 
 however, French is steadily encroaching upon the domain of 
 Germanic speech. 
 
 Brussels typifies the bilingual character of the country of 
 which it is the capital. French and Flemish are spoken both in 
 its precincts and suburbs. The distribution of inhabitants, 
 
''"' '*>*♦"«« 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 12 is a view of the lowlying plain of Flanders in the vicinity of Waterloo. 
 
 Fig. 13 — Shows the environs of Chaiidfontaine and gives an excellent glimpse of 
 the hilly country in which Walloon language has held its own. These two photo- 
 graphs show the contrast between the areas of Walloon and Flemish in Belgium. 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 25 
 
 according to communes or wards, showed French predominance 
 on December 31, 1910, as follows: 
 
 Speaking 
 Communes Number of French- Flemish- French and 
 
 (wards) inhabitants speaking speaking Flemisli 
 
 Bruxelles 177,078 47,385 29,081 85,414 
 
 Anderleeht 64,157 11,211 24,320 23,486 
 
 Etterbeck 33,227 11,107 6,596 13,166 
 
 Forest 24,228 7,975 5,247 8,756 
 
 Ixelles 72,991 39,473 6,733 19,799 
 
 Jette 14,782 1,811 7,775 4,191 
 
 Koekelberg 12,750 1,770 5,702 4,378 
 
 Laeken 35,024 4,720 12,702 15,230 
 
 Molenbeek-St. Jean 72,783 11,663 24,910 31,331 
 
 Saint-Gilles 63,140 24,376 5,928 27,497 
 
 Saint-Josseten-Noode . . . 31,865 10,547 3,349 14,859 
 
 Schaerbeek 82,4S0 20,975 13,677 40,525 
 
 Uccle 26,979 5,818 9,074 10,169 
 
 Woluwe— St. Lambert . . . 8,883 2,035 3,839 2,262 
 
 Totals 720,367 200,866 158,933 301,063 
 
 Although Brussels is generally placed on the Flemish side of 
 the linguistic divide, it is interesting to note that the city may 
 appropriately be considered as the northernmost extension of 
 the area of Romance languages in Belgium. Only two villages of 
 Flemish speech intervene between the capital and the Walloon 
 area. They are Rhode-Saint-Genese and Hoeylaert. Were it not 
 for these two small communities, Brussels would not be an enclave 
 of French speech in Flemish territory .J But the two villages are 
 separated by the forest of Soignes which extends in an elongated 
 band, all the way south of Uccle and Boitsfort, to within reach of 
 Waterloo. This wooded area acts as a link which connects 
 Brussels with the ancient area of Romance speech. It tends to 
 restrict Flemish in this section to the lowland to which it really 
 belongs. 
 
 Within the city limits the canal, which now replaces the natural 
 water course flowing on the site, divides Brussels into Flemish- 
 speaking quarters and districts entirely given up to French lan- 
 guage. West of the waterway, the native vernacular prevails 
 predominantly. This section of the Belgian capital is the site of 
 its industries. Its population consists mainly of laborers. As 
 
26 
 
 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 early as the twelfth century, the members of the city's guilds 
 found it convenient to reside along the banks of the stream which 
 watered the heart of their settlement. In our day, this part of 
 
 ) Assche 
 
 ° Wenimei ' 
 
 oZelUck 
 
 Bodeghem -StMartiri 
 
 
 oBerrJerm 
 
 50°5o' oSchepdael 
 
 Berchem 
 
 oMachelen 
 
 offaren 
 
 3 Woli/H r - 
 St Etu me 
 
 St-Joac ten Noode 
 
 offi;^ssingh en 
 
 o Toumep^ oef. 
 
 \4 
 
 -, .^. 'm 
 
 
 , Vccle 
 
 o Linhebeek 
 
 Auderqhem 
 ^Boitsfort '^ 
 
 . "o " . . O o . 
 
 .■§ , o .■ • -o o ■ o o o 
 
 o o o " 
 f^J'ervUereri ^ 
 
 o oo o a 
 °o o 0° 
 , o o o o ■• 
 
 ) / Hoeylaert 
 
 •.oo 
 
 o Rhode - 
 ^^St.Genese 
 
 o o o 
 
 •.-•■■ ■■^C- 
 
 o: ■ ■ ■<■: 
 
 Waterloo ./->' 
 
 .^^W-. 
 
 I Clabecq 
 
 ■ Scale of miles 
 
 ■dhairc- 
 
 Fig. 14 — Sketch map of the environs of Brussels showing the forested patch of 
 Soignes intervening between the Brussels area of French language (shown by dots) 
 and the adjacent part of the area of the French language in Belgium (also shown 
 by dots). The blank area is territory of Flemish speech. (Based on a map by P. 
 Reclus in La Geographic, Vol. 28, 1913, p. 312.) 
 
 Brussels presents similar advantages to factory owners and 
 operators of industrial plants. 
 
 The rising ground east of the canal has always been favored 
 as a residential site by the leaders of the community. In the 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 27 
 
 Middle Ages the counts of Brabant erected their palace on the 
 :summit of this eminence. Since then the well-to-do residents of 
 Brussels have built their homes on this side of the canal. The 
 bourgeois class followed the lead of the aristocracy as soon as 
 their commercial and industrial revenues equaled those of their 
 titled countrymen. French, the language of culture in the land, 
 naturally took root in this eastern section of Brussels. The 
 tendency of the privileged classes to select this part of the city 
 for their residence is as strong today as in the past. The bracing 
 ^ir of the heights and of the forest of Soignes near by affords 
 ^n inducement which cannot be found in the bottom of the valley. 
 Spacious a.venues enlivened by elaborate residences extend along 
 the crest lines. The intervening blocks are tenanted by the middle 
 classes. Educational institutions also flourish in these eastern 
 wards of Brussels. French prevails overwhelmingly in all their 
 nooks and bypaths. 
 
 The growth of French in Brussels is strongly brought out by 
 a comparison of the following census figures for the years 1846 
 and 1910 : 
 
 
 1846 
 
 1910 
 
 French-speaking inhabitants 
 
 70,000 
 
 480,000 
 
 Flemish " " 
 
 130,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 Totals .... 200,000 760,000 
 
 The gradual replacement of Flemish by French in Brussels 
 may often be traced to recent changes in the growth of the city.^^ 
 In the faubourgs of Woluwe, Boitsfort and Uccle the number of 
 users of French is on the increase each year. The growth pro- 
 ceeds with sufficient regularity to forecast a thorough spread of 
 the language by 1935. In some cases it is easy to foresee that 
 some of the outlying villages will be Frenchified sooner than 
 certain wards of the western part of the city. Tervueren and 
 Linkebeek, for instance, are both noted for the charm of their 
 scenery. Both are centers of attraction for the well-to-do 
 Belgians and as a result tend to lose their Flemish character. 
 
 ** p. Reclus: Les progrfes du Frangais dans I'agglomeration Bruxelloise, La Oeogr., 
 Vol. 28, No. 5, Nov. 15, 1913, pp. 308-318. 
 
28 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Tin recent years a keen struggle for predominance between 
 Flemings and Walloons has been observed in every province of 
 the country. Each element aspires to impose its racial traits, 
 customs and ideals on its rival. The contest sometimes degen- 
 erates into extreme bitterness. The university, the street, the 
 theater, even the government offices are converted into scenes of 
 polemical wrangling. News items in the dailies reveal a constant 
 state of tension between ' ' Flammigants " and ''Fransquillons." 
 In this racial struggle, language has been adopted as the rallying 
 standard of both parties. Each faction consistently aims to 
 eliminate the study of the rival tongue in the primary schools of 
 its territory. 
 
 The Walloons now represent a true blend of northern, central 
 and southern European types. The mingling was attended by 
 the clash and contest which has always marked racial fusion. As 
 a language Walloon forced itself into existence out of the confu- 
 sion which followed a long bilingual period and by the sheer 
 obstinacy of an humble Belgo-Roman people whose ears had been 
 attuned to vernacular speech at church and school. It was no 
 mean feat for the inhabitants of the principality of Liege to have 
 retained their language, surrounded as they were by Germanic 
 peoples on all sides but one. The ancient state had the shape of 
 a triangle whose base abutted against a land of French speech. 
 Its sides, however, on the north and the east penetrated like a 
 wedge into districts of Flemish and German. 
 
 The language became prevalent in the principality of Wal- 
 lonia after the tenth century. It was then still in a state of 
 infancy and the literature of its early period is relatively poor." 
 Contrasted with official and aristocratic French the Walloon was 
 a dialect of little account prior to the eighteenth century. Since 
 that time, however, genuine interest has been manifested in its 
 folk-tales and literature by educated Frenchmen. But it remained 
 for Dutch presumption to give a final impetus to the revival of 
 
 ** M. Wilmotte : Le Wallon, histoire, litt^rature des origines a la fin du XVIIe 
 sifecle, Rosez, Brussels, 1893. J. Demarteau: Le Wallon, son histoire et sa litt^rature, 
 Li^ge, 1889. 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 29 
 
 Walloon. By the terms of the treaty of Vienna, Belgium and 
 Holland had been assembled into a single state known as the 
 Netherlands. The Dutch represented the dominant element in the 
 union. Their endeavor to impose their language on the Flemings 
 and "Walloons was vigorously resisted by the latter. The streets 
 of Belgian towns resounded with the hatred of the Dutch 
 expressed in Walloon words. ^^ The separation of Belgium from 
 Holland in 1830 was in a sense the expression of the linguistic 
 diversity which had characterized the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Fusion of the two elements of the Belgian population is 
 observable in the Brabant country, in the vicinity of the linguistic 
 frontier. Flemish laborers tend to invade Walloon settlements 
 with the result that the number of inhabitants of Flemish speech 
 is on the increase. A counter immigration of Walloons into 
 Flemish villages also exists, mth a corresponding addition to the 
 number of French-speaking inhabitants wherever it takes place. 
 The fact remains, however, that while Flemings acquire the 
 French spoken by Walloons, it is an extremely rare occurrence 
 for the latter to take up Flemish. In the course of time the 
 Flemish immigrant in Walloon villages learns French, while the 
 Walloon newcomer in Flemish villages manages to impose his 
 language on his new neighbors. The net result is a gain for the 
 French language. 
 
 Today, after almost a hundred years' quiescence, the Belgian 
 question enters upon another critical stage. The problem is one 
 of language in so far as the two languages spoken in the country 
 represent the aims and interests of two different peoples. The 
 Belgian question dates, in reality, from the treaty of Verdun of 
 843 and the partition of Charlemagne's empire. Belgium then 
 became the westernmost province of the transition state known 
 as Lothringia. It was the hedge-country artificially created to 
 act as a barrier between the peoples of Romanic and Teutonic 
 speech. Its population, drawn from both elements, has been the 
 alternate prey of French and German powers. But all of Bel- 
 
 " J. Demarteau: op. cit., p. 134. 
 
30 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 gium's troubled history has been affected by the shape of the 
 land. The only frontier mth which the nation has been supplied 
 by nature is the sea on the west. On the other three sides land 
 features merge gradually with the main types in their neighbor- 
 hood. AVithin Belgian territory, the lowlands of northern Europe 
 join with the outliers of the uplifts of central Europe and 
 their extension into France. Nowhere is the break sharp. The 
 basin of the Schelde itself trespasses on the neighboring basins 
 of the Ehine, the Meuse and the Somme. 
 
 Aggravation of the feud between Walloons and Flemings may 
 lead to secession. The Flemish provinces might then cast their 
 political lot with the Dutch, with whom their intercourse has been 
 marked by a degree of friendliness which has never characterized 
 their relations with other neighbors. This extreme course might 
 not unreasonably be adopted as a measure of self-preservation." 
 The languages spoken in Holland and Flanders are practically 
 identical. Religious differences alone have stood in the way of 
 political fusion in the past. Flemish princes, swayed by religious 
 scruples, had refused to side with the Protestant communities 
 whose political connection had been established by the Union of 
 Utrecht in 1597. The menace of absorption by Germany may yet 
 drive the Flemings to union with their close kinsmen of the low- 
 lands on the north, Walloons would then naturally revert to 
 French allegiance. The coincidence of political and linguistic 
 boundaries in the westernmost section of central Europe would 
 then become an accomplished fact. ] 
 
 l^he language of the Duchy of Luxemburg is a Low German 
 dialect in which a strong proportion of Walloon French words 
 is found. French is taught in schools and is the language of the 
 educated classes. It is also used in tribunals, and in many places 
 as the official language of governing and administrative bodies. 
 The use of French is largely due to intimate intellectual ties which 
 bind Luxemburgers and Frenchmen. It is estimated that at least 
 
 ^* Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914 has been followed by 
 systematic endeavors to induce Flemings to favor annexation of their land to Germany 
 on the plea of ancestral kinship. 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 31 
 
 30,000 natives of the Grand Duchy, or about one-eighth of its 
 population, emigrate to France for business reasons. Many 
 marry French women. Maternal influences prevail with the chil- 
 dren born of these unions with the result that, upon returning to 
 their native land, the families bring French speech along. 
 
 But French as a commercial language is on the wane through- 
 out the Grand Duchy. German has been replacing it gradually 
 since 1870. This is one of the results of the small state's admis- 
 sion into the ring of German customs. Prior to that period 
 business was transacted mainly in the French dialect of Lorraine. 
 The spread of German is furthermore the result of a system- 
 atically conducted propaganda carried on with well-sustained 
 determination. German ''school associations" and "Volks- 
 vereine," established in every city of importance, help to spread 
 German speech and thought. Lectures of the type entitled ''The 
 beauty of Schiller's and Goethe's speech" are delivered by 
 orators who are in reality skilled pioneers of empire engaged in 
 the work of reclaiming populations to Germanism. The efficiency 
 of their methods is proved by the results they have obtained. Out 
 •of a population of about 21,000 inhabitants, hardly 4,000 natives 
 of Luxemburg speak French exclusively, while of the six or seven 
 papers published in the capital, tAvo alone are issued in French. 
 
 This closing of the German grip over the land stimulated the 
 growth of national feeling among the inhabitants. They were 
 reminded by their leaders that, from having formerly been one 
 of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, the duchy acquired 
 the status of a sovereign state in 1890, on the accession of Queen 
 Wilhelmina to the throne. Henceforth the maintenance of Lux- 
 emburg's independence rests on the European powders' observ- 
 ance of the pledges by which they guaranteed national freedom 
 for this little state.^\ The natives are free from the burden of 
 onerous taxation imposed on inhabitants of the neighboring pow- 
 erful countries. Peaceful development of their commerce and 
 
 U*" Luxemburg's neutrality was guaranteed by the treaty of London, May 11, 1867, 
 to which Britain, Austria, Prussia, France, Belgium, Holland, Italy and Russia were 
 signatories. 
 
32 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 industry is thus facilitated. Their land is richly endowed by 
 nature. The wine produced in the Moselle valley and the exten- 
 sive deposits of high grade iron ore found around Etsch make 
 the community one of the most prosperous on the European 
 continent. 
 
 Nevertheless the country seemed predestined by nature itself 
 to form a part of Germany. The broken surface of the Ardenne 
 hilly region and the extension of the plateau of Lorraine are 
 drained by the Sauer and Moselle into German territory. The 
 life of the inhabitants of the entire state is influenced by this 
 easterly drift and tends yearly to greater dispersal in the same 
 direction. This is the danger which prompts them to cling to 
 their independence with patriotic tenacity. Their feelings are 
 reflected in their national hymn, which begins with the words 
 *'Mir welle bleiwe wat mer sin " (We wish to remain what we 
 are). These are the words of the tune rendered daily at noon by 
 tl^e chimes of the Cathedral of Luxemburg. 
 
 / Some fifty miles north of Luxemburg, and at the point of 
 contact of the French, German and Dutch languages, lies the 
 neutral territory of Moresnet, barely three and a quarter square 
 miles in area. This forgotten bit of independent land is claimed 
 by both Prussia and Belgium on account of the exceedingly 
 valuable zinc deposits which it contains. It has a population of 
 some 3,000 inhabitants who, alone among Europeans, enjoy the 
 inestimable privilege of not paying taxes to any government. A 
 Burgomaster, selected alternately from among Prussian and 
 Belgian subjects, rules this diminutive state in conjunction with 
 a Communal Council. 
 
 The survival of such a relic of medieval political disorders 
 was due to the impossibility of making a settlement between the 
 two claimants of its territory. In the fifteenth century its mines 
 were the property of the Dukes of Limburg, who had leased them 
 to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Shortly after the French 
 Revolution, they were declared national property by the French 
 Republic and were operated by the government." With the fall 
 
 *• The Neutral Territory of Moresnet, Eiverside Press, Cambridge, 1882, p. 14, 
 
LANGUAGES IN BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG 33 
 
 of Napoleon, the estate passed under the management of both 
 Prussia and Holland. After the Belgian revolution of 1830, how- 
 ever, the entire property became part of Belgium's share. A 
 demand for rents in arrears from the lessee by Prussia, although 
 recognized as valid by the courts of Liege, was not approved by 
 the new Belgian state and the only compromise that could be 
 reached was a declaration of the neutrality of the ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 The Belgian question as well as the related Luxemburg and 
 Moresnet problems, the latter being of slight significance, present 
 themselves today as economic settlements no less than political 
 adjustments. The inner reason which had led German hope to 
 dwell on the annexation of Belgium is the knowledge that such 
 an addition in territory would convert Germany into the dominat- 
 ing industrial nation of Europe. This position of superiority 
 would be firmly established if, in addition, the French basins of 
 Longwy and Briey could be turned into Eeichslands, as had been 
 done with Alsace-Lorraine in 1870. Fortunately for Europe, the 
 developments of the armed contest begun in 1914 proved that the 
 threat of this economic vassalage is no longer to be feared. Inci- 
 dentally it is worth remembering that its realization would 
 obviously have been followed by the loss of Holland's inde- 
 pendence. Jl 
 
 Belgium's political independence is therefore a necessity for 
 the fine adjustment of the balance of European industrial life. 
 And there are quarters where such economic considerations 
 carry greater weight than national sentiments. The main point 
 to be made, however, is that Belgian nationality is entitled to 
 survival, whether it be examined from a material or a moral 
 standpoint. Changes, if any, of its frontiers are indicated in the 
 east, where Malmedy and its environs in Rhenish Prussia consti- 
 tute a domain of French language. The exchange of this territory 
 for districts of German speech in Belgian Luxemburg and the 
 strategic reinforcement of this eastern frontier, as a safeguard 
 against future aggression, are desirable for Belgians as well as 
 for Germans. 
 
34 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 French- and Flemish- Speaking Inhabitants of Belgium 
 Census of December 31, 1910 
 
 Speaking 
 Provinces Number of French- Flemish- French and 
 
 iuhabitauls speaiiing speaking Flemish 
 
 Antwerp 968,677 12,289 762,414 ' 113,606 
 
 Brabant 1,469,677 382,947 603,507 381,997 
 
 E. Flanders 1,120,335 9,311 934,143 116,889 
 
 W. Flanders 874,135 31,825 669,081 123,938 
 
 Hainaut 1,232,867 1,113,738 17,283 49,575 
 
 Liege 888,341 748,504 14,726 50,068 
 
 Limbourg 275,691 9,123 218,622 29,386 
 
 Luxemburg 231,215 183,218 153 1,393 
 
 Namur 362,846 342,379 733 4,436 
 
 Totals 7,423,784 2,833,334 3,220,662 871,288 
 
 This table shows French predominance for the entire country. 
 The arrangement given immediately below brings out this fact 
 more clearly. 
 
 Inhabitants speaking French only 2,833,334 
 
 « « French and Flemish 871,288 
 
 « " French and German 74,993 
 
 « " French, German and Flemish . . 52,547 
 
 « " German only 31,415 
 
 « " German and Flemish 8,652 
 
 " " Flemish only 3,220,662 
 
 « " None " of the three languages 330,893 
 
 7,423,784"~J 
 
 *' Children under two and foreigners are included under this heading. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY IN ALSACE- 
 LORRAINE AND SWITZERLAND 
 
 With the exception of a few districts in Alsace-Lorraine, the 
 political boundary between France and Germany is also the 
 linguistic line between French and German languages. This 
 condition is a result of the modifications which French fron- 
 tiers have undergone since the treaty of Utrecht in 1714. Unfor- 
 tunately the Napoleonic period and its disorderly train of 
 political disturbances brought about an unnatural extension of 
 the northern and eastern lines. France departed for a time from 
 the self-appointed task of attracting French-speaking provinces 
 to itself. Between 1792 and 1814 almost all of the territory of 
 Belgium and Holland was annexed and the eastern frontier 
 extended to the Rhine. Teutonic peoples in Holland, Flanders, 
 Rhenish Prussia and the western sections of Hesse and Baden 
 passed under French control. But their subjection to Napoleon's 
 artificial empire was of relatively short duration. The German- 
 speaking people in 1813 united in a great effort to drive the 
 French across the Rhine. They were merely repeating the feat 
 of their ancestors who, at an interval of eighteen centuries, had 
 defeated the Latin-speaking invaders of their country led by 
 Varus. Success in both movements was largely the result of the 
 feeling of kinship based on language. In 9 a.d. the Romans were 
 forced back to the Rhine from the line they occupied on the 
 Weser. The treaty of Vienna restored French boundaries to the 
 lines existing in 1790. French territory was once more confined 
 to the normal boundaries which inclose members of the French- 
 speaking family. A natural frontier thus became determined for 
 the country. The union of Frenchmen into a compact political 
 body was shattered, however, by the treaty of Frankfort in 1871, 
 
 35 
 
36 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 when France was obliged to cede the provinces of Alsace and 
 Lorraine to Germany. 
 
 The part to be played by the province of Lorraine in the 
 history of Franco-German relations was laid out by nature itself. 
 The pro\ince had always been a wide pathway connecting highly 
 attractive regions of settlement. It lies midway between the fer- 
 tile plains of the Rhine and the hospitable Paris basin. It is also 
 placed squarely in the center of the natural route leading from 
 Flanders to Burgundy. Physically the region was part of 
 France; its inhabitants have therefore always been Frenchmen, 
 but the lack of a natural barrier on the east provided a constantly 
 open door for Teutonic invasion. In particular, the Moselle 
 valley has always facilitated access into Lorraine. The province 
 was thus a borderland disputed first by two adjoining peoples 
 and, subsequently, by two neighboring nations. 
 
 As a duchy, Lorraine had attained a state of semi-independ- 
 ence in the tenth century. It then included the three bishoprics 
 of Metz, Toul and Verdun. From the eleventh to the eighteenth 
 century, the house of Lorraine furthermore exerted sovereign 
 power over Nancy and Luneville. The loosening of the ties of 
 vassalage which united it to the German Empire grew as cen- 
 turies passed. 
 
 This long period of conflict was necessarily accompanied by 
 modifications of linguistic boundaries. Glancing back to the end 
 of the Middle Ages, a slight westerly advance of the area of 
 German speech may be ascertained for the period between the 
 tenth and sixteenth centuries.^ From that time on, however, 
 the regional gain of French has been in excess of previous Ger- 
 man advances. Toponymic data afford valuable clues to early 
 distribution of languages in the region. Occurrences of the suffix 
 *'ange" which is the Frenchified form of the German ^'ingen," 
 in names lying west of the present line, show the extent of 
 territory reclaimed by the French language.^ 
 
 ' H. Witte: Forsch. z. deut. Landes- u. Volkskunde, Vol. 10, 1897, No. 4, pp. 299- 
 424. 
 
 ' L. Gallois : Les limites linguistiques du Frangais, Ann. de Oiogr., Vol. 9, 1900, 
 p. 215. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 37 
 
 The linguistic boundary in Lorraine assumes a general north- 
 west-southeast direction as it winds onward according to the pre- 
 dominance of German and French. About 65 per cent of the area 
 of Lorraine, at present under German rule, contains a French- 
 speaking majority.^ From Deutsche-Oth, the line crosses the 
 Moselle south of Diedenhofen and extends towards Bolchen and 
 Morhange. The entire lake district farther south is in French- 
 speaking territory. About two miles southwest of Sarrebourg 
 the line traverses the Saar. The Lorraine boundary is attained 
 close to the headwaters of the same river. A German enclave 
 occurring at Metz is the only break in the unity of the area of 
 the French language. A large frontier garrison and a host of 
 civilian officials account for the numerical superiority of German 
 in this provincial capital. 
 
 The fluctuations of French in Lorraine since the eleventh 
 century have been studied with great minuteness by "Witte.* 
 Basing himself on the text of documents examined in the archives 
 of Strassburg, Metz, Nancy and Bar-le-Duc this scholar succeeded 
 in plotting the linguistic divide for the years 1000 and 1500. To 
 these two lines he added the present language boundary as deter- 
 mined from his own field observations. His method consisted in 
 traveling from village to village, usually on foot, and ascertaining 
 personally the predominance of French and German in each 
 locality he visited. 
 
 Between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries changes along 
 this linguistic boundary appear to have been unimportant. The 
 five intervening centuries are characterized by a slight westerly 
 advance of German. From the sixteenth century to our time, 
 however, the easterly spread of French has been considerable. 
 This change is particularly noticeable in southern Lorraine, as if 
 to show that the gap between the heights of the Moselle and the 
 northern Middle Vosges had provided an outlet for the overflow 
 of the language on German soil. 
 
 * p. Langhans : Sprachen Karte von Deutsch-Lothringen, 1 : 2,000,000, Deutsche 
 Erde, 1909, PL 3. 
 
 * Das deutsche Sprachgebiet Lothringen und seine Wandelungen, etc., Forsch. z. 
 deut. Landes- u. Volksk., Vol. 8, 1894, pp. 407-535. 
 
38 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Compared with Lorraine, Alsace has the advantage of greater 
 definiteness as a geographical unit. It is the region of the valley 
 of the 111 which ends at the wall of the Vosges Mountains on the 
 west. Its easterly extension attains the banks of the Rhine. This 
 elongated plain appears throughout history as a corridor through 
 which races of men marched and countermarched. The Alpine 
 race provided it with early inhabitants. Barbarians of northern 
 lineage also swarmed into its fields. Romans subjugated the land 
 in the course of imperial colonization. The province subse- 
 quently passed under Germanic and Frankish sway. 
 
 The entry of Alsace into linguistic history may be reckoned 
 from the year 842, when the celebrated oaths of Strassburg were 
 exchanged in Romance and Teutonic languages by Louis the 
 German and Charles the Bald, respectively. This solemn function 
 was a precautionary measure taken by the two brothers to safe- 
 guard their territory against the coveting of their senior, 
 Lothaire, to whom Charlemagne had bequeathed the area which, 
 for a time, was known as Lotharii Regnum, and which comprised 
 modern Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, Provence and a portion of 
 Italy. The main point of interest in the territorial division which 
 marked the passing of Charlemagne, lies in the fact that the 
 future division of central Europe into nations of French, German 
 and Italian speech was outlined at this period. Strassburg, the 
 chief city of the borderland between areas of French and German 
 speech, was a bilingual center at this early date. The versions 
 of the oaths taken on February 18, 842, by the royal brothers, as 
 handed down by Nithard, Charlemagne's grandson and a con- 
 temporary historian, show a formative stage in French and Ger- 
 man. The document has been aptly called the birth certificate 
 of French. Louis the German spoke the following words in the 
 lingua romana, which was then the speech of Romanized Gaul: 
 
 Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun 
 salvament, dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir 
 me dunat, si salvarai io cist meon fradre Karlo, et in 
 adjudha, et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om, per droit, son 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 39 
 
 fradre salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet; et ab 
 Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist 
 meon fradre Karlo in damno sit/ 
 
 Charles the Bald used the lingua teudisca as follows: 
 
 In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser 
 bedhero gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram 
 so mir Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, so haldih tesan 
 minan bruodher, soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodher seal, 
 in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo ; indi mit Ludheren in non- 
 heiniu thing ne gegango the minan willon imo ce scadhen 
 werhen. 
 
 Ever since this event Alsace has occupied the European 
 historical stage as a bone of contention between German-speaking 
 peoples and their rivals of French speech. A year had hardly 
 elapsed after this exchange of pledges, when the division of the 
 Frankish Empire between the grandsons of Charles the Great 
 was formally settled by the treaty of Verdun. Lothaire, the 
 eldest brother, was awarded Alsace and Lorraine. From this 
 time on, Alsace became a part of the lands of German speech 
 which form a compact block in central Europe. In 1469, however, 
 Sigismund of Austria mortgaged his land holdings in Upper 
 Alsace to Charles of Burgundy who thereby assumed jurisdiction 
 over the districts affected by the mortgage. The treaty of St. 
 Omer which contains the terms of this transaction paved the way 
 for subsequent French intervention in both Alsace and Lorraine. 
 Accordingly, a few years later, by the treaty of Nancy (1473), 
 Charles of Burgundy was recognized by Rene II of Lorraine as 
 the ''protector" of Lorraine. 
 
 It was only in the seventeenth century, however, that France 
 
 'Translation: By the love of God and that of Christian people and of our common 
 salvation, from this day on, in so far as God shall grant me knowledge and power, 
 I will support my brother Karl, here present, by every manner of help, as one must, 
 in duty bound, support one's brother, provided he acts in the same manner with me; 
 neither will I ever make agreements with Lothaire which, through my own will, shall 
 prejudice my brother Karl here present. 
 
40 IRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 obtained a deiinite foothold in Alsace and Lorraine. In 1648, the 
 country won by treaty settlement her long contested rights in 
 Alsace. The treaties of Nimwegen (1G79) and Kyswick (1697) 
 conlirmed Louis XIV in his possession of the major portion of 
 Alsace. 13y that lime French influence had acquired a paramount 
 share in both of the border provinces. Lorraine, however, was 
 not formally ceded to France until the treaty of Vienna was 
 signed in 1738. French sovereignty over Alsace was confirmed 
 again by the treaty of Luneville, in 1801, and by the Congress of 
 Vienna in 1815. It was to last until 1871. In that year Alsace 
 and Lorraine became part of the newly constituted German 
 Empire, the cession being determined by Arts. I to IV of the 
 treaty of Frankfort. 
 
 The preceding paragraphs show that the earliest form of 
 French and German nationality assumed shape immediately after 
 the treaty of Verdun and at about the time when the language 
 spoken in these countries began to present similarity to the forms 
 used at present. In the partition of Charlemagne's empire only 
 two of the three divisions were to survive. The western evolved 
 finally into modern France. The easternmost became Germany. 
 Lying between the two, Lothringia naturally became the coveted 
 morsel which crumbled to pieces in the struggle waged for its 
 possession. 
 
 A highway of migration cannot be the abode of a pure race. 
 Its inhabitants necessarily represent the successive human groups 
 by which it has been overrun." The Alsatian of the present day 
 is, accordingly, a product of racial mingling. But the blending 
 has conferred distinctiveness, and Alsatians, claiming a national- 
 ity of their own, find valid arguments in racial antecedents no 
 less than in geographical habitation. The uniform appearance of 
 the Alsatian region strikes the traveler at every point of the 
 fertile 111 valley, where the soil is colored by a reddish tinge 
 which contrasts strongly with the greens and grays of surround- 
 
 • Anthropologic data for the southwestern section of Alsace are instructive. The 
 generation of a transition type between the short and sturdy Alpine type and the 
 " sesquipedal" Teuton is observable. Cf. Ripley: The Races of Europe, New York, 
 1891), pp. 225-226. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 41 
 
 ing regions. By race also the Alsatian represents a distinct group 
 in which the basal Alpine strain has been permeated by strong 
 admixtures of Nordic blood. The confusion of dark and fair 
 types represent the two elements in the population. In 
 a broader sense the Alsatians are identical with the Swiss 
 population to the south and the Lorrains and Walloons to 
 the north — in fact, they are related to the peoples of all the 
 districts which once constituted the Middle Kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 Although sharply defined by nature, Alsace never acquired 
 independence. Its situation between the areas peopled by two 
 powerful continental races was fatal to such a development. But 
 the influence of its physical setting always prevailed, for, despite 
 its political union with Frenchmen or Germans, the region has 
 always been recognized as an administrative unit defined by the 
 surface features which mark it off from surrounding regions. 
 The influence of topographic agencies has even been felt within 
 the province. The separation of Lower from Higher Alsace 
 originated in a natural boundary, formed by a marshy and forest- 
 clad zone extending from the Tiinnchal and Ilohkonigsberg moun- 
 tains to the point of nearest convergence between the Rhine and 
 the Vosges. This inhospitable tract first separated the two Celtic 
 tribes known as the Sequani and the Mediomatrici. Later, it 
 afforded a convenient demarcation for the Roman provinces of 
 Maxima Sequanorum and Tractus Mediomatricorum. The two 
 archbishoprics of BesanQon and Mayence, both of Middle-Age 
 fame, were similarly divided. The coins of Basel and of Strass- 
 burg point to the subsistence of this line during the Renaissance, 
 when two distinct territories of economic importance extended 
 over the region. In the administrative France of modern days, 
 the departments of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin again reveal adher- 
 ence to the dividing line provided originally by nature. Finally 
 after the German annexation of 1871 the "districts" constituted 
 under German authority, with Colmar and Strassburg as their 
 chief towns, conformed once more with the historical line of 
 division. 
 
42 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The Vosges ^ uplift has been until recent times the means of 
 barring intercourse between the plains facing its eastern and 
 western slope. The chain has prevented communication on 
 account of the height of its passes, its thickly forested slopes and 
 the sterility of its soil. The influence of these mountains on 
 European history deserves contrast with that of the Alps where 
 nature's provision of passes and defiles has at all times facilitated 
 land travel in and out of the Italian peninsula. Primitive wan- 
 dering tribes found but scant inducement to settle in the moun- 
 tainous area of the Vosges. Pastoral Celts settled in its 
 environing plains long before they attempted to occupy the rocky 
 mass itself. The Teutonic tribes which followed the Celts like- 
 wise found little to attract them to the Vosges, and generally 
 migrated southward around its northern and southern extremity, 
 the former route being that of the Franks while the Goths, 
 Burgundians and Alemanni invaded France through the Belf ort 
 gap. 
 
 Alsace was a province of German speech throughout the 
 Middle Ages as well as after Louis XIV 's conquest of the land. 
 French took a solid foothold mainly after the revolution and 
 during the nineteenth century. An enlightened policy of tolerance 
 towards Alsatian institutions cemented strong ties of friendship 
 between the inhabitants and their French rulers. Alsatian lean- 
 ings towards France were regarded mth suspicion by the victors 
 of 1870, who proceeded to pass prohibitory laws regarding the 
 use of French in primary schools, churches and law courts. These 
 measures of Germanization were attended by a notable emigra- 
 tion to France. In 1871 there were 1,517,494 inhabitants in 
 Alsace-Lorraine. The number had decreased to 1,499,020 in 1875 
 in spite of 52.12 per cent excess of births over deaths. 
 
 Nancy, by its situation, was destined to welcome Alsatians 
 who had decided to remain faithful to France. The number of 
 immigrants to this city after the Franco-Prussian war was esti- 
 
 ^ The name has been traced to the generic meaning of forest through its con- 
 sonants v-s-g, which are convertible into b-s-k, the latter corresponding to bosquet, 
 busch, bush, etc. Cf. J. C. Gerock: Die Benennung und Gliederung des linksrheinischen 
 Gebirges, M. Philomath. Ges. Elsass-Loth., Vol. 4, 1910, pp. 251-274. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 43 
 
 mated at 15,000.^ Pressing need of workingmen in the city's 
 growing industrial plants intensified this movement. Alsatian 
 dialects were the only languages heard in entire sections of the 
 urban area. Peopled by about 50,000 inhabitants in 1866, 
 Nancy's population jumped to 66,303 in 1876. Metz, on the other 
 hand, with a population of 54,820 inhabitants in 1866, could not 
 boast of more than 45,675 in 1875. The census taken in 1910 
 raised this figure to 68,598 by the addition of the garrison main- 
 tained at this point. Altogether it was estimated that, in 1910, 
 French was spoken by 204,262 inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine, out 
 of a total population of 1,814,564.^ 
 
 The present line of linguistic demarcation in Alsace-Lorraine 
 rarely coincides with the political boundary. Conformity between 
 the two lines is observable only in stretches of their southern- 
 most extension. East and southeast of Belfort, however, two 
 well-defined areas of French speech spread into German territory 
 at Courtavon and Montreux. In the elevated southern section of 
 the Vosges, the line runs from peak to peak with a general tend- 
 ency to sway east of the crest line and to reveal conspicuous 
 deflections in certain high valleys of the eastern slope. Its 
 irregularity with respect to topography may be regarded as an 
 indication of the fluctuations of protohistoric colonization. 
 
 From Biiren Kopf to about 10 miles beyond Schlucht Pass, 
 the mountainous divide and the linguistic line coincide. Farther 
 north, however, French prevails in many of the upper valleys of 
 the Alsatian slope. This is true of the higher sections of the 
 Weiss basin, as well as of the upper reaches of the Bruche. At 
 a short distance south of the sources of the Liepvre, parts of the 
 valley of Markirch (Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines) are likewise French. 
 Here, however, the influx of German miners, who founded settle- 
 ments as far back as the seventeenth century, converted the 
 district into an area linguistically reclaimed by Germans. 
 
 The linguistic boundary in the valley of the Bruche corre- 
 
 ' R. Blanchard: Deux grandes villes frangaises, La Oeogr., Vol. 30, IsTos. 2-6, 
 1914, pp. 120-121. 
 
 'The Statesman's Yearbook, 1915, p. 972. 
 
44 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 sponds to the dividing line between houses of the Frank- Alemannie 
 style and those of the purely Alemannie/" Villages of the Frank- 
 Lorrainer style, in which narrow fagades, flat roofs and close 
 lining-up of houses are observable, belong to the period of French 
 influence which followed the Thirty Years' war and should not 
 be confused with the former types. In Lorraine the houses are 
 built with their longest sides parallel to the street. The entrance 
 leads into the kitchen ; rooms occupy the left wing of the building^ 
 the right providing stable space. In some respects this structure 
 recalls the Saxon houses met east of the Elbe valley. The char- 
 acteristic feature of the Lorraine dwelling, however, is found in 
 the construction of the entrance on the long side, whereas in the 
 German type of house it lies under a gable on the short side. As 
 a rule the Alemannie type of house prevails in the mountainous 
 sections and attains the valleys of the Meurthe. In the Vosges, 
 Black Forest and Swabia these dwellings are distinguishable by 
 their characteristic inclusion of all outhouses and barns under a 
 single roof. In the densely peopled valley of the Bruche the 
 most important settlements rest on the alluvial terraces of its 
 affluents. In the upper valley the villages are scattered on rocky 
 amphitheaters, and here the Celtic type of settlement is oftener 
 met. 
 
 Witte's studies show that, in Alsace," the delimitation of the 
 Germanic and Romanic domain is somewhat more complicated 
 than in Lorraine. Valuable clues are generally afforded by 
 toponymic data. The Alemanni are responsible for the suffix 
 "heim." Towns and villages with names bearing this suffix are 
 restricted to the plain. The dividing line extends on the west to 
 the sub-Vosgian foreland and attains the forest of the Haguenau 
 on the north. This last section corresponds to the beginning of 
 an area of Frankish colonization having its center at Weissen- 
 burg. The suffix "ingen," which occurs in place names of 
 southern Alsace, is likewise Alemannie. It is supposed to corre- 
 
 *" J. B. Masson: Die Siedelungen des Breuschtals Elsass, Monatschrift Oesch. u. 
 Volksk., 1010, pp. 350-373 and 479-498. 
 
 '* Zur Geschichte des Dpiitschtums in Elsass und im Vogesengebiet, Forsch. z. dent^ 
 Landes- u. Volksk., Vol. 10, No. 4, 1897. 
 
 l a nmiifin iiiii n ii 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 45 
 
 spond, however, to a later period of settlement. The ending 
 "weiler" accompanies the names of villages found on the heights. 
 
 These data led Witte to assume that the Celto-Roman natives 
 of the plains were thrust back towards the mountains by the 
 Alemannic invasion proceeding from the east. The designation 
 *'weiler," which is also spelled ''weyer," "weyr" and "wir," 
 indicates the mountain sites to which the population of the plain 
 was repelled by the Germanic flow. The Vosges mountains have 
 thus been a place of refuge against Germanic aggression. Witte 's 
 researches point to the probable peopling of the Alsatian slopes 
 of the Vosges by tribes speaking a Romanic language during the 
 invasions of Teutonic barbarians. The so-called Welsh element 
 appears to be a Celto-Roman remnant of the population of the 
 locality.^Q 
 
 The character of Alsace-Lorraine as a connecting region 
 between two great European nations is shown also by demo- 
 graphic studies. ^^ Life in the provinces is accompanied by condi- 
 tions which prevail in Germany or France. The excess of births 
 over deaths, which maintains itself on an average at about 10. per 
 1,000, is lower than in any other part of the German Empire. 
 The rate of birth has decreased from 36 to 28 per 1,000 in spite 
 of an increase in the population. The tendency of the inhabitants 
 to emigrate is evinced by the large number of uninhabited houses. 
 The decrease in the native population is largely due to the desire 
 of many of the inhabitants to emigrate to French soil. In 1875 
 the proportion of native-born inhabitants amounted to 93 per 
 cent of the total population. In 1905 it did not exceed 81 per 
 cent. The strictly German element had grown from 38,000 in 
 1875 to 176,000 in 1905. Fully 90 per cent of these are native- 
 born Prussians. Among them the teaching of French to children 
 has increased. Molsheim, in Lower Alsace, and Ribeauville, in 
 Upper Alsace, are centers for the study of French. In recent 
 
 *' H. Witte : Romanische Bevolkerungsrfickstslnde in deutschen Vogesentalern, 
 Deutsche Erde, Vol. 6, 1907, pp. 8-14, 49-54, 87-91. 
 
 *' DuMont Schanberg: Die Bevfilkerung Elsass-Lothringen nach den Ergebnissen 
 dor Volksziihliing vom 1 Dozombor lOO.') an dor Friiheren Ziihlungen. Stat. M. iiber 
 EIsass-Lothringen, Vol. 31, Stat. Bur. f. Elsass-Lothringen, Strassburg, 1908. 
 
46 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 years German immigrants have become the preponderant element 
 of the province. 
 
 Two methods of indicating the presence of a French element 
 in Alsace-Lorraine are given in the accompanying map (PL II) 
 of this region. The method of showing percentages according to 
 administrative districts " has been contrasted with the plan of 
 representing the actual extension of French predominance.^"* In 
 one respect the map is illuminating. It shows the concordance of 
 French and German authorities regarding the German character 
 of the language spoken in Alsace, as well as the French nature 
 of a substantial portion of Lorraine. The Rhine valley, a natural 
 region, appears throughout as an area of German speech. The 
 startling preference of Alsatians for French nationality cannot 
 therefore be substantiated by geographical evidence. It suggests 
 the persistent influence of the human will swayed by feelings of 
 justice and moral affinity rather than by material considerations. 
 
 To primitive societies, a river as large as the Rhine pro- 
 vided almost as impassable a frontier as the sea itself. It had 
 the advantage of being defined by nature. The boundary was 
 actually marked on the ground. As frontiers of the Roman 
 Empire, the Rhine and the Danube proved their practical value 
 by the long period during Avhich they marked the extent of 
 imperial or republican domain. The history of oversea coloniza- 
 tion indicates the partiality of colonial powers for rivers as 
 boundaries. It is likely that in the very early period of man's 
 habitation of the earth, the tribes settled on either side of water- 
 courses had little or no intercourse. As they advanced in ci\'ili- 
 zation relations were developed. The divisive influence of running 
 waters was therefore exerted most strongly at the da^vn of 
 human history. Later the river may become a link and finally 
 may attain the stage when it is a rallying line for the activity and 
 thought of the inhabitants of its entire valley. 
 
 The Gallo-Teutonic line of the Rhine was the scene of many 
 
 " After the Imigiiage map of Alsace-Lorraine in Andrea's Handatlas, pp. G7-C8, 
 6th ed. 
 
 "After Gallois' map, Ann. de Ocogr., Vol. 0. 1000, Tl. 4. 
 
 HHnNWMMAmnaasm 
 
Society of New Yorl^ 
 
 THE FRANCO -GERMM 
 
 LINGUISTIC BOUNDAHM 
 
 IN AI.SACE-LORR.\INE 
 
 from available sources 
 Scale: l;l,ia5,000 
 or 1 hrrh=17V4 miles 
 PopTj.1 a-ti on.: 
 ■ Frvac/i pfeflaniincuijce 
 a from XS to .50 % French .speaking 
 ® „ JO to Z5 % „ 
 O „ 5 to to "/o „ 
 
 a ,. O to .J "/o 
 
 4- % Frent^h speaking i/t/iah of cities 
 2 ■% „ 
 BASLE over lOO OOO i/t/ia/t. 
 METZ from .50.000 to JOOOOO inhaJf 
 
 Cohnar „ zs.ooo to .10.000 
 
 Barr „ to.fwo to 2.5.000 ., ? 
 
 r/f/ZTin lais t/bun 10.000 _j5 J"^i 
 
 Frmi-h Iv^'vvl Exfjarvsion off^nch 
 
 , rJiitrictK^ sj 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 C 
 
 J Gernutfi \^Z2l.suife ttif:.\ 
 
 ■.Xyf^rfififi/ri/ 
 ..linguistic boundn/y _ _ _ politiral boiwcliu'ifg 
 
 .-prmxincialboimdanes fUgtnct ,, 
 
The American Geographical 
 Society of New York 
 
 Frontier- of Language 
 National il^ in Europe, 
 
 and 
 1917, PI. II 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 47 
 
 a struggle during the reign of Clovis. In the days of Charle- 
 magne the dwellers on the right bank of the Rhine were the ' ' gens 
 atroces et feroces" of French chroniclers. They represented 
 northern barbarians, the foes of Christianity and of the civiliza- 
 tion which Rome had given to the world. Before becoming a 
 German river the Rhine flowed in a valley peopled by inhabitants 
 of Celtic speech. The name it bears is of Celtic origin. When 
 men of Teutonic speech began to press westward, the river sup- 
 plied a natural moat which, for a long period, had formed part 
 of the system of defense devised by the earlier inhabitants of the 
 land. The strength of the position is attested by the slowness of 
 Germanic infiltration on the left bank of the river. To this day 
 the valley province owes more to France in thought and ideals 
 than to any other country. The Alsatian temperament has much 
 of that mental sunshine which Mirabeau calls the ' ' fond gaillard. ' * 
 This is assuredly not derived from Germany. His wit is of the 
 true Gallic type — mocking, and tending to the Rabelaisian; its 
 geniality is reserved for France and French institutions, its 
 caustic side for Germany and Germans. It could never have pro- 
 ceeded from the ponderous Teutonic mentality. Alsatians are 
 French in spirit because they know how to laugh well, to laugh 
 as civilized men with the cheer that brightens the good and the 
 irony that draws out in full relief the ugliness of evil. 
 
 The spread of the French language in Alsace after the con- 
 quest of Strassburg by the soldiers of Louis XIV was slow. The 
 French governors of the province never compelled the Alsatians 
 to study their language. Up to the time of the French Revolution, 
 French served as the medium of intercourse in official circles and 
 among the nobility. The mass of the people, however, retained 
 their vernacular. Freedom, granted by the French civil admin- 
 istration, was equally maintained by the official representatives 
 of French ecclesiastical authority. Religious tolerance in Alsace 
 was felt notably at the time of the Revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, the province being probably the only one in which Prot- 
 estant Frenchmen were unmolested. Moral ties with France were 
 thus cemented by the extremely liberal character of French rule. 
 
48 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The French Revolution was enthusiastically welcomed by the 
 democratically inclined Alsatians. This event in fact consolidated 
 Alsace's union with France. French military annals of the period 
 contain a high proportion of Alsatian names. A community of 
 ideas and interests had come into being. The study of French 
 was taken up with renewed enthusiasm in Alsace because the 
 language was the agency by which the new spirit of the time was 
 propagated. It became the medium of communication among 
 thinkers. The revolution of 1848 accentuated this tendency. By 
 that time every Alsatian who could boast of any schooling knew 
 French. This linguistic conquest of Alsace was the result of 
 sympathy with French thought and ideals. 
 
 The German method of imposing the rival tongue was dis- 
 tinctly different. All the brutality which attends misconceptions 
 of efficiency among petty officials was given free rein in the 
 process of replacing French by German. A stroke of the pen on 
 April 14, 1871, suppressed teaching of French in the primary 
 schools of the annexed territory. In other educational establish- 
 ments the study of the language was relegated to the position of 
 minor courses. It is worth mentioning that Alsace and Lorraine 
 are the only territorial units of the German Empire in which the 
 study of French has met opposition on the part of the govern- 
 ment. The interest shown for the Romance language elsewhere 
 in the Kaiser's land contrasts with the efforts made to root it out 
 of Alsatian soil. 
 
 The unrelenting activity of the Prussian officials stationed in 
 Alsace-Lorraine has borne fruit, for the use of French by the 
 inhabitants is on the wane. This is partly due, however, to the 
 emigration of a large number of native-born Alsatians and the 
 swarm of settlers brought from other sections of Germany. In 
 one respect the results of the Germanizing propaganda have 
 differed from expectations. They have tended to foster the devel- 
 opment of Alsatian dialects as well as the spirit of nationality 
 among the people. Alsatians preferred to become proficient in 
 their own tongue rather than in German. At the same time, if 
 Alsace is to be German, they are united in the desire to see their 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 49 
 
 native province form part of the Empire on a footing similar to 
 that of other German states. They apprehend eventual absorp- 
 tion by Prussia as much as the prolongation of the present 
 ''Reichsland" status of their native land. 
 
 The European war brought its train of trials to Alsatians no 
 less than to other European peoples. French papers contain the 
 complaints of natives of Alsace and Lorraine serving in German 
 regiments to the effect that their officers exposed them to the 
 worst dangers of war with undue harshness. It is not unlikely 
 that at the cessation of hostilities the number of native-born 
 Alsatians will have dwindled to insignificant proportion. A 
 plebiscite on the fate of the province, taken then, might help 
 German designs. But since a revision of the Franco-German 
 boundary seems inevitable, a preliminary solution might be 
 found in the abrogation of the treaty of Frankfort. The final 
 settlement of the problem will be equitable only when the desires 
 of native-born Alsatians shall have been taken into considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Beyond Alsace, French and German languages meet along a 
 line which extends across western Swiss territory to the Italian 
 frontier.^® Its present course has been maintained since the 
 fifteenth century." Beginning at Charmoille, north of the Bernese 
 Jura, the linguistic frontier strikes east towards Montsevilier,^* 
 after which it makes a sharp turn to the southwest as it follows 
 the strike of the Jura mountains. In this region the historical 
 division between Teutonic and Latin civilization occurs in the 
 valley of Delemont through which the Some flows. Teutonic 
 invaders never succeeded in penetrating beyond the Vorburg 
 barrier. East of the Jura, the line passes through Bienne, Douane 
 and Gleresse. At Ncuveville the valley is French, The line 
 follows thence the course of the Thiele. With the exception of its 
 northeastern shore all Lake Neuchatel is surrounded by French- 
 
 *' p. Langhans: Die Westschweiz mit deutschen Ortsbenennung, 1:500,000, Deutsche 
 Erde, Vol. 5, 1906, PI. 5. 
 
 *' E. Gallois: Les limites linguistiques du Frangais, Ann. de 04ogr., Vol. 9, 1900, 
 p. 218. 
 
 "P. Clerget: La Suisse au XX^e si&cle, Paris, 1908, p. 55. 
 
50 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 speaking communities. The parting next coincides with the line 
 of the Broye river and extends across the waters of lake Morat. 
 The western and southern shores of the lake are likewise French. 
 It then skirts the banks of the Sarine until it reaches Fribourg, 
 which it cuts into two portions. A strenuous struggle for lin- 
 guistic supremacy is maintained at this urban edge of French- 
 speaking territory. Inside the city's line, German is spoken 
 principally in the quarters tenanted by the laboring classes. 
 With the middle classes both language and tradition are largely 
 French. 
 
 In the twelfth century Fribourg had been turned into a forti- 
 fied outpost of German power by the Dukes of Zahringen.^^ The 
 city's position between the Alps and the Jura favored its selection 
 for this aggressive purpose. German language flourished under 
 the shadow of its castles and probably would have taken deeper 
 root among its citizens but for one fact. At the time of the 
 Reformation, the Fribourgers decided to stand with the Roman 
 Church. This decision converted the city into a haven to which 
 the Catholic clergy of French-speaking Switzerland repaired ; and 
 the Bishopric of Lausanne was transferred to Fribourg, where 
 it became the headquarters of active French propaganda. 
 
 It should not be taken for granted from what has been said 
 that the cause of French in Switzerland is related to Catholicism. 
 The case of Fribourg is an isolated one. At Bienne, another of 
 the cities on the linguistic divide, the growth of French has an 
 entirely different origin. This city is the center of an important 
 watch-making district. The growth of its native industry favored 
 rapid increase in its population. But the new citizens were drawn 
 principally from the mountainous region of which Bienne is the 
 outlet. The French-speaking highlanders swelled the ranl^s of the 
 city's French contingent to such an extent that, from numbering 
 one-fourth of the population in 1888, it had grown to one-third 
 in 1900. The German-speaking farmers of the plains surrounding 
 Bienne, however, were never attracted by the prospect of factory 
 
 *• L. Courthion: Le front des langues en Suisse, Mercure de France, Vol. 112, No. 
 420, Dec. 1, 1915, pp. 636-646. 
 
Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 15 — The shady arcades and sunny streets of Lugano in the Swiss area of 
 Italian languages recall the typical aspects of Italian cities. 
 
 Fig. lU — The basin of Lake Geneva is an ancient domain of French language in 
 Switzerland. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 51 
 
 work. At present Bienne's population is believed to be equally 
 divided between the two tongues. 
 
 From Fribourg the line takes a straight course to the Olden- 
 
 FiG. 18 — The boundary between French and German in Switzerland. Scale, 
 1:1,435,000. 
 
 horn. Here it elbows eastward to Wildstrubel and attains the 
 Valais country. In the upper valley of the Rhone, the line 
 becomes well defined as it coincides with the divide between the 
 
52 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Val d'Anniviers and Turtman Thai. In the Haut Valais the 
 construction of the Simplon tunnel appears to have affected Ger- 
 man adversely and to have caused an extension of French speech 
 in the region. The recession of German from the Merge valley 
 to the east of Sierre lies within the memory of living natives. 
 The linguistic line finally cuts across the Rhone valley above 
 Sierre and strikes the Dent d 'Kerens on the Italian frontier. In 
 southeastern Switzerland, French surrounds the uninhabited 
 massif Mont Blanc. One would naturally expect to find this lan- 
 guage confined to the western slopes of the uplift only. But the 
 inhabitants of Bas-Valais districts and of the Aosta valley speak 
 French as fluently as the population of the elevated valleys of 
 Savoy. 
 
 The prevalence of French has been shown to be due to the 
 direction of travel in this mountainous region. The two St. 
 Bernard Passes, the *'Col du Grand St. Bernard" and the ''Col 
 du Petit St. Bernard," have determined the route along which 
 human displacements could be undertaken with a minimum of 
 effort.^" The road encircles that famous Alpine peak. It has 
 acted as a channel through which French has flowed into areas of 
 Italian and German speech. This instance may well be adopted 
 as a classical example of the influence of geography in the distri- 
 bution of linguistic areas. 
 
 ' The origin of linguistic differences in Switzerland may be 
 traced to the dawn of the period that followed Roman conquest. 
 At the time of Caesar's invasion of Helvetia, the mountainous 
 land was peopled by men of Celtic speech. Barbarian invasions 
 put an end to the uniformity of language prevailing in the 
 country. Romance language survived in the highlands of the 
 Jura and throughout the western sections of Switzerland. The 
 Celtic and Latin languages spoken in the first five centuries of 
 our era gave birth to French. The Burgundian conquerors them- 
 selves adopted this language at the time of the foundation of the 
 first kingdom of Burgundy. German, on the other hand, is a relic 
 of Teutonic invasion of eastern and central Switzerland. In the 
 
 '"J. Brunhes: La g^ographie humaine, Paris, 1912, pp. 599-GOl. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 53 
 
 sixth century, the AJemanni took advantage of the weakening of 
 the Burgundian Kingdom to spread beyond the Aar and overrun 
 the attractive lake district. By the eleventh century they had 
 succeeded in imposing their language on the native populations 
 of the Fribourg and Valais country. The reunion of the two 
 states under the reign of Clovis failed to unify the language of 
 Switzerland. A split occurred again after the partition of 
 Charlemagne's dominions, followed by another period of joint 
 political life until the death of Berthold V of Zahringen. After 
 this event the consolidation of languages became impossible in 
 Switzerland. The rivalry of the Alemanni and Burgundian 
 kingdoms was maintained among Swiss populations. In feudal 
 days, German Switzerland acknowledged the suzerainty of Haps- 
 burg counts. Romanic Switzerland, on the other hand, leaned 
 towards the House of Savoy. 
 
 That the area of French speech has receded during our era 
 cannot be doubted. There w^as a time when French was spoken 
 on the left banli of the Aar, from its headwaters to below Berne. 
 At three different periods of history the German language made 
 notable strides in Switzerland. Its earliest forward move 
 occurred between the fifth and ninth centuries. Another advance 
 took place between the eleventh and the thirteenth. The 
 language made further progress during the religious struggles of 
 the Reformation. Each of these periods was followed by partial 
 regain of lost territory by French language. But the French 
 gains fell short of the Germanic advances. Since the eighteenth 
 century very little variation in the line has been recorded. A 
 slight advance of French in the nineteenth century can be traced. 
 
 In the minds of Pan-Germanists a significant proof of the 
 progress of French is seen in cases of the replacement of the 
 word "Bahnhof " by "gare" at railroad stations — as for example 
 along the mountainous tract between Viege and Zermatt. They 
 also complain of the introduction of French words and expres- 
 sions in the German spoken by Swiss citizens. To the tourist's 
 eye the advance of German in the Swass villages of the Grisons 
 Alps is indicated by the red-tiled roofs in the midst of gray 
 
54 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 shingled roofs. This is noticeable in the Albula valley where 
 Eomansh was formerly the only language of the natives. Now 
 the old Eomansh dwellings with their low roofs, white walls and 
 narrow windows are disappearing before the wooden houses of 
 the German settlers. 
 
 According to the census of 1910 there were 796,244 inhabitants 
 of Switzerland who spoke French. This was about one-third of 
 the country's total population. Of this number, 765,373 were 
 dwellers in French Switzerland, which comprises the cantons of 
 Geneva, Vaud, Neuchatel, a portion of the cantons of Valais and 
 Fribourg and the Bernese Jura. The remainder were scattered 
 in the German and Italian districts of the Republic. Notable 
 colonies of French-speaking Swiss in the midst of the area of 
 German speech are found at Berne and Basel. In all, three of 
 the twenty-two cantons are of French speech. Fribourg and 
 Valais contain French-speaking majorities.^^ The canton of Tessin 
 with its 140,000 inhabitants is Italian in language. In Berne the 
 majority of the city's population speak German, only 120,000 
 inhabitants out of a total of 600,000 using French, 
 
 The history of Switzerland shows that at bottom neither 
 language nor physical or racial barriers suffice to constitute 
 nationality. Human desire to achieve and maintain national inde- 
 pendence, or to establish liberal institutions, depends on will or 
 purpose far more than on physical facts. Diversity of language 
 never impaired Switzerland's existence as a sovereign nation. 
 Racial heterogeneity in its population likewise failed to w^eaken 
 national feeling. Over such natural drawbacks the indomitable 
 determination of free-born Helvetians to maintain their country's 
 sovereignty has prevailed. Frenchmen and Germans have always, 
 been warring elements in Switzerland, but animosity bred by 
 racial differences invariably disappeared in matters where 
 national existence was at stake. A bond of patriotism based on 
 common religious and democratic ideals proved strong enough to 
 overcome divergencies due to natural causes. 
 
 ** The French-speaking population of the Valais is estimated at 70 per cent of 
 the inhabitants of the canton. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 55 
 
 The Swiss Confederation originally consisted of the three 
 German-speaking cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden," 
 clustering round Lake Lucerne, in the very heart of the mountain 
 state. The desire to rid their land of Hapsburg tyranny had 
 drawn together the inhabitants of this region as early as in 1291. 
 In the ensuing twenty-five years, these mountaineers succeeded in 
 making their democratic ideas dominant in their home districts. 
 This led to the gradual adherence of adjoining territories. By 
 the middle of the fourteenth century an "Everlasting League" 
 had been securely established in this orographic center of the 
 European continent. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, twenty 
 cantons of the present confederation were finally rounded out. 
 Of these; fifteen are now predominantly German. 
 
 French Switzerland receives a large number of German immi- 
 grants. In 1900 the number of Germans, both from German 
 cantons and from the German Empire, was estimated at 164,379. 
 In 1910 this foreign element had grown to a community of 
 186,135. The tendency of these newcomers is to become assimi- 
 lated. Intermarriage and social intercourse favor French influ- 
 ence. As a rule the second generation of these Germans cannot 
 speak the paternal vernacular and become lost in the mass of 
 its French-speaking neighbors. The assimilating power of the 
 French Swiss is also observable at Delemont and Moutier, in the 
 Bernese Jura, where the piercing of the Weissenstein has brought 
 a heavy flow of German immigrants. 
 
 The only localities in which German gains were recorded in 
 the census of 1910 were Porentruy and the northern part of the 
 canton of Fribourg. A counter advance of French at Bienne 
 tends to maintain the balance even. This city had 8,700 inhabi- 
 tants of French speech in 1910, as against 7,820 in 1900. In 
 Fribourg itself the stronghold of Swiss Germanism is found in 
 the university. The cultural influence of this institution radiates 
 far into the mountain villages of Switzerland, but its work is 
 offset by the campaign carried on in favor of French at the 
 universities of Geneva, Lausanne and Neuchatel. 
 
 "M. L. Poole: Historical Atlas of Modern Europe, Oxford, 1902, PI. 44. 
 
56 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 NOTE ON CELTIC LANGUAGE IN FRANCE AND ITS RELATION TO 
 
 ITALIC 
 
 A parent language for Celtic and Italic may have flourished at a yet undeter- 
 mined point in the Western Alps. Meillet ~^ points to the possibility of a period of 
 common development of their dialects in view of similarities in the highly ancient 
 forms of the two groups. In that case, westerly and southerly divergences eventually 
 led to modern French and Italian. Of the two branches in which Italic dialects are 
 represented at the dawn of histoi-y, namely, Latin-Faliscan and Oscan-Umbrian, the 
 former alone survived in noteworthy degree, under the guise of Latin. Oscan- 
 Umbrian dialects, known by inscriptional remains, gave way before Latin at the 
 beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Celtic, at that period, had been supplanted by two important derived languages: 
 Gaelic and Breton, which prevailed for many centuries. Gaulish, the gaulois 
 language of French writers, was disappearing fast. The ease of Breton deserves 
 particular mention in the study of the migrations of languages. This form of Celtic 
 belongs to the British subdivision of its linguistic family. Its persistence in 
 Armorica is due to immigration from British soil which intensified the preexisting 
 Celtic character of the mountain speech. The inflow of emigrants to France was 
 particularly strong during the period of Saxon invasions. 
 
 Celtic, the earliest language of Gaul, was spoken by the Celts, whose original 
 home was in northwestern Europe. The British Isles and continental Europe from 
 Hanover southward to the Pyrenees and the basin of the Po were colonization areas 
 of the Celts. The fact that Celtic stands linguistically in the closest relation with 
 Italic and Germanic may be taken as a proof of its intermediate geographical 
 position between the two. In the middle of the first pre-Christian millennium the 
 Teutons' nearest neighbors to the south were the Celts. In 400 B.C. Bohemia was 
 probably occupied by a Celtic people. This country is the easternmost colony of this 
 group. In these early periods the Elbe marked the boundary between Teutons and 
 Celts. About 200 n.c. Teutonic speech first attained the Rhine, having reached the 
 river from the northeast. 
 
 Celtic became Romanized after the Roman conquest in the first century of our 
 era. The lingua vulgaris used by the soldiers and traders sent to colonize the country 
 gradually displaced native vernaculars. By the end of the fourth century Celtic as 
 a language had practically disappeared from the entire country. The new Romance 
 language had taken such strong root in the land that successful invaders of French 
 soil were henceforth to adopt it and abandon their native tongue. Thus Visigoths, 
 Burgundians and Franks who invaded Gaul in the fifth century forsook their own 
 language and employed the speech of the people they had conquered. This was a 
 result of the superior intellectual qualities of the conquered race. The Franks in 
 particular, a Teutonic people, established themselves firmly enough in northern 
 Gallo-Roman territory to confer the name of France to the whole region, although 
 tlieir endeavors to settle in southern France had been unsuccessful. It required fully 
 six centuries for the language of the Roman colony of Gaul to become definitely 
 differentiated from Latin. By the seventh century the idiom spoken in France was 
 known as Romance or Romanic. 
 
 ** Introduction a l'6tude comparative des langues indo-europ6ennes, Paris, 1915. 
 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY 
 
 57 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Distribution of Languages in Switzerland According to the Census of 1910 
 
 Canton German French Italian Romansli Others 
 
 Aargau 222,571 1,532 6,197 72 389 
 
 Appenzell a/r 56,505 134 1,285 27 68 
 
 Appenzell i/r 14,469 32 97 4 6 
 
 Basel City 127,491 3,601 4,021 138 1,062 
 
 Basel 72,809 1,124 2,548 27 114 
 
 Berne '. 528,554 104,412 12,247 172 2,198 
 
 Fribourg 42,634 94,378 1,911 42 586 
 
 Geneva 17,456 120,413 12,641 196 5,058 
 
 Glarus 31,733 66 1,306 69 120 
 
 Graubiinden 58,465 838 20,963 37,147 2,441 
 
 Lucerne 161,083 1,316 4,808 126 365 
 
 Neuchatel 17,305 111,597 3,747 50 816 
 
 Nidwalden 13,329 31 319 5 6 
 
 Obwalden 16,738 66 330 28 23 
 
 St. Gall 282,722 1,099 17,584 456 967 
 
 Schaffhausen 43,795 379 1,712 18 193 
 
 Sehwyz 56,311 258 1,612 64 60 
 
 Soleurne 111,373 2,818 2,570 21 179 
 
 Tessin 5,829 1,008 147,790 131 457 
 
 Thurgau 125,876 593 8,328 89 291 
 
 Uri 20,937 80 1,053 56 15 
 
 Valais 37,351 80,316 10,412 16 165 
 
 Vaud 34,422 264,222 16,694 220 8,194 
 
 Zug 26,406 217 1,454 26 71 
 
 Ziirieh 472,990 5,714 19,696 634 4,601 
 
 Switzerland 2,599,154 796,244 301,325 39,834 28,445 
 
58 
 
 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Percentage op Languages Spoken in Swiss Cantons* 
 
 Canton French 
 
 Aargau 0.7 
 
 Appenzell A/ii 0.2 
 
 Appenzell i/r 0.2 
 
 Basel City 2.6 
 
 Basel 1.5 
 
 Berne 16.1 
 
 Fribourg 67.6 
 
 Geneva 77.3 
 
 Glarus 0.2 
 
 Graubiindeu 0.7 
 
 Lucerne 0.8 
 
 Neuchatel 83.6 
 
 Nidwalden 0.2 
 
 Obwalden 0.4 
 
 St. Gall 0.4 
 
 Schaffhauseu 0.8 
 
 Sehwyz 0.4 
 
 Soleurne 2.4 
 
 Tessin 0.6 
 
 Thurgau 0.4 
 
 Uri 0.4 
 
 Valais 62.6 
 
 Vaud 81.6 
 
 Zug 0.8 
 
 Zurich 1.2 
 
 Switzerland 21.1 
 
 German 
 
 Italian 
 
 Romansh 
 
 Others 
 
 90.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 97.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 99.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 93.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 95.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 81.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 0.4 
 
 30.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 0.4 
 
 11.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 95.3 
 
 3.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 48.8 
 
 17.5 
 
 31.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 96.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 13.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 0.6 
 
 97.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 97.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 93.3 
 
 5.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 95.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 96.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 95.2 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 3.8 
 
 95.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 93.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 94.6 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 29.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.6 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 93.7 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 93.9 
 
 3.9 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 69.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 ' Graphisch-statistischer Atlas der Sehweiz, Bureau des eidgen. Departements des 
 Innern, Berne, 1914, Taf. 7. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 I BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE J 
 
 Italy's early history is molded by the shape of the land and 
 its natural divisions. In the beginning, each valley was a tribal 
 seat. The basin of the Po was the home of Celtic-speaking Gauls. 
 Etruscans, whose early language cannot fit into the Indo- 
 European group, peopled Tuscany. Greeks settled in southern 
 Italy in numbers sufficiently large to bestow the name of Magna 
 Graecia on the districts they occupied. The welding of these 
 territorial elements into the Roman state was attended by the 
 spread of the Latin language within the land. Rome's Latin 
 eventually reached far beyond peninsular frontiers. 
 
 Modern Italian nationality did not, however, acquire concrete 
 expression before the nineteenth century. For fully two hundred 
 years prior to that time the Hapsburgs had steadily encroached 
 on Italian territory. It remained for the democratic ideals of the 
 French Revolution to become the moving force in the shaping of 
 Italian nationality. Unity of language favored its rapid develop- 
 ment. Beginning with Piedmont in the first half of the nineteenth 
 century Italy grew to its present extent by the addition of terri- 
 tory to the south. Lombardy was added in 1859, Tuscany and 
 the kingdom of Two Sicilies in 1860, Venetia in 1866 and the 
 Papal States in 1870. _ Prior to these years Italian national 
 aspirations had found solace in a Venetian saying, expressive of 
 Austrian covetings, ''Carta tua, montagna mia," which may be 
 rendered as ''Yours is the map, but mine the land." Since then, 
 a people speaking the same language has become united into a 
 single nation on the Italian peninsula. The land frontier of Italy, 
 however, has remained to this day a zone of linguistic mingling. 
 
 Districts of non-Italian languages are occupied by populations 
 made up of descendants of immigrants from beyond the Alps or 
 
 59 
 
()() FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 from beyond the seas. Six foreign linguistic groups can be dis- 
 tinguislied, to wit: (1) Franco-Proven(jal, (2) German, (3) 
 Slovene, (4) Albanian, (5) Greek, (G) Catalan.^ The political 
 signilicance to be attached to these settlements is slight, as they 
 contain a negligible proportion of the kingdom's population. The 
 foreign languages are used only in the home. Beyond the 
 threshold Italian prevails everywhere._\ 
 
 Franco-ProveuQal dialects are in current use among the 
 dwellers of the Stura, Oreo and Doire Baltee valleys. In the 
 province (circondario) of Aosta the foreign language was current 
 in over 70 villages (communi) at the time of the census of 1901. 
 The province of Pignerol boasted of the two communi of Praly 
 and San Martino di Perrero in which the same French dialects 
 prevailed. The names of the communi of Beaulard, Bousson, 
 Champlas du Col, Clavieres, Fenils, Molliercs, Rochemolles, Sal- 
 bertrand, Sauze d'Oulx, Solomiac and Thures, all in the circon- 
 dario of Suse, likewise indicate the presence of French-speaking 
 inhabitants. It was computed that the language was used in the 
 daily life of 18,958 families out of the 30,401 recorded in the 
 census of that year. The average number of individuals to a 
 family being 4.22 in those districts, it follows that about 80,000 
 subjects of the king of Italy speak a French dialect. In 1862, 
 French was spoken by 7G,73G inhabitants of the valley of Aosta. 
 The importance of the language has hardly changed since then, 
 as it has remained the medium of church, school and general 
 culture. Nevertheless the use of French dialects is on the wane 
 in the circondarii of Pignerol and Suse since the reconstitution 
 of Italy. 
 
 .Planted between France and Italy, Piedmont became a con- 
 necting province in which the transition from one country to the 
 other can be followed. Its role is analogous to that of Alsace- 
 Lorraine on the confines of the French and the German languages. 
 French taste and mode of living prevail in many sections of 
 Piedmont. Turin strikes travelers proceeding from southern 
 
 * Colonic strnnicro nol torritorio politico. La Oeogr., Vol. 3, 1915, Mny-J\ine, 
 pp. 222-224. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 61 
 
 Italy as being in many respects a city of French customs. The 
 French spoken in Italy also represents a transition speech 
 between the langne d'oi'l and the langue d'oc. It has close analogy 
 with the patois spoken in French Switzerland, the Dauphinc, the 
 Lyonnais and the valley of Aosta. All these regions once formed 
 part of the kingdom of Burgundy. 
 
 The French vernacular of thousands of Piedmontese is fur- 
 
 FlG. 21 — Map showing some of the important localities of Frencli speech in 
 Northwestern Italy. 
 
 thermore related to the cause of Protestantism, which has taken 
 solid root in this mountain land in spite of the persecutions to 
 which it had been formerly subjected. As used by the natives of 
 the region the local dialect consists, more properly, of a modern 
 form of an old langue d'oc dialect similar to the patois of various 
 districts in the French High Alps. To the Protestant inhabitants 
 of these mountain communities French has served as the only 
 medium of intercourse with their co-religionists in Switzerland 
 and France. 
 
 The little village of Torre Pellice, on a small mountain railway 
 
62 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 leading into one of the main valleys of Piedmont, offers the 
 strange contrast of being peopled by inhabitants whose language 
 is French, while their customs are Italian, and their religion 
 Protestant. The austerity of their manners recalls at first 
 impression the natural gravity of mind observable among French- 
 spealdng Swiss who belong to the same faith. Ampler acquaint- 
 ance with the simple mountaineers will draw out their pride of 
 being descendants of Protestants whose religious views antedate 
 Luther's preaching by fully three centuries. 
 
 \History and geography have concurred in the preservation of 
 religious and linguistic individuality in the three Valdese valleys. 
 Their inhabitants are sons of twelfth and thirteenth century 
 heretics known by the names of Albigenses, Lollards, Cathars or 
 Vaudois, against all of whom the persecution of the Roman 
 church was directed. Massacres and forced conversions uprooted 
 heresies everywhere in Europe except in the high valleys of 
 Piedmont. Here the arduous character of the region afforded 
 defense against the organized bands sent to conquer early 
 adherents of reformed doctrines. The narrow gorges became the 
 theater of bloody affrays in which victory would sometimes favor 
 the attacking foreigners and sometimes the besieged. No definite 
 conquest of the mountain zone was ever made by the Catholic 
 armies. The surname of Israel of the Alps, bestowed locally on 
 the village of Torre Pellice, is a memorial of this period of 
 religious struggle. 
 
 An episode in this long contest, which is not unrelated to the 
 current prevalence of French, took place in 1630. The operations 
 of the army sent by Richelieu in that year were followed by an 
 epidemic of plague to which thousands of natives succumbed. 
 Many of the community's religious leaders were carried off by 
 the dread disease. Their places were taken by pastors and 
 preachers who came from Geneva or the Protestant towns of 
 France. From this period on religious services were carried on 
 in French. The influence of the language spread beyond the 
 rough mountain sanctuaries to which it was at first confined. In 
 such retired valleys cultural influences generally emanate from 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 63 
 
 the church, a fact observable particularly in the mountainous 
 portions of Asia. Today along with the memory of former strug- 
 gles the language, which was partly a result of their bitterness, 
 has survived. To the highlander of western Piedmont, French 
 is the symbol of successful resistance against religious oppres- 
 sion. He clings to it and will not tolerate Italian in its place. 
 His mountain villages are in fact the nursery of hundreds of 
 teachers of French employed in Italian schools. 
 
 ; The Franco-Italian linguistic boundary starts at Monte Eosa 
 and extends south, past Gressoney, irito the valley of the Doire 
 Baltee, to the town of Settimo Vitone. French has always pre- 
 dominated in this region, ilt is at present the vernacular of the 
 well-to-do inhabitants and is taught in schools concurrently with 
 Italian. Thence to the west the linguistic boundary passes south 
 of Grand Paradis Peak and attains the political boundary at the 
 sources of the Oreo river. Linguistic and political boundaries 
 coincide in the next 27 miles, the line passing through a moun- 
 tainous and scantily settled region. 
 
 North of Suse, linguistic and political lines diverge from each 
 other. The former crosses the Doire Ripaire at about five miles 
 east of the town. It then extends in a southerly direction to 
 Perouse on the Ghison river and traverses the Pellice where the 
 river leaves the highland. The Po is attained near Monte Viso 
 and the political frontier. From the latter peak the line reaches 
 Sampeyre, beyond which it crosses the Stura at Vinadio. The 
 Franco-Italian boundary is reached once more at a few miles 
 east of Lantosque. From here on to the sea Italian speech 
 invades Frencli territory. 
 
 The structure of the Alps has contributed powerfully to the 
 peopling of a part of the basin of the Po by a Celtic-speaking 
 race. In Turin the name of the Taurins, a Celto-Ligurian tribe, 
 has been preserved to this day. Alpine valleys converge towards 
 the east and diverge towards the west. Human migrations have, 
 therefore, been more intense from west to east than in the oppo- 
 site direction. Western Piedmont thus passed under French 
 influence after the Middle Ages. At that time the counts of 
 
CI FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Savoy obtained possession of the country around Suse and Turin. 
 Later they added all of Piedmont to their domain. The upper 
 valley of the Doire Kipaire was part of the French kingdom until 
 the treaty of Utrecht in 1715. 
 
 jl From the Mediterranean northward, the last section of the 
 Franco-Italian linguistic boundary traverses French soil and 
 coincides roughly with the crest of the eastern watershed of the 
 Var. This region is known administratively as the Dcpartement 
 des Alpes-Maritimes. Linguistic unity within its boundaries has 
 been determined mainly by the relief of the land.^ Practically 
 every one of the high Alpine valleys debouches into the Var. 
 Connection between the sea and the mountain districts is obtained 
 through the channels of this basin. Intercourse among the inhabi- 
 tants of the dcpartement has thus been reflected towards France- 
 rather than Italy. The langue d'oc prevails in the entire Var 
 system, but Genoese dialects of Italy, or the ''si" languages, 
 appear immediately to the west. The linguistic divide can, there- 
 fore, be located between the valley of the Var on the one side and 
 those of the Eoya and Bevera on the other. It should be made to 
 pass, according to Funel,^ at the very point in La Turbie where 
 Augustus, a Roman emperor, erected a monument to mark the 
 boundary between his domain and Gaul The inhabitants of the- 
 eastern section of this line appear, however, to be content with 
 French nationality in spite of their Ligurian dialects. At the 
 time of the rectification of this frontier in 1860, their French 
 leanings were proclaimed in a referendum which set forth their 
 desire to acquire citizenship under the French tricolor. ^ 
 
 The city of Alghero and its environs in the island of Sardinia 
 contain a colony of Catalonians whose language is identical with 
 the vernacular in use on the Balearic islands. This group con- 
 sists of 9,800 individuals out of a total of 10,741 inhabitants of 
 the commune of Alghero, In 1862 this small community com- 
 prised 7,036 individuals. This rooting of a Spanish dialect on an 
 
 * L. Funel : Les parlers populaires du Dcpartement des Alpes-Maritimes, Bull.. 
 06ogr. Hist, et Descrip., 1897, No. 2, pp. 298-303. 
 "Op. cit. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 65 
 
 Fig. 22 — The dotted line indicates the divide between the areas of French and 
 Italian language. Black dots near the Swiss border show Italian villages where 
 German is the vernacular of the natives. 
 
()(» ru()Nrii':us or j.AN(;nA(;K anj) nationality 
 
 Jialiiin iHlaiid is traced to the year 3354 when the Ari\goniaiis 
 eoiKiiiered Sardinia. 'J^lie long i)eriod of Spanish rule over the 
 ialand accouiilH lor tlie (survival of the language to this day. 
 
 pLMie southern boundary ol' (Jernian speech abuts against Italian 
 I'roni Switzerland ' to the Carinthian hills." The intrusion ol' the 
 Jlomanio tongue within tin; Austrian political line lacks homo- 
 genoity, howovei', lor it j,s Italian proper in western Tyrol and 
 Ladin in its western extension. But of the 400 odd miles of 
 boundary between Austria and Italy a bare GO will coincide with 
 tliti linguistic divide between (Jernian and Italian. Moreover a 
 nninbcr of enclaves of (Jennan speech exist within the area of 
 Italian language spreading over Austrian territory. Some of 
 these (leiinan settlements arc found near Pergino and Fcrsina. 
 (Jlose to the Italian frontier, the town of Casotto in the Lavarone 
 region is likewise peo])l(Hl by German-speaking inhabitants." 
 
 (Herman is the vernacular of two small districts within Italian 
 boundaries which adjoin the Swiss frontier and lie in the Alpine 
 valleys of Piedmont. The most important of the two is situated 
 sonlh of Monte lu)sa. It comprises the three adjacent valleys 
 of Oressoney, Sesia and Macugnaga. The other is found in the 
 A'al l'\)rmaz/a or upper valley of the Toco, l^oth of these groups 
 are extensions ol' the area of German speech which spreads over 
 the eastern portion of the canton of Valais. This section of 
 Switzerland was swamped between the ninth and sixteenth cen- 
 
 * lUoiluT 11. (uiniuix: Pio tloiit. OrtsiiamiMifoniuMi in \Vos(scli\vi>i/,, Dnttscho Krde, 
 
 Vol. f>, num. p. 170. 
 
 " 'riio Italian popiilnlion of Auairia-Uuiijjnry ia oatiiuateil at 7l)S,-122 according 
 
 to (ho Auatrian oonanH of l!)10. Kalian ronipidations sot the total number of Italians 
 
 living in Auslria at SlJT.OOO, (lisdiliiitfd as follows (lioU. A'cd/. Soc. Ocoiir., Auji;. 1, 
 
 n>lf). p. SU7) : 
 
 lippor Adiijo Valley 'jr..000 
 
 Tront ino aTn.OOO 
 
 Triost 142,000 
 
 Aiistrian Fri\ililand 0;>,000 
 
 Istria 14S.000 
 
 Dahnatia lUKOOO 
 
 Finnio 2C..000 
 
 •Potnl S37.000 
 
 ' C do l.uoohi: Trontino o Tirolo, Jioll. 10, Minist. Aff. Kstei-i, Homo, 101."), p. 70. 
 

 
 Fig. 23— The rearland of Nice as typified by tliis view of tlie Mediterranean Alps 
 oontaiiiH numerouH l)iliri».Mi;il wttlemcnts. Tiie bridge in the photograph in the Pont 
 du I-oup. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE G7 
 
 turies by a flood of Teutonic invaders consisting mainly of 
 Alemannic tribes ^ proceeding from the Bernese Oberland. All of 
 the upper Valais, from Miinster as far as Loeche and Zermatt, 
 became Germanized during that period. The easterly spread of 
 this movement led a number of German-speaking colonists to 
 cross Gries Pass into the Formazza valley, while others went 
 through the passes of Monte Moro and Monte Theodule to the 
 upper valleys of Piedmont. According to historical documents 
 the German settlers reached the shores of Lake Maggiore. But 
 their language became lost in the midst of Italian speech and 
 held its own only in the valleys already mentioned. 
 
 The Piedmontese group of German dialects occurs in small 
 settlements distributed on the southern slopes of Monte Eosa. 
 The most noteworthy localities of Teutonic speech are Gressoney, 
 Saint Jean, Gressoney-La Trinite and Issime. Dialects belonging 
 to the same group occur in the Alagna and Rima S. Giuseppe 
 villages, in Valsesia as well as in the Agaro, Formazza, Macugnaga 
 and Salecchio localities of the Ossola valley. Altogether 
 these settlements contain about 5,000 German-speaking inhabi- 
 tants. Occupation of the region by Germans dates from the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries when emigration into upper 
 Valais took place. The language once extended as far south as 
 the Ornavasso. Its progress during the past half century has 
 been insignificant. 
 
 Val Formazza comprises the entire upper valley of the Toce, 
 north of Foppiano. The region is locally kno"wn as Val d'Anti- 
 gorio in its southern stretch. To the north, from Domodossola 
 onward, it acquires the name of Val d 'Ossola. It has seven 
 settlements scattered along the banks of the river and contains a 
 population of about 800 inhabitants engaged chiefly in cattle- 
 raising. La Chiesa is its most important village. The region is 
 noted in the list of scenic spots of northern Italy on account of 
 the Toce falls, which attract a large number of tourists. The dual 
 character of its human institutions is reflected in the names of 
 
 ^ A. Dauzat: Les values italiennes de langue allemande, A Travers le Monde, 
 1913, Sept. 6, pp. 285-2,86. 
 
68 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 its villages, which are both Italian and German. Foppiano is also 
 known as Unterwald; La Chiesa as Andermatten ; San Michele as 
 Pommat; Canza as Fruttwald. German names are gradually 
 being dropped, however, concurrently with the steady replace- 
 ment of the Teutonic language by Italian. 
 
 AJl these valleys are bridges which connect the areas of 
 Italian and German. Travelers are struck by the transitional 
 character of every human manifestation within their boundaries. 
 As one proceeds northwards from the main Italian area, the type 
 of stone habitation characteristic of Italian villages gives way to 
 the wooden house of German villages. Examples of both styles 
 are in evidence throughout the settlements of German speech on 
 Italian soil. The native costume of the women also recalls the 
 intermediary character of the region. Black skirts as well as 
 high and tight waists, of the same color, are characteristic of the 
 canton of Valais. The headdress — an ample foulard of black 
 interspersed with green and red — worn close, is of unmistakable 
 Italian origin. The style in which middle-aged native women 
 comb their hair is also Italian. They part it into a number of 
 small plaits held together by metallic combs after a fashion seen 
 among elderly dames in Lombardy. 
 
 The eastern borderland of Italian language contains German- 
 speaking inhabitants in the provinces of Verona, Vicenza, Belluno 
 and Udine, who are living witnesses of the early German settle- 
 ments founded as trading posts on the way to the Adriatic coast. 
 Bavaria provided many of these emigrants in the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century. The language spoken by their descend- 
 ants is known locally as Cimbro. It has practically disappeared 
 from the Veronese district, where its survival is traced in the 
 forested areas of the "commune" of Progno through some 50 
 inhabitants. The inhabitants of the communes of Sappada and 
 Sauris and of the Timau district in the Paluzza commune also 
 employ German. It is estimated that 1,170 families, representing 
 about 5,500 inhabitants, speak Teutonic dialects in these Venetian 
 districts of Italy. 
 
 South of the Dolomite Alps the tableland of the Sette Com- 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 69 
 
 muni is also inhabited by German-speaking subjects of the king 
 of Italy. Teutonic dialects have survived in seven villages scat- 
 tered in the adjoining valleys of the Upper Astico and the middle 
 Brenta. These communities formed the regency of the Sette 
 Oommuni, which from 1259 to 1807 was an independent state. 
 Rotzo, the westernmost and oldest, has a splendid location in the 
 wooded area at the outlet of Val Martello. In Roana to the east 
 
 Fonza.so Felire 
 
 Y 
 
 Asolo 
 
 Arsiero 
 
 Sc?iio 
 
 Basscmo 
 
 Sca/eofm/'/es 
 
 ! f i 1 ? = 
 
 Fig. 25 — The localities of German speech in the Sette Communi districts of 
 Italy are underlined. The broken line indicates the Austro-Italian frontier. 
 
 over five hundred families still employ the German dialect as 
 their vernacular. At Asiago, however, the German element has 
 almost disappeared, although during the Middle Ages the town 
 was an important center of Teutonism, as is testified by the his- 
 torical collections deposited in its museums. Gallic is known in 
 history as a trading center of local magnitude. Enego, the last 
 settlement towards the east, was founded before its Teutoniza- 
 tion, for it was a Roman colony. San Giacomo di Lusiana is the 
 only settlement of German speech beyond the plateau borders. 
 Its situation on the southern slope brought it within the sphere 
 
70 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of Vouoiiau iiiilueuce to a degree never i'elt by its sister eoiu- 
 munities. 
 
 Past the Italian frontier, traveling towards Trent, every town 
 and village of the valley of the Adige bears an Italian name and 
 is peopled by Italians. Ala, Mori, Kovereto and Galliano are 
 types of these Italian eonnnnnities within Austrian territory. 
 Those small lowiis, scattered along the banks of the river which 
 brought life to the region, are peopled mainly by farmers. The 
 valley in which (hey are found has played an important part in 
 Italian history, in ancient times barbarian invaders marched to 
 the conquest of the peninsula through its conveniently situated 
 gap. During three centuries the armor-clad troops sent by Ger- 
 man emperors to crush revolts in Cisalpine cities crossed the 
 Alps at the Hreuuer Pass and followed the channel of the Adige 
 as it broadened towards the south, l^own the same valley 
 Austrian regiments poured into Lombardy in 18(50, when the 
 plainsmen gave signs of readiness to revolt from foreign rule. 
 ^Modern changes have failed to detract from the importance of 
 this ancient highway, for the shortest railroad route connecting 
 Italy witli central Germany is constructed along the natural 
 groove carved by (he southward flowing waters of the Adige, and 
 the transit trade between the two countries follows its channel. 
 
 The most important Germanic invasion of the Trentino in 
 historical times began in 375 a.d. and lasted two centuries. This 
 movement was repeated in the last half of the tenth century. 
 Under the rule of the bishop-prince Frederick of Vanga, a con- 
 siderable number of German settlers established themselves on 
 his territory between the years 1207 and 1218. The actual Ger- 
 manization of the highlanders of the southern Tyrol had its start 
 in this period, the records of the time showing changes from 
 Italian to German in the names of localities as lands and estates 
 were acquired by Germans. But throughout medieval times and 
 to the eud of the eighteenth century, historical records make 
 mention oi' the Florentine character of its industrial and com- 
 mercial life. 
 
 The southerly advance of the German language in the moun- 
 
i'K,. ZC 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 20— View of thf; historic hrnuncr J'asrt. Tlirouj^li lliis iriounlaiti j.'ap Teutonic 
 invaders have poure<l into Italy hinoe the dawn of liihtory. 
 
 Fig. 27 — The mountain hetth-ment of Cortina in tiie Arnpezzo di.-^trict in the 
 Trcnlino i.s inliahited mainly hy Italiana. 
 
Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 2D. 
 
 Fig. "28 — The approach to Meran in tlic Austrian Tyrol and at the Ttalo-Gcrmanic 
 hmguage border. 
 
 Fig. 2!) — Stelvio Pass at tlic eastern edge of tiie area of Romansh dialects, show- 
 ing the mountainous character of the country in which this language has survived. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 71 
 
 tainous province has followed the valleys of the Etsch and 
 Eisack, for the channels through which mountain waters flowed 
 
 Fig. 30 — Sketch map of the Trentino showing languages spoken. Scale, 1:2,400,000. 
 
 towards the Adriatic also facilitated the transportation of goods 
 from the German highlands of central Europe to the Mediter- 
 ranean. A steady current of freight has been maintained in a 
 
72 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 southerly course along tliis route since the beginning of con- 
 tinental commerce in Europe. In the Middle Ages numerous 
 colonies of German traders had acquired solid footing along the 
 much traveled road over the Brenner Pass which connected 
 Augsburg and Venice.^ 
 
 Early activity of German traders stamped its imprint on the 
 linguistic map by a wedge of Teutonic speech thrust towards the 
 Trentino, between Italian on the west and Ladin on the east. 
 This linguistic protuberance occupies the valley of the Etsch 
 south of its confluence with the Eisack. The divide between the 
 two languages has its westernmost reach near Trafoi,^ knoAvn 
 also as Travis. The junction of Swiss and Austrian political 
 boundaries at this point corresponds to the contact between the 
 German of the Tyrol and the Romanic idioms of Engadine. 
 Thence, the linguistic line of separation skirts the base of the 
 Ortler massif and subsequently coincides with the watershed of 
 the Etsch and Noce rivers. Ladin settlements begin north of the 
 Fleims valley^" and spread beyond the Gradena basin (Groden- 
 thal) to Pontebba (Pontafel) and Malborghet where the meeting of 
 Europe's three most important linguistic stocks, the Romanic, 
 Germanic and Slavic, occurs. 
 
 The language spoken by the Italians of the Trentino consists 
 of Lombard and Venetian dialects. Ladin dialects are spoken in 
 some of the small valleys east of the Adige. In the valley of 
 Monastero, near the Swiss frontier, the inhabitants speak a 
 dialect of Ladin or Romansh which is akin to Friulian. This 
 patois was in greater use during the Middle Ages. The Ladins, 
 both in Austria and Italy, are Italians in every respect save that 
 of language, although here also the two peoples are closely related. 
 Ladin language is a slightly altered form of Latin containing 
 words of non-Romanic stock which differ according to the locality 
 overrun by the Romans. The same definition applies to the 
 Romansh language of Switzerland. Romansh and Ladin are 
 
 * 0. Noel, Histoire du commerce du monde, Paris, 1891, Vol. 2, pp. 148-168. 
 
 • B. Auerbach: Races et nationaliWs en Autriche-Hongrie, Paris, 1808, p. 86. 
 
 " Scheller, Deutsche u. Eomanen in Siidtirol u. Venetien, Pet. Mitt., 1877, pp. 
 365-385. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 73 
 
 therefore basically Latin languages which did not develop to the 
 stage of Italian or French and which differ from each other in 
 the number of pre-Eoman words they contain. Friulian belongs 
 to the same category of Romance languages and differs from 
 Ladin merely in having a larger proportion of Italian words. 
 Like Ladin it is not a literary language and is therefore being 
 superseded by Italian. Eomansh dialects of Switzerland will 
 probably survive longer since in the canton of Grisons they are 
 recognized as official together with German and Italian, and in 
 Engadine Romansh is still a literary dialect. 
 
 The claims of Italy in the Trentino include ^^ the Bolzano 
 •district lying at the confluence of the Isarco and the Adige. This 
 locality is peopled by 16,000 Germans and 4,000 Italians. Meran, 
 the upper valleys of the Adige and Isarco together with their 
 affluents, Bressanone on the Isarco, and Bruneco on the Rienza 
 likemse fall within the territory claimed by Italy. A return to 
 the Italian fold of the small groups of Italians scattered between 
 Salorno and Bolzano, between Bolzano and Meran and between 
 Bruneco and Bressanone is shown in this manner to lie within 
 the realm of possibility. As early as 774 Charlemagne's division 
 of the region between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Italy had 
 implied recognition of linguistic variations. But the importance 
 of maintaining German control over natural lines of access to 
 southern seas determined his successors to award temporal rights 
 in the southeastern Alps to bishops upon whose adherence to 
 Germanic interests reliance could be placed. The bishopric of 
 Trentino thus passed under the Teutonic sphere of influence. 
 The present political union of the territory of the old see with the 
 Austrian Empire is hence a relic of medieval German politics. 
 
 /"^Historically the Trentino 's connection with Italy rests on 
 ancient foundations. At the height of Roman power Tridentium 
 was an important city. It was situated in the tenth Italian 
 region, known as Venetia et Histria. After the fall of the western 
 Empire it was included in the Italian districts conquered by the 
 
 ** A. Galanti : I diritti storici ed etnici dell' Italia sulle terre irredente, La Oeogr., 
 Vol. 3, Nos. 3-4, March-April 1915, p. 88. 
 
74 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Ostrogoths and Byzantines. Under the Lombards Trent became 
 the capital of a dukedom. In the Romano-Germanic feudal period 
 it was part of the kingdom of Italy constituted by Charles the 
 Great, and later, of the Marches of Verona established by Otto I. 
 Conrad II in 1027 turned the region over to religious ownership. 
 From this date on it is known as the princely bishopric of Trent. 
 The bishop-princes who ruled in the Trentino, however, were 
 constantly at war with the feudal lords who had authority over the 
 lands north and south of the Trentino. In the sixteenth century 
 the court of Bernardo Clesio, one of the most famous of these 
 religious rulers, was distinctly Italian in thought and customs. 
 
 The Trentino bishopric w^as abolished in 1805 by Napoleon 
 and the region then became part of the kingdom of Bavaria. 
 From 1809 to 1814, however, the Trentino, together with a part 
 of the upper Adige valley, was converted into an Italian^ 
 administrative district under the name of Dipartimento dell' Alto 
 Adige. In 1815 the region was assigned to Austria together with 
 Lombardo-Venetia and the Tyrol. 
 
 Throughout the eventful history of the present millennium the 
 Tyrol has been the cockpit of Germano-Romance clashes. A 
 lively competition between German and Italian traders has always 
 been maintained within its borders. D.uring the era of religious 
 upheavals, the Germans rallied to the cause of the Reformation 
 while the Italian element remained faithful to the authority of 
 the Vatican. Contact with the Teutonic element appears to have 
 failed, however, to eradicate or modify the Italian character of the 
 region's life and institutions."^_^ 
 
 The splendor of the Italian Renaissance stamped its mark on 
 all the Tyrolese districts drained by waters flowing southwards. 
 Castles and churches of the Trentino show the influence of Italian 
 architectural styles. Their interior ornamentation derived its 
 inspiration from the same source. In painting, the Bressanone 
 and Bolzano schools of the fifteenth century likewise maintained 
 Italian traditions in the valley of the upper Adige. Statues and 
 
 "A. Galanti: I Tedeschi sul versante meridionale delle Alpi, Typ. Acad. Lincei, 
 Rome, 18S5, p. 185. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 75 
 
 bas-reliefs in the towns of this region also bear witness to the 
 Italian taste of its inhabitants. 
 
 All these artistic leanings towards Italy are best observed in 
 Trent itself. The celebrated castle of the "Buen Consiglio" is a 
 blend of Venetian and Veronese styles. Bramante was the 
 architect of the Tabarelli palace, and a disciple of TuUio Lom- 
 bardo built that of Moar. The Duomo di Trento owes its beauty 
 mainly to the artistic conceptions of the Comacini masters. Some 
 of its frescoes dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 
 are the handicraft of Veronese artists. This Italian influence has 
 been maintained to the present day. A tourist reaching the city 
 will behold Dante's symbolic statue — the work of Zocchi, a Flor- 
 entine — immediately upon leaving the main station.^^ Eoaming 
 through the city his attention will be attracted by innumerable 
 reminders of modern Italian work of the type seen in the fa§ade 
 of St. Peter's church. These are concrete manifestations of an 
 intellectual and artistic outflow from the Italian border north- 
 ward. 
 
 lEeports on the German propaganda carried on in the Trentino 
 have been made on several occasions to their governments by 
 Italian consular agents.^* This movement is prosecuted with 
 untiring perseverance by the members of the Tiroler Volksbund, 
 an organization founded in 1905, for the purpose of diffusing 
 German language and customs in southern Tyrol. Schools and 
 other institutions managed by German staffs provide Teutonic 
 education free of cost to the natives. Periodicals and pamphlets 
 are distributed profusely to this end. Lectures setting forth the 
 Germanic origins of Trentino settlements are delivered. A more 
 aggressive method of action consists in sending out ''Wander- 
 lehrers" or traveling teachers to give elementary courses from 
 village to village. 
 
 Descendants of Rheto-Eomans settled in eastern Tyrol speak 
 a language of Latin stock which, in common with other moun- 
 
 ** According to press reports in 1915 Dknte's monument was destroyed by the 
 Austrians. 
 
 " G. de Lucchi: Trentino e Tirolo, Boll. 16, Minist. Aff. Esteri, Rome, 1915. 
 
76 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 tain languages, failed to blossom into literature mainly on account 
 of the secluded life of its highland users. The dialect is closely- 
 allied to the Friulian. The two form together the western border 
 of the Slovene linguistic area and attain Triest on the south. 
 Lack of written masterpieces tends to weaken the life of the 
 language and it is being replaced by Italian. Concurrently with 
 the growth of the region's foreign intercourse in modern times 
 invasion of German words can also be detected, though not to the 
 extent of impairing the fundamental Romanic strain. 
 
 The Adriatic provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire are 
 peopled mainly by Italians and Slavs. German and Hungarian 
 elements in the population consist of civil and military officials 
 and of merchants. From an ethnological and linguistic standpoint 
 the maritime district is Italian or Slav according to its elevation. 
 The Romanic stock forms the piedmont populations while the 
 dwellers of the hilly coast chains are of Slavic issue and speech. 
 The western coast of the Istrian peninsula, however, is an area of 
 Italian speech, which is generally confined to urban centers. 
 
 The following figures for the population of the Dalmatian 
 islands show the numerical inferiority of the Italians : ^' 
 
 Population 
 according to 
 Locality census of 1910 
 
 Inhabitants 
 speaking Serbo- 
 Croatian dialects 
 
 Inhabitants speaking 
 Italian 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Lissa, St. Andrea and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Busi 
 
 10,041 
 
 9,939 
 
 98.98 
 
 92 
 
 0.92 
 
 L e s i n a , Spalmadori 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Torcola 
 
 16,861 
 
 16,340 
 
 96.91 
 
 494 
 
 2.92 
 
 Ciarzola, Cazza, Lagosta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and adjoining reefs 
 
 21,628 
 
 21,186 
 
 97.95 
 
 436 
 
 2.01 
 
 Stagno district, includ- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing Meleda island " 
 
 9,424 
 
 9,393 
 
 99.67 
 
 9 
 
 0.1 
 
 *' O. Keude: Italien und die Dalmatienische Inselfrage, Kartogr. Zeits., Vienna, 
 Nov. 15, 1915. 
 
 *" Austrian census returns have been the object of frequent criticism in non- 
 Germanic countries. The political interests of the Austrian government may have 
 led Its officials to minimize the importance of the language spoken by dissenting peo- 
 ples. A tendency to overestimate the spread of German has always been suspected. 
 A common practice consists in forming artificial administrative districts so as to 
 create German numerical superiority within their borders. As a rule an increase of 
 10 per cent in the number of Slavs, Rumanians and Italians can be safely added to 
 the figures set forth in government statistics. Conversely the same percentage may 
 be subtracted with safety from the totals for Germans and Hungarians. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 17 
 
 Zara, Spalato, Sebenico, Ragusa and Cattaro,^^ however, con- 
 tain flourishing colonies of Italians whose commercial enterprise 
 has helped their mother tongue to prevail if not predominate in 
 their region. Outside of these cities, the Italian element, wherever 
 present, is restricted to littoral strips. The Slavs invariably 
 occupy the plateau and the slopes extending seaward. 
 
 The Istrian region of predominant Italian speech consists of 
 the western peninsular lowland extending south of Triest ^* to the 
 tip of the promontory beyond Pola.^® Istrians to whom Italian 
 is vernacular number 147,420 individuals according to the census 
 of 1910. The Slavs of the Karst and terraced sections constitut- 
 ing the rest of the population belong to the Roman faith, but 
 have no other common bond with their Italian countrymen. 
 
 Istria is a triangle about 60 miles long with a maximum 
 breadth of 46 miles. It rises from the southwestern coast gradu- 
 ally up to the Dinaric Alps. Owing to its undulating surface and 
 the absence of coastal plains, it may be regarded as a part of 
 this range, jutting out into the sea. On the whole, Istria may be 
 called a Karst land, for three-fourths of its surface consists of 
 Karst-forming limestone and only one-fourth of sandstone and 
 marl. With few exceptions its natural waterways are confined 
 to the sandstone districts. The peninsula is also a transition 
 region between the mild Mediterranean and central European 
 climates. The summers are dry and in autumn heavy rains fall. 
 Almost all the land is productive and 67 per cent of its popula- 
 tion live by agriculture and forestry/j 
 
 Settlement by Slavs of the hills dominating the Adriatic 
 appears to have taken place continuously from the ninth to the 
 seventeenth century. Feudatory chiefs of medieval ages first 
 
 *^ Italian predominates in both Zara and Spalato, the latter city being second in 
 commercial importance along the Dalmatian coast. It is estimated that, in all, more 
 than 18,000 Italians inhabit Dalmatia. 
 
 ^* Triest and its environs are peopled mainly by Italians. The suburbs are in- 
 habited by crowded Slavic settlements. The census of 1910 shows 118,960 Italians, 
 57,920 Slovenes, 11,860 Germans and 2,400 Croats. For Istria returns of the same 
 date give: Italians 147,417, Serbo-Croatians 168,184, Slovenes 55,134. 
 
 ^' M. Wutte : Das Deutschtum in Osterreichischen Kiistenland, Deutsche Erde, 
 Vol. 8, 1909, p. 202. 
 
78 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 resorted to this method of developing the uncultivated slopes and 
 highlands of the eastern coast. The Venetian republic and the 
 Austrian government adopted similar measures of colonization. 
 Slavic tribes, hard pressed by their kinsmen or by Tatars from 
 the east, thus found refuge in the mountainous Dalmatian coast- 
 land under the aegis of western nations. A traveler taking ship 
 today and sailing from harbor to harbor along the shores of the 
 eastern Adriatic would readily notice the numerical superiority 
 of these descendants of Slavs. They constitute the mass of 
 toilers in every walk of life, and sooner or later probably will 
 erect a political fabric on the foundations of their linguistic 
 preponderance. 
 
 Slavic dialects are found in the Friulian sections of eastern 
 Italy as well as in the Abruzzi and Molise regions. The Slavic 
 population of Friuli was estimated in 1851 at 26,676. The census 
 of 1901 records the existence of 5,734 Slavic-speaking families 
 scattered in 16 communi and consisting of about 36,000 indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 The Slavs of Italy may be divided into four dialectical groups 
 as follows : ^° 
 
 Natisone group composed of 17,291 individuals 
 Torre " " " 12,9SG " 
 
 Judrio " " " 1,230 " 
 
 Resia " " " 4,671 " 
 
 The Molise group is the remnant of a once extensive Slav 
 
 colony which had reached the province of Chieti. Kound- 
 
 headedness, accompanied by high stature and blondness, among 
 
 inhabitants of the communes of Vasto, Cupello, Monteoderisio, 
 
 Abbateggio, Lanciano, San Giovanni Teatino, Cascanditella and 
 
 San Vito Chietino betrays Slavic ancestry. And yet Slavic 
 
 dialects are hardly heard any longer in these country districts. 
 
 The communes of Acquaviva CoUecroce and San Felice Slavo 
 
 alone boast of some 4,500 inhabitants who speak Slovene. 
 
 (The Karst or Carso formation on which Slovene life developed 
 "^ . 
 
 *• G. Canastrelli: II Tiiimero degli Slavi in Friuli, Riv. Oeogr. It., Vol. 21, 
 Nos. 1-2, Jiui.-Fcb. 1014, pp. 96-102. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 79 
 
 is the western section of a long calcareous plateau which extends 
 from the Juhan Alps, along the border of the ancient Friulian 
 gulf and attains Balkan ranges. It separates the valley of the 
 Save from the Adriatic. A characteristic aspect is noticeable 
 over all its extent in the thickness of its limestone beds and their 
 deep fissures. Surface water cannot collect and flow for any dis- 
 tance without disappearing into a fissure. The erosion forms of 
 the plateau are of the Karst type and differ radically from those 
 of the average humid climate. Chambers of marvelous dimen- 
 sions are formed; funnel-shaped sink-holes dot the surface; and 
 the rivers run underground. 
 
 The Slovenes settled on the calcareous plateau of Carniola 
 cluster around Laibach and attain the area of German speech on 
 the north, along the Drave between Marburg and Klagenfurth. 
 Eastward they march with Hungarians and the Serbo-Croat 
 group of southern Slavs. Their southern linguistic boundary also 
 coincides with that of the latter. Around Gottschee, however, a 
 zone of German intervenes between Slovene and Croatian dialects. 
 Practically the entire eastern coast of the Gulf of Triest lies in 
 the area of Slovene speech. The group thereby acquires the 
 advantage of direct access to the sea, a fact of no mean impor- 
 tance among the causes that contributed to its survival to the 
 present day in spite of its being surrounded by Germans, Hun- 
 garians, Croats and Italians. 
 
 The Slovenes may be considered as laggards among the Slavic 
 immigrants who followed Avar invasions. They would probably 
 have occupied the fertile plains of Hungary had they not been 
 driven to their elevated home by the pressure of Magyar and 
 Turkish advances. Confinement in the upland prevented their 
 fusion with any of the successive occupants of the eastern plains 
 below their mountain habitations. Racial distinctiveness, char- 
 acterized by language no less than by a highly developed attach- 
 ment to tradition, resulted from this seclusion. 
 
 Starting from the Adriatic Sea in the vicinity of Triest the 
 boundary of Slovene territory, according to Niederle, extends to 
 Duino, Montefalcone, Gradisca and Cormons. From the last 
 
80 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 locality it heads for Italian territory, within which it cuts off the 
 districts east of Tarcento and Resia from the area of Italian 
 speech. At Kanin the line is once more on Austrian soil. It now 
 proceeds to Pontafel, Saint-Hermagoras, Dobrac and Villach, the 
 latter city being mainly German. Beyond the Drave, the lin- 
 guistic frontier passes close to Woerther Lake and thence by 
 Kostenberg and Moosburg. From this town the divide is pro- 
 longed to Gurk and extends towards Diex, Greutschach, Griffen 
 and St. Pancrace. It next attains Arnfels. Fifty years ago, 
 according to the same authority, the environs of this village were 
 inhabited by Slovene populations. The district has since then 
 been reclaimed by German speech. The same is true of the right 
 bank of the Mur in the vicinity of Radkersburg. 
 
 At Radgona, the Slovene boundary crosses the Mur once more 
 and extends northward into Hungary as far as the German village 
 of St. Gotthard, which it leaves to the north. Thence it turns 
 southward at the Raab and heads for the Mur, which it crosses 
 at Gornia Bistrica. The line then runs close to the provincial 
 boundaries of Croatia and Carniola before attaining the sea 
 again in Istria. The Slovene area thus delimited comprises the 
 duchy of Carniola, excepting the Gottschee enclave, northern 
 Istria, the Udine region, southeastern Karinthia, southern Styria 
 and part of the Hungarian "comitats" of Vas and Zala. This 
 Slovene land is now but a dwindled remnant of its former exten- 
 sion. At one time the Slovenes extended as far west as the 
 Pusterthal in Tyrol, while their settlements even reached the 
 Danube (at Linz and Vienna)^ 
 
 Contact between languages on the Italo- Austrian frontier has 
 infhiencod the political relations between the two countries. The 
 whole foreign policy of the Austrian Empire, in fact, may be said 
 to have been stimulated mainly by the necessity of keeping its 
 mixed population in subjection. The central position of Austria- 
 Hungary had made it the meeting-place of every important race 
 in Europe. The mountain-girt monarchy is a seething reservoir 
 of nationalities. Germans from the west flow into it. Czechs and 
 Slovaks press in from the northwest, Poles and Ruthenians from 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 81 
 
 the north and northeast. A Rumanian drive proceeds from the 
 southeast. Croats, Serbians and Slovenes are steadily pushing 
 northward. Italians, advancing from the southwest, complete the 
 
 Fig. 31 — The area of Slovene speech in Austria and adjacent parts of Italy. 
 
 ring. Facing these racial swarms a central mass of Hungarians 
 are striving to expand against them. 
 
 For more than twelve centuries Austria's geographical posi- 
 tion has made her the protectress of Europe from successive 
 onslaughts of barbarian hordes pressing from the east. The 
 German-speaking nucleus of the present Dual Monarchy was 
 founded, at the end of the eighth century, by Charles the Great 
 as a bulwark against the Avars. A little later the role of stem- 
 ming the tide of Hungarian attacks also devolved upon it. Fight- 
 ing incessantly and on the whole successfully against eastern 
 invaders, the Austrians gradually extended their territory 
 
82 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 .V . 
 
 towards the Orient. The valley of the Danube provided them with 
 settling-land and passage-way. War and marriages brought 
 their share of added territory to the Hapsburg reigning family. 
 By 152G Moravia, Bohemia, Silesia and Hungary had been added 
 to the Empire. Transylvania was conquered in the seventeenth 
 century, Galicia and Bukovina in the eighteenth. At the begin- 
 ning of the nineteenth century, Austria was the leader among 
 German-speaking states. Prussian shot and shell ousted her 
 from this position at the battle of Sadowa in 1866. But the task 
 undertaken over a thousand years ago is still being performed. 
 Austrians today are engaged in another effort to check the west- 
 ward Slavic flow. 
 
 The country is ill-prepared to meet its hereditary foe. The 
 sovereign existence of Austria-Hungary to this day can be 
 regarded only as an exceedingly marvelous feat of political jug- 
 glery. Its weakness lies in the presence of strong contingents of 
 dissimilar races in its population. Struggle between the com- 
 ponent masses is as unending as it is passionate. To the lack of 
 linguistic or racial affinity must be added the want of a liberal 
 form of government in the strictly representative or federative 
 sense. Representative government, in the absence of everything 
 else, might have provided the required bond of political cohe- 
 sion. Of the total population of Austria only 11,000,000, or 24 
 per cent, are Germans. These Teutons pay allegiance to the 
 Hapsburg emperor along with 9,000,000 Hungarians, 3,000,000 
 Rumanian^ and about 1,000,000 Italians. The Slavic race, how- 
 ever, outnumbers every other element in the Empire. Its 
 21,000,000 members constitute 44 per cent of the subjects of 
 Charles I. 
 
 In one sense Austria's mission of protecting Europe ended as 
 soon as the Ottoman Empire ceased to be a source of danger. 
 To consolidate Danubian nationalities in a single group capable 
 of withstanding the Turkish advance had constituted Austria's 
 most glorious part in modern history. "With the elimination of 
 the Turkish danger, the necessity of political union among the 
 peoples occupying the valley of the Danube was removed. The 
 
56 
 
 The American Geographi'^^ of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. Ill 
 
 26" 
 
 28- 
 
 Legend ^^^ 
 
 D Italian DPolislj^A 
 
 □ Rumanian □Czechxl^'-^ v 
 
 □ German □Slovak 
 
 □ Hungarian □Slovei ^ 
 □TurMiTatar □Serto 
 □BiBSHii sMeniai^ Bdjarij 
 
 E3 Unlnha^itedA: 
 
 'V.-.I 
 
 30° 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 AND PARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 
 SHOWING 
 
 LANGUAGES 
 
 IJO" 
 
The American Geographical Societ\) of New Yorl^ 
 
 Fronti.,, of Language and Nationality in Europe, 191 7. Pi HI 
 
 ii 
 
 K 
 
 L e g'en.d <s''''~'o' ^'"^- 
 
 n ItaliaB n Polish 
 D Rumanian □CzechiMDravian ' 
 □ German DSlovalQan 
 □Hmigarian □ Slovene 
 □TiirMiTatar □SerlnaiuaiHliaii 
 □toan 4MieiiHn[I] Mganan 
 r~l Uninha'bitedJSreas 
 _— Nattonallioundanes 
 piovmcial 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ^ 
 
 'ARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN 1 
 SHOWrNG 
 
 LANGUAGES 
 
 AND PARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 
 SHOWrNG 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 83 
 
 chief reason for the maintenance of an Austrian state thereby 
 ceases to exist. Events of our own times reveal the natural 
 working out of these international problems. As long as Moham- 
 medanism threatened to absorb Christianity in southeastern 
 Europe, the various peoples of the Austrian Empire stood 
 shoulder to shoulder against a common foe. The sense of security 
 now induces them to turn their thoughts on themselves and 
 effectively hasten the growth of national consciousness based on 
 ideals and aspirations which can be expressed in a common lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The passing of Austria's usefulness as a nation has been 
 marked by the country's growing vassalage to the leading Teu- 
 tonic power. At Berlin, the center of Imperial Germany, the aim 
 of every leader is to further the easterly expansion of the Empire. 
 Austria, commanding the natural route to the southeast, figures 
 as a precious asset in these imperial estimates. But success to 
 German ambition spells defeat to the dreams of political inde- 
 pendence cherished in the minds of the peoples of Austria- 
 Hungary. A conflict of vital importance to each contestant is 
 raging. The struggle is likely to be maintained wherever more 
 than a single language continues to be spoken. 
 
 The mastery of the Adriatic, claimed by Italy at present, has 
 been contested in the past twenty-five centuries by every people 
 which succeeded in gaining a foothold on its shores. Illyrians, 
 Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians and Turks each in their 
 day acquired maritime supremacy in the Mediterranean, and 
 naturally aspired to control this waterway. The prize was worth 
 fighting for. It was part of the lane of traffic between the rich 
 valley of the Po, the lands beyond the Alps and eastern coun- 
 tries. In the present century eastern trade generally runs in 
 different channels. A sufficient tonnage, however, finds its way 
 to the great harbors of the Adriatic to excite Italian ambitions. 
 Moreover Italian manufacturers are looking forward to the 
 establishment of crosswise trade relations with the Balkan 
 peninsula. These are economic considerations which impart 
 definite aim to the policy of Italian statesmen. 
 
8i FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The moat satisfactory picture of Italian desire to annex 
 Dalmatia appears on maps of the Adriatic, which show the con- 
 trast between the opposite coasts. On the Italian side, the coast- 
 line runs with monotonous uniformity. It is devoid of the head- 
 lands, gulfs or islands which impart economic, strategic and 
 scenic value to Dalmatia. Barring short stretches in Tuglia the 
 entire Italian coast is shallow and sandy. Its well-known ports 
 hardly deserve the name. Mariners are well aware of the 
 obstacles to navigation along the whole western Adriatic shore. 
 At the head of this sea, especially, the situation for Italian 
 shipping is most unfavorable, owing to the large number of 
 rivers which discharge material collected from practically the 
 entire eastern watershed of the Alps and that of the northern 
 Apennines. From west to east some among the most important 
 of these rivers are the Po, Adige, Piave and Isonzo. This 
 piling of material, added to the process of land emergence going 
 on at the head of the Adriatic, impairs the value of the Gulf of 
 Venice to modern navigation. 
 
 The Dalmatian coast, however, with its numerous bays and 
 gulfs setting far into the land and broken by many headlands, 
 is fringed by a garland of outlying islands. These natural 
 features of the region provide the advantages denied to Italy. 
 Almost every mile of shore in Dalmatia contains a commodious 
 harbor for merchantmen or a well-sheltered base for war vessels. 
 Most of the rivers originating in the mountain chains over- 
 looking blue water flow eastward toward the Danube. Very little 
 silt and sediment therefore linds its way to the Dalmatian 
 coast. 
 
 Linguistically, the eastern shore of the Adriatic is Serbian or 
 Albanian. But the history of this coastal land is Italian in spite 
 of the showing of census returns as to the decided numerical 
 inferiority of Italians within its limits. Rome had reached Dal- 
 matia and the Near East by way of the Adriatic. A whole chain 
 of imposing ruins extending to the wild Albanian shores bear the 
 unmistakable impress of Roman splendor. In the partition of the 
 Roman Empire in 295 a.d. Dalmatia was assigned to the western 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 85 
 
 and not to the eastern half. The period 
 of its subjection to Venetian rule is one 
 of the most brilliant in its history. All 
 the civilization it received came from 
 the west. 
 
 The fact is that the Italian element 
 has always been predominant. After 
 1866 its influence was viewed with dis- 
 favor by the Austrian government. 
 Serbians and Croats were encouraged 
 to settle in the Italian communities of 
 the coast and officials of the Dual Mon- 
 archy were instructed to assist the Slavs 
 in every possible manner with a view to 
 counterbalancing Italian primacy in the 
 province. In recent years the task of 
 the Austrian government became doubly 
 difficult, for its representatives could not 
 avoid playing alternately into the hands 
 of Serbians and Italians. 
 
 Dalmatia has always greeted Italian 
 thought as the heritage of Rome and 
 Venice. Its history, its most notable 
 monuments and its whole culture are 
 Xjroducts of either Roman or Venetian 
 influence. The maritime cities in par- 
 ticular still remain strongholds of Italian 
 thought. Almost every one boasts of 
 a native son who has distinguished him- 
 self in the cause of Italy. 
 
 Zara, which Italian authors delight 
 in qualifying as "italianissima," is the 
 native city of the Italian patriot Arturo 
 Colantti. The great Dalmatian poet 
 Niccolo Tomasseo, whose monument was 
 erected in Sebenico in 1896, was a son 
 
 •3 
 
86 FRONllERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of this city and, although an intensely patriotic Slav, nevertheless- 
 thus expressed himself in Italian : 
 
 Ne piu tra'l monte e il mar, povero lembo 
 Di terra e pocbe ignude isole sparte, 
 Patria mia, sarai; ma la rinata 
 Serbia guerriera mano e mite spirto, 
 
 showing thereby the extent of the hold of Italian culture 
 over the land. Again, Spalato is the birthplace of Antonio Baja- 
 monti, one of the greatest exponents of Italy's claims over 
 Dalmatia. 
 
 According to the Austrian census of 1910 the population of 
 the province consisted of 645,666 inhabitants. Of these it is esti- 
 mated that 60,000 are Italians, who constitute the progressive 
 and educated element of the population. The Slav inhabitants 
 number approximately 480,000, but only about 30,000 among them 
 have a speaking knowledge of Italian. The mass of this Slavic 
 element is uneducated. 
 
 The Illyrians were early inliabitants of the eastern Adriatic 
 coast whom the Romans had conquered in order to check piracy 
 in the Adriatic. After being tamed these barbarians formed the 
 substratum of the population of Adriatic cities. Throughout the 
 coast their language was displaced during the Middle Ages by 
 the Venetian of Italian traders. In the Albanian mountains, how- 
 ever, the old Ulyrian tongue strongly impregnated w^ith Latin 
 words still survives. Roman influence could not be exerted on 
 this rugged land as strongly as on the coast. 
 
 Rome's ancient domination of the Ulyrian coast and Wal- 
 lachian plains led to highly interesting consequences. A genuine 
 Romance language was once spoken by the mountain population 
 of shepherds which extended across the entire Balkan peninsula 
 from the Dalmatian coast, through the Bosnian and Serbian 
 highlands, into the easternmost ranges of the Carpathians. The 
 similarity observable in Balkan and Carpathian mountain dialects 
 thus finds its source in the original easterly expansion of Rome. 
 The Banat territory, in which the proportion of Rumanian inhabi- 
 tants is high, is the bridge land which connects the Rumanian 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 87 
 
 form of Latin used on the broad Transylvanian shelf to the 
 Albanian prevailing in the broken-up highlands of Albania. 
 Romance speech therefore found a ready soil in the Balkan uplifts. 
 It may even be detected in the mountainous sections of Thrace, 
 a province which also fell under Roman rule during the transition 
 period from pagan to Christian days. 
 
 The arrival of Slavs in the seventh century forced the Romans 
 to take refuge behind city walls, so that although the vast non- 
 urban part of the province became Slavic in population, the cities 
 remained Latin and formed themselves into a number of inde- 
 pendent republics. These city states passed under Venetian 
 protection in the ninth and tenth centuries to safeguard them- 
 selves against the piratical raids of Slavs who had succumbed to 
 the nefarious influence exerted by the dissected coast with its 
 numerous fiords and deep-water harbors. 
 
 The Venetian protectorate soon became converted into direct 
 sovereignty. But the yoke of the Doges lay light on the land, the 
 administration of cities being left entirely in the hands of the 
 citizens. Venetian authority was most strongly felt in Dalmatia 
 after the assumption of the title of Dux Histriae et Dalmatiae by 
 Doge Pietro Orseolo II. All the efforts of Hungarians in the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and of Turks in the seven- 
 teenth, to insinuate themselves into Dalmatian affairs were futile. 
 The imposing barrier of the Dinaric Alps forbade intercourse 
 between Dalmatia and the east. Life and progress flowed into 
 the province from the west over Adriatic waters. 
 
 Dalmatia changed hands frequently during the Napoleonic 
 period. Perhaps it is on this account that the Dalmatian, when 
 questioned regarding his nationality, answers by stating that he 
 has two languages. Of these he calls one ''lingua del cuore," and 
 the other ''lingua del pane." His native province was awarded 
 to Austria by the treaty of Campoformio in 1797 and subsequently 
 annexed to Napoleon's Empire by the treaty of Presburg in 1805. 
 It reverted to Austrian rule in 1814. Successive masters, how- 
 ever, failed to root out Italian in the region. The language was 
 recognized as official until 1860. The formation of a united 
 
88 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Italian state marked the beginniiig of a repressive policy directed 
 against Italians by the Austrian government. The effort of the 
 Hapsburg administration was entirely directed towards the devel- 
 opment of the Adriatic Slavs in order to counterbalance Italian 
 influence. A great revival of Croatian and Serbian national feel- 
 ing resulted from this policy. 
 
 The award of the entire eastern Adriatic coast to Italy would 
 not only trespass on lands of alien speech, but would seriously 
 hamper future economic development of Croatians and Serbians 
 by preventing these peoples from attaining the sea. These points 
 are admitted by most Italian irredentists. They therefore limit 
 their claims to the Istrian peninsula and the coast region of 
 Dalmatia comprised between the Velebiti range and the Narenta 
 river. Italy's position in the Adriatic would be improved by the 
 recognition of the rights of her Slav neighbors. The goodwill of 
 a united and liberated Jugoslavia, which would be bound to Italy 
 by ties of interest and sentiment, would thus be acquired. 
 
 The Croatian coastland, in the section which extends along the 
 waterway of the same name from the gulf of Fiume to the mouth 
 of the Zermagna river, is known as the Morlacca. The bay of 
 Buccari is strategically necessary for the protection of Fiume, 
 and Italians would probably make a strong claim for its posses- 
 sion in case the larger seaport came into their possession. The 
 Serbian coastland really begins south of the Narenta river and 
 centers around Ragusa. This is the only city of any importance 
 on the Adriatic coast in which evidences of Serbian culture are 
 discernible. 
 
 The old Sla^dc settlers were probably traders who plied between 
 the coasts of Dalmatia and Abruzzi during the Middle Ages. 
 In the kingdom of Naples Slav colonists are known as early as 
 the eleventh century, during the reign of Emperor Otto I. The 
 bulk of Slavic immigration into Italy dates, however, from the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century when possession of the coast 
 provinces was disputed by the Aragonians and Angevins. Both 
 claimants induced Slavs to colonize the contested regions on con- 
 dition that they would recognize the authority of those who 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 89 
 
 provided them with land. At a later period the advance of 
 Turkish hordes in the Balkans drove a large number of Slavic 
 families westward. 
 
 The Turkish conquest of Greece also forced many Greek 
 families to seek safety on the Italian mainland. As a result, two 
 
 Fig. 33 — The Slavic colonies of the Molise group in eastern Italy are shown by 
 black dots. 
 
 communities of Greek speech are found on Italian territory at 
 Lecce in the province of Puglia and at Bora in Calabria. The 
 vernacular of both these regions contains a strong proportion of 
 Italian words without, however, losing its affinity with the original 
 
90 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 mother tongue. The Lecce conununity consists of 4,973 families 
 scattered in nine communi. The southern group is represented 
 by 2,389 families settled in four communi of the Bora district, in 
 Reggio di Calabria and in Palizzi. Altogether Greek is spoken as 
 a vernacular by 30,700 inhabitants of Italy. 
 
 Still another reminder of the Turkish conquests of the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries is afforded by the presence of an Albanian 
 element living along the eastern coast of Italy. This group con- 
 sists of between 80,000 and 90,000 Albanians speaking their own 
 language. The purity of Albanian speech and custom has been 
 preserved by them on the alien soil skirting western Adriatic 
 waters.^^ 
 
 This total shows a marked decrease from the figure of 96,000 
 reported in the census of 1901. Emigration accounts mainly for 
 this loss. At the same time, a tendency among Albanians to 
 forsake their vernacular for Italian is discernible as intercourse 
 with the dominant element increases. 
 
 All these nuclei of foreign languages cannot impair the unity 
 of Italian nationality because the racial distinctions on which 
 they are based have been largely obliterated. The final supremacy 
 of Italian language is already in sight. From the valleys of 
 Piedmont to the eastern coastlands which face Albania, the alien 
 tongues are giving way before the national vernacular, perhaps 
 just because no pressure or effort to hasten their disappearance 
 is being exerted by the government. 
 
 ''^ 0. Marinelli: II numero degli Albanesi in Italia, Riv. Geogr. It., Vol. 20, pp. 
 364-367; A. Similari: Gli Albanesi in Italia, loro costumi e poesie popolari, Naples, 
 1891. 
 
BORDERLANDS OF ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 91 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Inhabitants of Italy Speaking Non-Italian Vernaculars * 
 
 Language 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Slovene 
 
 Serbian 
 Albanian 
 
 Greek 
 
 Catalonian 
 
 Number of Families 2 
 (Average of four persons 
 
 Localities to the family) 
 
 Saluzzo (Cuneo) 238 
 
 Aosta (Torino) 15,692 
 
 Pignerol 1,937 
 
 Suse 1,779 
 
 Aosta (Torino) 430 
 
 Domodossola (Novara) 250 
 
 VaraUo 412 
 
 Asiago (Vieenza) 501 
 
 Tregnago (Verona) 30 
 
 Pieve di Cadore (Belluno) 299 
 
 Tolmezzo (Udine) 280 
 
 Cividale del Friuli (Udine) 3,769 
 
 Gemona , 120 
 
 Tolmezzo 990 
 
 Tarcento 1,371 
 
 Larino (Campobasso) 1,069 
 
 Larino (Campobasso) 2,431 
 
 Penne (Teramo) 66 
 
 Ariano di Puglia (Avel.) 763 
 
 San Severo (Foggia) 832 
 
 Taranto (Leece) 757 
 
 Lagonegro (Potenza) 2,319 
 
 Catanzaro 701 
 
 Cotrone (Catanzaro) 789 
 
 Nicastro 434 
 
 Castrovillari (Cosenza) 3,330 
 
 Cosenza 1,441 
 
 Paola (Cosenza) 408 
 
 Rossano 1,702 
 
 Corleone (Palermo) 385 
 
 Palermo 2,733 
 
 Leece 4,935 
 
 Gerace (Reggio di Calab.) 129 
 
 Reggio di Calabria 1,841 
 
 Alghero (Sassari) 2,552 
 
 Total 57,715 
 
 * Annuario Statistico Italiano, 2d series, Vol. 4, 1914, Roma, 1915, p. 28. 
 
 * The Italian practice of computing by families is a result in this instance of 
 the official standpoint which recognizes foreign languages as prevailing only in home 
 life. 
 
92 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The proportion of inhabitants of Italian (including Ladin) 
 speech in the Adriatic lands claimed by Italy is given as follows 
 according to the Austrian Census of 1910 : ^ 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Proportion of Inhabitants of Italian (Including Ladin) Speech in thb 
 Adriatic Lands Claimed by Italy According to the Austrian Census of 
 1910: 
 
 Coast Total number of Number of Italian (and Ladin) 
 
 Provinces Austrian subjects speaking Austrian subjects 
 
 Triest (city) 190,913 118,959 
 
 Gorz " 29,291 14,812 
 
 Gorz (district) 73,275 2,765 
 
 Gradisca " 31,321 26,263 
 
 Monfaleone " 47,858 45,907 
 
 Sesana " 30,078 343 
 
 Tolmein " 38,070 29 
 
 Rovigno (city) 11,308 10,859 
 
 Capodistria (district) 87,652 38,006 
 
 Lussin " 20,450 9,884 
 
 Mitterburg " 48,243 4,032 
 
 Parenzo " 60,368 41,276 
 
 Pola " 85,943 40,863 
 
 Veglia " 21,136 1,544 
 
 Volosca " 51,363 953 
 
 Total number of Number of Italian (and Ladin) 
 
 Dalmatia Austrian subjects speaking Austrian subjects 
 
 Benkovac (district) 44,054 84 
 
 Cattaro " 36,014 538 
 
 Curzola " 29,695 444 
 
 Imotski " 42,086 46 
 
 Knin " 54,936 186 
 
 Lesina " 26,902 586 
 
 Makarska " 27,649 117 
 
 Metkovie " 15,475 32 
 
 Ragusa " 38,632 526 
 
 Sau Pietro " 
 
 (Brazza) 22,865 265 
 
 Sebenico " 57,658 968 
 
 Sinj " 57,021 111 
 
 Spalato " 98,509 2,357 
 
 Zara " 83,359 11,768 
 
 * G. Lukas : Die Latinitiit der adriatischen Kiiste Osterreich-Ungarns — Geogra- 
 phische Vorlesungen, Pet. Mitt., Vol. 6, Nov. 1915, pp. 413-416. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 
 
 Scandinavia's remoteness from the center of European 
 political strife has not saved the region from the inconveniences 
 arising from linguistic clashes. Especially is this true where 
 political and linguistic boundaries do not coincide. The Danish- 
 German frontier has been marked by antagonism between Danes 
 and Germans. Denmark's hold on Schleswig-Holstein prior to 
 1866 had engendered bitter feeling among Germans, who consid- 
 ered the subjection of their kinsmen settled on the right bank of 
 the Elbe estuary as unnatural. After Prussia had annexed the 
 contested region, it was the Danes' turn to feel dissatisfied and 
 to claim the districts occupied by their countrymen. 
 
 The problem of Schleswig-Holstein is a direct consequence of 
 Germany's geography. By its position in Europe the Teutonic 
 empire is essentially a land power. Its maritime development 
 began in the midst of adverse natural conditions in the northern 
 confines of the country. The southern Baltic and the North Sea 
 are both shallow. Sandbanks and winter ice hamper navigation 
 in the easternmost stretch of these waters. An outlet exists only 
 in the round-about and rock-studded Danish straits. The Oder^ 
 Elbe and Ems are constantly discharging material collected from 
 the mountainous heart of Europe. The harbors of the north- 
 western shore are artificial and require ceaseless watching, for 
 all of which German navigation pays a heavy annual tax. 
 
 The Danish tongue of land which divides Germany's northern 
 sea boundary into two separate regions contains in its eastern 
 and northern coasts the very advantages which Germany cannot 
 find on its northern frontier. Eastern Jutland boasts a few 
 natural harbors located at the head of the indentations which 
 impart a fiord-like aspect to this coast and which in course of 
 
 93 
 
94 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 time liave grown into centers of commercial activity. German 
 shipping circles would consider the annexation of the Danish 
 peninsula to Germany as a measure leading to high economic 
 advantages, even though the construction of the Kiel canal has 
 materially changed conditions which atfected the Danish-German 
 situation when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were 
 annexed in 1866. 
 
 The present Danish-speaking population of Schleswig-Holstein 
 is variously estimated at between 140,000 and 150,000. These 
 subjects of the Kaiser occupy the territory south of the Danish 
 boundary to a line formed by the western section of the Lecker 
 Au, the southern border of the swampy region extending south 
 of Reus and the northern extension of the Angeln hills. Between 
 this line and the area in which German is spoken a zone of the 
 old Frisian tongue of Holland survives along the western coast 
 of the peninsula from the Lecker Au to the Treene river.^ 
 Frisian is also spoken in the coastal islands. 
 
 The degree to which linguistic variations adapt themselves to 
 physical configuration is admirably illustrated in this case, by 
 the southerly extension of Danish along the eastern section of the 
 peninsula where persistence of the Baltic ridge appears in the 
 hilly nature of the land. The Low German of the long Baltic 
 plain also continued to spread unimpeded within the low-lying 
 western portion of the narrow peninsula, until its northward 
 extension was arrested by uninhabited heath land. The presence 
 of Frisian along the western coast is undoubtedly connected with 
 the adaptability of Frisians to settle in land areas reclaimed from 
 the sea. 
 
 The province of Schleswig began to acquire historical promi- 
 nence as an independent duchy in the twelfth century. Barring 
 few interruptions its union with the Danish crown has been con- 
 tinuous to the time of the Prussian conquest. In 1848 both 
 Schleswig and Holstein were disturbed by a wave of political 
 agitation which expressed itself in demands for the joint incorpo- 
 
 * A substantial account of the tribes speaking these three languages was given as 
 early as 731 by the Venerable Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 95 
 
 ration of both states in the German Confederation. To what 
 extent the mass of Danish inhabitants of the duchies took part in 
 this movement is a matter of controversy. Holstein was an 
 ancient fief of the old Germano-Roman Empire. Its population 
 has always been largely German. But the duchy of Schleswig is 
 peopled mainly by Danes. By the terms of the treaty of Prague 
 of August 23, 1866, both Austria and Prussia had agreed to 
 submit final decision on the question of nationality to popular 
 vote.^ The provisions of the clause dealing with the referendum, 
 however, were not carried out, and on Jan. 12, 1867, Schleswig 
 was definitely annexed by Prussia.^ 
 
 Incorporation of the Danish provinces w^as followed by sys- 
 tematic attempts to Germanize the population * through the 
 agency of churches and schools. In addition a number of coloni- 
 zation societies such as the "Ansiedelungs Verein fur westliche 
 Nordschleswig, " founded at Podding in 1891,^ and the ''Deutsche 
 Verein fiir das nordliche Schleswig" were formed to introduce 
 German ownership of land in the Danish districts. The final 
 years of the nineteenth century in particular constituted a period 
 of strained feeling between Danes and Germans owing to unset- 
 tled conditions brought about by duality of language and 
 tradition. 
 
 At present the problem of Schlesw^ig is considered settled by 
 the German government, A treaty signed on January 11, 1907, 
 between the cabinets of Berlin and Copenhagen defined the status 
 of the inhabitants of the annexed duchy. The problem of the 
 "Heimatlose" or citizens without a country^ was solved by the 
 
 ^ [Translation.] " Art. V. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria transfers to His 
 Majesty the King of Prussia all the rights which he acquired by the Vienna Treaty 
 of Peace of 30th October, 1864, over the Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, with the 
 condition that the populations of the Northern Districts of Schleswig shall be ceded 
 to Denmark if, by a free vote, they express a wish to be united to Denmark." E. 
 Herstlet: The Map of Europe, by Treaty, London, 1875, Vol. 3, p. 1722. 
 
 'A later treaty signed by Austria and Prussia at Vienna on Oct. 11, 1878, 
 suppressed the referendum clause, Avhich had never been viewed with favor by the 
 German government. 
 
 * M. R. Waultrin : Le rapprochement dano-allemand et la question du Schleswig, 
 Ann. Sci. Polit., May 15, and July 15, 1903. 
 
 " L. Gasselin: La question du Schleswig-Holstein, Paris, 1909. 
 
 * L. Gasselin: op. cit., p. 206. 
 
96 
 
 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 recognition of the right of choice of nationality on their part. 
 The German government considered this measure as satisfying 
 the aspirations of its subjects of Danish birth. Nevertheless, 
 although the Danish government appeared to share these views, 
 the acquiescence of Danes living in Germany to any solution other 
 
 Fig. 34 — Sketch map of Schlesvvig-Holstein showing languages spoken. According 
 to the German viewpoint. Scale, 1:1,200,000. (Based on maps on pp. 59, 60, Andree's 
 Eandatlas, 6th ed.) 
 
 than the restoration to Denmark of the Danish-speaking sections 
 of Schleswig remains doubtful. That suspicion of the loyalty of 
 the Schleswig Danes is still entertained in Germany is shown 
 by statements like that made by Henry Goddard Leach, Secretary 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 
 
 97 
 
 of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, when he asserted' 
 that Eoald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, was pre- 
 vented from lecturing in Norwegian, in the town of Flensborg, 
 because the language resembled Danish. 
 
 54''3d' 
 
 Fig. 35 — Sketch map of Schleswig-Holstein showing languages spoken. According 
 to the Danish viewpoint. Scale, 1:1,200,000. (After Rosendal based on Clausens 
 and Heyers.) 
 
 In Norway the linguistic problem goes under the name of 
 Maalstraev. The question of language in that country was 
 debated with marked fervor ® during the years prior to the sepa- 
 ration from Sweden. "Freedom with self-government, home. 
 
 ^ Scandinavia and the Scandinavians, New York, 1915, p. 30. 
 " Op. cit., p. 143. 
 
98 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 land and our own language" was the jjlea of Mr. Jorgen Lovland, 
 subsequently Premier of Norway, in an address to the Norwegian 
 youth in 1904. "Political freedom," then said Mr. Lovland, "is 
 not the deepest and greatest. Greater is it for a nation to pre- 
 serve her intellectual inheritance in her native tongue." 
 
 Norwegian history is not continuous, complaisant historians to 
 the contrary. A long break occurs from the Union of Kalmar in 
 1397, when the country ceased to exist as a political entity, to 
 1814. During this period of extinction, Norway was a mere 
 geographical shuttlecock tossed between Sweden and Denmark. 
 The latter country as a rule obtained the upper hand in its deal- 
 ings with Norway. This relation accounts for the analogies in 
 the languages of the two nations. But although Norway had 
 seceded from Denmark in 1814, the Danish language, representing 
 the speech of the more energetic and better educated Danes, 
 remained ofdcial. Four and a half centuries of union between the 
 two countries had made Danish the medium of intellectual devel- 
 oijment throughout Norway. But this linguistic invasion was 
 accompanied by a notable modification of Danish. Norwegian 
 intonations and sound articulations became adapted to it and the 
 Norwego-Danish language, which is spoken today, gradually came 
 into use. 
 
 This hybrid language, however, does not prevail exclusively. 
 About 95 per cent of the Norwegians speak, according to districts, 
 different dialects derived from the Old Norse. The NorAvego- 
 Danish, or Kiksmaal, is the language of polite society and the one 
 which a foreigner naturally learns when in Norway. The lan- 
 guage of the land, or Norsk as it is called by the Norwegians, 
 has the merit of being more homogeneous than either Danish or 
 Swedish. 
 
 Nationality and language have grown apace in Norway. Prior 
 to the nineteenth century the use of words taken from the Nor- 
 wegian dialects was considered bad form. The granting of a 
 constitution to the Norwegians, in 1814, created a strong feeling 
 of nationality throughout the land. This spirit was reflected in 
 active research for evcrv form of Old Norse culture. Hitherto 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 99 
 
 despised patois words were forced into prose or poetry by tlie 
 foremost Norwegian writers, a movement to Norsefy the Riks- 
 maal thus being originated. 
 
 As a result of these endeavors a new language, the "Lands- 
 maal," or fatherland speech, came into being about the middle 
 of the nineteenth century. The name of Ivar Aasen will always 
 be linked with it. This highly gifted peasant devoted his life to 
 the idea of a renaissance of the Old Norse language through the 
 unification of the current peasant dialects. Scientific societies, 
 urged by patriotism no less than by genuine scholarly interest, 
 granted him subsidies which enabled him to carry on his studies. 
 Two of his works — "The Grammar of the Norwegian Popular 
 Language," published in 1848, and a "Dictionary of the Nor- 
 wegian Popular Language," in 1850 — virtually established a new 
 medium of speech in Norway. 
 
 Landsmaal was happily introduced just about the time when 
 a sense of national consciousness began to dawn on Norwegian 
 minds. By a number of enactments of the Storting the study of 
 the new national tongue was made compulsory. This body first 
 acted in May 1885 by requesting the Government "to adopt the 
 necessary measures so that the people's language, as school and 
 official language, be placed side by side with our ordinary written 
 speech." Then, in 1892, the follow^ing law for elementary schools 
 w^as framed: "The school board (in each district) shall decide 
 whether the school readers and text-books shall be composed in 
 Landsmaal or the ordinary book-'maal' and in which of these 
 languages the pupil's written exercises shall in general be com- 
 posed. But the pupil must learn to read both languages." 
 Finally, in 1896, the study of Landsmaal was made obligatory in 
 the high schools. 
 
 After Norway secured complete national independence, in 
 1905, the Landsmaal advanced rapidly. Its use was permitted in 
 university examinations. By 1909 one hundred and twenty-five 
 out of six hundred and fifty school districts had adopted "New 
 Norse" as the medium ©f instruction.^" In the bishopric of 
 
 • Op. cit., p. 147. »" Op. cit., p. 148. 
 
100 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Bergen the new language came to stay in 56 out of 101 country- 
 parishes. The issue between Landsmaal and Riksmaal being 
 closely linked with nationalism in Norway, many Norwegians have 
 now come to look upon the Danish tongue as a sign of former 
 vassalage. New Norse, on the other hand, embodies the newly 
 acquired national independence. In the eyes of patriots it is the 
 language which is most closely allied to the saga tongue of their 
 Viking ancestors. And yet it is stated that less than a thousand 
 persons in Norway actually use New Norse in their conversa- 
 tion." The supplanting of Norwego-Danish by the made-to-order 
 Landsmaal bids fair to take time. But the process of welding 
 Norwegian dialects into a single national language is going on. 
 In this must be sought the signiJScance of Norway's language 
 agitation. A Norwegian tongue which will be spoken within Nor- 
 wegian boundaries is being formed. In recent years it has been 
 customary to publish all 'acts of Parliament both in Norwego- 
 Danish and in Landsmaal. 
 
 The Swedish language differs from Norwegian by a typical 
 accentuation. The growth of the language to its present form 
 may be traced back to the Runic period of the thirteenth century. 
 At that time Swedish was free from foreign admixture. The 
 influence of Latin and of Middle and Low German was felt later. 
 The language passed successively through the period of Old 
 Swedish (1200-1500) and Early Modern Swedish (1500-1730). 
 Its present form belongs to the Later Modern School, although 
 it is spoken now without much change from the language of the 
 middle eighteenth century. 
 
 The eastern half of the European continent contains a zone 
 of excessive linguistic intermingling along the line where Teutonic 
 and Slavic peoples meet. From the shores of the White Sea to 
 the Baltic and thence to the coast of the Black Sea an elongated 
 belt of lowland was ill fitted to become the seat of a single state 
 because nature has not provided it with strongly marked geo- 
 graphical boundaries which might have favored the development 
 of nationality. Hence it is that before the eighteenth century we 
 
 " Op. cit., p. 150. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 101 
 
 do not find a single nation in possession of this region. On the 
 other hand, it is the site on which three religions met in bloody 
 fray in modern times. At the beginning of the modern era its 
 northern sections became the theater of wars between Protestants 
 and Catholics, while to the south, Christians arrayed against 
 eastern infidels were obliged to war for centuries before the 
 danger of the invasion of central Europe by Mohammedan hordes 
 was totally removed. 
 
 The Finns, occupying the northernmost section of this elon- 
 gated belt, are linguistically allied to the Turki. Physically they 
 constitute the proto-Teutonic substratum of the northern Russians 
 with whom they have been merged. Their land was transferred 
 from Sweden to Russia in 1808. Autonomy conceded by the 
 Czar's government provided the inhabitants with a tolerable 
 political status, until it was rescinded by the imperial decree of 
 February 15, 1899. The opening years of the present century 
 marked the beginning of a policy of Slavicization prosecuted with 
 extreme vigor on the part of the provincial administrators. 
 
 The Finnish peoples of Russia must be regarded as autochthons 
 who have been subjected to the inroads of both Slavic and Tatar 
 invasions. In the ninth century a.d. they formed compact popu- 
 lations on the European mainland directly south of Finland, 
 where their descendants now group themselves in scattered 
 colonies. Except in Finland they are being Slavicized at a rapid 
 rate and the Slav population is now imposing itself on the Tatar 
 which had once swamped the indigenous element. 
 
 Early mention of these Finns shows them divided into several 
 tribes. The Livs and Chuds, who dwelt mainly around the gulfs 
 of Livonia and of Finland, were the forefathers of the present 
 inhabitants of northern Livonia as well as of Esthonia." The 
 Ingrians and the Vods inhabited the basin of the Neva. The 
 Suomi tribes, of which the Kvens, Karels, Yams and Tavasts were 
 the most important, occupied the Finnish territory held at present 
 by their descendants. Every river valley of northwestern Russia 
 was in fact a tribal homeland. The term Finnish as applied to 
 
 A. Eambaud: Histoire de la Riissie, Paris, 1914, p. 21, 
 
102 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 these tribes refers to their culture, which was Asiatic throughout. 
 Racially, however, they consist of Nordics with a strong addition 
 of Tatar blood. 
 
 The area of Finnish speech forms a compact mass extending 
 south of the C9th parallel to the Baltic shores. Its complete access 
 to the sea is barred in part by two coastal strips in the gulfs of 
 Bothnia and Finland in both of which Swedish predominates in 
 varying percentages.^^ The group of the Aland Islands, although 
 included in the Czar's dominions, is also peopled by Swedes all 
 the way to the southwestern point of Finland.^' This broken 
 fringe of Swedish is conceded to be a relic of the early occupation 
 of Finland by Swedes." One of its strips, the Bothnian, is 
 remarkably pure in composition. The band extending on the 
 northern shore of the Gulf of Finland, however, contains enclaves 
 of the Finnish element. This is ascribed to an artificial process 
 of ^'fennification" resulting from the introduction of cheap labor 
 in the industrial regions of southern Finland. Slower economic 
 development of the provinces of the western coast, on the other 
 hand, tends to maintain undisturbed segregation of the population. 
 
 The ties uniting Finland with Sweden are moral and cultural. 
 Swedish missionaries of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were 
 the agents through w^hom Christianity was introduced into Fin- 
 land. Together with religion many Swedish customs and laws 
 superseded the primitive social organization of the Finns. The 
 relation established was virtually that of an intellectual minority 
 
 • • • * • 
 
 gammg the upper hand over an ignorant majority. A change m 
 the situation came about in the middle of the fourteenth century 
 when Finland became an integral part of the Swedish kingdom 
 and all civil and political distinctions between the two elements 
 of its populations were abolished. 
 
 Finland's union with the west failed, however, to bring about 
 Swedish predominance in the land. The Finns preserved their 
 
 "Atlas de Finlande, Carte 46, Helsingfors, 1911. 
 
 '* K. B. Wiklund: Spiilken i Finland, 1880-1900, Ymcr, 1905, No. 2, pp. 132-149. 
 "R. Saxen: Repartition des langues, Fennia, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1910-1911, 
 Helsingfors, 1911. 
 
Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 30 — View of the Lake country near Kuopi, showing the Kallavesi Sea with 
 low islands and level sliores. This is a ciiaracteristic Finnish landscape. 
 
 Fig, 37 — Above the' Koivukoski Falls at Kajana. Finnish waterways are the 
 usual lanes of traffic between the inland seas of that country. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 103 
 
 language and tended in fact to assimilate their conquerors. The 
 physical isolation of their country from Sweden contributed 
 largely to foster this incipient stage of Finnish nationality. The 
 Gulf of Bothnia and the frozen solitudes of Lapland proved an 
 effective barrier to the complete fusion of Swedes and Finns. 
 Eastward, however, no natural obstacles intervened between Fin- 
 land and Eussia. The prolonged struggle between the latter 
 country and Sweden hence inevitably led to the Russian conquest 
 of Finland. 
 
 The peace of Nystad in 1721 enabled Russia to occupy Finnish 
 territory for the first time. All of the southeastern portion of the 
 duchy then became part of the Muscovite empire. A further 
 cession in 1743 at the treaty of Abo brought Swedish frontiers as 
 far west as the Kymmens line. The final conquest was ratified by 
 the treaty of peace signed by Swedish and Russian plenipoten- 
 tiaries on September 17, 1809. Sweden formally renounced its 
 rights over Finland and the duchy became part of Russia. 
 
 Today Finland is a country with three languages. Russian is 
 the channel of official activity. Finnish, through a literary 
 revival, has won its right to be the language of the land and this 
 is a symbol of the Finns' desire for independent national exist- 
 ence. Swedish remains as the age-old medium through which 
 Christianity and western culture were conveyed. It is also to a 
 large extent the business language of the province, especially for 
 communication with western Europe. Competition between the 
 three languages is carried on with unabating energy. The 
 struggle is an outward manifestation of the fight for independence 
 waged by the natives of Finland in the presence of Swedish and 
 Russian efforts to dominate the country. The common danger 
 from Russia has lately drawn the Swedish and Finnish groups 
 together, although the Finns were' previously strongly anti- 
 Swedish. The old antagonism still lingers in society life. The 
 Swedish-speaking element rarely mixes with the Finnish-speaking. 
 This is particularly noticeable at Helsingfors, where each lan- 
 guage represents a distinct stratum of social life. 
 
 In Russia's Baltic provinces two of the world's oldest yet 
 
104 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 absolutely distinct languages are spoken. South of the Gulf of 
 Finland the Esthonians or Chuds still retain a primitive form of 
 Mongolian. In the neighboring Letto-Lithuanian group, on the 
 other hand, a speech which is closely akin to the old Aryan is 
 employed. Almost any Lithuanian peasant can understand simple 
 phrases in Sanskrit. The survival of archaic languages in this 
 section of Europe is the result of isolation provided by a forested 
 and marshy country in which folk-characteristics maintained their 
 ancient forms. From the racial standpoint Esthonians, Letts and 
 Lithuanians are fair, generally tall, narrow-faced and long- 
 headed. In the Fellin district, in southern Estland, a very pure 
 Nordic type is found among peoples of Esthonian speech. 
 
 Early Russian chronicles describe the Letts and Lithuanians 
 as divided into several tribes." The Yatvags were scattered along 
 the banks of the Narev. The Lithuanians proper together with 
 the Shmuds peopled the Niemen valley. Very little dialectical 
 differences exist between the two. The Shmuds cluster now in 
 northwestern Kovno without, however, attaining the Baltic shore. 
 The left bank of the Drina was occupied by the Semigals, while 
 on the right dwelt the Letgols who were the ancestors in direct 
 line of the Letts of southern Livonia. The Kors, who lived on 
 the western shores of the Gulf of Riga, were later to impose their 
 name on the province of Kurland." 
 
 Two of these tribes, the Shmuds and the Lithuanians, escaped 
 the Teutonic conquest through the inaccessibility of their forested 
 and marshy retreat. Around them the Kors and the Letts, as 
 well as the primitive Slav occupants of Prussia, had been subju- 
 gated by the Knights of the Teutonic Order. The only salvation 
 for these tribes from Teutonic oppression consisted in their seek- 
 ing the natural shelter occupied by the two more fortunate groups 
 of their kinsmen. Behind this natural barrier Lithuanian nation- 
 ality was bom in the middle of the thirteenth century under the 
 leadership of Mindvog, an energetic chieftain who insured his 
 
 *• A. Rambaud: Histoire de la Russie depuis les origines jusqu'fl nos jourg, 
 Paris, 1914, p. 21. 
 
 ' ' Rambaud : op. cit. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 105 
 
 o^vn supremacy by causing the leaders of rival clans to be put to 
 death. With the help of the Poles the Lithuanians eventually 
 checked the easterly expansion of the Teutons. 
 
 The region occupied by Lithuanians in former times can be 
 traced today by the distribution of the type of dwelling peculiar to 
 this people. The ancient area exceeds the borders of the present 
 linguistic zone. The earliest examples of Lithuanian houses consist 
 of a single room. The indoor life of a single family was spent 
 within this one apartment. This primitive habitation grew into 
 the modern style by the successive addition of rooms. In course 
 of time a kitchen or a stable was added to the main building. 
 Sometimes the old type of house stands to this day adjoining 
 more modern buildings. In such cases it is used as a barn. 
 
 The old Aryan of the Lithuanians is in vogue principally along 
 the Duna and Niemen rivers as well as around Vilna, where this 
 people are settled in compact masses. In spite of the antiquity of 
 their language, no texts prior to the sixteenth century are kno^\Ti. 
 Emigration in the past decade to large Russian cities, and to 
 America, has decreased their ranks appreciably. Their number 
 is now estimated at 3,500,000.^^ In his native land, the Lithuanian 
 is not on the best of terms with neighboring peoples. He looks 
 upon the Russian as his political oppressor and upon the Pole as 
 his hereditary foe. The Lett is regarded with somewhat less 
 animosity as a rival. The Letts spread inland from the shores of 
 the Gulf of Riga and number about 1,300,000. Owing to Polish 
 influences, many Lithuanians are Catholics, but, in the main, both 
 Letts and Lithuanians are stanch Lutherans.^® Their land is the 
 home of religious free thought within orthodox Russia. German 
 influence prevails among them on this account, although it is 
 doubtful whether it extends to the point of their preferring Ger- 
 man to Russian rule. Evil memories of the attempts of the 
 Teutonic Knights to conquer the immemorial seat of the Lettish 
 and Lithuanian populations survive throughout their forests and 
 marshes. Neither people has forgotten that its ancestors were 
 
 " The Russian census of 1897 showed 3,094,469. 
 " About 50,000 Letts belong to the Greek Church. 
 
106 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 refugees who sought iJio shelter of their boglands as a hist 
 recourse from Teutonic aggression^ 
 
 Prior to 1870, the Baltic provinces were ruled by a semi- 
 autonomous administration headed by a governor-general whose 
 role Avas more properly that of a viceroy. German was as much 
 an ofHcial language as Russian and no restrictions prevented its 
 use in courts. German schools and a German university were 
 widely attended. Since that date, however, the Letto-Lithuanian 
 populations have been deprived of the liberal regime they for- 
 merly enjoyed and an otlficial "Russification" has been directed 
 against them. Most of the Lutheran schools were closed by order 
 of the government and the teaching of German in schools 
 restricted or prohibited. But to this day tlie three Baltic prov- 
 inces of Kurland, Livland and Estland are considered by German 
 writers as a domain of German culture and Protestant faith con- 
 trolled by Russian political and ecclesiastical power. 
 
 In the province of Kurland the Germans boast 51,000 
 resident kinsmen. As a rule this section of the population is 
 confined to the cities. Piga, Reval, Libau, Dorpat and Mitau 
 contain notable percentages of Germans among their citizens. The 
 first-named city counts 65,332 of these westerners in its popula- 
 tion, or over 25 i)er cent of the total. -'^ 
 
 The Letts have settled mainly in the Kurland peninsula and 
 southern Livonia. They are also found in the governments of 
 Kovno, Petrograd and Mohilev. Lithuanians occupy the govern- 
 ments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and Grodno. No definite bound- 
 aries between the two peoples can be determined because their 
 intercourse is constant. The only difference between the two 
 languages is found in the greater departure of Lettic from the 
 old Vedic forms. 
 
 North of the Letto-Lithuanian group the Esthonians, who are 
 Finns and speak a Finnish language, occupy a lake-covered area 
 similar to Finland. In both a granite tableland is the scene of 
 human activity. In spite of the drawbacks of their natural 
 
 •• H. Rosen: Die ethnographische Verliftltnisse in den baltischen Provinzen und in 
 Litaucn, Pet. Milt., Sept. 1915, pp. 329-333. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 107 
 
 environment the Estlionians deiaend cliiefly on agriculture for 
 sustenance. Tliis industry has attained a higli stage of perfection 
 in their hands and few peoples know how to make their soil yield 
 a higher return than do these virile northerners. 
 
 The number of Esthonians is estimated at about one million,-^ 
 distributed as follows: Esthonia, 365,959; Livonia, 518,594; Gov- 
 ernment of St. Petersburg, 64,116; Government of Pskov, 25j458; 
 other parts of Russia 12,855. Large colonies of Russians, Ger- 
 mans and Swedes are settled in the Esthonian province. The 
 census of 1897 showed Russians, 18,000; Germans, 16,000; 
 Swedes, 5,800. 
 
 The number of Jews settled in the province is not high. The 
 German and Russian elements compose the nobility. The former 
 owned and farmed 52 per cent of the land in 1878. Since that 
 time, however, facilities have been accorded to the peasants of 
 the province, mostly Esthonians, to purchase farms and the pro- 
 portion of native land holdings is gradually increasing. 
 
 Confusion of racial minglings complicates the problem of 
 assigning fixed ethnic place to the Esthonians. That they belong 
 to the Finnish family is unquestionable. Linguistically they 
 belong to the Turkish-speaking peoples. Long-headedness pre- 
 vails among them." These are also the characteristics of the 
 Livs or Livonians, a Finnish tribe formerly living in Esthonia 
 and north Livonia, now nearly extinct, but still holding a narrow 
 strip of forest land along the Baltic at the northern extremity of 
 Kurland. These Livs are now classed with the Baltic Finns and 
 probably number less than 2,000 individuals. Their language has 
 been almost entirely replaced by a Lettish dialect. 
 
 The beginning of their history finds the Estlionians pirates of 
 the Baltic. Danish kings found it hard to subdue them and after 
 two centuries of struggle sold the Danish crown's rights to the 
 Knights of the Sword in 1346. From this time on German 
 influence was to become paramount in the province. The condition 
 of Esthonians in relation to their Teutonic masters was that of 
 
 " Russian census of 1897. 
 
 " W. Z. Ripley: The Races of Europe, New York, 1899. 
 
108 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 serfs. By the terms of the treaty of Nystad in 1721 Esthonia 
 was ceded to Peter the Great by the Swedes, who then exercised 
 control of the land. Since then it has remained a Russian prov- 
 ince. Lutheranism, the religion of its people, however, has been 
 the foundation of much sympathy for German institutions 
 throughout the province. To combat this feeling, as well as to 
 eradicate national aspirations, Russian authorities have resorted 
 to those' harsh and repressive measures which both church 
 and government have often enforced throughout the Czar's 
 country. 
 
 The Esthonians are noted for their practical turn of mind. A 
 favorite pastime among them consists of conversing in verse. 
 They cling tenaciously to their language, the study of which is 
 actively maintained throughout the land. Two main dialects are 
 in use. A northern form, known as the Reval Esthonian, is recog- 
 nized as the literary language. Writers have succeeded in main- 
 taining its perfection and beauty. Through their efforts literature 
 that instills vigor into the national consciousness has sprung into 
 being around the legends and folk-tales of the region. 
 
 With the exception of the Finns all the peoples of north- 
 western Russia are being gradually absorbed by the Slavic mass. 
 The Slav's ability to fuse with alien peoples is a conspicuous 
 historical fact. In the Baltic provinces he seldom holds aloof as 
 does his German rival. A growing spirit of liberalism in Russia, 
 and the gradual loss of influence of the German nobility, ever 
 ready to stir the opposition of Baltic peoples against Russian 
 institutions, are two factors which have promoted the consolida- 
 tion of Russian power in its northwesternmost territory. The 
 Slav's achievement in Baltic regions, during the past three cen- 
 turies, has consisted in steadily replacing the Teutonic stratum 
 by a layer of his own kinsmen. Swedes and Germans have either 
 fallen back or become lost in the midst of Slavic populations. The 
 movement can hardly be called a migration, but it is a westerly 
 expansion of most persistent and irresistible character although 
 never aggressively manifested. As a consequence Russia's north- 
 western boundary with a reconstituted Poland may be foreseen. 
 
SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES 
 
 109 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Population by Governments in Finland According to Language, 1910 ' 
 
 Finnish 
 
 Nylands 212,315 
 
 Abo o. Bjorneborgs . . . 413,360 
 
 Tavastehus 330,190 
 
 Viborgs 479,120 
 
 St. Michels 191,137 
 
 Kuopio 324,553 
 
 Vasa 327,828 
 
 Uleaborgs 292,642 
 
 PerA*. 
 
 
 Per^ 
 
 
 Per A-T 
 
 SSii'k 
 
 Swedish 
 
 e©&t 
 
 Otliers 
 
 cent^ 
 
 585.1 
 
 149,173 
 
 411.1 
 
 1,391 
 
 3.8 
 
 866.4 
 
 63,503 
 
 133.1 
 
 240 
 
 0.5 
 
 986.6 
 
 4,356 
 
 13.0 
 
 119 
 
 0.4 
 
 969.7 
 
 7,872 
 
 15.9 
 
 7,116 
 
 14.4 
 
 996.0 
 
 670 
 
 3.5 
 
 93 
 
 0.5 
 
 997.4 
 
 664 
 
 2.0 
 
 191 
 
 0.6 
 
 746.4 111,094 
 
 988.8 
 
 1,629 
 
 253.0 
 5.5 
 
 262 
 1,679 
 
 0.6 
 5.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fin 
 
 LAND : 
 
 Population A 
 
 CCORDIKG TO La 
 
 NGUAGE, 
 
 186r>-1910 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 I'er 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 1805 
 
 cent 
 
 1880 
 
 cent 
 
 1890 
 
 cent 
 
 1900 
 
 cent 
 
 1910 
 
 cent 
 
 Finnish 
 
 1,580.000 
 
 857.2 
 
 1,756.381 
 
 852.9 
 
 2,048,545 
 
 860.7 
 
 2,3.52.990 
 
 867.5 2 
 
 .571,145 
 
 880.2 
 
 Swedish 
 
 256,000 
 
 138.9 
 
 294,876 
 
 143.2 
 
 322,604 
 
 135.6 
 
 349,733 
 
 128.9 
 
 338,961 
 
 116.0 
 
 Russian 
 
 4,000 
 
 2.2 
 
 4,195 
 
 2.0 
 
 5,795 
 
 2.4 
 
 5,939 
 
 2.2 
 
 7,339 
 
 2.5 
 
 German 
 
 1,200 
 
 0.6 
 
 1,720 
 
 0.8 
 
 1,674 
 
 0.7 
 
 1,925 
 
 0.7 
 
 1,794 
 
 0.8 
 
 Others 
 
 2,045 
 
 1.1 
 
 2,263 
 
 1.1 
 
 1,522 
 
 0.6 
 
 1,975 
 
 0.7 
 
 1,958 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Finland : Distribution of Population by Language and by Religion, December 
 
 31, 1910 ' 
 
 Linguistic 
 
 
 
 
 Greek 
 
 Roman 
 
 
 group 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Catliolic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Tota 
 
 Finnish 
 
 . 2,531,014 
 
 198 
 
 1,086 
 
 38,749 
 
 98 
 
 2,571,145 
 
 Swedish 
 
 . . 335,496 
 
 362 
 
 2,780 
 
 251 
 
 72 
 
 338,961 
 
 Russian 
 
 67 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 7,156 
 
 114 
 
 7,339 
 
 German 
 
 1,758 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 1,794 
 
 Lapps . 
 
 1,660 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1,660 
 
 Others . 
 
 184 
 
 1 
 564 
 
 3,866 
 
 — 
 
 113 
 422 
 
 298 
 
 Total 
 
 . 2,870,179 
 
 46,166 
 
 2,921,197 
 
 * Statisko Arsbok for Finland 1914, Helsingfors, 1915, pp. 45-46. 
 
 ' Bidrag till Finlands Officiella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik, 45, Finlands 
 Folkmangd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt Forsamlingarnas Kyrkobocker ) , Helsingfors, 
 1915, p. 127. 
 
110 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Finland: Relative Distribution Br Languages of the Urban and Rural 
 Population of the Governments of Nyland, Abo and Bjorneborg, and op 
 Vasa, in Percentages ' 
 
 UllBAN 
 
 Rural 
 
 
 Finnish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Others 
 
 Finnish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Others 
 
 Nylands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ISSO 
 
 315.7 
 
 608.2 
 
 76.1 
 
 532.8 
 
 466.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 1890 
 
 436.2 
 
 536.2 
 
 27.1 
 
 545.1 
 
 454.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 1900 
 
 489.7 
 
 488.2 
 
 22.1 
 
 570.9 
 
 428.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 1910 
 
 579.7 
 
 411.8 
 
 8.5 
 
 589.1 
 
 410.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 Abo and Bjorneborg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 670.4 
 
 303.0 
 
 26.6 
 
 847.6 
 
 152.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 1890 
 
 700.0 
 
 292.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 855.7 
 
 144.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1900 
 
 757.8 
 
 239.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 864.4 
 
 135.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 1910 
 
 792.8 
 
 204.4 
 
 2.8 
 
 880.2 
 
 119.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 Vasa 
 
 
 
 
 695.3 
 
 304.7 
 
 [0.02] 
 
 1880 
 
 195.7 
 
 800.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 
 
 1890 
 
 269.6 
 
 725.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 720.3 
 
 279.6 
 
 0.1 
 
 1900 
 
 359.6 
 
 637.9 
 
 2.5 
 
 738.8 
 
 261.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 1910 
 
 482.4 
 
 512.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 770.9 
 
 228.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 * Bidrag till Finlands OfSciella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik, 45, Finlands 
 Folkmangd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt Forsamlingarnas Krykobocker), Helsingfors, 
 1915, pp. 124-125. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 
 
 South of the Baltic shores the unbroken expanse now peopled 
 by Germans merges insensibly into the western part of the great 
 Russian plain. This extensive lowland is featureless and provides 
 no natural barriers between the two empires it connects. The 
 area of Polish speech alone intervenes as a buffer product of the 
 basin of the middle Vistula. The region is a silt-covered lowland, 
 the bed of a former glacial lake. It has been peopled by Slavs 
 for over a thousand years. Upon its open stretches there was no 
 lack of food and no reason therefore for migration. The develop- 
 ment of Poland rests primarily on this physical foundation. 
 Added advantages of good land and water communication with the 
 rest of the continent contributed powerfully to the spread of 
 Polish power, which at one time extended from Baltic shores to 
 the Black sea. 
 
 In the ninth century the Slavic tribes of the Polish and western 
 Russian regions differed but slightly in language and customs. 
 Dialects spoken in the upper Vistula basin and in the upper 
 Dnieper valley presented a degree of affinity which has disap- 
 peared from the Russian and Polish languages as spoken in our 
 time. Differences between the two groups increased as they came 
 respectively under eastern and western influences. Intercourse 
 between the western group and the Slavs settled in the upper 
 Elbe region produced a Polish contingent, while contact of the 
 eastern body with Tatars created the main Russian group. 
 Religious differences helped to widen the breach between these 
 two branches of the Slavic family. The western body was natu- 
 rally inclined to follow the counsels emanating from the Vatican. 
 The eastern looked to Byzantium for spiritual guidance. These 
 were strictly geographical relations. Eventual divergence into 
 
 111 
 
112 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 separate nationalities originated in the conflicts of religious views 
 and material interests among the leading members in each group. 
 
 Fig. 38 — Sketch map of eastern Europe showing the areal classification of 
 Eussians into Little Russians (dotted area), Great Russians (diagonally ruled) and 
 White Russians (cross-ruled area). The black dots indicate Masurian localities. The 
 dotted circles show Hungarian cities peopled by Ruthenians. 
 
 The Polish language is spoken at present within a quadri- 
 lateral the angles of which are found at the Jablunka pass in the 
 Carpathians,^ Wissek north of the Netze near the Posen boundary, 
 
 *L. Niederle: La race slave, Paris, 1911, pp. 71-74. A digest in English of 
 his conclusions will be found in Ann. Kept. Smiths. Inst., 1910, Washington, 1911, 
 pp. 599-612. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 113 
 
 Suwalki in the eastern Masurian region and Sanok on the San. 
 A northern extension is appended to this linguistic region in the 
 form of a narrow band which detaches itself from the main mass 
 above Bromberg and reaches the Baltic coast west of Danzig. In 
 sum, the valley of the Vistula, from the Carpathians to the Baltic, 
 constitutes the field of Polish humanity and institutions. In 
 spite of the remoteness of the period when they first occu- 
 pied the land, these children of the plains never attempted 
 to scale mountainous slopes. The solid wall of the western 
 Carpathians, between Jablunka and Sanok, with its abrupt 
 slopes facing the north, forms the southern boundary of the 
 country. 
 
 This region, in the midst of the diversity of surface of the 
 European continent, has produced a distinct language in the 
 varied stock of European vernaculars. Nevertheless there is no 
 similarity of physical type among individuals speaking Polish. 
 Marked anthropological differences are found between the Poles 
 of Russian Poland and of Galicia.- They correspond to the 
 classification of northern Slavs into two main groups, the north- 
 ernmost of which comprises the Poles of Russian Poland, together 
 with White and Great Russians. Traces of Finnish intermixture 
 can still be detected among them, in spite of the process of 
 Slavicization which they have undergone. The Poles of Galicia, 
 on the other hand, like the Ruthenians and Little Russians, reveal 
 mingling of the autochthonous populations w^ith Asiatic and 
 Mongoloid invaders of Europe.^ 
 
 Delimitation of the area of the Polish speech is more easily 
 
 * J. Talko-Hryncevicz : Les Polonais du royaume de Pologne d'aprSs les donn^es 
 anthropologiques recueilliea jusqu'a present, Bull. Int. Acad. Sc. Cracovie, Classe 
 des 8c. Math, et Nat. Bull. 8c. Nat., June 1912, pp. 574-582. 
 
 3 Southern Poland was overrun by Mongolians during their third invasion of 
 Europe. The Asiatics were attacked near Szydlow on March 18, 1241, by an army of 
 Polish noblemen recruited from Sandomir and Cracow. Tlie defeat of the Christians 
 enabled the invaders to plunder the latter city, besides opening the way for incursions 
 farther north in the course of which they penetrated into Silesia by way of Ratibor 
 and marched toward Breslau. Near Liegnitz an army of 30,000 Europeans was 
 defeated on April 9th of the same year. These disasters were invariably followed by 
 a westerly spread of the Tatar scourge. Traces of its passage can still be detected 
 among the Poles. 
 
114 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 made in theory than on the field. The transition to alien lan- 
 guages is rarely well defined. Such detailed work as has been 
 undertaken in western Europe, where the predominant lan- 
 guage in small villages and hamlets is often determined, does 
 not exist for eastern sections of the continent. The zeal of 
 German and Russian agents of nationalist propaganda aggra- 
 vates the problem. Within Galicia the boundary line passes 
 west of Sanok and Radymno.* Its southern extension skirts 
 the foothills through Rymanow, Dukla, Zmigrod and Gry- 
 bow. Thence to Jablunka pass it merges with the political 
 boundary. 
 
 In its western section the physical boundary coincides for all 
 practical purposes with the ethnographic line of division. The 
 Gorales mountaineers have never aspired to cross the divide of 
 the Beskid mountains. The result is that the gentler slopes of 
 the southern side are peopled altogether by Slovaks, while habit 
 and custom have prevented the Podhalians, or Polish shepherds 
 inhabiting the high valley of the Tatra, from leading their flocks 
 to the southern grazing slopes which form part of the Hungarian 
 domain.^ 
 
 Changes in the aspect of the land resulting from human 
 activity provide an easily observable boundary between the terri- 
 tory inhabited by Poles and that occupied by Ruthenians. The 
 former, proceeding from the Vistulian lowland, are now scattered 
 over a territory in which deforestation and large areas of tilled 
 soil bespeak prolonged occupancy. The latter, coming from the 
 Pontic steppes, reached the Carpathian slopes much later than 
 their western neighbors. Consequently only 20 per cent of the 
 surface of the western Carpathians is now available as prairie 
 and pasture land, whereas the percentage of grazing land in the 
 
 * The Poles constitute the majority of the population in many cities of eastern 
 or Russian Galicia. In Niederle's list Bobrka, Muszyna, Sanok, Lisko, Sambor, 
 Peremysl, Rawaruska, Belz, Zolkiew, Grodek, Ceshanow, Stryj, Kaluaz, Stanislawoff, 
 Kolomya, Tarnopol, Husiatyn, Buczacz, Sokal and Trembowla are credited with over 
 50 per cent Poles in their population. The predominance of German in the cities 
 of Biala, Sczerzec, Dolina, Bolechow, Nadworna, Kossow, Kuty, Zablotow and Brody 
 is attributed by the same authority to the Jewish element present. 
 
 » E. Reclus: G^ogr. Univ., Vol. 3, Europe Centrale, Paris, 1878, p. 396. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 115 
 
 eastern section of the mountain chain is twice as much.® The 
 area of plowed land in the western region covers between 40 and 
 50 per cent of the surface. In the east it barely varies between 
 5 and 10 per cent. Again the Polish section is practically clear 
 of the forests, which cover, in contrast, from 50 to 60 per cent of 
 the eastern Carpathians. Similar differences can be noted in the 
 valleys up to an altitude of about 2,300 feet. Within them the 
 proportion of plowed land constitutes 88 per cent of the surface 
 in the Polish section while in the Euthenian valleys the propor- 
 tion of plowed land does not exceed 15 per cent. 
 
 On the southwestern border a number of localities in the 
 Teschen country are claimed alike by Czechs and Poles. The 
 increasing use of Polish and German, however, tends to invalidate 
 the claims of Bohemians.'^ A transition zone between Czech and 
 Polish exists here and is characterized by a local dialect of mixed 
 language. In the western Beskid mountains Polish and Moravian 
 are divided at the Jablunka pass. The ancient duchies of 
 Teschen, Auschwitz and Zator were situated in this region and at 
 the southern end of the long Slavo- Germanic borderland. The 
 two last-named duchies were incorporated with Poland in the 
 fifteenth century. German language and customs disappeared 
 from their territory soon after this fusion. 
 
 This important district is in every aspect a zone of transition. 
 Its climate becomes alternately continental or oceanic according 
 to the prevalence of winds from east or west. The change occurs 
 sometimes in a few weeks. Occasionally it is sudden and atmos- 
 pheric conditions have been known to have changed completely 
 from one stage to the other in the course of a single day.* During 
 periods of oceanic climate, the temperature often rises above 
 0° C. Snows melt and spring temperature prevails during 
 
 ' E. Romer: Esquisse climatique de I'ancienne Pologne, Bui. de la Soc. Yaud. des 
 Sc. Nat., 5e S^r., Vol. 46, June, 1910, p. 231. 
 
 ^ J. Zemrich : Deutsche und Slaven in den osterreichischen Sudetenlandern, 
 Deutsche Erde, Vol. 2, 1903, pp. 1-4. 
 
 * Limite des civilisations dans les Beskides occidentaux, Ann. de G4ogr., Vol. 17, 
 1908, Feb. 15, pp. 130-132. Cf. also E. Hanslik: Kulturgrenze und Kulturzyklus in 
 den polnischen Westbeskiden, Pet. Mitt., Erganzungsheft No. 158, 1907. 
 
116 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 January and February. Again sometimes the east wind brings 
 all the signs of winter in April. In summer western breezes bring 
 rain and dryness prevails when eastern winds blow. As a result 
 of this semi-continental climate wheat crops on the Polish side 
 are from three to six weeks later than on the Moravian side. 
 
 German inunigrants invaded this region in the eighth century. 
 Their language held its own until the fourteenth, after which it is 
 represented only by linguistic islands dotting here and there the 
 sea of Slavs. It is, however, still possible to distinguish settle- 
 ments of German origin from the old Polish villages. The latter 
 are situated on high ground or well-protected sites. They are 
 generally characterized by the existence of a central open space 
 and the random distribution of houses and lanes. The German 
 \dllages, on the other hand, are found at the heads of valleys and 
 usually occupy a rectangular site spreading over the two banks 
 of a river. Each habitation has its o^vn land appurtenance 
 extending rearwards towards the valley slopes. The roads 
 follow natural depressions. Taken as a whole, these German 
 villages are admirably molded on the relief of the sur- 
 face. 
 
 The western linguistic boundary of Poland extends through 
 the German provinces of Silesia and Posen. Here a gradual 
 replacement of the language by German since the sixteenth cen- 
 tury is noticeable. At that time the Oder constituted the dividing 
 line, south of the point of the confluence of the Nissa between 
 Brieg and Oppeln. As late as 1790 the population of Breslau 
 was largely Polish. Today over 75 per cent of the inhabitants of 
 the city and the neighboring towns and villages are Germans. 
 The district north and south constitutes in fact an area of lin- 
 guistic reclamation. 
 
 The westernmost extension of Polish occurs in Posen, at the 
 base of the provincial projection into Brandenburg. Around 
 Bomst the percentage of Polish inhabitants is as high as 75 per 
 cent. The line extends northwards to Birnbaum, after which it 
 assumes a northeasterly direction. In spite of this occidental 
 reach, however, the area of Polish speech within German bound- 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 117 
 
 aries is broken in numerous places by German enclaves of vary- 
 ing size.® 
 
 In western Prussia, the Poles form compact inclusions in the 
 German mass and attain the Baltic shores, where they occupy the 
 entire western coast of the Gulf of Danzig. From Oliva and 
 Danzig the line extends to Dirschau (Tezew) and crosses the 
 Vistula about six miles below the city. It then strikes east and 
 turns southwards towards Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) and Grau- 
 denz. Proceeding due east from here, the boundary passes south 
 of Eylau, the southern territory of the Masurian lakes, and on 
 into Eussian territory, until Suwalki is reached. The eastern 
 frontier begins at this point and is prolonged southwards, accord- 
 ing to Slav authorities, through Augustow, Bielostok,^" Surash, 
 Bielsk, Sarnaki, Krsanostaw and Tomaschow. 
 
 The advance of the area of Polish speech, in the form of a 
 tongue of land, to the Baltic coast, is a proof of intimate depend- 
 ence between Polish nationality and the basin of the Vistula. 
 This northernmost section of the territory in which Polish is 
 spoken, lies entirely within Prussian territory. Centuries of 
 Teutonic influence failed, however, to eradicate completely Slavic 
 language or customs in the valley of the great river. Between 
 Thorn and Danzig, on the left bank of the Vistula, it is estimated 
 that 650,000 Poles are scattered. On the right, the Prussian 
 districts of Lobau, Strassburg and Briesen are centers of intense 
 Polish life and culture. The city of Danzig itself, with a Polish 
 element of only 10 per cent, still gives strong evidence of its 
 Polish institutions. Its monuments are memorials of Poland's 
 history, and many of its families bear Polish names even though 
 their members use German as a vernacular. 
 
 Originally a free town, Danzig owes its predominant German 
 population to the inflow of traders of this nationality who have 
 swarmed within its walls since the sixteenth century. The city, 
 
 •p. Langhans: Nationalitatenkarte der Provinz Schlesien, 1:500,000. Sonder- 
 karte No. 1 in Deutsche Erde, 1906; id.: Nationalitatenkarte der Provinz Ostpreussen, 
 1 : 500,000. Sonderkarte No. 1 in Deutsche Erde, 1907. 
 
 " L. Niederle: op. cit., p. 73; but ef. H. Praesent: Russisch Polen, etc., Pet. Mitt., 
 Vol. 60, Dec. 1914, p. 257. 
 
 ■ \ 
 
118 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 standing like a sentinel at the mouth of the Vistula, is in every 
 sense a creation of the river. Traffic from Poland's innermost 
 districts flows towards the country's great w^aterway to be finally 
 landed on the wharves of Danzig. Prior to the partition of 
 Poland, the city was nominally a dependency of that country, 
 but its inhabitants had been granted special trading privileges as 
 well as the right of governing themselves. The city's commercial 
 relations were highly favored by such a regime and business men 
 from the surrounding country were not slow to realize the excep- 
 tional advantages which settlement in the city afforded. By the 
 end of the seventeenth century its population consisted largely of 
 German merchants and their dependents. Frederick 11 with char- 
 acteristic far-sightedness realized the extent to which this seaport, 
 together with the river city of Thorn, controlled the traffic between 
 Brandenburg and old Prussia. He did not succeed however in 
 annexing the two cities to his dominions, for it is only since 1815 
 that they have formed part of Prussian territory. 
 
 The struggle for predominance between Poles and Germans 
 along Poland's western boundary is fully nine centuries old. In 
 the sixteenth century, Slavonic tribes had become widely dis- 
 tributed between the Oder and Elbe, in the course of westerly 
 expansions which correspond to south and west migrations of 
 Teutonic peoples." Place names bestowed by the early Germans 
 in the district between these two rivers have practically disap- 
 peared under the layer of Slavic appellations conferred betw^een 
 the second and fourth centuries.^- The period between 800 and 
 1300 witnessed the inception of a slow and powerful Germanic 
 drive directed towards the east. Convents and lay feudal estab- 
 lishments participated in this historical movement. Repeated 
 German aggressions brought about the earliest union of all Polish 
 tribes into one nation at the beginning of the eleventh century. 
 It proved, however, of little avail before the fighting prowess of 
 the Knights of the Teutonic Order, who, by the first half of the 
 
 ** A. C. Haddon: The Wanderings of Peoples, Cambridge, 1912, p. 48. 
 ** F. Curschmann : Die deutsche Ortsnamen in nordostdeutschen Kolonialgcbiet, 
 Forsch. z. deut. Landes- u. Volksk., Vol. 19, No. 2, 1910, pp. 91-183. 
 
The Am 
 
 • 
 
 D 
 O 
 
 LOD 
 ELB 
 Mia 
 Dol: 
 
 
 ■Frieo 
 o 
 
The American Geographical Sociefy of New Yorl( 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917. PI. IV 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 119 
 
 thirteenth century, had succeeded in adding all Wend territory to 
 Teutonic dominions. This early and northerly phase of the 
 ''Drang nach Osten" brought the Germans to the coast of the 
 Gulf of Finland. Their advance was rendered possible in part 
 by the presence of Tatar hordes menacing southern Poland. 
 Teutonic progress was also facilitated by the defenseless condition 
 which marks an open plain. Between the Oder and the Vistula 
 the slightly undulating lowland is continuous and devoid of 
 barriers to communication which the interposition of uplifted or 
 uninhabitable stretches of territory might have provided. 
 
 Polish history has been affected both favorably and adversely 
 by this lack of natural bulwarks. The former extension of Polish 
 sovereignty to the shores of the Baltic and Black seas, and to 
 within 50 miles of Berlin and the central plateau of Eussia, was 
 a result of easy travel on a plain. This advantage was more than 
 offset by the evident facility with which alien races were able to 
 swarm into the vast featureless expanse forming Polish territory. 
 The dismemberment of the country is in part the result of the 
 inability of the Poles to resort to the protection of a natural 
 fortress, where a prolonged stand against the aggression of foes 
 might have been made. 
 
 At the end of the tenth century the entire Polish plain acknowl- 
 edged the rule of Boleslas the Great, a prince of the Piast 
 dynasty. Kiev then paid a yearly tribute to the Polish crown. 
 A period of internal division follows Boleslas 's rule, but in the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century Poland was once more united 
 under the scepter of King Ladislas. From 1386 to 1772, a period 
 of almost four centuries, Polish frontiers remained remarkably 
 stable. Their fluctuations were slight when compared to the 
 changes which occurred in other European countries during the 
 same period. 
 
 At one period of its history Poland was barred from its Baltic 
 sea frontier in the north. In the fourteenth century the invasion 
 of the Teutonic Knights temporarily cut off the country from the 
 sea; but apart from this interruption Poland has always had 
 access to the sea to which the drainage of the land naturally led. 
 
120 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Under the first members of the Piast dynasty the Poles had con- 
 trol of the Baltic coast.^^ When, in the thirteenth century, the 
 Poles called upon the Knights of the I'eutonic Order for assistance 
 in subjugating Prussia, the two parties agreed to equal division 
 of the conquered territory. The successes of the Teutonic 
 Knights, however, emboldened their leaders to claim more land 
 for their share. A state of war ensued between the two former 
 allies until by the treaty of Thorn, in 1466, the Teutonic Knights 
 acknowledged Polish sovereignty. This brought Pomerelia, or 
 Prussian Pomerania, within Polish territory. In 1525 the Prus- 
 sian districts east of the Vistula became part of the duchy of 
 Albert of Brandenburg and were thus surrounded entirely by 
 Polish territory; but that part of Prussia which extends west 
 of the Vistula remained an integral portion of Poland until 
 1772. 
 
 In the fighting which marked the relations between Poland 
 and Turkey in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Poles 
 succeeded in extending their southern frontiers to within a hun- 
 dred miles of the Black Sea and in carrying their sphere of 
 influence to the sea itself. The occupation of Kaminiec by the 
 Turks was short-lived. In general Poland's frontier on the side 
 of the ancient Rumanian principalities remained unchanged dur- 
 ing the last four centuries of the country's sovereign exist- 
 ence. 
 
 In the fifteenth century, Poland was the dominating Slavic 
 state. In 1386 it had been united to Lithuania by Wladislas 
 Jagellon, the first prince of the famous dynasty bearing his name. 
 The country at that time was protected from Turkish attacks 
 by Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. Russia was its rival 
 for the possession of Lithuania; Austria for that of Hungary and 
 Bohemia. Prussia and Livonia were also claimed by Poland from 
 the Order of the Teutonic Knights. The weakness of the country 
 lay in the jealousy of the two peoples of diverse speech from 
 which its ruling body was drawn. The Jagellons were Lithuanian 
 princes. They favored the claims of their countrymen, who pre- 
 
 '• Marquis de Noailles: Les fronti^res de la Pologne, Paris, 1915, p. 21. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 121 
 
 ferred the laws of their native land to the Polish legislation which 
 was being forced on them. The Poles likewise had their griev- 
 ances against the Lithuanians. During the rule of Casimir IV 
 he was frequently taken to task by his countrymen for spending 
 ''summer, fall and winter in Lithuania." 
 
 Poland's easterly expansion with its prolonged and finally 
 disastrous conflicts with Russia began after the battle of Grun- 
 wald in 1410. Although the Poles then inflicted a decisive defeat 
 on the Teutonic Knights, the western provinces they had lost could 
 not be regained. In the eastern field the basin of the Dnieper 
 merged without abrupt transition into that of the Vistula, just as 
 the basin of the Oder on the west formed the western continuation 
 of the Baltic plain. Four centuries of struggle with Russia 
 ensued until the Muscovite Empire absorbed the greater portion 
 of Poland. 
 
 The German element is slowly spreading eastw^ard throughout 
 the eastern provinces of Prussia wiiich once formed part of the 
 kingdom of Poland. Emigration of Poles to central and western 
 Germany partly accounts for the German gain. From the larger 
 cities of eastern Germany and more especially from Posen, 
 Bromberg and Danzig, a steady stream of emigrants make their 
 way towards the industrial centers of the west, where they find 
 higher wages and generally improved economic conditions. The 
 German government favors this expatriation of its Slav subjects. 
 None of the vexations to which the Poles are subjected by govern- 
 ment officials on their native plains are tolerated in the occidental 
 provinces of the Empire. The result is that notable colonies of 
 Poles have sprung up in the vicinity of industrial centers like 
 Dtisseldorf or Arnsberg, in the Munster district and the Rhine 
 provinces. From a racial standpoint, these Poles are practically 
 indistinguishable from Teutonic types. Their presence in Rhenish 
 Prussia and Westphalia is no menace to German unity. They 
 are easily assimilated; the second generation, speaking only 
 German, forgets its antecedents and becomes submerged in the 
 mass of the native population. Slav settlements are particularly 
 numerous and dense alona: the Rhine-Herne canal between Duis- 
 
122 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 burg and Dortmund.^* They abound in the coal-producing 
 Emscher valley, where their inhabitants form one-fifth of the 
 population. The Polish settlers favor the flatlands and occupy 
 them in preference to hilly regions. They do not confine their 
 work to mining, but provide labor for the industrial plants 
 clustered around the coal-fields. In the beginning of 1911 the 
 number of Polish miners in the 19 mining districts of the ' ' circle ' ' 
 of Dortmund exceeded that of any other nationality. 
 
 The heavy preponderance of Poles in certain administrative 
 divisions of eastern Germany has, nevertheless, been unimpaired 
 by the Polish emigration. In the province of Posen the German- 
 speaking inhabitants still constitute the minority. As a inile 
 Germans emigrate more readily than Poles or Masurians in East 
 Prussia.^'' In the city of Posen, Polish nationality was asserting 
 itself with increasing vigor year by year, before the European 
 war. The percentage of Poles grew from about 51 in 1890 to 56 
 in 1900. Ten years later it exceeded 57. Correspondingly the 
 German percentage fell from 50 in 1890 to under 42 in 1910. 
 
 Posen, of all German provinces, contains the largest number 
 of Poles. 62 per cent of its 2,100,000 inhabitants belong to this 
 nationality. Within provincial boundaries the process of German- 
 izing the people has been carried on most actively in the district 
 of Bromberg. The reason is obvious. The region is the connect- 
 ing link between Germany proper and the province of Old 
 Prussia, which forms an enclave of German speech within the 
 territory of the Polish language. The effort to connect the ancient 
 cradle of Prussia with the motherland is apparent in the figures 
 which reveal the percentage of Poles in the intermediary land. 
 The district of Bromberg numbers 53 per cent of Poles in a 
 population of 750,000. In the provincial district of Posen, how- 
 ever, the percentage of Poles attains 68 for a population of 
 1,350,000. 
 
 " K. Closterhalfen : Die Polen in niederrheinisch-westfiilisch Indiistriebezirk 1905, 
 1:200,000. PI. 16 in Deutsche Erde, Vol. 10, 1911. 
 
 *'A. Eaahe: Die Abwanderungsbewegung in den ostlichen Provinzen Preussens. 
 Einleitung und Teil I. Die Provinz Ost-Preussen. Berlin, 1910. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 123 
 
 The German element of the province is confined mainly to the 
 cities, the country being peopled largely by Poles. Often the 
 proportion of this native population attains as high a figure as 
 91 per cent and it is rare to find it below 75 per cent. Apart 
 from the German administration of the province, Posen thus 
 remains Polish to the core. Its nobility and landed gentry consist 
 mostly of Poles who have strenuously opposed German encroach- 
 ments by abstaining from commercial or financial intercourse 
 with their rulers. They founded their own banks, in order to be 
 indeiDendent of German institutions; and by means of native 
 agricultural associations they came to the aid of Polish farmers, 
 who were thus saved from having recourse to German colonization 
 banks chartered for the purpose of buying out Polish landowners. 
 The influence of the Polish element is best shown by the fact that 
 eleven Polish representatives are delegated by its population to 
 the Reichstag, out of a body of fifteen sent by the province. 
 
 We thus see that the Poles scattered in the eastern section of 
 Germany constitute the largest foreign-speaking element in the 
 Empire's population. Their number is estimated by Niederle at 
 3,450,000. German census returns for 1900 give 3,086,489. The 
 percentage of Jews in German Poland is high, particularly in the 
 urban areas. The practice of census takers is to classify them with 
 the German or Polish population according to their vernacular. 
 In Russia the last (1897) available census figures report the 
 existence of 1,267,194 Jews " scattered throughout the Polish 
 provinces. This represents 13.48 per cent of the population of 
 Russian Poland. Here, as elsewhere, they are rarely engaged in 
 agricultural pursuits but show a tendency to invade prosperous 
 towns and cities." 
 
 ^* N. Troinitsky: Premier recensement g4n6ral de la population de I'empire de la 
 Russie, 1897. Vols. 1 and 2, Petrograd, 1905. 
 
 *' The Jews cluster especially in the eastern governments of Warsaw, Lomsha and 
 Siedlez, where their percentage varies between 15.6 and 16.4. This ratio is lower in 
 the southern and western administrative divisions. In Kalish it reaches only 7.2 per 
 cent and is reduced to 6.3 per cent in Petrokow. In the cities the Jews constitute on 
 an average slightly over a third of the population, although here again they are 
 more numerous in the east. Cf. D. Aitoff: Peuples et langues de la Russie, Ann. de 
 Geogr., Vol. 15, May 1909, pp. 9-25. 
 
124 FllONTIKIlS 01«' LANGUAOK AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Tlio I'oliHli ,i(;WH, Hpeakiiig- a vernacular ol' ilicir own, and 
 consciouH ol" Mi(! advantage derived from their number, live apart 
 from the PoleH, with whom they ar(; generally at odds on economic 
 quoHtioiiH. TIk! ])i-esence of this jacially alien element has often 
 UHwiHted JiiiHHiaa adminiHtrators in their policy of holding Polish 
 virbjui i)()i)ulationH well in hand by pitting one people against the 
 otluir. .IcwiHli parties wicild considerable influence in the local 
 politics of I'oiisli cities. They are openly anti-Slavic and side 
 with the (Jci-iiian inhabitants, from wiioiii tlu^y i-eceive guidance 
 regarding policy and conduct. The strength of the Polish vote 
 was fc^lt in lli(^ 11)12 elections for the Duma when Lodz sent a 
 Jewisii representative to th(5 national council, while in Warsaw 
 where they i'onu .'}S per cent of the [)()pulation they succeeded in 
 forcing the ehiction of a J'olish socialist who in that same year 
 had failed to obtain a inajoi-ity of tii(5 city's Polish votes. 
 
 [V\h) coMrniciiiciit of Jews witliiii I he pal(^ of Poland dates from 
 the time of the liisi partition, when an edict signed by Catherine 
 11 was proclaijued, forbidding them to emigrate from the annexed 
 territory into Ivussia j)r<)|)(>r. Since then every succeeding Rus- 
 sian monanrh maintained this policy of segregation until, at the 
 time of Poland's last partition, the ten governments into wliich 
 tlie iiMfoilunate nation was (li\i(k'(l became the only territory in 
 wiiicii lh(> .lews were tolerated. 
 
 This arrangenienl was made !arg(>ly because of the Jew's well- 
 known ai)tilud(> for connnerco and through fear that the unso- 
 phisticated and larg(>-hearted Ivussian nnijik was no match for 
 him. The siale of L*oland prior to its dismemberment made such 
 measures imperative for IIk^ l\ussian government. The Poles 
 \\(M-(> eilher landowners, iill(>rs of Uw soil or soldiers. Few 
 engaged in trade. The country's commerce was in the hands of 
 Germans or Jews. Poland's weakness in the presence of foreign 
 aggression was due io this state of economic inferiority, no less 
 than to her lack of natural frontiers on the east and west. 
 
 The large proportion of the Jewish element in Poland may 
 be traced ultimately to the very circumstances which impart dis- 
 tinctiveness to \ho Polish reirion. It was inevitable that the Jew 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 125 
 
 should find cordial welcome in the broad drainage valley of the 
 Vistula and its tributaries, tenanted by a landed nobility at the 
 one end of the social scale and a retinue of serfs at the other. 
 Between these two classes the Jew supplied a needed trading 
 element and thrived. Polish kings accordingly adopted the policy 
 of inviting and protecting Jews within their domains as early as 
 in the fourteenth century, a time when the Jew^s were being 
 expelled in hundreds from other nations. Emigration of the Jews 
 from Germany during the period of Catholic persecution was 
 particularly heavy. This movement helped to increase the number 
 of Jews in Poland. 
 
 The position of the Jews in Poland varies, therefore, according 
 to the circumstances which determined their immigration. They 
 may be classed into two groups. The descendants of early set- 
 tlers feel the welding influence of time and are united with the 
 Poles by the bond of historical association and of common inter- 
 ests. The newcomers, mostly refugees from Eussian cities, form 
 an unassimilated nucleus whose tendencies and temper differ 
 materially from the aims that actuate the native population, 
 whether Polish or Jewish. Racial animosity in Poland is chiefly 
 directed against these newcomers. It has reached an acute stage 
 in recent years, owing to the strenuous efforts of Poles to control 
 their country's industry and commerce in face of the menace of 
 German economic absorption. 
 
 In Galicia the Jews are competitors of the Poles. Full advan- 
 tage has been taken by Austrian statesmen of the existence of a 
 powerful clique of Jewish financiers in Vienna in order to obtain 
 Jewish support against Slavic aspirations. Jewish capitalists 
 were allowed to take part in the development of natural resources 
 as well as to purchase large estates. At present fully 20 per cent 
 of the larger private domains in Galicia are owned by Jews.^® In 
 the cities also the Jewish element has acquired considerable 
 influence. This is especially observable in Lemberg and Cracow. 
 The bulk of Galician Jews, however, are poor and uneducated. 
 
 *• G. Bienaim^ : La Pologne 6conomique, Bull. 8oc. de Oiogr. Comm. de Paris, 
 Vol. 37, No8. 4-6, April-June, 1915, pp. 128-164. 
 
126 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 They have little sympathy with the ideals of the Christian 
 element, from whom they hold aloof. In the social relations of 
 the three main elements of the Galician population, Poles and 
 Jews generally unite to exploit Ruthenians. The Jews appar- 
 ently are unable to thrive on the Poles. In the Polish sections of 
 Galicia they constitute only 7 per cent of the population, whereas 
 in Ruthenian Galicia this proportion rises to 13 per cent. 
 
 fGerman Poland, from Upper Silesia to the Gulf of Danzig, 
 contains about 4,000,000 Poles. In Upper Silesia, they constitute 
 61 per cent of the population and number about 1,300,000. This 
 majority has been maintained, in the face of aggressive Germani- 
 zation, since the first half of the fourteenth century. The city of 
 Posen contains 170,000 inhabitants, of whom 58 peT cent are 
 Poles. The farming districts of the province contain only about 
 10 per cent of Germans. Over 900,000 Poles live in East and 
 West Prussia. In this section of Germany, they form a suffi- 
 ciently compact body to be able to send representatives chosen 
 from their own people to the Landstag and Reichstag. The 
 western coast of the Gulf of Danzig and the banlvs of the lower 
 Vistula are almost exclusively Polish. A solid wedge of Polish 
 humanity is here interposed between the Germans of Pomerania 
 and of East Prussia. This thorough isolation of an important 
 body of Germans may became a thorny problem in any eventual 
 settlement of Polish boundaries. 
 
 Upper Silesia is the best endowed section of Polish territory. 
 The grayish soil which forms the surface of the Oder valley is 
 eminently fitted for cereal and beet cultivation and the farmers 
 of this soil are generally Poles. They often represent 90 per 
 cent of the rural population.^" In the cities and generally speaking 
 in the industrial field they are laborers. Capital and the manage- 
 ment of factories and of mines are in German hands. 
 
 The most interesting feature of the clash between Germans 
 and Poles in Upper Silesia is found in the failure of the Germans 
 in their efforts to force their language upon an alien people. 
 Forty years ago, Polish noblemen were apt to blush at the 
 
 '»G. Bienaimg: op. cit., p. 139. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 127 
 
 thought of their Slavic origin in the presence of the German 
 rulers of their land. But the vexations inflicted on them by 
 Prussian administration, since the formation of the German 
 Empire, have bred a spirit of defiance and revolt. As a result 
 Silesian Poles were never so conscious of nationality as they are 
 today. They band together in order to resist Germanization 
 more effectively. Small tradesmen, petty farmers and profes- 
 sional men organize themselves into bodies to which individual 
 interests are intrusted whenever German methods become intol- 
 erable. But the greatest asset of Polish nationality in this fight 
 against annihilation is its high birth rate. This has also led to 
 the emigration of Poles to the industrial districts of Westphalia, 
 the coal districts of the Lens basin in France and to America. 
 This flow of Poles comes mainly from the provinces of Posen and 
 "West Prussia, where sandy inert soils cannot accommodate rapidly 
 increasing numbers. 
 
 In addition to drastic educational measures, compelling study 
 of their language, the Germans have resorted to wholesale buying 
 of Polish estates in the section of the kingdom of Poland which 
 fell to the lot of Prussia when the country was partitioned. A 
 colonization law (Ansiedelunggesetz), decreed on April 26, 1886, 
 placed large funds at the disposal of the German government for 
 the purchase of land owned by Poles and the establishment of 
 colonies of German settlers.^" The measure was artificial and 
 proved valueless against economic conditions prevailing in the 
 regions affected. A decrease in the percentage of the Polish 
 population of the estates acquired by purchase was rarely 
 brought about. The new settlers could rarely compete with 
 natives. The most tangible result consisted in mere substitution 
 of German for Polish ownership. On most of the large estates 
 the mass of laborers and dependents remained Poles as they had 
 been before. The breach between Poles and Germans was 
 
 ^^ A law passed in 1908 authorizes the State to acquire land in the administrative 
 circles in which German interests require development of colonization. B. Auerbach: 
 La germanisation de la Pologne Prussienne. La loi d'expropriation, Rev. Polit. et 
 Parlem., Vol. 57, July 1908, pp. 109-125. 
 
128 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 widened by the change of masters. Nevertheless, although results 
 corresponding to the efforts and money expended were not 
 obtained, the measure has contributed to the advance of Teu- 
 tonism in northeastern Europe.^^ 
 
 The purpose of this colonization is to redeem Prussian soil 
 from Polish ownership. The ''Mittelstandskasse" of Breslau, 
 and the Peasant's Bank of Danzig, are financial institutions 
 directly interested in this work of Germanization. These banks 
 work hand in hand with the state. Results of this activity can 
 be observed in East Prussia where the German element has 
 acquired preponderance in 32 communes, through the interven- 
 tion of German capital. A common practice of the German loan 
 societies is to assume the liabilities of German farmers. In many 
 cases the peasants have been provided with funds to carry on 
 their agricultural operations. In Western Prussia 39 estates with 
 about 14,000 inhabitants have passed into German hands.^^ Often 
 it has been impossible to induce peasants from other parts of 
 Germany to settle in the Polish provinces, and the state has 
 resorted to the importation of German peasants from the old 
 German settlements in Russia, Galicia and Bosnia. 
 
 German colonization in Polish provinces has been accompanied 
 by increase and expansion of urban centers. The province of Posen, 
 which now claims 151 cities,^^ is a typical instance. The colonists' 
 cities founded by Germans are readily recognized by their 
 peculiar configuration. Almost all have been built on the same 
 plan. A four-sided market-place generally constitutes the 
 nucleus of the urban tract. Main avenues diverge from the 
 angles of the central quadrilateral. Lateral streets extend 
 
 **P. Langhans: National itiitenkarte der Provinz Sclilesien, 1:500,000. Sonder- 
 karte No. 1 in Deutsche Erde, 190G. P. Langhans: Nationalitiitenkarte der Provinz 
 Ostpreussen, 1:500,000. Sonderkarte No. 2 in Deutsche Erdc, 1907. Die Provinzen 
 Posen und Westpreussen unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Ansiedlungsgiiter und 
 Ansiedlung, Staatsdomanen und Staatsforsten nach dem Stande von 1 Januar 1911, 
 Deutsche Erde, Vol. 10, Taf. 1, 1911. 
 
 " M. Loesener : Besitzfestigung in der Preussischen Ostmark. Deutsche Erde, Vol. 
 10, 1911, pp. 3-8. 
 
 "Dalchow: Die Stlidte des Warthelandes, I. Teil, Ein Beitrag zur Siedlungskunde 
 Tind zur Landeskunde der Provinz Posen. Leipzig, 1910. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 129 
 
 parallel to the market sides and at right angles to the main 
 arteries. 
 
 Against the tightening hold of the Germans on their land, the 
 Poles can offer only limited resistance. But their counteracting 
 efforts are not devoid of value. They have taken advantage of 
 the high prices, consequent upon the sales of the land which the 
 government has forced on them, to buy new estates. Thanks to 
 the high rate of birth among Poles, the proportion of Poles living 
 in German Poland to the rest of the population remains station- 
 ary, in spite of German immigration or Polish emigration. 
 Cooperative associations of farmers, of traders or industrial 
 operators, present a united front in all dealings of their members 
 with Germans. In the field of education, children are taught 
 Polish in spite of German opposition.^* The patriotism and 
 courage of the Polish press are maintained in face of German 
 persecution. The return of Polish emigrants with a little capital, 
 accumulated by toil in foreign lands, is likewise one of the factors 
 which contribute to the preservation of the people in their home- 
 land. Both from the western industrial districts of Germany and 
 from overseas, many patriotic Poles return to the land of their 
 fathers and settle upon small farms purchased with their 
 savings, j 
 
 From the east pressure corresponding to Teutonic battering, 
 although exerted with less intensity, is applied by Eussian 
 endeavor to create national homogeneity. Of all the different 
 members of the wide-spread Slavic race Poles and Eussians are 
 the most closely related by speech. But the affinity ends here, for 
 the formidable barrier of religious differences hampers fusion of 
 the two nationalities. Caught between the hammer of Teutonic 
 reformation and the Slavic anvil of Eussian orthodoxy, the 
 Poles have remained stanch Catholics. Creed, in this case, 
 has played a considerable part in the preservation of national 
 spirit. 
 
 ** After having been entirely banished from secondary schools, Polish was excluded 
 from elementary schools by a ministerial decree, dated Sept. 7, 1887. Keligious in- 
 struction alone could be imparted in this language and even this privilege was removed 
 in 1905. 
 
130 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 In Austria alone have the Poles been relatively free from per- 
 secution. Even there, in recent times, the Austrian policy of 
 setting her subject peoples against each other had led to a display 
 of favoritism towards the Ruthenian neighbors of the Poles. 
 Both of these Slavic peoples inhabit Galicia principally. The 
 province is the relic of the old duchy of Halitch, which had Lem- 
 berg for its capital. The name Galicia originated in Austria, at 
 the time of the partition of Poland in 1772, and was applied to 
 that part of the dismembered country which Austria annexed. 
 The province is peopled at present by over three million 
 Ruthenes. 
 
 Western Galicia, including the important cities of Cracow and 
 Tarnow, as well as the Tatra massif, is peopled almost exclu- 
 sively by about 2,750,000 Poles of whom 7 per cent are Polish- 
 speaking Jews." Eastern Galicia on the other hand is the home 
 of only 1,400,000 Poles, but here the Ruthenians make up a solid 
 mass of 3,200,000. In the cities, however, the Poles form over- 
 whelming majorities, although their number dwindles to insignifi- 
 cance as the Russian frontier is approached. Lemberg, notably, 
 contains a high proportion of Polish inhabitants. 
 
 But the fact of paramount importance in the condition of 
 Austrian Poles is that in spite of their minority in the largest 
 part of Galicia, they represent the dominating element in the 
 Galician population. Vast estates and great industries are almost 
 exclusively in their hands. They are also intellectual leaders and 
 the liberal professions are practically entirely held by them. The 
 Ruthenian 's lot throughout Galicia is that of the toiler, either in 
 the field or in the factory. Descendants of Ruthenian noblemen 
 have been absorbed by the Polish nobility, which has become the 
 ruling class. This economic superiority, coupled to political 
 advantages secured from the Austrian government by the Galician 
 statutes of 1868, makes the lot of the Austrian Poles truly enviable 
 in comparison with that of their German or even their Russian 
 kinsmen. The province is ruled by a Diet composed of Poles and 
 Ruthenians, each speaking his own tongue. The authority of this 
 
 " G. BienaiiiK^: loc. cit. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 131 
 
 body, however, is strictly restricted to provincial affairs. Extra- 
 provincial matters are under the direct control of Vienna. 
 
 The Ruthenian is therefore the Pole's great rival in Galicia. 
 Although the outward manifestation of this rivalry assumes the 
 form of nationalistic outbursts, the conflict is, in the main, social 
 and economic. The Ruthenian proletariat is at odds with its 
 Polish rulers. It has begun to dream of redemption from the 
 vassalage borne for centuries. Fortunately its endeavors are a 
 source of improvement in the lot of both Ruthenian and Polish 
 peasants. A glimpse of the power vested in the Ruthenian mass 
 is thus afforded. As a people these Ruthenes constitute the 
 w^esternmost group of the Little Russian division of the Slavic 
 people. They inhabit the territory of the ancient kingdom of 
 Ukraine and number some 30,000,000 souls. Southwestern Russia 
 is peopled by them almost exclusively. They form from 76 to 99 
 per cent of the population of the following districts : ^* 
 
 1. The Ukraine of the right bank of the Dnieper, Podolia, 
 
 Volhynia, Kiev and Kholm. 
 
 2. The Ukraine of the left bank of the Dnieper, Tcher- 
 
 nihov, Poltava, Kharkov, southwestern Khursk and 
 Voronezh, and the region of the Don Cosacks to the 
 Sea of Azov. 
 
 3. The steppe of Ukraine lying on both sides of the 
 
 Dnieper and comprising Katerynoslav, Kherson and 
 the eastern parts of Bessarabia and Tauris. 
 
 4. North Caucasus, adjacent to the region of the Don 
 
 Cosacks, comprising Kuban and the eastern parts of 
 the Stavropolskoi and Terskaja governments. 
 
 In addition about 50,000 Ruthenians reside in Bukovina, while 
 700,000 occupy the sub-Carpathian districts of Hungary. About 
 2,000,000 are scattered in Siberian settlements. In Austria the 
 Carpathian mountains split the main body of the Ruthenians into 
 two sections, which occupy respectively Galicia and Hungary. In 
 
 ^•B. Sands: The Ukraine, London, 1914, p. 8. 
 
132 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the latter kingdom they are distributed mainly in the northern 
 and northeastern counties of Abanj, Bereg, Maramaros, Saros, 
 Ung and Zemplin. 
 
 The Ruthenians claim to be the original Russians. The purity 
 of the Slav type is better preserved among them than among any 
 other group in Russia and they show less of the Asiatic strain. 
 They represent the truly European Russians. Racial char- 
 acteristics set them apart from the main body of Russians on 
 the north and east of their land. Round-headedness is very 
 pronounced among them and they tend to be tall and dark- 
 complexioned. Dialectical differences between them and the 
 Muscovites of the north and east also exist. 
 
 The Masurians of northeastern Germany are essentially an 
 agricultural people who have succeeded in supporting themselves 
 on exceedingly poor soil. They occupy the marshy belt of land 
 which has become famous through the battles fought within and 
 around its borders during the Great European War. It com- 
 prises the nine districts of Allenstein, Johannisburg, Loetzen, 
 Lyck, Neidenburg, Oletzko, Ortelsburg, Osterode and Sensburg. 
 A Masurian element constitutes the majority of the inhabitants 
 of Augustov and Seiny, the two southernmost circles of the gov- 
 ernments of Suwalki. The German element is strongly represented 
 in the entire region. It forms a contingent of some 70,000 indi- 
 viduals in the governments of Kovno and Suwalki." As far as 
 can be ascertained, the earliest inhabitants of the land consisted 
 of fishermen occupying lacustrine habitations resting on piles. 
 Their villages are disposed around the hillocks to which they 
 resorted for shelter from man and the elements in the early 
 period of the settlement of the land. Locality names throughout 
 the region are Polish, even in the settlements founded by the 
 Knights of the Teutonic Order or the Hohenzollerns. Often a 
 thin streak of Germanization has been imparted to names of 
 villages by the addition of the prefix Neu or Klein.^* 
 
 "H. Rosen: Pet. Mitt., Vol. 61, Sept. 1915, pp. 329-333. 
 
 ** A. Weinrich : Bevolkerimgsstatistische iind Siedlungsgeographie, Beitrage zur 
 Kunde Ost-Masuiieiis, vornehmlich der Kreise Oletzko und Lycke. Konigsberg, 1911. 
 
Fig. 40 — A \Yendish loghouse in the Spreewald where ancient Slavic colonies re- 
 tain their languaKe and customs although surrounded by Germans. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 133 
 
 Within this marshy country, a Polish folk has maintained its 
 own institutions ever since the consolidation of Poles into a dis- 
 tinct people within the drainage area of the Vistula. The only 
 feature of Germanism which took hold in the land was the 
 Protestant religion. The 300,000 Masurians, therefore, present 
 the queer anomaly of a Protestant Polish group. Apart from this 
 peculiarity they are as truly Poles as their land is part of the 
 Vistula basin. With the revival of Polish ideals in recent years 
 the growth of Protestantism in the region has been checkedTI It 
 is interesting to note that the revulsion of religious feeling had 
 its source in the province of Posen, in the full midst of Teutonic 
 proselytism, and not, as might have been expected, in Russian 
 Poland. 
 
 The Wends of Germany represent the only intact remnant of 
 the Slav populations which once filled the country. The whole 
 plain country of northern Germany extending from the Elbe to 
 the Vistula had been inhabited by the Wends since early Christian 
 times. The country between the Sale, upper Havel and Spree 
 valleys was probably their original settling ground.-^ They now 
 occupy Lusatia and are sometimes known as Lusatian Serbians. 
 In the Middle Ages the name of Sorabes was given to them. The 
 Germans first began to invade the region in the eleventh century. 
 In the fourteenth, they attained numerical preponderance. The 
 decline of the Slav communities which was accelerated by the 
 Thirty Years' War, begins about this time. The union of 
 Lusatia with Bohemia helped the Slav cause for a while, but the 
 treaty of Prague, in 1635, by which the country was awarded to 
 Saxony crushed Slavic hopes. At present, the Slavic language 
 has practically disappeared from the region, although the appear- 
 ance and customs of the inhabitants are more Slav than German. 
 
 As late as the Middle Ages the Wends occupied an area con- 
 siderably to the north of their present seat. The eastern valley 
 of the Elbe, as well as Mecklenburg territory, was settled by them 
 before 1160. Charters of this period such as that of the Schwerin 
 bishopric of 1178, or of the cloister of Dargun of 1174, show 
 
 *' L. Niederle: La race slave, Paris, 1916, p. 94. 
 
134 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Slavic place names exclusively. Among signs pointing to a pre- 
 German spread of the Wendish element are the relics of Slavic 
 family names and evidences of the old ''Hakenhufen" di\dsion 
 of the land in lots of 15 acres. This last proof appears irrefutable 
 and points, upon application, to the former extension of the 
 
 LacAaiio 
 
 Lissa o 
 
 '^Briix 14 
 
 \Schnn(Ini(^ 
 
 Waideriburt/ 
 
 liY/iite/faif 
 
 Ki" 
 
 Fig. 41 — The area of Wend speech. The dotted patch shows that Kottbus is the 
 center of the district in which the majority of the inhabitants (over 50 per cent.) 
 speak the Slav language. In the ruled area the percentage of Wends is less than 50. 
 
 Wendish element to the very shores of the Baltic.^" Germaniza- 
 tion seems to have been thoroughly accomplished by the second 
 half of the thirteenth century. But even today a great part of 
 the area east of the Elbe must be regarded as a land of German- 
 spealdng Slavs. 
 
 Surrounded by Germans, the Wendish colony is doomed to 
 disappear in spite of a literary renascence which helps to per- 
 petuate national consciousness in its midst. According to 
 statistics, the number of Wends is steadily declining. The 
 progress of Germanization is particularly apparent in Lower 
 Lusatia, which is part of the Prussian domain. It was estimated 
 
 •" H. Witte: Wendische Bev6lkerungsreste in Mecklenburg, Forsch. z. deut. Lcmdes- 
 u. Volksk., Vol. 16, No. 2, 1907. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 135 
 
 in 1885 that this people comprised about 176,000 souls. Later 
 computations place this figure at about 156,000. The absence of 
 an intellectual class among them, compulsory military service in 
 German regiments and the use of the German language in church 
 favor the progress of Teutonism.^^ 
 
 The want of linguistic unity among the Wends also tends to 
 weaken their position. Idiomatic differences between the lan- 
 guages of Upper and Lower Lusatia are such as to prevent the 
 natives of the respective districts from rendering themselves 
 intelligible to one another. The literary language of Kottbus 
 differs from that of Bautzen. Diversity of customs and institu- 
 tions is also noticeable between the two groups. German ideas 
 increase this cultural split, the divergence from Slavic institu- 
 tions and thought thus becoming accentuated. Unlike the 
 Masurians, and because of their isolation, the Wends cannot look 
 to eventual incorporation with the Polish body. Their political 
 destiny is therefore distinct from that of the Poles J 
 
 We have seen in this chapter that although conquered and 
 divided Poland still lives. A compact mass of over 20,000,000 
 individuals speaking the same language is a force which cannot 
 but make itself felt. This main body of Poles resides within its 
 own linguistic boundaries. Smaller colonies are found outside 
 these limits. The Polish inhabitants of Lithuania and Ukraine 
 muster about 2,000,000. Vilna alone, the capital of Lithuania, has 
 a population of 70,000 Poles out of a total of 170,000 inhabi- 
 tants.^^ The Polish colonies of Ukraine, of the coal-fields of the 
 Donetz, and of the Caucasus comprise wealthly landholders, 
 manufacturers, bankers and merchants. These men though living 
 outside the ethnographic boundaries of their people nevertheless 
 exercise the weight of their influence on its behalf. Thus the 
 three groups into which conquest has divided the Poles remain 
 today in intimate contact in spite of the political boundaries 
 which separate them. It is mainly in the economic -field that bind- 
 ing ties have been established between the three, for the Poles of 
 the three continental empires have made it a point to promote 
 
 ** Op. cit., pp. 96-97. ^' Including 40 per cent of Jews. 
 
136 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 trade relations with one another. This was forging a new link 
 to their pre-existing natural ties of kinship. 
 
 The problem of delimiting Polish national boundaries is com- 
 plicated on the east and west, as has been stated, by the absence 
 of prominent surface features. On both sides the lines of lin- 
 guistic parting provide the only practicable demarcation. On the 
 north and south, however, the Baltic and the Carpathians may be 
 utilized advantageously as national frontiers. But the fate of 
 the Polish region is strongly outlined by nature, for the entire 
 basin of the Vistula is a regional unit. Any partitioning of this 
 basin would probably be followed by political conflicts. 
 
 NOTE ON THE SLAVS 
 
 III the ninth century the Slavs occupied the eastern plains of Europe between 
 the valleys of the Elbe and the Dnieper, Southwai'd they spread to the northern 
 foothills of the mountains of central Europe. Although subdivided into tribes bearing 
 different names, there existed no essential differences among them as to language or 
 custom. The pagan divinities worshiped in the drainage area of the Vistula were 
 the gods of the inhabitants of the Dnieper valley. Tribal authority was exercised 
 by a chief designated as Kniaz or Voivod throughout these lowlands. Intercourse 
 between the various groups was constant. A vague political union is even discerned 
 by some historians. The Poles and Ruthenians and, to a lesser extent, the 
 Bohemians, are the best modern representatives of these original Slavs. All the 
 eastern Slavs, however, have mixed more or less with Asiatic peoples. 
 
 Some light is thrown on the European origin of the peoples of Aryan speech 
 by the gTOwth of the Slavs. The Slavs of Europe now form by far the most impor- 
 tant ethnic gTOi;p of that continent. They comj^rise about 160,000,000 individuals 
 out of a total of 400,000,000 inhabitants of Europe. Two-thirds of this Slavic 
 element consists of Russians (66,000,000 Great Russians, 32,000,000 Little Russians, 
 and about 8,000,000 White Russians). ^^ Next to the Russians in numerical impor- 
 tance are the Poles (23,000,000). The Serbo-Croatian group can only muster half 
 the Polish array. The Bohemians follow, 8,000,000 strong, while the Bulgarian 
 group does not quite attain 6,000,000. Smaller groups are the 2,000,000 Slovenes, 
 the 2,000,000 Slovaks and the less important enclave communities of German lands 
 like the Wend in Lusatia. J\ 
 
 The homeland of the primitive nucleus of this branch of the Indo-European 
 family is restricted in the main to the plains extending from the northwestern 
 
 "The Slavs are divided by religion into a main body of about 110,000,000 in- 
 dividuals belonging to the Russian Orthodox Church, about 37,000,000 Roman Catho- 
 lics, 5,000,000 Raskolniks or Sectarians, between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Protestants 
 and over 1,000,000 Mohammedans. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 
 
 137 
 
 corner of the Black Sea to the sandy delta of the Oder. The valleys of the great 
 rivers in this lowland exerted the earliest separative influence which is known to have 
 occurred in the primitive Slav group. Niederle distinguishes three main sub-groups 
 which fit into the frame of eastern European hydrogi'aphy.^* A northwesterly 
 branch attained the valleys of the Elbe, Sale and Sumava, and gave birth to the 
 Bohemian and Polish factions. A central group, originally occupying the region 
 of the upper Vistula, the Dniester and middle Danube, rounded the southern slopes 
 of the Carpathians and, traveling up-stream on the Danube, eventually attained' 
 the valleys of the Save and Drave. The Slavs of southeastern Europe are 
 descendants of this group. Originally pure Slavs, they are permeated with Asiatic 
 blood owing to repeated invasions from the east. The third group was destined to 
 form the substratum of Slavic Russia. It radiated from the basin of the Dnieper 
 as far noi-th as the Quit of Finland and eastward to the valleys of the Oka, the 
 Don and the Volga. | 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Former Polish Provinces Under German Rule at the Beginning of the 
 
 European War ' 
 
 Area in 
 Province sq. ml. 
 
 POMERANIA, regencies of Sti'zalow 
 (Stralsund), Szezecin (Stettin), 
 and Koszalin (Koslin) 11,751 
 
 West Prussia, regencies of Gdansk 
 (Dantzik) and Kwidzyn (Marien- 
 werder) 9,966 
 
 East Prussia, regencies of Kro- 
 lewiec (Konigsberg), Glombin 
 (Gumbinnen) and Olsztyn (Al- 
 lenstein) 14,431 
 
 Population Period of loss 
 
 1910 to Poland 
 
 1,716,921 Xlllth century 
 
 1,703,474 1772 
 
 2,064,175 1656 * 
 
 * L. Strzembosz : Tableau des divisions administratives actuelles de la Pologne, 
 Paris, 1915. 
 
 ^ Not including the circles of Lembork (Lauenburg), (479 sq. mi., 52,851 inhab.), 
 Bytow (Biitow) (238 sq. mi., 28,151 inhab.), and Drahim land (Draheim) (197 
 Bq. mi., 18,500 inhab.), which were lost in the first partition in 1772. 
 
 * Not including the circle of Susz (Rosenberg) (407 sq. mi., 54,550 inhab.), and 
 half of that of Kwidzyn (187 sq. mi., 34,213 inhab.), which together made part of 
 ducal Prussia and were lost in 1656. 
 
 * Given in fief by the Polish kings to the Dukes of Brandenburg and exonerated 
 in 1656 from the oath of vassalage, except the four circles of Branicwo (Braunsberg) 
 
 (383 sq. mi., 54,613 inhab.), Licbark (Heilsberg) (427 sq. mi., 51,912 inhab.), Olsztyn 
 (Allenstein) (529 sq. mi., 90,996 inhab.) and Reszel (Rossel) (333 sq. mi., 50,472 
 inhab.), which together under the name of Duchy of Warmie made part of Royal 
 Prussia and were lost at the first partition. 
 
 La race slave, Paris, 1911, pp. 3-4. 
 
138 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE I— Continued 
 
 Area in Population Period of loss 
 
 Province sq. mi. 1910 to Poland 
 
 PosNANiA, regencies of Poznan 
 
 (Posen) and Bydgoszcz (Brom- 
 
 berg) 11,307 2,099,831 1815' 
 
 Regency of Frankfurt (Franc- 
 
 fort-sur-1'Oder) 7,487 1,233,189 Xlllth century 
 
 Province of Silesia, regencies 
 
 of LigTiica (Liegnitz), Wroclaw 
 
 (Breslau),' and Opole (Oppeln) 15,731 5,225,962 1335 
 
 Saxon District of Budziszyn 
 
 (Bautzen) ' 963 443,549 Xlllth century 
 
 " Conferred on the king of Prussia under the name of Grand Duchy of Posen at 
 the time of the partition of the Duchy of Warsaw by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. 
 
 • Former appendages of a branch, extinguished in 1675, of the royal Polish house 
 of Piast. 
 
 ' Part of the former marquisatc of Lusace. 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Polish Administrative Divisions Under Austro-Hungarian Rule at the 
 Beginning of the European War 
 
 Area in Period of loss 
 
 Territory sq. mi. Population to Poland 
 
 ]\Iarquisate of Moravia 866 2,622,271 Xlth century 
 
 Duchy of Silesia ' 2,007 756,949 — 
 
 Kingdom of Galicia with the 
 
 Grand Duchy of Cracow ' 30,615 8,025,675 1772-1795 
 
 * Part of the former Polish Silesia, kept by Germany. 
 
 *The territory of Cracow, made into a republic in 1815 by the Congress of 
 Vienna, was annexed by Austria in 1846. 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 Polish Administrative Divisions Under Russian Rule at the Beginning of 
 
 THE European War 
 
 Area in Population in Period of loss 
 
 Territory sq. mi. 1910' to Poland 
 
 Baltic Provinces: 
 
 Gov't of Esthonia 7,897 471,400 1660 
 
 " " Livonia 18,342 1,466,900 1660 
 
 " " Courland 10,642 749,100 1795 
 
 Lithuania : 
 
 Gov't of Grodno 15,081 1,974,400 ) 
 
 " " Kovno 15,853 1,796,700 Y 1793-1795 = 
 
 " " Vihia 16,587 1,957,000 ) 
 
 ^ Consisting of Poles and natives. 
 
 ' The circle of Bialystok, occupied by the king of Prussia in 1795, was ceded to 
 Russia by the treaty of Tilsit in 1807. 
 
THE AREA OF POLISH SPEECH 
 
 139 
 
 TABLE 111— Co7itinued 
 
 Area in 
 
 Territory sq. mi. 
 
 White Ruthenia: 
 
 Gov't of Smolensk 21,757 
 
 " " Minsk 35,649 
 
 " " Mohilev 18,738 
 
 " " Witebsk 17,615 
 
 Kingdom op Poland: 
 
 Gov't of Kalisz 4,436 
 
 '' " Kielce 3,936 
 
 " " Lublin 6,567 
 
 " " Lom^a 4,119 
 
 " " Piotrkow 4,777 
 
 " " Ploek 3,684 
 
 " " Radom 4,817 
 
 " " Siedlce 5,591 
 
 " " Suwalki 4,895 
 
 " " Warsaw 6,833 
 
 Ruthenia : 
 
 Gov't of Kiovie 19,890 
 
 " " Podolia 16,587 
 
 " " Volhynia 28,023 
 
 Population in 
 19101 
 
 1,988,700 
 2,868,300 
 2,261,500 
 1,850,700 
 
 1,183,800 1 
 
 973,300 
 1,556,000 
 
 688,500 
 1,981,300 I 
 
 739,900 
 1,112,200 
 1,003,400 
 
 681,300 
 2,547,700 J 
 
 4,604,200 
 3,812,000 
 3,920,400 
 
 Period of loss 
 to Poland 
 
 1667 
 
 1772-1793 
 
 1815 by Congress 
 of Vienna 
 
 1793-1795 
 
 * The city of Kijow (Kiev) with its district (773 sq. mi., 560,000 inhab.) was 
 lost in 1686. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 DiSTEIBTJTION OF POLES AND GERMANS IN UpPER SiLESIA, ACCORDING TO 1910 
 
 German Census Figures ' 
 
 Locality Population Germans Poles 
 
 Kreuzburg 51,906 24,363 24,487 
 
 Rosenberg 52,341 8,586 42,234 
 
 Oppeln (city) 33,907 27,128 5,371 
 
 Oppeln (district) 117,906 23,740 89,323 
 
 Gross-Strehlitz 73,383 12,616 58,102 
 
 Lublinitz 50,388 7,384 39,969 
 
 Gleiwitz (city) 66,981 49,543 9,843 
 
 Tost-Gleiwitz 80,515 16,408 61,509 
 
 Tarnowitz 77,583 20,969 51,859 
 
 Beuthen (city) 67,718 41,071 22,401 
 
 Konigshiitte (city) 72,641 39,276 24,687 
 
 Beuthen-Land 195,844 59,308 123,016 
 
 Hindenburg 139,810 63,875 81,567 
 
 Kattowitz (city) 43,173 36,891 5,766 
 
 Kattowitz (district) 216,807 65,763 140,592 
 
 * R. Baumgarten: Deutsche und Polen in Oberschlesien, Deutsche Erde, Vol. 13, 
 No. 7, 1914-1915, pp. 175-179. 
 
140 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE lY—Continved 
 
 LocAi,iTY Population 
 
 Pless 122,897 
 
 Rybnik 131,630 
 
 Ratibor (city) 38,424 
 
 Ratibor (district) 118,923 
 
 Kosel 75,673 
 
 Leobschutz 82,635 
 
 Neustadt 97,537 
 
 Falkenberg 37,526 
 
 Neisse (city) 25,938 
 
 Neisse (district) 75,285 
 
 Grottkau 40,610 39,589 825 
 
 Germans 
 
 Poles 
 
 16,464 
 
 105,744 
 
 24,872 
 
 102,430 
 
 22,914 
 
 11,525 
 
 13,316 
 
 56,765 
 
 16,433 
 
 56,794 
 
 69,901 
 
 5,178 
 
 51,489 
 
 43,787 
 
 33,286 
 
 3,815 
 
 24,735 
 
 955 
 
 74,125 
 
 797 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 
 
 The Bohemians, who with the Moravians form the vanguard 
 of the Slavs in Europe, occupy the mountain-girt plateau of 
 Bohemia in the very heart of the continent. Here, a steady 
 easterly spread of Teutons has prevented expansion of these 
 Slavs along the eastern valleys which provide them with com- 
 munication with the rest of the continent. Bohemians and 
 Moravians thus found themselves shut within the mountainous 
 rim of their land by the Germans of Silesia and Austria proper. 
 
 The German ring surrounding Bohemia is composed of 
 groups belonging to various types of the Teutonic family. A 
 southwestern element consists of descendants of Bavarian set- 
 tlers. Farmers and woodsmen were introduced into the Bohmer- 
 wald, as an inevitable phase of the exploitation of the mountain- 
 ous area, by religious communities of the thirteenth century. The 
 end of the Thirty Years' War was marked by a new influx of 
 Germans needed to repopulate the sorely devastated Bohemian 
 districts. The Bavarians, however, never reached the foot of the 
 eastern slopes. Modern Bohemian resistance to their spread 
 toward the plain persists unflinchingly. Northward, the Erzge- 
 birge uplift is also a German ethnographic conquest. For cen- 
 turies its mineral wealth has attracted artisans from Franconia, 
 Thuringia and Saxony, The mountain slopes re-echo today to 
 the sound of the dialects of these ancient countries. The Saxon 
 element prevails particularly among the inhabitants of the Elbe 
 valley. 
 
 Farther east, descendants of Lusatian and Silesian peasants 
 still use the vernacular of their ancestors in the upland formed 
 by the Iser Gebirge and the Eiesen Gebirge. In modern times 
 the valleys of these mountains yield a steady stream of German- 
 
 141 
 
142 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 speaking inhabitants to the industrial towns of the southern 
 plain. The German workingman 's competition with his Bohemian 
 fellow laborer is keen in this district, but it has not been marked 
 by a notable advance of the Teutonic idiom. 
 
 rLinguistically the Bohemians and Moravians form a unit 
 hemmed in by Germans on all sides except the east, where they 
 abut against their Slovak kinsmen. Community of national aspi- 
 rations, under the leadership of the Bohemian element, is 
 generally ascribed to these three Slavic groups. The union has 
 been fostered by the lack of a literary language among Moravians, 
 who have adopted the Bohemian alphabet and style. "With the 
 Slovaks ^ inferiority of numbers helped the spread of the 
 Bohemian language and literature. 
 
 The Czech linguistic area presents homogeneity of composition 
 which is seldom encountered in other parts of Austria-Hungary. 
 Intermingling of Slavic and Teutonic elements has been slight in 
 this advanced strip of Slavdom. Overlapping of German is met 
 in belts generally parallel to the political divide. It is particu- 
 larly noticeable in the angle formed by the junction of the 
 Bohmerw^ald and Erzgebirge near the western linguistic divide, 
 where it almost attains the town of Pilsen.^ Beyond, in a north- 
 erly direction, the volcanic area characterized by thermal springs 
 lies within the German line. Keichenberg, a strenuous center of 
 Teutonism, maintains easterly and westerly prongs of German 
 in the Iser-Eiesen uplifts and the Elbe valley, respectively. The 
 German of Silesia spreads into Moravia along the Zwittau- 
 Olmiitz-Neu Titschen line. 
 
 A short stretch of the linguistic boundary coincides with the 
 political frontier in the neighborhood of Taus, but the rest of 
 the southern Bohmerwald overlooking Bohemian levels is German 
 in speech from the crests to the zone in which widening of the 
 valleys becomes established. The disappearance of this moun- 
 
 * Official Austrian fibres estimate the number of Slovaks at slightly over 2,000,000. 
 Slavic authorities generally give higher figures. 
 
 * J. Zemmich : Doutsclion unci Slawen in den osterrcichischen Siidetenliindern, 
 Deutsche Erde, Vol. 2, 1903, pp. 1-4. 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 143 
 
 tainous chain, in southern Moravia, coincides with a southerly 
 extension of Czech in the valley of the March. Contact with 
 Slovak dialects begins in the Beskid area. 
 
 Celts, Teutons and Slavs have occupied the Bohemian lozenge 
 in turn. The appellation Czechs first appears in the sixth cen- 
 tury. National consolidation began with the country's conversion 
 to Christianity, three hundred years later, and was maintained 
 with varying fortunes until 1620. Bohemian political freedom 
 was annihilated in that year on the battlefield of the White 
 Mountain. After this defeat the land and its inhabitants lapsed 
 into a state of lethargy. The high cultural attainment of a few 
 modern Bohemians was sufficient to rouse the country to a sense 
 of national feeling.^ Fortunately native poets, historians and 
 scientists were successful in infusing their patriotic ideals in the 
 minds of their countrymen. In particular, the fire of Bohemian 
 patriotism has been kept alive by literary activity. 
 
 Successful attempts on the part of Hungarians to assimilate 
 the Slovaks has caused these mountaineers to turn to their 
 Bohemian kinsmen for assistance in the preservation of race and 
 tradition. Merging of national aspirations in this case, was 
 facilitated by close linguistic affinity. A Czecho-Slovak body 
 consisting of 8,410,998 individuals * thus came into being within 
 the Dual Monarchy in order to maintain resistance against Ger- 
 man and Hungarian encroachments. ( 
 
 The struggle between Teuton and Slav in Bohemia goes back 
 to the obscure period of the country's early history. As late as 
 the middle of the ninth century Bohemia was mainly a pagan 
 state. German missionaries at that time were endeavoring to 
 convert the natives to Christianity. But the mere nationality of 
 the apostles of the new faith prevented them from gaining 
 adherents. From the heart of Europe the Bohemians looked 
 eastward to the Christians of the Slavic race for religious salva- 
 tion. We read of envoys being sent to the court of the Byzan- 
 tine emperor to beseech this ruler to send Christian teachers of 
 
 ^ L. Bourlier: Leg Tcheqiies et la Boheme contemporaine, Paris, 1897, pp. 143-220. 
 * Census returns for 1910. New Inter. Encyc, New York, 1914. 
 
144. FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the Slavic faith to Bohemia, as the German missionaries could 
 not make themselves intelligible to the natives. These steps 
 were viewed with considerable apprehension by German bisho^js, 
 especially after the success which attended the proselytizing 
 efforts of Methodus and his colleagues. The Byzantine priests 
 had brought with them a translation of the Bible in the Slavic 
 language of Macedonia. The replacement of Bohemian by Ger- 
 man was thus effectively prevented. Bohemia and Moravia 
 definitely became bilingual countries in the thirteenth century as 
 a result of the inflow of German colonists who responded to 
 urgent appeals for settlers made by Bohemian rulers in that 
 period. The belt of German towns which completely encircles 
 Bohemia is a consequence of this policy. The deforested zones 
 of the west and northwest received the largest number of 
 settlers. 
 
 In western and northern Bohemia a struggle for supremacy 
 between German and Czech has been carried on for years with 
 unabated vehemence. The scene of contest between the two 
 peoples is often laid in individual communes. Clerical, industrial 
 and educational influences are constantly at work for the exten- 
 sion of the linguistic area with which they side. On the whole 
 the Bohemians, being in command of superior pecuniary 
 resources, appear to be gaining ground, although from special 
 causes the German element shows an advance in certain districts. 
 La those parts where mixture has taken place no definite 
 boundary between pure German and Bohemian (i.e., in over 90 
 per cent of the respective peoples) can be drawn. As a rule, it 
 is the Bohemians who have of late advanced their outposts into 
 the German sphere, the Germanization of which dates back some 
 two hundred years. Although they have fallen back somewhat 
 in the tongue of land which projected into German ground, north 
 of Mies, they have gained much ground in Pilsen and in the 
 industrial region around Nurschan, west of that town. Fifty 
 years ago only some three or four thousand out of a total popu- 
 lation of fourteen thousand in Pilsen were Bohemians, but the 
 influx of population which has since taken place has been almost 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 145 
 
 entirely Bohemian. In 1890 the proportion of Germans in the 
 city only amounted to 16.2 per cent. Niirschan, the chief center 
 of the coal-fields of western Bohemia, boasts a Bohemian 
 majority and if the process now going on is continued the 
 Bohemian population will probably in time join hands with that 
 in Mies.^ 
 
 Further to the northeast similar conditions prevail, though the 
 linguistic frontier is in parts more sharply defined. In the coal- 
 fields of Briix and Dux the Bohemian element has largely increased 
 on the German side of the normal frontier owing to the influx of 
 Czech miners. In Trebnitz again the Czech language has gained 
 a firm footing, although the toAvn at the end of the nineteenth 
 century was entirely German. In the neighboring town of 
 Lobositz, however, which occupies an important position at the 
 junction of six lines of railway, the prospects from the German 
 point of view are brighter. The accession of Charles IV to the 
 throne of Bohemia in 1346 was an event of the utmost impor- 
 tance in the linguistic history of the country.® This sovereign, 
 the successor of German princes who had never allowed Bohemia 
 fair play, showed marked affection for the land he was called 
 upon to rule and set himself to master its language thoroughly. 
 For two hundred years prior to his reign, Bohemian stood in 
 danger of being replaced by German. Other Slav dialects were 
 fast disappearing before the vigorous advance of Teutonic 
 
 " Quoted from the Geogr. Joitrn., Vol. 16, 1900, p. 553. 
 
 " According to data gathered by Niederle " the Bohemian boundary in the fourteenth 
 century started at Kynwart and passed through Zdar, Kralipy and Komotan, the latter 
 being German. Thence it attained Most and spread to Duchcov and Dieczin. Bilin 
 and Teplitz were still Bohemian. The frontier then reached the German settlement of 
 Benesov and extended to Jablonna and beyond the lestred mountains until it struck 
 the sources of the Iser river. Reichenberg was a German city in the fourteenth century. 
 The Germans also occupied the mountainous land beyond Hohenelbe. This town was 
 then peopled by Bohemians mainly, but Pilnikov, Trutnov, Zaclev and Stare Buky were 
 already German. Starkov was Bohemian, but the Brunov region and the Kladsko 
 country was Germanized. Olesnica and Rokytince were Boliemian. Beyond Policzka 
 and Litomysl the situation was similar to that of our day. Nemecky Brod contained a 
 German enclave. Jindrichuv Hradec as well as Budweiss, Krumlov and Prachatice were 
 inhabited by both peoples. The Kasperk mountains were mainly German. The boundary 
 in the Domazlice country was on Bohemian soil. Klatoiy was a mixed zone, while 
 Tachov was German." 
 
146 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 speech. Through its literature alone the Boheraiaii language was 
 preserved. This literary development was an advantage which 
 was not possessed by the Slav languages, which gave way before 
 German. 
 
 As a result of Charles's benevolent policy Bohemian became 
 the language of the court. Furthermore it was used exclusively 
 in many courts of law, which w^ere re-established through the 
 same influence. It was even decreed that speakers at the assem- 
 blies of towTi magistrates should use the language of their choice 
 and that no one speaking only German could be appointed a 
 judge. In this way equality for the Bohemian language was 
 obtained in the districts in which Germans had settled.' 
 
 The creation of the Archbishopric of Prague and the founda- 
 tion of the "new town" of Prague dated also from the reign of 
 King Charles. Bohemian clergymen were encouraged to preach 
 in the vernacular. Their sermons reached the people and stirred 
 them to thought. The national movement against the Roman 
 Church was thus facilitated. But another cause favored the 
 spread of Protestantism in Bohemia. Antagonism to Catholicism 
 was merely a special form of Bohemian objection to German 
 influence in the land. The Hussite movement is therefore an 
 episode in the prolonged struggle between Teuton and Slav. 
 
 The enlargement of Prague infused vitality into the Bohemian 
 language. The new town was Bohemian in speech as well as in 
 sentiment. Slavic prevailed exclusively in municipal offices and 
 tribunals. Venceslas, who followed Charles, faithfully main- 
 tained his predecessor's attitude towards Bohemian. A notable 
 advance in favor of the language of the land was made in his 
 reign by a decision according to which all decrees of the court 
 and the government, which hitherto had been rendered in either 
 German or Latin, were to be henceforth published in Bohemian. 
 
 The University of Prague, which has always been a center of 
 Bohemian intellectual life, was also affected by these changes. 
 In the middle of the fifteenth century the German element in 
 Bohemia had complete control of the affairs of this institution. 
 
 'Liitzow: Bohemia, New York, 1910, pp. 71, 92. 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 147 
 
 Its chairs were filled by Teutons and its dignities awarded to 
 their kinsmen. In 1385, swayed by national aspirations and 
 relying on the predilection shown them in high quarters, 
 Bohemians began to protest against the presence of foreigners 
 in their national seat of learning. Their appeal found a response 
 with the Archbishop of Prague, who ruled that Bohemians were 
 entitled to priority in appointments to university offices, and 
 that only in case of their unfitness was a German to be selected. 
 Complaint of this decision was made by the Germans to the Pope 
 and a compromise reached in virtue of which predominance of 
 Bohemian rights was obtained. The appearance of John Huss 
 on the scene of this struggle was the next step in the task of 
 completely emancipating Bohemia from German rule. 
 
 The national movement fostered in this manner was to end 
 disastrously at the battle of the White Mountain in 1620. The 
 treaty of Westphalia removed all probability of the establishment 
 of an autonomous Bohemian nation. But Bohemian patriots 
 have a saying that ''as long as the language lives the nation is 
 not dead," and through all the dark days of the country's his- 
 tory, in the very heart of continental Europe, cut off from the 
 surrounding lands by a wall of forested slopes, the Bohemian 
 language has held its own, not merely as a vernacular but as a 
 literary language worthy of the nation's pride. 
 
 A period of marked decline intervened, however, between the 
 seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. The crushing blow inflicted 
 on Bohemian nationalism in 1620 was speedily followed by a rigid 
 German oversight of the country. Seven years later, Ferdinand 
 inaugurated a series of measures aimed at destroying the cause 
 for which Bohemians had sacrificed their lives. The German 
 language began to supplant the Bohemian. The ''renewed 
 ordinance of the land,'.' issued in 1627, contained provisions for 
 the recognition of German in tribunals and government offices on 
 the same terms as Bohemian. The appointment of Germans to 
 important offices was a policy which marked this period. Its 
 effects became perceptible in the growing use of the conquerors^ 
 language. The seventeenth century is marked by a rapid growth 
 
148 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of the Teutonic belt encircling Boliemia. Luditz and Saaz were 
 lost to tlie Bohemian language in that period. So were the 
 districts of Rokytince and Vichlaby ^ in the eastern section 
 of the country. But since the beginning of the eighteenth century 
 little change has taken place in the German-Bohemian linguistic 
 boundary. 
 
 Among the causes which contributed to the decline of the 
 Bohemian language about this time were the land confiscations 
 which were carried out on an extensive scale by the Imperialists.® 
 Most of the noblemen of Bohemia were deprived of their estates. 
 As a result about half the landed property of the country was 
 taken away from its Slav owners. This spoliation was carried 
 on by the Catholics, the despoiled and exiled Hussites being 
 replaced by Germans, Spaniards, Walloons and even Irish. This 
 foreign element naturally adopted the German language and 
 Bohemian was abandoned to serfs and peasants. 
 
 The humble tillers of Bohemian soil proved faithful custo- 
 dians of their native speech. They stored the language during 
 two centuries as though they had been gifted with the fore- 
 knowledge of the splendid literary revival which was to mark its 
 renaissance at the magic touch of Kolar, Sofarik and Palacky. 
 Coincident with this movement national consciousness was reborn 
 among Bohemians. Writers and poets naturally took the past 
 greatness of their native land as the theme of their compositions. 
 They told their countrymen of the glorious days of Bohemian 
 history. The movement fortunately took place when the w^ave of 
 liberalism set in motion by the French Revolution was still 
 advancing into the recesses of central Europe. By the year 1840 
 all Bohemia had awakened to the idea of national independence. 
 Attempts to secure partial autonomy proved abortive, however. 
 Revolutionary outbreaks in 1848 were quickly repressed by Aus- 
 trian troops, but the struggle between the two elements increased 
 in bitterness as years went by. 
 
 At present two-thirds of the inhabitants of Bohemia are 
 
 " L. Niederle: La race slave, Paris, 1916, p. 10f». 
 •Liitzow: op. cit., p. 294. 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 149 
 
 Bohemians, and this Slavic element is gradually forcing its way 
 into districts which were formerly occupied exclusively by Ger- 
 mans. The causes of this shifting are economic. The German 
 element, controlling industry and vested with authority, has 
 attained a state of relative prosperity. Even its poorest mem- 
 bers are not attracted by the prospect of work held out by 
 Bohemia's growing industry. The less advanced Bohemians, 
 however, not so content with their lot, are attracted by certain 
 kinds of labor which the German element spurns. Having fewer 
 local ties than their Teutonic countrymen, they easily move from 
 place to place. It thus happens that out of the thirty-six German 
 districts of Bohemia, twenty-two are now fully 5 per cent 
 Bohemian.^^ 
 
 The inhabitants of the Margravate of Moravia are also true 
 Bohemians. This state is a crown-land of Bohemia, to the east 
 of which it lies. Its population consists of 1,870,000 Bohemians 
 and 720,000 Germans. Close affiliation with the kingdom of 
 Bohemia is revealed in Moravia's past history. The two states 
 formed the nucleus of the Bohemian nation. At present Moravia 
 is even more truly Bohemian than her larger sister state, since 
 three-fourths of the landowners of Moravia are Bohemians, while 
 in Bohemia that element holds only about three-fifths of the soil. 
 In spite of the mountainous character of the country, and the 
 isolation produced by it, very slight traces of early tribal differ- 
 ences can be detected among these Bohemians. In Moravia alone 
 three distinct types can be distinguished by their dialects and 
 their physical or ethnographic features. Dress in the last case 
 plays an important part." 
 
 The northeastern section of Moravia is known as the Lassko 
 country and is peopled by Lassi Moravians. This group occupies 
 districts mainly around the towns of Moravska-Ostrava and 
 Frydland. South of them a number of Slovak villages are found 
 within the Moravian border. Their inhabitants, sometimes known 
 as Moravian Slovaks, are emigrants from the Hungarian moun- 
 
 *' V. Gayda: Modern Austria, New York, 1915. 
 
 *^ L. Niederle: La race slave, Paris, 1911, p. 127. 
 
150 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 tains who reached the western Carpathians in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. Although they speak Bohemian, their customs 
 differ considerably from Bohemian usages. The balance of 
 Moravia is peopled by Hanaks, who are easily distinguished by 
 temperamental differences from the previous two groups. The 
 Hanaks as a rule are calm and inclined to ponderous ways of 
 thought and action, whereas both the Lassi and Slovaks are 
 quick-minded and lively. 
 
 German expansion into Moravia is facilitated by the valley of 
 the March, which penetrates into the heart of the Margravate. 
 The Elbe and Moldau in Bohemia play a similar part as agents 
 of Germanization. As in Bohemia, the Germans are confined to 
 the border heights or the towns. In the thirteenth century many 
 German fortified towns existed in Moravia. The rise of a pow- 
 erful German middle class dates from this period. Intellectually 
 as well as industrially the Teuton element is the more advanced. 
 Bacial and linguistic differences are accentuated by religious 
 antagonism, the German element being Roman in creed. The 
 clergy in fact have acted as a powerful agent of Germanization 
 in Moravia. 
 
 The Slovaks are dwellers of the northern highland border of 
 Hungary who reached Europe in the sixth century b.c. They are 
 closely related by racial and linguistic affinity to the Bohemians 
 and Moravians. The course of centuries has failed to change 
 their customs or the mode of life they led in the western Car- 
 pathians. The Hungarian plain spread out below their rocky 
 habitation without tempting them to forsake the huddled condi- 
 tions of their native valleys. Their language holds its o^\ti as 
 far east as the Laborec valley. Junction with Polish is effected 
 in the Tatra. 
 
 Once onW in their history did the Slovaks succeed in creating 
 a great nation. In 870 a.d., under the leadership of Svatopuk, 
 they established the short-lived Great Moravian Empire. Unfor- 
 tunately his successors were unable to maintain the independence 
 of the nation he founded and the empire crumbled to pieces 
 before the repeated attacks of the Hungarians. By the tenth 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 151 
 
 century the political ties between Bohemians and Slovaks were 
 completely severed. 
 
 In the fifteenth century the two peoples were drawn to each 
 other by ties of religion. An enthusiastic reception had been 
 given to the teachings of John Huss by the Slovaks. They 
 adopted the Bohemian translation of the Bible. Religious refor- 
 mation was followed by a literary revival and Bohemian became 
 the language of culture among them. It was mainly among 
 Protestant Slovaks, however, that the influence of Bohemian 
 prevailed. The Catholic clergy opposed the movement by encour- 
 aging literary development of Slovakian. This linguistic struggle 
 is maintained to the present day. In spite of opposition, however^ 
 Bohemian remains the literary language of the Slovak people. 
 John KoUar, one of the greatest writers of Bohemian poetry, was 
 a Slovak. 
 
 The Slovaks number approximately two million souls spread 
 over ten of the '^comitats" of northern Hungary. Their occu- 
 pation of this region antedates the coming of the Magyars. 
 Survivals of ancient Slovak populations are still met in the 
 villages of central and southern Hungary. Bohemian refugees 
 of kindred speech and religion reinforced this autochthonous 
 element after the battle of the White Mountain in 1620. These 
 circumstances perhaps have prevented their assimilation by the 
 conquering race. The aristocracy alone has intermarried with 
 the Hungarians. The masses have no more intercourse with the 
 rulers than they can help. Linguistic and religious differences 
 intensify the breach. 
 
 While the Slovaks form compact populations in the moun- 
 tains of northern Hungary, their colonies are found scattered 
 throughout the southern parts of this country except in the 
 Transylvanian districts. The campaign waged by Hungarians to 
 suppress Slovak national ■ aims renders the lot of these Slavs 
 particularly trying. The ancient names of their villages and 
 towTis are being officially replaced by Magyar names, even where 
 most of the inhabitants use Slovakian as their vernacular. 
 
 Although Slovak-land is an integral part of the Hungarian 
 
152 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 kingdom, it lias proved an attractive field for German coloni- 
 zation since the ninth century. The comitat of Zips was settled 
 by a large colony of Germans in the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Fifty years later the Teutons began to invade the comitats 
 of Pressburg and Neutra '' by advancing from the west. In Bars 
 and Hont, to both of which they proceeded from the south, they 
 were not known before the thirteenth century. The Germani- 
 zation of Slovak districts was particularly intense during the 
 Tatar invasion of this period. Hungary had been grievously 
 affected by this eastern scourge, and its kings offered special 
 inducements to repopulate their devastated provinces. Their call 
 was heeded by numerous families of German peasants. In the 
 first half of the sixteenth century almost every town within 
 Slovak boundaries contained one or two German families at least. 
 The heart of this German colonization was situated in the mining 
 districts of the country. Kremnitz and Nemecke Prava, as w^ell 
 as adjoining districts, attracted heavy contingents of Teuton 
 workers. This movement ended in the seventeenth century when 
 the inflow of German colonists was checked by special legislation 
 and the foreign element was absorbed by either the Slovaks or 
 the Hungarians, 
 
 The modern boundary of Slovakian language in Hungary 
 starts according to Niederle at Devinska Novaves near the 
 confluence of the Morva" and Danube. From this point it 
 extends southeastward to Novezansky and Leva. Thence it is 
 continued south of Abanj as far as Huta, which is the eastern- 
 most Slovak village. The line now turns westward and skirts the 
 Galician frontier as far as the German border. 
 
 The area included within these confines is not altogether 
 homogeneous. The comitats of Neutra, Turocz, Bars and Gomo 
 contain enclaves of Germans. Polish and Hungarian settlements 
 are also known between Vrable and Neutra as well as at Abanj, 
 west of Kashau. ]\Iany Slovak communities exist, however, 
 beyond the region outlined above. These extra-territorial nuclei 
 
 ** L. Niederle: La race slave, Paris, 1916, p. 106. 
 *' The ]\Iarch acquires this name in its last stretch. 
 
BOHEMIAN, MORAVIAN AND SLOVAKIAN 153 
 
 more than counterbalance numerically the alien total in Slovak- 
 land. 
 
 The most important localities inhabited by Slovaks outside of 
 their native land are Gran, in the comitat of Esztergom, and 
 Budapest. The Hungarian capital probably contains between 
 25,000 and 40,000 Slovaks. Their number in Vienna is estimated 
 at 50,000. In other parts of Hungary, as for instance at Kerepes 
 and Pilis, highly ancient Slovak communities are believed to 
 represent survivals of the people who lived in Hungary prior to 
 the appearance of the Hungarians. 
 
 Bohemia's national enfranchisement, if carried out on a 
 linguistic basis, will rescue the old lands of the Bohemian cro^vn, 
 namely Bohemia, Moravia and the Slovak districts of north- 
 western Hungary, from Teutonic rule. The historical validity of 
 Bohemia's claims to independence and the failure of centuries of 
 Germanization to deprive the Bohemian of his individuality 
 establish the country's right to a distinct place in a Europe of 
 free and harmonious nations. The Bohemian has his own objects 
 in self-development and the achievement of his independence 
 should be no disparagement of the aims and pursuits of other 
 nations. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE LANDS OV HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN 
 LANGUAGES 
 
 The presence in Europe oi' Hungarians, a race bearing strong- 
 linguistic and piiysical affinity to Turki tribesmen, is perliaps 
 best explained by the prolilic harvests yielded by the broad 
 valleys oi' the Danube and Theiss. Huns, Avars and Magyars, 
 one and all Asiatics wandering into Europe, were induced to 
 abandon nomadism by the fertility of the boundless Alfold. 
 Western influences took solid root among these descendants of 
 eastern ancestors after their conversion to Christianity and the 
 adoption of the Latin alphabet. So strongly did they become 
 permeated by the spirit of occidental civilization, that the menace 
 of absorption by the Turks was rendered abortive whenever the 
 Sultan's hordes made successful advances towards Vienna. At 
 the same time, fusion with the Germans was prevented by the 
 oriental origin of the race. The foundation of a separate 
 European nation was thus laid in the Hungarian plains. 
 
 Language to the Magyar has always represented nationality. 
 AVhen in 1527 St. Stephen's crown was offered to Ferdinand of 
 Austria in order to strengthen Hungary's resistance against the 
 Turk, the new ruler pledged himself not to destroy this sacred 
 token of Hungarian political independence. ''Nationem et 
 linguam vestram servaro non perdere intendimus" was his 
 solemn promise. The germ of a dual form of government was 
 thus created in the presence of the Sultan's barbarous hordes, 
 but Hungary always preserved its individuality, for at no time 
 did the kingdom form part of the Holy Roman Empire. Closer 
 union with Austria towards the end of the seventeenth century 
 when the right of succession to the Hungarian throne became 
 hereditary in the Hapsburg family, failed to Germanize the land 
 
 164 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 155 
 
 during all the eighteenth century. Later, up to 1867, the 
 persistent struggle of the Magyar against the Austrian was kept 
 up. Attempts to replace German by Hungarian in the govern- 
 ing bodies of counties and muncipalities were merely the outward 
 expression of the contest. 
 
 When, in 1825, the Hungarian Academy of Science was 
 founded by a group of patriotic leaders, the movement was little 
 more than an attempt to revive the Magyar tongue. Count 
 Stephen Szechenyi's words on this occasion betray the conscious- 
 ness of the intimate relation between language and nationality 
 which is felt in every country during periods of actual danger. 
 ^'I am not here," he said, "as a great dignitary of the kingdom; 
 but I am an opulent landowner, and if an institution be estab- 
 lished that will develop the Magyar language and, by so doing, 
 advance the national education of our countrymen, I will sacrifice 
 the revenues of my estates for one year." The impetus given by 
 this statesman, and a few equally earnest compatriots, to the 
 cultivation of national literature in Hungary became a potent 
 factor in the shaping of the country's modern political destiny. 
 It liberated the Magyar from the Germanizing influences of 
 Austrian rule and ultimately paved the way to the establishment 
 of a dual government in the Empire. 
 
 The linguistic boundary between Hungarian and German is 
 found in the eastern extremity of the Austrian Alps. The 
 southern side of the valley of the Danube between Pressburg and 
 Raab is German. Magyar spreads however to the north to meet 
 the Slovak area. South of Pressburg the shores of Lake 
 Neusiedler are included in the German area. The line then 
 crosses the upper valle}^ of the Raab and attains the Drave, which 
 forms the linguistic boundary between Croatian and Hungarian. 
 East of the Theiss, contact with the Rumanian of Transylvania 
 begins in the vicinity of Arad, on the Maros river, and extends 
 northward in an irregular line, hugging the western outliers of the 
 Transylvanian Alps and attaining the sources of the Theiss. In the 
 northeastern valley of this river, Hungarian and Ruthenian lan- 
 guages replace each other. The area of Magyar speech thus defined 
 
156 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 lacks homogeneity in its western section lying west of the Danube. 
 Important enclaves of Germans are solidly intrenched in this 
 portion of the Hungarian domain. The central portion of the 
 monotonous expanse unfolding itself between the Danube and the 
 Theiss is, on the other hand, characterized by uniformity of the 
 Hungarian population it supports. Enclaves however exist all 
 along the border of this eastern area. 
 
 Hungarian nationality asserted itself definitely in the nine- 
 teenth century in the face of strenuous effort on the part of 
 Germans to assimilate the Magyars. The latter took advantage 
 of the defeat of the Austrians at Sadowa in 1867 to reach a 
 compromise with their masters. The Hapsburg Empire was then 
 converted into a Dual Monarchy. For a time the economic 
 advantages of this union lay entirely with Austria. The Hun- 
 garian plain, vast and fecund, bestowed the wealth of its fertility 
 on Austria. A land of farmers it also became an important 
 market for the industrial output of its German partner-state. 
 This economic relation was maintained until the beginning of the 
 twentieth century, when Hungary made rapid progress in 
 industry and forced Austria to seek Balkan markets for the dis- 
 posal of its manufactured goods. 
 
 Austria's unsuccessful attempt to dominate Hungary's eco- 
 nomic life accelerated the growth of the germ of dissension 
 between the two countries. The tie that links Budapest to 
 Vienna, at present, is strengthened by Hungarian dread of 
 the Slav. It might have given way long ago otherwise, for 
 in truth Hungary has to face the menace of Pan-Germanism 
 as well. The percentage of native Hungarians in their own 
 country is under 55 per cent and gives them a bare majority 
 over the combined alien peoples.' The number of Germans scat- 
 tered in Hungarian districts is 2,000,000. The only advantage 
 which the natives of the soil possess lies in their occupation of 
 the richest lands in their country. 
 
 * An increase in the percentage of the Hungarian element in Hungary at the ex- 
 pense of the other nationalities and particularly of the Germans is shown by officiar 
 figures. The following table is instructive: 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 157 
 
 A minor group of Hungarians have settled on the eastern 
 edge of the Transylvania mountains. Here they live surrounded 
 by Rumanians on all sides except on the west where a lone out- 
 post of Saxons brings Teutonic customs and speech to the east. 
 The name of Szekler, meaning frontier guardsmen, applied to 
 this body of Magyars is indicative of their origin. Their pres- 
 ence on the heights overlooking the Rumanian plain bespeaks the 
 desire of Hungarian sovereigns to control the site of a natural 
 rampart dominating their plains. At the end of the thirteenth 
 century this Hungarian colony was in full development. Its 
 soldiers distinguished themselves during the period of war with 
 the Turks. Prestige acquired on battlefields strengthened the 
 separate and semi-independent existence of the community. The 
 region occupied by these Hungarians is situated along the east- 
 ernmost border of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. It extends 
 west of the uninliabited mountain-frontier district between 
 Tolgyes Pass and Crasna. The towns of Schassburg and Maros 
 Vasarhely lie on its western border. But the area of Rumanian 
 speech situated between the land of the Szekler and the main 
 Hungarian district is studded with numerous colonies of Magj^ars, 
 thereby rendering delimitation of a linguistic boundary in the 
 region almost impossible. 
 
 The Saxon colony adjoining the Szekler area on the west is 
 also a relic of medieval strategic necessities. In spite of the 
 name by which this German settlement is designated, its original 
 members appear to have been recruited from different sections 
 of western European regions occupied by Teutons.^ Colonization 
 
 Percentages of the Population of Hungary, without Croatia (after Wallis). 
 
 1880 1910 
 
 Magyars 46.7 54.5 
 
 Germans 13.6 10.4 
 
 Slovaks 13.5 10.7 
 
 Rumanians 17.5 16.1 
 
 Ruthenians 2.6 2.5 
 
 Serbs and Croats 4.6 3.6 
 
 Others 1.5 2.2 
 
 But cf. in this connection B. C. Wallis: Distribution of Nationalities in Hungary, 
 Geogr. Jovrn., Vol. 47, 1916, No. 3, pp. 183-186. 
 
 " F. Tcutsch: Die Art der Ansiedelung der Siebenbiirger Sachsen, Forsch. z. deut. 
 
\r>H FKONTIKKS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 hud alrcfudy been Hiui'led wlitiii King Gchu ii oi" Hungary gave it 
 a TrcHli inipulH<!, in tliu middle; oi" iJio Iweli'lii century, by inducing 
 j)eusants oi" Hk; iniddli! Ivliine and Moselle valleys to exchange 
 servitude in IJK'ir iiaiiv(; villages i'or land ownership in the 
 Transylvania urea.' 
 
 'i'o i)roniote the eiriciency of these colonists as frontier guards- 
 j lie 1 1 an unusual degree of political latitude was accorded them. 
 Ill iiuK! ilicir deputies sat in the Hungarian diet on terms of 
 equality willi representatives oi' tlu; nobility. Prolonged warfare 
 with (lie Tatar populations who attempted to force entrance into 
 llic Hungarian plains, led to the selection of strategical sites as 
 nuclei of oi-iginal scdtlenients. These facts account for ihe sur- 
 vival of the Teutonic groups in the midst of Uunianians and 
 Hungarians. ^Poday the so-called Saxon area does not constitute 
 a single group, but ('onsists of separate agglomerations clustered 
 in the vicinity of Uk; passes and deliies wliicii the ancestors of 
 the Teutons were called upon to dereiid. TIk; upper valley of 
 the OItu and its mountain allluents, in the rectangle inclosed 
 between tlu; town of H(>rmannsla(lt, Fogaras, Mediascli and 
 Schiissburg, conlain at present the bulk oi' this Austrian colonj 
 of (lernian ancestry. 
 
 Tin; K'umanian i)robl(>ni in Hungary is mainly economic. The 
 chief aim of Hungarians is to nuiintain political supremacy in 
 the proNinces containing a majority of the llomance-speaking 
 ch'menl. ^i'lie Rumanian coimnnnilies are scattered over an ar(»a 
 ""1%^^^ of about 715,000 square miles (12:i,278 sq. kms.) which comprises 
 
 Transylvania and its old ''exterior" counties as well as the 
 Banat. 'JMiis region is peopled by (),305,()(;(i inhabitants according 
 to recent c(>nsus figures. Of those 87.8 per cent consist of 
 peasants. The minilxM- of Ivimianians is ollicially estimated at 
 
 iMiiilis- u. \olhsl:.. Vol. 9. 1S!)(i. pp. 1-22. CI", also O. Wittstock: Volkstilnilichos dcr 
 Slolu'iiMlrgtM- Snchsoii. in <1u> siuno volume. Tho name "Saxon" appears to have been 
 apjilleil indiseriniinately in tho Middle Ages to settlera of C.ernmn apeeeh in the Balkan 
 peninsula. " Saxon " minora and " Saxon " luHly}:;uarda were also known in Serbian 
 eounlrioH in (hat. i)eriod. 
 
 " l,ii\fml>iirg ami (lie re^jions comprised between Treves, Dilsseldorf and .\ix la- 
 Chapello furnialied German eoloniata during tho middle of the twelfth century. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 159 
 
 2,932,214. Rumanian students, however, point to official Austrian 
 returns for the year 1840 which placed the number of their coun- 
 trymen at 2,202,000 * and lay stress on the coefficient of increase 
 for the period 1870 to 1910, which is 15.5 per thousand in 
 Rumania and 10.8 per thousand in Hungary. Applying the 
 Rumanian rate to the Rumanian subjects of the Hapsburgs they 
 find that their kinsmen in Hungary ought to number approxi- 
 mately 3,536,000. Otherwise it is necessary to admit that between 
 1840 and 1890 Magyars increased 54 per cent, and Rumanians 
 only 17 per cent, in spite of the recognized fact that Rumanian 
 peasants have larger families than their Hungarian masters.® 
 
 Social grouping in Transylvania shows that the dominating 
 Hungarian class consists largely of city dwellers and government 
 employees. These are the characteristics of an immigrant popu- 
 lation which is not solidly rooted to the land. The Szekler alone 
 among Magyars are tillers of the soil and in intimate contact 
 with the land on which they live. Few of the Rumanians are land- 
 owners. The estates held by an insignificant nmnber of their 
 kinsmen generally form part of ecclesiastical domains and are of 
 restricted size. They own however a relatively large proportion 
 of Transylvania's forested areas, which the Hungarian ruling 
 class is endeavoring to acquire by imitating Prussian methods of 
 absorption of Polish lands. 
 
 The Germans and Hungarians who founded settlements on the 
 Transylvanian plateau were unable to impose their language on 
 the inhabitants of the mountainous region. Rumanian, repre- 
 senting the easternmost expansion of Latin speech, is in use 
 today on the greatest portion of this highland ^ as well as in the 
 fertile valleys and plains surrounding it between the Dniester 
 and the Danube. A portion of Hungary and the Russian province 
 of Bessarabia is therefore included in this linguistic unit outside 
 
 'Hungarian statistics show 2,470,000 in 1870; 2,403,000 in 1880 and 2,589,000 
 in 1890. 
 
 " Cf. V. Merutiu: Romlnii intre Tisa §i Carpa^i, raporturl etnografice, TZei;. Stiinti- 
 flcd Vasile Adamachi, Vol, 6, No. 2, 1015. 
 
 )® N. Mazere: Harta etnografiea a Transilvanei, 1:340,000, Inst. Geogr. al Armatei, \ 
 , lasi, 1909. Voiii^T- ' 
 
160 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of the kingdom of Rumania.^ Beyond the limits of this continuous 
 area, the only important colony of Rumanians is found around 
 Metsovo in Greece where, in the recesses of the Pindus moun- 
 tains and surrounded by the Greeks, Albanians and Bulgarians 
 of the plains, almost half a million Rumanians * have managed to 
 maintain the predominant Latin character of their language." 
 
 Rumanian is derived directly from the low Latin spoken in the 
 Imperial era. In syntax and grammar it reproduces Latin forms 
 of striking purity. Words dealing with agricultural pursuits, 
 however, are generally of Slavic origin. The closeness of 
 Rumanian to Latin can be gathered from the following two 
 specimens of Wallachian verse and their Latin rendering: 
 
 1. 
 
 Eumanian 
 Bela in large valle ambla 
 Erba verde lin calca; 
 Canta, qui cantand plangea, 
 Quod todi munti resuna; 
 Ea in genunchi se punea, 
 Ochi in sus indirepta ; 
 Ecce, asi vorbe facea; 
 " Domne, domne, bune domne." 
 
 Rumanian 
 Nucu, fagu, frassinu 
 Mult se eerta intra sene. 
 " Nuce," dice frassinu, 
 " Quine vine, nuci college, 
 " Cullegend si ramuri frange 
 " Vaide dar de pelle a tua; 
 " Dar tu fage, mi veeine, 
 " Que voi spune in mente tens: 
 " Multe fere saturasi; 
 " Qui prebene nu amblasi ; 
 " Quum se au geru apropiat 
 " La pament te au si culcat, 
 " Si in focu te au si aruncat, . . 
 
 Latin 
 Puella in larga valle ambulabat, 
 Herbam viridem leniter calcabat, 
 Cantabat et cantando plangebat, 
 Ut omnes montes resonarent : 
 Ilia in genua se ponebat, 
 Oculos sursum dirigebat; 
 Ecce, sic verba faeiebat: 
 " Domine, domine, bone domine." 
 
 Latin 
 Nux, fagus, fraxinus, 
 Multum certant inter se. 
 " Nux," dicit fraxinus 
 " Quisquis venit, nuces legit, 
 " CoUigendo ramos frangit: 
 " Vae itaque pelli tuae ! 
 " At tu fage, mi vicine, 
 " Quae exponam mente tene? 
 " Multas feras saturasti, 
 " At baud bene ambulasti ; 
 " Quum gelu appropinquat 
 " Ad pavimentum de deculcant 
 " Ad focum averruncant, . . . 
 
 ' G. Weigand : Linguistischer Atlaa des dacorumanischen Sprachgebietes, Leipzig, 
 1909. 
 
 • Their number is given at 750,000 by G. Murgocfi and P. Papahagi in " Turcia cu 
 privire speciala auspra Macedoniei," Bucarest, 1911. 
 
 • The total number of Rumanians in the Balkan peninsula is estimated at about 
 10,300,000, distributed as follows: Rumania, 5,489,296 or 92.5 per cent of the popula- 
 tion; Russia, 1,121, CO!), of whom 920,919 are in Bessarabia; Austria-Hungary, 3,224,147, 
 of whom 2,949,032 are in Transylvania; Greece, 373,520; Serbia, 90,000. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 161 
 
 The prevalence of Latin in an eastern land, and in a form 
 which is stated to present closer analogies with the language of 
 the Roman period than with any of its western derivatives, had 
 its origin in the Roman conquest of southeastern Europe in the 
 early part of the first Christian millennium. Occupation of the 
 land by important bodies of legionaries and a host of civil 
 administrators, their intermarriage with the natives, the advan- 
 tages conferred by Roman citizenship, all combined to force 
 Latin into current use. And when in 275 Aurelian recalled 
 Roman troops from the eastern provinces of the empire, the 
 vernacular of Rome had taken too solid a footing on Dacian soil 
 to be extirpated. 
 
 Abandonment of the region by the Romans is cited for 
 political reasons by the Magyar rulers of Transylvania to refute 
 Rumanian claims to this Hungarian province. Rumanian his- 
 torians, however, have been able to demonstrate the untenability 
 of this assumption.^" They have shown that many of the customs 
 of their country are distinctly reminiscent of Latin Italy. It is 
 still customary in many Rumanian villages to attach a small coin 
 to the finger of the dead after an ancient Roman custom of 
 providing the soul with its fare across the Styx. Bands of 
 traveling musicians in Balkan or Hungarian cities are known to 
 be composed of Rumanians whenever their members carry an 
 instrument which is a faithful imitation of the pipes of Pan as 
 sculptured upon Roman and Gallo-Roman monuments. Rumania 's 
 national dance, the Calusare, commemorates the rape of the 
 Sabines to this day. Neither does the list of these analogies end 
 with the examples given here. Furthermore the evidence afforded 
 by geography tends also to validate Rumanian claims. 
 
 From the valley of the Dniester to the basin of the Theiss the 
 steppes of southern Russia spread in unvarying uniformity save 
 where the tableland of the Transylvanian Alps breaks their con- 
 tinuity. The entire region was the Dacia colonized by the 
 Romans.^^ Unity of life, in this home of Rumanian nationality, 
 
 '"A. D. X*5nopo]: Les Roumains au Moyen-Age, Paris, 1885. 
 
 "W. R. Shepherd: Historical Atlas, New York, 1911, pp. 34, 35, 39. 
 
162 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 has been unalfected by the sharp physical diversity afforded by 
 the iiiclosure of iiiouiitain and phiin within the same linguistic 
 boundary. The thoroughness with which Rumanians have adapted 
 themselves to the peculiarities of their land is evinced by the 
 combination of the twin occupations of herder and husbandman 
 characteristic of Moldavians and Wallachians. Cattle and 
 flocks are led every summer to the rich grazing lands of the 
 Transylvania valleys. In winter man and beast seek the pastures 
 of the Danubian steppes and prairies. Rumanians thus maintain 
 mountain and plain residences, which they occupy alternately.^^ 
 This mode of life is the transformation which the nomadism of 
 the Asiatic steppe received on Rumanian soil. It is a true relic 
 of past habitat. These seasonal migrations also account for the 
 intimacy between highlanders and lowlanders in Rumania, besides 
 affording adequate explanation of the peopling of the region by 
 a single nationality. '•' 
 
 There was a time, however, when Rumanian nationality was 
 entirely confined to the mountain zone. Invasions which followed 
 the retirement of the Romans had driven Rumanians to the 
 shelter of the Transylvanian ranges. Perched on this natural 
 fortress, they beheld the irruption of Slavs and Tatars in the 
 broad valleys which they once held in undisputed sway. Only 
 after the flow of southeastern migrations had abated did they 
 venture to reoccupy the plains and resume their agricultural life 
 and seasonal wanderings. 
 
 The outstanding fact in these historical vicissitudes is that 
 the mountain saved the Latin character of Rumanian speech. 
 Had the Romanized Dacians boon unable to find refuge in the 
 Transylvanian Alps their language would probably have been 
 submerged by the Slavic or Tatar flood. As it is, the life of 
 Rumanians is strongly impregnated with eastern influences. 
 
 " Typical cxaniplos of seasonal migration are found in Switzerland, where condi- 
 tions in-ovailing in the higher and the lower valleys of the Alps have induced the 
 inhahitants (o shift their residence with the seasons. 
 
 " A similar nomadism is observable among the Rumanians of the Pindus moun- 
 tains. Cf. A. J. B. Wade and M. S. Thompson: The Nomads of the Balkans: An 
 Account of Life and Customs among the Vlachs of Northern Pindus, London, 1914. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 163 
 
 Oddly enough its Christianity was derived from Byzantium 
 instead of from Rome and, were it not for a veritable renaissance 
 of Latinism about 1860, its afhnity with the Slavic world would 
 be manifest with greater intensity than is apparent in the present 
 century. 
 
 The preservation of Roman speech was not confined to the 
 Transylvanian mountain area. In spite of Rome's waning power 
 in the Balkans, her language had taken such solid root in the 
 peninsula that it has maintained itself to this day in the Pindus 
 mountain region intervening between Epirus and Macedonia. 
 Here the Kutzo-Vlachs of the region speak a language identical 
 with that spoken in the last stretches of the valley of the Danube. 
 In Albania also the same cultural heritage has been treasured to 
 this day in the mountainous tangle of the land. Albanian how- 
 ever is further removed from Latin than Rumanian, probably on 
 account of less intercourse with the Roman world.'* 
 
 The name of Kutzo-Wallachians or Aromunes is given to the 
 mountaineers of Rumanian speech peopling parts of Macedonia, 
 Albania and Thessaly. This detached band of Rumanians occu- 
 pies mainly the region between the mountains of the Pindus 
 range and the Serbian boundary. In Albania they are found 
 scattered along the upper reaches of the Semeni and Devoli 
 rivers. In Greece, the channels of the Voyussa, the Arta, the 
 Aspropotamos, the Bistritza and the lower Vardar likewise con- 
 stitute their favorite tramping grounds. A shepherd people, 
 roaming with their flocks, their life is spent either in the valleys 
 of their summer mountain resorts or in the plains which they 
 favor in winter. Tribes or clans among which dialectical differ- 
 ences can be found occur according to locality, but they never- 
 theless compose when taken together a comy)act mass of Ruma- 
 nians settled far from the main body of their kinsmen by speech. 
 
 A group 5,000 to 6,000 strong live near the sources of the 
 Aspropotamos around Siracu, and between Kalarites and Malakasi. 
 Northwards this clan extends to Metsovo.^^ In the Olympus 
 
 ..^-' ** About one-third of the words in Albanian are of Romanic origin. '""' 
 ^^ Bull, pour Vitude de I'Europe Sud-Orientale, June, 1915, p. 112. 
 
164 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 mountains liumanians are known at Vlaklio-Livadi and adjoining 
 districts. Eastwards, the Veria Rumanians are found in the 
 villages of Sella, Doliani and Kirolivadi. West of the latter 
 locality, the settlements of Vlakho-Klissura, Blatza and Sisani 
 are likewise composed entirely of Rumanian inhabitants. The 
 same is true of the villages of Nevesca, Belcamen and Pisuderi 
 as well as of Gramosta, in the recesses of the Grammos moun- 
 tains and of Koritza and Sipiska. Other colonies exist at Okrida, 
 Gopes, Krushevo, Molovista, Tirnova, Magarevo and Monastir. 
 The Struga and Geala settlements are also part of the preceding 
 groups. 
 
 Within Albanian territory the village of Frasheri is the most 
 important Rumanian settlement. Its name has passed to the 
 Frashcrist group of western Rumanians. Around Berat, a strong 
 contingent occupies about 40 villages and can muster ten thou- 
 sand men. In the Vardar valley various settlements aggregating 
 14,000 individuals, all farmers, are distributed near Guevgueli as 
 well as in localities north and south of this town. Many of these 
 peasants are Mohammedans and speak a dialect of their own. 
 A Rumanian settlement is also found in the Jumaya Pass south 
 of Sofia and along the old Turco-Bulgarian frontier. 
 
 The nomadic character of these isolated adherents of a Latin 
 language is shown in many of their villages, which are occupied 
 during part of the year only. As an example the villages in the 
 vicinity of Frasheri, the ancient ''Little Wallachia," are 
 inhabited during winter alone. Many Frasherists can be met 
 along the Albanian coast between Kimara and the bay of Valona, 
 as well as along the eastern coast of Corfu and in villages of 
 the Moskopolis and Koritza districts. As a rule they are ped- 
 dlers and confine their commercial nomadism to profitable routes 
 just as pastoral nomads, who are their kinsmen, seesaw back and 
 forth between the mountain districts nearest their plains. 
 
 The three areas of Romance language in the Balkans attest, 
 by implication, the powerful influence attained by Rome in the 
 peninsula prior to the rise of the Slavic flood. The presence of 
 the Slavs began to be felt about the seventh century and two 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 165 
 
 imndred years later the Balkan peninsula had become heavily 
 Slavicized. Before that period, however, every nook and corner 
 of the land area between the Adriatic and the Black and ^gean 
 seas must have been under effective Roman jurisdiction. Lanes 
 of travel from the coasts of Albania to the famous Thracian 
 rendezvous were frequented by Roman traders and colonists with 
 increasing regularity in the early centuries of the Christian era. 
 The growing estrangement of Byzantium from the west, Slavic 
 inroads and later Turkish advances all but destroyed the social 
 unity which must have characterized the Balkan region in Roman 
 times. Of this unity, the Rumanian and Albanian languages 
 alone have survived along different coasts. Both languages are 
 knit together structurally as well as by outward harmony. 
 
 Through the survival of Romanic languages in the Balkan 
 peninsula an excellent glimpse is obtained of the conditions pre- 
 ceding the Slavic migrations which, beginning at the end of the 
 third century, burst into full strength at the opening of the sixth. 
 The Slavic flood was both heavy and prolonged. Its strength 
 can be surmised from the survival of Slavic place names in the 
 sections of Balkan territory under Greek, Rumanian or Albanian 
 control. But the Slavs mastered only the drainage area of the 
 Danube and its tributaries. The twin basins of the Save and 
 Drave afforded them westerly routes of penetration without, 
 however, providing channels of southerly advance. The water- 
 shed coinciding roughly with easterly longitude 21° in Albania 
 and attaining the Pindus mountains therefore remained closed 
 land to the Slavs. As a result Albania and Macedonia are to 
 be considered as areas in which Romance speech once prevailed. 
 The signs of this linguistic relation are numerous in Albania 
 because the country is less open to invasion than the Macedonian 
 basin. 
 
 A territory of Romance languages extending continuously 
 from the Atlantic to the Black Sea probably existed prior to the 
 immigration of Slavs into southeastern Europe. The areas of 
 Romansh, Friulian, Ladin, Albanian and Rumanian are remnants 
 of this ancient language zone. Even the Slavic language of the 
 
166 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Macedonian peasant is a layer superimposed on the linguistic 
 stratum prevailing before the period of Slavic invasion. It is 
 therefore about thirteen centuries old. The changes undergone 
 by the earlier form of Macedonian in this span of centuries have 
 been so sweeping as to obliterate altogether the character of the 
 pre-Slavic tongue. Rumanian vernaculars of the Pindus extended 
 therefore to the east and not improbably into Thrace. A claim 
 
 Fig. 43 — The easterly sweep of Romance languages. The dotted areas are low- 
 lands. Romance languages are spoken in the diagonally ruled areas. Cross-ruling 
 represents the connecting areas between eastern and western Romance languages. 
 Pindus localities in which Rumanian is spoken are indicated by R. Scale, 1 : 12,500,000. 
 
 upon Macedonia based on this assumption has even been put 
 forward by Rumanians.^'' 
 
 No fair conception of the character of the Rumanian popula- 
 tion can be attained without thorough realization of the extent 
 to which the land has been open to the invasions of Asiatic 
 nomads of the steppes. The intensity of this movement can be 
 ascertained for the historical period. Back of that time, ho\vever, 
 the interminable stretch of centuries must have been character- 
 ized by the same inflow from the east, else the Rumanian 
 population w^ould not betray today such distinctly Tatar ear- 
 marks. The eastern sections of the country, those nearest to, 
 
 ^' A. A. C. Stourdza: L'H^roisme des Roumains au Moyen-Age et le caractere de 
 leurs anciennes institutions, Paris, 1911. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 167 
 
 and forming practically a continuation of Russia, teem with 
 settlements of pure Tatars. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Rumania are tall, dark brachycephs 
 — the Cevenoles of Deniker's classification. This original element 
 has been repeatedly diluted by Slavic and Tatar percolation. 
 The Roman conquest, which together with the "pax Romana" 
 brought civilization to the land, was not an ethnical victory. The 
 Romans, a mere minority of leaders, ruled in the land much 
 after the fashion in which the British govern India at present. 
 But this occupation of the land by men representing a superior 
 civilization sufficed to stamp the speech of Rome upon Rumania. 
 
 Rumania's past differed from that of the other Balkan 
 nations. During the centuries in which the destiny of the ancient 
 world was controlled largely by Byzantine statesmen, Moldavia 
 and Wallachia seldom took part in the quarrels that pitted Slavs 
 against Greeks. Balkan conflicts seemed then to be restricted to 
 the populations living south of the Danube. Excellent relations 
 were maintained between the rulers of Rumanian principalities 
 and the Byzantine court. It was always felt at Constantinople, 
 throughout the centuries of bitter struggle against Islam's wax- 
 ing might, that the voivodes' aid against the Turks was assured. 
 
 After the terrible blow inflicted on Christendom by the fall 
 of Constantinople, the two principalities of the northern Danubian 
 bank managed to preserve autonomy. This is a highly significant 
 fact in Rumanian history, for it meant that the country was 
 spared the effects of racial blendings or upheavals consequent to 
 the Ottoman occupation of southeastern Europe. Religious and 
 national antagonism between the various elements of the Chris- 
 tian populations under the Sultan's rule were incessantly fostered 
 by the Turks as a means of consolidating their owti sovereignty. 
 
 The role played by Rumania during the long period of 
 Christian servitude entitles the country to the gratitude of the 
 other Balkan states. The land beyond the Danube became a 
 haven to which victims of Mohammedan persecution repaired 
 whenever possible. Noblemen despoiled of their estates, traders 
 menaced with execution for having claimed payment of debts 
 
168 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 incurred towards them by the followers of the Prophet, students 
 whose only crime consisted of having interpreted Christian 
 doctrines to their co-religionists, all found refuge under the 
 banner of the cross flying on the north bank of the Danube. 
 Hungary itself has incurred a heavy debt of obligation to 
 Rumania, for both Moldavia and Wallachia served as a buffer 
 against which Turkish blows directed at Magyar power spent 
 themselves in vain. 
 
 The province of Bukovina, once the borderland between 
 Rumanians and Ruthenians, has become in modern times the 
 meeting place of both peoples. According to recent Austrian 
 statistics its population is as follows: 
 
 1900 1910 
 
 Germans 159,486 168,851 
 
 Bohemians and Slovakians 596 1,005 
 
 Poles 26,857 26,210 
 
 Ruthenians 297,798 305,101 
 
 Slovenes 108 80 
 
 Serbo-Croatians 6 1 
 
 Italians 119 36 
 
 Rumanians 229,018 273,254 
 
 Hungarians 9,516 10,391 
 
 Total 723,504 784,929'' 
 
 The Rumanians and Ruthenians are the oldest and most 
 numerous inhabitants of Bukovina. The former are generally 
 confined to the southeastern districts of the province while the 
 majority of the Ruthenians inhabit the northwest. The moun- 
 tainous sections are peopled by the Huzuli, a folk whose speech 
 and customs contain traces of Slavic influence. The remainder 
 
 ** Divided according to religion, the census of 1910 shows the following figures; 
 
 Roman Catholics 98,565 
 
 Greek Catholics 26,182 
 
 Armenian Catholics 657 
 
 Orthodox Greeks 547,603 
 
 Gregorian Armenians 341 
 
 Lipps 3,232 
 
 Protestant sects 20,518 
 
 Jews 102,919 
 
 Unaccounted 86 
 
 Total 800,103 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 
 
 169 
 
 of the inhabitants of Bukovina consists of descendants of immi- 
 grants who settled in the province about five or six centuries ago. 
 Germans, mostly traders and artisans from Transylvania and 
 Galicia, made their first appearance in Bukovina in the four- 
 teenth century. Occasionally German priests and warriors 
 
 Fig. 44 — Sketch map of the Rumanian area (diagonally ruled) in Bukovina and 
 Hungary. The blank area is overwhelmingly Slavic (Little Russians or Ruthenians). 
 The dotted patches in Hungary represent areas of Hungarian speech. 
 
 would also find their way into the province and decide to settle 
 permanently within its borders. A fresh impetus to German 
 colonization was given by the fall of Bukovina into Austrian 
 hands in 1774. Under the rule of Maria Theresa and Emperor 
 Joseph II Germans of all classes and conditions were induced to 
 seek the province and Germanize the land. They came as 
 
170 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 officials, teachers, soldiers and merchants and took up their abode 
 generally in special cities.^® 
 
 This German element was derived chiefly from Swabia, 
 Bohemia and German Austria. The Swabians were the earliest 
 colonists and are found scattered in the best farming districts of 
 the province.^'' The Zips of northern Hungary are generally 
 found in the mountains of southwestern Bukovina which they 
 had occupied originally as miners. -° 
 
 The Hungarians of Bukovina are not descendants of inmii- 
 grants from Hungary but from Rumania. Their ancestors were 
 the Magyars and Szeklers who had been dispatched by Hungarian 
 kings to defend the passes of Transylvania. After Bukovina 's 
 annexation to Austria, efforts were made to induce the descend- 
 ants of the old frontier guardsmen to live within Austrian 
 boundaries. The call was heeded by many who as a result 
 selected Bukovina as residence. One of the earliest colonies was 
 founded at Istensegitz, while Hadikfalva and Andreasfalva 
 became sites of their settlements during the . reign of Emperor 
 Joseph. 
 
 The Poles emigrated to the province mainly from Galicia 
 between the years 1786 and 1849. They are found scattered in 
 the larger cities, notably at Czernowitz. The Slovaks came later. 
 Prior to the nineteenth century they had no colonies of any 
 importance in Bukovina. In 1803 they appear around the glass 
 factories near Crasna, where they were employed as woodcutters. 
 Between 1830 and 1840 they founded the settlements of Neusolo- 
 netz and Pojana-Mikuli. 
 
 Many Bukovinan localities are inhabited by Lippowans, who 
 are Great Russians and who on the basis of language are con- 
 sidered as Ruthenians by Austrian census-takers. The Lippowans 
 
 *' Czernowitz, Storozynetz, Sftreth, Suczava, Radautz, Gurahumora, Kimpolung 
 were among the cities most often selected. 
 
 *• Their colonies are found at Rosh, Molodia, Tereblestie, Hliboka, St. Onufri, 
 Altfratanz, Milleschoutz, Arbora, Itzkani, Ilischestie, Unterstanestie, Storozynetz, 
 Neuzadowa. 
 
 "^ Their settlements are found at Jakobeny, Kirlibaba, Luisenthal, Pozoritta, 
 Eisenau, Freudenthal, Bukschoja and Stulpikani. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 171 
 
 belong to the sect of Old Believers which seceded from the 
 Russian Orthodox Church in the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. Persecution forced them to flee to neighboring countries 
 and they flocked in large numbers into Bukovina. Their descend- 
 ants now inhabit principally the towns of Mitoka-Dragomirna 
 and Klimutz as well as neighboring villages. 
 
 By the acquisition of Bukovina in 1777 the Hapsburgs 
 increased their territory by about 6,200 sq. m. (10,000 sq. km.) 
 and a population of 75,000 inhabitants, consisting largely of 
 Rumanians.-^ Nistor estimates the population at the time of this 
 annexation at 56,700 Rumanians, about 15,000 Ruthenians at the 
 most and 5,000 Huzulis, who, from the border bandits that they 
 were, settled finally in western Bukovina."' According to 
 Rumanian historians the Slavic element of Bukovina was 
 negligible in the fourteenth century. It was a common occurrence 
 for Ruthenian peasants to escape from Polish serfdom and settle 
 in Moldavia, the land of free farmers. The fugitives, dribbling 
 on Rumanian soil in small numbers, became merged in the mass 
 of the native population. The consolidation of large estates in 
 the seventeenth century and the resulting agricultural boom 
 obliged landowners to induce peasants of neighboring countries 
 to settle in Bukovina. The emigration of many Ruthenians can 
 be accounted for by this economic change. 
 
 After the Turkish conquest of Kamieniec-Podolski the new 
 provinces of the Dniester valley were populated by Slavs drawoi 
 from among Little Russians. The district of Hotin in eastern 
 Bukovina was colonized at that time. Again Sobieski's victories 
 over the Turks were followed by a temporary Polish occupation 
 of northern and western Moldavia and a renewed inflow of Slavs. 
 
 Ruthenian invasion of the soil of Bukovina persisted steadily 
 from the eighteenth century on. Galician serfs were driven by 
 oppression to this hitherto unexploited territory. In 1779 the 
 
 ^* Today the predominance of Ruthenians in Bukovina is contested by Rumanians 
 who claim that Austrian statistics are deliberately padded. 
 
 "^ I. Nistor: Romanfi si Rutenii in Bucovina, studiu istoric si statistu, Bucarest, 
 1915, p. 72. 
 
172 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 number of Ruthenians in Bukovina was estimated at 21,114. 
 Tombstones of that date found between the Dniester and the 
 Pruth are almost entirely in Rumanian. In 1848 the Ruthenian 
 element in the province numbered 108,907 against 208,293 
 Rumanians. The census of 1910 places the number of Russian- 
 speaking inhabitants at 305,101, while the users of Rumanian are 
 placed at 273,254. Rumanian authorities, however, call attention 
 to the fact that these figures are determined on the basis of the 
 language most commonly used and not on that of the inherited 
 mother tongue. 
 
 Rumanian also holds easy predominance in the strange 
 medley of languages which can be heard in the Russian province 
 of Bessarabia. The region forms a natural extension of Mol- 
 davia, east of the Pruth furrow, and has always been intimately 
 connected with Rumanian life. It became part of the Czar's 
 dominion in 1812, after the treaty of Bucarest of May 28 of 
 that year, but the southern part was reincorporated with the 
 principality of Moldavia after the Crimean war. This section 
 was restored, however, to Russia by a decision of the Congress 
 which met in Berlin in June 1878. It has since remained Russian 
 territory. These changes, no less than its position as the narrow 
 corridor between the Asiatic steppeland and southern Europe, 
 have made it the meeting land of Europe's most untutored 
 elements. 
 
 The broad hilly spurs bounded by the Dniester and the Pruth 
 contain the bulk of these Bessarabian Rumanians, who make up 
 half the population of the province or nearly one million souls. 
 Interspersed with this native element, German colonists and Bul- 
 garian immigrants, — the latter brought wholesale in the course of 
 Turkey's European recessional, — and Serbian or Greek culti- 
 vators are to be found in many of the villages that nestle in the 
 broad and smiling valleys of the low plateau. The flat marshy 
 tracts along the Pruth and at the mouth of the Danube are occu- 
 pied by Cosacks and Tatars, while a numerous gipsy element 
 manages to subsist on the rest of the inhabitants by juggling or 
 fortune telling, or frequently by pilfering. 
 
HUNGARIAN AND RUMANIAN LANGUAGES 173 
 
 The national consolidation of the Rumanians of Bukovina, the 
 Banat and Bessarabia with the main body would supply a non- 
 Slavic linguistic wedge between Russians and Balkan Slavs. But 
 apart from this linguistic difference, Rumanian life and institu- 
 tions present close analogies with their Russian counterparts. 
 From the standpoint of the anthropologist both countries contain 
 a Slavic substratum strongly diluted by Tatar infiltration. 
 Religious views nursed and cherished in the Kremlin hold 
 spiritual sway throughout the length and breadth of Rumania. 
 And yet, in spite of such strong bonds, and that of immediate 
 neighborhood, language with nationality remains sharply distinct 
 in the two kingdoms. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND ITS SERBIAN INHABITANTS 
 
 The Balkan peninsula presents in its physical features a clue 
 to our understanding of the development of separate languages 
 and nationalities within its area. Its mountainous center has 
 always exerted a centrifugal action on Balkan peoples. This 
 influence has been strengthened by the existence of important 
 routes to the mainland of Europe and of Asia. Throughout his- 
 torical times the region formed, with Asia Minor, a natural 
 bridge joining the east with the west. Before mankind had 
 begun to record its past, it had afforded a natural passage for 
 the westerly migrations of Asiatic peoples. Today the region 
 bids fair to maintain the same connecting role. But in future 
 the human stream appears destined to be directed towards the 
 east. 
 
 Physical enviromnent forced Asiatic tribes to rove because the 
 barren steppes of their birthplace failed to provide more than 
 could be harvested at a single halt. These ancestors of the 
 modern Khirgiz poured into Europe from protohistoric times. 
 They were herded along by nature toward that most favored par- 
 allel of latitude, the fortieth, near which civilization has flourished 
 preeminently. In their quest for sustenance they wandered along 
 a path that led far into Europe as well as toward the smiling 
 regions bordering the Mediterranean basin. Here fertility of soil 
 and propitious climate rendered settlement possible. 
 
 How readily the peninsula affords easy access between Europe 
 and Asia can be gathered from the map. The narrow water- 
 course which begins at the ^gean mouth of the Dardanelles and 
 extends to the Black Sea entrance of the Bosporus provides, at 
 both its extremities, the shortest fording places between the two 
 continents. At Chanak, on the Dardanelles, about one mile and 
 
 174 
 
Fig. 46— a bit of Sarajevo with ample evidence of former Tiirkish rule over the 
 Serbians of Bosnia. 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 175 
 
 a half of channel separates the peninsula of Gallipoli from the 
 Anatolian coast. The very outline of the European shore is 
 symbolical, for in the Thracian and Gallipoli promontories the 
 Balkan peninsula seems to stretch out two welcoming arms to 
 Asia and thus invite intercourse. South of the straits, the deeply 
 indented coast lines of Greece and of Asia Minor teemed with 
 matchless harbors. Their shores became the birthplace of adven- 
 turous sailors. The ^gean itself, with its numerous islands, 
 provided so many stepping-stones jutting out of its choppy 
 waters to aid daring pioneers in their expeditions. 
 
 [Every race of Europe and of western Asia has marched at 
 some time or other through the valleys that extend in varying 
 width between the uplifts rising south of the Danube and the 
 Save. The attempt to determine the original element is almost 
 futile in the face of the constant stream of invaders. To go back 
 only to the iDcriod following the one in which the Thracians 
 dotted the southeastern area with their quaint tumuli we find the 
 peninsula already settled by Illyrians on its western border. The 
 Albanians are supposed to be direct descendants of this ancient 
 people. Secluded in their mountain fastnesses from contact with 
 subsequent invaders of the peninsula, they best represent today 
 the type of the peninsular inhabitant of about 2000 b.c. To the 
 east the basin of the Danube was peopled subsequently by 
 Dacians and Gaetes, who presumably were the ancestors of the 
 peasants now occupying the DobrudjaT) 
 
 North of the boundary-defining rivers dwelt the Scythians and 
 the Sarmatians. The story of their migrations is the same for 
 different epochs. It tells either of the appearance of sturdy bar- 
 barians before whose dash the settlers, somewhat effete on 
 account of acquired comfort, give way. Or else it is the tale of 
 the settler who has had time to organize his forces into orderly 
 fighters and whose disciplined bands go forth to conquer new ter- 
 ritory at the behest of his civilization. Thus did Roman legions 
 sweep away the barriers to the acquisition of new colonies. 
 
 Following the Roman occupation of the peninsula a steady 
 flow of uncouth northerners began to appear. Under the names 
 
176 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of Sarmatians, Goths of various sorts, Huns, Bulgarians to 
 whom the Byzantines gave their appellation because they came 
 from the banks of the Volga, and Avars, they spread havoc far 
 beyond the western limits of the Adriatic. These barbarians 
 were followed by Slavs. The eastbound journeys of the Cru- 
 saders next intervene; then a final mighty onslaught of Turkish 
 hordes whose savage fury seemed for a moment to obliterate 
 the laboriously-reared western civilization. 
 
 To this bewildering succession of human types the extraor- 
 dinary complexity of stock characterizing the present population 
 of the peninsula is directly ascribable, each race or people having 
 left some trace of its passage. The compilation of an ethno- 
 graphical map of the region results in the representation of the 
 most mosaic-like surface imaginable. Nor are the actual evi- 
 dences of these ancient invasions lacking to the observant eye. 
 Take, for instance, the fair-haired, blue-eyed Greeks, totally devoid 
 of traces of nigrescence, who are by no means uncommon in 
 Macedonia.^ In them the Nordic type, due in part to the Achrean 
 conquerors, has survived. To this day the tourist, wandering in 
 any town formerly occupied by the Turks, may suddenly behold 
 in the streets as pure a Mongolian type as is to be found on the 
 highlands of western central China. In the Bosnian town of 
 Sarajevo, as in the Macedonian villages north of the ^gean, the 
 ugly features of these Asiatics often reveal but too plainly their 
 origin. 
 
 Traces of these wanderings have lingered in the relics of 
 former habitat observable in Balkan countries. Any one whom 
 fate has made the guest of Turkish hosts will remember how 
 toward bedtime rolled bundles leaning vertically against the 
 corners of the rooms are brought out and laid open on the floor. 
 These are the beds which the members of the household use. 
 They consist of a mattress, sheets and blankets which had been 
 removed during the day from the mat over which it is customary 
 to spread them at night. Although it is centuries since the Turk 
 
 • I have also seen this type among Anatolian Greeks. It is observable among 
 Greeks living in New York. 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 177 
 
 has ceased living in tents, lie still adheres to this custom of his 
 nomad forefathers. The fact is observable in the two-storied 
 dwellings of the Mohammedan sections of Adrianople or Con- 
 stantinople. But the practical conversion of bedrooms into sitting 
 rooms is only one of the many phases of Turkish indoor life 
 which recall tent life. Rooms altogether destitute of furniture 
 are quite usual. I am now referring to the average Turkish home 
 — not to the relatively few in which European customs are 
 observed. In the majority of cases the only furniture consists 
 of rugs spread on the walls and floors. Articles of household use 
 are kept in closets. No chairs or tables help to relieve the bare- 
 ness. At meals the family will squat in groups around circular 
 trays supported on low stools. A bowl of ''yoghurt," or curdled 
 milk, is the invariable accompaniment of each repast. Indul- 
 gence in this preparation is observable with similar frequency in 
 a broad belt which begins in the Balkan peninsula and extends 
 eastward between parallels 45° and 35° of latitude to Mongolia. 
 Signs pointing to Asiatic origins can likewise be witnessed out- 
 side the houses in Turkish cities. The national coat of arms, 
 conspicuously displayed over the gates of government buildings, 
 bears two horsetails surmounting the Prophet's coat. In this 
 emblem we see Tatar chieftains ' insignia of rank which have been 
 coupled to Mohammedan symbolism. 
 
 In this same line of thought we find that traditions furnish 
 evidence of a remarkably significant character. A tradition 
 flourishes to this day among the Turks that their occupation of 
 European territory could not be permanent. Often have I heard 
 this voiced by Turks who simultaneously added by way of 
 explanation that it could not be otherwise, since they were 
 Asiatics. It is this feeling which lies at the root of the Turk's 
 unwillingness to be buried on the European side of the Bosporus 
 or the Dardanelles. The same sentiment accounts for their rela- 
 tively larger burying grounds along the Asiatic shores bordering 
 the peninsula, as compared with those on the European coast. 
 
 In the present era of world-wide industrial expansion, the 
 Balkan region retains its place as one of the most notable of 
 
178 I'ltOiN'ril^llS OF LAN(illA(iK v\Nl) NATION ALI'IV 
 
 iiit(!ni;iii()iwil Jii^liwuys. So ccnlrally is tliu poiiiiisula .situalod 
 wiili roJ'(!rciice to i*]ur()i)o, Asia and Al'iica tliat its valleys afford 
 llic inosi convcniciil, o\crl;iii(l j)assago for llie i)ro(lucis of 
 Miii()])(';iii iiii^ciiiiily and Hciciicc on ilicir way to market in the 
 populous ceiitci's ol" Asin ;ni(l Al'iiea. I^jVcii llic air lino connecting 
 central lOurojje and India passes over the Balkans. The supe- 
 riority of the Mediterranean Jved Sea i'out(; over tlu! other 
 avenues of trallic leading from west to cast led to the construction 
 of the Suez Canal. ^IMie advantages of this line still exist. With 
 the march of cxciils, iiowcx'er, I lie main (iommercial thoroughfare 
 from Mill-ope to tli(! Orient is shifting gradually from the waters 
 between the Eurasian and African continents to a more easterly 
 and at tlu^ same time far spcsedier overland route. The tracks of 
 the Oriental, Anatolian and J3agdad railroad companies form at 
 present the northern section of the trunk of this system. Inci- 
 dentally, it should be noted that nature's provision for this world 
 route is so well marked in the Balkan peninsula that the luxurious 
 cars of tile Oi'ient lOxpress roll ovor a steel-clad path which coin- 
 cides remarkably with the trail followed by the first crusade— 
 the one which Godfi-ey de Bouillon led along a path marked by 
 nature. The jirolongaticm of these railroads to Delhi and the 
 shores of the Indian Ocean by junction with the railroads of 
 Brilish India advancing loward llu! northwest is now economically 
 desirable. 
 
 Through connection with the Cape of Good Hope by way of 
 Ma 'an and the Egyptian frontier, over the Sinai peninsula and 
 the Cape-to-Cairo line, will probably be exacted by the require- 
 ments of trade. In that case railroad ferries over the Bosporus 
 will enable the same car to be hauled directly from the coast 
 of Ihe r>allic S(>a to the shores of the Indian Ocean or to 
 cities at the southernmost points of Africa. There is reason to 
 believe, however, the Bosporus will be crossed by a bridge over 
 the half mile of sea that separates the European and Asiatic 
 fortresses facing each other at Rumeli ITissar. 
 
 AVithin the Balkan peninsula every economic need which has 
 determined the foreign policy of the several states is related to 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 179 
 
180 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 a given feature of the laud. Tlie seaward thrust of Serbia 
 towards the Adriatic is naturally directed along the narrow Drin 
 valley, cutting across the long chain of the Dinaric Alps. But 
 the country's elforts to obtain mastery of this important gap 
 were blocked by the creation of an independent Albania. Bul- 
 garia's trade and industrial development is likewise hampered 
 by the lack of a favorable issue towards southern seas. At 
 present the connection between the east-west mountainous country 
 formed by the Balkan ranges and the lowland extending to the 
 ^gean involves the climbing of steep slopes. Bulgarians there- 
 fore naturally coveted the Struma valley which runs in Greek 
 territory to the west of the Chalcidic peninsula. The Montene- 
 grins living in a rocky land which cannot support its inhabitants 
 look covetously on the narrow defiles which lead towards the 
 Adriatic and their longing for Scutari is merely for the posses- 
 sion of agricultural lands. War with the Turks once forced 
 them to retreat into their mountains. Now that that danger is 
 over they are coming out of their fastnesses and endeavoring to 
 resume intercourse with the outside world. 
 
 Geography is therefore stamping its impress on the political 
 status of the modern inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula. We 
 have just seen how this region forms a section of a great inter- 
 national commercial route. Coupling this fact with industrial 
 requirements which find expression in the demand for unham- 
 pered right of way for products of toil and thought in transit to 
 market, it can be understood how great European powers keenly 
 desire to secure control, or at least maintenance of equal rights 
 of passage, over an avenue so happily situated. The matter is 
 vital because it is based on economic grounds. Continued opera- 
 tion of many Old World factories, or their shut-down, often 
 depends on conditions prevailing on the site of that battle royal 
 of diplomacy kno^vn as the Eastern Question. The matter of 
 Serbia's access to the Adriatic or the withholding of Austria's 
 acquiescence to Montenegrin occupation of Scutari must, there- 
 fore, be ultimately explained by the geographical causes which 
 have converted the peninsula into a highway of such importance 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 181 
 
 that the paramount influence of a single nation over its extension 
 cannot be tolerated by the others. A clear view of this funda- 
 mental ijrinciple leads us to realize that the presentation of an 
 ultimatum to Serbia by Austria on July 23, 1914, was the pre- 
 liminary step toward opening a pathway for Germany and 
 Austria to Salonica and Constantinople. Then, as soon as 
 Austro-German power should be solidly established athwart the 
 Bosporus, the intention was to secure control of the land routes 
 to Egypt, the Persian Gulf and India. 
 
 As matters stand at present the balance of power oscillates 
 between two groups represented by Teutonic and Slavonic ele- 
 ments respectively. Their clashing zone is the Balkan peninsula. 
 The "Drang nach Osten" of Pan-Germanism found concrete 
 geographical expression on the map, in 1908, by Austria's final 
 absorption of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A further step in the 
 same direction was marked by the creation of a new Balkan 
 nation, Albania. All this was a result of efforts to obtain control 
 of the remarkable highway we have been considering. This 
 easterly spread was hampered, however, by the steady southerly 
 progress made by the Balkan countries. Their victories in 1912 
 and 1913 lengthened perceptibly Russia's southwesterly strides 
 toward ice-free coasts. The process taken as a whole is one of 
 recurrence. Time has converted the stream of early Asiatic 
 invaders into these two opposing currents. The Teutons are now 
 repeating the exploits of the Greeks, the Macedonians, the 
 Byzantines and the Crusaders. The Slavs, whose differentiation 
 from Altaic ancestors has not been as thorough as that of their 
 western neighbors, are likewise playing anew the part of their 
 forefathers seeking milder regions by way of the Balkan 
 peninsula. 
 
 jSouth of the Hungarian and Slovene linguistic zones the 
 Austro-Hungarian domain comprises a large portion of the area 
 of Serbian speech. The language predominates everywhere from 
 the Adriatic coast to the Drave and Morava rivers as well as up 
 to the section of the Danube comprised between its points of con- 
 fluence with these two rivers. Serbian in fact extends slightly 
 
182 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 east of the Morava valley towards the Balkan slopes lying north of 
 the Timok river, where Rumanian prevails as the language of 
 the upland.'^ To the south contact with Albanian is obtained. 
 The area of Serbian speech thus delimited includes the inde- 
 pendent kingdoms of Montenegro ' and Serbia. Within the terri- 
 tory of the Dual Monarchy it is spoken in the provinces of 
 Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia. The 
 language is therefore essentially that of the region of uplift 
 which connects the Alps and the Balkans or which intervenes 
 between the Hungarian plain and the Adriatic. 
 
 Union between the inhabitants of this linguistic area is some- 
 what hampered by the scission of Serbians into three religious 
 groups. The westernmost Serbs, who are also known as Croats, 
 adhere to the Roman Catholic faith in common with all their 
 kinsmen the western Slavs. Followers of this group are rarely 
 met east of the 19th meridian. A Mohammedan body consisting 
 of descendants of Serbs who had embraced Islam after the 
 Turkish conquest clusters round Sarajevo as a center. The bulk 
 of Serbians belong, however, to the Greek Orthodox Church. 
 Cultural analogies between the Mohammedan and orthodox 
 groups are numerous. Both use the Russian alphabet, whereas 
 the Croats have adopted Latin letters. 
 
 Much has been made in interested quarters of the difference 
 between Catholic Croat and Orthodox Serb. Intrigues directed 
 from Vienna and Budapest have sought to accentuate these differ- 
 ences and to foment hatred where Christian charity would 
 speedily have produced concord and understanding. Even in 
 Russia, there have been fears lest close political contact between 
 Serb and Croat dilute the purity of Serb orthodoxy. In other 
 quarters political ambition has made use of divergence of creed 
 as a pretext for seeking to perpetuate political division between 
 
 * Serbian authorities usually extend the zone of their vernacular to points farther 
 east. Cf. J. Cvijii: Die ethnoprraphische Abspreuzung der Volkcr auf der Balkan- 
 halbinsel, Pet. Mitt., Vol. 59, 1013, No. 1, pp. 11.3-118, 
 
 • Montenegro is peopled by descendants of Serbians who took refuge in its moun- 
 tains after the crushing defeat of Serbia by Turkey on the battlefield of Kossovo in 
 1389. 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 183 
 
 y'V^V lirnx -V\ ^VA 
 
 Languages 
 \Czr;oh 
 y/, Li/oraviun, 
 
 \Slovak. 
 
 y] Slovene 
 
 2. Serbo-Croatian 
 
 Religions 
 
 w Mohammedan Serbs 
 
 + liomanCaiholic Serbs 
 
 (ot her Serbs Or//iodu.\, 
 
 ALBANIA ^"S^ 
 ■y - — *%<>< 
 
 Fig. 48 — Sketch map of Austria showing westernmost extension of Slavs and their 
 languages in Europe. The German-Hungarian wedge between northern and southern 
 Slav8 is shown. The small cross-ruled patches are areas of Rumanian language. 
 
184 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the two main branches of the southern Slav race. But a Ser- 
 bian saying, which can be heard in Bosnia, Croatia or Monte- 
 negro, is the best refutation of the existence of any political 
 differences between Serbs of different creeds. ''Brat yay mio 
 Koye vieray bio," ''A brother is always dear whatever 
 his religion. ' ' A simple phrase, but one with national signifi- 
 cance. 
 
 The Serbo-Croatian group made its appearance in the Balkan 
 peninsula at the time of the general westerly advance of Slavs 
 in the fifth and sixth centuries. A northwestern body of this 
 people, wandering along the river valleys leading to the eastern 
 Alpine foreland, settled in the regions now known as Croatia 
 and Slavonia. Here the sea and inland watercourses provided 
 natural communication with western Europe. Evolution of this 
 northwestern body of Serbians into the Croatians of our day was 
 facilitated by the infiltration of western ideas. But the great 
 body of Serbians, occupying the mountainous area immediately 
 to the south, had their foreign intercourse necessarily confined to 
 eastern avenues of communication. They therefore became per- 
 meated with an eastern civilization in which Byzantine strains 
 can be easily detected. 
 
 In spite of these cultural divergences, the linguistic differ- 
 entiation of the Croat from the Serbian element has been slight. 
 The Serbian sound of "ay" is generally pronounced "yay" by 
 Bosnians and "a" by Dalmatians. The Croatian "tcha" cor- 
 responds to the "chto" of the Serbian. As a rule variations are 
 slight, and natives of the different districts not only understand 
 each other, but can also detect respective home districts quite 
 readily on hearing each other. 
 
 Today the political aspirations of this compact mass of 
 Serbians are centered around the independent kingdom of Serbia, 
 which is regarded as the nucleus around which a greater Serbia 
 comprising all the Serbian- speaking inliabitants of the Balkan 
 peninsula will group. This Serbo-Croatian element is estimated 
 to comprise at least 10,300,000 individuals." The southern Slav 
 
 * J. Erdeljanovic: Broj Srba i Khrvata, Belgrade, 1911. . 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 185 
 
 question centers chiefly around the fate of those unredeemed 
 populations. The Near Eastern Question cannot be settled with- 
 out cutting away from Austria-Hungary, and uniting mth Serbia 
 and Montenegro, all the southern Slav provinces of the Haps- 
 burg crown. It is stated of Metternich that he had openly pro- 
 claimed his belief in the necessity of annexing Serbia to either 
 Turkey or Austria. That was in the day, however, when popular 
 claims counted for little. 
 
 Southern Slav unity and independence are both necessary to 
 Europe. Serbia, or rather Serbo-Croatia or "Jugoslavia," is 
 reared on a land-gap that provides Europe with a gateway to 
 the east. The freedom of Balkan peoples and to a great extent 
 the freedom of Europe depend upon the power of the southern 
 Slavs to hold the gate. It is therefore to the advantage of 
 European countries to strengthen the southern Slavs by every 
 means in their power. A partial unity that would leave any 
 considerable portion of Jugoslavia unredeemed would but divert 
 southern Slav energy into irredentist channels and deflect it from 
 its chief mission. 
 
 The ties which unite Serbians and Croatians have led writers 
 to consider the two peoples as one under the name of Serbo- 
 Croatians.® In the eleventh century Skilitzer, a Byzantine writer, 
 alludes to the "Croatians, who are called Serbians." Little dis- 
 tinction was made between their tribes when they first made their 
 appearance in Balkan lands. Both peoples are Slavs and it is 
 not unlikely that they are derived from a common stock. The 
 location of the territory they occupied affords a clue to the origin 
 of differences between them. Their homelands lie on the confines 
 of the two Roman empires which ruled respectively over eastern 
 and western Europe. It was natural that some groups of the 
 Serbo-Croatian element should follow the religious leadership of 
 Rome while others rallied to the Orthodox teachings of Byzan- 
 tium. The main distinction between Serbians and Croatians is 
 found in this diversity of religious views. 
 
 * E. Haumant: La nationality serbo-croate, Ann. de Geogr., No. 127, Vol. 23, 
 Jan. 15, 1914, pp. 45-59. 
 
186 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 From a geographical standpoint the area of Serbian speech 
 presents excessive diversity of features. National unity within 
 its bounds is therefore apt to be sorely hampered. Dalmatia, 
 teeming with islands and fiords, enjoys the advantage of easy 
 access to all its districts by way of the sea. The Dinaric Alps 
 separate it, however, from the land of the ancient kingdom of 
 Serbia which arose on the basins of the Save and Morava. The 
 two areas form in reality isolated compartments. A capital 
 suitable to both cannot be located. Belgrade or Nish is appro- 
 priate enough for the valley of the Danube, Spalato or Eagusa 
 for the coastland. Uskub is perhaps more centrally situated on 
 the road connecting the Danube to the Adriatic. But this city 
 also belongs to the eastern watershed of the isolating mountains. 
 "Whatever be the political destiny of this linguistic area, it is 
 bound to be divided into two parts with outlets respectively on 
 the Adriatic and the Danube. 
 
 Between the sixth and thirteenth centuries, the Serbian 
 invaders of the Balkan peninsula grouped themselves into a 
 number of independent tribes. The Serbian state to which the 
 smaller units adhered politically came into being in the thirteenth 
 century. That it was inhabited by a prosperous people is proven 
 by numerous works of art which are still preserved in the 
 churches of the land. A hundred years later the kingdom of 
 Serbia attains its widest extension. Under Stephen Dushan, the 
 country spreads from the Black Sea to the Adriatic and from the 
 Danube and Save valleys to the JEgean. In 1346 Dushan is 
 cro\vned emperor at Uskub. He is about to march on Constan- 
 tinople, but death puts an end to this project. Henceforth 
 Serbian power is to be on the wane. The appearance of the Turks 
 in the Balkans in the last decade of the fourteenth century marks 
 the end of Serbian independence. In the ensuing four hundred 
 years, Serbian lands and their inhabitants are the prey of 
 merciless Asiatics. The devastating grip of Turkish oppression 
 begins to be relaxed in 1815 when, under the leadership of 
 Miloch Obrenovitch, the Serbians laid the foundation of their 
 modern independence by forcing the Turks to grant them a 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 187 
 
 partial self-government. Thence to the year 1867 political 
 emancipation from Turkey progressed steadily. 
 
 The Adriatic Sea alone provides the Serbo-Croatian peoples 
 with a definite boundary. The line of the Drave on the north 
 once formed a frontier for the twin group. In modern times a 
 number of Croatian settlements have pushed forward along the 
 Kaab valley toward Slovak territory. Here they stand in danger 
 of becoming lost in the midst of the Hungarian population, as 
 were the Serbian settlements which in the seventeenth century 
 were scattered as far as Budapest. On the southwest, the 
 boundary of the Serbian linguistic area presents many obstacles 
 to accurate delimitation. There was a time when all northern 
 Albania was part of the Serbian empire. In the eleventh cen- 
 tury the Serbian kingdom, established in the Lake Scutari 
 district, comprised Albanian populations within its boundaries. 
 Immediately before the Turkish conquest Serbian language and 
 customs had advanced as far south as Epirus. The coming of 
 the Asiatics caused profound changes in the distribution of 
 Balkan populations through the conversions to Mohammedanism 
 by which it was attended. Many Serbians who had penetrated 
 to the south and a large number of Albanians became followers 
 of the Prophet. Their descendants became ''Turks" and as such 
 endured the vicissitudes which marked the decline of Ottoman 
 power. The Serbian element lost its individuality in the midst 
 of Albanians. A record of its former advance in northern 
 Albania subsists in the Serbian villages which are scattered in 
 the region. 
 
 Small areas of Serbian are found at Zumberak and Mariondol 
 on the southern slope of the Uskok mountains in Croatia near 
 the Carniola boundary. These Serbian groups occur on the border 
 line separating Croats from Slovenes. They were founded by 
 refugees from the south and east who had settled in the military 
 confines of the Empire previous to 1871. In 1900 the population 
 of Mariondol consisted of a few hundred inhabitants, many of 
 whom have since emigrated to the United States. In Zumberak 
 for the same year the number of inhabitants was estimated at 
 
188 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 11,842, of whom 7,151 were ''imiats" and 4,691 Catholics.' The 
 conversion of these Serbians from Greek orthodoxy was accom- 
 plished in the eighteenth century. 
 
 Scattered Serbian settlements are found between the Danube 
 and Theiss valleys as far north as Maria-Theresiopel and farther 
 south at Zombor and Neusatz. The rich corn-growing districts 
 southeast of Ftinfkirchen (Pechui) contain some of the most 
 important Serbian centers in Hungary. Serbian is the language 
 of the entire district of confluence of the Theiss and Danube as 
 well as of many colonies in the Banat of Temesvar. Religious 
 diversity alone has prevented fusion of these Serbians with the 
 Hungarian majority of the land. Whenever they come into con- 
 tact with Rumanians of the same religion the Serbians lose 
 ground and become merged in the bosom of the Latin population. 
 *'A Rumanian woman in the house," says the Serbian proverb, 
 "means a Rumanian home." Such Rumanian households are 
 now solidly established north and south of the Danube valley in 
 the northeastern angle of Serbia where a century ago they were 
 practically non-existent.' 
 
 Among these Serbian settlements of southern Hungary those 
 in the Banat of Temesvar are the most important. Temesvar 
 itself although an ancient seat of Serbian voivodes ^ contains 
 fewer Serbians than Germans and Hungarians. The Slavs 
 however occupy the w^estern part of the Banat and form 
 majorities between Zombor and Temesvar, Becherek and Pan- 
 chova. Around Maria-Theresiopel (also known as Subotica or 
 Szabadka) the Serbian element contains many Roman Catholics 
 — the so-called Bunjevci, who were emigrants from former 
 Turkish provinces, mainly Herzegovina. 
 
 [ The old sanjak of Novibazar, which became part of Serbia 
 after the last Balkan war, is largely Serbian in people and 
 
 • N. Zupanic : Znmbercani i Marindolci, prilog antropologii i etnografiji Srba u 
 Kranjskoj Prosvetni Glasnik, Belgrade, 1912. 
 
 * E. Haumant: La nationality serbo-croate, Ann. de G4ogr., No. 127, Vol. 23, 
 Jan. 15, 1914, p. 48. 
 
 » A. Evans : The Adriatic Slavs and the Overland Route to Constantinople, Geogr. 
 Journ., Vol. 47, No. 4, April 1916, p. 251. 
 
Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. .50. 
 
 Fig. 49 — The broken aspect of tlie Dalmatian coastland is strongly represented 
 in this view of Lussinpiccolo and surrounding islets. 
 
 Fig. .50 — Usual landscape in mountainous Montenegro. 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 189 
 
 speech. In the long centuries oi' Mohammedan rule the Turks 
 had become possessors of the majority of cultivated lands. But 
 the task of farming was left entirely in the hands of the Serbian 
 jjeasants — whether of Mohammedan creed and known as Bosh- 
 naks, or Christians. The Moslem element as a rule resided in 
 the towns which grew around a castle or fortress, 
 
 From the twelfth to the fourteenth century the great com- 
 mercial route which led from the Adriatic at liagusa to Nish and 
 Byzantium passed through Sienitza and Novibazar. Prosperity 
 never since equaled flowed with the commerce from Venetian 
 cities and the Dalmatian coast to the Orient. The districts of 
 the sanjak then boasted of denser and wealthier populations. 
 The Turkish conquest, however, diverted this trade route into 
 the Morava valley with the result that the erstwhile frequented 
 sanjak became almost completely isolated and neglected. West 
 of the Lim the sanjak has always been predominantly Serbian. 
 East of this river the pure Serbian type is preserved in the dis- 
 tricts of Stari Vlah, Novi Varosh and Berane. The region's 
 earliest inhabitants are found in the secluded gorges of the Tara 
 and the Ograyevitza tableland. Albanian settlements are met 
 in Peshtera and Roshai. 
 
 Like Albania, Bosnia was originally peopled by Illyrians, a 
 people of Alpine race whose living representatives are found 
 among the Skipetars or rockmen of Albania. Although the land 
 was conquered by the Romans, its inhabitants were never thor- 
 oughly Romanized. The mountainous character of Bosnia accounts 
 for this failure of Latinism. Many traces of the Roman invasion 
 are being continually discovered on the sites of ancient military 
 camps and in inscriptional remains which are frequently unearthed 
 in the territory comprised between the Adriatic and the Danube. 
 Dalmatia and Pannonia were the two provinces into which the 
 Romans had subdivided the region for administrative purposes. 
 The Slavs who began to appear in the middle of the sixth cen- 
 tury left a deep impress on the inhabitants. The influence of 
 these latest comers is the only one that has prevailed to our day. J 
 
 The coming of . Hungarians in Europe may be likened to a 
 
190 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 wudgc drivcu into tlie mass oi' {Slavic pojjulations. The success 
 of tliese Asiatics brought about the separation of the southern 
 yiavs from their northern Ivinsmen. In the course of these 
 adjustments Bosnia and its inhabitants became part of the 
 kingdom of Croatia wliich originated in the valleys of the Drave 
 and JSave. The provijice was administered by a Ban, who, 
 though a vassal of the Croatian crown, always managed to retain 
 a certain measure of independence." 
 
 After the Hungarian conquest of Croatia, the Bans were 
 allowed to maintain their rule. Their policy consisted in culti- 
 vating friendly relations with the ruling element and at the same 
 time in drawing closer to the Serbian populations in the east. 
 The intimate connection between Serbia and Bosnia dates from 
 the end of the twelfth century. Two hundred years later Stephen 
 Turtko, the son of Serbia's greatest monarch, was crowned king 
 of Serbia, Bosnia and the Littoral provinces at the shrine of 
 Saint Sava. But the independence of Greater Serbia was short- 
 lived. Hungarian arms were soon in the ascendant and Bosnia 
 became a prey of feudal lords — a land divided against itself. 
 
 The Turks found it in this condition in the fifteenth century 
 and easily subdued its petty princes. They used their rights of 
 conquest to force Mohammedanism on the Bosnians. The mass 
 of the landed gentry accepted the Arabic faith in order to retain 
 possession of their i)roperty. Many of the Bosnian Moham- 
 medans are descended from adlierents of Bogomil heresies 
 who welcomed this method of finding relief from persecution. 
 The fanaticism of these converts and that of their descendants 
 became noteworthy even in the midst of Turkish religious 
 intolerance. It has delayed the expulsion of the Turks from this 
 region, prevented the consolidation of Bosnia with Serbia in the 
 early years of the nineteenth century and finally paved the way 
 for the Teutonic advance towards eastern lands. 
 
 The Austrian occupation of Bosnia in 1879 was followed by 
 a current of German immigration. The new settlers came from 
 Germany and the German-speaking provinces of Austria. To 
 
 • G. Blondcl: La Bosnie, Bttll. 800. Norm, de Odogr., Jan.-Murch 1912, p. 18. 
 
BALKAN PENINSULA AND SERBIAN INHABITANTS 191 
 
 weaken Serbian influence in liie land tlie How of this human tide 
 was lavored by the government. Engaging terma were oITered 
 to the colonists. The land they took up was turned into home- 
 steads which became the property oi" the settler on easy terms, 
 and after ten years' occupation Bohemians, Poles and Kuthenians 
 were also lured to iJosnia. The Posavina district teems with 
 these Slav immigrants. German jjeasants however were con- 
 sidered the most desirable element in the eyes of Austrian 
 oilicials. Through this migration Windhorst is now ijeojjled 
 mainly by Clermans from the Rhine provinces and Rudolf thai by 
 Tyrolese. Swabians from Hungary founded a large colony at 
 Franz-Josefsfeld, while Germans from the same country created 
 settlements at JJranjevo and Dugopolje. Altliough these German 
 emigrants constitute a numerically unimportant fraction of the 
 Bosnian jjopulation, their presence has sufficed to warrant them 
 the solicitude of Pan-Germanist writers in whose works they are 
 referred to as ''Our German brothers of Bosnia." '" 
 
 By its geography, no less than racially, Bosnia is an integral 
 portion of Serbia. 1^'or over a thousand years Bosnians and 
 Serbians have had a mutually common civilization. The same 
 historical and political vicissitudes have been shared by the two 
 peoxjles. Common economic aims and the identity of inhabited 
 territory have furthermore acted as unifying factors. Whatever 
 be the name applied to Croats, Dalmatians, Slavonians, Bosnians 
 or Serbs, all speak the Serbian language. All have striven for 
 centuries to promote their individuality as a nation. To help 
 them realize themselves as a political unit merely implies fur- 
 thering the process begun by nature. *~] 
 
 "C. DIeM: En Arz-diU-rranr-e, Paris, 1912. 
 
CilAPTEU X 
 LANGUAGE TKOBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 The Serbian linguistic area, noticed in the preceding chapter, 
 is l)()ili the political and physical link connecting central Europe 
 with the Balkan peninsula. Beyond Serbia, to the south or south- 
 east, the true Balkan domain is reached. This region is occupied 
 chiefly by Greeks and Bulgarians. The Albanian and Kumanian 
 poi)ulatioiis of its western section, although distinct in speech, 
 nevertheless lack the cultural and historical background required 
 in the formation of nationality. 
 
 The Albanians inhabit the rugged lands which were known as 
 Illyricuni and Epirus in classical times. 1 Secluded within the 
 narrow, trough-shaped relics of ancient mountain folding, the 
 natives had no immediate contact with their Greek neighbors on 
 the south, or with Serbians on the north. Hence Albanian has 
 survived in the most inaccessible portions of the Dinaric rocky 
 country. In its grammar Skip or Modern Albanian is exclusively 
 Aryan in form. Nevertheless only four hundred entries out of 
 a total of 5,140 listed in G. Meyers' Etymological Dictionary of 
 Albanian can bo classified as unalloyed old Indo-European. The 
 intrusion of Tatar modified into Turkish words is considerable 
 and amounts to no less than 1,180 words. Komanic enters into 
 the total to the extent of 1,420 forms, thus predominating. Some 
 840 words are Greek, while 540 are of Slavic origin. 
 
 In the belief of some etymologists the name Albania is related 
 to the old Celtic form Alb or Alp, which means mountain. Com- 
 parison with the Celtic form ''Albanach," used in Scotch 
 v(M-nacular to name the mountainous section of Scotland, is of 
 utmost interest and significance. The Albanians, however, do not 
 call themselves by this name. They designate themselves as 
 Skipetars or rockmen, and apply this appellation indiscriminatelr 
 
 192 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 193 
 
 to all the inhabitants of Upper and Lower Albania who do not 
 use Greek, Serbian or Eumanian as a vernacular. Many resem- 
 blances in the language spoken by Albanians and Rumanians 
 I3oint to a probable early association of the two peoples. 
 
 Albania is still a land of mystery. Few European travelers 
 have ventured within its inhospitable confines. It is a country 
 without a master, a country where the head of every family is 
 sole ruler of his inherited plot of land. It is scantily populated. 
 Its inhabitants are divided into hostile groups by religion and 
 tribal rivalry. No common aim on which to found nationality 
 exists among them. The only bond that holds them together is 
 perhaps their intolerance of alien authority. 
 
 Latitude divides the Skipetars into two main groups. A 
 northern branch is known by the name of Gheks, while the dwellers 
 of southern Albania go by the name of Tosks. The Skumbi 
 river valley, running at right angles to the Adriatic, separates 
 the country into the two sections inhabited by each of these 
 peoples. Each of these branches is further divided by religion 
 into Mohammedans and Christians. The Christian Gheks inhabit 
 principally the valleys of the Drin and the Mati. The powerful 
 Mirdite clan draws its adherents from this group. They are 
 Roman Catholics and strongly under Italian influence, which 
 dates back to the beginnings of Venetian trading on the eastern 
 shores of the Mediterranean. The Christian Tosks have been 
 affected by the views of the Eastern Church. Almost all 
 recognize the religious authority of the Phanariot clergy. The 
 Mirdites form a compact community to the south of the Drin. 
 The group consists of some 300,000 individuals scattered over a 
 territory about 375 sq. m. in extent. An hereditary chief is 
 acknowledged head of the clan, his authority being even recog- 
 nized by many non-Mirdite tribes. With their allies the Mirdites 
 number approximately half a million souls while the clan's 
 sphere of influence extends over a territory about 1,000 sq. m. 
 in area. 
 
 Both of the Christian groups of the Albanian people have 
 been mercilessly persecuted by the Mohammedan element, which 
 
JDl. J<'U()N'1'11':RS OI' LANCilJACil-: AND NAJJONALI'IV 
 
 rci»r(iH(!iilH Uio luiidcd goiilry and Jiohilily (ji' Uio couiiiiy. TJhj 
 iiaiiK! ol' Ai'JJuut uj)j>li(!H g<!i)()niily to Uio JVIolijunrrKjdaii y\ll),'iniiui.s. 
 All iiro (i(:H(;(!ii(|jiiitH ol' c-oiivcti'l.H wlio ciiiIjijuuuJ IhIjuii ;iI, tlic iijiio 
 ol' llir 'I'lirKinli iiiviinioii. \'>y ;i(l()j>l,iii;.'; llu; lailli of llicir i;(>n- 
 • liiciorH, l.liry vvcro nllowcd l.o I'claiii poHHObHioii ol' llicir rai'iiib 
 and jHopt'i'l.y. '.I'lio ( liiiHi.iaiiH bccaiiitj HurJH, and wore Bot to 
 work on Iho landH nndcr a HyHlcni ol' loudal Hcrvitudt! wliicjj was 
 (ixcuodingly oniirouH. 
 
 'Vhii inliahilanl.H of Albania aro totally dcivoid ol" nalional 
 foolinK-' V^ai-ioNH canHCH HiililatcuigainHt national niiily. i'rini(!val 
 patriol.iHin, oxpruHHcd by love of liilx; i-atli<!i' than of couniry, in 
 our of llicni. Ii'nrllicruiorc tlat jx-.cnliai' nliajxt ol' ili(;ir couniry 
 l.ranHronn.s il. inio a nnnihcir ol' c!orni)arini(jnt-]ik(3 aruaH Ixjyoiid 
 wliicli Irihid aclivil.y I'arcly cxh^ndH. [VUo H(!tiing up of an indo- 
 j)(^nd(!nt Hlal.(i in l!>l.'? vvhh a j)nr(!ly [)()lilic-al movo un(k!rtidv(5ii by 
 AuHlrinn HinlcHincn lo pn^vcnt S(vr})inn (expansion to tho Adriatic. 
 VVilliin I lie lioundaricM dclciiiiincd l»y IIk! ambaHHadorial (M)nr(;r- 
 cncc held in London in llial. ycaf slfirc and di.ssonHion.s piMivail 
 now an inl<'n,s«'ly aM during'; llir Tnilsisli i-cL'/mic. NalivcH ol* tho 
 norl.lnu'n Hc^c.l.ioiiH of (In! (tonid.ry HpcaU Sdi'bian dlalcds and favor 
 nnion willi Serbia or MonliMicji^ro ratlu'r Hum in(l((i)cndeiico. 
 MaliHori irib(»Hni(ii lonj^Id- Hi(l(^ by Hido with Mont('no<i^rin troops 
 in IIk^ fall (d' IIM'J as Ihcir auccHlorH had done in ilio camyiaiji^n 
 of 171 1 ngainsl Ihc 'rniks. 'The Allianiann (»!' Ipck, however, ^avo 
 aHHiMJanee lo 'rnrkish r(»gubirH. The inhabilanis of I he \alley of 
 Ihe upper Moraxa H(Md. Hiii)plieH lo Serbian troops against wliicli 
 the chicriains of eiMilral Albania led llieir men. Tho purest typO 
 
 ' lu'llalilo cmI ininli'M 111' lln- |iii|iiiliil ion of AllmMiii iiit> j^ivfii liy I'ft lovicli in " St^rviil: 
 
 1I(«r l'f(i|i|(>, lliHiiiry iunl AH|»irM( iniin," l.niulnii, n>ir>, i>. 175. Accnnlinir (<> IIi'im imtlior 
 lli<\ i-iMinli'v Ih Inlinliil I'll liy: 
 
 AiiiMiiln ( Mi.liimmiiMlMiiH) afiO.OOO 
 
 'I'uMkH (driiioiinx) :ir)0.ono 
 
 'MInllli'H (Kninitii ('iitliollcH) .'tOD.OOO 
 
 Sorim (Ordiotlox) 'j:r)(»,()()() 
 
 (h-oolvH (OrlliiMlox) ir)0.(){m 
 
 UiilKiirliiiiH (Orllioilox^ f.O.OOO 
 
 'I'lirkH ( M(i|iiuniiit<ilui>H) fiO.OOO 
 
 TotHl 1. 
 
 1.500,000 I 
 
-M^"^. 
 
 ?^ 
 
 h'Ki. rA. 
 
 1 ji,. :> 
 
 Figs. 51 and ;')2— AlbanianH in native; cohtuine. The men nJiown in the up[>er 
 pliotograpii are '' Arnaudw " or Mohainmedanw. Tiie lower illuHtration hhowB two 
 AlhanianH of the whepherd claBs. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 195 
 
 of Albanian found in the vicinity of Elbassan, Koritza and 
 Valona^ is practically submerged in a sea of Greeks. Under 
 these circumstances, partition of the country between Greece and 
 Serbia might not be incompatible mth native aspirations. 
 Political stability could be obtained in this case without paying 
 attention to linguistic unity. Nevertheless Albania is not with- 
 out national boundaries. The valley of the Drin and the range 
 of the Pindus have left their mark in the development of the 
 Albanian people, while the sea on the west provides the country 
 with a most desirable confine. 
 
 On the east and south, the limits of Albanian language and 
 nationality become indefinite owing to the intermingling of 
 foreign populations. In the Ipek district, along the northeast 
 corner of the country, two centuries of Albanian invasions have 
 failed to insure preponderance of the Albanian over the Serbian 
 element. Nevertheless at the London ambassadorial conference 
 in 1913 Albania was awarded the only available road between 
 Montenegro and Serbia. The route, cut in the mountainous 
 tangle which characterizes this region, follows the Clementi gap, 
 a district settled by shepherds of the tribe of the same name. 
 The Prokleita mountains allotted to Albania form here a natural 
 boundary. The inclusion of this uplift within Serbian territory 
 would have enabled the Serbians to maintain communication 
 with their ]\Iontenegrin kinsmen. Albanians would ha\'e lost 
 little in the transaction, as can well be inferred from the name 
 of the mountain, which is Serbian for ''accursed," 
 
 [a small strip of Montenegrin territory Vvhich extends from 
 Podgoritza to the sea at Antivari and Dulcigno is peopled almost 
 exclusively by about 10,000 Albanians. This district was annexed 
 to Montenegro by the treaty of Berlin in exchange for the dis- 
 tricts of Plava and Gusinje which were then awarded to Turkey 
 in view of the predominantly Mohammedan religion of th?ir 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Montenegrin covetings of the Lake Scutari area are based on 
 economic grounds. The eastern shore of this inland body of water 
 
 ^ G. Gravier: L'Albanie et ses limites, Rev. de Paris, Jan. 1, 1913, pp. 200-224. 
 
io(; I'lioN rii:i{s oi' LANdUACiK and nationality 
 
 coniaiiiH hroiul a^riciillwrul iraci.s vvliicli can 8ui)i)ly ilio Hmall 
 Hiai(^ willi food prodnclH ini()})i,ainablo from its rocky Hurfacc;. 
 Tlic award of a Huiall ship of I lie old saiijak and ji portion of 
 (lie Ipck (li,slri('.l, al, I Ik; end of I lie Halkaii wai's of 1!)12 and 
 11)1.'!, Tailed lo niccl, M()iil(iii(\u;r-iM i"('(|nir(!m(3ntH. 'V\\(\ ii(!W dis- 
 triclH arc Hcpa rated froiii (lie coniiiry pi'opc^r l)y a tangle of wcll- 
 nigli inipon(^tral)lc nioiinlaiiis. At IVxlgorit/a, tli(^ commercial 
 c(Uit('r of Montenegro, it is still possible to bay cor'oals from 
 Albania nioiv^ advaidageonsly than from I lie Ipek I'egicm. Fur- 
 tlierinore the a('.<|nired tei'ritoi'y is relatively densely populated 
 and hence nnlit I'oi' settlement or colonization. Under Ihe circum- 
 siances the ecoiioniic advaid.ages Hccured by Montenegro by llie 
 increase of itH tcrrilory in H)l.'5 were slight. 
 
 The ai'ea clalrruul by tin; higldand country compris(>s tli(^ sliore 
 district of Scutari Tiake and tin* l>oyana valley. To satisfy 
 Montenegrin asj»i rations Ihe Albanian boundary should follow 
 tile Drill valley to the |)oiiit of conllnence of tln^ I>lack and While 
 Drill and extend along IIh> Drinassa river. ^IMience, passing 
 thi-ongh the coast ranges, it sliould attain ihe Kiri river by way 
 of a. canal connecting this waterway with the lioyana. l)ey()nd, 
 the lin(> might appi'opi'iately be cai-ried to V)r(»di/za and the 
 Adriatic Ix^tween San ,Iuan de JMediia and the mouth of the 
 Boynna. 
 
 Such a. re\ ision of Monlen(>gro\s fronlier would provide the 
 soil which lli(> country needs I'oi" lilling. Tho, valley of the 
 lioyana and the drained lake district would soon be laken up by 
 Montenegrin colonists who, now that the Turkish dang(>r is over, 
 arc eager lo descend into the lowland from their mountain fast- 
 ness. The connection between the coast and inland districts 
 would lik(>wise be favored by tlu* chang(>d course of the boundary 
 
 tn soul hern Albania (1re(>k claims to l^^pirus are Jiot without 
 foundation. Ilc>llenic language and customs prevail throughout 
 the province. The ho])(*R entertained at Athens originally aimed 
 at the establishment of a northern boundary which would have 
 included Valoiui. In order to satisfy Italian demands, however, 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 197 
 
 a less comprehensive line was advocated, beginning at Gramala 
 bay and extending to the Serbian frontier in the center of the 
 western shore of Lake Okrida. It comprises the districts of 
 Kimara, Argyrocastro, Premeti, Koritza and Moskopolis. Accord- 
 ing to official Turkish statistics, x^ublished in 1908, the region 
 was peopled by 340,000 Greeks and some 149,000 Mohammedans. 
 
 The Greek proposals laid before the London ambassadorial 
 conference suggested the following delimitation of the line 
 between Greece and Albania. Starting from Gramala bay on 
 the Adriatic sea, the frontier was to extend to Tepeleni and 
 Ihence to Klisura. From this point the line was to coincide with 
 the crest of the Dangli mountains and, crossing the basin of the 
 middle Devoli river, attain Lake Okrida, thus connecting with 
 the eastern boundary of Albania. 
 
 The thwarting of these Greek aspirations was followed by 
 an insurrection of the Epirote inhabitants of Albania in 1914. 
 The movement aimed at annexation with Greece. Rebel troops 
 lost no time in occupying the rcj^on of Greek speech between 
 Kimara and Tepeleni, comprising the cfjast and the northern 
 extension of the wide valley of Argyrocastro. On February 25, 
 1914, the autonomy of Epirus was solemnly proclaimed by the 
 inhabitants of Kimara assembled in their cathedral. In the fall of 
 1914 the Hellenic government, taking advantage of the European 
 war, despatched regular troops into the territory claimed by its 
 citizens. As a result of this invasion the Albanian area of Greek 
 speech was brought under the direct authority of the Greek 
 government.' 
 
 The determination of the boundary between the Albanian and 
 Greek languages presents little difficulty. The upper course of 
 the Voyussa and the road from Delvino to Ostanitza passing by 
 Doliano mark the divide approximately. North of this line the 
 prevailing language is Alh»anian. To the south it is Greek. On 
 the Albanian side the village schoolhouse maintained by Greeks 
 is no longer found. Delvino itself is a town in which the two 
 
 *L. BOchner: Die neue griechiach-albanijiche Grtnze in NordepiruB, Pet. Mitt., Vol 
 61, Feb. 1915, p. 68. 
 
198 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 peoples are equally represented. The language of commerce 
 however is Greek and as a rule the Albanian townsmen speak 
 the rival tongue with high fluency, while the knowledge of 
 Albanian possessed by the Greek inhabitants is restricted to the 
 few phrases needed in daily contact. ) 
 
 History, legend and myth, as well as language, testify to the 
 Hellenic character of the Epirote land. These ties are too strong 
 to allow the Greeks to relinquish complacently any portion of 
 Epirus to Albania. Greece's dawning consciousness of nationality 
 was nursed in the mountains of Epirus long before the Christian 
 era. Every step in the rugged country raises the dust of 
 Hellenic antiquity. Among the fateful oaks of Dodona the land 
 is aglow with tradition. At a short distance from Filiates, at 
 the junction of the Kalamas and the Cremnitza, shepherds feed 
 their flocks about the thick walls of Passaron. Near Delvino may 
 be seen the remains of the once prosperous city of Phoenike. 
 Every mountain and stream in the Epirote districts of Albania 
 is part of the foundation on which Hellenism was built. The 
 annals of modern Greece also are replete with the heroism of 
 Greeks who claim Epirus as their native country. The land 
 which produced so daring a leader of men as Pyrrhus in ancient 
 times, later counted Miaoulis, Canaris and Botzaris among its 
 sons. 
 
 The Greek occupation of Janina and the district surrounding 
 the city raised difficulties of a practical nature. As is generally 
 the case in conquered countries land was found to be held by the 
 dominating element, that is by Mohammedans, whether Albanian, 
 Turkish or Greek. The Christian Greeks forming the majority 
 of the population constituted the working, peasant class. The 
 end of Turkish rule in Europe placed Mohammedan landholders 
 in the unenviable situation of suppliants before a people whom 
 they had mercilessly maltreated. Many were ruined and their 
 land taken over by Greeks without compensation. A general 
 disturbance of the economic life of the region ensued as agricul- 
 ture had been its most important industry. 
 
 Geographically — as well as economically — the, nation holding 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 109 
 
 Janina is entitled to Santi-Quaranta. This harbor is likewise 
 the outlet for the products of the district surrounding Argyro- 
 castro. In fact access to the sea for the entire Greek-speaking 
 inland districts of southern Albania is obtained through Preveza 
 or Santi-Quaranta. The latter harbor alone however is safe for 
 large vessels. 
 
 jThe importance of Albania in European politics is largely due 
 to the commanding position of the country's seaports at the 
 mouth of the Adriatic. Austrians, Italians, Serbians and Monte- 
 negrins covet them equally. South of the Montenegro frontier 
 the first of these harbors is San Juan de Medua, situated on the 
 northeast comer of the Gulf of Drino about 11 miles southwest 
 of the mouth of the Boyana river. 
 
 This port, which is in reality a bay of restricted dimensions, is 
 considered by the natives as the most favored on the Albanian 
 coast. A bank extending to the south of the bay affords shelter 
 from high seas. The region is the resort of local fishermen and 
 is especially favored during winter months. In summer the 
 swampy nature of the environing country converts it into a 
 malarial district. Small vessels of the coastwise trade find 
 shelter at the extreme inland extension of the bay. Ocean-going 
 steamers anchor in the middle of the bay between the mouth of 
 the Drin and San Juan Point. 
 
 San Juan de Medua is the harbor of the Montenegrin town of 
 Scutari. It is also the proposed sea terminal of a railway to be 
 built between the Danube and the Adriatic. As such it might in 
 time become Serbia's economic outlet to the Adriatic. But the 
 construction of a railroad connecting the valley of the Danube 
 with the Adriatic presents well-nigh insurmountable difficulties 
 on account of the mountainous character of the interv^ening 
 country. The bay of Eodoni, in the southern part of the Gulf of 
 Drino, is one of the safe anchorages. A commodious harbor 
 could be provided here by modem engineering devices. The 
 southern shore of the bay could be converted into a long wharf 
 at no great cost. A jetty thrown out on the northern side would 
 afford protection, from the "bora" or northern \\dnd. 
 
200 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Between the bay of Rodoni and Durazzo the two roadsteads 
 of Lales and Pata intervene. Both are resorts of fishermen and 
 petty freighters seeking refuge from the vehemence of the bora. 
 The shallowness of the waters in both preclude their utilization 
 as western terminals for central Balkan traffic. Beyond however, 
 to the south, the spacious bay of Durazzo offers ample harbor 
 facilities to Adriatic shipping. 
 
 Durazzo has undoubtedly the most commodious harbor of 
 northern Albania. From Cape Durazzo to Cape Laghi the bay 
 is about 11 miles long. Shoals and banks protect its northern 
 entrance. Engineers would find little difficulty in deepening the 
 bay in conformity with the requirements of modern navigation. 
 This accomplished, Durazzo might again become the naval station 
 and port of commerce which gave fame to its name in ancient 
 times, y 
 
 Its site is hallowed to history. To the Corcyreans by whom the 
 first town was founded it was known as Epidamnus, the "far 
 away." The Romans changed its name to Dyrrachium. In 
 classical thnes the port was the point of transshipment for mer- 
 chandise en route from Italy to Macedonia or northern Greece. 
 At the height of Venetian commercial supremacy, the seaport 
 fully retained its ancient prosperity. The wharves to which 
 Venetian galleys were moored are still intact. Although the city 
 is the modern commercial center of Albania it has lost much of 
 its ancient activity. 
 
 None of these Albanian harbors are comparable in strategic 
 importance to Valona, which is situated opposite Brindisi and on 
 that portion of the Albanian coast nearest Italy. The holders 
 of this seaport will control the strait of Otranto and thereby have 
 mastery of the Adriatic. From a military standpoint, the bay 
 facing the town is eminently suited to become a strongly fortified 
 naval station. It is provided with a number of safe anchorages. 
 The island of Sasseno facing the entrance affords shelter from 
 the roughness of the open sea and forms at the same time a 
 natural outpost. Italian and Austrian statesmen, the former 
 especially, are fully aware of the importance of, this Albanian 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 201 
 
 harbor in the Adriatic question. The aim of each is to plant 
 their country's flag on the crenelated remnants of the ancient 
 forts which overlook the bay. Greece also aspires to the pos- 
 session of the seaport. In her case the claim is made that the 
 majority of the inhabitants are of Greek descent. An attempt to 
 obtain mastery of the position was made by Greece in the spring 
 of 1913 when she landed in Sasseno. An energetic protest from 
 the Italian government forced Greece to recall her troops. The 
 island was occupied by Italian troops in the fall of 1914. 
 
 Valona is the outlet of a region whose population consists 
 mainly of Mohammedan Albanians. Its commercial insignificance 
 is largely due to the character of its inhabitants. Had it been 
 peopled by a majority of Greeks, or even Christian Albanians, 
 its influence might have been felt in the midst of international 
 rivalries. "Whatever destiny is in store for Albania, it seems as 
 if, in view of the non-Greek character of the Valonian popula- 
 tion, Italian or Austrian claims would stand greater chance of 
 being heeded. 
 
 Of the 8,000 or 10,000 inhabitants of Valona over one-half are 
 Albanian Mohammedans who adhere to the use of their ver- 
 nacular. Greek is spoken extensively by Orthodox Albanians and 
 Greeks, who together form the next largest religious community. 
 Ajnong Catholics the cultural influence of Italian prevails. In 
 fact most of the Albanian Catholics residing in the to^vn have 
 forsaken their native language for Italian. Through the medium 
 of these Catholics the only sphere of Italian influence in Albania 
 ■deserving mention is found in Valona and the environing district. 
 This western influence is hardly felt, however, beyond a distance 
 of about 35 miles inland from the harbor or by more than 20,000 
 souls. Albanian anarchy holds sway to the north. Southward 
 Oreek influence is strongly exerted through the agency of the 
 Orthodox church.J 
 
 Elsewhere in the Balkan peninsula linguistic groupings now 
 ■conform largely to the political divisions which ended the wars of 
 1912-1913. The future w^ill undoubtedly afford an increasingly sat- 
 isfactory perspective of the results which followed this attempt to 
 
202 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 eliminate totally the Turk from this portion of the European 
 continent. Racial siftings followed close on territorial readjust- 
 ments. Turks from all parts of the former Turkish provinces 
 transferred their lands to Christian residents and emigrated to 
 Asia Minor. Special arrangements for this exodus were pro- 
 vided by the Turkish government. Greeks who were settled in 
 the newly acquired Bulgarian and Serbian domain similarly 
 sought new homes within the boundaries of the Hellenic kingdom. 
 A heavy flow of Bulgarian emigrants was also directed to 
 Bulgaria from Bulgarian-speaking territory allotted to Serbia.* 
 
 But pressing need of further boundary revision on the basis 
 of language is felt in the peninsula. Resumption of hostilities 
 in this part of Europe in 1915 was due principally to the moot 
 case of the nationality of the Slavs of Macedonia. Serbs and 
 Bulgars both claim them as their own. In reality the Macedonians 
 are a transition people between the two. They occupy a distinc- 
 tive area formed by the twin valleys of the Vardar and Struma 
 and surrounded by a mountainous bulwark assuming crescentic 
 shape as it spreads along the Balkan ranges and the mountains 
 of Albania and the Pindus. For centuries this Macedonian plain 
 has constituted the cockpit of a struggle waged for linguistic 
 supremacy on the part of Bulgarians and Serbs. The land had 
 formed part of the domain of each of the two countries in the 
 heyday of their national life. To this fact in part the present 
 duality of claim must be ascribed. 
 
 The entire northwestern Macedonian highland was under 
 Serbian rule until the fall of 1915. East and south of the moun- 
 tains Bulgarian speech predominates in districts peopled exclu- 
 sively by Macedonians. The Greek element is practically entirely 
 absent here; Serbians begin to appear in small numbers; south 
 of Monastir and Okrida offshoots of the Pindus Rumanians are 
 found; but the Macedonian element is present everywhere in 
 overwhelming majority. 
 
 * Such migrations generally follow boundary revisions. The crossing of Alsatians 
 into French territory since 1870 has been already mentioned. A large number of 
 Danes abandoned their home in Schleswig-Holstein in 1865, and wandered, into Denmark. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 203 
 
 Fig. 53 — Sketch map of the western Balkans. The dotted area represents the 
 northern area of Greek language. Black dots show Rumanian settlements of the 
 Pindus mountains and adjoining regions. 
 
 Physically Macedonia is the region of the basins of the 
 Vardar and Struma. Under Turkish rule it was divided into the 
 vilayets of Monastir, Uskub and Salonica. The area is isolated 
 from the rest of the peninsula by a practically continuous line 
 
204 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of mountains, which, starting with the Pindus, Grammos and 
 Albanian ranges on the west, extend through the Shar, Suhagora, 
 Osogov and Rilo uplifts on the north and connect on the east 
 with the Rhodope massif. Macedonia is thus well defined on the 
 surface. Within these natural boundaries, it may be divided into 
 an elevated region extending over its northwestern portion and 
 a lowland spreading thence to ^gean waters. The Bistritza 
 valley forms a convenient feature to mark the beginning of the 
 modern Hellenic area. 
 
 In a restricted sense physical Macedonia may be defined as 
 the southerly extension of the Serbian mountain belt whose 
 drainage leads to the ^gean. Thus it consists first of a moun- 
 tain belt extending between the upper valleys of the Black Drin 
 and Struma. To this zone must also be added a hill country 
 w^hich forms its continuation to the ^gean Sea. The Vardar 
 valley is entirely within this area and divides it into equal east 
 and west sections. The northern boundary of the area is found 
 at the central watershed north of XJskub. Four important basins 
 lie within these boundaries. The Tetovo basin, west of Uskub, 
 lies close to the watershed. Southward the Monastir and 
 Strumitza basins occupy approximately homologous positions 
 with respect to the Vardar cut. The twin basin of Serres and 
 Drama extends over the southeastern portion of the country. 
 These basins have been the only important centers of Macedonian 
 populations. 
 
 The Macedonian highland is peopled by shepherds and wood- 
 cutters. The lowlanders are husbandmen. All are generally 
 bilingual, speaking either Greek and Bulgarian or Bulgarian and 
 Serbian. A knowledge of Turkish usually prevails among all 
 classes. Occupation generally affords a reliable national clue. 
 As a rule the Macedonians, and by this term we shall hereafter 
 denote the Bulgarian-speaking element of Macedonia, are tillers 
 of the soil. The Greeks are traders and control a large share of 
 the commerce of the entire region. Land is held by the 
 Macedonians or the former ruling Turkish gentry. It is worked 
 however by the Macedonians. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 205 
 
 The inhabitants of Macedonia may be divided into four 
 groups according to their vernaculars. The number of indi- 
 viduals in each group is estimated as follows : ^ 
 
 Bulgarians 1,172,136 or 81.5^ of the total Christian population. 
 
 Greeks 190,047 " 13.22 " " " " « 
 
 Rumanians 63,895 " 4.44 " " " " « 
 
 Albanians" 12,006 " 0.84 " " " " « 
 
 The Bulgarians form a compact mass containing slight admix- 
 ture of alien elements in northern and central Macedonia. Many 
 of the occasional Greek communities encountered within this area 
 are former Slav or Albanian centers having passed under the 
 sphere of the Greek religious propaganda which has been actively 
 carried on as a means of increasing the Hellenic domain. The 
 instrument of Hellenization was the Patriarchate at Constan- 
 tinople. The Patriarchs, bearing the title of (Ecumenical, con- 
 sidered themselves as apostles of the Greater Greece idea. After 
 the fall of Byzantium, and notably after the closing of the 
 Bulgarian Patriarchate of Okrida, the OEcumenical Patriarchate 
 of Constantinople was the only official chui^ch established in 
 Turkey for Christians. Its influence, directed through schools 
 and churches, aimed above all to Hellenize Christians. The 
 clergy was directed to convert to Orthodoxy the greatest 
 possible number of Christians of alien denomination and, at the 
 same time, attempt to enforce the use of Greek speech among 
 non-Mohammedans. 
 
 The Greeks of Macedonia are as mixed a people as can be 
 found on the surface of the earth. Inhabitants of cities are 
 strongly mixed with Albanian and Slav populations. Strains of 
 Tatar blood can even be detected among them. The Mediterranean 
 type becomes more pronounced as Thessaly is approached. In 
 unfrequented villages, however, the tourist will not uncommonly 
 find living impersonations of the sculptor's classical conception 
 of the human form. This Greek element predominates in the 
 
 ' D. M. Brancoff: La MacMoine et sa population chr§tienne, Paris, 1905. 
 • The number of Serbians scattered in the highland region of northern Macedonia 
 has been omitted, probably owing to its relative inferiority. 
 
20G 1 RONTIEllS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 valley oi' the Bistritza, wliicli, regionally, should be considered as 
 tlie northeastern boundary of the area of the Greek speech. 
 
 The Slavs of Macedonia are, in many respects, distinct in 
 character from the other Slavs of the Balkan peninsula. National 
 feeling among them is less strongly developed than with the 
 rest of the southern Slavs. They are industrious and frugal — 
 even grasping. Yet there are marked exceptions which seem to 
 prove that these qualities are not natural to them but have been 
 acquired under the stress of circumstances. Macedonia is a land 
 of poverty. It may rank with southern Greece as the poorest 
 land in the Balkan peninsula. Of little fertility, extensively 
 deforested and without particularly good pasture land, the 
 country cannot support its relatively numerous poi^ulation, and 
 therefore an important occupation with the Macedonians is the 
 taking of service in menial capacity in foreign countries — 
 'Tetchalba," as it is called. 
 
 The language of the Macedonians is intermediate between 
 Serbian and Bulgarian. Its afCmity with the latter, however, is 
 sufficiently pronounced to have led generally to merging. 
 Travelers in the land of the Macedonian Slavs soon learn that 
 a knowledge of Bulgarian will obviate difficulties due to ignorance 
 of the country's vernaculars. Serbian, however, is not as readily 
 intelligible to the natives. This relation has favored the Bul- 
 garian side whenever controversy arose and compilers of linguistic 
 or ethnographic maps have generally abstained from differ- 
 entiating the Macedonian from the Bulgarian area.'' The impos- 
 sibility for Bulgarians to regard the terms of the treaty of 
 Bucarest as final is, therefore, obvious. Extension of the 
 Rumanian boundary to the Turtukai-Black Sea line was also an 
 encroachment on soil whore Bulgarian was the predominant 
 language.^ 
 
 ' D. ■^^. "RrnnoofT: Ln. Mao<^doine et sa population ohr(^tieTiTie. Paria, 1905. The 
 Sorbian viewpoint is roanmod l)v J. Cviiir in " "Rthnojiraphio do la MaoMoino," Ann. de 
 Ofogr.. Vol. ^r^, inno. pp. 115-132 and 249-206. 
 
 " T\. A. TsanofT in tlio Journ. of Rare Dcrclnp. (Jan. 1915, p. 2511 ostimatog that 
 1.19S.O00 Bnlparians havo passed under foreifjn rule as a resiilt of the treaty of 
 Bni'nre-^t. Of these 2Rfi.0n0 hive heeonie suhjeels of l^iinaiiin. :?15.000 of Oroeee and 
 597,000 of Serbia. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 207 
 
 The area of Bulgarian speech awarded to Greece by the 
 treaty of Bucarest in 1913 attains the Albanian boundary near 
 Lakes Prespa and Kastoria. The upper valley of the Bistritza 
 river crosses a region peopled by Macedonians. The former 
 Turkish caza of Kastoria contained a majority of Bulgarian- 
 speaking inhabitants. The domain of Greek speech begins south 
 of Lapsista and extends eastward halfway between Kailar and 
 Kochana. Greek predominance is maintained around Karaferia. 
 The environs of Salonica contain a slight excess of Greek inhabi- 
 tants over Bulgarians, but the Greek element is not as closely 
 attached to the land as the Bulgarian. The line of lakes 
 on the north of the Chalcydic peninsula forms the boundary 
 between Greeks and Bulgarians, the latter element extend- 
 ing north of these inland waters to the present Bulgarian 
 frontier. 
 
 The loss of Macedonia was bitterly resented by Bulgarians, 
 not only on account of the racial ties which bind them to 
 Macedonians, but also because their country's economic develop- 
 ment is hampered by the want of the harbors which constitute 
 the natural sea outlets for the rearlands under Bulgarian rule. 
 The industrial and commercial development of southwestern 
 Bulgaria is handicapped at present by the necessity of shipping 
 the products of the region over a devious stretch of railroad 
 through Sofia-Philippopoli-Dedeagatch. The alternative via 
 Serbia or Greece is equally costly. The population of a con- 
 siderable portion of the country is, therefore, unable to compete 
 with rival producers of the two neighboring countries. 
 
 In the first half of 1913 negotiations between the Greek and 
 Bulgarian governments were in progress for the division of lands 
 conquered from the Turks. At that time the Greek government 
 was willing to recognize Bulgarian sovereignty over the cazas of 
 Kavalla, Drama, Pravista, Serres, Demir-TTissar and Kukush. 
 This was done on Mr. Venizelos' understanding that these 
 districts were sparsely inhabited by Greeks,® and that Kavalla 
 
 •A. Schopoff: The Balkan States and the Federal Principle, Asiat. Rev., July 1, 
 1915, p. 21. 
 
208 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 was the natural seaport of the districts of Strumnitza, Meliiik, 
 Jumaya, Nevrokop and Razlog. 
 
 Many of the districts thus offered to Bulgaria were peopled 
 mainly by Turks. According to Turkish statistics the caza of 
 Kara-Shaban does not contain a single Christian village. Its 
 population consists almost entirely of Turks numbering about 
 15,000. Tlie caza of Kavalla, having a population of 30,000, is 
 likewise largely Turkish. The Greek element is reckoned at 
 about 4,000, while some 3,500 Pomaks or Bulgarian Moham- 
 medans are scattered in many villages. 
 
 Of the 50,000 inliabitants of the caza of Drama fully one-half 
 were Turks, the number of Greeks hardly attained 4,000, while 
 the Bulgarian element consisted of 20,000 inhabitants divided 
 into equal numbers of Exarchists and Pomaks. In the caza of 
 Serres, the Bulgarians number approximately 40,000, while the 
 Greek population comprises 27,000.^° The caza of Demir-Hissar 
 contains 33,000 Bulgarians out of a population of 50,250. The 
 Greeks number about 250. In Kukush there are no Greeks at 
 all. The population of this caza consists mainly of 20,000 
 Turks out of a total of 23,000 inhabitants. It should be 
 remembered that the Turks emigrated en masse from this 
 district after the treaty of Bucarest and that, barring for- 
 cible expulsion by the Greeks, the population of all this 
 section of southeastern Macedonia is now overwhelmingly Bul- 
 garian. 
 
 Prior to Philip's time, Macedonia was a little-known moun- 
 tainous province constantly overrun by Thracians and Illyrians. 
 Soon after the overthrow of the Macedonian Empire by the 
 Romans in 168 b.c. the region took its place among Eoman 
 provinces and eventually formed part of the Byzantine Empire. 
 Rapacious Goths under Alaric brought havoc to the land after 
 its fortunes were bound to that of the dominant eastern state. 
 The Slavs made their appearance during the reign of Justinian. 
 Their colonies had attained importance while Heraclius was on 
 the throne. In the tenth century, Macedonia became part of the 
 
 '» Brancoff : op. cit., p. 23. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 209 
 
 great Bulgarian kingdom, but gravitated later towards Byzan- 
 tium, though not without having been the scene of disastrous 
 struggles between Byzantine hosts and their barbarian foes. 
 Turks and Tatars first overran the country in this period and 
 even founded colonies. The two invasions from the east, of the 
 Slavs and of the Turks, must have wrought profound changes 
 in the Macedonian populations. A short period of Serbian rule 
 was undergone in the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth, 
 Macedonia became an integral portion of the Ottoman dominions 
 and preserved this political status until its rescue during the 
 Balkan wars of 1912-1913. 
 
 Ethnically Macedonians and Bulgarians consist of mixed 
 European and Asiatic elements. The oldest layer in the popula- 
 tion is Thracian. This local stock peopled the land at the time 
 of the Koman conquest and was strongly Romanized during the 
 subsequent centuries. Slavs overran the country in the sixth 
 century. The Bulgarians made their appearance in the seventh. 
 Turks, or rather Mongol and Tatar hordes, began their invasions 
 in the eighth. These Asiatics were nomads. They made 
 excellent soldiers but poor settlers. Their settlements, which 
 were made at strategic points, can be recognized today by their 
 commanding sites. 
 
 It is hard to determine how much of the Slav or of the Tatar 
 exists in the average Bulgarian of our day. The history of the 
 land during the second half of the first Christian millennium is a 
 record of constant invasions from the east. The invaders appear 
 at first to have been Slavs from the southern steppes of western 
 Russia. As time goes on, however, Bulgaria is seen to absorb 
 wanderers proceeding from more and more distant districts in 
 the southern belts of the steppe! and which forms the continuation 
 of Europe into Asia. Slavic culture and speech preserved by the 
 Bulgarians seem but the veil that hides their strong Asiatic 
 affinity. 
 
 The fundamental difference between the temper of the Serbian 
 and the Bulgarian is apparent to travelers in Balkan lands. The 
 former are true Slavs. They are lighthearted and always ready 
 
210 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 to make merry. Their mountains re-echo with folk songs of the 
 genuine Slavic type. The Bulgarian on the other hand is inclined 
 to silence. Both peoples are equally industrious, but in the 
 Serbian the mobile and restless spirit of the west is discernible, 
 while the Bulgarian is as slow and ponderous a thinker as ever 
 was bred on the vast and open stretches of Eurasia's central 
 lowlands. 
 
 Proof of the Altaic origin of some of the Bulgarians is 
 derived from philology. To be sure, the Bulgarian and Turkish 
 languages, as now spoken, prevent mutual understanding, even 
 though a number of Turkish words have crept into Bulgarian in 
 the course of the centuries of Turkish rule. These are mostly 
 modern words, however, which did not exist at the time of the 
 Asiatic migrations. On the other hand, a deeper etymological 
 bond is found in the words for both wild and domestic animals, 
 which are very similar in the two languages. In the same way 
 the old stock of words relating to agricultural or pastoral pur- 
 suits are very closely akin in Turkish and Hungarian. An 
 interesting feature of the peopling of Bulgaria is the modern 
 tendency of the Bulgarian to abandon his ancient home in the 
 Balkan mountains and seek the fertile lowlands of the country's 
 main valleys. A steady emigration from mountain to plain has 
 been going on since the Turks u^ithdrew their garrisons from 
 Bulgaria. This movement reflects a sense of security which 
 followed the expulsion of the Turks. It is not yet ended. The 
 fertile basins of southeastern Bulgaria are still sparsely popu- 
 lated. The reason is clear. They were peopled largely by Turks 
 who preferred to retire on Turkish soil after the Balkan wars 
 of 1912-1913. The Bulgarians have not yet had time to occupy 
 the territory abandoned by the Turks. 
 
 After the Turkish conquest Turkish historians, particularly 
 Evlia Tchelebi and Sa'aeddin, constantly refer to the Macedonians 
 as Bulgarians. This belief was held by the Turks until the end 
 of their rule of the province. The first Bulgarian bishop 
 authorized by the Turkish government was appointed for the 
 diocese of Uskub and southern districts. This appointment fol- 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 211 
 
 lowed census-taking in tlie district which indicated Bulgarian 
 predominance. 
 
 In southwestern Macedonia the inhabitants of the districts of 
 Kastoria, Fiorina and Kailar are generally Bulgarians. Even 
 in the Mohammedan villages, as, for example, Grevena and 
 Nedilia, nothing but Bulgarian is heard. The fundamental 
 Bulgarian character of the entire region is furthermore estab- 
 lished by place names which are Bulgarian in spite of secular 
 infiltrations of Greeks, Albanians and Turks. 
 
 This portion of Macedonia along with the Vodena, Yenije- 
 Vardar and Salonica districts which were lately allotted to 
 Greece, constitute an interesting linguistic zone. Here alone, of 
 all Bulgarian-speaking regions, have been preserved forms 
 peculiar to the old Bulgarian language. The speech of the 
 inhabitants of Kastoria in particular reveals antiquated styles 
 which are found only in the first manuscripts prepared for the 
 use of Christian Slavs. 
 
 At the ambassadorial conference of Constantinople in 1876 
 the cazas of Kastoria and Fiorina w^ere included within the 
 boundaries of the proposed autonomous province which was to 
 have Sofia as its capital. The treaty of San Stefano likewise 
 comprised the districts under the new^ly created Bulgaria. These 
 considerations suffice in themselves to demonstrate the Bulgarian 
 nationality of the inhabitants of the present northern confines of 
 Greece. 
 
 The Serbian claim on portions of Macedonia acquired after 
 the Balkan war of 1913 rests largely on a relatively short term 
 of military occupation at the height of the Serbian might in the 
 fourteenth century. This is made the basis of an historical plea. 
 The crowning of Dushan, their most renowned ruler, in the city 
 of Uskub however did not change the national character of the 
 inhabitants of the city or the districts surrounding it. Further- 
 more, Serbian rule in Macedonia was preceded by Bulgarian 
 sovereignty and was followed by Byzantine supremacy over the 
 land. Greeks and Bulgarians may therefore buttress their 
 claims on equally valid historical contentions. Samuel, one of 
 
212 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the Bulgarian Czars, had extended his domain as far west as 
 the Adriatic. His success in adding the seaport of Durazzo to 
 his land, however, failed to change the Serbian nationality of 
 the western districts he managed to conquer. 
 
 Only in recent years have Serbian claims on Macedonia been 
 set forth by Serbian scholars. Historians like Raitch, Solaritch 
 and Vouk Karadjitch formerly concurred in setting southern 
 Serbian frontiers at the Shar mountains. In 1860 Serbian 
 scientific societies had joined in the publication of Macedonian 
 songs collected by Verkovitch under the title of "Bulgarian 
 Songs." Serbian writers of the period around 1870 describe 
 inland inhabitants of Thrace, Rumelia and Macedonia as Bul- 
 garians, while they recognized the coast dwellers as Greeks. ^^ 
 
 A transition dialect between Bulgarian and Serbian is spoken 
 by the inhabitants of the Krajste and Vlasina valleys in eastern 
 Serbia. The Krajste, an ill-known region, skirts the Serbo- 
 Bulgarian boundary and spreads eastward to the basins of Tren 
 and Kustendil. The Vlasina upper valley is known to Serbians 
 as containing the most important peat bog in their country. The 
 two districts are characterized by seasonal migrations of their 
 inhabitants which acquire decided intensity in the Vlasina 
 valley. ^- 
 
 In its westernmost area the delimitation of a Bulgarian 
 linguistic boundary is greatly hampered by the relatively large 
 Serbian-speaking element on the north and a corresponding mass 
 of Greeks on the south. Reliable statistics are still unavailable. 
 Figures supplied by rival nationalist propaganda institutions 
 are for obvious reasons open to suspicion. The region where 
 the determination of this linguistic boundary is most difficult is 
 found in the neighborhood of Pirot and Vrania. Here the lan- 
 guage of the Slavic natives departs equally from the Bulgarian 
 and Serbian. This region, however, lies north of Macedonia 
 proper. At the same time there appears to be little room to 
 
 ^^ L'tcho de la Bulgnrie, Dec. 20, 1914. 
 
 " R. T. Nikoli(?: Krajste i Vlasina, Nasetia SrpsJcikh grmalia, Vol. 8, 1912, 
 pp. 1-380. 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 213 
 
 doubt that the area of Bulgarian speech attains the zone of the 
 eastern Albanian dialects and that it attains the Gulf of Salonica. 
 But the seafaring population of the -^gean coast is largely 
 Greek. 
 
 Salonica itself is by no means a Bulgarian city, but an 
 excellent type of the polylingual cities of the Near East. Out of 
 a population of 160,000 inhabitants, it contains 20,000 Greeks and 
 an equal number of Europeans and Turks respectively. Its 
 Bulgarian population is negligible. The most numerous element 
 is made up of Jews who, it is estimated, constitute about one- 
 half of the population. Next to Constantinople, Salonica is the 
 best harbor in the Balkans. It is coveted by the Bulgarians on 
 the plea that the population of the country environing Salonica 
 is mostly Bulgar. 
 
 The city occupies a dominating position on the -^gean coast 
 halfway between Piraeus and Smyrna and has always been a 
 meeting-point of Europe and Asia. In a sense it is the eastern 
 terminal of continental lines with which it is connected by the 
 railroad w^hich passes through Nish and Uskub. In this light 
 the city may be likened to one of the piles of a gigantic bridge 
 thrown across the ^gean to connect Europe and Asia. It is 
 the natural outlet of the greatest part of Macedonia. ' Inland 
 towns all the way from Ipek, Prizrend and Mitrovitza to 
 Monastir, Ishtip and Serres obtain the goods which they need 
 through Salonica. The products of the fertile valleys of the 
 Vardar and the Bistritza are almost exclusively directed toward 
 this harbor. The exchange of commodities between Salonica and 
 its rearlands reaches a yearly value of about $100,000,000. 
 
 Whatever be the prevailing language spoken in this city, its 
 greatness depends entirely on the degree of freedom with which 
 its inhabitants can maintain trade with the districts extending 
 north and northwest. To maintain its size, or grow, the city 
 must continue to be the receiving point of manufactured goods 
 shipped into Macedonia as well as parts of Serbia and Albania. 
 It must also remain the shipping point for the natural products 
 from those same districts. To separate Macedonia from Salonica, 
 
214, FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 its natural harbor, is to create an unnatural condition. The city- 
 draws its life from the resources of Macedonia. Its prosperity 
 is therefore directly related to the political fate of that country, 
 
 Bulgaria was independent during three different periods of 
 its history. The first kingdom was founded in 679 when 
 Bulgarian bands led by Asparush crossed the Danube and con- 
 quered the Slavs who had previously occupied Bulgaria. Con- 
 quest carried his successors to the very gates of Constantinople. 
 At the end of the ninth century under the reign of Simon, the 
 second Christian ruler of the country, the kingdom comprised all 
 of Hungary, Rumania, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus and Serbia 
 in addition to its present territory. Preslav was its capital. 
 Bulgaria had then an area of 233,300 sq. m. 
 
 The Byzantines conquered Bulgaria in 1018 and maintained 
 their supremacy until 1186. The second kingdom was reestab- 
 lished in that year with Assen I as its sovereign. In the reign 
 of Assen II (1218-1241), Bulgarian territory reached the 
 Adriatic, ^gean and Black seas and the Danube formed its 
 northern frontier. Tirnovo was the capital of the second 
 kingdom. Bulgaria was at that time one of the great European 
 powers. Its area was then 113,100 sq. m. The third kingdom 
 dates from the year 1877. 
 
 Several attempts have been made in the past to create a 
 Bulgaria which would extend as far as the country's language 
 was spoken. Towards the end of 1876 an international confer- 
 ence was held in Constantinople to put an end to the intolerable 
 condition of the Christians inhabiting this portion of the Balkan 
 peninsula. The delegates decided to form two new Turkish 
 provinces, the boundaries of which Avould coincide with the ethno- 
 graphic limit of the Bulgarian people. Sofia and Tirnovo were 
 selected as the chief towns of the new provinces. The Sultan's 
 government succeeded in blocking the execution of this project. 
 War with Russia followed and Russian victories forced Turkey to 
 sign the memorable treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 
 1878. 
 
 The boundary then decided upon was practically identical with 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 215 
 
 that provided by the ambassadorial conference of Constantinople. 
 Bulgaria however obtained in addition a band of territory in 
 Thrace and access to the ^gean through the seaport of Kavalla 
 and the mouth of the Vardar. In exchange, the principality lost 
 the Dobrudja to Rumania and a portion of the sanjak of Nish 
 with the towns of Nish and Leskovatz to Serbia, Russia at San 
 Stefano had, therefore, merely enforced execution of the agree- 
 ment reached jointly by the representatives of European powers. 
 The treaty she imposed on the Porte was from the linguistic 
 standpoint an improvement on the ambassadorial plan elaborated 
 at Constantinople. 
 
 Unfortunately for Bulgaria, the unity of the nation failed to 
 receive the sanction of Europe at the treaty of Berlin in spite 
 of the sound scientific basis on which it was founded. Political 
 and strategical considerations, on the plea of which many inter- 
 national blunders have been committed, prevailed. After this act 
 of injustice Bulgarians organized themselves to reclaim the land 
 of which they had been despoiled. Thirty-five years were spent 
 in preparation. On February 19, 1913, Bulgar guns and bayonets, 
 backed by Bulgar determination, had almost reestablished the 
 national unity for which they had striven. This new effort was 
 not to be crowned with success. Only in the winter of 1914-1915 
 were the Bulgarians able to occupy with their arms the terri- 
 tories of Bulgarian speech w^hich had been allotted to Serbia by 
 the treaty of Bucarest. The permanency of this occupation is, 
 needless to state, subject to international approval. 
 
 The extreme southeastern angle of the Balkan peninsula, east 
 of the Maritza river, is probably the most polyglot region in 
 Europe. The valley of the Maritza is mainly Bulgarian. 
 Numerous colonies of Greeks settled along the coast between the 
 Dardanelles and the Black Sea entrance of the Bosporus ply their 
 trade as fishermen or sailors. The petty coastmse traffic is 
 almost entirely in their hands. The Bulgarians are mainly 
 farmers. Their properties are scattered east to the very walls 
 of the world-metropolis which brings fame to the region. Within 
 Constantinople itself truck gardens are generally owned and 
 
216 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 exploited by Bulgarians. Bulgarian and Greek languages are 
 therefore common in this peninsula extremity of Europe. The 
 latter however is in constant use by most of the inhabitants, 
 whereas Bulgarian is restricted to the Slavic element. 
 
 The Turkish masters of the land were never able to impose 
 their language on the Christian population. Many of the Greek 
 and Bulgarian inhabitants of the region cannot speak a word of 
 Turkish. The fact is particularly observable among Greeks. The 
 language of the conqueror hovers over the land as the medium 
 of administration. Its function ceases then, as far as the 
 Christian element of the region is concerned. The Turkish popu- 
 lation in this bit of the Balkan peninsula is numerous, owing to 
 the attraction exerted by the capital. Reliable census figures are 
 unavailable. Thanks to the presence of a strong garrison and a 
 host of civil-service officials the Turkish population of Constan- 
 tinople, added to the Turks remaining in the strip of European 
 Turkey still owned by the Sultan after the treaty of Bucarest 
 of 1913, probably musters as many individuals as those to whom 
 Greek is vernacular. An important Armenian colony is centered 
 at Constantinople and radiates in settlements without the capital. 
 These Christians also have held fast to their native speech, 
 although most of them can claim proficiency in Turkish. This 
 familiarity with the language of their conquerors betrays their 
 Asiatic origin, in contrast with the ignorance of Turkish found 
 among the Greeks, who never forget their European affinities. 
 
 In Europe the Turk, child of the ungrateful Asiatic steppe- 
 land, has always been the heartily despised intruder. He has 
 shown himself incompetent to follow up the task of conquest by 
 assimilating the peoples he subdued. Perhaps his lack of 
 national ideals lies at the root of his failure. The language he 
 imposed on his Christian subjects never replaced their vernacular. 
 It was spoken only by the males of the subdued populations. 
 Only in rare instances did it penetrate within their households. 
 Hence, Turks never felt at home in Europe. They knew that 
 their nomad's tent was pitched only for a while on the continent 
 in which they sojourned as conquerors and as strangers. They 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 217 
 
 were emigrants who had lost all memory of their land of origin 
 and who nevertheless could not adapt themselves to the land 
 which their bravery had won. The state they founded had a weak 
 head and no heart whatever. Under these conditions the expul- 
 sion of Turks from Europe could always be foreseen in spite of 
 the weary years it took to accomplish it. 
 
 Every boundary revision that marks the successive shrinking 
 of Turkish territory in Europe has been attended by wholesale 
 emigration of Mohammedans from lands reclaimed by Christians. 
 Immediately after the Balkan wars of 1913 about 50,000 Turks 
 voluntarily departed for Asia Minor from territory allotted to 
 Greece. An equal number left sections of Macedonia taken over 
 by Serbia, while about 25,000 abandoned land annexed by 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 The historical fact is that Turks have never consented to live 
 in a land governed by Christians. In 1882 Thessaly was annexed 
 to Greece by a decision of European powers. No armed conflict 
 between Greece and Turkey took place on that occasion and 
 racial hatred had not been increased by the horrors of war. The 
 Greek government at that time offered special inducements to the 
 Turkish inhabitants of the ceded territory to remain on their 
 land and continue their agricultural pursuits. The Turks, how- 
 ever, preferred to emigrate to the Sultan's domain. 
 
 When Crete was awarded to Greece over 50,000 of the 80,000 
 Turkish inhabitants of the island abandoned their homes and 
 decided to settle in Asiatic Turkey. This exodus took place in 
 spite of the perfect security of life and property that had pre- 
 vailed in the island since its administration was taken over by 
 a committee of Europeans in 1877. This tendency of Turks to 
 forsake Christian countries is observable even in Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina, where the Austrian government has shown decided 
 favor toward Mohammedan inhabitants, considering them more 
 loyal than other elements of its southeastern population. 
 
 The Turk's last stand in Europe marks the final stage of 
 his colossal struggle to retain mastery over the Dardanelles and 
 Bosporus to which the highways of Europe and Asia lead. The 
 
218 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Bosporus is tiie junctiou of two important world routes. Que of 
 these conuects the peoples of central Europe with the crowded 
 settlements of British India. The other is the line of communi- 
 cation between the commercial ports of the Mediterranean and 
 the caravan terminals on the Black !Sea coast. Each of these 
 highways has constituted a channel through which the trade 
 between eastern and western lands has been directed from the 
 very beginnings of commerce. The narrowness of this Eurasian 
 waterway permitted continuous travel between two continents, 
 while the straits allowed uninterrupted maritime travel from 
 Black Sea harbors to distant seaports of the western world. 
 Modern railway communications have benefited by the former 
 circumstance. The sea commerce of medieval days thrived on 
 the latter. 
 
 The entire European coast of the elongated waterways which 
 connect the ^gean and Black seas is inhabited by peoples 
 speaking languages each of which symbolizes conflicting aims and 
 aspirations without being strong enough to silence its rivals. 
 From the political standpoint the linguistic factor appears to be 
 of slight value in this case. Economic needs, to the exclusion 
 of other considerations, will probably determine the destiny of 
 this region. 
 
 The relation of a region to the world depends in general upon 
 its economic value. The importance of this southeasterly strip 
 of the Balkan peninsula is therefore affected by its central 
 location with reference to the continents of Europe, Asia and 
 Africa. Between Paris and Bagdad, or the Cape of Good Hope, 
 the overland route is continuous save for a short mile of water 
 at the Bosporus and an equally insignificant crossing at the 
 Isthmus of Suez, in the case of African travel. Herein lies the 
 economic relation of this portion of the Balkan peninsula to the 
 rest of the world. But the European coastland of the inter- 
 continental strait separating Europe from Asia does not consti- 
 tute a complete region. The Asiatic coast of the waterways must 
 be taken with the European and a single district formed out of 
 the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosporus with 
 
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA 219 
 
 their coasts and shores. This region is the threshold of Asia 
 and conversely the entrance to Europe from the east. 
 
 A Balkan zone of depression extending west and south of the 
 Balkan uplift affords natural access between the valley of the 
 Danube proceeding from the heart of Europe and the Dardanelles- 
 Bosporus passage. This convenient gap is provided by the wide 
 valley of the Morava and the narrower Nishava course which 
 lead to the Sofia basin, whence penetration into the Thracian 
 plains is obtained by the Maritza valley. The corresponding 
 function for the Asiatic shore is performed by the valley of the 
 Sakaria and in a less degree by the Pursak river depression — 
 both trending westward from the high plateau of western Asia. 
 
 The main roads from the Bosporus and the Dardanelles to 
 the Sakaria river valley skirt the shores of the straits of the 
 Marmora, as they follow a coastal lowland which fringes the Dar- 
 danian and Bithynian heights. At Panderma however the old 
 highway strikes inland slightly south of east to Brusa in 
 order to avoid the elevated plateau intervening between the 
 Marmora and Lake AbuUonia. Thence, still following a line of 
 least elevation, it winds towards the small harbor of Ghemlik 
 (the Cius of Graeco-Eoman times) until beyond Isnik (ancient 
 Nicaea of ecclesiastical fame) it debouches into the waters of the 
 Sakaria. 
 
 These natural features connect the heart of Europe with the 
 high plateaus of western and central Asia as well as with the 
 fertile Mesopotamian lowland and the Indian peninsulas. The 
 silk sent to Europe from eastern Asia in medieval days followed 
 this road. The route has declined since the construction of the 
 Suez waterway. Railway lines planned to connect Channel ports 
 with the Gulf of Persia will restore the commercial value of the 
 region. The value of the Bosporus as an avenue of trade 
 remains unimpaired in modern days. It is the only maritime 
 outlet for the export of the cereals and farm products of southern 
 Russia and the oil of the Caucasus. 
 
 Hence the commercial importance of Constantinople. The 
 city is a huge caravanserai — the meeting place of traders from 
 
220 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the world's remotest corners. Control of its commanding posi- 
 tion is coveted by every nation whose citizens depend on industry 
 and trade for their welfare. The commerce of three continents 
 lies within its grasp. The political status of the extreme south- 
 eastern corner of the Balkan peninsula, together with that of the 
 extreme northwestern corner of Asia Minor, therefore affects 
 the interests of the entire community of European nations. 
 
 We have in this a factor which may exert greater weight than 
 language in the eventual formation of an independent political 
 unit comprising the elongated zone of coastland inclosing the 
 Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosporus. A con- 
 venient boundary for this territory in the Balkans might start 
 at the Gulf of Saros and, coinciding thence with the heights 
 overlooking Eodosto, might reach the course of the Chorlu. 
 From here to the Black Sea coast the administrative boundary 
 of the vilayet of Constantinople might be converted into an inter- 
 national frontier. This delimitation would leave the valley of 
 the Maritza in Bulgarian hands. This award is justifiable not 
 because the beauty of the river banks is proclaimed in the Bul- 
 garian national hymn, but rather on the grounds of Bulgarian 
 linguistic preponderance in this valley. Substantial coincidence 
 between Bulgarian political and linguistic boundaries on the 
 southeast would then have been obtained.^^ 
 
 *' On the Asiatic side the valley of the Sakaria and a long fault revealed by the 
 line of lakes east of the Marmora provide ready-made frontiers which could be con- 
 veniently extended to the Gulf of Adramyt on the ^gean. This line constituted the 
 Asiatic boundary of the Latin Empire of Constantinople in the period intervening 
 between the years 1204 and 1261. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 
 
 Turkey, by virtue of position, has always stood closely related 
 to every section of the European mainland. The country's fate 
 has affected the destiny of every European nation. The modern 
 importance of Turkish affairs in European international prob- 
 lems is a measure of the extensive influence of the Near East 
 over Europe. A study of European nationalities cannot there- 
 fore be complete without reference to the empire of Turkish 
 Sultans. 
 
 A strong contrast constantly engages attention in the history 
 of Ottoman lands. Of old, the world's highest civilizations, its 
 purest religions, arose ^\ithin their confines. In modern days 
 decadence on the heels of a steady recessional marks their lot. 
 The explanation usually advanced is that Mohammedanism has 
 impeded Turkish progress. But this religion was no obstacle 
 to cultural growth in the countries surrounding Turkey. In 
 Egypt, as in Arabia, Persia and northern India, the thought of 
 the natives grew to splendid maturity. The intellectual life of 
 these Mohammedan countries is altogether beyond the grasp 
 of the Turkish mind. 
 
 The foundation of Turkey's weakness as a nation and the 
 failure of the cause of civilization within its boundaries lie in 
 the country's situation. The land staggers under the load of mis- 
 fortune which its central position in the eastern hemisphere has 
 heaped upon it. Its native populations have never been able to 
 develop freely. The country is an open road alongside or at the 
 ends of which nationalities have blossomed. It has been the prey 
 of invaders by which it has been overrun. The Turks find them- 
 selves on this land today because they are descendants of 
 wanderers. They have occupied the road because they ignored 
 
 221 
 
222 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the ways of stepping off its path. Having come in numbers 
 sufhciently strong, they managed to subdue the original inhabi- 
 tants, who in their groping for the higher life had given the 
 world a number of great conceptions in learning, art and religion. 
 But hardly had the easterners occupied the road before the 
 process of clearing it began. 
 
 Turkey has been a highway of commerce and civilization 
 between Europe on the one hand and Asia and Africa on the 
 other. The history of this country and of its inhabitants cannot 
 be understood unless one is thoroughly impressed by this funda- 
 mental fact. On the east the Persian Gulf followed by the 
 Mesopotamian valley, its natural prolongation, formed a con- 
 venient channel for the northwesterly spread of human inter- 
 course. To the west, land travel between Europe and Africa 
 drained into the Syrian furrow. Both of these natural grooves 
 led to the passes which carried the traveler into Asia Minor. 
 The peninsula therefore was both an important center 
 of human dispersal and a meeting place for men of all 
 nations. 
 
 The through roads converging into Turkish territory are 
 probably the oldest commercial routes of the world. At any rate 
 they connected the sites on which the most ancient civilizations 
 rose. The remotest past to which the history of humanity carries 
 lis centers around the large river valleys of the tropical and 
 subtropical zone in the eastern hemisphere. The banks of the 
 Nile, of the Euphrates, of the Indian rivers, or of the broad 
 watercourses in Chinese lowlands were nurseries of human 
 culture. Abundance of water, together with a profuse flora and 
 fauna, gave early man ease of life. Hunters, fishermen and 
 shepherds were naturally converted into farmers. A short wait 
 and the seeds they planted would grow to maturity -without 
 exacting other attention than the preliminary act of sowing. The 
 life men led afforded time for thought. Curiosity was awakened 
 regarding lands beyond. Ample provision of natural products 
 furnished them with stocks available for barter. These condi- 
 tions favored the development of commerce and stimulated the 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 223 
 
 creation of trade routes, which were coveted by many as they 
 became more and more trodden. 
 
 Between Europe and Asia the great movements of peoples 
 have followed two parallel directions north or south of the central 
 belt of high Eurasian mountains extending from east to west. 
 Men have traveled back and forth in these two lines from the 
 earliest known period. But exchange of ideas has been prac- 
 tically confined to the southern avenue. In the cold of the 
 Siberian or northern European lowlands men had little oppor- 
 tunity to acquire refinement. They were active and energetic, 
 while the followers of the southern pathways were thinkers. 
 
 •From the dawn of history to our day only two departures of 
 importance have taken place from this east-west traffic. Both 
 were modern events. One occurred in the middle of the fifteenth 
 century as soon as the Turks acquired mastery of western Asia 
 and the Balkan peninsula. The Christian sailor-trader of that 
 time was then obliged to circumnavigate Africa in order to reach 
 eastern seaports. The other change took place when the Suez 
 Canal was completed. This waterway diverted to its channel 
 much of the overland Asiatic traffic routed between the Black Sea 
 and the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean. But even these two 
 diversions failed to eliminate entirely the picturesque caravans 
 which plied over Turkish roads. Thus it may be assumed that 
 these routes have been used uninterruptedly for about 10,000 
 years at least, that is to say, before the time in which their 
 known history begins. 
 
 The southeastern portal of these celebrated highways is 
 situated at the head of the Persian Gulf. The broad Tigris and 
 Euphrates thence mark the northerly extension of the routes. 
 On the western river, the natural road leaves the valley above 
 Mosul and penetrates into the Armenian highland through the 
 gorges in the neighborhood of Diarbekir. The very name Mosul, 
 a contraction of the Greek "Mesopylae" or Central Gates, sug- 
 gests its origin. The city grew at the meeting point of routes 
 from the Caspian, Black and Mediterranean seas and from the 
 Persian Gulf. The through highway links once more with the 
 
224 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Euphrates in its upper reaches around Keban Maden in order to 
 reach the Anatolian plateau. The passes are precipitous and the 
 waters flow southward closely hemmed in by steep and rocky 
 barriers. Access to the billowy surface of Armenian mountain 
 lands is obtained by means of either the Murad Su or the Kara Su. 
 The union of these two rivers into the single watercourse known 
 as the Euphrates at a short distance above Keban Maden has 
 at all times attracted much of the trajBQc and travel between 
 Armenia and Mesopotamia. The eastern affluents of the Tigris 
 south of Lake Van, on the other hand, reach the uplifted core 
 of Armenia where they are lost in the tangle of steep valleys 
 and deeply broken surfaces. 
 
 Because it is a region of water dispersal, Armenia is also 
 the gathering-site of the heads of outflowing watercourses. If 
 the distance at the divide between the uppermost reaches of two 
 divergent watercourses be short, it is hardly a barrier to human 
 intercourse. This condition prevails in the uppermost reaches of 
 the Euphrates and of the Aras. The important town of Erzerum 
 is the symbol of this union. Within its walled area the traffic 
 of the central plateaus of Asia joined with Mesopotamian or 
 Black Sea and Mediterranean freight, after having followed the 
 easterly approach to Turkey through Tabriz and the southern 
 affluents of the Aras, north of Urmiah Lake. Through this 
 eastern avenue of penetration Asiatic peoples and products have 
 been dumped century after century into Turkish territory. 
 
 The valley of the Euphrates, rather than that of the Tigris, 
 is therefore the main artery of communication between north and 
 south in eastern Turkey. It is the avenue through which the 
 ideas of Iran came into contact with Semitic thought. But the 
 uniting influence of the great river was far from being exerted 
 on Oriental peoples alone. In its broad southern course, the 
 river provided ancient merchants with a short-cut which greatly 
 facilitated land travel between the ^gean or Mediterranean and 
 the Persian Gulf. Another city, Aleppo, is the geographical 
 monument which grew with the increase of travel in this stretch 
 of the Euphrates or declined as the channel became less and less 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 225 
 
 frequented.. It is the western counterpart of Mosul in the sense 
 that it also is a point of convergence for routes proceeding from 
 every quarter of the compass. 
 
 The chief Turkish route leaves the Euphrates at the angular 
 bend near Meskeneh. A two-days' journey across the desert 
 brought the traveler to Aleppo. Beyond, the ancient road hugged 
 the shores of the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean and, 
 passing over the dull gray of the broad Cilician plain, headed 
 for the huge cleft in the limestones of the Taurus, known as the 
 Cilician Gates. Past this breach it is the plateau of Anatolia — 
 a region whose physical isolation has always influenced the life 
 of its inhabitants. Today, south of the Cilician Gates, the land 
 is Arabian in speech and Semitic in thought, while in the country 
 to the north the prevailing language is Turkish, which differs 
 from the refinement of Arabian as markedly as the crudity of 
 the Turkish mind differs from the intellectuality of the Arabian. 
 
 Thus through mountain tract and mountain trough the east 
 found its way into the Anatolian plateau. Conversely the west 
 made several successful scalings of its slopes. The valleys lead- 
 ing westward into the ^gean or northward into the Black Sea 
 acted as breaches which facilitated human travel. Among these 
 the Meander, Gediz and Sakaria are noteworthy. The '^Eoyal 
 Road" of the Persian period connected Ephesus with Susa by 
 way of the Cilician Gates. It is described by Herodotus. Official 
 despatch-bearers traveled over it in the fulfilment of their mis- 
 sions. Ramsay places this road north of the desert center of 
 Asia Minor ^ and considers the southern route as the highway of 
 the Graeco-Roman period. This last road is the shortest and 
 easiest between j^Egean ports and the Cilician Gates. 
 
 The history of inland Asia Minor is the record of travel over 
 the network of the region's roads. Its chief events consist of 
 military marches and trade travels. Urban life on this section 
 of the peninsula had its origin in caravan halts. The cities of 
 inner Anatolia represent successive stages of east-west travel. 
 
 *The Historical Geography of Asia Minor, Roy. Geogr. 8oc. Svppl. Papers, Vol. 4, 
 1900, p. 27. 
 
226 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Their alignment serves to trace the course of the road. To our 
 o^^^l day this part of Turkey has not been a land of settlement. 
 
 In the southeastern half of Turkey human life has also been 
 confined to highway regions. This part of the world is known to 
 us as Syria or Mesopotamia. Both are depressed regions — 
 channels of human flow^ — ^bordering the western and eastern sides 
 of the Great Syrian desert which, wedge-like, interposes its 
 shifting solitude of sand between the two as far as the foothills 
 of the mountains on the north. West of Syria lies the Mediter- 
 ranean; east of Mesopotamia the mountains of Persia. With 
 such a pattern of land carving, it w^as natural that life and 
 activity should have gathered in the precise regions where the 
 historian finds them. 
 
 A dominant fact recurs in every stage of the region's history. 
 Turkey is so placed that its possession is the goal of every nation 
 which has risen to eminence in or around Turkish lands. Its 
 control ushers in a period of great prosperity in every instance. 
 Trade flows freely in the highways, carrying prosperity in its 
 wake. The energy of the fortunate nation is spent to maintain 
 the economic advantages secured. The loss of the highway zone 
 is accompanied by national decline. A new nation rises and 
 obtains the mastery of the road, and the cycle is repeated. The 
 western Asiatic highway may aptly be named a highway of 
 wealth or of misfortune. 
 
 At the beginning of the first pre-Christian millennium the 
 struggle for the possession of this highway was as keen and 
 sanguinary as it is at present. The empires of the Nile and 
 Mesopotamian basins, of the Syrian strip and of the Hittite 
 mountain lands mustered the flower of their manhood in yearly 
 arrays for the purpose of seizing or guarding the great arteries 
 of west Asiatic traffic. The short-lived prosperity of the Jewish 
 empire, at the time of Solomon, was attained immediately after 
 the country's boundaries extended from the Eed Sea and the 
 Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. Judea grew to splendor by 
 becoming sole mistress of the international routes which trav- 
 ersed Syria and Mesopotamia. Her greatness- was transmitted 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 227 
 
 to Assyria -with the loss of the land routes to that same empire 
 in the eighth century b.c. A hundred years later the Chaldeans 
 obtained possession of the highways. It is now their turn to 
 impose their will on neighboring nations. Another century slips 
 by and with it the greatness of Semitic states. In the east, men 
 of Aryan speech, mostly Persians, have begun to value the 
 present Turkish land routes. In 560 b.c. Cyrus is at the head of 
 cohorts which soon after give him mastery of Turkish Asia from 
 the ^gean to the Persian Gulf. To this conquest Darius adds 
 Egypt and India. 
 
 All these events center around one of the greatest struggles 
 ever fought between men. It is the conflict between Europeans 
 and Asiatics immortalized in Hellenic literature, — the clash 
 between two continents, each battling for the exclusive control of 
 the highway connecting them. The contestants met on this 
 Turkish highway, they fought over its plains and defiles, and 
 battled for its possession in the realization that the economic 
 prosperity upon which national wealth and greatness rest could 
 be secured only by its conquest. 
 
 A significant fact of the celebrated struggle is revealed by the 
 inability of the Greeks to conquer the Persians. They defeated 
 them and checked their westerly advance. The ^gean and 
 Eurasian waterways of Turkey proved an impassable moat to 
 the Persian invaders. As long as the Persians retained control 
 of the highways the menace of their brutal despotism faced the 
 liberal spirit of the Greeks. The danger was dispelled by 
 Alexander's conquest of the highway. No better instance of the 
 power vested in the effective hold of these lines of communication 
 between the east and west can be found. 
 
 All the history of Turkish lands is conditioned by their 
 location on the map. The region has occupied a conspicuous 
 position on the stage of world events since the earliest known 
 times. Faint rays of prehistoric light reveal it as the bridge 
 over which the race of round-headed men crossed into Europe 
 from Asia. During antiquity we find it to be the original seat 
 of civilizations which radiate outward in every direction. In 
 
228 laiONTlERS OF J.ANdUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 iiiedioval limes it is the great liali'-way station ol' the main artery 
 oi" world trade. We know of it in modern days as the center of 
 a mighty international struggle i'amiliarly known as the Eastern 
 (Question. 
 
 A world relation of such an enduring character must obviously 
 rest on exceedingly (ii-m foundations. A search for its causes 
 leads us straight into tlie held of geography. Three elements, 
 nanu'ly, those ol" position, form and natural resources are pri- 
 marily accountable for the extraordinary interest which Turkey 
 has always awakened. The region is the Asiatic extension of 
 Mediterranean lands nestling against the great central mountain 
 mass of Asia. Jt is sharply separated from the rest of the 
 continent by a mountain wall which extends continuously from 
 the Black Sea to the Persian (Julf and is made up of the 
 Armenian and Zngros ranges. It is a peninsula, itself formed by 
 two distinct peninsulas, and one of the unit divisions of the 
 Asiatic continent in the sense that it is the only part of the entire 
 Asiatic continent subject to Mediterranean climatic influences. 
 
 15y x^osition first, at the junction of three continents and 
 ilierefore on the main field of history; secondly, as the site of 
 convergence of the main avenues of continental travel and, 
 thirdly, by its situation in one of the two regions in which 
 clinuitic conditions proved most favorable for the early develop- 
 ment of humanity, Turkey, at first glance, appears to have been 
 eminently favored by nature. These advantages made it the 
 meeting place of races which are generally associated with the 
 three continents which the country unites. Aryan, Tatar and 
 Semitic peoples therefore are strongly represented in the land. 
 
 In considering Turkey as the meeting place of three continents 
 it is necessary that we should conline our conception of this fact 
 to the strictly literal sense of the term. The country is a 
 meeting place and nothing more. It has never been a transition 
 zone physically and, as a consequence, there has been very little 
 mingling of the different elements in its population. The very 
 shape of the land prevents fusion of the inhabitants into a single 
 people. The interior upland rises abruptly tibove a narrow 
 
THE GEOGllAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 229 
 
 i'ririge oi" coastal lowland. It.s suri'aco features, cousistiug partly 
 oi" deserts and saline lakes, recall the typical aspect oi' central 
 Asia. On the other hand, the rich vegetation of tli(; maritime 
 fringe reflects Eurofjean characteristics. No better relic of Asia 
 Minor's former land connection with Eurojio exists than this strip 
 of the west soldered to the eastern continent. i>ut the physical 
 union is clean-cut and, as a result, the change from the low-lying 
 garniture of green scenery to the bare tracts of the ux>lands is 
 sharp. These features make of Turkey a land of strange con- 
 trasts. Its coasts are washed by the waters of half a dozen seas 
 and yet in places a journey of barely twenty-five miles from the 
 shore lands the traveler squarely in the midst of a continental 
 district. 
 
 So diversified a country could not be the land of patriotism, 
 and as we pick up the thread of its troubled history we find a 
 woeful absence of this spirit. In Byzantine times as in Ottoman 
 a selfish bias towards local interests, a parochial attachment of 
 the sordid tyj-je, pervades its population. A medley of peoples, 
 each filling its particular geographical frame and animated by 
 widely divergent ideals, are constantly engaged in looking abroad 
 rather than toward the land for the attainment of their hopes. 
 Nature fostered this condition. CWimunications between the 
 different regions have always been difficult. From the narrow 
 fringe of coastland to the interior plateau the ascent is steep. 
 More than that the maritime dweller of the lowland dreaded the 
 total lack of comfort which he knew awaited him on the arid 
 highland. Conversely the indolent inhabitant of this elevated 
 district realized that were he to settle near the coast he could 
 not compete successfully with the more active seafarers. As time 
 went on the coastal peoples — mainly Greeks — accustomed them- 
 selves to look beyond the sea for intercourse with the outside 
 world while the Turkish tenants of the interior land still kejit in 
 their mind's eye the vast Asiatic background out of which they 
 had emerged. 
 
 In the same way the imposing barrier of the Taurus prevented 
 contact between the occupants of the districts lying north and 
 
230 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 south of the mountain. The significance of this range to 
 Europeans cannot be overestimated. The mountain has proved to 
 be the chief obstacle to the northward spread of Semitic peoples 
 and their civilizations. Successive waves of southern invaders, 
 invariably of Semitic descent whether highly civilized or drawn 
 from tribes of savages, spent themselves in vain dashes against 
 the rocky slopes. The fact is verified historically whether we 
 consider the failure of Assyrians in antiquity, of the Saracens 
 during Middle Ages, or of the Egyptians and Arabs led by 
 Mehemet Ali in modern days. At present the linguistic boundary 
 between Turkish and Arabic occurs in this mountain chain and 
 Hogarth has expressed the fact in a realistic phrase by stating 
 that, at an elevation of about 2,000 ft., the Arabic speech is 
 chilled to silence. 
 
 To come back to the factor of Turkey 's geographical position, 
 we find that while this feature has generated an attracting force 
 the shape of the land, on the other hand, promoted a constantly 
 repellent action. We have in this situation a remarkable conflict 
 which has exerted itself to the detriment of the inhabitants. The 
 centripetal action of position w^as always reduced to a minimum 
 by the centrifugal effects of form. The mountainous core made 
 up by the Anatolian table-land and the western highland of 
 Armenia was a center of dispersal of waters, and hence to a large 
 degree of peoples. Furthermore, however much the land was a 
 single unit with reference to the broad divisions of Asia, the 
 fact remains that it was greatly subdivided within itself. The 
 six main compartments into which it may be laid off have fos- 
 tered totally divergent civilizations. All of these conditions 
 were fundamentally fatal to the formation of nationality. They 
 only favored intercontinental travel and trade. In this respect 
 the country has been of the highest importance in the history of 
 the eastern hemisphere, and at present commands world-wide 
 attention. 
 
 In only one respect did position and form operate har- 
 moniously. Both agencies combined to create Turkey's relation 
 with the world beyond its borders. This relation was facilitated 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 231 
 
 by the admirable set of natural routes wliicli led in and out of 
 the country. Beginning with the broad band of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, land and water routes succeed each other in close 
 sequence. The inland sea itself is prolonged through the ^gean 
 and the Turkish straits into the Black Sea, the shores of which 
 are closely dotted mth the terminals of great avenues from 
 northeastern Europe, as well as all of northern and central 
 Asia. On the European mainland, the far-reaching Danube has 
 an outlet into Turkey through the Morava-Maritza valleys in 
 addition to its own natural termination. The Dnieper valley 
 plays an exceedingly important share in connecting Turkey to 
 northern lands. To the east the trough-like recesses in the folds 
 of the mountains of Armenia and Kurdistan lead to the great 
 Tabriz gate beyond which the Persian Gulf affords sea travel to 
 centers of civilization of the monsoon lands or westward to the 
 African coast. Land connection with this continent also exists 
 in the rift valley of Syria where the beginning of the African 
 rift system is found. Through the occurrence of all these 
 channels of penetration the history of Turkey finds place as a 
 special chapter in the history of the world's great nations. A 
 greater share of responsibility falls on the land for this relation 
 than on the Turks themselves. 
 
 The world relation of Turkish lands antedates, however, the 
 coming of the Turks by many a century. Problems summarized 
 in the familiar term Eastern Question have their origin in the 
 existence of the narrow waterways consisting of the Dardanelles, 
 Marmora and Bosporus. This water gap has exerted profound 
 influence in shaping the relation of Turkish territory to the out- 
 side world. The Eastern Question is as old as the history of 
 civilization on this particular spot of the inhabited world. It 
 could not be otherwise because, fundamentally, this momentous 
 international problem is merely that of determining which people 
 or nation shall control the strait. Who shall gather toll from 
 the enormous transit trade of the region? This is the economic 
 problem which has always deeply agitated the leading commer- 
 cial nations of the world. Its continuity is a proof of its 
 
232 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 geographical character. As long as these straits exist at the 
 point of nearest convergence of the Balkan and Anatolian 
 peninsulas, identical problems are bound to recur on their site. 
 Beneath the shifting scenes of human events the abiding stage 
 persists in directing them into its own channels. 
 
 Accordingly as early as in late Minoan times and surely in 
 full Mycenean period, some fifteen hundred or two thousand 
 years before our era, we find the Eastern Question already vexing 
 the world. It centers first around Troy, because the city com- 
 manded the southwestern outlet of the straits and played the 
 same leading part in the history of its day as Constantinople has 
 played since then. The shifting of the site to the northeastern 
 end of the waterway represents the gradual spread of Hellenic 
 influence in northeastern maritime territory. 
 
 We can only come to an adequate conception of the role of 
 Troy in history by a clear understanding of the value of its site. 
 The city was a toll-station. Its citizens accumulated wealth in 
 the manner in which the burghers of Byzantium laid the founda- 
 tions of their vast fortunes. Schliemann's excavations brought to 
 light amazing treasures of precious metals and jewelry. These 
 riches may well be regarded as the price paid for the right of 
 the passage of vessels and their freight through the straits. Nor 
 is it strange to find that coincident with the decline of the 
 Homeric city, the earliest mention of Byzantium, its successor, 
 appears. Consistently with this method of viewing Trojan his- 
 tory it becomes possible to reach a rational understanding of 
 Homer's classic epic as the account of a secular struggle for the 
 possession of an eminently profitable site.^ The testimony of 
 history on the number of sieges which Constantinople has under- 
 gone is at least precise, although no literary masterpiece sheds 
 lustre on the events. It is impossible to escape from the 
 parallelism in the histories of Byzantium and Troy simply 
 because the geographical background of both sites is similar in 
 every respect. In the case of Troy, it meant convenient access 
 to the Pontine rearland, probably the first El Dorado recorded 
 
 •W. Leaf: Troy, A Study in Homeric Geography, London, 1912. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OE TURKEY 233 
 
 by history^-tlie land of fabulous treasures, in search of which 
 the Argonautic expeditions were equipped. With Byzantium, it 
 meant access to the luxuries which Asia could supply as far as 
 the Pacific. 
 
 So much for the antiquity of the Eastern Question. Passing 
 to another phase of Turkey's world relation we find that the 
 land's influence has even affected the discovery of America. We 
 now stand on the threshold of modern history and deal with a 
 broad economic problem which affected late medieval commerce 
 and which is an ever recurrent theme in that splendid period of 
 active human enterprise known as the Age of Discovery. The 
 dominant idea of the day was to find means of facilitating east- 
 west trade in the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 From earliest times commercial relations between the land of 
 Cathay and Europe had been one-sided. The east sold and the 
 west purchased. There was very little exchange. The products 
 which came from the east could all be classed as luxuries. They 
 constituted freight of small volume such as precious stones, fine 
 woods, essence and spices, the value of which generally ran high. 
 These commodities had been shipped to Europe for about two 
 millenniums prior to the fourteenth century of our era. Overland 
 the caravans plowed their way across the southern expanse of 
 Russia's interminable steppeland and penetrated finally into the 
 plateaus of Iran and Anatolia. Their home stretch lay in 
 Turkey. By sea the traders were accustomed to end their 
 journeys at the head of the Persian Gulf, whence the valuable 
 wares would be shipped farther west via Mesopotamia. In this 
 case again the home stretch is found on Turkish soil. It was not 
 until about the end of the fourth century b.c. when the Egyptian 
 hamlet of Rhaecotis changed its name into that of Alexandria, 
 , that this sea route was extended into the Red Sea and Mediter- 
 ranean. At this time the vision of acquiring wealth through the 
 eastern trade began to dawn on the minds of the inhabitants of 
 the Mediterranean seaboard. Many centuries were to elapse, 
 however, before westerners realized that fortunes could be made 
 by venturing into eastern fields. The profits and the splendor 
 
234 FKON TIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of the eastern trade were popularized by Cliristendom when the 
 accounts of Marco Polo and the friar travelers of his time 
 became available. Then the ambition of every adventurous 
 merchant was to act as middleman in the trade with Cathay. 
 
 The bulk of the east-west trade in medieval time flowed 
 through the same two main arteries. The northern land route 
 from China through central Asia passed through the Tabriz and 
 lilrzerum gates and ended at Trcbizond, the rest of the journey 
 being made by sea through the Bosporus-Dardanelles passage. 
 The southerly course was an all-water route from the sea of 
 China to the Mediterranean. 
 
 The incentive to reduce cost of transportation was as strong 
 in those days as it is at present. The northern route being 
 mainly overland was a source of incessant worry to the trader. 
 The unrest which followed the appearance of Mohanmiedanism, 
 the reluctance of the adherents of Islam to deal with infidels, 
 rendered commerce more and more risky. Transportation by 
 land was slower and less profitable than by sea, as it is now. 
 Caravans could not avoid brigands as easily as ships could 
 escape pirates. It was not only a case of argosies reaching port 
 but also of camels escaping highwaymen. In addition, duties had 
 to be paid at four or five different points of transshipment. If 
 we examine the pepper and ginger trade alone — the supply of 
 both of which came from the east — we find that from Calicut, the 
 great emporium of trade on the Malabar coast, these spices were 
 carried by the Arabs to Jiddali and thence to Tor, on the 
 Sinaitic peninsula. Overland journeys began at the last point 
 and extended to Cairo. From the city a river journey on the Nile 
 to Eosetta followed, after which the freight was packed on 
 camels and sent to Alexandria. All these conditions made for 
 the increase of cost of the eastern wares which were supplied to 
 Europe. 
 
 AVith the cost of eastern commodities rising higher and 
 higher, as land transportation became more and more hazardous, 
 the minds of navigators naturally turned to the possibility of 
 discovering a sea-way to India and Cathay. The discovery of 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 235 
 
 America in the course of these endeavors to lower prevailing 
 freight rates was an inevitable consequence of economic condi- 
 tions. The chief point of interest resides in the fact that the 
 discovery which immortalized Columbus' name was accelerated 
 by fully half a century through the falling of Constantinople into 
 the hands of the Turks in 1453. 
 
 The capture of the Byzantine capital came as the death-blow 
 to an already declining commercial intercourse. Henceforth the 
 Moslem was to stand guard at the western gate through which 
 east-to-west intercontinental trade had passed; and there seemed 
 to be no doubt that he was firmly resolved to prevent the 
 Christian from traveling back and forth through his dominions. 
 It meant the definite closing of the western gate to eastern com- 
 merce. The first evil effects of the Turkish conquest were felt 
 by the Venetians and Genoese. The Venetians especially incurred 
 the wrath of Mohammed the Conqueror on account of the aid 
 they had rendered to the beleaguered capital. Greater leniency 
 was shown by the Turks to the Genoese, who had refrained from 
 open manifestations of sympathy with the Byzantines, 
 
 The Sultans themselves as well as their ministers were willing 
 to foster the trade which traversed their lands. It left a share 
 of its proceeds in the Turkish treasury. As a matter of fact, 
 commerce between Turkish lands under Mohammedan rule and 
 the west existed only because of the income it brought to the 
 Turkish government. But the Turk could not compete success- 
 fully with the Christian in the markets of the world and this 
 proved a barrier to commerce. The significance of the Turkish 
 conquest of the Byzantine Empire is to be found therefore in 
 the fact that it practically cut off land communications between 
 western Europe and eastern Asia. Incentive to western 
 exploration was intensified. Before the fall of Constantinople 
 the discovery of a western sea route to the east was regarded 
 as highly desirable. It now became a necessity. 
 
 The possibility of reaching the Far East by a voyage through 
 the pillars of Hercules had suggested itself to the active intellect 
 of the Greeks and Romans, yet the incentive to undertake 
 
236 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 exploration did not acquire intensity until the latter half of the 
 fifteenth century. The Turkish advance into western Asia came, 
 therefore, as a shock whose impact forced trade out of the 
 Mediterranean through the straits of Gibraltar into the wide 
 Atlantic. 
 
 But there was another important result of the Turk's con- 
 quests in the Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas. The diversion 
 of the eastern trade from European land routes into sea lanes 
 impoverished the German-speaking inhabitants dependent on the 
 Danube artery of continental life. The land on either side of 
 this main highway was blessed with natural wealth, but its 
 treasures had been drained by the Vatican. The reformation, 
 which combined religious and political aspirations, was an excel- 
 lent opportunity for the chiefs of the small states scattered in 
 the long valley of the great river to pounce upon the landed 
 property owned by the Roman church and establish economic 
 conditions favorable to themselves. 
 
 The present world relations of Turkey may be summarized by 
 the statement that the country lies squarely in the path of both 
 Teutonic and Slavic advance. A natural course of expansion is 
 loading Germany to the southeast across the Balkan peninsula 
 into Turkey. The extension of frontiers required by Russia 
 likewise impels Slavic conquest of Turkey. Overpopulation in 
 the one case and the need of access to ice-free waters in the 
 other make the contest inevitable. The Teuton is answering the 
 call of the land, the Slav that of climate. In both the problem 
 is mainly economic. At bottom it is the modern phase of the 
 Homeric struggle idealized in the Iliad. 
 
 The dismemberment of Turkey into European colonies is the 
 goal steadily held in view since the loss of the Holy Land to 
 Christendom. It will be the last chapter in the long history of 
 Europe's commercial conquest of western Asia. Three causes 
 militate in favor of an eventual partition. The country is rich 
 in natural resources. It is held by a people whose incompetence 
 to convert nature's gifts into use or profit is historically patent. 
 It also happens to occupy a commanding situation with reference 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 237 
 
 to the trade of Europe with Asia and Africa. These three points 
 are fundamental in the solution of the Turkish problem. 
 
 The European nations most vitally concerned in the dismem- 
 berment of the Sultan's dominions are four in number. Great 
 Britain's interest is born of the Empire's relation to Egypt and 
 India. The cause of Kussian progress depends on the country's 
 access to warm seaports. Germany is the newcomer on the scene 
 and, as a land power, is engaged in extending her land area. To 
 her sons Turkey offers an attractive colonization area and at the 
 same time the land route which will render them independent of 
 the sea-way passing through Suez to the east. As a colonial 
 power of the first magnitude, no less than on account of her 
 millions of Mohammedan subjects, France cannot be disinterested 
 in the fate of the corelands of Islam. 
 
 Turkey is the Asiatic pendant of the intercontinental highway 
 represented in Europe by the Balkan peninsula. Through Asia 
 Minor the land provides a convenient causeway between Asia and 
 Europe. Through Arabia it connects Asia to Africa. Again, 
 through the combined position of Asia Minor and Syria it 
 becomes possible to maintain continuous land travel from Europe 
 to Africa. Turkey is thus the ideal center of the eastern hemi- 
 sphere. Mastery of its territory is bound to turn the flow of 
 intercontinental trade into the lap of its holders. The entire his- 
 tory of European conflict over Turkish lands is wrapped up in 
 this geographical fact. 
 
 Italians were the pioneers of European trade with Turkey 
 after the consolidation of Ottoman power. In this Genoese and 
 Venetian traders merely followed in the footsteps of their 
 fathers, whose dealings with the Byzantines had been consider- 
 able. French merchants were not slow to compete with Italians. 
 In the fifteenth century British drapers and commissioners begin 
 to appear in the Levant. Germans show signs of activity a 
 hundred years later, but confine their operation mainly to the 
 European dominions of the Sultans. From these beginnings to 
 the twentieth-century territorial claims of the great powers is 
 but a natural economic unfolding. 
 
238 rUONTIEllS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Turkey's remarkably central position in the eastern hemi- 
 sphere makes the country the threshold of Great Britain's 
 Asiatic dominions as well as the natural land connection between 
 British Africa and British Asia. From India westward and from 
 the British zone in southern l*ersia as defined by the Anglo- 
 I\ussian convention of 1907, to the Sultanate of Egypt, southern 
 Turkey, represented by Lower Mesopotamia and Arabia, is the 
 only stretch of territory in which the British government does 
 not exercise direct control; and the task of consolidating British 
 inihionce in those two regions of the Turkish Empire is well 
 advanced. 
 
 In the economic life of modern Mesopotamia British influence 
 is paramount. About 90 per cent of the trade of Basra and 
 Bagdad is in British hands. Steam navigation on the Euphrates 
 and Tigris with its attendant privileges of transportation is a 
 monopoly exercised by the British. This means that all the 
 Persian trade which enters or leaves the country through its 
 southern Turkish border must pay toll to British capital. 
 Most important of all, the stupendous task of reclaiming the 
 great twin-river valley has been undertaken by British enter- 
 prise. 
 
 The area of agricultural lands in Lower Mesopotamia is gen- 
 erally calculated at Ion times the total surface of farming land 
 in Egypt. The territory suited for cultivation extends north- 
 ward from the Persian Gulf roughly to a line drawn from the 
 bend of the Euphrates at Anali to Tekrit on the Tigris. Its 
 eastern boundary is defined by the Zagros and Pusht-i-Koh moun- 
 tains. On the west it reaches the Great Syrian desert as far as 
 its junction with the plateau of Arabia. Thus defined the region 
 is the great alluvial plain of Mesopotamia. A stretch of land 
 remarkably rich in humus, it only needs a just rule and com- 
 petent engineers in order to become highly productive. 
 
 In olden days the entire district was one vast field. Its 
 fertility had earned it the name of granary of the world. 
 ITorodotus extols its productivity: *'. . . In grain it is so fruitful 
 as to yield commonly two-hundred fold. The blade of the wheat 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 239 
 
 plant and barley plant is often four fingers in breadth. ' ' •' In 
 their present state the once productive lands present the appear- 
 ance of a desert. The old irrigation ditches are in ruins. Mile 
 upon mile of parched, cloggy soil or dreary marsh take the place 
 of ancient fields. 
 
 The reclamation of this arid country was undertaken in 1908 
 by British engineers headed by Sir William Willcocks. In the 
 Delta region of Mesopotamia, comprising the entire drainage 
 valley extending south of Hit on the Euphrates and of Samarra 
 on the Tigris, between 12 and 13 million acres of first-class 
 irrigation land were to be converted into productive areas. In 
 spite of Turkish opposition the work advanced with sufficient 
 rapidity for the Ilindiyeh Barrage to be inaugurated in 1914. 
 At a distance of twenty centuries a handful of plucky north- 
 erners had, notwithstanding well-nigh insurmountable obstacles, 
 put the last touches to a drainage project begun on the same 
 spot by Alexander the Great, the construction of a new head for 
 the Hindiyeh branch or Pallocopas having been that monarch's 
 first public work in Babylonia.* 
 
 In the Persian Gulf British influence advanced by great 
 strides during the present century. "Within the last ten years 
 the policing of the gulf waters and harbors has been undertaken 
 by Britain's men-of-war. An appreciable curtailment of the 
 trade in firearms followed the tracking of gun-runners by British 
 captains. The important towns of the Persian and Arabian 
 coast are virtually British possessions. Bushire ^ on the eastern 
 shore, Koweit on the west are protectorates. The trend of it all 
 is to advance India's western frontier to the line of the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 For Great Britain's attitude toward Turkish politics is 
 dictated by Delhi rather than London. As ruler of the most 
 
 ' Bk. 1, Chap. 193. Babylonia's fertility is also noticed by other ancient writers. 
 Cf. footnote of Rawlinson's Herodotus, New York, 1850, Vol. 1, p. 258. 
 
 * W. Willcocks: The Irrigation of Mesopotamia, New York, 1911, pp. 13-14. 
 
 " Bushire with a population of about 20,000 inhabitants owes its importance to its 
 being the southern sea terminal of the caravan route which starts at Teheran and 
 passes through Isfahan and Shiraz. 
 
2K) FUONTIIOUS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 imniorows jjolilicnl group oi' Moliajiiincclaiis in the world, the king 
 oi' J*lngland's rcsidonco in his European capital cannot ari'ect 
 India's geographical needs, among which the maintenance of a 
 clear road from ils shores to the mother island is of prime 
 import. Thus the establishment of a British zone in southern 
 Persia and the attempt to substitute British law in Mesopotamia 
 wh(^re, after all, the Sultan's authority is most precarious in 
 character, merely reveal l^higland's necessity of consolidating her 
 power over the approaches to her great Asiatic colony. 
 
 In dealing willi Indian geography and the vast body of 
 Mohammedan Hindus, attention is necessarily riveted on the 
 question of Arabia. British stewardship of tlie peninsular table- 
 land seems inevitable. Not that those hngo wastes of burning 
 sand contain resources convertible intp profit; but Arabia repre- 
 sents a wedge of barbarism driven in between the civilizing 
 inlluenees exerted by Great Britain in Egypt and India. The 
 dang(M- of its becoming a generating center of revolutionary 
 currents involving British colonial policies in destruction is not 
 mythical. Millions of Indian Moslems turn daily in prayer 
 toward the direction of the Kaaba. A glance at India's history 
 sudices to reveal tlie extent to which the Sea of Oman has linked 
 the two peninsulas. 
 
 To detach Arabia from a shadowy allegiance to the Sultan of 
 Turkey and bring it within (ho uplifting sphere of British 
 activity was part ol' (ho political program elaborated at Do^^^ling 
 Street after the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. In pur- 
 suance of this policy British influence is now^ markedly felt along 
 Arabia's three coasts. It is tirmly planted on the southeast, 
 where Arabia is nearest to India. l*'rom Koweit to LIuscat 
 every petty potentate exorcising an antiquated patriarchial 
 authority has learned to n^ly on British protection against 
 Turkish encroachments. Aden, on the southwest coast, is a lone 
 outpost of civilization from which western ideas radiate and 
 occasionally reach the plateau land of Yemen or the niggardly 
 wastes of Uadranuit. This British seaport is the natural outlet 
 of Yemen. Products of the favored districts around Kataba, as 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 241 
 
 well as between tliis town and Sana 'a, can be transported with 
 greater facility to Aden than by the arduous routes which lead 
 to Red Sea harbors. 
 
 The question of Arabia involves other considerations. Mecca 
 and Medina, its holy cities, arc essentially the religious center 
 of the Islamic world. From their sites Mohammedanism has 
 spread about 4,000 miles both east and west. Among Arabs as 
 well as the majority of Mohammedans outside of Turkey desire 
 for the restoration of the Caliphate at Mecca is strong. Arabs 
 especially consider the Sultans as usurpers of the title. Selim I 
 had been the first to adopt it after the conquest of Egypt and 
 Arabia in 1517. Arabs however refuse to recognize the right of 
 any but descendants of the Prophet's family to this supreme post 
 of the Mohammedan ecclesiastical liierarchy. According to 
 Islamic traditions the Caliph must be a member of the Koreishit 
 tribe. This explains why any ambitious leader who succeeds in 
 circulating the report of his relationship with Mohammed's 
 progeny has always secured a following among his co-religionists 
 in Asia or Africa. 
 
 Tfio Arabs have aired this chief grievance of theirs in P]nglish 
 ears. They found ready sympathy among British officials no 
 less than among the leaders of their faith in Egypt or India. 
 The complete severance of the Mohammedan Caliphate from the 
 Turkish Sultanate will, therefore, be a probable result of Franco- 
 British success in the present war. The reestablishmcnt of the 
 Prophet's family in its hereditary right and capital will have 
 the advantage of providing Islam with a geographical center at 
 the very point of its birth. 
 
 Modem German ascendancy in Turkey has constituted the 
 gravest menace to the British project of uniting Egypt to India 
 by a broad band of British territory. German diplomacy has 
 exerted its best efforts during the past generation in the attempt 
 to defeat this design. In overcrowded Germany the need of 
 land for colonization is felt as keenly as the necessity of pro- 
 viding new markets for the country's busy industries. Germany 
 does not contain within its borders an agricultural area of 
 
242 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 sufficient extent for the requirements of its fast-growing popula- 
 tions. Against this it has been estimated that with adequate 
 irrigation Asia Minor can turn out a million tons of wheat 
 annually, as well as at least 200,000 tons of cotton. The basis of 
 Teutonic southeasterly expansion lies in these facts. The 
 immediate aim of German imperialism is to spread through 
 Austria and the Balkan peninsula into Turkey down to the Gulf 
 of Alexandretta and the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. But 
 its realization implies the shattering of British projects. 
 
 This rivalry in the west Asian field became inevitable from' 
 the moment that men of German speech became conscious of the 
 power they had acquired in 1870 by banding together in a single 
 state. The task of national consolidation once accomplished, the 
 thought of German leaders naturally turned eastward in the 
 direction in which land extended. Eight years later the prestige 
 acquired by the newborn empire gave it a decisive voice in the 
 treaty of Berlin. The first peg in the line of the Teutons' south- 
 easterly march was driven then by the revision of Bulgarian 
 frontiers delimited by the treaty of San Stefano. The Slavic 
 obstacle seemed removed from the Teutons' path and its place 
 filled by the more easily negotiable TurkisJi obstruction. 
 
 From the date of that treaty to the events of these years of 
 war Germany's conduct in Turkey has been determined entirely 
 by the call of the land. In 1882 a German military commission 
 undertakes to reorganize the Turkish army. In 1889 the Deutsche 
 Bank — whose directors are leaders of Germany's oversea affairs 
 ■ — is granted a concession for a through line from Constan- 
 tinople to Konia. This concession has since been modified so 
 as to comprise the trans-Anatolian trunk railway which connects 
 the capital with Bagdad. In 1898 the Kaiser visits Damascus in 
 person, there solemnly to proclaim assurances of his unalterable 
 good-will to the millions of Mohammedans scattered over the 
 surface of the earth. In 1902 the Bagdad line is definitely 
 awarded to a group of capitalists, among whom Germans repre- 
 sent the majority of investors. From that date on, railroad, 
 mining and irrigation concessions in Turkey seemed to have been 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 243 
 
 reserved exclusively for Germans. The transfer of Turkey's 
 unexploited riches to German ownership became almost an 
 accomplished fact. 
 
 It was the "Drang nach Osten," a movement directed pri- 
 marily by the valleys of the Danube and the Morava, and forking 
 out subsequently along the Vardar and Maritza gaps. To clear 
 this road to Turkey, Serbia was wiped off the map of Europe in 
 the fall of 1915 by Teutonic armies. For this too had Serbian 
 nationality been split into three separate bodies at the behest of 
 Teutonic diplomatists. Bosnia and Herzegovina, lands Serbian 
 in heart and logic, were administered by Austria, an empire in 
 name like Turkey but virtually ruled by Prussia since the day 
 of Sadowa. Montenegro, of old the refuge of martyred Serbia, 
 had always been prevented by Austria from uniting with its 
 sister state. In truth Serbia lay under the bane of a geographical 
 curse. It was always in the way. 
 
 The misfortune of position is shared fully by Turkey. 
 Coming at right angles to Germany's southeasterly drive, Rus- 
 sia's steady southwesterly advances in the nineteenth century 
 foreshadowed the conversion of all the Black Sea and its 
 Bosporus entrance into Russian waters. With the most inacces- 
 sible parts of the Armenian mountains in Russian hands since 
 1878, further expansion through western Armenia into Anatolia 
 cannot be delayed much longer. 
 
 The Russian viewpoint deserves every consideration. Russia 
 lies benumbed by the cold of her frozen land. She has had one 
 long winter since the dawn of her nationality. The chief reason 
 why her sons have been laggards in the liberal progress of the 
 past hundred years must be sought in this simple fact of 
 geography. Russia does not need more land or fresh resources. 
 She only seeks the warmth of the sun's rays. Geographically it 
 is Russia rather than Germany who is entitled to ''her place 
 under the sun." Today more than ever, and because of her newly- 
 won liberty and democratic institutions, Russia needs a window 
 on the sunny side of her national dwelling. 
 
 Russian access to the open sea in the southwest can be 
 
24(4 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 secured either at Constantinople or Alexandretta. The Bosporus 
 route is the more advantageous, as the markets for products of 
 the plains of southern Russia are strewn along Mediterranean 
 coasts. But mastery of the Bosporus is of little value to Russia 
 without possession of the Dardanelles strait. The Marmora is 
 but the lobby of the Black Sea. The entire Bosporus-Dardanelles 
 waterway must, therefore, be Russian in order to allow the 
 country to reap the full advantages of attaining ice-free seas. If 
 fifty years ago the question was merely one of political foresight, 
 today it has assumed vital importance, for southwestern Russia's 
 economic development, in the present century, has made the coun- 
 try absolutely dependent on Balkan and Mediterranean markets. 
 
 As an alternative, the harbor of Alexandretta finds favor 
 among Russians. It lies at a distance of only 450 miles from the 
 southern Caucasus frontiers. Moreover, it is part of the ancient 
 land of Armenia, which sooner or later is destined to become a 
 Russian province in its entirety. Such an extension of Russian 
 territory to blue water on the Mediterranean has significance in 
 two ways. It would redeem a land that has remained Christian 
 in spite of centuries of Mohammedan yoke and it might effec- 
 tively bar German access to the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Russian influence in Turkey differs signally from the control 
 exerted by its three western competitors. British, German and 
 French encroachments on Turkish sovereignty have increased in 
 proportion to the amount of capital expended by each of these 
 countries for the development of Turkish resources. In this 
 respect Russia, which is not a country of financiers, stood at a 
 disadvantage. To overcome this handicap Russians resorted to 
 borrowing from France and England, mainlj^ the former, and 
 invested the funds thus obtained in Turkey. Such transactions 
 have in reality been the means of strengthening French and 
 British ascendancy in the Ottoman land. The northeastern 
 region of Anatolia, which, owing to its contiguity to Russia, was 
 regarded as a sphere of Russian influence, has lately been looked 
 upon often as a zone of French interests, owing to the partici- 
 pation of French capital in its development. But from a geo- 
 
Fig. 54. 
 
 Cojiijityht by Underwood dt Vndtrwood 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Copyright by Underwood ct Underwood 
 
 Fig. 54 — View of the harbor of Odessa. 
 
 Fig. 55 — Export wlieat ready to be loaded at Odessa. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 
 
 245 
 
 graphical standpoint this French zone is artificial. Its depend- 
 ence on Russia cannot be altered as long as its position on the 
 map remains unchanged. 
 
 France's natural sphere of interest in Turkey will be found 
 in the Syrian vilayets. This is not due to the financing of Syrian 
 public utilities and indus- 
 tries by French capitalists 
 as is often alleged. It is 
 the offspring of the Medi- 
 terranean which, since the 
 dawn of history, has con- 
 nected the southern French 
 coast to Syrian harbors. 
 Phoenician oversea trade 
 in the first millennium be- 
 fore the Christian era 
 had reached the coasts of 
 Provence and Lang-uedoc. 
 Marseilles, a city born of 
 this intercourse, has main- 
 tained commercial rela- 
 tions with Syria uninter- 
 ruptedly do^vn to the pres- 
 ent time. 
 
 Franco-Syrian ties were strengthened considerably during the 
 Crusades. The conquest of Syria and Palestine by the Arabs 
 diverted the thoughts of Christendom from the economic impor- 
 tance of these lands to their religious appeal. France, ''the 
 eldest daughter of the Church," took the lead in the attempt to 
 wrest the Holy Land from its Mohammedan conquerors, — 
 *'Gesta Dei per Francos." Many of the petty states founded by 
 noblemen who took part in the Crusades were ruled by French- 
 men. Antioch and Tripoli had French princes, Jerusalem a 
 French king. The title of Protector of Oriental Christians con- 
 ferred by the Papacy on French kings had its origin in the active 
 part played by France in the Crusades. 
 
 Fig. 5G — French states in Syria at the 
 time of the Crusades. Scale, 1:11,500,000. 
 Based on PI. 68, Historical Atlas, by W. R. 
 Shepherd, Holt, New York, 1911. 
 
2iG FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Franco has exercised a dominant intellectual influence in the 
 Levant for at least seven centuries. Turks bestow the appella- 
 tion ^' Frank" on Europeans without discrimination of nation- 
 ality. Western ideas which have triclded down to Turkish soil 
 are French in character. French schools in Turkey are more 
 numerous than any other. The civilizing power of French cul- 
 ture showed its strength by the readiness with which it asserted 
 itself in the midst of uncongenial Turkish thought. France's 
 hold on Turkey is thus of a high moral order. It differs in 
 this respect from the material claims of the other European 
 powers. 
 
 At the same time through the investments of French capi- 
 talists a Avell-defined zone of French interests has been created 
 in Syria. Excepting the Hejaz line every railroad in the 
 province has been financed in France. The silk factories of the 
 Lebanon, around which the whole industrial life of Syria 
 clusters, were started by French citizens. Their annual product, 
 usually estimated at half a million kilograms of silk, is exported 
 to France. Syrian silk farmers in need of funds for the annual 
 purchase of cocoons raise their loans exclusively among the 
 banking houses of Lyons. French interests are not confined to 
 Syria alone; fully one-half of the amount of one billion dollars 
 representing Turkey's official debt to Europe has been advanced 
 by French financial institutions. 
 
 It is difficult to assign a place to Italy in the array of 
 European claimants for Turkish territory. The trade between 
 Italian and Turkish seaports has lost the relative importance it 
 had acquired in medieval times. Italian pretensions to Adalia 
 Bay and its rearland are of quite recent date and the result of 
 conquests in Libya. But beyond vaguely formulated promises 
 for railway concessions from the Turkish government no ties 
 bind the region to Italy. Italy however created its own sphere 
 of interest somewhat unintentionally by the occupation of the 
 islands of the Dodecanesia. By this act it distanced every otheF- 
 European country in the race for a share of Turkey. 
 
 -The group of islands lying off the southwestern coast of 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 247 
 
 Anatolia is now held by Italy in virtue of stipulations covenanted 
 with Turkey at the treaty of Lausanne. According to the terms 
 agreed upon, Italy was to occupy the islands in guarantee of 
 Turkish good faith pledged to prevent anti-Italian agitation in 
 Libya. Upon complete pacification of the latest territorial 
 addition to Italy's African domain, the political fate of the 
 islands was to be determined jointly by the six Great European 
 Powers. 
 
 The islands, between twelve and fifteen in number, are 
 peopled exclusively by Greeks. Hellenic customs, language and 
 religion have survived upon each in spite of centuries of Turkish 
 rule. Italian sovereignty, however benevolent or likely to pro- 
 mote the welfare of the islanders, is disliked equally at Patmos, 
 Leros, Cos and Rhodes. The remaining islands are relatively 
 unimportant, some consisting of mere uninhabited rocks emerg- 
 ing two or three hundred feet above the sea. But to the smallest 
 inhabited islet, annexation to Greece is keenly desired. The 
 Italians were hailed as liberators from the Turkish oppression 
 by the hardy fishermen who labored under the impression that 
 their island homes had been rescued in order to be annexed to 
 Greece. Their disappointment was expressed in mass meetings 
 at Patmos and Cos in 1913. 
 
 Racial and historical considerations add their weight to the 
 linguistic claims advanced by Greeks in Greece and the Dode- 
 canesia. As sailors the islanders have maintained to this day 
 classical traditions of Hellenic maritime activity in the region. 
 The islands in fact constitute lands of unredeemed nationality 
 whose natives are without a single exception akin to the conti- 
 nental Greeks. 
 
 This fact combined with a distribution of a numerically pre- 
 ponderant Greek element along the western coast of Anatolia 
 makes the ^gean a truly Greek sea. Structurally the coast 
 lands encircling this body of water are identical. In the east as 
 in the west they constitute the warped margin of a subsided 
 area. Identity of land and peoples has given rise to Greek 
 claims on western Turkey. Greece, therefore, keeps in line with 
 
248 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 other European nations in expecting a share in the inheritance 
 of the moribund Turkish state. 
 
 The claim is historical no less than economic. The associa- 
 tion of the -^gean religion with centuries of Hellenism and fully 
 one millennium of Byzantinism is by no means severed in modern 
 days. For the second time in its glorious history the ancient 
 city of Athens has become the social, political and intellectual 
 center of the Greek world. In one and the same prospect the 
 Greek capital can point with pride to the Hellenic splendor 
 exhaled from Anatolian ruins and to her modern sons achieving 
 daily economic victories over the Turk in his own land. 
 
 In this spectacle of nations lying athwart each other's path 
 the clue to the adequate settlement of the Turkish problem may 
 be found. Turkey is before anything else a roadway — a bridge- 
 land. As soon as this point of practical geography is recognized 
 it will be easy to provide international legislation in which the 
 claims of interested powers will be harmonized. But no solution 
 of the political problem involved can ever be attained without 
 full consideration of its geographical aspects. Failure to recog- 
 nize this would leave the Eastern Question in the hopeless tangle 
 in which it has lain for over a century. 
 
 As the seat of through routes Turkey and its railroad play 
 a great part in international transportation. Hence it is that 
 the Turkish lines, with exception of the Hejaz railroad, are 
 controlled by financiers grouped according to nationality. At 
 present the majority of shareholders in each of the concessions 
 belong to one or the other of the great European powers^ 
 
 The broad Eurasian landmass contains three densely popu- 
 lated areas. Of these central Europe is the westernmost. The 
 Indian peninsula follows, situated approximately midway between 
 the European area and the coastlands and islands of eastern 
 Asia, which form the easternmost of the three. In these three 
 regions only does the average density of population exceed 64 
 inhabitants to the square mile. The speediest and most con- 
 venient routes between the westernmost and the two Asiatic 
 regions must inevitably cross Turkey. This feature, together 
 
The American Geographical Society of New York 
 
 
The American Geographical Societ}/ of New Yor/t 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. V 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 249 
 
 with the fact that Asiatic Turkey is a land richly endowed with 
 natural resources and that, although lying at Europe's very 
 door, it is still undeveloped, confer upon Turkish railroads an 
 importance which has always been keenly realized by enterpris- 
 ing business men the world over. 
 
 All travel between Europe and Asia is deflected into northern 
 and southern channels by a central mass of mountains which 
 separate a vast lowland of plains and steppes on the north from 
 the tablelands of southern Asia. Age-old avenues of human 
 migration and of trade in the northern area have the disadvan- 
 tage of traversing sparsely inhabited regions. To build trans- 
 continental railroads along this route implies scaling some of 
 the highest mountain ranges in the world in order to tap the 
 populous centers of India. Although this is not beyond the 
 engineer's ability, capitalists decline to consider it. Southern 
 routes, on the other hand, link with the seas that set far inland 
 on Asiatic coasts. The function of the Turkish trunk lines is 
 to provide the shortest connection between European railways 
 and the steel tracks of southern Asia or to connect with the sea 
 routes that link harbor to harbor from the Persian Gulf to the 
 China Sea. 
 
 LAlthough lying at Europe's very door and in spite of its 
 extreme antiquity as the abode of civilized man, Asia Minor 
 presents the strange anomaly of being one of the world's least 
 developed regions. It was only after the Crimean War that rail- 
 road construction was undertaken within the peninsula. The 
 granting of railway concessions enabled the Sultan to pay his 
 debt of gratitude to the western nations which had assisted him 
 in checking the natural efforts of the Russians to add a strip of 
 ice-free coast to their country's southwestern boundary. With 
 the exception of a single line every kilometer of track in the 
 peninsula has been built by Europeans. As is always the case 
 in undeveloped areas, the districts tapped by the various lines 
 became economically dependent on the roads that hauled their 
 products and supplies. This circumstance induced tacit recog- 
 nition of spheres of foreign influence in which commercial, and 
 
250 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 attendant political, preponderance leaned strongly towards the 
 country which supplied the capital with which the railroads were 
 built. Wherever, as in Syria, vaguely defined spheres of 
 European influence had previously existed, .the advent of engines 
 and cars contributed to strengthen them considerably. The 
 routes determined by the steel-clad tracks may therefore be con- 
 sidered as approximate center-lines of these spheres of foreign 
 influence. It is on this basis that six distinct spheres may be 
 marked out as follows : 
 
 (1) A British sphere extending over the entire drainage 
 basin of the Meander and traversed by the British-owoied Aidin 
 railway. 
 
 (2) A French sphere which was originally confined to the 
 drainage of the Gediz river, the ancient Hermos, but which, 
 through privileges acquired as a result of the successful opera- 
 tion of the French-owned Cassaba railway, now extends north- 
 wards to the Sea of Marmora. This additional sphere is divided 
 into two equal east and west areas by the French-owned Soma- 
 Panderma railroad. 
 
 (3) A German sphere — the most important of these spheres 
 of foreign influence — which, beginning at the Bosporus, trav- 
 erses the entire peninsula diagonally by way of the inviting 
 routes provided by surface features and extends southeasterly 
 through Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. 
 
 (4) A Franco-Russian sphere which was originally allotted 
 to Russia and which comprises all of the area north of the 
 German zone described above. Russia's inability to finance rail- 
 way enterprise in this area, no less than political ties which bind 
 this country to France, led to French participation. As a result 
 of this dual arrangement construction on the French-o"v\Tied 
 Samsoun-to-Sivas line was begun in 1913. 
 
 (5) A second French sphere comprising all of Syria. It is 
 considered by Frenchmen as their most important sphere 
 of influence in Turkey. The French-owned Beirut-Aleppo, 
 Tripoli-Homs and Jaffa- Jerusalem lines are operated in this 
 area. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 251 
 
 (6) An Italian sphere extending inland from the extreme 
 southwestern coast of Asia Minor so as to include the hinterland 
 of the Gulf of Adalia. Italy is a recent invader of this field. Its 
 ambitions were revealed in the fall of 1913, after it became known 
 that negotiations had been carried on between the representative 
 of the Italian bondholders of the Ottoman Public Debt and the 
 Turkish government for the concession of a railway line to con- 
 nect the seaport of Adalia and the to^vn of Burdur, the south- 
 easterly terminus of the Aidin railway. 
 
 (7) With these six spheres a contested seventh should be 
 mentioned, which is constituted by the exceedingly rich mineral 
 district situated at the northern convergence of the valleys of 
 the Tigris and Euphrates. Russian, French and German inter- 
 ests claim respective rights of priority to its exploitation. 
 
 None of these divisions would be recognized officially as such 
 in Turkey. But then ethnographic boundaries are likemse 
 strictly ignored by the rulers of that country. Definite official 
 recognition of these spheres is nevertheless implied in the terms 
 of a number of commercial covenants signed by Turkey and 
 various European powers according to which the right to operate 
 railroads, and even mines sometimes, is granted by the Turkish 
 government exclusively to a single company which in almost 
 every instance is owned by capitalists of the same nationality. 
 The Russo-Turkish convention of 1900, which reserved to Rus- 
 sians rights of preemption on railroad building in the area 
 called the Franco-Russian sphere, may be mentioned as an 
 example. Similarly the Bagdad Railway Convention of 1902, 
 formally signed by the German ambassador and the Turkish 
 Minister of Public Works, recognized the exclusive rights of the 
 Bagdad Railway Company — a German enterprise — to build the 
 important trans-peninsular route which will link Europe to Asia 
 and Africa. 
 
 One might infer that the existence of these six spheres should 
 be attributed to Turco-European agreements. Closer scrutiny 
 brings to light, however, the working of purely natural forces, 
 explanation of which is to be found in the geography of Asia 
 
252 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Minor. These international railroad conventions, and the areas 
 determined by their text, represent in reality the outcome of the 
 geographical conditions which are grouped here under the two 
 major heads of world relation and regional features, j 
 
 World relation is an attribute of geographical location. 
 Situated as a junction area, a bridge as it were, between two 
 continents, Asia Minor stands out as an excellent type of an 
 intermediate region which has participated in the life of both. 
 This two-fold influence has been particularly marked whenever 
 general progress in either continent culminated in an overflow 
 beyond continental boundaries. The feats of Greeks and 
 Persians, and of Byzantines and Turks, may be considered as 
 successive cycles in which the spirit of Europe or of Asia pre- 
 dominated in turn. At the end of each cycle life on the peninsula 
 would revert to conditions determined largely by regional 
 influences. The past sixty years have witnessed the beginning of 
 a process of slow liberation from the effects of the last cycle of 
 Asiatic invasion. The spirit of the west is ushered in once more 
 for the simple reason that it has become necessary to maintain 
 a clear road over which the products of overworked European 
 factories will be transported to populous markets in southern 
 Asia. The primary cause of European influence must therefore 
 be traced back to Asia Minor's location, by virtue of which the 
 peninsula has always been the site of an important world route. 
 Aryans of the present century are merely preparing themselves 
 to travel by rail the highway over which their far-removed 
 ancestors tramped on foot. 
 
 Besides offering the shortest overland route between the 
 Baltic Sea and the Indian Ocean, Asia Minor's favored location 
 affords the same convenience with regard to land communication 
 between Europe and AJtrica. Any line diverging southwards at 
 a suitable point on the main trunk which traverses the peninsula 
 diagonally may be prolonged through Syria to the Turco- 
 Egyptian frontier and extended in Africa so as to connect with 
 the Cape-to-Cairo railroad. While no definite steps have yet 
 been taken to secure this desirable connection, the project has 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 253 
 
 been under consideration for over a decade and it may be sur- 
 mised that its execution will not be deferred much longer. 
 
 But world relation is also determined by a region's natural 
 resources. Notwithstanding its undeveloped state, Asia Minor is 
 known to have been abundantly endowed with all the primary 
 products required by modern man's complex life. The valleys 
 connecting its coast line with the inland ranges are exceedingly 
 fertile. This is particularly true of its western and northern 
 area. The high plateau of the interior needs only to be irrigated 
 in order to become a vast granary. Its mineral wealth is so 
 abundant and varied that it may be asserted that no other area 
 of the same dimensions can be compared to it. Its flora is 
 extremely diversified. Its forest belts are still considerable, 
 despite a lack of legislation for insuring their conservation and 
 rational exploitation. The slopes facing its three seas from the 
 upper coniferous belts to the lower olive tree zone, support a 
 great variety of economic species. iWe have here all the elements 
 which satisfy man's natural desire for space after he has reached 
 a given stage of development. This desire is imposed by 
 economic requirements which impel activity in fields that must 
 be kept expanding. The zones must be hence regarded as spheres 
 of economical rather than political influence. They indicate 
 natural foresight on the part of powerful political agglomerations 
 preparing the way for future industrial and commercial advan- 
 tages. At bottom it is an expression of man's growing ability 
 to shape his destinies according to his requirements and free 
 himself from the limitations imposed by frontiers. The economic 
 phase of Asia Minor's geography thus contributes its full share 
 in the determination of these spheres of foreign interests. 
 
 Asia Minor may be considered as the eastern emergence of 
 the continental shelf supporting the European peninsula. Its 
 salient physical features are a central plateau surrounded by a 
 rim-like succession of ranges which are friuged in turn by a 
 coastal strip of land. A gradual ascent from west to east can be 
 observed. The western ranges have a mean altitude of about 
 2,000 feet above sea level. The plateau has an average height of 
 
254 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 3,000 feet. The Armenian upland generally exceeds 4,000 feet. 
 Access from the sea to the interior is impeded by the moun- 
 tainous barrier reared as a natural bulwark. The gaps made by 
 watercourses alone permit communication. As most of the rivers 
 are not navigable, an important method of exploration is thus 
 closed to adventurous roamers, whether native or foreign. This 
 lack of fluvial communication has greatly hindered intercourse. 
 Eivers have constituted the ancient ethnic boundaries between 
 the inhabitants of the peninsula.® Communication between dis- 
 tricts has been carried on mainly from harbor to harbor. 
 Although tlie peninsula is in direct contact with three seas its 
 mountainous rim prevents benign maritime influences from 
 extending to its interior. Its climate may therefore be classed 
 as extreme Mediterranean in type. All these combined factors 
 annul to a large extent the effects of peninsular conditions. 
 
 The region is not as salubrious as its elevation might imply. 
 It is an area which has been occupied by communities of men 
 actively engaged in human pursuits at various periods of history, 
 and which has been subsequently abandoned to itself or rather 
 to the working of causes in which man had no part. Gradual 
 desiccation of the plateau is evinced by the presence of desert 
 wastes coated with alkaline precipitates, by receding lakes and 
 all the manifestations accompanying the decline of a hydro- 
 graphic system. The salt lake occupying the central part of the 
 plateau is in reality nothing but a vast marsh. Hydrographic 
 changes are not confined merely to the interior of Asia Minor 
 but exert their action on the coast itself. The bays of Tarsus 
 and Ephesus are now much shallower than they were two thou- 
 sand years ago.'^ The general result is to impair settlement. 
 Beoccupation of the soil must often be preceded by sanitation 
 and it is only within recent times that this important tool has 
 been perfected by man so as to enable him to wield it effectively 
 in the conquest of fresh sites of occupancy. 
 
 Viewed therefore from its broadest aspect the problem of 
 
 "Vivien de St. Martin: Asie Mineure, Vol. 11, p. 386. 
 'Eeclus: Asie Ant^rieure, pp. 509 and 522. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 255 
 
 European control of Asia Minor resolves itself into one of 
 renewed settlement. It is therefore pertinent to inquire how this 
 condition coupled with regional influences has affected each of 
 the six spheres. 
 
 Englishmen were the first to engage in Turkish railway build- 
 ing. The Aidin railway, which links the thriving port of 
 Smyrna to the Anatolian plateau at Dineir, represents an invest- 
 ment of about $50,000,000, or about a third of all the money 
 invested in Turkey by the British public. This road taps the 
 fertile Meander valley and has proved a remunerative under- 
 taking to its owners, although it has not been subsidized by the 
 Turkish government. The line is credited with the best manage- 
 ment in Turkey. Its well-ballasted track and the splendid 
 condition of its rolling stock impress the traveler most favorably. 
 English capital is also represented in other lines built in Turkey, 
 though only as minority holdings. 
 
 This British zone of influence is at present the best developed 
 region in Asia Minor. Its northern boundary is determined by 
 the divide separating the watersheds of the Gediz and the 
 Meander rivers. The Aidin railway follows the course of the 
 last-named river to its very sources at about 1,000 feet below 
 the general western level of the plateau.^ The eastern boundary 
 of the sphere is defined by the end of the natural road at one of 
 the abrupt slopes leading to the plateau in the vicinity of lakes 
 Burdur and Ajituz. Its southern frontier reaches the districts 
 which supply the railroad with traffic drawn from the border line 
 of the Carian ranges and the foot of the northern slopes of the 
 Lycian Taurus. 
 
 The sound establishment of Great Britain's commercial 
 influence in this locality dates from the year 1856, when con- 
 struction on the Aidin railway was inaugurated. Its real 
 beginning can be traced back to the dawn of the nineteenth 
 century, when English naval supremacy replaced France's 
 hitherto paramount maritime influence in the Levant. In recent 
 years an interesting expansion of British trade ascendancy in 
 
 •Hogarth: The Nearer East, New York, 1902, p. 33. 
 
256 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 this zone cau be detected since the products of the area tapped 
 by the Aidin railway, whether they consist of cereals, fruit, 
 ores or local manufactured goods such as rugs, are mainly 
 exported nowadays to Great Britain, the United States and 
 Australia. 
 
 Throughout history the valley of the Meander has constituted 
 a region in which natural features of the surface have been 
 eminently favorable to man's development. In addition to the 
 wealth of its natural resources it is provided with a deeply 
 indented coast line, in which commodious natural harbors occur. 
 Here is found the maximum density of population for the entire 
 peninsula — 70 inhabitants to the square mile.^ AVithin this 
 restricted area Greek influence first took root about 2,G00 years 
 ago before spreading throughout Asia Minor. The origin of this 
 movement must be ascribed to the local advantages Avhich 
 invited human activity by the display of favorable regional 
 features. It is safe to surmise that the same geographical 
 agencies have been again responsible for the striking parallel 
 afforded by the first establishment within contemporary times of 
 a sphere of western influence in the region. 
 
 Italy's connection with Turkish railroads has consisted in 
 providing labor and in laying claim to franchises in southern 
 Asia Minor. These claims are of recent date, and have been put 
 forth since the occupation of the islands of the Dodecanesia by 
 Italian troops. Specifically the claim is made for the right to 
 build a railroad from Adalia northwards to Burdur. The region 
 to be tapped by this line is a strip of broken lowland intervening 
 between the Lycian and Cilician Taurus. The valleys of the 
 Aksu and Keuprusu, bordering the east and west slopes of the 
 Ovajik massif, join in forming a deltaic area in which sub- 
 tropical cultures, rice, cotton and tobacco thrive. Plains and 
 Avide valleys, which are probably ancient lakebeds, occur between 
 the smaller ranges of the zone. They contain arable lands which 
 might bo turned to account were the region more thickly settled. 
 A number of smaller rivers discharge their contents into the gulf 
 
 •Hogarth: op. cit., p. 155. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 257 
 
 of Adalia. The gulf itself is shallow, devoid of harbors, and open to 
 southerly winds. Lack of natural harbors and remoteness from 
 the main highways of the peninsula have contributed to the 
 sphere's isolation. It is still imperfectly known through a few 
 route surveys and occasional descriptions. 
 
 The most important road in Turkey is the partially completed 
 trunk line running diagonally across Asia Minor and beyond into 
 Mesopotamia. The line is German-owned, although French and 
 English capital is represented. The concession for the first 
 stretch, extending from Constantinople to Konia, had been 
 granted to German and Austrian railroad builders in 1888. The 
 celebrated Bagdad railroad is the prolongation of this line. Its 
 construction was turned over to German promoters by a firman 
 (decree) dated January 21, 1902. The financial burden of the 
 enterprise was estimated at about $200,000,000. 
 
 The Bagdad railroad is the final link of the shortest overland 
 route between Europe and Asia. In the minds of Germans it is 
 destined to compete with the sea-way controlled by England; The 
 road was conceived in ord«r to connect Teutonic centers of 
 industry and Asiatic markets. The speediest sea route between 
 Europe and Asia passes through straits guarded by British 
 sentinels. As long as Gibraltar, Suez and Aden form part of 
 Great Britain's colonial domain, they can be closed at will to 
 competitors of British manufacturers. 
 
 The great trade routes which link Europe to Asia have 
 always crossed Turkish territory. One of the most widely 
 traveled of these highways formerly connected the classic shores 
 of Ionia to the fever-laden coast of the Persian Gulf. It was 
 the road to India. The spices, gems and silk of the East reached 
 European buyers by way of this trunk land route. For countless 
 centuries caravans have plied back and forth over the barren 
 plateau of Asia Minor and the sweeping plains of the Mesopo- 
 tamian depression. This traffic is still maintained although it is 
 now much on the wane. Long files of camels proceeding leisurely 
 at a swinging gait are mot occasionally by the traveler in 
 Anatolia. A patient ass leads the way as of old. The turbaned 
 
258 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 driver plods along unmindful of the historical associations 
 accumulated over his path. He knows however that the steam 
 engine, devised by western ingenuity, is about to deprive him of 
 the scanty pittance w^hich his journeys yield. 
 
 Germany is essentially a land power. It was natural that the 
 country should seek to establish land routes over which its con- 
 trol would prove as effective as England's oversea highways. 
 With this aim in view, the German government lent unreserved 
 support to German captains of industry striving to obtain sole 
 mastery of the great Turkish trunk line. Asia, teeming with 
 thickly populated districts, lay at hand. Britain's unrivaled sea 
 power afforded its people adequate transportation to these 
 centers of consumption. The Germans realized that a land 
 power could not compete successfully mth rulers of the waves. 
 They resolved to acquire commercial supremacy in Asia by the 
 creation of a land route. The Bagdad railroad is the outcome 
 of this realization. 
 
 The road starts at Konia at the southeastern terminal of the 
 Anatolian railroad, also a German line, whose tracks reach the 
 Asiatic suburbs of Constantinople. Konia lies in the very heart 
 of the Anatolian plateau, a stern and melancholy land, destitute 
 of trees and sparsely peopled. Here at an average elevation of 
 2,500 feet above sea-level, the tracks are laid over the ancient 
 highway which leads to Syria. In spite of its mournful scenery, 
 the region is a veritable paradise to the archeologist. It is 
 studded with prehistoric ruins and contains secrets of Hittite 
 history which await the scholar's investigation. Here and there 
 along the line the dilapidated remnant of a Seljuk building 
 reminds the traveler of the peculiar charm of Mohammedan art. 
 
 Beyond the plateau the road plunges into a tangled moun- 
 tainous district kno^\Ti as the Taurus. The famous Cilician Gates 
 are the only practicable gap provided by nature among bold and 
 abrupt peaks in this region. The armies of Pagan, Christian and 
 Mohammedan monarchs have marched through this gorge in the 
 long struggle between the East and the West which enlivens 
 the history of the ancient East. Cyrus with his retinue of 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 259 
 
 Persian lords and his bands of Greek soldiers found it a con- 
 venient opening. Alexander the Great stepped between its 
 narrow walls on his way to conquer the world. Detachments of 
 Crusaders under Tancred and Baldwin bore the banners of the 
 cross through the rugged pass. Later Mongolian hordes sang of 
 loot as they swarmed through the mountain cut. 
 
 Unfortunately the ride through this mountain section of the 
 Bagdad line will not be made uninterruptedly in broad daylight. 
 The engineering problems involved are of considerable magni- 
 tude. The mountain can be conquered only by means of tunnels 
 and the cost of this method of advance is naturally enormous. 
 It has been estimated at a minimum of $140,000 per mile. In 
 addition to tunnels considerable stretches of very heavy earth- 
 work are required. If the undertaking delights the engineer's 
 heart, it is on the other hand apt to dismay the capitalist. 
 
 The drive through the Taurus does not end the difficulties of 
 construction. This mountain is succeeded immediately by the 
 equally lofty and precipitous Am anus range. Another arduous 
 tunneling section is encountered. Of the two the last is the most 
 difficult and costly. An idea of the heavy expense incurred in 
 this construction work is conveyed by the cost of the wagon 
 road built to reach the mouth of the first tunnel. It has been 
 estimated that over one million dollars have been spent in this 
 preliminary work. 
 
 The descent towards the Cilician plain is steep. To the west 
 Tarsus, the birthplace of the Apostle Paul, looms a blot of white 
 over the grayish green of the surrounding land. The change 
 from the dreary scenery of the plateau is a dehght to the eye. 
 The valleys leading to the Mediterranean coast are wooded. 
 Vegetation soon assumes a southern aspect of luxuriance. The 
 sensation of finding oneself in an altogether different country is 
 especially felt on hearing the sonorous accents of Arabic now 
 spoken in place of Turkish. 
 
 From the site of the Amanus tunnels to Aleppo the line was 
 completely built in 1915. Thence it strikes eastward only to turn 
 south after reaching the Euphrates river. From here on to 
 
260 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Bagdad trains will run through the great alluvial flood plains of 
 Mesopotamia. This is a rainless district. The present large 
 cities, Mosul, Bagdad and Basra, have no important share in 
 world affairs in comparison with the political and cultural influ- 
 ences which radiated far outward from the precincts of ancient 
 Nineveh and Babylon. 
 
 Between Konia and Bagdad the railroad is 1,029 miles long. 
 For convenience of operation it is divided into sections of 
 approximately 130 miles in length or more correctly of 200 
 kilometers. Construction on the first section was begun shortly 
 after the award of the concession. This portion of the road was 
 opened to traffic in 1904. Building was abandoned until 1910 
 owing to lack of funds. In May of that year operations were 
 resumed at different points of the line. By the middle of 1913 
 about 400 miles had been completed. 
 
 Since the begiimiing of the European war, construction has 
 been pushed with increasing speed. In northern Mesopotamia 
 the construction of a bridge over the Euphrates at Jerabluz 
 allows the laying of tracks with a fair degree of rapidity in the 
 northern stretches of the Syrian desert. Work was also under- 
 taken at Bagdad in a northerly direction. In the last days of 
 1914 trains were running regularly in the valley of the Tigris 
 between this city and Samarra. Since then, according to reports, 
 the tracks have advanced farther north. 
 
 Work on the sections in northern Mesopotamia does not pre- 
 sent great difficulties. There is reason to believe that construc- 
 tion here proceeded with feverish haste during the European 
 war. The main obstacles to rapid track-laying are found in the 
 mountainous district which intervenes between the Anatolian 
 plateau and the plains of Syria and Mesopotamia. According to 
 reports the tunnels in the Amanus mountains w^ere driven from 
 end to end by the summer of 1915. It will probably take longer 
 to complete construction through the mountainous wall which 
 connects the Chakra valley to the Tarsus river in the Cilician 
 Taurus. This section of the road is only 22 miles long. It 
 crosses however an extremely rugged district arid requires four 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 261 
 
 separate tunnels which together measure some 10^ miles. In 
 May, 1914, three tunnels had been started and the ground cleared 
 at the approach of the fourth. 
 
 A number of branch lines are included in the concession of 
 the Bagdad railroad. The products of some of Turkey's most 
 promising districts will pass over their tracks toward the trunk 
 line, thence to be finally transported overland through the Balkan 
 peninsula and Austria to German manufacturing centers. A side 
 line projected to extend northeast of Aleppo will tap eventually 
 an exceedingly rich mineral belt situated at the northern con- 
 vergence of the Tigris and Euphrates. In this district the 
 celebrated copper mines of Argana are found. They are worked 
 in desultory fashion by the Turkish government. In spite of 
 crude methods of extraction and long camel-back hauls the ore 
 is of sufficiently high grade character to yield ample returns. 
 Silver, lead, coal and iron also exist in the same zone of 
 mineralization. 
 
 An important branch connecting the trunk line with the 
 Mediterranean at Alexandretta has been in operation since 1913. 
 The line is only about fifty miles in length and traverses the 
 heart of a rich orange-growing district. The northern track of 
 this branch crosses the plain of Issus where Alexander battled 
 against Darius. At about six miles from its southern terminal 
 the line hugs Mediterranean waters and crosses the spot where, 
 according to statements of the natives, the whale relieved itself 
 of the indigestible burden of the prophet Jonah. 
 
 In central Mesopotamia, branch lines extending in easterly 
 directions will tap rich oil-fields and may eventually provide 
 connection with future trans-Persian railroads. The history of 
 this Mesopotamian region abounds in stirring chapters. The 
 most favored section is found in the narrow neck of land extend- 
 ing for a short distance at the convergence of the courses of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates. This site was marked by nature for the 
 heart of great empires. After the fall of Babylon, the neigh- 
 boring cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon became in turn the 
 capitals of Greek emperors and of Parthian and Sassanid 
 
2C2 FPiONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 sovereigns. Here Bagdad, rich in human history, grew to world 
 fame. The farms and pahn groves surrounding the city spread 
 on the east and west until tliey almost reached the banks of the 
 rivers which carried life and fertility in their waters. At the 
 time of Arab prosperity Bagdad was one of the most magnificent 
 cities of tlie Mohannnedan world. As a center of Mussulman 
 art the city had no peer. The Turkish conquest, which swept 
 light a blight over the land, put an end to the city's pros- 
 perity. 
 
 In modern times, Persians and Turks have vied with each 
 other to retain possession of the land. Bagdad then became the 
 center of the struggles waged between Caliphs and Imams. The 
 conflict which splits Ishim into the two rival camps of Sunnis and 
 Shiites revolved around the city. The mausoleums and mosques 
 Avhii'h auimally attract thousands of pilgrims are the sanctuaries 
 in which upholders of the divergent beliefs elbow each other 
 oftener than in any other Mohammedan city. 
 
 Should the Bagdad railroad be destined to remain German 
 property the line is bound to become the backbone of German 
 supremacy in western Asia. Germania, helmeted and carrying 
 sword and shield, will ride over its rails to conquer Palestine and 
 to wrest the wealth of tlie Nile and Ganges from British grip. 
 But the foreign interests of every European nation are affected 
 by the construction of this celebrated railway. It is the most 
 direct route to Asia for all of Europe. The question of its 
 internationalization is therefore one of the problems of European 
 diplomacy. 
 
 The extensive zone traversed by this railway comprises the 
 fertile and well settled valleys of the Sakaria and the Pursak, 
 practically the whole of the interior plateau to the foot of its 
 surrounding mountains and the eastern section of the Mesopo- 
 tamian valley. Within this belt the most populous inhmd towns 
 of the peninsula succeed each other at regular intervals. This 
 circumstance indicates their former importance as stages on the 
 long journey between the Bosporus and the Persian Gulf. 
 Casual inspection of Ihoir crowded bazars would dispel doubt on 
 
-r1 bu 
 'u 
 
 >. 3 
 
 = a 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 263 
 
 this score. Attention must be called here to the geographical 
 significance of these bazars in the Orient. Every urban center 
 is provided with one. It is usually a roofed inclosure within 
 which the city's business is carried on. Caravans proceeding 
 from remote sections of the continent have their rendezvous 
 outside their gates. The size of these bazars and the activity 
 displayed in each is the measure of an eastern city's intercourse 
 with the rest of the world. In the geographer's mind their 
 significance is the same as that of railroad stations. 
 
 By acquiring this trunk line the Germans succeeded in taking 
 a first mortgage on Turkey. It was the first signal success of 
 the policy of directing Teutonic ambitions into eastern channels 
 which Bismarck had adopted immediately after the consolidation 
 of the German Empire. He had a vision of an all-German line 
 of traffic starting at Hamburg and crossing the Bosporus 
 towards the Far East. In one direction German calculations mis- 
 carried. Germany was unable to finance the undertaking without 
 the support of British and French capitalists. The international 
 character of the line became more and more pronounced between 
 the years 1908 and 1911. During this period a number of agree- 
 ments were signed between Great Britain, France, Germany and 
 Turkey in which a notable percentage of German interests passed 
 over to the two rival countries, the Germans emerging out of 
 the transaction with a bare control. 
 
 The project of an all-German route received another setback 
 when England was awarded the final section of the Bagdad line. 
 This successful stroke of British diplomacy consolidated British 
 influence in the Persian Gulf. Koweit and the environing dis- 
 tricts ruled by petty Arabian chiefs became British protectorates 
 and the long-planned German through line merely butted against 
 a solid wall raised by British ability. 
 
 The French have invested twice as much capital as the 
 English in Turkish railroads. The lines they manage and own 
 directly are the Syrian railroads and the Smyrna-Kassaba line. 
 They are also interested in the construction of roads in the north- 
 eastern districts of the country where concessions have been 
 
201 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 awarded to Bussians. Muscovite inability to provide capital is 
 responsible for the transfer of the building and operating grants 
 to Frenclimen. 
 
 The sphere of French inlluence comprising the Gediz valley 
 and its adjacent territory to the Sea of Marmora lies entirely out 
 of the beaten track of intercontinental travel. Its economic 
 prosperity is therefore governed by purely regional influences. 
 The valley of tlie Gediz river itself compares in fertility with 
 that of its southern consort, the Meander. Tracts of arable land 
 in its northern area and the occurrence of extensive mineral 
 deposits, a few of which are among the most heavily exploited 
 in Asia Minor, combined with genial climate and the accident of 
 position which places the zone directly opposite the European 
 mainland, all tend to impart elements of economic significance 
 which have allured French enterprise. 
 
 As has been shown already, the zone of paramount French 
 influence in Asiatic Turkey lies, south of Asia Minor, in 
 Syria. "La France du Levant" is a term which is not uncom- 
 monly applied by Frenchmen to this Turkish province. The 
 origin of this intercourse may be traced to the trade relations 
 between Gaul and Syria in the fourth century b.c. During 
 antiquity a widely traveled road, albeit of lesser importance than 
 the peninsular highway of Anatolia, connected the Mediterranean 
 and the Persian Gulf. This route started from Egypt and Syrian 
 harbors and skirted the western and northern edges of the 
 Arabian desert before assuming a southerly strike which led it 
 through the Mesopotamian basin. The populous cities of 
 Damascus, Iloms, llama and Aleppo lie on this ancient avenue 
 of trade. Here, as in the case of the Anatolian cities mentioned, 
 their present population is altogether out of proportion to their 
 resources or activity. It can only be regarded as a sign of the 
 importance they once had as stages in this southern east-west 
 route. The Syrian littoral, described by Hogarth as the garden 
 of Arabia,'*" must be regarded therefore as an intermediate 
 region connecting Asia and the country lying west of its Mediter- 
 
 ' " Op. cit., p. 194. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 265 
 
 ranean border. This inllucnce of location prevailed throughout 
 history. 
 
 The conquest of Syria by Frankish Crusaders gave renewed 
 impetus to 'commercial relations between Syria and France. A 
 regular trade route between Marseilles and Syrian ports was 
 established. The treaty of alliance between the Sultan of Turkey 
 and the King of France the first half of the sixteenth century 
 contributed to bind this province more firmly to France. At the 
 end of the seventeenth century French trading-centers had been 
 established in all the important cities of Syria. Napoleon's 
 invasion of this province as a result of the Egyptian campaign 
 and French intervention in the Lebanon in 1859 likewise increased 
 French prestige in the region. The confinement of this western 
 hold to Syria can be ascribed to the influence exerted by the 
 boundaries of the province. It forms with Palestine an excellent 
 type of regional unit consisting of an elongated mountainous 
 strip barely 50 miles wide. With the Mediterranean on the west, 
 and deserts on the south and east, its only outlet to Ihe world 
 lay on the north. 
 
 French builders first undertook to connect the province of 
 Lebanon with the sea by constructing the Beirut-Damascus line. 
 The tracks were subsequently extended to Aleppo, a city whose 
 greatness was founded on its situation along the natural road 
 which connects the Mediterranean with the Persian Gulf. As a 
 railroad center Aleppo's future looms bright, for the city lies 
 also in the path of the tracks which will connect the Black Sea 
 with the Mediterranean. 
 
 In southern Syria, the outlook for French enterprise was 
 dimmed for a few years by the construction of a Turkish line 
 from Damascus southwards. Branch lines were carried to the 
 sea. Harbor concessions, however, were granted to French firms. 
 French interests thus retained a notable share of the control over 
 the traffic in and out of Syria. Furthermore, a concession for a 
 line from Kayak to connect with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road which 
 they obtained in 1914 will enable them to compete with the 
 Hejaz line. 
 
266 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The last railroad agreement between the French and Turkish 
 governments was signed on April 9, 1914, Concessions on the 
 part of the Turkish government are bestowed in return for 
 French financial support. The lines granted will tap northern 
 Anatolia and Armenia. Connection with the German lines will 
 be made at Boli and at Argana. The area tributary to this line 
 contains fertile plains and plateaus. It is known to be rich in 
 mines, notably in copper. The advent of the railroad will 
 undoubtedly brighten the outlook of the Turkish mining industry. 
 
 In southern Arabia a railroad concession was awarded to 
 French promoters in 1908. The line was to connect the seaport 
 of Hodeida with Sana 'a. It was intended to divert into Turkish 
 territory the large trade with the interior which now passes 
 through Aden. Strategic reasons also weighed heavily in the 
 decision to build this road. At no time have the Arabs of the 
 Yemen shown s^nnpathy for their Turkish rulers. Every com- 
 mander sent to quell their incessant rebellions ascribed his 
 failure to lack of transportation facilities. It was mainly in 
 view of this condition that steps were taken to connect this 
 section of the Arabian table-land with the sea. 
 
 The Franco-Russian sphere is the outcome of privileges 
 originally conceded to Russia by Turkey. The terms of the 
 agreement under discussion call for the construction of railroad 
 lines as follows: The trunk line is to start at Samsoun and to 
 end at Sivas." A westerly branch line will diverge from Tokat 
 towards Yozgat mthout reaching this city, however, or extending 
 beyond the divide between the Yechil and Kizil rivers. A second 
 branch will start at Tokat and reach Erzindjian, whence it will 
 be turned northwards to Trebizond. Beyond Sivas the line will 
 be extended to Kharpout and the vicinity of the important 
 Argana copper mine. Connection with the Bagdad railway will 
 be made beyond this point. Finally an important branch 
 will leave the trunlv line at Kazva to extend to Kastamuni and 
 Boli. 
 
 The zone defined by these projected lines covers the greater 
 
 " Asie Francaise, Oct 1913, p. 402. 
 
The A 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. VI 
 
 EXTENSION OF 
 
 THE HEJAZ LINE 
 
 TOWARD MECCA 
 
 Scale 1 : IS 000 000 
 
 ■ ^*^^^^{aroa north of this symbol) French flllllll||||[| 
 
 S [.. .S' claims extend over the whole region Greek i^V/V^;::::-;;:.:.. 
 
 and Italian claims are political. German, British,and Frtmch 
 ^(^ economic. Greek claims are both racial and economic. 
 
 ■<■■■ ■ ■ in operation,'^*»^under constrtwtion,»*»»»proJectod. Fc 
 'ship of the lines see map in Bull, Amen Geogr. Soc, Dec. 1915. 
 
 V-' 
 
The American Geographical Society of New York 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917. PI 
 
 VI 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 2G7 
 
 part of northern Asia Minor. It forms a region in which relief 
 and the rigor of the climate have retarded the development of 
 the population.'' These geographical disadvantages are com- 
 pensated by ample natural resources. The eastern section is 
 known to contain a rich copper belt which bids fair to b(!Come 
 the site of a thriving industry. The deltaic strijjs and river 
 valleys will permit extensive tobacco culture and fruit raising. 
 The passing of this zone under the sphere of western inlluence 
 is a mere result of Russia's constant endeavor to obtain a coast 
 line wliich will not be closed to navigation during the winter. 
 
 The only line owned by the Turks in their country is the 
 narrow-gauge railway known as the Ilejaz line which starts from 
 Damascus and is intended to reach the holy town of Mecca. The 
 financing of this line has been unparalleled in the annals of rail- 
 road building. Ostensibly the purpose of the construction was 
 to provide traveling conveniences to 250,000 pilgrims who, it is 
 estimated, came annually from all parts of the Mohammedan 
 world to worship at the Kaaba. In the belief of many, the lino 
 was built for strategical reasons and to enforce Turkish sov- 
 ereignty among the Arabs, who have always been loath to admit 
 the Sultan's claims to the Calii)hate. 
 
 The funds for the construction and equipment of the road 
 were obtained by appealing to the religious feelings of the 
 230,000,000 Mohammedans scattered in widely separated regions 
 of the globe. Stress was laid on the pious character of the 
 undertaking. According to reports, $14,000,000 were collected 
 soon after the enterprise was launched. Thereafter about 
 $12,000,000 were contributed annually for several years. The 
 operation involved no responsibility to the promoters, headed 
 by Abdul Hamid, the former Sultan of Turkey, all the funds 
 being bestowed in the form of donations. The road has thus no 
 shareholders and no bonded indebtedness, its capital being spon- 
 taneously wiped off. 
 
 The religious character of the undertaking is apparent in the 
 mosque-wagon attached to each train. Seen from the outside, 
 
 »» Hogarth: op. cit., p. 244. 
 
268 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the prayer carriage is distinguished only by means of a diminu- 
 tive minaret six and a half feet high. The interior is fitted out 
 according to religious custom with rugs on the floor and framed 
 Koranic verses in letters of gold on the walls. The direction of 
 Mecca is indicated by a map at the end of the car, so as to enable 
 the faithful to orient themselves properly when engaged in 
 prayer. 
 
 A hopeful view of the future of Turkey's economic position 
 may be entertained by remembering that the land is still unex- 
 ploited and that the resources of its soil and subsoil await the 
 handling of western energy. It is expected that as fine a cereal 
 crop as can be obtained any^vhere in the world will be raised in 
 the region between Eskishehir, Angora and Konia. Five million 
 dollars spent by Germans on irrigation at Chumra in the 
 vicinity of the last-named city has proved conclusively that a 
 thriving agricultural industry can be established on the interior 
 plateau of Asia Minor. The Cilician plain, where cotton and 
 cereals are cultivated, contains vast tracts of swamp land which 
 can be reclaimed. Here, too, irrigation would greatly improve 
 cotton culture. Many of these rich soils are parts of Turkish 
 crownlands which have been estimated by some to amount to one- 
 tenth of the entire area of Turkey. The lands owned by the 
 Evkaf, or Ministry of Religious Foundations, also cover vast 
 areas. Estates held under either of these forms of tenure can 
 be rendered highly productive under western management. The 
 southernmost end of the Bagdad line taps rich oil fields which 
 are situated in the area of transition between the plateau of Iran 
 and the Mesopotamian depression. The railroad traverses the 
 western end of this oil basin. Its eastern section in Persia has 
 been developed since 1908 by British firms. 
 
 The international control of Turkish railroads reflects the 
 transitional character of the land over which they are built. 
 Ownership in Turkish lines is of practically no value to so back- 
 ward a people as the Turks have proved themselves to be. It 
 is of vital importance to the industrial communities of the coun- 
 tries which hold the extremities of the roads of which the Turkish 
 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL CASE OF TURKEY 269 
 
 system is but a link. Germany, Austria and France at the 
 western extremity of the transcontinental line, Great Britain in 
 India at its eastern end, have interests which affect a large 
 proportion of their population. In the west the great through 
 line starts in some of the busiest industrial centers of the world. 
 In the east it taps coveted markets. The attention of European 
 manufacturers is directed towards densely populated India or 
 China simply because profitable trade is found where numbers 
 exist. 
 
 A comprehensive glance at the spheres of foreign influence in 
 Turkey shows that the most satisfactory evidence of the control 
 of geography over the development of railway zones and spheres 
 of foreign influence in Asia Minor is obtained by mere reference 
 to the regions in which adverse geographical conditions prevail. 
 The Italian and Russian spheres are both characterized by 
 physical and climatic conditions which have stood in the way of 
 human development. The map reveals the absence of railways 
 in both. 
 
 In the more favored zones western influences are shown by 
 the presence of modern surface features. Striking examples of 
 German enterprise can be observed along their extensive sphere 
 of action. Grain warehouses at Polatli on the Angora line receive 
 the crops of the environing country. In the plains of Konia 
 canals and locks of varying dimensions have been built and the 
 former swampy area is fast becoming a heavy producer of 
 wheat. Farther south near Adana over 200,000 acres have been 
 reclaimed mainly for cotton growing. In this district important 
 harbor works have been undertaken at Alexandretta which it is 
 planned to make both the outlet of all southern Asia Minor and 
 the terminal of the sea route from Europe to the east. 
 
 Similarly French influence in Syria is observable in the 
 macadamized highways of the Lebanon no less than in the 
 development of a thriving silk indiistry. In the British zone of 
 the Meander valley mines have been opened up by British capital. 
 Along with this economic progress education is also advancing. 
 Numerous European and American schools were in existence in 
 
270 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Asiatic Turkey prior to the European war. The mere presence 
 of European employees of the railroads in the Anatolian towns 
 is enough to infuse new thoughts into the minds of the inhabi- 
 tants. On the whole the locomotive is performing its civilizing 
 work and Asia Minor is gradually becoming Europeanized. 
 
 Summing up we j5nd that we have dealt mth a connecting 
 region which may justly be considered as the classical type in 
 geography. A land which by its position was everyman's land, 
 and which, because of its geography, was of greater interest to 
 the outsider than to its own inliabitants. Being a part of three 
 continents it became part of the life which flourished in each. 
 A nation formed on such a site belongs more to its neighbors 
 than to itself. In this respect its future vnll resemble its past. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 
 
 The peoples and ideas emanating from within the realm which 
 still bears the name of Turkey have left an indelible mark on 
 the rest of the world. Crossed by some of the great highroads 
 of history, the land is inspiring in every aspect in which it is 
 regarded. Its heritage of memories and the prestige of a happier 
 and grander past are undisturbed by marks of decadence. Most 
 of the foundations of our progressive spirit were laid in that 
 eastern region. From a purely scientific standpoint, its human 
 grouping and surface configuration present highly interesting 
 interdependence. 
 
 The region is divisible into six major geographical sections. 
 Each forms a background against which distinct types of the 
 human family are displayed. The various groups differ from 
 one another in religion and language, often even in race. A 
 fringe of fresh and verdant coastland which surrounds the 
 elevated shelf of Asia Minor is largely Greek and Christian. The ' \j^^v,, 9^ 
 only foothold which western thought, art or temper ever obtained ' r^-^ Qawho-'tNc 
 in Asiatic Turkey is found within this wave-washed strip of ' " yt\>«* 
 land. The plateau-heart of Anatolia is predominantly Turkish 
 and Mohammedan. The Christian element scattered on its 
 steppe-like surface is unable to assert itself and yields to 
 Oriental ascendancy. The high and broad mountain masses 
 which border it on the east are the home of the Armenoids, 
 generally Christians, sometimes Mohammedans, but almost always 
 characterized by broad-headedness accompanied by a peculiar 
 flattening of the back of the skull. Beyond this mountain barrier 
 Asiatic Turkey becomes entirely Semitic, being mainly Arabian 
 in speech and overwhelmingly Mohammedan in creed. Three 
 main regions characterize this southern area. The long and 
 
 271 
 
272 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 narrow corridor of Syria became the liigliway which iu antiquity 
 bound the flourishing empires of the Nile basin to the powerful 
 kingdoms of the Hittite highlands and the ILesopotamian low- 
 lands. Its motley population, containing representatives of 
 every race, is a relic of former to-and-fro human displacements 
 along its trough-like extension. In the adjoining desert Bedouin 
 tribes find their favorite tramping ground. The twin valley of 
 Mesopotamia is the home of peoples in whom fusion of Semitic 
 and Indo-European elements is observable. 
 
 The history of this land is that of its invaders. Successive 
 streams of humanity poured into it from four superabundant 
 reservoirs. Its central mountain zone was the motherland of a 
 virile race whose sons went forth at intervals to breathe ^-itality 
 into gentler populations scattered between the JEgean coast and 
 the valleys of the Nile and Mesopotamia. Armenians and a 
 number of Mohammedan sects represent today this Alpine race. 
 Mediterranean men proceeded constantly from the south and 
 west to new homes in the pleasant valleys that connected eastern 
 ^gean shores with the interior table-land. Mobile Semitic hosts 
 abandoned the plateau of inner Arabia before the time of our 
 earliest records and drifted naturally northwards towards the 
 fertile Tigris-Euphrates basin or the commercial routes of 
 Syi'ia. Finally a Turki element, lured out of its mountain cradle 
 in the Altai by scattered grass lands extending westwards, 
 swarmed in successive hordes into Asia Minor and even beyond, 
 well into the heart of Europe. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing fundamental wanderings, the 
 inflow of an Iranian element, composed of men of Aryan speech, 
 may be observed. This contingent marched out of the plateau 
 of Iran and reached the Turkish highland without having to 
 scale its slopes. As a result of this migration Persian words 
 permeate Armenian ^ extensively. The Turks also have appro- 
 priated a certain amount of Persian words and culture from the 
 
 * Fully one-third of Armenian consists of words of Persian stock. Some Armenian 
 philologists point to the existence of a small remnant of highly ancient words which 
 cannot be traced to Aryan forms and which probably represent the siirs'ival of a 
 langnase indigenous to the Armenian highlands. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 273 
 
 same source. Eacially, however, the eastern element was absorbed 
 by the Armenoid population. 
 
 The present inhabitants of the diversified domains of the 
 Sultans have been welded by the run of history into a shadowy 
 political unity which has failed to harmonize their incompatibili- 
 ties of origin and ideals. Turkey is a thoroughly theocratic 
 state. Its sovereign-caliph and his subjects have always consid- 
 ered it their most important mission to bring Islam to the 
 infidel. So great is the hold of ideals over the human mind, 
 however, that the non-Mohammedan populations have clung pas- 
 sionately to their religious beliefs. We are forced to seek in 
 creed the main distinguishing traits which, outwardly at least, 
 divide the inhabitants of Turkey into groups of different names. 
 We shall see, however, that in the minds of many of them, 
 language or historical traditions have little significance. At the 
 same time it is believed that distinctions of a more fundamental 
 character will be brought out in the course of this chapter. 
 
 The Greeks 
 
 Our knowledge of the first appearance of Greeks in Asia 
 Minor has undergone radical revision in recent years. Their 
 prehistoric culture can be traced as far back as the Neolithic. 
 The chief interest of modern discovery centers around the now 
 accepted fact that Greek culture originally invaded the region 
 from the south and that the Indo-European element which 
 brought Aryan speech to the land is a later wave which flooded 
 the original Mediterranean stock at some time during the transi- 
 tion from the Age of Bronze to that of Iron.^ The southwestern 
 coast was first colonized. A northerly extension occurred thence 
 and proceeded mainly along the coast.^ 
 
 The sequence of geological events preceding man's appear- 
 ance upon the ^gean coast of Asia had imparted features 
 which were destined to favor human development to an excep- 
 
 *H. E. Hall: The Ancient History of the Near East, London, 1913, pp. 31-79. 
 ' R. Dussaud : Les civilisations pr^hglleniques dans le bassin de la Mer Eg^e, 
 Paris, 1914, pp. 414-455. 
 
274 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 tional degree. A land-bridge connecting the Balkan and Anatolian 
 peninsulas occupied the site of the ^gean Sea at the dawn of 
 quaternary times. The subsidence of the land during this period 
 was accompanied by heavy fracturing trending in east-w^est 
 lines. The ^gean archipelago, studded with islands and sur- 
 rounded by deeply indented coasts, conveys a vivid picture, on 
 the map, of the crustal deformity which occurred. 
 
 Climate also conferred its share of advantages. The long and 
 narrow valleys are sheltered by mountains on all sides except to 
 seaward. Northerly air currents cannot reach them. Frosts or 
 snows are therefore unusual.* The course of moisture-laden 
 winds blowing landward from the seas that wash the three coasts 
 of Asia Minor is arrested by the mountainous rim of the 
 peninsula. Precipitation is almost entirely expended upon the 
 narrow shore lands. Copious rainfall and flowing rivers thus 
 provide this historic Anatolian fringe with patches of luxuriant 
 vegetation and green valleys. The interior plateau, on the other 
 hand, remains parched and barren during the summer months. 
 
 A splendid stage for Greek history was thus built during the 
 prehuman period. Early Mediterranean oncomers discovered 
 sheltered havens and fertile inlets along the entire development 
 of the fancifully dissected coast. A natural festoon of outlying 
 islands increased their security by providing them with advanced 
 posts for the detection of hostile raids. Erosion along the 
 parallel lines of east-west rifts had carved fair valleys in which 
 the winding rivers of classical literature found a channel. But 
 above all, the sea contributed commerce and cosmopolitanism, 
 both great elements of world power. These in turn favored the 
 growth of tolerance, — a trait which has ever marked the western 
 mind and w^hich, at that particular spot, was to constitute a 
 bastion destined to remain impregnable to the opposing spirit of 
 the east.^ 
 
 Intermediate site, low relief above sea level and genial climate 
 
 * D. G. Hogarth: The Nearer East, New York, 1902, p. 102. 
 
 «D. G. Hogarth: Ionia and the Near East, Oxford, 1909; J. L. Myres: Greek 
 Lands and the Greek People, Oxford, 1910. 
 
J 
 
 /'' 
 
7^ Amtrican GtogratJikal Sociefy of New Yorii 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nalionalily In Europe, 1917. PI. VII 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 275 
 
 combined to give the Greeks a full share of the joy of life. These 
 are the physical elements upon which the striking cultural 
 superiority of Hellenism is founded and without the concourse 
 of which it has never set permanent foot anywhere. The brilliant 
 florescence of Greek civilization in pagan time attained its 
 apogee wherever these three geographical factors prevailed. The 
 Byzantine Empire succumbed before eastern onslaught because it 
 was gradually converted into an Asiatic state and thus exceeded 
 the boundaries marked by nature for Greek humanity. 
 
 The sixth century of the pagan era was the Golden Age of 
 Hellenism in Asia Minor. The elongated seaw^ard valleys became 
 the seat of flourishing and independent nations. A strong demo- 
 cratic spirit prevailed among their inhabitants. City states or 
 self-governing communities were numerous. Their merchant 
 princes drew on the vast eastern rearland for supplies which they 
 sold to Europe. They also collected heavy tolls from freight 
 going eastwards. A double stream of wealth thus flowed into 
 their treasuries. The prosperity of this period has never since 
 been paralleled in the region. 
 
 Creative art found a home upon a site so eminently favored 
 by nature. The heart and mind of its inhabitants throbbed 
 responsively to the stirring events which were the result of their 
 country's situation at the junction of the most important sea and 
 land highways of the then known world. There the antagonism 
 between east and west, out of which so much world history has 
 been made, broke into violent clashes after periods of commercial 
 interchange. Talent was spurred to high achievement under the 
 stimulus of- foreign contact, wealthy patronage and genial 
 environment. Imposing ruins and prolific discoveries of master- 
 pieces of art convey ample testimony of nature's concentrated 
 prodigality on this famous coastland. 
 
 i The present Greek occupants of the Anatolian shores reflect 
 the pleasant character of their environment in the lightness of 
 heart which is one of their distinguishing characteristics. Their 
 craving for gaiety, society and enjoyment is unfailing. Even the 
 gloom of Asiatic dominion does not prevent merrymaking at 
 
276 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 every opportunity. In these respects the Greeks share to an 
 eminent degree the feelings of the nations of the western world. 
 
 With the exception perhaps of the Circassians, the Greeks are 
 the handsomest of the inhabitants of Asiatic Turkey. Classical 
 forms of the head and of the general cast of countenance are met 
 in every nook of the Anatolian seaboard. Their profiles are 
 those of the gently curving lines of ancient Greek statues and 
 medals. Among women graceful carriage of the head and neck 
 adds to their charm. The men are erect and firm of gait. 
 
 Fishing and sailoring are the hereditary occupations of the 
 coastal Greek populations of Asia Minor. Inland they become 
 traders. The "corner" grocery or the village butcher shop is 
 generally owned by a Greek. In recent years the Greek has 
 learned to play the part of the promoter in the growing develop- 
 ment of Asia Minor. He is often the middleman who brings 
 western capital to eastern opportunity. Herein his role differs 
 but slightly from that of his Lydian or Carian ancestors. 
 
 The true Greek is met only as far inland as a whiff of the 
 salt sea air can be inhaled. Eastward, on the Anatolian table- 
 land, Greek communities of the ancient Phrygian and Cappa- 
 docian lands differ from kindred coastal populations as widely 
 as the fascinating greenswards of the one vary from the semi- 
 arid steppe of the other. Once beyond the range of maritime 
 influences, Greeks often forget their own language and adopt 
 Turkish instead. This is frequently the case in many of the 
 inland settlements where Turkish is now the only medium of oral 
 expression for Christian thought.® Racially, too, the Greeks of 
 the inland towns and villages betray Alpine or Armenoid origin 
 rather than Mediterranean descent. Short stature, ample chest 
 development and broad-headedness are conspicuous among them. 
 The rock-hewn villages south of Mt. Argaeus afford a clue to the 
 origin and antiquity of these mountain Greeks.^ They are 
 descendants of the natives who were conquered by the armies 
 
 • In many of these Anatolian communities Greek is written with Turkish characters. 
 ^ G. de Jerphanion: La region d'Urgub (Cappadoce), La G4ogr., Vol. 30, No. 1, 
 July 15, 1914, pp. Ml. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 277 
 
 of Greek pagan states or by Byzantine troops. The conquerors 
 brought language and culture to the upland populations but were 
 numerically insufficient to impose a new racial stratum. Later 
 the wave of Turkish invasion drove out Greek and forced Asiatic 
 speech on the same mountain populations without always replac- 
 ing Christianity by Mohammedanism. 
 
 Duality of language is sometimes accompanied by a strange 
 duality of creed among Anatolian Greeks. At Jevizlik, on the 
 road between Trebizond and Gumushchane, dwell crypto-Christian 
 Greeks who publicly profess Mohammedanism while maintaining 
 in secret the Greek orthodox faith.® The inauguration of a con- 
 stitutional form of government in 1908, with its promise of 
 religious liberty, gave the members of the community an oppor- 
 tunity to renounce their outward form of faith and proclaim 
 complete adherence to the religion they had never really for- 
 saken. 
 
 To the philologist these ancient Greek communities are veri- 
 table treasure grounds, especially when found in mountainous 
 districts. Archaic forms of speech are in current use among 
 their inhabitants. In many, the purity of the ancient Greek 
 dialects of Asia Minor has been preserved with but slight con- 
 tamination from later literary influences. The very names of 
 those who speak these vernaculars show interesting connection 
 with the classical period of Hellenism. Socrates or Pericles will 
 cook daily for the traveler, and Themistocles supply him with 
 tobacco. More than that, they all make themselves intelligible 
 in the style — and the spirit, too — of inscriptional language. But 
 the old Hellenic dialects should not be confused with the still 
 unknown Lycian, Lydian and Carian languages found in inscrip- 
 tions. There is reason to believe that these primitive speeches 
 of the Anatolian plateau represent exceedingly early stages in 
 the development of Indo-European forms. 
 
 ^any of the Greek communities owe their survival to the 
 proficiency of their members in a particular industry. The 
 settlements of Greek miners scattered in the Pontic and Tauric 
 
 * In the Levant they are called Mezzo-Mezzos. 
 
278 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 mining districts are instances in point. The Turkish conquest of 
 the Byzantine Empire was accomplished by Asiatic barbarians 
 who knew how to fight but included no artisans in their ranks. 
 They were therefore obliged to rely upon the populations of the 
 conquered lands for the maintenance of industrial and commer- 
 cial activity. This notorious incompetence of the Turk for any 
 pursuit other than that of soldiering is, at bottom, the prime 
 cause of the survival of Christian communities within Ottoman 
 boundaries. 
 
 The Tukks 
 
 The appearance and establishment of the Turks in a land 
 which was not that of their origin follows their life as nomad 
 tribesmen of the vast steppeland of central Asia. They were 
 men at large upon the world's largest continent, the northerners 
 of the east who naturally and unconsciously went forth in quest 
 of the greater comforts afforded by southern regions. The 
 flatlands which gave birth to their race lie open to the frozen 
 gales of the north. Their continental climate, icy cold or burning 
 hot in turn, is cut off from the tempering influences prevailing 
 behind the folds of tertiary mountain piles to the south. As the 
 steppemen migrated southward their gradually swelling numbers 
 imparted density to the mass they formed because expansion on 
 the east or west was denied them. China and the Chinese, 
 admirably sheltered by barriers of deserts and mountains, 
 stopped their easterly extension. Christian Russia stopped them 
 on the west, though at a heavy cost to herself, for no obstacle 
 had been raised by nature to meet their advance. The open plain 
 of central Asia merges insensibly into that of north Europe. 
 That is why incidentally Russia is half Tatar today. The 
 Asiatic was forced upon her. She sacrificed herself by absorbing 
 him into her bosom, saving Europe thereby from this eastern 
 scourge, but forfeiting the advantages of progress. 
 
 Cut off from east and west in this manner, the only alterna- 
 tive left to the Turk was to scale the plateau region of western 
 Asia and to swarm into the avenues that led him to conquered 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 279 
 
 territory where lie succeeded in attaining power and organizing 
 his undisciplined hosts into the semblance of a state. The 
 presence of the Turk upon the land to which he conferred his 
 Mongolian name and the very foundation of the Turkish state 
 can in this manner be attributed to outward causes rather than 
 to local development. It was essentially a process of trans- 
 plantation. The consolidation and rise to power of the Ottoman 
 Empire between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries were 
 largely due to foreign conditions, for during that interval Europe 
 was busily engaged in extirpating feudalism and the objection- 
 able phases of medieval clerical influences from its soil. 
 
 The Turks and their name were first known to the western 
 world in the sixth century of our era. But their invasion of 
 Asia Minor should rather be considered as a gradual infiltration 
 begun in prehistoric times. Hittite carvings represent, among 
 others, a recognizable Mongoloid type of Tatar soldiers who 
 fought as allies of the great mountain state.^ Pig-tails, high 
 cheek-bones and oblique eyes have been conspicuously modeled 
 by the sculptor. Tatar migrations are thus discerned in the 
 morning of the history of Asia Minor. The early invaders were 
 steadily reinforced from the east by their kinsmen. The rise 
 of the Seljuk Turks to dominance was the explosion of energy 
 accumulated in the course of the centuries in which this move- 
 ment of Altaic tribes had persisted. The consolidation of 
 Ottoman power marked its culmination. A single tribe could 
 never have acquired sufficient strength to establish a mighty 
 empire had not its ranks been swollen by members of kindred 
 groups encountered during its migration. This is what actually 
 happened when Jenghiz Khan and Timur appeared on the stage 
 of history. Turkish accounts describe both as fiery leaders, men 
 who could command the adherence of the vast swarm of descend- 
 ants of their kinsmen, in whose footsteps they marched. Sultan 
 Osman, the founder of the present Turkish dynasty and reputed 
 to be of the same caliber, likewise drew on a human legacy of 
 centuries for the accomplishment of his designs. 
 
 »J. Garstang: The Land of the Hittites, London, 1910, p. 318. 
 
280 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Unfortunately, the Turks bear a name which is utterly void 
 of significance. They themselves apply it to every Mohammedan 
 inhabitant of Asia Minor without discrimination of race or 
 origin. But for fully eight centuries they have stocked their 
 harems with women seized from conquered populations. It is no 
 exaggeration to say that this human tax has been levied on 
 almost every family of the Caucasus, western Asia and the 
 countries of the Balkan peninsula. Today the net result of this 
 variegated intermixture is that the Tatar origin of the average 
 Turk, so called, is entirely concealed by the mingling with Medi- 
 terranean, Armenoid-Alpine and even Nordic elements. Except 
 in a few isolated instances the Turki type of central Asia is 
 rarely met within Turkish boundaries. Clearly no valid claim 
 to racial distinctiveness can be set up by the Turks. 
 
 In religion the Turk is no innovator. He has merely taken 
 unto himself the idealism of Arabia. And yet his efficient wield 
 of the fine edge of Mohammedan fanaticism failed to sever the 
 ties which bind Islam to this land. Even his language is not his 
 own. The splendor of Arabian syntax and the supple elegance 
 of Persian style alone confer literary flavor upon it. Over 70 
 per cent of the words in Turkish are Arabic retained in unalloyed 
 purity. A scant sprinkling of Tatar words merely recalls by 
 their sound the raucous articulations which form the nomad's 
 speech, while their paucity is a true measure of the limited range 
 of concepts which find lodgment in his mind. 
 
 Turkish nationality is equally meaningless. The descendants 
 of Asiatic nomads became masters of western Asia without ever 
 conferring the boon of government or of nationality upon the 
 land and its peoples. In Gibbon's mordant words 'Hhe camp 
 and not the soil is the country of the genuine Tatar." And 
 Turkey is still a vast field in which the Turk has pitched his tent 
 and merely waits, knowing that the day is not far off when he 
 will have to break camp and seek new pasturages for his herds 
 and flocks. But the site on which he has settled for the past five 
 centuries had been the seat of a highly organized government. 
 Seeing himself master of this estate the Turk uifliesitatingly 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 281 
 
 adopted its institutions. Thus, under the mantle of Islamic 
 theocracy, Byzantine government and customs have continued to 
 flourish in Ottoman dominions. Barring special features belong- 
 ing to Mohammedanism, the ceremonials of the Sultan's court 
 may be traced, step by step, to Byzantine forms. The very 
 absolutism of the caliphs is alien to the fundamentally demo- 
 cratic character of both Tatar societies and Koranic teaching. 
 It is Byzantine and a relic of the despotism of the Roman 
 Caesars. 
 
 In speaking of the Turks it is necessary to carry two distinct 
 types in mind. The pure Tatar vagrant, true to his native 
 indolence, which unfits him for sedentary occupation, is in the 
 minority. The mass of the Turkish population consists of a 
 mixed element in which the racial strain of given localities per- 
 sists along with characteristics imparted by fusion with Turki 
 conquerors. This mingling is indicated further by the spirit 
 which moves this people in the performance of their daily tasks. 
 Its members are recruited among the plodding, gentle-mannered 
 and kind-hearted peasants of the land. Local influence accounts 
 for these qualities. Occasionally, however, the foreign strain will 
 crop out. Then, like their nomad ancestors, who, from peaceful 
 shepherds roaming leisurely from patch to patch of green, are 
 transformed into fiends incarnate by the approach of a thief or 
 a beast of prey, or whom a passing storm will throw into 
 fits of uncontrollable rage which vents itself in passionate out- 
 bursts of shrieking and gesticulation, the Turkish peasants can 
 cast their natural softness of character to the winds and become 
 either bloodthirsty murderers smiting unarmed Christians or else 
 heroes performing gallant deeds on the battlefield. 
 
 The majority of this Turkish population finds a congenial 
 home on the Anatolian upland. Their ancestors beheld here an 
 environment in which the physical characteristics of the plateaus 
 of central Asia were reproduced. They took to it naturally. 
 The table-land is a rolling expanse mournfully devoid of vegeta- 
 tion, save for rare clusters of stunted trees. Scanty plots of 
 grass, surrounding sickly pools or streams, resemble holes in a 
 
282 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 ragged garment spread over its surface. Sun-baked in summer, 
 chilled in winter, with a climate too deficient in moisture for 
 the favorable development of human societies, the land could 
 only appeal to Asiatic sons of semi-arid areas. In recent years, 
 the tendency of Turks to retire to this region is observable 
 wherever the industry of Christian populations of the encircling 
 coastland has rendered life too arduous for Turkish love of 
 ease. 
 
 The penetration of this table-land by nomads from the heart 
 of Asia goes on today as in the past, albeit with abated intensity. 
 It is no rare occurrence in Asia Minor to meet Tatars or 
 Turkomans who have been on a slow westerly march for periods 
 of from five to ten years at a time. Most of them come from 
 the Kirghiz steppes. A vague desire to change their residence 
 from a Christian to a Mohammedan country impels their wan- 
 derings, according to their own accounts. Constantinople looms 
 as an objective nebulously impressed in their minds. But the 
 goal is rarely attained. In reality their migration is as uncon- 
 scious as that of their forefathers and merely carries them out 
 of sheer necessity from pasturage to pasturage in the manner 
 it affected former generations. 
 
 Mohammedan Immigrants 
 
 Ever since the establishment of Turkish authority in western 
 Asia the policy of the Sultan's officials has been directed towards 
 attracting Mohammedan settlers from foreign countries to the 
 unpopulated districts of Turkey. Particularly at the end of 
 unsuccessful wars, special efforts are made to induce Moslem 
 inhabitants of lost provinces to return mthin Turkish bound- 
 aries, where land often exempt from taxation is assigned to them. 
 Widely distributed Circassian, Tatar and Turkoman settlements 
 owe their origin to this Turkish method of increasing the 
 Mohammedan element in the country. The Bithynian peninsula, 
 where Cretaceous limestones and sandy Eocene beds provide 
 excellent soils, is a region favored by immigrants. 
 
 Eussia's southwesterly spread of empire is responsible for 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 283 
 
 the movement of some 500,000 Circassians from the Caucasus 
 highlands to Asiatic Turkey. Lithe of figure, brilliant-eyed and 
 nimble in mind, these immigrants are morally and physically far 
 superior to their new countrymen. They bring with them the 
 higher standard of living of their native land. Their dwellings 
 are more solidly built than the customary shanties or hovels of 
 the Anatolian table-land, and their food is of the average 
 European quality. Wherever settled, they live in a degree of 
 comfort unknown to the Turkish peasant. Flourishing farming 
 communities have grown up around their villages. In cities they 
 are distinguished by a natural aptitude for commerce, and many 
 an able government official has been recruited from their 
 numbers. 
 
 Tn race, language and religion the Circassians of Turkey present, 
 according to tribal origin, the confusion existing in their cradle 
 land. The Kabardian group of the Uzun Yaila are of western 
 Caucasus extraction and speak an incorporative language. The 
 Chechen settled in Syria are derived from Daghestani highlanders. 
 In some cases Circassians bear Christian names, but worship in 
 mosques. Representatives of central Asiatic, European and even 
 Semitic races are found among them. 
 
 I A colony of Noghai Tatar refugees was founded in the lower 
 Jeihun valley after the Crimean War, at which time it consisted 
 of some 60,000 individuals. Their numbers were speedily 
 reduced, however, by the malaria and fevers of the unhealthful 
 Cilician coast land. A decimated remnant is now engaged in 
 farming the marshy lands originally bestowed on their fathers. 
 They maintain excellent relations with the Turks, with whom they 
 intermarry. 
 
 The Turkomans of Asia Minor are, according to their state- 
 ments, refugees from Muscovite Christianity. In reality they 
 seek escape from Russian pressure exerted to force them to 
 abandon nomadism. This name is applied generally to immi- 
 grants coming from Turkestan who preserved their roving 
 habits. The cruel Turki type of lineament and expression is 
 observable on their faces. They are Sunnis, or orthodox Moham- 
 
284 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 medans, and a Turkish-speaking people, but have little inter- 
 course with native Turks. 
 
 The Karapapaks, or Black Caps, known also by the name of 
 Terekimans, are Shiites, or adherents of the eastern branch of 
 Mohammedanism, from Russian Armenia, who have crossed the 
 Turkish frontier and settled near Patnoz in the Van vilayet. The 
 original seat of this people is between Chaldir and Daghestan. 
 Racially they are of Turki stock. Tatar types predominate 
 among them, although Circassian and Persian physiognomies are 
 by no means uncommon. 
 
 The Lazis of northeasternmost Turkey, w^ho are sometimes 
 known by the name Tchan, form the connecting link between the 
 Caucasian and Anatolian populations. Many of them have for- 
 saken their Russian homes in the past thirty years for the land 
 of their kinsmen on the Turkish side of the frontier. They 
 occupy, in fairly dense communities, villages nestling on the 
 forested seaward slopes of the Pontic Alps, as well as the narrow 
 strip of coast east of Platana. Former generations looked on 
 them as pirates or brigands. They now follow less irregular 
 pursuits, but still bear the reputation of being daring smugglers. 
 The Turkish navy recruits sailors from among them. 
 
 By race the Lazis are allied to the Georgian group of Cau- 
 casus peoples, and their intermixture with ancient Armenian 
 populations is probable. Their adherence to Mohammedanism is 
 lax. They speak a southern dialect of the Grusinian language 
 closely allied to Mingrelian but mingled with Greek and Turkish 
 words. In some localities Turkish entirely replaces their ver- 
 nacular. The limits of their language in Turkey coincide with 
 the western boundary of the sanjak of Lazistan. They extend 
 thence eastward, in a belt fringing the southern base of the 
 Caucasus, all the way between the Black and Caspian seas.^"' 
 
 ^^ Many Moslem immigrants from eastern Europe are also found in Asia Minor. 
 Bosnians, Albanians, Pomaks and, in general, members of every Mohammedan com- 
 munity in the Balkan peninsula consider Asia Minor as a favorable land in which ta 
 settle. 
 
^^^^' 
 
 *v 
 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 YiG. 59 — "Turkish" crowd in an Anatolian city ( Trebizond ) . A gathering in 
 these Turkish cities contains representatives of almost every race in the world. 
 
 Fig. 60 — A group of Maronite women. Their sturdy appearance suggests their 
 highland origin. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 285 
 
 Mohammedan Dissenters 
 
 A number of communities whose origin is wrapped in 
 obscurity are found off well-beaten avenues on the Anatolian 
 table-land. A mild, temperate lot, broad-shouldered and open- 
 faced, they have much in common, in spite of diversity of worship 
 and isolation. Racially they present few of the Turki features. 
 Their speech is usually Turkish, but they keep rigidly apart from 
 the Turks. They are Mohammedans in name only. Having 
 secured immunity from the fanaticism of the masters of the land, 
 they have secretly maintained ancestral beliefs to their full 
 extent. When the light of ethnographic research shall have 
 been fully shed on their rites, it is likely that the tran- 
 sition of religious thought from the paganism of Hellenic 
 times to the Christianity of the Byzantine era will be made 
 clear. 
 
 To this group belong the inhospitable Tahtajis (known also" 
 as Chepmi and, in their westernmost extension in the Aidin 
 vilayet, as Allevis), who are the woodcutters of the upper 
 recesses of the Lycian mountains. A people of almost primitive 
 manners, they form a community of about 5,000 souls. Eastern 
 and western culture swept by their mountain homes, leaving the 
 faintest of traces among them. Having neither priests nor 
 churches they are held in disrepute by the Turks. Similarity 
 with eastern religions can nevertheless be traced in their wor- 
 ship. They wail over the corpses of their dead as do the 
 Egyptians. A vague connection with Iranian ideas is discernible 
 in the belief they hold regarding the incarnation of the devil in 
 the form of a peacock. They cannot be induced to discuss their 
 rites with strangers. In their simple minds faith is all in all, 
 and well accentuates the separatist tendency determined by their 
 rugged mountains. 
 
 A more important group, the Kizilbash, present racial char- 
 acteristics peculiar to the Nordic race, although they too have 
 mingled extensively with the Armenoid natives of the Anatolian 
 mountains over which their settlements are scattered. The name 
 
286 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 is pure Turkish for ''red head," but cannot be traced to head- 
 gear in Turkey. In Persia however allied communities are known 
 whose members wear scarlet caps. The bends of the Kizil 
 Irmak^^ and of the Yechil Irmak contain their villages.^- They 
 also have settlements in the highlands which extend from the 
 Taurus to Upper Mesopotamia. 
 
 A Turkish-speaking people of peaceful habits, engaged exclu- 
 sively in the tillage of their lands, submissive to authority, 
 frugal and industrious, such are the Kizilbash in the midst of 
 their Turkish, Kurdish and Armenian neighbors. They are 
 usually on excellent terms with the Christians. But to this day, 
 after centuries of occupation of the valleys of the Sakaria and 
 Halys, they have remained as foreigners among the Turks who 
 colonized their territory long after them. Probably on account 
 of religious divergences the newcomers have always held them 
 in contempt. 
 
 It is not unlikely that the Kizilbash are lineal descendants of 
 the Galatae of Asia Minor. This western people entered the 
 peninsula through the notch cut by the valley of the Sakaria — 
 an avenue also chosen by the Phrygians sung by Homer. Later 
 the Cimmerians also followed the same route. All these inva- 
 sions from the west brought blondness into Turkey — though not 
 of the pure Nordic type, for the roads leading out of northern 
 Europe had their longest stretches in the brunet territory of 
 central and southern Europe. Nevertheless mingling incurred in 
 the course of migration, as well as after settlement, has not 
 obliterated entirely the fair ancestral type. The strongest argu- 
 ment in favor of the relationship between the Galatae and the 
 Kizilbash lies in the identity of the territory occupied by both 
 peoples. The racial distinction between the two lies in the 
 greater admixture of Tatar blood in the Kizilbash of our times. 
 Gradual change of the Galatian of European provenience into 
 
 "R. Leonhard: Paplilagonia, Berlin, 1915, pp. 359-373; J. W. Crowfoot: Survivals 
 among the Kappadokian Kizilbash (Bektash), Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. 30, 1900, 
 pp. 305-320. 
 
 ** The distribution of Kizilbash villages in the Yechil Irmak valley is shown in 
 G. de Jerphanion's Carte du Bassin du Yechil Irmak, 1:200,000, Paris, 1914. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 287 
 
 the Kizilbasli type of Asiatic affinity was accompanied by the 
 replacement of Celtic by Tatar culture. 
 
 Galates to the Greeks meant any western barbarian. The 
 term was applied to the foreigners whose coming was always 
 marked by destruction and who, in the third and second cen- 
 turies B.C., terrorized Thrace before crossing into Asia Minor. 
 Here they introduced Celtic forms of speech which were current 
 in their settlements as late as the fourth century of our era. At 
 that time the language spoken in parts of Anatolia was similar 
 to the dialect of the Traveri, a Celtic tribe on the Moselle whose 
 name has been perpetuated in that of the city of Treves.^' 
 Arrian, a native of Bithynia, describing the customs of the Celts 
 gives accounts of usages, such as the worship of the oak, which 
 prevailed in his country and which on investigation are found to 
 have their counterparts in Europe. 
 
 In religious thought, the Kizilbash may be classed as the most 
 liberal among the Mohammedans of Turkey. Their interpreta- 
 tion of the Koran exempts them from keeping fasts and allows 
 them the use of wine. They permit their women to go about 
 with a freedom which has never been tolerated among Sunnis. 
 Christian rites, such as the custom of praying over bread and 
 wine, are performed among them. Fragmentary survivals of 
 pagan observances likewise form part of their worship. 
 
 The Kizilbash are closely affiliated with the Bektash confra- 
 ternity, a once powerful Islamic organization which still o^\tis 
 a large number of convents (tekkes) and churches in Turkey. 
 Indiscriminate use of the two names has led to much confusion 
 in the writings of travelers. It seems preferable to restrict 
 the name of Kizilbash to the group of Anatolian people whose 
 mountain origin is amply proven by somatic traits and whose 
 cultural development denotes amalgamation with invaders of the 
 table-land. The term Bektash can then be applied to the form of 
 religion to which this people adheres at present. The connection 
 is probably founded on the ease with which Bektash proselytism 
 
 " J. G. Frazer : The Golden Bough, the Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, 
 London, 1911, Vol. 2, p. 126, footnote 2. 
 
288 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 drew recruits from among Kizilbash populations. In the light 
 of this distinction the so-called Bektash people of the Lycian 
 mountains are merely a sub-group of the Kizilbash, to whom they 
 are related in part by race, language and religion. 
 
 The Balikis, or Belekis, living on the southern fringe of 
 Sasun,^* are probably also a remnant of the old highland popu- 
 lation. The Mohammedanism they profess is tainted with dim 
 reminiscences of Christian worship and was probably adopted as 
 a self-preservatory measure. Religious beliefs weigh lightly 
 however on this community. Its members possess neither church 
 nor mosque. A term of residence among them would probably 
 enable an observer to discover survival of very ancient customs. 
 The passing traveler can do little more than note the unusual 
 freedom with which their women go about unveiled or note the 
 mixture of Arabic, Kurdish and Armenian words in their 
 language. 
 
 The Avshars, descended from Persian immigrants mingled 
 with native hill populations, are settled mainly on the eastern 
 slopes of the Anti-Taurus facing the northern end of the 
 Binbogha range.^^ The two elements which are blended in this 
 people are also represented in their religion. The newcomers 
 brought Shiite Mohammedanism and insured the predominance 
 of their views over the relics of the nature cults of the aboriginal 
 groups. Traces of Christian influence are observable in their 
 daily life. Around Cesarea these Avshars give the shape of a 
 cross to the loaves of unleavened bread they bake. In view of 
 the deep-rooted aversion of Mohammedans towards any trace of 
 Christian symbolism, it is evident that we are here in the pres- 
 ence of an old-established usage rather than one adopted in 
 post-Mohammedan times. But in speech, custom and occupation 
 the conmiunity differs m no respect from neighboring Turks. 
 
 The nomad element of the Anatolian plateau is represented 
 mainly by the Yuruks, whose wanderings range from the northern 
 landward slopes of the Cilician Taurus to the mountainous tract 
 
 "H. F. B. Lynch: Armenia, London, 1901, Vol. 2, p. 430. 
 
 "Earl Percy: Highlands of Asiatic Turkey, London, 1901, pp. 89-90. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 289 
 
 surrounding Mt. Olympus. They are divided into tribes of 
 varying size, some not exceeding twenty tents. Their number is 
 estimated at about 200,000. Roving over barren districts, the 
 members of this group are half-starved human products bred in 
 areas of defective food supply. The men know no other occupa- 
 tion than that of tending their sheep and horses. The women 
 are noted carpet-weavers. Strangers passing within sight of 
 their tent settlements can generally rely on finding the nomad's 
 proverbial hospitality under their felt roofs. 
 
 In common with kindred plateau communities, the Yuruks 
 hold severely aloof from the Turks. But they have adopted 
 Turkish speech, and it is gradually replacing their ancient ver- 
 nacular. They have sometimes been connected with European 
 gipsies, although the little that is known concerning their history 
 and traditions hardly warrants such an assumption. A promis- 
 ing field for ethnographic research still awaits exploitation 
 among their settlements. They call themselves Mohammedans 
 and circumcise, but have no priests or churches.^® 
 
 The Aptals of the lofty valleys of northern Syria also have 
 nomadic habits and appear to be closely related to the gipsies. 
 Although they claim to be Sunnis they rarely intermarry with 
 settled Mohammedans. Their roaming life carries them from 
 village to village, generally in the capacity of musicians and 
 entertainers. According to their traditions they were expelled 
 from the lower Tigris regions in the ninth century." 
 
 The Armenians 
 
 The table-land on which Armenian life unfolded itself was 
 faulted into blocks and covered by flows of huge volcanoes after 
 the Miocene. Pontic ranges fringe it on the north and thereby 
 forbid access to the Black Sea.^^ On the south, the folds of the 
 Anti-Taurus mountains likewise act as successive barriers. But 
 
 " C. Wilson: Handbook for Travelers in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, etc., 
 London, 1911, p. 68. 
 
 *^ The gipsies of Syria are known by the name of Nawar, or Zotts. 
 
 *' Cf. inset on accompanying map entitled " Part of Asiatic Turkey showing Dis- 
 tribution of Peoples." 
 
290 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 no mountain obstacles intervene to the east or west of Armenia. 
 Close racial, linguistic and historical relations can therefore be 
 traced between Armenians and Persians today. Furthermore, 
 the existence of important Armenian communities scattered all 
 the way west of Armenia to the coasts of the ^gean becomes 
 intelligible. The very crowning of Armenians as Byzantine 
 emperors may ultimately be explained by this east-west extension 
 of relief in western Asia. 
 
 The heart of the Armenian plateau is found in the gently 
 folded limestones and lacustrine deposits surrounding Lake Van. 
 Here an elevated plain relieves the ruggedness of environing 
 peaks. Here, too, our earliest knowledge of Armenian history is 
 centered. But the formation of nationality upon the surrounding 
 sites of intricate relief was a long-drawn process. A highland 
 dissected into numerous valleys could not become the seat of a 
 united people. The region, being broken up, favored division. 
 Accordingly feudalism flourished undisturbed throughout its 
 extent. Each valley or habitable stretch was governed by its 
 ovni princeling. These petty chiefs relied on the security provided 
 by their rugged environment and were naturally disinclined to 
 acknowledge authority emanating from outside their valley 
 homes. 
 
 The plain of Van has always loomed large in the history of 
 Armenia. This interesting depression occupies the southeastern 
 corner of the great central plateau and lies surrounded by 
 volcanoes which were centers of lively eruptive activity during 
 the Pleistocene. Together with the plain of Mush it forms a 
 single basin which was once a lake bed. The heavily saline 
 waters of Lake Van still cover its deepest section. The exposed 
 lake bottom consists of volcanic matter carrying fertilizers in 
 abundance. Rich brown loams contributed to the region's famed 
 fertility. Between the tenth and ninth centuries b.c. the Vannic 
 community became the nucleus of a confederacy of mountain 
 tribes forming the kingdom of Urartu," which extended to the 
 
 *• The Mexican parallel is too striking to be omitted here. The southern end of 
 the plateau of Anahuac, on which the waters of Lake Texcuco receded within historical 
 

 - o 
 
 ,:= o 
 
 c to 
 
 S S 
 
 I o 
 
 
 "CO 
 V "" Ctf ''- 
 
 ^ rt ■" 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 rt -O " 
 
 d ^ o 
 
 M TO !_ 
 
 'ph H 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 291 
 
 heads of the valleys debouching on Assyrian territory.^" After 
 successful resistance against Assyria the independence of the 
 Armenian state became well established about 800 b.c. 
 
 The ancient history of the Armenians is closely related to that 
 of the Hittites. The appearance of the former is coeval with 
 the disappearance of the latter. The probability of a common 
 origin is strong. Enough light has been shed on the history of 
 the Armenian table-land prior to 700 b.c. to enable us to divide 
 its political subdivisions into two great groups. The Vannic 
 states of the kingdom of Urartu held sway in the northern 
 ranges. Hittite dominance extended to the southern group of 
 mountains. It may be assumed that the Armenians of the 
 present day are direct descendants of these ancient populations, 
 due allowance being made for the invasion of Iranian peoples 
 who brought eastern culture to the land. The free inflow of this 
 eastern element was impeded, however, by the highly dissected 
 table-land of Armenia. It trickled westward without ever assum- 
 ing the proportion of a flood. Hence the Armenian physical type 
 is preserved with considerable purity beneath the shroud of 
 Aryan culture. 
 
 The Armenians call themselves Hai and trace their descent 
 to a mythical mountain chief Haik. Hai-istan is the name of 
 their native land in Armenian. The word Armenia itself is of 
 Persian derivation and foreign to Armenian. A remote possi- 
 bility of the connection of Hai with the old name Hit or Hatti 
 may be advanced in view of the frequency with which the elision 
 of the letter t and the replacement of d-t sounds by y occur in 
 Armenian.-^ The etymology of the name, however, still awaits 
 more thorough elucidation. 
 
 Although the relation between the Hittite and Armenian 
 
 times, is the center of the stage of Mexican history. Surrounding this open land 
 numerous narrow valleys were peopled by independent tribes which eventually banded 
 together under the leadership of the community living near the central body of water. 
 This lake confederacy became Cortez's most powerful opponent when the conquistadores 
 undertook their memorable expedition. Cf. F. J. Payne: History of the New World 
 Called America, Oxford, 1899, pp. 450-463. 
 
 ""D. G. Hogarth: The Ancient East, New York, 1914, p. 74. 
 
 ^^ Notably * is entirely eliminated from the third person singular. 
 
292 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 languages yet remains to be determined, and the secrets of the 
 old Vannic language are not fully revealed, enough is known to 
 prove Armenian an Aryan infiltration from the west. Herodotus 
 refers to them in a natural manner as the ^pvy^v anomoi (VII, 
 73), ''Phrygian colonists." It is significant to note that this 
 Greek appellation was bestowed on the Armenians at a time 
 when western Asia was better known to the civilized countries 
 of the world than it is at present. Modern research, however, 
 places the inhabitants of the plateau of Anatolia and of the 
 Armenian mountain land in the same racial type. 
 
 Planted squarely on the scene of the secular conflict between 
 the civilization of Europe and Asia, Armenia became the prey 
 of the victor of the moment. But the united influence of site and 
 configuration was more than once during this long struggle 
 strong enough to confer independence on the Armenian. As a 
 buffer between eastern and western empires the country enjoyed 
 three distinct periods of native rule prior to the Ottoman 
 conquest. 
 
 Throughout these vicissitudes, Armenian life centered mainly 
 around its mountain home. Nevertheless, altitude alone does not 
 suffice to explain the characteristics of the people. Climate must 
 also be taken into account. Armenians are distributed in a belt 
 extending one degree on either side of the line of north latitude 
 39°. Within this zone the products of the soil as w^ell as the 
 customs are those of temperate regions bordering on the warm. 
 The narrow highland valleys are wonderfully fertile. Wheat is 
 harvested before July at an elevation of 3,600 feet in many dis- 
 tricts. The country enjoys fame for the variety and excellence 
 of its fruits. 
 
 Little wonder, then, that traits which distinguish populations 
 reared in sunny lands should also prevail among the dwellers of 
 this rugged mountain zone. Voluble in the extreme, endowed 
 with a highly developed imaginative sense and with an innate 
 tendency to aggrandize and glorify the facts of ordinary life, the 
 Armenian is often an eastern counterpart of the celebrated 
 Tarasconese created by Daudet's genial fancy. ' 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 293 
 
 But a rocky environment is equally reflected in the minds of 
 the Armenians. Harshness of manner and a certain degree of 
 uncouthness are present along with tenacity of purpose and 
 moral fortitude. Through the latter, endurance of Turkish per- 
 secution, which has generally assumed exceedingly savage form, 
 was made possible. Armenians are also known for their martial 
 spirit. Dwellers of many of the less accessible recesses of the 
 Tauric or Armenian highlands held their Turkish foes in check 
 for centuries and managed to maintain a state of semi-inde- 
 pendence in their conqueror's land until confronted by modern 
 artillery. 
 
 Again, the influence of the mountain home of the Armenians 
 is expressed in their art. Poems and songs often extol the 
 fairness of the valleys where rest will be found after descent 
 along interminable slopes. Sometimes the beauty of lakes, 
 embosomed in high plateaus, fires the poet's fancy. Towering 
 summits figure in legend as steeples from which melodious 
 chimes send forth their tones. Armenian music, too, resounds 
 with echoes that seem to reverberate from valleys cut deep in 
 the sides of their mountains. 
 
 Perhaps it is these varied influences which convert the rough 
 and mannerless mountain boors into the most polished and cul- 
 tured citizens of Turkish cities. Armenians have the reputation 
 of being energetic business men. Their honesty was proverbial 
 among the Turks, who generally intrusted the management of 
 estates or domains to their hands. Among them alone throughout 
 the inland districts of Asiatic Turkey, western progress found 
 receptive minds. 
 
 The size of the Armenian population of Asiatic Turkey has 
 never been accurately determined. The inaccuracy of Turkish 
 statistics is notorious. Furthermore the boundaries of Turkish 
 administrative provinces have been drawn with the sole view of 
 creating groups in which the Mohammedan element would pre- 
 dominate. The estimate of 2,100,000 Armenians for Asiatic 
 Turkey given by so reputable a writer as Major-General Sir 
 
294) FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Charles Wilson" is undoubtedly high. Cuinet's figures given by 
 Selenoy and Seidlitz -^ probably come nearer the truth. The 
 wholesale massacre of Armenian males which has been system- 
 atically conducted by the Turks for the past twenty years and 
 which culminated in the massacres and deportations of the past 
 two years, makes it improbable that over 1,000,000 Turkish 
 Armenians still live. Prior to the European war, the only dis- 
 tricts of any size in which they constituted a majority of the 
 population were found west of Nimrud Dagh in the plains sur- 
 rounding Mush as well as in the Kozan district north of the 
 Cilician plains.** 
 
 The Kurds 
 
 An Alpine zone of transition connecting the plains of northern 
 Mesopotamia with the surrounding mountains on the north and 
 east became the homeland of the Kurds. In a broad sense it 
 is the drainage area of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is also the 
 site of important mountain gaps through which human move- 
 ments from east to west or vice versa have proceeded. Before 
 the consolidation of Turkish authority in this region, a matter of 
 less than a century ago and still in an imperfect stage of com- 
 pletion, Kurdish clans, each under the sole leadership of their 
 respective chieftains, controlled the pass through which traffic 
 from the southern lowlands or the eastern plateau was directed 
 
 ** Handbook for Travelers in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, etc., London, 
 1911, p. 75. 
 
 " Peter7)ianns Mitt., Vol. 42, Jan. 1S96, p. S; and for details V. Cuinet: La 
 Turquie d'Asie, Paris, 1891-94, Vols. 1-4. 
 
 " The Armenian population of Turkey is divided by creed into three distinct com- 
 munities. The vast nnvjority — probably about ninety per cent — belong to the Gregorian 
 sect of Christianity. Adherents of the Roman Catholic faith are found chiefiy in 
 western Asia Minor. Protestant congregations have sprung up around the educational 
 institutions maintained by British or American missionary societies. Let it be noted 
 here that many Mohammedan communities in Armenia consist of Armenoid individuals 
 whose membership in the fold of Islam is the result of forcible conversions since the 
 rise of Ottoman power. The Dersimlis, who inhabit the region between the two main 
 branches of the Euphrates, have the reputation of being crypto-Christians of Armenian 
 blood. ^Moslems of Armenian origin are also known in the village of Karageben on 
 the Tehalta river east of Divrik. In Russia the Armenians number a scant million 
 souls. Half of this community is scattered in the valley of the Arax and in the 
 Erivan province. 
 
The American Geographic 
 
 40 
 
 Yuzgal 
 
 ,"'Karamngl 
 
 38 -CT 
 
The American Geographical Sociefy of New York 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PL VIII 
 
 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 ARMEJSIANS 
 
 IN TURKISH ARMENIA 
 
 ( Afier Supan, b<tsed on Cui/vet, 
 Selerwy cund v. Seydblz.) 
 
 SNYDER R dLACK 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 295 
 
 towards the Anatolian table-land. They exacted heavy tolls from 
 passing caravans and derived their chief source of revenue from 
 these levies. 
 
 Their manner of living conforms with the intermediary 
 character of their habitat. The semi-nomads of the plains and 
 southern hills seek cool uplands during the summer months. In 
 winter they descend to the warm plains with their flocks and 
 herds and mingle with their Arab neighbors. Their instinct 
 for seasonal migrations has been developed to such an extent 
 that they cannot refrain from maintaining their semi-annual 
 movements in the Armenian districts to which they have been 
 forcibly removed by the Turkish government, desirous of insur- 
 ing Mohammedan predominance in the Christian valleys of 
 Armenia. 
 
 Language and religion carry the Kurds back to eastern 
 ancestry. However diverse their dialects, Aryan roots forming 
 the framework of their speech have survived in spite of the 
 admixture of Turkish and Arabian words. By creed they are 
 generally upholders of Shiite tradition in its westernmost con- 
 fines. But their religious views vary from tribe to tribe and 
 present as composite a character as their race. Many are 
 Sunnis. Wandering into eastern Asia Minor since hoary 
 antiquity they have culled from Paganism, Christianity and 
 Islamism alike. The predominance of the ideals which inspire 
 these faiths among the individual clans probably affords a clue 
 to the period of their arrival in the localities which they now 
 inhabit. 
 
 Similarly, the racial relation of the Kurds with peoples found 
 east of their land is well established.-' They undoubtedly belong 
 to the European family, though perhaps not in the sense sug- 
 gested by von Luschan, who would connect them with inhabitants 
 of northern Europe. From the writer's own observations the 
 "generally blue eyes and fair hair" are by no means dominant 
 in the regiments of Hamidyeh cavalry recruited exclusively from 
 
 " F. von Luschan : The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, Ann. Rept. Smith- 
 sonian Inst, for 1914, pp. 561-562. 
 
296 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 among Kurdish tribesmen.-" The three groups studied by the 
 eminent anthropologist near Karakush, on the Nimrud mountain, 
 and at Sinjirli were probably remarkably pure, as might be inferred 
 from the nature of their secluded districts. As early invaders of 
 a transition land the Kurds have intermingled extensively with 
 both highland and lowland populations.-' The Kurd varies 
 therefore according to region, the inhabitants of the elevated 
 sections being stocky and of massive build, while the tall and 
 sallow Semitic type appears among those on the 'southern 
 plains."® 
 
 The Kurds, particularly in the semi-nomadic state, are noted 
 freebooters. Travel in the districts they occupy is generally 
 unsafe. Armenians and other Christians find them an inexorable 
 foe. They are none too loath to prey even on Turks, although as 
 a rule the latter obtain immunity in return for the lenient dealing 
 of the government in cases of Kurdish depredations on non- 
 Moslem communities. The strong arm of an organized police 
 alone will end the lawlessness with which their name is coupled 
 in Turkey. 
 
 Good qualities are not wanting among them. A Kurd is gen- 
 erally true to his word. The rude code of honor in vogue among 
 their tribes is rarely violated, and, whenever disposed, the Kurd 
 can become as hospitable as his Arab neighbors. The tempering 
 influence of a settled existence among sedentary tribes is marked 
 by harmonious intercourse with surrounding non-Kurdish com- 
 munities. At bottom their vices are chiefly those of the restless 
 life they lead in a land in which organized government has been 
 unknown for the past eight centuries. 
 
 _The Syeians 
 Syria is the elongated land passage, barely fifty miles in 
 width, which connects northern Africa with western Asia. It is 
 
 " " Rarely of unusual stature . . . complexion dark " is Wilson's description. 
 Handbook for Travelers in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, etc., London, 1911, p. 64. 
 
 *' Mark Sykes: The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 
 Vol. 38, 1908, pp. 451-486. 
 
 ** B. Dickson: Journeys in Kurdistan, Oeogr. Journ., Vol. 35,. No. 4, April 1910, 
 p. 361. 
 

 Fig. 62 — A Kurdisli village in Upper Mesopotamia with characteristic stone 
 shanties peculiar to semi-arid regions. 
 
Fig. G3— a harvest scene in Upper Mesopotamia with Kurds at work. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 297 
 
 one of the world's best-defined natural regions. The sea on the 
 west, and the desert on the east, sharply mark off its fringe-like 
 extension. On the north the Amanus ranges constitute a wall 
 that has proved well-nigh impassable to Semites. To the south 
 the land naturally ends in the Sinai peninsula.-® 
 
 The province is mountainous in its northern half. Its moun- 
 tains are the monuments that throw light on the utter failure of 
 the cause of human progress in northern Syria. A single 
 redeeming feature, the Orontes river valley, favored foreign 
 contact. At its mouth on the Mediterranean western ideas 
 filtered into the land while a blend of eastern influences, Persian 
 and Arabian, flowed down with its waters. All converged at 
 Antioch, the region's greatest center of life and a true product 
 of the Orontes' lower course. Absence of relief in southern 
 Syria, however, was coupled to a Mediterranean climate and 
 fertile soils. These permitted the development of the flourishing 
 civilizations of antiquity. Herein lies the physical basis of the 
 historical evolution of the Syrian fringe and the explantion of 
 the growth of nations and of world religions in its southern 
 lands. 
 
 As a land-bridge of early humanity Syria was necessarily the 
 scene of much coming and going at a time when the civilization 
 of the world was largely confined to what is now known as 
 Asiatic Turkey. Its population therefore presents a mixed 
 character. Hittites, Arameans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Oreeks, 
 Romans, Arabs and Turks conquered the land in turn and 
 imparted their native customs to its inhabitants. The inhabitants 
 of its southern area are now transformed almost beyond the 
 possibility of analysis. The settlements of the elevated and 
 broken northern area, on the other hand, represent very ancient 
 communities. 
 
 The mountains of Syria harbor strange denizens in their 
 northern end. In the northern Lebanon many villages of the 
 western slopes are inhabited by the Metauilehs, who are Shiite 
 
 ='»De Torcy: Notes sur la Syrie, La G4ogr., Vol. 27, No. 3, March 15, 1913, pp. 
 161-197; No. 6, June 15, 1913, pp. 429-459. 
 
298 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 dissenters and bear unenviable reputation for ignorance and 
 inhospitality.^^ Their own traditions point to Persian or Arabian 
 origins. Religion seems to confirm the former claim. At the 
 same time they are known to the Syrians as a sturdy mountain 
 people. Scattered through the same mountain districts the 
 Ismailyehs, another highland folk who under the name of Assas- 
 sins enjoyed sinister fame during the Middle Ages, maintain 
 their abode in inaccessible valleys. The epithet which is coupled 
 to their name is an altogether illogical rendering of the Arabic 
 *'hasheeshin" and does not convey any worse meaning than that 
 of ''hasheesh" fiends. They live mainly in groups around old 
 
 Saracen castles. 
 
 » 
 
 The Ansariyehs 
 
 The Ansariyehs, or Nusariyehs, form an important group 
 among northern Syrians. Their settlements are generally con- 
 fined to the grassy seaward slopes of the mountains stretching 
 north of the Nahr-el-Kebir towards the Gulf of Alexandretta. 
 They also occupy villages in the plains surrounding Antioch. In 
 recent years they have shown a tendency to abandon their moun- 
 tain homes for the less arduous life of the plains. Officially they 
 are regarded as Mohammedans and bear Mohammedan names, 
 but the religion wliich differentiates them from the other inhabi- 
 tants of northern Syria teaches Christian and Sabean doctrines 
 alike. It is believed that they still maintain observances of 
 exceedingly ancient nature cults. The fundamental principles of 
 their creed are transmitted by word of mouth and with injunction 
 to secrecy.^^ Their deification of the conception of fertility is 
 couched in highly metaphorical language in which the produc- 
 tivity of the earth and of the human race is extolled. By making 
 proper allowance for the imagery which clothes the wording of 
 their prayers it will probably be found that their religion 
 resolves itself into a relic of the worship of the mother-goddess 
 
 •• L. Gaston Leary: Syria, the Land of Lebanon, New York, 1913, p. 10. 
 '* R. Dussaud : Les Nossairis, Bibl. de I'Ecole dea Hautes "Etudes, Sciences, Philoso- 
 phie et Eistoire, Paris, 1900, Vol. 129. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 299 
 
 which was deeply rooted throughout the mountain districts of 
 Asia Minor.j Hints of nocturnal orgies accompanying their 
 worship should be taken with a grain of suspicion, as orthodox 
 Mohammedans are prone to such imputations whenever dissen- 
 sion from the Koran is suspected. In this Mohammedans merely 
 follow the lead of Byzantine Christians in whose eyes the relics 
 of Anatolian paganism were as obnoxious as the heresies of their 
 own times. 
 
 * The ancestors of the Ansariyehs and other small sects in 
 northern Syria were closely related to their powerful Hittite 
 neighbors. These peoples all occupy, together with the Druzes 
 and Maronites, the southern limit of known Hittite monuments.^^ 
 Their land is the frontier zone between Syria, Asia Minor and 
 the Armenian highland. It is studded with ruined strongholds 
 which figured prominently in ancient battlej 
 
 The Druzes 
 
 The southern Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges in the rear- 
 land of the Haifa-Beirut coast ^^ are inhabited by Druzes. 
 Tribes of this people are met as far southeast as the Hawran 
 volcanic uplift, whither they have steadily emigrated from the 
 Lebanon in the course of the past hundred years and where they 
 have succeeded in dislodging the former Bedouin inhabitants. 
 These Druzes are best known for their warlike disposition. 
 Although numerically inferior to the Christian population of 
 their native districts, their bellicose qualities have won them 
 predominance in central Syria. In religion they are pure mono- 
 theists. Their standard of morality is high. They call them- 
 selves Mohammedans but do not maintain mosques and rarely 
 practise polygamy. Orthodox Moslems generally repudiate them 
 on account of the discrepancy between their teachings and the 
 tenets of the Koran. As far as can be determined the doctrines 
 
 '''J. Garstang: The Land of the Hittites, London, 1910, pp. 15, 16. 
 
 " About forty towns and villages are held by the Druzes in the southern Lebanon. 
 In the Anti-Lebanon districts they people eighty villages and share possession of about 
 two hundred with their Christian kinsmen, the Maronites. 
 
300 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of the Mosaic law, the Gospels, the Koran and Sufi allegories 
 are represented in their creed. Often when with Christians they 
 will not hesitate to assert belief in Christianity. The leaven of 
 Iranian influences which pervades their doctrines estranges them 
 from the surrounding Semitism just as their highland home 
 separates them from the plainsmen settled around them. The 
 dominance of this eastern strain in their thoughts does not, how- 
 ever, necessarily indicate racial migrations. Historical testi- 
 mony is available to prove that the known form of Druze religion 
 can be traced to the teachings of Hamze, a Persian disciple of 
 Hakem.'* The case is more probably that of an infiltration of 
 foreign ideals and its retention within a region deprived by its 
 relief from intercourse with the more progressive life of the 
 surroundino: lowland. 
 
 ra 
 
 The Makonites 
 
 Closely related to the Druzes are their northwestern neigh- 
 bors, the Maronites, a Christian people, who seceded from the 
 Roman Church in the great schism that followed the council of 
 Chalcedon in 451 a.d.^^ They form a compact mass settled on the 
 western slopes of the Lebanon mountains between the valleys of 
 the Nahr-el-Kebir and the Nahr-el-Barid. Mountain isolation 
 and intermarriage among them have maintained an old type with 
 remarkable purity. Being better farmers than warriors they 
 have suffered from the oft repeated depredations of their war- 
 like neighbors.^® Enmity with their Mohammedan neighbors 
 
 ^* Hakem was a Fatimite caliph of Egypt, who ruled in the early eleventh century. 
 He incurred the hatred of his subjects by causing the incarnation of God in himself to 
 be preached in Cairo by Darasi, his chaplain. Both became so unpopular that they 
 were forced to escape from the capital to the Lebanon, where they succeeded in imposing 
 their doctrines on the mountaineers. The name Druze is believed to be derived from 
 Darasi. 
 
 ** In recent years the Maronites have submitted to the authority of the Vatican. 
 In return certain privileges, such as that of retention of Syriac liturgy, have been 
 accorded to them. They constitute a veritable theocracy, all tribal and commvinity 
 affairs being handled by the clergy. 
 
 ^' The French military expedition to the Lebanon, undertaken in 1860, was caused 
 by the massacre of over 12,000 Maronites by the Druzes in that year." 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 301 
 
 dates from the time of the Crusades when the Maronites had 
 sided with the Christian knights. 
 
 The Jews 
 
 I — 
 
 The Jews of Turkey include a small remnant of the captivity- 
 settled around Jerusalem and in Mesopotamia." After the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, the valley of the Tigris became the 
 most important seat of the Hebrews. Parthian tolerance granted 
 them a partial autonomy under the authority of a chief chosen 
 from among the descendants of the house of David.^^ This 
 liberal regime ended with the decline in power of the Abbasside 
 caliphs of Bagdad. The Jews were then forced to abandon 
 Chaldea. Many emigrated to Spain. Later, under the reign of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, they were compelled to flee from Spanish 
 persecution and seek a home again in Turkey. Descendants of 
 these emigrants, known as Sephardim, are settled in cities of 
 Asia Minor and Syria. Small colonies of Ashkenazim Jews 
 are also scattered in various Turkish towns. An old colony 
 of a few hundred Samaritans survives in the vicinity of 
 Nablus. 
 
 The Jews are an exceedingly composite people and, contrary 
 to popular belief, do not represent as pure a type of the Semitic 
 race as the Bedouin Arabs. Southern Syria was a prey to 
 invaders from every quarter of the compass. It was the clashing 
 ground of Hittite and Nilotic civilizations. From the west, 
 Mediterranean seafaring populations swarmed in from earliest 
 antiquity. At least three great waves of Semitic migrations 
 overwhelmed the land prior to the coming of the Arabs. The 
 Jew, therefore, represents the fusion of four distinct races of 
 men. The purity he has retained is that of the fused type. His 
 language alone is Semitic. His physical appearance recalls 
 Hittite traits more prominently than Semitic and this probably 
 accounts for the frequent mistaking, in western Europe and in 
 the United States, of Armenians for Jews. 
 
 " This group comprises about 90,000 souls in Syria and 40,000 in Mesopotamia. 
 '* E. Aubin: La Perse d'aujourd'hui, Paris, 1908, p. 418. 
 
302 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Aeameans 
 
 The Arameans are either direct ancestors of modern Jews or 
 else close congeners of early Hebrews. Both peoples are closely 
 allied. They represent one of the many waves of Semitic 
 humanity which have rolled out of Arabia's highland steppes. A 
 period of settlement in the fertile districts around the mouth of 
 the Euphrates and Tigris precedes their spread throughout 
 Mesopotamia and northeastern Syria. References to their his- 
 tory abound in sacred texts, as well in inscriptional remains " 
 found throughout western Asia. The accounts, however, are 
 fragmentary and so far have made possible only partial recon- 
 stitution of their history. An Aramean nation or a number of 
 Aramean states undoubtedly existed in the tenth century b.c. 
 This body subsequently acquired considerable power and founded 
 colonies all over Mesopotamia and Syria. Damascus and 
 Hamath, both in the latter province, became the greatest centers 
 of Aramean power, omng to the natural resources of the districts 
 around their sites as well as to their commanding position on 
 important trade routes. 
 
 It seems established that the vast territory designated by the 
 Assyrians by the name of ''Mat Aram," or land of Aram, did 
 not necessarily contain Aramaic populations. It was more 
 probably conquered by Arameans, who imposed their language 
 on the subjugated peoples. Soon after the capture of Damascus 
 by the Assyrians in 732 b.c. the Aramean nation disappears from 
 history. Aramaic, however, survived and was even adopted by 
 the victors.^" But, in common with other Semitic languages, it 
 could not withstand the advance of Arabic. The only locality in 
 which it is now spoken is found northeast of Damascus in the 
 environs of the villages of Malula, Bakha and Yubb Adin, where 
 the natives still use a dialect similar to the Palestinian Aramaic 
 spoken thirteen centuries ago. There is reason to believe that 
 this sub-group of Syrians represents today the old Aramean 
 
 '• The Elephantine papyri discovered on the island of Elephantine in southern 
 Egypt between 1003 and lOOC contain Aramaic texts of prcat historical value. 
 *" 0. Procksch: Die Volker Altpalilstinas, Leipzig, 1914, p. 30; 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 303 
 
 stock in as pure a degree as is consistent with the secular 
 mingling of peoples which has taken place in the region.*^_J 
 
 L 
 
 The Yezidis 
 
 The Sinjar range of hills stretching in a westerly direction 
 from Mosul is the only upland of importance in the Mesopo- 
 tamian valley. The largest compact mass of Yezidis are domi- 
 ciled in this hilly country. A minor group occupies the Samaan 
 mountains in Syria.*- 
 
 The appellation of devil-worshipers which generally accom- 
 panies the name of Yezidi conveys a totally erroneous impression 
 regarding their beliefs. They recognize, in fact, a benign deity, 
 the Khode-Qanj, who reigns supreme over creation but with 
 whom is associated an inferior divine essence, the Malik-i-Tawus, 
 or Peacock King, who is lord of all evil and whom they consider 
 necessary to propitiate in order to avert misfortune. But the 
 ceremonies and sacrifices performed in honor of the subordinate 
 deity do not interfere with the primary worship with which the 
 God of Good is revered.*' This interpretation of divinity bears 
 deep analogy to the Iranian cult which revolves around the cen- 
 tral figures of Ormuzd and Ahriman, respectively the good and 
 the evil principle. The language of the Yezidis, which is akin 
 to Kurdish, brings added evidence of the eastern derivation of 
 their culture. 
 
 According to their own traditions the Yezidis came originally 
 from the districts of the lower Euphrates. Certain Sabean 
 features of their religion indicate intimate contact with Semitic 
 populations. Little is known about their curious religious cele- 
 brations, to which strangers are never admitted. Their practice 
 of bowing before the rising sun is a clear relic of Zoroastrian 
 influence. They also perform rites which have analogy to 
 
 *^ At the end of the pre-Islamic period the region west of the Euphrates to the 
 eastern slopes of the Lebanon mountains was known to the Arabs as " Beit Aramyeh," 
 or the land of the Arameans. 
 
 "H. Lammens: Le Massif du Gebal et les Yezidis de Syrie, Melanges FacultS 
 Orient. Univ. Beyrouth, 1907, pp. 366-407. 
 
 *" W. B. Heard: Notes on Yezidis, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. 41, pp. 200-219. 
 
304 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Christian commemorations. In a land overrun in all directions 
 no simple feature of the views they hold can account for their 
 origin. The religion of the moment was imposed by the domi- 
 nant element over all the peoples of Asiatic Turkey. Hence a 
 given group merely shows successive strata of religious invasions. 
 
 The sturdily-built Yezidi is active and hardy. His energy 
 sets him apart from the lithe-limbed and easy-going Arabs. His 
 vigor and fighting blood saved him from the frightful persecu- 
 tions for which the particularly obnoxious feature of his dual 
 deity was responsible. Byzantine bishops and Arabian mollahs 
 in turn reserved the wildest thunder of their intolerance for the 
 Yezidi, whom they execrated beyond all others among heretics 
 and unbelievers. This hatred of the presumed worshiper of the 
 devil has not yet been outlived, and a devout Mohammedan will 
 today spit upon the ground and mutter a curse whenever the 
 abhorred name crosses his lips. 
 
 The Yezidis enjoy fame as agriculturists who know how to 
 exact good yield from their mountain farms. They live a retired 
 life and rarely allow strangers to travel through the Sinjar 
 range. The modern armament of Turkish expeditions has 
 cowed the present generation into a submission which their 
 fathers would have scorned. But they still remain unwilling tax 
 payers who rely on the natural disinclination of Turkish tax 
 collectors to mountain- climbing. J 
 
 The Nestorians 
 
 The Nestorians, a Christian sect, are descendants of the fol- 
 lowers of Nestorius, who seceded from established orthodoxy in 
 the sixth century. They inhabit scattered villages in a region 
 which changes from mountain to plain as it extends west of the 
 Persian frontier to the Tigris river, roughly between latitudes 
 34° and 38°. On the north they rarely venture beyond the 
 Bohtan river. The mountainous tract produces a manly set, who 
 have more than held their own against the martial Kurds. 
 Poverty and dependence mark. the lot of the plainsmen in spite 
 of their industry as agriculturists. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 305 
 
 To say that the inhabitants of Turkey have religious nation- 
 ality is perhaps the happiest way of accounting for the presence 
 of large numbers of independent communities owing political 
 allegiance to the Sultan. The bond of faith in the case of the 
 Nestorians is one of remarkable strength, because this community 
 represents the persecuted remnant of the ancient church of cen- 
 tral Asia. Owing to its situation on the very outskirts of early 
 Christianity the church became engaged in propagating the 
 Gospel on a scale exceeded only by the see of Rome in the sixth 
 and sixteenth centuries.'** Consciousness of this tradition has not 
 forsaken the Nestorians of the present day. The great influence 
 wielded by their patriarch or religious head, the Mar Shimun, 
 as he is called, is a relic of former authority. 
 
 The speech of the Nestorians is a Syriac dialect in which 
 Persian, Arabic and Kurdish words have found place. Religious 
 services are conducted, however, in the uncontaminated language. 
 The Nestorians call themselves . Syrians and refuse to recognize '^^ 
 
 any other appellation. Owing to this fact much confusion has 
 arisen in the minds of travelers who have attempted to describe 
 them. 
 
 The Chaldeans 
 The Chaldeans are racially akin to the Nestorians, with whom 
 they formed a single religious community prior to the seven- 
 teenth century. The hope of obtaining relief from Mohammedan 
 persecution induced an important section of the old community 
 to join the church of Rome at that time. In recent years, how- 
 ever, many have forsaken Roman Catholicism and formed a new 
 sect which is known by the name of New Chaldeans. Protestant 
 communities of this people as well as of Nestorians and Jacobites 
 exist. 
 
 The Jacobites 
 The rugged limestone district around Midyad is the home of 
 another mountain people known as the Jacobites. Banded 
 
 ** A. P, Stanley : Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, New York, 
 1909, p. 58. 
 
306 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 together by the ties of religion they form a community of hus- 
 bandmen living aloof from their neighbors of divergent religious 
 views. They are described as of warlike nature and independent 
 spirit. Language also differentiates them from other Ottoman 
 groups, a Syriac dialect differing considerably from Nestorian 
 being in use among them.^^ In Turabdin they speak an Aramaic 
 dialect known as Turani. The Jacobites are noted for their apti- 
 tude for business. The important colony of traders founded in 
 the eighteenth century in the vicinity of Bagdad owes its origin 
 to the desert traffic and the Indian trade by way of Basra. 
 
 This people traces its religious origin to the teachings of 
 Jacobus Baradeus,*® who, in the middle of the sixth century, 
 traveled through Asia Minor and consolidated scattered groups 
 of Monophysite recusants into a single body. They constituted 
 a large sect during the Middle Ages, but defections, notably in 
 favor of the Roman Church, have thinned their numbers consid- 
 erably since then. At present they muster hardly more than 
 15,000 individuals. 
 
 The Sabeans 
 
 We are still in the dark concerning the history of the 
 Sabeans, a people of Semitic origin who profess Christianity. 
 That they once formed a powerful nation is attested by numerous 
 ruins and inscriptions. This state began to decline in the first 
 century of the Christian era and had completely disappeared by 
 500 A.D. They call themselves Mendai and are often known by 
 the name of Christians of St. John. The community is small, 
 numbering hardly 3,000 souls, mostly goldsmiths and boat- 
 builders who ply their trade in the Arab encampments of the 
 Amara and Muntefik sanjaks in the vilayet of Basra. They talk 
 a Semitic dialect and dress like the Arabs, from whom they can 
 scarcely be distinguished. Their original homeland is believed 
 to have been Yemen. 
 
 " H. Trotter: Oeogr. Journ., Vol, 35, No. 4, 1910, p. 378. 
 
 " F. J. Bliss: The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine, New York, 1912. 
 
m 
 
 ^■-/^ip.'\»>C'j'«.v-^!igi,".'."^'.'f;;". tt • 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 64 — Kurd children of the Armenian borderland. The poverty of the land is 
 reflected in their appearance no less than in the arid background of the photograph. 
 Fig. 65 — A family of sedentary Arabs in Mesopotamia. 
 
t 
 
 p 
 
 it. 
 
 7 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY ^^_ 307 
 
 The Ahabs 
 
 The Arab folk, sparsely distributed over the Syrian desert 
 and forming the majority of the inhabitants of the featureless 
 downs of Mesopotamia, represent the ebbing of the last tide of 
 Semitic invasion. In the sandy waste of their western extension, 
 their tribes, shifting perpetually from seat to seat, like the dunes 
 around which they roam, consist of Bedouin or ' ' tent men. ' ' The 
 contribution of these nomads to society is as insignificant as the 
 yield of the unproductive lands of their wandering. Towards the 
 east, however, where two mighty rivers bring fertility and life to 
 the soil, the genius of the race blossomed untrammeled and gave 
 Mohammedan civilization to the world. 
 
 The purest living representatives of the Semitic race are found 
 among these Bedouins. Civilization pursued its steady growth 
 around their tent homes without affecting their lives. Better 
 favored belts encircling the Syrian desert attracted the human 
 migrations which took place in western Asia. From the last out- 
 liers of the hill system fringing the southern Taurus to the 
 northern confines of the Arabian peninsula, the patriarchal state 
 of society prevailing today differs little from the condition in 
 which a dreamer well past middle age found it fourteen centuries 
 ago and brought it within the pale of modern thought by inspiring 
 it with the enthusiasm of his own belief in a single God. Stripped 
 of his religion and of his rifle, the Bedouin stands today before 
 the historian as the living image of long remote ancestors whose 
 invasions caused profound upheavals in the societies established 
 east and west of his present tramping ground. 
 
 But the Arab settled in the long elongated plain watered by 
 the Tigris and Euphrates can never lay claim to equal purity of 
 stock. He lives in a land which by virtue of a great twin river 
 system gave rise to the oldest civilization of the world. Its 
 inhabitants, whether aboriginal or invaders from the table-land 
 on the east, derived more than mere sustenance from prox- 
 imity to these mothering watercourses. Surrounded by desert 
 and mountain, this region naturally became a seat of population. 
 
308 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 Its native element, already much mixed, was assimilated to a 
 large extent by the Arabs Since the period of their appearance 
 in Mesopotamia. 
 
 The floating masses of Bedouins have successfully resisted 
 Turkish effort to induce them to abandon nomadism. Occa- 
 sionally, as in the belt of Tauric precipitation or along the 
 borders of the zone of Mediterranean rains no less than under 
 the benign influence of Mesopotamian rivers, they become seden- 
 tary. They are then known as fellaheen. But the change is 
 incompatible with their immemorial restlessness and implies loss 
 of caste in their own eyes. 
 
 TABLE I 
 Names and Peoples of Some Nok-Turkish Villages in Asia Minor 
 Peoples designated as follows : 
 
 Alevi Al. 
 
 Armenians Ar. 
 
 Avshars Av. 
 
 Chaldeans Ch. 
 
 Circassians Cir. 
 
 Greeks Gr. 
 
 Karapapaks Kpk. 
 
 Kizilbash Kz. 
 
 Kurds Kd. 
 
 Nestorians N. 
 
 New Chaldeans N. Ch. 
 
 Tatars Ta. 
 
 Turkomans Tkn. 
 
 Yezidi Yd. 
 
 Name of Village 
 
 Peoples 
 
 Name of Village 
 
 Peoples 
 
 Aghje Kaleh Kd. 
 
 Agh-ova Kd. 
 
 Aivali Gr. 
 
 Ak-bunar Cir. 
 
 Akdam Ar. 
 
 Akhlat Kd. 
 
 Akstafa Kpk. 
 
 Alaklissia Gr. 
 
 Alexandropol Ar. 
 
 Alkosh N. Ch. 
 
 Altea Gr. 
 
 Angora Ar, 
 
 Arabja Keupri Gr. & Cir. 
 
 Ardia Cir. 
 
 Arji N. 
 
 Atess N. 
 
 Avviran Gr. 
 
 Bazarjik Kd. 
 
 Berar Ar. 
 
 Bey Ch. 
 
 Birgami Kd. 
 
 Chateran Ar. 
 
 Chevirme Kd. 
 
 Chukh Ar. 
 
 Deliler Kd. 
 
 Derendeh Ar. 
 
 Diz-deran Kd. 
 
 Ekrek Ar. 
 
 Feshapur Ch. 
 
 Funduk Cir. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 
 
 309 
 
 Name of Village Peoples 
 
 Furinji Kd. 
 
 Garib Kd. 
 
 Garni Ar. 
 
 Gemerek Ar. 
 
 Gunderno Ar. 
 
 Gunig-kaleh Ar. 
 
 Gurgujeli Tkn. 
 
 Gurun Ar. 
 
 Haik Ar. 
 
 Hamsi Gr. 
 
 Hanefi Al. 
 
 Harras Kd. 
 
 Helais Kd. 
 
 Homova Ar. 
 
 Hoshmat Ar. 
 
 Inevi Tkn. 
 
 Instosh Ar. 
 
 Isbarta Gr. 
 
 Isoglilu Kd. 
 
 Jenan Kd. 
 
 Jessi Kd. 
 
 Kaialik Kd. 
 
 Kainar Cir. 
 
 Karacku Kd. 
 
 Kara-geben Ar. 
 
 Keklik-oghlu Kd. 
 
 Kelebesh Gr. 
 
 Kemer Av. 
 
 Keupri Tkn. 
 
 Kezanlik Cir. 
 
 Khakkaravokh Kd. 
 
 Khasta-Khaneh Av. 
 
 Khusi N. 
 
 Kinskh Kd. 
 
 Kizil-doghan Gr. 
 
 Kilisse Ar. 
 
 Koehannes N. 
 
 Koch-hissar Ar. 
 
 Kojeri Ar. 
 
 Koshmet Kz. 
 
 Kotni Kd. 
 
 Kula Gr. 
 
 Kwaneb N. 
 
 Maden N. 
 
 Madrak Kd. 
 
 Mansuriyeh Ch. 
 
 Melendis Gr. 
 
 Mervanen N, 
 
 Name of Village Peoples 
 
 Misli Qy 
 
 Mush plain _^. 
 
 Nerdivan g;^^ 
 
 Nerib g;^^ 
 
 Nigdeh Qj.^ 
 
 Niksar Qj.. 
 
 Norchuk ^j.^ 
 
 Omar Kd. 
 
 Orbiilu j^d. 
 
 Pekarieh ^_ 
 
 Pingan ^r. 
 
 Porrot Kd. 
 
 Pulk Ar. 
 
 Rabat Kd. 
 
 Redvan Yd. 
 
 Samsat Kd. 
 
 Sekunis n. 
 
 Semil Yd. 
 
 Serai j^_ 
 
 Shabin Kara-Hissar Ar. 
 
 Shahr Ar. 
 
 Sha-uta N. 
 
 Sheik Adi Yd. 
 
 Sheikh Amir Kd. 
 
 Sheikhan Kd. 
 
 Shen Kd. 
 
 Shernak Kd. 
 
 Sultan Oghlu Tkn. 
 
 Tadvan Ar. 
 
 Takvaran Kd. 
 
 Tashan Ar. 
 
 Tashbunar Cir. 
 
 Terzili Ar. 
 
 Thorub Ch. 
 
 Tokat Ar. 
 
 Tomarze Ar. 
 
 Top-agaeh Ar. 
 
 Tor Tkn. 
 
 Ulash Ar. 
 
 Uzum Yaila Cir. 
 
 Vurla Gr. 
 
 Yakshi-khan Ta. 
 
 Yalak Av. 
 
 Yarzuat Ta. 
 
 Yeni Keui Kd. 
 
 Zara Ar. 
 
 Zela Ar. 
 
310 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE II 
 Classification op the Peoples of Asiatic Turkey 
 
 Name 
 
 Race 
 
 Religion 
 
 Speech 
 
 Homeland 
 
 Estimated 
 Number 
 
 AlU'vis (see 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tahtnjis) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A nearly ehs 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Monotheistic 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Syrian mts. and Cili- 
 cian plains 
 
 175,000 
 
 Aptals 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Suniii 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Syrian mts. 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Arabs 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Arabic 
 
 South of Tauric and 
 Armenian nits. 
 
 300.000 ♦ 
 
 Arami'uns 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Ilebrew 
 
 Aramean 
 
 
 300 
 
 Armenians 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Christian 
 
 Armenian 
 (.■\ryan) 
 
 Armenian highland, 
 Taurus and Anti- 
 
 1,000,000" 
 
 Asdias (see 
 
 
 
 
 Taurus ranges 
 
 
 Yezidis) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Avshars 
 
 Tnrki 
 
 Shia 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Anti-Taurus 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Bulikis 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mixed Moham- 
 medan and 
 Christian 
 
 Mixed Arabic, 
 Kurdish and 
 Armenian 
 
 Near Sasun 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Bejvans 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Mixed Moham- 
 medan and 
 Christian 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Near Mosul 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Chaldeans 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Roman Catholic 
 
 Syriac, Kurdish 
 and Arabic 
 
 Near Diarbekr and 
 Jezireh ; Sert and 
 
 50,000 
 
 Chepmis (see 
 
 
 
 
 Khabur basin 
 
 
 Tahtajis) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Circassians 
 
 Mixed Tnrki and 
 Indo-European 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Anatolia, N.Syria, N. 
 Mesopotamia 
 
 500,000 
 
 Druzes 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 .\rabic 
 
 Lebanon; Anti-Leba- 
 non, Ilawran mts., 
 around Damascus 
 
 iOO.OOO 
 
 Greeks" 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 Christian 
 
 Greek 
 
 Coast districts, min- 
 ing districts, large 
 cities 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Ismailyelis 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Northern Syria 
 
 22,000 
 
 Jacobites 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Christian (Jlono- 
 pliysites^ 
 
 Syriac 
 
 Syria, Mesopotamia 
 
 15,000 
 
 Jews 
 
 Mixed Semitic, 
 Mediterranean 
 and Armenoid 
 
 Ilebrew 
 
 nebrew 
 
 Jerusalem ; environs 
 of Damascus 
 
 150,000 
 
 Knrapapaks 
 
 Tnrki 
 
 Shia 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Tutakh-Patnoz 
 
 3,000 
 
 Kizilbash 
 
 Armenoid mixed 
 
 Sliia, or mixture of 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Angora and Sivas vil- 
 
 400,000 
 
 
 with Turki 
 
 Sliiism, Pafian- 
 ism.lManichaeism, 
 and Christianity 
 
 
 ayets ; Dersim 
 
 
 Knrds 
 
 Indo-European 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Aryan lan- 
 guages 
 
 West of the Sakaria 
 river; Kurdistan 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Lazis 
 
 Georgian branch of 
 the Caucaso-Thi- 
 betan peoples 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Grusinian 
 
 Lazistan ; north of 
 Chonik Su, around 
 Riza 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Maronites 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Christian 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Mt. Lebanon, Anti- 
 Lebanon 
 
 350,000 
 
 Metauilelis 
 
 Probably Armenoid 
 
 Shia 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Northern Lebanon 
 
 under 50.000 
 
 Nestorians 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Christian 
 
 Syriac 
 
 Basin of the Great 
 Zab ; valleys of the 
 Holitan and Khabar 
 
 60,000 
 
 New Chaldeans 
 
 Semitic! 
 
 Christian 
 
 Syriac 
 
 Alkosh 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Sabeans 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Christian 
 
 Syriac 
 
 Amara and Muntefik 
 sanjaks of the Basra 
 vilayet 
 
 3,000 
 
 Samaritans 
 
 Semitic) 
 
 ITehrew 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 Near Niiblus 
 
 300 
 
 Syrians 
 
 Semitic; 
 
 Christian and Mo- 
 hammedan 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Syria and Mesopo- 
 tamia 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Tahtajis 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Lycian mts. 
 
 5.000 
 
 Tatars 
 
 Turki 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Anatolia and Cilician 
 
 25,000 
 
 Terekiinans (see 
 
 
 
 
 plains 
 
 
 Karapapaks) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkomans 
 
 Turki 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Angora, Adana and 
 Aleppo vilayets 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Turks 
 
 Turki mixed with 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Anatolia mainly 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Yezidis or Asdais 
 
 Mixed Armenoid 
 
 Devil-worshipers, 
 
 Kermanji 
 
 Kurt Dagh on the W. 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 !ind Indo- 
 
 mixture of the old 
 
 
 to Zakho E. of the 
 
 
 
 Europeau 
 
 Babylonian relig- 
 ion ; Zoroastrian- 
 ism, Manichaeism 
 and Christianity 
 
 
 Tigris; Badi near 
 Mosul ; Sinjar range 
 
 
 Yurnks 
 
 Armenoid 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Konia vilayet . 
 
 200,000 
 
 Total 
 
 15,048,6(X» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' The flgnres for Armenians and Greeks require revision in view of the systematic efforts of the Turks to 
 extirpate these two peoples. The massacres of the entire Greek population of villages of the .^Esean coasts 
 and atrocities of a most inhuman character perpetrated on the Armenians of inland communities have largely 
 depleted the ranks of these two Christian subject groups. 
 
 ' Hellenes, or subjects of the King of Greece, number about 20,000. 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 311 
 
 TABLE III 
 The Christians of the Turko-Persian Borderland 
 I. Mosul and the Valley of the Tigris {by families) ' 
 District of Mosul, 
 
 City of Mosul 2,000 R. C 
 
 City of Mosul 1,200 J. 
 
 City of Mosr.l 400 R. C. s. 
 
 Telkief 2,000 R. C. 
 
 Bagdaii- 700 J. 
 
 Bartila 300 R. C. 
 
 Batnai 400 R. C. 
 
 Tel Uskof 450 R. C. 
 
 Alkosh 700 R. C. 
 
 Dohuk 150 R. C. 
 
 Bait Kupa 300 R. C. 
 
 Mar Yakob & Sheus 100 R. C. 
 
 Total 8,700 8,700 
 
 District of Sapna. 
 
 Mangesliie 200 R. C. 
 
 Dihie 30 P. 
 
 Daviria 100 R. C. 
 
 Tinn 70 R. C. 
 
 Aradin 200 R. C. 
 
 Haszia & Benata 50 R. C. 
 
 Bibaidi 30 N. 
 
 Diri 40 N. 
 
 Dirginie 35 N. 
 
 Lower Barnai, Maisie, Chamankie, etc 120 R. C. 
 
 Total 875 875 
 
 District of Zakhu. 
 
 Zakhu 100 R. C. 
 
 Bait Daru 90 R. C. 
 
 Peshawur . . ; 110 R. C. 
 
 Bersiwi 70 R. C. 
 
 Sharnish 50 R. C. 
 
 Margu & Baiju 95 R. C. 
 
 Wasta 80 R. C. 
 
 Total 595 595 
 
 ^ Figures supplied by Dr. W. W. Rockwell, Editor of the American Committee for 
 Armenian and Syrian Relief. See Rockwell: Pitiful Plight, second ed., pp. 66. 
 
 "Abbreviations; R. C: Roman Catholic Uniata, "Chaldeans." R. C. s.: Roman 
 Catholic Uniats, " Syrian Catholics." J. : Jacobites. N. : Nestorians, " Assyrian Chris- 
 tians." P.: Protestants, 
 
312 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 TABLE III— C out i mud 
 District of Bohtan. 
 
 Tilkubn 60 R. C. 
 
 Jazera ( Jezireb) 1^"^0 R. C. 
 
 ^AFansuria 60 P. 
 
 Hassan 70 N. 
 
 Shakh 30P. 
 
 Mar Akha 30 P. 
 
 ]\lar Yohanuan 10 P. 
 
 A few other villages 50 N. 
 
 Total 460 460 
 
 District of Zibar. 
 
 Esan 30 N. 
 
 Argin 7 N. 
 
 Shusbu & Sharman 25 N. 
 
 Shaklawa (iu Akra) 500 R. C. 
 
 Akra 300R.C. 
 
 Total S62 S62 
 
 District of E. Berwar. 
 
 Aina d'Nuni 50 N. 
 
 Dun 35N. 
 
 Ikri & Malakhta 40 N. 
 
 Bait Baluk 20 N. 
 
 Four villages, including Halwa, Khwara 50 N. 
 
 Dirishki 20 N. 
 
 Maiyi 25 N. 
 
 Haiyiz 30 N. 
 
 Bishmeyayi 20 N. 
 
 lad 20N. 
 
 Tashish 30 N. 
 
 Musakka 20 N. 
 
 Three small villages 25 N. 
 
 Jadeda 15 N. 
 
 Chalik 30 N. 
 
 Kaneba Labi 20 N. 
 
 Total 450 450 
 
 11,942 
 
 II. The Highlands of Kurdistan 
 
 Tyari 5.000 
 
 Tkhuma 2,500 
 
 Baz SOO 
 
 Tal 700 
 
 Diz ' ^ ^ ^ : 600 
 
 Jilu 2,500 
 
THE PEOPLES OF TURKEY 3i;} 
 
 TABLE 111— Continued 
 
 Berwar (Qudslianis included) 900 
 
 Lewan (west of Julamerk) 300 
 
 Serai (45 miles east of Van) 300 
 
 Eleven villages around Serai 400 
 
 Norduz (on Van- Julamerk road) 200 
 
 Albak (near Bashkala) 300 
 
 Gawar 400 
 
 Six villages in Nerwan & Rekan 200 
 
 Shemsdinan & Bar Bhishu (estimated) 200 
 
 Total families 15,300 15,300 
 
 Grand total 27 242 
 
 Total individuals at six to a family 103 452 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 
 
 The science of geography attains its highest usefulness when 
 called into the service of man. Having in mind the influence of 
 regional environment upon human societies and particularly upon 
 language and nationality as shown in the foregoing chapters, let 
 us next look at the bearing of our conclusions on the determina- 
 tion of international frontiers. The problem consists in ascer- 
 taining the logical or natural limit of the spread of language 
 and nationality. Growing at first in listless response to environ- 
 ment, natural frontiers eventually attain a stage where intelligent 
 conformity to the same environment becomes necessary. Here 
 the linguistic factor based on a sound geographical foundation 
 acquires practical value though it is not necessarily the only 
 determining element. 
 
 The spirit of nationality represents the highest development 
 of the idea of self-preservation. Its growth can be traced from 
 the individual to the family, thence to the tribe and city, until 
 the formation of the political state is obtained. In the last 
 stages of this process, nationality attains perfection through 
 homogeneity of its component individuals. The men who com- 
 pose a single nation must think together. Their ideals and aims 
 must be one and they must be conscious of a conunon destiny. 
 Language, as the currency of thought, naturally becomes the 
 unifier. To a notable degree areas of homogeneous language in 
 Europe have been spared the havoc of battle or siege. On the 
 other hand, linguistic borderlands have ahvays been scenes of 
 armed struggle and destruction. 
 
 Community of origin is not essential among members of the 
 same nation. The bond of language and identity of historical 
 destiny suffice for the creation of nationality. - An English- 
 
 314 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 315 
 
 speaking immigrant on United States soil, imbued with the spirit 
 of the principles on which the country's independence is founded, 
 finds himself in a state of response to the idea of American 
 nationality. And yet, the idea of nationality is no mere integra- 
 tion of historical associations. It stands enthroned in the land. 
 The poet touches his compatriot's heart by recalling the murmur 
 of the forest or by a picture of the winding shore. Through the 
 charm of living green enshrined in circling hills, at times through 
 an appreciation of the solemn peak rising heavenward, man 
 found love of homeland. A strong tie between humanity and the 
 land was created by these relations. 
 
 Nationality cannot depend on language alone, for it is founded 
 on geographical unity. The past thousand years of European 
 history contain sufficient proof of the fact. The three southern 
 peninsulas Spain, Italy and Greece are homelands of an equal 
 number of nations. A single language is current in each. To the 
 north a similar differentiation of nations adapts itself to regional 
 divisions. Plains, mountains and seas have limited European 
 nationalities to definite number and extension. 
 
 Thus every people acquires a peculiar genius which expresses 
 itself in characteristic fashion and cannot be made to assume a 
 guise alien to its own spirit. It absorbs the idealism of its 
 captors and molds it into its own form. The poet's intuition 
 rarely echoed deeper truth than in the oft-quoted passage which 
 immortalized the spirit of Hellas: 
 
 Graecia capta ferum vietorem cepit, et artes 
 Intulit agresti Latio. 
 
 Europe was stirred to the consciousness of nationality by the 
 French Revolution. Nations began finding themselves when the 
 doctrine of man's equality, proclaimed on French soil, found 
 responsive welcome among the peoples of the continent. But the 
 new spirit caused dismay in every court circle. The inevitable 
 reaction that followed was reflected in the treaty of Vienna of 
 1815, when national aspirations were ignominiously ignored and 
 
316 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 peoples belield themselves bartered as chattels. The delegates in 
 attendance sat as representatives of djmastic interests. Their 
 interest in remodeling the political map of Europe was absorbed 
 wholly by the idea of securing compensation for the spoliation 
 of the territorial property of their sovereigns. Their labors 
 meant triumph for autocratic rule. Popular clamor for national 
 grouping was unheeded. Instead of quieting Europe, the treaty 
 of Vienna was a ^'irtual admission on the part of less than three 
 dozen men that Europeans were incapable of bearing the glorious 
 burden of their own destinies. The tares of monarchical despot- 
 ism were left to stain the field of popular freedom. 
 
 But the seed sown by the great act of the French Revolution 
 was hardy. It was too late to eradicate liberal spirit from 
 European society. A mighty struggle of ideas ushered in the 
 revolts of 1S30 and 1848. Twenty odd years more, and for the 
 first time in its history western Europe was parceled into lin- 
 guistic nations. The birth of Germany during this period was 
 significantly heralded by an outburst of patriotic literature which 
 for fire and enthusiasm was unprecedented. Geibel's demand for 
 a united Germany in Heroldsrufe was but the echo of the 
 aspirations of millions of his countrymen. France emerged out 
 of these ordeals without loss of her linguistic territory. The 
 area of German speech received marked attention. In truth the 
 morning of modern German nationality may be said to have 
 broken in 1815. A year prior to this historic date, the decision 
 had been reached at the treaty of Paris (March 30, 1814) to 
 unite the German states into a single confederation. The domi- 
 nating thought of European diplomacy, at the time, was to pre- 
 vent a recurrence of Napoleonic disturbances. 
 
 "With their restricted territories, as well as by the jealousies 
 which animated their rulers, the German states lay, an easy prey, 
 at the mercy of any ambitious foreign leader. In their union, 
 Europe hoped to lay the foundations of continental peace. Such 
 a federation, it was thought, would safeguard the other European 
 countries from a concerted German attack, as it seemed highly 
 improbable that the entire confederacy would join in a war 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 317 
 
 undertaken by any one of its members for purposes of self- 
 aggrandizement. By this arrangement provision was made for 
 the strengthening of a number of weak states without the 
 creation of a new powerful unit in the group of European 
 nations. Thirty million Germans, comprising by far the majority 
 of the German-speaking inliabitants of the period, were thus 
 politically welded for the first time in modern history. 
 
 [The idea of nationality had received scant attention in Ger- 
 maiiy before the nineteenth century. Kant, Fichte and Hegel 
 contributed powerfully to its awakening. Hardly had the concept 
 become familiar to German thought before its relation with lan- 
 guage became established. The trend of feeling on the subject 
 is best expressed by Arndt about half a century before the 
 fruition of Bismarck's life project at Versailles: 
 
 Was ist das deutsche Vatei'land? 
 
 So nenne endlich mir das Land ! 
 
 So weit die deutsche Zunge klingt 
 
 Und Gott im Himmel Lieder singt, 
 
 Dass soil es sein, dass soil es sein, 
 
 Das gauze Deutschland soil es seiii.^ 1 
 
 A literary history of a country is, in great measure, the 
 mirror of its political growth. The development of social apti- 
 tudes, of intellectual faculties or of material wants within a 
 given area is, in the last resort, an expansion of the living forces 
 which make for nationality and which, ultimately, find their way 
 to literary records. Nationality and literature are thus bound 
 together by geography and history. Whatever be the period 
 under observation, the spirit of the day pervades them both. 
 A striking example of this relation is observable in medieval 
 
 * What is the German's Fatherland ? 
 O name at length this mighty land! 
 As wide as sounds the German tongue, 
 And Germans hymns to heaven are sung, 
 That is the land; 
 That, German, is thy Fatherland. 
 [Translation from J. F. Chamberlain's Literary Selections as an Aid in Teaching 
 Geography, Jou'rn. of Geogr., Sept. 1916, p. 12.] 
 
318 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 France, Avhere the troubadours personified the feudal conditions 
 which prevailed in the country. And furthermore literature, as 
 a human product, partakes of all the limitations which are subtly 
 imposed by the land on the fancy. It varies therefore, accord- 
 ing to region, in mental temperament, tastes and emotions or 
 modes of thought. 
 
 So because it is part of life and a hving influence, literature 
 has always consolidated the nation-forming power of language. 
 Poetry, especially, is often an intensified reflection of national 
 thought and life. In the words of Irving, "Poets always breathe 
 the feeling of a nation." The cultivation of literature serves 
 national ends. In the very child, love of country is instilled 
 through the medium of doggerel — sometimes through lines of 
 exquisite simplicity. In thus strengthening the idea of nation- 
 ality, literature may be compared to the statue hewn from the 
 marble of language by patriotic and artistic thought. 
 
 Belgian writers, in this respect, occupy a place of their own 
 in European literature. Verhaeren and Maeterlinck voice the 
 depth of their sincerity in the language of their Walloon col- 
 league Lemonnier. Love of country in Spaak, a Fleming, is sung 
 in French verse: 
 
 Oui, sois de ton pays. Connais I'idolatrie 
 De la terre natale ! Et porte en toi I'orgueil 
 Et le tourment de ses jours de gloire et de deuil. 
 
 Antoine Clesse, the poet of Mons, likewise expresses popular 
 feeling in French: 
 
 Flamands, Wallons, 
 
 Ne sont que des prenoms 
 
 Beige est notre nom de famille. 
 
 No matter how the works of these poets are analyzed, in 
 the inmost souls of these writers it is the land that speaks. 
 Belgium is fathomed in their hearts. Their eyes lingered lov- 
 ingly on the scenery in the midst of which they lived. Flat roads 
 winding interminably over flat lands, chimes whose tones mellow 
 with age ring from the crumbling tops of old towers, rustic 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 319 
 
 feasts enlivened by the roaring mirth and joviality celebrated by 
 Flemish painters, these are the visions which are evoked by the 
 French words assembled by Belgian writers in their composi- 
 tions. One would seek in vain, however, for these Belgian scenes 
 in French literature. Like the Belgicisms which abound delight- 
 fully in every Belgian writer's works, they portray the soul of 
 Belgian poetry as sincerely as they afford genuine glimpses of 
 Belgian lands. The same subtle sensation of the living earth 
 has been felt on the troubled surface of mountainous Switzerland. 
 For of Swiss lands and life few descriptions will ever combine 
 the charm and faithfulness which characterize the works of 
 Gottfried Keller, foremost among the country's writers who 
 drew on the joint inspiration of flaming patriotism and the 
 incomparable beauty of Swiss landscape. 
 
 And how often has the written or spoken word fanned the 
 flame of nationality among downtrodden peoples ! The story is 
 the same from land to land and age to age. The soul of a nation 
 in bondage is wrapped around its patriotic literature. Genera- 
 tion after generation of Bohemians, Finns or Poles have drunk at 
 the national fount of poem and song. Within the peasant's 
 thatched home as in the city abode, the well-worn volume, preg- 
 nant with past glory, becomes the beacon of hope. It lights the 
 darkness of oppression's heaviest hours. For men of feeling, 
 destiny will ever be hailed in the word that stirs. The harvest 
 reaped by Cavour was of Dante's sowing. 
 
 In the bitter linguistic struggles waged in Europe two grati- 
 fying facts are discernible. The dominance of the majority by 
 an intellectually gifted minority prevails in every country and 
 age. Furthermore, the survival of oppressed minorities in the 
 midst of oppressing majorities appears to be general. The one 
 is the reward of competence; the other is the triumph of right 
 over might. Both are victories of the human will. Both have 
 been purchased by dint of hard struggle. Humanity is the better 
 for them. 
 
 Neither has conquest always been able to introduce a new 
 language. The widening sphere of Roman influence carried 
 
320 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 the original dialect of the capital to the confines of the world. 
 But it is unlikely that Latin was spoken in the Nubian 
 provinces or other outlying districts to a greater degree than 
 English is spoken in India today. It was only the language of 
 the dominant element and the one in which official transactions 
 were recorded. As a rule the oldest language of a country is 
 spoken by its peasants. The tillers of the soil usually represent 
 the oldest stratum in the population of a region. The principle 
 holds in territories which have borne the brunt of successive 
 invasions. It is the same in Macedonia, Poland or Transylvania. 
 On the other hand, the land-owning class is generally recruited 
 from among past invaders. 
 
 The value of language as a national asset was shown in 
 France during the trying days of war when the very existence 
 of the country was at stake. Respect for the mother-tongue is 
 deeply immured in every Frenchman's heart. In no other 
 country does the feeling reach the same pitch. The French 
 educational system provides ample facilities for the early initia- 
 tion of students to the beauties of their vernacular. The clear 
 and connected thought for which French writing stands pre- 
 eminent, its capacity for expressing the most subtle shades of 
 meaning, are largely results of literary discipline. 
 
 A perusal of war-time literature cannot sufficiently indicate the 
 part played by French language in periods of stress. One must 
 preferably have had the privilege of acquaintance mth corre- 
 spondence exchanged between relatives and intimates. Patriotism 
 pours unfaltering from the artless lines never intended for 
 strangers' eyes. It is as if the crowded consciousness of French 
 nationality found constant release through its language. Every 
 observant foreigner in France has been struck by this fact. In 
 some instances where perception was more than usually attentive 
 we find, as in E. Wharton's "Fighting France," that: 
 
 " It is not too much to say that the Freneh are at this moment drawing a part of 
 their national strength from their language. The piety with which they have cher- 
 ished and cultivated it has made it a precious instrument in their hands. It can say 
 so beautifully what they feel that they find strength and renovation in using it ; and 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 321 
 
 the word once uttered is passed on, and carries the same help to others. Countless 
 instances of such happy expression could be cited by any one who has lived the 
 last year (1915) in France. On the bodies of young soldiers have been found let- 
 ters of farewell to their parents that made one think of some heroic Elizabethan 
 verse; and the mothers robbed of these sons have sent them an answering cry of 
 courage." 
 
 One of the most remarkable instances of the influence of 
 poetry on national destiny is found in Serbian nationality, which 
 has been cast altogether in the mold of the country's epic bal- 
 lads or ''pjesmes." Although primarily inspired by the valorous 
 deeds of legendary heroes, these indigenous compositions describe 
 Serbian life and nature with extraordinary verisimilitude and 
 beauty. They are national in a significant sense, not merely 
 because the very soul of the Serbian people is displayed in their 
 lines, but also because they have perpetuated Serbian history 
 and language. The purity of the Serbian tongue, its freedom 
 from alien words, no less than the maintenance of historical con- 
 tinuity in Serbia are due, in a large measure, to the wandering 
 of native minstrels — the guzlars — who went to and fro reciting or 
 singing the wonderful exploits of their noted countrymen. Their 
 unconscious, though passionate insistence provided the Serbian 
 with the only schooling in national sentiment which he has under- 
 gone for generations beginning with half-mythical times. How- 
 ever slow, the method was effective, for it prevented atrophy of 
 national hopes. Without this influence the Serbians would 
 probably have degenerated iitto a people listless and inert to the 
 call of nationality. The very name of Serbia might never have 
 been recorded in modern history. 
 
 The guzlars were therefore peddlers of nationality. The most 
 convincing evidence of their vital contribution to the formation 
 of the modern Serbian state is found during the five hundred 
 years in which the Turk's benumbing rule was felt in the land. 
 Marko Kraljevitch, the popular hero-knight, feudal lord and 
 outlaw, according as occasion demanded, embodies Serbian 
 resistance and Serbian revolt against Moslem invaders. The 
 stirring accents in which tales of his deep attachment to Serbia 
 were recounted awakened exultant delight in the heart and brain 
 
322 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 of listeners and inspired them to the hope of liberation from the 
 hated yoke. Serbia was prepared for the day of national inde- 
 pendence by means of this slow and century-long propaganda. 
 
 Replete with the glow and color of Serbian lands, the pjesme 
 voices Serbia's national aspirations once more in the storm and 
 stress of new afflictions. Its accents ring so true that the geog- 
 rapher, in search of Serbian boundaries, tries in vain to discover 
 a surer guide to delimitation. For Serbia extends as far as her 
 folk-songs are heard. From the Adriatic to the western walls 
 of Balkan ranges, from Croatia to Macedonia, the guzlar's ballad 
 is the symbol of national solidarity. His tunes live within the 
 heart and upon the lips of every Serbian. The pjesme may 
 therefore be fittingly considered the measure and index of a 
 nationality whose fiber it has stirred. To make Serbian territory 
 coincide with the regional extension of the pjesme implies defin- 
 ing of the Serbian national area. And Serbia is only one among 
 many countries to which this method of delimitation is appli- 
 cable. 
 
 In Finland, nationality is embodied in the heartening lines of 
 the "Kalevala," that Iliad of the north which takes its coloring 
 from nature with no less delightful sensitiveness than the 
 Homeric masterpiece. The lines of the poem define this Finnish 
 epic as: 
 
 Songs of ancient wit and wisdom, 
 Legends they that once were taken 
 
 From the pastures of the Northland, 
 From the meads of Kalevala. 
 
 In this poem the beauty and color of Finland's inland seas 
 and the bleakness of surrounding plains are painted in bold 
 strokes and with loving effusiveness. The Finn finds in its lines 
 a reminder of the scenes among which he has been reared and 
 the link which binds him to his past and to his land. As a 
 mosaic of national life pieced together by patriotism the Kalevala 
 occupies a unique position among literary productions of 
 northern countries. Even a note of Asiatic melancholy pervades 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 323 
 
 its verses as if to recall the share of Asia in the formation of 
 Finnish national life. 
 
 The lyrics and songs collected in the Kalevala were brought 
 together in the beginning of the nineteenth century at a critical 
 period of Finnish history when national feeling had sunk to its 
 lowest ebb. Swedes and Eussians vied with one another in their 
 efforts to denationalize Finland and bring the peninsula within 
 the sphere of their respective influence. No sooner was the 
 Kalevala published, however, than Finnish nationality asserted 
 itself with renewed vigor. Today after the lapse of almost a 
 century since this revival, Finland's spirit of national independ- 
 ence is diffused more widely than ever among its people. Such 
 was the influence of a literary echo of their land. 
 
 Among the peoples of Turkey, nationality and literature 
 become largely expressions of religious feeling. It could not be 
 otherwise in a country in which creed is the only medium of 
 intellectual progress. The oppressed native found refuge from 
 the tyranny of his Turkish masters in his church. His natural 
 yearning for a higher life found solace only within the sanctu- 
 aries of his faith. All the education he received was obtained in 
 schools attached to the churches. 
 
 But to unravel the hopeless confusion which, at first glance, 
 seems to permeate human groupings in Turkey is, in the main, 
 a problem of geography. The region consists of a mountainous 
 core and a series of marginal lowlands. Its elevated area is a 
 link in the central belt of mountains which extends uninter- 
 ruptedly from Asia into Europe. This long chain of uplifts is 
 the original seat of an important race of highlanders collectively 
 known as Homo alpinus.^ As far as is ascertainable to date, the 
 mountaineers of Turkey have all the anatomical characteristics 
 pertaining to this branch of the human family. Their religion 
 and language may differ but the physical type remains unchanged. 
 Basing themselves on this relation, anthropologists have assumed 
 that Asiatic Turkey is the brood-home of a sub-species of Homo 
 
 * J. L. Myres: The Alpine Races in Europe, Geogr. Journ., Vol. 28, 1906, No. 6, 
 pp. 637-553. 
 
324 FIIONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 alpinus which is gradually acquiring recognition as a primordial 
 Armenoid element.-^ This type exists in its greatest purity today 
 among the Mohammedan dissenters of the Anatolian table-land 
 as well as among the Druzes and Maronites of Syria. 
 
 By geographical position, Asiatic Turkey is the junction of 
 land thoroughfares which trend from south to north as well as 
 from east to west. Its aboriginal population came inevitably 
 into contact with the races whose migrations are known to have 
 begun about 4,000 b.c. A second group of peoples is thus obtained 
 in which the old strain is considerably modified. Armenians, 
 Turks, upland Greeks, Jacobites, Nestorians and most of the 
 Kurds represent this mixed element. A third group consists of 
 lowlanders who never made the ascent of Turkish mountains and 
 consequently carry no traces of Hittite ancestry. Maritime 
 Greek populations and Arabs fall under this classification. 
 
 In the main we see that the mountain bears in its central part 
 a homogeneous and coherent people. Distance from the core 
 has slight effect upon the physical characteristics of the moun- 
 taineers, as long as they do not forsake the upland for the low- 
 land. Their ideas, however, undergo modifications which can be 
 interpreted as concessions to the views of more powerful peoples 
 with whom contact is established. Customs, however, generally 
 remain unchanged even if they have to be maintained in secrecy. 
 
 Nevertheless, relief alone cannot account for the variety of 
 peoples and religions in Asiatic Turkey. The easternmost 
 fringe of Christianity emerging sporadically out of an ocean of 
 Mohammedanism discloses, by the variety of its discordant ele- 
 ments, the extent to which distance from Constantinople, the 
 religious capital of the eastern church, had weakened the power 
 of ecclesiastical authority. Armenians, Nestorians, Chaldeans, 
 Jacobites and Maronites, one and all heretics in the eyes of 
 Orthodox prelates, were merely independent thinkers who relied 
 on the remoteness of their native districts in order to protest, 
 without peril to themselves, against the innovations of Byzantine 
 
 ' F. von Luschan : The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, Ann. Rept. Smithsonian 
 Inst, for 1914, p. 577. 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 325 
 
 theologians, or to stand firm on the basis of the rites and doc- 
 trines of early Christianity. 
 
 From the social standpoint the eastern half of Asiatic Turkey 
 deserves investigation as the seat of an immemorial conflict 
 between nomadism and sedentary life. Every stage of the transi- 
 tion between the two conditions may be observed. The feuds 
 which set community against community in Turkey often origi- 
 nate in the divergent interests of nomad and settled inhabitant, 
 and are enforced by economic factors. As an example the Kurds 
 of the Armenian highlands may be mentioned. The perpetuation 
 of nomadism in their case is the result of extensive horse- 
 breeding * — their chief source of revenue — which compels them 
 to seek low ground in winter. 
 
 Viewed as a whole, Asiatic Turkey h^s changed from an ideal 
 nursery of hardy men to a land of meeting between races and 
 peoples as well as between their ideals. It may be safely pre- 
 dicted that the future of its inhabitants bids fair to be as 
 intimately affected as their past by the remarkable situation of 
 the country and its physical features. One can only hope, for 
 their sake, that a thorough invasion of highland and lowland by 
 the spirit of the west will not be delayed much longer. This 
 much may be said now, that the establishment of Christian rule 
 in the land would probably be attended by wholesale conversions 
 to Christianity in many so-called Mohammedan communities, 
 where observance of Islamic rites has been dictated by policy, 
 rather than by faith. 
 
 In dealing with the varied influences which engage attention 
 in a study of linguistic areas the student is frequently compelled 
 to pause before the importance of economic relations. Inspection 
 of a map of Europe suggests strikingly that zones of linguistic 
 contact were destined by their very location to become meeting- 
 places for men speaking different languages. They correspond 
 to the areas of circulation defined by Eatzel.^ The confusion of 
 
 * D. G. Hogarth: The Nearer East, New York, 1902, pp. 198-199. 
 » F. Ratzel: Politische Geographie, 2nd ed., Munich, 1903. Cf. Chap. 16, " Der 
 Verkehr als Raumbewaltiger," pp. 447-534. 
 
326 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 languages on their site is in almost every instance the result of 
 human intercourse determined by economic causes. Necessity, 
 far more than the thought of lucre, compels men to resort to 
 intercourse with strangers. In Belgium, after the Norman con- 
 quest, the burghers of Flanders were able to draw on English 
 markets for the wool which they converted into the cloth that 
 gave their country fame in the fairs of Picardy and Champagne.* 
 We have here a typical example of Eatzel's ''Stapellandern" or 
 *' transit regions." 
 
 In very small localities the spread of language brought about 
 by economic changes has occasionally come under the scrutiny 
 of modern observers. At Grimault, in the ancient land of Bur- 
 gundy, the deterioration of the local patois due to intensive 
 working of quarries between 1860 and 1880 has been studied by 
 E. Blin.^ Laborers from remote districts were attracted by the 
 prospect of work. Some intermarried with the natives. The 
 influx of the foreign element was followed by the replacement 
 of the locality's vernacular by French. 
 
 In west-central Europe the line of traffic along the Rhine at 
 the end of the twelfth century ran from Cologne to Bruges along 
 the divide between French and Flemish. Lorraine, a region of 
 depression between the Archean piles of the Ardennes and 
 Vosges, invited access from east and west and was known to 
 historians as a Gallo-Romanic market place of considerable 
 importance.^ 
 
 In our time the river trade between Holland and Germany 
 along the Rhine has caused expansion of Dutch into German 
 territory as far as Wesel and Crefeld. The intruding language, 
 however, yields to German wherever the latter is present.® 
 Prevalence of French in parts of Switzerland is generally 
 ascribed to travel through certain Alpine passes.^" The area of 
 
 •R. Blanchard: La Flandre, Paris, 1906. 
 
 ^ Bull. Com. Trav. Hist, et Scien., Sec. Odogr., Vol. 29, 1914, p. xli. 
 *J. Vidal de la Blache: fitude sur la Valine Lorraine de la Meuse, Paris, 1908, 
 pp. 165-180. 
 
 » Cf. inset on pp. 63-64, Andrec's Handatlas, 6tli ed., 1915. 
 *° J. Brunhcs: La Geographic hiimaine, Paris, 1912, pp. 598-599. 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 327 
 
 human circulation between Lake Constance and Lake Geneva has 
 endowed Switzerland with 35 ditferent dialects of German, 16 
 of French, 8 of Italian and 5 of Romansh/^ The penetration of 
 German into the Trentino has already been explained. In 
 Austria the entire valley of the Danube has provided continental 
 trade with one of its most important avenues. Attention is 
 called elsewhere to the Balkan peninsula as an intercontinental 
 highway. In a word, language always followed in the wake of 
 trade and Babel-like confusion prevailed along channels wherein 
 men and their marketable commodities flowed. 
 
 This retrospect also leads to the conclusion that the influence 
 of physical features in the formation of European nationalities 
 has been exerted with maximum intensity in the early periods 
 of their history. This was at the time when man's adaptation 
 to environment was largely blind and unconditioned by his own 
 will. Freedom from this physical thralldom is attained only 
 through man's practical knowledge of human necessities and a 
 sound vision of the welfare of his descendants. Manifestations 
 of nature can then be made subservient to the human will. In 
 this regard historians may eventually be induced to divide 
 their favorite study into two main periods characterized respec- 
 tively by man's submission to, or his intelligent control of, 
 environment. A proper understanding of this conception may 
 contribute to the establishment of frontiers with a view to 
 eliminating conflicts due to relics of national or historical incom- 
 patibility. 
 
 The development of modern boundaries should be regarded 
 as a process originating in barriers first provided by nature and 
 subsequently elaborated by the human will for its purposes. 
 Gradually however natural features of the land lose value as 
 national boundaries. This is the result of man's progress, of 
 the development of railways or wireless stations. It is the 
 removal of natural obstacles; the conquest of distance by speed. 
 All these advances tend to promote intercourse. They are 
 opening the vista of a day when an international boundary will 
 
 "L. W. Lyde: The Continent of Europe, London, 1913, p. 383. 
 
328 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 have no greater importance in world affairs than the limiting 
 line of a city plot. 
 
 National frontiers, at best, become established by virtue of 
 historical accidents. At given times and in order to promote 
 fellowship among nations it becomes necessary to define the 
 areas over which certain principles of political jurisdiction are 
 recognized as valid by a given body of men. A national frontier 
 in the strictest sense of the term cannot, therefore, be limited 
 by the surface feature which has shaped its development. It 
 has generally outgrown this phase of its extension together with 
 the constantly increasing range of activity of the peoples it once 
 inclosed. Factors of an ethnological, economic or linguistic 
 nature must, therefore, be considered. Then only will the new 
 delimitation be entitled to be qualified as natural. 
 
 The preeminence of the linguistic factor set forth in these 
 pages may be illustrated concisely by the accepted recognition 
 of the ''langue d'oil" as the national language of France by all 
 Frenchmen of the present day, although this would have been 
 impossible five centuries ago. Adoption of the linguistic crite- 
 rion in boundary delimitation becomes, therefore, a mere matter 
 of expediency. Its worth is not due to any assumed abstract 
 value of language. It is merely a practical manner of settling 
 divergences regarding national ownership of border territories. 
 It is of value because the guiding consideration in boundary 
 delimitation or revision is to eliminate future sources of conflict. 
 
 The European war is no exception to the fact that almost 
 every conflict of magnitude has been due, in part, to ill-adjusted 
 frontier lines. Slight regard for national aspirations seems to 
 have prevailed in the delimitations determined upon by the sig- 
 natory powers of every important treaty. The seed of ulterior 
 fighting was thus sown, for one of the main features of modern 
 history is the growth of national feeling as a dominating force 
 in human affairs. 
 
 With Europe rid of Napoleon, the treaty of Vienna was 
 framed by his allied foes in 1815 for the purpose of recasting 
 the political map. No heed was paid, however, to the legitimate 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 329 
 
 desire of smaller European nations to rule themselves. An 
 instance of some of the gross blunders committed then was the 
 merging of Belgium and Holland into one nationality in spite of 
 the protests of their representatives. Feelings of the bitterest 
 nature between Belgians and Dutch engendered by this act ulti- 
 mately forced a war between the two countries in 1830. It was 
 only after their separation that the enmity of the two peoples 
 gave way to cordial relations. Subsequent history has shown 
 that these two nations have often been of greater help to each 
 other while retaining separate political entity than under forced 
 union. In Italy also the progress made towards union by Italian- 
 speaking peoples was checked by this treaty and the country 
 split once more into a number of small independent states. The 
 assignation of Lombardy and Venetia to Austria led eventually 
 to the war of 1859. 
 
 In contrast mth these cases, Germany's rise to power with 
 unprecedented rapidity in the history of the world is a striking 
 instance of the splendid development attainable within bound- 
 aries peopled by inhabitants of the same speech. With language 
 and an efficient army in control Prussia only needed a leader to 
 direct the gravitation of other German-speaking states within its 
 own orbit. Bismarck stepped in, the right man at the right time. 
 In 1864 he hurled the Prussian fighting machine against Denmark 
 and wrenched the provinces of Schleswig-Holstein from that 
 country. Two years later he turned on Austria and imposed 
 Prussian leadership on the German-speaking world. These war- 
 like moves gave Prussia the ascendency in the North German 
 Confederation. Only the states of southern Germany were now 
 needed to form the German Empire his patriotic mind had con- 
 ceived. To enlist their sympathies he found it necessary to 
 strike at France. His task was accomplished when a united Ger- 
 many annexed Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 Bismarck's work was flawless as long as he added Germans 
 to the empire of his creation. He erred grievously, however, in 
 including a small number of Frenchmen with Alsace-Lorraine. 
 Had linguistic boundaries been respected at the treaty of Frank- 
 
330 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 fort, and the French districts of the conquered provinces left to 
 France, it is safe to say that Franco-German relations would not 
 have been marked by the lack of cordiality which has charac- 
 terized them since 1871. From whatever standpoint the subject 
 be approached, the inclusion of a handful of Frenchmen within 
 German territory was neither politic nor economic. Today Ger- 
 mans may well ask themselves whether the move was desirable. 
 
 The task of uniting all Germans under a single scepter was 
 not completed by Bismarck. Ten million Germans are still sub- 
 jects of the Austrian Emperor. But Austria as a political unit 
 stands on exceedingly shaky foundations. This is due to the 
 inclusion within its boundaries of 10 million Hungarians, 20 
 million Slavs and several million peoples of Romance speech. As 
 a result, Austria is likely to be split into a number of inde- 
 pendent states. Should this dissolution come about, the natural 
 desire of Germans is to witness the crumbling of Austria's 
 pieces into Germany's lap. The union of all German-speaking 
 inhabitants of Europe into a single nation would then become an 
 accomplished fact. 
 
 Considered from the broad standpoint of human migrations 
 England, France and Italy may be regarded as understudies in 
 the drama staged on the old continent. The star performers are 
 Russia and Germany, and the issue is between these two nations. 
 The grouping of European nations with Russia is a mere result 
 of Germany's preponderant strength. The end of the conflict 
 will necessarily witness the recasting of alliances along with 
 changes of frontier lines. 
 
 For at the bottom of it all the fight is between Slav and 
 Teuton. It is a grim and unrelenting struggle for existence that 
 is shaping itself into one of the world's fiercest racial contests. 
 The Slavic peoples are steadily pressing in from the east though 
 not with the barbarity which characterized their earlier onslaughts. 
 It is the turn of Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Slovenes, Serbians 
 and Croats, slowly to crowd on the descendants of the blue-eyed 
 flaxen-haired barbarians, representing Germanic peoples. 
 
 This Slavonic westerly push has always been blocked by the 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 331 
 
 leading power in the west. France opposed it in the Napoleonic 
 period. Great Britain checked it in the latter half of the nine- 
 teenth century. Today it is Grermany's turn to stand the brunt 
 of its pressure. As matters stand both Germany and Kussia are 
 vigorous, young and fast-growing. The two peoples have taken 
 root on adjacent land like two sturdy oaks. They are now in the 
 stage at which the soil's nourishment at the border suffices only 
 for one. The weaker must wither. The Teuton is expanding 
 eastward, the Slav is spreading westward. Their main clashing- 
 zone happens to be the Balkan peninsula. The ceaseless agitation 
 in this area and its menace to the world's peace is a consequence 
 of the antagonism between the Pan-Slavic Colossus and the Pan- 
 German Titan. 
 
 Germany's expansion is a natural phenomenon. The country 
 is overpopulated. It must expand. The sea is a barrier to its 
 westerly expansion. The north is uninviting. The south is being 
 drained of its resources by active and intelligent inhabitants. 
 The ''Drang nach Osten" of German Imperialism is therefore 
 inevitable. The line of least resistance points to the east, where 
 fertile territory awaits development. 
 
 Little wonder, then, that the attention of Germany's far- 
 seeing statesmen has been directed toward oriental countries, 
 whose wealth of natural resources and genial climate combine to 
 render them ideally attractive. The verdant vales and forest- 
 clad mountains of Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria abound with raw 
 material needed for Germany's increasing industries. Beyond 
 the narrow watercourse, intervening between Europe and Asia, 
 at the Dardanelles and Bosporus lies Asia Minor, a land mar- 
 velously rich in minerals and susceptible of great agricultural 
 development. Farther east the exceedingly fertile Mesopotamian 
 valley, once the granary of the civilized world, stretches between 
 the western Euphrates and Tigris, and bids fair to provide 
 humanity anew with vast supplies of cereals. 
 
 This is the vision which has floated alluringly before the 
 minds of German and Austrian statesmen, working hand in hand, 
 Austria paving the way in the Balkans, Germany forcing her- 
 
332 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 self successfully in the control of Asia Minor, which today is a 
 German colony in all but name. By their joint efforts, the 
 Teuton brothers have laid the foundation of an empire whose 
 northern shore is washed by the Baltic and whose southern 
 boundary may extend to the Persian Gulf. The great obstacle 
 to this scheme of German expansion is constituted by the neigh- 
 borhood of Russia and the predominance of the Slavic element 
 in the population of the Balkan peninsula. Montenegrins, Ser- 
 bians, Macedonians and even Bulgarians dread annexation by 
 Germany. 
 
 At the end of the Balkan wars, Russia had scored heavily 
 against Germany. An enlarged Serbia had been constituted 
 directly in the path of Teutonic advance. In addition to this 
 Slavic victory, every Balkan country had been strengthened con- 
 siderably by the new delimitation of their frontiers. For the 
 first time in their history, Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbians found 
 that their national border could be made to coincide with their 
 linguistic boundary. This national sifting is by no means com- 
 plete in the Balkan peninsula. But there is no question that 
 notable progress in the recognition of patriotic aspirations was 
 made as soon as the region was rid of its Turkish masters. 
 
 With the history of the past hundred years in mind, statesmen 
 engaged in the task of framing peace treaties may well heed the 
 lessons taught by political geography. They might conclude then 
 that greater possibilities of enduring peace exist whenever the 
 delimitation of new frontiers is undertaken with a view to segre- 
 gating linguistic areas within separate national borders. Com- 
 merce and industry will overcome ultimately these barriers and 
 pave the way to friendly international intercourse. These are 
 the lines along which intelligent statecraft will earn its reputa- 
 tion in the future. 
 
 The practical value of linguistic frontiers as national bound- 
 aries is due to their geographical growth. They are natural 
 because they are the result of human intercourse based largely on 
 economic needs. Having developed naturally, they correspond to 
 national aspirations. Such being the case, the task of frontier 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 333 
 
 delimitation can be made to assume a scientific form. Only in 
 the case of uninhabited or sparsely populated regions will an 
 artificial boundary— say, of the straight line type— prove ade- 
 quate. But in tenanted portions of the earth's surface where 
 human wills and desires come into play the problem cannot be 
 dismissed so lightly. The ordinary laws of science must then be 
 applied. This, after all, merely implies drawing on the stock of 
 common sense accumulated by the human race in the course of 
 its development. The clear duty of statesmen engaged in a 
 revision of boundaries is to put the varied interests at stake into 
 harmony with the facts of nature as they are revealed by geog- 
 raphy. This is possible because the science deals with the sur- 
 face of the earth considered as the field of man's activity. Its 
 data can be drawn upon just as successfully as the engineer 
 draws upon the energy of a waterfall or a ton of coal. Sound- 
 ness and permanency of the labor of delimitation can thus be 
 insured. 
 
 The preceding remarks should not be considered as implying 
 that a mountain, or a river, or even the sea are to be arbitrarily 
 regarded as frontiers. Lines of water-parting deserve particular 
 mention as having provided satisfactory national borders in his- 
 tory. But in boundaries each case should be treated upon its 
 own merits. There was a time when, in Cowper's words: 
 
 Mountains interposed 
 Make enemies of nations who had else 
 Like kindred drops been mingled into one. 
 
 And yet the passes of the Alps refute the poet's statement. 
 Their uniting function eventually overcame their estranging 
 power. The easterly spread of French language over the Vosges 
 concurs in the same trend of testimony. The imposing mass of 
 the Urals is no more of a parting than are the Appalachians. 
 To be pertinent, it will be necessary, in each instance, to con- 
 sider the complex operations of natural laws and the process of 
 fusing and building up of nationality brought about by their 
 agency. 
 
334 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The value of mountains in the scheme of useful boundary 
 demarcation has been attested in the European war. Towns and 
 villages sheltered behind rocky uplifts have suffered relatively 
 little from the devastation which has marked the struggle in low- 
 lands and plains. The fact is true for the Vosges mountains, 
 the Trentino uplands and the Carpathian region. Although 
 fighting of an exceedingly bitter character was maintained in 
 each of these areas, the loss in property was never extreme. 
 This is one of the many instances where land configuration lends 
 itself advantageously to delimitation work. The need of trust- 
 worthy geographical information in partitioning and dividing up 
 territory is obvious. Upon this basis only can boundary revision 
 be satisfactorily pursued. 
 
 The long borderland of the French language which marks the 
 northern and eastern boundary of French lands from the English 
 Channel to the Mediterranean, lies unruffled by political agitation 
 in its southeastern stretch, where Italian and French become 
 interchangeable languages. Modifications in this section of the 
 political frontier hardly need be considered. Their occurrence, 
 if any, will probably come as peaceful adjustments dictated by 
 economic reasons. To the north, however, the line has a history 
 tainted by deeds of violence. In this stretch it forms the divide 
 between two civilizations, the French and the German. These, 
 although having flourished side by side, are distinctly opposed 
 in spirit and method. Here, beginning north of the Swiss border, 
 frontier changes appear inevitable. 
 
 In the Vosges uplift, certain facts of geographical import 
 have direct bearing on the international boundary problem. The 
 very occurrence of a mountain in this zone of secular conflict 
 has a significance of its own. Aggression has generally made 
 its way up the steep slope and, since the treaty of Frankfort of 
 1871, strategic advantages lie on the German side. Moreover the 
 crest line shows French linguistic predominance. 
 
 In Lorraine, the steady expansion of French over German 
 territory reveals the assimilative capacity of French civilization. 
 France, unable to send forth colonists because of her lack of 
 
The American Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI IX 
 
The American Geographical Society of New Yorl( 
 
 Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, 1917, PI. IX 
 
 PART OF EUROPE 
 
 SHO^V1NO 
 
 LANGUAGES •. 
 
 having political significance. 
 based on sheet WJYl c (Sept]911 ) DelDes'Hajidatlas and oth.er scnirces 
 
 Scalp : I ftnoO.nOO w l inch - 142 miles 
 French 
 I I Itahnii 
 I I Rumoniajt 
 I I AJbaman - 
 i I Greek 
 i I Swedish 
 1 1 Ahmiefftftn 
 I I Panish 
 
aJ 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 335 
 
 numbers, nevertheless contains within herself by virtue of superior 
 civilization the ability to absorb the foreigner. Of this, evidence 
 is to be found in the Alsatian's sympathy for France no less 
 than in the unanimous verdict of impartial foreigners. Belgium's 
 unhesitating rally to the French cause in the present war was 
 also the spontaneous response to the greater cultural appeal 
 emanating from France. The fact is attested by history since 
 the earliest times, for much of the civilization of Germanic 
 peoples has invariably taken its source in the inspiring ideals of 
 the wonderfully endowed inhabitants of French territory. 
 
 Upon this historical basis, the intermediate zone between 
 French and German languages might be converted into a number 
 of buffer-states which, from the Alps to the North Sea, would 
 represent the borderland of the central mountain zone and the 
 northern plain. Switzerland, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg and 
 Belgium have been weak spots of European diplomacy on account 
 of geographical circumstances. A just appreciation of this fact 
 alone can provide against a continuance of past weakness. 
 
 Whatever the result of the present war, boundary rectifica- 
 tions from the easternmost wedge of Switzerland to the head of 
 the Adriatic may be expected. They were the subject of nego- 
 tiations between Austria and Italy prior to the latter country's 
 entry into the war in 1915. Austria at that time proposed to 
 cede to Italy a portion of the Trentino or ' ' Siid-Tirol " as it is 
 illogically called by the Germans. The territory which Austria 
 was willing to abandon to prevent Italy from joining the Allies 
 coincided roughly with the extension of Italian language north of 
 the Italian frontier. Italian demands presented then were based, 
 however, upon strategic necessities as well as linguistic consid- 
 erations. Italy therefore outlined a frontier much nearer to the 
 Adriatic watershed. 
 
 The Italian claims may be summarized as follows : ^^ From 
 Switzerland the present boundary line is to be maintained to 
 Mount Cevedale, whence it is to strike east to Ulmenspitze and 
 
 *' D. W. Freshfield : The Southern Frontiers of Austria, Oeogr. Journ., Vol. 40, 
 1915, pp. 414-436. 
 
336 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 thence northeast to Klausen passing through Gargazon. From 
 Klausen the line leads to the south until latitude 46° 30' is 
 reached, after which it resumes its easterly course, passes 
 through Tofana and reaches the old boundary at about 4 miles 
 northeast of Cortina d'Ampezzo. The population of the last- 
 named district, formerly Ladin, is now Italian. This boundary 
 
 Fig. 67 — Sketch map showing proposed changes in the Austro-Italian frontier 
 according to Austrian and Italian views. 
 
 revision will give political validity to the Italian Alps, a region 
 which is geographically Italian. 
 
 Through this line the transfer of the command of the passes 
 to Italy would become an accomplished fact. It would mean that 
 the entrance to the Vintschgau, the valley of the Upper Adige 
 and of the gorge of the Eisack at Klausen with the issue of the 
 Brenner and Pustherthal railways would be controlled by Italy. 
 Moreover the frontier has the merit of being identical with the 
 old bishopric boundary maintained from 1106 a.d. to the Eefor- 
 mation. The flaw, if any, in such an eventual settlement might 
 be found in the fact that the Botzen district, although econom- 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 337 
 
 ically Italian, is Teutonic in speech and feeling. The rest of the 
 population in the Trentino favors annexation to Italy. 
 
 The Austrian offer to Italy diverges from the Italian project 
 at nimenspitze ^^ and strikes south, carefully avoiding abandon- 
 ment of territory of German speech to Italy. In doing this, how- 
 ever, it leaves some of the Italian-speaking northeastern districts 
 of the Noce valley in Austrian territory. All the mountain out- 
 lets which open into the Adige valley are retained by Austria. 
 This from the Italian standpoint is inadmissible, as it would 
 leave the southern country exposed to aggression from the north. 
 On the basis of the Austrian census for 1910 the changes in 
 population consequent upon such a boundary revision are as 
 follows : 
 
 Italians and 
 
 Ladins Germans 
 
 In territory offered by Austria 366,837 13,892 
 
 In teiTitory retained by Austria 18,863 511,222 
 
 In case the Italian claim is granted the following changes will 
 result : 
 
 Italians and 
 
 Ladins Germans 
 
 In new Italian territory 371,477 74,000 
 
 In territory retained by Austria 14,229 440,805 
 
 A margin of coastland along the eastern Adriatic is mainly 
 Serbian in nationality though Italian in culture. It was once the 
 nest of pirates who terrorized the Adriatic and Mediterranean. 
 We catch historical glimpses of their retreats to the admirable 
 shelters teeming along the coastland which skirts the Dalmatian 
 mountains. The fringe of long islands deployed like a protecting 
 screen enabled their vessels to evade capture. This feature of 
 the region still exercises its influence, for a strong naval power 
 in control of such a base might easily dominate the Mediter- 
 ranean lane of traffic between east and west. The political fate 
 of the eastern shores of the Adriatic cannot therefore be sun- 
 dered from their geographical aspect. 
 
 " R. von Pfaundler: Osterreichisch-italienische Grenzfragen, Pet. Mitt., Vol. 61, 
 1915, pp. 217-223. 
 
338 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 The Italians have been exhibited elsewhere in these pages as 
 a vanishing minority throughout this Dalmatian coast. We are 
 in the presence of Serbians, disguised under various appella- 
 tions, among which the most familiar are Croatians, Slavonians, 
 Bosnians, Herzegovinians, Montenegrins, Dalmatians and Illyri- 
 ans. All these elements were susceptible of being strongly knit 
 into a single nationality. The inclusion of a sympathizing, though 
 numerically small, Slovene group could only introduce wholesome 
 competition among them. 
 
 Nationalism in this region was awakened by French achieve- 
 ments and influences at the time of its conquest by Napoleon's 
 armies. The French provinces of Illyria, which included Slovene 
 territory on the north and extended as far south as Montenegro, 
 were converted in 1816 into a kingdom of the same name which 
 survived, up to 1846, as part of the Austrian Empire. The taste 
 of political independence acquired by southern Slavs in that 
 interval of time never lost its savor. Schemes for the formation 
 of an independent Jugoslavia were naturally thrown into sharper 
 relief through the medium of linguistic unity. 
 
 Such a south Slavic political entity must necessarily be iden- 
 tified with Serbia. Its extent is admirably defined by geo- 
 graphical, ethnographical and linguistic lines all of which coin- 
 cide, thereby pointing irrefutably to national unity. The Drave, 
 Morava, Drina and Lim rivers, with the Adriatic Sea, encircle 
 this genuine Serbian area. It comprises the entire system of 
 parallel ranges which form the mountainous rearland of the 
 Adriatic. Because of its arduous character the region was never 
 thoroughly mastered by foreigners. Invaders established them- 
 selves in force only along the sections of international highways 
 which cross the land. The rest remained accessible to the Serbian 
 natives only. 
 
 The defining of an independent Hungary presents little con- 
 fusion if approached from the main highway of geography. 
 Agreement between the land and its inhabitants appears to exist 
 here, for the Magyar is, in the first place, a lowlander accustomed 
 to live within the precincts of a fertile plain. He has always 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 339 
 
 shunned the mountain and is rarely to be met above the 600-foot 
 contour. As soon as the hills to the north of the vast field of his 
 birth are attained he disappears, leaving a few officials to repre- 
 sent him. Slovak, Eumanian and Ruthenian hillmen then come 
 upon the scene. On the western side, west of the Raab, the 
 heights drained by the river are peopled by Germans and, in spite 
 of a complex boundary zone, a convenient line of demarcation 
 could be drawn upon the basis of elevation. Southward the old- 
 time utility of the Drave as the dividing line between Croat and 
 Hungarian remains unimpaired to this day. In the east, how- 
 ever, around the confluence of this river with the Danube and 
 towards the Theiss valley the swamp lands have repelled the 
 ease-loving Hungarian as effectively as the mountains to the east 
 and north. The Serb, less particular in his choice of residence, 
 advanced northward as far as the swampy land extends. In this 
 section any physical map contains the data for a territorial 
 division. 
 
 With regard to Transylvania, conditions may be summarized 
 as follows: the region is scantily populated, valleys constituting 
 centers of human habitation almost exclusively. The inhabitants 
 are overwhelmingly Rumanians.^* The dominating Hungarian 
 element inhabits isolated communities in their midst. This 
 separation of the rival peoples is of the utmost interest in 
 boundary revision, for which it provides a reliable geographical 
 basis. Wallis has ingeniously shown" that a line separating the 
 majority of Hungarians from Rumanians can be obtained by 
 taking language as a guide and that this is possible because 
 there exists no mixing of peoples in the eastern borderland of 
 Hungarian language. In reality, throughout Hungary the only 
 element that has insinuated itself in the midst of Hungarian, 
 Rumanian or Slav populations is the German. This element is 
 generally absorbed except where present in large numbers. The 
 Magyar, however, has never mingled with his neighbors. One is 
 
 "B. C. WalHs: Distribution of Nationalities in Hungary, Geogr. Joum., Vol. 52, 
 1916, No. 3, pp. 177-189. 
 *' Loc. cit. 
 
340 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 almost led to seek the reason for his aloofness in his Asiatic origin. 
 
 Poland also has its natural place in the European political 
 system. The majority of Poles live in Russian Poland. Out of 
 a total of over 20,000,000 Poles about 12,000,000 are found in the 
 '* governments " or administrative districts created by Russia in 
 the sections of Poland within Russia's boundaries. These 
 districts are ten in number and adjoin each other. Geographically 
 they form a unit — the westernmost appendage of the vast united 
 Russian territory which aggregates between one-sixth or one- 
 seventh of the total land surface of the world. Detachment of 
 this Polish section from Russia and its creation into part of an 
 autonomous Poland is practicable without serious loss to Russian 
 unity. Slavic solidarity would in fact be consolidated if Poland 
 were constituted a sovereign state. 
 
 To Germany, however, an autonomous Poland which would 
 encompass the million Poles living in the Kaiser's empire implies 
 abandonment of a territory which reaches far into the heart of 
 the country. The Polish strip ends less than a hundred miles 
 east of Berlin. The province of Posen, a considerable portion 
 of Silesia, a narrow strip of West Prussia reaching the Baltic 
 west of Danzig and the Masurian Lakes district are peopled by 
 Poles. Furthermore, and this is of capital importance in German 
 eyes, East Prussia which is German by language and tradition, 
 as well as Prussian to the core, would become isolated from the 
 main mass of the German- speaking people. It is improbable that 
 such a cession of territory will take place as long as Germany 
 has the power to prevent it. It need only be remembered that 
 the first partition of Poland was engineered by Frederick the 
 Great merely to join East Prussia to the rest of his kingdom. 
 Against this last fact, however, the imperative necessity for an 
 independent Poland to obtain an outlet on the Baltic will always 
 prevail in anti-German circles. 
 
 Nature therefore points to the existence of a real German 
 menace to Polish autonomy. It is needless to minimize the sig- 
 nificance of the points at issue. Prussia, the dominant state in 
 the German nation, will never consent to the impairment of her 
 
SUMMARY AND APPLICATIONS 34)1 
 
 territorial unity by the surrender of her Polish sections. On the 
 other hand the reconstruction of Poland must be complete if the 
 creation of a Balkanic state of affairs west of the Gulf of Danzig 
 is to be avoided. A partial reunion of Polish-speaking groups 
 under an autonomous government would be the prelude to 
 irredentist questions. This however is precisely what an enlight- 
 ened world is seeking to prevent. 
 
 In reality the German nation would be the gainer by the 
 creation of a reunited Polish state. No better barrier to Eus- 
 sia's westerly advance in Europe could be devised. Conversely 
 Teutonic encroachments on Slavic territory — bound as they 
 inevitably are to be attended by bloodshed — would be effectively 
 arrested. A buffer state between Eussia and Germany is the 
 safest guarantee of peace between the two nations. All the inex- 
 tricable tangles in which Europe has been involved by Polish 
 problems can be unraveled by the restoration of Polish national 
 entity. The problem requires solution for the sake of the peace 
 of the world. 
 
 The problems arising along the remaining linguistic bound- 
 aries have been exhibited in earlier chapters and require but 
 little mention here. In Schleswig an extension of Denmark's 
 political frontier as far south as the Danish language prevails 
 would be welcomed as the harbinger of lasting harmony between 
 Danes and Germans. The historical frontier between the Danish 
 duchy and Holstein could be utilized to advantage in this change. 
 In this, as in other cases, the principles of geography, modified 
 by national aspirations and economic needs, must in the last 
 resort be recognized as practical and applicable. Bohemia, which 
 has been showm to be splendidly laid off on a physical map, 
 deserves political independence because it is endowed with geo- 
 graphic individuality. This method of solving the problems 
 which for centuries have burdened Europe with strife would, 
 like the splitting of Austria into national fragments, mark an 
 improvement in the lot of a notable proportion of the population 
 of Europe. New impetus would be granted to the development 
 of national sentiment. Humanity owes much to the free play of 
 
342 FRONTIERS OF LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 
 
 this feeling. The claims of world brotherhood have received 
 greater attention through its existence. The energies of sub- 
 merged nationalities have hitherto been absorbed by the struggle 
 for survival. Relief from this stress will be accompanied by 
 respect for alien rights instead of hatred of the oppressor. 
 
 Throughout the nineteenth century, as well as in the beginning 
 of the twentieth, reconstruction of nationalities was effected on 
 a linguistic basis. The part played by language during that 
 period is of tantamount importance to the religious feeling which 
 formerly caused many a destructive war. Practically all the 
 wars of the last hundred years are the outcome of three great 
 constructive movements which led to the unification of Germany 
 and of Italy as well as to the disentanglement of Balkan nationali- 
 ties. These were outward and visible signs of the progress of 
 democratic ideals. The Congress of Vienna failed to provide 
 Europe with political stability because popular claims were 
 ignored during the deliberations. At present, inhabitants of lin- 
 guistic areas under alien rule are clamoring for the right to 
 govern themselves. The carrying out of plebiscites under inter- 
 national supervision can often be relied upon to satisfy their 
 aspirations and serve as a guide to frontier rearrangements. 
 
 All told, the growing coincidence of linguistic and political 
 boundaries must be regarded as a normal development. It is 
 a form of order evolved out of the chaos characterizing the origin 
 of human institutions. The delimitation of international fron- 
 tiers is as necessary as the determination of administrative 
 boundaries or city lines. Human organization requires it and 
 there is no reason why it should not be undertaken ^^ith fair 
 regard to the wishes and feelings of all affected. For nations, 
 like individuals, are at their best only when they are free, that 
 is to say when the mastery of their destiny is in their own 
 hands. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 TgERIVIAN settlements in RUSSIA 
 
 Colonies of Germans in Russia are found mainly in the Baltic prov- 
 inces and around the banks of the Volga. According to the census of 1897 
 the German residents of the governments of Livonia, Kurland, Esthonia 
 and St. Petersburg numbered 229,084. The majority of this northern 
 element is distributed along the shores of the Gulf of Riga. 
 
 The banks of the Volga were first colonized by Germans in 1763 after 
 a proclamation issued by Empress Catherine II inviting foreigners to settle 
 on either side of the river in the environs of Saratoff and Samara and as 
 far as Tzaritzin. The distress that followed the Seven Years' War in Ger- 
 many determined a number of families of the afflicted provinces to seek a 
 better lot on Russian soil. By the year 1768 there had been founded 102 
 German settlements containing a total population of 27,000 inhabitants.^ 
 The newcomers had to face considerable hardships. Many of them were 
 neither farmers nor peasants. Their endurance was taxed by the rigor of 
 the climate. Insecurity of life and property prevailed as badly as in their 
 devastated motherland. In 1774 rebel bands led by Jemelian Pontgatcheff 
 wrought havoc and ruin in the new districts. Two years later hordes of 
 Kirghiz nomads laid waste the land again and carried off a number of the 
 emigrants as slaves. This state of affairs lasted until the last decades of 
 the nineteenth century. The Tatar raiders were attracted mainly by the 
 cattle of the colonists. The value of horses, camels and cattle stolen between 
 1875 and 1882 is estimated at 330,000 rubles.^ 
 
 It is estimated that fully five million rubles were spent by the Rus- 
 sian government to plant these foreign colonies. But no onerous terms were 
 imposed on the settlers. A head tax of three rubles constituted their only 
 pecuniary obligation to the state. Furthermore, a liberal administration 
 was provided for their settlements. Each village was ruled by an assembly 
 recruited from among its inhabitants. 
 
 Unfortunately for the development of these communities the Russian 
 system of collective ownership known as the '*mir" was instituted. Under 
 this form of tenure all land becomes the property of the village. Each 
 male inhabitant is temporarily entitled to a share of the whole area and an 
 exchange of plots is made every ten years. Each village then receives a 
 new fraction and fresh lots are apportioned to those who have come of 
 
 * P. Clerget : Les Colonies Allemandes de la Volga, La G^ogr., Feb. 1909. 
 
 •H. Pokorny: Die Deutschen an der Volga, Deutsche Erde, 1908, No. 4, pp. 138-144. 
 
 343 
 
344 APPENDIX A 
 
 age during the decade. This method of ownership does not lead to develop- 
 ment and generally retards rather than promotes agricultural progress. 
 
 Furthermore the land is none too fertile. Uncertainty therefore is 
 today the common lot of many of the descendants of the old German set- 
 tlers. Many prefer to engage in trade rather than in agriculture. The 
 natural increase of the population has brought a certain amount of con- 
 gestion which has resulted in emigration. Effort is made by German mis- 
 sionary societies to induce these Russian Germans to return to the land of 
 their fathers. The Russian government on the other hand provides them 
 with ample facilities and inducements to settle in Siberia. The region 
 around Tomsk contains a number of villages built up by this emigration. 
 Many however prefer to emigrate to the United States where they find a 
 happier lot. Settlements composed entirely of Volga Germans exist in 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 The old German settlers had held steadfastly to their religion. Their 
 descendants have also clung to the faith of their fathers, thus creating a 
 totally separate community in the midst of Orthodox Russia. Their earliest 
 schools had been founded as annexes of their churches and education had 
 been a great factor in the maintenance of language and religion. In 1891 
 the use of Russian was rendered obligatory in all educational institutions 
 of the Empire. Nevertheless this measure cannot be said to have con- 
 tributed to weaken the German character of the communities. From Ger- 
 many itself manifestations of interest towards these faraway centers of 
 German custom have always been keen. Neither has support been lacking. 
 
 According to recent statistics the Germans inhabiting the banks of the 
 Volga number close to half a million, distributed equally on both banks of 
 the great inland river. The ethnic type of these Germans has been main- 
 tained with remarkable purity and their language contains obsolete forms 
 dating from the eighteenth century. The names of the largest communities 
 and the number of their inhabitants are as follows : 
 
 Saratoff 12,500 
 
 Norka 13,416 
 
 Frank 11,700 
 
 Grimm or Lesnoi Karamisli 10,761 
 
 Baltzer Katharinenstadt or Baronsk 10,134 ^ 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 *■- 
 
 I The Balkan States Before and After the Wars op 1912-131 
 
 AREAS {in square miles) 
 
 Former New 
 
 State area area 
 
 Montenegro 3,506 5,600 
 
 Albania — 10,900 
 
 Serbia 18,650 33,600 
 
 Rumania 50,720 54,300 
 
 Bulgaria 37,201 43,300 
 
 Greece 24,966 46,600 
 
 Turkey in Europe 65,370 9,700 
 
 Percentage of 
 Increase or 
 Decrease 
 
 + 80^ 
 + 7^ 
 + 16^ 
 + 87^ 
 -85^ 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 Prior to 
 State War 
 
 Montenegro 285,000 
 
 Albania — 
 
 Serbia 2,960,000 
 
 Rumania 7,250,000 
 
 Bulgaria 4,340,000 
 
 Greece 2,670,000 
 
 Turkey in Europe 6,130,000 
 
 After the 
 War 
 
 500,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 4,300,000 
 
 7,400,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 ^ Joerg, W. L. G. : The New Boundaries of the Balkan States and their Significance, 
 Bull, of Amer. Geogr. Soc, Vol. 45, 1913, p. 819. 
 
 345 
 
k^>Va^Vo<C Cfcv^.f'revl^^ C^ -^^ 
 
 ..S'T^s ^f ^u^o^. 
 
 APPENDIX C 
 
 Group 
 A. Celtic 
 
 GliASSIFICATION OP LANGUAGES SpOKEN IN EUROPE 
 
 ^ X>3"v\^0' tnf'>'^«nn. ka^'A-^dOVt, . 
 
 Branches u J Languages 
 
 1. Gaelic 
 
 a. Irish 
 
 b. Highland Scotch 
 e. Manx 
 
 2. Cymric 
 
 a. Welsh 
 
 b. Low Breton 
 
 B. Romanic 
 
 C. Germanic 
 
 D. Slavic 
 
 E. Lettic 
 
 F. Hellenic 
 
 G. Illybic 
 H. Indio 
 
 Scandinavian 
 
 Germanic 
 
 Western 
 
 Eastern 
 
 MSl^o 
 
 
 oa 
 
 1. French 
 
 2. Italian 
 
 3. Spanish 
 
 4. Provengal 
 
 5. Portuguese . 
 
 6. Romansh OF Charwaelefe dA (1 kSo'I 
 
 7. Rumanian p '^ a ''' -at^ 
 
 1. Swedish 
 
 2. Danish c^mcI Hotvie^^an 
 
 3. Icelandic 
 
 1. High German 
 
 2. Low German 
 
 3. Dutcby^i aQluaing Flemish 
 
 4. Frisian 
 
 5. English 
 
 1. Polish 
 
 2. Bohemian Coecli,^^vik) 
 
 3. Wend 
 
 1. Russian, including Ruthenian — — ~) 
 k^!. Bulgarian '^ 
 
 23. Serbian, including Croatian, ^ «¥<"«»»• 
 
 1. Lettish 
 
 2. Lithuanian 
 
 Greek 
 
 Albanian 
 
 Gipsy or Romany 
 
 346 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 -34? 
 
 In addition to the above the following non-Indo-European languages 
 are spoken in Europe : 
 
 'J2 
 
 Family 
 TURANIAIT 
 
 Caucasian 
 Basque 
 
 Group 
 Finnic 
 
 Tatario 
 
 
 'Branch 
 Tchudic 
 
 Penman 
 
 Volgaic 
 
 Ujrrie 
 
 Language 
 
 1. Finnic 
 
 2. Esthonian 
 ■ 0. Tc fand 
 
 3 ji. Lapp 
 Oi votli " 
 ^. ^. Livonian 
 
 1. Votiak 
 
 2. Sirian 
 
 3. Permiak 
 
 1. Tchuvash 
 
 2. Mordoin 
 
 3. Cheremiss 
 
 1. Hungarian (N\aoMjr) 
 
 2. Samoyed 
 
 Turkish 
 
 1. Lesghian 
 
 2. Circassian 
 
 Basque or Euskara • | 
 
 1 . CrAJJtu.^ 'rXvLM.aK 
 
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APPENDIX D 353 
 
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354 APPENDIX D 
 
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APPENDIX D 355 
 
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356 APPENDIX D 
 
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APPENDIX E 
 
 KEY TO PLACE NAMES 
 
 Aa, river, lat. 51°, PI. I. 
 Abanj, town, lat. 48° 50', Fig. 48. 
 Abbateggio, town, lat. 42° 14', Fig. 33. 
 Abruzzi, province, lat. 42°, Fig. 33. 
 Abullonia, lake, south of Moudania, lat. 
 
 40° 12', PI. VII. 
 Acquaviva, town, lat. 40° 53', Fig. 33. 
 Ada Bazar, town, lat. 40° 45', PI. VII. 
 Adalia, town and bay, lat. 36° 53', PI. V. 
 Adana, town, lat. 37°, PI. V. 
 Aden, gulf of, lat. 12° 46'. See inset map: 
 
 " Extension of the Hejaz line toward 
 
 Mecca." PI. V. 
 Adige, valley, lat. 45° 40', Figs. 30, 67. 
 Adrianople, town, lat. 41° 41', Fig. 47. 
 Adriatic, sea, PI. IX. See also Figs. 47, 
 
 48. 
 .lEgean, sea, PI. V. 
 Agaro, district, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 22. 
 Aidin, town, lat. 37° 48', PI. V. 
 Aire, town, lat. 50° 38', PI. I. 
 Ala, town, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 30. 
 Alagna, village, lat. 45° 52', Fig. 22. 
 Aland, isds., lat. 60° 15', PI. IX. 
 Albania, state, lat. 41°, Fig. 53. 
 Albula, river, lat. 46° 40', Fig. 67. 
 Aleppo, town, lat. 36° 10', PI. V, VI, VII. 
 Alexandretta, town, lat. 36° 35', PI. V, VI, 
 
 VII. 
 Alghero, town, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 43. 
 Allenstein, town, lat. 53° 45', Fig. 38. 
 Alpes-Maritimes, dept., lat. 43° 45', Fig. 
 
 22. 
 Alsace, province, lat. 48° 50', PI. II, IX. 
 Amasia, town, lat. 40° 39', PI. VII. 
 Anderlecht (Brussels), lat. 50° 51', Fig. 
 
 14. 
 Andermatten, village (Italian: La 
 
 Chiesa), lat. 46° 20', Fig. 22. 
 Andreasfalva, town, lat. 47° 50', Fig. 44. 
 Angeln, mts., 54° 35', Fig. 35. 
 Angora, town, lat. 39° 56', PI. V, VII. 
 Anniviers, valley, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 18. 
 Antigorio, val., lat. 46° 10', Fig. 22. 
 Antioch, town, lat. 36° 10', PI. VIT. 
 Antivari, town, lat. 42° 8', Fig. 53. 
 
 Aosta, town, lat. 45° 44', PI. IX, Fig. 22. 
 Aquitaine, region, lat. 44° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Arad, town, lat. 40° 13', Fig. 48. 
 Arax, river, lat. 39° 27', PI. VII, 
 Arghana, town, lat. 38° 25', PI. V. 
 Argyrocastro, district, lat. 40° 7', Fig. 53. 
 Arlon, town, lat. 49° 42', PI. I. 
 Armenia, province, PI. VII, VIII. 
 Armentiferes, town, lat. 50° 43', PI. I. 
 Armorica, region, lat. 48° 10', Fig. 3. 
 Arnfels, town, lat. 46° 42', Fig. 31. 
 Arnsberg, town, lat. 51° 24', Fig. 7. 
 Arta, river, lat. 39° 20', Fig. 53. 
 Asiago, town, lat. 45° 52', Fig. 30. 
 Aspropotamos, river, lat. 39° 22', Fig. 53. 
 Astico, river, lat. 45° 40', Fig. 25. 
 Augsburg, town, lat. 48° 52', PI. IX, Fig. 
 
 30. 
 Augustow, town, lat. 53° 30', Fig. 38. 
 
 Baden, grand duchy, lat. 48° 30', Fig. 7. 
 Bagdad, town, lat. 33° 21', PI. V. 
 Balearic, isds., lat. 39°, Fig. 43. 
 Banat, province, lat. 45° 53', Fig. 38. 
 Baren Kopf, mt., lat. 47° 47', PL II. 
 Bars, town, lat. 48° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Basra, town, lat. 30° 30', PI. V. 
 Bautzen, town, lat. 51° 11', Fig. 41. 
 Bavaria, kingdom, lat. 49°, Fig. 7. 
 Beaulard, town, lat. 45° 3', Fig. 21. 
 Becherek, town, lat. 45° 27', Fig. 48. 
 Beirut, town, lat. 33° 54', PI. V. 
 Belcamen, town, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Belfort, town, lat. 47° 38', PI. II, Fig. 18. 
 Belgrade, town, lat. 44° 47', PI. IX. 
 Belluno, town, lat. 46° 8', Fig. 67. 
 Benkovac, town, lat. 44° 2', Fig. 48. 
 Berane, town, lat. 42° 47', Fig. 53. 
 Berat, town, lat. 40° 43', Fig. 53. 
 Bereg, town, lat. 47°, Fig. 38. 
 Beskid, mts., lat. 49° 30', PI. IV. 
 Bessarabia, province, lat. 47° 20', PI. III. 
 B4v6ra, valley, lat. 43° 50', Fig. 22. 
 Bielostok, town, lat. 53° 10', PL IV. 
 Bielsk, town, lat. 52° 50', PI. IV. 
 Bienne, town, lat. 47° 9', Fig. 18. 
 
358 
 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 Birnbaum, town, lat. 52° 37', PI. IV. 
 Bistritza, valley, lat. 40° 30', Fig. 53. 
 Black Drin, river, lat. 42°, Fig. 53. 
 Black Forest, mountain region, lat. 48° 
 
 20', Fig. 7. 
 Blatza, town, lat. 40° 31', Fig. 53. 
 Bohmerwald, mt., lat. 49° 0', Fig. 48. 
 Bohtan, river, lat. 38°, PI. VII. 
 Boitsfort, town, lat. 50° 48', Fig. 14. 
 Bolchen, town, lat. 49° 10', PI. II. 
 Boli, town, lat. 40° 45', PI. V. 
 Bolzano, (Bozen), town, lat. 46° 30', 
 
 Figs. 30, 67. 
 Bomst, town, lat. 52° 12', PI. IV. 
 Bosnia, province, lat. 44° 20', Fig. 48. 
 Bothnia, gulf, lat. 62°, Fig. 38. 
 Botzen, (Bozen), town, lat. 46° 30', Figs. 
 
 30, 67. 
 Boulogne, town, lat. 50° 43', PI. I. 
 Boiisson, town, lat. 44° 55', Fig. 21. 
 Boyana, river, lat. 41° 52', Fig. 53. 
 Brandenburg, province, lat. 52° 26', Fig. 7. 
 Branjevo, town, lat. 44° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Bredizza, town, lat. 41° 50', Fig. 53. 
 Brenner, pass, lat. 47° 3', Fig. 30. 
 Brenta, river, lat. 45° 26', Fig. 25. 
 Breslau, town, lat. 51° 6', PI. IV. 
 Bressanone, town, see Brixen. 
 Briancon, town, lat. 44° 50', Fig. 21. 
 Brieg, town, lat. 50° 50', PI. IV. 
 Brittany, province, lat. 48° 20', Fig. 3. 
 Brixen, town, lat. 46° 41', Fig. 30. 
 Bromberg, town, lat. 53° 7', PI. IV. 
 Broye, river, lat. 46° 45', Fig. 18. 
 Bruche, river, lat. 48° 30', PI. II. 
 Bruneco, town, lat. 46° 51', Fig. 30. 
 Brusa, town, lat. 40° 11', PI. V. 
 Brux, town, lat. 50° 33', Fig. 48. 
 Buccari, bay, lat. 45° 18', Fig. 48. 
 Budapest, lat. 47° 29', PI. IX. 
 Bukovina, province, lat. 48° 0', Fig. 44. 
 Bukschoja, town, lat. 47° 37', Fig. 44. 
 Burgundian lands, (see Burgundy), lat. 
 
 47°, Fig. 3. 
 Busi, is., lat. 43° 8', Fig. 48. 
 
 Cairo, city, lat. 30° 2', PI. V. 
 Galliano, town, lat. 45° 56', Fig. 30. 
 Canza, village, lat. 46° 25', Fig. 22. 
 Carinthia, lat. 47°, PI. III. 
 Carniola, province, lat. 45° 58', Fig. 48. 
 
 PI. III. 
 Carpathian Mts., lat. 48° 30', PI. IV. 
 
 Cascanditella, town, lat. 42° 16', Fig. 33. 
 Casotto, town, lat. 45° 53', Fig. 67. 
 Cattaro, town, lat. 42° 23', Fig. 48. 
 Caucasus, region, lat. 44°, Fig. 38. 
 Cazza, is., lat. 42° 55', Fig. 48. 
 Cesane, town, lat. 44° 57', Fig. 21. 
 Cevedale, mt., lat. 46° 29', Fig. 67. 
 Chalcydic peninsula, lat. 40° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Champlas du Col, town, lat. 44° 56', Fig. 
 
 21. 
 Chanak, town, lat. 40° 9', PI. VI. 
 Cliarmoille, town, lat. 47° 20', Fig. 18. 
 Chernikov, city, lat. 51° 29', Fig. 38. 
 Chorlu, river, lat. 41° 12', Fig. 47. 
 Cilician Gate, lat. 37° 30', PI. VII., see 
 
 inset : " Western Asia showing direction 
 
 of Main Mountain Ranges." 
 Clabecq, lat. 50° 40', Fig. 14. 
 Clavi&res, town, lat. 44° 55', Figs. 21, 22. 
 Clementi, pass, lat. 42° 30', Fig. 53. 
 Collecroce, town, lat. 41° 45', Fig. 33. 
 Colmar, town, lat. 48° 6', PI. II. 
 Cologne, town, lat. 50° 56', PI. IX. 
 Constantinople, city, lat. 41°, PI. VII. 
 Corfu, is., lat. 39° 37', Fig. 53, PI. V, VI. 
 Cormons, town, lat. 45° 57', Fig. 31. 
 Cortina d'Ampezzo, pass, lat. 46° 31', Fig. 
 
 67. 
 Courtaron, town, lat. 47° 28', Fig. 18. 
 Cracow, town, lat. 50° 4', PI. IV. 
 Crasna, lat. 48° 2', Fig. 44. 
 Crefeld, town, lat. 51° 21', PI. IX. 
 Cremnitza, river, lat. 40°, Fig. 53. 
 Crete, is., lat. 35° 15', PI. V. 
 Croatia, province, lat. 45° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Cupello, town, lat. 42° 5', Fig. 33. 
 Curzola, is., lat. 43°, Fig. 48. 
 Czernowitz, town, lat. 48° 17', Fig. 44. 
 
 Dalmatia, province, lat. 44°, Fig. 48. 
 Damascus, city, lat. 33° 30', PI. V, VII. 
 Dangli, mts., lat. 40° 30', Fig. 53. 
 Danzig, town, lat. 54° 35', PI. IV. 
 Dedeagatch, town, lat. 40° 55', Fig. 47. 
 Delemont, town, lat. 47° 25', Fig. 18. 
 Delvino, town, lat. 40°, Fig. 53. 
 Demir-Hissar, district, lat. 41° 12', Fig. 53. 
 Dent d'H^rens, mt., lat. 45° 59', Fig. 22. 
 Deutsche-Oth, town, lat. 49° 28', PI. II. 
 Devinska Novaves, town, lat. 48° 18', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Devoli, river, lat. 40° 55', Fig. 53. 
 Diex, town, lat. 46° 48', Fig. 31. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 359 
 
 Dinaric Alps, mts., lat. 44°, Fig. 48. 
 
 Dineir, town, lat. 38° 5', PI. V. 
 
 Dirschen, (Dirscliau or Terzevv), lat. 54° 
 
 9', PI. IV. 
 Dnieper, river, lat. 49°, Fig. 38. 
 Dobrac, town, lat. 46° 45', Fig. 31. 
 Dobrudja, province, lat. 44° 20', Fig. 47. 
 Dodecanesia, isds., lat. 36°, PL V. 
 Doire Balt^e, river, lat. 45° 15', Fig. 22. 
 Doire Ripaire, river, lat. 45° 10', Figs. 21, 
 
 22. 
 Doliano, town, lat. 40° 2', Fig. 53. 
 Dolomite Alps, mts., lat. 46° 25', Fig. 67. 
 Domodossola, town, lat. 46° 8', Fig. 22. 
 Don, river, lat. 47" 30', Fig. 38. 
 Dorpat, town, lat. 58° 17', Fig. 38. 
 Dortmund, town, lat. 51° 31', Fig. 7. 
 Douane, town, lat. 47° 10', Fig. 18. 
 Drama, basin, lat. 41° 6', Fig. 47. 
 Drave, river, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 48. 
 Drin, river, lat. 41° 50', Fig. 53. 
 Drinissa, river, lat. 42° 12', Fig. 53. 
 Drino, gulf, lat. 41° 50', Fig. 53. 
 Dugopolje, town, lat. 45° 10', Fig. 48. 
 Duino, town, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 31. 
 Duisburg, town, lat. 51° 26', Fig. 7. 
 Dukla, town, lat. 49° 26', PI. IV. 
 Dulcigno, town, lat. 41° 54', Fig. 53. 
 Dunkirk, town, lat. 51° 7', PI. I. 
 Durazzo, cape and town, lat. 41° 18', Fig. 
 
 53. 
 Diisseldorf, town, lat. 51° 13', Fig. 7. 
 Dux, town, lat. 50° 47', Fig. 48. 
 
 East Prussia, province, lat. 34°, PI. IV. 
 Eisack, valley, lat. 46° 30', Fig. 67. 
 Eisenau, town, lat. 47° 38', Fig. 44. 
 Elbassan, town, lat. 41° 6', Fig. 53. 
 Elbe, river, lat. 53°, PI. IX. 
 Emscher, valley, lat. 51° 30', Fig. 7. 
 Enego, town, lat. 45° 57', Fig. 25. 
 Engadine, district, lat. 46° 40', Fig. 67. 
 Epirus, province, lat. 40°, Fig. 53. 
 Erzerum, town, lat. 39° 57', PI. VIII. 
 Erzgebirge, mt., lat. 50° 30', Fig. 48. 
 Erzingian, town, lat. 39° 38', PI. V. 
 Eskishehir, town, lat. 39° 44', PI. V. 
 Esthonia, province, lat. 59° 15', Fig. 38. 
 Esztergom or Gran-Esztergom, comitat, 
 
 lat. 47° 47', Fig. 48. 
 Etsch, river, lat. 46° 16', Fig. 30. 
 Etterbeck, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 Euphrates, river, lat. 37° 50', PI. VIII. 
 
 Fellin, town, lat. 58°, Fig. 38. 
 
 Fenils, town, lat. 44° 59', Fig. 21. 
 
 Fersina, town, lat. 46° 8', Fig. 30. 
 
 Filiates, town, lat. 39° 42', Fig. 53. 
 
 Flume, town, lat. 45° 19', Fig. 48. 
 
 Fleims, valley, lat. 46° 20', Fig. 30. 
 
 Flensborg, town, lat. 54° 46', Fig. 35. 
 
 Fiorina, town, lat. 40° 50', Fig. 53. 
 
 Fogaras, town, lat. 45° 47', PI. III. 
 
 Foppiano, town, lat. 46° 20', Fig. 22. 
 
 Formazza, valley, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 22. 
 
 Franconia, district, lat. 50°, Fig. 7. 
 
 Frasheri, town, lat. 40° 25', Fig. 53. 
 
 Freudenthal, town, lat. 47° 45', Fig. 44, 
 
 Fribourg, town, lat. 46° 48', Fig. 18. 
 
 Friuli, district, (see area of Friulian lan- 
 guage), lat. 46° 18', Fig. 43. 
 
 Fruttwald, or Canza, village, lat. 46° 25', 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Frydland, town, lat. 49° 45', Fig. 48. 
 
 Funfkirchen, town, lat. 46° 6', PI. III. 
 
 Galicia, province, lat. 48° 50', Fig. 44. 
 Gallic, town, lat. 45° 52', Fig. 25. 
 Gallipoli, peninsula, lat. 40= 25', Fig. 
 
 47. 
 Gargazon, town, lat. 46° 36', Fig. 67. 
 Gazza, town, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 30. 
 Geala, town, lat. 41° 13', Fig. 53. 
 Gediz, river, lat. 38° 36', PI. VII. 
 Ghemlick, (Cius), town, lat. 40° 30', PI. 
 
 VII. 
 Ghison, river, lat. 44° 54', Figs. 21, 22. 
 Gleresse, town, lat. 47° 8', Fig. 18. 
 Gomo, district, lat. 49°, Fig. 48. 
 Gopes, town, lat. 41° 13', Fig. 53. 
 Gornia Bistrica, town, lat. 46° 30', Fig. 
 
 31. 
 Gottschee, town, lat. 45° 38', Fig. 31. 
 Gradena, basin, see Grudenthal. 
 Gradisca, town, lat. 45° 15', Fig. 31. 
 Gramala, bay, lat. 40° 15', Fig. 53. 
 Grammos, mts., lat. 40° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Gramosta, town, lat. 40° 23', Fig. 53. 
 Grand Paradis Peak, lat. 45° 30', Fig. 22. 
 Gran-Esztergom, town, lat. 47° 47', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Graudenz, town, lat. 53° 25', PI. IV. 
 Gressoney, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 22. 
 Greutschach, town, lat. 46° 51', Fig. 31. 
 Grevena, village, lat. 40° 9', Fig. 53. 
 Gries, pass, lat. 46° 30', Fig. 22. 
 Griffen, town, lat. 46° 50', Fig. 31. 
 
360 
 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 Grisons, canton, lat. 46° 42', Fig. 67. 
 Gradenthal, valley, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 30. 
 Grodno, town, lat. 53° 41', Fig. 38. 
 Grybow, town, lat. 49° 40', PI. IV. 
 Guevgueli, towTi, lat. 41° 13', Fig. 53. 
 Gurk, town, lat. 46° 55', Fig. 31. 
 Gusinye, district, lat. 42° 35', Fig. 53. 
 
 Hadikfalva, town, lat. 47° 55', Fig. 44. 
 Halluin, town, lat. 50° 47', PI. I. 
 Hama, town, lat. 35° 13', PI. V. 
 Hamburg, city, lat. 53° 33', PI. IX. 
 Harput, town, lat. 38° 40', PI. V. 
 Havel, river, lat. 52° 43', Fig. 7. 
 Hazebrouck, town, lat. 50° 44', PI. I. 
 Helsingfors, town, lat. 60° 10', PL IX. 
 Hermannstadt, town, lat. 45° 46', PI. III. 
 Herzegovina, province, lat. 43° 20', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Hesse, grand duchy, lat. 51°, Fig. 7. 
 Hochkonigsberg, mt., lat. 48° 15', PI. II. 
 Hodeida, town, lat. 14° 40', PI. V. See 
 
 inset: "Extension of the Hejaz line 
 
 toward Mecca." 
 Hoeylaert, town, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Horns, town, lat. 34° 46', PI. V. 
 Hont, comitat, lat. 48° 30', Fig. 48. 
 Huta, town, lat. 48° 22', Fig. 48. 
 
 lie de France, province, lat. 48° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Ill, river, lat. 48° 25', PL II. 
 Illmenspitze, mt., lat. 46° 28', Fig. 67. 
 Illyria, province, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Ilmen, lake, lat. 58° 15', Fig. 38. 
 Imotski, town, lat. 43° 25', Fig. 48. 
 Ipek, town, lat. 42° 34', Fig. 53. 
 Iran, plateau, lat. 32°, PL VII. See inset: 
 
 " Western Asia showing direction of 
 
 Main Moimtain Ranges." 
 Isargo, river, see Eisack. 
 Iser, mt., lat. 50° 50', Fig. 48. 
 Ishtip, town, lat. 41° 45', Fig. 53. 
 Isnik (Nicaea), town, lat. 40° 40', PL 
 
 VIL 
 Isonzo, river, lat. 46°, Fig. 31. 
 Issime, town, lat. 45° 40', Fig. 22. 
 Istensegitz, town, lat. 47° 52', Fig. 44. 
 Istria, province, lat. 45° 20', Fig. 32. 
 Ixelles, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 
 Jablunka, pass, lat. 49° 34', PL IV. 
 Jaffa, town, lat. 32° 4', PL V. 
 Jakobeny, town, lat. 47° 30', Fig. 44. 
 Jeihun, river, lat. 37° 30', PL VII. 
 
 Jerablus, town, lat. 36° 30', PL V. 
 Jerusalem, city, lat. 31° 47', PL V. 
 Jette, town, lat. 50° 51', Fig. 14. 
 Jevizlik, town, lat. 40° 48°, PL VII. 
 Jidda, town, lat. 21°, PL V. See inset: 
 
 " Extension of the Hejaz line toward 
 
 Mecca." 
 Johanisburg, town, lat. 53° 37', Fig. 38 
 Julian Alps, mts., lat. 46° 10', Fig. 31. 
 Jumaya, town, lat. 42°, Fig. 53. 
 Jura, mts., lat. 46° 50', Fig. 3. 
 
 Kailar, town, lat. 40° 29', Fig. 53. 
 Kalamas, river, lat. 39° 35', Fig. 53. 
 Kalarites, town, lat. 39° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Kamienec, town, lat. 48° 40', Fig. 44. 
 Kanin, mt., lat. 46° 24', Fig. 31. 
 Karaferia, town, lat. 40° 36', Fig. 53. 
 Kassaba, town, lat. 38° 8', PL V. 
 Kastamuni, town, lat. 41° 23', PI. V. 
 Kastoria, lake, lat. 40° 34', Fig. 53. 
 Katerynoslav, town, lat. 48° 28', Fig. 38. 
 Kavalla, town, lat. 41°, Fig. 47. 
 Kelkid, river, lat. 40° 20', PL VII. 
 Kerepes, town, lat. 47° 35', Fig. 48. 
 Kharkov, town, lat. 50°, Fig. 38. 
 Kherson, town, lat. 46° 39', Fig. 38. 
 Kholm, town, lat. 51° 39', Fig. 38. 
 Khursk, town, lat. 51° 56', Fig. 38. 
 Kiev, town, lat. 50° 27', Fig. 38. 
 Kimara, town, lat. 40° 10', Fig. 53. 
 KirL river, lat. 41° 55', Fig. 53. 
 Kirlibaba, town, lat. 47° 40', Fig. 44. 
 Kizil, river, lat. 41°, PL VII. 
 Klagenfurth, town, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 48. 
 Klausen, town, lat. 46° 39', Fig. 67. 
 Kliasma, river, lat. 56° 19', Fig. 38. 
 Klimutz, town, lat. 47° 58', Fig. 44. 
 Klissura, town, see Vlakho-Klissura. 
 Knin, town, lat. 44° 3', Fig. 48. 
 Kockana, town, lat. 40° 20', Fig. 53. 
 Koekelberg, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 Konia, town, lat. 37° 51', PL VII. 
 Koritza, town, lat. 40° 15', Fig. 53. 
 Kostenberg, town, lat. 46° 45', Fig. 31. 
 Kottbus, town, lat. 51° 34', Fig. 41. 
 Kovno, town, lat. 55°, Fig. 38. 
 Koweit, town, lat. 29° 30', PL VI. 
 Krajste, valley, lat. 42° 41', Fig. 53. 
 Krasnostaw, town, lat. 50° 59', PL IV. 
 Kremnitz, to^vn, lat. 48° 42', Fig. 48. 
 Krushevo, town, lat. 41° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Kuban, province, lat. 45°, Fig. 38. 
 Kukush, town, lat. 40° 59^, Fig. 53. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 361 
 
 Kurdistan, province, lat. 37° 30', PI. VII. 
 Kurland, province, lat. 57°, Fig. 38. 
 Kustendil, town, lat. 42° 18', Fig. 53. 
 Kwidzyn or Marienwerder, tovi^n, lat. 53° 
 40', PI. IV. 
 
 La Chlesa, town, lat. 46° 20', Fig. 22. 
 Ladoga, lake, lat. 60° 45', Fig. 38. 
 Laeken, lat. 50° 51', Fig. 14. 
 Laghi, cape, lat. 41° 12', Fig. 53. 
 Lagosta, is., lat. 42° 46', Fig. 48. 
 Laibach, town, lat. 46° 3', Fig. 48. 
 Lales, town and bay, lat. 41° 30', Fig. 53. 
 Lanciano, town, lat. 42° 14', Fig. 33. 
 Lantosque, town, lat. 43° 59', Fig. 22. 
 Lapsista, town, lat. 39° 45', Fig. 53. 
 La Turbie, village, lat. 43° 50', Fig. 22. 
 Lavarone, town, lat. 45° 55', Fig. 67. 
 Lecce, town, lat. 40° 22', Fig. 43. 
 Lecker Au, river, lat. 54° 45', Fig. 34. 
 Lemberg, (Lvov), lat. 49° 40', PI. III. 
 Lesina, is., lat. 43°, Fig. 48. 
 Leskovatz, town, lat. 43°, Fig. 53. 
 Leva, town, lat. 48° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Libau, town, lat. 56° 30', Fig. 38. 
 Li^ge, town, lat. 50° 40', PI. I. 
 Lille, town, lat. 50° 38', PI. I. 
 Lim, river, lat. 43° 23', Fig. 53. 
 Linkelbeek, town, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Linz, town, lat. 48° 17', Fig. 48. 
 Lissa, is., lat. 43° 4', Fig. 48. 
 Livonia, province, lat. 57° 20', Fig. 38. 
 Lobau, town, lat. 53° 30', PI. IV. 
 Lobositz, town, lat. 50° 31', Fig. 48. 
 Lods, town, lat. 51° 46', PI. IV. 
 Louche, town, lat. 46° 12', Fig. 22. 
 Loetzen, town, lat. 54° 2', Fig. 38. 
 Loing, river, lat. 48°, Fig. 3. 
 Longwy, town, lat. 49° 32', PI. I. 
 Lorraine, province, lat. 48° 50', PI. II. 
 Luditz, town, lat. 50° 3', Fig. 48. 
 Luisenthal, town, lat. 47° 35', Fig. 44. 
 Luneville, town, lat. 48° 35', Fig. 7. 
 Lusatia, province, lat. 51°, Fig. 41. 
 Liixemburg, grand duchy, lat. 50°, PI. I. 
 Lvov, (Lemberg), city, lat. 49° 40', PI. III. 
 Lyck, town, lat. 53° 50', PI. IV. 
 Lys, river, lat. 51°, PI. I. 
 
 Macedonia, lat. 41°, Fig. 53. 
 Macugnaga, town, lat. 45° 59', Fig. 22. 
 Magarevo, town, lat. 41° 12', Fig. 53. 
 Maggiore, lake, lat. 46°, Fig. 22. 
 
 Makarska, town, lat. 43° 18', Fig. 48. 
 Malakasi, town, lat. 39° 45', Fig 53. 
 Malborghet, town, lat. 46° 30', PI. III. 
 Malmedy, town, lat. 50° 24', PI. I. 
 Maramoros or Maramaros-Sziget, town, 
 
 lat. 47° 55', Fig. 44. 
 Marburg, town, lat. 46° 34', Fig. 31. 
 March, river, lat. 48° 30', PI. III. 
 Maria-Theresiopel, town, lat. 46° 8', PI. 
 
 III. 
 Marienwerder, (Kwidzgn), town, lat. 53° 
 
 44', PL IV. 
 Mariondol, town, lat. 45° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Maritza, river, lat. 41°, Fig. 47. 
 Markircb, (or Sainte-Marie-Aux-Mines), 
 
 town, lat. 48° 14', PI. II. 
 Marmora, sea, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 47. 
 Marne, river, lat. 49° 2', Fig. 3. 
 Maros, river, lat. 46°, PI. III. 
 Maros Vasarhely, town, lat. 46° 28', PI. 
 
 III. 
 Martello, river, lat. 45° 51', Fig. 25. 
 Massif Central, region, lat. 45°, Fig. 3. 
 Masurian, lakes, lat. 54°, Fig. 38. 
 Mati, river, lat. 41° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Meander, river, lat. 37°, PI. VII. 
 Mecca, city, lat. 21° 20', PI. V. See 
 
 inset: "Extension of the Hejaz line 
 
 toward Mecca." 
 Mediasch, town, lat. 46° 7', PI. III. 
 Meleda, is., lat. 42° 45', Fig. 48. 
 Melkovic, town, lat. 43° 3', Fig. 48. 
 Melnik, town, lat. 52° 21', PI. IV. 
 Menin, town, lat. 50° 47', PI. I. 
 Meran, town, lat. 46° 41', Fig. 67. 
 Mesopotamia, province, lat. 36° 30', PI. 
 
 VII. 
 Metsovo, town, lat. 39° 45', Fig. 53. 
 Metz, town, lat. 49° 7', PI. II. 
 Meuse, river, lat. 49° 10', PI. IX. 
 Midyad, town, lat. 37° 30', PI. VII. 
 Mies, town, lat. 49° 44', Fig. 48. 
 Mitau, town, lat. 56° 39', Fig. 38. 
 Mitoka-Dragomirna, town, lat. 47° 48', 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 Mitrovitza, town, lat. 42° 43', Fig. 47. 
 Moldau, river, lat. 49° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Molenbeek-St. Jean, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 Molise, province, lat. 41° 35', Fig. 33. 
 MoUiferes, town, lat. 44° 58', Fig. 21. 
 Molovista, town, lat. 41° 4', Fig. 53. 
 Molsheim, town, lat. 48° 33', PI. II. 
 Monastir, town, lat. 41° 1', Fig. 47. 
 
362 
 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 Mont Blanc, lat. 45° 51', Fig. 18. 
 Montefalcone, town, lat. 45° 42', Fig. 31. 
 Monte Moro, pass, lat. 46°, Fig. 22. 
 Montenegro, kingdom, lat. 43°, Fig. 48. 
 Monteoderisio, town, lat. 42° 6', Fig. 33. 
 Monte Theodule, pass, lat, 45° 57', Fig. 22. 
 Montreux, town, lat. 46° 26', Fig. 18. 
 Montsevilier, town, lat. 47° 23', Fig. 18. 
 Moosburg, town, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 48. 
 Morat or Murten, lake and village, lat. 
 
 46° 55', Fig. 18. 
 Morava, river, lat. 44°, Fig. 47. 
 Moravia, province, lat. 49° 30', PI. III. 
 Moravska-Ostrava, town, lat. 49° 50', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Moresnet, territory, lat. 50° 43', Fig. 7. 
 Morge, valley, lat. 46° 20', Fig. 18. 
 Morhange, town, lat. 48° 56', PI. II. 
 Mori, town, lat. 45° 52', Fig. 30. 
 Morlacca, canal, lat. 45°, Fig. 48. 
 Morva, (March), river, lat. 48° 30', PI. 
 
 III. 
 Moselle, river, lat. 49°, PI. II. 
 Moskopolis, town, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Mosul, town, lat. 36° 19', PI. VII. 
 Moutiers, town, lat. 45° 30', Fig. 22. 
 Munster, town, lat. 46° 16', Fig. 22. 
 Mur, river, lat. 46°, Fig. 31. 
 Murad Su or Murad, river, lat. 38° 43', 
 
 PL VII. 
 Mush, town, lat. 38° 47', PI. VII. 
 
 Namur, town, lat. 50° 28', PI. I. 
 Nancy, town, lat. 48° 41', PI. II. 
 Narenta, river, lat. 43°, Fig. 47. 
 Narew, river, lat. 53° 8', PI. IV. 
 Neidenburg, town, lat. 53°, Fig. 38. 
 Nemeck'e Prava, town, lat. 48° 57', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Nesibin, town, lat. 37°, PI. V. 
 Netze, river, lat. 53°, PI. IV. 
 Neuchatel, lake, lat. 46° 55', Fig. 18. 
 Neusatz, town, lat. 45° 16', PI. III. 
 Neusiedler, lake, lat. 47° 50', Fig. 48. 
 Neusolonetz, town, lat. 47° 40', Fig. 44. 
 Neutra, town, lat. 48° 19', Fig. 48. 
 Neuveville, town, lat. 47° 6', Fig. 18. 
 Neva, river, lat. 59° 48', Fig. 38. 
 Nevesca, town, lat. 40° 37', Fig. 53. 
 Nevrokop, town, lat. 41° 32', Fig. 53. 
 New Tischen or Titschein, town, lat. 49° 
 
 35', PI. III. 
 Niemen, river, lat. 55°, Fig. 38. 
 
 Nish, town, lat. 43° 27', Fig. 47. 
 Nishava, river, lat. 43°, Fig. 47. 
 Nissa, river, see the river, lat. 50° 30', on 
 which the town of Neisse stands, PI. IV. 
 Noce, river, lat. 46° 25', Fig. 30. 
 Novezansky, town, lat. 48° 2', Fig. 48. 
 Novi Bazar, town, lat. 43° 4', Fig. 53. 
 Novi Varosh, town, lat. 43° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Niirschan, town, lat. 49° 40', Fig. 48. 
 
 Oder, river, lat. 51° 20', PI. IV. 
 Ograyevitza, valley, lat. 43° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Ohain, town, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Oise, river, lat. 49° 54', Fig. 3. 
 Oka, river, lat. 55° 57', Fig. 38. 
 Okrida, lake, lat. 41°, Fig. 53. 
 Okrida, town, lat. 41° 11', Fig. 53. 
 Oldenhorn, peak, lat. 46° 19', Fig. 18. 
 Oletzko, town, lat. 54°, Fig. 38. 
 Olhem or Ohain, town, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Oliva, town, lat. 54° 32', PI. IV. 
 Olmiitz, town, lat. 49° 36', Fig. 48. 
 Oltu, river, lat. 44°, PI. III. 
 Olympus, mt., lat. 40° 4', Fig. 53. 
 Oppeln, town, lat. 50° 40', PL IV. 
 Oreo, river, lat. 45° 17', Fig. 22. 
 Ornavasso, town, lat. 45° 59', Fig. 22. 
 Ortelsburg, town, lat, 53° 34', Fig 38. 
 Ortler, mt., lat. 46° 30', Fig. 67. 
 Osogov, mt., lat. 42° 10', Fig. 53. 
 Ostanitza, town, lat. 40° 2', Fig. 53. 
 Osterode, town, lat. 53° 41', Fig. 38. 
 Otranto, strait, lat. 39° 45', Fig. 53. 
 Oulx, town, lat. 45° 3', Fig. 21. 
 
 Paluzza, village, lat. 46° 34', Fig. 31. 
 Panchova, town, lat. 44° 56', Fig. 48. 
 Panderma, town, lat. 40° 18', PL V. 
 Paris, city, lat. 48° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Paris Basin, region, lat. 48° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Pata, town, lat. 41° 23', Fig. 53. 
 Patnoz, town, lat. 39° 22', PL VII. 
 Pechui, town, see Fiinfkirchen. 
 Pellice, river, lat. 44° 50', Fig. 21. 
 Pergine, lat. 46° 6', Fig. 30. 
 Perouse, town, lat. 44° 56', Fig. 22. 
 Persian Gulf, lat. 29°, PL VII. 
 Peshtera, town, lat. 43° 12', Fig. 53. 
 Philippopolis, town, lat. 42° 3', Fig. 47. 
 Piave, river, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 32. 
 Picardy, province, lat. 49° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Pignerol, town, lat. 44° 48', Figs. 21, 22. 
 Pilis, district, lat. 47° 15', Fig. 48. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 363 
 
 Tilsen, town, lat. 49° 45', Fig. 48. 
 Pindus, mts., lat. 39° 45', Fig. 53. 
 Pirot, town, lat. 43° 10', Fig. 53. 
 Pisuderi, town, lat. 40° 45', Fig. 53. 
 Pressburg, town, lat. 48° 10', PI. III. 
 Priepet, river and marshes, lat. 52° 10', 
 
 PI. IX. 
 Prizrend, town, lat. 42° 8', Fig. 53. 
 Progno, river, lat. 45° 30', Fig. 30. 
 Prokleita, mts., lat. 42° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Provence, province, lat. 43° 50', Fig. 3. 
 Pruth, river, lat. 47°, PI. III. 
 Puglia, province, lat. 41°, Fig. 43. 
 Pusterthal, valley, lat. 46° 44', Fig. 67. 
 
 Jlaab, river, lat. 47° 25', Fig. 48. 
 Raab, town, lat. 47° 41', PI. III. 
 Radgona, town, lat. 46° 40', Fig. 31. 
 Ttadkersburg, town, lat. 46° 42', Fig. 31. 
 Radymno, town, lat. 49° 58', PI. IV. 
 Pagusa, town, lat. 42° 37', Fig. 48. 
 Eas el ain, town, lat. 36° 50', PI. V. 
 Hayak, town, lat. 33° 30', PI. V. 
 Razlog, town, lat. 41° 51', Fig. 53. 
 Red Sea, lat. 20°, PI. V. See inset: 
 
 " Extension of the Hejaz line toward 
 
 Mecca." 
 Reichenberg, town, lat. 50° 47', Fig. 48. 
 Henz, town, lat. 54° 43', Fig. 35. 
 Eesia, town, lat. 46° 30', Fig. 31. 
 Reval, town, lat. 59° 27', PI. IX. 
 Rhenish Prussia, province, lat. 50^ 30', 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 Rhine, river, lat. 48°, PI. II. 
 Rhine Heme, canal, lat. 51° 28', Fig. 7. 
 Rhodes, is., (the largest of the Dodeca- 
 
 nesia group), lat. 36° 23', PI. V. 
 Rhode-Saint-Genfese, town, lat. 50° 49', 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 Rhodope, mts., lat. 42°, Fig. 47. 
 Rhone, river, lat, 45°, Fig. 3. 
 Rhone Valley, lat. 45°, Fig. 3. 
 Ribeauvill6 or Rappoltsweiler, town, lat. 
 
 48° 12', PI. II. 
 Rienza, river, lat. 46° 50', Fig. 30. 
 Riga, gulf, lat. 57° 30', PI. IX. 
 Rilo, town, lat. 42° 9', Fig. 53. 
 Rima S. Giuseppe, village, lat. 45° 54', 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 Roana, town, lat. 45° 51', Fig. 25. 
 Roanne, town, lat. 46° 2', Fig. 6. 
 Rochemolles, town, lat. 45° 8', Fig. 21. 
 Rodoni, cape, lat. 41° 34', Fig. 53. 
 Rodosto, town, lat. 41°, Fig. 47. 
 
 Rokytince, town, lat. 49° 22', Fig. 48. 
 Rosa, mt., lat. 45° 56', Fig. 22. 
 Roshai, town, lat. 42° 49', Fig. 53. 
 Rotzo, town, lat. 45° 50', Fig. 25. 
 Rovereto, town, lat. 45° 53', Fig. 30. 
 Roya, river, lat. 43° 54', Fig. 22. 
 Rudolfthal, town, lat. 45° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Rymanow, town, lat. 49° 35', PI. IV. 
 
 Saar, river, lat. 49° 35', PI. II. 
 Saaz, town, lat. 50° 21', Fig. 48. 
 St. Andrea, is., lat. 43° 2', Fig. 48. 
 St. Bernard, mt., lat. 45° 51', Fig. 18. 
 Saint-Gilles, town, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 St. Gotthard, town, lat. 46° 58', Fig. 31. 
 Saint-Hermagoras, town, lat. 46° 43', Fig. 
 
 31. 
 Saint- Josse-ten-Noode, town, (Brussels), 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 St. Omer, town, lat. 50° 45', PI. I. 
 St. Pancrace, town, lat. 46° 48', Fig. 31. 
 Sakaria, river, lat. 40°, PI. VII. 
 Sakaria, valley, lat. 40°, PI. VII. 
 Salbertrand, town, lat. 45° 6', Fig. 21. 
 Salecchio, town, lat. 46° 20', Fig. 22. 
 Salerno, town, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 43. 
 Salonica, town, lat. 40° 38', PI. IX and 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 Samarra, town, lat. 34° 10', PI. V. 
 Sampeyre, town, lat. 44° 35', Fig. 22. 
 Samsun, town, lat. 41° 18', PI. VIII. 
 San, river, lat. 50° 34', PI. IV. 
 Sana'a, town, lat. 15°, PL V. See inset: 
 
 " Extension of the Hejaz line toward 
 
 Mecca." 
 San Felice Slavo, town, lat. 41° 54', Fig. 
 
 33. 
 San Giacomo di Lusiana, town, lat. 45° 
 
 30', Fig. 25. 
 San Giovanni Teatino, town, lat. 42° 24', 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 San Juan, point, (Gulf of Drino), lat. 
 
 41° 45', Fig. 53. 
 San Juan de Medua, town, lat. 41° 55', 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 San Martino di Perrero, town, lat. 44° 56', 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 San Michele, ( German : Pommat ) , village, 
 
 lat. 46° 20', Fig. 21. 
 Sanok, town, lat. 49° 34', PI. IV. 
 San Pietro Brazza, town, lat. 43° 19', Fig. 
 
 48. 
 Santi-Quaranta, (Preveza), town, lat. 
 
 39° 49', Fig. 53. 
 
364 
 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 San Vito (Chietino), town, lat. 42° 15', 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 Saone, river, lat. 4G° 2', Fig. 3. 
 Sappada, village, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 31. 
 Sarajevo, town, lat. 43° 52', Fig. 48. 
 Sarine, river, lat. 46° 35', Fig. 18. 
 Sarnaki, town, lat. 52° 22', PI. IV. 
 Saros, gulf, lat. 40° 35', Fig. 47. 
 Sarrebourg, town, lat. 48° 45', PI. II. 
 Saseno, is., lat. 40° 29', Fig. 53. 
 Sasun, district, lat. 38° 30', PI. VII. 
 Sauer, river, lat. 51° 40', Fig. 7. 
 Sauris, village, lat. 46° 31', Fig. 31. 
 Sauza d'Oulx, town, lat. 45° 2', Fig. 21. 
 Save, river, lat. 44° 52', PI. III. 
 Saxony, kingdom, lat. 51° 50', Fig. 48. 
 Sehaerbeek, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 Schlissburg, town, lat. 46° 10', PI. III. 
 Schlucht, pass, lat. 48° 4', PI. II. 
 Scutari, lake and town, lat. 42° 1', Fig. 
 
 53. 
 Seine, river, lat. 49° 28', Fig. 3. 
 Sebenico, town, lat. 43° 44', Fig. 48. 
 Seihun, river, lat. 37° 30', PI. VII. 
 Sella, town, lat. 40° 8', Fig. 53. 
 Semeni, river, lat. 40° 40', Fig. 53. 
 Sensburg, town, lat. 53° 52', Fig. 38. 
 Serres, town, lat. 41° 7', Fig. 53. 
 Sesia, river, lat. 45° 45', Fig. 22. 
 Sette Communi, plateau, 45° 50', Fig. 25. 
 Settimo Vitone, town, lat. 45° 33', Fig. 22. 
 Shar, mts., lat. 42°, Fig. 53. 
 Sicken-Sussen, town, lat. 50° 49', PI. I. 
 Sienitza, town, lat. 43° 15', Fig. 53. 
 Sierra or Siders, town, lat. 46° 21', Fig. 
 
 18. 
 Silesia, province, lat. 50° 51', PI. IV. 
 Sinj, town, lat. 43° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Sinjar, town, lat. 36° 23', PI. VII. 
 Sipiska, town, lat. 40° 41', Fig. 53. 
 Siracu, town, lat. 39° 39', Fig. 53. 
 Sisani, town, lat. 40° 25', Fig. 53. 
 Sivas, town, lat. 39° 37', PI. VIII. 
 Skumbi, river, lat. 41° 6', Fig. 53. 
 Slavonia, province, lat. 45° 45', Fig. 48. 
 Smyrna, city, lat. 38° 26', PI. VII. 
 Sofia, town, lat. 42° 32', Fig. 47. 
 Soignes, forest, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Solomiac, town, lat. 44° 59', Fig. 21. 
 Some, river, lat. 47° 23', Fig. 18. 
 Spalato, town, lat. 43° 30°, Fig. 48. 
 Spree, river, lat. 52° 23', Fig. 41. 
 Stagno, towTi, lat. 42° 39', Fig. 48. 
 Stari Vlah, district, lat. 43° 25', Fig. 53. 
 
 Strasaburg, town, lat. 48° 36', PI. II. 
 Strassburg, (Prussia), town, lat. 53° 14',. 
 
 PI. IV. 
 Stravopolskoi, town, lat. 45° 2', Fig. 38. 
 Struga, town, lat. 41° 10', Fig. 53. 
 Struma, river, lat. 41° 22', Fig. 53. 
 Strumitza, river, lat. 41° 20', Fig. 53. 
 Stulpikani, town, lat. 47° 27', Fig. 44. 
 Stura, river, lat. 45° 15', Fig. 22. 
 Subotica, or Maria-Theresiopel, town. 
 Suha Gora, mt., lat. 41° 58', Fig. 53. 
 Surasli, town, lat. 52° 55', PI. IV. 
 Suse, town, lat. 45° 10', Figs. 21, 22. 
 Suwalki, town, lat. 54° 7', PI. IV. 
 Swabia, district, lat. 48° 20', Fig. 30. 
 Syria, province, lat. 34°, PI. VII. 
 Szbadka, or Maria-Theresiopel, town. 
 
 Tabriz, town, lat. 38° 2', PI. VII. 
 Tannchen, mt., lat. 48° 12', PI. II. 
 Tara, mts., lat. 43° 55', Fig. 53. 
 Tarcento, town, lat. 46° 13', Fig. 31. 
 Tarvis, town, lat. 46° 45', Fig. 48. 
 Tatra, mts., lat. 49° 50', PI. IV. 
 Tauris, province, lat. 46°, Fig. 38. 
 Taus, town, lat. 49° 27', Fig. 48. 
 Tekrit, town, lat. 34° 35', PI. V. 
 Temesvar, town, lat. 45° 47', PI. III. 
 Tepeleni, town, lat. 40° 18', Fig. 53. 
 Terskaja, province, lat. 40° 30', Fig. 38.. 
 Tervueren, town, lat. 50° 49', Fig. 14. 
 Teschen, town, lat. 49° 45', PI. IV. 
 Tessin, (Tessino), canton, lat. 46° 15'^ 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 Tetovo, town, lat. 42° 5', Fig. 53. 
 Tezew, (Dirschau), lat. 54° 5', PI. IV. 
 Theiss, river, lat. 46° 30', PI. III. 
 Thessaly, province, lat. 39° 30', Fig. 53. 
 Thiele, river, lat. 47° 2', Fig. 18. 
 Thorn, town, lat. 53° 3', PI. IV. 
 Thures, town, lat. 44° 54', Fig. 21. 
 Thuringia, state, lat. 50° 40', Fig. 7. 
 Tigris, river, lat. 33°, PI. VII. 
 Timok, river, lat. 44°, Fig. 53. 
 Tirnovo, town, lat. 43° 7', Fig. 47. 
 Toce, falls, lat. 46° 22', Fig. 22. 
 Toce, river, lat. 46° 5', Fig. 22. 
 Tofana, mt., lat. 46° 32', Fig. 67. 
 Tokat, town, lat. 40° 17', PI. VII. 
 Tolgyes, pass, lat. 47°, PI. III. 
 Tomaschow, town, lat. 50° 27', PI. IV. 
 Torcola, is., lat. 43° 5', Fig. 48. 
 Torre Pellice, village, lat. 44° 40', Figs, 
 
 21, 22. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 365 
 
 Tourcoing, town, lat. 50° 43', PI. I. 
 Trafoi, town, lat. 46° 34', Fig. 30. 
 Trebizond, town, lat. 41° 1', PI. VII. 
 Transylvania, province, lat. 46° 40', PI. 
 
 III. 
 Trebnitz, town, lat. 50° 25', Fig. 48. 
 Treene, river, lat. 54° 20', Fig. 35. 
 Tren, town, lat. 42° 48', Fig. 53. 
 Trent, town, lat. 46° 4', Fig. 30. 
 Triest, gulf, lat. 45" 30', Fig. 31. 
 Triest, town, lat. 45° 39', PI. III. 
 Tripoli, town, lat. 34° 30', PI. VII. 
 Tubize, town, southwest of Brussels, Fig. 
 
 14. 
 Turocz, town, lat. 49° 5', Fig. 48. 
 Turtmann, valley, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 22. 
 Tweebeek, town, see Tubize, Fig. 14. 
 Tyrol, province, lat. 47°, Fig. 30. 
 
 Uccle, town, south of Brussels, Fig. 14. 
 Udine, town, lat. 46° 10', PI. III. 
 Ukraine, province, lat. 49° 40', Fig. 38. 
 Ung, river, lat. 48° 42', Fig. 38. 
 Unterwald, or Foppiano, village, lat. 45° 
 
 18', Fig. 22. 
 Urmiah, lake, lat. 37° 40', PI. VII. 
 Uskok, mts., lat. 45° 45', Fig. 48. 
 Uskub, town, lat. 42° 5', Fig. 53. 
 
 Valais, canton, lat. 46° 15', Fig. 22. 
 Valona, town, lat. 40° 29', Fig. 53. 
 Valsesia, or Sesia, river, lat. 45° 45', Fig. 
 
 22. 
 Van, lake, lat. 38° 40', PI. VIII. 
 Var, river, lat. 43° 45', Fig. 22. 
 Vardar, river, lat. 41°, Fig. 53. 
 Vardar, valley, lat. 41°, Figs. 48, 53. 
 Vas, comitate, lat. 47° 14', Fig. 31. 
 Vasto, town, lat, 42° 7', Fig. 33. 
 Vaud, canton, lat. 46° 35', Fig. 22. 
 Velebiti, mts., lat. 44° 30', Fig. 48. 
 Venije-Vardar, town, lat. 40° 45', Fig. 
 
 53. 
 Verdun, town, lat. 49° 10', Fig. 3. 
 Verona, city, lat. 45° 30', Fig. 30. 
 Vicenza, town, lat. 45° 32', Fig. 30. 
 Vichlaby, district, lat. 49° 20', Fig. 48. 
 Vifege, town, 46° 22', Fig. 22. 
 Villach, town, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 48. 
 Vilna, town, lat. 54° 41', Fig. 38. 
 Vinadio, town, lat. 44° 23', Fig. 22. 
 Vintschgau, river, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 67. 
 
 Viso, mt., lat. 44° 40', Fig. 22. 
 Vistula, river, lat. 50°, PI. IV. 
 Vlakho-Klissura, town, lat. 40° 27', Fig. 
 
 53. 
 Vlakho-Livadi, towoi, lat. 40° 8', Fig. 53. 
 Vlasina, river, lat. 42° 50', Fig. 53. 
 Vodena, town, lat. 40° 47', Fig. 53. 
 Volga, river, lat. 57°, Fig. 38. 
 Volhynia, province, lat. 50° 40', Fig. 38. 
 Voronz, town, lat. 51° 46', Fig. 38. 
 Vosges, mts., lat. 48°, Fig. 3. 
 Voyussa, river, lat. 40° 36', Fig. 53. 
 Vrable, town, lat. 48° 40', Fig. 48. 
 Vrania, town, lat. 42° 37', Fig. 53. 
 
 Wallachia, district, lat. 44° 30', Fig. 38. 
 Waterloo, town, lat. 50° 44', PI. I and 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 Weiss, valley, lat. 48° 18', PL II. 
 Weissenburg, town, lat. 49° 2', PI. II. 
 Weissenstein, mt., lat. 47° 15', Fig. 18. 
 Wesel, town, lat. 51° 39', PI. IX. 
 Westphalia, province, lat. 51° 36', Fig. 7. 
 West Prussia, province, lat. 53° 40', PI. 
 
 IV. 
 White Drin, river, lat. 42° 15', Fig. 53. 
 Wildstrubel, mt., lat. 46° 24', Fig. 18. 
 Windhorst, town, lat. 45° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Wissek, town, lat. 53° 12', PI. IV. 
 Woerther, lake, lat. 46° 37', Fig. 31. 
 Woluwe St.-Lambert, (Brussels), Fig. 14. 
 
 Xirolivadi, town, lat. 40° 30', Fig. 53. 
 
 Yanina, town, lat. 39° 47', Fig. 53. 
 Yonne, river, lat. 48°, Fig. 3. 
 Yuzgat, town, lat. 39° 50', PI. VIII. 
 
 Zab, river, lat. 37° 30', PI. VII. 
 
 Zagros, mts., lat. 35°, PI. VII. See inset: 
 
 " Western Asia showing direction of 
 
 Main Mountain Ranges." 
 Zala, district, lat. 46° 48', Fig. 31. 
 Zara, town, lat. 44° 7', Fig. 48. 
 Zemplin, tovna, lat. 48° 15', Fig. 38. 
 Zermagna, river, lat. 44° 10', Fig. 48. 
 Zermatt, town, lat. 46° 2', Fig. 22. 
 Zips, district, lat. 49° 15', Fig. 48. 
 Zmigrod, town, lat. 49° 39', PI. IV. 
 Zombor, town, lat. 45° 46', Fig. 48. 
 Zumborak, town, lat. 45° 30', Fig. 48. 
 Zwittau, town, lat. 49° 46', Fig. 48. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aasen, Ivar, 99 
 
 Abruzzi, 88 
 
 Adalia, Gulf of, 251, 256-257 
 
 Adige, 84 
 
 Adige valley, 70, 74 
 
 Adriatic, control, 83-84; eastern coast, 337- 
 338; piracy, 86, 87; problem, 199-201; 
 Serbia and, 180 
 
 Adriatic coast and German language, 68 
 
 Adriatic provinces, 76 
 
 ^gean, 174, 175, 247-248, 274 
 
 Aidin railway, 250, 251, 255 
 
 Albanach, 192 
 
 Albania, 84, 163, 164, 180, 181, 187, 189, 
 193-201; Greek boimdary, 197; impor- 
 tance, 199; national feeling and boun- 
 daries, 194, 195; religion, 201 
 
 Albanian, 87, 90, 163, 165, 192 
 
 Albanians, 175, 192-201 
 
 Alemanni, 44 
 
 Aleppo, 224, 225, 259, 261, 264 
 
 Alexandretta, 244, 261 
 
 Alexandria, 233, 234 
 
 Algliero, 64 
 
 Allevis, 285 
 
 Alpes-Maritimes, 64 
 
 Alpine race, xiv, 4, 5, 6, 19, 38, 40, 41, 
 323-324 
 
 Alps, 42, 333 
 
 Alsace, 38-49; Lower and Higher, 41 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine, 329-330, 334-335; linguis- 
 tic boundary between French and Ger- 
 man, 35-49 
 
 Alsatians, 40, 41, 46, 47 
 
 Amanus, 259, 260 
 
 America, discovery of, 233, 235 
 
 Anatolia, 225, 247, 248, 266, 271, 275, 276, 
 284; Turks in, 281 
 
 " Ange," 36 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 13 
 
 Ansariyehs, 298-299 
 
 Ansiedelunggesetz, 127 
 
 Antioch, 297, 298 
 
 Aosta, 60 
 
 Aptals, 289 
 
 Arabia, 238; British influence, 240-241; 
 France and, 266 
 
 Arabic, 225, 230; in Turkish, 280 
 
 Arabs, 307-308 
 
 Aram, 302 
 
 Aramaic, 302, 306 
 
 Arameans, 302-303 
 
 Argana, 261, 266 
 
 Argyrocastro, 197, 199 
 
 Arlon, 22 
 
 Armenia, 224, 244, 254, 266; etymology, 
 291 
 
 Armenian, Persian words in, 272 
 
 Armenians, 272, 289-294 
 
 Armenoids, 271, 273, 285, 324 
 
 Armor ica, 5G 
 
 Arnaut, 194 
 
 Aromunes, 163 
 
 Aryan, Albanian, 192; Armenians, 291, 
 292; early home, 7; Lithuanians, 104, 
 105; vagueness of term, 8 
 
 Ashkenazim, 301 
 
 Asia Minor, 175, 225, 228-229, 269, 270; 
 geography, 252; Greeks in, 273-278; 
 highway character, 249; Mohammedan 
 dissenters, 285-289; Mohammedan immi- 
 grants, 282-284; peoples and villages, 
 non-Turkish, table, 308-309; resources, 
 253-255; Turks in, 278-282. See also 
 Turkey 
 
 Asiatic trade with Europe, 233-236 
 
 Asiatics in Europe, 174-176 
 
 Assassins, 298 
 
 Athens, 248 
 
 Augustus, 64 
 
 Austria, 95, 330; as protector of Europe, 
 82; census returns, character, 76; Dal- 
 matia, 87; foreign policy, 80; Italian 
 frontier claims (with sketch-map), 335- 
 337; Jewish capitalists, 125; Lombardo- 
 Venetia, 74; Poles in, 130; sketch-map 
 showing Slavs and their languages, 183; 
 Slovene in, map, 81 
 
 Austria-Hungary, 155, 156; Adriatic prov- 
 inces, 76; Italians in, 66; nationality, 
 83; Polish provinces, table, 138; popula- 
 tion and weakness, 80-82; Serbians in, 
 181-182 
 
 367 
 
368 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Avars, 81, 176 
 Avshars, 288 
 
 Bagdad, 238, 242, 260, 262 
 
 Bagdad railroad, 178, 251, 257-263 
 
 "Bahnhof," 53 
 
 Balearic islands, 64 
 
 Balikis, 288 
 
 Balkan peninsula, 86-87; clash of Slav and 
 Teuton, 181; highway character, 174- 
 175, 177-181; linguistic and political di- 
 visions, 201-202; physical character, 
 174; Romanic languages, 164-166; Ru- 
 manians in, 160; Serbian inhabitants 
 and, 174-191; Slavicization, 165; south- 
 eastern angle, 215-216, 218 
 
 Balkan States, areas and populations be- 
 fore and after the wars, tables, 345 
 
 Balkans, communications, map, 179; 
 sketch-map of western, 203 
 
 Baltic, Poland and the, 119, 120 
 
 Baltic languages, 100-110 
 
 Baltic provinces, 103-108 
 
 Banat territory, 86, 158 
 
 Baradeus, Jacobus, 306 
 
 Basel, 54 
 
 Basra, 306 
 
 Bavaria, 68, 73, 74 
 
 Bedouins, 307-308 
 
 Beirut-Aleppo railroad, 250, 265 
 
 Bektash, 287-288 
 
 Belekis, 288 
 
 Belgae, 21 
 
 Belgium, 329; boundary of French and 
 Germanic languages in, 19-34; French- 
 and Flemish-speaking inhabitants, table, 
 34; language, xiv; linguistic and politi- 
 cal boundaries, 22; literature, 318-319; 
 national language, 23; nationality, 33; 
 present crisis, 29, 33; Romance lan- 
 guages in, 25; shape of land, 29-30; 
 struggle for unity, 20 
 
 Berat, 164 
 
 Berne, 53, 54 
 
 Beskid, 115, 143 
 
 Bessarabia, 159; Rumanians in, 172 
 
 Bienne, 49, 50, 51, 55 
 
 Bismarck, 329 
 
 Black Caps, 284 
 
 Black Sea, 218; Poland and, 120 
 
 Blanc, Mont, 52 
 
 Blondness in Asia Minor, 286 
 
 Bohemia, 56, 341; culture, 143; German 
 element at present, 148-149; German 
 
 ring about, 141-142, 144; national 
 consciousness, 148; nationality, 153; 
 Slav and Teuton struggle, 143-144; 
 spoliation, 148 
 
 Bohemian and Bohemians, 141-150; litera- 
 ture, 146, 147, 151 
 
 Bohmerwald, 141, 142 
 
 Boleslas, 119 
 
 Bolzano, 73, 74 
 
 Boshnaks, 189 
 
 Bosnia, 181, 182, 189, 190; German set- 
 tlers, 190-191 
 
 Bosnian Mohammedans, 190 
 
 Bosporus, 174, 178, 181, 217-220, 244 
 
 Boulogne, 23 
 
 Boundaries, linguistic and political, 342; 
 national frontiers, 328; natural, 327; 
 natural and scientific, 332-334; revisions, 
 202. See also Frontiers 
 
 Boyana, 196 , 
 
 Brandenburg, 116, 118 
 
 Brenner Pass, 70, 72 
 
 Breslau, 116 
 
 Bressanone, 73 
 
 Breton, 56 
 
 Bromberg, 121, 122 
 
 Bruche, 43 
 
 Brussels, French language in, growth, 27; 
 languages, 24; sketch-map of envi- 
 rons showing language distribution, 
 26 
 
 Budapest, 156 
 
 Bukovina, 168-173; colonies and popula- 
 tion, 170, 171; Germans in, 169; sketch- 
 map of Rumanian area, 169 
 
 Bulgaria, history, 214; national unity, 
 214-215 
 
 Bulgarian, Macedonian and, 206; old, 211; 
 Serbian transition dialect, 212 
 
 Bulgarians, 176, 180, 202; ethnic composi- 
 tion, 209-210; Greek boundary, 207; 
 Macedonia, 204; Turks and, 210 
 
 Bunjevci, 188 
 
 Burgundy, 20, 36, 52, 53, 61 
 
 Byzantium, 232, 235 
 
 Caliphate, 241, 267 
 Cape-to-Cairo railroad, 252 
 Caravans, 234, 257-258, 263 
 Carniola, 79, 80 
 Carpathians, 114-115, 131, 136 
 Catalonians, 64 
 Cathay, 233, 234 
 Caucasus, 135, 283, 284 
 
INDEX 
 
 369 
 
 Celtic, xiv, 47, 52, 59; early home, 6; in 
 
 France, relation to Italic, 56; Po, 63 
 Celts, 6, 40, 41; Asia Minor, 287; early 
 
 home, 56; influence on Teutons, 14 
 Chaldeans, 305 
 Charlemagne, 38, 39 
 Charles the Bald, 38, 39 
 Charles IV, 145, 146 
 Chepmi, 285 
 China, 234 
 Chinese, 7 
 
 Christians of St. John, 306 
 Christians of Turko-Persian borderland, 
 
 table, 311-313 
 Chuds, See Esthonians 
 Cilician Gates, 225, 258 
 Cimbro, 68 
 Cimmerians, 286 
 Circassians, 282-284 
 Colonization, Germans in Poland, 127-129; 
 
 Germans in Russia, 343-344 
 Constantinople, 167, 181, 205, 219-220, 232, 
 
 244, 282, 324; Turkish capture, 235 
 Cracow, 125, 130 
 Crete, 217 
 
 Croatia, 182, 184, 190 
 Croats, 81, 85, 88, 182 
 Crusades, 245, 301 
 Czech, XV, 3; German and, in northern 
 
 Bohemia, 144-145; linguistic area, 142, 
 
 143 
 Czeeho-Slovak body, 143 
 Czechs and Poles, 115 
 Czernowitz, 170 
 
 Dacia, 161 
 
 Dacians, 175 
 
 Dalmatia, 182, 186; Italians in, 77; Italy's 
 claims, 84-86; map of the coast, 85; na- 
 tionality, 87; Roman influence, 84-86; 
 value to Italy, 84 
 
 Dalmatian coast, 78, 337-338 
 
 Dalmatian islands, population statistics, 
 76 
 
 Damascus, 264, 267, 302 
 
 Danish, 93-97; Norway, 98 
 
 Dante, 75 
 
 Danube, 46, 82, 137, 154, 155, 156, 165, 
 175, 181, 199 
 
 Danzig, 117, 118, 121 
 
 Danzig, Gulf of, 117, 126 
 
 Dardanelles, 174, 217-220, 244 
 
 Denmark, linguistic problem, 93-97. See 
 also Schleswig-Holstein 
 
 Devil-worshipers, 303, 304 
 
 Discovery, age of, 233 
 
 Dnieper, 111, 136, 137 
 
 Dodecanesia, 246-247, 256 
 
 " Drang nach Osten," 119, 181, 243, 331 
 
 Druzes, 299-300 
 
 Duma, 124 
 
 Dunkirk, 20, 23, 24 
 
 Durazzo, 200, 212 
 
 Dushan, Stephen, 186, 211 
 
 Dwellings, Alemannic, 44; German types, 
 14; Italian and German, in northern 
 Italy, 68; Lithuanians, 105; Lorraine, 
 44; Romansh, 54 
 
 Dyrrachium, 200 
 
 Eastern Question, 180, 228, 231-233, 248 
 
 Elbe, 93, 118, 133, 136, 137, 141, 142, 150 
 
 Elephantine papyri, 302 
 
 Ems, 93 
 
 Epidamnus, 200 
 
 Epirus, Greek claims to, 196-198 -^ 
 
 Erzerum, 224 
 
 Erzgebirge, 141, 142 
 
 Esthonians, 104, 106-108 " 
 
 Euphrates, 224, 238, 239, 294, 302, 308 
 
 Europe, civilizing power of geography, 18; 
 eastern, sketch-map showing classifica- 
 tion of Russians, etc., 112; languages, 
 classification, 346-347 
 
 Fellaheen, 308 
 
 Fennification, 102 
 
 Finland, 17, 101-103; language and popu- 
 lation tables, 109, 110; languages, 103; 
 literature and nationality, 322-323 ; Swe- 
 den and, 102, 103 
 
 Finnish, 15, 17, 101-103 
 
 Finno-Ugrian, 17 
 
 Finns, 101-103 
 
 Fiume, 88 
 
 Flammigants, 28 
 
 Flemings, 19-30; rivalry with Walloons, 
 28-30 
 
 Flemish language, 19-29 
 
 Formazzo valley, 67 
 
 France, Celtic in, 56; dialects, 9; early 
 distinction in languages, 9 ; Flemish lan- 
 guage in, 23; Italian linguistic boim- 
 dary, 63; language and literature, 320; 
 linguistic boundary in Alsace-Lorraine, 
 35-49; map showing contact of langue 
 d'oll and langue d'oc, 12; nationality, 
 40 ; racial elements, 5 ; sketch-map show- 
 
370 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ing mountain areas and basins, 10; Tur- 
 key and, 237, 245-246, 263-266 
 
 Francois, 12 
 
 Franco-Provencal dialects, 60 
 
 Franco-Russian sphere in Turkey, 250, 266 
 
 Franks, 56 
 
 Fransquillons, 28 
 
 Frasherists, 164 
 
 French, Alsace-Lorraine, 35-49; Belgium, 
 23; boundary in Belgium and Luxem- 
 burg, 19-34; character, 11; character 
 and composition, 11, 12; dialects in 
 Italy, 60-64; early influence in Ger- 
 many, 14; Flemish-speaking districts of 
 France, 24; in Italy (map), 61; Lux- 
 emburg, 30-34; map showing boundary 
 between French and Italian, 65; origin 
 of modern, 9; sketch-map of Brussels 
 and environs showing, 26; Switzerland 
 (with map), 49-58 
 
 French Revolution, 47, 48, 59, 148, 315, 
 316 
 
 Fribourg, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55 
 
 Frisian, 94 
 
 Friuli, 78 
 
 Friulian, 72, 76, 165; definition, 73 
 
 Frontiers, France and Germany, 334-335; 
 linguistic factor, 314; scientific, 332-333; 
 wars and, 328 
 
 Gaelic, 56 
 
 Galatae, 286 
 
 Galicia, 113, 114; Jews, 125-126; Poles, 
 130; Poles and Ruthenians, 131 
 
 Gallipoli, 175 
 
 Gaul, 64 
 
 Gaulish, 56 
 
 Gediz valley, 249, 264 
 
 German, Alsace-Lorraine, 35-49; area, 13; 
 around Bohemia, 141-142, 144; Baltic 
 provinces, 105, 106; Czech and, in north- 
 ern Bohemia, 144-145; dialects, 13; 
 dwelling houses and language, 14 ; impo- 
 sition of the language in Alsace, 48; in 
 Italy, 66-75; Luxemburg, 31-33; sketch- 
 map of areas of the three dialects, 15; 
 Switzerland (with map), 49-58; tran- 
 sitional dialects, 14 
 
 Germanic languages, 9; boundary in Bel- 
 gium and Luxemburg, 19-34 
 
 Germanization, Alsace-Lorraine, 48; Bohe- 
 mia, 144-145; Bosnia, 190-191; Buko- 
 vina, 169-170; Danish provinces, 95; 
 Hungary, 156-157; Italy, 69; Lusatia, 
 
 134; Luxemburg, 31; Moravia, 150; 
 Slovak-land, 151-152, 153; Trentino, 75; 
 Upper Silesia, 126-127 
 
 Germany, clash with Slavs in Balkans, 
 181 ; Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein 
 problem, 93-97; (Germans and Poles in 
 Upper Silesia, table, 139-140; language 
 and power, 329; language and unity, 
 317; linguistic boundary in Alsace-Lor- 
 raine, 35-49; nationality, 40, 316; 
 Poles in eastern, 123; Polish contact, 
 115-135; Polish estate buying, 127-129; 
 Polish immigration, 121-122; Polish 
 provinces, table, 137-138; Russia and, 
 330-332; Turkey and, 236, 237, 241- 
 243, 257-258, 263 
 
 Gheks, 193 
 
 Gibraltar, 236 
 
 Gipsies, 172, 289 
 
 Goths, 176 
 
 Great Britain and Turkey, 237, 238, 255- 
 256, 263 
 
 Great Russians, 113, 136, 170 
 
 Greece, 175; "Albanian boundary, 197; Al- 
 banian coast and, 200-201; Bulgarian 
 character in north, 211; Bulgarian 
 speech and, 207; claims on Turkey, 247- 
 248; Epirus and, 196-198; Rumanian in, 
 163 
 
 Greek, classical forms in Asia Minor, 277; 
 in Italy, 89-90; Macedonian boundary, 
 205-206; northern area, map, 203 
 
 Greeks, Asia Minor, 273-278; blue-eyed, 
 176; Dodecanesia, 247; Mohammedan, 
 277; Persians and, 227 
 
 Grimault, 326 
 
 Grusinian, 284 
 
 Guzlars, 321-322 
 
 Hai, 291 
 
 Hakem, 300 
 
 " Hakenhufen," 133 
 
 Hamath, 302 
 
 Hamze, 300 
 
 Hanaks, 150 
 
 "Heim," 44 
 
 " Heimatlose," 95 
 
 Hejaz railroad, 267 
 
 Hellenism. See Greece; Greeks 
 
 Hellenization, 205 
 
 Herzegovina, 181, 182 
 
 High German, 13 
 
 Hittites, 279, 291, 299, 301 . 
 
 Hochdeutsch, 13 
 
INDEX 
 
 371 
 
 Holland, 29, 30, 33, 329 
 
 Holstein, 94, 95. See also Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein 
 
 Homo alpinus, 323-324 
 
 Hungarian, 154-159 
 
 Hungarians, 81, 154; Croatia, 190 
 
 Hungary, 131; debt to Rumania, 168; de- 
 fining, 338-340; Germanization, 156-157; 
 Germans in, 152; individuality, 154; 
 Rumanian problem, 157, 158-159; sketch- 
 map of Rumanian area, 169; Slovakian 
 area, 152; Slovaks, 150, 151 
 
 Huns, 176 
 
 Huss, 146, 147, 151 
 
 Huzuli, 168 
 
 Ile-de-France, 9, 11 
 
 111 valley, 38, 40 
 
 Illyrian, 86 
 
 India, 234, 238, 239, 240, 257 
 
 " Ingen," 36, 44 
 
 Ipek, 194, 195, 196 
 
 Isarco, 73 
 
 Ismailyehs, 298 
 
 Istria, Italian in, 77 
 
 Istrian peninsula, 76 
 
 Italian borderlands, 59-92; Dalmatian is- 
 lands, 76; inhabitants of Italian speech 
 in Adriatic provinces, table, 92; Istrian 
 region, 77; map showing boundary be- 
 tween Italian and French, 65 
 
 Italic and Celtic, in France, 56 
 
 Italy, 59-92; Austrian frontier claims 
 (with sketch-map), 335-337; claim on 
 Turkey, 237, 246-247, 256; foreign lin- 
 guistic groups, 60; German language in, 
 66-75; Greeks in, 89-90; map of Slavic 
 colonies in the Molise group, 89; na- 
 tionality, 59, 90; non-Italian vernacu- 
 lars, table, 91 ; Slavic dialects in and 
 on borders, 78; Slavs in, 88; Slovene in, 
 and on borders of, map, 81 
 
 Jablunka pass, 115 
 
 Jacobites, 305-306 
 
 Jaffa-Jerusalem railroad, 250, 265 
 
 Jagellons, 120 
 
 Janina, 198-199 
 
 Jerusalem, 301 
 
 Jews, Esthonian, 107; Galicia, 125-126; 
 
 German Poland, 123; Polish, 123, 126; 
 
 Polish provinces of Russia, 123; Turkey, 
 
 301 
 Judea, 226 
 
 Jugoslavia, 88, 185, 338 
 Jura, 49, 52, 55 
 Jutland, 93 
 
 Kabardians, 283 
 
 Kalevala, 322-323 
 
 Karapapaks, 284 
 
 Karst land, 77-79 
 
 Kastoria, 211 
 
 Khirgiz, 174 
 
 Kiel Canal, 94 
 
 Kiev, 119 
 
 Kizilbash, 285-288 
 
 Konia, 258, 260 
 
 Kottbus, 134, 135 
 
 Kovno, 132 
 
 Kraljevitch, Marko, 321 
 
 Kurdistan Christians, table, 312-313 
 
 Kurds, 294-296 
 
 Kurland, 106 
 
 Kutzo-Vlachs, 163 
 
 Ladin, 66, 72, 165; definition, 72-73 
 
 Ladislas, 119 
 
 Lake beds, 290 
 
 Landsmaal, 99, 100 
 
 Language, economic influences, 325-327; 
 formative influence, 18; national asset, 
 320; nationality and, 1, 155, 314-315; 
 race, nationality, and, 4; European, 
 classification, 346-347; great groups in 
 Europe, 9 
 
 Langue d'oc, 9, 12, 64 
 
 Langue d'oil, 9, 12, 20, 328 
 
 Lassi, 149, 150 
 
 Latin, 52, 56, 320; Belgium, 21; Dalmatian 
 coast, 86, 87; introduction into France, 
 and influence, 10; Rome's, 59; Ruma- 
 nian and, 159-161; Southeastern Eu- 
 rope, 163 
 
 Latin-Faliscan, 56 
 
 Lazis, 284 
 
 Lebanon, 299, 300 
 
 Lemberg, 125, 130 
 
 Letts, 104-107 
 
 Ligge, 28 
 
 Lingua romana, 38 
 
 Lingua teudisca, 39 
 
 Linguistic areas, 3 
 
 Lippowans, 170-171 
 
 Literature and nationality, 317-319 
 
 Lithuanians, 104-107 
 
 Little Russians, 113, 131, 136 
 
372 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Livonians, 107 
 
 Lombardo-Venetia, 74 
 
 Lorraine, 36-37, 326, 334. See also Alsace- 
 Lorraine 
 
 Lothaire, 39 
 
 Lotharii Regnum, 38 
 
 Lothringia, 29, 40 
 
 Louis the German, 38 
 
 Low German, 13, 94 
 
 Lusatia, 133 
 
 Luther, 13 
 
 Lutherans, 105, 106, 108 
 
 Luxemburg, boundary of French and Ger- 
 manic languages in, 19-34; language, 
 30-34 
 
 Maalstraev, 97 
 
 Macedonia, 202, 204-214; history, 208-209; 
 
 loss to Bulgarians, 207; physical, 203- 
 
 204; Serbian claims on, 211-212; Slavs, 
 
 206 
 Macedonian, 165, 166, 206 
 Macedonians, 204-214; definition, 204; 
 
 ethnic composition, 209; groups, 205 
 Magyar, area, 155-156 
 Magyars, 151, 154, 155 
 Malmedy, 22, 33 
 Mar Shimun, 305 
 Maritza, 215, 219, ^20 
 Marmora, 218-220, 244 
 Maronites, 299, 300-301 
 Masurians, 132, 133 
 Meander, 255-256 
 Mecca, 241, 267, 268 
 Mediterranean race, xiv, 4, 5, 6 
 Mendai, 306 
 Meran, 73 
 Mesopotamia, 226, 238, 260, 261, 262, 272, 
 
 307, 308; reclamation, 239 
 Metauilehs, 297-298 
 Metsovo, 160 
 Metz, 37, 43 
 Mezzo-Mezzos, 277 
 Middle German, 13 
 Midyad, 305 
 
 Migrations, 202; seasonal, 162 
 Mindvog, 104 
 Mirdites, 193 
 
 Mohammedan Albanians, 194, 201 
 Mohammedanism, 83; Turkey and, 221 
 Mohammedans, 101, 136, 164, 177, 189; 
 
 Bosnia, 190; Caliphate, 241, 267; dis- 
 senters, 285-289 ; Great Britain and, 240 ; 
 
 Greek, 277; immigrants into Turkey, 
 
 282-284; landholders in Europe, 198; 
 
 railroad funds, 267-268 
 Moldavia, 171, 172 
 Moldavians, 162, 167, 168 
 Molise group, 89 
 Monastiro, 72 
 Mongolian, 104 
 Mongolians, 113, 176 
 Mont Blanc, 52 
 Montenegrins, 180 
 Montenegro, 182, 195, 196 
 Moravia, 149-150; German expansion, 150 
 Moravian, 115, 116 
 Moravian Slovaks, 149, 150 
 Moravians, 142 
 Moresnet, 32, 33 
 Morlacea, 88 
 Mosul, 223, 260; Christians, table, 311- 
 
 312 
 Mountains as boundaries, 333-334 
 Musariyehs, 298-299 
 Muscovy, 16 
 Mush, 290, 294 
 
 Nancy, 36, 37, 42, 43 
 
 Naples, kingdom of, Slav colonists, 88 
 
 Nationality, language and, 1, 155, 314-315; 
 language, race, and, 4 
 
 Nestorians, 304-305 
 
 Netherlands, 29 
 
 New Norse, 100 
 
 Niederdeutsch, 13 
 
 Nimrud Dagh, 294 
 
 Noghai tartars, 283 
 
 Nomadism, 162, 164, 282, 283, 308 
 
 Nordic race, xiv, 4, 5, 6, 19, 41, 102, 104, 
 176 
 
 Norse, 98, 99, 100 
 
 Norsk, 98 
 
 Norway, Danish language in, 98; linguis- 
 tic problem, 97-100 
 
 Norwegian, 97, 100 
 
 Norwego-Danish, 98-100 
 
 Novibazar, 188-189 
 
 Oberdeutsch, 13 
 Obrenovitch, Miloch, 186 
 Oder, 93, 116, 118, 137 
 Old Norse, 98, 99 
 Oscan-Umbrian, 56 
 
 Palestine, 245, 265 
 Pan-Germanism, 331 
 Pan-Slavism, 331 
 
INDEX 
 
 373 
 
 Paris, 9, 11 
 
 Parlers, 11 
 
 Patois, French, 9 
 
 Peacock King, 303 
 
 Persia, trade, 23S 
 
 Persian and Armenian, 272 
 
 Persian Gulf, 239 
 
 Persians, Armenians and, 290 ; Greeks and, 
 227 
 
 Phrygians, 286, 292 
 
 Piasts, 119, 120 
 
 Picard patois, 11, 12 
 
 Piedmont, 59-62; German in, 66-67 
 
 Pilsen, 144 
 
 Pindus, 162, 163, 165, 166, 195, 202, 203, 
 204 
 
 Pjesme, 321, 322 
 
 Plattdeutsch, 13 
 
 Po, 59, 63, 84 
 
 Podgoritza, 196 
 
 Podhalians, 114 
 
 Poetry, nationality and, 318-319; Serbia, 
 321-322 
 
 Poland, 111-140; Austro-Hungarian prov- 
 inces, table, 138; autonomy, 340-341; 
 German colonization, 116, 127-129; Ger- 
 man provinces, table, 137-138; Jewish 
 element, 124-126; nature of land, 119; 
 Russia and, 121; Russian provinces, 
 table, 138-139; Turkey and, 120; unity 
 of, 135-136 
 
 Poles, 111-140; Austrian, 130; Bukovina, 
 170, 171; eastern Germany, 123; Ger- 
 man contacts, 115-135; patriotism and 
 national spirit, 129; letters in Germany, 
 121-122 
 
 Polish, area, 111-140; teaching, 129 
 
 Polish Jews. See Jews 
 
 Posen, 116, 121-123, 128, 133 
 
 Prague, 146 
 
 Protestants, Bohemia, 146; Piedmont, 61- 
 62; Polish group, 133 
 
 Prussia, 48, 49, 81, 82, 93, 94, 95, 117, 
 118, 120, 126, 127; ascendency, 329; 
 Germanization, 128; Poland and, 340- 
 341; Poles in, 117, 121 
 
 Pruth, 172 
 
 Race, XV ; European blending, xiv, 5; lan- 
 guage, nationality, and, 4; mingling, 3 
 
 Ragusa, 77, 88 
 
 Railroads, Turkish, 248-252, 268-269; 
 Turkish-owned, 267 
 
 Raskolniks, 136 
 
 Ratzel, F., 325, 326 
 
 "Red head," 286 
 
 Religious persecution, 61-63 
 
 Reval Esthonian, 108 
 
 Rhine, 35, 37, 46, 47, 326 
 
 Rhone, 51, 52 
 
 Riksmaal, 98, 99, 100 
 
 Rivers as boundaries, 46, 333 
 
 Roman names in Belgium, 21 
 
 Romance languages, 56; Balkan peninsula, 
 86-87, 164-166; Belgium, 25; easterly 
 group map, 166 
 
 Romanic, 56, 66 
 
 Romanic languages, 9 
 
 Romansh, 54, 165; definition, 72-73 
 
 Rome, Dalmatia and, 83-86; influence in 
 southeastern Europe, 165 ; Rumania and, 
 167; southeastern Europe and, 161 
 
 Rumania, original element and history, 
 167; Russian influence, 172, 173 
 
 Rumanian, 159-173; Albanian and, 165; 
 Bessarabia, 172; Latin kinship, 159-161, 
 162; map of areas, 166; Serbia, 188; 
 sketch-map of, in Bukovina and Him- 
 gary, 169; sketch-map showing parts, 
 183 
 
 Rumanians, 339; Balkan peninsula, 160; 
 colonies and groups, 163-164; Roman 
 customs, 161; in and about Hungary, 
 157, 158-159; Pindus mountains, map, 
 203 
 
 Russ, 16 
 
 Russia, 15, 16; advances southwesterly, 
 243; Baltic provinces, 103-108; Bessara- 
 bia and Rumania, 172, 173; different 
 languages, 18; Finland and, 101, 103; 
 German settlements in, 343-344; Ger- 
 many and, 330-332; Jewish segregation, 
 124; Jews in Polish provinces, 123; 
 Poland and, 121; Polish provinces, table, 
 139-140; sketch-map showing classifica- 
 tion, 112; Turlvey and, 236, 237, 244- 
 245, 250, 264, 266-267 
 Russian, 15; Asiatic influence, 16-17; 
 blending of dialects, 18; Finland, 103; 
 origin of modern, 16 
 Russians, divisions, 136; original, 132 
 Russification, 106, 108 
 Ruthenia, 16 
 
 Ruthenians, 114, 126, 130, 131, 168; Buko- 
 vina, 168, 170, 171-172; Slav type, 132 
 
 Sabeans, 298, 303, 306 
 St. Bernard passes, 52 
 
374 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Salonica, 181, 213-214 
 
 Samaan mountains, 303 
 
 Samsoun-to-Sivas railroad, 250, 26G 
 
 San Juan de Medua, 199 
 
 Sanskrit, 104 
 
 Sardinia, 64 
 
 Sarmatians, 175, 176 
 
 Sasseno, 200, 201 
 
 Saxon, 158 
 
 Saxon colonj^ in Hungary, 157, 158 
 
 Saxonian, 13 
 
 Scandinavian languages, 93-100 
 
 Schelde, 19, 20, 30 
 
 Schleswig, 93-97 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein, 341; Germanization, 
 95; problem, 93-97; sketch-map of lan- 
 guages from Danish viewpoint, 97; 
 sketch-map of languages from German 
 viewpoint, 96 
 
 Scutari, 180, 199 
 
 Scutari Lake, 195, 196 
 
 Scythians, 175 
 
 Sephardim, 301 
 
 Serbia, 182, 243,' 337, 338; Adriatic and, 
 180; Austrian ultimatum, 181; claims 
 on Macedonia, 211-212; history and poli- 
 tics, 186; linguistic area, 186-189; na- 
 tionality, 191; poetry, 321-322 
 
 Serbian, area, 181-182; Bulgarian transi- 
 tion dialect, 212 
 
 Serbo-Croatian in the Dalmatian islands, 
 76 
 
 Serbo-Croats, 79, 136, 184-185 
 
 Serbs, 81, 85, 88; Balkan, 174-191; cul- 
 ture, 184; religion and nationality, 182- 
 183; three groups, 182 
 
 Sette communi, 68-69; map of German 
 speech in, 69 
 
 Shmuds, 104 
 
 Siberia, 17 
 
 Silesia, 116. See also Upper Silesia 
 
 Silk, 246 
 
 Simplon tunnel, 52 
 
 Sinjar range, 303, 304 
 
 Sivas, 250, 266 
 
 Skip, 192 
 
 Skipetars, 189, 192, 193 
 
 Slavic, XV, 9; Russian as a form of, 15 
 
 Slavicization, 101; Balkan peninsula, 165 
 
 Slavonia, 182, 184 
 
 Slavs, 6; Adriatic provinces, 76; Austria- 
 Hungary, 82; Baltic, 108; Bohemian and 
 Moravian, 141; Dalmatia, 85, 86, 87; 
 early home, 7; fusion with aliens, 108; 
 
 German-speaking, 134; Italy, 78, 88-89; 
 Karst and Adriatic, 77-78; languages 
 in Austria, sketch-map, 183; Macedo- 
 nian, 202, 206; map of Molise group in 
 Italy, 89; Naples, 88; note on, 136-137; 
 Poland, 111; southern unity, 185, 337- 
 338; Teutonic clash, 181, 330-332; type, 
 132 
 
 Slovakian, 151; Hungarian northern boun- 
 dary, 152 
 
 Slovaks, 114, 136, 150-153; Moravian, 149, 
 150; outside their native land, 153 
 
 Slovene, Italy, 76; linguistic area, 76-81; 
 map showing area in Austria and parts 
 of Italy, 81 
 
 Slovenes, 136 
 
 Sorabes, 133 
 
 Spalato, 77, 86 
 
 Stapellandern, 326 
 
 Steppes, 15-18 
 
 Strassburg, 37, 38, 41 
 
 Suez Canal, 178, 223 
 
 Suwalki, 132 
 
 Svatopuk, 150 
 
 Swabians, 170 
 
 Sweden, 100, 101; Finland and, 102, 
 103 
 
 Swedish, 100, 102; Finland, 103 
 
 Switzerland, distribution of languages, 
 tables, 57, 58; languages, 326-327; lin- 
 guistic boundary between French and 
 German (with map), 49-58; nationality, 
 54; Valais and German, 66-67 
 
 Syria, 226, 250, 272, 303; France and, 
 245-246, 264, 265; French states in time 
 of Crusades, map, 245 
 
 Syrians, 296-298; Nestorians and, 305 
 
 Szechenyi, Stephen, 155 
 
 Szekler, 157, 159, 170 
 
 Tahtajis, 285 
 
 Tatar, 16, 101, 102, 166, 167 
 
 Tatars, 177; invasion of southern Poland, 
 
 113; Turks and, 279-280 
 Taurus, 229-230, 258, 259 
 Tchan, 284 
 Temesvar, 188 
 Teutonic Knights, 104, 105, 118, 119, 120, 
 
 132 
 Teutons, Celtic influence, 14; early home, 
 
 6; Slavs and, 181, 330-332. See also 
 
 Germany 
 Thessaly, 217 
 Thrace, 166, 175 
 
INDEX 
 
 375 
 
 Tigris, 238, 239, 294, 301, 302, 307; Chris- 
 tians, table, 311-312 
 
 Tirnovo, 214 
 
 Tiroler Volksbund, 75 
 
 Toce, 67 
 
 Torre Pellice, 61-62 
 
 Tosks, 193 
 
 Trade, Asiatic and European, 233-236; lan- 
 guage and, 325-327 
 
 Transylvania, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 339; 
 social grouping, 159 
 
 Traveri, 287 
 
 Trent, Italian character, 75; Bishopric of, 
 73, 74 
 
 Trentino, 335; German in, 72; German in- 
 vasions, 70; German propaganda, 75; 
 Italian dialects in, 72; Italy's claims and 
 their basis, 73; sketch-map showing lan- 
 guages spoken, 71 
 
 Treves, 287 
 
 Triest, 76, 77 
 
 Troy, 232 
 
 Turani, 306 
 
 Turin, 60, 63 
 
 Turkestan, 283 
 
 Turkey, Armenians and, 293-294; classifi- 
 cation of peoples of Asiatic, table,, 310; 
 danger to Europe past, 82-83; economic 
 position, 268; elements of interest, 228; 
 Europe and, 237; European powers and, 
 237; geographical case of, 221-270; geo- 
 graphical sections and peoples, 271; 
 Greeks and Albanians forced into Italy, 
 89-90; groups of peoples, 2^; highway 
 of commerce, 222-224, 248; historic 
 struggle for highway, 226-227; litera- 
 ture and nationality, 323-325; national- 
 ity, 230; patriotism absent, 229; parti- 
 tion, 236-237; peoples of, 271-313; 
 Poland and, 120; railroads, 248-252; 
 spheres of influence of European powers, 
 250-251; summary glance at foreign in- 
 fluence, 269-270; world selection, 230- 
 236. See also Asia Minor 
 
 Turki, 101, 154, 272, 281, 283, 284 
 
 Turkish, 15, 204, 225; Arabic words, 280; 
 Bulgarian and, 210; Persian words, 272 
 
 Turkomans, 283 
 
 Turko-Persian borderland Christians, table, 
 311-313 
 
 Turks, 154, 165, 167, 168, 171, 186, 187; 
 customs, 176-177; European occupation 
 temporary 177; exodus, 202; Greek and 
 Bulgarian division of lands, 207-208; in 
 
 Asia Minor, 278-282; intruders in Eu- 
 rope, 216-217; race, 280; religion, lan- 
 guage and nationality, 280; Tatar 
 character, 279-280; two types, 281 
 Tyrol, 75; German and Italian competi- 
 tion, 74; southern, 70 
 
 Ukraine, 131, 135 
 
 Upper Silesia, 126; Germans and Poles, 
 
 126-127, 139-140 
 Uralo-Altaic, 17 
 Urals, 17, 333 
 Urartu, 290, 291 
 Uskub, 186, 204, 210, 211 
 
 Valais, 51-54; German in, 66-67 
 
 Valdese valleys, 62 
 
 Valona, 200, 201 
 
 Van, 290 
 
 Vannic, 291, 292 
 
 Var, 64 
 
 Vardar valley, 164, 204 
 
 Venetia, 74; German dialects in, 68 
 
 Venice, 72, 85, 200; Dalmatian influence 
 
 and authority, 85, 87 
 Venice, Gulf of, 84 
 Veria, Rumanians, 164 
 Verse, conversing in, 108 
 Vienna, 153, 154, 156 
 Vienna, treaty of, 315-316, 328-329 
 Vistula, 111, 113, 117, 118, 133, 135, 136, 
 
 137 
 Vosges, 41, 334 
 
 Walas, 22 
 
 Wallachian verse, 160 
 
 Wallachians, 162, 167, 168 
 
 Wallonia, 19, 28 
 
 Walloon, 19-30 
 
 Walloons, 19-30; rivalry with Flemings, 
 
 28-30 
 Warsaw, 123, 124 
 Water boundaries, 333 
 " Weiler," 45 
 
 Wends, 133-135; map of speech area, 134 
 White Russians, 113, 136 
 Willcocks, Sir Wm., 239 
 Witte, H., 37, 44, 45 
 
 Yemen, 306 
 Yezidis, 303-304 
 Yuruks, 288-289 
 
 Zara, 77, 85 
 Zips, 170 
 
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