Copyright}}!' CQPiKIGHT DEPOSrn / l^ ify^ AMERICA: AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ITS History and Biography, ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGIGAL PARAGRAPHS. Willi ILLI, Ai COUNTS Oi' Prehistoric America and the Indians, AND NOTES ON CONTEMPORANEOUS HISTORY. CONTAINING A COMPLETE RECORD OF EXPLORATIONS, CONQUESTS, REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES, POLITICAL CHANGES, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, INDUSTRIAL ACHIEVE- MENTS, CURIOUS, IMPORTANT AND THRILLING EVENTS, REMARKABLE EXPEDITIONS, ROMANTIC ADVENTURES, AND MARVELOUS IN- VENTIONS, IN THE DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA, WITH Biographies of the Leaders Thereof. STEPHEN MORRELL NEWMAN, M. A THIRD EDITION REVISED AND BROUGHT DOWN TO DATE. ISlegantlg Illustrateti. CHICAGO: ^^. - .. CoBURN & Cook Publishing Company. BRANCH OFFICES: San Fraxcisco, Cal. Lansing, Mich. Fon du Lac, Wis. Perryville, Mo 1882. v1^ ^ COPYRIGHT 6Y IHE COBURN \- NEWMAN PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1881. COPYRIGHT 1882, THE COBURN & COOK PUBLISHING CO. » HOMES OF AMERICA. WHOSE LOVE OF LIBERTY AND OF COUNTRY W1I.L FJX.Ail-Y MAKE THIS CONTIXEXT THE LAND OF TRUE FREEDOM. PASSION KT.OAVER Ol-' I'ERU. PREFACE. The present wide-spread interest in the study of American history will effect two results. It will, for one thing, push out very much reading of a low, useless, and pernicious kind. The enkindled desire to understand the sufferings and achieve- ments in the record of the New World, or to live again in imagination the scenes which have been enacted upon the soil we tread, will consume the intellectual heed- lessness which is satisfied with the thin and sensational reading which falls in its way. One who has acquired a passion for investigating journeys, inventions, cus- toms, political enterprises and movements, and who finds the hours all too scanty for the purpose, is not likely to employ himself in reading that which wastes the time, enfeebles the mind, and blights the heart. The study of American history will also greatly increase the accurate knowl- edge of the circumstances attending the formation of our institutions, and by so doing, will extend and intensify the spirit of our life through a great circle. If we wish to understand the movement of an enterprise, we must note its condition at two or more points in its career. It is difficult for the ablest mind, when confining its view to the present moment, to trace in the hurry and confusion and endless details, the complete significance of the work which is being done, and to judge whither it all tends. Nor can we look into the history of institutions with which we are closely associated, without a quickened pulse, a greater courage, and a truer patience. The passing accidents, and the abiding elements of enterprises and reforms, alone stand forth in this view. This volume is intended to serve as an instrumentality along the above lines of usefulness. Several principles have controlled its preparation. In the study of historical events^ as in the study of objects in the natural sciences^ the mind must be continually held to the facts. Facts are the source and proof of all our historical knowledge. A clear statement of them will almost uni- versally arouse an interest in them. Nor can the minute details of them be ex- hausted. Yet upon some apparently trivial detail a change of government may hang. The certainty and comprehensiveness of our knowledge of history, as well as the possession of an unflagging interest, depend upon a frequent review of the facts. XXI XXII PREFACE. In any general sUidy of American history the preservation of unity de7na7id. that the entire continent pass before the eye. No separation of explorations, settle ments, of colonial growth, revolutionary struggles, and of the development of th< idea of liberty ,Van be made even in the case of the United States, without fatall) injuring the conception, and weakening the study. A moment's attention, for in stance, will show that the region of the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and Ohic Valleys, the Southern States and the Pacific Coast, cannot be studied apart froir what the French and Spanish undertook to do in other sections of the continent Within ten years after the American Revolution closed, those struggles in Mexicf and South America began, which ended in throwing ofT Spanish authority. Th( Monroe doctrine emphasizes this unity of life upon the continent. The same reason demands that all forms of life be accorded their propo places in the presentation. The successes of industry and invention, the charactci of coinmercial and social activity, the educational and reformatory movements, etc. etc., depend largely upon the political ideas which hold sway over the homes of th( country, and the civil aspirations which the people arc led to indulge. Americai life and progress in every slight respect are vitally connected with the central historic movement of the continent. TJie formatio7i of a just conception necessitates the keeping of the severa elements of American history., so far as possible^ before the mind., side by side The inception of a new enterprise of any sort indicates something as to the fcrtilit; of thought and energy of will which characterize the day. It is therefore importan to insert it in the order of time, where it had its birth. Its aid will be largely los if it be separated from the events in the midst of which it sprang forth. The features of the present work are in harmony with the above ideas. Fact arc made prominent. The attempt is made to leave them to have their own prope effect. The whole continent is brought to view. All lines of life are touched a indicative points. The whole is arranged to show the steady development of a things. Biographies are given to reveal the character of the training which th leaders of our life have had. Side notes are added to facilitate a reference to th condition of the world at large. No other work of this kind exists. Such a volume it is evident, must exist before the apparatus for the study of American history wil be fully perfected. It is needed now. With the desire to assist in establishin| American ideas, this labor is committed to the public. " But thou, my Country, thou shalt never fall, Save with thy children— thy maternal care, Thy lavish love, thy hlessings showered on all— These are thy fetters— seas and stormy air Are the wide harrier of thy borders, where, Among thy gallant sons that guard thee well, Thou laugh'st at enemies; who shall then declare The date of thy deep-founded strength, or tell How happy in thy lap the sons of men shall dwell ! " Stephen Morrell Newman. RiroN, Wisconsin, March 5th, 1881. LTST OF AUTHORITIES. XXIIl The following works have been used in Applcton's American Cyclopaedia. Encyclopaedia ]3ril,l.anica. Johnson's Cyclopaedia. ZcU's Cyclopaedia. The Maozen Zone. Newcomb's Cyclopaedia of Missions. Parton's Franklin. Biglow's Franklin. Spark's Biographies. Irving's Washington. Life of Prescott Life of Choate. Finney's Autobiography. Memoir of Bushnell. Allen's Ne\v England Tragedies in Prose. Smith's Brazil. Holland's Life of Lincoln. Raymond's Life of Lincoln. AbDott's Lives of the Presidents. Rights and Rulers of our Government May's Recollections of the Anti-.Slav'y Conflict Treasures of Science, History, and Literature. Pictorial History of the United States Wars. Pictorial History of the United States Navy. Greeley's American Conflict. Abbott's History of the Civil War. Annals of the War. Lossing's Pictorial History of the Civil War. Grant and His Campaigns. Grant and Sherman. Sherman and His Campaigns. Life of Maximilian. Life of W^. H. Seward. Great Fires in Chicago and the West Adams' Railroad Accidents. Spoflford's American Almanac, 3 vols. Harper's Magazine. Scribner's Monthly, with files of other leading Reviews, Weekly and Daily Newspapers. -o—^^StC—o- HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORY. To any one who has not made quite a definite beginning, a long list of books covering different periods of American history is confusing. The thought of read- ing them froin first to last in the order given, always raises the question of the months or years which it will take to do so, and prevents that true deliberation which is the secret of profitable reading. This thought is accompanied by the de- sire to reach more or less hastily the interesting books or periods. On the other hand, many a beginning has been made for a life-time oi true study by having been forced back upon a single book found in the house, or borrowed from a neighbor. The writer looks back to such a point in his boyhood, and treasures a little old volume containing a history of Mexico and .South America, with unspeakable grati- tude. To those who have made a beginning and know where they are, a list of books is helpful and easily accessible. A very good one is given at the close of that book, which serves so admirably as a beginning for amateur students, viz., Higginsoii's Toung Folks' History of the United States. Lists are given at the close of each division of Barnes' Brief History of the United States. Both of the above em- brace the names of works of fiction, poems, and biographies in addition to strictly historical works. Lists under special topics are also to be found in Putna7n''s Best Reading., and in President Noah Porter's Books and Reading. For fifty cents one can secure a thick catalogue, i.ssued by Robert Clarke & Co. of Cincinnati, and HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORT. XXV giving the names of large numbers of books on American history. The catalogue of any public library will also furnish hints. Mention ought here to be made of yustin Winsor's Handbook of the Americaji Revolution^ which gives running comments upon the authors who have treated that subject as a whole, or any portion of it. For those who wish to read extensively upon the Revolution, this little book is invaluable. A good exercise consists in putting one of the lists first mentioned into such a form in a blank book or otherwise, that additions can be made to it of those books which are from time to time recommended to one, or are mentioned in standard periodicals. Works upon American history are now being issued very rapidly, and a little watchfulness, together with some questioning of friends, will enable one to make a list which in coming years will grow more and more valuable. The construction of a list of this kind will in itself give a knowledge of periods, changes, men and events in our history. There are a great many people who have an interest in American history, who vet do not care to sit down to the reading of the more exhaustive works which cover the history of the continent from its discovery nearly to the present time, nor to make investigations into the original authorities upon some special point or points. They read for mental health and cheer, and in the end acquire a wide range of historical knowledge concerning their country. For such the volume by Higginson above mentioned, and the same author's Young I^olks'' Book of Anierica?i Explorers^ are a fascination. The delightful works of Francis Parkman hold such readers to the end. They are: The Pioneers of France in the Neiv Worlds The Jesuits in North America^ La Salle^or The Discovery of the Great West, The Old Regime in Canada, and Count Frottte?iac. These make up a series upon the efforts of France and England in the New World. A volume upon Montcalm is in prepara- tion. Besides these the same author wrote a history of the Cofzspiracy of Pontiac. Bryanfs Popular History of the United States, Prescott^s Conquest of Perti, and liis Conquest of Mexico may safely be named for the above uses. The last-named work should be followed by Gen. Lew Wallace's novel A Fair God, which sets forth the scenes of the conquest with great power. Frothing hafii's Siege of Boston and Joseph Warren and His Ti??ies, Lossing^s Pictorial Field Books, — one set upon the Revolution, another upon the War of i8i2,and a third upon the Civil War, biographies like Irving'^ s Washington, Bigeloiv's Frankliii, Holland's Lincoln^ Pierre M. Irving''s Life of Washington Irvijzg, will all be of great interest. Biographies of any other man or men toward whom the attention is turned, descrip- tive works upon portions of the continent which we would like to know about, should be sought definitely and persistently. Very few issues of our magazines are made without some historical or descriptive article calculated to aid and interest such general readers. A scrap relating to American history or biography can be found in almost every copy of our newspapers. A definite notice of such for a time will make it impossible aftei^ward that similar ones should escape. In this way what was at first mere hap-hazard reading may be turned into a well-ordered and profit- able course. Our conception of the progress and condition of the continent will be clearer and clearer. XX V2 HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HIS TORT. But there are many young persons who, if they have the interest, have the time and facilities for building up a much more careful and systematic knowledge of American histor}-, and might in the end become authorities upon some point to which they had given much attention. If such should make a well-assured beginning, the rest would follow as a matter of course. Very many of our beginnings are no be- ginnings worthy of the name. A beginning in reading American history, like an infant, must have time to be an infant, and also have great care and nourishment wliilc it is such. Haste and forcing will in the end kill it. Hence deliberation is necessary. Begin anywhere, but let there be time taken to make it a very definite matter. It will pay many times over in the end. It is true that a general view of the whole field should be possessed before special work is begun. But it may be quite general. The attentive reading of one or two such books as Higginsoii's l^oung Folks' History of the United States will be sufficient. Having done this, the point for our special effort can be determined by answering the question: " What do I desire to know^ about most of all in the history of mv country?" A gain in time and energy will result from settling this first. From this point you can go forward or backward. Atlases are essential. Take time from the very first to get a perfectly clear view of the geography of the section you are reading about. An understanding of the sea coast or river valleys prepares for an understanding of the success or defeat of different settlements, and the general course of the stream of colonization. The geography of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain sheds light on the Revolution- ary conflict in that region. Make skeleton maps illustrating the special features of the event or events which you are studying. It may be that the first desire will be to know what can be known of ancient or prehistoric America. The most accessible books, and the best is perhaps, Prof. Shorfs^ The North Americans of Antiquity., or Foster'' s Prehistoric Races of the United States. A book like Sguier''s Perji will give some idea of ancient works in vSouth America. During 1880 a series of articles on the ancient cities of Central America has appeared in the North American Review. The first book mentioned will easily lead to other works named therein. Some of the volumes of the Smith- sonian Contributions are rich upon the Mound Builders. The A?nerican Anti- guariatt., a quarterly journal edited by Rev, Stephen D. Peet, Clinton, Wis., is the only jDcriodical devoted exclusively to such studies. It is able and interesting. Fu- gitive articles appear in Scribner^s Monthly., and other magazines. In studying the aborigines of the continent Drake'' s Biography and History of the Indiafts of North y4;«er/ca, though old, is valuable. Brief accounts are given in all histories of the counti-y. The works of George Catlin may be accessible to some. The Introduction to Parkman''s Jesuits i}t North America is a fine essay upon the Indians. Schoolcraffs Works contain vast information. Biographies of leading Indians can be found in all public libraries. Thomas W. Field issued An Essay toxvard an hidian Bibliography., which contains a great many hints concern- ing works upon the History, Antiquities, Languages, Customs, Religion, Wars, Lit- erature, and Origin of the American Indians. Leivis H. Morgan'' s League of the HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORT. XXVII Iroquois gives an accurate accounl of that remarkable confederation. For lighter reading, Cooper'' s Leatherstocking Tales ^ Longfellow's Hiawatha^ LoweWs Chippewa Legend^ and Whitticr''s Bridal of Pennacook^cdi\\ be interwoven. But it is more likely 2:)erhaps, that the first interest we feel will go out toward some later point in our history. We may wish to know the places at which, and the persons by whom, all the original settlements in America were made. We ai'e cu- rious to look into the homes they built, to know what they were before they left the Old World, and watch their success in new surroundings. Huguenots and Cath- olics, Pilgrims and Puritans, Hollanders and Spaniards,- Presbyterians and Quakers, poor debtors from English prisons, and persecuted Germans from the Palatinate, ne- gro slaves, Irish immigrants, German farmers, Norwegians, and Chinese, what por- tion of the country they have each lived in and built up, and how far has the blood of each mingled with the blood of others. We begin perhaps, with Jamestown in 1607, and carefully, slowly enlarge our view of the colony by hunting up informa- tion in every book at our command. We note its early promise, its great vicissi- tudes, its tobacco " fever," and the spread of little villages around it, with a thousand other bits. We hunt through Bancroft and Hildreth till we become enamored with the study of the process of settlement. Or we desire to know the history of the permission under which the colonies were planted, the form of charters, patents and grants which so lavishly gave away the American forests. We find out the first agreement effected by Columbus, the charters given to the London and Virginia Companies, the permit given by the great Dutch East India Company, the powers granted to each adventurer, the diflfer- ence between royal, proprietary, and charter colonies, the trouble over the transfer of the Massachusetts Bay charter, and hundreds of unsuspected, yet fascinatin"- facts. Or we wish to begin with tracing the growth of the opposition between Great Britain and the American colonies, or with the Revolution in which that opposition ended, or we begin with the scenes in which our national constitution was formed and the men who formed it, or with specific events like the Battle of Bimker Hill, from which we run out into the whole Revolution, or Perr^^'s victory on Lake Erie or the great debate between Webster and Hayne, in the United States Senate, or the evacuation of Fort Sumter in 1S61, or the history of our own state, county, town, of some great exploration, adventure, enterprise. Anything entered upon slowly and minutely will open the whole wide field of America before us. The one hundredth anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in 178 1 enables us to profit by the extensive information which will be published by the greater number of our periodicals. The seizure of a present event will often lead to a permanent mvesti- gation. But, it may be asked, will not such investigations as have been spoken of above, necessitate the possession of large supplies of books. Not at all. Faraday began ex- periments in chemistry with a few broken dishes. With two or three small books the study of American history can be begun. The neighborhoods are very few in which a thoughtful, careful young person could not obtain the use of a number of works upon the subject. Perhaps a reading room near by will have The Maga- XXV III HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HIS TORT. zine of American History ^.ox The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Bi- ography, upon its tables. Boys can form a reading club, and with their collected pennies get such recent issues as Lossing^s Story of the United States Navy, Cof- fin's Old Times in the Colonies, The Boys of '76, and The Story of Liberty. Meager supplies need not prevent any one from making a positive beginning which is the result at which these hints are aimed. Having learned to walk, we do not need help. Having made a beginning in reading or studying American history, we can find our own way with comparative ease. One book will lead to another. Then, whether we hear the boat which bears Columbus from Santa Maria to the shore of the New World grate upon the sand, or feel our hearts beat as the energetic Balboa catches the first glimpse of the great Pacific, or press on with Cortes in spite of the remonstrances of Montezuma, up to the City of Mexico, or drag our weary feet through Southern forests with the brave but unfortunate De Soto, or watch in the morning twilight for the coming of British regulars along the street to the quiet vil- lages of Lexington and Concord, or study with curiosity the first feeble attempts with steam, on land and water, and with electricity in telegraphing, or pant for suc- cess with the struggling patriots of Mexico and South America, or find out to our amazement how many of the great men and leaders of America have had few and scanty privileges, and much hard work in their youth and early manhood, we alike conclude that the romance of our country's rapid course is greater and more health- ful than that of the mass of exciting and injurious reading spread before us on all sides. We become more vigorous in thinking, more manly in living, more powerful in building up ourselves and others. CONTENTS. -.91 BllMDa^ -Ji(^-«#ffl' " 4 PART I. Introductory Studies, 47-92. SECTION I . ' PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 49-67 American and European Antiquities, 49. First Period of Prehistoric America and Evi- dences, 50. Second Period, 51. Name of Mound Builders, 51. Great Mounds, 52. Wisconsin Animal Mounds, 53. Uses of Mounds, 54. Embankments and Inclosures, 54-56. Ancient Copper Mining, 54. Age of Mound Builders' Works, 55. Horace Greeley at Newark, O ., 55. Indians Know Nothing of Them, 55. Civilization of Mound Builders, 56. Religious Character, 57. Mechanical and Artistic Products, 58. Who Were the Mound Builders, 59. Pueblos of Arizona, 59. Casas Grandes, 60. Clifl^ Dwellings, 61. Cave Dwellings, 62. Elevated Tow-ers, 63. Remains in Yucatan and Central America, 63. Copan, 63. Uxmal, 64. Palenque, 65. Peruvian Remains, 67. Interest of American Archseologj, 67. SECTION II. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 68-88 Named Indians by Columbus, 68. Variety of Tribes, 68. Unity, 69. Origin, 69. Study of Indian Languages, 69. Degrees of Civilization, 70. Wandering Tribes, 70. Settled Tribes, 70. Cities of Peru and Mexico, 70. Agriculture, 70. Domestic Animals, 71. Manufactures, 71, Historical Records, 72. Ornamentation, 72. War-paint, 72. XXX CONTENTS. Mining, 72. No Modern Idea of Work, 72. Government, 73. Sachems and Military Chiefs, 74. Personal Heroism, 74. Memory for Slights and Benefits, 75. William Penn and the Indians, 79. Restless Spirits, 79. Native Oratory, 79. Peculiar Cus- toms, 80. Woman the Worker in Wilder Tribes, 81. Female Rulers, 81. Dreams, 81. The Supernatural, 81. Union of Natives and Foreigners, 82. Indian Celebrities, 82. Indian Ought to be Made a Citizen, 82. Wrong Methods of Dealing with Them, 82. Numbers on the Continent at its Discovery, 84. Eight Families within what is now the United States, 84. Algonquin, 84. Huron-Iroquois, 84. Mobilian, 86. Catawba, 86. Cherokees, 86. Uchees, 86. Natchez, 86. Dakotas, 87. Indians at Present in the United States, 88. Numbers not Diminishing, 88. Need of Justice and Education, 88. SECTION III. PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORY AND TRADITIONS. 89-91 499-1488. The Buddhist Priest in Mexico, 89. Irish in Iceland, 90. First Northman in Iceland, 90. Svafarsson and Floki, 90. First Permanent Settlement in Iceland, 90. Discovery of Greenland, 90. Iceland a Republic, 90. Christianity in Iceland, 90. Greenland Redis- covered and Colonized, 90. North American Coast, 91. Northmen in Viiiland, 91. Thorwald, 91. First Fight with Natives, 91. Thorstein, 91. Karlsefne's Colony, 91. Last Norse Colony in Vinland, 91. First Bishop in Greenland, 91. The Welsh Prince, 92. The Zeno Brothers, 92. Iceland under Denmark, 92. The Black Death, 92. The Last Bishop of Greenland, 92 Decline of Greenland, 92. Alonzo Sanchez, 92. Cous- in the Frenchman, 92. PART II. Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 93-188. 1492-1630. SECTION IV. THE GREAT DISCOVERY. 95-10. 1 492- 1 506. Christopher Columbus, 95. The Writtei Agreement, 96. A Letter of Privilege, 97. The First Departure, 97. Variation of the Needle, 97. The Sargasso Sea, 97. The New World, 98. Cigars and Maize, 98. Hayti Discovered, 98. Wreck of Santa Maria, 98. La Navidad, 98. Welcome of Columbus in Spain, 99. Renewal of Contract, 99. The Second Departure, 99. Caribbean Islands, 99. First Permanent Settlement, 99. Find- ing of Gold, loo. Tropical Products and Captives sent to Spain, 100. Misery at Isabel- la, 100. The Coast of Cuba, 100. Jamaica Discovered, ico. Don Bartholomew Colum- bus, 100. Indian Slaves, loi. Suffering of Hayti Natives, loi. Opposition to Colum COXTEXTS. XXXI t bus. loi. His Return to Spain, 102. San Domingo Founded, 102. North America Discovered b_v Cabots, 102. The Third Departure of Columbus, 102. South America Discovered. 103. Pearl Fisherv. 103. Americus Vespucius, 103. Cape St. Aujfustine, 104. Brazil, 104. Arrest of Columbus. 104. His Return to Spain in Chains, 104. First Sanction of Negro Slavery, 104. The Fourth Departure, 105. Attempted Settle- ment on Mainland, 105. Lonely Year, 105. A Daring Canoe Voyage, 106. Return of Columbus to Spain, 108. The Banks of Newfoundland, loS. The Gulf of Sl Law- rence, loS. The First Sugar Cane, loS. Death and Character of Columbus, 10S-109. SECTION V. BALBOA AND CORTES The Naming of America, 110. Yucatan Discovered, 113. Cuba found to be an Island, 113. Porto Rico Subjugated, 113. Jamaica Colonized, 113. San Sebastian and Santa Maria, 113. Bahia Founded, 113. Increased Negro Importation, 113. Cuba Subiugated, 114. Romance m Yucatan, 114. The Fountain of Youth, 114. Approval of Indian Slavery, 114. The Pacific Ocean. 114. San Christobal. now Havana, Cuba, 117. Copper in Cuba, 117. Enlarged Slave Trade, 117. First Vessels on the Pacific, 117. De Cor. dova, 117. Execution of Balboa, 118. Sable Island, 118. Juan de Griiaha's Expe- dition, iiS. Fernando Cortes, 121. Battle of Tabasco, 121. Dona Marina, 121. Montezuma's Embassy, 122. Power of Cortes over his Soldiers, 122. Battle with Tlascalaus, 122. Cortes in the City of Mexico, 122. Montezuma Seized, 122. Panama Founded, 122. Magellan on South American Coast, 122. Montezuma's Tribute, 125. March of Cortes to the Coast, 125. Death of Montezuma, 125. The Sorrowful Night, 125. Battle of Otumba, 126. De A^'Uon in Carolina, 126. Magellan's Straits, 126. Pacific Ocean Named, 126. March of Cortes against City of Mexico, 126. Death of Magellan, 126. Death of De Leon, 126. Capture of Citv of Mexico, 127. Nicaragua Explored, 127. Bermuda Islands, 127. First Vovage Round the World, 127. First Negro Insurrection, 127. First Descent of American Volcano, 127. SECTION VI. GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 12S-49 i523-i5.=;o. Central America Conquered, 128. Granada and Leon, 128. Santiago, Central America, Founded, 129. North American Coast Explored by Verrazzano, 129. A Remarkable March, 129. Francisco Pizarro, 129. Pizarro Left Panama, 129. Execution of Gua- temozin, 129. Cape Horn First Seen, 130. Indian Revenge, 130. Pizarro's Explora- tions, 130. A Great Contract Relating to Peru, 131. A Great Uprising in Central America, 131. Sebastian Cabot in South America, 131. Pizarro's Persistence, 131. A Ship Canal Across the Isthmus First Proposed, 132. Disaster in Florida, 132. Pizarro and Cortes in Spain, 132. Pizarro bound for Peru, 133. The Dve-woods of Brazil, 133. Civil War in Peru, 133. San Miguel, 133. Caxamalca, 133. Capture, Ransom and Death of Atahuallpa, 133-34. Spaniards in Cuzco, 134. Cartagena Founded, 134. First Recorded Eruption of Cotopaxi, 135. Quito Captured, 135. Jacques Cartier on the St. La^^Tence, 135. Lima Founded, 135. Cartier's Second Voyage, 135. Site of Montreal, 136. Buenos Ayres Founded, 136. First Printing, 136. First Mint, 136. First History, 136. Rebellion of Peruvians, 136. Death of Juan Pizarro, 136. Asuncion Founded, 137. From Florida to Mexico, 137. Siege of Cuzco, XXXII CONTEXTS. 137. Indians Declared Human, 137. Almagro Executed, 138. De Soto in Florida, 138. Juan Ortiz, 139. The Seven Cities, 139. Amazon Expedition, 139. The Mis- sissippi Discovered, 140. Francisco Pizarro's Death, 140. De Soto's Death, 142. Government of New World, 142. First Vessels on the Mississippi, 143. Cartier's Last Voyage, 143. Blasco Nunez de Vela, 143. Potosi Silver Mines, 144. Highest City on the Globe, 144. Pedro de la Gasca in Peru, 147. Death of Cortes, 147. Gon- zalo Pizarro's Defeat and Death, 148. La Paz Founded, 149. Settled Administration of Peru, 149. First Jesuits, 149. Gasca Returns to Spain, 149. Loss of Indians in Hayti, 149. SECTION VII. THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS 150-62 1551-1602. Pirates in Cuba, 150. Oldest Universities in America, 150. Huguenots in Brazil, 151. De Luna's Expedition to Florida, 151. Reverses in Chili, 151. The English Slave Trade Begun, 152. Huguenots in Florida, 152. Quicksilver Mines in Peru, 152. St. Augus- tine Founded, 155. Massacre at Fort Caroline, 155. De Gourge's Revenge, 155. Inquisition Established in America, 155. Sir Francis Drake, 156. Sir Martin Fro- bisher, 156. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Patent, 157. New Mexico, 158. Davis' Straits, 159. Another Freebooter, 160. Manteo Baptized, 160. Lost Roanoke Colony, 161. Saved by Fireflies, 161. Death of Drake and Hawkins, 161. A Forlorn Colony, 161. Tadousac, 162. Gosnold's New England Colony, 162. SECTION VIII. THE COMING POWER. 163-85 1603-1630. Samuel de Champlain, 163. Acadia, 164. First English Charter, 165. First Indian Fight in New England, 165. Hudson's First Voyage, 166. First English Colony, 166. Popham's Kennebec Colony, 166. Capt. Smith and Pocahontas, j66. Hudson's Second Voyage, 167. Germs of Manufacture, 167. Quebec Founded, 167. First Woman at Jamestown, 167. Hudson River, 168. Starving Times at Jamestown, 169. Sad Death of Hudson, 170. Tobacco first Cultivated, 171. New England Named, 172. Adriaen Block in Long Island Sound, 173. First Mass in Canada, 173. Baffin's Bay Discovered, 174. Pocahontas, 174. Powhatan, 175. Sir Walter Raleigh, 176. First Colonial Assembly, 176. Sale of Young Women, 176. Henrico College, 177. Negroes Brought to Jamestown, 177. The Pilgrims, 177. Mayflower Compact, 178. First Indian at Plymouth, 180. First Offence at Plymouth, 180. Death of Gov. Carver, 180. First Duel in New England, 180. Origin of Thanksgiving, 181. Massacre at James- town, i8t. First Fast Day, 182. Walloon Settlers, 183. Land at Plymouth, 183. Merry Mount, 184. Salem Founded, 185. Patroons, 185. Church in Salem, 186. Boston Founded, 1S7. Buccaneers, 187. American Colonization, 187. CONTENTS. XXXIIl PART III. Colonial Life, 189-288. 1631-1760. SECTION IX. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 191-216 1631-1661. First Conflagration in Boston, 191. Election of Selectmen, 192. First Frame House in Connecticut, 192. Spirit of Liberty, 193. Representative Government, 193. First Ballot, 194. A Heavy Currency, 194. First Grand Jury, 194. Death of Champlain, 194. Providence, R. L, Founded, 195. Earliest Code of Laws, 196. New Haven Colony, 197. First Cloth Making, 197. First Printing Press in English Colonies, 198. First Hospital, 198. First Nursery, 199. A Sunday Liquor Law, 199. Curious Finan- cial Peril, 200. Montreal Founded, 200. First Colonial League, 201. Miantonomoh, 202. Opechancanaugh, 203. Elder Brewster, 203. Two Legislative Houses in Massa- chusetts, 204. First Poll-Tax, 205. First Scythes, 206. Canonicus, 206. First Tem- perance Meeting, 207. John Winthrop, 207. Maryland Toleration, 208. Taxation in Barbadoes, 209. Prohibition of Slavery in Rhode Island, 210. Syracuse Salt Springs, 211. First Quakers, 212. Miles Standish, 212. Governor Bradford, 213. Adam Daulac's Heroism, 214. The Brandy Quarrel, 216. Last Quaker Execution, 216. Massasoit, 216. SECTION X. THE WIDENING FIELD. 218-45 1662-1692. First Connecticut Charter, 218. Alexander, 219. Eliot's Indian Bible, 220. Surrender of New Amsterdam, 220. John Endicott, 221. La Salle, 222. Marquette, 222. First Ball in Canada, 223. Wives for Canadian Settlers, 223. The Cathedral of Mexico, 223. Thankfulness for Ignorance, 225. Hudson Bay Company, 225. The First Mail, 227. The White Mountains. 227. First Internal Colonial Taxation, 228. An Effectual Re- buff, 230. Death of Marquette, 230. King Philip, 230. First Vessel on the Upper Lakes, 232. A Great Journey, 23;^. William Penn's Grant, 234. Louisiana Nam.ed, 235. Peter Stuyvesant, 235. Uncas, 2 s7. Roger Williams, 237. First School in Pennsylvania, 238. A Novel Currency, 239. Death of La Salle, 240. First Remon- strance against Slavery, 241. Sir Edmund Andros Arrested, 242. First American Con- gress, 243. First Newspaper, 244. First Paper Mill, 244. First Paper Money, 244. Mast Trees, 245. Witchcraft Delusion, 245. • XXXJ V CONTENTS. SECTION XI. THE MATURING FORCES. J47-71 1(^93-' 743- Episcopacy in New Yoik, 247. First Printing Mouse in New York, 247. Connecticut Pluck, 247. Wiiliam and Mary College, 248. Firbt Rice Planted, 24S. Maryland Schools and Libraries, 248. William Penn Reinstated, 248. Death of Gov. Phips, 24S. John Archdale, Quaker, Governor of Carolina, 248. Slavery among Quakers, 249. Piracy, 249. The Palmarese Nation, 250. Mrs. Dustin's Escape, 250. The Scotch Darien Colony, 250. Biloxi, Mobile Bay, Founded, 250. Captain Kidd, 251. First Emigration Pamphlet, 251. First New England Rum, 251. Natchez, 251. Dubuque Lead Mines, 251. Origin of Yale College, 251. Execution of Captain Kidd, 251. De- troit Founded, 252. Queen Anne's War, 253. Indications of Independence, 253. Massacre of Deerfield, 253. First Permanent Newspaper, 254. Alexander Selkirk, 254. Petticoat Insurrection, 254. Germs of Liberty, 255. Saybrook Platform, 255. Ger- man Immigration, 255. First Government Post-Offices, 255. Wreck of the Nottingham, 255 Diamonds in Brazil, 256. The Six Nations, 256. The Logwood Tree, 257. First CotYee Culture, 257. The Mississippi Scheme, 257. New Orleans Founded, 258. William Penn, 258. Melodies of Mother Goose, 259. Dunkards, 259. Daniel Defoe, 260. Failure of John Law, 260. First Inoculation for Small-Pox, 261. First Attempt at Marine Insurance, 261. The Apostle of Greenland, 261. First Masonic Lodge, 261. University of Havana, 262. Repeating Fire- Arm, 262. Duel on Boston Common, 263. Berkeley in America, 263. First Subscription Library, 264. Fear of American Manu- factures, 264. Poor Richard's Almanac, 265. Georgia Founded, 265. First Jewish Synagogue, 266. Free Press in New York, 267. First Moravian Colony, 267. John Wesley's Sunday School, 268. First Bell Foundry, 268. Whitfield's Bethesda Or- phanage, 269. First Literary Magazine, 269. The Negro Plot, 270. Faneuil Hall, 270. Franklin Stoves, 270. First Cotton Gin, 270. American Philosophical Society, 271. SECTI ON XII. THE PREPARATORY DISCIPLINE 272-88 1744-1760- King George's War, 272. Capture of Louisburg, 272. Moravians E.Kpelled from New York, 273. Princeton College Founded, 274. Silk in Connecticut, 274. The First Cook Book, 274. The Boston Mob, 274. First Telegraphic Attempt, 274. First Ex- ported Cotton, 274. First Muskets, 274. The Ohio Land Company, 275. Halifax Founded, 275. First Girl's School, 275. The Queen of the Creeks, 275. PMrst Ana- tomical Dissection, 276. The Public Whipper, 276. First City Directory, 276. First Theatrical Company, 277. First Fire Insurance Company, 277. Liberty Bell, 277. The Post Otfice in America, 277. George Washington's Western Mission, 278. Fort du Quesne, 278. An American Congress, 278. Columbia College F\)unded, 279. Braddock's Defeat, 279. The Exiled Acadians, 279. Dieskau's Defeat, 280. Hendrick, 280. Pennsylvania's Discontent, 2S1. Fort William Henry Captured, 2S1. Destitution in Canada, 282. Jonathan Edwards, 282. Lord Howe Killed at Ticonderoga, 283. Fort du Quesne Captured, 283. Capture of Quebec, 284. JoruUo, the Mexican Volcano Created, 285. First Marine Insurance Office, 2S5. First Horn Combs, 2S5. Cherokee War, 285. Great Fire in Boston, 285. Attempt by French to Retake Quebec, 285. Downfall of Canada, 286. First Printing in Texas, 286. United Brethren in Christ, 286. CONTENTS. XXXV PART IV. Revolutionary Struggles, 289-460. 1761-1824. SECTION XIII. THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 291-311 1761-1774. Birth of Independence, 291. First Canal Route, 292. The Peace of Paris, 292. Pontiac's War, 292. Postmaster General's Trip, 294. The Right of Taxation, 294. The Famous Stamp Act, 295. The Resolutions of Patrick Henry, 295. Boston Riots, 296. Stamp Act Repealed, 296. Townsend's Bill, 297. Swamp Law, 297. The Ship-of-War Romney, 297. British Soldiers in Boston, 298. Earliest Church Discipline for Slave- holding, 299. First Life Insurance, 299. Pontiac, 299. Boston Massacre, 300. Deatli of Whitfield, 303. Boys of Plymouth, 304. Burning of the Gaspee, 304. Efiectual Penalty for Intoxication, 305. Boston Tea Party, 305. Boston Port Bill, 306. Virginia Provincial Assembly, 307. Shakers, 30S. Powder Alarm, 30S. First Continental Con- gress, 30S. The American Association, 309. Minute Men, 310. Slavery Among Quakers, 310. SECTION XIV. THE DAY OF TRIAL. 312-57 1775-1783- The First Blood, 312. Lexington and Concord, 313. Siege of Boston, 313. First Victory on the Atlantic, 314. Bunker Hill, 315. Dr. Joseph Warren, 316. First Continental Currency, 318. First Traitor, 319. Assault on Quebec, 320. Richard Montgomery, 320. First Piano-forte, 320. Yankee Doodle, 320. First Union Flag, 321. Evacuation of Boston, 322. Lee's Famous Resolutions, 322. Declaration of Independence, 323. United States National Seal, 325. Battle of Long Island, 326. Execution of Hale, 327. Battle of Trenton, 32S. The Stolen March, 330. Bounty Jumpers, 331. The Stars and Stripes, 332. Burgoyne's Invasion, 332. Battle of Bennington, 333. Battle of Still- water, 334. Burgoyne's Surrender, 334. Articles of Confederation, 336. Battle of the Kegs, 336. Light Horse Harry, 337. The Meschianza, 337. Battle of Monmouth, 338. Capt. Cook, 340. Nancy's Rock, 341. Clark's Famous Expeditions, 341. Putnam's Escape, 342. Stony Point Captured, 342. Paul Jones' Victory, 343, Col. White's Stratagem, 344. First Bank, 344. A Dark Day, 345. Destitution of American Army, 345. Battle of Hanging Rock, 346. Treason of Benedict Arnold, 346. Execution of Andre, 347. Battle of King's Mountain, 347. Marion's Patriotism, 347. Logan, 348. Pennsylvania Revolt, 349. Battle of Cowpens, 350. The Pine Log Cannon, 350. Execution of Hayne, 351. Cornwallis Surrendered, 351. Bank ofNorth America, 352. Charles Lee, 353. Society of the Cincinnati, 355. Treaty of Peace, 356. Webster's Spelling Book, 356. ^YXXy/ CONTENTS. SECTION XV. THE RISE OF A NATION. 358-409 % 17S4-1799. First Episcopal Bishop, 35S. First Agricultural Society, 359. First Law School, 359. First Daily Paper, 359. Brother Jonathan, 360. Nathaniel Greene, 361. The Annapolis Convention, 362. Extent of Slave Trade, 362. Shay's Rebellion, 362. First Practical Ainerican Steamboat, 364. Marietta, O., Founded, 366. John Ledyard, 367. Constitu- tion of United States, 367. Queen City, 374. The Doctors' Mob, 374. First Dentist, 375. First Presidential Campaign, 375. Ethan Allen, 375. The Tammany Society, 376. First Revenue Bill, 377. First Temperance Movement, 37S. Benjamin Franklin, 379. Gen. Israel Putnam, 380. Maple Sugar, 382. John Sears' Folly, 382. Yankee Enterprise, 383. First Census,. 383. St. Clair's Defeat, 384. First Internal Taxation, 3S5. Paul Jones, 385. The White House, 387. Canal Enterprise, 387. Postal Rates, 388. Second Piesidential Campaign, 388. Democratic Clubs, 3S9. Roger Sherman, 389. John Hancock, 390. Whitney's Cotton Gin, 391. First Spanish Merinoes, 391. Richard Henry Lee, 392. Whisky Insurrection, 393. Baron Steuben, 393. First Cot- ton Sewing Thread, 394. Francis Marion, 395. Treaty with Algiers, 396. First Scientific School, 396. Revolt of the Maroons, 399. Anthony Wayne, 399. French Depredations, 400. First Propellor, 400. Third Presidential Campaign, 400. The X. Y. Z. Mission, 401. Cast Iron Plow, 402. Alien and Sedition Laws, 402. Patrick Henry, 404. George Washington, 405. First Vaccination, 409. House Tax Insurrec- tion, 409. SECTION XVI. THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 409-59 1800-182^. Congressional Library, 410. Second Census, 411. First College Paper, 411. Fourth Presi- dential Campaign, 411. Benedict Arnold, 412. West Point Academy, 414. Daniel Morgan, 414. Louisiana Purchase, 415. Samuel Adams, 415. Proposed Mississippi Steamboat, 416. Decatur's Achievement, 417. Alexander Hamilton, 417. Fifth Pres- idential Campaign, 419. First Fine Broadcloth, 419. William Moultrie, 420. Horatio Gates, 420. Henry Knox, 421. First Cargo of Ice, 422. First Trade Union Contest, 422. Aaron Burr's Trial, 423. Fulton's Triumph, 423. First Temperance Society, 424. Prison Ship Victims, 425. Sixth Presidential Campaign, 425. First Modern Sunday Schools, 426. First Mexican Uprising, 426. Third Census, 42S. First Blood in Chili, 428. Breech-loading Rifle, 429. Declaration of War, 430. Surrender of Detroit, 431. Joel Barlow, 432. Seventh Presidential Campaign, 433. Uncle Sam, 433. "Don't Give up the Ship," 435. Perry's Victory, 436. Tecumseh, 436. The First Stereotyping, 437. Battle of Lundy's Lane, 439. Burning of Washington, 439. The Star Spangled Ban- ner, 440. First Mexican Constitution, 441. The Hartford Convention, 441. Financial Panic, 442. Battle of New Orleans, 443. Eighth Presidential Campaign, 445. First Remington Rille, 445. First Asylum for Deaf Mutes, 446. The Shoe-Peg, 448. First Horse-race, 448. Florida Purchase, 448. First Odd-Fellow Lodge, 449. First Atlantic Steam Voyage, 450. Missouri Compromise, 451. Stephen Decatur, Jr., 451. Daniel Boone, 452. Ninth Presidential Campaign, 453. Fourth Census, 453. Great Financial Distress, 455. John Stark, 456. Monroe Doctrine, 457. South American Independ- ence, 459. Tenth Presidential Campaign, 459. CONTENTS. XXXVII PART V. Political Development, 461-612, 1825-1859. SECTION XVII. THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 463-520 1 825- 1 844. First Reform School, 463. New Haven Blue Laws, 465. Thomas Jefferson. 465. John Adams, 467. The Willey Disaster, 469. Political Anti-Masonry, 470. First Railway, 472. Eleventh Presidential Campaign, 473. John Jay, 474. Rotation in Office, 474. Silk Mania, 475. Great Debate in the Senate, 476. First Regular Mormon Church, 477. First Steam Locomotive, 478. Fifth Census, 478. James Monroe, 480. Asiatic Cholera, 485. Twelfth Presidential Campaign, 486. McCormick's Reaper, 489. Tee- totalism, 490. First Sewing Machine, 491. Morus Multicaulis Mania, 491. Great Fire in New York, 493. Colt's Revolving Firearms, 494. David Crockett, 495. Simon Kenton, 495. James Madison, 496. Aaron Burr, ^^98. Daniel Webster's Great Plow, 499. Thirteenth Presidential Campaign, 499. Panic of 1837, 500. Murder of Lovejoy, 501. Osceola, 1502. Fifteen Gallon Law, 503. Black Hawk, 504. First Goodyear Patent, 505. Origin of Express Business, 506. First Normal School, 506. First Shipment of Wheat from Chicago, 506. The Amistad Captives, 507. Fourteenth Presidential Campaign, 509. William Henry Harrison, 510. Revolving Turret Model, 511. First Steam Fire Engine, 512. William E. Channing, 513. Dorr's Rebellion, 514. Bunker Hill Monument, 517. Millerism, 518. Success with the Telegraph, 518. Fifteenth Presidential Campaign, 520. Fourierism, 520. SECTION XVIII. THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 521-580 1S45-1859. Franklin's Last Voyage, 521. Andrew Jackson, 522. First Regular Regatta, 523. Copper Fever, 524. Petroleum, 525. First Blood in Mexican War, 525. Volunteers, 526. The Wilmot Proviso, 527. First Success with Ether, 527. First Isthmus Steamers, 529. Treaty of Hidalgo, 531. The California Gold Fever, 531. John Quincy Adams, 532. Spirit Rappings, 533. Astor Library, 533. Free-Soil Party, 534. Sixteenth Pres- idential Campaign, 535. Bloomerism, 535. James K. Polk, 536, Apostle of Temper- ance, 537. John C. Calhoun, 538. Zachary Taylor, 540. The Fugitive Slave Law, 541. Seventh Census, 542. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 542. Northwest Passage, 542. The Yacht America, 543. First Cheese Factory, 545. Henry Clay, 546. Daniel Webster, 550. First Street Railway, 551. Seventeenth Presidential Campaign, 552. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 553. Successful Whaling, 553. Paper Collars, 553. Present Fire Service, 553. XXXV III CONTENTS. Insurance Company Swindle, 554. Great Fire at Quebec, 554. Birth of Republican Party, 554. San Salvador Destroyed, 555. First Railroad in Brazil, 555 First Kero- sene Oil Company, 556. Lieut. Strain's Isthmus Exploration, 556. Ostend Manifesto, 556. First Train on Panama Railroad, 557. Planof Ayutla, 557. Bleeding Kansas, 557 Dr. E. K. Kane, 558. Filibusterism, 558. Law of Juarez, 561. American Reapers, 561 The Associated Press, 561. Know Nothing Convention, 562. Mormon Troubles, 562 Assault on Sumner, 562. Political Conventions, 565. The Sewing Machine War, 565 Eighteenth Presidential Campaign, 565. Kansas War, 566. The Sorghum Mania, 566 California Vigilance Committee, 566. First Black Hawk Horse, 1566. The Heaviest Man, 567. New Constitution of Mexico, 567. Dred Scott Decision, 567. Panic of 1857, 569. Great Revival, 569. Kansas Troubles, 570. Fenianism, 570. Central Park, N. Y., 571. Mexican Troubles, 571. British Columbia, 572. Atlantic Cable, 572. Parker Cleaveland, 573. First Sleeping Car, 573. William H. Prescott, 574. Rufus Choate, 576. Horace Mann, 576. John Brown's Raid, 577. Washington Irving, 579. Great Comstock Lode, 579. Oil Fever, 580. Colorado Potato Beetle, 580. PART VI. National Crises, ssi-vso. 1860-1868. SECT I ON XIX. THE RESORT TO ARMS. ' 583-646 1S60-1S62. Pemberton Mill Horror, 583. Anna Dickinson's First Speech, 584. Covode Investigation, 584. Japanese Embassy, 584. Democratic Convention, 5S5. Pony Express, 5S5. Theodore Parker, 585. Political Conventions, 586. Great Eastern, 586. Prince of Wales in America, 587. Nineteenth Presidential Campaign, 588. Revolutionary Message of President Buchanan, 588. Secession of South Carolina, 5S8. Eighth Census, 588. The Parrott Gun, 591. First Act of War, 591. Victory of Juarez, 591. Confederate States of America, 592. Lincoln's Inauguration, 593. Fort Sumter Evacuated, 593. Proclamations, 594. Bloodshed in Baltimore, 594. Loyalty of West Virginia, 594. Sewell's Point Conflict, 595. Occupation of Arlington Heights, 595. Contraband of War, 596. Acq uia Creek, 596. Fairfax Court House, 596. Philippi, 597. Stephen A. Douglas, 597. Pig Point, 59S. Little Bethel, 598. Big Bethel, 598. Romney Bridge, 599. Booneville, 599. Matthias Point, 599. Falling Waters, 600. Carthage, 600. Rich Mountain, Va., 600. Carrick's Ford, 6oi. Vienna, 601. Bull Run, 602. Capture of the Petrel, 603. Invasion of Illinois Checked, 603. Grand Army of the Potomac, 603. Dug Springs, Mo., 603. Army Rations, 604. Wilson's Creek, Mo., 604. Blockade of Hatteras Inlet, 605. Carnifex Ferry, 605. Capture of Lexington, Mo., 606. Decisive South American Battle, 606. Events on Gulf Coast, 607. CONTENTS. XXXIX Ball's Bluff, 607. The Trent Affair, 610. A Mistaken Proclamation, 610. The Stone Fleet, 611. Dranesville, Va., 611. Web Printing Press, 611. Shoddy, 612. First Iron-Clad Rams, 612. Rarev, the Horse Tamer, 612. Prestonburg, Ky., 612. John Tyler, 613. Mill Spring, 613. Fort Henry Captured, 614. Burnside's Roanoke Expedition, 614. Fort Donelson, 615. Nashville Panic, 615. Expedition to New Orleans, 616. Confederate Privateers, 616. Pea Ridge, Mo., 6i6. Bell-metal for Cannon, 617. Merrimac and Monitor, 617. New Madrid, 621. New Berne, 621. Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, 622. Island No. 10, 623. Mitchell's Cavalry Raid, 623. War upon Mexico, 624. Capture of New Orleans, 624. Fort Macon, 627. Evacuation of Yorktown, 627. Williamsburg, 628. Capture of Norfolk, 62S. Fort Pillow, 629. Butler's Woman Order, 629. Army Medical Museum, 629. Winchester, 629. Han- over Court House, 630. Fair Oaks, 630. Stuart's Raid, 631. Oak Grove, 631. Me- chanicsville, 631. Malvern Hills, 632. Guerilla Warfare, 633. Colored Troops, 633. National Cemeteries, 633. Exchange of Prisoners, 634. Martin Van Buren, 634. Cedar Mountain, 635. Groveton, 636. Second Battle of Bull Run, 636. Bragg's Invasion, 636. Carlos .'Antonio Lopez, 637. South Mountain, 638. Antietam, 638. Corinth, 639. Bragg's Invasion of Tennessee, 640. Butler Superseded by Banks, 641. Prairie Grove, Ark., 642. Fredericksburg, 642. Murfreesboro', 644. Greenbacks, 645. Gatling Gun, 645. The War in Mexico, 645. SECTION XX. THE RETURN TO PEACE. 647-730 I 863- I 868. Emancipation Proclamation, 647. Dr. Lyman Beecher, 649. Banks' Raid in Western Louisiana, 649. Good for Evil, 650. The Sioux War, 650. The Impostor Gunboat, 650. Banks at the Red River, 651. The Veteran Reserve Corps, 651. The Responsive Chord, 651. Port Gibson, 652. Chancellorsville, 652. Stoneman's Cavalry Raid, 653. Vallandigham's Arrest, 653. Columbian Constitution, 654. Draft Difficulties, 654. Stonewall Jackson, 654. Big Black River, 656. French in City of Mexico, 656. Lee's Second Invasion, 656. Gettysburg, 657. Vicksburg, 661. Surrender of Port Hudson, 662. Mexico an Empire, 663. Draft Riot in New York, 663. Sam Houston, 664. Capture of Morgan, 664. Quantrell's Raid, 664. Siege of Charleston, 665. Chicka- mauga. 665. Bristow Station, 666. Military Affairs in the West, 667. Beecher in Eng- land, 667. Boston Music Hall Organ, 668. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, 668. Chat- tanooga, 669. Andersonville, 670. Close of Siege of Knoxville, 670. A Monster Can- non, 671. The Eureka Mower, 671. Sherman's March through Mississippi, 671. Wistar's Raid, 672. Florida Expedition, 672. Kilpatrick's Raid, 672. First Accident Insurance, 672. Thomas Starr King, 673. Red River Expedition, 673. Massacre of Fort Pillow, 674. Battle of the Wilderness, 674. Sheridan's Raid toward Richmond, 675. Spottsylvania Court House, 675. Nathaniel Hawthorne, 676. Radical Conven- tion, 676. Cold Harbor, 676. Emperor Maximilian I, 677. Alabama and Kearsage, 677. Attack on Petersburg, 678. Important Congressional Action, 679. Early's Raid in the , North Checked, 679. Peace Attempts, 680. Hall's Second Arctic Trip, 680. Cham- bersburg, Pa., Burned, 680. Mine Explosion at Petersburg, 6S0. Blockade of Mobile Port, 681. Seizure of Weldon Railway, 681. Capture of Atlanta by Sherman, 6S1. Papal Nuncio to Mexico, 682. Capture of the Florida, 682. Roger B. Taney, 682. Sheridan's Campaign, 683. Last Invasion of Missouri, 683. Twentieth Presidential Campaign, 684. Sherman's March to the Sea, 684. Henry R. Schoolcraft, 684. Pull- man Cars, 687. Insurrections in South America, 687. Grasshopper Depredations, 688. Edward Everett, 688. Fort Fisher, 689. The Thirteenth Amendment, 689. Sherman's March Through the Carolinas, 690. The Freedman's Bureau, 690. Averasboro 691 XL CONTEN TS. Fort Steadman, 691. Five Forks, 692. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond, 692. Lee's Surrender, 693. Lincoln's Last Speech, 694. Assassination of Lincoln, 695. At- tempt upon Seward, 695. Abraham Lincoln, 696. Death of Booth, 703. Johnston's Surrender, 703. South American Alliance, 703. Proclamation of Rewards, 703. Jefferson Davis Captured, 704. Last Battle, 704. Disbanding of the Army, 704. Pay Department, 705. Army Medical Department, 705. Sanitary Commission, 705. Chris- tian Commission, 706. The Shenandoah, 707. Execution of Assassin, 707. Execution of VVirz, 70S. Thomas Corwin, 708. Soldiers' Homes, 709. Virginia City, Nevada, 709. Patagonian Colony, 709. Eliphalett Nott, 710. Valparaiso, Chili, Bombarded, 711. Civil Rights Bill, 711. Gen. Scott, 711. Fenian Raid on Canada, 712. Fourteenth Amendment, 713. Lewis Cass, 713. Portland, Me., Burned, 713. Great Trip up the Yukon, 713. Successful Atlantic Cable, 714. Agassiz's Amazon Trip, 714. Swinging Around the Circle, 715. Impeachment Proposed, 716. N. P. Willis, 716. A. D. Bache, 717. Chicago Water Works, 718. British North American Act, 718. Capture and Execution of Maximilian, 719. Purchase of Alaska, 719. Haydn Surveys, 719. Elias Howe, 720. John A. Andrew, 721. Fitz-Greene Halleck, 721. Patrons of Husbandry, 722. Stuyvesant Pear Tree, 722. Peruvian Revolution, 723. Ku-Klux Klan, 723. Impeachment of Johnson, 724. James Buchanan, 725. Indiana Vigilance Committee, 726. Thaddeus Stevens, 727. Violent Earthquake, 728. Outbreak of Cuban Revolu- tion, 729. Twenty-First Presidential Campaign, 729. Jefferson Davis Discharged, 730. PART VII. Present Development. 731-1020. 1869-1881. SECTION XXI. THE PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 733-830 1869—1876. John Cassin, 734. The Fifteenth Amendment, 734. James Harper, 734. Fire in Comstock Lode, 735. Cuban Constitution, 736. Board of Indian Commissioners, 736. Pacific Railroad Opened, 736. Powell's Colorado Expedition, 737. First Peace Jubilee, 737 Henry J. Raymond, 737. Expedition for Cuba, 738. French Cable, 738. William Pit Fessenden, 740. Black Friday, 740. Franklin Pierce, 741. George Peabody, 741 Shooting of A. D. Richardson, 742. Edwin M. Stanton, 743. Troubles in Hayti, 744 First Colored U. S. Senator, 745. Anson Burlingame, 745. Francisco S. Lopez, 746 George H. Thomas, 749. Emma Willard, 750. Rebellion in Argentine Republic, 751 San Domingo, 752. Admiral Dahlgren, 752. The Nathan Murder, 753. Admira Farragut, 754. Insurrection in Peru, 755. Gen. Rob -rt E. Lee, 755. Great Earth quake, 757. First Narrow Gauge Railroad, 757. Ninth Census, 757. Isthmus Ex- plorations, 758. George Ticknor, 758. War Between Honduras and San Salvador, 759 XLl CONTENTS. U. S. Fish Commission, 759. Alice Carj, 759. Treaty of Washington, 760. Civil Service Reform, 760. Stanley and Livingston, 760. Ku-Klux Bill, 761. Corean War, 761. Phoebe Cary, 762. Whaling Disaster, 762. Forest Fires and Burning of Chicago, 763. Gen. Anderson, 763. Thomas Ewing, 764. Tammany Ring Broken up, 764. Grand Duke Alexis, 765. S. F. B. Morse, 76S. James Gordon Bennett, 769. Benito Juarez, 771. The Metis Disaster, 773. W. H. Seward, 774. San Juan Boundary, 776. Gen. Meade, 777. Great Boston Fire, 777. Horace Greeley, 778. Edwin Forrest, 780. Eigiit-Hour Movement, 781. Credit Mobilier Exposure, 782. Salary Grab, 7S3. Modoc Massacre, 784. Salmon P. Chase, 785. The Panic of '73, 7S8. The Virginius Affair, 789. Hoosac Tunnel, 794. Polaris Survivors, 791. The Telephone, 792. Woman's Crusade, 793. Charles Sumner, 794. Charley Ross, 797. Louisiana Embroglio, 800. Emma Mine Scandal, 801. Beecher Trial, 802. Pacific Mail, 803. Spelling Mania, 804. Whisky Ring War, 805. First Red Ribbon, 808. W. C Ralston, 812. Fast Mail, 813. Henry Wilson, 814. Tweed's Escape, 816. Belknap's Exposure, 821. Centennial, 822. Santa Anna, 824. First Cremation, 830. SECTION XXII. THE VIGOR OF LIFE. S32-1020 1877-1882. Electoral Commission, 832. John D. Lee Executed, S33. Parson BroYi^nlow, 835. John L. Motley, 837. Mollie Maguires, 839. Robert Dale Owen, 840. Great Raihoad Strikes, 840. Brigham Young, 842. Oliver P. Morton, 845. Samuel Bowles, 848. Silver Bill, 849. Great Defalcations, 851. Savings Bank Panic, 852. William C. Bryant, 853. Sutro Tunnel, 855. Great Heat, 856. Kearneyism, 857. The Plague of '78, 85S. Bayard Taylor, 860. Father Purcell'b Failure, 861. Phonograph, 862. Resumption, 862. The Learned Blacksmith, 865. Negro Exodus, 866. Ponca Troubles, S67. W. L. Garri- son, S70. The Uncle Sam, 874. Reform of Oneida Community, 875. Gen. John B. Hood, 876. The Ute Outbreak, 877. Gen. Joseph Hooker, 878. Zachariah Chandler, 879. Prostrate Peru, SSi. Troubles in Mexico, 882. A Great Inventor, 883. Maine Election, 884. West Point Outrage, 888. Dr. Tanner's Fast, 892. Fast Trotting, 893. Chief Ouray, 894. The Morey Letter, 898. Garfield Campaign, 900. Fall of Lima, 907. Egyptian Obelisk, 908. Mentor, 911. Garfield's Cabinet, 912. "Dead-lock" in Senate, 915. Conflict of Words between Senators Hill and Mahone, 916. Nomination of Robert- son, 916. Senators Conkling and Piatt of New York Resign, 917. Miller and Lapham, Sen- ators from New York, 918. James T. Fields, 919. The Revised New Testament, 921. Members of New Testament Company in England, 922 ; in America, 923. Guiding Principles in Revising, 923. Thomas A. Scott, 925. Assassination of Garfield, 926. Statement of Previous Eftbrts and Preparations of the Assassin, 927. The President's Telegram, 931. Physicians and Surgeons in Attendance, 931. The Arrival of Mrs. Garfield, 932. Removal of the President to Long Branch, 933. Sidney Lanier, 934. General Burnside, 934. Death of Garfield, 937. Universal Regret, 939. Foreign Sympathy, 939. The Autopsy, 943. Names of Surgeons and Physicians, 944. General Arthur Becomes President, 945. Arthur's Inaugural, 946. His Proclamation Respect- ing the Death and Funeral of President Garfield, 946. The Funeral at Elberon, 949; At Washington, 950; at Cleveland, 951. Biography of Garfield, 955. Michigan Forest Fires, 964. Josiah G. Holland, 965. Yorktown Centennial, 970. President's Procla- mation, 971. John W. Forney, 972. I. I. Hayes, 972. The Loss of the Jeannette, 074 Leonard Bacon, 974. Atlanta Cotton Exposition, 975. John William Draper, 977. XL 1 1 COXTEXTS. Richard Henrv Dana, 97S. John Cotton Smith, 979. Guiteau's Trial, 979. Guiteau's Letter to General Sherman, 9SJ. The Lawyers in the Case, 9S3. Guiteau Permitted to Address the Jurv, 9S5. Verdict of the Jurv, 9S7. Blaine's Eulogy on Gartield, 992. Henrv W. Bellows, looS. Henry W. Longfellow, looS. Killing of Jesse James, 1013. Outlawry and Free Government, 1013. Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1014. Arrivals from the Jeannette, loiS. Fate of the RoJgers, lOiS. Storms in Iowa, loiS. De Long heard of, lOiS. "Prohibition" in Iowa, lOiS. Execution of Guiteau, 1019. Labor Srikes, 1020. Voters in the United States, 1020. Collision on the Ohio, 1020. Tex- arkana Disaster, 1020. Massacre of French Explorers in Valley of La Plata, 1020. Star-Route Trials, 1020. Unprecedented Jewish Immigration, 1020. LIST OF ILLUSTR/VTIONS, V. — «aii»— -»fe— HEs'* George Washington (Steel Plate) Frontispiece Passion Flower of Peru 20 - Landscape 4^ Grave Creek Moind, W. Va 52 Sepulchral Urn from Laporte, Inu 54 Ancient Works at Marietta, O 55 Copper Implements of Warfare and the Chase 59 Stone Axes 60 SCLLPTLRED PiPE 6o Cloth from Ohio Mounds 61 Ancient Idol and Altar at Copan 62 Ancient Vessel from San Jose, New Mexico 63 Ancient Ruins in Yucatan 64 Ruin at Tuloom in Yucatan 66 Indian Bag, Drum, etc -^ 71 Indian Weapons 73 Crow Chief IN Full Dress.... 75 Scalp Streiched to Dry 76 Squaws Going to Market 77.^ Braves Torturing Whites 77 An Indian Dance 80 Squaw and Child Si Medicine Men 83 Sun Worship bv Coro.vdos in Brazil 85- Half Breed 87 Christopher Columbus 96 Codfishing on the Banks of Newfoundland 107s. Cathedral of Quito in\ Fountain and Aqueduct, Mexico 1 15 Rio Polochic, Guatemal.v 115 XLIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Isle of Serpents, Rio de Janeiro 119 River Guayaquil, Ecuaijor "9^ View of the City of Panama 123^ Cape Horn 130 Jacques Cartier 135 DeSoto's March 138 The Fallen Monarch 145 Mosquito Coast MS' Delta of the Orinoco 153 Denizens of the Swamp 153 Sir Martin Frobisher , 157 Sir Walter Raleigh Smoking 160 Pocahontas 167 Capt. Smith and the Compass 169 The First Indian Toper 171 Landing of the Pilgrims, 179 Front of Cathedral of Mexico 224-^ Canadian Trapper 226 Marquette Descending the Mississippi 228 Peter Stuyvesant 236 Indian Attack 243 Mrs. Dustin and the Indians 249 Scold Gagged 276 Death OF Gen. Wolfe 287^^ Discovery of Skeletons 30l_ Removing Cannon from the Battery 317 The Stolen March 329 Gen. Burgoyne 335 Vale of Wyoming 339 Washington's Army Chest " ... 355 A Revolutionary Flag 357 Benjamin Franklin 379 Paul Jones 3S6 Washington's Grave 397— Geo. Washington 406 Washington's Sword and Cane 409 Benedict Arnold 412 Mormon Characters 477 View of the City of Mexico 4S3 Plaza of Guadalajara 483 John C.Calhoun 539 Henry Clay 546 Crystal Lake, Cal 547 A Street in San Francisco 547 Daniel Webster 550 A Village in Greenland 550 In Winter Quarters 559 Gathering Cinchona Bark 563 Cypress Grove in Mexico 568- ~Abraham Lincoln (Steel Plate) 5S9 Jefferson Davis 592 Naval Engagement Between the Merrimac and Monitor (Steel Plate) 619- Capture of New Orleans (.Steel Plate) 625- Benjamin F. Butler 641 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XLV Gen. Stonewall Jackson Praying in His Tent 655 Battle of Gettysburg (Steel Plate) 659 Bombardment of Island No. 10 (Steel Plate) * 685 ■ Wm. T. Sherman 735 Devil's Castle, East Greenland 739. Iced in — Arctic Regions 747. Gen. Robt. E. Lee 756 Horace Greeley 778 First Steamer on the Orinoco 7S2 . Lima, Peru 905 Tower Rock, Mississippi River 905" ^^ames a. Garfield (Steel Plate) 913 y^VlRS. Eliza Garfield 9j8 Last Look at the Sea 933 On the Train for Elberon 935- -HVIrs. Lucretia Garfield 941 --Chester A. Arthur 947 Receiving Vault at Cleveland 953. The Garfield Homestead at Mentor 960- GuiTEAu Jury 988-89 Francklyn Cottage at Elberon, N.J ' 1007. " From the eternal shadozv rounding All our sun and starlight here, Voices of our lost ones sounding Bid us be of heart and cheer ^ Through the silence^ doxvn the spaces^ falling on the inxvard car. '•'•Let us draw their mantles o^cr ?is Which have fallen in our tvay ; Let us do the work before 7is Checrly, bravely^ while we mav-, Ere the long night-silence cometh^ and with us it is not dayP WHITTIER PART I. ^Ip^ODnSTO^Y^ ^<- Sthdies. *• Wordless moans the ancient f'nej Lake aftd mountain give no signj Jaifi to t, ace this ring of stones ; Vaiti the search of crumbling bones f Deepest of all mysteries And the saddest^ silence is. *****=!<* What strange shore or chartless sea Holds fhc aztfi/l mystery. ^ iff ^ JJJ 5f; :)C Sj5 Therefore ivell may nature keep ^qual faith -with all zvho sleeps Set her watch of hills aroufid Qhristian grave and heathen motcnd.''' WHITTIER, SECTION I. yVy HE antiquities of America do not «^ I 'J .yield in interest to those of any I other part of the world. There is '\^ a certain fascination in finding within the limits of what is known as the New World, relics which take us back into previous ages, and assert that the human life of the continent dates from a remote period. The number and activity of those who are engaged in this delight- ful study, are daily increasing. The scientific collections of the country are daily enlarging their lists of prehistoric treasures. In certain sections many per- sons may with ease become collectors of specimens, and add something to the gen- eral fund of knowledge relating to the life and civilization of prehistoric races upon the American continent. A piece of broken pottery with a glaze or a figure upon its surface, a mound and an inclos- ure thrown up regularly in perfect mathematical figures, an arrow-head jDicked out from its bed among the re- mains of the mastodon, and hundreds of other things turned up in the cultivation of the soil, or in excavations for mining purposes, sjDcak eloquently of forgotten peoples and prehistoric times. Every record obtained is an unintentional one, so 4 far as the persons who left it were con- cerned. The study has most literally to do with remains, and remains only. This gives a peculiar zest to the work. The reconstruction of customs and thoughts and pursuits which have long ago disap- peared from the face of the earth, and are now known only by their partial and de- caying products carelessly thrown up from the soil, or uncovered amid the tangle of almost impenetrable forests, may well serve as a problem which shall rest and calm the mind when it is at times worn with the press and labor of the present day. In Europe the discoveries which bear upon the antiquity of the human race, are greatly more numerous than the same kind of discoveries in America. The ancient things of historic times, which were formerly worshiped for their age, are young, compared with some of these prehistoric i^evelations. Much more evidence will doubtless be gained in many sections of the Old World, which have not yet yielded up their treasures. Lake dwellings, shell heaps, and bone caves, abound in relics from which the stoiy of former days is drawn by a close scrutiny. Yet enough scattered hints have been. 49 50 gleaned from the soil of America to show that when our country becomes more fully investij^ated, there will be found here also rich evidences which will delight and reward the faithful stu- dent. The reality of the testimony to be obtainctl has been already very clearly demonstrated. Tnere is, then, a real prehistoric Amer- ica which divides itself very naturally into two portions. The first portion is that to which the isolated relics which have been found here and there upon the continent relate, and which is much the older of tlie two. The evidences bearing upon this, so far as man is concerned, are too meager to permit the drawing of any certain con- clusions. The remains of prehistoric ani- mals have been found in considerable abundance. Well-preserved skeletons of ancient mammoths are from time to time discovered, and are put into the museums of the country to astonish us by their gigantic size. But the remains which point unequivocally to the remote an- tiquity of man u2Don the continent, are comparatively few. Almost all of them require verification. It is a difficult work to draw correct conclusions from the po- sition in which a single human cranium has been found. There are many excep- tional geological changes which may have been in some respects quite the opposite of that which they are confidently aflSrmed to have been. The deposition of soil l)v a river at its mouth, the decay of different substances in different kinds of soil and at different times, the position of the bones of the human skeleton in deep strata of the earth or in caves, the mingling together of them with the bones of extinct animals, and many' other ever- present problems, require a flexible judg- ment in their examination, that the cir- INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. cumstances of one age may not be heedlessly fixed upon another age. Hu- man skulls have been found, it is asserted, and probably with truth, in the bone caves of Brazil with the remains of ani- mals no longer known upon the earth. Relics of pottery have been found in the coast terraces of Ecuador, in what is thought by some to be a very old deposit. A skull was claimed to have been taken more than ten years ago from a mining shaft near Angeles, Calaveras County, California, at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet. Implements of unknown use have been found in the gravel deposits of California at a depth of thirty feet or more. A few years ago a piece of bas- ket-matting was found on Petit Anse Isl- and, Vermillion Bay, Louisiana, below the remains of a fossil elephant. A human skeleton was found in excavating for the foundations of gas works at New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet, be- neath the remains of four successive cypress forests. Dr. Dowler assuines an age of 14,400 years for it. The pelvic bone of a human being was found near Natchez by Dr. Dickeson, in such a po- sition as to affirm, at first, a great age. Human remains have been found \vith the remains of extinct animals elsewhere along the Mississippi Valley. In 1839 the remains of a mastodon were found in Gasconade County, Missouri, partially consumed by fire, which was supposed to have been kindled by human beings for the purpose of destroying the animal after it had been mired by its own weight in a swamp. Other evidences of the presence of man were found in the same place. At different times, arrow-heads and implements, and portions of skele- tons, have been found in geological posi- tions, which seem to teach a high an- PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 51 tiquity. 'Each of these asserted " finds " is made the pivot upon which a theory- is hinged. But the discoveries have not been numerous enough in the same sec- tion or same deposit to make the verdict in any of the cases an entirely conchisive one. Often a single \vitness is the only one who can testify concerning the relic or relics. It is no depreciation of any witness to say that for scientific purposes this is not sufficient. In all other depart- ments we rigidly demand a great number of experiments, and an exact agreement of witnesses. Very frequently the geo- logical age of a discovery is disputed by different scientists, even wlien it is ac- knowledged to be authentic. Until, tlien, similar remains are found in other sections in positions to make the conclu- sion a decisive one by the weight of evi- dence, the most that can be said is, that the present state of the testimony carries back human life upon this continent some- where into the age of prehistoric animals, without revealing to us anything of the life and government of the period. We cannot make a people out of the present scattered fragments. All we can do is to grope back into the almost utter darkness with blinded eyes and blundering hands. But the prehistoric age of America in- cludes a second and later period, the re- mains of which are much more abund- ant and conclusive. We step aside from the puzzling questions of earlier life, to trace the life, government, customs, man- ufactures, of nations once filling a large portion of the New World. Here is a work of great distinctness and of peculiar pleasure, arising from the accessibility, ex- tent, and nature, of the object of study. To gaze upon these mute legacies which have come down to us out of the past, is like stepping into some place where the stillness is oppressive. The silence of the deepest forest solitude is totally unequal to the silence of a place where we know that human beings have been, and human voices have spoken. Vacant rooms with dusty furniture and echoing walls testify very minutely of the ones who have occupied them. The quality, position, and wear, of each article speak volumes concerning the character, tastes, and education,of the ones who have used it. To wisely discriminate the les- sons to be learned, to reject conclusions from imperfect data, are pi'ocesses of great delicacy, and require the utmost care. Every possible trace of life must be gath- ered. The positions and kinds of earth- works, the age of trees and the depth of mould upon the banks, the apparent use of fire in the making of pottery or in the celebration of sacred rites, the smallest bits of wrought clay, half-burned shreds of cloth, pictured walls, sculptured stone, buildings matted with vegetation, and the crumbling skeletons which drop to dust upon exposure to the air, all require care- ful study and wise judgment. The dull ^ dead things which were ages ago sur- rounded by a busy life, will reveal their secrets only to the true worker. The prehistoric people who have left their works very abundantly throughout the present territory of the United States, are now known as the Mound Builders. This simple name designates a large, powerful and uitelligent population once occupying the great central valleys of the land. Any one can heap ujd dirt, and yet under this term lie many questions of character and civilization. Their re- mains have not been traced north of the Great Lakes or within the Atlantic States, except in a few tloubtful instances. They fill the Central vStates up and down the 52 Ohio and Mississippi Valleys and are found in traces in certain States which border upon this section. The works left hy this people vary in character. Prominent in the list and the special cause of bestowing the name, are mounds. One of the few individual mounds most worthy of mention, which has been called the "monarch of all such structures in the United States " stands on the plain of Cahokia, east of the Missis- sippi River at St. Louis, and within the present State of Illinois. A careless ob- server might pass it as a small hill, but a quick glance would assure one ot its arti- fi c i a 1 p o s i t i on ^^^ a n d r e g u 1 a r ~ form. It is al- most exactly of a rectangular shape. Its slopes and angles are weather - worn, but essential- ly true." The mound is seven h u n d r e d f e et Ion"; and five nV I ROD UC TOR r ST UDIES. hundred of all sizes within the same sec- tion of Illinois. Large numbers of inounds were removed in building the great city of St. Louis, in Missouri, for which reason it is known as the " Mound City." At Miamisburg, Ohio, was a great circular mound eight hundred and fifty-two feet in circumference, and sixty- eight feet high. At Grave Creek in Virginia there was another circular mound about one thousand feet in circum- ference, and seventy feet high. At a very thorough examination of it made forty years ago by running shafts into it, two Durial vaults were found, one in the _^^^ very base of the I R \\ E ei Li w [Foster's Prehistcric Rice hundred feet wide, and rises to a level of ninety feet above the base. The ascent is made at one side to a terrace one hundred and sixty feet by three hundred in extent, and thence to the summit platform, which is two hundred feet by four hundred and fifty, A conical mound about ten feet high stood at one point upon the highest platform. In this were found bones, vases,and stone implements. The struc- ture covers eight acres and contains nearly twenty millions cubic feet of earth, a vast mass to be collected into one gigantic pile. Most mounds are smaller, although there are others which nearly equal this one. There were at least two structure, con- taining two skeletons, and another thirty feet higher in the mound con- taining one skel- eton. The vaults were formed of upright timbers with beams laid across the top to support the roof. Several thousand shell beads, together with mica and copper ornaments, and a few carved stone ob- jects, were found in the two vaults. The most of these objects were in the upper vault with the single skeleton. A stone with an inscription in odd characters upon it has been exhibited as having been found in the excavation, but it is thought by a large number to be a fraud. It is of no certain value. At Seltzertown, Mississippi, was a mound covering nearly six acres. It was six hundred feet long and four hvnidred feet wide. The sum- mit, which contained four acres, was forty feet above the base, and upon it stood PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 63 thi"ee conical mounds, one at each end, and one in the middle. One of these cones was forty feet high, the others were slightly less. There were traces of eight other mounds upon this extensive summit area w^hich was reached hy a graded way up the side. Skeletons, pieces of pottery and vases which had evidently been used in offerings, ■were found within the small mounds. The north wall of the large mound was partially held in place by sun-dried brick filled with rushes, leaves and grass, to a thickness of two feet.' At some points marks of hu- man hands are said to have been visible where the brick was pressed to its shape. Other cases of this wall building have been found, but no signs of the use of fire are visible upon any of them. The mounds above mentioned are among the best known, because of their size. But through those same regions are thousands of smaller ones which are no less charac- teristic, though not so large. In Ohio alone it is estimated that there are ten thousand of these structures. In Wiscon- sin there are hundreds upon hundreds of them, having a peculiar character con- fined mostly to the mounds of that State. They bear a stamp of their own in that many of them are in the shape of some animal or bird. A few instances of the form of a man have been discovered. The outlines are rude, but the intentions are visible. One of the most noticeable is what is known as the Turtle Mound at Waukesha, the body of which is fifty-six feet long and the tail two hundred and fifty feet. It is raised about six feet above the earth. Many curious forms are found in all parts of the State rising from one to four feet above the surface of the earth, or hollowed out v/ithin the soil. There are birds with long extended wings, and rep- tiles -with a total length of one hundred to four hundred feet. Many of ihese mounds have been destroyed in order that houses might be built, or in the culti- vation of farms. But they are still found around Milwaukee, along the valleys of rivers, and upon the borders of the many beautiful lakes which fill the State. Their situation is almost uniformly cho- sen for purposes of elevation and beauty. Very few of these animal mounds are found elsewhere. In Adams County, Ohio, is a wonderful embankment one thousand feet in length running away in flowing curves to a threefold coil at the end like the coil of a serpent's tail. At the other end the ridge divides to a pair of jaws which are open, and in the act of swallowing an oval figure. The oval is very nearly perfect in form, being one hundred and three feet in one diameter and thirty-nine in the other. The embank- ment is about five feet high at the center, and a little less at the extremities. It is about thirty feet wide at its base, and lies upon the bank of Brush Creek, occupy- ing a sort of long projecting bluff by the side of that stream. In Licking County, in the same State, there is what is known as the Alligator Mound, with a body two hundred and fifty feet long and forty feet wide, and legs, each thirty-six -feet in length. The other mounds which have been referred to, are of all shapes and sizes. They are four, six, eight-sided, square, rectangular or circular. Most mounds sho\v traces of having been ascended by a spiral or a graded path. We come to some, squai^e or otherwise, which have a long, inclined bank of earth leading from some distance away from the base up to the top. We also come to others in Mississippi, which are connected by long causeways leading from the 54 INTRUDUCTORT STUDIES summit of one mound to the summit of the pext. But what were the uses of these struc- tures? The answer to this question is in some cases very clearly discerned. Many of the mounds were undoubtedly sepul- chral or mortuary. The remains of hu- man bodies are found in them in such po- sitions as to indicate that the mounds were constructed for their burial. Sepulchral urns of considerable beauty are found in numbers. Other mounds probably served SEPULCHRAL URN FROM LAPOKTE, INDIANA. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] as the bases of great temples, which have now fallen wholly to dust; or were used as platforms for the performance of sac- rificial rites, perhaps to elevate the holy ceremonies to the view of large multi- tudes. In some sections the great public buildings or communal dwellings may have been situated upon the largest plateau mounds. Evidences of this are found in Mexico and Central America, where the structures upon similar mounds were built of more enduring materials than were used in the Mississippi Valley. There are other elevations which may have served as signal or lookout stations. They are so situated as to command ex- tensive views, and were probably Obser- vation Mounds. One of our best and most enthusiastic students of American ArchiEology thinks that the animal struc- tures are the totems of the clans of the several regions, and that coinplete sys- tems of these totem mounds will be dis- covered when their relative positions are fully investigated. Other purposes than the above may have been served by portions of this extensive class of remains. Another class of works demands equal attention. In exploring the regions where the mounds are situated, immense inclos- ures reveal themselves. It is estimated that there are fifteen hundred m Ohio alone. They consist of embankments of earth or stone, often with ditches either inside or outside. Near Chillicothe,Ohio, are what have been known as the Hope- ton Works. There is a circle containing twenty acres. Touching one side of the circle lies a square, which likewise con- tains twenty acres. At the point where square and circle meet, two parallel em- bankments start, and run for quite a dis- tance. Other celebrated inclosures ai^e near Newark, Ohio. About one mile west of the town is a very extensive sys- tem. There is a circle one mile in cir- cumference, the embankment being ten or twelve feet high, and sloping at an angle of forty-five degrees. The summit is wide enough for one person to walk upon. There is an entrance one hundred feet wide, from which the walls extend in a direct line outwardly, a distance of ninety feet, with a height of twenty feet. Around the inside ot the embankment is quite a deep ditch, and on the side next the bank is a narrow pavement of cobble stones. In the center of the level ground within the circle, is a small elevation about five feet high, in the form of a bird with outstretched wings. A gentleman from Newark says that "the whole ap- pearance of the structure indicates that its form has not materially changed by PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 55 lajDse of time; the angles are sharp and clear; and biit for the massive trees and decayed trunks upon the banks, the visi- tor might imagine himself looking upon a work of recent date." About half a mile from this inclosure is another one. There is, as above, a circle nearly as large. There is also half a square, the other half having been destroyed by the plow. The square and the circle are con- through the long avenue. From this, an entrance was made into the square. From the square, the circle's interior was hidden because of the breastwork. But passing around the breastwork through the connecting avenue, passage was made into what seems to have been the inmost retreat of all. If anything was sacred, it was within that circle. If there were any religious rites they were un- ANCIENT WORKS AT MARIETTA, OHIO. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] nected by an avenue two hundred or more feet long, and one hundred feet wide. In the wall of the circle opposite the entrance from the square, is a mound twenty feet high. Just within the square, and hiding from any one standing in its center the interior of the circle, is a breast- work running across the entrance, one hundred feet or more in length. Beyond the square, two parallel ridges run away for nearly three miles. From the arrange- ment we judge that the approach was doubtedly connected with the circle. At Cedar Bank, Ohio, there are thirty-two acres inclosed by an embankment inside of which is a mound two hundred and forty-five feet long, and one hundred and fifty feet broad. Near Liberty, Ohio, is a series of circles running into each other, and covering sixty acres of land. A square containing twenty-seven acres, lies in the midst of them. Extensive works were found between the Ohio and Muskingum Rivers, on the site of Marietta, Ohio. 56 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. The inclosures covered about seventy-five acres in a beautiful situation, and presented the features which have ah'eady been de- scribed in connection vv^ith other remains, except that four mounds in the shape of truncated pyramids were within the larg- est inclosure. This form is more peculiar to the Southern States and Mexico. These works were mostly removed in foundinof and building Marietta. Three mounds were retained by special arrange- ment. Near Randolph, Indiana, is a rec- tangular embankment, w^ith an entrance guarded by a ridge which starts from one side, runs out in the form of a small square, and comes back nearly to the other side of the entrance. It forms a complete vestibule. Besides these regular inclosures, there are upon the summits of hills, heavy embankments, evidently meant for fortification, and shaped accord- ing to the contour of the hill-top. In such cases, the entrances are guarded by protruding lines which run out from one side and the other, alternately, over-lap- ping each other, the whole made more secure by an outer raised breastwork covering the passage-way. Such an one is found in Butler County, Ohio, inclosing sixteen acres upon the top of a hill, the approach to which, along a narrow neck of land, is heavily protected in the man- ner just indicated. These are a few out of the great many inclosures in the country, some of which contain as many as four hundred acres each. Except those which were for defence, they are in exact geometrical figures, showing on the part of the builders a desire for regularity, and a knowledge of the means by which it could be attained. In 184S the announcement was first made that evidences of ancient copper mininsf had been discovered in the re- gion of Lake Superior. Mr. S. O. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota ISIining Coinpany, stated that excavations had been found which were evidently made by human beings at a remote period. Upon investigation, numerous pits filled with leaves and other rubbish were traced along the veins of copper at the surface of the earth. They very readily es- caped attention except by a close scru- tiny, but upon being cleaned out, stone mauls and other implements were found in them. The knowledge concerning these pits has been constantly increasing. Some are small. Others are very large, being fifteen feet deep, and more than a hundred feet wide. The deposits within them indicate great age. An excavation twelve feet deep, fifteen feet high, and twenty-five feet long, was found upon the side of a bluff. In front was a large pile of excavated rock, some of the pieces of which were so large, that they must have been removed by means of levers. Large blocks of metal, and stone mauls with grooves around them, were found. An- other excavation, thirty feet deep, and partially filled with decayed w^ood and earthy deposits, was discovered. A mass of copper weighing nearly six tons, was found to have been raised some dis- tance above the bottom of the excavation, and to be resting upon skids, which were evidently adjusted by means of wedges. The upper surface of the mass had been thoroughly beaten, and an edge was turned down around it. A stone maul, weighing thirty-six pounds, and having a double groove around it, was found in the debris. Trees were growing in the rub- bish and excavated matter, which showed an age of three hundred and four hun- dred years. These ancient mines will probably be found in abundance in por' PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 57 tions of the forest which tlie modern miners have not yet penetrated. There are no evidences of residence at the mines, in the ruins of cities, mounds, or roads. But copper, which is known to be Lake Superior copper by the spots of silver in it, has been found in most of the mounds of the Middle and Southern States. It seems to have been wrought cold, in every instance. It is thought, therefore, that the mines must have been worked by annual expeditions from the warmer regions of the South. These mines must have been deserted, also, centuries before the first Jesuit missionaries visited the region. The Indians had a slight amount of cop- per in use, but they seemed neither to know of these ancient mines, nor how to mine in any place. They took only what they found lying at hand, upon the surface, in places where they stumbled upon it. It is now known, also, that the Mound Builders mined in North Carolina for the mica which is found in large slabs in many of their mounds, and seems to have had a sacred value in their eyes. The present supply of the country is largely obtained from the same localities. There are several arguments used in determining the age of all these works. The trees which are found growing upon them are carefully studied. Instances of trees with two hundred and fifty, three hundred and fifty, and even eight hundred rings of annual growth, have been found, rooted directly in embankments. But these aged trees only carry us back to the time when the region had become an entire wilderness, not to" the close of the ancient civilization. It has been shown that the growth .of a forest and the change of vegetation would indicate a period much greater than the age of any single tree now known. In some cases evidences of successive generations of trees are found in fallen and decaying trunks. Many of the mortuary mounds have been opened, and portions of skele- tons found within them, but in such a con- dition as to show great age, often crumb- ling to dust upon exposure to the air. It was formerly stated that no one of these remains was to be found upon the lowest river-terrace of the present day. But this has since been shown to be a mis- take, as traces of mounds are known to exist in several such places. This shows how cautiously stateinents must be made as to the age and origin of these works. Horace Greeley once visited the remains near Newark, Ohio, saying before he went that he could easily tell by whom and when they were built. When he reached the spot, he silently surveyed the whole, noted the evidence of some kind of engineering skill, the correctness of the forms, the great trees growing out of the ridges, together with fallen and decayed ones lying in different directions, and last of all, the inside paved ditch. He then sat dow^n and wrote a detailed description of it for the New York Tribune. Some one looked over his shoulder to see what explanation he would append to his de- scription, and read as follows: "As to the origin, by whom built, and for what purpose, all we can say is, ' It is here.' " This was the end of one attempted solution of the mystery. It seems to be certain that the close of this ancient civilization must have been at least a thousand years ago. The Indians have no knowledge or traditions concerning the origin of the mounds and inclosures which have been described. They seem to be utterly igno- rant of the construction of them. Some students think that this fact conclusively 58 IN TROD UC rOR T ST UDIES. shows that these curious \voiks were produced neither by tlie Indians nor their ancestors. Others think it to be incon- clusive, because of the instances in which the Indians have lost all tradition of events in a previous generation. The truth seems to be that they would not lose knowledge or tradition concerning what must have been such an intimate pari of a nation's lite and work, from generation to generation, as the construction of these elevations and defences. The Indians have in a few cases built mounds, but only to a very limited extent. They have never been, since they were known to Europeans, a mound-building people. They also covered the whole country, while the Mound Builders filled the central valleys of the United States. These, and other indications found in the character of the works, seem to affirm a great distinctness between the life of the Mound Builders, and that of the Indian races of the United States, too great to be bridged by any supposable period of time. The great centers of population occu- pied by the Mound Builders are as well- known as are the centers of population to-day. The best sections of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, and of the States bordering upon the Gulf of ^lexico, are filled with works which attest a large and busy population. The outlying com- munities swept over large areas, more or less thinly, but the central seats swarmed with inhabitants. The outer limits of their occupation aie not certainly known, for the whole field has not N^et been thor- oughly investigated. The thicklv popu- lated regions are, however, known bevoiul any possibility of contradiction. From all appearances, the Mound Builders came in t(i occupv the land witli settled govern- ment or go\ernments, and onl\- disap- peared because they were obliged to give way before an overpowering force. The numerous great elevations and inclosiires which they erected with such energy, were not meant to be transiently occupied. The evidences are all in favor of a settled habitation. The Mound Builders must also have been given to the arts of peace. Their civilization inclosed enough of religious and secular effort within its bosom, to make them capable of sustain- ing the large amounts of unproductive labor used in erecting the works we now gaze upon with such curiosity. Agricul- tural and trade relations must have existed. So many citizens as must ha\e been employed in labor which would not directly yield food, could not have been sustained by the chase in a country filled with people. Copper, which is known to have been mined at Lake Superior, has been found in Peru. Obsidian, which has been found in the mounds, cannot, to present knowledge, be obtained in the central vallevs of the United States. The inference is clear that a trade must have existed along the continent; if in stones and metals, then In other products like- wise. The intelligence of the Mound Builders must have been of a somewhat high type. Man\' of their structures exhibit a knowledge of, and taste for, form, which could not ha\e been at all incidental, but were to all appearances inherent elements of their civilization. Inclosures and mounds exhibit an accu- racy which is, sometimes, when the great extent covered is regarded, very surpris- ing. A recent writer states that they must ha\e had knowledge sufficient to enable them to lay out an exact circle before building any part of it, as some remains are found wiiich indicate that different parties began throwing up the wall at different points of the circumfer- ence at the same time. Favorite sizes appear in their structures. They must have had a way of estimating amounts and laying out plots of land. Their defensive inclosures upon the summits of headlands or bluffs are irregular, accord- ing: to the contour of the hcisfht to be fortified. These, and the animal, or sym- bolic, or totem, mounds, are the only cases PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 59 the marks of fire. The government, undoubtedly, had a great sway over the people through its alliance with some extensive religious ideas and forms. The home-life of the Mound Builders is a thing of the unknown, through the entire obliteration of buildings which served them for dwellings. The only conjectui'e possible is, that it may have been com- munal in abodes erected of perishable COPPER IMPLEMENTS OF WARFARE AND THE CHASE. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] in which they varied from regular geo- metrical figures. The presence of some great religious convictions and ceremonies, is dimly seen in the remains of their civilization. The exact form and nature are unknown, but the element is kncAvn. Mounds are found which seem to have been used for altar purposes. Sacrificial rites are judged to have entered into the life of the day. Sacred ceremonies appear to have been used in the burial of the dead. In burial mounds ashes are found in vases, accom- panied by other substances, which show material upon some of the large platform mounds. This is also in accord with the su2:)posed purposes of some of the more durable buildings found on similar plat- forms in Mexico and Central America. The relation of members of the family to each other, the rearing of children, the training of the young in skill and knowl- edge, and other associated things, are hidden in deepest mystery. It is clearly seen that the Mound Builders were of a military character sufficiently pronounced to attempt the fortification of their possessions, and the 60 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. skillful defence of them against invaders. Blazing fires on the tops of signal mounds, lighted one after the other in quick succession, would expose the enemy''s (ipproach. Defensive inclosures along the frontier, kept back the foe who attempted the conquest of the country. Stone and copper weapons are found. A people capable of mining copper so suc- cessfullv in a region bevond their own viewing distant objects, together with numerous other articles. Some of the weapons are finely made. Some of their vessels are handsomely ornamented. Stone mauls, wooden shovels and other mining tools, are found in the Lake Superior region. Iron, galena and chert, are known to have been used to a lim- ited extent. Sculpture has appeared in some of the remains. Fissures occur STONE AXES. [Foster's Prehistoric; Races.] proper territory, must have been of suf- ficient energy to at least make a brave stand against assaults. This much we can see ; but the swaying of passions in war, the rallying of the communities to the defense of their beautifully chosen sites and laboriously constructed works, the success or downfall of military chief- tains, have all passed into oblivion. The mechanical and artistic products of the Mound Builders are constantly increasing through the opening of mounds and careful search for remains. Copper implements are very plentiful. In dif- ferent excavations have been found chis- els, gouges, rimmers of many patterns, pestles, gads, axes, spear-heads and arrow-heads, triangular, barbed, indented, knives, bracelets, pipes, vessels of all kinds, ornaments of great variety, tubes either for lontr beads and whistles or for upon their vessels and other constructions. Cloth-weaving was evidently known. The imprint of cloth texture has been repeatedly found. This was an art unknown to the Indians. Slabs, with hieroglyphic characters upon them, are among the more recent a ecu mulations, but there is much dispute over them as yet, and so much uncertain- ty, as to keep them from being put into the absolutely genuine relics. Mortuary remains are greatly sought after and studied. Skulls have been exhumed with great care. The attempt has been made to tret a cast of the form of a Mound mn SCULPTURED I IIM [Foster's Prelustoric Rues ] PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 61 CLOTH FltOM OHIO -MOUNDS. [Foster's Prehis- toric Races.] Builder, with partial success, by the use of clay. But with all the light yet gained there is much doubt attending the life of the Mound Builders. Are the remains chronologically of the same, or of different periods ? What significance did the emblematic eleva- tions have? What were the political forms of govern- ment? Was there one great government, or were there several distinct, yet harmonious p e o ]) 1 e s ? Whence did they come, and whither did they go? If they were united, stable, industrious, how did they lose their territory? These and other qiaestions can only be answered sug- gestively. The Mound Builders were, in great likelihood, the overflow of earlier Mexican races, and were pushed back from our fertile valleys by the fiercer, bloodier Indian, whose tradition asserts that a previous people was in possession of North America when he came into it. The territory of the United States west of the Mississippi River, contains another large class of remains which to the arch- aeologist possess a fascination quite equal to that which attaches to the remains of the Mound Builders. In some respects the interest is a more peculiar one. For while mounds of all patterns and for all purposes, and inclosures regular and irregular, present many baffling questions, yet new features, possessing a vastly more romantic spell, have been discovered in the Southwestern territories of the United States by the scientific explorations of the last half dozen years. Through large portions of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and the State of Colorado, exist curious structures, only a small part of which were known before 1874. Some of the most unique were not known at all till that date. The entire remains may be enumerated as Casas Grandes, pueblos, cave-houses, cliff-houses, and elevated tow- ers. The pueblos have been known for a long time. Some of them are inhab- ited at the present day. Upon the river Zuni, between the stream and tall cliffs in the rear, stands the pueblo town of Zuni. Near the site of' this modern pueblo can be traced the ruins of what are supposed to be the "seven cities of Cibola," which Coronado visited in 1540, and which caused so much speculation in his time. Through the different terri- tories quite a large number of pueblos are inhabite 1, but many are everywhere seen in ruins. It appears that their occupants have slowly been reduced in numbers till they are obliged to give up one after another of their towns. The pueblo buildings are large stone structures, raised to a height of two, and sometimes three stories. The lower one projects beyond the upper and is entered from this plat- form roof through trap-doors. The ascent is made to the roof on the out- side by means of ladders. There are no entrances in the walls of the lower story. Each pueblo has a large number of rooms, sufficient for the accommodation of quite a townful of people. These rooms open into one another in various ways, indicating a certain community of life. The buildings are made of stone, covered over quite heavily with mud. It is thought that some of them had as many as one thousand rooms each. The pueb- los usually cover three sides of a rectangle, but vary frbm this to a circular form. The full extent of these pueblo ruins has by no means been known till very 63 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. recently. They have been discovered in out-of-the-way recesses in the river can- yons where least suspected. Around them are found a great many piles and frag- ments of broken pottery. Beautiful ar- row-heads are in some places picked up In the valk'V or the Gila in Southern Arizona, and in Chihuahua in Mexico, arc found the ruins of a class of structures known as Casas Grandes. Unlike the pueblos further north, which are alm(jst uniformh' built of stone, these were built in abundance. Rock inscriptions occur at different points on the faces of the cliffs. The pottery is found to have been ornamented with work in relief. Fig- ures of small animals have been found upon finely shaped vases. ANCIENT IDOL AND AI-TAR AT COPAN. of adobe or mud. Wherever the walls have fallen, the blocks of mud have washed back to shapeless earth again. But enough walls are still standing to make it certain that many large edifices filled the re. ^^:' far from the truth. There T are peculiar ex- j ^^^ hibitions of^.:^^^^'" character in In- dian life, and in (U\ the life of any ^'^ - o t h e 1" race, which will sup- port any one- sided view a person may choose to hold. The peculiar customs of Indian tribes appeared at almost every step of the way in their lives. In their peace councils a pipe was smoked by each partv, as a sign that strife had ceased. A bundle of arrows, tied with the skin of a rattlesnake, was sent to the Plymouth colony as a sign of war. But the rattlesnake skin was sent back, filled with powder and shot, and nothing more was heard of ^var for a time. In the Southern tribes, sev- eral arrows with hair upon them, were sometimes stuck in the path near an enemy's village, as a sign of intended i hostility. War * d a n c e s m' ere p r e %• a 1 e n t i n most tribes, and the feelings were excited bv wild midnight orgies, around a blazing fire, for the coming march. In cer- tain sections of the continent, the dance was liked for its own sake, and used on various oc- casions. Cap- tives were tor- mented in hid- eous ways, and put to death by a great variety of means. The mutilation of 'i^^-^^:;^^. the first Jesuits A who fell amongf the Iroquois, \N INDIAN r>ANCE. was tcrrlblc to look upon. Captives were sometimes set to run the gauntlet between two long lines of women and children, or Avarriors, armed with clubs, knives, and other weapons, with a prospect of sa\ing their lives, and perhaps of libertv, if the fearful ordeal could be borne, and the end of the lines reached in safety. Few j^crsons have J THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 81 escaped by running the gauntlet. Some captives were saved and adopted into the tribe in place of dead warriors. Guerrero and Aguilar, the two Spaniards who had lived in the tribes of Southern Mexico for several years previous to the arrival of Cortes upon the coast, rose to positions of great influence. The remnants of tribes were sometimes adopted into other strong tribes. Some of the Hurons, who remained after the fearful des- truction visited upon them by the Iroquois, were adopted into the tribes of their conquerors. Some of the Pe- quods, in New England, who were left alive after the Pequod war, bee a m e members of the Narragansett nation. In social life, the woman of the wilder tribes was the worker. She often went to her labor with her babe upon her back. The young men were trained in athletic sports, and in shooting. Games were frequent in many tribes. A game of ball was played in some sections of the country, for which great preparation was made, and in which great numbers joined. In the Southern tribes, as well as in Mex- ico and Peru, the station of woman was higher. In the West India Islands, some females rose to the position of acknowl- 6 SQUAW AND CHILD part edged leaders, and became queens by right of ability, as well as of blood. Most tribes had peculiar funeral ceremonies. The sick were treated simply with reme- dies derived from roots and barks. The " Medicine Man " was a prominent character in certain sections of the land, and by his insane rites sought to cure the sick, who were, he clanned, under the power of foes. Poisons were used upon arrow - heads to make them more deadly in war, or in pri- vate acts of re- venge. The hu- man sacrifices of Mexico are well known from the accounts which Prescott gives. The bloody character of the Aztec nation in this respect, re- moves much of the glitter from their civilization in other respects. Dreams were regarded by most tribes with superstition, and were made a of the governing forces of life. Superstition existed more or less in every part of the continent. The untutored mind of the savage saw spiritual signs in the heavens, and on the earth. Nature, to him, was alive. The religious rites of the continent varied very greatly. There was a belief in good and evil spirits. Curious theories of origin, and of super- natural appearances among them, were 82 INrRODUCTORT STUDIES. held by some tribes. When Cortes landed in Mexico, the natives were look- ing for the return of Quetzalcoatl, a divinity, who, they said, had Hved among them in former days and taught them many things. At his departure he had promised to come again, and doubtless this was associated at tirst with the strange entrance of the Spaniards into the country, and had st)mething to do, it may be, with the ease of conquest. Long after the ISlonongahela fight in the French and Indian war, an old Indian came a long distance to see the man at whom he had fired fifteen times without hitting him. He believed that some supernat- in-al power had given aid to Washington, The union between the native races of America and the conquering races, has been much greater in the Spanish American provinces than in others. Cortes began, immediately upon the con- quest of Mexico, to build up a state not composed of Spaniards alone, but of Spaniards and natives. Some of the Mexicans were educated at once, and the people of the two races began to inter- marry These marriages, of course, were almost, if not quite entirely, of Spanish men and IMexican women, rather than the re\erse. The Spanish soldiers remained in the country to a great extent, and few Spanish women had arrived in New Spain at this time. A similar process went on in Central America and Peru, so that in all these countries the Indian population is quite large, and the union of races somewhat real. Many Indians have risen to high political positions in the Central Ameri- can States, and some to the office of president. That great leader in Mexico, during the "war of reform," from 1S57 to i860, and since president of that country, and instrumental in gaining much of the present stability of the gov- ernment, Benito Juarez, was an Indian, the son of Indian parents in poor circum- stances. In North America we have had a few instances of men of Indian birth, who ha\'e become citizens of the United States, and useful servants of the govern- ment. Gen. Ely S. Parker, at one time Indian Commissioner, and a member of Gen. Grant's staff during the Civil War, was a Seneca Indian. His abilities are excellent, and his education fine. He is a civil engineer by jjrofession. Other in- stances of less prominence, prove the value of the Indian character, and the ability of the Indian mind. There has been little fusion of races by marriage, in North America, save in certain sections between the Fiench and Indians. There have been, from an early period, efforts for their education, chiefly in connection with missionary societies. Enough has been done to show that the Indian is capable of becoming a citizen, and con- ducting himself ^yith all the dignity of a citizen. Christian education has wrought great changes in many tribes, and given them an idea that there is something to live for, besides the pleasure of passing one's days in an idle, dirty, roving man- ner. The Bible has recently been gi^•en to the Dakotas in their own language, and in the course of a few years we may expect to hear of more extensive work done in behalf of the wild Indians \vho live within the gieat territories of the United States. We may hope that there will be less and less need of arms and war, which have cost the government so many million dollars, and a greater and greater resort to justice and education, and civil bonds and Christian faith, in dealing with these diminished tribes, who THE AMERICAN ABURIGINES. 83 once held full sway over the vast terri- tory now covered by a powerful nation. The savagism of some of them may be to the fate of those beings who, when Columbus touched San Salvador, were enjoying the freedom of the continent, MEDICINE MEN. well-nigh ineradicable, but it is worth the while, even in extreme cases, to cultivate patience. A pathetic interest is attached save as they were disturbed by internal wars. In the United States the tribes have been removed from place to place, 84 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. during the growth of the nation, till they know not what spot to call home. Ex- plorers for gold and silver invade their last hunting grounds, and floods of adven- turers pour in around them. What wonder if they grow sick, and obstinate, and desperate, and bloodthirsty? When will the end be? There have been various estimates of the number of inhabitants in America at the time when it was discovered by Columbus. It is impossible to arrive at an exact statement, but the reckoning which assigns about five millions to the entire continent, is to be accepted as suffi- ciently accurate for use. This is based upon an estimate of somewhat less than one million for the present territory of the United States. Probably there were not far from three or four hundred thous- and east of the Mississippi River. In South America the tribes through the eastern and southern portions were very numerous. In Peru and Mexico there were several nations under each central government. The Aztec government in Mexico was a species of confederacy, like the Iroquois in Central New York. Within the present limits of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, there were found eight more or less rad- ically distinct nations, some of them quite small. They were the Algonquins, Huron-Iroquois, Cherokees, Catawbas, Uchees, Natchez, Mobilians, and Dako- tas or Sioux. The Algonquin family occupied, perhaps, the largest territory, running from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Delaware and New Jersey, through Southeastern New York, along the At- lantic seaboard of New England, thence inland along the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes, and beyond down through Illinois, Indiana, and a portion of Ken- tucky and Tennessee. The tribes into which this gi'eat family was divided were more or less wandering in their habits. They moved according to the demands of hunting and fishing. Some of the tribes were the Montagnais, on the St. Law- rence, with whom the Jesuit priests liv- ing at Quebec, wandered in the winter in order to gain a hold upon them; the Algonquins proper, upon the Ottawa River; the Chippewas, Menomenees, Miamis, Sacs, and Foxes, Kickapoos and Illinois, through the West and on the Great Lakes; the Abenaquis in Maine; the Narragansetts, Pequods, Massachu- setts and Mohegans in Southern New England; the Dclawares, Powhattans and Shawnees further south, together with some other less important clans. Massa- soit. King Philip, Powhattan and his daughter Pocahontas, Black Hawk, Pon- tiac and Tecumseh, were all members of this extensive family. When settlements began to be made, about the year 1600, it is thought that this nation numbered not far from two hundred and fifty thousand. Within this Algonquin territory, shut in closely on every side, lay the Huron- Iroquois family. Of these the Hurons, among whom was the field of the Jesuits' most successful labor, had their towns east of Lake Huron, the Andastes dwelt on the Susquehanna, the Eries upon the southern shore of Lake Erie, the Neutral Nation on the northern shore of the same lake, while the Iroquois proper, dwelt in Central New York, from the Hudson to the Genesee. The latter, who have ta- ken such a prominent place in the colonial history of the United States, were gain- ing great power when the country was discovered. The Iroquois confederacy was composed at that time of five tribes, 86 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. distributed in the following order from east to west, in Central New York : Mo- hawks, Oneidas, Onandagas, Cayugas and Senecas. In 1713 the Tuscaroras were admitted to the confederacy, and since then they have been known in his- tory as the "Six Nations" instead of the " Five Nations," as before that date. Their league was of the republican order, and very strong. The different tribes were bound together by eight different totems, to each of which, some portion of the Senecas, Cayugas and Onandagas belonged, and to three of which some jDortion of the Oneidas and Mohawks be- longed. The totems were the Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk. The Mohawks and Onei- das belonged to the Wolf, Bear and Tur- tle. These difTerent tribes were thus crossed by several strong bands, like so many ties of relationship weaving their tough threads through all the affairs of the league. Hendrick, Cornplanter, Red Jacket, Brant, Dr. Wilson and Gen. Parker, were all members of the Iroquois. It is thought that they num- bered not more than twenty thousand at their greatest height of power. The remnants of these once powerful tribes are scattered through Canada, New York, Wisconsm, and other States. During the seventeenth century they ex- tended their dominion over all the other members of the Ilvu'on-Iroquois family. The Jesuit missions among the Hurons were almost blotted from existence by the terrible warfare of the Five Nations. Their strength faded away only before the face of foreign foes. Through Florida and the States west of it bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, lay the Mobilian family of tribes, stretching from the Atlantic to the Rio Grande, and characterized by greater agricultural ten- dencies than were the families further north. Some of these tribes, such as the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chick- asaws, gave the United States great trouble at times in reference to lands and removals bevond the Mississippi. Osce- ola, the Seminole chief, was one of the leaders in trouble within the present cen- tury. The Catawba family dwelt partly within North, and partly within South, Carolina, along the Yadkin and Cataw- ba rivers. They never gave much trouble to settlers, though they were frequently engaged in war with other tribes. Peter Harris, the last full blooded Catawba Indian, took an active and hon- orable part in the American Revolution. West of the Catawbas, among the mountains of Upper Georgia, dwelt the Cherokees, who were a bold, warlike people. They were removed to the In- dian Territory in 1S38 and in the late Civil War fought in large numbers in the Confederate army. When the cause of the Southern States began to hang in doubt, nine thousand of them withdrew to the Union army. The Uchees lived in the present State of Georgia. Their numbers were very small. They had no tradition of a mi- gration into the country, and claimed to be much older than the tribes around them. ThcNatchez, dwelling on the cast bank of the Mississippi, affirmed that they were the oldest nation within the countrv. In some respects they were like the Indians of the Gulf region of Mexico. Tliey were sun or fire worshipers. They \vcre almost exterminated by the French in the early history of the Mississippi Val- ley. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 87 '£he Dakotas or Sioux lived west of the Mississippi, with the exception of two or three bands of them, Hke the Winne- bagoes in Wisconsin, and some other tribes, constituted the mass of population where now the great industries of the United States are giving employment to thousands of operatives. The life of this HALF BREED. small, wandering clans. They covered the territory of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains north of the Arkansas River. These families, with their numerous country at that time was a roving, fretful one. Tribes were hostile to each other, and thus they were already diminishing one another's numbers and strength, in preparation for the coming of the Euro- 88 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. pean. United, they could have been strong to resist for years. Divided, they could at best make only spasmodic efforts and sink down each time into greater weakness than before. The Iroquois league was the point of greatest strength, but even that gradually wasted away be- fore the touch of adverse power. The Indians of the present time within the Eastern United States are but feeble, inefficient remnants of what they once were. In the territories lining the slopes of the Rocky Mountains some still maintain their old fierceness, and are constantly giving the nation occasion to mourn the loss of some of its bravest officers and soldiers. It has been cur- rently believed during the last few years that the Indians were dying out. But the best statistics show quite conclusively that such is not the case. Without doubt some tribes have diminished in numbers from various causes, but that the Indian population of the United States is de- creasing, seems to be a mistake. It is at least holding its own, if not actually in- creasing. Men who have known them most intimately the last few years, de- clare it to be so. What does not this nation owe these tribes in the way of education, evangelization and citizenship? How important for the welfare of the nation that corruption in the work of supplying them be exchanged for hon- esty; and that broken promises be ex- changed for pledges which are made to be kept. The Indian history of the country is a sad one from the time when the followers of Columbus began to work the natives ot Hayti in the brooks and mountains to secure from them the reve- nue of gold-dust, down to the present day, when there are very few to respect the Indian's rights if the prospect of gold- mining in the Black Hills or elsewhere, holds out its flattering prizes. The inde- pendence of the Indian's spirit, the haughtiness of his pride, the obstinacy of his will, all fundamental parts of his na- ture, make it difficult to weave him into the course of civilized life. But to make the distance wider, by an unjustifiable disre- gard, or by a process of extortion, or by an insatiable greed, is to be untrue to the mission which the United States has to- ward the native races of its own territory. I tw A^v^^ ^-^yx^^x^i x^uK^ym^^ SECTION III. TiiB- coz uM:siAJV£risron tajvi) mA^iriojvs. loo-nss. Wi A/ BRIEF review of the accidental _/ \_ maritime events which are alleged to have been connected with the American continent before the time of Cabot and Columbus, should pre- cede all study of the intentional and ef- fective explorations set on foot at the close of the fifteenth century. The geograph- ical awakening of the latter period is not fully understood until it is contrasted with the indefinite and roving enterprises of previous generations. Many of the less reasonable accounts, partially or wholly without foundation, claim an interest sim- ply because they bear to some extent upon early ocean navigation. The Northmen were the chief sea rovers of that time, but they were venturesome sailors, not scientific navigators. They fell by accident upon the discovery which, at a later day, cost such a struggle, and proved such a boon, to the world. The story of their extensive voyages, drawn from their Sagas, teaches how unprepared the age must have been for new terri- torial possessions, since it passed by the fruits of their achievements, with scarcely a perceptible emotion. The efforts to colonize, puny as they were, and the final abolition of all knowledge of the New 89 World, throw a great light upon the scientific and commercial deadness of the age of which such things could be true. The intrepid Vikings of the tenth and eleventh centuries were not a part of the civilization which about five centuries later, claimed every inch of soil it touched, and took possession of it with floating banners, erected crosses and buried plates. Neither had the great problem of a pas- sage to the Indies dawned upon the mind of the world, to give force to the greed of nations. The little Norse vessels went here and there in Northern seas without chart or compass. Driving storms forced them through wastes of water, and upon strange coasts. A great rift separates the whole story from the modern determined conquest of the ocean. A mist, which will never be completely dissipated, cur- tains this olden time. The legendary seal rests upon much of the narration. 499. The Buddhist Priest in Mexico. A tradition, founded upon the Year Books of the Chinese, in which a minute account of the country and its inhabitants is given, asserts that Hoei Shin, a Buddhist priest, visited a land " twenty thousand li east of Tahan," and named it Fusang. Much has been said to prove Fusang to be 90 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. Mexico, or perhaps California; and much, likewise, in depreciation of the whole ac- count, which has been pronounced entirely deceitful. The evidence drawn from the description of animals and plants in the narrative, is wholly uncertain. The event in itself was not an impossible one, and the voyage described may have had a foundation in fact. The wrecks of ^,, n /, .V7^ eastern vessels have been 6-ii. Cambridge Umrersity,Eng- found upou the Pacific coast land, founded. ^^ ^^^^\-, America in recent centuries. It seems entirely probable, however, that the country reached was nearer the priest's starting point than either Mexico or California would be. 725. Irish in Iceland. According to the Isloidiuga bok, the oldest piece of Icelan- dic literature, Irish settlers and Culdee anchorites landed in Iceland and colonized two or three places, where they remained till nearly the time of the arrival of the Northmen in the next century. They left traces of their pi-esence in little bells, books and crosiers. Their settlements were chiefly in the isle of Papoen on the east coast, and of Papyle on the south coast of the island. They were originally induced to go thither by some report gained from an Irish monk. 861. First Northman in Iceland. Nad- doddr, a Norwegian \^iking, was driven upon the coast of Iceland in a storm. He named it Snjaland, or Snowland, and after slight exploration, returned home. 864. Svafarsson and Floki. A Swe- dish navigator named Garthar Svafarsson, having been driven to Iceland in a storm, spent the winter there, and carried back an excellent account of the island. Before long, other hardy mariners visited Iceland. Among them was Floki, who, in an attempt to settle on the island, wintered on the coast, but returned to his own land with less favorable accounts than others before him had given. 874. The first permanent settlement in Iceland was formed at Reykiavik by Hjorleifr and Ingolfr, two Norwegian chieftains who had come here about three years before, to escape the tyranny of the home government. The place soon be- gan to flourish, becaaise others came for the same reason. This is the settlement whose thousandth anniversary was cele- brated with such parade in 1S74. 876. The Discovery of Greenland. Greenland was accidentally discovered by Gunnbjorn, a Northman, gg^. Oxford Uni- Avho was wrecked upon its rersily, Eug- -r , land, founded. eastern coast, it was known for a century afterward as "Gunnbjorn's Rocks," and remained uncolonized. 928. Iceland became a republic in government, and remained such for about three centuries. During this period it reached a high degree of prosperit}' and wealth. It had, at one time, over one hundred thousand inhabitants. Learning and literature flourished. It was the golden period of Icelandic history. 981. Christianity in Iceland. Chris- tianity was preached for the first time in Iceland bv Friedrich, a Saxon bishop. He was brought to the island b}- Thor- wald, who had been converted to the fiiith by him in Denmark. 983. Greenland was re-discovered by Eric the Reel, who had been banished from Iceland because of his turbulence and crimes. He conferred its present name upon the country, and visited the western coast at an inlet which he named Ericsfiord, at which point he conceived the idea of founding a colony. 985. Greenland Colonized. Eric the Red, having returned to Iceland after a short time, sailed again for Ericsfiord PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORY AND TRADITIONS. 499-1488.J with a fleet of twenty-five vessels. Eleven of them were wrecked and lost upon the passage, but the rest arrived safely, and a prosperous town was formed. Other settlements were soon founded, and the country was explored in different direc- tions. Greenland was for centuries a flourishing region. 986. North American Coast. Biarne Herjulfson sailed from Iceland for Green- land, but on account of fogs and north winds, lost his course and came upon the coast of a strange land, which he sighted at different times in a northerly direction. It is thought that he came upon the Atlan- tic coast of North America, perhaps at Newfoundland or Labrador, and sailed along it until he arrived at the colony of Eric. No landing was made till Green- land was reached. 1000. Northmen in Vinland. Leif, son of Eric the Red, with thirty-five men, explored the coast of North Amer- ica for a long distance. He landed first at a place which he named Helluland, from the appearance of slate upon the coast. This is thought to have been Labrador or Newfoundland. He then found a region which he named Mark- land, from the wooded shores. He finally reached a pleasant country and spent the winter at some spot in it. As nearly as can be told, it was in the region of Rhode Island. The adventurers named it Vin- land, because they found wild grapes in great abundance. In the spring they returned to Greenland. 1002. Thorwald, a brother of Leif, sailed to Vinland and remained there two years. He came upon a cape which he named Kialarnes or Keel Cape. It was undoubtedly Cape Cod. 1004. First Fight with Natives. Thorwald and some of his men in their 91 explorations along the coast of Vinland, came into contact with the natives for the first time. The Northmen killed eight, and soon afterward were attacked by a large number and driven to their boats. Thorwald was severely wounded, and soon died. The colony returned to Green- land. 1005. Thorstein, a third son of Eric, sailed for Vinland, but failed to find land, and retvu'ned. 1007. Karlsefne's Colony. Thorfinn Karlsefne sailed to Vinland with a col- ony of men and women. An attempt was made, for a few years, to support the colony in the vicinity of Mt. Hope Bay, Rhode Island. But at last, after several fierce conflicts with the natives, these colo- nists also gave up the enterprise and re- turned to Greenland. A son iia.d been born to Karlsefne in Vinland, and was named Snorri, the first child of European parentage born on the American conti- nent. It is claimed that Thorwaldsen, the celebrated Danish sculptor, and one or two Danish scholars of repute, de- scended from Snorri. 1011. Last Recorded Norse Colony in Vinland. Freydis, daughter of Eric, now led an expedition to Vinland. But after discord and murder this company sailed away from Vinland, of which we do not hear after this time. It has been claimed that the old stone tower at New- port, Rhode Island, and the inscription upon Dighton Rock, which 1096-12-2. lies upon the bank of Taun- ^^"' Cmsades. ton River, are memorials of these visits of the Northmen. But other antiquari- ans have zealously opposed this view, and the origin of these relics is, therefore, by no means clear. 1121. First Bishop in Greenland. Greenland was erected into a bishop- 92 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. ric, and Arnold was consecrated as its first bishop. A considerable number of churches and monasteries had been built, and the ecclesiastical affairs of the country were on quite a firm foundation. 1170. The Welsh Prince. A tradi- tion drawn from some of the registers in Welsh abbeys asserts that Madoc,a Welsh prince, discovered and colonized America. It has been supposed by some that traces of the colony established by him have been found among the Indians of the im. Mariner's United Statcs in a tribe with compass invent- ,. , , . , , ,. ejat Naples, by liglit skuis who spcak a dia- Gioia. lect allied to " Old English." Dante, ^ut the cvidcncc drawn from the reports of early travelers, is en- tirely inconclusive. 1380. The Zeno Brothers. It is al- leged ujDon the authority of certain maps and letters published by one of their de- scendants, that Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, Venetian navigators, explored the whole 1324-1384. Atlantic coast of the present mcMffe. United States. But the story is in some respects so singular that it is probably a fabrication almost or quite en- tirely. 1387. Iceland acknowledged submis- sion to the King of Denmark and Nor- way. It soon suffered reverses which have greatly lessened ever since the strength of its civilization. 1402. The Black Death, a terrible plague, carried off nearly two-thirds of 1328-1400. the population of Iceland, Chaucer, ^^d about ninc-tcnths of the cattle died during the following winter, from the inclement weather. 1406. The last bishop of Greenland, named Endride Andreason, was conse- crated. 1409. Decline of Greenland. The bishopric of Greenland was abandoned because of the loss of population and wealth. The country had suffered from the Black Death, and from uw. invention hostile incursions. It was °f Pointing. now lost sight of, and had no more history till about the close of the sixteenth century. 1484. Alonzo Sanchez is alleged to have been driven across to Hayti by a storm, and, having spent some time in exploration, to have returned and revealed to Columbus what he had discovered is undoubtedly empty of truth, having evidently originated since the achievements of Columbus took place. 1488. Cousin, the Frenchman. A French writer claims that Cousin, a Dieppe navigator, discovered America by being driven over the ocean in a westerly course by a storm. The account states that a man named Pinzon was with Cousin, and that he, having gone to Spain upon their return to Europe, inter- ested Columbus in the project, and sailed with him upon his first voyage. But the Pinzons were rich and energetic enough to have undertaken an enterprise of their own, if one of their number had ever been across the Atlantic. We have no evi- dence that such was the case. 14S5-1509. Hen- This tradition rv vii, King of England. PART II. Discovery, Explop^;^tioi] ;^i]d SE'HLEEQEI^T. 1492-1630. M '''•Look now abroad — a7iother race has filled These populous borders — ivide the -wood recedes^ And tow7ts shoot up^ and fertile realms are tilled; The land is full of harvests a7id green meads ; Streai7is 7ni77ibcrlcss^ that ina7iy a fotaitai n feeds. Shine ^ disei7ibo-iVered^ a7id give to szm a/id breeze Their virgi7i waters ,' the fill regio/z leads New colonies fo7'th^ that toward the zvester/i seas Spread^ like a rapidjla/ne among the autumnal trees^^ BRYANT 94 SECTION IV. '^^ WIDE collateral study of Euro- Ijl pean science, government, and so- [\ cial life, in the fifteenth century, hj^ would show that the American continent would have been brought to light within a short time even if Columbus had not served as the foremost agent in its accomplishment. The New World could not have been much longer hidden in deep obscurity. The world had reached a point at which the discovery was to be neither accidental nor unnecessary. The attention of the learned was turned more and more to geographical science. Mar- itime enterprise was engrossing the thoughts of a great many upon the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic coast of Europe. Little vessels were gradually pushing their way into the ocean, though most sailors were as yet very timid when far from land. Explor- ers were following the coast of Africa, and at last rounded the Cape of Good Hope. The nations were eager for ter- ritorial expansion, and the increase of wealth. The question of a short and advantageous route to the riches of the Orient inflamed their passions. Hun- dreds of adventurers were ready for any enterprise which promised conquest and gold. The compass and astrolabe, then recent inventions, made victory over the ocean greater and more scientific. There were to be injustice, passion, bigotry, and many bloody deeds, to disgrace the sub- jugation of America, but in its virgin soil much true life was to root itself. By that life we live to-day. CSmSTO'PM^E^ COZUMSZTS, Many places lay claim to the honor of having been the birthplace of Columbus. No one of them all has better reasons for so doing than the beautiful city of Genoa, in Italy, upon the Mediterranean. The year of his birth is uncertain, but most authorities set it at 1435. In his early boyhood he formed the plan of pursuing the life of a navigator, and was sent by his father, for a very short time, to the University of Pavia, where he studied the necessary sciences. At the age of four- teen years he made his first voyage, and sailed much upon the Mediterranean dur- 95 96 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. ing his youth. In 1477, after he had be- gun to mature the great purpose of his life, he sailed on a voyage into Northern seas, passing Iceland, as is thought, to lat- itude 73° or beyond. He had already gone, in 1470, to Lisbon, Portugal, at- tracted thither probably, by the zeal of Prince Henry in geographical study. His attention had already been aroused by the floating stories of unknown lands far off in the seas, and by the speculation of geographers upon the shape of the earth, and the position of the continents. He held communica- tion before long, with some of the scholars of the time, about these questions, and what he learned from them fixed in him a purpose to attempt a solu- tion of the prob- lem. While en- gaged in the work of construc- ting charts and maps at Lisbon, for his own support, the joroject of reach- ing Asia by sailing directly west, began to take greater possession of his mind. He soon made proposals for an expedi- tion, to the court of Portugal, and per- haps to the governments of Venice and Genoa, but could effect nothing. He af- terward sent his brother, Bartholomew, to the court of England to negotiate with Henry VII. While in Lisbon he mar- ried the daughter of a deceased naviga- tor, and thereby gained possession of CIIRISTOPHEK COLUMBUS, many charts and plans. Plis wife having died he left Lisbon in 1484, with his littlei son, Diego, and began his application to the learned men and royal court of Spain. He pleaded his cause before the best minds of the day at Salamanca, and gained access to Ferdinand and Isabella. The views he presented met with favor from some, but were constantly hindered by the crude intellectual and religious notions of the time. Discouraged at lasti by the unceasing' ' opposition, he left the court of Spain 1 in Februaiy, 1 493,' ' and set out for France. Through the impassioned solicitation of Luis de St. Angel and Alonzo de Quin- tanilla. Queen Isabella sent a courier to over- take Columbus, and summon him again to court. Upon his return the expedition was finally agreed upon, Queen Isa- bella promising to assume the expense for her own crown of Castile, by the pledge of her jewels, a step rendered unnecessary by a loan from 1 St. Angel, who was at the time ecclesias-l tical treasurer of Aragon. This was thel long-expected and patiently-awaited mo- ' ment of a score of years. The scientific, and religious ambitions of Columbus seemed about to be realized. The defeats of his life were apparently, though not really, at an end. 1492. April 17. The Written Agree- 1492-1506.J ment. Ferdinand and Isabella signed an agreement to undertake an expedition. The offices and honors of admiral and viceroy over the lands which would be discovered, were conferred upon Colum- bus and his heirs forever. It was also stipulated that one-tenth of all valuable substances found in the new realms should be reserved for him, and that he should receive an eighth of the profits whenever he chose to assume an eighth of the cost. 1492. April 30. A Letter of Privi- lege was dfavvn up by the monarchs, wliich repeated the agreement in the form of a commission, and authorized Columbus and his descendants to use the title Don before their names. 1492. Aug. 3. The First Departure. Columbus sailed before sunrise on the morning of Friday, from the Roads of Saltes, near Palos, with three vessels and one hundred and twenty persons, in- cluding ninety mariners. The largest vessel, named Santa Maria, was decked, and was commanded by Columbus him- self. The other two were caravels with- out decks, but each of them had a fore- castle, and a cabin in the stern. The Pinta was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon; the Nina by his brother, Vincente Yanez Pinzon. A third brother, Francisco Martin Pinzon, was pilot on board the Pinta. The Pinzons had added the third vessel to the expedition by their own wealth, and had enabled Columbus to provide an eighth of the whole cost. 1492. Aug. 9. The Canary Islands were reached, where the Pinta was re- paired, and stores were obtained. 1492. Sept. 6. The Unknown Ocean. The little fleet sailed from the Canary Islands directly west into the Atlantic, much to the disheartening of the more timid sailors, who now began to realize r THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 97 very vividly, the nature of the enter- prise. 1492. Sept. 13. Variation of the Needle. Columbus for the first time noticed the variation of the compass needle from the North Star, and kept the knowledge of it from his officers and men for several days. When the pilots discovered it, the dejection they felt at losing sight of land was greatly increased through fear that the ordinary laws of nature would no longer hold good. Dur- ing the next few weeks the sailoi's were several times on the point of mutiny, and at last threatened the life of Colum- bus. They were constantly deceived, however, by signs of land, and were thus held on their way. 1492. Sept. 21. The Sargasso Sea. They entered that mysterious mass of floating seaweed in the middle Atlantic, known as the Sargasso Sea. The minds of the sailors were greatly excited with the fear of rocks, reefs and shoals. The Sargasso Sea lies in the center of the North Atlantic system of currents, near the Azores. At this point a large section of the ocean is nearly motionless. An area larger than France is covered with a seaweed commonly called Sargassum natans, more properly, Sargassum bacci- ferum, with which is mingled another curious weed, called Macrocystis pyrifera, with stems a thousand or fifteen hundred feet long, the size of a man's finger. From a distance the weed looks perfectly solid. Columbus, however, knew the ocean well enough to be convinced that his vessels were still in deep water. He therefore quieted his men, and kept his course. But in the management of such difficulties, the great explorer found need for all the resources of his wonderful nature. Few men have exhibited a more 98 DISCOVERy, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. complete self-possession in the midst of i is thought, though other derivations have unexpected emergencies, or have united so great a skill with s(j sublime a faith, TIIJ^ A'J::h' V 'O A'LJ). 1492. Oct. 12. Land was at last dis- covered about tv.o o'eliKkon the morning of Frida\-, ten weeks, alnioNt to an hour, from the time the fleet sailed from Palos. A moving light had been seen by Colum- bus earlier in the night, and had been confidently judged by liim to be a sign of inhabited land. At daylight each com- mander landed with a boat's comj^any, and Columbus took possession with the royal standard, in behalf of Ferdinand and Isabella, naming the island San Sal- vador. The natives manifested great curiositv. San Salvador, the native name of \vhich was Guanahani, is one of the Bahamas, at a distance of two hundred and fifty miles from Florida. Columbus obtained from the natives a few gold or- naments in exchange for glass beads, and little hawks' bells. To the question where gold was procured, an invariable response was made by pointing to the south, across the water. After a few days Columbus cruised among the rest of the Bahama group, landing and naming several of the islands. He then sailed toward the south in search of the land cf irold. 1492. Oct. 28. Cigars and Maize. Land was discovered, the Indian name of which was found to l)e Cuba. It was here that Columbus and his followers first saw the natives, both men and women, smoking rolls of leaves, either by holding them in the mouth, or in the ends of reeds, through which the smoke was in- haled. This was the tobacco plant which grew wild on the island, and whose name been proposed, to have since been drawn from the /rt^rtcoi', the pipe or reed through which the Caribbce Indians smoked it. The Aztecs also used it as a roll of lea\'es sometimes, in a silver or shell holder. This is the origin of the modern cigar. The Spaniards pronounced the perfume "fragrant and grateful." Maize, wliich was cultivated by the natives, was now for the first time seen by Europeans. The name Indian corn was conferred upon it at a later day by the Pilgrims, at Plymouth, Mass. 1492. Dec. 6. Hayti was discovered and named Ilispaniola, or Little Spain, Columbus everywhere treated the natives with great kindness, and prohibited any abuse of their confidence. 1492. Dee. 24. The Santa Maria was wrecked upon a shoal near Hayti by the carelessness of the pilot. By the aid of the natives the ainmunition and stores of all kinds were safely landed. A fort was built out of the beams of the vessel,, and named La Navidad. The native prince, Guacanagari, treated the Spaniards with great honor, and gave them gifts of gokl. 1493. Jan. 4. Columbus left thirty- nine men at La Navidad, and sailed for Spain on board the Nina. He gave the little colony earnest injunctions to behave honorably toward one another, and the natives. In the meantime the Pinta had deserted in search of gold, but was found, and sailed in company with the Nina. The vessels were beaten about b}' severe tempests, and were at last separated from one another. 1493. March 4. Columbus arrived at the mouth of the river Tagus, in Port- ugal, and sent a courier to the Spanish sovereiofns to announce his cominsf. 1493-1506.] 1493. March 15. Columbus arrived at Palos, and was welcometl with great acclamations. At evening of the same clay the Pinta arrived. Her commander, Martin Alonzo Pinzon, thinking that the Nina had been lost at sea, or hoping to arrive first and secure the glory, had for- wai'dcd a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella from Bayonne, on the Bay of Biscay. His plans being thwarted, and a letter of reprimand being received from the sov- ereigns, Pinzon sank away in chagrin, and died in a short time. Yet he should not be misjudged. He had been eager to take part in the expedition, and more than any other except Columbus, had helped carry it out to a complete success. He was evidently impatient at the thought that the honor would all descend upon one person. He w'as a leading navigator of his time, and as such, was proud and sensitive. His real and thorough partici- pation in the discovery, when so many were ready to falter, should be great commendation for him, and serve to put into just relations his temporary deviation from the path of true manliness. Colum- bus was everywhere laden with honor, especially at the royal court. He dis- played m public processions the products of the New World, together with a half dozen of the natives, 1493. May 2. A Papal Bull was issued, granting to the Spanish sovereigns full rights, titles, and powers in the newly discovered lands. 1493. May 25. The former contract between Columbus and the sovereigns was renewed, affirming the rights of Columbus and his descendants to the offices of admiral, viceroy and governor, in all the lands discovered. The royal seal was given to Columbus for use in giving letters patent and commissions. THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 99 The honor shown to Columbus at this time began to excite envy in many breasts, and to prepare the way for that violation of all these solemn contracts against wdiich he was obliged to contend for the rest of his life. 1493. Sept. 25. The Second Depar- ture. Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his second voyage with fifteen hundred men, in three ships and fourteen light caravels. There were miners, mechan- ics, husbandmen, and many restless adven- turers. Different kinds of seeds, and do- mestic animals, including horses, were taken upon this exjoedition. It was dur- ing the preparation for this voyage in some trivial matters, that the hostility to Columbus on the part of Fonseca, arch- deacon of Seville, subsequently bishop, and for a long time at the head of In- dian affairs for the New World, origina- ted. The same man was at a later time a deadly foe to Cortes. 1493. Nov, 3. Fierce Caribbee In- dians. Columbus having taken a route further south than on his former voyage, discovered the Caribbean Islands and landed at several, including Guadeloupe. After some intercourse with the natives, and some fighting, in which one or two Spaniards were killed with poisoned ar- rows, he sailed for Hayti. 1493. Nov. 27. The fleet arrived at La Navidad, Hayti, in the evening, and found next morning that the fort had been completely destroyed. The men left in it had failed to observe the faithful charge given them, and by jealousies among themselves and evil conduct to- ward the natives, had brought ruin upon their own heads. A part of the garrison, as was afterward learned, went into the 100 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. interior of the island, where they were slain by the inhabitants, who soon sur- prised and slew the rest at the fort. This was the beginning of evil, because it caused the growth of hostile feelings which Columbus had done so much to prevent. He mournfully searched for another suitable spot and founded a col- ony on the same island, a little east of Monte Christi. This first real colony in the New World he named Isabella. Houses were speedily built; squares and streets were laid out. But the colonists began to grow sick in body, through change of climate and malarial influ- ences, and sick in mind, as they realized that wealth even in the New World, would be the result of hard labor alone. Columbus found this year that the cotton tree grew wild, and that the inhabitants used the product of it in dressing, and in making fishing nets. 1494. January. Finding of Gold. In order to explore the island more fully and to allay the passion of some who only cared for the New World so far as it would bring them immediate riches, Columbus sent out a company under Alonzo de Ojeda to go into the interior and search for gold. They returned with fine specimens of gold ore, and with a quantity of gold dust which had been washed out of the sand of brooks. 1494. reb. 2. Columbus sent twelve vessels home to Spain with fruit, gold, and Caribbee captives. After the de- parture of the fleet he discovered an in- cipient rebellion, and punished the ring- leaders. 1494. March 12. Fort St. Thomas. Columbus left Isabella imder the com- mand of his brother, Don Diego, and started with four hundred men upon an expedition into the interior of the island. They crossed an extensive and beautiful valley, and then entered a region of lofty mountains. They soon found gold in the streams, and having selected a defensible position, built a fort, which they named St. Thomas. Fifty-six men were left as a garrison, and Columbus set out upon his return. 1494. March 29. Misery at Isa- bella. Columbus arrived at Isabella and found sickness, discontent and unwilling- ness to work, rapidly increasing. Persons of rank complained at having a jDortion of labor assigned them. Columbus deter- mined to employ large numbers of them in further exploration of the island, and to sail with some himself to the west on a voyage of discovery. 1494. April 9. Alonzo de Ojeda was sent with four hundred men to St. Thomas, with directions to have the re- gion thoroughly explored. 1494. April 24. The Coast of Cuba. Columbus left Isabella with three cara- vels and sailed to the west along the south shore of Cuba, for several months in all, landing at different points until he deemed it best to go no further, on ac- count of the worn condition of the vessels. Before turning back, however, he took by a notary, the opinion of every person on board the three vessels that the land along which they were coasting Avas a conti- nent, and no one was afterward to contra- dict tiiut assertion, except upon pain of severe punishment. They were then within a short distance of the Avest end of Cuba, which would have dispelled their illusion. 1494. May 3. Jamaica was dis- covered by a short trip to the south from the coast of Cuba. 1494. Sept. 4. Don Bartholomew 1492-1506.] Columbus. The vessels reached Isabella upon their return. Columbus, shortly before their arrival, was stricken down with over-fatigue, and lay in a critical condition. At Isabella he found his brother, Don Bartholomew, who had been sent to England before the Spanish sov- ereigns had agreed to enter upon the at- tempt of discovery, with a request that Henry VII. would fit out an expedition. The English monarch accepted the pro- posal, and Don Bartholomew was re- turning to Spain for his brother, when he heard that the voyage had already taken place, and that Christopher was then at the Spanish court in triumph. Hasten- ing his journev, he arrived just after the second expedition had departed, and fol- lowed to the New World as soon as other vessels sailed thither. His presence in Isabella was most opportune. His vigor and decision were of great assistance. He was immediately invested with au- thority by his brother, that he might set about the regulation of the affairs of the colony, which had got into an unfortu- nate condition during the absence of the admiral. The soldiers, in exploring the interior, had aroused the hostility of the natives by their cruelty and excesses. Discord had arisen, and some of the ene- mies of Columbus had sailed to Spain. The natives had risen in fierce attacks on St. Thomas, and in threatened assaults on Isabella. 1494. Indian Slaves. Before the close of this year four ships arrived from Spain with provisions. Columbus sent them back soon with gold, metals, fruits, and five hundred Indian captives, to be sold as slaves. This blot on the fairfiime of the great discoverer is to be ac- counted for by the condition of his times. These were the ones whom the compas- THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 101 sionate queen ordered to be sent back at once. She at the same time sent com- mands that the islanders be treated mercifully. 1495. March 27. Suffering of Hayti Natives. Columbus, having recovered from his long illness, set out with an army to subdue the island. He accomplished his object, and established a tribute of gold dust and cotton to be paid by the natives monthly or quarterly. This tribute was the cause of great suffering among the natives, and was afterward diminished in amount. This was the beginning of that enforced labor in mining, Mdiich nearly annihilated the Indian population of Havti during the next fifty years. It was with the greatest difficulty that the poor beings could, by toiling all the time, procure enough gold to satisfy the de- mand for tribute. They had been to- tally unaccustomed to labor except just as they pleased, and thousands of them per- ished beneath the burden. Add to this the fact that the Indian lands were soon given to Spanish settlers, who began to secure natives to work in cultivating the soil, or in mining, and it can be easily seen that their condition grew darker all the time in the strengthening of the slavery into which they had fallen. The hot sun of Hayti saw many of them perish miser- ably by the exactions of their cruel masters. 1495. April 10. Opposition to Co- lumbus. A royal proclamation was issued in Spain, granting the right of sailing on private voyages to the New World, and of trading there. This set loose a large number of adventurers and navigators. Jnst at this time a commis- sioner named Juan Aguado was sent out to study the affairs of the colonv, and re- port upon the difficulties found there, 102 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. knowledge of which had hcen diffused in Spain by the enemies of Cohnnbus. Upon his arrival at Isabella, he began to collect information against Columbus from all quarters, through the misrepre- sentations of the colonists, who laid the burden of all their ills upon the shoulders of the admiral. 1496. March 10. Columbus and Commissioner Aguado set sail for Spain in two caravels. Two hundred and twentv-five persons returned to Spain at the same time. Nearly fifty Indians were also carried. 1496. June 11. The vessels arrived at Cadiz, after much suffering from lack of food. The reception of Columbus by the people was extremely cool. Ferdi- nand and Isabella, however, gave him a cordial greeting. His reputation in the nation at large was on the decline, because his voyages had been no more profitable to those engaged in them. The com- plaints were disregarded by the sovereigns, and Columbus began to ask for a third expedition under his own command. But he met with indefinite delays of all kinds. These made it possible for English ex- plorers to discover the mainland of ihe western continent, over a year before Columbus set foot upon it. 1496. San Domingo was founded at the mouth of the river Ozema, in Hayti, in order to afford another seaport. It rapidlv took precedence of Isabella. 1497. June 2. A royal edict was issued, retracting the right of private voyages and trade, so far as they conflicted with the claims of Columbus. NORTH AMERIC:^ DISCOVERED. 1497. June 24. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, having obtained a patent from Henry VII. of England, sailed in a 1408-1515. Louis XI [. Kin£^ of France, vessel named " Matthew," to the north- west in search of a passage to India, and this day discovered the coast of Labrador, fourteen months before Co- lumbus discovered the main- land of South America They returned without profit from their voyage. It is asserted by some on the authority of certain maps upon which the date was put by the Cabots themselves, that this voyage took place in 1494. 1498. May. After the death of his father, Sebastian Cabot sailed again to the New World, with two ships and three hundred men. He coasted during the summer from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay, some say to Florida, Feeling sure that the land was a new continent, he re- turned to England, He had discovered and named Newfoundland, and reported at home the immense numbers of codfish which he had seen off its coast, which, he said, \vere nearlv numerous enough to impede the vessel ni its course. He thus, perhaps, originated the great fishery on the Newfoundland Banks, though there is some evidence that the Basques had been there before his voyage. The young explorer was twentv-one years of age at the time of this expedition. These two vovages lay at the foundation of the claim which England afterward made to North America. 1498. May 30. The Third Depart- ure. Columbus sailed from San Lucar de Barrameda upon his third voyage, with six vessels. His patience gave way at the moment of departure, when he knocked down and kicked Ximeno Bre viesca, Fonseca's treasurer, a man who had harassed him in all his preparations. The long delay had worn out the re- markable natience of the admiral, and he 1492-1 50G. THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 103 could bear no more. The sovereigns were somewhat estranged by this unfor- tunate event. Columbus took a route to the south of his previous voyages. 1498. July 31. Trinidad was dis- covered, and named from the appearance of its mountains. SOUTH ±MERIC^ DISCOVERED. 1498. Aug. 1. While cruising along the southern shore of Trinidad, Colum- bus beheld in the distance the low line of the South American coast. He entered the Gulf of Paria within a few days, and landed upon the mainland, which he thought to be another island. The natives had large strings of jDcarls which they said were procured on the coast to the north. Through lack of provisions and the ill-health of Columbus, the fleet sailed for Hayti. It was upon this cruise that Columbus experienced the high waves which in July and August mark the mouths of the Orinoco River. This river rises between April and October, thirty or more feet, and sometimes creates at its outlets a very dangerous sea for shipping. 1498. Pearl Fishery. The islands of Alargarita and Cubagua, since noted for their pearl fishery-, \vere disco\-ered. Co- lumbus obtained a quantity of pearls to be sent home to Spain. 1498. Aug. 30. Columbus arrived at San Domingo, and was met by his um. Va^^coda brother, Dou Bartholomew. Gama doubled Hc learned that the natives the Cafe of Good Hope, nndreach- had bcCU a SOUfCC of COU- ed India. g^aut troublc, and that a re- bellion of Spaniards, under Francisco Roldan, whom he had often befriended, was in existence. For two years from this time Columbus struggled with the task of regaining his authority, and finally succeeded to a certain extent. dMERICUS VESPUCIUS. 1499. May 30. Alonzo de Ojeda, a companion of Columbus in his second expedition, sailed from Spain with four ships, on a voyage of discovery in the New World. Americus Vespucius, a Florentine merchant, accompanied him as navigator and geograjoher. They fol- lowed the charts which Columbus had already sent home to explain his third voyage, and reaching the South Ameri- can coast, sailed through the Gulf of Paria. At the entrance of Lake Mara- caibo they found an Indian town built upon piles over the water, and named it Venezuela, or Little Venice. The name has since been extended to the gulf, and to the whole region of country. Thence they crossed to Hayti, and kidnapping natives on different islands, returned to Spain, where they sold their captives for slaves. This voyage lies at the founda- tion of the name afterward conferred upon the Western continent. The claim has been made that this exjoedition was in 1497, and that Vespucius was the dis- coverer of the South American mainland, but the evidence that this is the true date of it is greatest. Columbus undoubtedly first saw the resrion. 1499. June. Pearls. Pedro Alonzo Nino and Christoval Guerra sailed from Palos, with thirty-three persons, in a ves- sel of fifty tons. They coasted through the Gulf of Paria to the island of Mar- garita, where they obtained, by trading with the natives, the largest amount of pearls which had yet been secured, some of them of great size and value. They 104 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AXD SETTLEMENT. then rctuniocl safely \o Spain with their riches. Nino was iniprisiined tor a time, because it was siispecteil that tlie voyagers had secreted a part of their pearls before takini^out tlie royal portion. The charj^e was not sustainetl, and he was liberateil to cnjo\- his wealth. 15CX). Jan. 28. Cape St. Augustine was di>covered bv N'ineent Vane/ I'in/.on, who sailed on a vovaj^e of exploration with four ships. He afterward discovereil the Amazon by the freshness of the water far out at sea, and was the first to cross the equinoctial line in the western Atlantic. He returned to Spain with the loss of two ships and a lari^e number of his men, b\- a hurricane. 1500. April 26. Brazil was discov- ered bv Pedrt* Alvarez de Cabral, who sailed from Portu^^al for India by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, and kept far to the west. He took formal possession for the throne o'i Portuijal. 1500. Diego de Lepe sailed to the coast of South America and passeil be- yond Cape St. Augustine a long distance, thus reaching further south than any explorer previous to himself, or for twelve vears at"ter\vard. 1500. Gaspar Cortereal, a Portuguese navigator, sailed to the coast of North America, and having reachcil as far as Labrador, kidnappeil tifty-nine natives, and sokl them profitably for slaves ui)on his return. It is thought that the name Labrador, laborer, was first used after this voyage, because of the gooil qualities of the natives for work. 1500. Aug. 23. Arrest of Columbus. Don Francisco de Bobadilla, having been sent out to investigate the fresh charges made against Columbus, arrived in San Domingo. He at once assumed the su- preme authority, seized the house and effects of Columbus in the latter's absence, and as soon as possible, took the admiral atid his brothers prisoners, and put them in irons. 1500. October. Columbus was sent to Spain in chains by Bobaililla. The officers of the caravel, pained at the sight, offered to remove the shackles, but Co- lumbus refused, saying that he would wear them till the further will of the sov- ereigns was known, and then preserve them as a part of the reward of his ser- vices. 1500. October. Rodrigo de Bastidea saileil from Cadiz with two ships, and exploreil the northern coast of South America. His vessels were destroyed by the shipworm, and he reached Hayti with his crew, at great hazard. He returned to Spain with considerable wealth in pearls. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, after- ward the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, came to the New World in this expedi- tion. 1500. Nov. 23. Columbus reached Spain, where a great reaction took place upon his arrival in chains. The sov- ereigns found that wrong had been done by the unjust methods of Bobadilla. They ordered Columbus and his brothel's to be freed, and received the atlmiral with great honor. They promised to re- call Bobadilla. 1501. Gaspar Cortereal saileil a sec- ond time for the coast of North America, to continue the tratVic in slaves, but was never heard from. FIRST S±VCriOX OF XEGRO SLtIVERY. 1501. A royal ordinance was passed permitting Spanish emigrants to the New World to take with them negro slaves which had been born among Christians. 1493-1506.] 1502. Feb. 13, Don Nicholas de Ovando was sent out by the sovereigns after a long delay, to supersede Bobadilla as governor of the New World. He was directed to repair all the injuries done to the rights and property of Columbus and his brothers. 1502. First Mainland Settlement. Alonzo de Ojeda sailed with four ships on a second voyage. He passed over his former route through the Gulf of Paria, and undertook to found a colony upon the coast beyond. It was soon broken up by discord among its members. 1502. May 9, The Fourth Depart- ure. Columbus, with the authority of Ferdinand and Isabella, sailed from Cadiz upon his fourth voyage, which also proved his last one, with four hundred and fifty men in four caravels of from fifty to one hundred tons burden each. He designed to attempt the discovery of the strait which he supposed to exist at the south- west of Cuba. It had not yet been learned that Cuba was an island. 1502. June 29. He arrived at San Domingo, but was refused admission to the harbor by Gov. Ovando, for some reasons unknown. He predicted a severe storm, and warned a fleet which was about to convey Bobadilla and many others to Spain, not to put to sea. His judgment was rejected, the vessels sailed immediately, and were almost all carried down by the tempest which Columbus foretold. One vessel alone was able to keep on. A few put back to San Do- mingo in wretched condition, Manv lives were lost, including Bobadilla; also much treasure. Columbus shielded his own vessel as well as he could under the lee of the island, and soon afterward sailed on his way to the west. 1502. Aug. 14. Cape Honduras was THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 105 discovered and landed upon by Colum- bus. 1502. Sept. 14. Cape Gracias a Dios was discovered and named by Columbus, who then sailed southward along the coast of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and obtained slight quantities of gold from the natives. At last he abandoned his search for the strait, and returned upon his course. 1502. Miguel Cortereal sailed from Portugal to the North American coast in search of his brother Caspar, but was also lost. 1502. Brazil was visited by Americus Vespucius, under the authority pf the king of Portugal. He discovered the Bay of All Saints, built a fort for his stay of five months, loaded a cargo of Brazil wood, and returned to Spain. 1503. March. A settlement was at- tempted by Columbus in the district of Veragua, near the Isthmus of Panama, but the undertaking was broken up by the fierceness of the natives, who attacked the Spaniards, and killed many. The admiral was not to have the honor of planting the first colofty upon the main- land. Leaving the coast he sailed to the east, passed through the mouth of the Gulf of Darien, and then bent his course northerly. 1503. June 24. A Lonely Year. He was obliged to beach his worn-out and worm-eaten vessels upon Jamaica. He arranged them for defence and shelter, and lived in them about one year. But it was a trying year. Troubles thickened about him. Differences broke out among his men, and at one time a portion of them revolted and separated from the vessels. A warfare took place, which, in addition to the hostility of the natives, made the position of Columbus one of 106 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AXD SETTLEMENT. extreme peril. The natives finally re- fused to furnish food. At one time, Co- lumbus, knowing that an eclipse of the moon was about to take place, sent word to the Indians that the Great Spirit was iingry with them for their treatment of the Spaniards, and that the moon would be darkened that night as a sign of his displeasure. The natives were overawed by the occurrence of the phenomenon, as it had been foretold, and for a time fui*- nished an abundance of provisions. But they still hated the \isitorfl to their shores. .-i DAlUXa C±\OE VOYAGE. 1503. It soon became apparent to Columbus and his follower* at Jamaica, that they must have relief or perish. Food was still obtained upon the island with great difficulty, and sometimes onlv by force. Besides this, the differences among the sailors put a great burden of care and watchfulness upon the shoulders of Columbus, which he could not long endure. Hence some effort must be made to convey information concerning the con- dition of affairs to Hayti. Diego Mendez, a faithful follower of Columbus, \'olunteered to attempt the passage from Jamaica to Hayti in a large canoe. But the hostilitv of the natives broke up the first under- taking after the preparations had been made, and the eastern end of the island had been reached, where Mendez was intending to embark upon his perilous adventure. He made his wav back to the admiral, and prepared once more for the trip. Tills time thei'e were :wo canoes, one containing Diego Mendez and several companions; the other containing Bar- tholomew Fiesco, with several others. Fiesco was also a devoted friend of Co- lumbus. The little company set out upon tlieir way across the open sea, the men taking turns in paddling their frail vessels day and night. The heat of the first day was excessive, and having no protection from the open sun, the men became ex- ceedingly thirsty, and by the second day all the drinking water on board had been exhausted. It was not long in the torrid atmosphere befoi"e the torments of thirst grew almost unendurable. A small c{uantity of water which had been kept back, was now given in small amounts to the weakened rowers. Through the sul- try calm they slowly made their way over the swells of the ocean, but could see no land. The Indians, of whom there were a number, began to die. Some lay help- less in the canoes. Mendez and Fiesco almost gave way to despair. The suffer- ings of all were almost unexampled. At last they caught sight of a small island named Navasa, about eight leagues from Hayti. Here they found rain water, but this boon proved the death of some, who drank of it immoderatelv. They remained here a day, resting and eating the shell-fish which they found upon the shore. At night they crossed to Hayti, making the entire forty leagues in a little less than fi\'e days. They were now one hundred and thirty leagues from San Domingo, a distance which Mendez im- mediately set himself to accomplish. This he did with great toil, all for the sake of his beloved commander. The entire trip is one to which great romance at- taches. Mendez was finally instrumental in securing relief for the admiral, as will be seen. 1503. Negro slavery increased t year of a great soutli sea. 1512. Romance in Yucatan. Val- divia having been sent from Santa ISIaria to Ilayti for supplies, was wrecked. The survivors were stranded on the shore of Yucatan, and were all destroyed by the Indians, except two, Gonzalo Guerrero, who was adopted into a tribe and rose to great influence in it; and Jeronimo de Aguilar, who gained power in another tribe Aguilar was found and taken away by Cortes in 15 19, and served through the conquest of jMexico. Guer- rero refused to give up his Indian life, to which he had conformed like a native. 1512. March 3. The Fountain of Youth. Juan Fonce de Leon sailed with three ships to find the fountain which the Indians affirmed to exist in land at the Nortli, whose waters, upon bathing in them, would make the old permanently young again. He searched through the Bahamas to no purpose, and then sailed to the Northwest. 1512. April 2. De Leon landed near the spot where St. Augustine was after- ward founded, anil named the country Florida, because of the abundant vegeta- tion, and perhaps because of the time when he first reached it. His first view of it was on Palm Sunday, and his land- ing was on Easter Sunday. He foiuid neither gold nor living springs and streams, and at'ter a disappointing search, he finally returned to Porto Rico. The Gulf Stream was noticed for the first time by Alaminos, pilot of this expedition, who described it in a journal of the vovage. 1513. Approval of Indian Slavery. Owing to the opposition of the Domini- can priests in the New World to slavery, a decree of the Privy Council of Spain was finally issued, declaring the bondage of the Indians to be warranted by the laws of God and of man, and that only so could the natives be led into the Chris- tian faith. The Dominicans were the first abolitionists of America. THE MCIFIC OCEtIK 1513. Balboa having heard that En- ciso had lodged a successful complaint against him in Spain, determined to set out from Santa jVIaria at once, for the disco\ery of the great sea which was said to lie at the south. He hoped by so doing to thwart the plans of his ene- mies, and re-establish his reputation with the king. 1513. Sept. 1. He started with one hundred and ninety men, besides Indian guides and allies whose favor he had gained by kindness. 1513. Sept. 26. After a very ditfi- cult march through the wilderness, he discovered the Pacific Ocean from the summit of a mountain. Thence he pro- ceeded with his followers to the coast, and took possession for the Spanish crown by wading into the water with a royal standard, and proclaiming it subject to the Spanish power. He called it the South Sea. Balboa during this expedi- tion heard of the rich kingdom of Peru at the south. 1514. Jan. 19. Balboa having re- crossed the Isthmus, arrived at Santa Maria, and sent to Spain full accounts of FOUNTAIN AND AQUEDUCT— MEXICO. RIO POLOCHIC, GUATEMALA. 115 1507-1522.] his discovery, together with pearls and gold, which he had obtained in large quantities. 1514. June 30. Don Pedrarias Davila, who had been appointed governor of the region of Darien, arrived from Spain with two thousand cavaliers and adven- turers. He began at once to try to crush Balboa, and soon undertook legal action against him. A royal ordinance had instituted an ecclesiastical government for Darien, and a Franciscan friar was sent out with Davila as bishop. The large force of Davila was soon depleted very greatly by malarial diseases. Many returned to Cuba. 1515. Balboa was appointed governor of the provinces of the South Sea. Peace was apparently arranged between him and Davila. 1515. July 25. San Cristobal in 1515-1547. Fra7icis I. Cuba was fouudcd and King of Fra7ice. afterward became, by removal, the present city of Havana. 1515. Copper was mined in Cuba for casting cannon, but the mines were not worked long, because of the burdensome restrictions put upon them by government. 1516. Jan. 1. Juan Diaz de Solis discovered a river which he named Rio Janeiro, or River of January. He after- ward entered the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and having landed with a portion of his crew, was captured, killed and eaten, within sight of his vessels. 1516. Enlarged Slave Trade. Charles V. granted the Flemings a 1516-1556. 1^,1 1 Charles V.King monopoly oi the slave trade of Spain arid the ^yjth Ncw Spain, uiulcr a Netherlands. i • i patent which allowed the importation of four thousand Africans each year. Under Ferdinand, Cardinal Ximenes had been instrumental in restrict- BALBOA AND CORTES. 117 ing this traffic, because of his own moral opposition to it, or as some affirm, because of mere political and financial reasons. Whatever the reason, he at any rate set himself against it very decidedly. FIRST VESSELS OK THE PACIFIC. 1516. Balboa's remarkable energy and skill as a leader came out in the trans- portation of lumber and rigging- across the Isthmus, for the building of several brigantines upon the great South Sea, now the Pacific Ocean. This wonderful deed was accomplished only after gieat pains. Indians, negroes and Spaniards were set to the work, under the personal supervision of Balboa. The timber which had been cut on the Atlantic coast, was dragged with almost infinite toil through the forests which covered the mountain sides. The Indians could not stand the severe labor, and many of them died. The timber, which was first trans- ported, proved to be worthless, because worm-eaten. Balboa speedily set about getting more. Rains began to flood the countrv, and almost destroyed all the un- dertaking. But Balboa would not desist, and at last he had the privilege of seeing a European sail spread upon the sea he had discovered. This deed was consid- ered one of the most eminent in the list of great accomplishments in those days. It was even said that " no leader save Balboa could have conducted such an en- terprise to a successful issue." Such was the man who was doomed soon to meet an unworthy end. He cruised beyond the Gulf of St. Michael, and heard fuller reports of the great kingdom of Peru. 1517. Feb. 8. Francisco Fernan- dez de Cordova sailed from Santiago, 118 DISCOVERT, EKPLORATrON AND SETTLEMENT. Culia, with three vessels and one hun- dred and ten men, on a vo\aa Capac, between whom the kingdom of Peru had been divided at the death of their father, Huayna Capac, were at war. The latter, to whom the province of Quito had been given, took (iREA T EXPEDITIONS. 133 his elder brother captive, and is said to have murdered many Inca nobles. 1532. May 16. San Miguel. Pizarro, having marched to Tumbez and found it almost wholly destroyed, proceeded some leagues south, where he founded a city which he named San Miguel. It was afterward removed to the river Piura. Pizarro melted down the gold and silver which had been collected, and forwai'ded it to Panama to remove the burden of debt from the expedition. 1532. Sept. 24. Pizarro left San Miguel on a march for the camp of Atahuallpa, which was said to be near. He led his little force through a beautiful country, and at last sent out De Soto to reconnoiter. In a week De Soto returned, accompanied by an ambassador from Ata- huallpa, who brought valuable presents and a cordial invitation to visit the Peru- vian camp. Pizarro sent presents in re- turn, and resumed his march. With con- sidera])le difficulty the troops climbed the Cordilleras, but finally descended into the lovely plain where Caxamalca lay. The camp of Atahuallpa was upon the side of the hill, just outside the city. 1532. Nov. 15. Pizarro entered the city of Caxamalca, which had been de- serted by its inhabitants for his use. An embassy sent to the camp, saw great riches and perfect discipline. That night the Spanish officers in council determined to seize the person of the Inca. 1532. Nov. 16. Atahuallpa visited the Spanish camp in the area of Caxa- malca. Friar Vincente de Valverde at- tempted to secure from Atahuallpa an acceptance of the Catholic faith, and an acknowledgement of submission to the Spanish government. At the refusal of the Peruvian monarch, he and his attend- ants were assailed at a given signal, and 134 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. reached the ears of Pizarro. It was de- aftcr a great massacre, Atahuallpa was taken captive. No Spaniartl was killed. Tvluch gold and silver were found, and large numbers of llamas were in the val- ley. The people seemed weak as soon as their leader was taken. Atahuallpa offered to fill the room in which he was confined, twcntv-two feet long, and sev- enteen feet wide, full of gold, to a height of nine feet, as a ransom. He also prom- ised to fill another room twice full of sil- ver. Pizarro accepted his offer, and messengers were at once sent forth to collect" gold and silver from all parts of the realm. Atahuallpa, fearing that his brother, Huascar, would escape from prison through the reported offer of a ransom larger than his own, secured his death. It is related that Atahuallpa, Avhile in 2:)rison, got some "Spaniard to write the name of God upon his thumb nail, and presented it to every one who visited him. When each, upon looking at it, gave him the same explanation, his wonder increased at the silent writing. Once when Francisco Pizarro came to his cell, the Inca held up the same to him, and noticing the confusion in the look of the conqueror, who could neither read nor write, he ever after esteemed the Spanish leader an inferior man. 1533. February. Much gold had now loeen brought in for the ransom of Atahuallpa. At last the Spanish soldiers clamored for a division of the spoil, though it lacked something of being the full amount. The roval fifth was selected, and Hernando Pizarro was sent with it to Spain. The rest was melted down and amounted to about $15,500,000 gold, besides a large quantitv of silver. It was divided according to rank and service. Atahuallpa now demanded his release, but rumor* of an uprising of the people cided to try the captive monarch upon this charge of havmg secretly instigated a rebellion. It was done, and at last, in spite of the remonstrance of a few, he was sentenced to death. 1533. Aug. 29. Atahuallpa was ex- ecuted by the garrote instead of hy bin-ning, as had been first decreetl, the former method being adopted upon his professed accejDtance of the Catholic re- ligion in his last hours. Pizarro conferred the crown upon Toparca, a brother of Atahuallpa, and invested him with the civil power of the realm, according to the regal customs. 1533. September. Pizarro set out for Cuzco. Their journey lay for a part of the way over the great road of the realm, which had been built at some time with great labor, along the sides of mountains and across deep chasms. Upon this journey the newly appointed Inca died, and Pizarro received negotiations from IVIanco Capac, brother of Huascar, asking for recognition as ruler of the kingdom. He was met plausiblv, and was promised support. 1533. Nov. 15. Cuzco was entered by the Spanish army. It was found to be a city of great regularity, and of substan- tial architecture. Considerable wealth was « found in it and divided among the soldiers. It is said by some to have been even greater than the ransom of Atahuallpa. 1533. Lower California was explored by two expeditions sent out by Cortes in this and the previous year. 1533. Cartagena, a city of Colombia, South America, was founded and after- ward fortified at a cost of $29,000,000. Its situation upon a small island makes it the chief naval port on the northern coast of South America. 1523-1550.J 1533. The first recorded eruption of Cotopaxi, a volcano situated in Ecuador, S. A., the highest active volcano in the w^orld, took place. Its summit is about 19,000 feet above the sea. 1534. January. Hernando Pizarro arrived in Spain upon his mission, and presented all his treasures before the gov- ernment. Previous contracts were all confirmed, and the territory extended. Almagro was granted the right to con- quer the country two hundred leagues south of Pizarro's territory. Hernando Pizarro was created a Knight of Santi- ago and ordered to fit up an expedition to sail to Peru for assistance in the con- quest. This expedition was almost en- tirely annihilated at its start by a terrible storm, only a few of the adventurers reaching Peru at last. 1534. Quito was captured by Sebas- tian Benalcazar, \vhom Pizarro had placed in charge of San Miguel. He was dis- appointed in not finding any wealth in the city. 1534. March 24. Pizarro invested Manco Capac with the government of the realm, and received his submission to the Spanish crown. He organized a municipal corporation for Cuzco. Father Valverde was appointed bishop. 1534. April 20. Jacques Cartier, an eminent French sailor, left St. Malo, France, with two vessels of sixty tons each, and one hundred and twenty-two men, for a voyage of exploration to the New World. He had in all probability been upon the Newfoundland banks in previous years. 1534. May 10. After a quick pas- sage of twenty days, he reached New- foundland, where he was obliged to re- 7494-1534. main for a time on account Corre^ffio. ^f ^-j-jg j(,g^ fjg Subsequently GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 135 sailed around the island through the Straits of Belle Isle. He visited and named the Baye de Chaleur. 1534. July. He erected a cross bear- ing the French arms upon the shore of Gaspe as a sign of the French dominion. He then sailed up the St. Lawrence as JACqUES CARTIER. far as the island of Anticosti, at which point he turned back to France. 1534. The city of Quito, S. A., was founded upon the remains of the old In- dian town, ten thousand feet above the sea. 1535. Jan. 6. Lima. Pizarro selected and laid out the site of a capital city of Peru, and named it " City of the Kings." The name ^vas afterward changed to Lima. A large number were set to work at once upon the buildings and streets, and many of the foundations then laid, have remained till this day. 1535. May 19. Cartier's Second Voy- age. Jacques Cartier sailed on his sec- ond voyage froni St. Malo, France, with three vessels, the largest one being of one hundred and ten tons burden. He reached the Gulf of St. Lawrence and sailed up the river of the same name. 1535. June 12. Pizarro and Alma- gro executed another agreement at Cuzco, by which they pledged lastmg friendship. This was caused by the assumption of 136 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. supreme power at Cuzco by Almagro, who contended that the city lay within the limit of his grant from the crown. Almagro now undertook an expedition to Chili, and succeeded in raising five hundred and seventy men, who were dis- patched at different times. Pizarro en- couraged adventurers to other parts of his realm, and established cities at differ- ent points. 1535. Oct. 2. Site of Montreal. Car- tier having stopped for a time at the present site of Quebec in intercourse with Donnacona and his Indian subjects, and having jDassed up through beautiful Lake St. Peter, arrived at the Indian village of Hochelaga, situated upon an island. He ascended the mountain back of the village, and named it Mont Roy- ale, which has passed into the name of the island, and of the great city now upon it, as Montreal. The French then re-embarked and went down to the mouth of the St. Croix, now the St. Charles, and there remained for the winter. 1535. Buenos Ayres was founded by a Spanish expedition imder Don Jorge de Mendoza. It was abandoned in 1538, and did not become permanent till 1 580, when colonies had already begun to flourish in the interior. 1535. New Spain, now Mexico, was into a vice-royalty, and Don de Mendoza was appointed erected Antonio viceroy. FIRST PRIKTIKG. 1535. Under the direction of the vice- roy, printing was established in the city of Mexico. " The Spiritual Ladder," a school manual, was printed there one hundred and four years before a printing press was set up in the United States, being the first book, or very nearly the first book printed on the American conti- nent. Mexico gave birth to ninety-three other books, and Peru to seven, before the close of the century. Nineteen of them were written in Latin. FIRST MINT. 1535. A mint was established in the City of Mexico, and began the coinage of silver, thus preceding all similar work on the continent. FIRST HISTORY. 1535. A history of America by Gon- zalo Hernandez, governor of San Do- mingo, was published at Seville, Spain. It contains the first known mention of the pine-apple. 1536. February. Manco Capac, hav- ing escaped from Cuzco, in which city a strict watch was kept over him, and having apjoeared among the people, the natives rose and besieged Cuzco with two hundred thousand men. A large jDortion of the city was burned. Lima was be- sieged at the same time, and all commu- nications were cut off. Pizarro sent for Almagro to return from Chili, to aid in putting down the rebellion. 1536. February. Juan Pizarro lost his life in attempting to take a strong- hold held by the Peruvians. He was the first of the four brothers to fall, and was in most respects the most worthy of the number. He was a valiant soldier, and was free from most of the harsh characteristics of his times. 1536. March 6. Jacques Cartier, having spent the winter with his men on the St. Lawrence, and having lost twen- ty-five of the little company by scurvy, at last sailed for France, taking with him the Indian chief, Donnacona, and nine of his inferioi chiefs, of whom he gained possession by deceit. 1523-1550 1 -* » 1536. An expedition under Master Hore sailed from London to plant a col- ony on Newfoundland, but the attempt came to an end after much suffering. 1536. Asuncion, the capital of Par- aguay, S. A., was founded by Juan de Ayolas. It served as the capital of the La Plata provinces till 1620. 1536. Almagro returned from Chili, having effected nothing to advance his fortunes. His troops had suffered much from cold and fatigue. When he reached the vicinity of Cuzco and found it be- sieged, he held communications with Man- co Capac, but without result, through misunderstanding. FROM FLORIDA. TO MEXICO. 1536. July 22. Cabaya de Vaca, one of the survivors of the expedition of Narvaez into Florida, arrived with two or three companions in Mexico, after a fearful journey of eight years across the continent. It is uncertain whether they 1483-15S6. crossed the Mississippi, thus Martin Lnther. becoming its discoverers, or passed its mouth in boats which they used for a little time along shore. They were 1467-1536. kept in a severe captivity Erasmus, for a long t]"me by the In- dians, and suffered much. At last they escaped and began their long march across the continent through Texas and New Mexico. They finally reached their countrymen and were sent to Spain, where they were received with great honor. They gave the first account of the Pueblo Indians, and brought about by their statements, the subsequent explora- tion of New Mexico and California. GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 137 1537. April 8. Cuzco was seized by Almagro, who had been refused an en- trance into the city till the rival claims of himself and Pizarro could be decided. He seized the place by night and put Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro into con- finement. The former had just before returned from Spain. 1537. July 12. Almagro captured Alonzo de Alvarado, one of Pizarro's officers, with a force of five hundred men, \vho had been sent to relieve Cuzco. 1537. The siege of Cuzco was now wholly broken up by Almagro. Pizarro, upon hearing of the seizure of Cuzco, sent a messenger to negotiate terms of peace. This effort was broken off by the death of the messenger. Almagro now descended to the seashore and attemj^ted to found a city which should rival Lima. Here he soon heard of the escape of sev- eral of his prisoners, among them Gon- zalo Pizarro. 1537. Nov. 13. An interview took place between Almagro and Pizarro, which, after some altercation, resulted in the agreement that Cuzco should remain in Almagro's hands till the claims to it could be adjusted in Spain; and that Hernando Pizarro should be set at lib- erty on condition that he would leave the country in six weeks. This was done, and Hernando Pizarro was sent to his brother's quarters. Francisco at once released Hernando from all obliga- tion to obey the agreement to leave the countiy, and announced to the army his intention of making war upon Almagro. He then returned to Lima and intrusted the prosecution of the \var to Hernando. I.VIJM.VS DECLARED HUMAX. 1537. A decree was issued by Pope Paul III., declaring the native Americans to be rational creatures, and entitled to the privileges of Christians. 138 DISCOVER}; EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1538. April 26. Almagro was cap- tured in a great battle, whieh was fought at Las Salinas, near Cuzco. 1538. July 8. Almagro was exe- cuted for levying war upon the Spanish crown. 1538. Havana, Cuba, was burned by French privateers. 1538. Santa Fe de Bogota in the United States of Colombia, S. A., was 1538. Di-hi'T bell fouudcd by Gonzalo Xim- inventt'd. encs de Quesada, who start- better educated than his brother Francis- co, and was a man of great self-possession and vigor in the midst of critical circum- stances. But he had a revengeful spirit, and was not troubled by the sight of blood, nor the reflection tliat it was due to his own injustice. When he came out of prison he ^vas an aged and infirm man. 1539. May 30. Hernando de Soto having returned from Peru on account of the feuds which were raging there, and 1 DE SOTO S MARCl ed the city with twelve houses in honor of the twelve apostles. 1539. Hernando Pizarro sailed to Spain because he learned that Almagro's friends were trying to secure redress. He arrived safely, and at first successfully resisted the imputations cast upon him. But he was finally arrested, thrown into prison, and confined for twenty years, being released in 1560. Hernando Pizarro disappeared from the scene of action in Peru, leaving upon his name a reputation for harshness, even to cruelty. He was having determined while governor of Cuba upon making an expedition into Florida, arrived at Tampa ^.^^ ^.,,^ ^^^, Ba}' with nine vessels, six used by Cathar- 111 1 1 ] r i>>e Howard, hundred men, and a herd ot „„ ^„„fj^„„ ' giieen of J^ng- swine, besides all manner of land. supplies. Then began a ^^, ^^ ^^„^^,^ long and toilsome march founded by Cai- across the country to the west. During this year they reached as far as the head of the Bay of Ap- joalachee, where they stopped for the winter. 1523-1550.] JV±X ORTIZ. 1539. When De vSoto had marched with his men a short distance from Tam- pa Bay, Juan Ortiz, a man who had come to Florida in the expedition of Narvaez in 1528, met them and proved of great value tc the expedition. He related to De Soto a romantic story of his capture and experience among the Indians. He was at first doomed by King Ucita to death by burning, for which purjDOse they placed him upon a scaffold, and kindled a blazing fire be- neath it. Before the flames had reached him his life was besought by the daugh- ter of the chief from her father, \vho seemed not to have yielded out of com- passion, but because of the arguments of his child, among which was one that it would be a great honor to keep a white man in captivity. Ortiz was retained as a slave, but was again in danger of death a few years afterward, when the Indian princess aided him in escaping beforehand. He lived with other Indians till De Soto's entrance into the country, when he served as guide and interpreter for that explorer. He died a short time before De Soto. GREAT EXPEDITIONS. L 139 1539. An expedition sent out by Cortes, under Francisco de Ulloa, ex- plored the coast of California to the far north. Ulloa sent home a vessel, but never returned himself. This ended the explorations of Cortes. 1540. De Soto and his followers re- sumed their march into the region lying northwest of the present State of Florida. They met at one point with resistance from the natives, and burned an Indian 1540. Order of town with great destruc- Jesuits founded .• c ^•^ nni o • i / , ,. tion of lite, i he Spaniards oy Ignalius i Loyola. lost eighteen men, besides all their baggage. Many men were wounded. They stopped for the winter in Northern Mississippi. 1540. April 22. The Seven Cities. An expedition under Coronado, was sent by Mendoza, viceroy of New" Spain, to search for the seven cities of Cibola, concerning which vague reports had reached them. He exj^lored the Pueblo cities of Arizona and New Mexico, and died, his followers returning to Mexico. ±MTiZO.\' EXFEDITIOX. 1540. Gonzalo Fizarro upon assum- ing the government of Quito to which he had been appointed by his brother, fitted up an expedition to the east. He raised three hundred and forty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, and furnished them with all necessary supplies. The men experienced great suffering in pass- ing the cold heights of the Cordilleras and descending into the heat and rains of the region beyond. They reached the region of cinnamon, where the bark could be gathered in great quantities, but it was of no avail to them. They pushed on, having been told by natives that a land of gold lay a few days be- vond. After much difiiculty in break- ing through the tropical undergrowth, they reached the river Napo, a great tributary of the Amazon. They hoped to find a more practicable way along its banks. Here they built a boat to carry their baggage and the persons who had grown weak. They cut tim- ber, made nails out of old horse-shoes, pitched the bottom with gum from the forest, and used old, worn-out garments as oakum. They Avere two months in building it, but at last had a boat both strong and large. Pizarro put a large portion of the company aboard under 140 DISCOVERT, EXPLOliATION AND SETTLEMENT. Francisco dc Orcllana, and sent thcni alonj^thc river. The l)()at was finally sent ahead for ])rovisi()ns w ith orders to return and meet the rest as soon as p()ssil)le. Pizarro waited for weeks, then deter- mined to proceed alon<^ the river, and in two months came to the Amazon. No sign of the boat met him. It was now 1 54 1. But at last he found Sanchez de Vargas who had been put out of tiie boat because he opposed the desertion of the land company. lie stated that the rest had sailed on down the river witli the design of going to Spain. It may be as is claimed by one record, tliat Orellana was led to this by finding no provisions, and that his return to the land party would l)e very slow on ac- count of the swift current. At any rate, with him belongs the glory of the real discovery of the Amazon. lie kept on down the stream, now near starvation for lack of food which could be seldom obtained, now fighting with his worn-out company the Indians who beset them in some ])laces by thousands. They were seven months in reaching the Atlantic. At one place they stopped to strengthen or rebuild their weakened vessel. At one time "there was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs." Finally they reached the Atlantic and turned north along the coast, reaching Cubagua in due time. From here Orellana sailed to Spain and obtained a grant of the lands along the Amazon, but his j)lans were cut short by his death, which took place before he could reach the land of his great adven- ture. In June, 1542, Gonzalo l*izarro reached Quito upon his letinii from the great wilderness. He had been a full year in making his way back. Only eighty Spaniards remained, and they were worn out and broken down. Hun- dreds of the Indians had perished. This expedition must ever rank as one of the most remarkable adventures in the New World. 1540. Vacade Castro, an ambassador, was appointed by the Spanish govern- ment to visit Peru, inquire into its dis- turbances, and use his authority in re- stoi'ing order. 1540. Cortes again returned to Spain in order to j^i'-'-'^'-'iit further requests to the government. 1540. Gold was discovered in the coast range of Venezuela, S. A. 1541. Feb. 24. Santiago, Chili, was founded ])y Pedro de Vah idia. 1541. May. The Mississippi. De Soto after numerous trials in penetrating the wilderness, arrived at the Mississipj^i River, thus connecting his name forever with that great stream. 1541. May 23. Cartier's Third Voy- age. Jacques Carticr sailed on his third voyage, to be followed by Lord Roberval, who was to bring further supplies with which to found a colony. Lord Rober- val had received a commission, granting him the government of New France, and had made Cartier captain-general of the expedition. H'MRRO'S DEATH. 1541. June 26. Francisco Pizarro was assassinated in his own home in Lima, by a party who had attached themselves to Almagro, whose father, Diego de Almagro, had been executed some time before. The attack was made in the daytime, and Pizarro was killed only after a severe resistance by himself and his attendants, many of whom were 1523-1550.] also slain. The conqueror was at his death about seventy years of age, but was still in the full vigor of life. The exposure and suffering which he had been through seem to have been borne with wonderful physical endurance. When his followers gave out by the score, he only redoubled his exertions. Francisco Pizarro was a man of great energy of spirit, which was at times ex- hibited in deeds strongly marked by cruelty and self-interest. His treatment of Atahuallpa has always been a reason for his condemnation. But at the time it seemed, without doubt, as if the whole cause would be the better prosecuted, and the natives of Peru would more readily receive a new government if their old leader were dead. Nor can we truly estimate the deed until we have the his- torical discernment of other circumstan- ces, such as the light value placed by any one upon the life of an enemy, and the feeling of the Spanish that the na- tives of America were an inferior race. Pizarro, compared with other explorers of his time, was evidently much less moved by moral considerations, and was possessed of a coarse, more cruel and unscrupulous nature. But even he should be judged by the light of his own time and nation. Everything in Pizarro's life was bent to his ambition, which was a purely secular and avaricious one. lie was not, like Columbus and Cortes, pos- sessed of a religious ambition. He could deny himself any minor pleasure if his great aim could be met. He was ready for any labor, and was always devising ways to secure greater power over his followers. He did not give way to eat- ing, drinking, or sleeping. Not having learned to read or write in his youth, he was not patient enough to do so in the GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 141 roving public life he afterward lived. He was emmently a soldier, and knew nothing except a soldier's life. In this he was thoroughly at home. Yet by his plans for public improvements in Peru, his founding of Lima and other cities, it is evident that he wished to build up a nation. In all his plans he was persistent in the highest degree. His long life was one of undeviating energy. He halted not, save for death, which came at last. By his hand Spain had acquired a vast empire, which afterward poured tons of silver into her treasury. Buried at first in secrecy and terror, his remains now repose in honor in the cathedral at Lima. He left a son and a daughter by an Indian princess. The former died in youth. The latter went to Spain, and her descendants are said to be found at Truxillo. 1541. Aug. 23. Cartier reached the St. Croix, and soon passed up to the river of Cap Rouge. Here he built two forts and remained for the winter, waiting for Lord Roberval, who did not come when expected, 1541. Vaca de Castro arrived in Quito and displayed his royal letters of author- ity, gaining adherents to himself as a rep- resentative of the crown. At Lima the young Almagro had entered at once upon military preparations for the support of his new power as governor of Peru, which he had assumed upon the death of Pizarro. 1541. A flood of water from a volca- no destroyed the city of Guatemala in Cential America. A new city was built further down in the valley. 1542. April 16. Lord Roberval sailed from Rochelle with two hundred colonists, for New France. 142 DISCOVERY^ EXPLORA I)E SOTO. 1542. May 21. Dc Soto having wan- dered through the region of the Arkansas River, and ha^/ing selected a site on the Mississippi for a colony, died, and was buried b}- his followers in the waters of the stream he had discovered. The sur- vivors continued their wanderings. Her- nando de Soto was born about 1496, in Estremadura, Spain, and was of noble blood. He received something of an ed- ucation, and came to America in 15 19. He was always a supporter of the best qualities in his companions, and in the confused moral conditions attending the exploration of the New World he seems never to have lost his better impulses. He joined Pizarro in Peru soon after that leade2''s entrance upon the conquest, and while a member of the army, became joromincnt for his intrepid spirit and un- wavering energy. Upon Pizarro's march to Caxamalca, De Soto, with a few men, penetrated the country as an advance guard, and discovered the great road to Cuzco. At the capture of the latter city he exhibited bravery beyond that of his comjDanions in arms. He became a friend of the Inca, Atahuallpa, in his captivity, and was greatly shocked upon his return to Caxamalca from an expedition, to find that the royal prisoner had been falsely tried and executed. De Soto subsequently I'eturned to Spain and fitted up the expe- dition which resulted so disastrously. He was a man of uncommon perseverance and enjoyed better the work of explora- tion than he did the more bloody work of conquest. He impresses us as being a hero possessed of much inanliness, one whose valor in fight resulted from the strength of his character, rather than from the sway which passion had over his spirit. TION AND SETTLEMENT. 1542. June 8. Lord Roberval reached Newfoundland and found Cartier, who had grown weary of waiting, and had broken up the colony, on his way to France. Lord Roberval tried to force him back, but Cartier departed secretly and returned to France. The new-comer passed ujd the river and settled on the spot abandoned by the others. A dreary win- ter was spent, and the colony was at last broken up and carried back to France. 1542. Sept. 16. The young Almagro was met and conquered by Vaca de Cas- tro on the plains of Chupas. Almagro fled to Cuzco and was arrested. De Cas- tro also proceeded to Cuzco, where Al- magro was tried and executed. Some of his chief adherents were executed, and others banished. De Castro at once be- gan to settle the province in true peace and order. He founded schools for Indi- ans, and prevented oppression as far as- possible. 1542. The government of the prov- inces of Spain in the New World was brought to the attention of Charles V. by Las Casas, who was very anxious about it. A new code was drawn up, making Peru a viceroyalty, and specifying certain improvements in the methods of treating the Indian population. Certain restric- tions were put about slavery, both Indian and negro, virtually abolishing it. The viceroy was to have a Royal Court of ./Vudience of four persons. Lima was to take precedence of Panama as capital of the Pacific coast. Blasco Nunez de Vela was appointed to the government. 1542. Nov. 20. A Royal Audience was established for Central America, on account of the death of Alvarado. It was first seated at Valladolld de Coma- yagua. There was very little peace im the province after the conqueror died. 1523-1550.] 1543. The first vessels ever built on the Mississippi were seven frail brigan- tines, in which the followers of De Soto floated down the river to the Gulf of Mexico. Their members were very much reduced, and their sufferings before they reached the Gulf of Mexico, were very great. 1543. Cartier's Last Voyage. Car- tier is said to have been sent to New France this year, to bring home Lord Roberval and his companions. This voyage, if made, was Cartier's fourth and last one to Canada. He wintered there, and returned the next year. From this time he is not heard of in explora- tions, and is supposed to have lived at St. Malo until he died, about 1555. Scarcely anything is known of him beyond his voyages to Canada, which cover a period of ten years. He is supposed to have been about forty years of age at his first expedition. He appears as a man of en- durance and good character. His name will always be intimately associated with the great St. Lawrence, although France was not ready to avail herself of his en- terprise in building up at once upon his explorations. 1543. Nov. 3. Blaseo Nunez de Vela, the new viceroy of Peru, sailed from San Lucar for his province. In the meantime his appointment, and the new code of regulations for the province, caused great agitation among all the in- habitant's. The property of many would be severely reduced, if they were no longer allowed to have a gang of Indi- ans to do their bidding. 1544. January. The Viceroy's Fail- ure. Blaseo Nunez de Vela reached Nombre de Dios on the Isthmus, and caused hostility at once upon his arrival by freeing certain Indians who had been GREA T EXPEDITIONS 143 brought from Peru as slaves. He arrived at Tumbez, and entered upon his admin- istration by the execution of the laws of the new code just as decreed, without fear or favor. Great excitement resulted. Gonzalo Pizarro was proclaimed at Cuzco procurator general of Peru, and was empowered by the municipal author- ities to present their remonstrances to the viceroy, and solicit redress. He also in- sisted upon having the power to raise an army. Nunez proceeded to Lima, and arresting De Castro after awhile as being concerned in the rebellion of Pizarro,. threw him into confinement. Pizarro was marching toward Lima. The ex- citement of the people grew more violent.. At last the Royal Audience arrested Nunez because they differed from him in carrying out the decrees. He was de- posed from ofiice and confined on an island near by, in waiting to be sent to Spain. Pizarro drew near the city, and demanded to be acknowledged governor. The judges asked him to disband his force, inasmuch as the ordinance objected to, had been suspended. He refused, and declared he would pillage the city unless his authority was recognized. 1544. Oct. 28. Pizarro entered Lima at the head of his force, and was proclaimed governor of Peru till the emperor could be heard from. This was followed by acclamations and days of feasting. Vaca de Castro escaped to Spain, was confined twelve years, but was at last fully ac- quitted upon trial. 1544. October. The Viceroy's Re- lease. The captain who was to take Nunez to Spain released him soon after sailing. Nunez returned to Tumbez and raised an army by a public call. He went to Quito and then to San Miguel. H'C secured five hundred men. 144 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1544. Cartagena, S. A., was taken by the French. 1544. Manco Capac, the Inca of Peru, was shot by Spaniards who had been received into his camp. Since the siege of Cuzco failed, he had Hved in the mountains, and had been a great ter- ror to the Spaniards. Efforts had been made to gain his submission, but without success. He was deadly opposed to Spanish rule, and would by no means helj) it in the least. The Spaniards who killed him were immediately killed by the Indians. This unfortunate Peruvian monarch seems to have had great deter- mination, and much power over his subjects. 1545. March 4. Gonzalo Pizarro, having garrisoned Lima, set out for Truxillo in order to proceed against the viceroy. He found that the latter had left San Miguel, and immediately set out in pursuit through the mountains. For two hundred leagues the pursuit was kept up at great suffering on both sides, until Pizarro stopped at Quito, Nunez having gone further north to Popayan. POTOSI SILVER MIJ^FS. 1545. An Indian named Hualpa, climbing the mountains in pursuit of wild goats, accidentally discovered the silver mines of Potosi, Bolivia, by pull- ing a bush from the earth by the roots, in his efforts to save himself from falling, 1545. Needles His eye fell at once upon first made. ^^g Qj-g beneath. For a time he kept it secret, but his possession of silver was at last noticed, and he told a friend where he obtained it. They soon quarreled over it, and thus the secret was given to the world. The mines are in a mountain \vhich nses at its summit above the surroundinsf mountains in a perfect cone-like form, to a height ,of i6,ooo feet above the sea. In this cone over five thousand mines have been opened, running in all directions, and completel} honeycombing the top of the mountain. During the next two hun- dred and forty-four years the yield was $1,000,000,000. There is still a great amount of silver and other minerals in the mountain lower down. Indians have always been the chief workers in these mines. HIGHEST CITY OK THE GLOBE. 1545. A little settlement began to be formed about the silver mines of Potosi, and a city grew up at an elevation of 13,300 feet above the sea. There are other higher mountain points inhabited, but no higher city in the world. It had a population of 150,000 inhabitants two hundred years ago, but has now sunk to less than 30,000. Much of the place is in ruins, although only three places in Bolivia exceed it in size. The mint coins $2,000,000 every year from the sil- ver of the region. There isc considerable life and enterprise still left in the city. 1545. The yellow fever made its first appearance in Mexico. 1546. Jan. 12. The Viceroy's Death. A great battle was fought just north of Quito, between Nunez, who had been reinforced by Benalcazar, and Pizarro, who had gained many adherents in Quito. The viceroy was defeated and slain. The people hailed Gonzalo Pi- zarro as deliverer. 1546. Gonzalo Pizarro's Power. Car- bajal pursued and entirely scattered the forces of Diego Centeno, who had re- belled against Pizarro. The power of Pizarro was now felt throughout Peru. THE FALLEN MONARCH. MOS(;iTiTO COAST. 145 1523-15.50.] GREAT EXPEDITIOXS 147 He made a triumphant entry into Lima with great pomp. He obtained posses- sion of Panama and Xombre de Dios upon the Isthmus, and could command the communications with Spain. He w^as urged by some to throw off the authority of the crown and erect an independent kingdom. But he did not consent to take this step. He prepared to send a mission to Spain. 1546. Pedro de la Gasca, who had been appointed to visit Peini and assume the presidency of the Roval Audience, arrived at Xombre de Dios, which was held by Pizarro's men. Gasca was a very able, wise, and persevering priest. He gained the respect of the officers of the Isthmus, and when Pizarro's ambas- sador to Spain arrived at Panama, Gasca led him to give up his mission and confess allegiance to the crown. 1546. Nov. 19. Gasca received the peaceful surrender of the Isthmus and the fleet stationed there, thus gaining a great victory by his wisdom in approach- ing and winning men. 1546. A map was published in Ven- ice, representing Asia and America as joined in latitude 38". 1547. G^irSca began to raise troops, because attempts to open negotiations with Pizarro himself had been rejected. He sent public letters into Peru with great effect upon the people. 1547. Centeno now again rebelled, marched on Cuzco, took it, and soon had an army of one thousand men in the field, 1547-1559. Henry ready to opposc Pizarro. The latter also raised one thousand men. A process was issued against Gasca, at Lima, and condemned him to death for treason. This manifesto was laughed at by some //. Kin^ of France. Cath- erine de Medici, ^ueen. 1547-1553. Ed- ward VI. King of England. who said if Gasca could be caught they would execute him without a process, and if he could not be caught, it would do no good. 1547. April 10. The fleet of Gasca sailed from Panama, and after a severe storm, arrived at Tumbez. He found a change favorable to himself among the people, wrought by his manifestoes. He gathered his forces after a while at Xauxa. 1547. Oct. 26. Pizarro defeated the rebel Centeno, who had a force at this time twice his own, and succeeded in totally overthrowing him. Pizarro in- stantly executed many of the captives. Centeno escaped. Pizan'o entered Cuzco, \vhere his victory \vas celebrated. LEtLTH of CORTES. 1547. Dec. 2. Hernando Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, died near Seville in Spain in the sixty-third year of his age. This great soldier lived through all the dangers of war to die peaceably in his bed in his native land. He had outlived all the great explorers of his country whose names are connected ^vith Florida, Mexico, Central America and South America. A new realm was con- quered by him for the satisfaction of the avarice of Spain, and for the relief of her treasury in the wars she Avas waging at home. He was preeminently the representative soldier among the explor- ers of his time. The Pizarros Avere brave and persistent soldiers, but there is so much of personal ambition and cruel, selfish policy in their history, that we cannot claim for them the position of true military heroes. But the harshness, the coolness at the sight of blood, the readiness to fight, which we find in Cortes, seem to be connected closely with U8 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. the military character of the time rather than with personal defects in the man himself. We do not think of Cortes as being intensely selfish like Francisco Pizarro. His whole soul was in the con- quest, and he prided himself upon his own achievements. He always felt keen- ly the criticisms made upon his conduct. But he cannot be called an utterly selfish man. There is much that is unlovely and disagreeable in his character. He was cunning and bigoted. But we can- not deny him the praise of being one of the best soldiers whom Spain had in the New World. His power over his men seems to have been gained by the hearty, wholesome, generous bearing which he had toward them, rather than by any assumed favor for them. Yet they all knew that he would have them for fol- lowers, not for leaders. In this way he made a victorious army out of men of different ranks in life, and of different moral characters running through all grades. Coi'tes was a really great gen- eral. His victories were not gained by dash and superior force, but by judgment and military perception. He was also a man of great general knowledge and practical sense. He began at once to notice the resources of Mexico, and when the conquest was complete he immedi- ately set about the erection of a nation upon the old ruins. After he, like Co- lumbus, had been denied by the Spanish government the full reward which he had anticipated and desired, he eagerly sought some other quarter where his adventurous spirit could find delight in action. For this reason he set on foot the expeditions to California. But nothing appeared equal to his former field. The conquest of jSIexico was the great work of his life. In that the remarkable na- ture, abilities and character of "the man were very fully shown. His ashes now rest in the land which his valor added to the Spanish domain. 1548. March. Gasca, after having waited for reenforcements at different points, at last led forward nearly two thousand men, the largest single force that had ever been known in Peru. GOKZALO PIZARRO. 1548. April 8. The battle of Xaqui-" xaguana took place near Cuzco, in which Pizarro's forces were easily routed. Many of Pizarro's officers and privates took flight to the other army and surren- dered themselves to the new president. This proved the downfall of their com- mander. The battle had scarcely begun when desertions rapidly multiplied, and Pizarro, when he saw that „ ^ ' 1548. Orange his cause was hopeless be- trees brought cause of the dissolution of '"'" ^"''''^'■ his army, gave himself up. Francisco de Carbajal, an officer eighty years of age, who was true to Pizarro, coolly watched the course of events, and was heard to hum the words of a comic Spanish bal- lad which was a favorite with him : "The wind blows ike hairs off my head, mother, Two at a time it blows them away." When nearly all his fellow soldiers had fled, he attempted to make his es- cape, but was taken and afterward exe- cuted. He was one of the most remark- able characters of the conquest. Gasca's army acquired a large amount of booty. Gonzalo Pizarro was beheaded, and some of his oflicers were executed in dif- ferent ways. Thus perished the last of the four Pizarros, at about forty-two years of age. He had been only second to his brother Francisco throughout the con- 1523-1550.] quest, in the energy and ability with which he had striven to subjugate Peru. His expedition across the Cordilleras into the region of the Amazon was un- equaled in that time, and almost in any time, for boldness and romance. He loved show, and was less msensible to allurements of all kinds than his brother Francisco was. After the latter's death, Gonzalo felt that the honor of the name rested upon him to perpetuate. His gigantic efforts to retain a hold upon Peru were well nigh successful, but utter disaster came upon him at last. His ed- ucation was like Francisco's, an educa- tion of the camp. His moral nature was much the same. His head was set up at Lima and marked as that of a traitor. His property was confiscated, and his home in Lima utterly destroyed. His body was laid in Cuzco, with the bodies of Almagro and his son. 1548. La Paz, the chief commercial city of Bolivia, was founded by Alonzo de Mendoza. It is situated near Lake Titicaca, and is 13,000 feet above the sea. It has 85,000 inhabitants. 1549. Settled Administration. After the death of Pizarro, Gasca entered upon the administration of affairs, and endeav- ored to meet the needs of all by a wise distribution of rewards and favors. He took measures to investigate the condition of the Indian population. He introduced many reforms, and settled the govern- ment upon a new and firm basis. He GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 149 did it all without charge, save for his necessary expenses, and saved a large sum for the royal treasury. He even re- fused to receive presents from the people. 1549. First Jesuits. Thome de Souza was appointed governor of Brazil by the Portuguese crown, and made San Salva- dor the capital of that province under the name of Bahia. Jesuits for the first time came to America with De Souza. 1549. The independence of Spanish America was proclaimed by two brothers, Hernando and Pedro de Contreras, of Nicaragua. Panama submitted to them, but before a long time their cause de- clined, and ended with their deaths in 1550. This abortive attempt dimly fore- told the revolutionary movements two and a half centuries later. 1550. January. Gasca embarked at Lima for Spain, leaving the Royal Audi- ence to govern the province of Peru till a new viceroy could be sent. He took to Spain 1,500,000 ducats, and after a favorable voyage reached home in safety. His mission had been a complete success, and was worth an inestimable amount to Spain. He lived till 1567, and left the reputation of having been a wise, great and good man. After his departvn-e the regulations of 1543 were broken down, so far as slavery was concerned. Negroes and Indians were reduced to bondage again. 1550. Two millions of Indians had been worked to death in Hayti by the Spaniards in fifty years. SECTION VII. MHE last half of the sixteenth cen- tury presents a new element in the growing life of the New World. ^ I The most prominent feature of the period is the large number of English explorers who emerge into view. The achievements of the Cabots had not been closely followed up fifty years before. But now English sailors began to cruise all waters. Some sailed simply for gain and were not scrupulous about getting it with plunder and bloodshed if necessary. The greed of Hawkins and the vindictive spirit of Drake spread blots on American history which can never be erased. They aided the development of the buccaneer life which began before their day, but reached its most frightful extent in the seventeenth century. These men made no attempt to colonize. The designs of others were wholly commendable. Men like Gilbert could not have too much to do with the study of a new continent. The zeal of Raleigh deserved a better result than to be forever puzzled with the lost Roanoke colony. All the Eng- lish efforts were futile. France made few and feeble attempts. The mournful story of Huguenot failure in Brazil, and the blood-red page of Huguenot exter- mination in Florida are mere incidents in the suffering of that distressed people. The weak movements toward New France at the close of the period were without promise. Holland had not yet reached out strongly into the western continent. Meantime comparative quiet reigned throughout Spanish America, which was growing as far as the condi- tions would permit. Mining was attain- ing considerable dimensions. Education was increasing. Towns were multiply- ing. St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States, was founded. 1551. A band of pirates under Jacob Sores pillaged the wealthier portions of Havana, Cuba, seizing or destroying everything, and took possession of the fort, but soon left, as booty was their only object. 1551. Four lines for a ship-canal across Central America were indicated by the historian Gomara. A work of this kind was warmly and earnestly ad- vocated by him because it would bring Spain much nearer to the wealth of the Indies. 1551. Two universities, the oldest in America, were founded, one in the City of Mexico, and one in Lima. 150 1551-1602.] THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 1554. French buccaneers again de- 1490-1553. Ra- sti'o^^d Havaiia, Cuba. A belais, the ffreat French author. 15531558. "B/oody Mary" ^ueen of Eng- land. 151 short time before they had seized the city of Santiago on the same island, and received $So,ooo for its ransom. They swarmed through the West India waters, and hardly any town ■was safe from them. 1555. November. Huguenots in Brazil. Nicholas Durand de Villegagnon with a colony of Huguenots or French Protestants, arrived in the harbor of Rio Janeiro and began a settlement upon an island. He had sailed from France upon his undertaking, with the favor of Coligny Admiral of France, who was himself a Protestant. Villegagnon began to rule his colony with such strictness that he speedily caused much trouble and created many enemies for himself. Thus the settlement which had some principle in- volved in its organization came to grief because of the unfoiiunate dispositions of the ones engaged in it, and especially of its leader. Villegagnon was a man who had been exceedingly brave in war, and was accomplished in scholarship. He was evidently unfitted for the compara- tively limited work of building up a col- ony in a foreign land. Least of all could he bear opposition. Professing to be a Protestant, he was readily joined in his Brazilian enterprise by many who thought they would be free from danger in the exercise of their faith across the ocean. They flew to ills they knew not of. The sufferings endured in Fort Coligny as the little fortification was called, were very 15561598. Philip great. The harshness of Villegagnon irritated his followers almost to mad- ness. They formed a plan to overthrow, perhaps to kill //. King oj Spain. 1491-1556. Ig- natius Loyola, founder oJ the Jesuits. him, but it was revealed, and therefore failed. Famine began to stare the col- onists in the face. The difficulty of the situation grew every day more extreme. The future was not long in deciding the issue. 1557. March 9. A second body of colonists reached the Huguenot settlement at Rio Janeiro, Brazil. Villegagnon, be- cause increasingly despotic, drove off the Calvinist ministers into the woods until they could take a vessel for France, and threw some of the colonists who were of like faith into the sea. He soon after sailed for France, tired out with his experi- ment at colonization, and was henceforth a zealous Catholic. 1558. The Huguenot colony in Bra- zil was broken up and de- ^^^^ ^ ,. i 155H.- Sealing stroyed by the Portuguese. -Max brought into Thus did one American "'' '" ^'"-"P^- settlement, made on religious principle, fail because of lack of genuine leadership. 1558. A great expedition for the ex- ploration and colonization of Florida was fitted up at Vera Cruz, 155S-1603. eUz- Mexico, and sailed under "J^ \'^'"^*^ °l. ' England. Kise Tristan de Luna. There oj Puritanism. were fifteen hundred soldiers, some of them with families. They reached the coast of Florida but after they had landed a great storm broke up their ships so that they had no means of communication with Mexico, or of returning thither. They were soon distressed by a lack of supplies and lingered for a year or two in a starving condition, till the survivors were relieved by a vessel from Mexico and carried home. 1559. Reverses in Chili. Pedro Val- dl\'la who had been con- ducting the conquest of Chill, was captured by the Indians and 2Dut to death. The war 1559-1560. Fran- cis 11. King of France. 1560-1574. Charles IX. King of France. 153 DISCOVERT, EXPLORA7 had been very fearful thus far, and the natives now raUied more fiercely than ever. Tliey destroyed Concepcion, and assailed other places, including Santia England, with one vessel named " Con- coril," ami thirtv-two persons, of wliom twentv were to remain as colonists in the New World. Gosnold sailed directly across the Atlantic instead of taking the general route by way of thc Canary Islamls, and thc West Indies. lie thus sliortenei.1 the distance about one thousand miles. lie arrived in seven weeks on the New England coast near Nahant,. ^Slass., and sailing thence to thc south passed and named Cape Cod, because he took some codfish off its coast, entered Buzzard's Bav, and began to found a col- onv ujion one of the Elizabeth Islands^ now known as Cuttvhunk. Having ladetl the vessel with sassafras root, and being fearful that the intended colony could not be maintained in that spot, they all sailed for England. These were the first Englishmen to tread New England soil. 1602. The California coast was ex- plored bv an expedition under Viscaino. 1602. About two millions of grape vines were luulcr cultivation b}- the Span- ish near ^Vsuncion, Paraguay. ^^t^^ P<^^^'^ SECTION VIII- Tiru coMiJVG 'po yrun. /603-/6SO, "Vy^HE work of the historical student J I vj at tliis point is to stiidy with ex- I treme care the colonies which were \^ now planted in rapid succession upon the shore of North America. The influences which are finally to shape the civilization of the whole continent now rooted themselves and began to flourish. The germinal jDoints of English, French and Dutch power appeared within less than thirty years at the beginning of this cen- tury. Jamestown, Quebec, New Amster- dam, Plymouth, Salem, Boston and its associated towns, pass before us in quick I'eview, each with a distinctive character. The men who framed the first rough dwellings in these different settlements were widely contrasted in many of their social, commercial, political and religious qualities. Outward circumstances shaped, and in some cases limited, the growth of the young life. Old World features were impressed upon a part of the colo- nies. Plymouth sprang into being with a democratic government and an inde- pendent church, and thus introduced a unique factor into the problem of Ameri- can civilization. Slight traces of feudal principles are visible in the early days of almost all the colonies. Crude attempts to inaugurate manufactures were imme- diately made, and before long a start was obtained which led the English govern- ment afterward into the passage of laws which exasperated the colonists. The " tobacco fever" at Jamestown is the first of those excitements in many lines of cul- ture or labor, which have marked the history of our country every few years. The great Indian massacres had their beginning in the early days, and imper- illed the existence of the infant colonies. S±¥UEL DE CHAMPLAIX. A new element now appeared in New France in the person of one who was to exercise a leading part in its fortunes for nearly twoscore years. Champlain was born in 1567 at a little town on the Bay of Biscay named Brouage. He became accustomed to the sea, and when he reached manhood he rose to the rank of captain in the royal navy. He also fought in the army of Brittany, thus receiving a double fitness for the work of exploration and settlement awaiting him, that of navigator and soldier. He sailed upon an expedition to Mexico, of which he has left a very exact and vivid account, with all the flavor of romance about it. 163 164 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. He could not be himself save when en- gaged in some adventure. Plis eager spirit would not let him stop. When he returned to France he was therefore before long pining for some outlet for his energy. In this condition the proposition which looked toward his taking part in an expedition to New France, was not unwelcome. Here he found his life- mission. He stands at the beginning of successful French colonization in the New World. 1603. Champlain m Canada. Ay mar de Chastes, Governor of Dieppe, France, obtained a patent for the colonization of Canada, and having formed a company of merchants, sent out two vessels of fifteen and twelve tons respectively, to 1603-1625. '^'^^^ preliminary explora- jamesi.King tiou. PontgravG was com- of England. i^^ndcr and at the solicita- tion of De Chastes Champlain embarked in the expedition. They crossed the Atlantic safely, ascended the St. Law- rence to the Island of Montreal, but found no trace of the Indian town which Cartier had visited there in 1534. Champlain tried to pass the rapids in a skiff, but failed. The expedition soon returned to France. 1603, Martin Pring sailed from Eng- land with two vessels, the Speedwell of fifty tons, and the Discoverer of twenty- six tons, with forty-three men, the expe- dition being fitted out by Bristol mer- chants to follow up Gosnold's discoveries. Pring reached what is now the coast of Maine, passed the Penobscot, Kennebec, Piscataqua Rivers, searched along the coast of Massachusetts for sassafras root, and finally arrived at the island of Martha's Vineyard, whence he returned to England. :iC:lDM. 1604. After the death of De Chastes, Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts, obtained a grant for the colonization of a region in the New World called Acadie, extend- ing from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude, embracing the country now between Philadelphia and Lake St. Peter, in the St. Lawrence River. Champlain and Baron dc Pou- trincourt entered the expedition. Hugue- nots as well as Catholics v/ere found in the number. 1604. April 7. De Monts sailed with one vessel from Havre de Grace, leaving Pontgrave to follow in another. With the design of escaping the cold St. Lawrence region he sailed further to the south and reached the coast of Nova Scotia. Here he waited till Pontgrave arrived, when he entered the Bay of Fundy and discovered the beautiful An- napolis Harbor, a grant of which Pou- trincourt begged for himself, naming the place Port Royal. Pontgrave in the meantime sailed to the St, Lawrence to trade, and thence returned to France. De Monts sailed around the Bay of Fundy and out into Passamaquoddy Bay. Here an island was chosen for the site of the colony, and named St. Croix. Build- ings were at once erected and everything done to prepare for winter. Poutrincourt sailed for France, leaving seventy-nine men in the colony. The winter set in with unusual severity; the cold was in- tense; their cider and wine had to be cut up by the pound, and worst of all, the scurvy broke out. It killed thirty- five. 1604. September. Champlain made a short trip from St, Croix along the coast of Maine. He named Mt, Desert, and visited the Penobscot. 1603-1 630. J THE COMING POWER. 165 1604. Guiana, S. A., was colonized by the French. 1605. March. An expedition to the New Enghnid coast under George Wey- mouth reached Cape Cod, and sailing north along the coast, explored the Penobscot River. Weymouth entrapped five natives and carried them to England. 1605. June 16. Pontgrave arrived at St. Croix with supplies from France. 1605. June 18. Champlain set off again, accompanied by De Alonts, to explore the coast to the south. They examined the shore very closely; Cham- plain took particular notice of the horse- _;gft5 shoe crab, and afterward Gtinpo7vdcrPiot. clcscribcd it in detail. They went as far as Cape Cod. De Monts upon his return removed his colony to Port Royal in the Bay of Fundy, and sailed for France to prevent enemies from overthrowing his patent. Pontgrave was left in command at Port Royal. 1605. Barbadoes, W. I., was first visited by the English who took posses- sion, but did not colonize till 1635. 1605. Wheat was sown on Long Island by a ship's company from London. 1605. The lost Norse settlements in Greenland were searched for by three ships under Godske Lindenow,and James Hall an English pilot. The expedition was sent out by Christian IV. of Den- mark. Several other efforts were made about this time, but nothing came of them. West Greenland 'was explored, but the eastern coast could not be reached because of ice. It came to be believed that the old accounts were fictitious. FIRST E.YGLISH CHARTER. 1606. April 10. James I. King of England, granted a charter giving the London company the right to colonize in America between the thirty-first and the thirty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the Plymouth company between the fortieth and the forty-fifth. The region between the thirty-eighth igog. Po-.ver of and the fortieth was open -^-^'"'ff «'«- ■■• covered by Dr. to either under certain limi- Gilbert. tations. This charter, in common with most which were given in America by any nation, extended its grants westward to the Pacific Ocean. No power of self- government was conveyed to any colony which might be formed. The Church of England was to be the only form of religion. 1606. John Knight's expedition sailed in a vessel of forty tons and reached the Labrador coast. Here the vessel was repaired. The savages made fierce attacks upon the crew. Capt. Knight and some of his men were lost. The rest reached Newfoundland and finally England. 1606. July 27. Port Royal. Pou- trincourt having been sent out by De Monts in one vessel for the aid of Port Royal, arrived at Annapolis Harbor and found but two Frenchmen, the rest having built boats and gone off for sup- plies of game and fruits. They were soon found and brought back. Pont- grave sailed for France. Poutrincourt and Champlain explored the coast to the south in search of a good site for a colony, but returned without having made a selection. During their absence Lescar- bot, the historian, commanded at Port Royal. The succeeding winter was very mild and the colony flourished, only four men dying with the scurvy. 1606. Oct. 15. First Indian Fight in New England. Some of the men who accomjDanied Pontgrave and Cham- 166 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. plain upon the trip mentioned above, elept on shore one night and were attacked just at daylight very fiercely by Indians. Two Frenchmen were imme- diately killed and tlie rest wounded. An alarm was given to those on board the boat, and Champlain with others imme- diately came to their relief. After the savages were driven off the bodies of the dead were buried at the foot of a pillar bearing the arms of France. When the l^arty had retired to their \essel again, the Indians came back, dug up the bodies and maltreated them in tlie sight of their friends. The French afterward buried them again and departed. 1607. May 1. Hudson's First Voy- age. Henry Hudson, of whom nothing is known previous to this year, sailed from Gravesend, on the Thames, England, in i6 assassinated by arrived with supplies. They Ravaiiiac. 1610. Telescopes inve?iied by Galileo. CAPT. SMITH AND his fourth and last voyage in search of a northwest passage. He discovered Hudson's Bay, which he at first took to be the long-sought passage. By the time he had coasted around it and found it a bay, he was shut in bv the winter. His crew was in a dissatisfied, mutinous condition. 1610. May 24. "Starving Time" at Jamestown. The three commissioners of Lord Delaware arrived at James- town from the Bermudas and found the colony reduced bv famine from five hundred which it numbered when Capt. Smith left it, to sixty. The colonists had brought this distress upon themselves by not exercising ordinary foresight. THE COMPASS. were all glad to return to ieio-i643. j^ouis then- homes once more, Fra}ice,nine which they had fortunately y<^">'^' "i^- ''^^"Ky . . ' . „ .. ^ cfe Medici lett unmjured. bo near aid re-reni. Jamestown come to abandonment. 1610. June 10. The colony was reinstated in its former c^uarters. The commission of the governor was read, divine ser\ice was held according to the Church of England, and the government was reorganized with hopefulness. Vines were imported into Jamestown at this time, and the culture of grapes began. All colonists were to be obliged to at- tend church twice every Sunday, " upon pain for the first fault to lose their pro- vision and allowance for the whole week 170 DISCOVEin', EXPLORATIOX AND SETTLEMENT. following; for the second, to lose said allowance, and also to be whipped; and for the third, to sulTer death." 1610. June 19. A hundred Iro- ■ITH OF Hl'BSOX. 1611. June 21. Henry Fludson, his son and seven men were thrust into a small boat by the rest of the crew in Hudson's Bay after spending the winter there, and were left to perish. Hudson had had trouble with his crew on each voyage, and does not seem to have been born to command. Yet he was an emi- nent navigator, and shared in the sadness attaching to the end of manv other ex- plorers. When turned adrift, a fowling piece, with a little ammunition, and an iron kettle, with a bag of meal, were thrown to them. John King, carpenter of the ship, having refused to share in the deed, was one of the seven. The other six were invalids. The leader of the mutinv was Henry Green, who was deeply indebted to Hudson for past favors of great value. Green and some of the other mutineers were killed by the Es- quimaux shortly after. The others after great distress, reached England. Hud- son and his companions were never heard from, having probably S(»on perished. But Hudson's Bay and Hudson's Ri\er immortalize his name. 1611. August. Private Property in Jamestown. Additional supplies and col- 1603-1630.] onists arrived at Jamestown under Sir Thomas Gates, who succeeded Dale in the charge of the colony. He founded other points of settlement and established private property for the first time in the colony, hy granting to each man a few iicres for private cultivation. A large number of domestic animals, including cows, were brought o\'er in this expedi- tion. There were now seven hundred people in the colony. THE COMING POWER. 171 was also sent to England from the col- onies for the first time this year. TOBACCO FIRST CULTIVATED. 1612. John Rolfe began in Virginia this year the first successful cultivation of tobacco. The sale of tobacco was in- creasing in England and elsewhere, and it soon proved that it could be very j^rofit- ably raised in the New World. There- fore a great many seized upon it as a I IIL 1 1K->1 IN 1612. March 12. A third charter was issued for the Virginia colony, giv- ing the stockholders the mana'_;ement of affairs, which had previously been held by the council. The limits of the colony were extended so as to include the Ber- mudas, by making them run three hun- dred leagues from the mainland. The raising of money by lotteries was author- ized, and as a result of this process, which was employed for several years, ^29,000 were raised for the colonv. The first bricks made in the English colonies were produced in Vu-ginia this year. Wine means of wealth, and the first excitement in that long list which has grown up in subsequent years over cotton, sugar cane, silk, and other productions, began with this date. Very soon every inch of ground at command was planted to tobacco. Even the streets of Jamestown were afterward filled with it. This was in spite of the opposition of the English government, which at a later day took measures to discourage the growth of tobacco. King James was so opposed to it that he wrote a " Counterblast to the Use of Tobacco." But that in whic"' 172 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. great profit was found, could not be easily suppressed. It finally became the staple product, and the currency of the colony. 1612. A grant of all North America, from the St. Lawrence to Florida, was obtained by Madame de Guercheville and her Jesuit friends. This was the result of months of scheming, and left Poutrin- court's colony at Port Royal hemmed in on all sides by influences disagreeable to him. 1612. An expedition of search for Henry Hudson was sent out, consisting of two vessels, the Resolution and the Discovery, under Sir Thomas Button. He followed on Hudson's track, explored Hudson's Bay, and wintered in the vici- nity. His crew suffered much during the winter, and some of them died. The next year he returned to England and was knighted. He felt sure a northwest passage could be found. 1613. April 13. Pocahontas having been entrapped and carried to Jamestown by Capt. Argall, was taken in marriage by John Rolfe, a young Englishman. She had been baptized by the name of Rebecca. 1613. May 13. Mt. Desert Colony. A vessel sent out by the Jesuits arrived at Nova Scotia, and having taken Biard and !Masse on board at Port Royal, pro- ceeded to Mt. Desert on the coast of Maine, where the colonists began to found a settlement. 1613. May 27. Champlain having spent the year i6i2 in France in endeav- oring to promote the interests of coloni- zation in New France, and having re- turned to Canada, set out from near the Island of ^Montreal to follow up a report made to him by a man named \"ignan. who professed to have passed up the Ottawa and to have found a river which could be descended to the shores of the great ocean at the west. Champlain fol- lowed up the Ottawa with great trouble till he learned that his informant was a decei\er, and ha\ing wintered in an In- dian camj^, gave up the journey in great disappointment. 1613. First Settlement at New York. The Dutch began to build houses on Manhattan Island where New York now stands. It was at the first a mere trading post. Houses began to be built near this time also at Albany. 1613. English Hostility to French. Capt. Samuel Argall sailed north from Jamestown for a supply of codfish, and having learned of the new French col- ony at Mt. Desert from the Indians, went thither and broke it up entirely. Some of the colonists were left to find their way to France. Others were taken pris- oners to Jamestown. By order of Sir Thomas Dale, governor of Jamestown, an expedition under Capt. Argall pro- ceeded at once to Nova Scotia in behalf of the English crown, destroyed the re- mains of the settlement at St. Croix, and reaching Port Royal in the absence of the colonists, bui"ned the buildings and crops and butchered the cattle. The set- tlers were left to wander among the In- dians during the %vinter following. This was the first hostile act in the long con- test between France and England in the New World. Capt. Argall is said to have entered New Vork. harbor upon his return and received the submission of the few Dutch traders at Manhattan. 1614. The northwest passage Avas sought for this year by an expedition sent out imder Capt. Gibbons. 1614. March. New England Named. 1603-1630.] Capt. John vSmith and- Capt. Thomas Hunt saiUng in two vessels from England, explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod, Capt. Smith made a map of it and named it New England. The map was sent by him to Prince Charles, and the naine grew into use. Capt, Hunt kidnapped twenty-seven natives, carried them to Spain, and sold them as slaves. Among them was Squanto who afterward went to England and found his way back to America. He was in the service of the Pilgrims at the time of his death. 1614. Adriaen Block explored Long Island Sound and visited Narragansett Bay and the island which bears his name. It lies off Montauk Point at the east end of Long Island. He was the first Euro- pean to sail through the rocky channel in East River known as Hellgate. The vessel in which he made his trip was built by him at Manhattan Island, and was the first built by the Dutch in Amer- ica. It was forty-four and one half feet long by eleven and one-half feet wide, and was of sixteen tons burden. Capt. Block named it the " Unrest." Capt. Hcndricksen afterward used it in explor- ing the Atlantic coast. The brigantine built by the Huguenots at Fort Caroline, Florida, fifty years before, and the thirty ton pinnace built by the Popham colo- nists in Maine in 1607, preceded the "Unrest" as examples of larger boat- building by Europeans upon the Atlantic coast of North America. Small boats had been built by the French in Nova Scotia. The brigantines built by the Spanish upon the Mississippi at the death of De Soto, and the staunch vessel in which Orellana made his trip down the Amazon, are examples of boat-building under difficulties. THE COMING POWER. 173 1614. Capt. Cornells Jacobsen Mey in a vessel fitted out by Amsterdam mer- chants, explored the coast from Cape Cod to Delaware Ba}', and mapped it as he went along. He named Cape Henlopen. 1614. The French reestablished them- selves in Acadia, and increased to some extent in numbers and trade, but the Jesuits made no more direct efforts to colonize the region. 1614. Oct. 11. After the return of Capt. Mey the " New Netherland Com- pany " received a charter by which the exclusive privileges of trade for three years from Jan. i, 16 15, between the fortieth and the forty-fifth degrees of north latitude in America, were conferred upon it. 1614. The Bermuda Islands were settled by the English under a charter from James I. 1614. A theater was built in Lima, Peru, and must have been the first or among the first on the continent. 1615. A northwest passage expedi- tion under CajDt. Bylot accompanied by William Baffin, one of the most learned navigators of the day, sailed from Eng- land and entered Hudson's Strait in order to search the bay for a passage. At the approach of winter the expedi- tion turned back and returned to Eng- land, Capt, Bylot made an unfavorable report on the prospects of success by the way of Hudson's Bay. Baffin had twice before been in Greenland seas. 1615. May. First Mass in Canada. Four Franciscan friars of the Recollet branch reached Quebec from France to propagate the Catholic faith and convert New France. They came at the solici- tation of Champlain and the first mass ever celebrated in Canada wai upon their arrival. 10 174 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1615. Forms of law were first in- troduced into Newfoundland hy Capt. Richard Whitbourne, who undertook to correct ahuses among the fishermen. 1615. San Luis de Maranhao, Brazil, was taken by the Portuguese from the French, who had founded it in the attempt to get a hold on the country. 1615. Lake Huron and the Iroquois. Champlain, Joseph Ic Caron, one of the priests, and twelve other men went into the ujDper country at the return of the Hurons from their annual sale at the Island of Montreal, and discovered Lake Huron, unless the young man who had wintered with the Hurons in a previous year discovered it. At the request of the Hurons the French agreed to march against their enemies, the Iroquois. After much delay the Iroquois towns were reached but the allies expected by the Hurons failed to appear, and the conquest was given up after some skirmishing. 1616. Pocahontas, her husband and a few friends went to England with Sir Thomas Dale, and were received with great favor. severe pestilence raged among the Indians of New England and during the next two or three years carried ofT many hundreds of them. The infancy of the colony at Plymouth was safer from harm because of this severe affliction upon the natives. 1616. Richard Vines, sent out at the expense of Sir Fernando Gorges, spent the winter at Saco Bay, Maine. During the sickness of the Indians this year Vines gained their greatest regard by tending them carefully and curing many through his knowledge of medicine. 1616. BaflBn's Bay was discovered 1616. A 1564 16 16. Shakexpeare. 15471616. Ccrvanlts. this year by William Baffin, the eminent navigator who had accompanied Capt. Bylot on a previous voyage. Bylot seems to have been with Baffin upon this voyage.. They were sent out by the same men each time upon the long search after a northwest passage. Baffin entered and named several sounds, including Lan- caster, but seems never to have suspected that they led through to other regions. He therefore upon his return reported that the sheet of water he had examined was probably entirely inclosed by land, and that no passage could be found in that direction. It was therefore named Baffin's Bay, and so thoroughly did he convince the world of his opinion that for two hundred years no effort was made in that quarter. Many efforts were still made in Hudson's Bay. But Baffin had contributed very much to a knowledge of northern waters. 1616. The Amazon was descended in a canoe by two monks who had been persecuted and driven from their missions, in Peru by the Indians. After great ter- ror they finally reached Para. 1616. Cape Horn was this year seen by two Dutch navigators named Schouten. and Le jMaire. 1617. Richard Vines followed up> vSaco River and entered Crawford Notch,, being the first white man to describe the. White Mountains. POC:lHOXT:iS. 1617. June. Pocahontas died in Eng- land at the age of twenty-two years. The change in climate and life had great- ly affected her. Her character is among the interesting ones of early American history. She was the daughter of Pow- hatan, the powerful chief of the Indians who occupied the territory to the west of: 1603-1630.] Chesapeake Bay. The most notable thing in her histon^, though some histor- ical critics cast discredit upon it, was her successful intervention in behalf of Capt. John Smith during his captivity among her father's subjects. She afterward saved the lives of Richaixl Wyffin and Henry Spill man. She performed the same kinci service for Capt. vSmith again by revealing to him a plot for the de- struction of himself and men. She was often sent by her father with messages to Jamestown and became exceedingly well known to the settlers. Upon a visit to Japazaws, the chief of the Potomac In- dians and a great friend of the English, Pocahontas was enticed on board a vessel under Capt. Argall, taken to Jamestown as a prisoner, and held as a hostage. Powhatan was informed of the imprison- ment of his daughter, and requested to restore certain English prisoners and arms. The old chief evaded the demand, and Pocahontas was still held a prisoner. During this time she became acquainted with a worthy young Englishman named John Rolfe with whom a mutual attach- ment was formed, which resulted in an engagement of marriage. Her father very willingly gave his approval and sent her uncle Opachisco and two of her brothers to be present when the cei'emony was performed. The marriage resulted in the lasting friendship of Powhatan for the English. In England Pocahontas was received with much attention, and entered the society of the most distin- guished jDCople of the nation, always pre- serving her native modesty and grace. She was about to embark for America when she was taken sick and died at Gravesend. She left an infant son named Thomas Rolfe, who lived in London and was educated by his uncle, Henry Rolfe. THE COMING PO WER. 175 He afterward came to America and be- came a wealthy and influential citizen. The Randolphs and others of Virginia claim descent from the Indian princess. POIfH^T±¥. 1618. April. Powhatan, the fother of Pocahontas, died at an advanced age. His original name was Wahinsonacock. He was one of the most powerful sachems connected with the early history of the United States. His rule covered most of the territory now embraced within the States of Maryland and Virginia. He had residences in different parts of his country and changed his abode at differ- ent seasons of the year. In his council house at Werowocomoco he had a throne erected upon which, on important occa- sions, he would sit dressed in his robe of skins, with a crown of feathers upon his head and a bodyguard of fifty warrioi"s about his person. x\t the time of his first acquaintance with the English in 1607, he was about sixty years of age. He was tall and well-proportioned, with a body capable of enduring great fatigue. His hair was beginning to turn gray, and gave him a venerable and majestic appearance. In all his dealings with the English he pre- served a dignity of bearing arising from his royal office, even while displaying a great deal of shrewdness. Powhatan showed his friendliness to the English by sending them articles of food, of which the settlers were greatly in ntjed. If the English had used .good judgment they could have kept on good terms with this powerful king and received much assist- ance from him as well as prevented the horrible massacre which followed in later years. Their conduct was so ill-advised and often so unjust, that they were con- 176 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. tinually in trouble with him. Two or three times Powliatan planned war against the English, but without result. At one time an accident occurred which had a great effect upon him. Some of his men had obtained powder from the English and were experimenting with it when a powerful explosion suddenly took place and killed several. This so greatly increased Powhatan's reverence for the English or fear of them, that he sought peace and sent to the colony nearly half his crop of corn. On the death of Powhatan, his brother Opechancanough succeeded to the throne in accordance with the custom by which a brother takes precedence over a son as heir of the kingdom. SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 1618. Oct. 29. Sir Walter Raleigh having been arrested by the English government, was beheaded, and thus closed his long series of efforts to promote the colonization of the world. His death is one of the dark sjoots in English his- tory. No student of American history ought to pass without stopping to vener- ate the man who did so much to make colonization upon a surer basis in the New World possible. He was one of those broad-minded men whose interest in the settlement of America was of a higher sort than that which characterized the adventurers of the period. His life which exhibited remarka- ble scholarship and qualities of character, is yet a record of the apparent defeat which settles down upon some of the best men in the world. He was at dif- ferent times banished from the English court, and wrote his celebrated History 1618. Circulation of tlie blood dis- covered by Marvey. 161S-1648. Thirty ■year.':' war be- tvjeen Protest- ants ajid Catho- lics of Germany. of the World during an imprisonment of twelve years in the Tower. He visited the coast of South America twice. His connection with the Roanoke colony is an entirely honorable one, and the nature of his plans is visible in his undertakings. He deserves to be written among the founders of America. 1618. Garcia de Nodales was the first navigator to sail completely I'ound the island of Terra del Fuego, and thus proved that this land was at the southern end of the American continent. 1619. A northwest passage expedi- tion was sent out by Christian IV. of Denmark, under Jens Munk, an emi- nent sailor, with two vessels and fifty- three men. Hudson's Bay was explored, and the winter was spent there. Famine and sickness left at last only three men alive. These found a plant which could be eaten with good effect, and finally they reached home in the smaller vessel. 1619. July 30. The first colonial assembly ever called in America assem- bled at Jamestown. It consisted of the governor, a newly appointed council, and twenty-two representatives from eleven boroughs, into which the colony was divided. This was the beginning of leg- islative liberty on this continent, and in- troduced a long period of constitution forming. The assembly proceeded to business after a very solemn inauguration. 1619. A "hundred jail-birds " were transported from England to Jamestown at the command of the king, and were sold to the planters for service. This is the first recorded transportation of con- victs from England. SALE OF YOUXG WOMEK. 1619. On account of the great in- crease in the number of emigfrants to 1603-1630.] Jamestown and in the capability of self- support through private property, the London company securetl ninety young women suitable for wives, and sent them out to the colony, where they were bought by the planters at one hundred pounds of tobacco apiece, to pay the cost of passage. They were speedily settled in a satisfac- tory manner, and rendered homes a pos- sibility. The price afterward went up to one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco apiece. Within a year or two the com- pany sent out others and disposed of them in the same way, inuch to the happiness of the colony. This transaction changed many an adventurer into a citizen. Vii"- ginia now began to be a genuine colony. A similar event will be found a little later, in the history of Canada. HEXRICO COLLEGE. 1620. The London company set apart one thousand acres on the James River, Virginia, for the endowment of a college for the Indians and settlers, to be known as Henrico College. Money was raised in England and invested in iron works, the first on this continent, which were established near Jamestown, Forty famed workmen were sent out from England to carry them on. More workmen were afterward sent. The works began cleansing the bog-iron ore of the region by the use of charcoal. THE COMING POWER. 177 1620. August. Twenty negroes were brought into Jamestown and sold for slaves, by a Dutch captain. The intro- duction of slavery within the English colonies almost coincides with the landing of the Pilgrims in their attempt to gain civil and religious liberty. 1620. Nov. 3. "Council of Ply- mouth." The Plymouth company gained their "great patent" entirely ^^^^ Tk^y„ome. distinct from the charter of ters invMiud by , ^T. . . . Drehel. the V n-guiia company, giv- ing them exclusive jDowers of all kinds over, the territory from the forty-first to the forty-eighth degree of latitude. Un- der the original charter the London and Plymouth companies had been substan- tially two portions of one company, separately organized, that tw^o distinct settlements might be made, one in the northern, the other in the southern part of the territory nained therein. The London or Virginia company obtained a sejDaration in its second charter in 1609. The Plymouth company now obtained the same in spite of objections made by the London company, whose members wished to Vetain a hold upon the fishing along the New England coast. A sepa- rate charter was given, and no rights left in common for the two companies to quarrel about. The Plymouth company now became know^n as the " Council of Plymouth for New England." THE PILGRIMS. The second permanent English colony in the New World was to be of a pecu- liar sort. It was composed not of people sent out by England for the sake of ex- tending her empire or bringing riches into her treasury, but of people driven out from her because of their religious principles. The troubles of English Protestantism had been growing up for many years. A large body of people in the Church of England came to think that her purity and spiritual life were of a very low order. The spirit and forms of public worship, the widespread disregard for the Sabbath, led them in many cases to earnest remonstrance. Agitation began, and these people soon 178 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. came to be called Puritans. They did not wish to separate from the Church of England, because they believed that the State had supreme authority in matters of religion. But they wished to cleanse the service of religion. Persecu- tions arose and many of them suffered because they would not conform to the ritualistic and other demands made upon them. A few Puritans at last, because of their j^ersecutions, began to question the right of government to limit worship in any way. It seems to have set them to thinking deeply. They soon began to hold that any body of Christians can constitute themselves a chvn-ch without the authority of government. Thus an inner circle grew up in the great bod}^ of Puritans. The members of it began to be known as Separatists, and upon them fell the heaviest persecutions. They were searched out and imprisoned. Small companies worshiped in different places, but at last many escaped to Hol- land, where they were permitted to worship in peace. The Pilgrims, who believed thoroughl}^ in separation before they came to America, must be carefully distinguished from the Puritans of Massa- chusetts Bay who were not led by the logic of events to such a plain assertion, until by the work of founding a new state, they were made to see the true course for them to take, and dropped naturally into an independent church government. In Holland the Separatists did not feel at home. They were sur- rounded by a strange world, and longed to get away from it. Hence they under- took to come to America. After consid- erable effort they obtained a grant from the London, now known as the Virginia, company taken out in the name of Mr. John Wincob, " a religious gentleman belonging to the Countess of Lincoln.'* He intended to accompany them. They also made a contract with the men who were to bear the expense of the voyage for a return of the profits of the colony for a certain time and proportion. They also obtained the verbal promise of the king that if they conducted themselves peaceably, they should not be molested. The grant was however of no use to them in the New World, because they did not land within the limits of the company which gave it. They were in the terri- tory of the Plymouth, not the Virginia company. A portion of John Robinson's church in Leyden, Holland, sailed from Delft-Haven for America in the May- flower and the Speedwell. The latter was afterward sent back. The Ma}^- flower of one hundred and eighty tons kept on, and after a time reached the shores of Cape Cod. 1620. Nov. 21. The Mayflower arrived in Cape Cod harbor, where the Pilgrims went ashore. Some of them explored the country around, while the women busied themselves in washing the clothes of the company, and in kindred duties. A child named Oceanus Hopkins had been born at sea and another named Peregrine White was born during the stay at Cape Cod. Before any landed the celebrated compact of civil liberty was drawn up and signed in the cabin of the Mayflower by the forty-one male adults. It reads as follows: " In the name of God, amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign lord King James by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, De- fender of the Faith, etc., having under- taken for the glory of God and the advancement of the Christian faith and 1603-1630.] honor of our King and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually in the presence of God and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic for our better ordering and preservation, and furtherance of the ends THE COMING POWER. 179 the year of the reign of our sovereign lord. King James of England, France and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scot- land the fifty-fourth Anno Domini 1620." Under this compact John Carver was chosen governor for one year. Miles Standish was chosen military captain. 1620. Dee. 21. The Pilgrims landed LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices from time to time as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod this eleventh day of November in on Plymouth Rock, and at once began a settlement. The first foot which touched the lock is said to have been that of Mary Chilton, a young woman. They did not all land the first day. The work of putting up some shelter from the cold and stormy weather, began at once. Nineteen plots of land were laid out near together, and hasty dwellings erected. They were soon living in their new homes. A new state was born. Town meetings were held from the very first to decide mutual affairs under their compact. Sickness began to rnultiply. The finst year of their abode in the wilderness was to be made dark by the death of half their number. 180 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1621. March 16. First Indian at Plymouth. An Iiidiiin named Samoset appeared at Plymouth and entered the little settlement saying, " Welcome, Eng- lishmen." His coming caused terror at 1561-1621. first, but this was dissipated Francis Bacon, j^y jiig friendly bearing. He had been acquainted with English fishermen upon the coast of Maine, and gave the Pilgrims much information. 1621. March. First Offence at Ply- mouth. John Billington spoke with dis- respect of the lawful authority of the captain, and was adjudged by the whole company in town meeting " to have his neck and heels tied together." 1621. April 1. Indian Fidelity. A league was formed by the Plymouth settlers with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, and was not broken for more than fifty yeai's. DEATH OF GOV. CARVER. 1621. April 6. John Carver, gov- ernor of Plymouth, having been taken sick in the field during planting, died after a short illness, less than four months from the landing of the Pilgrims. He was a man upon whom the Pilgrims had learned to lean with a great confidence in his skill and prudence. He was born in England, and spent an uneventful life in his younger years. He was one of the number who, for the sake of religious opinions fled to Holland, and had much to do in making the arrangements by which the colonists were enabled to cross the water. Upon arrival at Cape Cod he was elected governor of the little state which was born in the cabin of the May- flower at the signing of the compact. Dying so soon, he saw nothing of its growth. Hardships were pinching the settlers, and sickness depleting their num- ber. They could ill afford to lose a man like John Carver. Great miselfishness and childlike piety marked his ever3^day life. He "was always ready to do any- thing to help the members of the colony, laboring with his own hands for their good, as he was needed. His joroperty had been freely spent for the colony. His wife died about six weeks later. William Bradford was chosen governor of the colony. 1621. May 12. The first wedding in Plymouth took jolace between Edward Winslow and Mrs. Susanna White. 1621. Courtship of Miles Standish. It was in the spring of this year that the courtship made famous by the poet Long- fellow, took place. Mrs. Rose Standish had died soon after the arrival of the little colony. The impetuous Capt. Miles had been dreary and lonesome all winter. So one day he sent the young John Alden, his friend, to make an offer of marriage for him to Priscilla Mullens, a comely Pilgrim maiden. When she had heard the request of the Plymouth captain presented and enforced by the lips of the trusty messenger, she looked the bashful young man archly in the face and said, " Prithee, John, why do you not speak for yourself ?" The messen- ger blushed and retired, because he would not even seem to be untrue to the one who had sent him, but before long an understanding was arrived at between the young people, and in course of time a happv wedding took place. 1621. June 18. The First Duel in New England. Prince, in his chro- nology of Plymouth says, " The second offence is the first duel fought in New England upon a challenge of single combat with sword and dagger between Edward Doty and Edward Leister, ser- 1603-1630.] vants of Mr. Hopkins; both being wounded, the one in the hand, and the other in the thigh, they are adjudged by the whole company to have their head and feet tied together, and so to lie for twenty-four hours without meat or drink, which is begun to be inflicted, but within an hour, because of their great jDains, at their own and their master's humble request, upon promise of better carriage, they are released by the gov- ernor." Edward Leister, at the close of his apprenticeship to Mr. Hopkins, re- moved to Virginia. 1621. July 24. A written consti- tution, the first in America, was pre- pared for the Jamestown colony, provid- ing for a legislative body and for trial by jury, as in England. This led the way in the development of political constitu- tions in this country. Cotton seeds were first planted this year as an experiment, and succeeded so well that the culture rapidly increased. The heavy duties on the tobacco imported into England, which had been laid to discourage to- bacco cultivation led the Virginia compa- ny to send their cargoes of it to Holland. The English government decreed at once that " no tobacco or other productions of the colonies should henceforth be carried into any foreign port until they were first landed in England and the customs paid." Hemp -rope making had been enjoined upon the colonists a short time before, and in Jamestown the rope-makmg of the country originated. 1621. George Calvert, Lord Balti- more, an English Roman Catholic no- bleman, was made proprietor by King James of a portion of Newfoundland. He sent out a colony which erected build- ings for him at a cost of £25,000. He did not visit the colony till 1625. THE COMING PO WER. 181 1621. Origin of Thanksgiving. The harvest having been abundant at Ply- mouth, a festival of Thanksgiving was appointed and held. Massasoit and some of his followers joined in the occasion by invitation of the Pilgrims. Half of the company had died since the landing, but the hope of a good home in the New World w^as now strong in the remainder. Three days were occupied with the fes- tivities. 1621. Nov. 10. The " Fortune" ar- A^ived at Plymouth from England with thirty-five colonists on board. It brought also a letter in the form of a "patent" from the new " Council for New Eng- land." This patent was issued for John Pierce and associates, and was the first one which the Council had granted. It had been obtained by friends of the Pil- grims when it was known that the col- ony had settled on lands subject to that company. 1621. Nova Scotia, comprising the present territory known by that name, and the adjacent regions to the St. Law- rence, was given by a grant to Sir Wil- liam Alexander for colonization, but the design never resulted in anything. 1621. Dec. 12. The first American sermon ever printed was preached in Plymouth by Robert Cushmtm upon the " Sin and Danger of Self-love." It was afterward published in London. 1622. March 22. Indian Massacre at Jamestown. The Indians seeing the increase of the English, and irritated at the prospective overthrow of their own race, fell upon the settlements at midday and massacred three hundred and forty- seven persons. Further destruction was prevented, but the interests of the colony were greatly damaged, and it was a long time before the recovery was complete. 183 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. The university estate and iron - works were devastated. The iron-workers were killed and the business was not re- sumed till 1712. 1622. Weston's Weymouth Colony. Robert Weston planted a colony of idle, dissolute fellows at Weymouth, Mass., but the whole undertaking was broken up within a year by the hostility of the Indians, whom the colonists treated un- justly. 1622. The first European settlement in Uruguay, S. A., was made by Spanish Jesuits. 1622. Aug. 10. Laconia. The ter- ritory between the Merrimac and Kenne- bec rivers was granted by the " Council for New England" to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason, who named it Laconia. The territory of the grant contained a part of the present States of Maine and New Hampshire. 1622. Dec. 13. Robert Gorges, son of Sir Ferdinand, obtained a grant of ter- ritory extending ten miles in length on the coast of Massachusetts Bay and thirty miles inland. 1622. December. Squanto, or Tis- quantum as he was sometimes called, died of a severe sickness while attempting to pilot a boat from Plymouth Colony through the shoals of Cape Cod. This Indian was one of the number kidnapped by Capt. William Hunt or more probably by Weymouth, some years before the Pilgrims landed in America. He with the others was taken to Spain and sold. Of the twenty-seven, Squanto alone ever came to the New Work! again. He served the Plymouth Colony at different times with great apparent friendliness. 1623. End of the Weymouth Colony. Capt. Standish with a company from Plymouth, rescued the settlement at Weymouth from impending destruction by the Indians. But the colony was abandoned. It did not have the ele- ments of success in it. The destitution of the settlers had been very severe at tlie last. They had subsisted on roots and clams. Many times they had come near starving. Some of the people went to- England, and some to Plymouth. 1623. July. First Fast Day. A drought had set in this summer long and severe. There had been no rain for weeks, and the crops were all in danger. The people became very anxious, for they very well knew that they could not sustain themselves without a successful season. A day of fasting and prayer was entered upon. The most of it con- tinued clear and hot. But after eight or nine hours clouds appeared, a gentle rain set in, and saturated eveiything. The result had a great effect on certain friendly Indians. 1623. A second "patent" was ob- tained by John Pierce from the " Coun- cil for New England," for the col- ony at Plymouth. He found that the settlement was likely to be a success and hoped by this patent to secure it to him- self as a peculiar property by a sort of feudal tenure. He soon sold out his rights however to the company, because of loss which he incurred in trying to get to America. The ship he fitted up and set sail in was twice driven back by tempests for repairs. Having finally crossed the ocean it reached the Piscata- qua River, N. H., in poor condition. It was commanded by William Pierce. John Pierce was on board and having returned to England in her, made over iiis patent to the company. 1623. Sept. 10. The Ann, of one hundred and forty tons, was loaded at 1603-1 G30.] Plymouth with clapboards for England. These were among the first exports of the colony. 1623. WiUiam Blackstone was the first white man to settle on the present site of Boston. After the coming of the Puritans he sold out and removed to Rhode Island. It is said that Blackstone held negro slaves. 1623. Dover and Portsmouth, N. H., were occujDied this year by fishing villages which were founded in the inter- ests of Gorges and Mason, the proprietors. Kittery and other settlements in Maine were begun. 1623. Walloon Settlers. The Dutch West India Company sent out Walloon settlers v\^ho were Protestant refugees of French descent, to colonize New^ Netherland. They formed the first real colonies at Manhattan Island and Albany. They also settled on the Delaware River at what they called Fort Nassau, but are supposed to have given ujd this attempt within a year in order to reen- force the colony at Manhattan Island, wdiich contained only about two hundred persons. The first Dutch child of Ameri- can birth was born this year. The first w^orship ever held at New Amsterdam as the settlement on Manhattan Island Avas afterward called, w^as conducted very soon by two " krank-besoeckers " or " comforters of the sick," named Sebastian Jansen Krol and Jan Huyck. They began their work by holding a ineeting of the people on Sunday in a room up-stairs in a horse-mill. The service consisted of the reading of the Scriptures, and the creeds. There was no dominie or minister as yet. 1623. Germs of Literature. George Sandys of Virginia translated Ovid's Metamorphoses, the first literary work THE COMING POWER. 183 done in the English American colonies. The translation was published in London. 1623. Silk Culture in Virginia. The legislature of Virginia passed an order for all settlers to plant mulberry trees. This was a part of the attempt to turn attention from tobacco raising to other products. 1623. St. Christopher, one of the Leeward Islands, was settled by an English colony under Sir Thomas Warner, the first English colony in the West Indies. Within a very short time a French colony settled on the island, and trouble soon arose. At last it was agreed to maintain a neutrality and make the island mutual ground. 1624. The London Company was dissolved by King James, who made Virginia a royal province, the first English royal proA'ince in America. This step was taken because of the increase of popular power in the govern- ment of the province since 1619. The king appointed a governor and twelve councillors to take entire charge of the colony. 1624. Land at Plymouth. Up to this time the colonists had been appointed a little piece of land each year for culti- vation individually. This spring an acre was set apart for each one to possess as private property. The amount wais pur- posely small to prevent the wide scatter- ing of the colonists, which would weaken the settlement in time of danger. In 1627 larger amounts were given to each one in a familv. Each lot of that date consisted of twenty acres, and had five acres water-front. 1624. Religious Trouble. John Lyford, an Episcopal minister, arrived at Plymouth, and in connection with 1H4 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. John Oldham ])c<^an to cause an agi- tation over religious faith and worship. They were soon expelled from tlie colony. 1624. Nov. 5. First Great Fire at Plymouth. vScvl ral houses were liurned together with an amoiuit of goods and provisions. The storehouse was in danger, but was saved. It was after- ward founil that incendiaries had tried to communicate tlie Hre to it. Swine and neat cattle were fust imported into Ply- mouth this year. 1624. Callao, Peru, was hesiegetl for five months by a famous English bucca- neer named Clark, but he was unable to capture it. 1625. Lord Baltimore removed to his Newfoundland colony, but was greatly disappointed in the climate and soil. 1625. Jesuits in New France. Montmorency, viceroyal governor of Canada, sold his claim to his nephew the Duke de Ventadour, who was a Jesuit. Three Jesuit priests, Charles Lalcmant, Enncmond Masse and Jean de Brebeuf, were sent out and joined the colony at Quebec. They were at first inhospitably i-eccived, but soon gained a foothold and ac(iuired power. Brebeuf spent the first winter among the Algonquin Indians. 1625. Sheep and swine were intro- duced into the Dutch colonies at Man- hattan Island. 1625. Barbadoes, W. I., was settled by an English colony of forty whites and seven negroes. The set- WiR-16G0. ^ Charles I. KiufT tlcmcnt was named James- oj England. (own and flourished rapidly. The island has always remained in the jKissessiou of the English. No other country in the world save Malta has so many inhabitants to the square mile. It has an area of i66 square miles and 160,000 or more inhabitants, or about l,o(X) to a mile. 1626. May 4. Peter Minuit, who had been appointed governor of New Netherland under the newly established director-generalship for that province, landed at Manhattan Island. lie very soon succeeded in buying the island, which contained about twenty-two thousand acres, from the Indians, for sixty guilders, or twenty-four dollars. The place was now named New Ams- terdam, and soon became the important point for New Netherland trade. Long Island .began to be settled by the Dutch this year. The cultivation of buckwheat was introduced in America at Manhattan Island. Slavery began at this time in New Netherland. 1626. Indian Missions. Jean de Brebeuf, one of the Jesuit priests of Canada went from Quebec on a mission amonjr the Huron Indians who lived near the lake of that name. He re- mained in the region three years without any special results. 1626. "Merry Mount." Thomas Morton, a lawyer, obtained power in a colony settled by Capt. Wollaston at what is now Wollaston Heights near Boston, and led the settlers into all kinds of revelry among themselves and with the Indians. He named the place "Merry Mount." A maypole was ,,,s. ^,^,,„,,,,^ erected, around which the mvenudby Tor- (hinknig and dancmg were held. This went on for a couple of years when in the autumn of 1628 John Endi- cott visited the place from Salem, cut down the pole, and named the place Mt. Dagon. Mort(Mi had also introduced guns and powder among the Indians, con- trary to the advice of the other settle- ments. He was subsequently arrested 1603-1630.1 THE COMlNd I'OWEU. 185 and sent to England for trial, ])ut was acquitted. He was ever after a dissolute man. He came to Boston and was im- prisoned, and finally died at New Hamp- shire. 1627. The Pilgrims purchased the interest of London merchant adventurers in their colony. 1627. Richelieu, of France, annulled the rights of the Caens in the Canada trade and formed a company of one hun- dred associates, himself at the head. They received full power over all the ter- ritory from Florida to the Arctic circle, and from the Atlantic to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence. They also received the monopoly of the fur trade forever, and of all other trade for fifteen years. The company became a sort of feudal proprietor. Huguenots were forh)idden to touch the shores of New France. 1628. Mills were built at New Am- sterdam, and bricks and lime were manu- factured for building jnirposcs. 1628. The Reformed Dutch Church. Rev. Jonas Michaelis was the first minis- ter of the Reformed Dutch Church in America. He came to New Amsterdam and began to administer the sacraments in the exercise of his oflice. 1628. April. A fleet sailed from Dieppe, France, with supplies for Quebec, but it was met and destroyed in the .St. Lawrence by an English fleet under the command of three French refugee Hu- guenot brothers named Kirk, who were Scotch on their father's side. H^ILKM FOrrXDED. 1628. Sept. 14. The first Puritan colony in America consisting of seventy persons under John Endicott, settled on the present site of Salem, Mass. The Puritan exodus from England to the New World began with these settlers, and in a few years filled up the coast of Massa- chusetts Bay with prosperous colonies. The Puritans, who, desiring reformation within the Church of England, yet be- lieved in and clung to her, are to be care- fully distinguished from the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who were thorough Separa- tists in renouncing all obedience to and afliliation with, the established church. There were a few settlers already upon the site of Salem, chief among whom was Roger Conant, who had served as governor of a little Cape Ann settlement until it broke up a short time before. First Massachu- A cliarter was granted 1629. March 29. setts Charter V>y the Council for New England to the "Governor and Company of Massachu- setts Bay in New Englanrl." This was obtained through the efforts of Rev. John White of the Dorchester Adven- turers, and was intended to put everything- on a secure basis. John Endicott was appointed local governor for the colony in New England. 1629. June 7. Patroons. The Dutch West India Company issued a decree called the "Charter of Liberties'* giving any one the right to purchase large tracts of land in New Netherlands and, upon forming a colony of fifty persons within the same, to govern it. This was the introduction of the feudal tenure which endured so long in New York in the order of wealthy patroons. 1629. June 29. A large number of emigrants arrived at Salem, Mass., with cattle, goats, tools and other sup- plies for the Puritan colony. A brick kiln was soon set up. The name Salem was conferred upon the place this year. DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 186 1629. July 4. Charlestown, Mass., was fountlcd bv a company of Puritans from Salem. 1629. July 20. Quebec in English Power. English ships commanded by the Kirk brothers appeared before Que- bec which thev had not dared to attack the previous year, and demanded its sur- render. Being incapable of defence, the city was given up. Upon Champlain's arrival in London, he gained from King Charles through the French ambassador an assurance that New France should be returned to its rightful owners in accord- ance with a treaty of the same year. 1629. Aug. 6. A church was organ- ized by the members of the Salem colony with the counsel and fellowship of dele- gates from Plymouth. Gov. Bradford, who was one of the delegates, and his companions, were detained in their voyage from Plymouth and arrived in the midst of the exercises of organization. Samuel Skelton was appointed pastor, and Mr. Higginson teacher. Thus was Congregationalism fully established in America by the organization of this church, which was the second of that order in the New World. Its two prin- ciples were now affirmed. The inde- pendent self-governing of each church and the proper fellowship of neighboring churches,were now fully illustrated. Just at this time the first religious difference in jMassachusetts Bay occurred. Two brothers named John and Samuel J^rownc, who with considcralile discon- tent at the organization of the Salem church had instituted a Church of Eng- land service according to the prayer book, were brought before the governor, and upon maintaining their intentions, were both sent back to England in ships about returning. This may seem harsh, but to the Puritans, founding a state, it seemed that if these brothers were allowed to go on, priest, bishop and full religious authority would soon creep into their midst. They did not object to the single service which the Brownes insti- tuted so much as they feared that it would defeat the very end of their coming thither. So they stopped it at the beginning, in sj^ite of the fact that they loved and many of them revered the Church of England. 1629. Aug. 29. Self-government. The government of the Massachusetts Bay colony was transferred to the people of the same, so that the colony became the company and had power to elect their governor, deputy-governor and eighteen assistants, who constituted a general court for the province. This transfer was brought about in England by electing as officers of the company men of great character who agreed to emigrate if the charter could be carried with them, and administered on the ground. John Winthrop was elected governor. The English government did not fullv know of or comprehend the step until it had been taken. The efforts in after years to regain the charter were in vain until it was annulled outright, and happily events transpired which made even this ineffectual after a short time. The transfer of the charter to the Ne\v ^Vorld was of vast import. 1629. The Reeollet priests w-ere driven out of Canada by the hostility of the Jesuits, who wished to have exclu- sive control of the province. 1629. The Bahama Islands were settled bv the English in New Provi- dence. In the next century and a half the Bahamas changed hands from the English to the Spanish, and back again, 1603-1630.] THE COMING POWER. 187 until the sixth transfer was reached in 1783, in the final annexation of them to England. 1630. January, A patent for Plym- outh colony was issued by the Council for New England to William Bradfoi'd and others. It %vas the first one held by the colony itself, the previous grants to John Pierce being chiefly for his individ- ual benefit. The present patent defined the limits of the territory of the colony for the first time, and gave a right to the soil. Up to this time the colonists had hardly felt secure in their attempts to hold individual property. 1630. About one thousand Puritans came to Salem this year and dispersing, founded Roxbury, Dorchester, Newtown, 1511-1630. now Cambridge, Saugus, Kepler, ^ow Lynn, Watertown and 1630. Venice t Gazeite first is- Boston. J ohn W uithrop, *"'^'^- the first governor under the transferred charter, came and helped to found Boston. Each settlement became at once a complete body in itself. The town governments of New England developed naturally from this condition of affairs. 1630. July. The first house in Bos- ton was built. 1630. Guiana, S. A., began to be settled by the English. 1630. Sept. 17. Boston was founded, the organization of the town being for the first time completed. 1630. Oct. 19. The first general court or legislature of the settlements around Massachusetts Bay was held in Boston. This came into existence under the transferred charter. 1630. October. First Execution in New England. John Billington, a profane and dissolute man was, after trial, executed at Plymouth for having shot John New- comen, who died of his wound. The matter was referred to the leading men in Massachusetts Bay for advice, and it was the opinion of all that the criminal should be subjected to capital punishment. 1630. The buccaneers of the West Indies fortified themselves on the island of Tortugas, and made a large colony apart from their other resorts. This bloody business had been growing up from nearly the time of the Spanish con- quest. They were English and French roving characters, who had acquired a hatred of everything Spanish. The ships and island settlements of the latter were never safe unless strongly armed. The buccaneers at this time increased their or- ganization.and became more dreaded than ever. Bands of them in open row boats attacked any unwary Spanish merchant- man. They took much booty on all hands. Later in the century they took a wider scope and plundered some of the best South American settlements. Their history is fearful with misdeeds. They pursued the Spanish with an implacable hatred. ±MERIC±y aOLOXI2>iTIOX. The strange story of the settlement of the American continent presents some features worthy of being studied very thoroughly. The reservation of the con- tinent from all foreign tread in spite of its discovery by the Norsemen, can be un- derstood very greatly by looking at the national conditions which preceded the fifteenth century. The results of that reservation are very impoi-tant. A land embracing every climate, every to^Do- graphical feature, every mineral resource; wonderfully oj^en and accessible to navi- gation on every side by gulfs, bays, great rivers, or vast lakes ; a land full of vege- table richness, both living and decayed, was left as a sphere for the exercise of 188 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT, human endeavor, hardihood, ingenuity, and wisdom. A broad place was thrown open in which the world was to be al- lowed to build according- to pet theories, or hasty notions, or consecrated effort, as the case might be. The field was free, and the trial fair. Different passions, aims, religions, were to enter the land and either "have their day and cease to be," or gain the ascendancy in the inev- itable conflict. The variety of national- ities in the field is noticeable. Still more so is the variety of elements proceeding from the same nationality. This is most marked in the case of England. It is also seen to some extent in French colo- nization. Upon our . shores these ele- ments began to get a place to live. At first it was a sufiicient task to keep a colony alive. Some colonies rooted them- selves in silence for years before the inev- itable contest for domination appeared. The southern half of the continent, well conquered and settled with the older and more organized system of the Roman Catholic church, was to allow a fair trial for the same in a new land, and upon the minds of a new people. The greater part of North America, with different religious creeds and individual convic- tions, was to give a broad sphere for the growth of the ones which had most vigor and spiritual power. The charac- ters of nationalities and principles were to be seen in new and untried situations, in places freed from old-time associations, and in needs which would test Old World conceptions of hvunanity. The work of building new institutions in a new land, was to give those who had lived among old institutions a peculiar privilege and rcsjoonsibility. It would be their work to blindly tread the j^ath of the Old World, or to eliminate the elements which there hindered advance. The broad, rich continent was before them. PART III. (^OIiOI]I^L LiBE. 1631-1760. 189 0U2i I'AI^TJIU^S' WOliKS. it Ah! I do think, as I do tread Thcase paeth, wP clems auverhead, That all thease roads that ive do bruise Wi' hosses' shoes, or heavy Iwoads; And hedges' bands, where trees in row Do rise an' grow arotm'' the lands. Be -works that -we've a-vound a-wrought By our fore/aethers'' ceare an' thought. « They clear' d the groun' vor grass to teake The fleace that bore the bretnblc breake. An' drain' d the fen, where water spread, A-lyen dead, a beane to men; An' built the mill, where still the wheel Da' grin' our meal, below the hill; An' turn'd the brudge, wi' arches spread. Below a road, vor us to tread. « They voun' a pleace, were we mid seek Xhe gifts a' greace vrom week to week; An' built wi' stwone, upon the hill, A tow'r we still do call our own; With bells to use, afi' meake rcjaice, Wi' giant vaice, at our good news; An ' lifted stxvones an ' beams to keep The rain an' cwold vrom us asleep. « Zoo now mid nwone ov us vor get The pattern our for ef act hers zet But each be fain to undcrteake Some work to meake vor others' gain. That we tnid leave mwore good to sheare. Less ills to bear, less souls to grieve. An' vjhen our hands do vail to rest. It mid be vrom a-work a-blest." "POEMS IN THE DORSET DIALECT."- WILLIAM BARNES. 190 SECTION IX. X the studv of the following period, the first political interest in American history is developed. We see the first faint expression of principles which have become household words to later generations, and have, to a ver}' great extent, influenced the entire continent. The coming power of Englishmen is foreshadowed in the origin and rapid de- velopment of their colonies. The pecu- liar features attending the life of Ply- mouth, left alone as it %vas bv the Eng- lish crown; the more expansive life of the Puritans at Massachusetts Bav, %vith the, at first, unobser\-ed transfer of the government to the colony itself, so fruit- ful of results; the indications of friction with royal power in the cases of the settlers in the Old Dominion, were all of them prophecies of self-government and wide supremacy. Tow^n meetings, rep- resentative assemblies, codified laws, written constitutions, began within the limits of the English colonies. The weaknesses of French colonization pre- vented it from getting any such foothold, and from retaining perpetually what it did get. Dutch power could not long endure in the midst of the more vigor- ouslv self-asserting conditions on each side. The full intent of all these slight beginnings has not yet been clearlv seen. The continent still awaits a brighter reign of libertv. 1631. March 16. The first conflagra- tion in Boston destroyed two dwelling houses. The fire caught in a wooden chimney. The building of such chim- neys, or of thatched roofs, was thereafter forbidden. 1631. Roger Williams and John Eliot, both of them young ministers who became prominent in New England affairs, arrived at ^Massachusetts Bav this year. John Winthrop, Jr., son of Gov. Winthrop, also came. 1631. July 4. « The Blessing of the Bay." A vessel of thirty tons, built in Xew England by Gov. Winthrop, was launched at Medford, Mass, It was named " The Blessing of the Bav," and is usually called the first vessel built in Xew England, but the pinnace built by the Popham colon v, preceded it. 1631. The rranchise. At the sec- ond general court of Massachusetts Bay, it was voted that nobodv should from that time become a citizen and a voter, unless he were a member of some church in the settlements. 191 192 COLONIAL LIFE. 1631. New Hampshire. Laconia was cli\idcd by Mason and Gorges between themselves, the former taking the present territory of New Hampshire, which he named from Hampshire county, Eng- land, and the latter taking all the land eastward of Mason's tract. 1631. A terrible earthquake oc- curred at Lima, Peru, and left the marks of its ravages in the destruction of much proi^erty. 1632. June 20. Maryland. Cecil Cal- vert, Lord Baltimore, received the grant asked for by his father before the hitter's death, and named it Maryland in honor of the Queen Henrietta Maria. Under this patent he held lands west of the Delaware River, which were a source of controversy for over a century. 1632. July 5. Quebec was returned to the French according to the stipulation with the English crown in the Treaty of St. Germain's. All Canada and Nova Scotia passed into French control again. Two Jesuit priests landed at Quebec with Emery de Caen, who received the sur- render and took command of the town. 1632. The first church building in Boston was erected this year. It was, it is said, built of mud walls with a thatched roof, near the present corner of State and Devonshire streets. 1632. The germ of a second house in the general court of Massachusetts mi. Gu..tavus ^^y appeared this year in Adoiphus diedat the elcction of sixtecn dele- battle of Lulzen. , , ^, • i . , r gates by the eight towns of the province, to confer with the governor and his assistants about the raising of a tax. This precluded the necessity of holding a general assembly of the free- men of the colon \'. 1632. A Queer Penalty. An act was j^assed in Plymouth colony, subject- ing a person who should refuse the office of governor to a fine of iCzo, and a per- son who should refuse the office of councillor or magistrate to a fine of £io. 1633. May 23. Champlain resumed command at Quebec under commission from Richelieu. The Jesuits silently began to regain control. 1633. Wouter Van Twiller. who had been appointed governor of New Neth- erland in place of Peter Minuit, arrived at New Amsterdam. The first school- master named Adam Roelandsen came with him. Rev. Everardus Bogardus this year succeeded Rev. Jonas Michaelis as minister of the Reformed Dutch Church in America, and had the first church building erected on what is now Broad Street. Dominie Bogardus mar- ried the widow Annetje Jansen whose large farm was known as the Bowerie, and now forms the valuable property held by the corporation of Trinity Church. A brewery, tlie first in the province, was erected. 1633. The election of selectmen ap- parently began in one or two towns of Massachusetts Bay, and originated the well known town office through the greater convenience in the transaction of much of the town business. 1633. Sheep were first imported into Massachusetts Bay colony this year. 1633. Hartford, Conn. A trading post was established near the present site of Hartford, Conn., by the Dutch, in order to hold the territory to which they laid claim. They also reoccupied Fort Nassau on the Delaware River. 1633. Sept. 16. The first frame house in Connecticut was set up near A\'indsor, above the Dutch post on the river, by William Holmes, of Plymouth, who with a few companions brought the 1631-1661.] frame ready to *be put together in order to take immediate possession. The Dutcli planned to drive them out, but did not attempt it by force. 1633. October. Devoted Service. Fatlicr Le Jcune, of Quebec, spent the winter with a wandering party of Algon- quin Indians in order to teach them the Christian faith. It was a great exposure for him to live five months in wigwams built in the snow, and endure the hard- ships of cold and fatigue, but he did it cheerfully for the sake of his mission. 1634. March 27. Maryland Colo- nized. Leonard Calvert, sent out with a colony by his brother. Lord Baltimore, arrived in Maryland and founded the first settlement, named St. Mary's, upon the site of an Indian village which was pur- chased of its occupants. Good relations were established with the Indians. The charter granted Lord Baltimore guar- anteed representative government to the colony, and deprived the English crown of any power to tax or superintend the colony. Perfect religious toleration was also declared. The colony began to flourish,' and never suffered the depriva- tions endured by all the other plantations. 1634. April 10. Spirit of Liberty. Archbishop Laud of Canterbury and others were made a commission to exer- cise supreme authority over the English colonies, and if necessary to revoke char- ters. When news of this reached Boston, measures were at once taken for defense. An order was passed for fortifications at Castle Island, Charlestown, and Dor- chester; also for the training of unskillful men. A royal request was sent for the charter, but the magistrates refused to surrender it. This prophecy of inde- pendence possesses a very remarkable character for that early day. GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 193 1634. May 19. Representative Gov- ernment. Twenty-four delegates from the towns of Massachusetts colony ap- peared before the governor and magis- trates at their annual meeting unexpect- edly, and claimed seats with them in the general court of the jDrovince. Their request was granted. This was the second representative body on the Amer- ican continent. The House of Burgesses in Virginia in 1619 was the first. The freemen of the colony were now becom- ing so scattered as the number of towns around Boston increased, that they could not be safely or conveniently called to- gether at once in a colonial general assembly. Thus was democratic gov- ernment of necessity given up, except as it remained visible in the management of town affairs. The Freeman's Oath was established at this time, by which e\-ery freeman of the colony was obliged to pledge his allegiance to Massachusetts instead of to King Charles. 1634. A mission among the Huron Indians was established by three Jesuits who went from Quebec into the Huron country and took up their residence in an Indian village near the lake of that name. A house was built and the natives were taught with considerable success. 1634. All British colonies were put under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the BishojD of London. 1634. A Roman Catholic mission was established among the Indians of Mary- land, by Andrew White, but was broken up at the close of twelve vears. 1636. A representative assembly was held in Maryland and laws were enacted which Lord Baltimore declared void, because he claimed that with himself rested the right to initiate legislation. He two years afterward withdrew this claim. 194 COLONIAL LIFE. 1635. April 23. Trouble in Mary- land. William Clayborne having resisted the authority of Lord Baltimore on Kent Island, an attempt was made to arrest him. A fight between two vessels sent out by Maryland and one under Clay- borne's authority, took place. Clayborne fled to Virginia and his estates on Kent Island v/ere confiscated. 1635. April. The Plymouth Com- pany resigned their patent to the king and assigned the territory of New Eng- land to the members by particular por- tions. Gorges retained the land between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec which he now for the first time named Maine. He was vested with large powers over this province. A small plantation at Agamenticus was erected into a munici- pal corporation and became the first real city in New England. It is now the town of York, Me. Mason retained New Hampshire. A writ of quo war- ranto was now issued against Massa- chusetts Bay colony to dispossess them of their charter in order that the other patentees might take possession of the lands which they had so gladly divided among themselves. The prospect was dark for Massachusetts Bay, and if Eng- land had been thoroughly at peace, the colony would have been annihilated. 1635. May. The First BaUot. Voting by slips of paper seems to have been first used at the general election in Massachu- setts Bay this year, and to have been ordered to be used thereafter. 1635. A Heavy Currency. Musket bullets were made a legal tender in place of farthings in Massachusetts Bay, but not more than twelve could be paid at once. This step was taken in order to retain the bullets then in the colony, in view of the anticipated trouble over the charter of the colony. It was at this time that the famous old beacon-pole was ordered to be set on what has since been known as Beacon Hill, Boston. A barrel of tar could be raised to its top and set aflame to warn the surrounding country. 1635. Trouble in Virginia. Sir John Harvey, governor of Virginia, was bitterly complained of by the col- onists, and resisted in office. He went to England by mutual agreement to be tried upon the accusations made against him. The trouble arose from the repres- sion of popular power in the province since 1624, when it had become a royal colony. 1635. Sept. 1. The first grand jury on the American continent met in Boston and prepared a list of one hundred offences which they presented to the magistrates for trial. 1635. October. Sentence of banish- ment was passed against Roger Williams by Massachusetts Bay, because of his constant opposition to magistrates and church. 1635. November. Saybrook, Conn. A colony was founded at the mouth of the Connecticut River and named Say- brook, in honor of Lord Say-and-Seal and Lord Brooke, who had obtained a grant of the territory in 1631. 1635. John Steel with a few persons went from Massachusetts Bay to the reerion of Wethersfield and Windsor. 1635. CH±VPL-LIjy. Dec. 25. Samuel de Cham- plain died on Christmas day at Quebec, at the age of sixty-eight years. For over thirty years he had been closely connected with the fortunes of New France, and had been the leading spirit in foundingf its institutions. His character 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 195 and aims are apparent in the course of the events which have been recorded of him in previous pages. He was rehgious and connected all his schemes for coloni- zation very closely with his faith. But the settlement he planned embraced ele- ments of permanency in his diligent founding of a civil state. His patience was unsurpassed, and reminds one of that of Columbus. Very little is found to stain his character, and n one of that loose- ness in morals appeared in him which marked the roving spirits of that day. The struggle of his life in the New World was long continued and severe. The little oeginnings at Quebec under- taken by him inaugurated a fierce effort for the supremacy of the great St, Law- rence over cold and hunger, internal dis- cord, and outward foes in the shape of the deadly Iroquois. Though the growth was slow, it was sure, and a state grew up beside the noble river, which to-day owes her existence to the untiring hand of Samuel de Champlain. 1636. March 3. Town Govern- ments. The general court of Massa- chusetts passed measures recognizing the towns of the province as they had grown up, and defined their powers for the reg- ulation of town meetings. This action simply made legal and permanent the conditions \vhich had arisen naturally in the infancy of the colony. 1636. June. The Hartford Colony. Hooker and Stone emigrated from New- town, Mass., and founded Hartford, Conn. They went across the country with their families and took one hundred and sixty head of cattle with them. The journey was accomplished in two weeks. Mrs. Hooker, who was an invalid, was carried upon a litter. 1636. June. Quebec Schools. Charles Hualt de Montmagny arrived in Quebec to assume the office of governor, left vacant by the death of Champlain. Colonists came with him. There was this year the beginning of a school at Quebec for Huron children. A college was established for French boys. 1636. Governor Harvey. Charles n. of England would not hear the charges made against Sir John Harvey, governor of Virginia, but sent him back to rule the province, " if but for a day." 1636. July 4. Providence, R. I., was founded by Roger Williams, who fled secretly from Boston after his banish- ment, in order to avoid transportation to England. A compact was entered into by those who settled at Providence " to submit themselves in active and passive obedience to all such orders and agree- ments as should be made for the public good of the body in an orderly way, by major consent of the present inhabitants, masters of families, incorporated together into a township, and such others whom they shall admit into the same, only in civil things." 1636. First West India Trade. A vessel of thirty tons made the first voyage between Massachusetts Bay and the West Indies. 1636. Right of Taxation. The Ply- mouth colony declared that no taxes should be imposed but by the consent of the freemen of the colony in public assembly. 1636. August. Pequod War. An expedition from Boston under John Endi- cott proceeded against the Indians of Block Island and the Connecticut coast, because of the murder of Oldham, an Indian trader. The Indians fled, but their towns and provisions were burned. 196 This aroused the Pequods, and the towns in the Connecticut colony suffered from their attacks, and general terror began to reign. The Narragansetts were kept peaceful. 1636. Harvard College. The gen- eral court of Massachusetts Bay voted four hundred pounds for a school or col- lege. This was the first step in the his- tory of Harvard College. 1636. Oct. 4. Earliest Colonial Code of Laws. Plymouth colony chose a com- mittee to codify the statutes which had grown up naturally in the early adminis- tration of the colony. Fifty or sixty laws were thus laid down. 1636. December. Eocal Elections Prefigured. The general court of Massa- chusetts decreed that as all freemen could not safely leave their homes at the same time they could send their votes to the magistrates by proxy thereafter. A mil- itary organization of three regiments was also ordered for the colony. 1637. The Pequods were extermi- nated by the English settlers and Narra- gansett Indians. The few who remained at the close of the summer were given to the Narragansetts for adoption. 1637. August. The first ecclesias- tical council ever held in the New World came together at Newtown, now Cam- bridge, Mass., to consider questions of faith and heresy. 1637. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson was banished from ]Massachusetts Bay for the opposition to the religious and civil life of the colony into which her peculiar views brought her. She held that out- ward purity of life was no evidence of in- ward sanctification, to attest which an internal revelation of the Holy Spirit alone was sufficient. She derided and opposed the ordinary views of the col- COLONIAL LIFE. onists. For a time she received a number of supporters, among them John Cotton and Henry Vane, but some of them after- ward saw how she had misled them. Doubtless the opposition to her and her companions was illiberal and mistaken, but it was also greatly provoked. 1637. Nov. 17. The general court of Massachusetts Bay ordered the college to be established to be put at Newtown (Cambridge). 1637. Navigation Acts. The order of 1621 for the exclusive importation of tobacco into England having been evaded by the Virginia company, a Ji'esh injunc- tion was issued to the governor to bond each vessel for the sure transportation of its cargo to Great Britain. 1637. The Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston was organ- ized by Robert Keayne, who became its first captain. It was organized upon the plan of a similar company in London, It was known at first as the 1573. 1637. Military Company of Mass- ^^« Jonson. achusetts, and is the oldest militia organi- zation on the continent. It was armed at first with pikes, " hand-gounes " and " snap-hances." The present name was taken about the year 1700. The com- pany still has an annual training day. 1637. Train-bands and Wards. As early as this year, if not earlier, train- bands began to be organized in Boston. Separate portions of the town were set apart for these bands to keep watch and ward over. Thus the name ward has passed into general use in America. These train-bands originated the training days which were formerly so well known in New England. 1637. An expedition up the Amazon was led from JMaranhao to Quito by Pedro de Texeira, a Portuguese. He V 1631-16G1.] had with him seventy Portuguese sol- diers and about twelve , hundred Indians, and was accompanied by the two monks who had come down the rivr from Peru in 1616. They passed up thv^ Amazon and its branch the Napo, and at last after a hard journey, reached Quito. In a year or two he returned, accompanied by a chronicler who recorded minute observa- tions of everything on the way. Full reports of both trips were sent to Madrid, and constitute the first real account of this wonderful stream down which Orellana passed nearly one hundred years before. 1638. March. Rhode Island Col- ony. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her friends having been ordered to leave Massachusetts Bay, formed a settlement on Rhode Island which they had pur- chased from the Indians. Eighteen persons signed the following agreement, viz.: "We whose names are under- written do hereby solemnly in the pres- ence of Jehovah incorporate ourselves into a body politic, and as he shall help, will submit our persons, lives and estates unto our Lord Jesus Christ the King of kings and Lord of lords, and to all those perfect and absolute laws of Plis Holy Word of truth, to be judged and guided thereby." A governor, deputy- governor and five assistants were entrusted with the government of the colony. 1638. April 15. New Haven Col- ony. New Haven was founded by a company just arrived from England under John Davenport, a clergyman, and ,„. ^ . Theophilus Eaton, a mer- 163S. Jansenism " ' foundedby Jan- chaut. The land was sftims, oj pres. •i-,Qyorht of the Indians for " twelve coats, twelve hoes, twelve al- chemy spoons, twelve hatchets, twenty- four knives, twelve porringers, four cases French knives and scissors." Later in the GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 197 season a government was organized, and Theophilus Eaton was chosen the first governor. 1638. Harvard CoUege Named. The general court of Massachusetts Bay ordered that Newtown be named Cam- bridge in honor of Cambridge, England. John Harvard, a minister of Charlestown, died and left the new college about eight hundred pounds and all his library. It was therefore named Harvard College. Regular instruction began this year by Nathaniel Eaton. 1638. ^ Exeter, N. H., was founded by Rev. Mr. Wheelwright, who had been banished from Massachusetts Bay col- ony on account of differences between himself and other jDreachers, which arose from his adoption of the views of his sistcr-in-la\v, Mrs. Hutchinson. 1638. The first negro slaves in New England were brought by a vessel which had made a trading voyage to the West Indies. 1638. A severe earthquake was ex- perienced in New England. Slight quak- ings were felt for twenty days afterward. 1638. The Massachusetts charter was again demanded by the commis- sioners, but a long letter refusing it was sent by Gov. Winthrop. There was so much trouble in England that the demand was not pressed at present. 1638. First Cloth-making. A com- pany of Yorkshire clothiers settled at Rowley, Mass., and began the work of their trade. " They were the first people that set upon making of cloth in the Western world, for which end they built a fulling mill and caused their little ones to be very diligent in spinning cotton, many of them having been clothiers in England." The business grew upon their hands very rapidly. 198 COLO]V/AL LIFE. 1639. Jan. 14. A written constitu- tion was adopted in the Connecticut col- ony by the agreement of the towns. The colony became independent of Massa- chusetts Bay, and elected John Haynes governor. This has been called " the first example in history of a written con- stitution framed by the people, a distinct organic law constituting a government, and defining its powers." The legis- lative power was vested in an assembly composed of the governor, six magistrates and representatives elected by each town. 1639. February. The statutes of Mar}'land were completed at the third session of the assembly. Civil enact- ments were passed, and penalties provided for criminal offences. A house of bur- gesses was provided for, of which repre- sentatives elected by the people should be members. The voters of the colony had at first made their laws in a public meeting called for that purpose. Any planter who cultivated tobacco was re- quired to raise two acres of corn. Steps were taken to provide for the building of a grist-mill. 1639. March. The first printing press in the English colonies was set up at Cambridge, Mass., by Stephen Daye, who issued this year an edition of the Freeman's Oath as his first work, and an almanac for New England by William Pierce, Mariner, as his second. Rev. Jesse Glover acted as agent in getting the press, which was bought by subscription, and was obtained at Amsterdam. A font of type worth .£49 was given to the college with the j^ress. Mr. Daye received from Massachusetts a grant of three hundred acres of land because he was the first printer in the North American colonies. 1639. June 4. An assembly of the people of the New Haven colony was held in a barn belonging to Mr. Robert Newman, in orde: to comjilete their polit- ical organization. The governor and magistrates who were elected by the church members of the colony adminis- tered the government. 1639. July 22. Pejepscot, now Brunswick, ]Me., where a few settlers under Thomas Purchas had planted them- selves on the edge of the territory of Gorges, put itself formally under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay. 1639. Aug. 1. The First Hospital. Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de I'lncarna- tion and other nuns arrived in Quebec and founded the Ursuline Convent. Three nuns came to found the hospital called the Hotel Dieu under the patronage of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, niece of Richelieu. This was the first hospital in America. 1639. Representative government was adopted in Plymouth colony after nineteen years of pure democracy. It was rendered necessary by the increase of numbers in the colony. 1639. The Painted House. Rev. Thomas Allen of Charlestown, Mass., is saitl to have been brought before the magistrates on the charge of having paint upon his dwelling house. He showed that it was put on before he owned the house, and that he disapproved of such a thing, and was thereby dis- charged. Paint and paper hangings were scarcely known in the colonies. 1639. A house, which is still standing and is probably the oldest in the United States, was built in Guilford, Conn., for the minister. Rev. Henry Whitfield. 1639. Newport, R. I., was founded by William Coddington and his associ- ates who had separated from the settle- ment of Mrs. Hutchinson at the northern end of the island. 1631-1G61.] GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 199 1639. The first Baptist church in America was organized in Providence, R.- 1., by Roger Williams. 1639. The first apple trees in Amer- ica were on Governor's Island, Boston Harbor, and bore this year "ten fair pippins." 1639. Jean Nicollet crossed from the Huron country to Green Bay, Wisconsin, and it is thought by some, to the Missis- sippi River. 1640. A powder mill was established in Massachusetts, but it was afterward suppressed by English laws. XEJF EXGLAKD. 1640. About twenty-one thousand emigrants among whom were one hun- dred ministers, had up to this time been received into New England, at a cost to the companies of over one million dollars. There were twelve settlements east of the Hudson, embracing fifty towns and vil- lages. Wampum began to be freely used as currency among the colonists. Beaver skins were used in trade as they w^ere also in New Netherland, where the Dutch minister of Albany received a salary of one hundred and fifty skins a year. New industries appeared on many hands. Linen, cotton and woolen cloths were made by the colony of Yorkshire clothiers, at Rowley, Mass. Commerce with the West Indies sprang up. 1640. The Bay Psalm Book was is- sued at Cambridge, Mass., and for years was thought to be the first real book printed on the American continent, but books were printed at Mexico over a cen- tury before. A copy of the Bay Psalm Book was "sold at auction in 1876 for one thousand and twenty-five dollars." 1640. First Nursery. Gov. Endi- cott started an apple tree nursery on his farm in Dan vers, Mass., laio. The Long and began the selling of ''""''""''"'• *' ^ * 1577 1640. young trees in large num- Rubens. bers. This was probably the first nursery on the continent. There was scarcely another one till within the last forty years. 1640. An ordination by laymen took place at Taunton, Mass., at which, though one or two ministers were present, the candidate was ushered into the ministerial ofiice by lay members of the church. 1640. The first brandy made in the American colonies was produced at Man- hattan, now New York. 1640. Brazil was erected into a princi- pality and the Portuguese heir apparent was made Prince of Brazil. 1640. The Bermuda Islands were put under a regular government by the English crown. 1641. March 2. The charter of Ply- mouth colony was surrendered by William Bradford to the freemen of the whole colony, and the interest held by members of the Council for New Eng- land was bought for twelve hundred pounds. 1641. April. A Sunday liquor law was issued by the authorities of New Amsterdam on account of the increasing prevalence of drunkenness. It forbade the " tapping of beer during divine service or after ten o'clock at night, under a pen- alty of twenty-five guilders, leu. Coffee in- or ten dollars for each ''y^^"<^^djnto offense, besides the for- len. star feiture of the beer for the ^''""'^f: ""^ High Lommts- USe of the Schout Fiscaal, sion abolished. or Attorney General." This law was adopted because they said "complaints are made that some of our inhabitants have commenced to tap beer during divine service, and use a small kind of 200 COLONIAL LIFE. measure which is in contempt of our re- ligion, and must ruin the state." 1641. Curious Financial Peril. Wampum, or Indian money, formed a great part of the currency of New Neth- erland. It consisted of parts of sea shells strung together, and was sometimes known as seawant. During this year the New Amsterdam city council com- plained " that a great deal of bad sea- want, nasty, rough things, imported from other places, was in circulation, while the good, splendid Manhattan seawant was out of sight or exported, which must cause the ruin of the country." 1641. A Singular Marriage. Richard Bellingham, Governor of Massachusetts, made proposals of matrimony to a young lady about to be married to a young man, was accepted, and without complying with the rules of the colony in regard to publishing the bans, performed his own marriage ceremony, by virtue of his office as a magistrate. This direct viola- tion of law was afterward brought up before the courts, but was finally care- lessly dropped. 1641. Indian Missions. Mr. Richard Bourne and Mr. Thomas Tupper began to labor among the Indians of Sandwich and Cape Cod, within the Plymouth patent, and had great success for several years. They were not ministers, but wealthy laymen, and began their work very quietly. They studied the Indian language, and soon conducted worship for the natives. Mr. Bourne was finally or- dained pastor of an Indian church at Marsh- pee. Both were men of great energy. 1641. Two Catholic missionaries named Jogues and Raymbault,penetrated to the outlet of Lake Superior, and preached to the Indians. 1641. December. The « Body of Lib- erties," prepared by Rev. Nathaniel Ward, of Ipswich, was adopted, and be- came the first real constitution of Massa- chusetts Bay. Previous to this time there had been no code of laws. It was claimed that English law could only have a restrictive force upon acts contrary to it, but that beyond this the people of the colony could make such laws as they chose. The enactments of the new con- stitution were one hundred in number, forbade husbands to chastise their wives, a privilege which the common law of England allowed, forbade cruelty to ani- mals, and decreed capital punishment for certain offenses, among them witchcraft. It also provided that " there should be no monopolies but of such new inventions as were profitable to the country, and that for a short time only." Applications for patents were soon made under this code. It was also provided "that there shall never be any bond slavery, villeinage or captivity among us, vmless it be lawful captives taken in just war, such as will- ingly sell themselves or are sold to us, and such shall have the liberties and Christian usage which the law of God established in Israel concerning such per- sons, doth morally require." 1642. Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia to succeed Sir Francis Wyatt as governor. He brought orders from the king for the restoration to the people of the right of representation by the formation of a general assembly com- posed of the governor and council, together with burgesses elected by the different plantations or towns. 1642. May 18. Montreal was founded by a company which had been commis- sioned to establish Catholic institutions upon the island. A seminary, college, and Hotel Dieu were to be inaugurated at once. 1631-16G1.1 GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 1642. Religious diflaculties and re- bellion in Alaryland for two or three years, prevented the full progress of that colony. 1642. Aug. 2. Iroquois Barbarity. A Huron trading joarty and four Jesuits were captured on the St. Lawrence River 1564-1642. by the Iroquois, and carried 15851642 " "^''' into Central New York. EuMieii. The captives, among whom was Father Isaac Jogues, were horribly mutilated by Indian torments after they had reached the Five Nations. 1642. The White Mountains. An Irishman named Darby Field was prob- ably the first white man to ascend the White Mountains, N. H. He was ac- companied by two Indians, and named these now well-known hills the Crystal Mountains. 1642. Powder Houses in New Eng- land. A law was passed by the general court of Massachusetts, obliging every town to keep a supply of powder on hand, and thus the little powder houses once seen throughout New England, began to be built. 1642. Fines in Maryland. A full code of laws was provided for Maryland. Drunkenness was to be punished by a fine of one hundred pounds of tobacco, and swearing by a fine of five pounds. 1642. First Home Missionaries. More than seventy Puritan settlers of Virginia sent a letter to Massachusetts Bay, requesting that a number of min- isters be sent to them. Three were sent and commended to the governor and council of Virginia. Their services were afterward cut oflf by lack of toleration. 1642. Oct. 9. The first class grad- uated at Harvard College. 1642. The Swedes built a fort on Tinicum Island in the Delaware River, 201 amonof the and established a mission Indians. 1642. The first tavern for strangers on Manhattan Island was built this year near the head of Cowentics' slip. 1643. March. Religious Intolerance. The assembly of Virginia passed a re- solve to enforce conformity with the Church of England. Non-conformists were ordered " to depart the colony with all conveniency." This broke up the labors of the Puritan ministers from Massachusetts Bay. The same code abolished servitude as a punishment. 1643. Samuel Gorton's settlement at what is now Warwick, Rhode Island, was broken up b}^ Massachusetts author- ities because of his decided heretical views, and his troublesome bearing toward those among whom he lived. Even Roger Williams could not bear him. 1643. May. The House of Com- mons ordered that all exports from and imports into New England should be without duty. FIRST COLO.VML LEAGUE. 1643. May 19. Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut colonies formed a league under the name of " The United Colonies of New Eng- land," for mutual protection against the Dutch and Indians. An assembly com- posed of two commissioners from each colony was to be held. Runaway slaves and criminals were to be ,^^, _,^ . . 1643-1715. Louts given up. This was the x/v. King of fii'st colonial coalition, and ''""'"'^• presented the sight of colonists taking their affairs into their own hands. 1643. The Jesuit priest. Isaac Jogues, escaped from the Iroquois while they were trading with the Dutch at Albany, 202 COLON I AL 1.1 FE. went down the Hudson and to France, where his mutilations gained him great honor. 1643. First Iron- works in New Eng- land. A charter was granted and a company was formed for the manufacture of iron in New England. John Win- throp, Jr. and others raised money in England for the establishment of the works. A beginning was made this year at Saugus, now Lynn, Mass. The name Hammersmith was bestowed upon the place, because several of the workmen had come from that town .in England. Among these workmen was Joseph Jenks, who has been called " the first founder who worked in bi"ass and iron on the Western continent." A small quart pot was the first article turned out, and has been preserved in the family of Thomas Hudson, upon whose lands the iron-works stood. A similar forge was established a very little later by the same company at Braintree, Mass. These works began to meet the demand for iron-ware and tools. Their material was bog iron ore, found in the lowlands of the vicinity. Both works employed men of great skill. 1643. A massacre of the Indians around New Amsterdam was insti- gated by William Kieft, Governor of New Netherland. It brought great trouble upon the Dutch colonies after- ward. In one of the attacks by the Indians Mrs. Hutchinson, who had re- moved into New Netherland, was killed. 1643. Representatives from the towns of New Haven colony were for the first time associated with the governor and magistrates in the general assembly. 1643. Sugar was made in the West Indies by the English for the first time, upon the island of St. Christopher. MM.YTOXOMOH. 1643. September. This chief, the nephew of Canonicus the powerful sa- chem of the Narragansetts, was murdered by a Mohegan Indian in Connecticut. For many years Miantonomoh and Ca- nonicus had held the rule over their pow- erful nation. Upon the first coming of the whites, the former, then a young man, thought of making war upon them, but having become acquainted with them, he decided that it would be better to pre- serve peace. At the time of the murder of Oldham, Miantonomoh made every effort to find the guilty parties, and gave great assistance in arresting them. In the Pequod war he rendered much service. Nevertheless the English authorities were always suspicious of him. There seems to have long been an ani- mosity between himself and Uncas, the sachem of the Mohegans. In 1638 a treaty was drawn up between the chiefs in which among other things they agreed to settle their difficulties by an appeal to the English. It having been afterward reported that Miantonomoh was plotting against the English, he was sent for to appear at Boston in 1643. He came, and for two days the court was employed upon his case. He manifested much wisdom and good judgment in all his answers. Having proved his innocence he asked for his accusers, saying that they ought to suffer the same punishment as was in- tended for himself. But they did not choose to show themselves. The difficulties between Miantonomoh and Uncas finally led to a war in 1643, in which the former was taken prisoner. He was taken by Uncas to Boston, that his fate might be decided by the English. The latter declared that the case was not 1631-1661.] within their jurisdiction, and handed him over to the Mohegans for punish- ment. Uncas received the commission very willingly. While going with his prisoner between Hartford and Windsor his brother came up behind Miantono- moh and with a single blow of the toma- hawk split open the skull of the unfortu- nate chief. Thus perished on account of the prejudice of the English, one who had always been peaceable and well-disposed toward them. Miantonomoh could not have been past middle age. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 203 1644. March 14. A charter was \ granted Roger Williams for his settle- ments which were to be known as *' Providence Plantations." He obtained the charter by a visit to England. The Providence and Rhode Island colonies which had been separate up to this time, were united. The government was to be a pure democracy. 1644. April 18. A second great massacre of the settlers in Virginia was attempted by the Indians with such success that nearly five hundred whites were slain. This was the last great organized attack. The veteran chief, Opechancanaugh, was taken captive and having been mortally wounded by a shot from a soldier, soon died. The Indians were left without head and without energy. opechtikcaka ugh. 1644. This chief, styled the King of the Pamunkeys, was a brother of the once powerful chief Powhatan. He was born about the year 1545 and consequently was nearly one hundred years old when he died. In the winter of 1608 the English, having used up their food, were at the point of starvation, and were unable to get anything from the Indians by trade. Capt. Smith proceeded to Pamunkey, determined to secure some corn. Find- ing all his efforts to trade with the Indians in vain, he suddenly seized Opechanca- naugh by the hair and with a pistol at his breast, dragged him half dead with fright out among the whites. The chief was then held as a prisoner until his people brought enough provisions to fill the boats. The English then released him and returned to Jamestown. We do not hear much more of Opechancanaugh except in the two massacres of 1622 and 1644, in which he led. In the latter his feebleness was so great that he was carried upon a litter. While a prisoner he had not strength enough to raise his eyelids. Just before his death, when he was sur- rounded by a crowd anxious to see the venerable warrior, he asked that Gov. Berkeley be brought into his presence, and thus addressed him : " Had it been my fortune to have taken Sir William Berkeley prisoner, I would not meanly have exposed him as a show to my people." He left no one to fill his place in the leadership of the people. Their venerated king had been the complete leader of all their movements. ELDER BREWSTER. 1644. April 16. William Brewster, one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, died at the age of eighty- four years. He was born at Scrooby, England, in 1560, and received his edu- cation at Cambridge University. He suffered imprisonment for his religious views, but finally reached Holland, where he taught school, and set ujd a printing press. When the colony came to America, the principal religious care of it fell upon him, because it was deemed 204 COLONIAL LIFE. necessary for the pastor, John Robinson, to remain in Holland with the rest, and come to America at some later day. J>ut Mr. Robinson never came, and Elder William Brewster continued the full pas- toral care of the colony luitil 1629, thoui^^h he could never be intluced to administer the sacraments. Ilis influ- ence grew to be very great, and deser- vedly so. When he died he was an object of great veneration. lie left a librarv of two hundred and seventy-five volumes, sixty-four being in the learned languages. The library was valued at -^43- 1644. April 29. Joseph Bressani, an Italian Jesuit, was captured by the Iroquois as he was going to the Huron mission. He was subjected to torment, and afterward sokl to the Dutch, who sent him to France. 1644. June. The first internal tax on liquor in America was laid by the Dutch West India Company, at Man- hattan, and resulted in much trouble. 1644. Two Legislative Houses in Massachusetts. A case of difficulty in regaul to swine, which originated in 1636, and had never been fully settled, was brought up again before the magis- trates. The sympathies of the people, and of most of their representatives, were opposed to those of the magistrates. The animal which caused the difficulty by running at large, had belonged to an ordinary person. On account ot the division of sentiment, the case led this year to the establisliment of two branches of the general court, in order that each one might possess a negative vote on the other. The humble swine was a means of originating in AIassachus(-tts this great security of all constitutional gov- ernment. The assistants of the governor had, however, at several previous times, claimed the power to negative the votes of the members elected by the freemen of the colony. 1644. Nov. 13. Baptists. A law was passed in Alassachusetts Bay, pronoun- cing sentence of banishment upon all Baptists. 1644. The second Baptist church in America was founded at Newport, R. I., by Jolin Clarke, who served as its pas- tor for manv vears. 1644. Nov. 19. First Protestant Missionary Society. The Massachu- setts general court became the first Prot- estant missionary society of the world by passing an order for the county courts to care for the Indians within their jurisdiction, both to civilize and Chris- tianize them. At a little later tlay it ordered that two ministers be chosen and sent among the Indians to teach them the gospel. There is no earlier modern missionary undertaking among the Prot- estants, unless it be the establishment of a Dutch mission in Ceylon. Ministers had been sent by Massachusetts Bay two years before into Virginia, at the request of Puritan settlers there. But this work was the real inauguration of missionary efl^ort. 1645. The " One Hundred Asso- ciates" who had held the power of trade over New France, transferred their monopolies to the inhabitants of Canada, but retained their seignorial rights. 1645. July. A great peace council was held at Sillery, Quebec, between the Iroquois and the French and Hurons. Isaac Jogues and Couture went into the Iroquois country at its conclusion. 1645. Aug. 30. A treaty was made between the Dutch and the Indians, 1631-1661.] bringing a long and cruel war to a close. 1645. Support of Harvard College. The commissioners of the New England league recommended that every family in the four provinces give a peck of corn or a shilling to Harvard College. This was very generally complied with, and afforded considerable aid to the insti- tution. 1645. Four persons were executed for witchcraft in Massachusetts. This ' was the remote beginning of the trouble which in 1693 became so serious. 1645. Negro Slaves. A lawsuit was held in Boston over the kidnapping of some slaves on the coast of Guinea, which were brought to New England by James Keyser and James Smith. They were held to have been taken un- lawfully, because without their own con- sent, and were ordered to be sent back. 1645. "William Clayborne incited a rebellion in Maryland, and seized the government of the province from Leon- ard Calvert, who was driven away. 1645. The territory of Brazil north of Pernambuco had been entirely seized during the last two or three years by the Dutch. Para was the only spot not captured. 1646. Jan. 31. Father De Noue was frozen to death in an attempt to reach the French fort on the Richelieu River. This was the first Jesuit death in Canada. 1646. A law against man-stealing was passed in Massachusetts, making it a capital crime. Similar laws were soon formed in all the New England colonies. 1646. Certain persons were arrested and fined in Massachusetts because they petitioned for the admission of those who were not church members to political GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 205 rights. An appeal to the commissioners in England gave them no redress. 1646. The first poll-tax in this coun- try was levied in Massachusetts this year. Up to this time a certain tax had been laid upon the entire province, and the total amount divided among the towns, to be raised as might seem best. At this time a tax of I s. 8 d., and a little later 2 s. 6 d. was laid upon every male over sixteen years of age. A penny a £ was laid on personal property and income. 1646. Leonard Calvert returned with a large force and was re- t^iG. Air guns Instated in his position as inve7Ued. governor of Maryland, from which he had been expelled by Clayborne in 1645. 1646, Aug. 29. Father Gabriel Druilletes set out on a mission among the Abenaqui Indians of Maine along the Kennebec, some of whom had been to Canada and now requested that a mis- sionary might be sent to their jDcople. Druilletes visited and taught among them, descended the river, went to the Penob- scot along the coast, stopped at the Eng- lish stations, and the next year returned to Quebec. 1646. Oct. 28. John Eliot preached to the Indians for the first time in their own language, in what is now the city of Newton, Mass. Meetings were soon held in other places. Converts began to multiply under his influence, and a great work soon grew up. 1646. Thomas Mayhew, Jr. began preaching among the Indians oi Martha's Vineyard, and had great success for the next score of years. He had labored in teaching them since 1643. He afterward perished at sea on board a ship which foundered on its way to England. After the death of the son his father continued the work with Hiacoomes, who was the 206 COLONIAL LIFE. best Indian preacher of whom wc have any account. 1646. December. Edward Winslow was sent to England to answer char<^es against the Massachusetts colony made by disaffected persons. His mission was successful. 1646. The first license law in Mas- sachusetts was passed. 1646. First Scythes. Joseph Jenks received a j^atent for fourteen years " for the making of engines for mills to go by water for the more speedy dispatch of work than formerly, and for the making of scythes and other edged tools." These scythes were the first made in the country, and were made like the old English scythe, in the form of the one at present used for bush-cutting. 1647. May. First Complete Relig- ious Liberty in the World. The Provi- dence colony was organized under the 1608-1G47. charter, and the first general Torriceiii, asscmbly held. A code of laws was adopted, declaring the colony democratic, and giving equal religious privileges to all, of whatsoever name they might be. 1647. An epidemic influenza raged through the colonies, attacking Indians, French, Dutch and English. 1647. A famous escape of an Al- gonquin squaw named Marie Baptiste, from the Iroquois towns took place. She wandered two months through the woods, and at last made her way to Montreal. 1647. An earthquake destroyed San- tiago, Chili, killing one thousand persons and sixty thousand cattle. rnxomcus. 1647. June 4. This powerful chief who ruled the great Narragansctt tribe, died at the age of eighty-four years. Canonicus was the grandson of Tash- tassuck, whom fame reports as having been the most powerful sachem of his time. At the time of the advent of the white settlers in New England, Canon- icus was loud in his threats against them. He sent one of his men to Plymouth with a bundle of arrows wrajiped in a rattlesnake skin as a challenge to engage in war. On receiving this. Gov. Brad- ford defiantly accepted the challenge by returning the skin filled with powder and shot. The savage chief was so filled with superstitious dread upon the recep- tion of these things, that he refused to touch the skin, and it was carried about to the different villages of the tribe, until it was finally brought again to Plymouth. Canonicus concluded to remain at peace with the English, and throughout his life we never hear of his taking up arms against them. This is partly due to the in- timacy which he had with Roger Wil- liams at Providence. Canonicus came to hold Mr. Williams in great esteem, and is said to have loved him as his own son till the day of his death. The Pequods, before beginning the war of 1637, tried very hard to induce the Narragansetts to join them against the English. A council of the Narragansctt chiefs was held, and they were nearly on the point of yielding to the persuasions of the Pequods, when Mr. Williams came to the wigwam of Canonicus, even while the delegates sent by the hostile tribe were there, and by a great effort persuaded the old sachem to consent to remain at peace with the English. Canonicus died, hav- ing seen more than fourscore years, greatly respected for his wisdom and the moderation of his disposition. He had a large share of the virtues of the red man. % 1648. Thirty Years' War end- ed by Peace of Westphalia. Or- igin of ^'■balance of poiver" in Europe. 1631-1661.] 1648. The first known mention of Niagara Falls was made in the Jesuit Relation for this year by Ragueneau. 1648. Margaret Jones, of Charles- town, Mass., was hung in Boston for witchcraft. 1648. August. The Cambridge Plat- form. A council convened at Cambridge which established a New England plat- form of religious belief, known since as the Cambridge Platform. The Westminster Confession was also adopted by the body. 1648. The first temperance meeting on this continent was held at Sillery, near Quebec. The chief address was made by a converted Algonquin chief, who exhorted his people to total abstinence, and declared to them the penalties enacted against drunkenness. This was a part of the effort made by the priests to prevent the use of liquors among the settlers and Indians, especially the latter. The habit of drink- ing was producing great harm in the province. 1648. Smelting works for copper were set up by Gov. Endicott at Salem, Mass., because he had discovered that ore on his farm. Men were imported from Germany and Sweden to do the work. 1648. Behring's Straits. A Russian expedition under the Cossack, Semoen Deshniew, sailed through Behring's Straits on a trip from the Kolyma River, on the northern coast of Siberia, to the mouth of the Anadir, just south of the straits. Deshniew thus discovered the passage which Behring did not see till nearly a century afterward, and then did not sail through, as Deshniew did. This was a voyage not made before or since, until the recent expedition of Nordenskjold in 1S79. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 207 FREE SCHOOLS. 1649. A law was passed in Massa- chusetts requiring every township to maintain a free school, and every tovs^n of one hundred families to maintain a grammar school capable of "fitting youths for the university." Connecticut, Plymouth and New Haven afterward took steps in the same direction. JOH.y WIKTHROP. 1649. March 26. John Winthrop, for many years governor of Massachusetts Bay colony, died at Boston at the age of eighty-two years. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge University, and afterward studied law. He was prominent among the supporters of the company which was attempting to plant the colony of Massachusetts Bay, being thoroughly in sympathy with the reform aimed at by the Puritans. He came to America in the large body of colonists who arrived June i3, 1630. Soon after his arrival at Salem, he moved to Charles- to\vn, and chose the site of Boston as that of the capital of the colony. He was instrumental in securing friendly relations with the Pilgrims at Plymouth. For several different terms he served the col- ony as governor, and was defeated at several other times, because of particular issues. He was governor at the time of his death. John Winthrop, Jr., after- ward governor of Connecticut, was his only son by a first marriage. By a third marriage he left four sons. He was less harsh and uncompromising than Endicott, but as thoroughly loyal to principle. He was a broader man mentally, though none the truer of heart. He had a de- cidedly literary turn, which has contrib- uted to the original historical records of New England much valuable matter. 208 COLONIAL LIFE. 1649. of England exe- cuted, and com- monviealth estab lisbed. Of such strong stuff as was in Govs. Endi- cott and Winthrop, was IVIassachusetts made. 1649. Intolerance in Virginia. A Puritan church in Virginia which had escaped the action of 1643 was obliged to leave the colony. Its members, which numbered one hundred and eighteen, went mostly to ISIaryland. 1649. The Fate of the Hurons. The Huron towns were destroyed by the Iro- Chariesl. quois," and many killed, together with a part of the Jesuits. The Hurons abandoned their territory and were scattered abroad, ceasing to exist from this time as a nation. The remaining Jesuits reestablished their mis- sion among the refugees, on an island in Lake Huron. 1649. Upon the execution of Charles I. in England and the proclamation of Charles H. as king, Maryland, Virginia, and the English colonies in the West Indies also proclaimed the latter. 1649. Virginia had at this time fifteen thousand white inhabitants and three hundred negroes. There were also ''twenty thousand cattle, two hundred horses, fifty asses, three thousand sheep, five thousand goats," besides swine and all kinds of fowl. There were "six public brew houses, four windmills, and five water mills for grinding corn." There were twenty churches. 1649. Maryland Act of Toleration. The asseml)lv of Maryland passed the "Act of Toleration" giving the rights of liberty to all Christian sects. The provisions of the Rhode Island Act of 1643 were broader in granting toler- ation to all religious forms of faith and worship. 1649. Jesuits were forbidden by law to enter Massachusetts. If any came a second time, they were to be punished by death. 1649. July 27. A " society for prop- agating the gospel in New England " was formed in Great Britain by Act of Parliament, \vith special reference to the conversion of the Indians. Gov. Wins- low and fifteen others composed the cor- poration. 1650. June 10. The Jesuit mission among the Hurons was abandoned, and the few who were left set out for Quebec, where they lived as a mere remnant, and are to be found to-day in Indian Lorette, west of the city. This ended the chief glory of Jesuit missions among the Indians. The annihilation of a nation robbed these patient men of success. 1650. The boundary line between New Netherland and New Haven was decided by commissioners, and thus a long dispute was settled. 1650. The House of Commons pro- hibited trade with Virginia and with island colonies which had refused to acknowledge the commonwealth, de- claring them to be in a state of rebellion, and sending an armed force against them, 1650. Slavery was made lawful in Connecticut luider certain restrictions. 1650. Sept. 1. Druilletes again set out into the Kennebec region to arrange for trade and military aid between the French and English colonists of New England. He visited Boston, and was received hospitably in spite loseicoo. of the law against Jesuits, Descartes. then returned to Quebec hopeful of good results, though nothing could be done till the next meeting of the Federal com- missioners. IVltk TJOOli. ?l roils near New castle. 1631-1661.] 1650. Colonists from Virginia settled 1650. "Friends" Oil the Chowaii River in foundedby ^j^^ present State of North George Fox. ^ CaroHna. 1650. Dutch Guiana, S. A., was 1650. Railroads taken by the English. 1650. Chocolate was first exported from Mexico to Europe. 1650. The General Assembly of Maryland was divided into two houses. A declaration was made that no taxes should be placed upon the colony except with the consent thereof to the same. 1651. A patent was given to Gov. John Winthrop to enable him to work mines in the vicinity of Middletown, Conn. 1651. Father Druilletes and Jean Paul Godefroy were sent to New Haven from Canada to enlist the English colo- nists against the Iroquois, but the attempt was unsuccessful. The Federal commis- sioners refused all proposals. 1651. Wampum. An order was passed in Massachusetts preventing wam- pum from being longer received in the colony in payment of taxes. It was cur- rent in New Netherland for a long while after. 1651. July 26, Raphael Lambert Closse, a great Indian fighter of Canada, with sixteen men, fought a band of In- dians who were attacking Montreal, and after a day's hard contest drove off the entire number. 1651. Navigation Act. It was or- dered by the House of Commons that all exports from the colonies and imports into them must be shipped in English vessels, and that no sugar, cotton, tobacco and other articles should be exported from the colonies, save to English domin- ions. This order was issued because the 14 GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 209 laws of 163 1 and 1637 requiring all com- modities to be shipped from the colonies to England, were evaded by allowing Hollanders to do the can-ying trade in their own vessels. The Navigation Act gave great enterprise to the colonial ship- yards, because it brought a great deal of the carrying trade into the hands of the colonists. 1651. Taxation in Barbadoes. Sir George Ayscue was sent out with a force to reduce Barbadoes to the authority of Parliament, but was unsuccessful until reenforced. There was, however, in the terms of surrender an ex^^ress stipulation that no taxes should be laid on the islanders, save by themselves, thus an- ticipating the principle of the American Revolution. 1651. DiflBculties with the Baptists. John Clarke, Obadiah Holmes and a Mr. Crandall were arrested in Massachusetts for disseminating Baptist doctrines in op- position to the injunctions of the magis- trates. They were visiting a Baptist brother who had been permitted to live for several years in Lynn in perfect peace because he did not violently intrude his ideas upon the notice of those around him. Clarke and Holmes were Baptist ministers. The three visitors were tried and fined. The fines of Clarke and Crandall were paid, but Holmes refused to have his paid, and was whipped with thirty lashes. Two men who expressed sympathy with him were fined forty shillings and committed to prison. 1651. Fort Casimir. Gov. Stuyve- sant of New Netherland, went to the Delaware River, and having secured an Indian title to the west side of the river, erected Fort Casimir near the Swedish Fort Christiana. 1651. The first Seventh Day Baptist 310 COLONIAL LIFE. church In America was established at Newport, R. I. 1651. The manufacture of wines and the cultiv'ation of hemp were encouraged in Virginia by premiums. 1651. Grenada, one of the Wind- ward Islands, was settled by the French under Gov. Du Parquet, of Martinique. The French soon gained the hatred of the Caribs by their cruelty to them. The Caribs began to retaliate by murdering unprotected settlers. Troops were sent against them and destroyed large num- bers of them. A small number who were left, upon being closely pursued mounted a steep rock, and rather than surrender to the foe, plunged oF headlong to destruction. This cliff has since been known as the Hill of the Leapers. 1652. March 12. The Common- wealth in Virginia. Tlie English fleet under Capt. Edward Curtis, received the submission of the Virginia colony to Parliament after some delay on the part of Sir William Berkeley. The terms provided for non-taxation, save by the provincial assembly; for the use of the Book of Common Prayer one year, and for one year in which any one could remove who did not wish to submit to the Commonwealth. Gov. Berkeley's commission was declared void, and Ben- nett was elected governor. 1652. Commissioners having been appointed "to reduce and govern the colonies within the bay of Chesapeake," proceeded to act upon Maryland, and by so doing brought about difficulties be- tween William vStonc, the representative of Lortl Baltimore, and the parliamen- tary authority, which lasted several years. 1652. The first regular bookseller in the English colonies was Hezekiah Usher, of Boston. 1652. Some of the towns in the province of ]Maine submitted to the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. In a couple of years the authority of Massachusetts extended to the Kennebec River. 1652. May 13. Prohibition of Slavery in Rhode Island. The following act to prevent negro slavery, was passed by the Rhode Island and Providence Planta- tions: " Whereas there is a common course practiced among Englishmen to buy negroes, to that end they may have them for service or slaves forever; for the jDre- venting of such practices among us, let it be ordered, that no black mankind or white being shall be forced by covenant, bond or otherwise, to serve any man or his assignees longer than ten years, or until they come to be twenty-four years of age, if they be taken in under four- teen, from the time of their coming within the liberties of this colony ; at the end or term of ten years to set them free as the manner is with the English servants. And that man who will not let them go free, or shall sell them away elsewhere to that end they may be enslaved to others for a longer time, he shall forfeit to the colony JC40." In spite of this strict prohibition, slav- ery existed in Rhode Island for many years, and the city of Newport gained a large amount of wealth as a result of profit in the slave trade. The greed of business would not permit the abolition of so hopeful a source of riches. 1652. June 10. First Mint in the English Colonies. The general court of Massachusetts established a mint at Bos- ton, under the charge of John Hull, goldsmith. Silver pieces were issued of the value of twelve pence, six pence, and three pence. The largest piece became 1631-1661.] known as the pine-tree shilling, from a pine tree stamped upon one side. The whole issue hecame known as pine-tree money. This mint operated for thirty years, in spite of the fact that in Eng- land it was regarded as an insult to royal power. The master of the mint was allowed fifteen pence out of every twenty shillings. The mint largely increased the circulation of coin in place of wampum, bullets, and articles of barter. The only other colony which issued silver coins be- fore the Revolution, was Maryland. Several others, however, minted copper coins. The dies for the Boston mint were made by Joseph Jenks at the iron- works at Lynn. 1652. Slavery in New York. The New Netherland Company granted per- mission for the direct importation of slaves from Africa into New Amsterdam. There was no immediate result, but in a couple of years the trade enlarged and negroes were brought there from Cura- coa, W. I. 1652. An iron bloomery and forge was erected at Taunton, Alass., by Henry and James Leonard. Other works were soon established in other colonies, and the manufacture of iron began. 1653. An elective municipal gov- ernment was established at New Am- sterdam. 1654. January. Cromwell having dispersed the Parliament in 1653. Oliver -r^ i i o • i cromiueiibe- England, btone issued a came Lord Pro- proclamation in Maryland, lector of Eng- , , . , • -r , -p, i„,^^ declarmg nmn Lord Pro- tector. 1654. Bennett and Clayborne of Vir- ginia deposed the Maryland officials, and appointed commissioners to govern the province. Roman Catholics were de- prived of their civil rights. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 211 1654. Troops were sent to New England by Cromwell, to engage in war with New Netherland, but before the New England auxiliaries could be raised, peace was declared between England and Holland. The same troops under Major Sedgwick were turned against Acadia, procuring its surrender to English au- thority. 1654. A minister must be supported by each town in Massachusetts, according to a law passed this year. 1654. Lands were set apart for a col- lege in the New Haven colony, according to a suggestion of Mr Dav- ^55^. Air pumps enport, who claimed that invented. the settlement needed better educational privileges. Nothing resulted from it, however. 1654. Syracuse Salt Springs. Father LeMoyne visited the Onondaga Indians, making a French settlement among them, and while there discovered the famous salt springs of Onondaga, now the city of Syracuse, N. Y. 1654. The Mississippi River. Col. Wood, of Virginia, is said to have crossed the mountains and reached a branch of the Mississippi River, but the evidence is slight. 1654. First American Fire-engine. Mr. Joseph Jenks of the Lynn iron- works, agreed to build for the city of Boston " an engine to carry water in case of fire." Very few attempts had been made in the world before this to construct such a machine. Paris had none for fifty years after this time. 1654. Cayenne, S. A., was abandoned by the French. 1654. The Dutch were entirely ex- pelled from Brazil by the Portuguese, who regained the territory by the most persistent efforts. By 1660 the Dutch 212 COLONIAL LIFE. had given up their attemiDts to hold the province. 1655. Mrs. Ann Hibbins was hung in Massachusetts for witchcraft. 1655. Conflict in Maryland. Wil- liam vStone made an armed attempt to restore the proprietary government in Maryland, resulting in a severe defeat of the Catholics, and the establishment of Protestant power. 1655. May. First Modei'n Scythe. The modern scythe originated with Mr. Joseph Jenks, who obtained a patent upon it for seven years. The blade was made longer and thinner than in the old scythe, and a strap of iron running along the back gave it the necessary strength. Up to this time Mr. Jenks had made at the foundry in Lynn the old English scythe. His improved form of it has remained essentially unchanged. 1655. May 10. Jamaica was captured by an English fleet sent out by Cromwell against the Spanish West Indies. Some of the inhabitants persisted in maintaining their independence in one part of the island. An attempt was made to colo- nize the island, but without much imme- diate result. JMost of the slaves on the island fled into the mountains and com- mitted lawless depredations for years. The yellow fever at this time killed five hundred British soldiers. San Domingo was imsuccessfully attacked by this same expedition, which consisted of nine thous- and seven hundred men under Admiral Penn and Gen. Vcnables. 1655. The Dutch settlements around the Hudson wcfix' attacked by the Indians who made desperate raids upon Hoboken, Pavonia and Staten Island, in revenge for William Kieft's assault upon the Indians a few years before. For several days great terror reigned, but was at last dissi- pated by conciliatory measures which secured peace. The settlements had sullered greatly. 1655. Sept. 25. End of Swedish Power. Gov. Stuyvesant of New Neth- erland captured the Swedish forts on the Delaware, and thus ended Swedish power in North America, though other Swedish colonists came at a later day. 1656. July. First Quakers in Amer- ica. Two Quaker women, named Anne Austin and Mary Fisher, arrived in Boston, were imprisoned immediately, and sent back to Barbadocs whence they had come. The same summer eight more landed in Boston from England, but were immediately tried and sent back. The Quakers were at that time exciting the religious world by their fanaticism, and the first effort of all the colonists was to keep them away. Nothing else was contemplated at the beginning. 1656. The Caribs massacred all of the French colonists of St. Barthol- omew, W. I. 1656. The Palmarese Nation. Run- away armed negroes formed a colony in Brazil and set up a government of their own, with a full list of laws. They have since been known as the Palmarese nation. MILES STAXDISH. 1656. Oct. 3. Miles Standish who came over with the Pilgrims in the May- flower, though he had not been a mem- ber of their church or congregation, died at Duxbury, Mass., at the age of sevxnty- two years. He had served in the army in Netherland and was elected military captain of Plymouth, where John Carver was elected governor. He was a natural warrior of quick, impetuous disposition. He was always the leader of the colony in their military affairs, and was ever 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 213 ready to undertake an expedition of peace or war. His wife, Rose Standish, died soon after they came to America, and in trying to secure the hand of Pris- cilla Mullens through John Alden, he unwittingly served as the instrument of a happy marriage. Hobomok, a friendly Indian, lived with Standish for awhile, and became much attached to him. Capt. Standish left sev^eral children by a second wife. He was an heir to large property in England which had been kept from him. He was very faithful to Plymouth colony in all its interests. His body was laid at Duxbury, near Plymouth, where a monument has since been erected to his memory. 1657. The support of ministers and grammar schools was made compulsory in the towns of Plymouth colony by an act of the general court passed this year. 1657. March. Legacy for Educa- tion. Edward Hopkins, Ex-governor of Connecticut, died in London and left £i,ooo for grammar schools in Hartford and New Haven, and .£500 for a college, which sum was given to Harvard, as there was no college in Connecticut. 1657. More Quakers. Mary Dyer and Anne Burden, Quakers, arrived in Boston, and were imprisoned. Anne Burden was sent back to England, but Mary Dyer was taken by her husband to Rhode Island. Soon afterward a num- ber arrived in Rhode Island by way of New Amsterdam. Mary Clarke went to Boston, was arrested, and whipped. Others came to the colonies with various results. GOVERXOR BRADFORD. 1657. May 9. William Bradford, one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, died at Plymouth, Mass., at the age of sixty-nine years. He was born in Yorkshire, England, in 1588, and received a good, though not a learned education. At the death of Gov. Carver in 163 1, he was elected in his room and held the place for thirty-one years, serv- ing in that ofiice till he died, save for five periods of one year each, when he de- clined a re-election. He was an earnest, faithful man, a fine scholar, and had much native ability of the finer sort. He wrote a history of Phanouth colony, from 1603 to 1647, ^vhich is considered one of the authorities on that subject. His personal contribution to the success of Plymouth colony in its internal administration, in its dealings with the Indians and in its contact with the Massachusetts colony, was very great. His strength and wis- dom were largely laid into the foundations of the colony. He wore long and well in the New World, and his reputation is unblemished. His death was lamented far and wide. 1657. July. Increase of Quakers. Two Quakers arrived in Salem and began their efforts to extend their faith by very questionable methods. Others appeared elsewhere and began to make converts. Some were arrested, impris- oned, and whipped. Some in New Am- sterdam " testified " in defiance of all law and order, were arrested, and sent on to Rhode Island. To the authorities of all the colonies it seemed as if the coming of this new sect brought only religious ruin. The fear of them was very great among all classes and faiths. 1658. The French colony upon Lake Onondaga in the Iroquois country, find- ing that their destruction was intended, escaped from the region and made their way to Quebec. 214 COLONIAL LIFE. 1658. Oct. 20. Death was tlireat- ened in Massachusetts against the Quak- ers, who, having been once expelled from the country, should return. The mere announcement of this penalty was ex- pected to be effectual in keeping away these zealous sectarians. 1658. A massive Concordance of the i6bs. Oliver Bible "svas issued by Rev. Croni-:veti du-d. Samucl Nevvmau, of Reho- Hisson Richard , , , ^y T Tt • 4. l became Prouc- both, Mass. It was prmted ior. in England, and for a long time was the most complete thing of the kind in existence. 1658. The Lake Superior region was visited by two traders who spent the winter and returned to Canada the next summer. These men were among the very first white visitors of that country. 1659. Francis Xavier de Laval Montmorency ^vas appointed grand vicar apostolic of Canada, and sailed for his new home at the age of thirty-six. 1659. Oct. 27. Two Quakers named AVilliam Robinson and Marmaduke Stephenson, were hung in Boston. Tlie terrible tragedy was increasing in vio- lence. 1659, Campeachy was taken by the English. 1659. The first Indian church in America was gathered on Martha's Vineyard by Mr. Mayhew. 1660. Navigation Acts. At the restoration of Charles II. Sir William Berkeley was re-elected governor of Vir- ginia, and Philip Calvert was commis- sioned governor of Maryland by Lord Baltimore, who had been restored to his proprietarv rights. Parliament this year added to the force of the Navigation Acts against the colonies, and all foreign ships were excluded from Anglo Ameri- can harbors in the New World. It was provided that a list of certain " enumer- ated articles " should not be shipped from the colonies, except to English ports. 1660. The Regicides. Edward Whalley, William GolTe, and John Dix- well, three of the judges who condemned Charles I., fled to New England, where they escajoed vengeance by being con- cealed. 1660. March. Mary Dyer, Quaker, was hung in Boston. 1660. Praying Indians. The second Indian church in America was founded at Natick, Mass., by John Eliot. Mr. Eliot's success now increased very greatly, and in a few years, lecowss. with the assistance of other CharUsii.King laborers, he had secured Restoration of eleven hundred praying In- ^''^ Stuarts. dians. Several churches were organized. The results of his labor were diminished very much in King Phillip's War in 1676. :iD±M BAUlTlC'S HEROISM. 1660. May. One of the most note- worthy exploits and heroic self-sacrifices in early American history, occurred in the daring adventure of Adam Daulac and his sixteen companions, who threw their lives into the scale to save JMontreal from an overwhelming attack by Iro- quois warriors. It was known that a large number of Iroquois Indians and their allies had passed the wmter on the upper Ottawa, and it was suspected that in the opening spring an attack upon Quebec and Montreal would be carried out. Daulac conceived the bold idea of anticipating their design, and striking them a terrible blow upon their way down the river. From the governor he begged permission, which was finally granted him. Arrangements were soon completed, and sixteen young men as 11 1631-lGGl.] brave as himself gave in their adherence to the undertaking. After the most sol- emn farewell ceremonies were performed, the " forlorn hope " departed up the river in their canoes, with plenty of ammuni- tion and supplies. The threatened de- struction of Canada was pending, and they were to strike the first blow for safety. After surmounting several obstacles along the way, they at last came to Long Saut, a difficult place to pass, on the Ottawa. Here was an old Indian battle ground with a somewhat dilapidated palisade built of small logs. The forest sloped gently upward from either bank of the stream, Daulac and his companions pitched their tents, and the next day were joined by a party of forty Christian Hu- rons and four Algonquins from Montreal, eager for a fray. Within a day or two a couple of canoes containing five Iro- quois appeared up the river. A volley greeted them and killed three or four, while one escaped to warn the two hun- dred warriors who were making their way down the river. The Frenchmen had scarcely time in which to secure themselves within the palisade, before the foe were about them. The Iroquois were quickly repulsed by the leaden storm that poured forth from the twenty loopholes with such disastrous effect. A second and a third attack brought like results to the irritated and confused savages who, being so effectually checked, disj^atched a canoe for five hundred allies, whom they were to meet at Richelieu. The aid arrived after five days, which time the French spent in strengthening the palisade. Deafening yells arose when the reenforcements appeared upon the field. Among the latter were several Hurons who implored their kindred war- riors within the palisade to desert the GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 215 French and come as friends among the Iroquois. All but their gallant chief, Annahotaha, and the four Algonquins, deserted. The whole party had gone without water or sleep for five days. A final attack was made and as quickly repulsed by the thirsty, worn-out French- men. All was now confusion and disa- greement outside. To give up the attempt would be a keen disgrace to In- dian sensibility, much more to such an army in the circumstances. After much hesitation a number of volunteers made an attack. An attempt was made to throw over the palisade into the Indian ranks a musketoon which had been filled with powder, in order that it might do the work of a grenade. It caught on a timber, and falling back within, biu\st, killing and wounding almost all of the heroic defenders. At this moment the Iroquois effected an entrance, and Daulac was killed. The Frenchmen fought so long as they had strength to lift an arm, until they were all shot down in their places. Four of them were found to be still breathing, and three of them were burned at once. The fourth was reserved for further tortiu'e. The Huron deserters, only five of whom remained alive, were treated likewise. The Iroquois, amazed and disheartened by such a reception from a few men behind a feeble defense, decided at last to go home without making further attacks on the cities below. Daulac had had a somewhat extended military experience in France, whence he came to Canada in the . French army. A trifling affair caused a slight blemish on his character, and created a resolve in him to obliterate it from the memory of others. The heroic deed now chronicled, places his name high among the early jDrotectors of Canada. 216 COLONIAL LIFE. 1660. The last eruption of Pichin- cha, tlic Boiling- Mountain, took place. 1660. A Lake Superior mission was attcinptcd upon the south shore of that lake by an old Jesuit named Menard, who soon perished in some way un- known. 1660. The Brandy Quarrel. Vicar Gen. Laval of Canada issued an excommuni- cation against those engaged in the liquor tratHc, because of the effect intoxicating drinks had upon the Indians. One man was afterward shot and one whipped for selling brandy to the Indians. The citi- zens, many of whom had their trade at stake, were arrayed against the prelates, and busy opposition was made to the ecclesiastical measures. Prohibition could not be carried through. The agitation continued for the next few years with considerable violence at times. 1661. Indian New Testament. John Eliot published his translation of the New Testament into the Indian language. The woftl Savior on the title jxige is written Nuppoquohwussuaeneumun. He also issued the " Christian Common- wealth," which was condemned by the Massachusetts general court as " too full of the seditious doctrines of democratic liberty." The author soon suppressed it. A bookbinder named John Ratcliffe came from England for the purj^ose of binding the Indian Bible. He could turn out one copy a day. 1661. The Regicides. An order from Charles II. commanded the arrest of the fugitive regicides \\\ New England. They were sought for with great perse- verance and fled from place to place in advance of their pursuers. At one time they lived in a cave and were finally lost from view at Hadley, Mass. They were never arrested by the royal officers, and lived in obscurity for the remainder of their days. 1661. Intolerance in Virginia. The Church of England was reestablished in Virginia, and non-conformity was sub- ject to penalty. Quakers were closely followed up, and many of them went into North Carolina. Separatist meet- ings were not allowed. L:IST QUAKER EXECUTIOK. 1661. William Leddra, Quaker, was hung on Boston common. This was the last execution of the kind. Quakers were afterward whipped from town to town for several years, until royal com- mands were issued forbidding it. !Much of the hostility to the Quakers must be accounted for by the spirit of the age, and by the eccentricities of the sect. It is no wonder, when their remonstrances were n^ade during divine services, causing great interruptions, and when young Quaker women marched naked through the streets of Salem as a sign against the sin . of the place, and when they persisted in returning to do the same things having been once sent away, that strict Pvn-itan feelings were outraged, and easily went to unjustified cruelties. 166.1. William and Mary College. Fuifds were appropriated in Virginia for the college which afterward became the College of William and Mary. By the same act schools were to be established. 1661. Taxation in Massachusetts. The general court of ^lassachusetts de- clared that no taxes should be laid on the colony, except with its own consent. M:1SSAS0IT. 1661. This powerful sachem of the Wampanoag Indians died at about eighty years of age. At the landing of 1631-1661.]" the Pilgrims he held sway over all the country between Narragansett and Mas- sachusetts Bays. He made his home chiefly at a place called Pokanoket by the Indians, and Mt. Hope by the whites, near the present site of Bristol, R. I. The above large territory was occupied by numerous tribes, all of whom ac- knowledged allegiance to him. That he was able to hold together so many tribes under his one rule, shows that he possessed more than ordinary governing powers. He was of a mild nature, pos- sessing much kindness of heart, and desiring the welfare of his people. In his intercourse with the English he was always peaceable. We know nothing certainly of his history pi'evious to the landing of the Pilgrims. In 1623 Mas- sasoit became sick, and hoping to receive some benefit from the English, sent for one of them to come and see him. They sent Mr. Edward Winslow, and through his ministration the chief recovered. Out. of gratitude for this kindness, he revealed GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 217 a plot on the part of some of his subor- dinate tribes for the extermination of the whites. In 1632 Massasoit commenced a war against the Narragansetts, which, owing to the assistance given him by the Eng- lish, lasted but a short time. During this war, according to an Indian custom, he changed his name, and was ever after known as Ousamiquin. In 1635 he gave to Roger Williams a tract of land con- sisting of the island of Rhode Island, which had been for some time in dispute between himself and the Narragansetts. He afterward sold to Miles Standish and some others a tract of land seven miles square, on which Bridgewater now stands, for seven coats, nine hatchets, eight hoes, twenty knives, four moose skins, and ten and a half yards of cotton cloth. Massasoit died very much re- spected by the whites for his excellent qualities. He left two sons, who were called Alexander and Philip, by the Engflish. [Note. — For twenty years later than this, the sufterinsrs of Quakers in England were terrible. Thousands were im- prisoned in the foulest cells, scores died in jail, their churches and dwelling- houses were torn down, women and children drag-g-ed through the streets by the hair, their property destroyed to the amount of £1,000,000, their fines made enormous, and their persons insulted everywhere. In Massachusetts four were executed, others whipped and imprisoned, out with- out the indignities used in England. The persecution in America nearly ceased years before it had spent its force in England.] SECTION X. "V CTIVITY in exploring the Mis- \\ sissippi Valley and the country y \ around the Great Lakes, is one of AJ^ the marked features of the present section. Marquette and LaSalle threw open a region which had been full of un- certainty. In the meantime the strength which was finally to dominate those vast areas was slowly maturing along the At- lantic sea-board. The friction between royal power and colonial independence became more and more pronounced, and the slender shoots of self-govennnent were toughening in the exposure to which they were subjected. The overthrow of Dutch power in New Netherland took place, by which event the English crown gained a rich territory, and a site for a great metropolis. Pennsylvania was born through the efforts and wisdom of its great founder. The outlines of colo- nial life were becoming more clearly de- fined. Intelligence was doing its work in elevating all political and business en- terprises. Dark features appear in the per- secution of the Quakers and in the witch- craft delusion, but a comprehensive study of the world at that time will show that in spite of these abnormal actions the life of the colonies was of a hiijher order than life elsewhere in the world. Stagna- tion marked the whole southern sections of the continent, which were to await the day when the spirit of the English col- onies had asserted itself, before they woke from their slumber. 1662. January. A severe earth- quake shock was felt in New England. 1662, April 23. First Connecticut Charter. A royal charter was granted for the first time to the Connecticut col- ony. Its limits embraced the New Haven colony, which was at first hostile to the union, but afterward waived its objections. The charter was in many respects a lib- eral one, and was secured by John Win- throp,Jr. 1662. Three persons were executed for witchcraft in Connecticut. 1662. The king demanded that mem- bers of the Church of England should have the right to vote in Massachusetts. The difference between this 1623-1662. colony and the royal gov- Pascal. ernmcnt was slowly creeping on to a condition which would make reconcilia- tion impossible. 1662. Children were made free or slave in Virginia, according to the con- 218 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 219 ditlon of the mother, by an act passed this year, 1662. A premium of ten pounds of tobacco for every dozen pairs of woolen or worsted stockings made in Virginia was offered by the assembly of that province, and an equal premium was offered for every woolen or fur hat made in the province. Six pounds of linen thread must also be annually raised and manufactured by each taxable person in Virginia. Each pound of silk raised was to receive a premium of fifty pounds of tobacco, and the best specimens of linen and woolen cloth were also to receive premiums. Tan-houses were also erected. 1662. A Doubtful Support. The following record is found for the New England seaport towns of this year. *' The court proposeth it as a thing they judge would be very commendable and beneficial to the towns where God's prov- idence shall cast any whales, if they should agree to sett apart some p'te of every such fish or oyle for the incourage- ment of an able and godly minister amongst them." 1662. The English first began to cut logwood on the coast of Yucatan. Set- tlements were made in Yucatan by New England people, for cutting and exporting this tree. :iLEX±YDER. 1662. Alexander, the eldest son of the Wampanoag sachem Massasoit, and brother of the celebrated warrior. King Philip, died one year after his father's death. The two brothers were desirous of having English names, and the set- tlers to flatter them bestowed upon them the names of the two Macedonian kings, Alexander and Philip. The former name of Alexander was Wamsutta. He mar- ried an energetic, strong-minded female sachem, Namumpum by name, who owned extensive lands in her own right. In 1663 she made complaint to the court at Plymouth that her husband had sold her lands without her consent. It is not known whether this was before or after his death. Upon the death of Massasoit the chieftainship of the tribe fell to Alexander. In 1663 it was rumored that he was plotting against the English, and trying to draw the Narragansetts into war with them. He was accordingly summoned to appear at Plymouth, and explain the matter. This he readily promised to do, but as he delayed for a time, Major Win- slow was sent to bring him by force. This so wounded the feelings of the high- spirited young chief that he was thrown into a fever. Although he was well cared for by the English, he died in a few days after being taken back to his people. 1663. Feb. 5. An earthquake oc- curred in Canada, with frequently recur- ring shocks for six months. 1663. March 24. Carolina. The region south of Virginia was gi-anted by patent to Lord Clarendon and seven as- sociates. The government provided for full liberty of conscience, and for a pop- ular election of governor and assembly. A little settlement had been made by dis- senters from Virginia upon the Chowan River near Albemarle Sound, and was called the Albemarle County colony. A few people from New England had also undertaken to settle near Cape Fear, but the attempt was afterward given up. 1663. March 26. A seminary of learning was founded at Quebec by Laval, to which Laval University has since been added. 220 COLONIAL LIFE. 1663. The persecution of Quakers in New Netherlaiul ceased. 1663. A law defining slavery was for the first time passed in Maryland. It provided that the condition of the child should follow that of the father, because Eii^^lish women marrieil nci^^ro slaves. 1663. A property qualification for voters was established in Connecticut. Each voter must have an estate worth £20, about sixtv-six dollars, besides cer- tain personal property. 1663. Navigation Acts. Parliament decreed that no articles grown or manu- faeturetl in Europe could be shipped to the English colonies except from England, and in English shipping. Exceptions were made of salt, wines, and provisions from Scotland. The government de- clared that it aimed by these navigation acts at a " firmer dependence of the col- onies on the home country, the increase of English shipping, and a sale for Eng- lish .manufacturers." Such things as this were rapid steps in the alienation of the colonies. 1663. Eliot's Indian Bible. John Eliot published his translation of the Old Testament into the Indian language. This, with the New Testament published in 1 66 1, makes up Eliot's Indian Bible, which has been sold in recent vears for one thousand dollars. Col. J. Hammond Trumbull, of Connecticut, is said to be the only man living who can read it. This Bible was printed on the Cambridge printing press, and was entirely set up by an Indian compositor. 1664. May 24. Company of the West. Louis XIV. of France, created the " Company of the West," which was to have a monopoly of trade for fortv years in South America, between the Amazon and Orinoco, and in all New France. The managers of it ^vcre under obligation to settle and Christianize the regions under their control. This affected Canada adversely until certain changes for the better were made in the agree- ment. 1664. May 28. First Baptist Church, in Boston. A Baptist church was se- cretly organized in Boston bv Thomas Gouldaud and eight associates. When known to the authorities, the leaders were fineil and banished, but still the church lived and grew. 1664. May 29. Clarendon County Colony. vSir John Yeamans landed with a colony at Cape Fear River, Carolina. This was the first really successful settle- ment, although colonists had gone from other provinces into the region before. The colonists of Sir John Yeamans brought negro slaves with them. A government \vas established, and Wil- liam Drummond electetl governor. This was called the Clarendon Countv colonv, to distinguish it from the Albemarle County colony upon the Chowan River, 1664. The whole of New Nether- land, together with territory east of the Kennebec River in Maine, was granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother James, Duke of York. This grant was based upon the English claim to the soil founded on the original exploration of the Cabots. 1664. June. New Jersey. The Duke of York granted the region from the Hudson to the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. It was named New Jersey in honor of Lord Berkeley's former governorship in the Isle of Jersev. 1664. Sept. 8. Surrender of New Amsterdam. An expedition fitted out by the Didce of York appeared before I 1662-1692.] New Amsterdam and received its surren- der to Englisli authority. The name was now changed to New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. Col, Richard Nicholls was appointed governor. Gov. Stuyvesant in his headstrong way wished to resist the English, but the peo- ple did not agree with him. Therefore the transfer was made peaceably, and Dutch pcnver in North America fell with- out a blow. 1664. The royal cominissioners ar- rived in Massachusetts to assert the 2:)ower of the crown over that somewhat refrac- torv province. 1664. Taxation. The assembly of Rhode Island declared that " no aid, tax, tallage or custom, loan, benevolence, gift, excise, dutv, or imposition whatever, shall be laid, assessed, imposed, levied or required of or on anv of His Majest3^'s subjects within this colony, or upf;n their estates upon any manner of pretense or color, but by the assent of the general as- sembly of this province." 1664. French Guiana was retaken from the English hy a French force. JOff.V EXDICOTT. 1665. March 15. John Endicott, first governor of Massachusetts, died at Bos- ton at the age of seventy-six years. He was born in Doixhester, England, in 15S9, and came to the New World in charge of the company which settled at Salem in 1628. When the charter was brought across the water, he was chosen governor. He was reelected to that office at different times subsequently, and served with great fidelity and exactness. He was a thorough Puritan in all his sympathies, being naturally intolerant of opposition, and energetic in his procedures against it. He cut out the red cross from THE WIDENING FIELD. 221 the military standard at Salem with a dash of his sword, because it reminded him so strongly of popery, which he hated with a zealous hatred. In man- ners and morals he could bear nothing which bordered upon the general laxness then prevalent in England and on the continent. The strength of his charac- ter was very rugged, and yet he was possessed of a native nobility which made him a great influence in the early days of the Bay colony. 1665. A free school was supported l)y each town in New England. 1665. May. The political contro- versy between the royal commissioners and Massachusetts resulted after a long time, to the discomfiture of the former, who found that they must needs be very careful if they would deal successfully with the Massachusetts colonial officers. They had visited the other New Eng- land colonies with some degree of success. 1665. The Indian named Cheeshah- teaumuck graduated at Harvard College. 1665. June 12. New York City was incorpora- ted by Gov. Nicholls under a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff". Thomas Willett was the first mavor. 1665. The wild mountain tribes of Chili, after a century of hard fighting, forced the Spaniards in that province to sign a treaty setting apart certain terri- tory for the former. 1666. January. Gov, Courcelles of Canada, with five hundred men, marched into the Mohawk country from the north, but turned back at Schenectady, N. Y,, without attacking the Indian 1665-1701. Charles H. Kinff of .Spain. lfS65. Great plavrue in Lon- don. .Sixty tlioiisand per- sons died. 222 COLONIAL LIFE. towns. Quite a portion of his men were lost upon the retreat, by Indians and the severe eold. LASALLE. R(3n6 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, was born at Rouen, France, in 1643, of a family which had considera- ble wealth, and was well-known for its integrity. Different members of it had at times been in the employ of govern- ment, and acquitted themselves with honor. The young boy had the best privileges of study which were to be had at that day, and soon proved himself a fine scholar. His mind most readily grasped whatever involved mathemati- cal principles. He early displayed those strong qualities of character which ex- hibited themselves in his after life when he was thrown upon his own resources, and was excited by the hints of great unexplored regions, and of mighty rivers in the western wilderness. The coming man was clearly foreshadowed in the growing youth. During his early years he had some connection with the Jesuits, but while it resulted in no complete subjec- tion of his will to this great organization, neither did it bring to pass any violent alienation. La Salle was too good a Catholic, and had himself from the very beginning under too thorough control to be unduly exercised, even in a scheme of life to which his innate qualities of mind and will made it impossible that he should submit. He was always most truly himself, and would never surrender himself to be the bare instrument of any other human authority. Therefore he separated from the Jesuits, and began to look about for some path in life. The French law at the time made it impossi- ble for the one who had been associated with Jesuits to inherit j^roperty from parents. Hence LaSalle was left to his own support, save the slight matter of three or tour hundred livres a year. The energetic young minds of the period were easily turned toward the New World. An elder brother of LaSalle was already in Canada, and it was there- fore not strange that a journey thither should be among the first enterprises thought of. His powerful mind reached forth over that mass of unknown terri- tory lying behind the tiny settlements scattered along the Atlantic coast of North America. He did not yet know that he was to link his name with the great Mississippi Valley, and that within it he was to meet his death before his work was half done, by one of those un- accountable circumstances which show that the temporal destiny of the great and wise is often held at the disposal of the reckless, the revengeful and the de- structive spirits of the world. Without knowledge of aught save that a power- ful ambition for activity could there find scope, LaSalle set forth for New France. 1666. LaSalle arrived in Canada and received a grant of land above Montreal, at LaChine. He began a seignory, and soon wfts aroused in mind by the reports of great rivers \\\ the interior which he felt sure must form a passage to the Pacific. MARQUETTE. 1666. Jacques Marquette was sent to the missions of Canada. He formed an imjiortant addition to the ninnbcr of Catholic leaders in the New World. He was born at Laon, France, in 1637, and became a member of the Jesuit order at seventeen years of age. His character was from the first singularl)' sincere and devout. The remarkable elevation of spirit 1663-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 223 which showed itself in him a few years later, just before his deatli, grew upon him from his boyhooa. His endowments were very great in all respects. Ta- dousac, upon the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, the spot where the fur-trade originated before there was any settle- ment in Canada, was the place of his first appointment. For it he began his preparations by a study of the Mon- tagnais language. 1666. Against the Mohawks. Lieut- General Tracy, of Canada, marched with thirteen hundred men by way of Lakes Champlain and George into the country of the Mohawks, and with more perseverance than that displayed by Courcelles, he destroyed the Indian towns and winter supplies. Peace was kept after this severe lesson, for twenty years. Gov. Nicholls of New York sent to the New England colonies a re- quest that they should join him in I'esist- ing the French, but the desired aid was refused. 1666. First Naturalization Act. An 1GG6. Greatfire act for the naturalization in London. Five. ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ j^^ sixths of cUy ' burned. kind in the colonies, was passed by the assembly of Maryland. 1666. Tortola, the most important Virgin island In the West Indies, was taken possession of by England, and she has held the most of that group since. 1667. Feb. 4. First Ball in Canada. A record in the "Jesuit Journal" men- tions the first ball ever given in Canada, followed by the wish, " God grant that nothing more may come of it." The priests were at this time greatly troubled by the passion for dress among the Cana- dian ladies, and by the theatrical enter- tainments which began to appear. 1667. Business in Canada. Intend- ant Talon of Canada, built the first brewery in New France, in order to keep money in the country. He leis-ieei. established trade with the J^^emy Taylor. West Indies, and encouraged manufac- tures. He also arranged a more regular emigration to Canada from France. Soldiers were induced by large bounties to settle in the province. 1667. Wives for Canada Settlers. For some years maidens had been sent over to become the wives of the settlers in Canada. A large class of young men, retired soldiers and others, was growing up, and the usual privileges of courtshij^ and marriage were as few as in the Eng- lish colony of Jamestown at an earlier date. This year a better class were sent, and during the next few years large numbers came. One thousand were sent by the year 1673. Sometimes thirty settlers were married at a time. It was once in a while found that some young woman had come and left a law- ful husband at home. We do not learn that these French girls were ever sold as were the English women at James- town. 1667. July 31. The Treaty of Breda between England, Holland, France and Denmark, confirmed New Netherland to the former power in return for Suri- nam in Guiana, S. A., which was to be given up to Holland. Nova Scotia was to be returned to France. 1667. The Cathedral of Mexico, be- gun in 1573, was finished. It cost $2,000,- 000, and is full of great wealth in ornaments and altars. Its length is five hundred feet, and its breadth four hun- dred and twenty. The site of the cathe- dral is the spot on which Montezuma's temple stood. FRONT OF CATHEDRAL OF MEXICO I 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 225 1668. Jacques Marquette was sent into the upper lake region to preach to the Indians. He visited the outlet of Lake Superior "whithcr the Indians came in large numbers to fish, and then went on to the western end of the lake, where he established the mission of St. Esprit. He here first learned of the Mississipj^i River from the Illinois Indians who came to the lake to fish, and formed the desire to explore its course. 1669. First Survey of Magellan's Straits. Sir John Narborough was sent out by Charles II. to explore the region of Magellan's Straits, and to make plans of the coast and anchorages. 1669. May. The Old South Church was organized in Boston by a minority of the Boston church. The separation originated in the trouble which arose from the " Half Way Covenant," by which those ^vho were not church mem- bers were admitted to the sacraments as a means of grace. 1669. The Grand Model. John Locke finished drawing up the "Grand Model," or "Fundamental Constitutions" for Carolina. It was a very elaborate piece of work, and though adopted by the proprietaries, was never made the basis of legislation. 1669. July 6. LaSalle and his companions set out on an exploration. They reached Lake Erie, but the course of their journey is not known with cer- tainty. It is, however, asserted that in- vestigations prove that on this and a sub- sequent trip La Salle discovered the Ohio and the Mississippi, before Marquette reached the last named river. 1669. Reeollet priests were allowed to return to Canada from which they were driven in 1629 at the English con- quest. 1669. Green Bay Mission. Father Claude Allouez was sent to Green Bay, Wisconsin, to found a mission at that place among the Indians. He entered the region with considerable difficulty, and commenced j^rcaching. 1670. Thankfulness for Ignorance. Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Vir- ginia, in a report of the condition of the colony to the commissioners in London, wrote as follows: " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these hundred years, for learning has brought disobedi- ences into the world, and printing has divulged them and libels against the best governments. God keep us from both." 1670. The Mississippi River is said to have been reached through the wilder- ness from the east by Capt. Bolton, but the proof is not sufficient. 1670. The Carteret County Colony. William Sayle and Joseph West landed a colony at Fort Royal, S. C, proceeded to what is now Charleston Harbor, and established their settlement above the mouth of the Ashley River, naming It Charlestown. 1670. Allouez was joined at Green Bay, Wis,, by Dablon, and together they visited some of the Indian ^^„^ 1610. Bayonets towns in the vicinity of invented at Bay- Lake Winnebago. They ''""^' were told much by the Indians about the great river at the west. 1670. Bees were introduced into America at Boston by the English. 1670. Slavery was defined for the first time in Virginia by a law passed this year. 1670. The Hudson Bay Company, an English corporation composed of adven- turers and merchants, was organized under the patronage of Prince Rupert, with ex- 22G COIAKX/AL LIFE. elusive rights o( trade In all the country i posts." Great energy marked its opcra- which drains its waters intt> Ihulson's Bay. tions, and s::reat wealth flowed into its It was to hold the lands forever. This 1 treasury. The lur trade of French Can. r-^ very soon heeanie a lar-j^e company and extended itself over its territory in every direction by means of little "tradiiv CANADIAN TKAPPER. ada at this time was carried on by means of the Indians and of rovinjj French hunters known as coureurs des bois or 1662-1692.] wood-rangers, who gathered up the furs as an individual enterprise, and took them to the merehants of the eolony. 1670. December. Panama was saeked and Vjurned hy Henry }vIorgan, the English buccaneer. It was afterward rebuilt on its present site, three miles from the old one. He had upon this same trip captured Porto Bello and the booty he seized in both places made him a very wealthy man. He was really for some years the leader of all the West India pirates, and made his name remem- bered as a terrible scourge. He was a Welshman by birth. The active part of his life was spent in the nefarious pursuit indicated above. He was knighted by Charles H. during his residence in Ja- maica, where he lived after the close of his expeditions. 1670. Balize, British Honduras, was first settled by the English. Trouble with the .Spaniards continued a long time, because the latter claimed that the English had no right in those regions. Wood-cutters had been attracted to the place for years. 1671. A great council of Indians was called by the French at Sault Ste. Marie at the foot of Lake Superior, and possession of the lake region was taken in the name of the French crown. The name Chicago appears for the first time in the account of this council. 1671. Early Abolitionism. George Fox, while laboring in Barbadoes, pub- licly besought the " Friends " to let their slaves go free after a while, and not to let them depart unbenefited. 1672. An anti-rent insurrection oc- curred in New Jersey. It arose from the demand of the proprietors of the prov- ince for a half-penny an acre as a quit- lent from the householders who had THE WJDENINCi FIELD. fit bought their lands of the Indians. The injustice of this caused '^rc'dX. trouble. The people deposed Philip Carteret and elected James Carteret governor in his stead. TJJK FIRST MyllL. 1672. A mail was established between Boston and New York through Hart- ford. The round trip was to be made once a month. Postage was fourpence for each letter carried less than sixty miles, and twopence for each additional one hundred miles. 1672. The first copyright law in America was passed by the general court of Massachusetts, granting John Usher the privilege of issuing on his own ac- count a revised edition of the laws of the colony. 1672. George Fox, the founder of the Quaker sect, made a missionary tour through the English colonies in North America, but did not enter Massachusetts or Connecticut. 1672. The White Mountains were mentioned for the first time in print in John Josselyn's " New England's Rari- ties Discovered," an account of an ex- ploration made by the writer, and devoted very largely to the flora of the region. The same winter afterward issued an ac- count of the mythology of the hills. Mr. Josselyn spent several years in New England, and probably visited the moun- tains themselves. 1672. Runaway slaves could be law- fully killed in Virginia, according to a decree of the assembly. 1672. St. Thomas, one of the Virgin Islands, was settled by the Danes, who soon after also settled St. John. These two islands have remained in the posses- sion of Denmark till the present time. X'28 COLOXIAL LIFE. 1672. The Bahama Islands wore coloiii/cd In- the l'2ni;lish. 1672. All English vessels caiiyiiiu- loy;\vood tri)in Yucatan wore capturtHl h\ the Spanish. 1672. Kingston, Canada. Count Frontcnac, Governor of Canada, and La Salle, made an expedition to Lake On- tario and built Fort Cataraqui on the northern shore. It afterward became known as Fort Frontenac,and was i^ranted to LaSalle as a seignory. It is now the citv ot' KiiiiTston. the New ^Vorld from the home gov- crnnicnt. 1673. Virginia was cmjustlv granted by C'harles IL to the Earl looo-ia-s. ot' Arlington ami Lord Cul- Moii^re. pepper for a term of thirtv-one years. It caused great trouble among the citizens. 1673. Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet started in search of the Mississippi River, passing up Green um-nns. Bay and the Fox River, Sainuor Rosa. and crossing over into the Wisconsin MAR^l ETTE DtUSCENDING THE MlSSISSlfM. 1673. February. First Internal Colonial Taxation. The British minis- trv passed an act levving tluties on sugars, tobacco, indigo, cotton, wool, etc., which should be carried from one American et>lonv to ancUher. This was the very lirst tax laiil on the internal trade of the colonies. Roval custom-houses were for the first time established in the colonies to collect these duties. This step was pronounced imconstitutional by some of the colonies, and was quite a marked step in the process of alienating the settlers of River, to which thev were guideil by Indians. 1673. June 17. They reached the Mississippi and lioated out into it from the Wisconsin. They were greatly re- joiced at the sight of that stream of wliich they had heard so much. They com- mitted themselves to its strong current, to be carried thev knew not whither. 1673. June 25. Marquette and Joliet having pursued their way down the Mis- sissippi without finding any signs of in- habitants for a long time, at last saw toot- 1662-1092. THE WIDENING FIELD. 229 steps on the l^ank of the river, and fol- lowed u path in tlie neighboring woods till they came upcjn several Indian vil- lages. Advancing they made themselves known, and were received with great honor. The Indians were found to be the Illinois. The Frenchmen smoked the pipe of peace with the chiefs, and were feasted upon Indian meal .boiled in grease, boiled fish, a dish of cooked dog's meat, and another of buffalo meat. The leader of the feast fed the visitors with his own hands. The Frenchmen re- mained in the villages till the next morn- ing, and having been conducted back to their canoes by several hundred attend- ants, set out once more upon their voyage of discovery. 1673. July 17. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas River, and after some intercourse with Indian tribes in that region, they decided to set out upon their return for fear that something might occur if they went further, to make the knowledge they had gained unavailable to their country. 1673. July 30. New York was re- taken by a Dutch fleet through the weak- ness of the garrison. 1673. September. Marquette and Joliet reached Green Bay upon their re- turn, the former being in very poor health. Joliet went at once to Quebec to report. 1673. A short-lived insurrection oc- curred in Brazil under Beckman, whose watchword was " Down with the Jesuits and all monopoly." 1674. Feb. 19. The Treaty of Westminster was concluded between England and Holland by the terms of which New York and all associated ter- ritory were restored to the English. 1674. Laval was appointed the first bishop of Quebec. 1674. Aug. 10. An awful hurricane occurred in Barbadoes, and did great damage. Scarcely a house or tree was left, save as it might have been sheltered by the hills. Ruin was visible every- where, and many lives were lost. 1674. Oct. 25. Father Marquette set out on a trip down the Mississippi to found a mission at Kaskaskia, among the Illinois Indians. He was accompa- nied by two Frenchmen, and was joined on the way by parties of Indians. They passed down the shore of Lake Michi- gan, and entered the river Chicago. At a short distance up this stream the health of Marquette became so enfeebled that the party was obliged to stop and make preparations for spending the winter. They remained till the following March, living upon game, and visited by wan- dering tribes of Indians. 1674. Oct. 31. Edmund Andres hav- ing been appointed governor of the lands belonging to the Duke of York, arriv^ed in Xew York and received the city from the Dutch. 1674. An Indian mission was es- tablished near Easthampton, Mass., by Rev. Samuel Treat, who began his ar- duous labors among them with great enthusiasm, and accomplished a gigantic work. He visited and preached in dif- ferent villages. The Indians became very much attached to him. The ap- proaching King Philip's war was very disastrous to the " pra3ang " Indians scattered through Massachusetts. It did not affect those of Plymouth colony so greatly. At the close of this century there were about three thousand " pray- ing " Indians in New England. Only two hundred and five of them wei^e in Massachusetts, The rest were in Ply- mouth colony, and on the islands of 230 COLONIAL LIFE. Southern Massachusetts. These praying Indians have since wasted away. A remnant, of impure blood, still remain. 1674. The first Sunday School in America was started at Roxbury, Mass. 1675. An Effectual Hebuff. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, visited the Connecticut River with the design of claiming this territory as being within the grant of the Duke of York. But he was not allowed to read the patent of the Duke to the people at Fort Saybrook. He was prevented from doing so by Capt. Bull, of that place, who would not listen to any assumption of authority by Gov. Andros. So the disappointed officeholder returned to New York. 1675. Father Marquette, being stronger, set out for his destination, the Indian village of Kaskaskia, near the Mississippi. Finding before long that his strength was again failing, he set out upon his return to the northern missions. He reached Lake Michigan and began his trip up the eastern shore toward Michillimackinac. DEtITH of MtIRQUETTE. 1675. May 19. Father Marquette died upon the shore of Lake Michigan, at a spot where his followers were obliged to stop on account of his extreme weakness. He sank rapidly away, and died calmly at last. His was one of the noblest spirits of early Canadian history. His talents were remarkable, and his character pure and holy. The interest in his work is destined to increase. The man has never been fully known in America. 1675. The Seneca Indians gave trouble in Virginia. The planters were aroused, and many were killed on both sides, by an irregular warfare. 1675. June 24. King Philip's war broke out in New England by an attack upon Swansea, in which some of the in- habitants were killed as they returned from meeting. The town was afterward burned. This was the opening of that bloody struggle \vhich filled so many of the growing villages with sorrow and ashes. It swept from one to another with frightful rapidity. The colonists speedily took up arms, and there was con- stant bloodshed till Philip''s death in 1676. 1676. Bacon's Eebellion. Nathaniel Bacon of Virginia, originated a rebellion against Berkeley's government, because prompt measures were not taken to sup- press Indian outrages. The difficulty passed through several stages, during one of which Jamestown was burned by the conspirators, and was never rebuilt. Ba- con finally died, and the rebellion sank awayT Berkeley inflicted many punish- ments during this year and the next. Twenty-two of Bacon's followers were hanged. KIKQ PHILIP. 1676. Aug. 12. King Philip was slain, and his \yar brought to a speedy close. King Philip was the second son of Massasoit, the Wampanoag sachem. His former Indian name was Metacomet. Upon the death of his elder brother, Alexander, in 1662, after a short rule of about one year, Philip succeeded to the chieftainship of the tribe. From the very first the English seem to have sus- pected him of plotting against them. One of his first acts was to proceed to Plymouth with some of his principal chiefs and there sign a treaty, setting forth his desire to remain on the same terms of friendship with the English, which had been maintained by his father and brother. For the first nine years of 1662-1692.] his rule nothing' of importance is men- tioned as having taken place. In 1 67 1 signs of a plot against the English seemed more apparent. A council was held as soon as possible at Taunton, in which Philip confessed his guilt and signed a treaty, the conditions of which he failed to fulfil. At another hearing in Boston he made the same pledges. But at the same time he was making preparntions for a general war. The neighboring tribes had been secretly enlisted for the work. The powerful Narragansetts had promised to have four thousand warriors ready for the war by 1676. Several Christian Indians had hinted to the English that war was med- itated. John Sassamon, a converted In- dian, formerly a subject of Philip, was sent to preach among the Namasket Indians. He had not been among them long before he became convinced that war would be begun at no distant day. As soon as possible he communicated with the governor at Plymouth, at the same time enjoining upon him the strict- est secrecy. Philip soon learned in some way that Sassamon had revealed the plot, and the life of the latter soon paid the penalty. The trial and execution of three Indians for this murder, hastened the outbreak planned by Philip. The full tide of horrid Indian warfare was soon rolling over Massachusetts. For a time terror reigned complete. But after awhile reverses began to dampen the ardor of Philip's allies. The Deerfield Indians, then the Nip- inucks and Narragansetts retired from the contest. Another series of reverses followed. From July nth to Aug. ist he lost many of his people by death and capture. Upon the last date his wife and his son, then nine years old, were taken. THE WIDENING FIELD. 231 Such was his affection for these that he is said to have declared that his heart was ready to break, and that he was now willing to die. The pursuit was kept up until the Indians took i-efuge in a swamp near Pokanoket. This last re- treat was surrounded by the whites early on the morning of Aug. 12 th, the situation having been made known by an Indian deserter. A force under Capt. Golding was sent into the swamp. Philip, just aroused from sleep, started to flee with only a portion of his clothing. He was soon confronted by an Englishman named Caleb Cook, with the Indian who had betrayed the place, and was named Alderman. Cook took deliberate aim, but his gun missed fire. The Indian, whose gun was loaded with two balls, then fired, and Philip fell, shot through the heart. His head was cut off, taken to Plymouth, and exposed upon a gibbet for twenty years afterward. The body was denied burial. Philip, like his fother, Massasoit, was always opposed to the Christian religion. The conduct of the English, often as barbarous as that of the savages themselves, was not such as to favorably incline the minds of these war- riors toward the faith of the white man. Philip was a man of many good traits, but his impatient spirit rebelled at the injustice practiced toward his people; an injuvstice which has been the part of the red man from his first contact with the whites down to the present time. 1676. Indian Slaves. Major Wal- dron seized by a stratagem a large num- ber of Indians, including some of King Philip's men who had fled thither, at Dover, N. H. He sent three hundred of them into slavery. This occasioned fresh Indian outbreaks for years. 232 COLONIAL LIFE. 1676. Right of Taxation. Virginia declared it to be the " right of Virgin- ians as well as of all other Englishmen, not to be taxed but by their own consent, expressed by their representatives." 1676. Edward Randolph came to Massachusetts as a royal commissioner, but he could effect nothing with that colony. There was too much wit and knowledge in the sturdy colonial magis- trates. He soon returned to England. The trade of Massachusetts was now reaching such an extent as to cause serious opposition in England. 1677. February. A great naval bat- tle was fought between a French fleet and a Dutch fleet near the island of Tobago. The former were attempting to get possession of the island, but failed. The battle, was very severe. Twelve vessels were burned, and all the rest dis- mantled. The result was almost com- plete destruction. 1677. The Province of Maine was bought from the heirs of Gorges, by Massachusetts, for £1,350. Mr. Usher of Boston made the transaction, and passed the right over to the colony sub- sequently. The colony thus outwitted the king, who was planning to buy the right for the government, and get the settlements out from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. 1677. December. Tobago was finally taken by the commander of the French fleet, who landed, and utterly destroyed the property of the island. He trans- ported the inhabitants. The French did not repeople the island. The island has changed hands several times since, but is now English. 1679. A synod was held in New England to deliberate upon the subject of public calamities, and to promote reformation of manners throughout the colonies. 1679. New Hampshire was made a royal province, the authority of Massa- chusetts over it having been annulled. John Cutts was made governor. This was the first royal province in New England, 1679. The English residents in Yu- catan were seized by the Spanish and sent to Havana as prisoners. Their property, to the amount of £100,000, was confiscated. 1679. First Collectors. Edward Randolph landed in Boston to assume the duties of royal collector, to which he had been appointed. He was made col- lector, surveyor of all New England, and was to appoint deputies for the other New England colonies. He attempted his work, but was constantly opposed and could get no redress from the colonial courts. The ship-owners treated him with constant aversion. He was at one time imprisoned. In other colonies the collectors did not fare much better. Conflicts took place for a time, but ceased at last, because the collectors ceased to carry out their orders exactly. Thus the laws fell into disuse very greatly until the necessity of raising money at the close of the French and Indian war in the next century, caused the restrictions which precipitated the Revolution. 1679. The first vessel ever built on the upper lakes was constructed on the United States shore just above Niagara Falls by LaSalle, and was named the " Griffin." It was of forty-five tons bur- den, and sailed through Lake Erie, the Straits of Detroit, Lake St. Clair, up to Michillimackinac. LaSalle proceeded down the shores of Wisconsin in canoes and sent back the Griflin to Fort Fron- 166^-1692.] tenac with a load of furs, and directions to return as soon as possible with aid. With fourteen men, among them several priests, LaSalle pushed on in four heavily laden canoes. They were soon near the Wisconsin shore, but were put in great danger of destruction by gales which came on with great severity, and lasted several days. They sustained themselves as best they could, and at last pushed on to the southern end of Lake Michigan. Here LaSalle decided to wait for the ex- pected reenforcements from Michillimack- inac. They began building a fort, and remained until a man named Tonty reached the camjD with a small companv. The Griffin was never heard from. It is probable that she sank in a gale while on her way to Fort Frontenac. 1680. January. LaSalle in Illinois. After much difhculty LaSalle and his com- panions reached the vicinitv of the present city of Peoria, Illinois. Here they built a fort which was named Fort Crevecoeur, and was the first spot at which white men attempted to make a permanent habitation in Illinois. It was here that LaSalle became convinced of the loss of the Griffin, upon which he had relied to return and bring an outfit for a second vessel to be built for the descent of the Mississippi. 1680. Feb. 29. A party set out from Fort Crevecoeur to explore the river Illinois to its mouth. 1680. March 2. LaSalle and five companions set out from Fort Crevecoeur *"or Fort Frontenac, in order to obtain sup- plies necessary for the further voyage down the Mississippi. 1680. May 6. A Great Journey. LaSalle arrived after surmounting almost incredible difficulties, at Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario. He had marched THE WIDENING , FIELD. 233 about one thousand miles in sixty-five days, and had accomplished « the most arduous journey ever made bv French- men in America." Here he found that his property had been seized, and yet he gained at Montreal new supplies for another trip. But news soon reached him that almost the entire garrison he had left at Fort Crevecoeur had destroyed what they could at that place and had deserted, going north to Michillimackinac, and committing depredations at several places. These were the difficulties over which LaSalle constantly and Cour- ageously triumphed. 1680. Aug. 10. LaSalle with twenty- five men set out from Fort Frontenac to attempt once more the exploration of the Mississippi. He desired to relieve Tontv who remained faithful to his leader through all changes, and to whom a large place should be given in any full account of this great enterprise. Tonty was now waiting at Fort Crevecoeur to know the further plans of LaSalle. 1680. December. LaSalle reached the ruins of Fort Crevecoeur, but found no traces of Tonty and the few men who had remained faithful. Pie descended the river, found that the Illinois Indians had been terribly slaughtered by the Iroquois, and finally turned back to the St. JosejDh's River, where the larger part of his last force were awaiting his com- mands. In the meantime, Tonty and his companions, after severe experiences in the war between the Illinois and the Iro- quois, had turned north, and at last reached Green Bay. 1680. Charleston, S. C. Old Charlestown in Carolina was abandoned, and the present city of Charleston was founded, and soon became the capital of the southern province. TSi COLOXIAL LIFE. 1680. rnriian Slaves. An Indian ■war broke out in Carolina, but was vigor- ously suppressed. A bounty wzs offered for everv Indian, and many ^vere sold to the West Indies for slaves. This con- tinued tiU the proprietors learned of it, and stopped it. 1680. EigM of Taxation. The Xew Jersey assembly this year declared that duties laid on goods ^vithout its consent, were '^illegal and unconstitutional." Re- sistance to the collection of them \vas offered in one case. 1680. A Sunday school was opened in Plymouth colony. 1680. The Eogerenes, a kind of Seventh Day Baptists, were established in Connecticut. 1680. The Savoy Confession was adopted by a synod of Xew England churches. 1681. March 4. William Penn re- ceived from Charles II. a grant of Pennsylvania in full for a claim of six- teen thousand jx)unds against the Eng- lish government, transmitted to him bv his father, Admiral Sir William Penn, of the navv. He addressed a letter to the inhabitants of the province, which he sent by Capt. William Markham, whom he directed to take charge of the province, and act as governor. 1681. Roman Catholics were dis- franchised in Maryland, and public offices ^vere to be given onlv to Protestants. 1681. The " Old Ship " in Hingham, Mass., was' built, and is still used by the Unitarian Society of that town as a place of \vorship. It is probably the oldest church in Xew England. 1681. A printing press was set up in Virginia, and a volume of colonial laws was being printed, when orders came from England to "allow no pei^on to use a press on any occasion \vhatever.'' This shut off all printing in the province till 1729. 1681. " Plant-cutters " in Virginia^ The difficulties from over production of tobacco became so great that some impatient leaders, with a band of men, went from plantation to plantation cut- ting up the young tobacco plants. But this method did the situation no good. Lord Culf>epper hanged some of the men who started this movement, and un- dertook to remedy the difficultv by inflat- ing the currency. His efforts were attended with very poor results. 1681. LaSalle having spent the win- ter at Fort Miami, on Lake Michigan, formed an alliance among the remnants of Indian tribes which dwelt in the re- gion, with a \-iew to the aid which this alliance would bring to his plan for the exploration of the ^lissbsippi. He then set out for Canada in order to get finl:her help and supplies. At Michillimackinac he found his old friend Tontv, the Italian. Having reached Montreal he made his plans to start once more, in hope of a complete success. Late in the autumn he arrived with his followers at Fort !Miami, at the southern end of Lake Michigan. 1681. Dec. 21. The first portion of LaSalle's cqmpany set out into the wil- derness by way of the river Chicago, and were soon followed by all the rest. In spite of snow and ice thev pushed their way onward past the scenes of LaSalle's former experiences. 1682. East Jersey was sold to pay the debts of Sir George Carteret, the proprietor, who had died in 1679. Twelve jjersons bought it, one of whom ^vas William Penn, \vho thus became associated with the entire province of 1662-1692.] New Jer>ev. Both East and West Jer- sey were now owned bv Quakers. 1682. Feb. 2. LaSalle and his com- pany reached the Mississippi and found it so full of floating ice that they \yere obliged to ^yait a \yeek. They soon set out upon the bosom of the stream whose course had been such a mystery. They swept on past the mouth of the great Missouri, down through the freshly springing yerdure of \yarmer latitudes. 1682. April 9. Lotiisiana Named. They reached the Gulf of Mexico and took formal possession in the name of the French cro\yn, conferring the name of Louisiana upon the whole region. A column was erected, with the arms of France upon it. A cross \yas placed be- side it, and a leaden plate bearing the French arms, was buried in the soil beneath. 1682. May. Philadelphia. The site of the great town which was to be the capital of Pennsylyania, ^vas determined upon, and streets were laid out by surs'ey. The name Philadelphia is found in a deed dated the loth of 5th mo. 1682. The ground upon which it was built was bought of the Swedes. 1682. Ten Scotch families settled at Port Royal, S. C, under Henry Erskine, second Lord Cardross, who came to this country to escape the tyranny of Lauder- dale, High Commissioner of Scotland. I^ord Cardross soon returned to Great Britain. 1682. August. Delaware. The Duke of York gaye the counties of Delaware by deed to William Penn, at the latter's solicitation, in order that the proyince of Pennsylyania might haye better access to the Atlantic Ocean. Delaware was thus separated from Xe\y York. It was un- der the authority of Pennsylyania until THE WIDE XI XG FIELD. 235 the Reyolution, although for a long time it held a separate assembly. 1682. August. Peter Stuyvesant, the last goyernor of New Xetherland, died on liis farm near East Riyer, in what is now the city of New York. He was born in Friesland in 1602, and as his parents intended him for the ministry, his early education was quite extended. His own choice, howeyer, led him later to enter the army. He seryed in the West Indies, where he lost a leg, which disabled him for future service. In 1647 ^^^ ^^' riyed in New Amsterdam as the governor appointed by the Dutch goyernment. His first measure was to conciliate the Indians who had been growing unfriendly. He then adjusted the dispute between his proyince and the English, concerning boundary lines. When the fleet sent by James, Duke of York, to take possession of the grant giyen him by his brother Charles II. appeared in the Harbor, the stern old governor refused to surrender. For twenty years he had ruled with an iron hand, belieying his authority to be absolute, and not until he saw that the people would not resist, did he giye up the city. After this he lived quietly on his farm till his death. He and his wife were buried in St. Mark's church on Tenth St., Xew^ York. 1682. Oct. 27. William Penn ar- riyed in America and landed at Xew Castle on the Delaware, receiying pos- session of that territory from the magis- trates. He at once yisited Upland which he named Chester, also Philadelphia, ^yhere there \yere already many settlers. 1682. The English prisoners who had been sent from Campeachy to Ha- vana by the Spaniards, ^yent to Jamaica. 1682. November. A great treaty was arranged between William Penn 236 COLONIAL LIFE. and the Indians of Pennsylvania under the old " treaty tree " at Shakaniaxon. It is now asserted that no evidence exists of the conclusion of such a treaty, hut some relations of good will were without douht formed about this time. A monu- ment stands upon the spot to commemo- rate the " Treaty Ground." the great accession of territory to the French crown. But having heard that the Iroquois were about to wage another war on the western Indians, ir,oo-iG82. he deferred his departure, Claude Loraine. and with a company of men went into the territory of the Illinois and fortified a camp upon the summit of a high rock ^i PETF.K STL'A'A'ESANT. 1682. Dec. 4. The first general assembly ever held in Pennsylvania was called at Chester by William Penn. A body of laws was passed for the province. Roman Catholics were tolerated. 1682. Fort St. Louis. LavSalle and his companions having worked their way up the Mississippi reached ^Nlichillimack- inac whence the former was about sailing for France to report in person concerning which rises above the river. Here they prepared to spend the winter. Around their camp the Indians gathered in large numbers to gain protection. This place was called Fort St. Louis by LaSalle. Col, Dongan, Governor of New York, was behind the movements of the Iro- quois and tried to instigate them to at- tacks upon the western Indians in order to jjet control of the fur trade in that 1662-1692.1 THE WIDENING FIELD. 237 region. The poor Indians in many in- stances were made the instruments of tlie white inan's policy. The jealousy of government or trade has been sufficient in its power to rouse whole tribes to wars of extermination. UKCAS. 1682. Uncas, the first chief of the Mohegan Indians, died. He had formerly been a minor chief of the Pequod tribe. A short time before the Pequod war he became dissatisfied with Sassacus, the head sachem, and revolted, drawing away with him the people in the southern part of the Pequod territory known as Moheag. He was called by the whites the King of the Mohegans. He is said to have been a strong, courageous man, but crafty, subtle and treacherous. For a long time he was in the greatest favor with the whites. In the Pequod war he fought with his Mohegans on the side of the English against his own countrymen and relatives. The long enmity which existed between Uncas and Miantonomoh, sa- chem of the Narragansetts, is well known. The death of the latter caused his rela- tives and followers to pursue the war further, with the hope of avenging their leader. Through aid given by the Eng- lish the Mohegans escaped annihilation. In August, 1675, when the English were just entering upon their war with King Philip, Uncas was compelled in order to insure his neutrality, to deliver up all the arms of the tribe, and to leave two of his sons, then about thirty years of age, at Boston as hostages for his good behavior. He lived to be quite old, as dissolute, wicked and vicious in his old age as he had been in his younger days. His life nowhere presents at any point evidence that he possessed a single noble trait of character to relieve the gloom of his history. His grave is in a beautiful and romantic spot in the town of Norwich, Conn., close by the falls of the Yantic River. ROGER WILLMMS. 1683. April. Roger Williams died at Providence, R. I., at the age of eighty- four years. It is difficult to give an esti- mate of this wonderful and yet singular man. He was a type of a class of men scattered around the world, and through all time, who have some remarkable gifts which put them in a sense in advance of their times, who are, however, deficient in those other qualities as eminent as the first when possessed, which would enable them to be at peace with their own times without the compromise of principle; which would in fact enable the possessor to serve as a true leader of the times to better things. The life of Roger Wil- liams was a stormy one, not because of his principle, but because of the abuse of his principle, which so set him in antago- nism to communities in which he lived, that there could be no harmony till he should go. Doubtless mistaken judg- ments were pronounced upon him, and evil words were spoken of him, for which there is no excuse. He and his opponents were alike liable to err. ' He had the faculty of magnifying differences, which is so disastrous to any cause we try to help. Most of his long life was spent in America. He was born in Wales, England, in 1599, studied at Cambindge, and sailed to America in 1630. He laid the foundations of Rhode Island, and is justly honored for the things he held ac- cording to the truth. It was after his removal to Rhode Island that he be- came a Baptist. 238 1683. The first Jesuit mission in Old or Lower California was founded by Father Eusebius Kino, and was speedily followed by fifteen other missions which were operated until the Jesuits were ex- pelled from Spain and its provinces in 1759- 1683. The first school in Pennsyl- vania was a tuition school taught by Enoch Flower, who taught "reading, writing, and casting accounts," for eight shillings a year. 1683. July. The first " yearly meet- ing" of the Friends was held in Phil- adelphia. 1683. The first representative as- sembly was called in New York by the governor, and a " Charter of Liberties " was adopted. It provided for trial by . . I'ui'y and the right of suf- 1683. Penny post ■' -^ f' established in fi'age, together with other ^"