||.'; v^^'^ •■: :•,',' hi «^ *o«o' .^^ ^ c'^ M 0>^ 0^ o «> A^-^ * ^"^ '^ ^ ^. HO<. ^ .^^ o' '-^^^■^ cV^^^^lL^'- ^. <"^ •^0' ^.J> "0.0' O,^ °^ *"^* A^ V, *«.o' < .^^ /i-^-f^ / K ^ ■N\\ A GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA: CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, SOIL, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, POPULATION, EDUCATION, GOVERN- MENT, FINANCES, PRODUCTIONS, TRADE, RAIL ROADS, CANALS, &;c. OF THE STATE ; WITH A SEPARATE DESCRIPTION OF EACH COUNTY, AND QUESTIONS FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF TEACHERS. TO WHICH IS APPENDED, A TRAVELLERS^ GUIDE, OR TABLE OF DISTANCES ON THE PRINCIPAL RAIL ROAD, CANAL AND STAGE ROUTES IN THE STATE. BY CHARLES B. TREGO, Late Assistant State Geologist ; Member of the American Philosophical Society ; of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, &c., &c. Illustrated by a Map of the State and numerous Engi-amngs. PHILADELPHIA : EDWARD C. BIDDLE, 6 SOUTH FIFTH STREET. STEKEOTYPED BY C. W. MURRAY Sc CO. 1843. ^^^1 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by EDWARD C. BIDDLE, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. TroneP«»r MAY 14 1S4^ 9 8 llMUBMIYofOQMlWtt PRINTED BY T. K. & P. G. COLLIXS, PHILA PREFACE. Every citizen of a free commonwealth, and more especially he who exercises the right of suffrage, should, as far as practicable, be made acquainted with the character and condition of the State over whicli he is one of the joint sovereigns, and for the proper government of which he is partly responsible. A consideration of the advantages to be derived from a more intimate knowledge of the physical features, population, institutions, productions, resources, trade and improvements of Pennsylvania, has led to the preparation of this volume, in the hope that it might be found ser- viceable in the cause of education, as well as acceptable to the community at large. There is no work extant which affords that general and minute information both useful and desirable to the student, the man of business, and the traveller, who may seek for a more extended knowledge of this noble State than is to be obtained from the Geo- graphies in common use, in which but a few pages (generally three or four at most) are devoted to the description of a common- wealth containing almost two millions of inhabitants, and having a territory nearly equal to that of England in extent. To supply this defect, and to give such an account of Pennsylvania as may lead to a more full and intimate acquaintance with its actual con- dition, has been the object of the present work, which, it is hoped, will not only be found useful in families and to individuals as a book of reference, but one which may be used with advantage in our general system of school education. With this view, ques- tions have been added to each section for the convenience of teachers. The work is divided into two parts, with a historical introduction prefixed. The first part contains an account of the general geo- graphical features of the State, its soil, climate, &c., with a de- scriptive sketch of its geology, botany and zoology; the character of its population, education, government and finances; its pro- ductions of agriculture, manufactures, mines and forests; its internal improvements, trade and commerce. In the second part will be found a particular description of each county, in alpha- betical order; embracing an account of its physical aspect, geolo- gical character, mineral products, soil, streams, towns and villages, productions, canals, rail roads, turnpikes, bridges, &c., — the as- sessed value of property, the state of education, colleges, academies and schools, religious denominations, natural curiosities, &c., together with historical sketches of the early settlement, and such other particulars as have been deemed worthy of notice. With regard to the sources from which our information has been derived, care has been taken to select those upon which the most rehance could be placed, and to reject much that has been hereto- fore published which was found to be erroneous or doubtful. In I* 5 6 PREFACE. the course of his duties as Assistant State Geologist during four years and on various other occasions, the author has visited most parts of the State, and has thus enjoyed opportunities of acquiring much local information concerning the different subjects embraced in this work. For a description of the geological character and mineral productions of those districts which he has not had an opportunity of examining, and for the general arrangement and classification of the various rock formations, reference has been had to the annual reports made to the legislature by the State Geoloo-ist. In our sketches of historical events, the works of Gordon and other historians of the State have been freely used; as have been also many other books and documents contammg information suited to our purpose. In order to obtain more full and complete materials for oar un- dertaking, and to enable us to do ample justice to every portion of the State, letters requesting information upon various interesting subjects were addressed to such gentlemen in the different counties as were deemed most likely, from their known intelligence and ability, to afford the desired answers; but we regret to say that from only a very few of them have any replies been received. Our grateful acknowledgments are, however, due to the following named gentlemen for valuable communications respecting their several counties : Professor Jacobs of Adams, Isaac Lightner, Esq., of Allegheny, Dr. M'Crea of Berks, Dr. Cartee of Bucks, James Lesley, ''Esq., of Dauphin, Judge Smith and Messrs. Crozer and Painter of Delaware, George Ford, Esq., of Lancaster, and T. Nicholson, Esq., of Susquehanna. The author would also respect- fully acknowledge his obligations to those of his fellow members of the legislature who have kindly aided him with information on various subjects in the districts represented by them. For the substance of the article on Zoology we are indebted to Professor S. S. Haldeman, and for valuable assistance in that on Education, to Professor A. D. Bache,— gentlemen whose acknow- ledged abilities and zeal in their respective pursuits, as well as their labours for the promotion of general science, are well known and hio-hly appreciated. Whatever merit may be found in our account of'^tlie Trade and Commerce of the State, is due to the kindness of a friend whose commercial pursuits and general acquaintance with the subject have enabled him to supply our want of knowledge in this dejpartment. For the original drawings from which most of our engravings illustrative of natural scenery have been taken, we are indebted to the kind liberality of W. T. Russell Smith, an artist of acknowledged merit in his profession. A book of this kind must, from the nature of the subject, be little else than a mere compilation. The writer is therefore aware that he can lay but small claim to originality, and will be satisfied if it shall be found that he has compiled judiciously, and his la- bours be conducive to a more intimate and thorough acquaintance with the features, character and resources of his native State. Philadelphia, August, 1843. CONTENTS. Historical Introduction, fiLOE 9 PART I. OF THE STATE IN GENERAL. . 1. Boundaries, extent, and political divisions, 2. Face of the country, mountains, &c., 3. Rivers, 4. Soil, 5. Climate, ...... 6. Geology, 7. Botany, 8. Zoology, 9. Population, ..... 10. Religion and morals, 11. Education, 12. Crime and its punishment, . 13. Pauperism and the poor laws, . 14. Government and legislation, 15. Defence, ...... 16. Finances, revenue and taxation, . 17. Productions, 18. Trade and commerce, . 19. Internal improvements. 25 26 30 34 39 41 57 75 84 86 88 96 100 102 106 107 110 129 147 PART II. OF THE SEVERAL COUNTIES. 1. Adams county, 164 2. Allegheny, 167 3. Armstrong, 176 4. Beaver, 179 5. Bedford, 183 6. Berks, 187 7. Bradford, 193 8. Bucks, 194 9. Butler, 202 10. Cambria, 204 11. Carbon, . 206 12. Centre, 209 7 8 CONTENTS. 13. Chester, 14. Clarion, . 15. Clearfield, 16. Clinton, . 17. Columbia, 18. Crawford, 19. Cuml)erland, . 20. Dauphin, . 21. Delaware, 22. Elk, . 23. Erie, . 24. Fayette, . 25. Franklin, 26. Greene, 27. Huntingdon, 28. Indiana, . 29. Jefferson, 30. Juniata, 31. Lancaster, 32. Lebanon, . 33. Lehigh, 34. Luzerne, . 35. Lycoming, 36. McKean, . 37. Mercer, 38. Mifflin, . 39. Monroe, 40. Montgomery, 41. Northampton, 42. Northumberland, 43. Perry, . 44. Philadelphia, 45. Pike, . 46. Potter, 47. Schuylkill, . 48. Somerset, . 49. Susquehanna, 50. Tioga, 51. Union, . 52. Venango, . 53. Warren, 54. Washington, 55. Wayne, 56. Westmoreland, 57. Wyoming, . 58. York, Travellers' Guide. Congressional, Senatorial and TRICTS . Representative HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. The earliest settlements made by Europeans within the limits of Pennsylvania were by a colony of Swedes, who in the year 1638 purchased from the natives the land upon the western shore of Delaware bay and river, from Cape Henlopen to the falls opposite the present city of Trenton. In 1642, John Prinlz, the Swedish governor, erected for his own use a handsome and con- venient mansion on Tinicum island, below the mouth of the Schuylkill, and also caused a church to be built, which was con- secrated in 1646. In this neighbourhood the principal settlers established themselves. The Dutch West India Company, how- ever, also laid claim to this territory under a grant from the govern- ment of Holland, and in 1654 they subdued the Swedes, and brought them under the dominion of the government of New Netherlands, now New York, which then belonged to the Dutch. When the English conquered New Netherlands in 1664, the Dutch possessions on the Delaware also fell into their hands, and the whole country remained for several years subject to the En- glish governors of New York. WilHam Penn, the son of Sir William Penn, a distinguished admiral in the British navy, having embraced the rehgious senti- ments of the people called Friends, or Q,uakers, suffered much persecution on that account, and seems to have looked towards the new settlements in America, as a place where he might found a colony as an asylum for his persecuted brethren. Accordingly, in 1680, he petitioned King Charles II. for a tract of land lying north of the patent previously granted to Lord Baltimore, and west of the Delaware. This was readily granted to him in consideration of a debt of sixteen thousand pounds, due to him in right of his * father, from the government. The charter was dated March 4, 1681, and constituted WilUam Penn and his heirs true and abso- lute proprietaries of the province of Pennsylvania, saving to the crown their allegiance and the sovereignty.* He and his heirs and deputies were empowered to enact laws with the assent of the freemen of the province, to erect courts of justice, and generally to administer the government, provided that nothing should be done repugnant to the laws or sovereignty of England. No tax or duty was to be laid on the people or their property by the king, unless by consent of the proprietary, governor or assembly, or by act of parliament. * This Charter is yet preserved and hangs in a frame in the Office of the Secretary of the Commonv/ealth at Harrisburg. 10 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Soon after this, Penn published an account of his newly acquired territory, and offered the land to purchasers at the rate of forty shillings per hundred acres, with a quit rent of one shilhng per annum forever. His offers were soon embraced and several com- panies of emigrants sailed from London and Bristol to take posses- sion, landing in December 1681, at Upland, now Chester. They were chiefly of the society of Friends, and being temperate, mdus- trious and economical, conducted themselves in the difficulties and hardships of their new situation with so much prudence and cir- cumspection as to avoid most of the dangers to which a new colony is usually subject. Their success induced others to follow, and so early as August 1683, the population was estimated at four thousand. Penn himself soon followed the first colonists, and landed at Newcastle, October 24, 1682. He immediately proceeded to establish his government over the infant province, and convened an assembly which met at Chester on the 4th of December. This first legislature of Pennsylvania, during a session of three days, enacted three laws. 1. An act an- aexing the Lower Counties to the province. 2. An act naturahz- ing the Swedes, Dutch, and other foreigners in the province. 3. The " great law," comprising the laws agreed on in England as a general system of jurisprudence. •, • i r i The conscientious Penn still regarded the Indians as the righttul possessors of the soil, and invited them to a conference at Shacka- maxon, (now Kensington,) where they assembled in great num- bers. Here a formal treaty of peace and amity was made ; they were paid for their lands, and departed for their forest homes full of love and admiration for the great and good Onas, as they called Penn. This treaty, simple but sincere, remained inviolate for seventy years. Voltaire says, " It was the only treaty between these people and the Christians that was not ratified by an oath, and which was never broken." i, j i v The city of Philadelphia was laid out at a place called by the Indians Coaqiiannock, between Wicacoa, now Southwark, and Shackanmxon. During the first year eighty houses were erected, and the estabUshment of various mechanical arts, as well as a profitable trade soon gave strength to the infant city. Fresh arri- vals of emigrants poured into the province from England, Wales, and Germany. The Welsh settled upon the Schuylkill some miles above Philadelphia, and the Germans, estabhshing themselves on the north, founded the village of Germantown. Four years after the grant of the charter to Penn, the province contained twenty • settlements, and Philadelphia two thousand inhabitants. In August 1684, Penn having received intelligence that his presence was necessary in England, concluded to leave the colony for a time, and return to the mother country. He had established a government, and beheld his people happy and prosperous in their civil and religious liberty. He appointed five commissioners of the provincial council, with Thomas Lloyd as president, to ad- minister the government during his absence. Shortly after his arrival in England, King Charles II. died, and was succeeded by HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 11 James II. The troubles in England, during the reign of that prince, involved Penn and his colony in difficulty, and after the revolution of 1688, which placed Wilham and Mary on the throne, Penn was several times imprisoned, in consequence of his religion and his supposed adherence to the cause of the fallen monarch. The government of Pennsylvania was taken into the hands of the king, who appointed Colonel Fletcher, at that time governor of New York, to administer the affairs of the province. There seems to have been little cordiality of feeling between Gov- ernor Fletcher and the people of the province, and with the pro- vincial assembly he was continually engaged in disputes and con- tentions. The suspicions which had so long rendered the king unfriendly to Penn, were at last removed. He had friends among the leading men who were in the confidence of the sovereign ; he was heard before the privy council, honourably acquitted, and restored to his proprietary rights by patent dated August 1694. He now desir'^d again to visit Pennsylvania, but being prevented by pecuniary difficulties, he continued William Markham as deputy governor. The colonial assembly differing with the Governor, and complain- ing that their chartered privileges had been broken, a new frame of government was agreed upon, more democratic than the former, and defining more explicitly the powers of the assembly, and the duties of the several officers. This, however, does not seem to have been sanctioned by Penn, and continued in force only until he arrived in the province in 1699. On this second visit he was accompanied by his family, and pro- bably designed to spend the remainder of his life in Pennsylvania. The house which he occupied, and in which his son John Penn was born, is still standing at the southeast corner of Second street and Norris' alley. The front has since undergone some altera- tions, but enough of the old fashioned peculiarity of the structure is still visible, to distinguish it as a relic of the olden time. William Penn's house, as in 1700. 12 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. The proprietary was far, however, from finding quiet and repose. The colonists were still dissatisfied, and demanded further con cessions and privileges ; the intercourse with the Indians, and the question of negro slavery also furnished sources of continual trouble and anxiety. He was, moreover, engaged in a dispute with Lord Baltimore, the proprietor of Maryland, concerning the boun- dary line between the two provinces ; a controversy which lasted many years, and was at last settled by Mason and Dixon, who were appointed commissioners for the purpose, and who finally established the boundary line in 1768, and set up a hewn stone at every mile along it, many of which are yet standing. Penn, having determined to return to England, in order to satisfy the colonists, prepared once more a new frame of govern- ment for the province, still more hberal, and conferring greater powers on the colonial assembly. This charter the three lower counties, Newcastle, Kent and Sussex, refused to receive, and separating from Pennsylvania elected an assembly for themselves, still acknowledging the authority of the governor. In November 1701, Penn sailed for England, leaving Andrew Hamilton as his deputy, whose administration was embittered by the disputes of the assembly. Penn was harassed by complaints, and made several changes in the administration. At length wea- ried with the continual dissensions and controversies in the pro- vince, and finding his health declining, he resolved to transfer the government of Pennsylvania to the crown, still retaining his right to the soil and the quit rents. He addressed an admirable letter to the assembly, in which his wisdom and affectionate con- cern for the future welfare of the province are strongly marked. He died in 1718, leaving his interest in Pennsylvania as an in- heritance to his children, which they continued to possess until the revolutionary war, when their claim was purchased by the Com- monwealth for 130,000 pounds sterling, about 580,000 dollars. After the death of William Penn, a dispute arose concerning the validity of his transfer of the government, and it again de- volved to his sons John, Thomas, and Richard Penn, by whom it was held, under different deputy governors, until the revolution. In 1729 upwards of six thousand emigrants arrived, and for several years following the influx was very great, — principally from Germany and Ireland. They settled chiefly in the counties of Northampton, Berks, Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Bedford, Northumberland, and Westmoreland, forming a thriving and industrious people, and introducing a variety of useful arts, and manufactures. The Germans seem to have acted with admirable foresight in locating their settlements on some of the best soil in the province for agricultural purposes ; and we still see their wealthy descendants occupying the rich limestone valleys where their ancestors from the " Father land" first reared their humble dwelhngs and found a happy home. Thomas Penn arrived in 1732, and two years afterwards John Penn, the senior proprietary visited the province. Patrick Gordon was the deputy governor from 1726 to 1736, and during HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 13 his administration the province increased in population, improved in morals, and prospered in commerce. Large quantities of grain were shipped to Lisbon, and the vessel frequently sold as well as the cargo. Provisions were shipped to the West Indies, in return for which sugar, molasses, and specie were obtained ; and a trade with Madeira, the Azores and Canary islands also flourished. The laws relating to inspections were revised, an auctioneer was appointed, and an insolvent law passed. Some troubles respect- ing land titles occurred in consequence of the land office being closed during the minority of Richard and Thomas Penn, from the death of their father to the year 1732. Vacant lands were oc- cupied without title by emigrants, frequently sold and resold, and great confusion was produced by a proclamation from the proprie- tary requiring payment under the penalty of ejectment. Pay- ments were procrastinated, warrants were vacated, resurveys were made, and a compromise was frequently effected as the only mode of avoiding trouble and difficulty. On the breaking out of a war between Spain and Great Britain in 1739, Pennsylvania was called upon for her quota of men and money for the general defence of the colonies. The assembly re- fused on the ground of religious scruples, and further stated that the colony, being so remote from the sea, was not likely to be attacked by the enemy. They, however, voted three thousand pounds for the use of the king ; but subject to such conditions that the governor refused it, and raised money by the sale of bills on the Enghsh government. Many other subjects of difference arose between the governor and the assembly, which at last grew to such a height as seriously to impede the public business. In order to sustain himself and his party, the governor removed from office those persons who were opposed to his views ; a precedent which seems to have been followed by the governors of this State to the present day. The effect of this practice upon the public good is, however, questionable as to its benefit ; for the rewarding of party services by appointments' to office must always incite men to be- come partizans for the sake of office, and men of merit, integrity, ability and purity of character must be sacrificed to make room for party favourites, even of notorious incapacity or of doubtful honesty. At the election of 1742, the tv\^o parties prepared for a trial of strength. The Gluaker or country party was most powerful in the counties ; while the friends of the governor, or gentlemen'' s party, were strongest in the city. As some of the proceedings relative to this election bear considerable resemblance to those of our own times, Ave shall describe them more particularly than would other- wise be necessary. The freemen of the whole county of Philadel- phia, held their election at the court house in Market street, and the inspectors were chosen in the morning by the voters assembled. The country party collected to the number of a thousand, a great number of them being Germans, and proceeded to nominate their candidates for inspectors. The governor's party offered to divide the number of inspectors equally, but this was refused on the 2 14 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. ground that they had no right to control the votes of the people. The country parly, in order that no violence might ensue on their part, and that every appearance of force should be taken away, re- solved that not even those who commonly carried canes should take them to the polls. Many of the Germans, however, who were attached to this party were aliens, and the friends of the governor feared violence from them. On the morning of the elec- tion a party of about seventy sailors, strangers, from the ships in the river, paraded the streets in a noisy and riotous manner. The magistrates were solicited to check them, but declined ; and it was said that the presence of the sailors at the polls was as proper as that of the alien Germans. It was also intimated by the recorder that any trouble or riot which might occur would be chargeable to the country party, in consequence of their having refused to com- promise in the choice of inspectors. On proceeding to choose in- spectors, William Allen was proposed to the assembled voters, but was rejected, and Isaac Norris was chosen. Immediately the sailors rushed up, and attacking the voters with clubs, cleared the ground. When the polls were afterwards opened for the general election, they took possession of the steps which led to the place of voting, and attempted by violence to prevent the country party from approaching, many of whom were beaten and wounded. The patience of the countrymen being at last exhausted, they op- posed force to force, and finally beat off the sailors, about fifty of whom, with their leaders. Captains Mitchell and Redmond were imprisoned. The election now proceeded quietly and the country party were successful, electing all their members of the former house of assembly. The circumstances of this riot were after- wards investigated by the assembly, and it was strongly presumed that the governor's party had incited the sailors to their violent and disorderly conduct. Among other circumstances, it appeared that money had been promised, and advanced to them in the prison; and that some unknown persons had engaged them to beat off the Gluakers and Germans from the election ground. The assembly sent an address to the governor praying that he would order a trial of the mayor, recorder and other city officers before the Supreme Court ; but this was refused, because, as he alleged, the mayor's court alone had jurisdiction of offences committed in the city. The assembly then passed a resolution of censure on the chief officers of the police, and the affair ended. The indirect hostilities between France and England in 1743-4, caused much trouble and anxiety in Pennsylvania, The Indians, incited and stirred up by French agents and traders from Canada, were becoming troublesome on the border settlements. The militia of Lancaster county were organized and disciphned by the gov- ernor, and other precautionary measures adopted. On the war being declared between these two European powers in March 1744, serious apprehensions of French invasion were entertained; the able bodied men of the province were ordered to prepare arms and train for military service. Benjamin Franklin distinguished himself on this occasion, and chiefly by his exertions, a body of HISTORICAL INTRODUCTIOJV. 15 ten thousand volunteers was raised: a battery was also erected below the city, from funds raised by lottery. Much dissatisfaction existed among certain tribes of Indians at the encroachments of the white settlers upon their lands. The country south of the Kittatiny or Blue mountain, had previously to this time been by various treaties sold by the Indians to the pro- prietaries ; but the Delaware Indians refused to relinquish the country between the Lehigh and the Delaware, and it is said that the proprietor complained of them to the Five Nations to whom they were subject. A treaty was held in 1 736^ by which the right of the whites to the country as far as the Kittatiny was confirmed ; and in 1742, another, at which the Six Nations compelled the De- lawares to remove from the disputed territory, which they did, and went to Wyoming, Shamokin, and some to Ohio. In 1749, for five hundred pounds, the Indians sold the country on the east side of the Susquehanna, from the Blue mountain upwards as far as the mountain on the north side of Mahanoy creek, and thence by a line to the mouth of Lackawaxen on the Delaware. The white people had made settlements on the Juniata, at which the Indians were much displeased ; and the French emis- saries used their influence to heighten the jealous feeling. A treaty was held at Albany in 1754, by order of the king, with the Six Nations, at which they granted in consideration of four hun- dred pounds, to Thomas and Richard Penn, "' all the lands lying within the province of Pennsylvania, bounded as follows : begin- ning at the Kittochtinny or Blue hills, on the west of Susquehanna river, and thence by the said river a mile above a certain creek called Kayarondinhagh, (now Penn's creek,) thence northwest and by west as far as the said province of Pennsylvania extends, to its western lines or boundaries ; thence along the said western line to the south line or boundary of the province, and thence by the said south line or boundary to the said Kittochtinny hills, thence by the south side of said hills to the place of beginning." This large grant, which included the dwellings of the Shaw- anese and others, as well as the hunting grounds of the Delawares, Nanticokes and Tuteloes, so much increased the discontent that many of the tribes openly joined the French. The design then entertained by the French government of opening a communica- tion by a line of armed posts between Canada and Louisiana was vigorously prosecuted. Forts were erected at Presque isle, (now Erie,) on French creek, and at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. The governor of Virginia, who regarded the establishment of these outposts as an act of aggression on the EngUsh colonies, resolved to remonstrate with the French com- mandant on the Ohio. As the bearer of his despatches he selected Major George Washington, then not twenty years of age, but who gave promise in youth, of those qualities which afterwards rendered him so nobly conspicuous. After a hazardous and toil- some journey in the depth of winter, Washington returned with an answer in which the French officer stated that he was acting under the orders of the governor of Canada, and should maintain 16 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. his position. This defiance roused the spirit of Virginia^ and Washington was sent with three hundred men in advance, as far as the Great Meadows, where he met with and defeated a party of French and Indians. The remainder of the regiment coming up, they advanced to dislodge the French from Fort du Q,uesne, which was buik on the spot where Pittsburg now stands. They soon received intelligence that a force of twelve hundred French and Indians were on the way to meet them, and being short of provisions they determined to retreat to the Great Meadows where a stockade was hastily erected and called Fort Necessity. This spot is yet to be seen, near the national road, in the southeast of Fayette county. Before the fort was finished Washington was attacked, and after a most gallant resistance was forced to capitu- late, his men being allowed to retain their arms and baggage and to return home unmolested. The expedition of General Braddock followed, to which the assembly of Pennsylvania, though from alleged conscientious scruples they gave no direct encouragement to the raising of troops, yet contributed funds for the purchase of provisions ; and through the exertions of Dr. Franklin, then Post Master General, one hun- dred and fifty wagons and two hundred and fifty pack horses were obtained for the use of the army, chiefiy in Lancaster, York and Cumberland counties. Braddock was posted at Fort Cumberland, near the junction of Will's creek with the Potomac, in the western part of Maryland. In June, 1755, he broke up his camp, and crossed the mountains at the head of two thousand two hundred men, cutting a road for their passage through the wilderness. This road is yet in many places distinctly visible, and pursues for many miles nearly the same route as that occupied by the present national road. Having reached the Little Meadows, Braddock, by the advice of Washington who accompanied him, left a portion of his force with the heavy artillery and stores, and pushed for- ward with one thousand two hundred men and tAVelve pieces of cannon. Though repeatedly advised by Washington and the other provincial officers to scour the woods and guard against sur- prise, he rejected their counsel with scorn, and asserted the supe- riority of his military knowledge over that of the American buck- skins. His fooHsh confidence and reckless disregard of the mode of Indian warfare was destined to a speedy and fatal reproof. On the 9th of July he was suddenly attacked by a strong force of French and Indians, who, concealed behind trees and bushes, poured in a well directed and destructive fire, by which his troops were thrown into confusion. Their bravery was ineffectual against an invisible enemy, who from rocks and trees and high grass took sure aim at the officers and men, without being them- selves perceived. The slaughter was dreadful, and Braddock himself was mortally wounded. The British regiments, unaccus- tomed to this mode of fighting, could not be rallied ; but the pro- vincial troops stood their ground and under Washington covered the retreat of the survivors. Braddock lived until the remains of the army had reached about forty miles from the field of battle. HISTORICAL IJVTRODUCTION. 17 where he was buried, as is reported, in the middle of the road which he had cut. To prevent the Indians from discovering his grave, it is said that the troops, horses and wagons were passed over it. The spot was marked by the soldiers, and is still to be seen a little north of the national road, about ten miles east of Uniontown. The defeat of Braddock's army spread consternation and dismay throughout Pennsylvania. The retreat of the remaining portion of the army under General Dunbar to Philadelphia, left the whole western frontier exposed, and the Indians falling upon the defence- less inhabitants committed, at will, the most savage cruelties and wanton destruction. They first attacked the settlers in Cumber- land county, and next those east of the Susquehanna at Tulpe- hocken, Mahony and the Moravian village of Gnadenhutten which was burned and destroyed. The near approach of danger aroused the authorities of the province to provide for defence. The settlements on the Juniata had been wasted by the enemy, and such of the people as did not escape, were either killed and scalped, or taken prisoners. To guard against the marauding parties of French and Indians who infested the country north of the Kitta- tiny mountain, a line of defence, consisting of forts and block houses was constructed along it from the Delaware river to Mary- land. The patriotic Franklin was conspicuous for his services in this hour of danger. Men were marched to garrison the forts, Bethlehem was put in a state of defence, and twelve hundred men, with a company of artillery, Avere raised in the city, formed into a regiment and Franklin chosen as colonel. Still, however, war had not been declared by the province against the Indians. Though the Delawares and Shawanese had committed hostilities, the assembly relied upon the influence of the Six Nations over them, and the friendly relations which had so long existed between these people and the Q,uakers were not yet forgotten. The assembly was moved to address the governor, and request him to suspend his declaration of war, but without effect ; he proclaimed it by the advice of his council, with but one dissenting voice. The Q.uakers in the assembly were much blamed and suffered much trouble on account of their pacific principles ; but though declining any exertion to procure their election to that body, many of them were chosen by the people, sometimes, per- haps, with a view of escaping taxes and military service. In August 1756, an expedition was undertaken under the command of Colonel Armstrong against the Indian town of Kit- taning, on the Alleghany, which was taken and burned after an obstinate conflict. Eleven English prisoners were released and a large quantity of powder and goods, which had been given to the Indians by the French, was destroyed. The Indians on the Susquehanna and in other parts of the province having generally become desirous of peace, a treaty was held at Easton, in August 1757, at which the representatives of ten tribes attended. They not only agreed to a treaty of peace, but resolved to take up arms against the French. The western 2* 1^ HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Indians, however, still under the French influence, and supplied with arms, powder and goods from Fort du Q^uesne, continued to roam in small parties over the province, keeping the settlers in continual alarm and apprehension. All out-door labour was per- formed with arms at hand, or under an armed guard ; and the tomahawk and rifle of the savage was used without mercy. The unprotected dwelling was attacked and burned, women and chil- dren were butchered and scalped ; while the savage enemy, avoid- ing the forts and armed bands of the settlers, even advanced some of these prowling war parties, it is said, to within thirty miles of Philadelphia. The capture of Fort du Gluesne was now resolved upon, and in July 1758, General Forbes marched from Carlisle with a strong force. He proceeded by way of Raystown and Loyalhanna, at which latter place an advanced division under Colonel Bouquet had been attacked by the French and Indians. These having re- tired, the general advanced towards Fort du Q,uesne, but before his arrival the French had destroyed and abandoned it. The ruined fortifications were repaired, and a garrison being left, the main body of the army returned to the eastern counties. The surrender of Canada to the English in 1760, put an end to the war. A season of peace and tranquiUity was now hoped for ; but it was of short duration. A secret league was formed among the tribes on the Ohio, and the border settlements were to be simulta- neously attacked. The frontiers of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia were overrun and plundered by scalping parties ; the forts at Venango, Le Boeuf and Presqne isle being weakly manned were taken and the garrisons murdered. In the summer of 1763, the whole country west of Shippensliurg was at the mercy of the savages. The people quit their farms and flocked to Ship- pensburg, Carlisle, and other towns for protection. Fort Ligonier, west of the mountains, still held out, though besieged by the enemy, and Colonel Bouquet was despatched by General Am- herst to relieve it. He marched from Carlisle in July, the enemy retired on his approach, but attacked him at Turtle creek, on his advance to Fort du (iuesne, where he escaped the fate of Braddock only by superior skill in the method of Indian warfare. He com- pletely routed and dispersed the assailants, Avith the loss of fifty men and many horses, and was obliged to destroy a large portion of his provisions. Four days afterwards he reached Fort du Gluesne, then named Fort Pitt • the Indians having retreated to their remote settlements. In the following winter the frontiers were again harassed by the Indians. 8ome of the Delawares and Six Nations who re- mained among the whites, professing neutrality, became suspected of aiding the enemy ; and a party of armed settlers, chiefly from Paxton, or Paxtang, township, Lancaster county, in December 1763, attacked an Indian village near Conestoga, barbarously killing old men, women and children. The Indian men were mostly absent at the time, and were placed for protection in the HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 19 prison at Lancaster. The prison was forced, and the miserable Indians were killed, protesting their innocence and their love for the English. The magistrates of the town seem to have taken no measures to prevent this outrage. The governor afterwards issued a proclamation offering a reward for the discovery of the perpe- trators, but without effect. The Indians who remained, being alarmed by these hostile de- monstrations, were desirous of proceeding to the province of New York ; but the governor there refusing permission, they were taken to Philadelphia for their security. Their enemies in Lan- caster county, howevep, being determined to expel them, assem- bled in great numbers and marched for the city. The governor prepared fo* 'efence, cannon were mounted, and the approaches to the city placed under strong guards. The insurgents proceeded to Germantown, and finding the strength of the preparations made to oppose them, forbore the attack upon the city, and by the advice of some prudent persons who visited them, sent two of their leaders to the governor and assembly with a memorial, which was referred to a committee ; the excitement subsided and the affair terminated, John Penn, one of the proprietaries was now governor of Penn- sylvania. Further supplies were necessary for the support of the war against the western Indians ; the quota of men to be furnished by Pennsylvania was one thousand, which the assembly resolved to raise, and to maintain it they voted o£50,000. Difficulties, however, arose between them and the governor respecting the mode of taxation and other subjects, which gave rise to a long and bitter controversy, which was carried to such a height that the assembly at last resolved to take measures for effecting a change in the government. Petitions to the king for that purpose were presented, and agents were, sent to England for the pur- pose of obtaining a change of the government from proprietary to royal. In 1764 all the American colonies were thrown into agitation by the avowed design of the British government to raise a revenue from them by taxation. The indignation was universal, and Penn- sylvania stood with her sister provinces in opposition to the odious measure. Dr. Franklin was sent to England as agent for the province, and laboured earnestly to avert the dangerous experi- ment of taxing the colonies. The stamp act was, however, passed in March 1765, and was one of the leading causes which, not many years after, produced that revolution which separated the colonies from the mother country. At the treaty of Fort Stanwix, in 1768, another large purchase of land was made from the Indians. In consideration of |10,000, the chiefs of the Six Nations there assembled, granted to Thomas Penn and Richard Penn all that part of Pennsylvania not pre viously purchased within the following limits : beginning at the boundary line of the province, on the east branch of the Susque- hanna at a place called Owegy, and running with the boundary line, down the east branch, to the mouth of a creek called Awan- 20 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. dac or Tawandee. Thence up the said creek and along the hills called BurneWs hills to the head of a creek which runs into the west branch of the Susquehanna^ which creek is called by the Indians Tiadaghton, (Pine creek^) and down the said creek to the west branch of the Susquehanna, and up the same to the fork which lies nearest to Kittaning. (This fork is now called canoe place, or the Cherry Tree, being, it is said, the farthest point to which a canoe could be pushed up the west branch : it is at the northwest corner of Cambria county.) From this the line of purchase ran straight to Kittaning and thence down the Allegheny and Ohio rivers to the western boundary of Pennsylvania, and along it to the southern boundary which limited the purchase on the south as far eastward as the " Allegheny hills." Thence along east of said hills to the west line of the former purchases, and north of them to the mouth of Lecluiwachsein (Lackawaxen) creek on the Delaware, then up the Delaware to an east hne from Oivegy, and along it to the place of beginning at Owegy. By tracing the lines of this purchase on the map, it will be seen that it included the whole of the lands in the province not before purchased, with the exception of a large tract in the northwest which continued to be Indian ground until after the revolution. In 1784, this was also purchased from the Six Nations ; and thus, in a period of about one hundred and two years, was the whole Indian title within the bounds of Pennsylvania extinguished. But though the Indian title was thus peaceably extinguished, a dispute arose among the white settlers themselves respecting a portion of these lands, which finally assumed a serious aspect and led to violence and bloodshed. A number of settlers from Connec- ticut had estabhshed themselves at Wyoming, and the "Susque- hanna Company" of that province claimed a large tract in the north and northeast of Pennsylvania as belonging to Connecticut, the charter of which, it was asserted, covered the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. In 1761 some emigrants from Connecticut established themselves on the Delaware in North- ampton county, (now Pike and Wayne) and in 1762 others settled at Wyoming. The government of Pennsylvania remonstrated against their claims and encouraged Pennsylvania settlers to oc- cupy these lands. A large body accordingly proceeded to the Susquehanna, and soon came into collision with the people from Connecticut. Open war was the consequence : forts were erected, besieged and taken ; and at last the Connecticut settlers, persisting in their claims, the sheriff of Northumberland county was sent with a body of near five hundred men to dispossess them. His party was, however, beaten off and compelled to retire. Seeing that forcible ejection of the intruders must be followed by much bloodshed and misery, Pennsylvania forbore further hostihties. The right of jurisdiction to the disputed territory, was not settled until after the revolution, when it was determined in favour of Pennsylvania by commissioners appointed by Congress. The rights of territory were afterwards settled between the Pennsyl- vania and Connecticut claimants by the laws of Pennsylvania. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 21 In 1774 a contest arose with, the governor of Virginia in relation to the western boundary. The fort at Pittsburg had been seized by an agent of Lord Dunmore, under the pretence that it was within the Virginia boundary; land titles were contested and troubles with the Indians ensued. But these domestic difficulties were soon to be absorbed by a question of much greater consequence. The determination of the British government to tax the colonies and to infringe their rights by various acts of oppression^ had at length driven the American provinces to open resistance. The spirit of freedom was aroused, public meetings were held, delegates to a general Congress were chosen, and in 1776 that memorable declaration was signed by which the United States of America became an independent nation. The limits to which we are confined in this brief sketch of the history of Pennsylvania will not allow us to describe those inci- dents of the revolutionary war in which this state was more im- mediately concerned. These belong rather to the general history of the United States, and will be found fully detailed in the several works which have been written upon that subject. The Congress of 1776 having recommended the formation of new state governments, and the colonial assembly being regarded as deriving its power under the authority of the crown, a pro- vincial conference assembled at Philadelphia in June, which recom- mended the calling of a convention for the purpose of framing a constitution for the government of the state, under the authority of the people. This convention, consisting of e;ight members from each county, elected by the people, met on the 15th July, 1776, and chose Dr. Franklin president. The constitution was completed in convention, and signed September 28th. The state continued under its government until 1790, when another conven- tion was called, and another frame of constitution agreed upon, under which Pennsylvania remained until 1838. In 1836 the people of the commonwealth determined by a majority of votes in favour of calling a convention to amend the constitution, and in 1837 elected members to the convention who assembled at Harrisburg, and afterwards adjourned to Philadelphia, where, on the 22d of February, 1838, the present constitution of the state was signed, and at the election in October of the same year, was adopted by the votes of a majority of the people. Since the revolution, the history of Pennsylvania has become merged in that of the United States, and from that period we have no separate account of the leading public events which more im- mediately relate to this state. A work upon the recent history of Pennsylvania, in continuation of those which have been written concerning its earlier periods, is much to be desired, and ample materials exist for such an undertaking. It is hoped that this will be attempted by some one of the many whom we have among us Well qualified for such a task, and that it will not be long before this defect in the annals of our state will be fully supplied. 22 HISTORICAL IJVTRODUCTION. Governors, Deputies, Presidents, 4'C., of Pennsylvania. 1682, October, William Penn, proprietor, acted as Governor until 1684, August, Thomas Lloyd, President. 1688, December, Capt. John Blackwell, Deputy Governor. 1690, February, President and Council. 1693, April 26, Benjamin Fletcher, Governor. " June 3, William Markham, Deputy Governor. 1699, December 3, William Penn, again Governor. 1701, November 1, Andrew Hamilton, Deputy Governor. 1703, February, President, Edward Shippen, and Council. 1704, February, John Evans, Deputy Governor. 1709, February, Charles Gookin, Deputy Governor. 1717, March, Sir WilHam Keith, Deputy Governor. 1726, June, Patrick Gordon, Deputy Governor. 1736, June, James Logan, President, and Council. 1738, June, George Thomas, Deputy Governor. 1747, June, Anthony Palmer, President. 1748, June, James Hamilton, Deputy Governor to June 1754. 1754, October, Robert Hunter Morris, Deputy Governor. 1756, August 19, William Denny, Deputy Governor. 1759, November 17, James Hamilton, Deputy Governor. 1763, October 31, John Penn, son of Richard Penn. 1771, May 6, James Hamilton, President, and Council. " October 16, Richard Penn, Governor. 1773, August, John Penn, second time Governor to September 1776. Revolutio7i. 1777, March, Thomas Wharton, Pres. of Sup. Exec. Council. 1778, October, Joseph Reed, do. 1781, November, William Moore, do. 1782, November, John Dickinson, do. 1785, October, Benjamin Franklin, do. 1788, October, Thomas Mifflin, do. Governors under the Constitution of the State, Elected, 1817, '' William Findlay. " Joseph Hiester. " John Andrew Shulze. do. '' George Wolf. " do. " Joseph Ritner. " David R. Porter. do. When, where, and by whom, were the earliest settlements made in Pennsylvania? Under whose dominion did the territory afterwards fall by successive conquests ? What is said of WiUiam Penn ? By whom, and Elected 1790, October, Thomas Mifflin. 1793, do. 1820, 1796, do. 1823, 1799, Thomas McKean. 1826, 1802, do. 1829, 1805, do. 1832, 1808, Simon Snyder. 1835, 1811, do. 1838, 1814, do. 1841, HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 23 for what consideration was Pennsylvania granted to him ? What were the provisions of the charter? At what rate did he offer the land to pur- chasers ? When and where did the first Enghsh emigrants land ? When did Penn himself arrive ? Where did the first assembly meet, and what laws did they pass ? At what place was a treaty made with the Indians, and what is said of it ? What is said of the beginning of Philadelphia? From what countries did other emigrants arrive, and where did they settle? When did Penn return to England and how did he leave the government ? What is said of his trouble and difficulties? What change was made in the government, and when was it restored to him ? Relate the circum- stances of his second visit and his causes of trouble. What was his dispute with Lord Baltimore, and how finally settled ? What were the provisions of his new frame of government, and what was done by the three lower counties ? In what year did he return to England, how did he dispose of the government, and when did he die ? To whom did he leave his interest in Pennsylvania, and what was afterwards done with it ? What is said of the arrival of emigrants, and where did they settle ? When did Thomas and John Penn visit the province ? What is said of the administration of Governor Gordon ? What occurred on the breaking out of war between Spain and Great Britain ? What was the effect in Pennsylvania of the war between France and Great Britain, and what was done by Dr. Franklin ? Mention the subjects of dispute with the Indians about lands. What ex- tent of country was sold by them in 1749, and for how much ? And by the treaty at Albany in 1754 ? What was the consequence of this large grant of land ? Where were forts erected by the French ? Who was sent by the governor of Virginia to remonstrate with the French commandant ? What was done afterwards in consequence of the answer received ? Re- late the circumstances of Washington's expedition and surrender. In what year was the expedition of Braddock, and what were the events at- tending it ? Describe the circumstances of his defeat. What was the effect of this in Pennsylvania, and what outrages by the Indians followed ? What measures of defence were taken ? Relate the events of Colonel Arm- strong's expedition. What was done at the treaty of Easton, and what was the conduct of the western Indians? Describe the circumstances of the expedition of General Forbes. When and by what cause did the war terminate ? What Indian troubles afterwards occurred ? Relate the parti- culars of the attack upon the friendly Indians near Conestoga. Who was now governor of the province, and why did the assembly resolve to change the government ? What was the feehng in Pennsylvania on the intention of the British government to tax the colonies ? When was the stamp act passed and what was the effect ? Describe on the map the extent of land purchased from the Indians in 1768. When was the remainder of the State purchased from them ? What led to the disputes with the settlers from Connecticut? What occurred in consequence, and how was the matter finally settled ? On what subject was there a dispute with Virginia? What was the consequence of the determination of the British government to tax the colonies? Relate the circumstances attending the formation of the first State constitution. When was another constitution agreed upon, and how long did it remain in force ? What was done in 1836-7, in relation to amend- ing it, and when was the present constitution signed and adopted by the people ? GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. PAKT I -OF THE STATE IN GENERAL. 1. Boundaries, Extent, and Political Divisions. Pennsylvania is bounded on the north by New York and Lake Erie; on the east by the Delaware river, which separates it from New York and New Jersey ; on the south by Delaware, Mary- land and Virginia; and on the west by part of Virginia and Ohio. Its shape is almost a perfect parallelogram ; its northern and southern sides being marked by parallels of latitude and its western by a meridian. It extends from 39° 42' to 42° 15' of north lati- tude, and from 2° 18' E. to 3° 32' W. longitude from Washing- ton, or from 74° 44' to 80° 34' W. from Greenwich, near London. Its length is about three hundred and ten miles and its breadth one hundred and sixty; containing nearly forty-seven thousand square miles, or 30,080,000 acres of land. This State is divided into fifty-eight counties, the names of which are exhibited in the following table, with the section of the State in which they are situated, the dates of their formation, the several county towns, and their distance from Harrisburg, the seat of the State government. Counties. Situation. JVhen formed. County town. Milesfrom Harrisburg^ Adams South 1800 Gettysburg 34 Allegheny West 1788 Pittsburg 200 Armstrong West 1800 Kittaning 183 Beaver West 1800 Beaver 230 Bedford South 1771 Bedford 105 Berks East 1752 Reading 52 Bradford North 1810 Towanda 128 Bucks Southeast 1682 Doylestown 107 Butler West 1800 Butler 203 Cambria Middle 1804 Ebensburg 131 Carbon East 1843 Mauch Chunk 99 Centre Middle 1800 Bellefonte 85 Chester Southeast 1682 West Chester 75 Clarion West 1839 Clarion 184 Clearfield Middle 1804 Clearfield 129 Clinton Middle 1839 Lock Haven 110 Columbia Middle 1813 Danville 65 Crawford Northwest 1800 Meadville 236 Cumberland Middle 1750 Carhsle 18 Dauphin Middle 1785 Harrisburg ^-m Delaware Southeast 1789 Chester 95 Elk North 1843 — 25 26 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Covnties Situation, When formed. Erie Northwest 1800 Fayette Southwest 1783 Franklin South 1784 Greene Southwest 1796 Huntingdon Middle 1787 Indiana West 1803 Jefferson Northwest 1804 Juniata Middle 1831 Lancaster South 1729 Lebanon Middle 1813 Lehigh East 1812 Luzerne Northeast 1786 Lycoming North 1795 M'Kean North 1804 Mercer West 1800 Mifflin Middle 1789 Monroe East 1836 Montgomery Southeast 1784 Northampton East 1752 Northumberland . Middle 1771 Perry Middle 1820 Philadelphia Southeast 1683 Pike Northeast 1814 Potter North 1804 FchuyUiill Middle 181) Somerset South 1795 Susquehanna Northeast 1810 lioga North 1804 Union Middle 1813 Venango Northwest 1800 Warren Northwest 1800 Washington Southwest 1781 Wayne Northeast 1798 Westmoreland Southwest 1773 Wyoming Northeast 1842 York South 1749 County town. Miles from Harrishurg. Erie 272 Uniontown 184 Chambersburg 49 Waynesburg 222 Huntingdon 90 Indiana 157 Brook villa 165 Mifflin 43 Lancaster 36 Lebanon 24 Allentown 85 Wilkesbarre 114 Williamsport 87 Smethport 200 Mercer 235 Lewistown 55 Stroudsburg 120 Norristown 88 Easton 101 Sunbury 52 Bloomfield 36 Philadelphia 100 Milford 157 Coudersport 174 Orwigsburg 59 Somerset 143 Montrose 163 Wellsboro 147 New Berlin 60 Franklin 212 Warren 240 Washington 212 Honesdale 165 Greensburg 170 Tunkhannock 142 York 25 Boundaries, Extent, ^c. How is Pennsylvania bounded ? Between what parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude is it situated ? What is its length and breadth ? Its area in square miles and in acres ? Into how many counties is it divided ? 2. Face of the Country : Mountains, Hills, &,c. The surface of Pennsylvania presents a highly varied aspect, and the traveller who delights in changes of scenery will find much to admire as he passes through this State. The wild and rugged mountain, the woody hill, the fertile valley, the fruitful field and the verdant meadow, will claim his attention in endless and varied succession; forming a broad landscape of boundless variety and ever changing beauty. There are few large tracts of level land in the State, and though the southeastern counties cannot be strictly termed hilly, yet the surface is undulating and variable. Some elevated ridges of trap MOLTNTAINS. 27 rock are found in the counties of Bucks and Montgomery, as also in Lancaster, York and Adams. The South mountain is the first range of any considerable magnitude in this portion of the State : it passes from the Delaware, below Easton, through Northampton, Lehigh and Berks ; continuing between Lancaster and Lebanon, York and Cumberland, Franklin and Adams counties, to the Maryland line. Crossing the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, into Virginia, it is there called the Blue ridge. On the north of this chain we have a comparatively level valley of limestone, stretching entirely across the State, with a slate region on the north of it, which is more hilly. Next to this the Kittatiny or Blue mountain lifts its long, regular and almost level crest line of summit, to the height of from seven hundred to twelve hundred feet above the level of the streams at its base. This ridge extends from the Delaware Water Gap to near Loudon, in Franklin county, where it terminates in a high pic- turesque elevation, called Parnell's Knob. Parnell's Knob. North of the Blue mountain, and between the Lehigh and Sus- quehanna, is the wild mountainous region where the anthracite coal is found. Here are high and barren ridges, in constant and close succession, stretching across this soHtary and almost unin- habited waste, or winding around, and connecting with each other, as they enclose the long narrow pointed valleys. The Second and SJiaiy mountains are between the Kittatiny and the first coal basin ; then we have the Broad mountain, a huge irre- gular elevation, with a broad barren table land on its top, almost 28 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. destitute of timber, and presenting a fearful picture of wild sterility and desert solitude. East of the Susquehanna are the high ridges known by the names of Peter's, Ben-y's, Bear, Mahontongo and Mahanoy moun- tains ', and further northeast, towards the Lehigh, are Buck, Spnng, d'een, M'Cauley's and JVescopeck mountains; the latter being prolonged nearly to the North branch of Susquehanna, is called, at its western end, the Catawissa mountain. Beside those already mentioned, there are other ridges and peaks, which may be more appropriately noticed in our description of these counties. The valley of Wyoming is enclosed by a lofty chain of moun- tains, known by many local names: the principal are the Wyo- ming and Moosick on the east, and the Shickshinny, Shawney and Capons on the west. That vast and complicated series of mountains which stretches between the Kittatiny or Blue mountain and the Allegheny, has been called the Jlppalachian chain. It consists of high and nearly parallel ridges, sometimes quite near to each other, and at other times having valleys twenty miles in breadth between them; these valleys themselves being frequently divided by smaller ridges. West of the Susquehanna, and northwest of the Kittatiny, the first mountain which claims our attention is the Tiiscarora, which ranges from the Juniata river along the northwest of Perry county, and thence southward, under the name of Cove mountain, into Maryland, Beyond this is the Shade mountain in Union and Juniata counties ; which, folding sharply round on the south, passes again back towards the Juniata under the name of Black Log mountain. Jack's mountain rises near New Berlin, in Union county, and, pursuing a southwest\;\''ard course, crosses the Juniata below Huntingdon, and stretches southward nearly to Bedford county. The long range called Sideling hill passes from Maryland northward through Bedford and Huntingdon counties, extending nearly to the Juniata, west of Jack's mountain, below the town of Huntingdon ; where, folding round the north end of Trough Creek valley, it passes again southward up the Raystown branch of Juniata, under the name of Terrace mountain. Between Side- ling hill and the Raystown branch is the broad elliptical irregular elevation called Broad Top, the summit of which is a wild broken region containing bituminous coal. This lies partly in Bedford and partly in Huntingdon counties. Further south are Harbour mountain, Ray's hill, &c. Beyond Jack's mountain, on the west of Mifflin county, and north of Huntingdon, we have the Stone and Path mountains ; next to which is Tussey's mountain, running from the southeast of Centre county, and extending southward through Huntingdon and Bedford counties to the southern line of the State. Further northwest, in Centre county, are Brush, JYittany and Bald Eagle mountains. White Deer mountain forms part of the south line of Lycoming county. MOUNTAINS. 29 The Bald Eagle mountain extends along the south side of the West branch of Susquehanna to the mouth of Bald Eagle creek, being there called Muncy mountain, and then up that stream on the southeast, reaching nearly to the Juniata, where it is again called Brush mountain. The same range proceeds by a winding course further southward into Bedford county, being known by different names, such as Canoe mountain. Lock moun- tain, and Dimning^s mountain. Beyond these there is no import- ant ridge until we come to the great Allegheny, except in the southwest part of Bedford and the southeast of Somerset counties ; where we have some high ridges extending northward from Ma- ryland, west of Tussey's mountain, called Evits', WilVs, Little Allegheny and Savage mountains. That elevated range which extends nearly across the whole of the State under the name of the Great Allegheny mountain is not, like most of the others which we have described, a high bold ridge with a steep ascent on both sides. It is more properly the steep southeastern front or escarpment of a high table land, which, on the northwest and west, has a scarcely perceptible descent ; being a high undulating surface, gradually declining westward. The Allegheny mountain is first perceptible on the North branch of the Susquehanna, about thirty miles above Wilkesbarre, where it is called Timkhannock mountain. It then ranges westward through Luzerne and the north part of Columbia counties, being there called the A'brth mountain ; passes through Lycoming county and crosses the West branch near Farrandsville, above the mouth of Bald Eagle creek. It is now known by the name of Allegheny, and passes through Clinton and Centre to the northwest corner of Huntingdon county. Still ranging on to the southwest, it forms the line between Huntingdon and Cambria, Bedford and Somerset counties, until, passing across the southeastern part of Somerset, it enters the state of Maryland. Still west of the Allegheny we have, betAveen Somerset on the east and Fayette and Westmoreland counties on the west, a high ridge called Laurel hill, which gradually sinks away on the north and terminates in Cambria county. Beyond this, coming into Fayette county from Virginia, is Chestnut ridge, sometimes erro- neously also called Laurel hill in its southern part near the State line. This ridge extends through Fayette and Westmoreland into Indiana county, where it also terminates on the north. Most of the country west of the Allegheny mountain is hilly ; but the hills are abrupt and irregular — not owing to the disturb- ance or upheaving of great lines of rock strata, like the Appala- chian mountain ridges, but being caused principally by the action of the streams, which have worn deep ravines along their courses. Many of these hills are steep and precipitous, some of them several hundred feet in height, and the whole region is intersected in every direction by these deep channels and valleys of denudation. The rock strata appear along their sides in a nearly horizontal position, and it is a very common occurrence to observe a coal seam high in the hill side along one of these deep valleys, with its 3* 30 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. counterpart on the opposite hill at about the same height ; thus showing conclusively that the valley has been worn down by the action of the waters. V Face of the cou?itry, mountains, ^c. What is said of the general face of the country in Pennsylvania ? Of that in the southeastern counties? Describe the situation and extent of the South mountain. Of the Kittatiny or Blue mountain. What is the character of the country between the Lehigh and the Susquehanna ? What mountains are mentioned ? Name those east of the Susquehanna ; — and those towards the Lehigh. What mountains surround the Wyoming val- ley? What is the general name of the chain between the Blue mountain and the Allegheny ? Where is the Tuscarora mountain ? Shade ? Jack's ? Sideling hill? Broad Top? Stone? Path? and Tussey's mountain? What mountains are in Centre county? Describe the range of the Bald Eagle mountain, and by what names is it called lurther southward? What ridges extend from Maryland into Bedford and Somerset counties ? Men- tion the principal features of the Allegheny mountain- Describe its extent from northeast to southwest. What are the two principal ridges west of the Allegheny mountain? Describe the general character of the country west of the Allegheny. What has caused the deep channels between the hUls? 3. Rivers. The waters of almost every spring and brook in Pennsylvania find their way to the ocean through one or the other of its three great rivers, the Delaivare, the Susquehanna, and the Ohio. Some small streams in a few of the southern counties run through Maryland into the Potomac ; but only a very small portion of the state is drained by that channel. Most of our rivers and creeks have happily retained their original Indian names : a circumstance rather to be deemed fortunate when we consider the taste mani- fested by the early settlers in changing some of them to such names as Yellow breeches. Kettle creek. Bloody run, Bullskin, Big creek. Black hole and I3ear wallow. The Delaware received its present name from the English, being called by some tribes of Indians Poutaxat, and by others Makens- kitton. This river rises in the state of New York, by several branches, which unite near the northeastern corner of Pennsyl- vania, and thence flowing southeastward, it forms the boundary line between this state and New York for about fifty miles to the northwestern corner of New Jersey. Here it turns southwest- ward, between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and passes through the Blue mountain at the Delaware Water Gap. Here a magni- ficent view of sublime and grand natural scenery is presented. The mountain rising from one thousand to twelve hundred feet on either side, seems to have been torn asunder by the rushing waters, and towering rocky precipices rear their gray and naked summits almost perpendicular from the edge of the river. From the top of the mountain you see spread below you on the south, a bound- less extent of landscape, stretching as far as the eye can reach RIVERS. 31 over the woody hills and cultivated plains of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, with the beautiful river in its winding and distant course gleaming in the sunlight like a broad band of polished silver. And this is but one of the many wild and magnificent scenes with which the interior of our State abounds. If those who quit, for a time, the toils of business in the city during the heat of summer, could consent to forsake their accustomed fashionable resorts at Cape May, Saratoga, and other crowded but uninteresting places, and take a ramble through the mountain re- gions of our own State, they would return with renewed health, gratified, delighted and improved by a more thorough knowledge of the beauties and resources of Pennsylvania. Delaware Water Gap. From the Water Gap the Delaware runs southward to Easton, where it receives the Lehigh. Its course is then towards the southeast as far as Trenton, where it again bends to the south- west, and passing Philadelphia, reaches the line of Delaware State twelve miles above New Castle. From this to the Delaware bay it separates the states of Delaware and New Jersey. The length of this river is upwards of three hundred miles. The tide flows up it to Trenton, about one hundred and fifty miles from the sea. It is navigable for large ships to Philadelphia, for sloops to Tren- ton, and for boats nearly one hundred miles further ; but since the construction of the canal from Bristol to Easton, the trade by river boats has much declined. Above Trenton the river is obstructed by several rocky rapids, called falls; though when the water is high large quantities of lumber descend in rafts. The principal streams falling into the Delaware from Pennsyl- 32 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. vania, are the Lackawaxen, the Lehigh, and the Schuylkill, The Lackawaxen is a small river which rises chiefly in Wayne county, and empties into the Delaware about twenty miles above the New Jersey line. The Lehigh (Lechay of the Indians) is a wild, beautiful and rapid stream, flowing through a mountain region for many miles of its course, supplied by springs and lakes hidden in the deep and solitary recesses of the pine swamps and forests of Luzerne, Pike, and Monroe counties. Passing Mauch Chunk, its general course is southeastward to Allentown, in Lehigh county, where it turns abruptly eastward and flows along the northern side of the South mountain, until it meets the DelaAvare at Easton. Its length is about eighty miles. The coal and lumber trade on the improved navigation of this river is of great value and increasing importance. The Schuylkill seems to have received its present name from the Dutch or Swedes : the Indians called it Mamiiunk. It rises by several branches among the coal mountains of Schuylkill county, and flowing southeastward about one hundred and thirty miles, fafls into the Delaware, five miles below Philadelphia. The tide flows up this river about six miles to the dam at Fair Mount wa- ter works, and it is navigable for vessels of considerable burthen to the western front of the city, where a large amount of coal is shipped. The next great river of Pennsylvania, and the largest in the State, is the Susquehanna, which is formed by the union of two main branches at Northumberland. From this its course is south- ward to the mouth of the Juniata, where it turns a little more southeast and pursues a general course in that direction to the Maryland line, which it crosses, and empties into the Chesapeake bay below Havre de Grace. This river is diversified by many picturesque and beautiful little islands, and the scenery along its banks is of the most pleasing and varied character. Its breadth is very unequal, sometimes exceeding a mile, and then contracting between rocky cliffs to less than a quarter of a mile. The channel is much obstructed by rocky rapids, Avhich prevent navigation except at high water. During the spring freshets, however, a vast quantity of lumber descends in rafts, and many arks laden with grain, flour, iron and other productions of the interior and northern counties. The JVorth branch of Susquehanna is formed by the junction of the East branch and Tioga rivers at Tioga Point, near the New York line. From this place its course is southeastward until it enters the Wyoming valley, ten miles above Wilkesbarre, where it receives the Lackawana, and turning to the southwest, continues that course to Northumberland. The West branch of Susquehanna rises beyond the AUegheny mountain in Cambria and Clearfield counties, flows eastward and receives the Sinnemahoning, Pine creek (Tiadaghton) and other large streams from the north. The Bald Eagle creek empties into it from the south near Lock Haven. It continues an east- RIVERS. 33 ward course by Williamsport to Muncy or Pennsborough, where it bends to the south for some distance^ then turns a httle south- east, and unhes with the North branch at Northumberland. The Juniata has its sources in and near the Allegheny moun- tain, in Huntingdon and Bedford counties ; its main streams being the Frankstown branch from the west, and the Raystown branch from the south. It is a very crooked river, winding among the mountains which rise boldly from its banks, and affording to the traveller some of the most picturesque and romantic views in Pennsylvania. Its general course is eastward, and it empties into the Susquehanna at Duncan's island, sixteen miles above Harrisburg. Most of that portion of Pennsylvania which lies west of the Allegheny mountain is drained by the waters of the Ohio. The two main branches of this river, called the Allegheny and the Mo- nongahela, unite at Pittsburg ; from which the Ohio flows north- westward twenty-five miles to Beaver, where it receives Beaver river from the north; then bending south westward, it passes out of Pennsylvania and continues between Virginia and Ohio. The Allegheny river is the northern branch of the Ohio, and is formed by several tributary streams, some of which rise in the northern counties of Pennsylvania and others in the southwestern part of New York. From the State line, where it forms the boundary between Warren and M'Kean counties, its course is southwestward to Franklin in Venango county, where it receives French creek from the northwest; then turning southward, it is augmented by the waters of Clarion, Red Bank and Kiskiminetas or Conemaugh, which fall into it from the east, and, again bend- ing southwest, it meets the Monongahela at Pittsburg. The Clan-ion river runs from the northeastern part of Jefferson county, in a southwestern direction, until it empties into the Alle- gheny, The Red Bank passes nearly through the middle of Jef- ferson county, and running westward, forms the boundary be- tween Armstrong and Clarion counties till it empties into the Allegheny. The Conemaugh rises on the western slope of the Allegheny mountain in Somerset and Cambria counties, runs a little north of west, and joins the Allegheny river near the south- east corner of Butler county. The Monongahela, or southern branch of Ohio, flows north- ward from Virginia, and passes into Pennsylvania between Fay- ette and Greene counties. It has many bends in its course, bat its general direction is northward, until it meets the Youghiogeny at M'Keesport, from which it runs northwest to Pittsburg. The Vonghiogeny comes from the western part of Maryland, crosses the State line, and running northward between Somerset and Fayette counties, unites with Castleman's river below Smithfield, from which its coarse is northwest to- its junction with the Monongahela. Castleman's is a small river, rising in the southern part of Somerset county and running westward to the Youghiogeny. 34 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The smaller streams will be noticed in our description of the several counties in which they are situated. Through what great rivers do the waters of Pennsylvania find their way to the ocean? Where does the Delaware rise, and what is its course to the Water Gap of the Blue mountain ? From this to the southern line of the State ? What is its length, and how far up does the tide flow ? What is said of its navigation ? Name the principal branches of the Delaware. What is said of the Lehigh, of its course and length ? Give a general de- scription of the Schuylkill. Of the Susquehanna from Northumberland to Chesapeake bay. What is said of its navigation? Describe the North branch. The West branch. Where does the Juniata rise ? What is its course, and where does it empty ? What are the two main branches of the Ohio, and where do they unite ? Mention the rise and general course of the Allegheny river. What streams empty into it ? What is said of the Clarion, Red Bank and Conemaugh? Give a description of the Monon- gahela. Where does the Youghiogeny rise ? What is its course, and into what river does it empty? Where is Castleman's river ? 4. Soil. The soil of a country is formed by the disintegration or decay of its rocks, which being subject to the action of water, frost, and other atmospheric influences, gradually wear away, or crumble and become pulverised to different degrees of fineness. It is therefore evident that soils must differ in their characters and qua- lities, according to the nature of the rocks from which they have been derived. But the action of floods, and even the more gra- dual operation of heavy rains, have so washed down and inter- mixed the matter from the decomposed rocks, that we seldom find a soil formed purely from a single stratum, or variety of rock. This is a beneficial provision of nature, as the mixture of several elements in a soil is essential to its fertility. The earthy portion of soils is seldom less than ninety-five per cent, of their whole weight ; the rest being made up of decayed organic matter, and various saline or soluble substances. This earthy portion consists chiefly of silica, in the form of sand of various degrees of fineness 5 alumina, in the form of clay; and lime, mostly in the form of carbonate of lime. Most soils contain from one to two per cent, of the oxide of iron, and those of a red colour frequently more. A soil is called sandy, in which silicious sand predominates ; clayey, when alumina forms a considerable portion ; and calca- reous, where carbonate of lime is contained in considerable abund- ance, as in some of our limestone districts. A sandy soil contains ninety per cent., or more, of sand; a sandy loam from sixty to ninety ; a loamy soil from thirty to sixty, and a clayey soil has from fifteen to thirty per cent, of fine sand, which may be sepa- rated from it by washing. Pure clay, which, apparently, contains no sand, is a compound of siUca and alumina, in the proportion SOIL. 35 of about sixty of the former, to thirty of the latter. It will, there- fore, be seen that silica is the leading constituent in all soils. Something more is necessary, however, beside these simple earths in the formation of a fertile soil, which should contain all the inorganic substances necessary for the food of plants, and which are essential to their existence, in sufficient quantity, and in such condition as allows them to be absorbed by the roots. It is accordingly found, by a chemical analysis of productive soils, that in addition to these earths, they contain various alkaline and other substances, such as potash, soda, chlorine, &c., together with combinations containing sulphuric, phosphoric, and other acids, as well as several organic substances, derived from the decompo- sition of vegetable and animal matter. The same proportion of ingredients in a soil is not required by all plants; for we find that different vegetable productions extract from the soil different quantities of each of these constituents. The ashes afforded from many kinds of plants have been carefully analyzed by Sprengel, and other chemists, for the purpose of as- certaining the proportions of inorganic matter contained in them, which are derived from the soil. From these experiments it ap- pears that the ashes from one thousand pounds of wheat (straAV containing the grain) weigh about twenty-seven and a half pounds ; from the same quantity of rye, twenty-three and a half pounds ; from oats, forty-five and one-third pounds ; from red clover hay, seventy -four and three-fourth pounds ; and from the same weight of potatoes eight and a quarter pounds. In these weights of ashes from one thousand pounds of each plant mentioned, were con- tained as foUows : Wheat. Rye. Oats. Clover Hay Potatoes. Silica, 20.67 lbs. 17.64 lbs. 36.09 lbs. 3.61 lbs. 0.08 lbs. Alumina, 0.69 " 0.34 " 0.09 " 0.14 " 0.05 " Magnesia, 0.51 " 0.20 " 0.39 " 3.33 " 0.32 " Lime, 1.92 " 1.34 " 1.27 " 27.80 " 0.33 " Potash, 0.88 " ? , ^^ <, 56.00 " 19.95 " 4.03 " Soda, 0.99 "5 ^'^'^ ^0.51 " 5.29 " 2.33 ' Sulphuric acid, 0.40 " 1.33 " 0.62 " 4.47 " 0.54 " Phosphoric acid,1.25 " 0.49 " 0.35 " 6.57 " 0.40 '* Chlorine, 0.24 " 0.15 " 0.07 " 3.62 " 0.16 " Now, in order to show the quantity of each of these ingredients which is exhausted from the soil of an acre of land by a single crop, we will suppose it to produce twenty-five bushels of wheat or rye, fifty bushels of oats, one and a half tons of dj-w clover hay, or seven and a half tons of potatoes. We assume the weight of the straw in w^heat to be double that of the grain ; in rye three times as much ; and in oats the grain to be to the straw as three to five. The weight of vegetable matter in the crop from each acre will then be, of wheat forty-five hundred ; of rye six thousand ; of oats four thousand; of dry clover three thousand; and of potatoes fifteen thoiasand pounds. These will have extracted from the soil during their growth, as follows : 36 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Wheat. Rye. Oats. Clover Hay. Potatoes. Silica 93.01 lbs. 105.84 lbs. 144.36 lbs. 10.83 lbs. 1.20 lbs. Alumina, 3.10 '« 2.10 " 0.36 " 0.42 " 0.75 *' Magnesia, 2.29 " 1.20 " 1.56 " 9.99 *« 4.80 " Lime, 8.64 " 8.04 " 5.08 •' 83.40 " 4.95 '' Potash, 3.96 "? go. u 524.00 " 59.85 " 60.45 '' Soda 4.95 "S i 2.04 " 15.87 " 34.95 " Sulphuric acid, 1.80 " 7.98 " 2.48 " 13.41 " 8.10 " Phosphoric acid, 5.62 " 2.95 " 1.40 '' 19.71 " 6.00 '« Chlorine, 1.08 " 0.90 " 0.28 " 10.86 " 2.40 " In the economy of agriculture it willj, therefore, be necessary in order to maintain the fertility of the soil, to add to it, as manure in some form, an amount of each ingredient equal to that extract- ed by the crop. Most soils, however, contain a sufficiency of silica, and alumina, without further addition ; — lime, potash, soda, &c., with decomposed vegetable and animal matter being those most required. It may be assumed as a general principle that if the addition of any article to the soil as a manure renders it more fertile, it is because the soil was deficient in some substance which the manure contained. Most of our unproductive soils are found to be deficient in lime j hence the addition of this substance, when properly applied, greatly improves them. Many of our rocks which are not lime- stones contain a certain proportion of carbonate of lime in their composition ; for this reason we often find a fertile soil where there is no limestone. The substratum below the soil has an important influence on its fertility ; for if it be gravelly, sandy or open, the water filters through it too readily and carries off much of the lime or other stimulants to vegetation which the soil may contain. If, on the contrary, the substratum be a tenacious clay, the soil will be wet and cold, retaining too much water, excluding the air, and not suffering the fibres of roots to penetrate it freely. The various shades of colour in soils — red, brown, yellow, &c., are produced by different proportions and modifications of the oxide of iron contained in them ; while the dark colour of newly cleared soils and low grounds is commonly due to decayed vege- table matter. From what has been already said with regard to soils partaking of the character of the rocks from which they are derived, it will be seen that Pennsylvania contains a great variety. The alluvial soils in the flats along the streams are generally a mixture of various ingredients, carried down and deposited by the waters. When these are not too sandy, and contain a sufficient amount of decomposed vegetable matter, they are usually very productive and highly valued by the agriculturist. Diluvial soils are those deposited by the waters of a deluge, and are com- monly found in the lower grounds, but sometimes form small hills, mounds or ridges : these, of course, partake of the qualities of the different regions from which they have been brought. They are sometimes much mixed with pebbles or gravely and are SOIL. 37 too light and open, the rains filtering through them readily, and carrying down the manure which is spread upon the surface. Sometimes, also, they are clayey or wet, being of too close a tex- ture to admit the free passage of the water through them. In the southeastern portion of the Slate, where the primary rocks abound, the soil is not naturally so fertile as in some other parts; but having received more careful cultivation, has been rendered generally productive. The ranges of primary rock which contain feldspar, mica and hornblende, usually afford a tolerable soil, the decomposition of these rocks yielding a little Hme, potash or soda. The talcose slates are generally covered by a poorer soil, on account probably of the excess of magnesia, which is supposed to be unfavourable to vegetation. The middle secondary red sandstone and red shale formation, which extends through Bucks, Montgomery, parts of Chester, Lancaster, Berks, Dauphin, York and Adams counties, is a good soil when properly farmed. This rock usually contains a portion of lime in its composition, and small white veins are often seen in it, which are carbonate of lime. The wells dug in this red shale commonly yield " hard water," or that which decomposes the soap used in washing : this is usually owing to the presence of lime in the water, in a state of combination with an acid. There are, however, within the range of this formation many large tracts where the rock has been changed, by causes which will be explained in our article on the geology of the State, from a soft red to a hard dark blue or brown rock ; here the soil is less fertile, being commonly heavy, clayey and wet. It is in the limestone valleys that Ave find the most productive soil in Pennsylvania, and that which most liberally rewards the farmer for his labour; though sometimes in very dry seasons these soils suffer more from drought than others, particularly where the rock is near the surface. The difliculty of obtaining water is often very great in some parts of our hmestone formations ; for the rock below the soil being traversed by large fissures and cavities, fre- quently perhaps also containing subterranean caverns, allows the water to sink to immense depths. Wells are often dug from eighty to one hundred feet deep without obtaining a permanent supply of water, which thus eluding the search of man, finds its way through hidden passages until having accumulated in some vast subterra- nean reservoir, it gushes forth in enormous springs, forming at once a stream of sufficient power to turn mills or other heavy machinery. From this cause the small springs and brooks which are so abundant in other formations, are comparatively rare in the great limestone region. The slate formation adjoining the limestone (see Geology, III.) IS usually rather a light and thin soil; but by the addition of lime and other manures may be rendered productive. The red and variegated shale formation, with its accompanying belt of limestone (V. and VI.) afford an excellent soil for tillage, and many fine farms are located on various parts of their range through the valleys of the middle counties. 4 .38 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. On the olive slate and the red and gray sandstone, (VIII. and IX.) we find a tolerably good soil when newly cleared ; but after long farming it requires good husbandry and frequent manuring to keep it productive. Except where the slate and red shale pre- dominate, the land on this series of rocks is apt to be rough and stony. The red shale formation (XI.) nearest the coal basins, where the valleys are sufficiently extensive for cultivation, affords a soil that is worthy of attention from the farmer; and being situated gen- erally between barren mountains, offers, where improved and cul- tivated, a pleasing contrast to the general wildness and sterility which surrounds it. The land upon the white and gray sandstones (I. IV. X. and XII.) is the most sterile and unproductive in the State; being a meagre, yellow, sandy or sometimes clayey soil, and one which, if its stony and rough character did not repel the husbandman, would yield him but a slender reward for his labour. Within the bituminous coal region west of the Allegheny mountain are many large tracts of excellent land. Until we recede some miles west of the mountain, the country is hilly and rough ; and even to our western borders it continues rolling and uneven. The more level tracts of low ground along the streams are highly fertile, and the soil of many of the hills, when cultivated, produces luxuriantly. The many strata of limestone which lie between the beds of coal impart their fertilizing influence, and the decayed vegetable matter of a thousand years also lends its aid to enrich this prolific soil. The importance of good farming is beginning to be understood in this section of the State; and though agriculture in this comparatively new region is not yet conducted with so great a degree of neatness and attention as in the older settled counties, yet many beautiful and productive farms gladden the eye of the observant traveller in passing through western Pennsylvania. How is the soil of a country formed? What occasions the difference of soils ? Of what three elements is a soil chiefly composed ? What consti- tutes a sandy soil ? Clayey? Calcareous? In what proportion is sand foi\nd in different soils ? VVhat is necessary beside earthy matter to make a productive soil ? Do all plants require the same kind of soil ? Why not 1 What is necessary to maintain the fertility of a soil ? What substances are most required in manures ? Why does manure ren'fler the soil more pro- ductive ? What ingredient is wanting in most of our unproductive soils ? What is said of the substratum below the soil ? To what is the colour of soils owing ? What is the character of alluvial soils ? Of diluvial ? What is said of the soil of the primary rocks in the southeastern counties? Of the middle secondary red shale and sandstone ? Of the limestone valleys ? Why is water sometimes scarce in limestone regions ? What is the cha- racter of slate soils ? Of the soil of the red and variegated shale formation ? Of the olive slate and its accompanying sandstones? Of the red shale val- leys surrounding the coal basins ? Ofcertain white and gray sandstones ? What is said of the country west of the Allegheny mountain ? Mention two causes which render parts of this region fertile. What is said of its agriculture ? CLIMATE. 39 5. Climate. The climate of Pennsylvania, though it may in general be justly termed healthy and temperate, is so variable and inconstant, and differing so much in one year with another, as to be somewhat difficult to describe. It seems to be admitted, however, that the extremes of heat and cold in the older settled counties are not so great as they were many years ago, which, if true, may be in con- sequence of the removal of large bodies of forest from the surface of the country and the great increase of cultivated land. To the same cause may be attributed the apparent diminution of the quantity of water in many of the springs and streams, as in a cleared country the evaporation of moisture from the surface is much greater than in forests where the foliage of a thick growth of timber shades the ground. In thickly wooded regions evapora- tion is thus retarded, the soil is kept moist and the water of rains filters sloAvly through the ground until it finds its way through springs again to the surface. It has been observed by a writer on the subject of our climate that "■ there seems to be a line about the forty-first degree of lati- tude, beyond which the winters are steady and regular, the earth being seldom without a covering of snow during the winter months." This, however, is probably more owing to the greater elevation of the country in the northern part of the State than to a difference of latitude ; for we find on the high table land beyond the Allegheny mountain, in the southern part of the State, and in the same latitude as Philadelphia, but little difference from the climate of those northern counties which are not so much elevated. A series of meteorological observations was authorised by an act of the legislature in 1837, to be conducted under the direction of the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, and intended to be made in each county of the State. Thermometers, barometers and rain guages were furnished to observers in most of the counties, with directions for use and blank forms for entering the results of their observations. It is a subject of regret that the returns of these ob- servations are not more perfect, and that in some counties they have been either entirely neglected or performed in so loose a manner as to be nearly useless. The results as obtained have been published monthly in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, and notwithstanding the imperfections noticed, embody a large and interesting amount of useful information concerning the meteoro- logical phenomena of Pennsylvania for a series of several years. With a view of showing the extremes of heat and cold, the average temperature, and the quantity of rain falling in different parts of the State, we select the following places in which obser- vations have been made for several years. The account of the rain which fell appears to have been so imperfectly recorded that we shall omit it, except for a few of the places mentioned. The mark — , placed before the minimum temperature, signifies below zero. 40 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Max, Min. Rain in T nfit-iAa temp. temp. Mean temp. inches J-iUll 1841. 1841. 1839-40-41. 1841. Gettysburg, 39° 49' 93° —10° 51.36° for 3 yrs. Philadelphia, 39 57 97 3 52.15 " 3 " 55.5 Somerset, 40 00 85 —10 48.00 " 2 " Lancaster, 40 03 93 — 7 51.96 " 3 " 37.4 Newtown, 40 14 90 1 51.19 " 3 " 57.3 Huntingdon, 40 31 98 —16 51.29 " 2 " Pittsburg, 40 32 98 — 6 53.01 " 1841 35.9 Port Carbon, 40 44 100 —20 48.94 " 3 " Northumberland, 40 53 91 —21 50.50 " 3 " 39.7 Bellefonte, 40 55 95 —25 48.88 " 3 " Stroudsburg, 41 00 94 —16 49.15 " 3 " Smethport, 41 49 90 —18 44.28 " 3 " Silver Lake, 41 57 93 —10 47.25 " 3 " Erie, 42 07 91 — 1 48.42 " 2 " The greatest heat usually occurs in July, and the extreme of cold in January. In the southeastern and southwestern counties the winter does not set in with severity until the latter part of De- cember, and commonly begins to moderate in February. In the latter part of this month, or early in March, the snow disappears, and in the beginning of April vegetation commences. At this sea- son, however, the atmosphere is often damp, chilly or stormy, and until the beginning of May there are frequent returns of cloudy, wet and disagreeable weather. Owing to these changes and to the variable nature of our spring seasons, vegetation advances very unequally in different years; and the promising appearance of the fruit trees in an early spring is often blasted by frosts in April or May, In the northern and more elevated portions of the State, winter commences early in December, and the snows are deeper and more enduring than in the lower country, seldom melting in theAvinter, and generally covering the ground until the latter end of March. About the beginning, or towards the middle of April, there is usually a week or ten days of warm pleasant weather, which dis- solves the snow and creates the spring freshets in our streams. The weather is damp, and occasionally cold, until the middle of May, about which time vegetation becomes active and the trees begin to put forth their leaves. Frost often appears in September, and is sometimes seen in June. The heat of summer during the day is nearly as intense here as in the less elevated parts of the State ; but the mornings and evenings are much cooler, and in the summer nights a blanket is frequently no uncomfortable covering for a bed. The autumn is usually the most pleasant season in all parts of the State. The mornings and evenings become cool about the first of September, and with the exception of a few warm days in that month, the temperature is moderate. A period of delightfully pleasant weather, with an atmosphere clear and serene, except a slightly hazy or smoky appearance, continues until towards the middle of October, with an almost imperceptible increase of cold. CLIMATE. 41 Tliis weather is then commonly interrupted by frequent rains which herald the approach of winter, and white frosts become common at night. It is said to be an old Indian maxim, that the severity of the winter is in proportion to the quantity of rain which falls during the autumn. During the clear cold weather of winter the wind generally comes from the northwest; and in the same season during storms of snow and rain or damp weather, from the northeast. In the country west of the mountains easterly winds and storms are less frequent than on the Atlantic coast. In summer the prevailing winds are from the southwest, and at most seasons this may be seen to be the direction of the upper currents of air by observing the motion of the highest clouds in the atmosphere. In July and August thunder showers are common after a few days of intensely hot weather ; when these fail to occur periods of drought sometimes ensue which are very injurious to the summer crops, and in some parts of the State occasion a scarcity of water in the wells and springs. During the rapid thaws of spring the wind is generally from the south or southeast, which brings us a warm current of air from the Gulf stream, passing along our coast from the Gulf of Mexico northward. A sudden dissolution of the snow then takes place, which frequently causes destructive floods in the streams. A strong and continued south wind in the winter sometimes pro- duces this effect in those parts of the State nearest the ocean. In January 1841, the Delaware and Lehigh were so swelled by the sudden melting of the snow as to sweep away most of the bridges across them, besides destroying many miles of canal along both rivers and carrying away an immense amount of lumber, buildings and other property on their banks. What is the general character of our climate ? By what cause is it sup- posed to have been somewhat changed ? What other effect may have been produced by clearing off the timber, and why ? Is the cUmate affected by the elevation of the country ? In what months do the extremes of heat and cold usually occur ? VVhat is said of the winter and spring seasons in the southeastern and southwestern counties ? In the northern and more ele- vated parts of the state ? Of the summer in this region ? Which is the most pleasant season, and what is said of it ? Mention the course of the prevailing winds in winter. In summer. When are thunder showers most common ? What frequently produces rapid thaws in spring ? What is the consequence of the sudden melting of deep snows ? When and where did a destructive flood occur from this cause ? 6. Geology. The limits and design of a work like the present will prevent us from giving more than a mere general sketch of the highly in- teresting and varied geological features of Pennsylvania. Some of the more minute details, as well as an account of the ores, min- erals, coals, &c., will be given when we come to a description of the separate counties. 4* 42 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The various geological formations which we shall describe, are composed of successive strata or layers of rock, one resting upon another, from the primary or lowest in the series, up to the rocks containing the anthracite and bituminous coal, which are the highest in the regular ascending order found in the State. If rocks more recent than the coal occur, they occupy only limited areas, where they have been deposited since the formation of that vast system of lower secondary strata which occupy nearly the whole of our territory. It will be seen by the most superficial observer, in travelling through Pennsylvania, that the course or range of the various groups and beds of rock is in a direction nearly northeast and southwest; corresponding with the course of the mountain ridges which extend through the State. If he attends to the position of the strata, or various layers of rock, he will see that their horizontal inclination is by no means the same in different places, and that they vary by every degree of slope, from level to perpendicular. This slope or inclination is called by geologists the dip of the rock, and is of great importance in determining the order of superpo- sition. The stratified rocks of the secondary series being sedimentary, formed by a succession of deposits from water, we must suppose that originally they lay in nearly a horizontal position. The stand- ing and tranquil waters deposited mud at their bottom, which hardened by pressure and by drying, aided, perhaps, by internal heat, at length became slate, or shale ; or if calcareous became a limestone : waters in gentle motion left sand only beneath them, which finally cementing formed sandstones, fine or coarse, accor- ding to the velocity of the current ; while streams or tides in rapid motion carried away most of the sand, leaving a mass of pebbles at the bottom, which at last, by the same great solidifying process of nature, became coarse conglomerates. This process of deposits from tranquil waters and different currents, varying in endless suc- cession through indefinite periods of time, would naturally pro- duce the variety of strata which constitute our whole system of sedimentary rocks. The varieties of colour are owing, generally, to different proportions and modifications of the oxides of iron and other metals. In order to account for the different degrees of inclination, or slope, which we observe in the strata, we must im- agine a series of uplifting actions from central forces, similar to the volcano or the earthquake, moving in a direction from north- east to southwest, upheaving the great mountain ridges, breaking up the strata from their former nearly horizontal position, and heaving and tilting them into the variety of disturbed positions in which they are now found. The southeastern portion of Pennsylvania, including the southern part of Bucks and Montgomery, the whole of Phila- delphia and Delaware, with the southern portions of Chester, Lancaster, and York counties, is occupied by rocks belonging to the stratified primary class. These consist chiefly of gneiss, mica slate, talc slate, and their subordinate varieties : the unstratified GEOLOGY. 43 rocks of a crystalline structure, such as granite, sienite, &c., being found in small local and irregular veins, principally in the southern portion of the primary range. The primary rocks extend on the Delaware river from Trenton downwards to the southern boundary of the State, and along it westward to the southeastern part of Adams county. Northward of this triangular primary belt is the limestone of Chester and Montgomery couniies, which is more or less crystalline, sometimes being marble, and which is also referred to the primary class. Still northward of this limestone, we find in some places a considerable extent of gneiss, with talc and mica slate. Proceeding farther northward, we come to the red sandstone for- mation, which stretches across the State from the Delaware river above Trenton, to the Maryland line, passing through the counties of Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, Berks, Lancaster, Dauphin, York and Adams. This group of rocks has been referred to the middle secondary period, and is of remarkable uniformity with regard to its materials and appearance throughout its whole range. It u:onsists of dark reddish brown argillaceous sandstone, soft crumbhng red and brown shales, with occasional bands of con- glomerate, or sandstone containing rounded pebbles. The dip, or inchnation of the strata is almost always to the northward, descending at an angle of from twelve to twenty-five degrees. The conglomerates of this group, by which is meant those layers containing imbedded pebbles, are chiefly found in the lower strata along the southern margin of the formation, or in the very highest, along its northern border. In both these cases, where the red sandstone overlies an older limestone in the vicinity, we find that a large proportion, sometimes nearly the whole, of the imbedded pebbles consists of rounded fragments of limestone of various colours. The paste too, by which they are cemented together, is so highly calcareous that the whole mass may be burned into tolerably good lime. Many portions of this conglo- merate, if polished, would make a very beautiful variegated marble, of the breccia variety. The famous Potomac marble, from which were formed the columns in the Representative Chamber of the Capitol at Washington, is of this character and belongs to this formation. It may be seen in Pennsylvania at several points along the northern border of the red sandstone, in the upper part of Bucks and the southern part of Berks, particu- larly near the Schuylkill two or three miles below Reading. It is also found on Yellow Breeches creek in the northern part of York county, and in Adams, near Millerstown or Fairfield, eight miles southwest of Gettysbursf. The red sandstone formation is traversed by numerous ridges and dykes of trap rock or greenstone, which sometimes forms hills of considerable height, and which have usually the same northeast and southwest direction as the other elevated ranges of hill and mountain in the State. This rock is generally of a dark gray colour, with some shade of green, crystalline in its structure, being composed chiefly of feldspar and hornblende, more or less 44 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. closely mixed, and though rather tough and difficult to break, it is frequently used as a material for building. It is, however, seldom quarried for that purpose, being usually found in irregular masses of all sizes, scattered over the surface and in the soil. This rock is evidently of igneous origin, and having been brought to the surface in a state of fusion, being upheaved through the dislocated beds of red sandstone in a highly heated state, it has frequently changed the texture and colour of the shale and sand- stone in its neighbourhood, converting them into a baked hard blue rock, totally different from their original character. In some of the ridges which cross the upper part of Bucks and Mont- gomery counties, the hard blue altered rock only is visible, the trap having never reached the surface ; but its heat from beneath has been sufficient to change the colour and texture of the over- lying shales and sandstones. The soil of these ridges is generally wet clayey and cold, and but little esteemed for purposes of agri- culture, while the soil of the unaltered red shale and sandstone is fertile and productive. North of the middle secondary red sandstone last described, we find on the Delaware below Easton another belt of primary rocks, which forms a chain of hills stretching southwestward across Northampton, Lehigh, Berks, Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Adams and Franklin counties to the Maryland line. This range is commonly called the South mountain, and though somewhat irregular and sometimes interrupted, may be said to be nearly continuous across the state. Proceeding southwestward along this ridge, we find the primary rocks disappear as we approach the Schuylkill, and though seen occasionally west of that river, they are generally covered throughout the remainder of the range to the Maryland line, by the overlying rocks of the lower secondary series. That vast system of lower secondary strata which extends from the primary rocks upward to the carboniferous or coal bearing series, has been divided for convenience into thirteen separate groups or formations, which we shall notice in their ascending order. I. Overlying the primary rocks is a hard, white, compact sand- stone, almost purely silicious, and sometimes exhibiting evidence of the heating agency of the rocks beneath by its excessive hard- ness, its ringing sound when struck, its splintery fracture, and occasional discolouration. This rock is chiefly found along the range of the South mountain, from the Lehigh near Allentown to the Maryland line, near which it is finely exposed on the ex- cavations of the Gettysburg railroad. It is also beautifully seen in the cliffs at Chicques Ridge, on the Susquehanna, above Columbia. II. Above the sandstone last mentioned is a broad belt of lime- stone, which may be traced from the Delaware river, at and above Easton, through Northampton, Lehigh, Berks, Lebanon, Dauphin, Cumberland and Franklin counties, and so passing southwestward through Maryland and Virginia. Another divi- GEOLOGY. 45 sion of this formation is seen in the middle townships of Lancas- ter and York counties, extending southwestward into Adams, where it terminates in a point near Littlestown. The same lime- stone is found in many of the valleys in the interior of the state, in the counties of Centre, Mifflin, Huntingdon and Bedford, particularly in Morrison's Cove, Kishicoquillas, Nittany and Brush valleys. This rock is usually of a bluish colour, some- times gray, or nearly black, tolerably pure in general, some of its layers yielding excellent lime, and others containing different pro- portions of sand, clay and oxide of iron. It frequently also con- tains bands and nodules of chert, usually called flint, which is generally of a dark colour. Fossil shells and zoophytes are abundant in some portions of this formation. Iron ore is also frequently found in the soil above it, and many of the most pro- ductive ore banks in the State are within the range of this lime- stone, or immediately on its border. The soil is highly fertile and some of the flnest agricultural districts of the State are situated upon this formation. III. The rock next in order as overlying the limestone is a slate, usually black or bluish, though sometimes gray, olive, or yel- lowish. In some portions of its range through Berks and Lebanon counties, it is red and brown, with some interposed bands of yel- low. It also contains interstratified beds of sandstone, some of which contain rounded pebbles, forming a true conglomerate. Some layers of this formation in the neighbourhood of the Dela- ware and Lehigh yield excellent roofing slate. Hydraulic cement is also made from some of the lower strata next to the limestone. This rock is found extending on the Delaware from opposite Bel- videre to the base of the Kittatiny or Blue mountain at the Dela- ware Water Gap. Thence ranging southwestward between the limestone belt and the mountain, it crosses Northampton, Lehigh, Berks, Lebanon, Dauphin, Cumberland and Franklin, to the southern line of the stale. The position of this slate being next above the great limestone, and between it and the sandstone next to be described as usually forming a mountain ridge, it follows that the slate will always be found near the foot of the mountain, or between it and the limestone. Hence, in the valleys through- out the state, where this limestone exists, we usually observe the slate near the base of the mountain, and frequently extending some distance up its side, when not covered or obscured by earth or stones fallen from the mountain itself IV. Next above the slate, and dipping conformably with it, is a formation composed of massive strata of hard white and gray, or sometimes reddish or greenish silicious sandstones of various de- grees of coarseness, frequently containing pebbles of considerable size. This rock constitutes that long, narrow, nearly level and continuous ridge which stretches from near the Hudson river, not far from Kingston, across New York and New Jersey, and which, entering Pennsylvania at the Delaware Water Gap, is known from that place to its termination in Franklin county, by the name of Kittatiny or Blue mountain. 46 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. This formation is also recognised in many of the high and rug- ged sandstone ridges which are found in the counties of Juniata, Mifflin, Centre, Huntingdon and Bedford. In its numerous windings, foldings and irregular convolutions, it forms the moun- tains called Tuscarora, Cove, Shade, Jack's, Brush, Nittany, White Deer, Bald Eagle, Will's, the long complicated range called the Seven Mountains, and some others. It is also seen in Montour's Ridge, from near Bloomsburg in Columbia county to the West branch of Susquehanna, five miles above Northum- berland. V, Resting upon the sandstone last described, and generally near the base of the mountain ridges which contain it, is a series of red and variegated shales, containing in its lower portion some strata of red sandstone, and usually towards the upper, some thin layers of argillaceous limestone. This group, consisting mainly of soft argillaceous and calcareous shales, is exceedingly variable in colour, being striped with narrow bands of red, yellow, green, olive and purple. Its character also varies somewhat in different districts of the State ; for while in its long range along the northern side of the Blue mountain we find it almost uniformly to consist of strata of red shales and sandstones, and nearly or quite desti- tute of the thin limestone bands ; yet in other regions of the State it maintains its character of variegated colour and its thin layers of limestone. This formation is important as containing the ex- cellent fossiUferous iron ore which is now extensively worked in the neighbourhood of Danville and Catawissa, in Columbia county, also in several places near the Juniata, and in other parts of the State where this formation occurs. The position of the ore strata is generally found to be in that portion of the formation which contains the thin limestone layers. This group of rocks lies on both sides of Montour's Ridge north of Danville, and thence stretches across the West branch into Union county. It will also be found in many of the valleys at the base of the mountains which contain the last described sandstone, and if this sandstone forms an anticlinal axis, or arch, in the mountain, dipping both ways from the top, like the roof of a house, the shales of this formation, with their contained ore, being above the sandstone, will be found on both sides of the mountain. This is the case in Montour's Ridge, Will's, Jack's (south of the Juniata river,) Shade and Tuscarora mountains towards the north. If, on the con- trary, the sandstone strata of the mountain all dip in one direc- tion, as in the Bald Eagle or Muncy mountain, the shales of this formation, with their contained ore, Avill only be found on the side toward which the strata of mountain rock descend, the other being occupied by the slate which has been described as underlv- ing the mountain sandstone. It may, however, sometimes occur that the sandstone rocks form a synclinal axis, or trough shaped basin, by dipping both ways towards the centre, as in the Nittanv mountain. In this case the valleys on both sides Avill be occupied by the underlying black slate formation ; while the red and varie- gated shales, being always in position superior to the sandstone. GEOLOGY. 47 if found at all, will be in the basin above it, near the middle of the ridge. VI. Next in position above the red and variegated shale forma- tion last described, we have an argillaceous blue limestone, rather slaty, of moderate thickness, though vastly inferior in this respect to that described in Article II. It frequently contains between its layers thin bands of slaty shale, somewhat similar to those of the formation below it ; but in its upper portion these disappear and the limestone becomes purer. Some of the strata contain abun- dance of fossil organic remains, commonly called petrifactions, and iron ore is sometimes found associated with it. This lime- stone is found in the valley north of the Blue mountain, above the red shale, and of course north of it, and may be seen at various points along its range, being quarried in many places for use. It is also found encircling Montour's Ridge, outside of the red shale, and extending northeastward nearly to Berwick. In Perry county it sweeps around two large triangular areas, from the Sus- quehanna near Fishing creek, along the northern side of the Blue mountain towards Landisburg, where it folds back and runs north- ward and northeastward beyond Bloomfield. Here it again turns westward towards the head of Sherman's creek, where it again folds round to the northeast, and crossing the Juniata near Millers- town, extends by Pfoutz's valley to the Susquehanna below George- town. In Juniata, Mifflin and Union counties this limestone will be found overlying the red and variegated shales of the last described formation, in the valleys near the Tuscarora, Shade and Jack's mountains, frequently forming limestone ridges which rise above the general level of the valleys. In Huntingdon county it is seen on the Juniata river on the west side of Warrior ridge, and thence extends east of Tussey's mountain, through Bedford county, to the Maryland line. The limestone of the valley about the town of Bedford, also belongs to this formation. The most northwest- ward range of this rock in Pennsylvania is found along the vaUey of the West branch of Susquehanna, from Muncy, by Williams- port, to the mouth of Bald Eagle creek, and thence up the valley of that stream southwestward to the neighbourhood of Hollidays- burg, on the Juniata. Here it sweeps around south of Brush mountain, and passes west of Canoe mountain, Dunning's and Will's mountain, through Bedford county to the Potomac river, above Cumberland. This limestone is also found in many other places ; we have only noted some of its principal ranges, as a minute description of all the various windings and doublings of this and other formations would far exceed the limits to which we are confined in such a book as this. Enough has, perhaps, been said to enable the in- telhgent and careful observer to distinguish this limestone group from the lower one described in Article II., and which, it will be seen, occupies a very different position in the great series of Penn- sylvania rocks. VII, The formation next in the ascending order above the lime- stone last described, is of very variable thickness, and in some places 48 GEOGRArHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. seems entirely to disappear. It is a coarse grained and rather loosely cemented sandstone, of a whitish, or rather yellowish white colour, having in some of its beds abundance of fossil shells, and also some bands of chert or flint ; but is not important either for its extent or its mineral contents. Neither is it always con- tinuous in its range with the adjoining formations; for though when found it is always above the limestone last described, and below the olive slate next to be noticed ; yet as has been observed, it is sometimes absent, and the slate which belongs above it is found resting upon the Hmestone. This is the case in Columbia and Northumberland counties, around Montour's ridge, and per- haps, in some other places. Where this sandstone is observed in considerable thickness, it generally forms a line of irregular, sharp, rugged hills, such as may be observed ranging southwestward from near Stroudsburg in Monroe county, nearly parallel with the Blue mountain, and ex- tending beyond the Susquehanna into Perry county. It will be generally found accompanying the limestone along its ranges, as mentioned in the preceding article, through the counties of Perry, Juniata, Mifflin, Union, Huntingdon and Bedford. The cele- brated " pulpit rocks," on Warrior ridge, above Huntingdon, be- Pulpit Rocks on Warrior Ridge. lOng to this sandstone. Some iron ore is found within the range of This formation, and the rock itself is said to form a good mate- rial for the hearths and inwalls of furnaces. VIII. We now come to a group of alternating strata of dark gray, greenish, and olive coloured slates, interstratified whh gray and greenish argillaceous sandstones : the slates predominating GEOLOGY. 49 in the lower beds, where we sometimes also find thin layers of limestone. Some of these lower strata are well adapted for making hydraulic cement. As we ascend in this group the sandstones become more prevalent in the upper portion. Many of the strata in this formation are abundant in fossil shells, encrinites, trilobites, &c. Iron ore has occasionally been found accompanying this group of rocks, but in general it is much inferior in this respect to the lower formations. This group is of much greater thickness than the two last described, and considered in conjunction with the following, both together occupy no inconsiderable portion of territory. When the rock strata are nearly horizontal, or have a gentle dip, a thick group or formation will of course spread over a wide extent of country. But when the strata have been up- heaved into a position more approaching to perpendicular, the area occupied is more confined and narrow. Thus a series of rocks three thousand feet thick, standing in perpendicular strata, would cover about half a mile in width, while the same series if lying nearly flat or horizontal might spread over many miles. Accordingly where we see these two formations on the Susquehanna, between the Kitattiny and the Second mountains, they seem to occupy but little space because the strata are nearly perpendicular; but fol- lowing them eastward towards the Delaware we find them flatten- ing out to a very gentle northwestern dip, and covering a large portion of Monroe, Pike and Wayne counties. The same remarks will also apply to these and other formations, in various parts of the state. IX. Above the oHve slate formation last described, we find a series of brownish red shales and sandstones, with some inter- posed layers of greenish gray and buff" coloured sandstones and shales. This group diflers from that last described more in colour than in actual composition ; and like it is a broad heavy series of rocks, and extensive in its range. Its sandstones yield abundance of excellent material for building ; but its mineral contents are of little importance. The soil of this, as well as that of the preceding formation, is but moderately fertile; and yet the industrious farmer, by proper attention to the use of lime and other manures, manages to reap a rich crop from the hills of these slates and sandstones. These two formations range eastward from the Susquehanna above the Blue mountain, passing southward of the Schuylkill and Lehigh coal regions, and along the southern side of Pocono mountain in Monroe county ; then spreading out broadly over most of Pike and Wayne counties, sweep around the eastern terminations of the anthracite coal fields in broad flattened synclinal axes. Nearly the whole of Susquehanna county, a large portion of Luzerne and Bradford, with most of the region which lies north and west of the bituminous coal fields, in the northern counties of the state, belong to this series of rocks. The same formations in like manner spread around the western ends of the anthracite basins, and are found in the broad undulating vallevs outside of the high mountain ridges which stretch around 5 50 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the coal fields. The olive slate and red shale rocks appear in Armstrong's valley in Dauphin county, around Halifax, — in the valley of Shamokin creek southeast and east of Sunbury, thence stretching across the Shamokin hills to the North branch, they extend through Roaring creek valley by Catawissa, and into Luzerne county southeast of the Wyoming coal valley. Thence spreading out and folding round the Lackawanna valley, they return on the northwest through the northern townships of Luzerne and Columbia, and extend over the broad hilly region along the southern base of the Allegheny mountain. The red and gray sandstones of the upper portion of this series, form most of the southeastern face of the Allegheny throughout its course across the state ; while the olive slates of the lower group are seen in the range of smaller hills which stretch along near the base of that mighty chain. The rocks belonging to these formations are also seen on the Juniata river, at and below Huntingdon, whence they extend southward, branching out and passing on both sides of the Trough Creek valley and the Broad Top coal field. The eastern division passes along east of Sideling hill, a part of it folding back north- ward again to the Juniata in Aughwick valley, Avhile the main portion spreads broadly out over most of the southeastern part of Bedford county. The western division is seen along Allegripus ridge, west of Terrace mountain, and spreading out south of Broad Top, occupies most of the region between Ray's hill and Tussey's mountain to the Maryland line. These formations are visible in many other places ; for we have not attempted to describe their range minutely, — a mere general outline being all that our limits enable us to give. X. Over these red shales and sandstones rests a series of massive beds of coarse hard gray sandstone, sometimes containing pebbles, with occasional bands of dark greenish slates intermixed. This rock is much more compact, harder, and tougher than the sand- stone below it. The strata, too, are generally heavier, and the whole formation more united and massive in character. We are now approaching the coal bearing rocks, and accordingly some- times find in this formation bands of black carbonaceous slate, the flattened stems of plants and even thin scales of coal itself. Let no one be deluded, however, by the hope of finding productive veins of coal in this formation, for we are still several hundred feet below the true coal bearing series. The anthracite coal basins are generally in the form of long canoe-shaped troughs, encircled by a double border of mountains, of Avhich the rock we are now describing, forms the outer ring or barrier. It is seen in the Broad mountain, above Mauch Chunk, on the Lehigh, whence it sweeps round the eastern end of that coal basin, and runs southwestward in the Second mountain through its whole course from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna. Crossing this river below the town of Dauphin, it encircles a little cove on the west side, again recrosses and appears in Peters' mountain to its eastern termination near the head waters of Wico- GEOLOGY. 51 nisco creek. Here it again turns westward, in Berry^s mountain, and once more crossing the Susquehanna below Millersburg, extends into Perry county nearly to the Juniata, where it again winds round to the northeastward, again crosses the Susquehanna just below Liverpool, and forms the ridge called Mahontongo mountain, north of Ly kens' valley. This mountain terminates near the southeastern corner of Northumberland county, connecting with the Line mountain, in which this rock formation again turns westward towards the Susquehanna, which it reaches in the high knob on the east side of the river, above the mouth of Mahanoy creek. Here it does not cross the river, but again turns to the northeast, forming the long range called the Little mountain, south of the Shamokin and Roaring creek valleys, and extending to Catawissa creek. From this point it again bends to the northwest, and forms a chain of short mountain ridges and knobs extending to the western end of Catawissa mountain, southeast of the town. Hence its course is again to the northeastward along the Catawissa mountain, and its continuation the Nescopeck mountain, at the eastern termination of which this formation flattens out and prob- ably joins the Wyoming or Moosick mountain, on the southeast of the Wyoming coal basin. It ranges along this side of the coal field southwestward, crossing the North branch of the Susque- hanna some distance below Shickshinny, and extends in the Knob mountain nearly to Orangeville, in Columbia county. Here it folds sharply back, forming the Shickshinny mountain, and stretches along the high ridges on the western side of the Wyo- ming valley, crossing the North branch above the mouth of Lacka- wanna, and so on until again uniting with the Moosick mountain, north of Carbondale, it thus encircles the Wyoming and Lacka- wanna coal basin. By tracing these multiplied windings of this formation on a good map of the State, we shall see that it encloses all the anthra- cite coal fields, sweeping along their sides and folding sharply round their pointed ends, though generally at some distance from them. The space between is occupied by a red shale, commonly forming a little valley, and belonging to the formation next to be described, as lying above the sandstone of which we are now treating. If the dip of this sandstone be observed, it will be found, throughout the long winding course which we have described, to be always descending towards the side occupied by the red shale which lies between it and the coal basins, and of course, passing beneath the red shale. An exception to this general rule may, however, be found in the Second mountain, south of the Schuyl- kill and Swatara coal regions, where the dip is inverted, the rocks having, by some great convulsion, been tilted beyond the perpen- dicular. The same sandstone also occurs in Bedford and Huntingdon counties, encompassing the Broad Top coal basin, and may be seen in the Terrace mountain and Sideling hill, enclosing the red shale of Trough Creek valley, and passing southward in AUegripus and Harbour mountains. 52 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. This formation is found to occupy the same position in relation to the bituminous coal fields that it does to the anthracite, and we accordingly find it along the southeastern slope of the Allegheny mountain near its summit, dipping gently towards the northwest, throughout its whole course, from the Maryland line to the north branch of Susquehanna, near Tunkhannock, in the new county of Wyoming. Here it folds round the extreme northeastern point of the bituminous coal region, and passes westward through the northern counties, on the north side of the bituminous coal, having here of course a slight southern dip. XI. Above the hard gray sandstone last described is a series of red shales and red sandstones, with some alternating layers of gray sandstone, though the red shale usually predominates throughout the formation. Some of the strata are more or less calcareous, and a few of them approach the character of a true limestone. These, near the anthracite coal regions, frequently consist of a thin band of conglomerate rock, made up of pebbles chiefly of lime- stone, having a light bluish gray or reddish colour, imbedded in a cement of reddish or greenish argillaceous shale. Some of the purest of these calcareous bands might be burned into a rough lime ; but in general they are not found sufficiently pure to be of much use in this respect. Iron ore of considerable value is found in this formation in certain parts of its range. It has been already observed that this red shale formation is found extending around all the anthracite coal basins. It is usually seen in the deep and narrow valleys which lie between the ridges of sandstone, mentioned in the preceding article, and those of the conglomerate formation next to be described, as lying above this red shale, and forming the immediate margin of the trough or basin in which the coal is found. Accordingly, we observe it be- tween the Second and Sharp mountains, extending on the south of the coal, from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna, and there folding round the end of the Stony creek basin, it runs up the valley of Clark's creek to the head of Wiconisco, where it again turns west and passes down Williams' valley to Millersburg, on the Susque- hanna, where a portion of it is seen on the west side of the river in Perry county. From this it stretches again eastward, up Lykens' valley to the north side of the Broad mountain, passing up between the western points of the southern coal fields, and dividing them from the Shamokin and Mahanoy region. It passes thence west- ward down the valley of Mahanoy creek, near the mouth of which it again folds eastward round the point of the Mahanoy coal basin and pursues the long narrow valley south of the Little mountain to near the head of Catawissa creek, down which it passes north- ward to the southern base of the Nescopeck mountain. Its course is now northeastward through the Nescopeck valley to the Lehigh, where it folds round the eastern points of several divisions of the coal field, towards the southern range, where we first mentioned its occurrence, between the Second and Sharp mountains. We have only traced the general outline of this formation ; it may be GEOLOGY. 53 seen in other places between the various minor divisions of the great anthracite basins. It will be found in like manner, sweeping around the long canoe- shaped coal trough of Wyoming and Lackawanna, always main- taining its position between the sandstone of the last mentioned formation and the conglomerate or coarse pebble rock which lies immediately below the coal series. The coal field of Broad Top, in Bedford and Huntingdon, is also encompassed by this same red shale group, which is seen in the valley of Trough creek, north of Broad Top, and passing both on the east and west of that moun- tain, again unites in Wells' valley on the south of it. This formation which has been described as encircling the mountain ridges which enclose the anthracite coal measures is also found in the same position with respect to the bituminous coal fields. But while in the anthracite regions it has a thickness of perhaps not less than two thousand feet, we find it much dimin- ished where it occurs below the bituminous coal, and observation would seem to prove that it decreases in thickness as we trace it northwestward. In the southeastern portion of the bituminous coal country, we find it maintaining a massive character in the Little Allegheny, the Savage, the Great Allegheny and the Negro mountains, also in Laurel Hill and in Chesnut ridge, in most of which ranges it contains thick bands of limestone, or highly calca- reous rock ; yet when we observe it as far north as Clinton and Lycoming counties, it thins away to extremely diminished size. In the neighbourhood of Farrandsville, on the west branch of the Susquehanna, in Clinton county, the total thickness of this forma- tion is but about twenty-four feet ; and still fartlier northwest it seems in many places entirely to thin out and disappear. XII. The next formation above the red shale, and immediately beneath the coal series, is a group of massive strata of coarse silicious conglomerates, alternating with white or light coloured sandstones, and containing some thin beds of dark carbonaceous shale. Around the anthracite basins, the conglomerate is the pre- vailing character of the rock, which there consists chiefly of cemented pebbles, of white quartz, from the size of a pea to that of an orange. But in many parts of the range of this formation, beneath the bituminous coal region, it shoAvs less of the conglome- rate character, being in some places almost wholly a coarse white sandstone. This rock will be found on the ridges which form the immediate border of all the anthracite coal basins ; also around the coal of Broad Top, and of the bituminous region west of the Allegheny. Our limits will not permit us to trace it in detail ; but as we have described the general range of the red shale below it, the locahty of this rock may easily be found in connection with it. As this conglomerate formation composes the true floor of the coal measures, all search for productive beds of that fuel beneath it must be fruitless ; and this rock will form a sure guide to the judicious explorer, who will attend to its dip and direction and always search for coal above it. This observation applies, of 54 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. course, only to the main heavy conglomerate formation ; as there are in the coal series, and between the coal seams, some thin bands of a conglomerate character, though very different from the coarser and thicker rocks of the main formation below the coal. XIII. It now remains for us to describe, in a brief and general manner, that extensive and varied system of rock strata which contains the coal of Pennsylvania. The lowest beds of coal are generally found near the underlying conglomerate rock, or some- times even in it ; but as we ascend in the series we find the coal seams separated by beds of greater or less thickness of soft argilla- ceous bluish gray, or light gray sandstone, and of black, dark coloured, or grayish slates and shales. These shales sometimes contain bands and kidney-shaped masses of valuable iron ore ; but it seems to prevail as a general rule, that this ore in the anthracite basins is not equal either in quality or abundance to that of the bituminous region west of the Allegheny mountain. Valuable strata of limestone also are found between the beds of bituminous coal, which appear to be nearly, if not totally, absent in the same position in the anthracite series. In considering the extent included within the general boundaries of the coal regions of this Slate, we must by no means suppose that the coal spreads continuously over their whole area. When examined minutely it will be found that the effects of subterranean elevating forces have heaved up the lower rocks in a series of an- ticlinal elevations within the general limits of the great coal fields, subdividing them into a series of lesser synclinal troughs ; while the denuding action of waters, and the natural wearing down of the surface, have swept away the whole of the coal series from much of the surface occupied by these hues of elevation. It is, therefore, only in these lesser troughs that the general mass of our coal will be found. The anthracite region may be properly divided into four distinct groups or divisions, each comprising a series of minor basins or branches of the coal deposits. First, on the south, we have the Pottsville, Mine hill and Broad mountain basins, the former ex- tending eastward to the Mauch Chunk mines near the Lehigh, and westward to the neighbourhood of Pinegrove, where it forks out into two long points or branches, the southern one extending along north of the Sharp mountain to the Stony creek region, and reaching nearly to the Susquehanna river. The northern branch extends into Bear valley, between Williams' and Lykens' valleys, and terminates about twelve miles east of the Susquehanna. North of the Broad mountain axis we have the Mahanoy and Shamokin division, which terminates westward within a few miles of the Susquehanna, and on the eastward is composed of a num- ber of smaller irregular basins, separated by local axes or lines of elevation. These basins terminate eastward on the north of the Broad mountain, some extending as far as the borders of Gluakake valley. East and northeast from this group of basins we have another series, consisting of seven or eight narrow basins, separated from GEOLOGY. 55 the last mentioned division by the deep red shale valleys of the head waters of the Catawissa, Little Schuylkill and other streams. In this division are included the Beaver meadow, Hazelton, Black creek. Buck mountain, Green mountain and other local coal fields. Separated from all these by a great anticlinal axis which brings up the loAver rocks in the valley of Wapwallopen creek, we find considerably farther northward the great Wyoming and Lacka- wanna basin, which extends from the north branch of the Susque- hanna, near Shickshinny, to a few miles above Carbondale on the Lackawanna, and terminates in a point not far from the southeast corner of Susquehanna county. It may be observed as a general rule, that in the southern an- thracite basin the character of the coal changes as we proceed southweslward ; for while we find near the Lehigh a compact, hard, firm coal, sometimes of rather difficult ignition, as we trace it towards the Susquehanna it gradually becomes more open in tex- ture, contains rather more impurities, and burns more freely, until near the western extremity of the same basin a coal is found which in some measure partakes of the bituminous character. The coal of Broad Top mountain in Huntingdon and Bedford counties, though bituminous, is more hard and compact in its character and contains less bitumen than the coals west of the Al- legheny generally ; the same remark will apply in some measure to the beds found in the Southampton basin in the southeast of Somerset county. The coal beds west of the Allegheny mountain seem to show an increase of bituminous matter in their composi- tion as we proceed northwestward; it having been proved by analysis that while the coals nearest the Allegheny mountain average about twenty-one per cent, of bitumen, those in the neigh- bourhood of Pittsburg and the western part of the Slate yield nearly forty per cent. Though the gentle northwest dip" of the rocks on the summit of the Allegheny, and the general apparent nearly horizontal posi- tion of the strata from this to the western part of the State, might lead to the idea that the coal beds are continuous over the whole of this great area; yet closer examination will show that this apparently undisturbed series of rocks has also been subject to the effect of upheaving forces, though certainly much less power- fully affected than the region east of the Allegheny. Several great lines of elevation enter our bituminous coal region from the south and extend their influence across a large portion of it, causing a series of undulations in the strata. On these antichnal arches the lower rocks are brought up to the surface, and the coal bearing strata have disappeared, so that this region is separated also into a series of synclinal basins containing the coal, though generally of much greater extent than those of the anthracite coal fields. The great anticlinal ridges of Negro mountain. Laurel hill and Chesnut ridge are sufficiently elevated to bring up the red shale with its limestone bands and even some lower formations, as may be seen in the g^ps where streams pass through them. Beside 56 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. these there are, farther northward, many other less elevated broad anticlinal swells on which the rocks next below the coal appear ; but the coal strata themselves have been entirely swept away. In some of the northern counties the coal occupies only the summits of the hiojhest hills, the denudation and wearing down of the val- leys having brought the general level of the country below the position occupied by the coal bearing rocks. It will thus be seen that only a limited portion of the so called bituminous coal country is actually occupied by productive beds of coal. This is men- tioned with the view of correcting an erroneous impression gen- erally entertained, and not by any means with a design to convey the idea that the quantity of coal possessed by Pennsylvania can ever be exhausted, or even materially diminished by the mining and consumption of centuries. Having thus given an outline of the geology of the State, we reserve the notice of more minute particulars relative thereto for our description of the separate counties. Of what are geological formations composed ? What is the general course of the ranges of rock in Pennsylvania ? What is said of their incli- nation or dip ? How were the stratified secondary rocks formed ? By what causes were the different varieties produced ? From what do they derive their colour ? How may we account for their different degrees of incHnation or slope ? What class of rocks is found in the southeastern part of the State ? Describe the range of the middle secondary red sandstone formation, and the kinds of rocks of which it is composed. In what parts of it is the conglomerate called Potomac marble found? Describe the trap or green- stone rocks — their origin — and their frequent efl'ect upon the neighbouring red shale. What is the extent of the primary rocks of the South mountain ? What is the character of the sandstone overlying the primary rocks, and where does it occur? What formation (II.) is next above this, and where may it be traced ? In what other places is this limestone found ? What valuable ore often occurs with it ? Describe the slate next in order above the limestone. What useful materials are found in the slate formation ? In what parts of the State may it be seen ? In what mountains may the sand- stone (IV.) next above the slate be found? What is said of the group of red and variegated shales next in order? What valuable mineral is con- tained in them ? In what parts of the State does this formation occur? Describe the hmestone next mentioned. What does it contain ? What places can you mention where this hmestone may be seen ? What kind of rock is next above this limestone ? Where does it occur ? Give a gen- eral description of the varieties of rock contained in the olive slate form- ation. (VIII.) What is there valuable or curious contained in it ? What is said of the difference in extent between horizontal and perpendicular strata ? What kinds of rock compose the next formation above the olive slate? For what useful ? Describe the general range of these two forma- tions on a map of the State. What is the character of the sandstone (X.) next in order ? What is sometimes contained in it ? Name the mountains in which this sandstone occurs, and trace its range on the map. What is said of the red shale and sandstone next mentioned ? Are any useful ma- terials found in it ? Around what does this formation extend ? Mention the valleys in which it occurs. What is said of this formation near the bituminous coal region ? Describe the character of the formation (XII.) next below the coal. Where does it occur ? Of what use is a knowledge of its position when searching for coal? Where are the lowest coal beds generally found ? What kinds of rocks lie between the beds of coal ? What valuable materials are found in the slates and shales between the coal BOTANY. 57 beds ? What difference is there in this respect between the anthracite and bituminous regions ? What is said about the coal extending over the whole ot these regions ? Into what four districts may the anthracite region be divided? What is the extent of the first? — of the second? — of the third? — of the fourth? What change in qualitj' is observed in the coal of the southern basin, as we proceed towards the Susquehanna? What is said of the coal of Broad Top, and of that of Southampton in Somerset county ? Mention the change in the quality of bituminous coal as we pro- ceed northwestward. Are the beds of coal continuous over the whole country west of the Allegheny mountains ? Why are they not so ? In what ridges do the rocks below the coal series appear ? Why is coal only partially found in some of the northern counties ? What is said of the probability of exhausting the coal of Pennsylvania ? 7. Botany. It is not intended in this article, nor would it be consistent with the plan of our work, to give more than a mere outline of the varied and extensive series of vegetable productions which consti- tute the Flora of Pennsylvania. Our attention will, therefore, be chiefly confined to a brief notice of the more useful kinds of forest trees, and such plants as are most common or specially worthy of consideration on account of their connection witn agriculture, arts, manufactures, commerce and medicine. The botanical names will be given for convenience of reference to works on the subject ; but the use of scientific technical terms will be avoided, inasmuch as they might not be understood by the general reader ; our object being to give a plain and concise account of our native trees and plants, rather than a scientific arrangement and description. Forest Trees. The Oak, in its various species, is one of the most really useful trees, not only in Pennsylvania, but in most parts of the United States, as well as in Europe. It seems, like iron ore in the mineral kingdom, to have been multiplied by nature in proportion to its utility ; being found almost every where, and every where sup- plying the wants of man for a vast variety of purposes. Its wood is used by the shipbuilder, by the civil engineer and architect, the cooper, the coachmaker, the wheelwright, the millwright, in the construction of farming implements, for fences and for fuel. The bark is used in tanning leather, in dyeing, and forms a consider- able article of export to foreign countries. White Oak, {Querciis alba) is the most esteemed of this noble family of trees ; its wood, being compact, strong, tough and dur- able, is adapted to a greater variety of purposes than any of the other species. It is found throughout the State ; but in the northern and western counties the wood is not so compact and tough as in the southeastern districts. This may be the effect of a difference of soil, or because the forests are thinner and the trees more widely separated from each other in the older settled counties. 58 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Even the best of our oak timber has not so close a grain as that of Europe. Post Oak, or Iron Oak ( Quercus obtusiloba) seems to be chiefly confined to the eastern part of the State, and is less abundant than the white oak, which it so much resembles that it is generally taken for a variety of that species. It does not grow to so large a size as the white oak, the wood has a finer grain, the acorn is smaller, and the lobes of the leaf wider and obtuse at the termi- nation. Swamp White Oak ( Q. prinus discolor, or bicolor) is not abun- dant and grows only around swamps, or in low and very moist grounds. It is less esteemed than some of the other species. Swamp Chesnut Oak (Q.p*wiMS paliistris^ grows in swamps and wet grounds, bears great resemblance to the rock chesnut oak, and is frequently confounded with it. The leaves are similar, but the acorn of the rock chesnut oak is more slender and pointed. Rock Chesnut Oak (Q. prinus monticola) is not generally diff'used throughout our forests, but is chiefly found on rocky ridges and declivities. It is very abundant on many of the moun- tains in the interior of the State. The wood is said to be excellent for fuel, and the bark is highly esteemed by tanners. Laurel Oak or Shingle Oak (Q. imbricatia) is rare east of the mountains ; but west of them is more common. Scrub Oak (Q. banisteri) is very abundant on barren mountain ridges, seldom growing more than six or eight feet in height, and so close that it is often difficult to find a passage through the thickly intermingled branches. So thickly does this shrub grow, and so nearly uniform is its height, that when viewed from a distance, many of the barren wastes, containing hundreds of acres, appear as if covered with grass, with here and there a solitary pine tree rising high abof e to relieve the monotony of the scene. Spanish Oak (Q. falcata) is much less common in Pennsyl- vania than farther south. Its wood is not considered of much value j but the bark is greatly esteemed for the manufacture of leather, and commands a high price. Black Oak (Q. tinctond) grows abundantly in most of our forests, and is one of our largest trees. The wood is of a reddish colour, and coarse grained ; it is not very durable, but is used for fencing, fire wood, staves and shingles. It is from this species that the Quercitron bark is obtained, which is exported in large quantities, and used in dyeing wool, silk, &,c., a yellow colour. When used by tanners it imparts a yeUow tinge to the leather. Scarlet Oak, (Q. coccinea.) This tree is confounded with the true Spanish oak, being called red oak in the northern States, and Spanish oak in the south. The leaves of the Spanish oak are very downy underneath, while those of the scarlet oak are smooth and shining on both sides. The leaves of the scarlet oak begin to change colour with the first cold weather, and after a few frosts they turn to a lively red, and not to a dull tint like the true red oak. It is a large tree, — the timber is reddish, of a coarse texture and its pores are entirely empty. Not being so durable as the white BOTANY. 59 oak, it is but little used in building, or in wheelwright work, but is chiefly employed for staves, fuel and fencing. Red Oak (Q. rubra) has leaves somewhat resembling the Spanish oak, but not downy on the under side. In autumn they turn to a dull red and then fall. It bears acorns abundantly, which are very large, and contained in remarkably flat cups, the scales of which are so closely united that the surface is nearly even. The texture of the wood is coarse, with large and empty pores : it is strong, but not durable, and therefore, little used in buildings. The bark has a thick cellular texture, with a thin outside cov- ering, and as well as that of the scarlet oak, is much used by tanners. Pin Oak ( Q. palustris) is common in low and wet places, and has leaves much like those of the scarlet oak, but considerably smaller. The small limbs along the body of the tree die as it ad- vances in age and drop off" at a little distance from the trunk, which gives it the appearance of having pins driven into it. The bark is smoother than that of most other oaks. Walnut. The Black Walnut (JuQ;lans nig^'o) is common in our valleys where the soil is deep and fertile, and frequently attains a height of fifty or sixty feet. Its wood when freshly cut is of a violet colour, but becomes dark by exposure to the air; it is sus- ceptible of a beautiful polish, and remains sound during a long time. Among other good qualities, it possesses considerable strength and tenacity, and is not liable to be attacked by worms. It is much used for making coffins and various kinds of cabinet work, — also for the stocks of military muskets. Where it is abundant it is frequently used in building, and for the posts of fences, which, it is said, will last from twenty to twenty-five years. The nuts are collected and sold in our market ; the kernel is large and pleasant to the taste, though inferior to the European walnut. The husks or outer covering of the fruit, as well as the bark, are used in the country for colouring woollen stuffs. White Walnut or Butternut, (Juglans cathartica or cinered) though less abundant in some parts of the State than the preceding species, is yet common on hill sides, along streams and other places where it finds a congenial soil. The nuts are longer and more oval than those of the black walnut -, the kernel is thick and oily, and soon becomes rancid. In the green state, however, and when about half grown, they are used for making pickles. The wood is of a reddish colour, and not so heavy and strong as that of the black walnut, but is very durable, and also free from injury by worms. The bark yields an excellent cathartic medicine which is said to be efficacious in cases of dysentery. It is also used in the country for giving a brown colour to wool. Hickory. Of this valuable tree we have several species, the timber of which, though differing in some respects, yet possesses the same general properties of great weight, strength and tenacity, speedy decay when exposed to moisture, and a peculiar liability to injury from worms. But though not adapted to use in buildings and fences, this wood performs other services in which no other 60 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. kind of timber could so well be employed. It is almost univer- sally used where great strength and elasticity are required, as in the axletrees of carriages, the handles of axes, and other carpenter's tools, large screws, cogs for mill wheels, whip handles, rake teeth, flails for threshing grain, the bows of ox yokes, and for innumer- able other agricultural and domestic implements. For fuel it is generally preferred to every other kind of wood, affording in the same bulk more combustible matter, yielding a more lively heat, and leaving a heavy, compact, long-lived coal. The most common species in Pennsylvania are the common or White Heart hickory ( Carya tomentosa,) Pig nut ( Carya porcina,) Bitter nut ( C. amara,) 'Shell bark (C alba or squamosa,) and Thick Shell bark (C sulcata or laciniosa.) The last named species is not so common east of the mountains as in the alluvial bottom lands on the Ohio and the streams which empty into it. Maple. The White Maple, (Acer eiiocai-pum) sometimes called Silver maple from the colour of its leaves on the under side ; and the Red maple (Acer rubnim) both grow in Pennsylvania ; the latter, however, is the more common species. They may be dis- tinguished by observing that the red maple has the young shoots, the flowers and the fruit deeply tinged with red, while in those of the white maple that colour appears but faintly. The leaf of the white maple is five lobed and deeply sinuated ; those of the red are three lobed and unequally toothed. The capsules which contain the seeds of the white maple are very large, and bear some resem- blance to the wings of a huge grasshopper. The wood of the red maple is harder than that of the white, and has a finer and closer grain. It is much used by chairmakers, and for bedsteads, spinning wheels, saddle trees, and a variety of other purposes. This wood is of a solid texture, and by polishing acquires a glossy and silken surface. The variety called curled maple is commonly found in old trees, in which the fibres of the wood, instead of fol- lowing a perpendicular direction, are undulated and waving. This renders the wood difficult to split, but when skilfully polished produces the most beautiful effect of light and shade. But few trees, however, afford this curled and waving disposition of the woody fibre. The bark of the red maple yields a purplish colour by boiling, which, by the addition of copperas (sulphate of iron) becomes dark blue, approaching to black. It is used in the coun- try for dyeing, and sometimes for making ink. Of the Sugar Maple we have two kinds ; the true Sugar maple (Acer saccharinum) and the Black Sugar tree, or Black maple (Acer nio^rum.) The former is most abundant in the northern parts of the State, and along the elevated range of the Allegheny table land, where the soil, though fertile, is cold and moist. It is also found on 'the steep and shadv banks of the streams which rise among the mountains. The Black maple is more common in the low rich soils along the western rivers. The leaves of the latter are of a darker green and a thicker texture than the true Sugar maple ; they are also slightly downy on the under side, while the others are smooth. Both are large trees, growing to a BOTANY. &l height of from fifty to seventy feet ; the wood of the Black maple, though much Mke the other, is coarser grained and less briUiant when polished. The woody fibre of the Sugar maple is some- times waved like the curled maple ; but a more beautiful and rare accidental form is the Birds' Eye maple, where an inflexion of the fibre produces spots, sometimes contiguous, and sometimes a little distance apart. This wood when polished is very beautiful, and is used in various articles of cabinet work. Both these species of maple yield the sap from which sugar is made. In February, or the beginning of March, when the sap begins to ascend, holes are bored in the tree from one to two feet from the ground, and tubes of elder or sumach inserted to conduct the sap into a trough or vessel placed to receive it. The sap is collected and boiled to a syrup, after which it is allowed to cool and is strained through a cloth to separate impurities. It is then boiled again, until the syrup is reduced to the proper consistency for graining or pouring into the moulds. The colour and quality of the sugar depend much upon the care and judgment with which the process is con- ducted. The sap continues to flow for several weeks, but gradu- ally becomes less abundant and less rich in saccharine matter. About four gallons of sap are estimated to yield a pound of sugar, and a single tree, having twenty tubes inserted has been known to yield twenty-three gallons of sap in a day. Large quantities of maple sugar are still made in the northern and western counties by the farmers, who sell that which they do not require for their own use to the shopkeepers of tl^ neighbouring towns. Striped Maple (Acer stnatuni) is rare except in the mountainous parts of the State, where it grows in cold and shaded situations. It is a small tree, with the trunk and branches covered with a smooth green bark, longitudinally marked with black stripes, by which it is easily distinguished. Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder, (Acer negwido) is not common in the eastern part of the State j but more abundant west of the mountains. Dogivood. Of the several species of Dogwood which grow in Pennsylvania, but one is entitled from its size to be classed with the forest trees. This is the Coi-niisjlonda, which attains a height of twenty or thirty feet, and grows abundantly in moist, gravelly and uneven soils. In the beginning of May it is profusely covered with white flowers which add much to the beauty of our forests. The wood is of a chocolate colour, hard, compact and heavy, and is used for the handles of tools and other purposes where small, strong and hard wood is required. The inner bark has medicinal properties resembling those of the Cinchona, or Peruvian bark, and has been successfully used in intermitting fevers. Magnolia. The small Magnolia or Beaver tree (Magnolia glaiica,) though common in the swamps of New Jersey, is rather rare in Pennsylvania. It seldom grows more than fifteen or twenty feet high, and is remarkable for the peculiarly agreeable scent of its flowers, which are white, and two or three inches 62 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. broad. The leaves are three or four inches long, of an oval shape, dark shining green above and light coloured beneath. Cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata) grows in the western part of the State, on the hill sides, in the narrow valleys and on the banks of streams where the atmosphere is moist and the soil deep and fertile. It sometimes reaches a height of fifty or sixty feet ; the leaves are oval and pointed, six inches long and three broad ; the flowers five or six inches in diameter, of a bluish white colour. The cones or fruit are of a cyhndrical shape, somewhat resembling a small cucumber, from which the tree derives its name. The wood has some similarity to that of the poplar j but the tree is not sufficiently common to be much used. One or two other species of Magnolia may be found in the State, but they are not common and possess no useful properties to ren- der them worthy of special notice. Papaw, (Annona triloba,) though commonly appearing as a large shrub, sometimes grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet. It is rare on the Delaware, though we have seen it there, — more common along the banks of the Susquehanna; but most abundant in the rich valleys of the west. The leaves are ovate, five or six inches long, and widening from the base to the summit. It bears flowers of a purple colour; the fruit when ripe is yellowish and contains a pulp which has a sweet insipid taste. The Poplar or Tulip tree (Linodendron tidipifera) is common in Pennsylvania, and surpasses most of our forest trees in height and in the 'beauty of its flowers and foliage. It is often seen seventy, eighty and one hundred feet in height, three or four feet in dia- meter, with the trunk standing in a straight and uniform column. The heart or perfect wood of this tree is yellow, and its sap wood or alburnum white. But the nature of the soil in which it grows has so great an influence on the colour and quality of this wood, that it is commonly supposed there are two kinds of the tree, which are called White and Y^'ellow poplar. This is, however, an error, the difference being due to the variety of soil, situation, the age of the tree and other circumstances. The timber of the poplar is highly useful and is employed for a variety of purposes. It is often used for the rafters and joists of buildings ; and where pine is not easily obtained, boards of poplar are employed in the interior wood work of houses. Poplar boards are also used by coach, chair and trunkmakers, and the wood is applied to many other purposes where lightness and strength are desirable. The bark is said to possess tonic and antiseptic qualities, and a decoction of it, combined with a few drops of laudanum, has been found effica- cious in giving tone and vigour to the stomach after fevers and in- flammatory diseases. It has been also used in dyspepsia and cholera infantum. Sweet Gum {Liquidambar styraciflua) prefers a cool fertile soil, which is exposed to temporary inundations, and grows in com- pany with the Maple, Sour gum. Swamp White oak and Shell Bark hickory. Its leaves are five lobed and bear some resemblance BOTANY. 63 to those of the Sugar maple : the fruit is globular, about an inch in diameter, and bristling with points. The wood is not much esteemed, nor is the tree sufficiently abundant to be very useful. Buttonwood or Sycamore {Plataniis occidentalis) is abundant in the alluvial soils along our large streams, where it frequently grows to an enormous size. Michaux, in his North 'American Syiva, mentions one which he found on the banks of the Ohio, measuring forty-seven feet in circumference at four feet from the ground. The wood of this tree is not considered valuable, being liable to speedy decay unless sheltered from moisture. It is some- times sawed into boards or joists, which when thoroughly seasoned may be used in the interior wood work of buildings. This is not the true Sycamore, though often called by that name : the Euro- pean Sycamore is a species of maple (Jicer pseudo platanus.) Catalpa or Bean tree (Bignonia catalpa) though not a native of Pennsylvania, but originally introduced from the south, seems to have become naturahzed and grows abundantly along the Schuyl- kill and other places in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. Crab Apple (Malus coronaria,) a wild apple whose nature has not been modified by cultivation, is found in most parts of the State. Its fruit is small and exceedingly acid, but makes very su- perior preserves when done up with sugar. May Cherry or June Berry (Mespilus ahorea, Mx. Aronia botry- apium, P.) grows in our forests in moist and shady situations. It is seldom more than twenty or thirty feet high, and is chiefly noted for its fruit which is a purphsh red berry, of an agreeable sweet taste, which is ripe in the latter part of May or the begin- ning of June, before the fruit of any other native tree or shrub. White Birch (Betida populifolict) and Red Birch (B. rubra) both grow in this State. The latter is generally found on the banks of rivers, and is abundant along the Delaware above Philadelphia, The wood is of a compact texture, but is not considered durable, and is but little used. The young branches of the red birch are slender, tough and flexible ; it is these which are used for making the brooms with which our streets are swept. Black Birch or Sweet Birch {Beiula lento) thrives best in deep, loose and cool soils, where it sometimes reaches a height of sixty feet. The bark of small trees and branches much resembles that of the Cherry tree, and has a sweet spicy taste. The young leaves are covered with a thick silvery down, which soon disappears. The wood is rose coloured, with a fine close grain, and bears a good polish. It is said that articles of furniture made from it acquire with time the appearance of mahogany. Locust (Kobinia pseudo-acacia) is a common tree in many parts of Pennsylvania, but is most abundant in limestone valleys and in places where it finds a deep rich soil. It does not, however, here grow to so large a size as in Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee, where it may be seen sixty or seventy feet high and two or three feet in diameter. It is a beautiful tree, with light agreeable foliage, and bears clusters of sweet scented white flowers. The seeds are contained in a flat bean-shaped pod, and the young trees are 64 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. armed with short flat thorns which disappear as the tree grows older. The wood of the Locust is held in high esteem for its du- rability, and is in great demand for certain uses in ship building, for railroad timber, for fence posts and other purposes where a hard and .durable wood is requisite. The various colours of the heart-wood of the Locust are probably owing to the soil and cir- cumstances of its growth ; that having a reddish colour being most esteemed, — that of a greenish yellow next, and that with a white heart being considered least valuable. This beautiful and useful tree is, however, subject to the attack of an insect which pene- trates the bark and bores the trunk and limbs in every direction, so that they are easily broken by the wind. It seems that trees of the natural growth are not so liable to be injured in this way as those which have been transplanted; be this as it may, it is to be feared that, from the ravages of this destroyer and the neglect of the inhabitants to preserve and propagate so valuable a tree, the Locust will in time become rare even where it once grew in abundance. Sweet Locust or Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) belongs peculiarly to the country west of the Allegheny mountains, but is sometimes found in the limestone valleys east of them. The leaves are pinnated, and much smaller than those of the common Locust, But the most distinguishing characteristics of this tree are the large strong thorns which cover the branches and some- times the trunk. The large middle thorn is often two or three inches long, and has two others branching from it of about half its size. The flower is small, and the seed pods very broad, flat and long. If the wood possessed good qualities, it is not suffici- ently abundant to be useful. Sassafras (Laums sassafras) is a common tree about the borders of woodlands and fence rows ; but the wood being weak and brit- tle is not much valued. The bark of the roots is highly aromatic, and contains an essential oil which is used in medicine as a stimu- lant and sudorific. The bark of the tree is also aromatic, and the leaves and young branches mucilaginous. Wild Cherry (^Primus virginiana) is a valuable tree when allowed to grow to a large size. The wood is much esteemed, and is used by cabinetmakers as a substitute for mahogany in the manufac- ture of furniture and other articles. It is of a reddish colour, com- pact and fine grained, bearing a handsome pohsh. The berries are very bitter, and the bark is a valuable tonic medicine. Persimmon {Diosijyros virginiana) grows most commonly in wet, heavy soils, in and about the sides of neglected fields and open grounds. It bears a round fleshy fruit, nearly an inch in diameter, of a reddish colour when ripe, which is very harsh and astringent to the taste until after a few frosts, when it becomes soft and palatable. The wood is hard, compact, strong and elastic, and is used for screws, mallets, shoe lasts, Avedges, &c. The bark is tonic and astringent. Of the Aspen tree we have several species. The American Aspen (Populus tremuloides) is most common in open lands where BOTANY. 6& the soil is of a middling quality. It blossoms in the latter part of April, before the leaves appear. The leaves are heart-shaped, about two inches broad, grooving upon long slender petioles or stems, and are thrown into motion by the gentlest breath of air. From this almost constant tremulous movement of the leaves, the tree is frequently called Q,uaking Aspen. The Large Aspen (Popu- lus gi-andidentata) and the Various-leaved Aspen (P. heterophylla,) are not generally abundant. The wood of this family of trees is light, soft, brittle and of little value. Chesnut ( Castanea vesca) is common in most parts of the State, but grows most abundantly in hilly regions, where the soil in ge- neral is gravelly and rather dry. This tree lives to a great age, and frequently attains an extraordinary size. One is said to exist on Mount Etna, which is fifty-three feet in diameter, or one hundred and sixty feet in circumference ; but it is hollow within, almost to the bark. Others grow near it which are more than twenty feet in diameter. Michaux mentions one growing at Sancerre, in France, which at six feet from the ground measures thirty feet in circum- ference, and which, though supposed to be more than one thou- sand years old, is perfectly sound, and bears fruit annually. The wood of the chesnut tree is strong, considering its lightness and porosity, and is especially valuable on account of its durability. It is much esteemed for fences, as posts and rails made from it last longer than those from any of the common forest trees, and are only excelled in this respect by the locust, cedar, and perhaps, a few other kinds of more rare timber. It is not held in much esti- mation for firewood, but is largely used in the manufacture of charcoal for the supply of the iron works in the interior of the State. Being of rapid growth, this timber soon renews itself on the coaling grounds, and will bear cutting every sixteen or twenty years. Chincapiti, (Castanea pumila) though abundant in Maryland and the states farther south, is not much known in Pennsylvania, except in some of the southern counties. It is a small tree, or more generally appears in the form of a large shrub, from seven to twelve feet in height, and is only worthy of notice on account of its fruit, the outer covering of which resembles that of the chesnut, only half as large. The nut is convex on both sides, like an acorn ; it is sold in the markets, but is less esteemed than the chesnut. White Beech (Fagiis sylvestris) and Red Beech (Fagus fer- niginea^ are both found in Pennsylvania ; the latter being most abundant in the ^northern part of the State. The white beech pre- fers a deep moist soil and cool situations, generally growing in low grounds and along the borders of streams. The heart or perfect wood of this species bears a small proportion to the sap, frequently occupying but a few inches in the trunk of a large tree. The seeds of the white beech are ovate triangular and obtuse at the smaller end : those of the red beech are acutely triangular and pointed at the end. The heart-wood of the red beech occupies most of the trunk, and the wood is stronger^ tougher and more 6* 66 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. compact. It is, however, liable to injury from worms, to speedy- decay when exposed to changes of dryness and moisture, and is seldom used in building. It is employed for various kinds of tools, shoe lasts, the boards of wool cards, and other purposes. It makes good fuel when dry, and is said to yield excellent charcoal. Hornbeam ( Carj>im 9500 Invertebrata. 10,000 Species. What animals of the class mammalia are mentioned as feeding upon in- sects ? Which are chiefly found in the unsettled parts of the state ? What is said of the fox and the raccoon? What animals are next mentioned? What is said of the beaver and others of the order rodentia ? Which kinds of squirrel are most common ? What is next mentioned ? What is said of the deer, elk and moose ? What birds of prey are noticed ? What is said of the whipperwill and night-hawk ? How many kinds of swallows ? What other birds are mentioned as common ? What scansorial birds have we ? What can you tell of the turkey, partridge and pheasant ? What water birds are found in this State ? What species of tortoise and terrapin have we ? Which oi our snakes are poisonous ? What other kinds are mentioned ? What lizards ? How many kinds of frogs ? What is said of the salamander tribe ? What sea fishes enter our eastern rivers ? Men- tion the fishes belonging to the lakes. Which are found in the waters of the Ohio ? What streams do the trout prefer? What kinds of fishes are noticed in the Delaware and Susquehanna? Which kind of insects is first mentioned ? Describe some of them. What insects belong to the order orthoptera ? What is said about locusts ? What insects are next mentioned as being injurious to apple trees ? How many species of the butterfly family is it supposed we have ? What is said concerning the numbers of species of insects ? Tell what is mentioned about the crustacean animals. What are annelides ? What is said of the mollusca ? — Of the sterelmintha ? What curious property belongs to the genus planaria? What is said of the infusoria, or microscopic animalcules, and of the size of some of them ? Describe the genus hydra, of the zoophytes, and the manner in which it is reproduced. What is the number of species of each class of animals, sup- posed to exist in the State ? 84 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 9. Population. The people of Pennsylvania, deriving their origin from different sources and continually receiving fresh accessions from immigra- tion, present a mass of population having various distinctive shades of character; but a community of interest, daily intercourse, and the influence of education are constantly wearing away their dif- ference of habits, language and other pecuUarities, and assimilat- ing them more and more to one another. A few descendants of the Swedes and Dutch who dwelt on the shores of the Delaware before the arrival of the mild and benevo- lent Penn, are still found, near the same spot; and the ancient Swedish church of Wicacoa stiU stands as a place of worship near the navy yard in the lower part of Philadelphia, The English followers of Penn settled in the south-eastern coun- ties, where we still recognise their descendants in the Pembertons, Morrises, Hollingsworths, Wains and Richardsons of Philadelphia ; the Puseys, NeAvlins, DarUngtons, Pyles and Mendenhalls of Ches- ter; and the Watsons, Kirkbrides, Yardleys, Swifts and Paxsons of Bucks. The emigrants from Wales, a small but active and industrious band, located themselves near the Schuylkill in Montgomery and Chester, where many an Evans, Griffith, Jones, Morgan, Jenkins, Owen and Lloyd yet tills the fields trod by his ancestral fathers. There are also many Welsh, of more recent arrival, in Cambria and Schuylkill counties. The palatine Germans, who came over in great numbers about the year 1727, spread over Lancaster, Berks and Northampton, wisely choosing some of the best land in the State, where they soon made themselves comfortable, and next grew quietly rich. The early records of the names of these worthy and industrious stran- gers, as naturalized by the provincial council, show among them the ancestors of many of our well known German families of the present day. We there find Schneider, Shultz, Wolf, Meyer, Ulrich, Fegeley, Reinhardt, Keller, Landis, ShaefFer, and many others whose descendants, flourishing by industry and economy, nave become numerous, and some of whom have fiUed the highest offices in our State. The German population of Pennsylvania, naturaUy increasing, and augmented by continual accessions from the " Fatherland," has since spread over a large portion of the State, still inheriting the economy and prudent foresight of their ancestors, and generally establishing themselves on the most fer- tile soils. Ireland has also contributed largely towards the peopling of Pennsylvania ; but not keeping so much together as the Germans, the Irish have become more blended with the general mass. Many of the early settlers from that country established themselves in the southern part of Lancaster county, also in York and Cumber- land. As their numbers increased by continual arrivals from the mother country, they spread westward across the mountains. Here they cleared and settled some of the fairest portions of our POPULATION. 85 western counties, several of which are mostly peopled by immigrants from Ireland and Scotland, or their descendants. They are a fru- gal and industrious people, public-spirited and patriotic; and under their care western Pennsylvania has become prosperous and dis- tinguished for its productions in agriculture and manufactures. Most of the northern counties have derived a considerable share of their population from New England, particularly Luzerne^ Sus- quehanna and Bradford. Some of the first settlements here were made by people from Connecticut, under the authority of that pro- vince, Avhich then claimed a large part of Pennsylvania as being within her hmits, which were m those days asserted to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. And though Connecticut has long since moderated her claims, and contracted the boundaries of her actual jurisdiction to reasonable Hmits, yet her enterprising and restless sons, with their neighbours of Massachusetts and the other New England states, still push their settlements from the Atlantic towards the Pacific. Many a neat dwelling has been reared in the wilderness by this thrifty and careful people ; many a smiling vil- lage has been built, and many a mill and manufactory set in ope- ration, which but for them would never have existed. The school- house and the place of worship are always found among them; their early lessons of piety and morality are still remembered in their new homes, and among the deep forests or in the lonely valley, the voice of prayer and the song of praise ascend to Heaven from the dwelling of many an emigrant from New England. We have also in Pennsylvania many French, and some Spanish and Italian families : these not being generally addicted to agricul- tural pursuits are found chiefly in the cities and larger towns. Some of the Huguenots or French Protestants who had fled from religious persecution in France, seeking a land where they might enjoy unmolested the right of worship according to their own faith, came to Pennsylvania soon after its first settlement. Many other French people have arrived from time to time, both from France and the West Indies. On the revolt of the blacks in St. Domingo or Hayti, in 1792, great numbers of the French inhabitants of that island, to escape death, fled to the United States, of whom many settled in Philadelphia. The following statement of the population of Pennsylvania, at different periods since the first departure of William Penn for England in 1684, will show its progressive increase since that time. Year. Population. Increase* 1684 7,000 1701 . 20,000 13,000 in 17 years. 1763 280,000 260,000 in 62 years. 1790 434,373 154,373 in 27 years. 1800 602,545 168,172 in 10 years. 1810 810,091 207,546 " " 1820 ^ 1,049,313 239,222 " " 1830 1,347,672 298,359 '' " 1840 1,724,033 376,361 " " 86 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. An abstract from the census returns of Pennsylvania for 1840 gives the following results concerning the different classes of the population of this State. Males, 844,770 Females, 831,345 White persons. Free coloured persons. Males, Females, 22,752 25,102 1,676,115 Deaf and dumb persons BUnd . . Insane and idiots . . . Revolutionary and military pensioners . Persons employed in mining " '' in agriculture *^ ^'^ in commerce " '^' in manufactures and trades . *' ^' in navigating the ocean . '' '^ in navigating canals, lakes and rivers " '' in learned professions . Students in universities and colleges " in academies Scholars in common schools .... White persons over 20 years of age unable to read and write ..... 47,854 832 636 2,143 1,251 4,603 207,473 15,338 105,883 1,815 3,951 6,706 2,034 15,970 179,989 33,940 What is said of the difference of origin and of character in our population ? Where are the descendants of the first Swedish and Dutch settlers still to be found ? In what part of the State did the English followers of Penn settle ? The Welsh people ? The Germans ? What is said of the Ger- man population of Pennsylvania ? Where did the early settlers from Ireland chiefly establish themselves ? What is said of their descendants in the western counties ? In what part of the State have we many New England people ? From what other countries has a portion of our population been derived ? What was the total population of the State in 1840 ? How much had it increased in the last ten years? {Other questions may he asked re- specting the number of the different classes of population.) 10. Religion and Morals. The religious and moral character of Pennsylvania seems to have received an impression from the principles of order, justice, benevolence and toleration which were professed and practised by the wise and liberal Penn, and his sober and orderly companions. One of the first laWs enacted in the colony provided that " none acknowledging one God, and living peaceably in society, should be molested for his opinions or his practice ; nor be compelled to fre- quent or maintain any ministry whatever." Here breathes that spirit of tolerance and religious freedom, which has always distin- guished Pennsylvania, and which it is hoped may never be in- RELIGION AND MORALS. 87 fringed. All men are here free to worship God according to the faith of their fathers, or the dictates of their own conscience ; and no preference is given by our constitution and laws, or by pubHc opinion, to any religious sect or denomination. The liberal sen- timents and wise regulations of Penn concerning civil and reli- gious hberty were soon duly appreciated, and the infant colony became an asylum for the oppressed, — a neutral ground upon which all denominations might dwell together in peace. This gave rise to the early estabhshment and the rapid increase of multiplied congregations belonging to various religious societies. The immediate companions and followers of Penn were mostly of the society of Friends, commonly called Q,uakers, who have since spread into several parts of the State, but are most numerous in Philadelphia and the south-eastern counties. Many of the early English settlers were Episcopalians, who now have respecta- ble congregations in most of the counties. The Swedes, who were in the province before the arrival of Penn, were Lutherans, and these were soon greatly augmented by the arrival of Germans of that persuasion. The Presbyterians soon became numerous by arrivals from the north of Ireland and from Scotland ; and were increased by the addition of the German and Dutch Calvinists. They are now said to be the most numerous denomination in the State. The Baptists had a small church in Bucks county as early as 1684, and have since greatly increased in Pennsylvania. The first Roman Catholic chapel was erected in Philadelphia about the year 1733, and the number of those professing this faith has been continually augmenting by immigrants from Ireland, Ger- many, France and other countries. The Moravians, or United Brethren, established themselves in 1741 at Bethlehem, Nazareth, Litiz and other places, where their descendants still remain, and are distinguished for their industry, morality, and orderly conduct. The Methodists are numerous in Pennsylvania, and have congregations in almost every part of the State. Beside the sects already mentioned, the increase of popu- lation from the influx of immigrants from various countries has introduced many others, and Universalists, Unitarians, Menno- nists, Swedenborgians, Jews and several other religious denomi- nations are found among us. But notwithstanding this diversity of rehgious belief in our community, it is pleasing to observe the almost universal harmony which exists between the different sects in relation to their pubUc and private intercourse with each other. The spirit of Christian charity and benevolence seems to have general influence; and the establishment of many of our public charitable institutions has been effected, and their usefulness still continued, by the united zeal of benevolent and public-spirited individuals and clergymen of most of our various religious denominations. All seem to be united in the cause of religion, morality and education; and though unprofitable public discussions or disputes upon religious subjects have sometimes occurred, yet the general harmony seems to have been but Little disturbed by them; and the bitterness of sectarian SB GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. feelings has yielded to the mild influence of Christian charity and the spirit of universal toleration. Within the last few years the moral character of Pennsylvania, in common with that of other States, has undergone a most happy change, from the progress of that mighty reform which seems to be spreading its influence over the civilized world. The use of spirituous liquors had long been discouraged in this State by the Society of Friends; but their care on this subject was exercised chiefly among their own members. The recent impulse given to the cause of Temperance by the united and powerful efl'orts of the wise and good of all religious persuasions, has been productive of the most happy and cheering effects. The attention of the people has been aroused, they have been taught to think upon the subject; hundreds of the debased and miserable victims of intemperance have been reclaimed from their degraded position and restored to society as useful and respectable men. Many of those Avho sold them the intoxicating and destroyino- draught have relinquished the trade, because they became convmced of the injury they were inflicting upon the wretched creatures who demanded it at their hands, and who to obtain it freely ofl'ered their last coin which might have procured food for a heart-broken wife and starving children. The scenes of drunken riot and disgusting debauchery which a few years ago were but too common, have now become comparatively rare. The moral sense of the community is awak- ened, — they are beginning to reflect upon and understand the sub- ject in its proper light, — and though a few poor deluded victims may still be found so weak as to offer themselves as a willing sa- crifice to the destroying demon of the bottle, their number is rapidly diminishing before the wide-spread influence of that moral reform which has awakened all classes of society to a knowledge that their best interests and their true happiness are dependent upon strict habits of temperance and sobriety. Mention a provision of one of the first laws of Pennsylvania concerning religion. What is said of freedom of conscience and religious liberty being the privilege of all our citizens ? Of what religious society were the companions arid followers of Penn ? What is said of the Episcopahans ?— Of the Presbyterians ?— Of the Baptists? — Of the Roman Cathohcs? — Of the Moravians ? — Of the Methodists ? What other denominations are mentioned? What is said of the feeling of the different persuasions to- wards one another ? What has recently had great effect in reforming the moral character of our population ? What good effects have resulted from the progress of temperance ? 11. Education. The subject of education appears to have received early atten- tion in Pennsylvania, and has since been recommended and en- courao-ed on the part of the delegated authorities of the State by continual and successive constitutional provisions and legislative EDUCATION. 89^ enactments. If the benefits of learning have not been so generally diffused among the inhabitants of this State as among those of New England, the defect should not be altogether ascribed to a want of due consideration of the value of education ; but probably in some measure to the heterogeneous character of our population, composed of emigrants from various foreign countries, entertain- ing their own peculiar views and prejudices, and who, even yet, are not perfectly amalgamated into one great body politic, enter- taining the same manners, customs and language. As early as 1683, before the first settlers of Philadelphia had protected themselves from the weather by the erection of comfort- able dwellings, we find by the ancient records that "the Governor and Provincial Council, having taken into their serious considera- tion the great necessity there is of a school master for the instruc- tion and sober education of youth in the town of Philadelphia, sent for Enoch Flower, an inhabitant of said town, who for twenty years past hath been exercised in that care and employment in England, to whom having communicated their minds, he em- braced it upon these following terms: to learn to read English, four shillings by the quarter; to learn to read and write, six shil- lings by the quarter ; to learn to read, write and cast accounts, eight shillings by the quarter; for boarding a scholar, that is to say, diet, washing, lodging and schooling, ten pounds for one whole year." In 1689, the Friends' public school was established, and received a few years afterwards, from the benevolent founder of Pennsyl- vania, a charter by the motto of which he shows his appreciation of the blessings of education. " Good instruction is better than riches," was the simple truth by which he expressed his enlightened views in relation to this important subject. This institution is still continued, and under the direction of the Society of Friends dis- penses instruction to numerous pupils. As the population of the province increased, the necessity for education was generally re- cognised, and public and private schools were established. The '^ Academy and Charitable School in the province of Pennsylva- nia" was founded in 1750, chiefly by the exertions of Dr. Frank- lin, and chartered in 1753. In 1755 a new charter was granted by which it was erected into a college with the power to appoint professors and confer degrees in the various arts and sciences, and in 1779 it was created a university. A classical school of some celebrity was estabhshed in Bucks county as early as 1728, by the Rev. William Tennent, and one at New London, in Chester coun- ty, in 1741, by the Rev. Francis Allison, who afterwards became the provost of the college in Philadelphia. The important subject of general education was not overlooked by the wise and provident foresight of the early fathers of our re- public; for the first constitution of the State, framed in 1776 by a convention of which Dr. Franklin was president, provided for the estabhshment by the legislature of one or more schools in each county, and of one or more universities for the youth of the State generally. The consthution of 1790, assuming still broader ground 8* 90 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. in favour of general education, declares that," the legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may he, provide hy law for the establish- ment of schools throughout the State in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis,^^ and further, that " the arts and sciences shall be promoted in one or more seminaries of learning." This provision has been found so fully sufficient as a basis for legisla- tion that it is continued without change in the revised constitution of 1838. It established public instruction as part of the business duties of the authorities of the Commonwealth, leaving to public opinion to guide generally the mode in which that business shall be carried on, but absolutely guarantying instruction at the public expense to those who are unable to procure it for themselves. Under this provision was passed the act of 1809, to provide for the education of the poor gratis ; and at different times various plans have been tried which have at length resulted in the system at present in operation. Any system upon Avhich the children of the poor are to be separated in their education from others, is op- posed to the principles of our republican institutions, and has never found favour for any considerable length of time with the people at large. Plans of this sort have accordingly been laid aside very soon after they have been tried. Our republic depends for its very existence upon the virtue and intelhgence of the peo- ple, and the free and full education of all its youth is the only mode by which that intelhgence can be secured. In 1831, the legislature passed a law for the establishment of a general system of education, and providing for the creation of a fund in aid of, or for the support of schools. In 1834 an act was passed which forms the basis of the present law, and in 1836 the law now in force, entitled " an act to consolidate and amend the several acts relative to a general system of education by com- mon schools," which contemplates nothing less than the elemen- tary instruction of all the youth of the commonwealth. By the present law each township, borough or ward in the com- monwealth, not within the city and incorporated districts of the county of Philadelphia, constitutes a school district, except that any borough which is or may be connected with a township in the assessment of its county rates and levies, forms a district with such township. In each district is a board of school directors, two of whom are chosen annually by the people, holding the office for a term of three years. In those districts where the provisions of the law have been accepted, the directors fix the amount of tax to be levied for school purposes, and superintend the pecuniary as well as the educational concerns of the schools. They are. re- quired to establish a sufficient number of schools for the instruc- tion of all persons over four years of age for whom application may be made, and to keep these schools open for at least six months in the year, if they have the requisite funds for that pur- pose. The tax to be levied is in no case to be less than the ap- propriation from the State treasury received by the district, nor greater than three times that amount. The sum annually appro- priated by the legislature for distribution among the districts was EDUCATION. 91 at first $200,000; which in 1838 was increased to one dollar for every taxable inhabitant; and the amount actually paid to the ac- cepting districts in 1842, was upwards of $238,000. Besides the annual appropriation in aid of common schools, the legislature has at different times made additional grants for the same excellent ob- ject, and in 1837, on the occasion of receiving into the treasury a proportion of the surplus revenue of the United States, distributed the sum of $500,000 for the erection, repairs and purchase of school houses, and for the purpose of schools generally. In the districts which have not joined the school union by ac- cepting the law, directors are nevertheless elected, who are re- quired to execute the provisions of previous laws in regard to the education of the poor; and the question of opening public schools is annually brought before the people of the district at the time of the election of school directors. The pubhc schools of the city and county of Philadelphia were not embraced in the organization and government of school dis- tricts established by the act of 1836, having been, by an act passed in 1818, erected into a district for the purpose of common school education, and denominated the first school district of the State of Pennsylvania. Under this act, and its several supplements, a sys- tem of common school instruction has been pursued in this dis- trict since the period of its passage. Its progress for some years was slow; but it has gradually secured public confidence and sup- port, and the public schools of Philadelphia are now regarded as being equal, if not superior in practical utility, to those of any city in the Union. The pupils are first received into primary schools where they are taught the elements of intellectual improvement; they are next removed into the grammar schools where they are instructed in all the essential branches of a plain English educa- tion; and finally those whose dihgence in study and capacity for learning may have enabled them to pass the requisite examination are transferred to the High school, where a more extended course of instruction is open to them, including the Latin, French and Spanish languages ; belles-lettres ; moral, mental and political science; mathematics and practical astronomy; natural philoso- phy ; natural history ; chemistry, drawing and writing, &c. The organization of the school district composed of the city and county of Philadelphia is well adapted to a dense population, com- bining the advantages of a minute superintendence of the schools with those of a general system and central authority. The district is composed of school sections, in each of which directors are chosen by the people or appointed by the corporate authorities. Each board of directors sends one or more delegates to a central body called the Controllers of the Public Schools. The directors superintend the schools in their several sections, and disburse the moneys appropriated to them by the board of controllers. The amount of money required for the expenses of the schools is de- termined by the controllers, who make a requisition for it upon the commissioners of the county. The general regulations for the schools of the district are made by the board of controllers, who. 92 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. holding the purse, have an effectual check upon the action of the sectional boards. Every year the president of the board of con- trollers makes a report upon the general condition and progress, and the prospect of the schools in the district, which being pub- lished give to the citizens the general results of a system in which they are all so deeply interested. It is perhaps not too much to say that up to the present time these reports have been character- ized by that plainness and directness which marks an account of a sound and well-ordered system. Similar advantages to those derived from a union of several school sections in Philadelphia, are found to result from a similar organization in the city of Lan- caster, and must follow from it wherever adopted. What is good in reference to education for one part of a community must be equally so for another, under circumstances so nearly the same as the different parts of a town or borough. The pubhc school system has been steadily gaining ground since its first introduction into Pennsylvania. In 1836 there were 987 school districts in the State, of which 745, or about three-fourths, had accepted the terms of the school-law. Though the question of withdrawing from the school union is submitted every three years to the people of the accepting districts, four-fifths of the districts in the State, or 905 out of 1,113, had accepted the terms of the law in 1842. The hope is confidently indulged by the friends of public education, that in a few years the whole State will be unanimous in its feeling towards the system and in its universal adoption. With the progress of the system the importance of education has been more generally felt and more extensively acknowledged. In 1836 there were 3,384 public schools in the State, exclusive of the city and county of Philadelphia, attended by 139,604 scholars; and in 1842, 6,116 schools attended by 281,085 scholars; the num- ber of public schools having nearly doubled and the number of scholars more than doubled in six years. The sums raised by taxes in the accepting districts give evidence of the same fact: in 1836 the whole amount was $231,552, and in 1842, $398,766, and this increase took place notwithstanding the pecuniary difficulties and general depression which prevailed. The whole sum expended for common schools in the accepting districts of the State, exclu- sive of the city and county of Philadelphia, in 1842, was $648,831 ; in the city and county $237,764, and in the whole State where the system is introduced $886,595. The sums expended for the erection of school houses in the ac- cepting districts from 1836 to 1842, both inclusive, amount to more than a million of dollars. More care has been taken in the location and construction of the buildings, more attention paid to the convenience of their internal arrangement and to the neatness of external appearance; and though in many cases improvement is still to be desired in these particulars, there are districts in which the school houses are models for imitation. The necessity for so large an expenditure to provide places for instruction has doubtless been a great impediment to the progress of the system ; but being EDUCATION. 93 once overcome in a district, no similar difficulty can recur for a long series of years. The attention of the directors of the public schools to their duties^ and the interest which they have manifested in the progress of the schools, have also gone on increasing. In 1836, reports were re- ceived by the superintendent of common schools from less than two-thirds of the districts, and in 1842 from more than eleven- twelfths. The whole number of schools in the reporting districts., not including the city and county of Philadelphia, is 6,1 16, and the average time during which they are kept open for instruction is five months and nine days. The number of male teachers is 5,176, at an average salary of $18.58 per month; and of female teachers 2,316, at $11.16 per month. The number of male scholars is 154,454, and of females 126,631. The number learning the Ger- man language is 5,141. The average number of scholars in each school is 44; and the cost of tuition for each scholar is 42J cents per month, or $1.27^ per quarter. The amount of State ap- propriation paid last year to accepting districts was $238,162, and the reported amount of tax levied in them was $398,766. The amount paid for instruction in the reporting districts for that year was $425,501 ; for fuel and contingencies $41,044; and for school houses $113,339. The large aggregate expense of the schools has sometimes led to a question in reference to their economy. In considering this question we should take into view all the benefits conferred by the public school system; for economy consists in the judicious use of means so as to derive the greatest amount of return from the smallest expenditure. The great increase in the number of com- mon schools since the adoption of the system, the improvement in their character, the more general diffusion of the benefits of educa- tion among the people, and the consequent elevation of the stand- ard of moral and intellectual refinement and intelligence, should aU be taken into the account. And if we treat the question merely as one of dollars and cents, we shall find that the average cost of instruction under the old system very considerably exceeded $1.27^ per quarter for each scholar, which is the average expense under the present common school system. The people are quick to dis- cover the effect of measures bearing directly upon their interest, and had they perceived no advantages resulting from the adoption of the common school system, it would never have been em.braced by four-fifths of the districts in the commonwealth. If the old system was sufficient for the demands of education, why has a million of dollars been expended within the last six years in the erection of school houses by directors acquainted with the wants of the people and the necessity for more extended opportunities and facilities for instruction 1 It is not because we have abandoned a better for a worse system that the number of schools and of scholars in the ac- cepting districts has so greatly increased, and that the advantages of education have been so much more widely extended; but be- cause we have been guided by the universal truth, that the stand- ard of common education is always highest, and its benefits most 94 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. extensively felt^ in those communities where it is sustained by common and united means. In reviewing the progress of the common school system in Penn- sylvania^ the friends of education find abundant cause for satisfac- tion and congratulation. It was not to be expected, in a commu- nity differing in language, habits, and customs to which they had been long attached, that a total change could be immediately effected in the system of instruction, and that they could be at once brought to regard as a public duty the provision for education which they had so long been accustomed to consider as merely a matter of private consideration. Early and deeply seated preju- dices were to be removed ; local customs and habits of long stand- ing were to be changed ; the opposition of the wealthy and parsi- monious was to be encountered ; and a thousand other obstacles to be met, before a system could be brought into general favour which should dispense its blessings equally to the rich and to the poor, and make education, Uke the air we breathe, as free to the cottage as to the palace. The difficulty of obtaining properly qualified teachers for the common schools in many parts of the State is now the principal drawback upon the effectual operation of our school system. The profession of a school-master, notwithstanding his usefulness in society and the benefits which they receive from the faithful per- formance of his duty, has not heretofore been considered among the most honourable. In addition to this, the inadequacy of the compensation generally paid to teachers may be regarded as one of the principal reasons why the standard of instruction in so many of our common schools is not as elevated as it should be. The business of teaching is embraced by many as a merely temporary employment, and by no means as a regular profession for life. Nor does it follow that because a teacher possesses all the leaiiiing necessary for the school in which he is employed, he also under- stands or practises the best method of imparting knowledge to his pupils. It is not usually the most learned men who make the best teachers, unless they happen to possess the rare faculty of com- municating instruction with facility, and in addition to their other knowledge understand also the art of teaching. A want of the proper kind of teachers must still be felt in our common schools until the pro- fession shall be raised to its proper standard, and by a compensation and a standing in society equal to those enjoyed by the clergyman, the physician, or the lawyer, young men of talents, intelligence and high moral character shall be induced to qualify themselves for its duties and to embark in it as a permanent employment. By a law passed in 1838, an appropriation to colleges, acade- mies and female seminaries was made of the following amount annually for ten years. To each incorporated university and col- lege, maintaining at least four professors, and constantly instructing not less than one hundred students, one thousand dollars. To each incorporated academy and female seminary, maintaining one or more teachers, and giving instruction to at least fifteen pupils in the Greek and Roman classics, mathematics and English, or Eng- EDUCATION. 95 lish and German literature, three hundred dollars. To each .of said academies and female seminaries where at least twenty-five pupils are instructed as above, four hundred dollars; and to each one maintaining at least two teachers and instructing forty or more pupils as above, five hundred dollars. In pursuance of this law, $7,378 were paid from the State treasury in 1842, to nine universities and colleges, viz. the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia, Lafayette college at Easton, Dickinson college at Carlisle, Pennsylvania college at Gettysburg, Marshall college at Mercersburg, Madison college at Unionlown, Washington college at Washington, Jefferson college at Canons- burg, and Allegheny college at Meadville. From six of these in- stitutions reports were received in comphance with a resolution of the legislature passed in 1836, which requires the president, fa- culty, trustees, &c., of colleges and academies receiving aid from the commonwealth, to report to the superintendent of common schools, on or before the first of November annually, the number of students and graduates, the course of studies pursued, financial resources and expenses, the future prospects of their institutions, &c. In the six colleges which reported in 1842, there are 381 students in the collegiate, and 373 in the preparatory departments. The number preparing to become school teachers is 37 and the number of graduates 62. The medium price of tuition for each stu- dent is $22.33, and the annual expense including board is $120.66. From the University of Pennsylvania, and from Dickinson and Jef- ferson colleges, no reports were received. The number of academies which receive a share of the State appropriations is 65, and the amount paid to them from the public treasury in 1842 was $16,001, Only 39 of these academies made the annual report required by law. Those which reported have 2,108 pupils, of whom 360 are preparing to become school teach- ers. The medium cost of tuition for each pupil is $15.31, and the whole annual expense of each is $107.55. The female seminaries entitled to a portion of the public funds are 41 in number, and received $13,044, But 18 of these have made their annual report, from which it appears that the medium cost of tuition is $18.53 per annum, and the whole annual expense of a pupil, $132.20, The total amount paid from the State treasury in 1842, to col- leges, academies and female seminaries, was $36,421. In addition to the pubhc schools established by law, and those maintained on the old system in the non-accepting districts, there are in the cities of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Pittsburg, as well as in many of the country towns, a number of excellent private schools supported by those who patronise this mode of education in preference to sending their children to the public schools. But as the character of the public schools becomes more elevated, and the course of instruction in them is becoming every year more thorough and comprehensive, we find the number of private schools to be gradually decreasing. The time is apparently not far distant, when the standard of education in our public schools 96 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. generally will be such as to cause them to be sought by all classes of society, on account of their superior excellence and the enlarged facilities which they afford to youth for the acquisition of a solid and practically useful education. What is said of the early attention paid to education in Pennsylvania ? Why is learning not so generally diffused in this State as in New England ? In what year was the first school established in Philadelphia ? When was the Friends' public school established ? In what year was the academy founded and by whose exertions ? When was it erected into a college, and when created a university ? When and where were two classical schools early established ? What provisions concerning education were contained in the first State constitution of 1776 ? What in that of 1790 ? What was provided by the law of 1809, and why was this plan not successful ? What law concerning education was passed in 1831 ? When was the present school law passed, and what is its object ? What constitutes a school dis- trict ? How are the directors elected, and what are their duties ? What amount of school tax may be levied ? How much is annually appropriated by the State ? What is said of the non-accepting districts? What is said of the organization of public schools in the city and county of Philadelphia? Into what schools are pupils first received there ? Into which are they next removed, and what are they taught there? Who are admitted into the High school, and in what are they there instructed ? How are the directors of the sectional schools chosen ? How is the board of controllers constitut- ed ? What are the duties of the directors ? Of the controllers ? In what other city is there a similar organization ? What was the number of school districts in the State in 1836, and how many had accepted the law ? And in 1842 ? What number of schools and of scholars in 1836, exclusive of those in Philadelphia ? What number in 1842 ? What was the amount of school tax raised in each of those years ? How much was expended for public schools in the accepting districts ? And in the whole State ? What amount has been expended for school houses from 1836 to 1842, and what is said of improved care in regard to them ? What proportion of the dis- tricts reported in 1836, and what in 1342 ? How many schools are reported besides those in Philadelphia, and how long are they kept open for instruc- tion ? What is the number of teachers, and their average compensation ? The number of scholars, and the average cost of tuition for each ? Men- tion the amount of the State appropriation, and of the school tax. How much is paid for the various purposes of education in the reporting districts ? What is said of the economy of the present school system ? What causes have had a tendency to retard the progress of the common school system in this State ? W hat is the principal drawback upon the operation of the system at present ? What reasons are assigned for the difficulty of obtain- ing a sufficient number of good teachers ? What is the amount appropri- ated by law to each college, academy and female seminary? How many colleges are there in the State, and where situated ? What is the number of academies ? Of female seminaries ? What amount was paid from the State treasury in 1842 to these institutions ? What is said of private schools ? 12. Crime, and its punishment. The illustrious founder of Pennsylvania, with that mildness, wisdom and justice for which his character was so conspicuous, m his early laws for the government of the colony, greatly amelio- rated and modified the severer features which distinguished the CRIME, AND ITS PUNISHMENT. 97 criminal code of the mother country. He seems to have been aware that the certainty rather than the severity of punishment is most effectual in preventing crime, and that the great object of laws should be prevention rather than sanguinary punishment. The murderer only was condemned to suffer death ; such crimes as robbery, burglary, forgery and many others, for which thousands have been executed in England without diminishing the frequency of the offence, were made punishable at hard labour for a time proportionate to the enormity of the crime, and by fines, forfeitures, &c. After the death of William Penn, an act was passed under the administration of Governor Keith, by which the criminal laws of England were in substance extended to the province, and remained in force until the period of the revolution, at which time no less than fourteen species of oflfences were punishable by death. After the revolution the reform of the criminal law became an early subject of attention, and was enjoined by the constitution of 1776. Since that time there seems to have been a constant effort on the part of the legislature not only to graduate the punishment to the offence, but to devise a system by which the moral reform of convicts might be effected. The reproach apphed to the old system, of which it has been said that the lawgivers found it less trouble to hang the criminal than to reform him, is not applicable to the criminal jurisprudence of Pennsylvania. The enactment of just and lenient penal laws, and the establish- ment of a humane and effective system of prison discipline, have been subjects of anxious and unremitting attention with many of our wise, benevolent and pubhc spirited citizens. The " Society for alleviating the miseries of public prisons" should long be held in grateful remembrance for their labours in this cause. The per- nicious consequences of crowding the convicts together, which al- lowed unrestrained intercourse between the hardened offender and the juvenile dehnquent, and by which the prison was made rather a school of vice than a place for moral instruction and reform, were early seen and earnestly represented. The legislature was repeatedly memorialized on the subject, and the erection of peni- tentiaries in suitable parts of the State for the more effectual em- ployment and separation of the convicts was strongly urged. In 1790, solitary cells were erected in the Walnut-street prison at Philadelphia, in which the law directed that the more hardened and atrocious offenders should be confined, and also that ordinary convicts should be kept apart, unless their employment did not admit of separation, in which case the keeper or his deputy must be present. By a law of 1794, prisoners for most offences were directed to serve some part of their sentence in solitary confine- ment, which in some instances mentioned in the law, might be ex- tended to months or years. But with the scanty and confined accommodations of the then existing prison, it was soon found impracticable to carry these regulations into full effect; and it was finally determined to erect State penitentiaries on a plan adapted to solitary confinement, and of an extent sufficient to accommo- 9 98 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. date the increased number of prisoners consequent upon the grow- ing population of the State. The Penitentiary at Pittsburg was completed for the reception of convicts in 1827, and that at Philadelphia in 1829. They are somewhat similar in plan and design, both having separate cells for the confinement of^each prisoner, carefully constructed with a view to prevent all intercourse or communication between the per- sons confined. The whole interior arrangement in these establish- ments is admirably devised for carrrying into effect the two great leading principles in the system of Pennsylvania prison discipline: first, the recognition of moral reform as a principal aim of peni- tentiary punishment; and second, the complete separation of the prisoners, as the only mode by which this end can be obtained. Convicts from the western district, which is composed of the counties of Fayette, Greene, Washington, Allegheny, Westmore land, Somerset, Bedford, Huntingdon, Clearfield, M'Kean, Potter, Jefferson, Cambria, Indiana, Armstrong, Butler, Beaver, Mercer, Crawford, Venango, Clarion, Erie and Warren, are sent for con- finement to the Western Penitentiary at Pittsburg. The remain- der of the State constitutes the eastern district, from which crimi- nals are sent to the. Eastern Penitentiary at Philadelphia. Each of these penitentiaries is managed by a board of inspectors appointed by the judges of the Supreme Court of the State. The inspectors have the general control and direction of the prisons, the appointment of the officers and agents employed about them, and they must visit the prison at least twice a week to see that all duties are faithfully performed. They must attend to the religious instruction of the convicts, and procure suitable persons to act as moral and religious instructers : they are also enjoined to visit the prisoners and ascertain whether any abuses exist in their treatment. A report must annually be made by them to the legislature, of the condition of the prisons, the number of convicts, their age, term of imprisonment, &c., with such observations on the efficiency of the system of solitary confinement as may be the result of their' experience, together with such information as they may deem ex- pedient for making these institutions effectual in the punishment and reformation of offenders. Every criminal sentenced to imprisonment in the penitentiary must be immediately conveyed thither by the sheriff of the county in which he Avas convicted. On his arrival he is examined by the physician, bathed, cleaned, and dressed in the uniform of the pri- son. He is then examined by the clerk and warden, and note taken of his person, name, age, complexion and such other pecu- liarities as may serve to identify him; his clothing and such effects as he may have about him are preserved to be returned to him on his discharge. He is then conveyed to the cell assigned to him, which is marked with a particular number by which he is known, instead of by name, during his confinement. The convicts are not permitted to receive any thing but the pri- son allowance ; tobacco, wine, spirituous or fermented liquors are strictly forbidden, unless ordered by the physician. No person is CRIME, AND ITS PUNISHMENT. 99 allowed to visit the prison without a written permission according to the rules of the inspectors, except certain official visiters, and none but official visiters can have any communication with the convicts. On the discharge of a prisoner, his clothing and such effects as he may have had about him at the time of his reception are re- stored to him; and if the inspectors and warden have been satisfied with the morality, industry, and order of his conduct, they give him a certificate to that effect, and furnish him with four dollars in money, in order that he may have some means of support until he can obtain employment, and not be immediately tempted to com- mit crime from the necessity of his situation. By the reformed penal laws of Pennsylvania, (act of 23d April, 1829,) punishment by soHtary confinement at hard labour is to be inflicted for the following offences, with some others therein named : — Murder in the second degree; for the first offence not less than four nor more than twelve years; for the second offence during hfe. Manslaughter; for the first offence not less than two nor more than six years; for the second, not less than six nor more than twelve years. High treason ; first offence not less than three nor more than six years; for the second, not exceeding ten years. Arson ; maliciously burning buildings, stacks of hay, grain, &c., first offence not less than one nor more than ten years ; for the se- cond, not exceeding fifteen years. Burglary ; for the first offence not less than two nor more than ten years ; for the second, not exceeding fifteen years. Forgery, counterfeiting coin, bank-notes, checks, &c. or coun- terfeiting the hand or seal of another person with intent to defraud ; first offence not less than one nor more than seven years ; for the second, not exceeding ten years. Robbery ; for the first offence not less than one nor more than seven years ; for the second not exceeding twelve years. Kidnapping; for the first offence not less than five nor more than twelve years ; for the second twenty-one years. Horse stealing; for the first offence not less than one nor more than four years; for the second, not exceeding seven years. Perjury, or subornation of perjury; for the first offence not less than one nor more than five years ; for the second, not exceeding eight years. Persons sentenced by the county courts to confinement for lar- ceny and other offences, for a period of one year or more, are sent to the state penitentiaries, except in the counties of Philadelphia, Chester, Dauphin, and Allegheny, where those sentenced for less than two years are to be confined in the county prisons. In the county prison of Philadelphia, the principle of separate confinement, the treatment of prisoners, and the general regula- tions are similar to those of the penitentiaries. In Chester, Dau- phin, and Allegheny, prisons have lately been erected on the plan of 100 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. separate apartments for each prisoner, the advantages of solitary confinement being now generally recognized in Pennsylvania. It is clearly proved, by prison statistics generally, that intem- perance is the fruitful source of crime as well as of other great evils which afflict society; and it is also evident that the want of education and of proper moral culture in youth tends to produce that debased state of mental degradation which leads men to com- mit offences, by diminishing their sense of moral responsibility. But the time has now arrived when we may reasonably hope for improvement in this respect. The progress of temperance, by re- forming the habits of society, will diminish the frequency of crime : our system of public education will also have its effect in pro- ducing a reform, and in bringing about a better and happier condi- tion of public morals by promoting the growth of republican virtues. What is said of the criminal laws enacted in the time of William Penn ? What change in them took place after his death ? Since the revolution what has been done on this subject ? When, and where was solitary con- finement partially introduced ? What was directed by the law of 1794, and why could it not be carried into full effect ? When, and where were peniten- tiaries erected ? What is said of them, and of their interior arrangement ? What part of the State belongs to the western, and what to the eastern dis- trict ? How are the penitentiaries managed? What are the duties of the inspectors ? What is done with the prisoners on their arrival ? What is said of the treatment of convicts, and of the admittance of visiters ? — Of the discharge of prisoners ? How long is the period of imprisonment by law for the several offences named ? What is said of some county prisons ? Men- tion the principal causes which lead to the increase of crime. What grounds have we to hope for improvement in this respect ? 13. Pauperism, and the poor laws. Among a population so generally characterized by habits of in- dustry and economy as that of Pennsylvania, cases of absolute pauperism are of comparatively rare occurrence. But few are de- pendent upon public charity for their support, except those who are disabled by age or bodily infirmity from acquiring a livelihood by the efforts of their own industry; or those whose idle and vicious habits of indulgence in dissipation and intemperance have brought them to a state of destitution and misery. The swarms ol vagrants and beggars who infest the streets and roads in many parts of Europe are happily unknown among us, and the few soli- tary mendicants whom we sometimes see strolling about are gene- rally foreigners who prefer this method of gaining subsistence to that of honest employment. The happy influence of our free institutions in causing a fair remuneration to be paid as the wages of labour ; the abundance and cheapness of our agricultural productions for food; the thou- sands of acres of uncultivated land within the commonwealth ; and the profitable labour exercised in improving the sofl now culti- vated, by which its product is greatly increased — aU combine to ren- PAUPERISM— POOR LAWS. 101 der employment easy to be obtained and fairly rewarded. To this may be added the extending variety and enormous increase of our manufactures; the developement of our mineral resources; the multiplication of buildings and works of improvement; and the numerous other growing demands for labour within our own bor- ders ; by all which we shall perceive that there need be no idle hands among us, and consequently no poor but the few whom misfortune, indolence or vice prevents from reaping the sure re- ward of industry. Our situation in this respect is widely different from that of those countries in Europe which are overburdened with a redundant population, where the productions of the soil and the reward of labour are insufficient for the support of the people, and where indigence, misery, and crime must be the necessary consequence of want of employment. The spirit of our laws on the subject of pauperism is humane and charitable. Overseers or guardians of the poor are chosen in the several townships and districts throughout the State, whose duty it is to provide for the employment of such poor persons be- longing to the district as are able to work, but cannot find employ- ment, and to provide the necessary means of subsistence for those who, by reason of age, disease or infirmity, are unable to labour for their own support. These officers, with the approbation and con- sent of two magistrates of the county, may put out as apprentices, until of lawful age, those poor children whose parents are unable to maintain them. It is also their duty to furnish temporary relief, if applied for by such poor persons within the district as may not have a settlement therein, until they can be removed to the place where they legally belong. In many of the counties, houses for the relief and employment of the poor have been erected at the public expense, most of which are large and well constructed edifices, so arranged as to combine comfort, convenience, and economy, where the sick, the aged, and the infirm find a quiet and comfortable retreat. A farm is usually attached to each county poor house, the lighter labour of which is performed by such of the paupers as are not disabled by age or infirmity ; and workshops are provided for those whose previous occupations or personal inability for out-door labour, render it ex- pedient to employ in mechanical or manufacturing pursuits. The women are occupied in spinning, sewing, and various household duties. The paupers thus assist in the management of the farm which yields them support ; they make and repair farming uten- sils and articles of domestic use; they spin, weave and make up most of their own clothing; and thus, if the estabhshment be well managed, materially diminish the burden of their support which falls upon the tax payers of the county. Our poor taxes appear very trifling when compared with those paid in England, and the general condition of our paupers is much more comfortable. The poor rates in that countiy are said to amount to about =£8,000,000, or nearly $40,000,000. It is esti- mated that of their population of 11,000,000, about 1,200,000 re- ceive assistance as paupers, though this aid is by no means shared 9» 102 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. by all who are miserably poor. Some accounts make the poor of England amount to one third of the whole population. Beside the assistance afforded to our poor by means of the pau- per system established by law, we have numerous charitable asso- ciations and benevolent societies, who do much towards alleviat- ing the condition of the poor within their respective spheres of action. These, in our cities and large towns, are eminently useful, and afford rehef to many who are reluctant to apply to the official guardians of the poor, or who, having once been placed in better circumstances, would sooner suffer the miseries of destitution than ask support from the public charity. The benevolent spirit of our community is so generally exercised that few cases of absolute suffering from want occur, except perhaps some in the severe cold of winter, and these are generally relieved as soon as they be- come known. What class of people are dependent upon public charity for support ? Give some reasons why we have but few paupers in Pennsylvania. Why are some countries in Europe so different from ours in this respect ? Men- tion some of the provisions of our laws in reference to providing for the poor. What is said of county poor houses ? How are the paupers employed ? What is said of our poor taxes in comparison with those of England ? By what other means are our poor relieved ? 14. Government and legislation. The Constitution of Pennsylvania, adopted in 1790 and amended in 1838, provides for a form of government consisting of three branches. Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary, to which is en- trusted the power of enacting, executing, and administering the laws of the State. The Legislative power is vested in the General Assembly, which consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The present number of Senators is thirty -three, who are chosen by districts, and elected for three years, one third of the whole number being elected every year. A senator must be not less than twenty-five years of age, a citizen and inhabitant of the State four years next before his election, the last year of which he must have resided in the district for which he is elected. The House of Representatives consists of one hundred members, who are elected annually. A representative must have attained twenty-one years of age, and must have been a citizen and inha- bitant of the State three years next preceding his election, the last year of which he must have resided in the district for which he is chosen. The General Assembly meets on the first Tuesday of January in every year, unless sooner convened by the Governor. Each House chooses its Speaker and other officers; judges of the quali- fications of its own members, and determines contested elections. A majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATION. 103 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behaviour, and with the concurrence of two thirds may expel a member. Neither House can, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Represen- tatives; but the Senate may propose amendments. Every bill which shall have passed both Houses must be presented to the Governor for his signature : if he approve, he must sign it; if not, he must return it, with his objections, to the House in which it originated. If both Houses then agree to pass it by a vote of two thirds of each House, the bill becomes a law without the assent of the Governor. Any bill which is not returned by the Governor, within ten days after it is presented to him, becomes a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the General Assembly pre- vent its return by adjourning; in which case it becomes a law un- less sent back within three days after their next meeting. No corporate body with banking or discounting privileges can be created, renewed, or extended, without having given six months' previous public notice of their intended application for the same: no charter for such purposes can be granted for a longer period than twenty years; and the Legislature reserve the right to revoke, alter, or annul the same if found injurious to the citizens of the commonwealth. No divorce can be granted by the Legislature in cases where the courts have such power by law. The Executive power is vested in a Governor, who holds his office for three years from the third Tuesday of January next en- suing his election ; but who cannot hold it for longer than six, in any term of nine years. The Governor must be at least thirty years of age, and a citizen and inhabitant of the State seven vears next before his election. He is commander-in-chief of the military force of the commonwealth, except when they are called into the actual service of the United States. He has power to remit fines and forfeitures, and to grant reprieves and pardons, except in cases of impeachment. He appoints a Secretary of the commonwealth, and nominates to the Senate, for confirmation, the Judges of the Courts. He has power to convene the General Assembly upon extraordinary occasions; and it is his duty to take care that the laws be faithfully executed. In case of the death, resignation, or removal of the Governor, the Speaker of the Senate exercises the duties of the office until another Governor shall be elected. '' In elections by the citizens, every white freeman of the age of twenty-one years, having resided in this State one year, and in the election district where he offers to vote, ten days immediately preceding such election, and within two years paid a State or county tax, which shall have been assessed at least ten days before the election, shall enjoy the rights of an elector; but a citizen of the United States, who had previously been a qualified voter of this State, and removed therefrom and returned, and who shall have resided in the election district, and paid taxes as aforesaid. 104 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. shall be entitled to vote after residing in the State six months : — Provided, That white freemen, citizens of the United States, be- tween the ages of twenty-one and twenty-two years, and having resided in the State one year, and in the election district ten days as aforesaid, shall be entitled to vote, although they shall not have paid taxes." The Judiciary power is vested in a supreme court, in courts of oyer and terminer, and general jail delivery, courts of common pleas, orphans' and registers' courts, a court of quarter sessions for each county, and in justices of the peace. The judges of the several courts are nominated by the Governor, and with the con sent of the Senate are appointed and commissioned by him. The judges of the supreme court hold their offices for fifteen years; the president judges of the courts of common pleas and other courts of record, and all other judges required to be learned in the law, are appointed for ten years; and the associate judges of the courts of common pleas, for five years. But for any reasonable cause, which shall not be sufficient ground of impeachment, the Governor may remove any of them on the address of two-thirds of each branch of the Legislature. Sheriffs and Coroners of the several counties are elected by the people, for three years ; but no person can be twice elected sheriff in any term of six years. Prothonotaries of the supreme court are appointed by the court : prothonotaries and clerks of the other courts, recorders of deeds, and registers of wills are elected by the people and commissioned by the Governor, for three years. Justices of the peace and aldermen are elected by the qualified voters in the several wards, boroughs and townships, and are com- missioned by the Governor for a term of five years. No person can be appointed to office in any county who has not been a citizen and inhabitant therein, for one year next before his appointment. No member of Congress from this State, or any person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, can hold any office in this State to which a salary or emoluments are annexed by law. No member of the Senate or House of Re- presentatives can be appointed by the Governor to any office during the term for which he is elected. All officers for a term of years hold their offices only on the condition of good behaviour, and may be removed on conviction of misbehaviour in office or of any infamous crime. Any person who shall fight a duel, or send a challenge for that purpose, or be aider or abettor in fighting a duel, is deprived of the right of holding any office of honour or profit in this State, and may be otherwise punished according to law. In the Declaration of Rights attached to the Constitution of Penn- sylvania, it is declared among other things : That all men are born equally free and independent, that all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments founded on their authority : That all men have a right to worship God according to the dictates of their own consciences ; — that no man can of right be compelled to erect or support any place of worship or maintain any ministry GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATION. 105 against his consent, and that no preference shall ever be given by- law to any religious establishment or mode of worship. The free- dom of elections, of the printing press, and the right of trial by jury are affirmed. It is declared that the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and possessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures: that in all criminal prosecutions the ac- cused has a right to be heard, and that he cannot be compelled to give evidence against himself, or be deprived of hfe, hberty, or property, unless by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land. No person can be twice put in jeopardy of hfe or limb for the same offence; nor can any man's property be taken for pubhc use without the consent of his representatives and without just com- pensation being made. Excessive bail shall not be required, exces- sive fines imposed, nor cruel punishments inflicted. Imprisonment for debt is not to continue after dehvering up the estate for the bene- fit of the creditors, unless there is strong presumption of fraud. No ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts can be made. It is declared that the citizens have a right to assemble in a peaceable manner, and to apply for redress of grievances by petition, address or remonstrance: that the right of the citizens to bear arms in defence of themselves and the State shall not be ques- tioned: — That no standing army shall in time of peace be kept up without consent of the Legislature, — and that the military shall at all times be in strict subordination to the civil power. Amendments to the Constitution of the State may be proposed in the Legislature, and if agreed to by a majority of both Houses, are to be entered on their journals ; the Secretary of the common- wealth is then to cause the amendments to be pubhshed three months before the next election, in at least one newspaper in every county ; and if the next Legislature shall agree to the amendments, they are again to be published in the same manner; after this, if the people shall ratify and approve such amendments by a major- ity of the qualified voters of the State voting thereon, such amend- ments shall become a part of the Constitution ; but no amendment or amendments shall be submitted to the people oftener than once in five years. Of what three branches does our government consist ? How is the legis- lative power vested ? What is the number of senators, and how elected ? Mention the qualifications of a senator. How many members are in the house of representaiives, and how elected ? What are the qualifications of a representative ? When does the legislature meet ? What are the powers exercised by each house ? What is done with bills after having passed both houses ? What if the governor should not approve them ? What is said of corporate charters and divorces ? How is the executive power vested ? For how long is the governor elected ? What are the qualifications for go- vernor ? What powers has he ? In what manner is a vacancy in the office supplied ? Who are entitled to vote at elections ? In what courts is the judiciary power vested ? How are the judges appointed, and how long do they hold their offices? In what manner, and for how long, are sheriffs, coroners, profhonotaries, clerks, registers, &c., chosen? — Justices of the peace and aldermen? What persons are disqualified from holding office under the State constitution ? What provisions of the declaration of rights can you mention ? How may amendments to the constitution be made ? 106 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 15. Defence. The defence of the State is entrusted to the militia of the com- monweahh; the constitution declaring that "no standing army- shall in time of peace be kept up without the consent of the legis- lature; and the military shall in all cases, and at all times, be in strict subordination to the civil power," Unhke the governments of Europe, where the support of stand- ing armies is a heavy burden upon the people, our free institutions and the republican simplicity of our government require the main- tenance of no armed force for their support. A government ema- nating directly from the people, and subject to their will, can have no employment for a military force except to repel foreign aggres- sion or to quell domestic violence. As a member of the Union, Pennsylvania has a right to protection by the federal government against a foreign enemy; and instances of domestic turbulence are so rare and so little formidable among us, as to be generally soon quieted by the civil power. In a moral and intelligent community, the principle and the practice of self-government supersedes the necessity of employing force; and a great saving of expense to the people is the natural consequence of order and obedience to the laws. Our State constitution provides that " the freemen of this com- monwealth shall be armed, organized, and disciplined for its de- fence, when and in such manner as may be directed by law: — Those who conscientiously scruple fo bear arms shall not be com- pelled to do so, but shall pay an equivalent for personal service." By the existing laws of the State, every free able-bodied white male person, who has resided within the commonwealth for one month, and is between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, is to be enrolled in the militia. Those exempted from militia duty are the vice president, judicial and executive officers of the United States, members of congress, custom house officers, persons employed in carrying the mail, postmasters, inspectors of exports, pilots, and mariners employed in the sea-service, ministers of religion, teach- ers, members of the board of health, directors and controllers of the pubhc schools in the first school district, judges of the courts, mayors and recorders of cities, servants of foreign ambassadors and consuls, sheriffs, gaolers and keepers of work houses. The militia of the commonwealth is therefore enrolled and or- ganized into divisions, brigades, regiments, and companies, elect- ing their own officers, and meeting at stated times for parade and exercise in military duty. Our militia system is, however, so con- fessedly defective and so little popular, as to have fallen into a state of neglect and even of contempt in some parts of the State. Those who feel an interest in military affairs, and are desirous to improve themselves in martial knowledge and practice, mostly decline to appear in the ranks of the militia, and have formed themselves into volunteer companies, which are handsomely uniformed, armed, and equipped, and frequently parade for exercise and im- FINANCES, REVENUE AND TAXATION. 107 provement in military tactics and discipline. They present^ in general, a soldier-like appearance, are well drilled in the manual exercise, and a martial spirit is kept up among them which, in the event of their being called into service, would render them a much more effective force than the undisciplined and irregular body of the militia. The militia force of Pennsylvania consists of 17 divisions, con- taining 35 brigades, 148 regiments, 1,312 companies, and 201,666 men. The volunteer companies are 564 in number, containing 33,458 men, of which 4,772 are cavalry, 3,829 artillery, 11,994 infantry, and 12,863 riflemen: thus making the total effective force of the State 235,124. The expense of the militia system to the State in 1842 was $33,164.94. Of the large amount of militia and exempt fines paid for non-performance of military duty, only $13.30 reached the State treasury in that year ! Arsenals for the preservation of ordnance, arms and military stores belonging to the State have been erected at Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and Meadville. There are also several belonging to the United States. The fortifications within the limits of Pennsylvania are Fort Mifflin on the Delaware, and the works for the defence of the har- bour at Erie, which are supported by the general government. The naval defence of the commonwealth is also entrusted to the government of the United States. To whom is entrusted the defence of the State ? Why is no standing army required in this, as in the governments of Europe ? What is said of the advantages of self-government ? What are the requirements of the State constitution in reference to the militia ? Who are to be enrolled by law ? What persons are exempt from military duty ? How is the militia organ- ized ? What is said of the militia system ? Of volunteer companies ? Mention the number of militia and of volunteers. What is the total military force of the State ? What is the annual cost to the State for militia ex- penses ? What amount of fines is paid into the treasury ? Where are State arsenals erected? What is said of fortifications, and of naval de- fence ? 16. Finances, revenue and taxation. The financial affairs of Pennsylvania are at the present time in a, state of considerable embarrassment and difficulty. The practice of borrowing money on the credit of the State, in order to prosecute our extended system of public improvements, has been so long persisted in, without any adequate provision having been made for the redemption of the loans or the payment of the interest ac- cruing upon them, that our State debt has reached the enormous amount of more than forty millions of dollars. 108 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The revenue arising from the tolls on the State canals and rail roads has not been found sufficient to meet the annual expenditures on them; much less to aid in paying the interest on the cost of their construction. In order to meet the deficiency, money has again been borrowed to pay the interest due on former loans ; and thus the State debt has gone on increasing from year to year, while the work on new and unfinished lines of canal has still been car- ried on by a further extension of Stale credit. But though Pennsylvania is thus involved in debt by the con- struction of her rail roads and canals, it should be remembered in the consideration of this subject, that these public works have added far more to the intrinsic value of the State than their actual cost. The increased facilities and the reduced prices of transporta- tion and travel; the great rise in the value of land in many parts of the State, from the creation of a market for produce, or the easy and cheap means of conveyance to a market ; the reduced cost and more abundant supply of merchandise in the interior of the State; the developement of our mineral wealth and the ready transporta- tion to places of consumption of our inexhaustible supplies of coal and iron; all these, and many other advantages to the citizens of Pennsylvania have accrued from the construction of her public improvements. Thus while the people have been reaping the ad- vantage, the State has become embarrassed with debt; and the only means which now remains to extricate the treasury from its difficulties, is for the people to contribute a portion of that which they have gained from the use of the public works, towards paying their cost and sustaining the credit of the State. The value of the real estate in Pennsylvania has been estimated at $1,300,000,000, and the personal property at 700,000,000 ; making the total value of property in the commonwealth amount to $2,000,000,000. A tax of one mill to the dollar, or ten cents to the hundred dollars, if fairly assessed upon the whole of this amount, would yield 2,000,000 per annum; or a tax of two per cent, would pay the 40,000,000 of State debt at once. The annual productions of the State, agricultural, manufactur- ing, and mineral, are worth about $200,000,000, one per cent, on which would pay the interest on the State debt. It will thus be seen that j^^ of the property in the State, or one per cent, of the annual productive industry of the people, will pay the interest on our debt ; while the payment of two per cent, of the value of pro • perty within the commonwealth would at once free us from the State debt. Viewing the subject in its true light, it will be there- fore apparent that Pennsylvania, instead of being bankrupt, is abundantly able to meet all her liabilities; and that her creditors have in her inexhaustible resources and the industry and integrity of her people a sure guaranty of the public faith. The revenue of the State is drawn from various sources, the principal of which, with the amount derived from each, will be seen by the following abstract from the Auditor General's report of receipts and expenditures for 1842. FINANCES, REVENUE AND TAXATION. 109 Receipts. Lands and land office fees Auction commissions and duties Dividends on stocks owned by the State Tax on bank dividends and corporations Tax on writs, offices, and salaries Tax on collateral inheritances Tax on real and personal estate . Tavern licenses Retailers' licenses . Brokers' and pedlers' licenses Canal and rail road toUs . Loans . . . , Militia and exempt fines . , Sundry other sources Miscellaneous Expenditures. Commissioners of internal improvement fund Expenses of government . Rail road and canal companies and turnpikes Militia expenses .... Pensions and gratuities Education . Loans . . . • Interest on loans Penitentiaries and House of Refuge Damages on canals and rail roads . Delaware division of canal Domestic creditors . Premiums on silk Seat of government and State library Sundry other expenses . Miscellaneous $21,846 85 77,287 38 35,778 79 82,008 79 45,483 41 38,717 44 486,635 85 50,275 59 84,178 57 7,349 45 907,093 12 934,764 83 13 30 4,751 16 4,423 87 $2,780,608 40 $1,987,353 29 329,337 61 31,705 86 33,164 94 44,151 66 315,372 43 221,394 33 44,767 79 28,021 00 32,992 10 27,747 85 209,589 43 6,716 77 4,697 76 11,823 30 7,523 39 $3,336,359 51 The Judiciary system of Pennsylvania is the most expensive in the Union, costing the State for the maintenance of the several courts upwards of $106,000 per annum; while that of New York, larger and more populous than Pennsylvania, costs the State but $35,128. The legislative expenses in Pennsylvania are very great, and require extensive reform : the State printing alone amounts to about $60,000 a year ; that of New York, which is done in a style much superior to ours, costs $28,241. Our militia system is sup- ported at an annual expense to the State of more than $33,000; in New York this item of State expenditure is $18,171. These com- parisons are made for the purpose of showing that a more strict 10 ilO GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. economy in the expenses of government is required in Pennsylva- nia. In these times of financial embarrassment, a searching and thorough reform is required; and such items of State expenditures as are excessive or extravagant should be at once materially re- duced, or aboHshed as uselessly burdensome to the people. In what condition are the finances of Pennsylvania, and what is the amount of the State debt? To what causes is this to be attributed ? What advantages have resulted to the people from the construction of the public works ? By what means can the treasury be relieved from difficulty ? What is said of the value of property in the State, and the amount of taxa- tion necessary to pay the principal and interest of the State debt ? What is the estimated value of the annual productions of Pennsylvania, and the proportion requisite to pay the interest ? What may we conclude from this concerning the ability of the State to meet her obligations ? Mention the principal sources of State revenue. — The chief hems of expenditure. What is said of certain expenses, and of the necessity of reform ? 17. Productions. In order to give a proper view of the immense resources of Pennsylvania, and to show the value and importance of her various productions, they will be considered under the following general divisions: 1. Of Agriculture: 2. Of the Manufactory : 3. Of the Mine : 4. Of the Forest. Our statements of the quantity and value of these productions are founded upon the returns of the marshals who took the census of 1840; the returns of the commissioners of the several counties to the secretary of the Commonwealth in 1839, and upon much valuable information derived from other sources. The census re- turns generally fall short of the real amount, owing, perhaps, not so much to a neglect of duty on the part of the officers employed, as to the unwillingness of the people in many parts of the State to give correct answers respecting the amount and value of their property and produce, from an apprehension that the inquiries were made with a view to the increase of taxation. 1 . Productions of Agriculture. Pennsylvania has long been distinguished for excellence in this branch of domestic industry, and there is probably no State in the Union in which the business of farming is managed on a large scale with such decided success and advantage. Much of our soil is naturally fertile, and requires little aid, except the requisite culture, to cause the growth of abundant crops. In many portions of the State, less favoured by nature, the skill and industry of our farmers have been so successfully exerted upon poorer soils as to render them highly productive, and in many cases to convert bar- ren wastes into fruitful and luxuriant fields. A careful attention to the collection and use of proper manures, among which lime is beginning to be justly considered as one of the most important; PRODUCTIONS. lU the use of the best ploughs and other agricultural implements ; a judicious rotation of crops well planted and tended ; and a general regard to neatness and economy in all their operations, are the distinguishing characteristics of Pennsylvania agriculturists in the older settled parts of the State. The system of cropping varies in different districts ; the follow- ing is one of the most commoa in the eastern counties. A field which has been in pasture is ploughed up for Indian corn late in the fall, or more usually, early in the spring. The corn is planted m the beginning of May, and well dressed and tended through the early part of summer : about the last of October it is gathered, yielding from twenty-five to fifty bushels per acre, and on rich soils frequently more. About the first of the following April, the same field is again ploughed, and sown with oats, which is har- vested towards the end of July, producing from twenty-five to fifty bushels to the acre. The oats' stubble is then ploughed in, and the field, being well manured, is sown with wheat in the latter part of September. Rye is frequently sown instead of wheats where the soil is light and thin, or where it is not manured ; and many farmers sow both wheat and rye. In February or March, clover or other grass seeds are sown on the wheat and rye, which grow among the grain until harvest. The wheat and rye are generally fit to cut early in July, and commonly yield from fifteen to thirty bushels per acre. The field is by that time covered with young clover which is left until the following summer, when it is cut for hay in June, and a second crop gathered for seed in Sep- tember. The field may be mown again the following year, or pastured until it comes again in course for Indian corn. Some farmers prefer sowing their wheat on a field freshly broken up from the grass sod ; some omit the crop of oats between the corn and the wheat or rye ; others take off the Indian corn early and sow wheat or rye immediately after it. The mere order of suc- cession in the different crops is not very important, provided that the farmer is careful not to exhaust his land by too frequent repe- titions, or by neglecting to plough, manure and dress his fields in the best manner. Beside the grains already mentioned, buckwheat, flax, barley, potatoes, turnips, beets and many other articles are cultivated. Different modes of culture and tillage are practised in different parts of the State, according as the variety of soil, climate or situation renders it necessary or expedient. In the more elevated and colder districts the cultivation of Indian corn is not very suc- cessful; but grass, oats and potatoes thrive admirably. In those parts where the soil is better adapted to grazing than tillage, the rearing and fattening of cattle and sheep is extensively pursued. Near the cities and large towns, where the farms are generally smaller, fruit, vegetables, poultry, fresh butter and other articles for inimediate consumption are found profitable and occupy much attention. Scarcely a farm is to be found without its apple orchard of choice and selected varieties. Pears, peaches, plums, cherries and other fruit are abundant, and though some farmers have been iii GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. careful to obtain the finest kinds, there is not generally sufficient attention paid to selecting and grafting the best varieties of fruit. There is perhaps no class of men upon the earth more truly independent, or who have the means of happiness more imme- diately within their reach than the farmers of Pennsylvania. They are generally themselves the owners of the soil which they culti- vate ; surrounded by comfort and plenty they find their substance steadily increasing by industry and economy; and though they may not acquire wealth so rapidly as is sometimes done by those who follow mercantile occupations, yet they are secure from sud- den reverses of fortune, and free from the harassing anxieties and the feverish excitement of commercial speculation. The traveller in the older settled parts of Pennsylvania is par- ticularly struck whh the neat and substantial appearance of the buildings, fences, &,c., as well as the order and convenience of the whole domestic arrangement of a well regulated farm. The pride of a Pennsylvania farmer is his barn, many of which are from 60 to 120 feet in length and substantially built, either AvhoUy of stone, or the loAver story of stone and the superstructure of wood, hand- somely painted or white-washed. The interior arrangement of stables, thrashing floor, granaries, places for depositing hay, &-c., is admirably convenient and useful. The horses, cattle and other domestic animals are comfortably sheltered during the winter, and like their master and his family, enjoy the plenty provided by good husbandry and provident industry. Within the last few years considerable attention has been given to improving the stock of domestic animals; a subject which had been too much neglected by our farmers. The horses of Penn- sylvania have generally been bred more with a view to draught than to swiftness, in accordance with the quiet pursuits of their owners, w^ho prefer the sure speed of the plough and the wagon to the exciting and hazardous sport of the race course. Oxen are frequently used for labour, particularly in the newly settled and rougher parts of the country ; and mules are becoming numerous, being preferred to horses for many kinds of employment, particu- larly at the coal mines and iron works. The breed of milch cattle has been recently much improved by the importation of many noble animals from England, and so manifest is the advantage that it will probably not be many years before the present inferior stock will have disappeared from every good farm in the State. The sheep have been also much im- proved by crossing with the Spanish and EngUsh breeds; and even the swine are now ennobled by alliances with European families of their kind. The increased attention bestowed upon the improvement of their stock by many of our most judicious and enterprising farmers wiU operate as an example to others; and it is to be hoped that many years Avill not have elapsed before a nobler race of domestic animals will supplant the present inferior breeds. The number and average value of each description of live stock in Pennsylvania is nearly as follows : PRODUCTIONS. 113 Horses and Mules . 365,129 at $60.00 $21,907,740 Neat Cattle . . 1,172,665 15.00 17,589,975 Sheep . . . 1,767,620 2.50 4,419,050 Swine . . . 1,503,964 3.50 5,263,874 Poultry . . . estimated value . . . 685,801 The following statement of the principal agricultural products of Pennsylvania annually is believed to be considerably below the real amount. Wheat 13,213,077 bushels. Hay 1,311,643 tons. Rye 6,613,873 Indian corn 14,240,022 Oats 20,641,819 Buckwheat a, 113,742 Barley 209,893 Potatoes 9,535,663 Flax and Hemp 2,650 Hops 49,481 pounds. Wax 33,107 " Tobacco 325,018 " Silk cocoons 7,262 " Sugar 2,265,755 Wool 3,048,564 pounds. Wine 14,328 gallons. Value of products of the dairy, $3,187,292. Value of products of orchards and gardens, $901,218. II. Productions of Mamifactures. The productions of the manufacturing industry of Pennsylvania are so various, and so little authentic statistical information has been collected respecting them, that we shall only be able to give a general and imperfect sketch of this division of our subject. The account of such branches of manufactures as were embraced in the late census appears in many cases to be imperfect, and manu- factured articles to a considerable amount, as well as home made family goods and other productions in the minor departments of domestic industry, are believed to be not fully contained in the re- turns of the marshals. Iron. — The production and manufacture of iron, the great staple of Pennsylvania, ranks first in importance ; the ore being the pro- duct of our own soil and wrought into value by the laborious in- dustry of our own people. Whatever of this material is manu- factured in the State is so much additional wealth gained ; and almost every department of manufacturing industry is in some measure dependent upon this indispensable article. Not a furrow can be turned by the ploughman without the aid of iron ; every house erected, every mechanical trade carried on, every canal or rail road constructed, every ship built, every implement of national defence used, must be by the employment of iron. The support of the people employed in this branch of manufactures, with their famiUes, and of the horses and mules used about the iron works, consumes a large amount of agricultural produce and affords a market for the farmers in their neighbaurhood, thus encouraging this branch of industry as well as many mechanical employments. The counties most noted for the production of iron are North- ampton, Lehigh, Berks, Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Franklin, Bedford, Huntingdon, Centre, Columbia, Armstrong, Venango, and Clarion. In several other counties considerable quantities of iron are produced from furnaces and forges, rolHng mills, nail to* 114 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. works, foundries and other manufactories in which iron is the principal material are also numerous in many parts of the State. Pennsylvania has 213 furnaces for the manufacture of pig iron and castings, which according to the census returns of 1840, pro- duce annually about 100,000 tons. There are also 169 forges, bloomeries and rolling mills, manufacturing annually 87,244 tons of bar, rod, sheet and boiler iron and nail plates. The capital in- vested in our iron works is nearly $8,000,000, and the men em- ployed about 12,000, who with their families may be estimated at nearly 100,000 persons deriving subsistence from this branch of our manufactures. Flour, Grist, Saw, and Oil mills. — The number of flour mills in the State is 736, manufacturing 1,193,405 barrels of flour annually : grist mills 2,554; saw-mills 5,389; oil mills 166: the total value of these branches of manufactures is $9,424,955. They give em- ployment to about 8,000 men, and nearly $8,000,000 of capital. Cotton goods. — The number of cotton factories is 105, containing 146,494 spindles; the estabhshments for dyeing and printing cot- tons are 40: value of manufactured articles, upwards of $5,000,000: persons employed 5,522 ; capital invested $3,325,400. Woollms. — Of woollen manufactories we have 235, together with 346 fulUng mills, which produce annually woollen goods to the amount of $2,319,061, and aff'ord employment to about 3,000 per- sons. The amount of capital invested in this branch of manufac- tures is upwards of $1,500,000. Silk. — The quantity of reeled and other silk made in the State annually is about 2,350 pounds, valued at $14,644. Flax. — Though the manufactures of family goods from this article have much diminished since the general introduction of cot- ton fabrics, it yet seems evident that the valuation of $75,672 given to them by the census returns is considerably below the real amount. Mixed goods. — The value of mixed manufactures is $1,098,810; persons employed about 4000 ; capital invested $287,859. Home made family goods. — Value $1,303,093. Leather. — The number of tanning establishments is 1,170, which produce annually 415,665 sides of sole, and 405,993 sides of upper leather; employing 3,445 men and $2,783,636 of capital invested. Of other manufactories of leather, saddleries, &c., there are 2,223, manufacturing articles amounting in value to $3,482,793 annually. Hats, caps, bonnets, i^-c. — This branch of industry employs 1,470 persons, who produce hats and caps to the amount of $820,331 ; straw bonnets valued at $80,512; capital invested $449,407. Tobacco is manufactured to the value of $550,159, employing 950 persons. Soap and Candles. — The quantity of soap made is 5,097,690 pounds; of tallow candles 2,316,843 pounds; of spermaceti and wax candles about 5,000 pounds ; but a very large amount of soap and candles is made in famihes, which is not contained in this estimate. PRODUCTIONS. 115 Distilled and fermented liquors. — Although the number of distil- . leries has much diminished within the last few years, we yet have 1,010 remaining, which produce 6,240,193 gallons of spiritu- ous liquors annually. The number of breweries is 82, making 12,765,974 gallons of fermented liquor. These branches of busi- ness employ 1,607 men, and a capital of $1,589,471. Drugs, medicines, paints, <^c. — The various manufactures of drugs, medicines, paints, and dyes, are valued at $2,1 00,074 j of turpentine and varnish at $7,865, employing 519 men, and requir- ing a capital of $2,179,625. Glass, earthenware, SfC. — For the manufacture of glass we have 28 glass houses, and 15 estabUshments for cutting glass, which employ 835 men and produce articles to the value of $772,400. The number of potteries is 182, and the value of their productions is $157,902. Sugar, chocolate, confectionery, ^'C. — The number of sugar re- fineries is 20, and the value of their products $891,200; value of chocolate manufactured $14,000; of confectionery made $227,050. Paper. — Of paper manufactories there are 87, which produce this article to the amount of $792,335 : value of all other manu- factures of paper, cards, &c., $95,500. The amount of capital in- vested in this business is $581,800, and the men employed about 800. Printing and hook-binding. — The number of printing offices is 224, and of establishments for book-binding 46. Of the newspapers published in the State, 18 are daily, 165 weekly, 10 semi and tri- weekly ; and 42 periodical publications. Men employed 1,709; capital invested $681,740. Musical instruments are manufactured to the amount of $33,728. Carriages and wagons. — This branch of domestic industry em- ploys 2,783 men, who manufacture articles valued at $1,207,252. Ships and cordage. — The "value of ships and vessels built is esti- mated at $668,015: the number of rope walks is 39, in which 272 men are employed, and the value produced is $274,120. Powder. — The number of powder mills is 30, and the quantity of gunpowder manufactured is 1,184,225 pounds. Machinery. — In this flourishing and rapidly increasing branch of manufactures, the annual value of the articles produced already amounts to about $2,000,000, employing 1,973 workmen. Hardware, cutlery, 8fc. — Value of articles manufactered $786,982; men employed 770. Cannon and small arms. — Number of cannon cast 5; number of small arms made 21,571. Precious metals. — The value of articles manufactured from the precious metals is estimated at $2,679,075 ; and from various other metals $1,260,170; workmen employed in these branches about 900. Furniture. — Value manufactured $1,155,692; men employed 2,373; capital invested $716,707. Salt. — Bushels produced 549,478 ; men employed 265; capital invested $191,435. 116 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Bricks and lime. — The value of these articles produced is estimated at $1,733,590; but probably greatly exceeds that amount, as large quantities of lime are burned by the farmers of which no account was taken. Men employed 3,888. Stone, niarhle, Sfc. — Value manufactured $443,610; men em- ployed 536. Houses. — The number of brick and stone houses annually built is estimated at about 2,000; of wooden houses 2,428; men em- ployed in building 9,974; value of constructing $5,354,480. Other manufactures. — Of manufactures not enumerated in the foregoing list, the estimated value in the census returns is $3,204,403; capital invested $2,083,398. The total amount of capital invested in manufactures in Penn- sylvania is returned at $31,815,105. III. Productions of the Mine. In mineral wealth Pennsylvania stands pre-eminent and unri- valled among her sister States. The incalculable amount, the extensive variety and the superior quality of the coal, iron ore, and limestone found within our borders, constitute an inexhaustible source of wealth and prosperity to the people of this State ; form- ing, as they are developed and brought into productive usefulness, a sure basis and permanent supply for the employment of industry in the manufacturing, commercial and agricultural interests of the Commonwealth. It is, perhaps, fortunate for Pennsylvania, that no available mines of the precious metals have as yet been discovered in the State. If we are to judge from the past history and present condi- tion of those countries which have been most productive in gold and silver, we must conclude that the wealth produced by an abundant supply of these meials is by no means favourable to na- tional prosperity. The true source of national wealth consists in the active industry of the great mass of the people; not in the creation of enormous fortunes for a few individuals from their mines, by the mere labour of digging and refining. A pound of gold or silver, as produced from the ore, has nearly its maximum value with but little labour, and consequently yields employment to but a few persons; while a pound of iron, in its various changes from the ore through the furnace, bloomery, forge, rolling-mill, steel manufactory, and then into fine cutlery, watch springs, and the thousand other delicate and useful articles made from it, em- ploys hundreds of men, and is increased by their labour in value almost equal to its weight in gold. It thus furnishes innumerable workmen with employment, and yields food and clothing for themselves and their families; while the pound of gold or silver, after being dug by the miner and separated from the ore, passes into the coffers of the proprietor of the mine, and adds nothing more to the productive industry of the country. Spain and Portugal afford instructive examples of the eflfect of an abundant supply of the precious metals. The Mexican and South American possessions of these nations yielded them gold. PRODUCTIONS. 117 silver and diamonds, which increased their wealth without a cor- responding increase of national industry. Luxury, extravagance, pride and idleness followed as the invariable consequences of sudden affluence. Enterprise languished, agriculture and manu- factures were neglected, their wealth was squandered in luxurious ostentation and idle show, while the mass of the people, on the decline of national energy, sank into idleness, apathy and poverty. As an example of the effect of an abundant supply of coal and iron in promoting national wealth and power, let us turn to Great Britain. Coal is the food and iron is the muscle of her vast manu- facturing industry. Her coal supplies the fires of thousands of steam-engines, which spin, weave, grind, hammer, blow, pump, lift, travel the railroads and navigate the rivers and seas ; it sup- plies also the necessary fuel for her countless furnaces, rolling- mills, forges, smitheries, and other operations in iron and steel, as well as the fires of her vast workshops in other branches of arts and manufactures. Her iron supplies not only the material for her own enormous consumption in rail roads, architecture, ma- chinery, ship building, agricultural implements, tools, cutlery, &c., but affords a surplus which in various stages of preparation or finished manufacture is exported to other countries. It will thus be seen that these two mineral productions of Great Britain afford, in all the industrial operations of manufactures and trade dependent upon them, employment and support for millions of her popula- tion; and how greatly the productive industry thus called into action by these two important staple productions haS added to the wealth, power and prosperity of this great nation. In order to produce a like effect from the coal and iron of Penn- sylvania, nothing is requisite but a proper encouragement of our own manufactures, the judicious employment of the needful capi- tal, and a perseverance in domestic industry. Several varieties of our iron ore are greatly superior in quality to much of that which is generally worked in Great Britain; our coal is fully as good as hers, and of inexhaustible extent. Our territory is nearly as large as that of England alone, and our capacities of agriculture and manufactures, with proper encouragement and attention, would not be found inferior. Pennsylvania has less than two millions of inhabitants, while England supports thirteen millions ; the extent and variety of her manufactures not only sustaining her redundant population, but at the same time affording a market for her agri- cultural productions. In the present infant state of the mining operations and coal trade of Pennsylvania, it is hardly possible to predict, or even to imagine what may be its future extent and importance. Coal is becoming the general fuel in our Atlantic cities, and many of the large towns and villages, not only for household use, but for steam engines, manufactories and various other purposes, and will finally become the common fuel for most operations in which artificial heat is required. Anthracite coal. The anthracite of Pennsylvania may be con- sidered as existing in three separate coal fields, having the same 118 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. geological character, and being separated from each other by anti- clinal axes or lines of elevation which bring up between them the rocks below the coal. Some of these fields are in like manner divided into a series of minor basins, by a similar, though not so extensive an elevation of the lower rocks. The coal basins have been already described as long canoe-shaped troughs, containing the beds of coal interstratified with slates, shales and sandstones of various thickness, which generally dip in a direction towards the middle of the basins, and are found with almost every degree of inclination from nearly horizontal to perpendicular. The beds of coal vary in thickness from one to twenty or thirty feet; some have been found measuring fifty or sixty. They are exposed above the water level in innumerable places by deep ravines, abrupt precipices, and the channels of streams in their passage between the hills. Beds from five to ten or twelve feet thick are generally preferred for working, as they can be more readily and profitably mined than those of greater thickness. In beds of this size the roof can be supported by props and all the coal taken out, while those of twenty or thirty feet must be worked in chambers, and large pillars of coal left to support the roof or superincumbent mass. The usual mode of mining is by running a tunnel or drift into the hill, above the water level, either upon the coal bed or until it is reached. This drift is of sufficient size to admit the passage of rail road cars, and at the same time serves as a drain for the water of the mine. The breast of coal lying above this drift is then pursued by the miners to the summit or out crop, working out the coal as they proceed, and throwing it behind them or sliding it down to the drift, where it is loaded upon cars and drawn to the mouth of the mine, from which it is conveyed to the landings where the canal boats are loaded. Several beds of coal are fre- quently found in the same hill, sometimes separated but by a few feet of slate or sandstone ; others are several hundred feet apart. When that portion of the bed which lies above the drift has been exhausted, the process of working below water level must be commenced, and steam engines employed to raise the coal and water from the mine. The extent of the beds in their downward slope has not been ascertained, and ages will probably elapse be- fore the workings will have reached a depth sufficient to determine this question. The southern coal field may be considered as divided into four mining districts : the Lehigh, the Schuylkill, the Swatara, and the Susquehanna, which are separated from each other by the summits that divide the waters of these several streams. The Lehigh district is at the eastern extremity of this coal field, immediately north of the Sharp mountain, and is owned by the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company. The summit mines are on the top of a high ridge, about nine miles from the river at the Mauch Chunk landing. Here is an immense mass of coal, about sixty feet thick, lying in nearly a horizontal position, which ap- pears to be composed by the union of several coal strata, with PRODUCTIONS. 119 small intervening bands of slate. At this place mining operations have been extensively carried on for several years. The coal is uncovered by removing the superincumbent mass of earth and loose stones, which is from ten to twenty feet thick, and is then quarried out by the hght of day; while in most other mines tunnels are worked under ground into the hills, and the miner pursues his labour lighted by a solitary lamp, which glimmers but feebly in the profound and murky darkness of these subterranean exca- vations. At Rhume Run, north of the summit mines, a number of beds of coal have been opened, from five to nearly thirty feet thick, making a total thickness of more than one hundred feet of coal. Rail roads are laid from these and from the summit mines to the river near Mauch Chunk, and the coal is sent down the company's naviga- tion to the Delaware canal at Easton, whence it finds its way to market at Philadelphia, New York, and other places. The Schuylkill district is extensive, and comprises that portion of the southern coal field which lies on the various branches of the Schuylkill, between the waters of the Lehigh and Swatara. It in- cludes the Tamaqua, Little Schuylkill, Pottsville, Mine Hill, and other local subdivisions, all of which send their coal on the various rail roads and branches that extend in different directions from the mines to the river, where they communicate with the Schuylkill navigation^ or with the Philadelphia, Reading and Pottsville rail road. In this district are a few companies which have mining privileges ; but most of the operations are conducted by individual enterprise, for which the field is fairly open. Many beds are ex- tensively worked, yielding coal of different qualities ; some being hard, compact, and leaving white ashes after combustion; another variety softer, igniting and burning more freely, which leaves red ashes; and some intermediate kinds commonly called gray ash coal. The Swatara district lies on the waters of that stream, west of the Schuylkill, and the coal mined here is sent from the neighbour- hood of Pine Grove down the improvements of the Union Canal Company to the Susquehanna canal at Middletown, or eastward towards the Schuylkill. The coal produced in this district is gene- rally less compact, lighter, softer, and burns more freely than that from the same field farther eastward. The Sharp, Red, Coal, Lit- tle Lick, and Big Lick mountains contain beds from three to thirty feet in thickness, and being broken by the passage of many streams through them, afford great facilities for mining operations. The Susquehanna district includes the two points or western terminations of the southern coal field, which branches out towards the Susquehanna into two divisions. The southern of these, commonly called the Stony creek coal region, has been suf- ficiently examined to ascertain the existence of valuable beds of coal, some of which appears to possess a semi-bituminous cha- racter ; but from the want of facilities for transportation to the river, no mining operations of consequence have been undertaken in this region. The northern division, lying between WiUiams' 120 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and Lykens' valleys, commonly called the Bear Valley coal region, communicates with the river Susquehanna by a rail road from Bear Gap to Millersburg. The mines of the Lykens' valley com- pany at Bear Gap have been vrorked for several years, and produce a soft, free-burning coal of good quality. Numerous beds of coal exist here, and but a few of them have yet been opened. At Klin- ger's Gap, on the north side of Bear Valley, many fine beds are exposed, several of which have been opened and preparations made for working them as soon as a means of conveyance to the river shall be afforded. The middle coal field, which is composed of several minor basins, lies north of the Broad mountain, and includes the Beaver meadow and Hazelton mining district at its eastern end, the Mahanoy near the middle, and the Shamokin towards its western extremity. The coal of this region differs but little from that of the southern coal field either in character or quality; some of the beds producing white and others red ashes. The same change is noticed in the character of coal as we proceed westward, which has been men- tioned as occurring in the southern field. Thus at Hazelton and Beaver meadow Ave have a hard, shining, compact coal, of con- choidal fracture, consuming slowly and yielding an intense heat; while at Shamokin we find it more brittle, lighter, less compact and of much more ready combustion. Except at the points men- tioned, but little has yet been done towards developing the im- mense coal deposits of this field; and it can only be when the ex- tension of rail roads into the various portions of this wild and mountainous region shall afford the means of conveying its hidden treasures to a market, that they will become fully known and ap- preciated. The Beaver meadow, Hazelton and other mines in the same neighbourhood are worked by incorporated companies, who send their coal by rail roads to the Lehigh navigation, and thence to the Delaware canal. In the Mahanoy district, mines are opened near ♦he Pottsville and Danville rail road, in the vicinity of Girardville, from which the coal can be sent to the Schuylkill at Pottsville ; or when this rail road shall be completed it may be sent westward to the Susquehanna. At Shamokin, near the present termination of the western section of the Pottsville and Danville rail road, a num- ber of mines are in operation, yielding various qualities of coal, the product of which is sent by that road to Sunbury, and thence down the Susquehanna canal to the towns along the river, or to Baltimore. The northern, or Wyoming and Lackawana coal field, is of nearly equal extent with each of the others, being about sixty-five miles in length and from one to five or six in breadth. Like the others it contains numerous beds of coal from one to thirty feet in thickness, which are exposed in many places by the deep channels and ravines among the hills. Mining operations in this region are mostly carried on by individual enterprise. Below Wilkesbarre, in the neighbourhood of Nanticoke, and in Plymouth, several pro- ductive mines are worked near the river, as well as others in the PRODUCTIONS. 121 vicinity of Wilkesbarre. The mine of the Bahimore company is about three miles above Wilkesbarre^ where a solid bed of coal about 24 feet thick is opened ; and which in other places in the valley is said to be found 32 feet. This field extends up the valley of the Lackawana to Carbondale, at which place are the mines be- longing to the Hudson and Delaware canal company, who send their coal by their own rail road and canal to Rondout on the Hudson river, and thence to New York, Albany, and other places. This company transport no coal upon their improvements except that mined by themselves, and consequently prevent individuals from operating in this neighbourhood. The soil of the northern coal field presents a striking contrast with that of the middle and southern, being generally a beautiful and fertile valley, and forming a highly productive agricultural region ; while the others present a thin, barren, sterile soil, only small portions of which are susceptible of cultivation. In the favoured valley of Wyoming, the same acre of land may furnish employment for both the agriculturist and the miner. While one is occupied upon the surface in ploughing the soil or reaping the grain, the other may be engaged far beneath in mining and bring- ing forth the hidden treasures of the earth, stored away for count- less ages and intended for the future use and convenience of man. These three great deposits of anthracite coal have been calcu- lated to contain about 975 square miles, or 624,000 acres. It is estimated that each cubic yard of coal in the ground yields a ton when mined, so that a horizontal stratum of coal but three feet thick, extending over a space of one acre, would afford 4,840 tons, and proportionably more according to the steepness of the dip or inclination. Now when we consider the great number of coal beds each lying over the other, and that some of them reach the enor- mous thickness of fifty or sixty feet, we can scarcely bring the mind to conceive, much less to c^ilculate the vast quantity of this most valuable and indispensable article, which is so justly the pride and boast of Pennsylvania; nor how much it must in future years add to the wealth and importance of our State. With a view of showing the present value of our coal trade, yet in its infancy, we shall annex the quantity produced from each of the mining districts in 1841 and 1842, amounting to more than a million tons of anthracite in each year, of which about 800,000 tons are annually exported to other States. Lehigh, Beaver Meadov^^, &c. Schuylkill, .... Swatara, .... Lyken's Valley, . Shamokin, .... Wyoming, .... Lackawana, .... 1841. 1842. 142.821 tons. 272,126 tons 584,692 ' 540,892 " 17,653 ' 32,381 " 4,379 ' 4,864 '« 21,463 ' 10,000 " 53,315 ' 47,346 " 192,270 ' 205,253 " Total, . . . 1,016,593 " 1,112,862 " In 1820 only 365 tons of anthracite coal were sent to market. In 11 122 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1830 the quantity had reached 174,737 tons : and in 1840, 865,414 tons. Bituminous coal. The bituminous coal region of Pennsylvania lies principally west of the Allegheny mounlain, and though oc- cupying the same geological situation in the series of rock forma- tions as the anthracite, differs from it not only in quaUty, but in the position of its beds. These, instead of dipping like the an- thracite strata, at every angle of inclination, according to the dis- turbed position of the accompanying rock strata, are found extend- ing through the hills in nearly horizontal planes, or with occasional gentle rolls or undulations. Those irregularities called by the miners /awifs and troubles are seldom met with, and the bituminous coal beds, together with the rocks in which ihey are contained, are found in a position which shows that they have not been sub- ject to those mighty convulsions which have so disturbed the an- thracite region. In the bituminous coal field there appear to be not less than tea separate layers or beds of coal of sufficient capacity for mining, and which vary in thickness from three to ten feet. The same bed is not, however, of uniform dimensions Avherever found, and, in its range over a wide extent of country, may prove to have in- creased or diminished materially in thickness at different places where it is opened. Neither is the perpendicular distance of the coal seams from each other always the same, the rock strata be- tween them being also subject to similar variations in thickness. The area of the bituminous coal region in Pennsylvania has been estimated at 21,000 square miles, or 13,440,000 acres. This, however, is probably much beyond the real area containing coal, for it should be recollected that in a portion of this territory, even the lowest coal beds have been swept from the valleys and are only found in the elevated grounds. But throughout this vast range of country coal is mined to a greater or less extent, and is almost universally used for fuel and manufacturing purposes; and being almost literally found at every man's door it is preferred to wood, even in those parts of the country where timber is so abundant as to cost nothing but the trouble of cutting. Being thus freely used by the whole population of the region where it abounds, for almost every purpose requiring artificial heat, it is impossible to form a correct estimate of the quantity annually consumed. Its great abundance and cheapness have given rise to the vast and widely extended manufacturing establishments of the west, where enterprise and industry flourish in the smoky atmo- sphere produced by the thousands of fires which it feeds. It has been computed that in the city of Pittsburg and its suburbs nearly eight millions of bushels, or 260,000 tons of coal, are annually consumed. Vast quantities are also used in the salt works on the Allegheny, Kiskiminetas, Conemaugh and other streams, amounting probably to not less than five millions of bushels. If in addition to these we consider the quantity used in furnaces, rolling mills, and other manufacturing establishments in different places, that consumed in steamboats and stationary en- PRODUCTIONS. 123 gines, together with the vast consumption for domestic and house- hold purposes, as well as that sent to other States, we may pro- bably safely estimate the quantity of bituminous coal mined annually in Pennsylvania at two millions of tons. About nine tenths of this amount is consumed within the State, and near 200,000 tons shipped down the Ohio. The increase in the consumption of this coal must in future years be very great, from the multiplication of furnaces, iron works, steam engines and large manufacturing establishments, as well as the natural increase of the population. The diminution of wood on the western waters must before long render coal the common fuel for steam engines on the Ohio and Mississippi, and for the same reason the consumption of coal in the towns along these rivers must at no distant day be very great. The quantity already used in Cincinnati alone is estimated at two millions of bushels, or about 70,000 tons annually, which is principally sup- plied from the beds on the Monongahela and Youghiogeny in Pennsylvania, and from the neighbourhood of Wheeling. Iron Ores. — The iron ores of Pennsylvania are entensively dif- fused throughout the State, and consist of several varieties, of which we shall briefly describe some of those most commonly used. The proportions of metallic iron mentioned as being con- tained in them are those yielded by chemical analvsis, and some- what exceed the quantity actually produced by the furnace. This is owing probably to the specimens analyzed having been rather purer than the general mass yielded from the mine, and also partly to the superiority of the laboratory over the furnace in effecting a com- plete separation of the iron from its attendant impurities in the ore. 1. The magnetic oxide of iron is found chiefly in the primary rocks of the South mountain, between the Delaware and the Sus- quehanna, or near some of the trap dikes in the south-eastern part of the State. The colour of this ore is usually a dull iron black; it is very heavy; its structure imperfectly crystallized, granular, or laminated; lustre metaflic; and commonly possesses magnetic polarity. It yields from 60 to 70 per cent, of metallic iron. 2. The brown and yellowish argillaceous, or hematite and pipe ores, which occur principally in and along the borders of most of the limestone valleys in the State, are abundant and extensively worked. The colour of this ore is usuafly a reddish or yellowish brown ; its structure various, being compact, cellular, laminated, fibrous or stalactitic, and its cavities commonly filled with yellow ochreous or clayey matter. When the different varieties of this ore are analyzed, they are found to contain from 45 to 60 per cent, of metallic iron. 3. The fossiliferous ore from the variegated shale formation (V,) is found near Danville in Columbia county, and also at various places in Union, Juniata, Huntingdon, Bedford, and other coun- ties where that formation extends. This ore, though easily recog- nized by a practised eye, is somewhat variable in its appearance and external character. The softer varieties have a dull brown colour, an open, porous or ceUular structure, usuafly break into 124 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA irregular rhomboidal masses, and frequently contain scales of mi- caceous oxide of iron, with the impressions and casts of shells and other fossil remains. When rubbed with a pointed piece of metal or other hard substance, a mark or streak is left upon the ore of a rich deep-red or purplish colour. The harder varieties have usu- ally a red colour, are compact in texture, calcareous or sihcious, also contain fossils, and have altogether a more compact and mas- sive character than the soft variety. As a general rule the soft and porous kinds of this ore are found nearest the surface, where they have been most exposed to the decomposing action of atmospheric agents ; while that from greater depths is commonly more com- pact, contains a larger proportion of carbonate of lime in its com- position, and works less easily in the furnace than the soft ore. The proportion of metallic iron contained in different varieties of this ore is from 40 to 60 per cent. 4. The i)-oii ores of the coal regions are usually found in nodular concretions and kidney-shaped masses in the slates and shales ac- companying the coal seams, or often in flat bands and layers be- tween the slates. Ore is found both in the anthracite and bitumi- nous regions, and varies in character and quality according to its local position or other circumstances. It is usually in the state of an argillaceous proto-carhonate of iron, though much of that which lies on or near the surface has become so much oxidized as greatly to change its external character. When found in its original posi- tion, in the solid beds of slate, this ore is generally in hard com- pact rounded masses, with a close fine-grained texture, though sometimes appearing arenaceous, granular, or sub-oolitic ; colour dark slate blue or grayish. After having been for some time ex- posed to the atmosphere, these masses show a tendency to separate into concentric layers, the colour changes to reddish or yellowish brown by the process of oxidation, and the whole external character becomes so much altered by long exposure that many of the speci- mens found in the surface soil resemble the brown argillaceous ore on the borders of the limestone valleys. The ore of our coal region is of the same character as the " clay iron stone" which is so largely used in the manufacture of iron in England and Wales ; and superior in quality to much of that which is smelted in those countries. It yields from 30 to 50 per cent, of metaUic iron, and from its general dissemination throughout that part of the State where the other ores are not found, is becoming highly useful and important. 5. Bog ore, which generally occurs in beds of limited extent and of inconsiderable depth, is found, less or more, in almost every county in the State. These beds have mostly been deposited by springs and small streams, the waters of which, passing through a ferruginous soil, have carried away a portion of the iron, which on exposure to the air becomes oxidized and is slowly deposited on the low grounds over which the water has flowed. But few of these deposits are worth working; not being in general sufficiently extensive to warrant the erection of furnaces in their vicinity, they are only useful as auxiliary to other ores. Bog ore is externally PRODUCTIONS. 125 of a yellow or reddish brown colour; structure open, porous or cellular; brittle, friable or earthy; and frequently contains roots and vegetable fibres from trees and plants growing in or near it. Good varieties of this ore yield from 40 to 55 per cent, of metallic iron. The quantity of iron ore annually mined and smelted in Penn- sylvania may be ascertained with tolerable accuracy. According to returns made by the County Commissioners to the Secretary of the commonwealth in 1839, there were mined in the 699 town- ships which made returns, 334,151 tons. Only part of the town- ships in Berks, York and other counties made reports, while seve- ral counties known to be productive in iron ore, such as North- ampton, Lebanon, Mifflin, Juniata, Westmoreland, Venango, Fayette, &c., made no returns. If, therefore, we assume for the remaining 361 townships, the same ratio of production as those reported, we shall have as follows : Quantity of iron ore mined in 699 townships, 334,151 tons. " estimated for the remaining 361 townships, 172,573 *' Total mined annually in the State, 506,724 " The accuracy of this statement is corroborated by the report of a committee to the Home Industry Convention, held at Harrisburg in 1842. This committee, which was appointed for the purpose of obtaining statistic information relative to the iron interest of Pennsylvania, state that in the 213 furnaces in Pennsylvania there are annually produced 190,000 tons of iron. Now if we estimate the average yield of ore in the furnace at 37^ per cent., which is allowing 2| tons of ore to make a ton of metal, we shall find that to produce these 190,000 tons of iron will require an annual con- sumption of 506,666 tons of ore, which is within 58 tons of the quantity stated above, as actually mined in the State in 1839. Marble and Limestone. — Marble of several kinds and different varieties of colour is found in various parts of the Stale, but it has not been quarried to much extent except in Montgomery and Chester counties. In the neighbourhood of Downingtown a supe- perior white marble is produced, of which large q^uantities have been conveyed to Philadelphia, and employed in the construction of many public and private edifices. East of the Schuylkill, below Norristown, are several extensive quarries which yield marble of various shades of colour, white, dark blue, and variegated; from which the city has been supplied with a vast amount of material, not only for building, but for many of the ornamental purposes for which this stone is used. The variegated breccia, commonly called Potomac marble, is found in many places along the northern and southern margins of the red shale formation which crosses several of the south-eastern counties, particularly where this red shale borders on a limestone. This rock, when susceptible of a fine polish, forms a beautiful material for ornamental work; but has not yet been brought into use to any considerable extent. 11* 126 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. It is scarcely possible to form an estimate of the incalculable ad- vantages derived by Pennsylvania from the limestones so exten- sively diiffused throughout the State. They impart fertihty to the soil wherever found ; they are used as a building stone for houses, barns, bridges, canal locks, &c., and they constitute an indispen- sable article of use in our furnaces for smelting iron ores. When burned into lime they yield a necessary ingredient in the mortar for stone-masons and bricklayers, for whitewashing, and for seve- ral purposes in manufactures and the arts. But it is from the benefits derived to our agriculture from the use of lime as a ma- nure for the soil, that our State is destined to be most enriched by this important article of her productions. In those districts where its value as a manure has been tested by experience and is properly understood, the intelligent farmer needs no argument to convince him that a quarry of good limestone on the border or within reach of a region where the soil is thin and unproductive, is of much more value to him than a mine of lead or silver, because the ex- pense of working it is trifling and the product sure. At several points on our canals and rail roads, vast quantities of limestone are quarried and transported to places where it is required for use ; and from the rapidly increasing demand it is becoming a consider- able item in the tolls upon our public works. Slate. This material is found in a number of places, sufficiently fissile and of such quality as to afford a good article for the manu- facture of roofing slates. In the range of slate- hills which crosses the Susquehanna from Lancaster into York county, it occurs abundantly near Peach Bottom, where quarries have been worked on both sides of the river. The largest amount is, however, now produced at the works about three miles west of Peach Bottom. Extensive quarries are also opened at several places in the slate formation which stretches along the south-eastern side of the Blue Mountain. At the works below the Delaware Water Gap, in Northampton county, an excellent roofing slate is produced, and school slates of superior material and workmanship are manu- factured to a considerable amount. Slate quarries are also worked near Nazareth, and on the west side of the Lehigh above Allen- town. In addition to the valuable mineral products already mentioned, a rock yielding excellent hydraulic cement is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of several of our limestone formations, and has been used in the construction of canal locks and for other purposes where this article is required. Brick and potters' clay of good quality occur in almost every part of the State; and accompanying many of our coal beds is that variety of clay shale from which tire bricks are made. Connected with the primary rocks in the south-eastern part of the State, are serpentine and soap stone, accompanied by chrome and magnesia. From the southern part of Lancaster county the last mentioned materials have been ob- tained for use in the manufactories of paints and Epsom salts in Baltimore. Ores of copper, zinc, and lead have been discovered in various PRODUCTIONS. 127 places within the State^ but have not yet been found to exist in sufficient quantity to render the working of them an object of profit. IV. Productions of the Foi-est. About two thirds of the surface of Pennsylvania is yet covered with timber, and though our primitive forests, except in some of the less inhabited parts of the State, have been thinned by the woodman's axe, enough still remains to render our woodland pro- ducts valuable and important for many future years. On the rocky, but tree-clad mountain, in the dark and unfrequented pine swamp, and through the wild and wide forest ranges in the in- terior counties, are immense masses of timber which will long resist the slow but sure process of destruction to which our forests seem to be doomed. The productions of our timber lands are numerous and import- ant. They yield an incalculable amount of fuel for domestic and manufacturing purposes, including the charcoal used for making and manufacturing iron in our furnaces, forges, foundries, and smith-shops ; they supply our saw-mills with the logs which are sawed into boards, and other lumber for buildings, cabinet-makers, and various other mechanical purposes ; they furnish the tougher and stronger kinds of wood from which our farming utensils are made, as well as the vast amount required for fences in our agri- cultural districts. The quantity used in ship and boat building is considerable; staves and shingles are manufactured to a large amount annually, — and of all the multiplied uses to which wood is applied, but few can be named which may not be supplied from the forests of Pennsylvania. The timber most in demand for boards and shingles is white pine, which is still abundant in some of the northern counties, and forms a valuable portion of their products, being floated down the Delaware, Susquehanna and Allegheny rivers to a market. Spruce or hemlock is sawed into lumber for buildings and fences ; yellow or pitch pine and oak, for purposes requiring greater strength and durability. Cherry is used chiefly for cabinet work, maple and poplar for bedsteads, chair-makers, and various other purposes. Chesnut is much valued for fences, and locust for posts and other uses where a less durable wood would be subject to speedy decay. White-oak and hickory, being strong and tough, are used by wheelwrights in the manufacture of wagons and farming imple- ments ; other kinds of oak are made into staves ; — and it may be said that scarcely a tree grows in our woods which is not adapted to some useful purpose. Of the annual value of our forest productions it is not easy to form a correct estimate. There are in the State 5,389 saw mifls, producing about 400,000,000 of feet of lumber; and the value of the unsawed timber, shingles and staves ^ent to market, is probably not less than $500,000. To this is to be added the amount re- quired for home consumption, as well as the value of the timber used for other purposes, of which no calculation can be made. 128 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In addition to the timber which our forests afford, they yield us annually more than two millions of pounds of maple sugar, about 2,000 barrels of tar, pitch, turpentine and rosin, and nearly 300 tons of pot and pearl ashes. Under what four general divisions may the productions of Pennsylvania be considered ? Why are the census returns supposed to be generally less than the real amount ? For what branch of domestic industry is this State distinguished ? What are the characteristics of Pennsylvania agriculture ? Describe the system of crops generally pursued. What kinds of grain are chiefly produced ? Mention some of the other agricultural productions. What is said of the various modes of culture in different parts of the State ? What kinds of fruit are produced ? What is said of the general condition of the farmers of Pennsylvania? — Of their buildings? — Of the horses? What other animals are used for labour? What is said of the stock of cat- tle ? — Of the sheep ? — Of the swine ? Can you tell the number of each de- scription of live stock in Pennsylvania? The amount of each kind of agri- cultural product named ? Which is the most important production of our manufactures ? What is said about the indispensable utility of iron ? In which counties is it most abundantly produced ? How many furnaces are in the State, and what is the quantity of iron manufactured ? How many forges, rolhng mills, &c., and what is the amount of their produce ? What is the capital invested, and how many persons are employed and supported by the iron works? How many mills of each kind, and what is the value of their productions? {Similar questions may be asked respecting each branch of manufactures.) What is said of the mineral wealth ot Pennsylvania? Why are mines of coal and iron considered of more value to a country than those of the pre- cious metals ? What nations are mentioned as examples of the truth of this opinion ? What has been the effect of an abundant supply of coal and iron in Great Britain ? What is said of our advantages in this respect, com- pared with that country ? Describe the situation of the anthracite coal of our State. What is the thickness of the beds of coal, and how are they ex- posed ? Describe the usual mode of mining coal. Into what mining dis- tricts is the southern coal field divided ? Describe the mines of the Lehigh district. What subdivisions of the Schuylkill district are mentioned? What is said of the mining operations in them, and of the varieties of coal pro- duced ? Where is the Swatara district, and by what route is its coal sent to market ? What is said of its mines, and of the quality of the coal? Men- tion the two divisions of the Susquehatma district, and the places wiiere mines are worked. How is the middle coal field situated, and what mining districts are in it ? What is said of the difference m the quality of its coal ? By what route is the Beaver Meadow and Hazelton coal sent to market ? — Also that from the Mahanoy and Shamokin mines ? What is the extent of the Wyoming and Lackawana coal field compared with each of the others ? What is said of its beds of coal, and at what places mined ? By what route is the coal at Carbondale sent to market ? How does the soil of this coal field compare with that of the others ? What is the extent of our anthracite coal deposits, and what is said of the quantity contained in them ? What amount of anthracite was produced in each of the years 1841 and 1842, and how much in each mining district ? What was the amount in each of the years 1820, '30, and '40 ? In what part of the State is most of the bitumi- nous coal found ? In what particulars of situation does it differ from the an- thracite ? What is said of the number of its beds, their thickness, &c. ? What is the supposed area of the bituminous coal region in Pennsylvania ? What is said of the general use of coal over this extent of country ? What has resulted from the abundance of coal in the western part of the State ? At what places is it largely used for manufacturing purposes ? What quan- tity is supposed to be annually consumed, and how much mined ? What is said of the probable increase in its consumption ? TRADE AND COMMERCE. 129 Mention the varieties of iron ore most common in Pennsylvania. Where IS the magnetic ore found, and what are its properties ? The brown argil- laceous or hematite ore ? The fossiliferous ore, and what is said of its seve- ral varieties ? In what situations do the iron ores of the coal formations oc- cur ? What is said of their character and quality ? How does bog ore oc- cur, and what is said of it ? What is the total estimated amount of iron ore annually mined in the State ? What is the estimated average yield of ore in the furnace, and what is the annual product of iron ? In which of the counties is most of our marble obtained ? Near what places are there extensive quarries, and what kinds are produced ? In what part of the State is the " Potomac marble" found ? What is said of the general benefits derived from Umestone ? To what purposes is it apphed ? Which of these is considered most important to the wealth of the State ? In what places is roofing slate quarried for use ? What is said of hydrau- lic cement or water hme ? Of useful kinds of clay ? What other valuable minerals are mentioned ? What is said of the quantity of timber in Pennsylvania ? Mention the useful purposes supplied by our forest productions. What several kinds of timber are spoken of as most important, and to what uses applied ? What is the estimated amount of lumber annually produced ? Mention some other valuable productions of our forests. 18. Trade and commerce.* Commerce is usually considered under two heads, the foreign and home trades ; but inasmuch as Pennsylvania is one of a confederacy of States, each exercising almost unhmited sovereignty within its own borders, and yet all, in their relation to foreign states, to be considered as a unit, the subject may more properly be presented in three divisions ; first the foreign trade, or interchange of commodities with foreign nations; secondly the domestic trade, or interchange with the other states of the Union ; and thirdly the internal trade, or that between different sections of the State. The foreign trade. t — Of the early history of the foreign trade of Penn- sylvania, we have but little authentic infoimation. We have every reason, however, to beheve that its extent was very limited, until after the estab- lishment of Penn's colony in 1682. Prior to Penn's embarkation for America he disposed of 20,000 acres of land to an association, entitled the Free Society of Traders of Pennsylva- nia, which was formed in England and confirmed by patent, for the avowed purpose of promoting the interests not only of the stockholders of the com- pany, but of all concerned in the trade of the colony. This company at- tempted to estabhsh various manufactures and other industrial pursuits in the province. In a letter from Penn to the committee of the society, resid- ing in London, dated " Philadelphia 16th of 6th mo., called August," we find mention made of a tannery, a saw-mill, and a glass house, a whalery, and a dock, as belonging to it; and also that Penn advised them to attempt the cuhure of the vine for wine, and the manufacture of hnen. These at- tempts to introduce the culture of the vine, the manufacture of glass and * Works consulted in the preparation of this article. — Colonial Records of Pennsyl- vania, Proud's History of Pennsylvania, Gordon's History of Pennsylvania, Hazard's Re- gister of Pennsylvania, Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury on the Commerce and IV a- vigation of the United States, Seybert's Statistical Annals of the United States, Pitkin's Commerce of the United States, Hazard's Commercial and Statistical Register, Whit- worth's State of Trade, Holmes' American Annals, Life and Writings of B. Franklin, Harris' Pittsburg Directory, and the Commercial List and Philadelphia Price Current. f As the British North American colonies were entirely independent of each other until after the severance of their connexion with the mother country, the trade of Pennsylvania with the others, prior to 1776, is properly included in the foreign trade. 130 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. linen, and the whale fishery amongst the colonists, did not prove success- ful ; of the further operations of the company we know little or nothing. In the first year of the estabhshment of the colony, 26 ships arrived with fiassengers and emigrants, and 40 trading vessels great and small. These atterwere, no doubt, laden with provisions, furniture, and stores of various kinds for the colonists, and took Uttle if any export cargo. In the next two years 24 more ships arrived with emigrants. For the first few years the attention of the settlers was, necessarily, very much engrossed by the clear- ing of land and the culture of grain, for the consumption of the colony ; but " trade and commerce, in which the Quakers were known to excel," soon claimed their notice. A trade was opened with the Indians, for furs and skins ; and the culture of tobacco was carried on so extensively that in one year (1688-9,) there were exported 14 cargoes of the weed. In this branch of agriculture, however, Virginia and Maryland were found too powerful rivals ; and it was soon abandoned for the culture of wheat, barley, oats, rye, tStc, and the grazing of cattle and cutting of timber : the exports of the province undergoing a corresponding change. The war between England and France, commencing in 1688 and termi- nating in 1697, operated injuriously on the interests of the colony. About the latter end of this period we find allusion made to the poverti^ of the pro- vince, and to the impediments to its commerce, consequent upon the war; and it is stated that '• in Philadelphia even, pieces of tin and lead were cur- rent for small change." The course of trade, from this early period until the separation of the province from the British empire, appears to have undergone but little change, although extended in its range. The exports, consisting of grain, salt provisions, pipe staves, &c., and at a later date including flour, bread, flaxseed, iron, &c., were not wanted in England, at that time a great grain- exporting country ; but found a market in the neighbouring provinces and the West Indies ; and subsequently also in Portugal, Spain, several Euro- pean and African ports in the Mediterranean, and the various groups of islands in the North Atlantic adjacent to Africa. The returns from these various branches of foreign trade, excepting a small portion required for the consumption of the province and its trade with the Indians, were all carried to England ; or the produce received was sold in other foreign countries and the proceeds remitted to England, where all the available funds of the province were required to pay for the manufactures imported thence, which, from the restrictions imposed by parliament on manufacturing in the colo- nies, were to a very great amount, embracing almost every article of cloth- ing, and household utensils even of the most simple and common kinds. The following table exhibits the vast excess of imports over exports, in the trade of the province with Great Britain, from 1697 to the commence- ment of the war of Independence, and also shows the effect of war and other operative causes, on the amount of importations. During the war between Great Britain on the one part and France and Spain on" the other, which continued from 1702 to 1713, the commerce of the province was exposed to repeated depredations by privateers. In 1707-8 the captures of vessels oflf the capes of the Delaware were so frequent as almost wholly to interrupt the trade, which had in addition, about this period, to bear the exaction of dues for the privilege of navigating the Dela- ware, levied by order of Govprnor Evans, at a fort erected at New Castle. The war between Great Britain and Spain, in 1717 and '18, does not appear to have materially affected the colony. The year 1722 was one of great commercial embarrassment in the pro- vince. The importations appear to have been too great, the country was drained of specie for remittance to England, and there was consequently a deficiency in the circulating medium. The payment of debts was pro- crastinated, lawsuits multiplied, produce was made a legal tender in pay- ment of debts, executions for debt were stayed, the rate of interest was reduced from 8 to 6 per cent, and the value of coin was raised 25 per cent. These measures naturally tended to destroy confidence in the results of all TRADE AND COMMERCE. 131 trading operations ; but did not, as was intended, prevent the exportation of specie. E. vs. S. Eng. at war with Fr. and Spain. J "^ ^ h5 630i>^a^^^o OOCTiOO. "to O"."^ ^"k) w Oi' KJ ►-•lo'CTs'ii."^ CO 2. wcowtocriooo^a^. c^^-iw^|-'^ooo^Ol:Aic^*>.^:)0^^2-$-c■ ^ato^(X.^oo^DCo^-'Oioo'--oo^■^oai0^oooulOoo^o ->'6363tOK3;sOl!OisDl— -l— ■>-• i— . t—i— ■ i— ■ i_H-iK-«i— a, Eng. w. Fr.&Sp. t ^ E. vs. S. CJ^*^4i-^f;^4i.4i.^^^C0C0C0COC0tOC0t00JC0{x2tO{OfOK;)t'O 65 I—" 1—1 K- ' 1— 1 t— " 1— • CD*>.K)CO-JiO^IOCti^OiOO t-'^-'^^^^^^•-' i—h-' !-')—> i— ■ 1— 'OiOH-oJ^Ccooo^mtoox)— *>. P O £3 P p' O >-t a> p td ►^_ p CD 60 to l+> H-(:0tOCO*'.tOyDO»>-'Cri*-i— 'Cr>H-00KPi.O»— '►fc'OO'Xi^H-i-^tOOS' -v?o^jW*'0^t063coi.oo<}>*'f^cr-oioou3aicitooi-^>f^«£C;tooo2- Cj0^04^^00>t^OOiO>-'tOOOCOt^tOCJiOOOtO^OOt^hf^yD J^trq War. E.i'S.S &F. Eng. us. Fr. ^\ ClOi 4^ OJtO ^OtZ;QO^C-Oi>P>-COt\S>— ■O'Xi 00 ^ O Oi ito. CO to I Ot?5 *.^CTlCT2'— CTii— 1— 'rf^cr. OOi— 'lOtOOt—^rfi-COi— 'OCOCr. Oi^D tOC^i— 'a-'O*^O<>to-CntO^D^0iO00-'a^H-'i— '000000t--'O*>-rf^C0OO\C^tC^00 00 — Cri*>.Oi-}i— 'H- 't^C0C0C0rf^lOtOK3--!>t^tOi— '601— ■tOtOtOi—'^i totootocotnco^too^cocDOOo^cr-. -rf^*^o^c» H-'CnCr)^00*'5^tO^-^COU<4i-j?irf^^OOOOOO>^>*^Oii— 'Ore COCOa>*'-y;"^JOo"lc>--OOWCOi— 'I— 'K-'OO^-'lc'i^i— '~4^'c^l^lC^."lo — C^;CrlO^►t<.04i'OOOOCOH-crl^OO^^CC^C;l^OC^Cr^*^4^C^^- '5' CnaitO00COOOO>— llna^-^0^^^^-'-^^01— iCQO^l~>-'-it^ o i-( lo t^ o^o o 05 t^>n_c^tf:i 00 CO O o a» « in 00 vo o"m <^^-^^o tj-^i-Tm ^-^o"^^M o ^^CT^oo c!£>coa>'^^ocn^'vOr^of^^inoo-^coTfo ^ 'S— iTt<^oo-^cor^cocoot^^o>-»not^»r3CX3O o_o^ "^^ O u ^o-!j«c ■<#■>* O CO rH 00 00 l^'-O CJ O 00 CO 00 o o^oo c<)_oo_^co^ co'Sa^coc^oi-^^cO'^ &«* -^ >— I 00 vrTifTo^ ^^'ocT— Tt^o" c<)i^o^o^co>riaio o -^__co^r^oo o oi t^^«>. ■<^ -^ ■<* CO T^T ^ r^" T^ »o" TjT r-'C^co-^»c-<<>> ^-t^i^t^t^r^r^r^r-oooooooooooooooooooooooooo TRADE AND COMMERCE. 137 ■^ooi^oo(M;)a)0-i^io«£icxDTj'HCTiTj*.— IVO-* 00 O ^ 00 (N CO i-Hr^f oc o"io -* o cJ>>Om'<*C0t£>CTlCT^C0O001^iO00-«5'<£loooowt£)ioi^^o-*»n-<#oot^coi^oot^'-'^OOCi-H-^^Ht~-COCT>l^COOOO »nt^tO'^r^co50-<*io^j^^DO^ot^CTicoooaiiococf (^^ .-h" o" f-H~ ^o" coa>^"0<— I ^^ «r T^" -^ CO w' Cr 00 c?oo— if^o^mooeQc«>cooooQOt--oO'-ti-i»oc<(oo CJi-f^codvi^cooiocQcoinmcococo— it^i— iQoo^ Oil— ct^OJ>J>a>Tf 00Tf<^D>O.-H.— i(NT^O(N'<*00-H--<*iTtiCOO"-DCOO'ncO'-icoooo(NOOOc<)in— ^Oiinooo t^ Oi tD CO C<> 00 Ci r^ (M CQ CO >-l CQ CO O *0 00 CO ^ .— I CO IC O O^ •-( m o ^ »-i 1— iTjTt00-co^^»-fiOf-ico'-ri'^t^00T)n— H'ocot^co.-iiXJOkC'^t^coTfio^a'-'-Haioo'XiCvivo'o t^ •<*a5r^corini— icot^ CO CQOCTi^^I^CliOl^t^OOCOi-QOCOt^t^ — OOkOC9-<#l^CT>iOQ0-* CO or--— ii^coi^iOTfTf-— ico— i'-ia4-*cociio-<#cr>cococQai— lOt^ ■-iCQoocococ<)-<*>oo i-H CO CO '-H ;^ CO CO »ncooof^t^aoTfoa)00'-HO^o»omoo^ooai>o-HTtoo^o-^^iOTj0'-HCOco'^»i0^ot^ooa^O'-HCo^ rt^,_i^^^rHCOCOCOCOCOCO?QCQC^COCOCOCOCOCOCOeOCOCOOOT* o •-^ H O S? w to 00 1— ' 1^ _il_ii_il--i—i-.)-.coO0COWy i-i I-" »ii>. to CO w v— (Ti o o to to o^ en «o ^ o oi «X3 ci t0^.C0UiOa>^Oy5C0)-'00t3O00^00-^--{ " 5 S P O tOOi— y200C;>^C^t£)^00rf».O>-'t*»-^C^00t0>— Ja-OtO*' CTicocjt^oto^o^o^rf^cnooooo^oocoH-comai^oo H-^o*'0>*»'toto>-'^i— 'O^oomcot^ootD^.h-cj'^co P to to to »*>. H- h-i CO I-" to *>. O CTl CO o CO toVj"cy5 c^"k) oo"cn 00 ooVjGo colo'oi. en H-o>—COC04^-'»^OOOCT5--4ai 2 3 ? a. o to i_ji_i)_ii-iH-i— itOCO*>.*«.rf^Oi i_.i_.H-'^03*>.o'^ji— 'HJtom^oorf^^oi-'toc5 tOOOCO^OCO^OO'— '^NJCO'^CO^^SOD'— 'OOOO^ODti) o El P" tOOWtOC7>H-rf!^VOOOCOCT5K)-^OOOC»-'UiOCT5*'0000 (J^tOtOi— '00>fe-OOOOCO^)CnOOiCOOD^O»Cj>OCni— 'OitOtO ^OO^C^OtOOOCO'— 0>«>-OJCna<4^tOCOtCCO^Oi— tl^OO '-I (D P ■-< fD 3 p- B 02 fD 3 (tl •-1 CO o tStOtOtOCOtO^H-'i-.— i— 'H-K-p— »-i— ui*>-cotoi-'0<£>oo-^a^m*>-cotot-'0^oo^CT5Cn>^cotoi-' O o B a' o H M England Spanish West Indies Brazil Colombian ports Hanse Towns Buenos Ayres . Spain on Mediterranean Hayti . . . France on Atlantic Danish West Indies . Italy .... British Am. Colonies Holland British West Indies . Chih .... Br. and Dutch E. Indies Mexico Sicily TenerifFe and Canaries Azores Ireland Swedish West Indies Africa .... Portugal Gibraltar CO 00 I—" 00 00 CO 1— '1— 'tOCO^^OOi t—torfi-cnoi-^^oooocooooooco^ooooto^to oic;'Oooo-'OiK-itcototoco^^^tooco4».o>-' < 60 t— OC0t0CT)CnOC0Cl-^>i-'O^00t^^t0O>*»-^rxf<^H-' OCr3COtJ2tOCO*-{x300COOOOOtOOOO^^t2i-'OOhf^COO^J a->i— oiCT2CTio«n^<^aDOOCT>oototoo^^to— loicnmcoo Our limits preclude the specification of the articles forming the principal items of export and import to and from the several countries named. Of domestic exports, flour manufactured in Pennsylvania, Delaware and Ohio, forms by farthe largest item. Corn-meal, wheat and corn, from the two first named states, are also exported largely. Tobacco, cotton, pork, lard, naval stores, rice, bark, &c., from the western and southern states; fish, oil, sperm candles, cotton manufactures, &c., from the New England states ; manufac- tures of iron, refined sugar, soap and candles, manufactured tobacco, furni- 142 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ture and various other manufactures of Philadelphia ; lumber, butter, cheese, and numerous articles, the agricultural produce of Pennsylvania, compose the principal part of the remaining sum. The imports consist principally of manufactures of wool, iron and other metals, silk, cotton, hnen, &c., from England and continental Europe ; coffee, sugar, molasses, rum, hides, mahogany, dye-woods, manufactured tobacco, &c., from South America and the West Indies. The total exports in 1842 exceed those of only three years since 1803, omitting the period of the war with Great Britain. The exports of domes- tic produce in 1842 exceed those of seventeen years during the same period. The imports for 1842 are less in amount than those of any year since 1821, when official records of value were first made. The domestic trade. The Constitution of the United States, as before mentioned, prohibits all transit duties on goods passing from one state of the Union to another, and releases vessels employed in the coasting trade from the necessity of enteri7ig. By this wise provision for the extension of trade, custom-houses between the different states are rendered unneces- sary, and those on the seaboard, or at the great comraercial emporiums of the interior, take no account of the merchandise passing from one section of the Union to another. In the absence of official data as to the extent of this important branch of trade, we purpose giving a hasty sketch of its course, or the channels through which it flows. With the increase of population and of facilities for the transportation of merchandise, by the improvement of county roads, and the construction of turnpike roads, canals and rail roads, the interchange of commodities with neighbouring states has steadily and rapidly increased ; while the applica- tion of steam to river navigation has rendered doubly valuable the noble streams of Pennsylvania, as a means of extending her commercial opera- tions. By these various channels of trade, and by the waters of the Atlantic, together with those of the various navigable streams emptying into it, the produce of the State, to an amount far exceeding that exported to foreign countries, is distributed through a large portion ot the Union. The domestic trade of Northern Pennsylvania is very limited in its ex- tent, this region being but thinly populated : its principal exports are lum- ber, coal, oats and neat cattle, together with some wool and butter. By means of the port of Erie or Presque Isle a communication is opened be- tween the western part of this region and the great lakes, and trade is carried on with many of the towns on their shores. The tonnage of Presque Isle has been as follows, in the years 1832 to 1841 inclusive. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1832 967 1835 1,730 1838 3,216 1841 2,820 1833 981 1836 1,877 1839 3,632 1834 1,302 1837 2,993 1840 3,369 The Blossburg and Corning railroad, the Allegheny and Susquehanna rivers, and the turnpike and county roads, at wide intervals traversing this section of the State, facilitate interchange of commodities with the neigh- bouring counties and some of the large towns, in the interior of New York state. No inconsiderable portion of the produce of the western part of this region passes down the Allegheny river to the towns bordering on the Ohio river, although a much larger part finds a market at Pittsburg. From the head waters of the Susquehanna river large quantities of lumber are annually sent to Baltimore. The imports of this region, excepting the large supplies derived by in- ternal trade with Pittsburg, are principally from New York city and state, and are similar in character to those hereafter mentioned as taken by the north-eastern section of the State. Western Pennsylvania, with its coal, iron, flour, wheat, lumber, wool and manufactures of various kinds which are exported to a great amount, has access to the interior of Ohio and to the lakes, by means of the Penn- sylvania and Ohio or Cross-cut canal and the Sandy and Beaver canal ; by TRADE AND COMMERCE. 143 the National road to Wheeling on the one hand, and Baltimore on the other; by the internal improvements of the State to the city last named, or via Philadelphia, to ports on the Atlantic ; and by the Ohio river to all parts of the valley of the Mississippi. Pittsburg, the great manufacturing chy and commercial emporium of western Pennsylvania, sends her manufactures of iron, glass, cotton, &c., throughout the vast extent of country bordering on the Ohio and Missis- sippi rivers, as well as to the rapidly improving region extending along the lakes. In return are received drafts on the Atlantic cities or New Orleans, or the varied produce of the several states, viz : pork, beef, lard, butter, flour, hemp, tobacco, cotton, sugar, molasses, (fee. ; together with a large part of her supply of coffee, imported at New Orleans. A portion of the above named articles, as pork, lard, flour, hemp and tobacco, is re-exported from Pittsburg to Baltimore ; and a still larger portion finds a market in Philadelphia, for home consumption or exportation. With the proceeds of the sales of these articles, and of large quantities of flour and wool, the produce of western Pennsylvania; together with drafts on the Atlantic cities received from sales to the west, she purchases in the Atlantic cities, for the consumption of her own citizens or the supply of a large extent of country in western Pennsylvania and Ohio, the cotton, woollen and leather manufactures, the bonnets, and other articles the manufactures of New England; and various foreign imports ; e. g., manufactures of wool, silk, cotton, linen, steel and other metals ; porcelain and earthern wares, tea, spices, dried fruit, wine, brandy, &c. Annexed is the tonnage of the port of Pittsburg in the years 1832 to 1841 inclusive. The sudden reduction observable in some of the years may be accounted for by the sale of steamboats, great numbers of which are built here for towns on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Year. Tons. I Year. Tons. 1832 10,092 1835 13,272 1833 11,713 1836 10,767 1834 13,272 | 1837 12,652 Year. Tons. 1838 11,865 1839 11,865 1840 12,000 Year, 1841 Tons. 10,343 According to Harris' Directory, the number of steamboats owned, in whole or in part, in the district of Pittsburg, in 1841, was 89, of an aggre- gate tonnage of 12,436 tons. Southern Pennsylvania, whose exports consist principally of grain, flour, iron, leather, &:-c., finds a market for a large part of these in Baltimore, and the neighbouring counties of Maryland and Virginia. The National road, connecting with the internal improvements of Maryland, opens a communication between Baltimore and the western part of this region ; while the eastern portion sends its produce by the Baltimore and Susque- hanna or FrankUn railroads, or by several turnpikes, into Maryland; or by the internal improvements of Pennsylvania and the Susquehanna river, or Tide-water canal to Baltimore, or more largely to Philadelphia for ex- portation or home consumption. In return are received goods of a descrip- tion similar to those above mentioned as purchased in the Atlantic cities for Pittsburg. Central Pennsylvania, embracing the greater part of the valley of the Susquehanna ana the country bordering on the main line of the internal improvements of the State, west of the Susquehanna river, makes use of this river and these canals and railroads, together with the Tide-water canal, as outlets for its large exports. A market is found for its produce, consisting of wheat and other grains, flour, iron, lumber, coal, &c., at Baltimore, and to a greater extent, probably, via Philadelphia, at the va- rious other Atlantic ports. The goods imported are of a character similar to those taken by Pittsburg. North Eastern Pennsylvania, embracing a portion of the anthracite coal fields of the State, exports lumber and some agricultural produce, princi- pally oats, to the neighboring towns of New York and New Jersey ; neat cattle and butter also to the same markets, and to New York city ; and 144 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. coal in large quantities to New York city and intermediate places, and to the Atlantic New England states. The principal channels for its exports, which are moderate in amount, are the Lehigh river, the Delaware and Hudson canal, and several turnpike roads. In return, articles such as enumerated as taken by Pittsburg, excluding the more expensive and luxu- rious, are received from New York city. South Eastern Pennsylvania — embracing the earhest settled and most populous counties of the State, rich in agricultural products; together with other counties, abounding in anthracite coal and iron, — passes most of its exports through Philadelphia. New York and the New England states bordering on the Atlantic take the largest amount of this produce, consisting principally of coal, flour, wheat, corn, &c. The demand for Pennsylvania bread stuffs in Boston has, however, diminished since the completion of the railroad connecting it with Albany. In return Philadelphia receives from the New England states their manufactures of cotton and wool, shoes, bonnets, fish, oil, and various other articles, the produce or manufactures of these states ; together with many foreign goods: and from New York, English, French, Chinese, and various other foreign goods too numerous to specify : the balance being greatly against Philadelphia, both in her trade with New England and New York. To the neighbouring states of New Jersey and Delaware the exports are to a large amount, consisting of coal, lime, iron, and various manufactures of Pennsylvania ; and the manufactures and produce of the New England states and foreign countries generally, especially manufactures of cotton, wool, leather and iron ; sugar, coffee and tea. The imports from New Jersey consist of agricultural produce generally ; and those from Delaware, of flour, corn-meal, wheat, corn, bark, &c. The trade with Maryland is to a very limited extent, and similar in its character to that with Delaware, Most of the freight passing between Philadelphia and Baltimore consists of goods in transitu between the lat- ter city and New York, or the New England states. The exports from Philadelphia to Virginia are to a moderate amount, and consist of articles much the same as those specified in reference to Pittsburg. In return, tobacco, wheat, corn, and some bituminous coal and cotton yarn are received. To North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, the exports are similar in character to those sent to Virginia ; but to a very small amount. From North Carolina are received naval stores, lumber and some little cotton and cotton yarn ; from South Carohna and Georgia, cot- ton and rice ; and from Alabama, cotton. Louisiana takes to a moderate extent, for her own consumption, of the manufactures of the New England states and Pennsylvania, and the manu- factures and produce of foreign countries ; and sends to Philadelphia large quantities of sugar and molasses, and some cotton, her own produce. Large quantities of heavy goods, destined for the western States, are for- warded by way of New Orleans ; and by the same route Philadelphia re- ceives large suppHes of the produce of those states, viz.: cotton, tobacco, pork, lard, hemp, lead, &c. The most important branch of the domestic export trade of Philadelphia is that with Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Mis- sissippi, and Arkansas, especially the sLx first named, and consists of articles similar to those taken by Pittsburg, the principal portion being imports from the New England states, and from foreign countries, a large part of the latter, as before stated, being received via New York and Boston. In addition to the articles above enumerated as being forwarded by way of New Orleans, Philadelphia receives from this vast and fertile region, now rapidly filling with an enterprising and industrious population, large quantities of flour, pork, lard, tobacco, hemp, neat cattle and horses, and some beef, furs, wool, &c., via Pittsburg and the internal improvements TRADE AND COMMERCE. 145 of the state ; these, however, would be vastly greater in quantity, and the purchases of goods in return proportionally increased, if the cost of trans- portation from Pittsburg to Philadelphia were still further reduced. The balance of this great branch of her trade being in favor of Philadelphia, is paid by drafts on New Orleans and New York. With Michigan, Philadelphia has little or no trade. Annexed is a statement of the enrolled and Ucensed tonnage, being that engaged in the coasting trade of Philadelphia for the years 1832 to 1841. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. 1841 58,425 We also append a list of the coastwise arrivals at Philadelphia for the years 1787 to 1842, much the greater portion of the large number appearing m recent years being vessels engaged in carrying coal, or barges laden with merchandise, passing between the north-eastern and south-western markets of the Union, benefiting the mercantile community of Philadelphia but httle. Coastwise Arrivals at Philadelphia from 1787 to 1842, inclusive. [From the Commercial List and Philadelphia Price Current.] 1832 31,147 1835 34,857 1838 45,080 1833 30,529 1836 40,871 1839 48,293 1834 32,080 1837 42,592 1840 51,676 Years. Vessels. Years. Vessels. Years. Vessels, Years. Vessels. 1787 390 1801 1,125 1815 1,113 1829 2,210 1788 490 1802 1,106 1816 1,101 1830 3,287 1789 376 1803 1,064 1817 1,238 1831 3,262 1790 715 1804 1,292 1818 1,101 1832 2,849 1791 853 1805 1,235 1819 1,046 1833 2,573 1792 C doc's. i lost. 1806 1,213 1820 877 1834 2,686 1793 1807 1,170 1821 913 1835 3,573 1794 1,250 1808 1,951 1822 1,212 1836 3,764 1795 1,228 1809 1,683 1823 1,018 1837 7,776 1796 1,011 1810 1,477 1824 981 1838 10,860 1797 929 1811 1,425 1825 1,195 1839 11,188 1798 1,002 1812 1,549 1826 1,195 1840 9,706 1799 825 1813 319 1827 1,320 1841 11,738 1800 1,051 1814 583 1828 1,247 [ 1842 10,457 We close this imperfect sketch of the domestic trade of Pennsylvania (which, unhke the foreign trade, has been steadily increasing, and is des- tined to still more rapid improvement,) by giving the following statement of The Enrolled and Licensed Tonnage of Pennsylvania from 1789 to 1841, inclusive. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. Years. Tons. 1789 4,015 1802 8,951 1815 22,360 1828 37,775 1790 5,180 1803 9,855 1816 24,744 1829 27,494 1791 3,222 1804 9,995 1817 24,296 1830 24,236 1792 3,515 1805 11,000 1818 25,148 1831 29,225 1793 4,625 1806 10,297 1819 23,673 1832 42,206 1794 6,273 1807 11,440 1820 24,117 1833 43.223 1795 7,325 1808 14,671 1821 25,080 1834 46,653 1796 7,669 1809 14,922 1822 23,995 1835 49,860 1797 8,178 1810 15,803 1823 27,291 1836 53,514 1798 8,348 1811 17,164 1824 27,766 1837 58,237 1799 7,857 1812 17,502 1825 29,421 1838 60,161 1800 8,032 1813 20,247 1826 31,583 1839 63,790 1801 7,444 1814 20,407 1827 34,436 1840 1841 67,045 71,588 13 146 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The internal trade. In the preceding article, on the course of the domestic trade of Pennsylvania, allusion has been made to the extent of business between Philadelphia and Pittsburg-, and between those two cities and a large portion of the State. This forms but a very small part of the internal trade of Pennsylvania, which embraces all the interchanges between sections adjacent, or widely separated, of every variety of mer- chandise, the produce of agriculture, the mine or the forest; or the manu- facture of the factory or work-shop. Of its amount no other than a very vague estimate can be formed ; it, however, vastly exceeds both that of the domestic and of the foreign trade, although it may be said to be yet in its infancy. No state of the Union contains the elements of wealth more diversified in character or unlimited in extent than Pennsylvania ; and with a virtuous, intelligent and industrious population to develope the resources of her rich and varied soil and countless mineral treasures, she cannot tail, in time, to possess within her borders a manufacturing interest, equal, if not superior to the agricultural. A home market for her agricultural produce will thus be created ; while her exports will consist of manufactures sent to the western and southern states of the Union, and, probably in considerable quantities to foreign countries. This anticipated developement of the in- ternal trade of Pennsylvania must be promoted, in no small degree, by the State canals, railroads and other facilities for the transportation of produce, in the judicious management of which, those engaged in the domestic and foreign, as well as this branch of trade, have a deep interest. What meaning have the terms foreign, domestic, and internal as applied to the trade of Pennsylvania? What is said about the Free Society of Traders? What quantity of tobacco was exported in 1688-9? Why was its culture abandoned? What is said about the effect of the war between England and France, on the commerce and currency of the province ? Did the province in any one year prior to the revolution export to Great Britain a sufficient amount of her produce to pay for the goods imported thence? How was tiie balance paid? What injury was inflicted ou the commerce of the province by the war from 1702 to 1713.' For what was the year 1722 remarkable ? In what year was paper money first issued by the province ? Was Franklin favourable to these issues? In what year was the first insolvent law of Pennsylvania passed? What occurred to alarm the Philadelphians in 1748? What effect on the commerce of the province had the restoration of peace in 1749? How long did this prosperous state of trade continue ? What is said of the voyage of the schooner Argo ' What influence did the seven years' war exert on the commerce of the province ? What led to the non-importation agreements in 1765 and 1769? What was their effect on commerce ? From the nature of the foreign trade of the province before the revolutionary war, have we any reason to regret the separation of our country from the British empire ? During what pe- riod was the foreign trade suspended by the revolutionary war ? Was commerce in a prospe- rous state from the establishment of peace in 1783 until 1789? Did the adoption of the consti- tution of the United States in 1789 produce any change? Can you tell how, or why? Did the •wars occasioned by the French revolution exert any influence on the commerce of Pennsyl- vania ? How ? What was the avowed purpose of the English in issuing their orders in coun- cil, mii the French their rfecrees? What compensation did England agree to make the United States by treaty in 1794, for property taken under these orders in council? During what period were commercial relations between France and the United States suspended? What was the object of jVapoleon's continental systeml What induced the United States government to lay an embargo? What was the duration of the ^ong embargo? What is said about Napoleon's Piambouillet decree? When was war declared against England by the United States? What may be considered the main cause for the continuance of hostilities.'' What exerted a very prejudicial influence on commerce during the latter part of the war and for several years after ? What effect on the foreign trade of Pennsylvania had the resto- ration of peace in Europe and America in 1815? How have the commercial regulations of foreign governments influenced the commerce of the State? Have the frequent changes in the rates of duties levied by the United States' government benefited commerce? Has the cost of transportation of goods from a seaport to the interior of the country any influence on the commerce of that port? Is it not important then to Philadelphia that the rates of tolls on the rail- roads and canals of the State should be low? In how many years since 1803 have the total exports from Pennsylvania been less than in the year 1842? (See tables.) In how many years since 1803 have the exports of domestic produce from Pennsylvania been less than in the year 1842? What is said of the amount of imports in 1842? May duties be charged on goods passing from one state of the Union to another? Which is the greater in amount, the foreign or domestic trade ? Is the trade of northern Pennsyl- vania extensive or limited ? What port, rail-road and rivers furnish outlets for its trade.' Is the trade of western Pennsylvania limited or extensive ? By means of what outlets is il» INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 147 merchandise exported ? What is its great commercial city? By means of what outlets do the southern counties of Pennsylvania export their produce? Are the exports of central Pennsylvania extensive or limited in amount? By means of what river, canals, and rail roads is its produce exported ? What is said of the amount of exports from north-eastern Pennsylvania ? By what river and canal have they an outlet ? Through what channel does south-eastern Pennsylvania carry on most of its domestic trade ? Has the domestic trade of the State declined or progressively improved? What is said of the amount of the internal trade ? What of its future prospects ? The possession of what natural treasure is likely to increase the internal trade of the State? What else is mentioned as tending to increase this branch of trade ? 19. Internal Improvements. 1. Canals and rail roads constructed by the State. The attention of the legislature and people of Pennsylvania seems to have been directed, at an early day, to the means of facili- tating transportation and trade between different sections of the State by means of inland navigation. In 1791 a report was made by a committee of the legislature, recommending the improvement of the Delaware, Lehigh and Lackawana rivers ; a canal from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna by way of the Tulpehocken and Swatara; the improvement of the Susquehanna, with its north and west branches, and a connexion by way of the Sinne- mahoning between the West branch of Susquehanna and the Al- legheny river and Lake Erie. A portage connexion was also proposed from the head waters of the Juniata to those of the Co- nemaugh, in order to form a communication from the Susque- hanna to Pittsburg. As rail roads were not then thought of, it was proposed to connect the canals by means of good turnpike roads across the dividing summits. Nothing, however, was effectually done by the State on the subject of internal improvements until 1824, v^^hen an act was passed authorizing the governor to appoint three commissioners to explore a route for a canal from Harrisburg to Pittsburg, by the waters of the Juniata and Conemaugh rivers ; and also the route for a connexion by way of the West branch of Susquehanna and Sinnemahoning, with the waters of the Allegheny river. An ex- amination of the country between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, through the great valley of Chester and Lancaster counties, was also directed ; together with a route '' beginning at a point on the river Schuylkill in the county of Schuylkill, thence by Mahanoy creek, the river Susquehanna, the Moshannon, Clearfield and Black Lick creeks, the Conemaugh, Kiskiminetas and Allegheny river to Pittsburg." In 1825 an act was passed authorizing the appointment of a board of canal commissioners, and directing the following addi- tional surveys to be made : '' one from Philadelphia through Ches- ter and Lancaster counties, and thence by the West branch of the Susquehanna and the waters thereof to the Allegheny and Pitts- burg ; also from the Allegheny to Lake Erie; one other from Philadelphia by the Juniata to Pittsburg, and from thence to Lake 148 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Erie; one other from the city of Philadelphia to the northern boundary of the State towards the Seneca or Cayuga lake ; one other through Cumberland and Franklin counties to the Potomac river; and one by the Conecocheague_, or Monococy and Cone- wago to the Susquehanna." A survey was also directed, by the same act, to be made through the county of Bedford, to connect the route of the proposed Chesapeake and Ohio canal with the Juniata route. By the act of 25th February, 1826, operations were no longer confined to the exploration of routes and preliminary surveys. The canal commissioners were directed to locate and put under contract a canal on the east side of the Susquehanna river, from the mouth of the Swatara to a point opposite the mouth of the Juniata ; and one from Pittsburg to the mouth of the Kiskiminetas ; thus commencing two sections of the main line of communication from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. They were also authorized, as soon as they might deem it practicable and expedient, to construct a navigable feeder of a canal from French creek to the summit level at Conneaut lake, and to survey and locate a route for a canal from that to Lake Erie. In order to sustain the credit of the commonwealth, an internal improvement fund was established (April 1, 1826) under the con- trol of the secretary of the commonwealth, the auditor general and the state treasurer, as commissioners ; which fund was specific- ally appropriated, pledged and set apart for the purpose of paying the interest and reimbursing the principal of the State debt which might be created in consequence of the construction of the canals and public improvements : the accounts of the fund to be kept separate from the other public accounts. This fund consists of the tolls received on all the public works, the auction duties, the net proceeds of all escheats, and the dividends on road, canal and bridge stocks owned by the State. By subsequent enactments the tax on collateral inheritances, taxes on certain property, and sundry other appropriations were added to the fund. In 1827 (act of April 9) the construction of a canal up the Ju- niata as far as Lewistown ; another up the Kiskiminetas and Conemaugh to Blairsville, and one up the Susquehanna to North- umberland were duly authorized. By the same act, surveys were directed to be made of the route across the Allegheny mountain from FrankstOAvn oathe Juniata to Johnstown on the Conemaugh, with a view of determining whether the portage should be by " a smooth and permanent road of easy graduation, or by a rail way with locomotive and stationary engines or otherwise." Surveys were also authorized between the West branch and the Allegheny river ; up the North branch from Northumberland to the State line, and from Pittsburg to Erie by the route of Beaver and Shenango. By the same act a survey for a rail road was directed to be made from Philadelphia, through Chester and Lancaster counties to the Susquehanna, and also one to ascertain the practicability of con- necting the North branch of the Susquehanna and Lehigh rivers by a canal or rail way. A survey was also authorized for the INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 149 purpose of extending the canal down the Susquehanna, from the mouth of Swatara to the Maryland line. The commencement of operations on the construction of the French creek feeder (to Con- neaut lake) was ordered, and further surveys directed to be made from Conneaut to Lake Erie. The canal commissioners were instructed to have surveys made for a canal from Philadelphia or Bristol, up the valley of the Delaware to Carpenter's Point ; and if the same were found practicable, to locate and contract for the construction of such portion of it as should not exceed the cost of one hundred thousand dollars, provided that the average expense thereof should not exceed twelve thousand dollars per mile. The act of 24th March, 1828, authorized the extension of the canal on the Susquehanna, from the mouth of Swatara to Colum- bia; from Lewistown to HoUidaysburg on the Juniata; from Northumberland along the West branch of Susquehanna to Bald Eagle ; from Northumberland to the New York State line, on the North branch ; from Taylor's ferry to Easton, on the Delaware ; and from Blairsville to Johnstown on the Conemaugh. The con- struction of the Allegheny portage rail road, and the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road was ordered ; and sundry preliminary surveys of other lines of proposed improvements were directed. The construction of the main lines of communication being thus resolved upon, the work was commenced and vigorously pushed forward. The credit of the State being at that time unimpaired and money abundant, the legislature found little or no difficulty in obtaining the requisite funds for the prosecution of the work. Public opinion was strongly in favour of an extended system of internal improvement ; and it was believed that the estabhshment of a communication between the eastern and western waters of the State and the lakes, would be the means of advancing the pros- perity of our agriculture, commerce and manufactures, and would unite in a common interest the great natural divisions of the State, as well as in the end prove an important source of revenue to the commonwealth. If the system of public works undertaken had been less exten- sive in the beginning, and had been confined at first to the main line between Philadelphia and Pittsburg, with the addition of the Delaware division ; and these had been constructed with a strict regard to the public interest alone, and managed afterwards with prudence and economy, the favourable anticipations of the people would doubtless have been realized. But in order to obtain votes in the legislature for the commencement of the main lines, it was deemed expedient to push the improvements into every practicable part of the State, that as many as possible should partake of the expected benefit. The consequence has been the lavish expendi- ture of millions on lines as yet unproductive; while a system of management directed by party politics, and the employment of countless swarms of public agents as a reward for political ser- vices, without due regard to their character or qualifications, have not only absorbed the whole revenue derived from the finished 13* 150 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. lines, but have brought the State annually in debt for their main- tenance. From 1828 to 1836 repeated loans were authorized and heavy appropriations made for the prosecution of the public works to completion. Not content, however, with the enormous amount already undertaken, new surveys were directed and the com- mencement of further extensions ordered. Among these was " a rail road from the borough of Gettysburg, to cross the route of the Baltimore and Ohio rail road, and connect with the Chesapeake and Ohio canal at some point in the State of Maryland at or west of Williamsport." Two hundred thousand dollars were appro- priated for the commencement of this work, which was imme- diately begun. This career of lavish expenditure and continual extension was at length checked. The alarming increase of the State debt, the enormous excess in the cost ot completing many of the works above the estimates of the engineers, and the failure of the finished lines to support by their tolls the annual charges on them for re- pairs and expenses, became subjects for serious consideration. Those who had from the first doubted the expediency of under- taking such a gigantic scale of improvement, became decidedly hostile to the further extension of the system, while its warmest advocates were discouraged at the prospect before them. The public voice called for a retrenchment of expenditures, and the operations were prosecuted on a reduced scale. The work on some of the lines was suspended, and was only continued on those which were necessary to complete certain connexions, or those which were deemed Ukely to afford immediate advantage from completion. The present deranged condition of the State finances, and the litter prostration of the credit of the commonwealth have now put a stop to the further prosecution of the pubHc works. The time has come for serious consideration upon the means of extricating Pennsylvania from her present embarrassed condition. No remedy can be devised but that of taxing the people ; and even taxation, so long as the public improvements are so managed as not to sus- tain themselves, will be ineffectual unless increased from year to year. A more economical superintendence of our canals and rail roads, or their transfer from the State to individuals or companies, seems to be imperatively demanded by the pubUc interest. By such a transfer, on fair terms and under proper regulations, the State would be at once reheved from a heavy burden, while the people would still have the use and advantage of the pubhc im- provements as fully as at present. But notwithstanding the present gloomy prospect of our finan- cial affairs, and the heavy debt incurred by the commonwealth in the construction of her rail roads and canals, it should not be for- gotten that the advantages to the people in the increased value of their property and the creation of facilities for trade and transpor- tation, together with the expenditure among them of large sum? INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 151 of public money, have far more than counterbalanced the burden of moderate taxation. Without the means of transportation on the pubhc works, our agricultural, commercial, manufacturing and mineral resources would never have been developed as they now are ; and the countless millions gained by the people, through the establishment of the public improvements, would cause the pubhc debt to sink into insignificance if compared with the value of the advantages resulting from them. In order to contrast the former times and faciUties with the pre- sent, it may be mentioned that before turnpikes were constructed it required a good team of five or six horses from eighteen to twenty-five days to transport from 2,500 to 3,500 pounds of goods from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. On the completion of the turnpike across the mountains, the load of a wagon was increased to 6,000 or 8,000 pounds, and the trip was made in twelve or fifteen days. The price of carriage varied from three or four to thirteen cents per pound, the latter being paid for several loads soon after the peace with Great Britain. Since the construction of our rail roads and canals, any quantity of merchandise and produce can be transported between Pittsburg and Philadelphia, Baltimore or New York in six or seven days, at an average price, each way, of less than one dollar per 100 pounds, or one cent per pound; and the passage for travellers by canal and rail roads between Pittsburg and these cities is now made in two, three or four days, at less than half the former expense by the stage. It is not, however, in the construction of canals and rail roads alone that the funds of the State have been invested. Extensive appropriations have been made towards improving the navigable channels of many of our rivers and large streams ; to the making of roads and the building of bridges; while subscriptions have been liberally made on the part of the commonwealth to the stock of rail road, navigation, turnpike and bridge companies. From many of these little or no dividend is received, but still the people have the benefit of their use. State Canals.-^ The Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Canal connects with tide water at Bristol on the river Delaware, 20 miles above Philadelphia, and thence extends up the course of that river to Easton at the mouth of the Lehigh, where it joins the navigation of the Lehigh Company. It is 40 feet wide, 5 feet deep, and has 23 locks 90 feet long by 11 feet wide, from 6 to 10 feet in height : total lockage 164 feet. Length of canal 60 miles : cost $1,374,744. Total revenue to 1840, $586,515 : expenditures to same time $638,831.* Eastern Division. — This canal commences at Columbia, the western termination of the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road, and extends along the eastern bank of the Susquehanna river to * The revenue is the amount of tolls received up to the year 1840 ; and the expenditures are made up of repairs, salaries of agents and other ex- penses necessarily attendant upon the operation of the works to the same period. 152 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Middletown, where the Union Canal is connected with it, and where there are also outlet locks into the Susquehanna. Prom this place it still pursues the eastern side of the Susquehanna, passes through Harrisburg, and continues to Duncan's Island, near the mouth of the Juniata, where it connects with the Juniata division, and also with the Susquehanna division of the State canals. It is 40 feet wide at top, 28 at bottom, and has locks 90 feet long and 17 wide ; the total rise is 95 feet. Length 43 miles ; cost $1,734,958. Revenue to 1840, $1,047,826 j expenditures, $422,805. Juniata Division. — At Duncan's Island is a dam across the Sus- quehanna for the purpose of supplying the eastern division with water, and a neat and substantial bridge has been erected by the State, having on one side a tow path, by means of which canal boats cross to the western side of the river. Here the Juniata division commences, and continues up the valley of the Juniata to Hollidaysburg in Huntingdon county, where it meets the eastern termination of the Allegheny Portage rail road. There are 17 dams on this route, and about 16 miles of slack water navigation. The canal is of the same dimensions as the eastern division ; the locks are of the same length and 15 feet wide. Ascent of lockage from Duncan's Island to Hollidaysburg 576 feet; distance 130 miles; cost of canal $3,437,334. Revenue $491,104j expendi- tures $592,180. Susquehanna Division. — This canal connects with the Juniata division at Duncan's Island, and extends along the western bank of the Susquehanna, up that river to Northumberland at the junc- tion of the North and West branches, where it unites with the North and West branch divisions. Ascent 862 feet : length 39 miles: cost $867,874. Revenue $141,730 ; expenditures $314,253. JVorth Branch Division. — Commencing at Northumberland, this canal follows the course of the North branch of Susquehanna to the mouth of Lackawana, in Luzerne county, above Wilkesbarre. There is a dam across the river at Nanticoke, and the upper end of the canal is supplied with water from the Lackawana. Lock chambers 17 by 90 feet: total lockage 112 feet: length 73 miles : cost $1,491,894. Revenue, $63,559 ; expenditures $390,624. JVorth Branch Extension. — This division is in an unfinished state : it was intended to effect a communication with the New York State improvements by connecting it with the Chenango canal, and thus to afford a northern outlet for the coal and iron of Pennsylvania into a region which might furnish salt and gypsum in return. From Lackawana it follows the course of the North branch to Athens in Bradford county, near the northern line of the state. The cost of work done on this Extension to December 1, 1841, amounted to $2,348,276; estimated cost of work remaining to be done $1,298,416; total estimated cost $3,646,692. Length of canal 90 miles ; lockage 193 feet. West Branch Division. — Leaving the Susquehanna Division at Northumberland, this canal extends up the West branch of Sus- quehanna, passing by Milton, Williamsport and other towns, to INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 153 Farrandsville, in Clinton county, reaching the bituminous coal region in that neighborhood. Ascent of lockage 138 feet; length of canal, including slack water, 75 miles; cost $1,708,579. Re- venue $60,859 ; expenditures $333,738. Two side cuts, or lateral canals, extend from the West branch Division : one to Lewisburg in Union county, about half a mile, and the other to Bald Eagle creek near Lock Haven in Clinton county, three and a half miles in length. The Sinnemahoning Extension is a continuation of the West branch canal to the mouth of Sinnemahoning creek, a distance of about 36 miles above Farrandsville. It is in an unfinished state, the work having been suspended in 1839. Wiconisco Canal. This is an unfinished work extending along the east bank of Susquehanna, from the dam at Clark's Ferry, near Duncan's Island, to Millersburg at the mouth of Wiconisco creek, a distance of twelve miles, with an ascent of 35 feet. Cost of work done, about $300,000; amount required to complete it $81,836. By an act passed July 13, 1842, this canal was transferred to an incorporated company, reserving the right to the State to reclaim it after twenty years, upon paying to the company the amount ex- pended by them in its completion. Western Division. At Johnstown, (the western termination of the Allegheny Portage rail road,) the Western Division of the canal commences and continues down the Conemaugh and Kiskiminetas to the Allegheny river. Crossing this river near the mouth of Kiskiminetas, the canal passes along its western bank to Alle- gheny city, opposite Pittsburg, where it again crosses by a beauti- ful aqueduct, and is continued through Pittsburg to the Mononga- hela river. There are ten dams on the route, and upwards of twenty miles of slack water navigation on their pools. Below Blairsville the canal passes through a tunnel eight hundred and seventeen feet in length. Descent by lockage 471 feet ; distance 105 miles; cost $2,964,882. Revenue, $887,013; expenditures $889,834. The Beaver Division extends from the town of Beaver on the Ohio, up Beaver river to the Shenango, and thence up that stream to the head of slack water navigation, about six miles above New- castle. Length 31 miles: ascent 132 feet: cost about $700,000. Revenue $10,924; expenditures $139,082. At the mouth of Mahoning creek, a httle below Newcastle, this division is intersected by the Mahoning canal, which extends into Ohio, and at Akron intersects the Ohio and Erie canal of that State. The Beaver division is but a part of an extended hne of canal, intended to connect the Ohio river, by way of Conneaut lake, with lake Erie. The Ene Extension, an unfinished work, divided into the She- nango and Conneaut lines, commences at the head of the Beaver division above Newcastle, and extends northward to the town of Erie. The ascending lockage, from the Shenango pool near New- castle to the summit at Conneaut lake, is 287 feet ; and the descent thence to lake Erie, 510 feet. The level of Conneaut lake is 419 154 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. feet above low water in the Ohio, at Beaver, and the surface of Lake Erie 91 feet lower than the Ohio. Length of the Erie Ex- tension 105 miles; cost of work done about $3,000,000. The French Creek Feeder, a navigable canal, 27 miles in length, extends from French creek above Meadville to the Erie Extension at Conneaut lake; and with this is connected the Franklin line, which reaches from the aqueduct, seven miles below Meadville, where the water in the feeder is on a level with Conneaut lake, to Franklin on the Allegheny river. Descent of lockage 128 feet : length 22 miles. Cost of canal and feeder about |900,000. Reve- nue $4,767; expenditures $133,979. Recent acts of the legislature have authorized the transfer of the North Branch and Erie Extensions, the latter including the Bea- ver division, to incorporated companies, for the purpose of having these works completed without further expense to the common- wealth. State rail roads. The Philadelphia and Columbia Rail Road commences at the intersection of Vine and Broad streets in Philadelphia, crosses the Schuylkill by a viaduct about two miles from the city, and pursues a western course by Downingtown and Lancaster to Columbia on the Susquehanna, a distance of 82 miles. Here it connects with the Eastern Division of the Penn- sylvania canal. The Schuylkill viaduct is 984 feet in length, and besides the rail road track has also a way for carriages and foot passengers. Im- mediately west of this, the road ascends by an inclined plane 2,805 feet in length, with a rise of 187 feet, on which cars ascend and descend at the same time by being attached to an endless rope moved by a stationary engine of 60 horse power, situated at the head of the plane. From this the road gradually ascends to a point near the intersection of the West Chester rail road, about 22 miles from the city, where its elevation is 543 feet above tide wa- ter. Passing this summit, the road descends 293 feet to the Bran- dywine viaduct near Downingtown, at a grade of 29 feet to the mile. It then rises, and after crossing the West Brandywine near Coatesville, ascends the North Valley Hill, at Mine Ridge Gap, by a grade increased on both sides of the summit for about three quarters of a mile, to 45 feet per mile. From this summit the road descends into the Lancaster valley, — passes the city of Lancaster, and descends to the Susquehanna river by a new route of six miles, descent 35 feet per mile, constructed to avoid the inclined plane formerly used near Columbia. Some of the viaducts over the large streams crossed by this road are handsome and expensive structures, particularly those at Valley creek and West Brandywine : the latter is 835 feet in length, and 72 feet above the water. Those over the Big and Little Conestoga creeks are respectively 1,412 and 804 feet long. The highest em- bankment is 80 feet, and the deepest cuttings from 30 to 40 feet. The motive power on this road is furnished by the State, and a toll is charged for it in addition to the road toU. The locomotive engines used for the transportation of freight, are capable of draw- I INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 155 ing upwards of 100 tons each, exclusive of the weight of cars, en- gine, &c., or nearly 200 tons in aU, at an average speed of ten or twelve miles per hour. Those used for drawing the passenger cars move with a lighter load and greater velocity. This road was first opened for use in April, 1834. Cost $3,983, 302. Revenue to 1840, railroad tolls |1,205,419, motive power tolls $824,919: expenditures, road $585,343, motive power $862, 074, locomotives, ropes. Sec, $436,579. Allegheny Portage Rail Road. This road commences at HoUi- daysburg, the western termination of the Juniata canal, and cross- ing the Allegheny mountain by the summit at Blair's Gap, de- scends to the valley of the Conemaugh, down which it proceeds to Johnstown and there meets the Western Division of the Penn- sylvania canal. On this road there are ten inclined planes, num- bered from Johnstown eastward, and eleven "levels," or graded lines of road, the inclination of which is generally from 10 to 15 feet to the mile, except that between Johnstown and the first plane, where it is about 24 feet, and that betAveen the eastern plane and Hollidaysburg:, where the maximum is 52 feet. The summit at Blair's Gap is 2,325 feet above the level of mean tide; the ascent from Hollidaysburg to the summit is 1,398 feet in a distance often miles, and the descent to Johnstown 1,171 feet in a distance ot 26^ miles. There are five inchned planes on each side of the summit ; the longest being No. 8, or the third one west of HolU- daysburg, which is 3,117 feet in length, with a rise of 307^ feet; and the shortest. No. 3, the third east of Johnstown, 1,480 feet iu length, rising 130^ feet. At the head of each inclined plane are two stationary engines of about thirty-five horse power each, which move the endless rope to which the cars are attached. Four cars, each loaded with a burden of 7000 pounds, can be drawn up at once, and as many let down at the same time ; this operation can be performed from six to ten times in an hour. An ingenious contrivance, called a safety car, is attached to the rope below the road cars, which stops them in case of accident to the rope or fastenings. But one of the stationary engines is used at a time ; the other be- ing provided in order to prevent delay from accidents or repairs. On the short levels between the planes, horses are used for drawing the cars ; but on the longer ones locomotives are preferred. A viaduct over the Conemaugh, about eight miles east of Johns- town, is much admired for its boldness and beauty of design and execution. It is a single arch of 80 feet span, at a height of 70 feet above the water of the stream. In order to pass through an abrupt ridge near the head of the first plane east of Johns- town, a tunnel has been constructed 901 feet in length, 20 feet wide, and 19 feet high within the arch. The entrances have orna- mental fa9ades of cut stone, and the tunnel is arched with stone for 150 feet from each end, beyond which the rock is sufficiently solid to form a roof. This road was opened for use in March, 1834. Length 36^, miles. Cost $1,783,176. Revenue to 1840, rail road tolls $413, 156 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 504, motive power $443,480 : expenditures, road $293,135, mo- tive power $539,507, engines, ropes, &c. $122,236. The Gettysburg Rail Road was intended to effect a communica- tion between the Pennsylvania improvements and those of Mary- land, by connecting with the Bahimore and Ohio railroad, and also with the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. A company having been incorporated to make a rail road from Wrightsville, opposite Columbia, through York to Gettysburg, connecting at its eastern end with the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road, the State under- took to continue the road from Gettysburg westward to Maryland. After expending more than $700,000 on the eastern end between Gettysburg and the summit of the South mountain, the work was suspended. Most of the mountain sections consisted of deep cut- tings, high embankments and expensive tunnels, which yet remain in an unfinished condition, as a monument of useless public ex- penditure. 2. Canals and Rail Roads construdedby companies. Lehigh JVavigation. The improvements constructed by the Le- high Coal and Navigation Company, consist of a succession of canal and slack water navigation, numerous dams being built across the river, forming navigable pools, and between these, canals of various lengths complete the communication. These works connect with the Delaware Division of the State canal at Easton on the Delaware, and thence extend up the Lehigh river by Beth- lehem and Allentown to Mauch Chunk, at the eastern termination of the great southern anthracite coal basin. The canals are 60 feet wide at the water line, 45 at bottom, and 5 feet deep ; locks 100 feet long and 22 feet wide, capable of passing boats carrying more than 100 tons: dams from 300 to 564 feet long, and 8 to 19| feet high. Distance 46^ miles, with a rise in lockage of 353 feet. From Mauch Chunk the same system of navigation is prolonged up the river to Whitehaven, 24| miles ; and thence to the falls at Stoddartsville, 13^ miles, is a descending navigation by artificial freshets, used chiefly for bringing down lumber. Distance from Mauch Chunk to the northern termination of the works 38:^ miles. Ascent 936 feet. The locks above Mauch Chunk are of the same length as those below, and 20 feet wide : one of them has a lift of 30 feet, and can be filled or emptied in 2|- minutes. On this upper division of the work are 20 dams, from 14 to 38 feet high, and from 187 to 375 feet long. Total length of the navigation 84^ miles. The Lackawaxen Canal, constructed as an extension of the Delaware and Hudson canal into Pennsylvania, enters this State near the mouth of Lackawaxen, and extends up that stream to Honesdale in Wayne county, where it connects with a rail road to the Lackawana coal mines at Carbondale. Length 25 miles ; lockage rise 187 feet from the Delaware to Honesdale, which is B70 feet above tide water. Schuylkill JVavigation. — Commences at Fair Mount dam, near Philadelphia, and is continued up the Schuylkill by Norristown INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 157 and Reading to Port Carbon in SchuylkiU county ; thus opening a communication between the city and the heart of the Schuylkill coal region. It was commenced in 1815 and completed in 1826. This work, like the Lehigh navigation, is a series of pools formed by dams across the river, with intervening short Hnes of canal, sometimes on the east and sometimes on the west side of the river, which is crossed several times on the route. Near Reading it is intersected by the Union canal, and thus has a communication with the Susquehanna, and with the State canals of the interior. Length of navigation from Philadelphia to Port Carbon 108 miles, of which 58 is canal and 50 slack water. The longest line of canal on the route is 22 miles, called the Girard, the upper end of which is 5 or 6 miles below Reading. Width of canal 36 feet at top, 22 at bottom, and 4 feet deep. Locks 80 by 17 feet : total ascent 610 feet. Union Canal. — This line of navigation passes from the Schuyl- kill near Reading, westward up the valley of Tulpehocken creek to the summit between the head waters of that stream and those of the Gluitapahilla, a branch of the Swatara. It then descends the Swatara to its mouth, at the Susquehanna near Middletown. A branch of this work, 23 miles in length, serving the double purpose of a navigable canal and a feeder, extends up the Swatara northward to Pine Grove in Schuylkill county, from which rail roads are made to the coal mines of that region. Near the gap by which the Swatara passes through the Blue mountain, a large dam is constructed which forms a pool or reservoir several miles in extent. The feeder on the Swatara being lower than the sum- mit level of the canal near Lebanon, water wheels have been erected, which are now aided by steam engines, for the purpose of raising the water by forcing pumps, from which it is conducted in a trunk several miles to the main canal. Near the town of Lebanon are also steam works by means of which a partial supply of water is obtained. From the commencement of this canal on the Schuylkill to the summit level is 41^ miles ; ascent of lockage 311 feet. The summit level is 7 miles long, and 498|- feet above tide water. From this to the Susquehanna is 33f miles ; descent 208^ feet. Width of canal 36 feet, depth 4 feet : locks 75 by 8i feet. Length of canal 82 miles. The Susquehanna or T%de Water Canal is partly in Pennsylva- nia, commencing at Wrightsville, opposite Columbia, and con- tinuing down the west side of the Susquehanna river to Havre de Grace in Maryland. By means of this canal a communication is effected between the eastern division of the Pennsylvania canal and the tide water of Chesapeake Bay. Canal 50 feet wide, 5 feet deep ; locks with double chamber, admitting the passage of two boats at the same time, or of a raft 170 feet long and 16 wide. Length 45 miles : descent 233 feet. Conestoga JYavigation, a series of dams and locks on Conestoga creek, from the city of Lancaster to the Susquehanna river. Locks 100 by 22 feet : length of navigation 18 miles : descent 62 feet. Codorus JYavigation, an improvement by dams, locks and canals 14 158 GEOGRAniY OF PENNSYLVANIA. on Codorus creek, from the borough of York to llie Susquehanna river. TiCiijj^lh 1 1 miles. lialil hliij;(iti<)n, an improvr to tlu! Virginia line: imlinished. Length about 40 miles. ^Dhthoninij; ('(n/road to Prime street, and thence by the latter to the Dela- ware ahove the Navy yard; nearly two miles. A hranch of this road, half a mile in h>ngth, extends up Swanson to Cedar street near the wharf. JVorthern Liherties and Penn Towiushii) Hail lioad branches from the C()lund)ia rail road anil passes down Willow street to the Delaware, connecting with the (Jermantown and Norristown, and also with the Philadelphia and Trenton rail roads. Length H mile. Pliiladchiliin and Tirnton Rail lioad extends from Philadelphia by Franklord, llolmeshurg and Bristol, to Morrisville, op[)osite TrtMiton, on the Delaware. Rails are laid across the bridge into Trenton, forming a connnunication with the rail road from Tren- ton to New York. Length ahout 'iS miles. PliHadclplna and ]\'ihninii;lon Hail /^«/i/ connects with the South- wark rail road at IJroad and Prime stre(>ls in Philadelphia, crosses the Schuylkill by a viaduct at Oray's ferry, passes through Ches- ter in Delawan^ county to the state line, and tlience to Wilmington in the slate of Delaware, where it joins tlu^ Wilmington and Sus- qu(>hanna rail road to Baltimore. Ijcngth '27 miles. Philinlclpliia, (icrnninUnon and JYnrristinrn. Hail Hoad, 17 miles in length, extends on the eastern side of Schuylkill, hy Manayunk, to Norristown in Montgomery county. Ahout three miles from the city, a branch leaves this road and proceeds to Germantown, 3 miles. West Philadelphia Rail Road, undertaken with a view to avoid IN'JKRNAJ. I.MrROVKMKNTH. I7i 11j<; inr,li;M«l [jlrifi*; on ill*- (liA{nn\n:t mil rowi ww Mark'rl, «U«;yJ W«'«t ^/Iw-^-.M-r, al;oiil. 10 f/jil«'^, l*ldlMlidpk'M and llcadiufj^ Had Itoad, f;onn<;<;tr^ vvilh U»<; (/fJuni- bja rail road, at th<' loot of tin; jn I'ott^vill'r in .Sr'.liuylkjII county, tliufi ojx-riifjj^ a lin<; ol' <:ot(if/jijni«-,a.i.if>n h'-twr'-n JMi)la.dc|p}ii;i. and lli<' (Sr-.luiylloll r,oal n-^io/i. lit-inif <:<,iiiiC(-U:(\ w/th tli«; r;jd roadM w)ii«',|i irxUmfl iiuin Ujo varioiJH ;ninin{.; dihtrioth V) th<; rivrr, it will a/ford a rn tli«; d'•^c«rndinJ( tran?i port;ition. A lo«-,oniotiv'; ; c,o/jy«-y*-urd<'n ()i' 4U'-i Vtii-i, at an av<'rag*; H[*<'«'(1 of 10 mil<;H to th'i hour. A part of thiw lavi (utiiniHU'A of ^'X)^ harr*;l« of fiour, w'*i;.4iint^ 10^) f/jn«. Tli/;rc an; thrn, M^iO f«-«rt. N*;ar lh<; ii<'Cond tunn'rl, ahoot '/O m)l)villort>ition of coal t/j tho l)tUiw:ir<', Icuvt'H tliiw rojwj at tli'; l^'alj*-, of nchuylkill arjd cr (»-.''.< :h <;ahtw; iho l>flawarijt t)jr«;*; r/jilc?< ahov; I'h/Ja- d<;lr>hia. />fW/>j Hr.huiflkdX liad liniuL I'Vom i'ort <'/Jinf/jn, at t)»<; jiinction of th'; two main hranch<'h of .Schuylkill above th'; \'t\\H'. moijnt^iin, thi« roa^l <;xt':nd« up th't Litth; Hchuylkill t/j ih'r 'V.iin'.u\\r.i. <^oal mirioH, n'-ar th'; Kouth hide of tlie i>ro;i/i moiinbun. Accent -I^Xi U'j'i: l«-nf/th 2.'} rnil<"',. MiuH lidl and SchuylkiU ffavrn, Had. lOnid,, «-xUiii(\H irouL Hcliuylkill ilaven, up the Weht iirarich of Hchuylkill, U) t)u'. (ujul mine*) in the neif^hU^urhood of Mine Jiill. f>enj(t}i of ro;id and branchen, 20 mile«, M(/unJ, (Jarh'/a H/id, lOttul, be}(inf«, at Moufjt Carbon, a milt< Lclow Pottijville, pfthbeb by that t/jwa up IVorw-giau creek U) the 160 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. commencement of the Danville and Pottsville rail road, and thence extends by branches to several coal mines. Length 7 miles. Schvylkill Valley Rail Road, commences at Port Carbon, where the Schuylkill navigation terminates, and passes up the Schuylkill through the coal region to Tuscarora, a distance of 10 miles. It has many branches, extending to various coal mines, the collective length of which is 12 or 15 miles. Mill Creek Rail Road, from Port Carbon to the mines about Mill creek, 4 miles, with branches amounting to 5 miles. Danville and Pottsville Rail Road, leaves the Mount Carbon rail road about 3 miles above Pottsville, crosses the Broad Mountain by a summit 1014 feet above the level of the Susquehanna at Sunbury, and continues across the valley of Mahanoy creek, and over the dividing ridge between that stream and Shamokin creek, down which it proceeds to Sunbury on the Susquehanna. On this road there is a tunnel 700 feet long, and seven inclined planes, one of which is 1650 feet in length, with a rise of 345 feet. Chain cables are used on these planes instead of ropes. The eastern section of this road is completed to GirardviUe, 14 miles from Pottsville. A tunnel 2500 feet long has been cut through Bear Ridge, on the Girard estate, for the purpose of obtaining coal. The western section of the road is completed from Sunbury, 21 miles, to the new town of Shamokin, where there are extensive coal mines, and a furnace for smelting iron with anthracite. Total length 44| miles. A branch, 7 miles in length, is contemplated to be made to Danville, on the North branch of Susquehanna. Little Schuylkill and Susquehanna, (w Catawissa Rail Road, extends from the termination of the Little Schuylkill rail road at Tamaqua, across the dividmg ridge between the waters of Little Schuylkill and Catawissa creek, and thence down the valley of the latter stream to the town of Catawissa on the North branch of y Susquehanna, about 35 miles. This road is unfinished. It is proposed to extend it from Catawissa to Williamsport in Lycoming county. A branch, 12 miles in length, extends from this road near the summit north of Tamaqua, down the valley of Gluakake, to the Beaver meadow rail road near the Lehigh. Mauch Chunk Rail Road, from the coal landing at Mauch Chunk to the summit mines, 9 miles. Ascent 936 leet ; highest grade 133 feet per mile. There is also a rail road of 5| miles, from Mauch Chunk to the company's coal mines on Room Run. Ascent 534 feet. Beaver Meadow Rail Road, from Parryville on the Lehigh, 6 miles below Mauch Chunk, up the river to the mouth of Q,uakake creek, and thence up that stream to the Beaver meadow mines; 20 miles. Hazelton Rail Road, branches off from the Beaver meadow road and leads to the coal mines near Hazelton; 8 miles. Lehigh and Susquehanna Rail Road, constructed by the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, from Whitehaven on the Lehigh to Wilkesbarre on the Susquehanna, where it connects with the INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 161 North Branch Canal. It has one tunnel and three inclined planes. Length 19|. miles. Carbondale and Honesdale Rail Road, connected with the Hud- son and Delaware canal navigation on the Lackawana, extends from Honesdale in Wayne county to the coal mines near Carbon- dale in Luzerne. Length 16^ miles. The summit on Moosic mountain, an elevation of 912 feet, is passed by means of incUned planes. Pine Grove Rail Road, from the Union canal navigation at Pine Grove in Schuylkill county, to the coal mines, 4 miles; to which may be added the Lorbert-y and Swatara rail roads to other mines in the same region, 8 miles. Lykens^ Valley Rail Road, from Millerstown on the Susque- hanna, along the north side of Berry's mountain to the Wiconisco coal mines at Bear Gap in Dauphin county. Length 16 miles. Williamsport and Elmira Rail Road, completed from the West Branch canal at Williamsport, up Lycoming creek to Ralston, 25 miles ; and thence to extend northward to Elmira in the State of New York, where it will connect with the Chemung canal. Total length 73^ miles. Blossburg and Coiirtins; Rail Road, from the bituminous coal region at Blossburg in Tioga county, to the Chemung canal at Corning in the State of New York; 40 miles; part finished. Harrisbur^ and Lancaster Rail Road, leaves the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road near Lancaster, and extends by Mountjoy and Portsmouth to Harrisburg, where it connects with the Cum- berland Valley rail road. Near Elizabethtown is a tunnel of 850 feet. Highest grade, 42 feet to the mile; but generally less than 35. Length 36 miles. Cumberland Valley Rail Road, commences at Harrisburg, and crossing the Susquehanna, continues westward by Carlisle, New- ville and Shippensburg to Chambersburg in Franklin county. The bridge by which this road crosses the Susquehanna is a beautiful structure, having the rail road laid upon the flat roof, with carriage ways beneath. Length of road 52 miles. A route for a rail road to connect with this, and to extend from Chambers- burg to Pittsburg, has been surveyed. Franklin Rail Road, connects with the Cumberland Valley rail road at Chambersburg, and thence proceeds southward by Green- castle to the state line, which it crosses and extends to Hagerstown in Maryland. Length about 20 miles. It is intended to continue this road to the Potomac, to intersect the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. York and Wrightsville Rail Road, extends from the western termination of the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road, across the Susquehanna to Wrightsville, and thence westward to York, 13 miles, where it intersects the Baltimore and Susquehanna rail road. It is proposed to continue this road to Gettysburg in Adams county- Baltimore and Susquehanna Rail Road, proceeds southward from York, up the vaUey of Codorus creek to the Maryland 14* 162 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. line 18 miles, and continues thence to Baltimore. Whole length, 56 miles. Summary. Length of State rail roads 118 miles. Length of State canals 848 miles. " of Company canals 432 " Total length of canals 1280 miles. of Company rail roads 602 of private rail roads to mines, &c. - 75 Total length of rail roads 795 miles. Twjipike Roads and Bridges. — Pennsylvania is distinguished for the number and excellence of her turnpike roads, which tra- verse the surface of the State in every direction, and extend their several branches to the most remote districts. They have been nearly all constructed by incorporated companies, and though few of them have ever yielded dividends equal to the interest on the cost of construction, and most of them little more than sufficient to keep them in repair, yet they should not be considered as an improvident and wasteful expenditure of capital. The advantages resulting to those portions of the State which they connect and through which they pass, from increased facilities of travelling and the transportation of produce and merchandise, the additional value which they consequently give to the lands adjacent to them, the easy and direct communication afforded by their means be- tween different sections of the country, previously separated by impassable mountains or impenetrable wilderness, have altogether far exceeded in value the cost of all the turnpikes in Pennsylvania. These roads are usually constructed of a bed of broken stone, from one to two feet thick, having a convex surface so as to per- mit the water to drain off freely, and sufficiently wide to allow the passage of two or three carriages abreast. On each side of this artificial road is another track, commonly called the summer road, which is made on the natural soil, and being generally smoother than the stoned road, is usually preferred when the ground is dry. On the steep mountain sides the turnpikes ascend by a winding series of regularly graded slopes, seldom exceeding three or four degrees, no angle exceeding five degrees being permitted by law. The durability and smoothness of a turnpike depends much upon the kind of stone with which it is made. Those rocks which readily disintegrate or crumble by pressure and friction, such as coarse, soft or loosely cemented sandstones, are not well adapted to this purpose. Limestone, when not too soft, makes an excel- lent road if broken small ; and on some of our best turnpikes has been conveyed many miles for making or repairing the roads in districts where other stone, of inferior quality, is convenient and abundant. In general, those rocks which have a compact texture, and are tough rather than hard, if broken sufficiently small to form a compact bed, make the best and most pleasant road. The Philadelphia and Lancaster turnpike, 62 miles in length, is said to be the first road of this kind undertaken in the United States. It was commenced in 1792 and finished two years after- wards, at a cost of about $465,000. Other turnpikes have since INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 163 been connected with it, forming a continuous line across the State throughout its whole length, from Trenton on the Delaware to the State of Ohio on the west, a distance of nearly 350 miles. Nu- merous other turnpikes intersect this main line, leading off from it in different directions, and again branching out and intersecting others, so as to form a network of communication to every part of the commonwealth, and rendering the most remote districts of comparatively easy access. The common roads are under the care of supervisors elected by the voters of each township, and are kept in repair by a tax laid upon the inhabitants. It is the custom in many townships for those who prefer it to work on the road to the amount of their tax, Deing duly notified by the supervisor when and where their ser- vices will be required. Bridges over small streams are erected at the expense of the townships ; but if the estimated cost of a re- quired bridge appears to be larger than a township should reason- ably bear, the court, grand jury and county commissioners may, on application, direct it to be built by the county. The number and excellence of the bridges in Pennsylvania is a frequent subject of remark by travellers. It would be useless for us to attempt a particular notice of the vast number erected at the expense of the several counties, over the streams within their limits ; many of them being substantial and well built structures, costing from $20,000 to $50,000. Those across the Delaware, Susquehanna, Allegheny, Monongahela and others of our large streams, amounting in number to 70 or 80, have been mostly built by incorporated companies ; and many of them are so distinguished for excellence of construction and ingenuity of combination, as well as scientific boldness and beauty of design, that it may well be doubted whether any other part of the world can compete with Pennsylvania in the art of building wooden bridges. What public improvements were recommended by a committee of the Legislature in 1791 ? When was the first act passed on the subject, and what was authorized by it ? What was directed by the act of 1825 ? — And of 1826? When was the internal improvement fund estabhshed, and of what does it consist ? What was authorized by the law of 1827 ? — ^Of 1828 ? What is said of the pubUc sentiment then existing in favour of internal im- provements ? Why have these favourable anticipations not been reahzed ? How was money obtained for the prosecution of the pubhc works ? What at length checked their further extension ? By what means could the state be extricated from embarrassment ? What is said of the benefits derived by the people from the public works ? In what other improvements beside canals and railroads have the funds of the State been invested? Describe the extent of each of the following divisions of the State canal, and men- tion such other particulars respecting them as you can remember. Dela- ware division. Eastern division. Juniata division. Susquehanna division. North Branch division. North Branch extension. West Branch division. Sinnemahoning extension. Wiconisco canal. Western division. Beaver division. Erie extension. French creek feeder. What is the extent of the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road ? Describe the Schuylkill viaduct and the inclined plane. What other particulars can you mention of this road? How is the motive power furnished, and what is said of the loco- motive engines ? Describe the Allegheny Portage R. R. How many in- 164 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. clined planes has it, and what is said of them ? How are the cars drawn up and let down the planes ? What is said of the Conemaugh viaduct and the tunnel ? For what purpose was the Gettysburg rail road intended ? Where do the works of the Lehigh Company commence, and what is their extent ? The Lackawaxen canal ? The Schuylkill navigation ? The Union canal? How is its summit supphed with water? Describe the Tide water canal. Conestoga navigation. Codorus navigation. Bald Eagle and Spring creek navigation. Monongahela navigation. Mahoning canal. What three rail roads in Philadelphia are mentioned ? Describe the Philadelphia and Trenton rail road. Philadelphia and Wilmington. (And each of the other rail roads mentioned.) What is the total length of State canals ? Of company canals ? Total length of canals in the State ? Of State, company and private rail roads ? What is said of the turnpikes of Pennsylvania ? By whom mostly made ? What have been the advan- tages resulting from them ? How are they constructed ? What kinds of stone are best for making these roads ? What is said of the Philadelphia and Lancaster turnpike ? What line of turnpike extends the whole length of the State ? . How are the common roads kept in repair ? — Small bridges erected ? What is said of the larger bridges across the rivers ? ■♦♦- PART II.-OF THE SEVERAL COUNTIES. 1. Adams County. This county is bounded on the north by Cumberland, east by York, west by Franklin, and south by the State of Maryland. Population, 23,044. The face of the country is rather hilly. Along the north-western border is the elevated range called the South mountain ; and many hills and ridges of trap rock traverse other parts of the county. Adams county has no large streams. Marsh creek. Rock creek and other branches of the Monocacy which flow southward into Maryland ; and Bermudian and Conewaga, in the eastern part, are the principal creeks. These afford many excellent mill seats, and many of them are used as such : the county may be said to be well watered. The geological features of this county are diversified. A belt of lime- stone passes through the south-eastern corner, from near Hanover in York county, by Littlestown, nearly to the Maryland hne, where it runs to a point, being overlapped by the middle secondary red shale and sandstone. This latter formation prevails over the greatest portion of the county, being broken, however, in many places by ridges and dikes of trap rock, which form rough and rocky hills. In the upper portion of the red shale form- ation, near the base of the South mountain, is a belt of calcareous conglo- merate, similar to the famous variegated Potomac marble, which in some places would yield blocks susceptible of a fine polish. It occurs in great variety and beauty near the village of Fairfield or Millerstown. The South mountain, with its protruding ridges, consists chiefly of a hard white sand- stone, accompanied by a variety of curiously altered rocks, highly interest- ADAMS COUNTY. 165 ing to the scientific geologist. Native copper, together with the blue and green carbonate of this metal, occurs in the South mountain — and epidote, asbestus, zeolite and other minerals are found here. Iron ore occurs in several parts of the county, but is not much used. The soil is of ^iree kinds, partaking of the nature of the several rock formations. 1. The limestone in the south-eastern part of the county, and a narrow belt near the base of the South moun- tain. This is very productive and well adapted to agriculture. 2. The soil of the red shale formation. Where this red shale has been altered by the influence of the protruded trap rock in its vi- cinity, and changed to a bluish colour, the soil is clayey and heavy, unfavourable to vegetation and not much valued for agri- culture. In low and wet situations, however, it produces tolerable crops of grass. But where the rock retains its natural red colour the soil is more fertile, and with proper improvement and the ju- dicious use of lime and other manures, may be rendered highly productive. In many places, where the rock lies near the surface, the summer crops suflfer much from drought. 3. The small patches and belts of soil arising from the disintegration of the trap rocks. This is a good soil, and if well farmed and manured is very productive, being considered nearly equal to that of the lime- stone. The climate is similar to that of the other southern counties of Pennsylvania. The mean annual temperature is 51.36"^ Fahren- heit ; that of the winter 29^ ; of summer 73*^. The thermometer seldom sinks below 0° during winter, or rises higher than 91° or 92° during summer. The greatest cold which has been known to occur here is 23° below 0° ; and the greatest heat 95° or 96°. Winter usually sets in about the middle of December, and spring opens about the middle of March. The maximum temperature occurs near the middle of July, and the minimum about the middle of January. Gettysburg is the county town, situated rather in the southern part of the county, between Marsh and Rock creeks. It is 114 miles from Philadelphia, 52 from Baltimore, 24 from Chambers- burg, and 32 from Hagerstown. Population 2,000. Its private dwellings are neat and substantial, though not expensive. The court house and pubhc offices are of brick, and sufficiently com- modious for the public business of the county. There are seven churches, which are mostly good buildings : one Presbyterian, one Lutheran, one Union, one Methodist, one Independent, one Roman Catholic and one African. The buildings belonging to the Pennsylvania College, and to the Lutheran Theological Seminary, are large and beautiful edifices, and being favourably situated pre- sent a splendid and imposing appearance. Adams county contains a number of flourishing villages, the principal of which are Petersburg (York Springs,) Littlestown, Abbotistown, Berlin, Oxford, Fairfield (Millerstown,) Hampton, Hunterstown, Mummasburg and Heidlersburg. Agriculture is the principal employment of the people of this county : its productions are wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, buck- 166 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. wheat, grass, &c. The principal forest trees are several species of oak, hickory, chestnut, pine, ash and poplar. A large amount of timber is annually sold, which is used in different parts of this county and the adjoining parts of Pennsylvania and Maryland. The manufacture of carriages is carried on extensively in Gettys- burg : they are mostly sold in Maryland and Virginia. The weaving of coach lace; the manufacture of saddle trees, paper, cotton and woollen goods, and of flour, employ a large amount of capital and industry. The value of real and personal property assessed for county purposes in 1842, was $4,330,360. The actual value of real estate is perhaps from a third to a half more than the assessed value. County tax, $14,390: State tax, $6,101. The turnpike and common roads are generally good. The prin- cipal turnpikes are those leading from Chambersburg and Carlisle towards Baltimore, and that from York to Gettysburg. There are no canals in the county, and but one unfinished rail road, the famous " Gettysburg extension," which was designed to connect the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road with the Baltimore and Ohio rail road, and the Chesapeake and Ohio canal near V^illiams- port in Maryland. The state of education among the people generally may be said to be tolerably good. There are 18 school districts, in 16 of which the common school system has been in operation since 1835. The number of school houses is about 100, of brick, stone, and wood. The schools are kept open on an average about 5 months in the year; but for want of suitable teachers are not in the best condition. They are, however, perhaps equal to those of most of the other counties in the State. Pennsylvania College is located at Gettysburg, and is in a very flourishing condition. During the last year it had in the collegiate and preparatory departments about 190 students. The faculty consists of a president and four professors ; it has, besides, two tutors, and a lecturer on anatomy. The library contains 1200 volumes and is increasing yearly. The hbrary of the president contains 1500 volumes, and those of two Hterary societies con- nected with the college, about 800 each. Connected with the Lutheran Theological Seminary is a library of 7000 volumes. There is a flourishing female seminary at Gettysburg. This county was originally a part of Lancaster; but after the erection of Y^ork county, in 1749, it formed a part of that county. In 1800 it was laid ofi" as a separate county under the name of Adams. The first settlers came principally from Lancaster and Chester counties, and many foreigners, chiefly from Ireland and Scotland, were afterwards added to their number. Within the last 30 or 40 years, the original stock have been very much supplanted by Ger- mans or their descendants; and the German language is now commonly spoken in several parts of the county. How is Adams county bounded ? What is said of the face of the country, mountains, &c. Mention the principal streams. Describe the rock forma- ALLEGHENY COUNTY. 167 tions. In what part of the county is variegated marble found ? What ores and minerals occur ? What is said of the different soils ? Of the climate and the extremes of heat and cold ? What is the name of the county town, and how situated? Mention some of the villages in this county. The agricultural productions. Forest trees. Manufactures. Turnpikes and rail roads. VVhat is said of the state of education, and of the common schools ? What college and seminaries are in this county ? When was Adams county established, and to which did it originally belong ? From whence came the first settlers and emigrants from foreign countries ? 2. Allegheny County. The county of Allegheny is bounded on the north by Butler ; on the east by Westmoreland ; south and south-west by Wash- ington, and north- west by Beaver. Population 81,235. The face of the country near the rivers and principal creeks is much broken, being furrowed into deep ravines and hollows. As we recede from these, the surface becomes more level ; but a large portion of the upland is of the kind called rolling, which is generally much prized by the farmers. But little of the land in this county can be called flat, excepting the alluvial or bottom lands along the rivers and creeks. Although some of the counties in Pennsylvania are more highly cultivated, and many have scenery more imposing and grand, yet few can present landscapes more pleasing. The river scenery, always beautiful on the Ohio and its tributaries, is almost equalled in beauty by the views presented from a thousand elevated spots, from which may be seen in varied succession, hills and dales, woods and thickets, orchards and fartn houses, herds of cattle and cultivated fields. Allegheny county is situated within the great western coal basin of Penn- sylvania, and it is to an inexhaustible supply of the finest bituminous coal, that Pittsburg principally owes its prosperity as a manufacturing city. It is this which supplies steam power and fuel for the foundries, steam engine manufactories, rolUng mills, nail works, cotton factories, and the vast va- riety of other industrial operations in manufactures and arts where heat is required ; and which has in less than fifty years enabled the industry and enterprise of her people to convert a village of a few log huts into a great manufacturing and commercial city. The lowest rock visible in the neighbourhood of Pittsburg is a soft red and blue shale of considerable thickness, on which rests a small seam of coal about a foot thick, surmounted by a stratum of Hmestone which con- tains abundance of fossil remains, chiefly encrini, producta, terebratula, &c. Next succeeds a thick series of slate, shale and sandstone layers ; above which is the sandstone rock that affords so abundant a supply of building stone for the city of Pittsburg, and of which have been constructed the western penitentiary, the new court house, and other public and private buildings. Over this is a bed of shales, slates and sandstones, supporting a band of limestone about three feet thick, of a yellowish colour, which breaks by joints into square or rhomboidal fragments. Immediately over- lying this is another series of variously coloured shales, supporting another thin bed of hmestone resembling the one last mentioned, separated by ten or twelve feet of red and yellow shale from a fourth limestone band, from three to five feet thick. The next rock in the ascending order consists of thin sandstones, separated by bands of slate and shale, and upon which rest the Hmestone strata immediately beneath the great Pittsburg coal 168 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. seam. This limestone is of a blue or blackish colour, and consists of a number of layers separated by shale. The bed of coal, which supplies Pittsburg and its neighbourhood with such immense quantities of fuel, is situated towards the summit of the hills that lie around the city, and is one of the most important and extensively useful coal deposites in western Pennsylvania, yielding coal of the purest and best kind. It extends from some miles north of Pittsburg, southward over the whole valley of the Monongahela, being found in Allegheny, Westmoreland, Fayette, Greene and Washington counties. The main bed of workable coal in this seam is from 5^ to 9 feet in thickness ; being in Allegheny county generally about six feet, and enlarging to the south-east- ward. Above this, and separated from it by a thin layer of black clay shale, is a portion of the seam consisting of coal several feet thick, but so inter- mixed with thin bands of slate that it is generally rejected, on account of the trouble of separating the coal from the slate. The elliptical conformation of the basin causes this coal, together with the accompanying rock strata of the series, to ascend and crop out towards the east and north-east, and also towards the north and north-west ; and to descend gently towards the south. Hence we find the shales and sand- stones that overlie this coal, and which form the summits of the hills around Pittsburg, covered in the southern part of the county by a deposite of limestone which is still higher in the series. This extensive and highly useful bed of limestone spreads over most of the southern part of Alle- gheny, generally capping the summits of the hills ; but further southward it sinks below their tops, and is found in the hill sides and ravines, or form- ing the beds of the streams. It is of variable thickness, and consists of numerous layers of blue or dark coloured limestone, with interposed thin bands of calcareous shale. This bed of limestone is better adapted for burning into lime than most of the other strata in this region ; and when the value of lime as a manure for the soil shall be properly understood in our south-western counties, it will afford a source of mexhaustible advan- tage to the agriculture of this part of the State. That part of Allegheny county which lies east and south of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, generally abounds in limestone and has an excellent soil. In that portion which lies west and north of those rivers, limestone is less abundant, and the soil is generally clayey. Here, however, the farmers who properly manure and cultivate their lands are well rewarded for their labour. The hill sides near the principal streams are generally too steep to be culti- vated by the plough ; but having a rich deep soil, those which have a southern or eastern exposure are admirably suited for gar- dens and graperies. From the success which has recently attended the cultivation of the grape, it is probable that before long many of the hill sides in this county will be devoted to the production of this delightful and wholesome fruit. During the summer the thermometer ranges generally from 75^ to 85° ; though some days occur on which it reaches 90° or 95*^. In the Avinter it seldom falls below 15° ; but there are few winters in which there are not some days of extreme cold on which the mercury falls to 0°, and sometimes as low as 10° or 15° below. The spring season is sometimes cold and wet until after the begin- ning of May, and frosts occasionally occur early in September. The autumn usually affords much delighful weather, with a tem- perature of 60*^ to l^'^, until November. The winter does not commonly set in with severity until about the first of January, ALLEGHENY COUNTY. 169 though sometimes much earlier. A general thaw, clearing the ground of frost, commonly takes place about the middle of March ; but some sharp frosts are usual after this period, and indeed it is seldom that the month of May passes without frosts in the early part of it. This county is traversed by the Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio rivers : the two first mentioned uniting at Pittsburg and there form- ing the Ohio. The Allegheny is remarkable for the clearness of its waters and the general beauty of the stream, being studded with many islands and flowing through a highly picturesque country. During high and middling stages of water, it is navigable for steamboats of hght draught as high as Olean, in the State of New York. The benefit of the trade on this river to our western counties, and indeed to many of the western states, is incalculable. Out of it has been floated nearly all the pine timber, boards and shingles that have been used in the valley of the Mississippi from Pittsburg to New Orleans. From three to six steamboats now run on this river from Pittsburg to Preeport, Kittaning, Franklin and Warren ; and in the summer season, when the river is low, small keel and flat boats are employed to do the carrying trade. About 400 large arks, or flat boats, from 65 to 120 feet long, come down the Allegheny annually, loaded with lumber and produce. These boats are generally sold at Pittsburg to the coal merchants, who reload them with coal for Cincinnati, Louisville, Natchez and the intermediate ports. The ascending trade of the Allegheny consists chiefly of Pitts- burg manufactures, groceries, and foreign and domestic goods for the supply of the upper country : but the descending trade is much greater, embracing a vast amount of all kinds of lumber, logs and shingles, pot and pearl ashes, whisky, cheese, cabinet ware, patent tubs and buckets, hay, oats, potatoes, hoop poles, bark, &c. a large quantity of salt from the Kiskiminetas, and of pig metal from the great iron establishments in Venango and Armstrong counties. The Monongahela, in appearance, offers a striking contrast compared with the Allegheny. Its waters are scarcely ever clear, and it has few or no islands in it. It flows through a picturesque, as well as highly cultivated country, and from its smooth and gentle current is well adapted to navigation. The trade on this river is also important, and to facilitate its navigation during the season of low water, a company has been incorporated to improve it by means of dams and locks. When this improvement shall have been completed, boats drawing four feet of water can pass at all seasons from Pittsburg to Brownsville. Of the Ohio it may be said that no stream in the world of the same length (and it is nearly 1000 miles long) exceeds it either in. beauty or usefulness. Its smooth and gentle current; its ever- varying but always beautiful scenery ; the high state of cultivation of the country through which it flows ; the growing and already noble cities, thriving towns, and numberless comfortable and occa- sionally splendid dwellings on its banks : its adaptation to steam 15 170 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. navigation, and the value of the products carried upon it — make it altogether the most interesting river in the world. Besides these rivers, Allegheny county is watered by a number of considerable streams, such as Chartier^s, Pine, Bull, Ticrtle, Peters^ and Deer creeks, on all of which are flouring and saw mills ; as well as a number of smaller streams on which there are some similar improvements. View of Pittsburg from the mouth of Saw-mill run, on the Ohio. The city of Pittsburg, being the capital, not only of this county, but of Western Pennsylvania, seems from its importance to require, in a work like this, a somewhat extended notice. We shall there- fore preface our account of its present state by a brief history of its first settlement, rise and progress, abridged from " Harris' Direc- tory," a valuable work to which we are indebted for many facts relating to Pittsburg and its vicinity. In pursuance of the scheme formed by the French governor of Canada for connecting that country with Louisiana, which then belonged to the same nation, a military post, called fort Venango, had been established at the mouth of French creek, where the town of Franklin now stands. The governor of Virginia, alarmed bv the progress of the French, sent Geoi'ge Washington to fort Venango to demand an explanation of their designs from the French commandant. Preparations had also been made by the French to take possession of '•' the Forks" at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, the spot now covered by the city of Pittsburg. Washington visited this place on his way to fort Venango, and carefully examined it, with a view to iis loca- tion as a military post. This was in November, 1753, and it does ALLEGHENY COUNTY. 171 not appear that there was then a single white resident within the limits of the present city. The Virginians, in the ensuing spring, commenced the erection of a fort in order to enable them to take possession of the country; but before being completed it was captured by a large body of French and Indians. It was named Fort Du Q,uesne, and re- mained in possession of the French from 1754 to 1758. From this place arms and ammunition were distributed to the Indians, and they were incited to those murderous attacks upon the fron- tier settlements of Pennsylvania, which so long harassed and dis- turbed the settlers. Measures were taken to expel the French from this post, among which was the unfortunate and unsuccessful expedition of General Braddock in 1755. A formidable army having assembled at Carhsle, under the command of General Forbes, in 1758, the capture of Fort Du Q,uesne was again at- tempted, and Major Grant was despatched in advance with 800 men. Having arrived near the fort, on the hill which now bears his name, he was surrounded and attacked by the enemy, losing above 300 men in killed and prisoners, being himself captured. General Forbes, however, pressed forward with the main body, — but on his approach the French set fire to the fort and abandoned it. A temporary stockaded fort, to contain 220 men, was constructed on the bank of the Monongahela, about 300 yards from the point where Fort Du Q^uesne stood, and was named Fort Pitt, in honour of the distinguished statesman of that name. In 1759, General Stanwix began to construct another fort, between the site of Fort Du Gluesne and the temporary Fort Pitt, to which the name of the latter was given. This was a formidable work, and is stated to have cost the British government about 60,000 pounds sterling. In 1763, when most of the forts to the north-west were taken by the Indians, Fort Pitt was also besieged; but was relieved by Colonel Bouquet, who marched from Carlisle and completely routed the Indians. A treaty was made in 1764, by which peace was restored. About this time " the old military plan," being that portion of the city between Water and Second streets, and between Market and Ferry streets, was laid out. In 1764, the brick redoubt was built, which may still be seen a little west of Stanwix street and north of Penn street. This is the only remaining monument of British industry within the limits of the city, and has on its south side a stone block with the inscription " Col. Bouquet, A. D. 1764." From this time until the close of the revolutionary war, but Ihtle improvement was made at Pittsburg. In 1775, the number of dwelling houses within the limits of the present city did not exceed twenty-five or thirty. The land where the city stands, and the country eastward of it and south of the Monongahela, con- taining about 5,800 acres, was a manor belonging to the Penn family, and remained as their property after the revolution. Arrangements were made in the spring of 1784, by the agent of the Penns, to lay out and sell town lots and out lots on this manor; and these having been surveyed, seem to have been rapidly pur- 172 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. chased. From this time improvement commenced: mechanics and traders composed a great portion of the population. In 1786, the first number of the Pittsburg Gazette was published, and in an article contained in it, the number of houses in the town was stated to be about one hundred. Pittsburg was then in West- moreland county, and the inhabitants had to travel about thirty miles to attend court. In 1788, an act was passed creating the county of Allegheny out of parts of Westmoreland and Washing- ton counties. The courts were to be held at Pittsburg until cer- tain trustees named in the act should erect suitable buildings on the reserved tract opposite Pittsburg; but in 1791 this provision was repealed, and the trustees authorized to purchase lots in Pitts- burg for a court house and jail. The creation of a new county, and the establishment of the seat of justice at Pittsburg, had an effect in promoting the improvement of the town. A more im- portant event, however, in the early history of Pittsburg, was the Western insurrection, in 1794, which compelled the government to send a large number of troops to this neighbourhood. These being mostly volunteers, active enterprising young men, many of them were so well pleased with Pittsburg and the surrounding country, that on their return home they made immediate prepara- tions for emigration and permanent settlement there. The first act for the incorporation of the borough of Pittsburg, was passed April 22, 1794. The act to incorporate the city of Pittsburg, was passed March 18, 1816. In considering the present condition, manufactures, trade and resources of Pittsburg, it will be proper to include the adjoining city of Allegheny, and boroughs of Manchester, Birmingham, Law- renceville, and other suburban dependencies, which, although not within the city proper, yet so far as general business interests are concerned, may be considered as belonging to the same community. Many of the large manufacturing establishments are located in these suburbs, and have their warehouses, owners or agents with- in the city proper, that being the place where the greater part of the business is transacted. According to the census of 1840, the city of Pittsburg contained a population of 21,115, Allegheny, 10,089; and including the boroughs above mentioned and the thickly peopled districts around, it may be assumed that the total population of this community of Pittsburg is not less than 40,000. The interests of this community, like those of all large towns, are essentially manufacturing and commercial; but in no town in the United States, of the same population, is so large a portion of the inhabitants engaged in manufactures. It is to her advantages as a manufacturing town that we are mainly to attribute her rapid increase in wealth and population. Pittsburg and its suburbs contain 1 1 iron foundries and steam engine manufactories, 8 rolling mills and manufactories of bar iron and nails, 8 glass works, 6 cotton factories, 3 steel factories, 3 steam flouring mills, 6 steam saw-mills, 2 extensive rope walks, an oil floor cloth manufactory, extensive smith shops, plough, carriage- ALLEGHENY COUNTY. 173 and wagon factories, establishments for boat building, and for the manufacture of leather, hats, caps, paper, cabinet furniture, and a vast variety of other useful and fancy articles. The position of this city, at the head of the Ohio river and at the termination of the Pennsylvania canal, — commanding also the trade of those two noble rivers, the Allegheny and Monongahela, — also ensure to it advantages as a commercial place, equalled by few others. Of the steamboats employed on the Ohio and the contiguous rivers, 89 in number, amounting to 12,436 tons, are owned either wholly or in part at Pittsburg. The new court house is a splendid edifice, situated on Grant's Hill, at an elevation which commands an extensive view of the three rivers, with the hills, valleys, towns and villages in the neighbourhood. The building is 165 feet long, and 100 feet wide; having in the rear a spacious and well constructed prison. The architecture is of the Doric order, and the building is surmounted by a dome 37 feet in diameter at the base, the top of which is 148 feet above the level of the street. This court house was about five years in the progress of erection, and cost nearly $200,000. The Western Penitentiary is in Allegheny city, and is a good specimen of prison architec-ture in the Gothic style. It contains separate cells for the purpose of solitary confinement j and is ma- naged with a view to the moral culture and reformation, as well as the punishment of the guilty. The Presbyterian Theological Seminary is also in Allegheny city, built upon a commanding eminence, and is 140 feet long, by 50 feet wide; the central part being four, and the wings three stories high. The Western University, the Orphan Asylum, the Third Pres- byterian church, and several of the banks, as well as the two noble hotels, the Exchange Hotel and the Monongahela House, are also worthy of notice, as extensive and well constructed buildings. There are in Pittsburg and its environs, 55 places of public worship, belonging to different denominations, viz. Presbyterian 20, Baptist 4, Roman Catholic 3, Episcopalian 5, Associate and Associate Reformed 6, Lutheran 2, Congregationalist 2, Disciples 2, Church of God, Unitarian, German Protestant, and German Re- formed one each, Welsh 3, Coloured 4. The theological seminaries are three : The Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian church, which has three professors, a library of about 6000 volumes, and has connected with it a large work shop for manual labour, 2. The Theological Seminary of the Associate Reformed church, which also has a valuable library and a commodious lecture room. 3. The Allegheny Theological Institute, organized in 1840 by the General Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian church. It is intended to erect a large edifice in Alle- gheny city, for the accommodation of this Institute. Associations for the promotion of religious, moral and charitable objects are numerous in Pittsburg, Allegheny and the neighbour- ing districts. The cause of temperance has no where more ear- nest and untiring advocates, and perhaps in no place have their 15* 174 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. efforts been crowned with more success. Literature and science are not neglected : ten or twelve associations or institutes for the promotion and diffusion of useful knowledge have been organized; several of which have libraries and reading rooms, and in some of them courses of lectures are delivered on scientific and literary subjects. Banks and Insurance Companies. Bank of Pittsburg, capital $1, 200,000 ; Merchants & Manufacturers' Bank, capital $600,000 ; Exchange Bank, capital $1,000,000; Farmer's Deposh Bank, capital $200,000, with privilege to increase to $500,000. Insurance : Pittsburg Navigation and Fire Insurance Co., capital $250,000, in shares of $100 each; Fireman's Insurance Co., capital $250,000, in shares of $25 each ; Office of Beaver County Insurance Co., capital $40,000, in shares of $50 each; Office of American Fire Insurance Co. of Philadelphia ; Office of Philadelphia Fire and Inland Navigation Insurance Co. The Pittsburg Waterworks were first put in operation in 1827, and a large part of the city is now supplied with pure and whole- some water from the Allegheny river. This is raised by means of a powerful engine into a reservoir above the level of the city, from which it is distributed by pipes laid through the streets. Works are in progress by which the utility of this invaluable pub- lic improvement will be very much extended. The number of feet of pipe, of different sizes, laid for the conveyance of water from these works is upwards of 51 ,000, or rather more than 9^ miles. The gas works were erected in 1836, and are under the direction of twelve trustees, elected by the city councils. Afi the principal streets are now lighted with gas, and its benefits are soon to be extended more widely. The coal of Pittsburg is well adapted to the production of gas, and in no place are there greater natural facilities for obtaining this cheap and brilHant light. There are six daily and twelve weekly newspapers published in Pittsburg, beside some religious, and other periodicals. Three of the newspapers are printed in the German language. The people are generally well informed and intelligent, and care is taken to promote the improvement of children and youth by means of com- mon and Sunday schools, the good effects of which are visible among all classes of the rising generation. There are few places of the same population where there is less drunkenness and vice, or more regard for the interests of religion and morality. The people of this place and its vicinity deserve the reputation which they so extensively enjoy for industry. It has become proverbial that '* the idler can find no company in Pittsburg." The effect of this persevering and unwearied industry and application to busi- ness, upon individual as w^ell as general prosperity, is well illus- trated by the fact that many of the citizens who are at present en- joying handsome fortunes were once labourers in the furnaces which they now own ; and some who were not long since driving drays now ride in their own carriages. The advantages of a man's owii individual exertion in raising himself to competence and a re- spectable station in society, have been truly exemphfied in this place. ALLEGHENY COUNTY. 175 Within the bounds of this county, besides the city of Pittsburg and the adjacent places already named, are Elizabethtown, M^Kees- port, Sharpshurg, Bakerstown, East Liberty, Stewartstown, JYobles- town, and other thriving villages. The three first named are in- corporated boroughs. The agricultural products of Allegheny county are wheat, rye, oats, indiaa corn, potatoes, &c., with some barley and buckwheat. Flax and wool are also produced in considerable quantity. Coal is the great staple mineral product, of which it is estimated that from eleven to twelve millions of bushels are mined annually. This county contains 92 flouring and grist mills, and 81 saw mills. About 45,000 barrels of flour are manufactured annually. The other principal manufactures of the county have been noticed in our account of Pittsburg. The value of real and personal estate assessed for county pur- poses in Allegheny is $13,475,619; county tax $75,921; State tax $17,507. The assessed valuation of property is, however, be- lieved to be very considerably below the real value. The Western Division of the Pennsylvania canal enters this county on the west side of the Allegheny river, about 30 miles above Pittsburg, and passing down on the same side, until opposite the city, is there taken across the river by a splendid aqueduct 1,200 feet long, built by the State at a cost of $104,000. After passing through a tunnel under Grant's Hill, this canal terminates at the Monongahela river. Another branch of the canal continues through Allegheny city, and debouches into the Allegheny river a feAv hundred yards above the head of the Ohio. Beside the aqueduct already mentioned, there are three bridges, each about 1,200 feet long, across the Allegheny river, connecting the cities of Pittsburg and Allegheny. There is also a bridge over the Monongahela river, 1 ,500 feet in length, forming a communi- cation between Pittsburg and Birmingham. Several turnpike roads pass in different directions through this county, which, together with most of the common roads, are kept in tolerable repair. The attention which is given to the cause of education in Pitts- burg and its vicinity has been already mentioned. The common school system is in general operation throughout the county, which has 33 school districts, maintaining 230 schools. Each of the five wards in the city of Pittsburg has its public school house, in which the male and female departments are under separate teachers. In the third ward is also a public school for the instruction of coloured children. These schools are kept open for about eleven months in the year: but in the country districts the average time which the schools are in operation does not exceed six or seven months. The Teachers' Lyceum of Allegheny county is an institution having for its object the improvement of teachers, and the general diff"usioa of knowledge. This county has its share of historical interest, and in perusing the accounts of the old French and Indian wars we shall find it the scene of many a memorable event. Here Washington, when 176 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. but a youth, visited the Indians at Shannapin's town^ and spent several days with them at Logstown. On his return from Le BcEuf, on foot, in the end of December, he and his companion came near perishing when crossing the Allegheny river at the head of Herr's Island. Their frail raft was broken by the drifting ice, and the future preserver of his country, together with his only companion, sank up to their necks in the freezing stream. They finally extricated themselves, but suffered intensely until they reached Frazier's at the mouth of Turtle creek, a distance of nine or ten miles. In this county is the memorable field where the gal- lant but imprudent Braddock, with his ill-fated host, were destroyed by the savages, and the bones of the slain, and other rehcs of the fight are yet found by the ploughman and the curious visiter. Here La Fayette, in 1825, landed from a skiff and walked over the bloody field where the illustrious friend of his youth first distin- guished himself by his coolness and bravery. A few hillocks yet show the outline of that fort from which the hapless prisoners taken at Braddock's defeat were led to the stake. The territory which now forms this county has been the scene of many an In- dian outrage and many a pioneer adventure, a few only of which have been preserved from the oblivion of time. How is Allegheny county bounded ? Is the surface level or hilly ? What is the most valuable mineral production ? How is the principal coal bed situated, — and what is said of its extent and thickness ? Mention the prin- cipal strata of limestone and building stone. Describe the several varieties of soil. What is said of the climate ? What three rivers are in this county ? What is said of the Allegheny, its navigation and trade ? Of the Monon- gahela? Of the Ohio? What other streams are mentioned? What is the principal city and how situated ? Who first commenced the erection of a fort here, and what was it called after its capture by the French ? By whom was it retaken and what was it then named ? What remains of the old fortifications still exist ? What was the number of houses in 1775 ? In what year did the place begin to improve ? When was Allegheny county established, and to what had it previously belonged? In what year was Pittsburg incorporated as a borough, and when as a chy ? What city and towns are adjoining to and connected with Pittsburg ? AVhat is its popula- tion and that of Allegheny city ? Total of these cities and adjoining towns? Mention the principal manufacturing establishments and their number? What is said of the advantageous position of this city? What are the prin- cipal pubhc buildings ? Describe the new Court-house, the Western Peni- tentiary, &c. What theological seminaries are situated here? What is said of the religious, moral and literary institutions ? Banks and Insurance companies? Describe the Pittsburg water works. The gas works. How many newspapers are published ? What is said of the inhabitants and their general character for morality and industry? Name some of the other towns in Allegheny county. What are the chief productions of agri- culture ? The staple mineral product ? The manufacture of flour ? What is said of the canal and aqueduct ? The principal bridges ? Of the com- mon schools ? Mention some of the historical events connected with this county. 3. Armstrong County. Armstrong county is bounded on the north by Clarion, east by Jefferson and Indiana, south by Westmoreland, and west by Butler. ARMSTRONG COUNTY. 177 The total population, by the census of 1840, was 28,365; but a portion having been since laid off into the new county of Clarion, leaves the present number in Armstrong at about 19,255. The surface of this county is diversified, being generally what may be termed hilly or rolling. In some parts are large tracts of land which are unfit for cultivation ; others are suited only to the growth of timber; while extensive portions are found which may be classed among the richest lands in the State. The alluvial bottoms along the streams are highly prized for their fertility, and are generally thickly settled and cultivated. The Allegheny river passes nearly in a direction from north to south through the western part of this county, and is navigable for steamboats from Pittsburg to Warren, in Warren county. Red Bank creek forms the northern boundary of Armstrong county. Mahoning creek, a large tributary of the Allegheny, falls into that river 10 miles above Kittaning. Cowanshannock and Crooked creeks flow westward and empty into the Allegheny, the former two miles above, and the latter six miles below Kittaning. Crooked creek affords a number of excellent mill seats, and has on it six large flouring mills in operation. The Kiskiminetas river, which forms the southern boundary of the county, is one of the largest tributaries of the Allegheny, and is noted for the salt works in its vicinity. That portion of the county which lies west of the Al- legheny river is watered by Buffalo creek, Avhich flows southward, affording water power for a number of mills, and empties into the Allegheny two miles below the mouth of the Kiskiminetas. This county lies within the great bituminous coal formation, and contains beds of coal, limestone and iron ore, which are rapidly adding wealth and importance to the county, as they are brought into productive usefulness. The want of capital, how- ever, has hitherto retarded the developement of the mineral re- sources of this region, until the recent erection of furnaces and other manufacturing establishments, which now begin to give promise of the future wealth to be derived from the formerly ne- glected hills of Armstrong. The salt works on the Allegheny and Kiskiminetas rivers form an important item in the productions of this county. The wells for obtaining the salt-water are generally bored from 500 to 650 feet deep, being three inches in diameter for the first 200 feet, and the remainder two inches. Copper tubes are inserted,' which have a band of leather filled with flax, tied around them above the point at which the vein of salt-water is reached. This fills the hole around the tube and prevents the fresh water above from mingling with the salt-water below. The brine is pumped from these lubes, by steam power, into a large reservoir, from which it flows into the boihng pans. After boiling for some time the brine is turned off into a cooling vat, where a sediment settles from it ; it next passes into the graining pan, where after evaporation, the salt re- mains in the bottom. These pans are of iron, eight feet wide and twenty feet long, and are placed over furnaces in which the re- quisite heat is maintained. Each establishment consumes from 178 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 175 to 200 bushels of coal daily, and employs four or five men. The cost of boring a well and erecting the requisite works is about $3,500 ; and the quantity of salt made from a well varies from 1000 to 5000 barrels yearly. The whole amount of salt manu- factured annually within the county is about 320,000 bushels. Kittanmir, the county town, is situated on the east side of the Allegheny river, forty miles north-east from Pittsburg. Popula- tion in 1840, 1,323. It has a court-house, a prison, an academy, and several churches. Coal is abundant in the neighbourhood of the town. Kittaning is built upon the site of an old Indian village of the same name, which was taken and burnt during the French and Indian war by Col. Armstrong. About forty Indians were killed in the attack, a number of English prisoners were released, and by this well-timed and successful enterprise, an expedition which had been planned by the French and Indians against the frontier settlements was prevented. Freeport is a thriving town, in the southern part of the county, situated on the Allegheny river, sixteen miles below Kittaning, and twenty-eight from Pittsburg. It contains five churches, two steam woollen factories, and a steam saw-mill. The Western Division of the Pennsylvania canal passes through the town, and it is the principal depot for merchandise coming from the eastward for the supply of Armstrong and the other northern counties bordering on the Allegheny river. Population 826. Leechbiirg is a flourishing place, situated on the canal, 35 miles from Pittsburg and 15 from Kittaning. At this place there is a large dam built across the Kiskiminetas river, 27 feet high and 574 feet long, constructed for the purpose of feeding the canal from that point to Pittsburg. This forms an immense water power, which belongs to the State, and is not improved. If brought into use it would make Leechburg a place of much importance in manufactures. This county contains also Warren, Middletown, Lawrenceburg, Worthington, and other rising towns and villages, with a popula- tion of from 100 to 250 inhabitants. The agricultural productions are those common to the other western counties of the State, and much of the soil is well adapted to the raising of grain, large quantities of which are sent from the southern part of the county to supply the eastern market. Cattle and sheep are raised in great numbers. Within the last few years a superior breed of sheep have been introduced into the country, by which it is believed that wool will before long become one of the staple productions. There are four furnaces for the manufacture of iron now in operation. Two of these are in Franklin township ; one in Sugar creek, which is one of the largest furnaces in the State, and con- nected with which, near the mouth of Sugar creek, is an extensive rolling mill ; both under the control of an incorporated company. The other furnace is in Madison township, near which is said to be a very large bed of cannel coal. The value of property assessed for county purposes in 1842 was $2,121,352; county tax, $7,592; state tax $2,308. BEAVER COUNTY. 179 The Pennsylvania canal passes along the whole southern bound- ary of this county, a distance of 25 miles. A tolerable turnpike road passes through Kittaning to Butler; and the common roads are kept in as good order as is usual in the western counties. There is an academy at Kittaning, and the system of education by common schools is general throughout the county. There are 14 school districts, and 129 common schools, but they are kept open only about four months on an average during the year. The population of Armstrong county is of a mixed description. Many of the inhabitants are of German and Irish descent, — prin- cipally settlers from Westmoreland and the neighbouring counties. By what counties is Armstrong bounded? Describe the face of the country and soil. The principal streams. What valuable mineral produc- tions ? How is salt water obtained i In what manner is salt manufac- tured from it ? What is the county town and how situated ? Where is Freeport ? Leechburg ? What other villages in the county ? What is said of the agricultural productions, &c. ? Of the iron manufactures? Canal and turnpike roads ? Education ? Of the inhabitants ? 4. Beaver County. Beaver county adjoins the states of Virginia and Ohio on the west, Mercer county on the north, Butler on the east, Allegheny on the south-east, and Washington on the south. Population 29,368. The surface is generally rolling rather than hilly, with steep and precipitous ascents from the valleys of the principal water courses. The alluvial soil of the bottom lands is highly fertile, and most of the upland is adapted to the production of grain and for the graz- ing of cattle and sheep. Agriculture here is in a flourishing state, and among its other pursuits considerable attention has been bestowed upon the cultivation of the mulberry for silk, and the vine for grapes. The Ohio river flows across the southern part of Beaver county, and in the north the Mahoning and Shenango unite and form Beaver river, which flows southward nearly through the middle of the county, and empties into the Ohio near the town of Beaver. In the east are Slippery-rock and Coneqiienessing creeks, both con- siderable streams, Avhich unite their waters and flow westward into Beaver river. On Beaver river, within five miles from its junction with the Ohio, is a succession of falls and rapids, having an aggregate descent of 69 feet, and affording an immense water power for manufacturing and mechanical purposes. Valuable and extensive beds of bituminous coal, with strata of limestone, occur in almost every part of the county. Near Greens- burg is a bed of cannel coal about eight feet thick, resting upon three feet of ordinary bituminous coal. This cannel coal is light, compact, ignites with great facility, and burns with a strong bright flame. Beaver is the county town, situated on an elevated plain near 180 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the junction of Beaver river with the Ohio. It is an incorporated borough;, and contains 551 inhabitants. Its pubhc buildings are a court-house and county offices of brick, a stone prison, a bank, an academy and several churches. This town, though pleasantly situated, has not improved so rapidly as many other places in the same neighbourhood. Bridgewater is situated on the west side of Beaver river, imme- diately at its junction with the Ohio, being connected with Ro- chester, on the opposite side of the Beaver, by a handsome and substantial bridge. Fallston is a flourishing manufacturing town, at the foot of the falls of Beaver river, and thence deriving its name. A race has been constructed here, a mile and a half in length, by which the water is conducted to the wheels of a row of manufacturing estab- lishments of various kinds, such as woollen factories, flour mifls, saw mills, oil mills, paper mills and other industrial operations in wnich water power may be usefully employed. In the rear of this town is a bed of excellent coal, so conveniently situated that the fuel may be slid from the mouth of the mines into the kitchen yards of many of the houses. On the opposite side of the river, and connected with Fallston by a handsome permanent bridge, is the village of JVew Brighton, where the water power is also immense, and various mills and factories have already been erected. Brighton, on the west side of Beaver river, four miles above the Ohio, is a beautiful and flourishing place, commanding unlimited water power from the river, with a fall of about twenty feet. Here is a flouring mill capable of manufacturing 200 barrels of flour per day ; an extensive cotton manufactory, and a large paper mill constructed upon the most approved plan. There is a tannery, and also a number of mechanical estabhshments. Sharon is a thriving village on the west side of Beaver river, about a mile from the Ohio, having an iron foundry ; an extensive establishment for the manufacture of patent tubs and buckets ; boat yards for the construction of keel and canal boats, and various other manufacturing concerns. Freedom, a village on the Ohio, about a mile above the mouth of Beaver, has several manufactories, among which is one for steam engines and boilers j and a boat yard for the building of steamboats. Economy is a German settlement on the north-east bank of the Ohio, 18 miles below Pittsburg. The town contains about 100 houses, and is situated on a beautiful plain about 80 feet above the river. This town, together with a tract of land containing between 3,000 and 4,000 acres, is the property of the "Harmony Society," who, under the direction of George Rapp, emigrated from Ger- many about the year 1805, and first settled at Harmony in Butler county. From this place they removed to the banks of the Wa- bash, in the state of Indiana, Avhere they cleared a large tract of land, built a town, and estabhshed various manufactories. Here they remained about ten years • but finding the climate unhealthy BEAVER COUNTY. 181 they resolved to return to Pennsylvania, and in 1825 established themselves in their present location, where by the exercise of their peculiar habits of enterprise, industry and economy, they soon succeeded in founding a flourishing and beautiful settlement. Their property is held in common as the general and indivisible stock of the society, and all persons who may unite with them and add their property to the common stock, are permitted, if they quit the community, to withdraw the principal without interest. They have a woollen manufactory, propelled by steam, in which from 70,000 to 80,000 pounds of wool are annually converted into broad cloth, satinet, flannel and blankets of superior quality. Their cotton. manufactory and grist mill are also driven by steam; in the former about 300 bales of cotton are used in a year. Within the last few years their attention has been directed to the culture and production of silk, which in 1840 amounted to 2,389 pounds, being manufactured into silk goods of various descriptions. Most of the ordinary branches of mechanical industry are like- wise carried on, as well for their own use and comfort as also for the accommodation of their country neighbours of the adjoining settlements, with whom a considerable business is transacted by way of sale and exchange. In the lower story of a brick building, 120 by 60 feet, they have an extensive museum of natural curiosities, a large number of paintings, and a fine collection of mineral specimens. The upper story of this building consists of one spacious room, in which the whole society on certain occasions dine together, as on the cele- bration of their yearly harvest home, the anniversary of their asso- ciation, and other days of importance to them. They have a large brick church in which they meet for worship twice on Sunday, and on one evening during the week. Their leader delivers a discourse in the German language, which is generally spoken among them, although many of them understand and speak English. A large and commodious school house is erected for the education of their children : they have a physician of their own, and an apothecary shop for the supply of medicines. A large and well arranged hotel is kept under the direction of the society, in which travellers and visiters are accommodated ; and a post office is kept for the convenience of the settlement. Their large flocks of domestic animals, horses, cattle, sheep and swine, are of good stock, and being well managed and carefully pro- vided for, may be regarded as among the best in the western country. In their agricultural operations they are surpassed by few, if any : their fields, meadows, orchards, vineyards, nurseries of fruit trees and gardens, are among the best in the country, and form a pleasing subject of admiration to the many travellers who visit this interesting place. Each department or branch of business is under the direction of a foreman or superintendent, whose duty it is to see that every thing is properly performed according to the standing rules and regulations of the society, and to do justice and act impartially to all the members in the distribution of all the necessaries of life. 16 182 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. This little community presents a pleasing and instructive ex- ample of the advantages derived from habits of industry, morality and strict adherence to sound religious principles. They show how much the sum of human misery may be lessened by dwelling in harmony, unanimity and peace ; and how greatly the happi- ness of the human family may be promoted by the combined and benevolent action of both heart and hand. Considering the limited extent of its territory, and the compara- tively recent date of its settlement, Beaver county deserves favour- able notice for the rapidity of its improvement, and for the variety and value of its productions of agricultural and manufacturing in- dustry. It possesses the advantages of a healthy climate and a fertile soil; it abounds with timber and coal; its streams afford water power to an incalculable amount, and it possesses the facili- ties of a direct water communication with the east, west, north and south for at least three fourths of the year. The Beaver division of the Pennsylvania canal extends through the county, from the mouth of Beaver river to Newcastle in Mercer county, where it connects with the Erie extension, forming, on the completion of the latter work, a direct communication from the Ohio river to Lake Erie. The Mahoning, or Pennsylvania and Ohio canal, connects the Beaver division of the Pennsylvania works with the Ohio canal at Akron ; and the Sandy and Beaver Canal connects the same works by way of Little Beaver and Sandy rivers, forming a junction with the Ohio canal at Bolivar. The assessed value of property in Beaver county, subject to tax- ation in 1842, was $4,047,701 ; county tax $9,054; State tax $5,228. The system of education by common schools is general through- out the county. It contains 23 school districts, in which 162 schools are in operation, under the provisions of the law regulating the common school system. According to the reports made to the superintendent, they are kept open but about five months in the year on a general average. There is an academy in the town of Beaver. There are about 30 places for public worship in the county, be- longing to various religious denominations, of which the Presby- terians and Methodists are most numerous. Sunday schools are established in the towns and villages, and there are several Bible, missionary and tract societies, as well as other moral and benevo- lent associations. The early settlers were mostly adventurers from other parts of Pennsylvania, attracted by the natural advantages possessed by this region. Some emigrants from the north of Ireland and from Germany have settled here, and the population is steadily increas- ing by new accessions from various sources. How is Beaver county bounded ? What is said of the face of the coun- try and soil ? Describe the principal streams. What are the valuable mineral productions ? Name the county town, its situation, public build- ings, &c. What towns are at the mouth of Beaver river ? Where is Fallston, and what manufactories are estabhshed there ? New Brighton ? Brighton ? Sharon ? Freedom ? How is Economy situated, and by whom BEDFORD COUNTY. 183 settled ? How is the property owned in this place ? What branches of manufacture are carried on ? What are the pubhc buildings belonging to the society, and for what purposes used ? What is said of their agriculture and domestic animals? In what manner is their business conducted? What is said of the habits of this people ? What are the general advan- tages of Beaver county ? Describe the canals here and their connexion with others. What is said of education and the common schools ? Places of worship and religious denominations ? By whom has the county been chiefly settled ? 5. Bedford County. Bedford is bounded on the west by Somerset and Cambria, north by Huntingdon, east by Franklin, and south by the State of Maryland. Population 29,335. The face of the country is mountainous and uneven; many high ridges pass across the county in a direction nearly north and. south, Avhich are separated by deep valleys of unequal breadth. The most eastern of tiiese mountain ridges is the Cove or Tuscarora mountain, which separates Bedford from Franklin : on the west of this is Scrub Ridge, of inferior height and extent. The next prin- View of Cove Mountain from Scrub Ridge. cipal mountain on the westward is Sideling Hill, which extends from the Maryland line across Bedford county, and into Hunting- don as far as to the Juniata river. Next is the huge irregular eleva- tion called Broad Top, across Avhich the northern line of the county passes, leaving nearly half of it in Huntingdon, South of Broad Top are Harbour mountain, Ray^s Hill, Clear Ridge, and other ranges extending southward into Maryland. West of these is JVarrior ridge, and next Tkissey^s mountain, stretching quite across 184 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the county, and ihence northward through Huntingdon and Centre, towards the West branch of Susquehanna. Further west are Dunningh, EviVs and WiW mountains, and beyond these the great Allegheny, which forms part of the western boundary of the county. Bedford county is well watered, though it contains no large streams. The Raystown branch of the Juniata and its many tribu- tary creeks drain most of the northern and interior portions. la the south are numerous streams which flow southward into the Potomac. Every valley has its stream, fed by mountain springs, and these uniting furnish water power to a vast amount beyond that which is actually employed. This county presents considerable variety and intricacy in the details of its geological features. All the rock formations which we have described as intervening between the lower limestone (II) and the coal bearing strata (XIII,) with both these included, may be found within its jDorders. Our limits will not permit a full description of the various ranges, foldings and doublings of these formations throughout the county ; it will be sufficient merely to mention some of the places where the rocks of each occur, in order to give a general view of their positions. The lowest formation which appears in the county is the limestone (II) seen in Morrison's cove, Friends' cove, on the west of Tussey's mountain, and about M'Connellstown in the east of the county. The next overlying formation of slate (III) will be found accompanying the limestone, usually near the base of the mountain ridges bounding the limestone valleys. The sandstone next above (IV) is seen on the Cove mountain, and on Tussey's, Dunning's, Evit's and Wills' mountains; and the red and variegated shales (V) along the sides of these ridges towards which the mountain sandstone dips below these shales. But, as in Wills' mountain, where an anticUnal axis causes the sandstone strata to dip towards both sides of the moimtain, the red shale will be found on both sides. This formation is also seen in Pigeon cove, a httle valley in the south-east of the county, adjoinmg Maryland ; the centre of the valley being of these shales, bounded by the limestone of the next formation. This hmestone (VI) is found east of Tussey's mountain, crossing the Juniata at Bloody Run; and also about the tow^n of Bedford, from which it extends on the west of Evit's mountain to the Maryland line. Another long narrow belt of the same limestone, ranges from the southern boundary of the State up Wills' creek on the west of Wills' mountain, stretching north-eastward quite across the county to the Juniata near Holhdaysburg. The fossiliferous sandstone (VII) will generally be found to accompany the limestone last mentioned, commonly forming sharp rough hills along the side of the valley which contains the limestone. The dark and olive coloured slates, with the gray and red sandstones and red shales of the next two formations (VIII and IX) occupy most of the country between Scrub Ridge and Sideling hill, and also from the latter to Warrior Ridge. In the w^estern part of the county there is also a broad belt of these formations extending from the limestone and fossiliferous sandstone to the Allegheny mountain. The coarse gray sand- stone of the next formation (X) is7ound on Sideling hill, Ray's Hill, Har- bour mountain, and on the eastern front of the Allegheny. The red shale (XI) next below the coal measures, is seen at the base of Broad Top in Wells' Valley, and westward in Ground Hog valley. The sandstone (XII) which lies immediately below the coal of the Broad Top region, differs from the general character of the same formation below the other coal measures of the State, having less of the pebbly conglomerate character, and more resembling the sandstones between the coal beds themselves. Broad Top mountain, only a part of which is in this county, is a broad BEDFORD COUNTY. 185 irregular plateau, having several spurs running out towards the bounding valleys. Beds of coal have been opened on it in many places, and have been found to be from three to eight feet thick, yielding coal of good quaUty, though less bituminous than that west of the Allegheny mountain. This region nas been but imperfectly explored, and the number of coal seams, with their extent and relative positions, has not been fully ascertained. Iron ore occurs in many parts of the county, and is extensively mined in several places for the supply of furnaces. This mountainous region presents a great variety in the charac- ter of its soil. Some of the valleys are very fertile, particularly those where limestone abounds; the uneven rolling country occu- pied by the slates, shales and red sandstones, is less productive, and a considerable part of the county consists of rocky mountains and hills unfit for the purposes of agriculture. The quantity of land unfit for cultivation is estimated to be 131,200 acres. The climate is healthy, and somewhat colder than that of the less mountainous region in the south-eastern part of the State. View near Bedford. Bedford is the county town, situated near the head of the Rays- town branch of the Juniata, on the main turnpike from Philadel- phia to Pittsburg, and has a population of 1022. The buildings are mostly of stone or brick, and the town presents a neat and pleasing appearance. The court-house, county offices and prison are handsome well-buik edifices ; there are also churches for Pres- byterian, Lutheran, German Reformed, Methodist and Roman Catholic congregations. It is a place of some business, and the borough contains four grist mills and a woollen factory. Near this town are the celebrated Bedford Springs, the water of which has been found to have a henefi.cial effect in many com- 16* 186 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. plaints. They are much resorted to by invalids, and during the summer season even by the healthy, who quit the toils of business in the cities to invigorate their frames by breathing the pure moun- tain air, and by healthful excursions among the w^ild and beautiful scenery of the surrounding country. The buildings for the accom- modation of strangers are large and commodious; the grounds about the springs are tastefully ornamented with neat bridges, railings and gravel Avalks ; and few places of the kind present more agreeable attractions to the invalid, the citizen, or the traveller. M' Connellstoum, in the eastern part of the county, on the Cham- bersburg and Bedford turnpike, is an incorporated borough con- taming 486 inhabitants. Martinsburg is also a borough, situated in Morrison's Cove in the north of the county, with a population of 422. Shellsburg is a borough, on the turnpike, nine miles west of Bedford, with 316 inhabitants. Several villages of some note are situated in different parts of the county, among which are Woodbury, Stonerstoivn, Rainsbnrg and Freedom. The principal productions of this county are those of agricul- ture. Of its manufactures that of iron is the most important ; five blast furnaces and nine forges are in operation within the county. There are 47 flour and grist mills, a great number of saw-mills, and five woollen factories. Timber is very abundant, the nume- rous mountain ridges being covered with forest trees which supply the saw mills, the iron works, and fuel for domestic consumption. The sugar maple tree is common in many places, and a consider- able quantity of sugar is made by the inhabitants for their own use. The value of real and personal property, subject to taxation for county purposes, was assessed in 1842 at $3,280,982 : county tax, $9,482; State tax, $4,119. This county has no canals or rail roads. The turnpike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg passes through it from east to west; and a little beyond the town of Bedford the turnpike to Somerset branches fropa it. The common roads, in such a mountainous re- gion as this, are usually rough and in a state of but indifferent repair. Travelling in wheel carriages, except on the turnpikes or the more frequented roads, is unpleasant, difficult, and sometimes dangerous. The advancement of popular education has been much ne- glected among the people of this county; but it is believed that Avithin the last few years an increased attention to this subject is apparent. It is pleasing to observe that in this, as well as other parts of the State where the interests of education have hitherto received but little encouragement, an awakening spirit of improve- ment is manifest. An increase in the number, and an improve- ment in the character of common schools is the best evidence of a just appreciation of the benefits derived from a proper system of instruction. Bedford county contains 25 school districts, of which 22 have BERKS COUNTY. 187 accepted the provisions of the school law, and 21 of these have made reports to the superintendent, showing the number of schools in operation to be 177, and that 13 are yet required. These schools are, however, taught but about five months in the year on an average ; the children thus losing not only much of their time, but, with the easy facility of youth, forgetting while at home most of that Avhich they had previously learned in school. There is an academy in the town of Bedford, but it does not meet with sufficient encouragement to maintain it in a very flou- rishing condition. Of the religious denominations in this county, the Methodists are most numerous; next are the German Reformed, Presbyte- rians and Lutherans. There are also some Baptists, Roman Ca- tholics and Friends. .The inhabitants are mostly descendants of German and Irish fa- milies, some of whom settled here at an early day and encountered many of the dangers, difficulties and privations incident to the pioneers of civilization in a wild region ; exposed to the incursions of hostile Indians and to the treachery and cruelty of savage warfare. What are the boundaries of Bedford county ? Describe the face of the country and the principal ranges of mountains. What is said of the streams ? In what parts of the county is the lower limestone formation (II) observed ? Where does the other limestone (VI) occur ? Of what character is the coal of this county and where found ? Iron ore ? What is said of the soil ? Of the climate ? What is the county town and how si- tuated ? What is said of Bedford springs? How are M'Connellstown, Martinsburg and Shellsburg situated ? What other villages in the county ? "What are the most important productions and manufactures? Mention the turnpikes and the condition of the common roads. What is said of the state of education and of the common schools? What are the prevailing religious denominations? From what people are the inhabitants mostly descended ? 6. Berks County. Berks is bounded on the north-west by Schuylkill county, on the north-east by Lehigh, on the south-east by Montgomery, on the south by Chester, and on the south-west by Lancaster. Popu- lation 64,569. The face of the country presents an agreeable variety of aspect, being in some parts mountainous or hilly, and in others undulat- ing, diversified or level. The southern part of the county is tra- versed by that irregular chain of hills called the South mountain; and in the northern part are some ridges of considerable elevation. The Blue or Kittatiny mountain forms the northern line of the county, dividing it from Schuylkill. For variety and beauty of scenery this county is inferior to few in the State. The views from Mount Penn and JSeversink, in the neighbourhood of Reading, present a varied and extended landscape, in which are harmoni- ously blended the different features of the woody mountain, the cuhivated valley, the winding river, and the busy town, forming a picture which for richness and variety is seldom equalled. 188 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The river Schuylkill flows through this county in a south-east- ern direction, entering it through a gap in the Blue mountain above Hamburg, and passing by Reading becomes the Hne be- tween Montgomery and Chester a few miles above Pottsgrove. Several of its large tributary creeks flow through Berks county, among the most considerable of which is the Tulpehocken, flow- ing eastward from Lebanon county through the western part of Berks, and emptying into the Schuylkill a Uttle above Reading. Maiden creek is in the north-eastern part of the county, and flows southward to the Schuylkill six miles above Reading. Manataw- ny creek in the south-east, runs southward and falls into the Schuylkill near Pottsgrove in Montgomery county. Some of the smaller creeks are Sacony, a branch of Maiden creek; J\'orthkillj which falls into the Tulpehocken near Bernville ; Cacoosing and Spring creeks, also branches of the Tulpehocken ; and Allegheny and Mcmokesy creeks, which empty into the Schuylkill below Reading. AU these, together with numerous smaller streams, fur- nish an abundance of water power for mills and manufacturing purposes, and their lesser branches supply the country with a suf- ficiency of water for the Avants of agriculture. The geological character of the county is various in its different parts. On the southern border is the red shale of the middle secondary series; in the upper or northern portion of this red shale the calcareous conglomerate rock called Potomac marble is abundant in several places, particularly near the Schuylkill below Reading. North of this are the hills of the South mountain range, which contain gneiss, sienite and other primary rocks, to- gether with the hard whitish sandstone which overlies the primary. Seve- ral of the little valleys interspersed between these hills contain irregular belts of limestone. Northward of this chain of hills is the great limestone formation of the Kittatiny valley, which extends along its south-eastern side from the Delaware river to the Maryland line ; and adjoining it on the north, reaching to the Blue mountain, is the slate formation next in position above the limestone, which is equally extensive in its range. At several places in Berks county the limestone contains belts of slate ot considerable thickness, and in the neighbourhood of Bernville and Womelsdorf the hmestone and slate formations appear to have no distinct Une of division, but alternating strata of both are found. A dike of trap rock extends northward across the limestone, east of Sinking spring, crossing the Tulpehocken near the mouth of Cacoosing creek, and extending northward into the slate region. Iron ore occurs in several parts of the county. At Mount Pleasant, in Colebrookdale township, the magnetic variety of ore has been mined to some extent, and is found in other places connected with the primary rocks. In Oley township, and near Boyerstown, are mines which were formerly worked for the supply of furnaces in that neighbourhood. Brown argilla- ceous iron ore occurs near Kutztown, and at Moselem it is extensively mined, as also near the Lebanon turnpike about eight miles west of Reading. A rock yielding hydraulic cement of good quality is found near the Schuyl- kill, from which that article is manufactured in considerable quantity for use. Copper ore occurs at several places within the county, but generally in such small quantity and so mixed with iron as to render the expediency of working it very doubtful. Near Morgantown is a mine of this character, which is riot at present in a productive state. The soil of Berks county is generally of good quality. About one-third of it is limestone land which is highly fertile and well cultivated. The red shale soil in the southern part of the county BERKS COUNTY. J89 IS also favourable for agriculture, and many fine farms show its productive character when well tilled. The hills of primary rock are covered by a soil which, though rough and stony, is tolerably fertile, and if well farmed abundantly repays the labour of cultiva- tion. In the slate region between the limestone and the Blue mountain, the surface is rolling and hilly, with a soil of moderate fertility, being most productive where the slate is calcareous, or contains thin bands of limestone. View of Reading. Reading, the county town, is a flourishing place containing 8,410 inhabitants. It is beautifully situated on a sloping plain be- tween Penn's mount and the eastern bank of the Schuylkill ; 52 miles north-west from Philadelphia and the same distance east of Harrisburg. The streets intersect each other at right angles ; those most used are regularly graded and are covered with a hard white gravel, derived from the sandstone of the mountain east of the town, which forms a very compact, smooth, and durable road, superior to most paved or Mac Adamized streets. Several of the public buildings are large and handsome edifices. The new court house, finished in 1840, is superior to most others in the State. It is built of brick, with a noble portico of sandstone in front; and standing on elevated ground has an imposing aspect, commanding a view of the whole town and much of the surround- ing country. The German Lutheran church is a large and hand- some structure, said to be sufficiently capacious to contain a con- gregation of 1,500 persons. It is surmounted by a steeple 201 feet in height, one of the highest in the State. The German Reformed church, erected in 1832, is of brick, and has a steeple 151 feet high. 190 GEOGRArHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In addition to these there is a Presbyterian, an Episcopal, a Catho- lic, a Methodist, a Baptist, and a Universalist church, with an an- cient Meeting House for Friends, built of logs in 1766, and three African churches. There are two market houses, in which mar- ket is held twice a week; and 32 hotels and taverns in the borough. Seven weekly papers are published here, three of which are in the German language. Reading was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of wool hats, and the business is still carried on extensively ; but of latter years other branches of manufactures have so much increased as to have given this ancient trade but a secondary rank. Previous to 1836, hats, boots, shoes and stone ware were the principal manufactures; since that time estabhshments have been put in operation for rolling iron, making nails, casting in iron and brass, manufacturing locomotive and stationary steam engines, rifle bar- rels and augers ; — a steam saw and chopping mill, and several shops for the manufacture of thrashing machines, corn shellers, ploughs and other agricultural implements. There are also two flour mills in the borough, one of which is said to manufacture 8000 barrels of flour annually. The town is supplied with excellent water from a spring on the side of Penn's mount, which is conducted into a reservoir near the head of Penn street, from which it is distributed through the town by means of iron pipes. Womelsdorf is an incorporated borough, containing 849 inhabi- tants, situated 14 miles west of Reading on the turnpike to Lebanon. Kutziown is also a borough, in the eastern part of the county, 18 miles from Reading, on the road to Allentown and Easton. Population 693. Hamburg is situated on the eastern side of the Schuylkill, 15 miles above Reading. Morgantown is in the southern corner of the county, near the Lancaster county line. Besides these there are many other places of some note, such as Mertztown, Pricetown, Stouchburg, Rehrersburg and Bernville. Of the productions of this county, those of agriculture are by far the most important and employ the greatest number of persons. Large quantities of different kinds of grain are cultivated; hay and potatoes are abundantly produced, and great numbers of horses, cattle, sheep and swine are raised by the farmers. It has been already mentioned that iron orejs mined in many places within this county, and 10 blast furnaces and about 30 forges and rolling mills have been erected and put in operation for the manufacture of iron. Limestone is abundant, and is converted into lime for the use of this and the neighbouring counties, to which it is sent by the canals, and rail road. The surplus pro- ductions are chiefly conveyed by the SchuylkiU canal and Reading rail road to the Philadelphia market. Timber of the usual kinds found in this part of the State is abun- dant, and supplies the saw mills with material for lumber for home consumption, besides affording charcoal for the iron works and abundance of fuel for domestic use. BERKS COUNTY. 191 According to the assessment for 1842, the value of real and personal property subject to county taxation amounted to 120,679,857: the county tax levied upon which was $41,540, and the State tax assessed in the autumn of 1841, $27,769. The Schuylkill canal and the rail road from Philadelphia to Pottsville both pass through this county from south to north, and afford an easy and convenient means of communication with the city, as well as unusual facilities for the transportation of produce to market and of merchandise in return. The Union canal leaves the Schuylkill near Reading and passes up the Tulpehocken into Lebanon county, furnishing to the western part of Berks the convenience of canal navigation, both eastward to the Schuylkill and westward to the Susquehanna. These canals not only afford the means of transportation and trade to the people of the county, but also create a considerable home market to the farmers for the sale of different kinds of provisions for the boatmen and their horses. There are several good turnpike roads in this county. That from Philadelphia to Pottsville passes through Reading and Ham- burg; and that from Reading to Harrisburg extends westward by Womelsdorf and Stouchburg towards Lebanon. The common roads are kept generally in good condition for travelling; bridges are erected over the principal streams, eight or ten crossing the Schuylkill at different places within the county. Two of these are at Reading, one of which is about 600 feet in length. The general state of education among the people of this county is not flourishing. The early settlers were chiefly of the labour- ing classes from Germany, who in their own country had enjoyed very limited means for the acquisition of knowledge, their youth having been passed in the hardship and privation of incessant labour. Being a people generally averse to innovation, and strongly prejudiced in favour of old usages and habits, they have since, with some very creditable exceptions, practically maintained the principle that as the father has lived and made money without education, so may the son. Honest, industrious, and rigidly economical in his habits, the Pennsylvania German regards a liberal education as being rather the accomplishment of a rogue than the necessary qualification of a useful citizen; and would therefore save his money for what he considers a more useful purpose than the education of his children. It is, however, gratifying to observe that of latter years such principles are gradually, but perceptibly, yielding to more liberal views and a more just appreciation of the benefits and advantages of education. To such causes and opinions we may attribute the inferior con- dition of the common schools in this county. Of its 35 school dis- tricts only eight accepted the provisions of the law in 1835, and since that time two of them have discontinued. In many instances there has been much opposition to collecting the school taxes, building school houses, and making any improvements involving cost. The want of good teachers has been felt here, as in many other parts of the State ; but it is believed that there is a general improvement in the schools as well as in the disposition of the 192 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. public mind on this subject. The number of schools in operation under the system is 44, which are kept open on an average about 6^ months in the year. There are three academies in the county : one at Reading, one at Womelsdorf, and one at Kutztown. That at Reading was in- corporated in 1778, but owing to injudicious management and want of patronage, it was suspended in 1836. It was revived, however, in 1840, and has since sustained a deservedly high cha- racter. The course of instruction is extensive, embracing the an- cient and modern languages, mathematics and the other branches usually taught in academies and high schools. The number of its pupils is 64. The Reading Female Seminary was incorporated in 1838, and by the wise and liberal pohcy of the trustees, suitable provision has been made for procuring the services of competent instructors in the English and French languages and literature, botany, chemistry, natural philosophy and other useful as well as ornamental branches of female education. The institution is accordingly in a prosperous state, and has already acquired a reputation which brings to it pupils from abroad. Its present number is 62. The common language of the county is the impure German usually spoken in Pennsylvania, and which has become so much corrupted and mixed with common English words, that it would scarcely be understood by a well educated German from the father- land. In many parts of the county, where the inhabitants seldom leave their own neighbourhood, English is neither spoken nor un- derstood ; but this language is rapidly gaining ground among those of the people who have business communications with others than their immediate neighbors. It will probably not be long before English and German will be equally used, except in some secluded portions of the county. Among the natural curiosities may be mentioned Dragon's cave, in Richmond township, which is thus described by a gen- tleman resident in the county. " The entrance to this cave is on the brow of a hill, in the edge of a cultivated field. Passing into it the adventurer descends about fifty yards by a rough and narrow passage, and then turns to the left at an acute angle with the pas- sage hitherto pursued. After proceeding about thirty yards farther he enters the great chamber, about fifty feet long, twenty wide, and fitteen to twenty feet high, in a rock of limestone. Near the end of this chamber, opposite to the entrance, is the "altar," a large mass of stalagmite, which rings under the hammer, and is translucent. Formations of stalactite are found in other parts of the cave, though none so large as the mass just mentioned." Sinking spring, near the Harrisburg turnpike, about 5 miles west from Reading, is a considerable curiosity to those who are not familiar with the circumstances frequently attending large springs in a limestone region. The water here rises and sinks again in the same basin, which is very deep ; thence finding its way again under ground through fissures and hidden caverns in the limestone rock, probably once more to seek the hght of day in some other place. BRADFORD COUNTY. 193 Name the counties adjacent to Berks. Describe the face of the country and mention the mountains in this county. What river flows through it, and in what direction? Name the other principal streams, their situation and course. What kind of rock is in the southern part ? In the South mountain ? Where are the great hmestone and slate formations ? Men- tion the places where iron ore occurs. What other mineral productions are found ? What is said of the various kinds of soil ? W^hat is the county town and how situated? Describe the principal public buildings. For what branch of manufacture was Reading formerly celebrated? What manu- facturing establishments are now in operation ? How is the town supplied whh water? Where is Womelsdorf ? Kutztown ? Hamburg? Mor- gantown ? What other towns are mentioned ? What are the most import- ant productions ? The number and kind of iron works ? What is said of the hmestone and timber ? Name the canals and rail roads in this county. What is said of the turnpike roads and bridges? What circumstances are mentioned as having retarded the progress of education ? What is said of the number and condition of common schools ? Of the academies ? What language is commonly spoken ? What natural curiosities are mentioned ? 7. Bradford County. Bradford county has the state of New York on the north, the county of Susquehanna on the east, Wyoming on the south-east, Lycoming on the south, and Tioga on the west. Its population, according to the last census, is 32,769. In its general aspect this county is a broken and hilly rather than a mountainous region ; with a surface frequently rough and rocky, and a soil of but moderate fertility, except along some of the streams, where there are tracts of alluvial land which are very productive. The Susquehanna and Tioga rivers both enter this county from the state of New York, and unite at Tioga Point, below the town of Athens, about five miles from the state line. From this point the Susquehanna flows south-eastward through Bradford county until it enters Wyoming. The other principal streams are Towanda creek, which runs north-eastward to the Susquehanna below the town of Towanda ; Sugar creek, further northward ; and Wysox and Wyalusing creeks in the eastern part of the county. There are many other streams of sufficient size to supply water power for saw mills and other establishments. A great portion of this county presents very little variety or interest in the geological character of its rocks. They chiefly consist of nearly hori- zontal strata of sandstone, intermixed with slates and shales (VIII and IX,) •with some bands of impure hmestone, frequently containing fossil shells, and which in some places is sufficiently pure for burning into hme. Some of the hills in the southern part of the county, 10 or 12 miles south-west- ward from Towanda, are capped by the rocks of the coal formation, in which are two beds of bituminous coal, one said to be three and the other five feet in thickness, and near them are iron ore and fire clay. Prelimi- nary surveys have been made for a rail road from Towanda to these coal mines. Towanda, the seat of justice, is a thriving town situated on the North branch of Susquehanna, nearly in the centre of the county. Population of the borough 912. It contains the usual county 17 194 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. buildings, consisting of a court house, prison, &c., also a bank, an academy, and several places of public worship. There is a neat and substantial bridge across the river at this place. Athens is also on the Susquehanna, about 15 miles north of Towanda. Several other villages of minor importance are contained within the county. In this newly settled region the productions of agriculture are neither so valuable nor so extensive as in the older counties. Most of the cereal grains are, however, successfully cultivated, and the soil is admirably adapted to the production of oats, grass, and po- tatoes. Lumber to the amount of near $250,000 is annually pro- duced from the forests, which is mostly floated down the Susque- hanna to a market. The number of saw mills in the county is 213. Pine, hemlock, and sugar maple trees abound in the forests, and from the latter sugar is manufactured annually amounting to upwards of 190,000 pounds. The North branch division of the Pennsylvania canal, which is not yet completed, passes across nearly the whole breadth of this county and terminates at the northern line of the State, where it is intended to connect with the public improvements of the state of New York. It will, when finished, be of great importance to the trade of this region, as a means of transportation either north or south for the products of the county. Bradford is mostly settled by emigrants from New England, or their descendants, and the people are generally distinguished for their morality, intelligence, and attention to education. There are 31 school districts in the county, in all of which, except one, the common school system is in full operation. The number of schools reported is 238, which are kept open for instruction during an average of about 6^ months in the year. The academy at To- wanda is reported to have about 80 pupils, of whom ten are un- dergoing a course of instruction intended to qualify them for teachers. Describe the boundaries of Bradford county. Its general surface and the character of the soil. What are the principal rivers ? Large creeks, their situation and course ? What is said of the rock formations ? Where is coal found ? What is its character, and what other minerals accoinpany it ? Name and describe the county town ? What other place is mentioned and where situated ? What are the most important productions ? What is the amount of lumber produced ? Of maple sugar ? What canal is in this countv, and what is said of its importance? By whom is the county chiefly settled ? What is said of education, and of the common schools ? 8. Bucks County. In its general outline this county is nearly in the form of a pa- rallelogram, having its greatest length from north-west to south- east, about 40 miles, with an average breadth of 15 miles. It con- tains an area of 366,746 acres, or a little more than 573 square miles. The population in 1840 was 48,107. Bucks county is bounded on the north-east and south-east by the Delaware river, which separates it from New Jersey 3 on the BUCKS COUNTY. 195 south-west by Philadelphia and Montgomery counties j and on the north-west by Lehigh and Northampton. The Delaware river runs along the eastern border of the county, in a south-eastern direction, for about 46 miles, where it bends to the south-west and runs sixteen miles further to the mouth of Po- queston creek, which is the boundary between Bucks and Phila- delphia counties. This river is navigable for steamboats and vessels of light draught to the lower falls or rapids at Trenton, which is the head of tide water. Lumber is rafted on the river from New York state to Philadelphia, and large quantities also pass from the country on the upper Lehigh down the canal to Bristol. The JYeshamimj is a large stream which rises in Plumstead town- ship and runs south-westward about eight miles ; then turning to the south-east it passes through the southern interior of the county, and empties into the Delaware a few miles below Bristol. This stream affords many valuable mill seats. Tokickon creek rises in the north-western part of the county, and after a winding course of about 30 miles, falls into the Dela- ware at Point Pleasant, above Black's Eddy. The north-east branch of Perkiomen has its source in Bedmin- ster township, flows south-westward into Montgomery county, and discharges its waters into the Schuylkill. In addition to the above named streams, the county is well watered by numerous smaller creeks and rivulets, which, wherever practicable, are improved to furnish power for mills and manufac- turing establishments. A very large spring rises in Solebury, a few miles west of New Hope, which was called Aquetong by the Indians ; now knowa as " Ingham's spring." The water flows out in a cove or hollow, near the junction of the red shale and limestone rocks, and like most other large springs maintains a nearly equal temperature throughout the year, seeming remarkably cold in summer and seldom or never freezing in winter. The quantity of water which this spring pours forth, is supposed to be sufficient, with 18 or 20 feet fall, to turn two grist mills throughout the year ; and there are five good mill sites on the stream, between the spring and where it empties into the Delaware at New Hope, a distance of two and a half miles. The lower end of this county is occupied by gneiss and other primary rocks, the northern hmit of which extends from the Delaware above Mor- risville, in a western direction across the county, passing a little north of Attleborough and Rockville, and reaching the Montgomery county line near the north-west corner of Southampton township. North of this the primary rocks are overlapped by the middle secondary red shale and sand- stone formation, which occupies most of the remainder of the county. Ridges and dikes of trap rock are frequent, several of which run westward from the Delaware below New Hope. Others of considerable extent occur in the townships of Haycock and Rockhill. As is usual in this formation, we frequently find the red shale in the vicinity of the trap hills entirely al- tered in colour and texture ; being changed into a hard, compact blue or purplish rock, possessing little of its original character except its uniformity '196 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of dip and stratification. This change has probably been effected by the heat of the trappean matter which lias found its way in a state ot fusion through the dislocated red shale. Some elevated ridges of the altered blue rock are seen, remote Irom any outburst of trap rocks, in which the change may be attributed to masses of unerupted trap beneath them, which has never reached the surface ; but whose heating influence has been sufficient thus to modify the overlying strata. The isolated ridge called Buckingham mountain appears to be an up- heaved mass of the sandstone (I) which lies next above the primary rocks. On the north of it we accordingly find a hmestone (II,) which is the next rock in order above this sandstone, and which extends in a narrow belt from the Delaware above New Hope, south-westward to a point beyond Centreville, where it disappears, being overlapped by the rocks of the red shale series. Other valuable belts of limestone occur in Durham and Springfield townships, south of the primary rocks of the Lehigh hills or South mountain. In Southampton township, on the farm of George Vanartsdalen, near the road from the Buck tavern to Attlebarough, is a small bed of primary limestone, in which are found Labrador ftldspar, plumbago, sulphuret of iron, tabular spar, scapoUle, augite, oxide of tita7iium, moroxite, and other mineral combinations. Between this and the villasje ol Smitlilield is a lo- cality where plumbago or black lead occurs in considerable quantity, which was formerly mined to some extent, but is now neglected. In the gneiss pear the bridge at Rockville, crystals of zircon are found. Sulphate of baryta occurs in abundance near the north-west coiner of Lpper Make- neld township, and also near Ingham's spring in Solebury, at both of which places it has been dug for use within a few years. '1 he altered rocks near the Delaware below New Hope contain crystals of tourmalin and ejndote. Magiietic iro?t ore, of tolerable purity, is found in Durham township, where it was formerly used for the supply of a furnace in the neighbourhood. In the same township there is a remarkable cave in the limestone rocks, the entrance to which is about 100 yards from the river. '1 he height of the eminence enclosing the cavern is from 200 to 250 feet above the level of the adjoining land. From the pathway of the entrance, to the rock above, is upwards of 40 feet, but the passage, being partly obstructed by rocks, will not admit more than two or three persons to enter abreast. The interior is lofty and consists of three spacious rooms ; the passage from one to the other is over steep and prominent rocks. The first apartment is entered by a descent of about 30 feet. The floor of the second room is lower than the first ; and that of the third is still lower, in the bottom of which is a spring of excellent water, supposed to communicate with the creek or river. The entire length of the cavern from north to south is about 90 yards. In quarrying limestone a little to the east of the entrance to this cave, an opening was made into another running parallel with it; and which, though not so wide, is of the same length. '^I'his abounds with white stalactites, and probably communicates with the other. The limestone tracts in this county are highly valued, and lime is extensively used as a manure for agricultural purposes, as well as for building, &c. In addition to that Avhich these afford, large quantities of limestone and lime are brought down the canal from the neighbourhood of Easton, for the supply of the lower part of the county ; the stone being burned in kilns near the canal, and the lime sold at 10 and 12^ cents per bushel. Building stone is abun- dant in most parts of the county : some of the sandstone strata in the red shale formation are peculiarly excellent, and may be dressed and cut into any desired form, affording a handsome and durable material for walls, bridges, canal locks, &c. BUCKS COUNTY. 197 The soil is generally good, and in no part of Pennsylvania is agriculture better understood and practised than in the middle and lower parts of Bucks county. Great attention is paid to the care- ful tillage and improvement of the soil, and the farms and build- ings generally exhibit that love of neatness, order and convenience which is characteristic of the judicious and industrious agricul- turist. The climate of course resembles that of the other south-eastern counties of the State. The mean annual temperature is about 51*^ — that of the winter 29 or 30°, and of summer 71 or 72°. The greatest cold is seldom as Ioav as 0^, and the greatest heat 90 to 92°. With regard to the changes and variations of climate in this part of Pennsylvania, we may say with Dr. Rush, " We have no two successive years alike. Even the same successive seasons and months differ from each other every year. There is but one steady trait, and that is, it is uniformly variable." Doylestown has been the county town since 1812. It is situated 24 miles due north from Philadelphia, upon an eminence com- manding an extensive view of a region of country remarkable for its beauty, fertility and salubrity ; and the town, for neatness and order, is surpassed by few in the State. It contains a court house, county offices, and prison, situated in the centre of the town, and surrounded with a park adorned with trees. The other public buildings are a bank ; three houses for public worship, belonging to Presbyterians, Friends, and Methodists ; a female seminary, and an academy. There are also several literary societies and a library company. Four weekly newspapers are printed here, two in the English and two in the German language. The bo- rough and township contain about 2000 inhabitants. Bristol is a port of entry situated on the Delaware, 20 miles above Philadelphia, and 10 below Trenton, being nearly opposite to Burlington in New Jersey. The town is neat and cleanly, and presents a beautiful appearance when viewed from the river. The public buildings are a town hall, with a market attached, a bank, an Episcopal church, one Methodist and two Friends' meeting houses, and a spacious brick school house erected expressly for common schools. The Delaware division of the Pennsylvania canal terminates at Bristol in a large and beautiful basin. The Lehigh, Beaver Mea- dow and Hazelton Coal Companies have severally established their depots here, which, together with other produce descending the canal, make it a place of considerable commercial importance. The population in 1840 was 1,448. JVewHope is pleasantly situated on the Delaware, 31 miles from Philadelphia, and 11 from Doylestown. It is opposite to Lam- bertsville in New Jersey, with which it is connected by a Ae bridge across the river. It contains 820 inhabitants, and has^m academy, a lyceum and a Methodist church. A company is established here for the manufacture of Ball's patent door locks, and a number of mills and factories are in the town and its vicinitv. The Delaware division of the State canal passes through i7# i9S GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the town^ affording facilities for considerable trade and business. The scenery in the viciniiy is picturesque, and the town is envi- roned by several hills of considerable elevation. JVeivioivn, Atlleborough, Yardleyville, and MorrisviUe are also considerable villages, increasing in size and importance. Many other thriving villages are situated in various parts of the county. The Bucks county almshouse is in Warwick township, about three miles south of Doylestown. It is a capacious building, having a large farm attached, and is admirably situated for health and agreeable scenery. Bucks county is chiefly an agricultural district and the farms are highly improved. The principal productions are wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, buckwheat, butter, pork, poultry, various fruits and other articles for home consumption, and the supply of the Phila- delphia market. The manufacturing establishments are numerous, and some of them extensive. There are 1 1 flour mills, 94 grist mills, 80 saw mills ; several woollen and cotton factories, a number of iron foun- dries and establishments for the manufacture of carriages, wagons, and agricultural implements ; and various other branches of me- chanical industry are successfully pursued. The pr(3vailing growth of timber is chiefly various kinds of oak and hickory, chestnut, ash, poplar, and other useful trees; but in a country so generally under cultivation, timber cannot be said to be abundant. The estimated value of real and personal property assessed for countv purposes in 1842 was $17,004,945; county tax $33,643; State tax $25,477. There are several excellent turnpike roads in this county. The Doylestown and Willow Grove turnpike connects with the Chel- tenham turnpike, and forms the most direct communication with Philadelphia. The Bethlehem turnpike touches the county at Lexington and runs about 2^ miles on the county line. The Phi- ladelphia and Trenton turnpike passes through Bensalem, Bristol, and Falls townships, a distance of 17 miles. An extension of the Philadelphia, Buslleton, and Smithfield turnpike is now in a course of construction as far as the Buck tavern, in Southampton township, and will probably be made to Newtown in a few years. Some others are about to be constructed to connect with the Doylestown turnpike, in order to facilitate the transportation of pro- duce to market. The common roads are generally kept in good repair. The Philadelphia and Trenton rail road is the only one in the county, passing through it about 17 miles. The Delaware division of the State canal follows the windings of the river along the eastern border of the county for 53 miles, and terminates at Bristol. There are eight bridges crossing the Delaware within the limits of this county, viz: the Trenton, Yardleyville, Taylorsville, New Hope, Centre, Alexandria, Milford, and RieglesviUe bridges. E\ery bridge on the Delaware, except that at Trenton, was car- BUCKS COUNTY. . 199 ried away by the great freshet on the 8th of Jannary, 1841 ; but they have since been rebuilt. County bridges across the Neshaminy and other streams are nu- merous, chiefly constructed of stone, and well built. The state of education among the people at large, though per- haps equal to that in most counties of the commonwealth, is nevertheless much inferior to what it ought to be, in a community so well able to support it. The condition of the CDmrnon schools generally calls loudly for reform. The county contains 33 dis- tricts, of which only 13 had accepted the school law in 1842, and have 65 schools in operation. The non-accepting districts are chiefly in the upper part of the county. There are 151 school houses, which are generally built of stone; and the schools are open on an average about 9| months in the year. There is at present no collegiate institution in the county, the Bristol college having been discontinued. There is an academy at Attleborough, one at Newtown, and one at Doylestown. At the latter place is a flourishing female seminary, incorporated by act of Assembly in 1838. English is the general language of the middle and lower parts of the county; but in the upper section German is commonly spoken. The number of churches and religious denominations in this county are as follows: Friends 18, German Reformed 11, Metho- dists U, Mennonists 11, Lutherans 9, Presbyterians 9, Episcopa- lians 5, Baptists 4, Christians 2, Catholics 1, Free 1. Total 82. Bucks was one of the three original counties erected by William Penn in 1682. Previous to the arrival of Penn's colony, there was a considerable settlement of English Friends in this county near the lower falls of the Delaware, who had grants of land there from Sir Edmund Andross, then governor of New York. The southern and interior parts of the county were settled mostly by English and Welsh Friends, and the northern "by Germans. William Penn had a large mansion house erected on his manor of Pennsbury near the bank of the Delaware, a few miles above Bristol, the ruins of which are still visible. It was undertaken be- fore his arrival and intended for his reception. Here he afterwards sometimes resided, and held meetings and conferences with the Indians. In 1701 he held a great Indian council to renew their covenants and take leave of them. A town was surveyed and laid out in Pennsbury manor by Phineas Pemberton, which was intended to have been Philadel- phia; but the people who went there were dissatisfied with the lo- cation, and it was abandoned. The Indian tribe which was originally in possession of the land comprising this county, belonged to the nation of Delawares, an,d were called JVeshaminies, from the principal creek about which they had their residence. The remains of the renowned king Ta- mane, a celebrated Indian chief, lie buried on Prospect Hill farm, 4 miles south-west of Doylestown. His grave is in a beautiful spot by the side of a spring which flows into Neshaminy creek. 200 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. "And since the chieftain there has slept, Full many a winter's winds have swept, And many an age has softly crept Over his humble sepulchre." The last remains of the Delawares, under their leader Isaac Still, a celebrated Indian of some education, removed from Bucks counly about the year 1775, to go, as they said, " far away from war and rum," to the Wabash. We find in the records of the old provincial council of 1683, an order that the seal of Bucks county should be a " Tree and Vine." In 1684, John Chapman came over from England and settled in Wrightstown. His place at that lime was the farthest back in the woods of any English settlement; and the Indians, being numerous, frequented his house in great numbers and were very kind to him and his family, as well as to those who came after him; often supplying them with corn and other provisions, which in those early times were very scarce. In 1697, the present site of Bristol, which was then called Buckingham, was surveyed and laid out as a market town by Phineas Pemberton, the surveyor general. This was for a time the seat of justice for the county, which was afterwards removed to Newtown, and subsequently in 1812 to Doylestown, where it still remains. James Harrison was the first chief justice of Bucks, and Phineas Pemberton was clerk of the court. As rnembers of the early provincial councils, and holding other public trusts in this county, we find the names of William Yardley, William Biles, John Swift, Thomas Janney, William Paxon, Thomas Jenks, Joseph Kirkbride, Thomas VVatson and others, many of whose descendants are to be found at the present day among the most respectable inhabitants of the county. One of the earliest seminaries of learning in the State was insti- tuted about the year 1728, in Warminster tpwnship, by the Rev. William Tennerit, an emigrant from Ireland. It Avas more espe- cially intended for the education of ministers for the Presbyterian church. From its celebrity and the materials of which it was constructed, it received the popular name of the " Log College." This institution continued to flourish for some time, and was the means of forming a number of good scholars and distinguished professional characters. The great Indian walk makes a conspicuous figure in the history of this county. We are indebted to the reminiscences of the vene- rable Samuel Preston, as published by him in the Bucks County Patriot in 1826, for the following account of it. " It appears that in 1732, Thomas Penn, son of William Penn, came over as proprie- tary and remained about two years. He contracted with Teed- yuscung, a noted and pretended chief, for the Indian title to all the land to be taken off by a parallel of latitude from any point as far as the best of three men could walk in a day between sunrise and sunset, from a certain chestnut tree at or near Bristol, in a north-west course. (Other traditionary accounts say this tree was BUCKS COUNTY. 201 near Wrightstown, which is more probable.) Great care was taken to select the most capable men for such a walk. The reward was five pounds in money and 500 acres of land any where in the purchase. The choice fell upon James Yeates, Solomon Jennings and Edward Marshall. This Marshall was a native of Bucks, a stout athletic man, famous as a hunter, chain carrier, &lc. One of the longest days in the summer of 1733 was appointed, and the champions notified. The people collected at what they thought the first 20 miles, on the Durham road, to see them pass. First came Yeates, stepping lightly, accompanied by Thomas Penn and attendants on horseback. After him, but out of sight, came Jen- nings with a strong and steady step, and yet farther behind, Ed- ward Marshall, apparently careless, swinging a hatchet and eating a dry biscuit: bets ran in favour of Yeates. Marshall carried the hatchet to swing in his hands alternately, that the action in his arms should balance that of his legs. He was determined to win, or die in the attempt. Yeates gave out near Durham creek. Marshall kept on, and before he reached the Lehigh he overtook and passed Jennings — waded that river at Bethlehem, and hurried on, by the spot where Nazareth now stands, to the Wind Gap. That was as far as the path had been marked for them to walk on, and there was waiting the last collection of people to see if any of the walkers would reach it by sunset. Marshall only halted for the surveyor to give him a pocket compass, and started on again. Three Indian runners were sent after him to see that he walked fairly, and how far he went. He then passed to the right of Pocono mountain, till he reach-ed Still-water, There he marked a tree witnessed by three Indians, The distance he had walked between sunrise and sunset, not being on a straight line, and about 30 miles of it through the woods, was estimated at about 110 miles. Yeates died in three days afterwards; Jennings' health was so much impaired that he died in a few years ; but Marshall lived to the age of OO^ears at his residence on Marshall's Island in the Delaware opposite Tinicum." Mr, Preston states that he received this account from the lips of Marshall himself, A parallel of latitude from Still- water would have cut off all the valuable possessions of the Indians to the westward ; and they, becoming alarmed, denied the right of Teedyuscung to enter into such a contract. It created great uneasiness, and they threatened war, before they would consent to such a bargain. In the midst of these perplexities, Thomas Penn returned to England, and his elder brother, John Penn, came over, who, on becoming acquaint- ed with the facts of the case, revoked the contract. This was wounding to the pride of Teedyuscung, who thus had gained nothing in the transaction ; and being a man of treacherous, cru.el, and malicious disposition, he created a hostile feeling among the Indians towards the whites. Marshall never obtained the pro- mised reward for his great exploit, and his family was the first to feel the Indians' vengeance. Thus the " Indian walk" may be considered as the prime cause of rupture in the harmony which had so long subsisted between Penn's colony and the natives. 202 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In the war of the Revolution this county was frequently tra- versed by American and British troops ; and although we can point to no battle fields within its borders, it is not lert without a witness of " the times that tried men's souls." When Washing- ton boldly determined to attack the British in their winter quarters at Trenton, he selected M'Konkey's ferry, now Taylorsville, about eight miles above Trenton, as the most favourable point for cross- ing the Delaware. Accordingly, on the night of Christmas, 1776, a night of intense cold, with a storm of mingled snow, hail, and rain, the river being covered with floating ice, he crossed the De- laware, arrived at Trenton soon after sunrise, and surprised the British and Hessian forces, who after a brief struggle surrendered themselves as prisoners of war, to the number of about 1,000 men, with all their military stores. What is the extent of Bucks county, and how bounded ? Describe the course of the Delaware. The other principal streams. What is said of a remarkable spring ? What kind of rocks occupy the lower end of the county ? What formation lies on the north of them ? Where are the prin- cipal ridges of trap rock ? In what parts of the county is Hmestone found? °VVhat mmerals occur in Southampton, and in other places meri- tioned ? Describe the Durham cave. What is said of the soil and of agri- culture ? Of the climate ? Name the county town, and describe its situ- ation, pubhc buildings, &c. How is Bristol situated, and what is said of it? New Hope ? What other villages are mentioned? Where is the county poor-house ? What are the principal agricultural products ? Manu- factures ? Mention the several turnpike roads. What rail road and canal are in this county ? What large bridges ? What is said of the state of edu' cation, and of the common ^schools ? Academies? Principal religious societies, and number of places of worship ? When was this county es- tabUshed, and by whom originally settled ? Where was WiUiam Penn's mansion house ? What tribe of Indians inhabited this part of the country ? In what year was a settlement commenced at Wrightstown ? When was Bristol laid out as a market town ? What early seminary of learning was founded in this county ? Relate some particulars of the famous Indian walk in 1733. What v/as the consequence ? What leading incident of the revo- lutionary war is connected with this county ? 9. Butler Coitnty. Butler county is bounded by Venango on the north, Armstrong on the east, Allegheny on the south, and Beaver and Mercer on the west. Population 22,378. The face of the country is diversified by a succession of hills and valleys, forming a rolHng or undulating surface. No river passes through this county, but the Allegheny touches the north-east and south-east corners. Numerous smaller streams intersect it in almost every direction, the principal of which are the Co7ieqiienessing in the southern, and Slippery^'ock and Muddy creeks in the "northern part, all of which flow westward towards Beaver river. The county is well watered by the numerous branches of these streams, and in the eastern part by some of the smaller tributaries of the Allegheny river. Bituminous coal abounds in almost every part of the county. BUTLER COUNTY. 203 and in the middle and northern portions, iron ore of good quality is found in sufficient abundance to render it worthy of prominent consideration among the natural resources of this region. Several strata of limestone occur in different parts of the county, furnish- ing an inexhaustible source of improvement to the soil, as well as yielding a supply of lime for architectural purposes and use in the arts and manufactures. A large proportion of the soil is rather of a sandy character and but moderately productive; in the southern part of the county it is more loamy and of greater fertility. Springs of pure water are abundant, and the climate is noted for its salubrity. Butler, the county town, on the Conequenessing creek, is situ- ated on high ground, and commands an extensive and picturesque view of the surrounding country. The court house is a handsome brick edifice, occupying an elevated and commanding situation; the other public buildings are a substantial prison, an academy, and several well-built churches. The borough is incorporated and contains a population of 861. Harmony and Zelienople, in the south-western part of the county, are flourishing towns, beauti- fully situated in the valley of Conequenessing creek^ and mostly inhabited by intelligent and enterprising Germans. The county contains a number of other flourishing villages, among which are Centreville, Harrisville, Fairview and North Washington in the north ; Prospect and Portersville in the middle ; and Woodville and Evansville in the south. The principal agricultural productions are wheat, rye, buck- wheat, oats and some Indian corn, with live stock of various kinds. •Several enterprising farmers have recently turned their attention to the production of silk, and with considerable success. This county has three furnaces for the manufacture of iron, some wool- len factories, numerous grist and saw mills, and several oil mills. The timber chiefly consists of various kinds of oak, chestnut, and some white and black walnut, affording an abundant supply for domestic use ; but little of it is taken to market. The assessed valuation of property in 1842 was $2,573,116; State tax $2,820. Several graded roads called turnpikes, though not covered with broken stone, and hence having the distinctive name of "'clay pikes," ■cross the county in different directions. One of these leads from Pittsburg to the town of Butler, and thence extends north-west- ward to Mercer, in Mercer county. Another of similar character leads from Freeport to Butler, and one from Harmony to Butler. These roads are excellent for travelling when the ground is hard ; but in the early part of spring, and when the soil is saturated with moisture, they become almost impassable. There is also a graded State road from Butler to Franklin, which being principally located •on the ridges of high land between those places, and on a more gravelly soil, is not subject to be so much affected in consequence of the frost leaving the ground in the spring. Butler county contains 17 school districts, all of which have accepted the provisions of the law regulating the common school .204 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. system, and in which 139 schools are reported as being in opera- tion, taught on an average nearly five months in the year. In the academy at Butler about 50 pupils are instructed, and in the same town is also a female seminary with nearly an equal number. Of the various rehgious persuasions, the Presbyterians, Metho- dists, Seceders, and Roman Catholics are the most numerous : there are also some German Reformed, Lutherans and Univer- salists. This county was originally included in Westmoreland, which then embraced most of the territory of Pennsylvania west of the mountains. Two districts of "donation lands," most of which lie in Butler county, were surveyed as early as 1785; but few set- tlements were made until 1796. The early settlers endured great hardship and privation, being obliged to transport most of the necessaries of life on pack horses from the older settlements. Salt was brought in this way from the coimtry east of the mountains, and was sometimes sold as high as $18 per bushel; while at pre- sent more than half a million of bushels of this article are produced in the adjoining counties. The first white inhabitants were mostly emigrants from the eastern part of the State, and their numbers were increased by many natives of Ireland and Germany, whose descendants form a considerable portion of the population. How is Butler county bounded ? What is the character of the surface ? What river touches the county, and what are the other principal streams? yVhat valuable mineral productions occur ? What is the character of the soil and climate ? What is the name of the county town, and what are its public buildings ? Where are Harmony and ZeUenople ? What other vil- lages in different parts of the county ? Mention the principal agriculturat productions. What are the iron works and other manufacturing establish- ments ? What are the prevailing kinds of timber ? What is said of the roads ? Of the schools and academies ? Name the principal rehgious de- nominations. To what county did Butler originally belong? What is said of the hardships and privations of the early settlers ? Whence came the first white inhabitants ? 10. Cambria County. Cambria county is bounded on the north by Clearfield, east by Huntingdon and Bedford, south by Somerset, and west by West- moreland and Indiana. Population 11,256. This is an elevated and mountainous country, lying on the high table land west of the Allegheny mountain, with an irregular and rolling surface, furrowed by deep and precipitous ravines. Much of the county is yet covered by dark forests of pine, hemlock and other timber, in which a clearing has here and there been made by the axe of the hardy settler, who has reared his humble cottage and established his home, surrounded by the solitude of the path- less wilderness. The principal stream is the Conemmigh, which rises by several branches on the western slope of the Allegheny, and flows west- ward across the county. Stony creek is a large stream, which CAMBRIA COUNTY. 206 flows northward from Somerset county, and falls into the Cone- maugh at Johnstown. Blacklick creek rises in Cambria, by two main branches, which unite near the western border of the county and flow westward into Indiana. In the north are Clearjield and Chest creeks, which pass northward into Clearfield, and empty into the west branch of Susquehanna. All these, with many smaller streams, aSbrd a great amount of water power, very little of which is yet improved, except by a few saw mills, and in the more settled parts of the county by flour mills. Bituminous coal is abundant throughout most parts of Cambria county, but it is only mined for domestic consumption, except along the Hne of the Allegheny Portage rail road, where consider- able quantities are dug for the supply of the stationary engines at the inclined planes, and for transportation eastward on the rail road and canal. Iron ore is found in several places, but has not yet been worked. Limestone, of the quality usually associated with bituminous coal, may be obtained in various parts of the county. In the narrow valleys along the streams the soil is productive, but on the hills it is less fertile and better adapted to grazing cattle and sheep, than to the cultivation of grain. The climate is too cold for Indian corn, but oats and potatoes succeed well. The win- ters are long and severe, and frost is sometimes seen in the sum- mer months. Ebenshurs; is the county town, situated on a commanding emi- nence a few miles west of the main Allegheny ridge. The pub- lic buildings are a court house, prison, academy, and three or four churches. The town is tolerably well built, and contains about 350 inhabitants. Johnstmvn, at the junction of Conemaugh and Stony creek, is a place of considerable business, being at the west- ern termination of the Allegheny Portage rail road, and at the commencement of navigation on the Western division of the Penn- sylvania canal. The town is in a deep narrow valley, surrounded by hills of considerable height which close around it and confine the view to very circumscribed limits. Population about 1,250. Lm-etto, is a village a few miles north-east of Ebensburg, in a neighbourhood chiefly settled by Catholics, who have a neat chapel erected for worship. Munsler is a small place on the turnpike east of Ebensburg. The town of Beula, built some years since by a company of Welsh immigrants, is now deserted and fallen to decay. The productions of this county are not important, and consist chiefly of lumber, coal, and such agricultural products as are suited to the soil and climate. The raising of cattle and sheep is an object of attention to the farmers, and the country being well adapted to this branch of domestic economy, it may hereafter be- come of considerable importance. The value of property, real and personal, assessed for county purposes, is $752,316 : county tax $3,940 : State tax $1,063. A tolerably good turnpike, leading from Hollidaysburg to Pitts- burg, crosses Cambria from east to west, passing through Ebens- burg, the county town. Another from Ebensburg by way of In- 18 206 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. diana to Kittaning, is kept in reasonably good condition. The common roads are indifferent, as is usual in a thinly settled and rough country. The Allegheny Portage rail road crosses the county from the summit at Blair's Gap, through a wild region ■westward to Johnstown, where it connects with the Western di- vision of the Pennsylvania canal, which extends down the Cone- maugh towards Pittsburg. The state of education in this county is not very flourishing. The common school system has been generally adopted, and about 50 schools are in operation ; which are kept open on an average, only about three months in the year. The academy at Ebensburg has 50 or 60 pupils, but the higher branches of education are not sufficiently encouraged. Cambria county was chiefly settled by Irish and Welsh families, and they or their descendants, with some Germans, still constitute the greater portion of the population. The Welsh language is yet spoken in many famihes, and is common in the streets and stores of Ebensburg. The prevailing religious denominations are Ca- tholic, Baptist and Presbyterian. How is Cambria bounded ? Describe the face of the country. What are the principal streams, their situation and direction ? Mention the im- portant mineral productions. What is said of the soil and climate ? What is the county town, and how situated ? Where is Johnstown, and what is said of it ? Name the other towns mentioned, and describe their situation, &c. What are the principal productions ? What turnpikes, rail road and canal are in this county ? What is said of the state of education and of the common schools ? By what people was the county chiefly settled? What language beside English is spoken? Name the prevaihng religious deno- minations. 11. Carbon County. Carbon is a new county established by an act of the Legislature in 1843, including that portion of Northamption which lies north of the Blue mountain, with one township I'rom the western part of Monroe south of the Tobyhanna, called I'enn Forest. Carbon county is bounded north-west by Luzerne, east by Monroe, south by Northampton and Lehigh, and south-west by Schuylkill. The contained population is about 7,500. The county is generally mountainous, and there is but little arable land except in the valleys of the southern part, where the soil is adapted to cultivation and tolerably productive. The Blue mountain is the southern boundary : north of this is a succession of smaller ridges called by various names, such as Fire-line hill, Mahoning ridge, «^'C. Mauch Chunk mountain is on. the west of the Lehigh : beyond this is the Broad mountain extending to the eastward of the river, and still further east is the Pocono moun- tain. North of the Broad mountain are Spring mountain and Bald Ridge. The rocks of the Blue mountain are gray and reddish sandstones (IV) having an inclination to the north-west ; and overlying them, in the valley CARBON COUNTY. 207 north of the mountain, are the varieffated and red shales (V) and the Ume- stone (VI) next above in position. 1 he coarse fossiliferous sandstone (VII) succeeds, forming a range of sharp irregular hills parallel with the moun- tain. All these rocks may be seen exposed near the river, above the Le- high water gap. Next is the olive slate (VIII) and the red shale and sand- stone (IX) extending on the east of the river to the Pocono and Broad mountain, and on the west to the Mauch Chunk mountain, below the town. In this mountain is the sandstone (X,) and above it the red shale (XI,) which surrounds the eastern point of the southern anthracite coal field. In the Broad mountain an axis of elevation brings up the sandstone (X,) and in the valley of Quakake, beyond it, we have the red shale (XI) beneath the pebbly conglomerate (XII) of Spring mountain, which under- lies the Beaver meadow coal basin. The southern anthracite coal field, extending eastward from Schuylkill county, terminates in a point a little to the west of the Lehigh river at Mauch Chunk. The mountains which form the edges of the coal basin on each side are about 500 feet above the adjacent valleys. On the north side of the basin the channel of Room run cuts deeply into the mountain, and exposes nine beds of coal, from 5 to 28 feet thick, making a total thickness of 111 feet. On the south side, which has not been so fully examined, are found beds of 50, 20, 15 and 9 feet. The northern beds are mined at Room run, and the coal conveyed on a descending rail road, 5 miles in length, to the landing at Mauch Chunk, where it is deposited in the boats. At the old Summit mine, nine miles west of the river, the coal bed is from 50 to 60 feet thick, and hes as a saddle on the top of a hill nearly as high as the main mountain, the coal being uncovered and quarried in open day. About thirty acres in extent have been worked from this bed, the product of which has been upwards of 1,100,000 tons. A descending rail road of nine miles extends from this mine to the river, on which the loaded cars descend by gravitation, and are hauled back to the mine by mules which ride down with the trains of coal, in large cars constructed for the purpose, feeding composedly during their rapid descent ; and then refreshed and invigorated by the ride, lustily apply themselves to the work of drawing back the empty cars to the mine. The second or middle coal field, lying north of the Broad mountain, ex- tends into the north-western corner of Carbon county, where a number of excellent beds of coal, from 4 to upwards of 20 feet thick, have been opened and are worked in various places. From the Beaver meadow mines a rail road has been constructed to the Lehigh at the mouth of Qua- kake, and thence down the river to Parryville, 5^ miles below Mauch Chunk. The Hazelton mines are four miles north-west of Beaver meadow, and lie in Luzerne county, near the line of Carbon: a rail road from these communicates with that from the mines of the Beaver Meadow Company. A number of other coal companies have commenced operations in this pro- ductive region. The quantity of coal sent to market from this district in 1842 amounted to 272,126 tons. Lumber is also an important item in the productions of this county. In the north-east are vast forests of white pine and other valuable timber, for which the construction of the Lehigh Naviga- tion Company's improvements above Mauch Chunk have afforded an outlet to market. A very great amount of lumber is produced from the numerous saw mills recently erected near the Lehigh, and is transported in boats down the Lehigh navigation and Delaware division of the State canal, being usually preferred by the dealers to rafted lumber, and commanding a more ready sale. This county derives most of its value from the improvements of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, who with a zeal, perse- verance and industry which has rarely been equalled, and over- 208 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. coming difficulties which would have proved insurmountable ex- cept by the most determined and skilful perseverance, have con- verted a river, useless in itself for purposes of navigation, into one of the most noble and capacious hnes of canal and slackwater na- vigation in the Union. But for the completion of this work, the vast mineral and forest wealth of the whole region on the upper Lehigh, as well as the incalculable amount of coal in the neigh- bourhood of Mauch Chunk, must have remained useless and un- productive, and a country now teeming whh an active and indus- trious population would have continued to be a savage wilderness. Beside the river Lehigh there are a number of large and rapid streams, having a great amount of fall, and yielding a vast amount of water power, but Httle of which has yet been made productive except for saw mills. Aqua7ichicola and ^ig- creeks fall into the Lehigh on the east side, above the Blue mountain ; and Lizard and Mahoning creeks on the west. JYesqiiihoning flows eastward along the south side of the Broad mountain, and Quakake in the same direction on the north. In the pine swamps of Penn Forest, east of the Lehigh, are Hays^ creek. Hickory creek or Griffith's run. Muddy run, and several others, propelling numerous saw mills. Mauch Chunk. Mauch Chunk is the principal town, and intended to be the seat of justice for the county. It is on the west bank of the Lehigh, 12 miles above the gap by which that river passes through the Blue mountain; 46 miles by the navigation from Easton, and nearly 30 from Allentown. The situation is romantic and pic- turesque, the town being encircled by steep mountain acchvities. CENTRE COUNTY. 209 which rise in some places precipitously from the river to a height of 800 or 1 ,000 feet. It is a place of some resort during the sum- mer season, from the many attractions and objects of interest which it presents to visiters. The coal mines, the inclined planes, and all the machinery and appliances necessary for mining, trans- porting and shipping coal may be seen here on a large and im- proved scale; while the pure mountain air, gushing fountains of the coldest and purest water, with beautiful views of wild, and sublime mountain scenery, give additional charms to the place. Besides the extensive operations in coal, several other branches of business are successfully pursued. There is a furnace and an iron foundry, mills, stores, work shops for various me- chanical and manufacturing purposes, and a printing office from which a weekly newspaper is published. Lehighton, Weissport, and Parryville are small towns on the Lehigh below Mauch Chunk. Lausanne and Nesquihoning are on Nesquihoning creek. Beaver meadow village is on the turn- pike 12 miles north-west from Mauch Chunk. Lowrytown is on the Lehigh, above the mouth of duakake creek. There is a turnpike road from Mauch Chunk to Berwick on the North branch of Susquehanna, passing by Beaver meadow, Ha- zelton and Conyngham. When was Carbon county established, and from what counties was it taken ? How is it bounded ? What are the principal mountains ? What is said of the coal beds at Room run? At the Summit mine ? How is the coal conveyed from these mines ? At what several places is coal mined north of the Broad mountain? By what means conveyed to the river? How many tons of coal were sent from the Lehigh region in 1842? What other important production is mentioned ? What improvements have been of great importance to this county ? What would have been the character of the country without this work ? Mention the principal streams, their situ- ation and course. What is the chief town and how situated? What ex- tensive business is carried on here ? Name the other towns in this county and where situated. What turnpike road in the county ? 12. Centre County. Centre county has Clinton on the north. Union on the east, Mifflin on the south-east, Huntingdon on the south, and Clear- field on the west. Population 20,492 by the census of 1840. The face of the country is diversified by high mountain ridges ranging from north-east to south-west, with deep valleys inter- vening. Tusseifs, Btmsh and JVittany mountains are in the east and north-east; Bald Eagle mountain extends across the county near the middle ; and north-west of this is the Mlegheny mountain. The geological features of this county are varied and interesting. East of the Bald Eagle mountain the valleys are of the great limestone forma- tion (H), bordered on their margins next to the mountains by the overlying slate (HI) . This mountain and the high ridges south-east of it are of sandstone (IV). North-west of Bald Eagle mountain, along the valley in which flows Bald Eagle creek, we have the red and variegated shales (V), and the fossihferous limestone (VI), next in order. Above this is a thin belt of the fossihferous sandstone (VII), not always perceptible. From 18* 210 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. this to the south-eastern base of the Allegheny, or rather of the hills which jut forward from that mountain, is a belt two or three miles wide, occupied by the olive slates and sandstones of the next formation (VIII), and above this the red shale and red and gray sandstones (IX), which form the steep front of the Alleglieny. Passing over the intermediate formations, we find on the high lands beyond the summit, in the vicinity of Snowshoe and Philipsburg, beds of bituminous coal, which have been opened in some of the most accessible places, and the coal transported to the country east of the mountain. But the most valuable mineral production of Centre county is its iron ore, which is found abundantly in the limestone valleys, and extensively mined for the supply of furnaces. It is of the kind usually found in the limestone regions of this formation, and called brown argillaceous ore; appearing under a variety of forms and of different degrees of purity. That called pipe ore occurs in parallel cyUndric columns, closely cemented together, and is usually esteemed as one of the best kinds. Hollow lumps of ore are common, the interior of which is lined with crystalline hema- tite having a polished surface, like glazed earthen-ware. Much of it is open, porous or cellular, occurring in large amorphous masses, disseminated through the earth in which it is imbedded, without any apparent regularity or order of deposition. These ores yield by chemical analysis from 50 to 60 per cent, of metallic iron ; but the product obtained from the furnace is somewhat less than this amount. The soil of Nittany, Penn's and other valleys in this county, may be classed among the most productive lands in Pennsylvania, and form a fine agricultural district. In some parts, however, as in other limestone regions, the want of water is severely felt, and wells are often sunk to a great depth without success. The streams, after running a short distance, frequently sink into the fissures of the limestone rock and disappear. The mountain ridges separating these valleys are generally steep and rocky, unfit for agricultural purposes, and only valuable for the timber which grows upon them. Along the Allegheny mountain, and in the elevated regions beyond its summit, the country is mostly wild and uncultivated, containing but few settlements. Pine, hemlock, sugar maple, and other useful kinds of timber grow here, and lumber to some amount is produced. Most of the streams in this county empty into Bald Eagle creek, which flows north-eastward to the West branch of Susquehanna. Its larger branches afford water power for furnaces, forges, rolling mills, saw mills, flour mifls, oil mills and other manufacturing establishments. Three flourishing woollen factories are in opera- tion in the county. Moshanon creek flows along the western side of the county, and the fVest Branch of Susquehanna forms the north-west boundary. The climate is healthy, and considerably colder than that of the lower counties in the south-eastern part of the State; but milder than in the northern counties beyond the Allegheny. At Belle- fonte, in January 1841, the mercury in the thermometer fell to 25^ below 0, and in July of the same year rose to 95°. The mean CENTRE COUNTY. 211 annual temperature is about 4° below that of Philadelphia, 3'^ below Lancaster, 1° above Somerset, and 4^ above M'Kean. Belief onte is the county town, handsomely situated on Spring creek near the north-west side of Nittany valley, in a fertile and salubrious neighbourhood. It is a well built and flourishing place, containing the usual county buildings, with an academy and four or five churches. Population 1,032. This town derives its name from a large and beautiful spring in its vicinity. From this spring the town is supplied with water, which is raised by machinery into a reservoir on an eminence about 90 feet above the level of the spring. These water works were first erected in 1808, and have since been rebuilt and improved. Milesboro is two miles north of Bellefonte, at the junction of Spring and Bald Eagle creeks. Fhilipsburg is on the Moshanon, at the western side of the county, 25 miles west of Bellefonte. Aaronsburg, Milheim, Earlysburg, Boalsburg and other villages are in the valleys of the eastern part of the county. The agricultural productions are wheat and other kinds of grain, pork, beef, live stock, &c., much of which finds a market for the supply of the workmen and horses employed about the iron works in the county. Iron is the chief article of manufacture, the mate- rials being supplied from the ore banks and mountain forests; and 16 furnaces, 10 forges and 4 roUing mills are in operation, which are estimated to produce from 15,000 to 18,000 tons of iron an- nually. The surplus productions of this region find their way to market by the Bald Eagle navigation, or otherwise, to the West branch of Susquehanna, or are sent across by land to the Juniata canal. The assessed valuation of property subject to county tax in 1842 was $5,137,802; county tax $5,789; State tax $6,289. Centre county has several good turnpike roads, the principal of which is that from Lewistown to Bellefonte, and thence westward towards Erie. There are 17 school districts in the county, which have nearly all accepted the common school system under the law ; 67 schools are reported as being in operation, and are kept open from 3 to 8 months in the year. In the academy at Bellefonte upwards of 50 pupils are instructed, and at the same place is a female seminary with nearly an equal number. This county was originally settled principally by German and Irish families, whose descendants still constitute a majority of the population. What counties lie adjacent to Centre ? Describe the face of the country and name the principal mountains. Where is coal found in this county ? Iron ore, and of what kind? Describe the several varieties of this ore. What is said of the soil, timber, &c. ? What are the principal streams ? What are the manufacturing estabhshments driven by water power ? What is said of the climate ? Name the county town, its situation, &lc. Where are Milesboro and Phihpsburg ? What other towns are mentioned ? What are the agricultural productions ? What is said of the manufacture of iron, the number of iron works, and the quantity produced ? How do the sur- plus productions of the county reach a market ? Mention the turnpike 212 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. roads. What is said of schools and academies ? By whom was the county principally settled ? 13. Chester County. Chester county has Berks on the north, Montgomery on the east, Delaware on the south-east, the states of Delaware and Maryland on the south, and Lancaster on the west. Population 67,515. It is one of the three original counties, having been es- tablished with Philadelphia and Bucks in 1682 by William Penn. The surface is diversified by gentle hills and fertile valleys ; but can no where be called mountainous. The most considerable ele- vations are the North and South valley hills, which extend west- ward from the Schuylkill, and a ridge called the Welsh mountain, in the north-western corner of the county. Much of the soil is of an excellent quality and highly pro- ductive ; those portions which are not naturally of so fertile a character have been so improved by the use of lime as a manure, and by judicious cultivation, as to yield good crops of grain and grass. This is one of the finest agricultural districts in the State, and by the enterprise and industry of the intelligent farmers who inhabit it, has been made to present a beautiful and luxuriant pic- ture of the neatness, order and productive prosperity of Pennsyl- vania husbandry. A minute description of the interesting geological and mineralogical fea- tures of this county would far exceed the limits prescribed by the plan of this work ; the following brief sketch is all that can be given. The rocks in the southern part of the county, or that portion which lies south of the Great Valley, belong chiefly to the stratified primary class, consisting of gneiss, mica slate and talc slates, with occasional veins or dikes of granitic, sienitic and trap rocks ; and including numerous local beds of limestone and of serpentine. The hmestone is usually white, light gray or bluish, and frequently crystalline or granular. A variety of interesting minerals occur in this part of the county, for the discovery of many of which we are indebted to the examination and re- search of a number of intelligent gentlemen of the county, who have mani- fested an interest in the investigation of the subject. In East and West Goshen townships are found talc, asbestus, amianthus, magnesite, steatite, octohedral crystals of iron, quartz, cyanite, staurotide, amethyst, jasper, garnet, actynolite, schorl, &c. In East Bradford, besides most of the minerals last mentioned, are zircon, brown tourmalin, adularia, and litho- marge. Newlin township also contains a great variety, among which are chalcedony, agate, sapphire, corundum, beryl, green tourmalm, oxide of titanium, indurated asbestus, radiated quartz, &.c. In East Marlborough are chromate of iron, oxide of titanium, iserine, (fee, and near Unionville,. zircon, beryl, epidote, tremolite, diallage and feldspar. In Pennsbury occur arragonite, sahlite and augite, the latter containing crystals of sphene ; and in a white limestone above Chad's ford, are found crystals of brucite. West Marlborough affords fine specimens of fibrous, radiated and crystal- lized tremohte, — also scapolite, fluate of lime, magnesite and dolomite. Red oxide of titanium is found in the vicinity of Chatham, and at other places in London Grove township. Chrome ore and silicate of magnesia, though found in small quantities associated with the beds of serpentine in different parts of the county, seem to be most abundant in the south-west, in the townships of East and West Nottingham, where they have both been mined to some extent for use in the chemical manufactories of Balti CHESTER COUNTY. 213 more. Many of the above named minerals, together with a variety of others, are not confined to the townships particularly mentioned, but occur in various other places within this region. That portion of the county called the Great Valley is included between two ridges which pass westward from near the Schuylkill, gradually ap- proaching each other and bringing the valley nearly to a point towards the western boundary of the county. The rock of the south valley hill is principally a talc slate ; while in that on the north we find a sandstone (I) overlying a belt of gneiss rocks north of the valley. The valley between the bases of these ridges is occupied by a belt of hmestone which extends westward from the Schuylkill in Montgomery county, becoming gradually narrower until it terminates in a point beyond the Lancaster county line. Extensive quarries of limestone are opened at many places in the valley, for the supply of lime to the adjacent country ; the demand being great, and annually increasing as its value for the purpose of a manure becomes more fully appreciated. In some parts of its range this limestone is fight coloured or white, semi-crystalline or granular, affording, where the layers are sufficiently thick and soUd, a superior marble for" architectural pur- poses. Much of that used in the Girard college and other buildings in Philadelphia has been obtained from quarries a few miles east of Down- ingtown. At other places within the valley a handsome dark blue and va- riegated marble is found. North of the Great Valley is an extensive area occupied chiefly by pri- mary rocks of the gneiss order, in which feldspar, hornblende and quartz are the prevailing constituents. Mica and talc slates are much less com- mon than in the region south of the valley. Small dikes and hills of trap rock are not uncommon ; and a number of small beds of altered crystalUne limestone occur, in which are found crystals of plumbago and other mine- rals. There is iron ore in Vincent township, in the neighbourhood of the Yellow springs, and at oth r places. A vein of titaniferous ore occurs in gneiss rock, near Isabella furnace. In the north-eastern part of the county, the primary rocks are overlaid by the middle secondary red shale and sandstone, the southern border of which extends from the Schuylkill by Valley Forge and Kimberton to French creek, and thence up that stream north-westward towards Mor- gantown in Berks county. Iron ore is sometimes found in this formation, and is dug at the Warwick mine and other places in the neighbourhood ofj Morgantown. Chester county is watered by numerous streams, of which the largest are the Schuylkill and Brandywine. The Schuylkill flows along the eastern side of the county, separating it from Montgo- mery as far as to the mouth of Valley creek. French creek is a considerable stream, rising on the southern border of Berks county, and flowing eastward to the Schuylkill at Phoenixville ; a few miles further south is Pickering creek. The Brandywine rises in the north by two main branches, and runs southward nearly through the middle of the county into the state of Delaware, emptying into the Delaware river below Wilmington. In the south-west are several branches of Elk creek, running southward into Maryland. Octoraro rises near the head of the Great Valley and flows southward, forming the western boundary of the county to the State line, where it enters Maryland and falls into the Sus- quehanna five miles above Port Deposit. West Chester, the county town, with a population of 2,152, is pleasantly situated in a healthy and productive neighbourhood, on the high grounds east of the Brandywine, about 27 miles west 214 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. from Philadelphia. The town contains a court-house, a new and spacious prison constructed on the principle of solitary confine- ment; a market-house, a bank, and eight or ten houses for public worship, belonging to various denominations. There is also a public library, and a cabinet containing an extensive collection of mineral, botanical, zoological and other specimens, illustrative of various branches of natural science. In the town and its vicinity are several academies and boarding schools, which are generally well conducted and enjoy a deserved reputation. The inhabitants are no less distinguished for their morality and industry than for their attention to literature and science; and few, if any, country towns in the State offer a more agreeable and intelligent society than is to be found in this place. The taste displayed in the erection of numerous handsome public and private buildings, and the general air of neatness and good order which prevails, are in accordance with the character of the population. Its facihty of access, its pleasant and healthy location, and the interesting cha- racter of the surrounding country, combined with its other attrac- tions, make it a favourite place of resort for numerous visiters. The town is abundantly supplied with excellent water by means of works erected for that purpose. Downingtown is a considerable village on the east branch of Brandy wine, where crossed by the Lancaster turnpike; and also on the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road. It is situated in the Great Valley, and surrounded by fertile and productive farms, with substantial stone buildings, presenting an aspect of comfort and wealth, combined with pleasant scenery and most other cir- cumstances which conduce to rural enjoyment. CoatesviUe, eight miles west of Downingtown, on the west branch of Brandy wine, is a flourishing village, also on the turn- pike and near the rail road. Phcenixville, on the Schuylkill, at the mouth of French creek, is noted for its iron and nail works, as well as other manufacturing establishments. A furnace has been erected here for smelting iron with anthracite coal. Marshalltcn, Unionville, Chatham and Cochranville, are villages towards the western part of the county : Kcnnet- square is in the south; J\^ew London and Oxford in the south-west, and Waynes- burs; in the north-west. There are a number of other pleasant and improving villages in various parts of this populous county. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agricuhural pursuits, and the products of the soil are numerous and important in value. Indian corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat, are exten- sively cultivated; — cattle, sheep and swine are reared and fattened in great numbers; while butter, poultry, fruits and other articles for the city market receive attention in those parts of the county from which they can be conveniently sent thither. The productions of manufacturing enterprise and industry are also considerable. According to the census returns, there are 3 furnaces, 10 forges and roUing mills, and several nail factories; also 11 fulling miUs and 19 woollen manufactories^ producing CHESTER COUNTY. 215 goods to the annual value of $55,500; 18 cotton factories and 3 establishments for dyeing and printing cotton goods — value of an- nual production $148,000; 26 paper mills, manufacturing annually to the amount of $140,400; 27 flour mills, 115 gristmills, 150 saw mills and 20 oil mills. There are 37 tanneries, producing leather to a considerable amount; the manufacture of carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, furniture, hats, boots, shoes and various other articles of necessity or convenience is carried on to considerable extent. The county is generally well supplied with timber for domestic purposes : in those parts where wood is less abundant, coal is be- ginning to be used for fuel, being chiefly obtained by means of the Schuylkill navigation and Columbia rail road. The assessed valuation of real and personal property subject to county taxation in 1842 was $15,971,158; county tax $31,962: State tax $25,336. Of the public improvements within this county, the principal is the State rail road from Philadelphia to Columbia, which passes through it from east to west. From this road a branch has been constructed, about ten miles in length, leading to the town of West Chester. The Schuylkill navigation extends along the eastern side of the county where it bounds on that river. Several good turnpike roads cross the county in various directions ; the principal of which is that from Philadelphia to Lancaster. A turnpike leaves this at Downingtown, and leads north-westward by Waynesburg to Ephrata, in Lancaster county, and thence ex- tends in the same direction until it unites with the turnpike from Lebanon to Harrisburg. The south-western part of the county is traversed by a turnpike from Wilmington to Lancaster. The common roads are generally kept in good condition : bridges are numerous, and generally well constructed. It is pleasing to observe the general attention paid to educa- tion and mental improvement by the people of this county, for which, as well as for their general intelligence and moral and industrious habits, they are excelled by the population of few por- tions of the State. Many excellent academies and boarding schools, for youth of both sexes, are established in various parts of the county, which are generally well sustained and in a flourish- ing condition. Of the 46 school districts contained in the county, 43 have adopted the system of common school education as estab- lished by law. According to the reports received from 40 of these in 1842, they had 219 schools in operation, which were open for instruction during an average period of 6 months and 1 1 days in the year. There are upwards of one hundred churches and meeting houses for public worship ; of which about 30 belong to the society of Friends, 25 to the Methodists, 20 to the Presbyterians, and the re- mainder to various other religious societies. The early settlements in this county, then including Delaware and reaching westward to an indefinite extent, were principally made by the immediate friends and followers of William Penn, in 216 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. j 1682-3. As the population increased and the settlements ex- ! tended westward by the influx of numerous English, Irish and ' German immigrants, the distailce to the seat of justice, at Upland or Chester, on the Delaware, became inconvenient to the inhabit- ants of the remote parts of the county. The county of Lancaster J was therefore erected in 1729, and Berks in 1752; thus limiting the extent of Chester on the west and north. In 1789, the south- eastern part was laid off as a separate county called Delaware, and the original county of Chester thus reduced to its present hmits. We have not space for a further reference to the interesting his- torical events connected with this county, than merely to mention that several important incidents of the revolutionary war occurred j within its borders. The battle ground of the Brandywine, near Chad's Ford, is now occupied by cultivated fields, in which the , plough yet sometimes turns up with the soil some remnant of that - bloody and eventful struggle. Near the PaoH tavern, on the Lan- i caster turnpike and rail road, about 20 miles from the city, is a i monument erected to mark the spot where a small body of Ameri- j cans were surprised and inhumanly massacred by a detachment ' of the British troops, on the 20th of September, 1777. Valley j Forge, in the eastern part of the county, near the Schuylkill, is | noted as the place where Washington, with his destitute and suf- [ fering army, took up their winter quarters towards the close of the j year 1777. Here, but partially sheltered from the inclemency of i the weather by a few miserable huts, and almost destitute of cloth- ing and provisions, their sufferings were such as would have been borne by none but those who were sustained by principles of the loftiest patriotism, and endued with constancy and resignation by a firm devotion to the cause of their country's freedom. How is Chester county bounded? Describe the face of the country. ^ What is said of the soil, and of agriculture ? What is the geological cha- racter of the rocks in the southern part ? Mention some of the minerals found here, and the places where they occur. What is the rock formation of the great valley ? Where is marble found ? What rocks occupy an extensive area north of the great valley, and what minerals do they con- tain ? In what part of the county is the red shale and sandstone forma- tion ? Mention the situation of the principal streams and their course. What is the county town, and how situated ? What is said of its public buildings and literary institutions ? Of the character of its inhabitants ? Mention the other principal villages, and their situation. What are the chief agricultural productions ? The principal manufactures ? What pub- lic improvements by rail road and navigation ? What turnpike roads ? What is said of the attention paid to education ? Of the academies and schools? How many houses for public worship, and to what societies do they mostly belong ? What counties have been erected from the original territory of Chester? What incidents of the revolutionary war are men- tioned as connected with this county ? 14. Clarion County. This is a new county, erected in 1839, from parts of Armstrong and Venango. It has Venango on the north, Jefferson on the east, Armstrong on the south and the Allegheny river on the west. By j CLEARFIELD COUNTY. 217 the census returns of 1840, its population is included in that of Arm- strong and Venango ; the number of inhabitants within the new county is about 14,687. The country has generally a rolling or hilly surface ; a considera- ble portion of the soil is of good quality, and agriculture is improv- ing as the settlements increase. The valuable mineral resources of this region are but partially developed. Iron ore, bituminous coal and limestone are abundant, and the county is already becoming distinguished for the manufacture of iron. Seven blast fiirnaces and one forge are in operation, producing annually about 7000 tons of iron, which is chiefly sent down the Clarion and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburg. Clarion river is the principal stream, flowing westward nearly through the middle of the county and falling into the Allegheny. It is navigable at high water for boats, rafts and arks ; and a large amount of lumber, iron and other produce is floated down it from Clarion and Jefferson counties for the Pittsburg market. The county town is called Clanon, situated on the east side of Clarion river, on the turnpike from Bellefonte to Erie. The public buildings are a neat court house of brick, a stone prison, and an academy. Several thriving villages are contained within the county, the principal of which are Strattonville and Shippenville, both on the Bellefonte and Erie turnpike, Edinburg, Curlsville and Reimersburg. This county is rapidly improving in wealth and population : its agricultural productions, as well as its lumber and iron, are becom- ing valuable and important. The most common kinds of timber are white and yellow pine, hemlock, oak and sugar maple. Of the 13 school districts in the county, 11 have accepted the law, and 89 schools are reported as being in operation under its provisions. The fact, however, of their being kept open on an average less than three months in the year, shows that the pro- gress of education by no means keeps pace with the general im- provement of the county. The prevailing religious denominations are Methodists, Presby- terians, Lutherans, Catholics and Baptists. When, and from what counties was Clarion erected ? How is it bounded ? What is said of the surface and soil ? What are the mineral productions ? Iron works and their annual product ? What river flows through the county ? What is the county town, and where situated ? Name the other villages. What is said of the progress of improvement ? Mention the most common kinds of timber. What is said of the schools, and of the progress of edu- cation ? Religious denominations ? 15. Clearfield County. Clearfield is bounded on the north by the new county of Elk, on the east by Clinton and Centre, on the south by Cambria, and on the west by Indiana and Jefferson. Population 7,834. The face of the country in the eastern part of the county is hilly 19 218 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and mountainous, and intersected in every direction by deep valleys or ravines along the principal streams. In the middle and west- ern portion the surface is rolling and irregular, but mostly sus- ceptible of being converted into good farming land. The IVest branch of Susquehanna enters this county at the south- western corner, and runs through it in a north-easterly direction for a distance of about 70 miles. It is navigable at high water for rafts of lumber and arks carrying produce, large numbers of which descend during the spring freshets. Clearfield creek enters the county on the south, and flows northward to the Susquehanna, two miles below the town of Clearfield. Mushanon creek, which forms the county line between Clearfield and Centre, runs north- eastward and falls into the Susquehanna near Karthaus, about 20 miles below Clearfield town. In the northern part are the tribu- tary streams of the Sinnemahoning, a large creek which empties into the Susquehanna in Clinton county. The principal of these is BennetVs branch, which runs north-eastward and eastward, and joins the Drift-wood branch near the north-eastern corner of the county. Aiidersonh creek and Chest creek are considerable streams, and like those already mentioned contain sufficient water during high freshets to float rafts of lumber from the country bordering upon them. There are also many smaller streams which are sufficient to afford water power for saw mills and other purposes. Clearfield county, being situated within the range of the bituminous coal formation, yields abundance of that article of an excellent quahty. The steep hill sides along the courses of the streams show numerous outcrops of coal beds ; and coal, iron ore and limestone are often found within a few feet of each other. The soil in the valleys along the larc^e streams is productive, and much of the upland is tolerably fertile, except in the eastern part of the county, where it is too rough and rocky to admit of easy cultivation. The climate of this elevated region is considerably colder than in the southern and eastern parts of the State : the summers are usually cooler and the winters longer and more severe. Clearjield is the county town, situated on the West branch of Susquehanna, and contains a court-house, a prison, an academy and three churches. The town has about 400 inhabitants, and is improving. Curwinsville on the Susquehanna, 6 miles above the county town, and on the Bellefonte and Erie turnpike, is a flou- rishing place containing about 300 inhabitants. Luthersburg is on the same turnpike 12 miles west of Curwinsville, in an improving neighbourhood with a good soil for agriculture. Frenchville is a small town near the Susquehanna, about 15 miles below Clear- field, in a settlement inhabited chiefly by French immigraiits. Karthaus is on the river, 25 miles below Clearfield, in a region containing abundance of iron ore and coal. This is one of the first places where the experiment of smelting iron with bituminous coal was successfully tried. The furnace built here was for some time in operation, with the materials all convenient; but from some cause the work has been suspended for two or three years. CLINTON COUNTY. 219 The principal production of this county is lumber, of which large quantities have been floated down the Susquehanna to a market. The county contains about 100 saw mills: the most valuable timber is white pine, oak, ash, cherry, maple, poplar and hemlock. Of later years, however, the agriculture of the county is improving, and a considerable amount of surplus grain is pro- duced in some of the settlements. The mineral productions of coal and iron ore are important, and when a convenient outlet hy the improvement of roads and navigation shall be afforded, will doubtless be brought into active usefulness and form an important item in the wealth of the county. At present about 150,000- bushels of coal are annually sent to market from the mines of Clearfield. By the assessment of 1842, the estimated value of property made taxable for county purposes is $1,217,732; county tax $6,065; State tax $1,251. The turnpike road from Bellefonte to Erie crosses Clearfield county from east to west: the common roads, as in most rough and newly settled countries, are indifferent. The canal to connect the West branch of Susquehanna, by way of the Sinnemahoning, with the waters of the Allegheny river, passes through the northern part of the county, but is not yet completed. The people of this county have of late shown a very commend- able attention to the improvement of education. Every township has adopted the common school system, and 64 schools are in operation. The academy at Clearfield has two classical teachers and is tolerably well supported. In the same town is a well con- ducted female seminary, which has been in successful operation for the last three years. The population is of a mixed description, consisting of settlers from various places. Many families are of Irish descent, and Germans are numerous. A settlement of French people has already been mentioned. The religious denominations are various j Presbyterians, Methodists, Catholics, &c. How is Clearfield bounded ? What kind of surface has it ? What is the principal river ? Tell the situation and course of the other principal streams. What are the mineral productions? What is said of the soil ? — The climate ? Name the county town, its situation, &c. Where is Cur- winsville? Luthersburg? Frenchville ? Karthaus ? What is said of the iron works at this place ? What is said of the productions of this county, forest, agricultural and mineral ? Turnpike and canal ? Education, schools, academies, &c. ? Population and religious denominations ? 16. Clinton County. Clinton is a new county, erected in 1839 from the western part of Lycoming and the northern part of Centre. It is bounded on the north by Potter, on the east by Lycoming, south by Centre, and west by Clearfield and Elk. Population 8,223. This county is generally mountainous and uneven, and in the northern and western parts very thinly inhabited. The JVest branch of Susquehanna flows through it from west to east, and it 220 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. is well watered by numerous other streams, of which the largest are Bald Eagle, Sinneinahoning and Kettle creeks. The geological character of the county is various. Passing north-west- ward from the limestone of Nittany valley (II) we observe in regular suc- cession the several formations of slate, sandstone, shale, and limestone, which intervene between the lower limestone and the coal formation west of the main Allegheny ridge. Bituminous coal is found on Queen's run near the Susquehanna, and at several other places further westward. In a county possessing so great a variety of rock formations, the soil must of course be various. The limestone valleys and the alluvial bottom lands are highly productive when well cultivated; the slate lands are less fertile, but yield good crops if properly farmed, while the sandstone soils are generally stony and rough. Timber is abundant, and a considerable trade in pine and other lumber is carried on. This, with other productions of the county, is taken down the Susquehanna to a market. The seat of justice for Clinton county is at Lock Haven, a new place situated at the junction of the Bald Eagle navigation with the West branch of Susquehanna, where the public buildings have been erected and a flourishing town is rapidly growing up. Mill Hall is a thriving village, up the Bald Eagle valley, south of the Susquehanna. Dunnstown, Lockport, and Fairandsville are villages on the northern bank of the river. Near the latter place a very large and costly furnace was erected in 1838, for the manufacture of iron with coke made from the coal of the neighbourhood, but after con- tinuing in operation for a short time the work was suspended. Assessed valuation of real and personal property subject to county taxation in 1842, $1,497,903: county tax, $6,6065 State tax $1,850. The West branch division of the Pennsylvania canal is in ope- ration from Farrandsville downwards, and is partly finished for some distance above, towards Sinnemahoning. An artificial navi- gation has been constructed along Bald Eagle creek, by a company, in order to form an outlet for the productions of Centre and Clin- ton counties: this work connects with the State canal at Lock Haven, the county town of Clinton. Most of the townships have adopted the common school system, and about thirty schools are reported as being in operation under the law, which are open on an average about five months in the year. When and from what counties was Clinton erected ? By what is it bounded ? Is it mountainous or level ? What are the principal streams ? Where is bituminous coal found? What is said of the various kinds of soil? Of the productions? What is the county town and its situation? Mention some other towns in this county. What is said of the furnace near Farrandsville ? Name the improvements in navigation. What is said of the schools ? COLUMBIA COUNTY. 221 17. Columbia County. Columbia county has Lycoming' on the north, Luzerne on the east, Schuylkill on the south-east, and Northumberland on the south and west. By the census of 1840 it contained 24,267 in- habitants. The surface is uneven, being diversified by mountains, hills and valleys. Along the river are some comparatively level tracts having a rich soil, and in some of the western parts of the county the Umestone land, when well cultivated, is very productive. In the northern and southern portions the country is hilly and broken, and the soil of but moderate fertility. In the south-east are the Little and the Nescopeck or Catawissa mountains ; in the north-east the Knob mountain, extending west- ward from Luzerne ; and on the northern border is the high range prolonged eastward from the Allegheny, which is here called the North mountain. So many rock formations are brought to the surface in this county, by numerous anticlinal and synclinal axes or lines of elevation and depression, and so often are some of these formations repeated by the consequent changes of dip, that a minute description of their various ranges, foldings and doublings would occupy several pages. A mere general notice of some of the more prominent features in the geology oi the county is all that our limits will permit. In the elevated range called Montour's ridge, which extends from the West branch above Northumberland, eastward by Danville, to a point north-east of Bloomsburg, an axis of elevation passes nearly along the middle of the ridge, and the rocks fold over it, inclining towards the north and the south. The interior mass of this ridge is composed of hard gray and reddish sandstones (IV,) which are covered along both sides, and sometimes nearly or quite to the top of the ridge, by the slates and shales of the overlying series (V,) the lower part of which consists of yellowish or greenish slates, containing thin strata of limestone, in which are impres- sions of shells and oiher fossils, and near these a very valuable layer of brownish red iron ore, from six inches to two feet in thickness, also con- taining fossil impressions. This ore is found on both sides of the ridge as far eastward as the neighbourhood of Bloomsburg, where the strata con- verge and unite over its top as it sinks away on the east, and finally dis- appears under the overlying red shale in the vicinity of Espytown. In the slates above the iron ore are some thin layers of dark coloured limestone, succeeded by a thick bed of red shale which forms the upper portion of the series. Overlying this red shale is a Umestone formation (VI) which encircles the ridge on the outside of the red shale, and which may be seen not far from the river above Northumberland, and along the road from Danville to Bloomsburg, extending also from this to within two or three miles of Berwick, where it sinks away beneath the overlying slate. From this point the northern division of the limestone extends along the outer border of the red shale north of the ridge, passing a httle south of Moorsburg, to the West branch, near the mouth of Chihsquaque creek. The next formation in order, the fossiliferous sandstone (VII,) appears to be wanting in this part of the State ; for immediately next to the lime- stone last mentioned we find the olive slate (VIII,) which with the red shales and sandstones next above (IX,) spread over a wide region south of Montour's ridge, in the valleys of Shamokin and Roaring creeks, as far as the Little mountain. The same formations also occupy most of the northern part of the county, extending to the southern side of the North 19* 222 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. mountain. In the neighbourhood of Washingtrm, in the west of the county, the limestone (VI) appears, encircling the red shale which extends eastward from the vicinity of Milton. The Knob mountain, which terminates at Fishing creek near Orange- ville, is formed by the union of two ridges which in Luzerne county pass on either side of the south-western point of Wyoming coal basin, and ex- tend into Columbia county in a long narrow ridge which is capped with a hard coarse sandstone (X). The same rock appears in the Nescopeck or Catawissa mountain, and in Little mountain. South of Cat-awissa moun- tain, the httle valleys on Catawissa creek are of the red shale (XI) which underlies the conglomerate (XII) of M'Cauley's and Buck mountain, sup- porting the anthracite coal beds. The J\'orth branch of Susquehanna flows through the central part of Columbia county, which is Avatered by several other con- siderable streams. Fishing creek rises by numerous branches along the side of the North mountain, and has a nearly south course to the river near Bloomsburg. Catawissa creek has its source in Schuylkill county, flows north-westward, and falls into the North branch at the town of Catawissa. Roanng creek rises near the southern extremity of Columbia, and forms part of the south-western boundary. There are numerous other streams of sufficient power for mills, furnaces, &c. Danville is the county town, situated on the North branch, 12 miles above Northumberland, containing upwards of 1,500 inha- bitants. Since the construction of the canal, and the discovery of iron ore in its immediate neighbourhood, this place has rapidly improved and has become the seat of extensive manufacturing and business operations. There are four blast furnaces, a large iron foundry and machine shop, a cupola furnace for castings, and various other manufacturing establishments. The town also con- tains the court house, prison and other county buildings, several churches and a number of neat private dwellings. The North branch canal passes through the town, and renders it a consider- able depot for the shipment of country produce. Bloomsburg is a flourishing place near the river and canal, nine miles above Danville. Catawissa is on the east side of the river, at the mouth of Catawissa creek, three miles south of Bloomsburg. Berwick is on the river and canal at the eastern line of the county, 12 miles above Bloomsburg. Jersey town, Washington, and Fruitstown are villages towards the north-west of the county. Moorsburg is five miles north-west of Danville; Williamsburg and Orangeville are near Fishing creek, north of Bloomsburg; and Mifflin on the south side of the river below Berwick. Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and a large amount of surplus productions, consisting of flour, grain, pork and various other articles, are sent by the canal to a market at Philadelphia, Baltimore and other places. Iron has also be- come one of the staple productions : eight blast furnaces have been erected, which are suppHed with the ore from Montour's ridge, and many thousand tons of ore are annually sent from this county for the supply of other furnaces. There is a forge on Cata- wissa creek, for making bar iron. CRAWFORD COUNTY. 223 The value of property subject to taxation for county purposes for 1842 was assessed at $4,522,106: county tax $13,461 : State tax $7,312. About 25 miles of the North branch division of the State canal are in Columbia county, extending from a little below Danville to Berwick, where it passes into Luzerne. There are bridges across the river at Danville, Catawissa and Berwick. A turnpike road extends from Danville to Pottsville. The unfinished Little Schuyl- kill and Catawissa rail road is partly in this county, passing down the valley of Catawissa creek. The subject of general education has been much neglected in many parts of the county. Schools are not sufficiently encouraged, and incompetent teachers, as is too often the case in other parts of the State, are entrusted with the care of youth and with their mo- ral and literary improvement, which, under such guidance, seldom leads to the acquirement of solid and useful attainments. There are 19 school districts in the county, of which 15 have adopted the common school system as established by law, and have 107 schools in operation, in which instruction is given during an ave- rage period of about 4^ months in tlie year. There is an academy and a female seminary at Danville. Methodists and Presbyterians are the most numerous religious denominations. There are some Episcopalians and Friends, as well as several other societies. Many of the early settlers were Germans from Berks, Northampton and Lancaster; some emi- grants from New Jersey, and a number from Bucks and others of the older counties of Pennsylvania. By what counties is Columbia bounded ? Describe the face of the country and soil. What are the principal mountains ? Where does a valuable iron ore occur ? Describe the range of the hmestone formation. On what moun- tains is anthracite coal ? What river is in this county? Mention the rise ana course of the principal creeks. What is the county town and how situ- ated ? Give an account of its iron works, public buildings, &c. Where is Bloomsburg? Catawissa? Berwick? What other places are mentioned, and how situated ? Mention the agricultural products, and by what route sent to market. What iron works are established ? What canal, bridges, turnpike, and rail road are in this county? What is said of ediication in general ? Of common schools and academies ? Rehgious denominations ? Early settlers of the county ? 18. Crawford County. Crawford county has Erie on the north, Warren on the east, Venango and Mercer on the south, and the state of Ohio on the west. The number of its inhabitants, according to the census of 1840, was 31,724. The surface of the country is rolling and uneven, approaching to hilly, and presents many agreeable and picturesque views of varied and beautiful scenery. A soil naturally fertile and produc- tive is found in most parts of the county ; but this being a rather newly settled region, art has yet done but little towards improving and embellishing the wilder features of nature. 224 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In considering the geological character of the rocks which extend over the greatest portion of this county, we find but httle to indicate the existence of any very valuable mineral deposits. The north-western part contains rock strata of formations whose position is below the coal measures, and having a gentle descent towards the south-east, they pass in that directioa below the north-western margin of the great bituminous coal field. In the southern part we find the coarse and massive sandstone which constitutes the bottom or floor of the productive coal measures ; but here it lies so near the summits of the hills as to preclude the idea of any extensive bed of coal being contained above it, except in some pecuhar locaUties towards the south-west of the county. Thin beds of impure coal may be some- times met with in the rocks below this sandstone, but they are seldom productive or valuable. An extensive deposit of calcareous marl is said to have been found near Harmonsburg, from which lime is manufactured. This county is chiefly watered by French creek and its nume- rous branches, the principal of which are the Conneaut and Cm- sawago. In the south-west are some branches of the Shenango, and in the east are the head waters of Oil creek, which flows southward to the Allegheny river. Conneaut lake is a beautiful sheet of water, about five m.iles in length and two in breadth, situ- ated a few miles west of Meadville. Oil creek lake in the north- eastern, and Sugar creek lake in the southern part of the c(7unty are of less extent, but form highly ornamental features in the natural scenery of this picturesque region. Meadville, the county town, is pleasantly situated on French creek, 25 miles north-west from Franklin on the Allegheny river, and 37 south of Erie. Its population is upwards of 1,300. In the centre of the town is a public square, on which stand the court house, a spacious and well built edifice; the Episcopalian church, also a very creditable specimen of architecture ; and the Presbyte- rian church. There are several other places of pubHc worship in the town. An arsenal has been erected here for the preservation of arms belonging to the State. Allegheny college is built upon an eminence about half a mile north of the town, and commands a fine view of the surrounding country. The main building is four stories in height, surmounted by a cupola and flanked whh wings of three stories, being 120 feet in front by 44 feet deep. The order of architecture is Ionic, and the general appearance of the whole edifice produces a pleasing effect. Harmonsburg, Conneaut, and other improving villages also be- long to this county. By far the greater portion of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits, the productions being grain of diff"erent kinds, potatoes, hay, wool, &c. The soil being favourable for grazing, considerable attention is paid to the rearing of live stock, and the products of the dairy are estimated to amount annually to near $50,000. Timber is in great plenty, but little lumber is produced except for domestic consumption. The sugar maple grows abundantly and the annual product of maple sugar in the county is about 214,000 pounds. Pot and pearl ashes are also made to the amount of about 50 tons in a year. CUMBERLAND COUNTY. 225 The numerous streams afford a plentiful supply of water power, part of which is employed in propelling 168 grist and saw mills, a number of fulling mills, oil and paper mills and other manufac- turing machinery. According to the assessment for 1842, the value of property subject to taxation in this county was $2,768,546: county tax $8,305 : State tax $2,768. The general improvement of Crawford county and the pros- perity of its agricultural, manufacturing and commercial business, will be greatly increased by the completion of the Erie extension of the Pennsylvania canal, which extends through the county from south to north. Another branch of the State canal has been constructed from Meadville, down French creek, to the Allegheny river at Franklin. There are several turnpike roads, the principal of which is that leading from Pittsburg to Erie, which crosses the whole breadth of the county, passing through Meadville ; and one from Meadville to Franklin. A respectable portion of the population may be described as in- telligent, enterprising and industrious. Several societies have been established for the promotion of moral, religious, and charitable objects. Popular education is encouraged and common schools are established in every district, under the provisions of the law. The number of districts is 27, all of Avhich reported to the superintend- ent in 1842, showing an aggregate of 250 schools in operation under the public system, the average time of instruction being up- wards of 5 months in the year. In Allegheny college upwards of 120 students are instructed in the higher branches of learning. A manual labour department is connected with the college, consisting of a farm of 60 acres and a work shop, by means of which a considerable number of students are enabled to support themselves by their own labour, and to de- fray the expenses of their education. The institution is furnished with chemical and philosophical apparatus, and has a library which is said to contain 8,000 volumes. How is Crawford county bounded ? What is the character of the surface and soil ? What is said of the rock formations in general, and of the pro- bability of their containing valuable mineral deposits ? What is the princi- pal stream and its branches ? What other creeks and lakes are mentioned ? Name the county town, its situation and pubhc buildings. Describe Alle- gheny college. What other villages are there ? In what occupation are most of the inhabitants engaged ? Mention the productions of the farm and the dairy. Also those of the forest. What is said of mills, &c. Mention the canals in this county and their advantages to the inhabitants. Turnpike roads. What is the general character of the population ? The condition of education, and the conimon schools ? What is said of Allegheny college ? 19. Cumberland County. Cumberland county is bounded on the north by Perry, on the east by the Susquehanna river, which separates it from Dauphin, 226 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. on the south by York and Adams ; and on the west by Franklin. Population, 30,953. The greater portion of this county lying within the great Kitta- tiny valley is comparatively level, though the slate region in the north, between the limestone and the Blue mountain, has a some- what uneven and hilly surface. In the southern part are the ridges of the South mountain, which are generally rough and un- cultivated, being mostly covered with timber. The Blue or Kit- tatiny mountain, which extends along the northern side of the county, and forms the division line between Cumberland and Perry, is of considerable height, and affords, from many points on its summit, an extended and charming prospect of the beautiful vaUey on the south and east. A wide and varied landscape of woodland, farms and villages is spfead before the view like an im- mense picture, stretching away in the distance until mingling with tile dim horizon; and the eye wanders in delighted admiration ovet the beautiful and extended scene. The Susquehanna, which flows along the eastern side of Cum-, berland, is the only navigable stream in the county. Conednguinet is a large creek, which rises in Franklin and runs in a very ser- pentine course through the northern part of Cumberland to the Susquehanna, into which it empties about two miles abo.ve Har- risburg. It affords water power to a number of mills and other manufacturing establishments ; but is an unsteady stream, being subject to freshets in heavy rains, and sometimes becoming very low in long continued periods of dry weather. Yellow Breeches creek rises from a number of large springs in the south-western part of the county near the South mountain, and flows through the southern portion of Cumberland until it forms the line between this and York county, — emptying into the Susquehanna three miles below Harrisburg. It is a clear, rapid, and lively stream; not liable to be affected by dry seasons, and scarcely freezing in winter. It affords an invaluable amount of water power to the mills, forges and furnaces situated upon it and its branches. The present uncouth appellation given to this beautiful stream renders It very desirable that its original Indian name should be restored ; this seems, however, now to be lost; for after the most dihgent re- search and inquiry we have been unable to discover it. Several very large springs rise within this county. One at Springfield, south of Newville, throws out a volume of water suf- ficient to turn several mill wheels within a few rods of the spring, and forms a considerable stream, which runs northward to the Conedoguinet, having its banks studded with mills. Letart's spring, south of Carlisle, also yields a flow of water sufficient for mills at its source, and for many others along the stream which runs from it. Many other large springs exist near the head of Yellow Breeches creek, in the south-western part of the county. Near Dublin gap, at the foot of the Blue mountain, is a spring strongly impregnated with sulphur; and Carlisle springs, four miles from the town, have acquired some note as a fashionable place of resort. At Mount Rock, seven miles west of CarUslej a CUMBERLAND COUNTY. 227( large spring issues from a limestone rock, the water from which, after running a short distance, sinks again into the earth, and passing under a hill, once more reappears on the north side and pursues its course to the Conedoguinet. The ridges of the South mountain, in the southern part of Cumberland, are almost wholly composed of hard white sandstone (I,) and have a meager rocky soil, mostly covered with timber, which yields fuel for the furnaces and forges in that region. At Pine Grove furnace, on Mountain creek, is a detacned bed of hmestone, of Umited extent, surrounded by the mountain sandstone ; and connected with it a deposit of brown argillaceous and hematite iron ore, which is productive and has beeu worked for many years. At the northern base of the South mountain commences the great limestone formation of the Kittatiny valley (11,) which extends northward until it meets the next formation of dark slate (III,) situate between the limestone and the Kittatiny mountain. Along the northern side of the South mountain, near the contact of the white sandstone with the lime- stone, iron ore is abundant, and is extensively mined for the supply of fur- naces. Further north, and wholly within the hmestone formation, pipe ore and other varieties of excellent quahty may be obtained in many places. The rocks of the Kittatiny mountain are the coarse gray and reddish sand- stones (IV) next in order above the slate, and are not particularly valuable either for their utiUty or their mineral contents. In the neighbourhood of Lisburn, on Yellow Breeches creek, the middle secondary red shales and sandstones pass across from York county, overlapping the hmestone to a limited extent. Large beds of the calcareous conglomerate belonging to the upper portion of this formation are visible along the steep banks of the creek; but the material is generally too sihcious to be worked and poUshed as the Potomac marble, with which it is identical in other respects. Some ridges and dikes of trap rock are also apparent in the same neighbourhood, connected with the great trappean range in the north of York county. A remarkable trap dike issues from the South mountain near Carhsle Iron works, and extends northward through the limestone and slate, forming an abrupt stony ridge quite across the county to the Blue mountain, east of Sterrett's gap. This dike is believed to pass through the Blue moun- tain, being probably the same which is seen near the Susquehanna in Perry county, and again east of the river in Lykens' valley above Millers- burg, in Dauphin county. The soil of the limestone portion of Cumberland is exceedingly- fertile, and is generally weU cultivated. Beautiful and highly im- proved farms offer a pleasing subject of attention to the traveller in this valley, where a healthy and industrious population, sur- rounded by comfort and plenty, find their wants abundantly sup- plied by the luxuriant productions of a region so highly favoured by nature. The slate lands, north of the limestone, are more un- even in surface, and the soil less fertile ; but when well farmed and improved by the use of lime and other manures, good crops are produced, and the labours of the husbandman are amply re- paid. Carlisle is the county town, situated on the turnpike, 18 miles west of Harrisburg, and 118 from Philadelphia. The Cumberland Vallev rail road, from Harrisburg to Chambersburg, also passes throi:^h it, affording daily communication east and west. Being pleasantly situated, in the midst of a healthy and fertile country, handsomely laid out, and well built, inhabited by a well bred and intelligent population, Carlisle is one of the most agreeable places 2^ GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. in the interior of Pennsylvania. Tlie public buildings are a court house, a prison, a market house, a bank, and nine or ten churches, several of which are large and handsome edifices. Dickinson col- lege is a spacious building, 150 feet in length and four stories high, which, together with its enclosed grounds, is situated in the border of the town. The borough contains 4,351 inhabitants. A short distance east of the town are commodious barracks for the United States' troops, where numbers of them are frequently quartered. In the same neighbourhood is the county almshouse. Shippensbvrg is an old established town on the western border of the county, adjoining Franklin, with a population of 1,473. The turnpike and rail road from Carlisle to Chambersburg both pass through this place, and considerable local business is done here in the way of trade and manufactures. Mechanicsburg is a flourishing town on the rail road, about 8 miles east of Carlisle, containing 700 inhabitants, situated in a fer- tile and well settled neighbourhood, and a place of increasing business. JVewville, is in the north-west part of the county, 12 miles from Carlisle, near the rail road, and has about 650 inhabitants. JVew Cumberland, a village at the mouth of Yellow Breeches creek, contains about 300 inhabitants, and has several flour mills, saw mills, nail works, &c. hisbmii is on Yellow Breeches creek, in the south-eastern part of Cumberland; and several other thriving villages exist in diffe- rent parts of the county. The productions are chiefly agricultural, consisting of various kinds of grain, live stock, salted provisions, &c. Manufactures, of different kinds, are also carried on to some extent. The county contains 8 furnaces and 5 forges, in which large quantities of iron are made from the ore of this region, and which yield employ- ment and support to a considerable number of workmen. The surplus productions of the county are mostly sent to Philadelphia by rail road or by the canal from Harrisburg, and to Baltimore by the Susquehanna or by land. Timber is abundant, the mountains affording a plentiful supply for the iron works, and the farms mostly having a sufficiency for domestic uses. Oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut, ash, poplar, &c., are the prevailing kinds. Pitch pine grows on the mountains and on the slate hills, and lo- cust is common in the limestone soil of the valley. The assessed value of real and personal property, made taxable for county purposes in 1842, was $11,368,510: county tax $11,368: State tax' $15, 145. The Cumberland Valley rail road extends through this county from the Susquehanna river at Harrisburg, westward by Mecha- nicsburg, Carlisle, Newville and Shippensburg to Chambersburg in Franklin county. The turnpike from Harrisburg to Chq|nbers- burg and Bedford also extends in the same direction. Another turnpike leads from Carlisle southward towards Baltimore. Cumberland county contains 18 school districts, and the com- mon school system has been generally adopted. The condition DAUPHIN COUNTY. 229 ot education seems to be improving. Upwards of 120 schools are reported as being in operation, which are open from 4 to 11 months in the year. Dickinson college, at Carlisle, was incorporated in 1783, and named in honour of John Dickinson, an eminent citizen, who was a liberal' donor to the institution. It has been frequently aided with funds granted by the State; but having several times suffered from fire, and being depressed by other adverse causes, its usefulness has been much impaired. Some years since it was placed under the care of the Methodist conference, since which time it has been apparently more prosperous. The number of students in the col- lege proper is 123, and in the preparatory department 56. There is also at Carlisle a female seminary containing about 50 pupils. This county is principally inhabited by the descendants of the early Irish and German settlers. The German language is yet spoken in many families, though there are few who cannot speak English. The inhabitants are generally a moral and industrious people; Sunday schools. Temperance, Bible, and Missionary so- cieties as well as other religious and benevolent associations are numerous. Among the natural curiosities of the county may be mentioned a large cave on the bank of the Conedoguinet, about a mile north of Carlisle. The entrance is by a semicircular archway, seven or eight feet high, in a limestone chfF immediately on the bank of the creek. From this a vaulted passage, eighty or ninety yards in length, leads to a point where it branches off in three directions. One of these leads to a large chamber, extending to a considerable distance: the others are smaller and of somewhat difficult access. This cave is well worthy of a visit from those who have never ex- plored more extensive subterranean wonders of the same kind. How is Cumberland county bounded? Describe the face of the country and name the principal mountains. What river flows along the eastern side? Describe the rise, course, and character of Conedoguinet creek. Of Yel- low Breeches creek. What large springs are mentioned ? Mineral springs ? At what place is iron ore found ? What remarkable dike of trap rock is mentioned and what is its extent ? What is said of the several varieties of soil ? Give a description of Carlisle, its situation, public buildings, &c. Where is Shippensburg ? Mechanicsburg ? Newville ? New Cumberland ? Lisburn ? What is said of the productions, iron works, &c. ? By what route is the suiplus produce sent to market? What are the common kinds of timber ? What rail road and turnpikes in the county ? What is said of the schools and the general condition of education ? Give an account of Dickinson college. From whom are the inhabitants mostly descended, and what is their character for morality and industry? Describe the cave on the bank of Conedoguinet near Carhsle. 20. Dauphin County. Dauphin county is bounded on the north by Northumberland ; east by Schuylkill and Lebanon ; south by Lancaster ; and west by the Susquehanna river, which separates it from York, Cum- berland and Perry. Population, 30,118. 20 230 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In the southern part are some tracts of comparatively level land, but most of that portion may be more properly termed rolling or hilly : the middle and northern parts are mountainous. The Kit- tatiny or Blue mountain extends from north-east to south-west across the middle of the county ; a little further northw^ard, and running parallel with the Blue mountain, is the Second moun- tain. The Third and Fourth mountains, entering this county from the eastward, unite in a high bold ridge which terminates about two miles east of the Susquehanna, and is there called the Third mountain. The Second mountain, crossing the Susquehanna be- low the town of Dauphin, folds round " the cove" on the west side of the river, and returns eastward again across the Susque- hanna below Duncan's island. It is here called Peters' mountain, and ranges north-eastward through Dauphin to the Schuylkill county line, near which it unites with Berry's mountain. The latter runs nearly eastward, from the Susquehanna below Millers- burg, to its junction with Peters' mountain. The Mahontongo mountain extends from the Susquehanna river along the whole northern border of the county. Bear and Big Lick mountains en- ter the north-eastern part of Dauphin, where they unite and ter- minate abruptly about twelve miles east of the river. Between Berry's and Peters' mountains is a series of irregular elevations known by the name of Dividing ridge, separating Armstrong's and Powell's valleys, and further eastward the Short or Broad mountain. The Susquehanna river forms the entire western boundary of Dauphin county, flowing along it for a distance of about 45 miles. The other principal streams are the Conewago creek, which sepa- rates this county from Lancaster on the south, Swatara, Paxton, Fishing, Stony, Clark^s, PowdVs, Armstrong's, JViconisco and Mahontongo creeks ; the last dividing Dauphin from Northumber- land county on the north. All these streams, together with Ma- nada and lieaver creeks which flow southward into the Swatara, have mill improvements on them, and most of them afford a large amount of water power Avhich is yet unemployed. The largest of these streams are the Swatara,. Clark's creek, Wiconisco, and Mahontongo. This county is well watered for agricultural pur- poses, containing, besides the creeks already named, numerous smaller streams in every part of it. Few counties in the State present so great a variety of geological features as Dauphin ; for in it we find nearly, if not quite, all the rock formations, from the white sandstone which overlies the primary rocks, upwards to the coal. By referring to the article on geology iri the early part of this work, the order and relative position of those formations will be perceived. The Conewago hills, in the southern part of the county, are composed of trap rock : north of these we find the middle secondary red shale and sandstone, extending as far as the neighbourhood of Highspire on the Sus- quehanna, where it overlaps the great hmestone formation of the Cumber- land valley (II). This limestone ranges from Lebanon county across Dau- phin to the Susquehanna ; its northern limit on the river being at the lower end of Harrisburg, and the line of junction between the limestone and slate passing thence eastward to the Swatara creek, north of Hummelstown, and 60 on to the Lebanon county fine near Palmyra. Some belts of slate are DAUPHIN COUNTY. 231 contained within the range of this Umestone, one of which may be observed passing from the Swatara west of Hummelstown, south of the poor house, and extending nearly to the Susquehanna. North of the Umestone is a broad slate formation (III,) having a hilly and rolling surface, which occupies the region between the northern limit of the limestone, and the southern base of the Kittatiny or Blue mountain. Some thin strata of limestone are found in certain parts of this slate range. The rocks of the Blue mountain consist chiefly of the hard, compact, white, gray and reddish sandstone (IV) which lies next in order above the last mentioned slate, and which forms so many of the mountain ridges in middle Pennsylvania. On the northern slope of this mountain and in the valley between it and the Second mountain, are the red and variegated shales (V) with the overlying limestone (VI), the fossiliferous sandstone (VII,) the olive slate (VIII.) and along the south side of the Second mountain the red and gray sandstones and red shale (IX) next in position. In order to account tor the small space occupied by so many formations, some of which in other parts of the State occupy of themselves a wide extent of country, it must be recollected that the strata here are nearly vertical, or in truth thrown rather beyond a vertical position, so that their order of superposi- tion is inverted, and the stratawhich really lie uppermost in place appear to dip steeply beneath those which are actually below them. Rock strata which are vertical can only occupy an area equal to their thickness, while those which approach the horizontal position, usually spread over a wide region. The Second mountain is mainly composed of a coarse hard grayish sandstone (X) which is also found in Peters' Berry's and Mahontongo mountains ; all these being in fact but the same ridge which winds round and recrosses the county several times. The rock next in order is the bright red shale (XI) which underlies the coarse pebbly conglomerate next below the coal bearing strata. This red shale is found encompassing all the anthracite coal fields, and from its softness and hability to decomposi- tion has been worn down so as usually to form valleys around the high sharp ridges which bound the coal basins. We accordingly find it extend- ing down the valley of Stony creek, between the Second and Third moun- tains, and folding round on the Susquehanna above the town of Dauphin, agEun following up the valley of Clark's creek, thus enclosing the coal field, of the Third and Fourth mountains. Passing round the junction of Peters'" and Berry's mountains on the east, it enters Williams' valley and stretches down Wiconisco creek again to the Susquehanna at Millersburg. The whole of Lykens' valley, which lies between Berry's and Mahontongo mountains, is of this red shale, the northern division of which extends up the valley of Pine creek into Schuylkill county, enclosing between it and the Williams' valley division, the Bear valley coal basin. The Third and Fourth mountains are composed of the coarse conglo- merates and sandstones (XII) which immediately underlie the coal, and it is in the high narrow depression between these ridges that the coal of the "Stony creek coal region" is found. Owing, however, to the displace- ment consequent upon the highly upheaved position of the rocks below it, and to the crushing effect near the junction of the uniting ridges, the coal beds towards the western extremity of this basin are confused and uncer- tain. Further eastward the prospect is better, and excellent coal has been obtained, some of which is so soft and free burning as to approach the bituminous character. The Big Lick and Bear mountains, in the north-eastern part of the county, are also of the cemented pebble or conglomerate rock, and in like manner enclose a coal basin, the western end of which extends into Dauphin county. This is commonly known by the name of the Bear valley coal region, the western point of which is at the junction of the two last named mountains, about twelve miles east of the Susquehanna. Most of the coal obtained from this valley has been mined at Bear gap, an opening in the Big Lick, 232 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. mountain through which Bear creek flows southward towards Wiconisco creek. The mountains which bound the coal basin on the north and south are here about 750 feet in height above the level of Bear creek, and con- tain numerous coal strata which descend towards the centre of the narrow valley at an angle of about 45°. The gap made by the passage of Bear creek through the mountain has exposed the coal on both sides of the stream, and affords great facilities for mining it advantageously. One of the beds opened is eleven feet thick, two of seven feet, and others of less size. Several coal seams are known to exist here which have not yet been fully explored ; one has been ascertained to be 24 feet thick. Shafts have been sunk on the slope of the mountain north of the valley, and beds of 24, 12, 10, 8 and 7 feet of coal have been found there. The mining operations at Bear gap are carried on by a company ; and a rail road, 16 miles in length, has been constructed from the mines to Millersburg on the Susque- hanna. Here the coal cars are ferried across the river to the Pennsylvania^ canal on the west side, and the coal discharged into canal boats, being chiefly transported to Baltimore by way of the Pennsylvania and Tide-water canals. The completion of the Wiconisco canal, on the east side, of the river, from Millersburg to the head of the Eastern division of the Penn- sylvania canal at Clark's ferry or Duncan's island, will greatly facilitate the coal trade from this region, oflTering a more convenient means of trans- portation, and one by which the troublesome necessity of ferrying the loaded cars across the Susquehanna may be avoided. The limestone region, in the southern and south-eastern part of the county, has a rich and loamy soil which is highly productive. The slate formation, between this and the Blue mountain, is more hilly and less fertile ; but by proper improvement and the free use of lime as a manure, may be made a fine agricultural region. The flats along the Susquehanna are generally sandy. Several of tne valleys in the middle part of the county are very narrow, and but little cultivated. Armstrong's and Powell's valleys, situated be- tween Berry's and Peters' mountains, belonging to the red shale and sandstone formation (IX) have a tolerable soil, and for eight or ten miles from the Susquehanna are generally settled and cul- tivated, though the surface is in many parts rough and hilly. The townships of Upper Paxton, Mifflin, Lykens and Wiconisco, lying in Lykens valley between Berry's and Mahontongo mountains, have mostly a red shale soil (XI,) and are thickly settled and well cultivated, producing good crops of wheat and other grain. The climate is generally healthy, and the mean annual tempe- rature at Harrisburg is nearly the same as at Philadelphia. Win- ter sets in somewhat earlier, and spring opens rather later than in the neighbourhood of the city. The principal town is Harrishurg, which is the seat of justice for the county, and capital of the State. The other towns and vil- lages are Middletown, Hummelstown, Halifax, Dauphin, Millers- Imrgy High^ire, Lingehtown, Gratztown, Berrysburg, and Wico- iiisco. Harrisburg is beautifully situated on the eastern bank of the Susquehanna, on a gently elevated plain between the river and Paxton creek. The public buildings belonging to the State occupy a commanding position on an eminence in the northern part of the town. The State House or Capitol is a large and handsome brick building, surmounted by a dome, and having a circular por- DAUPHIN COUNTY. 233 State Capitol at Harrisburg. tico in front supported by six lonie columns. The interior is con- veniently arranged : the first floor having a Senate chamber on the north, and a spacious hall for the House of Representatives on the south; between which is a large circular rotunda and stairease. On the second floor are apartments for the state Hbrary, canal commissioners, supreme court, and the committee rooms of the Senate and House of Representatives. At each end of the capi- tol are separate buildings for the State offices, constructed in a similar style of architecture. That on the north contains the Exe- cutive chamber, the offices of the secretary of the commonwealth and state treasurer; while that on the south is occupied by the surveyor general and the secretary of the land office. These public buildings stand in a large enclosure, planted with trees, and surrounded by a brick wall on which is a neat pahng. The state arsenal is on the public grounds south of the capitol. The county prison, lately erected, is a noble structure of the Gothic style, built of cut stone, and altogether affords an admira- ble specimen of prison architecture. Its interior arrangement is excellent and is planned with a view to the principle of separate confinement. The other public buildings are a court house, a spacious market house, and nine churches, -of which the Presbyterian, the Lutheran, and the German Reformed are large and commodious edifices. Harrisburg is abundantly supplied with pure water from the Susquehanna river. This is raised by steam power into a reser- voir on an eminence north of the Capitol, from which the water is distributed throughout the town by means of iron pipes. This town is rapidly increasing in extent and population. Many 20* 234 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. substantial and elegant private dwellings have been recently erected, and the general appearance of the place has been much improved. Population in 1840, 5,980. Middletown is situated on the Lancaster turnpike, 9 miles south- east of Harrisburg. Population 756. Hummelstown is on the turnpike from Harrisburg to Lebanon, 9 miles from the former place. It is situated in a highly fertile lime- stone tract, and is inhabited chiefly by Germans and their descend- ants: Population, 480. Dauphin, Halifax, and Millersburg are towns on the Susque- hanna in the upper part of the county. Gratztown and Berrysburg are in Ly kens' valley : and Wiconisco is at the Bear gap coal mines. The agricultural productions of Dauphin are the same as those of the eastern and middle counties generally. Wheat and Indian corn are the principal, with rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, grass, &c. The forests afford a large supply of timber for fencing, fuel, the making of charcoal for iron works, &c. ; but no great amount is manufactured into lumber. There are three furnaces and one forge for the manufacture of iron in this county, besides a steam roUing mill, and two air furnaces in Harrisburg. The principal mineral production is coal, of which a considerable quantity is sent to market annually, and on completion of some improvements now in progress will be materially increased. During the season of navigation, most of the surplus produce of this county is sent to Baltimore by way of the Pennsylvania and Tide-water canals and Chesapeake bay ; but when the navi- gation is suspended, much of it finds its way to Philadelphia by the Harrisburg, Lancaster, and Philadelphia rail roads. The produce of Lykens' valley generally finds a ready market at Pottsville. The value of real estate, horses, cattle, &c., assessed for county purposes in 1842, was $10,039,407; county tax $30,948; State tax $13,146. The Pennsylvania canal extends along the Susquehanna, from the southern extremity of the county to Duncan's island, where it crosses the river; one division continuing ud the Juniata and the other up the western bank of the Susquehanna. The Wiconisco canal, not yet completed, extends from Clark's ferry to Millersburg, at the mouth of Wiconisco creek, a distance of 12 miles. The Lykens' valley rail road, a single track of fiat rails, is constructed for the transportation of coal from the mines at Bear gap to the Susquehanna at Millersburg, 16 miles. The Harrisburg and Lan- caster rail road extends from Harrisburg to Dillerville, near Lan- caster, where it connects with the Philadelphia and Columbia rail road. Turnpike roads lead from Harrisburg in various directions, to- wards York, Lancaster, Columbia, Lebanon, Clark's ferry and Carlisle ; these, together with the common roads, except in the more unsettled parts of the county, are kept in good order. Three noble bridges extend from this county across the Susquehanna. Two of these are at Harrisburg ; one of them, erected by the DAUPHIN COUNTY. 235 Cumberland valley rail road company, is an elegant structure, having the rail road laid on the roof, and carriage ways beneath. The third is at Duncan's island or Clark's ferry, built by the State, having a tow path attached to the south side for the purpose of drawing canal boats across the river at that place. There are also several fine bridges across the Swatara, and other streams within the county. The state of education among the people at large is not flourish- ing; but since the introduction of the common school system, the condition of the youth in this respect is rapidly improving. There are 17 school districts in the county, of which 11 have accepted the law establishing common schools. Ten of these districts re- ported to the superintendent in 1842, having 74 schools, which are kept open an average of 6^ months in the year. The Harrisburg academy is a well conducted institution, in which are taught Latin and Greek, the natural sciences, geogra- phy, Enghsh grammar, &cc. The average number of pupils is"25, of whom 20 are pursuing classical studies. There are also some excellent private schools. Probably more than three fourths of the people of this county can speak the German language ; half of them speak it generally ; but there are few who cannot speak En- ghsh also, and these are found principally in the upper part of the county. Dauphin was originally a part of Lancaster, and was first settled by Irish and Scotch emigrants. The Germans followed, and their descendants now occupy most of the county. The first clergyman settled in this part of the country was John Elder, a Scotchman, who preached for 56 years in the Paxton church, about two miles from where Harrisburg now stands. He wielded the sword of the flesh as well as that of the spirit, and held for several years a colonel's commission in the .provincial service ; commanding the stockades and block-houses that extended from the Susquehanna to the Delaware at Easton. It is said that he often carried his rifle into the pulpit, and his congregation were prepared in the same way against attacks from the Indians. About the year 1756, the church was surrounded by the savages so closely that, as was afterwards learned from an escaped prisoner, the rifles in the church were counted by the Indians ; but as there appeared to be too many of them, the savages went off" without molesting the congregation. In the year following, the congregation were at- tacked after they had dispersed, and two or three were killed and others wounded. The farmers were in the habit of carrying their rifles into the fields with them for their protection while at work. A number of those who were called friendly Indians were in the habit of coming down among the settlements of the whites about the beginning of summer. They remained in small parties about the country until towards winter, making baskets and pursuing other Indian avocations. When they went off" there were generally some murders committed, supposed to be by them on their route; but the perpetrators could never be identified. It was a succession of outrages of this kind that led to the expedition of the *' Paxton 236 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. boys," -which resuked in the murder of a considerable number of the Indians who were placed for protection in the jail at Lancaster. John Harris, the father of the founder of Harrisburg, fixed his habitation at an early day on the bank of the river, near the pre- sent lower end of the town. He traded extensively with the Indi- ans, sending his skins and furs to Philadelphia on pack horses, and bringing back such articles of merchandise as were desirable to the savages. He also engaged in agriculture, and is said to have been the first person who introduced the plough on the banks of. the Susquehanna. .This enterprising pioneer of civilization was, however, frequently in danger. On one occasion a company of Indians came to his house, on their return from a trading excur- sion, many of them being intoxicated. They asked him for rum, but were refused, as he feared mischief if they should obtain more. Enraged at his refusal, they seized and tied him to a mulberry tree on the bank of the river to burn him ahve. During their proceed- ■ John Harris rescued by the friendly Indians. ings a band of friendly Indians in the neighbourhood, to whom the alarm had by some means been given, came to his rescue, and he was released after a severe struggle between the parties. In re- membrance of this event, he afterwards directed that on his death he should be buried under the tree where this adventure occurred. He died about the year 1748, and according to his request was bu- ried under this memorable tree, where his remains still repose, together with those of some of his family. Part of this tree is yet standing, and is enclosed in a grave yard 15 feet square, the title to which is secured by conveyance from the commissioners who laid out the town. DELAWARE COUNTY. 237 A son of this John Harris, also named John, became the pro- prietor of a large tract of land, on part of which Harrisburg now stands. During his time " Harris' ferry" became a noted place, and it is said that twenty years before the town was laid out, he predicted that it would become the centre of business in this part of the country, and would some day be the seat of government of Pennsylvania. Accordingly, when the town was laid out in 1785, he conveyed to the commissioners four acres of ground on the hill where the Capitol now stands, '^'in trust for public use, and such public purposes as the legislature shall hereafter direct." The act for establishing the seat of government at Harrisburg was passed February 21, 1810; and the offices and public docu- ments were removed from Lancaster in October,, 1812. i By what counties is Dauphin bounded? What portions are level, hilly, and mountainous? Describe the situations and extent of the several moun- tains mentioned. What river is on the west ? Name the other principal streams. What geological formations occupy the southern part of this county? Describe the range of the hmestone. Of the slate. What are the rocks of the Blue mountain ? What between this and the Second mountain ? In the Second and other mountains ? In what valleys is the red shale (XI) found? On what mountains is the pebbly conglomerate rock ? Describe the situation of the Stony creek and Bear valley coal ba- sins ? What is said of the coal beds at Bear gap ? How is this coal con- veyed from the mines to the canal ? What is the character of the soil on the limestone and slate ? Of that on the other formations ? What is said of the climate t Name the principal towns. How is Harrisburg situated ? Describe the state capitol ; — the county prison. What are the other pubhc buildings ? How is the town supplied with water ? What is said of its improvement in extent and population ? Where is Middletown ? Hummelstown ? Dauphin? Halifax? Millersburg ? What towns in Ly- kens' valley ? Where is Wiconisco ? What are the productions of agri- culture ? — of the forest ? What iron works in the county ? What is the principal mineral production? By what way are the surplus productions sent to a market ? What canals are in the county ? — rail roads ? — turn- pikes ?— bridges ? What is said of the condition of education ? — ^of the common schools ? — of the Harrisburg academy ? What proportion of the inhabitants speak German ? Of what county was this originally a part, and by whom settled ? Who was the first clergyman, and what is said of him ? Relate some of the troubles Avhich occurred with the Indians. Where did John Harris settle, and in what business was he engaged ? What was done to him by a party of Indians ? How was he released from them ? Where was he afterwards buried, according to his own direction ? What is said of his son John, the founder of Harrisburg ? What land did he give for public use ? When did Harrisburg become the seat of govern- ment? 21. Delaware County. Delaware is bounded on the north-east and east by the counties of Montgomery and Philadelphia; on the south and south-west by the river Delaware and state of Delaware ; and on the west and north-west by the county of Chester, to which it originally be- longed, having been erected into a separate county under the name of Delaware in 1789. It is the smallest county in the State except Philadelphia ; con- 238 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. taining but about 177 square miles, or 114,281 acres of land. Po- pulation 19,791. The face of the country is generally hilly or undulating, except near the river, where there are large tracts of level meadow, very valuable for grazing or pasturage. The geological formation of this county belongs to the primary class, with some variations of metamorphic and igneous character. Gneiss and mica slate are the prevailing rocks ; modified in some places by the in- fluence of trap and other injected matter. In Upper Providence and Rad- nor townships there are beds of serpentine. Vast quantities of stone for building and other uses are quarried in this county : the rock principally used for this purpose is a gray granitic gneiss, which being found near the tide-waters of the several creeks, is easily transported to Philadelphia and other places. A whetstone, peculiarly adapted to sharpening scythes and shoe-makers' and saddlers' knives, is found on Darby and Crum creeks, from which a supply of this article for nearly the whole United States is furnished. The soil of Delaware county, being derived chiefly from the disintegration of primary rocks, is not naturally of the most fertile character ; but by careful attention to its improvement by judicious culture, and the use of lime, gypsum and other manures, it has been rendered so productive as to be surpassed by few counties in the State. Besides the river Delaware which forms part of the southern^ and the Brandywine, part of the western boundary of this county, there are several other considerable streams which are navigable to the head of tide-water, Chester, Ridley, Crum and Darhy creeks, all rising in Chester county and flowing southward to the river Delaware, pass across the whole breadth of Delaware county. In addition to these are Cobb's, Gh'eeii's, Marcus Hook, JVaylor's run. Gulf, and several other small creeks. These streams furnish water power for a great number of mills and manufacturing establish- ments which are in operation. The county abounds in exceUent springs, which water every farm and almost every enclosure. Chester, originally called Upland, is the county town, situated on the Delaware 15 miles below Philadelphia. It contains about 900 inhabitants, and has a court house, a jail, a market house, a bank, several churches, a library and a lyceum. Chester is an in- corporated borough ; it is also a port of entry, though seldom used as such. Vessels bound to Philadelphia frequently lie here in the winter, waiting the opening of the navigation upwards, and two long wharves or piers for their protection from floating ice have been erected, which form a harbour, and are kept in repair by the United States' government. The first provincial assembly of Pennsylvania was held here in 1682, shortly after the landing of William Penn's colony. Marcus Hook is on the Delaware, three miles below Chester, near the south-east corner of the county and State. It contains about 400 inhabitants. The market house, not used perhaps for nearly half a century, and a number of dilapidated buildings would seem to furnish evidence of decline in this little town ; but a spirit of improvement recently manifested will, it is hoped, at least re« DELAWARE COUNTY. 239 cover what has ' been lost or neglected. Many years ago, large vessels wintered here in a safe harbour, protected by projecting wharves ; but the dock is now partly filled up and affords but little protection to shipping. Above Chester is the Lazaretto, where vessels coming from sickly ports, or those suspected to be infected by contagious dis- eases, perform quarantine under the regulations of the health of- fice of Philadelphia. Darby is a village situated on the creek of the same name, at the head of tide-water, and midway between Philadelphia and Chester. The three towns of Chester, Marcus Hook and Darby are among the oldest in Pennsylvania; but from some cause they have improved perhaps less than any others in the State. Their increase of population falls much behind that of the country adjacent. Besides the towns already mentioned there are several thriving villages of recent growth, amongst which are Leiperville, Howell- ville, Lima and Village-Green. There are also a number of manufacturing villages which have sprung up around the larger story wooden building erected in 1695, having its bell hung in a tree grovNuig near it. It was en- larged in 1710; and in 1727 the western end. as we now see it, was raised, the eastern end not being completed until 1731. St. Michael's Lutheran church, in Fifth street above Arch, is a venera- ble old edifice erected in 1743, and its centennial anniversary has just been celebrated. Plan of the city. — The general plan of the city is remarkably uniform and regular ; the streets with some few exceptions crossing each other at right angles ; those leading from river to river having a direction very nearly from east to west, and those which cross them being nearly north and south. The carriage wavs are paved with rounded pebbles, bedded in gravel, forming a dry and durable, but somewhat rough surface. Paving with wooden blocks has been tried as an experiment ; but though pleasing to the eye and agreeable to the traveller, these pavements have been found to decay so rapidly as to lead to the abandonment of the plan. Chesnut street from Fourth to Sixth has been recently paved with square blocks of stone, which, though expensive at first, promises to combine the essential requisites of smoothness and durability in a greater degree than any other mode yet tried. The side walks are universally paved with bricks, except in a few instances where a better taste has led to the use of smooth well dressed flag stones. The city is drained by common sewers, or arched culverts of brick work, constructed under most of the main streets. Public Squares. — It is to the wise and liberal foresight of the great founder PHILADELPHIA CITY AND COUNTY- 319 of Pennsylvania that we owe most of the pubhc squares which now orna- ment our city. In the original plan, as laid out by Thomas Holmes, Penn's surveyor general in 1682, there was to be a public square in the centre containing ten acres, and one in each quarter of the city containing eight acres. By the same plan it was also intended to leave an open space between Front street and the Delaware, and Penn long resisted the appli- cations of the inhabitants to build nearer the river. But at last, owing per- haps to his pecuniary embarrassments, he unhappily consented to the sale of lots on the river bank. ; thus depriving his favourite city of a healthful and open area along the wharves for the landing of merchandise and the transaction of business ; as well as destroying the symmetry of the city front, and creating a crowded, dark and unsightly mass of buildings which makes an unfavourable impression upon the mind of every stranger enter- ing in that direction. It was intended by the proprietor that the pubhc buildings should be erected on the centre square at Market and Broad streets ; but its great distance from the then closely built part of the city probably led to the purchase of the square between Chestnut, Walnut, Fifth and Sixth streets, since called Independence square. The northern part of this lot was first purchased, and the State house erected in 1735 ; in 1760 the southern part, fronting on Walnut street, was purchased, and the whole square surrounded by a brick wall, which was afterwards removed to give place to the pre- sent more graceful iron palisade. Though this is the general place of meeting for civic and pohtical assemblages when they are to be harangued on such a great scale that no house or hall will hold ihem, and also the re- sort of prodigious crowds on the day of the general elections ; yet much to the credit of the population at these periods of excitement, no injury is of- fered to the trees and other ornaments of the place, which always presents the same neat and orderly aspect. Washington square, on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was lor many years used as a public burial ground for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters' field. About the year 1795, the extension of improvements and buildings into this quarter induced the city authorities to close it against future interments. Its improvement as a public square commenced in 1815, when a variety of trees were planted, gravel walks laid out, and other steps taken which have led to its present attractive ap- pearance. It is intended to erect, in the centre of this square, a monument to the memory of Washington ; the corner stone having been laid with due ceremony at the celebration of his birth day, on the 22d of February, 1833. Franklin square is on Sixth street between Race and Vine, being also laid out with gravel walks and planted with trees, affording a public pro- menade equally agreeable with Washington square. A magnificent foun- tain, surrounded by a marble basin, has been constructed in the centre, supplied with water from the works at Fairmount. Logan square, nai.ied after James Logan, the friend and secretary of WiUiam Penn, arid Rittenhouse square, after David Rittenhouse, the phi- losopher and statesman, are both on Schuylkill Fifth street ; the former between Race and Vine, and the latter between Walnut and Locust. They are both enclosed .and planted with trees, and promise in a few years to present an appearance similar to Washington and Franklin squares, afford- ing to the inhabitants of the western part of the city, cool and shady walks of equal attraction to those now enjoyed in the eastern squares. Penn square, at the intersection of Market and Broad streets, was, within the recollection of many now li' ' ig, not a square but a circle, having the street passing round it and enclosing the distributing reservoir of the city water works. On the construction of the reservoir at Fairmount, the old marble ^ uilding in Centre square was taken down, and Market and Broad streets were opened directly through the square, dividing it into four distinct enclosures, the pubhc benefit of which seems to be tnus far con- fined to the production of tolerable crops of grass. 320 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Buildinsrs. — The dwellings are mostly built of brick ; the general style of the architecture being plain and neat, rather than showy and ornamental. White marble is generally used for door steps, window sills, &c., and many of the modern buildings have the basement story faced in front with this material. A number of the public buildings present an enure exterior of marble, from the quarries of Montgomery and Chester counties; the abundant supply which they yield having added greatly to the architectural embellishment of the city. Of the many splendid marble edifices with which Philadelphia is adorned, the most conspicuous for their size and the beauty of their architectural design are the Girard college, the United States and Pennsylvania banking houses, the Merchants' Exchange, the United States' mint, the Marine hospital or Naval asylum, and some others. Girard College. The Girard college occupies a commanding position on high ground about a mile north-west of the incorporated limits of the city. I'he lot on which it stands contains about forty five acres, and was bequeathed for this purpose by the founder of the institution. The college buildings con- sist of a centre edifice which is to be exclusively devoted to the purposes of education, and four other buildings, two on each side, for the residence and accommodation of professors, teachers, and scholars. The centre building, which forms the most conspicuous object, and at once rivets the attention of the beholder by its immense proportions, its beautiful columrhs and gorgeous capitals, is two hundred and eighteen feet in length from north to south, one hundred and sixty feet in breadth from east to west, and ninety-seven feet in height. It is surrounded by thirty-four columns, supporting an entablature after the manner of a Grecian temple. Each coWmn, including its capital and base, is fifty-five feet high and six feet in diameter, having a base three feet high and nine feet in diameter, and leaving a space of fifteen feet between the columns and the body of the build g. At each end is a door of entrance sixteen feet wide and thirty two feet high, decorated with massive architraves surmounted by a sculp- tured cornice. Each of these doors opens into a vestibule 26 feet wide and 48 feet long, the ceiling of which is supported by eight marble columns and eight antae of the Ionic order. In the second story, over these vestibules, are lobbies of similar dimensions, having their ceilings supported by Co- rinthian columns. In each corner of the building are marble stairways, lighted from the roof. On each floor are four rooms of 50 feet square ; the ceilings of those on the first and second stories being groin arched, and those on the third vaulted, with a central sky-light so formed as not to pro- trude above the roof The roof, floors and stairways, are constructed of marble, no wood being used except for doors. The building is warmed by means of furnaces built in the cellar, and has flues for ventilation con- structed in the interior walls. PHILADELPHIA CITY AND COUNTY. 321 The remaining four buildings, situated two on each side of the main building, are each 52 feet wide by 125 feet long, and two stories high above the basement. The most eastern of these, intended for the use of the pro- fessors, is so constructed as to accommodate four distinct families with ail the conveniences of private dwellings. The other three buildings are de- signed for the residence and accommodation of the pupils. The United States' Bank, is one of the most chaste specimens of Grecian architecture in this country. It is an imitation of the Parthenon, a temple of the Doric order at Athens, with the omission of the colonnades on the sides and some other decorations. The platform on which the building is erected is 87 feet in front by 161 feet deep, having marble steps ascending to the portico. Eight columns, four feet six inches in diameter, support a plain entablature and pediment. The large banking room in the centre of the building is 81 feet long and 48 feet wide, richly ornamented with fluted Ionic columns, and sculptured embellishments. Adjoining this are several smaller apartments used for various purposes ; the whole interior arrange- ment of the building being admirably adapted to the business for which it was designed. This edifice was commenced in 1819, and finished in 1821, at a cost of about $500,000. United States' Bank. The Bank of Pennsylvania is a beautiful edifice of white marble, designed from a Greek temple near Athens, and is one of the purest specimens of Grecian architecture to be met with in the United States. It has a portico on each front, with six Ionic columns, supporting an entablature and pedi- ment ; the entire building being 125 feet long and 51 feet wide. The en- closure in which it stands is tastefully ornamented with plants and shrub- bery, and surrounded by an iron railing. The Girard Bank has a marble front, enriched by a portico and six Co- rinthian columns ; the sides and back of the building being composed of red brick walls, which offer a strange contrast with the Grecian style of its front. Several of the other banking houses are handsome and spacious build- ings, but erected in a plainer style of architecture than those already men- tioned. The Merchants' Exchange is a noble edifice erected on the triangular space between Third, Walnut and Dock streets, and constituting the cen- tral point of commercial and financial business transactions. The eastern fagade. fronting on Dock street, presents a sirnicircular piazza supported by Corinthian pillars, standing upon a basement about 12 feet high, being richly ornamented with sculpture, and producing a beautiful and imposing effect. Some of the other prominent buildings in the city and adjoining districts will be described in our notice of the institutions to which they belong, or of the objects for which they were erected. 322 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Merchants' Exchange. IVdfer works. — Before the erection of the works at Fairmount, the city was supphed with water from the Schuylkill by means of two steam en- gines, one on Chestnut street near the river, and the other at the intersec- tion of Broad and Market streets. By the first the water was forced into a tunnel extending along Chestnut and Broad streets to the engine at Cen- tre, now called Penn square, where it was elevated by the second engine into a reservoir 36 feet high, and thence conveyed in wooden pipes through the city. This arrangement being found to be totally inadequate to the supply required, after a cost of $657,398 from its commencement in 1799, was finally abandoned in 1815. In 1812 the construction of steam works at Fairmount was commenced, and in 1815 was so far completed as to be put in operation. But it soon became apparent that the small and expensive supply thus obtained would not meet the demand of a great and growing city, and that some other system must be adopted better calculated to se- cure the great objects of economy and abundance. Accordingly, in 1818, after expending $320,699 in the erection and support of these works, the city councils, in compliance with a recommendation of the watering com- mittee, authorized the erection of the dam and water works now in opera- tion ; the first wheel was put in motion July 1, 1822, and on the 25lh of October the steam w^orks were stopped. Fairmount. The city and adjoining districts are now abundantly supphed with excellent water by means of these hydraulic works, which are situated on the east side of the Schuylkill above the city. The mount is an oval shaped eminence, and on its top, which is 102 feet above the water in the river, and upwards of 50 feet above the highest ground in the city, are four reservoirs contain- ing together about 22,000,000 of gallons. These reservoirs are enclosed by PHILADELPHIA CITY AND COUNTY. 323 a paling, and surrounded by a gravel walk, having a flight of steps ascend- ing to it on the west, and being attained by several sloping ascents on the east. The requisite power for propelhng the machinery is obtained by means of a dam 1600 feet in length, thrown across the river, from which a race upwards of 400 feet long and 90 feet wide, excavated from the solid rock, conveys the water to the forebays in front of the whe^els. The mill house is of stone, 238 feet lon^ and 56 feet wide, being calculated for eight water wheels each 15 feet in length and from 14 to 18 feet in diameter. These wheels have iron shafts weighing about five tons each, dnd in most of them the arms and rims are also of iron. To each shaft is affixed a crank, working a double forcing pump by which the water is raised into the reservoirs. The pumps have a diameter of 16 inches with a stroke of five feet, making from 12 to 13 strokes in a minute ; each pump raising about a million and a quarter of gallons in 24 hours, and being connected with an iron main 16 inches in diameter, which passes across the bottom of the race and up the side of the mount into the reservoir, 92 feet above the level of the dam. The reservoirs cover an area of upwards of six acres ; they are twelve feet deep, hned with stone and paved with bricks laid upon a bed of clay in strong lime cement, and made water-tight. The water is conveyed from them into the city by two iron mains, one of 20 and the other 22 inches in diameter ; from which branches from 6 to 10 inches ia diameter are laid through the principal streets, and from these smaller ones into the other streets and alleys. From the main pipes the water is con- veyed into the yards and dwellings by small lead or iron pipes. Fire plugs are placed in the streets at convenient distances, to which, on the breakiiig out of a fire, leathern hose may be attached, by means of which water is supplied to t!ie engines or carried into any accessible part of the burning building. These fire plugs also furnish copious streams of water witE which the streets are washed almost daily during the warm season. Be- neath the pavements are numerous cisterns supplied with water from the main pipes, having pumps inserted for pubhc use. The consumption of water in the city and districts, during the year 1842, amounted to an average daily supply of 4,297,480 gallons, distributed to 25,816 tenants, and equal to 167 gallons daily for each tenant. The length of iron pipes laid in the city at the close of 1842 was 64^ miles, and in the districts 51 miles, making a total of 115 miles. The num- ber of fire plugs in the city is 524, and in the districts 531 : total 1055. The cost of erecting the present works in 1822, with the additions of per- manent work annually made (not including repairs to the dam) up to the end of the year 1842, amounts to about §1,500,000. In 1818 the expense of working one steam engine and pump for one year was $30,858 ; and with this expenditure not more than 1,600,000 gallons could be raised in 24 hours. At this rate the expense of supplying the city by steam power, wdth the same quantity of water now used, would be $227 per day ; while the present expense of the water power, for attendants' wages, oil, fuel, &LC., is about S7 per day. Gas Works^. — The principal streets, most of the stores, hotels, churches, public institutions, and many of the private dwellings are lighted with gas. supplied from the City gas works on the Schuylkill, between Market and Filbert streets. These works, originally constructed by a company, but now owned by the city, consist of a retort house capable of containing 120 retorts with all their connexions with the refrigerating and purifying appa- ratus; three large station meters for measuring the gas as it is manufactured ; suitable workshops, offices, laboratory, &c. On the eastern part of the lot are eight gasometers of fifty feet each in diameter, capable of containing altogether 280,000 cubic feet of gas. From these the gas is distributed throughout the city by means of iron pipes laid under ground along the streets, in the same manner as the Schuylkill water is conducted, with small pipes to lead the gas from the street mains into the houses and to the public lamps. The total length of street mains in 1842 was 35^ miles. 324 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The demand for gas is steadily increasing, and its use rapidly extending throughout the city. The quantity supplied during the year 1842 was 50,811,000 cubic feet, which was produced from 187,147 bushels of coal and 500 barrels of rosin. The fuel used consisted of 54,536 bushels of coke, which is a residuum left in the retorts after the gas has been expelled from the coal, and is produced in such quantity as not only to supply all the fuel used for heating the retorts, but also a large surplus for sale. The number of private lights in use in 1842 was 27,240, and 778 street lamps supplied with gas, besides those in the market-houses and pubhc squares. Gas works have also been constructed in the Northern Liberties by a company for the purpose of supplying that district, Kensington, &c. Their structure and management are similar to those in the city. Provisions, fuel, ^c. — There is, perhaps, no city in the world which ex- ceeds Philadelphia in the abundance, excellence, and cheapness of the pro- visions furnished by its markets. Butchers' meat in all its variety, and poultry of various kinds are plentiful at all seasons of the year ; fresh, fish is obtained from the neighbouring rivers, and sea fish brought from the ocean preserved in ice- Fresh butter is brought in daily by the farmers ; milk and cream by the milkmen in the vicinity of the city; and the fruit and vegetables supplied by the orchards and gardens of the neighbouring parts of our own State and of New Jersey, are not surpEissed in variety and goodness by those of any other market in the country. Fuel is an important item in the necessary supplies of a large city, and in this respect Philadelphia is eminently fortunate. The rivers which wash this city on both sides flow from mountains containing inexhaustible stores of anthracite coal, and the canals and rail roads which have been constructed along their banks furnish a cheap and easy means of transportation to the city, not only for its own supply, but for shipment to other places less fa- vourably situated for obtaining this now almost indispensable article of use. The consumption of wood is still considerable, its price having been much reduced since the general introduction of coal as a fuel. The wood sold on our wharves is chiefly brought up the river from the lower parts of New Jersey and Delaware. Resources, trade, (^c— While thus bountifully supplied with all the ne- cessaries of life, Philadelphia is not deficient in those articles of luxury, or- nament and taste in which the wealthier portion of the population of large cities usually indulge. Her extensive domestic and foreign trade, her nu- merous manufactories, the extension of her buildings and other improve- ments, while they employ the capital and enterprise of the merchant, the manufacturer and the proprietor, create such a demand for labour as to ensure employment to the working classes at such wages as afford them, by the practice of a temperate and prudent economy, not only a decent subsistence, but the means of ameliorating their condition and increasing their fortimes. The prosperity of this city is perhaps mainly owmg to the advantages of a situation which has afforded it such abundant resources of trade, and em- ployment for the enterprise and industry of its inhabitants. Surrounded by a fertile, well cultivated, and populous country, in which the productions of agriculture, manufactures and the mechanic arts are constantly and steadily increasing ; — near the confluence of two rivers whose navigation has been improved by public and corporate enterprise ; — 349 beds in the hills along Castleman's river, Laurel hill creek, and other streams in different parts of the basin, as to show the abundant and inex- haustible character of the coal deposits in this part of the county. Iron ore is abundant in many places along the east side of Laurel hill, and has been mined near the head of Garey's run for the supply of Fayette furnace, on Indian creek, west of Laurel hill. The Y(mghios;eny river, flowing northward from Maryland, forms the western boundary of this county as far as to its passage through Laurel hill, above which it receives the waters of Castle- man's river from the east, and of Laurel hill creek from the north. The union of these three streams at the same point is called the '' turkey foot" from their fancied resemblance to the three toes of a bird's foot, and Turkey-foot township has been so named from this circumstance. Elk-lick and Buffalo creeks are tributaries of Castleman's river; Cox's creek flows southward to the same river from near the town of Somerset. Stony creek is a large stream, rising in the eastern part of the county, and flowing northward to the Conemaugh at Johnstown. Shade creek rises by numerous branches in the wilderness region on the west of the Allegheny mountain, in the north-east of the county, and running westward empties into Stony creek. Quemahoning is also a branch of Stony creek, in the north, flowing north-eastward from the foot of Laurel hill. In the south-east are the head waters of Wills' creek, a branch of the Potomac. Near the summit of the great Alle- gheny, north-east of Berlin, are springs within a short distance of one another, the waters of which find their way to the ocean through the Susquehanna, by way of the Raystown branch and the Juniata; through the Potomac, by way of Wills' creek; through the Ohio by both of its brancJbes, the Monongahela by way of Buffalo creek, Castleman's river and the Youghiogeny, — and' the Allegheny, by way of Stony creek and the Conemaugh. Somerset, the county town, has a nearly central position, and is situated on the turnpike from Bedford to Mount Pleasant, Wash- ington, and Wheeling. It has about 650 inhabitants, and con • tains a court house, county oflaces, prison, academy and several churches. Berlin, eight miles south-east of Somerset, is an incorporated borough, with upwards of 500 inhabitants. Smythjield (Somer- field P. O.) is a village on the east side of the Youghiogeny, where that river is crossed by the National turnpike. Four miles east of this, on the National road near the Maryland line, is Petersburg (Addison P. O.) also a considerable village. Stoystown, a borough with a population of 357, is near Stony creek, on the Bedford and Pittsburg turnpike. The other principal villages are Jennerville in the north-west, Milford in the west, and Shanksville in the east. The agricultural products are wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, corn, potatoes, flax, wool, &c. Great numbers of cattle and sheep are reared by the farmers, and large quantities of excellent butter from this county are sent to the eastern cities for sale. Nearly 300,000 pounds of maple sugar are made annually. On Stony creek is a furnace and a forge for the manufacture of iron ; and other branches 30 350 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of manufactures are established in different parts of the county, chiefly for the production of articles for domestic use. Owing to the elevated position of this region the winters are usually severe ; but the climate is remarkable for its general salu- brity. The summers are much cooler than in counties but little above the tide level : frost is not uncommon in June and early in September. Three of the leading turnpike roads from east to west pass through Somerset county. The National road crosses the south- western corner ; the turnpike from Bedford to Mount Pleasant, &c., passes through the middle ; and in the north is the main turnpike from Philadelphia by Harrisburg, Chambersburg, Bedford and Greensburg to Pittsburg. There is also a turnpike leading south- eastward from the town of Somerset, by Berlin, to Cumberland in Maryland, from which point a rail road extends to Baltimore. The general condition of education is not very flourishing, but is believed to be in a state of gradual improvement. Some parts of the county are thinly settled and schools are not easily main- tained. There are in all 18 school districts, of which 12 have ac- cepted the provisions of the common school law, and 9 have made report, showing that they have 56 schools established, and that the average time of instruction is little more than 4 months in the year. A large proportion of the population is of German descent, mostly from the eastern counties ; and the German language is commonly spoken. In the southern and south-eastern townships are numbers of inhabitants who speak little or no English. They are generally a plain, frugal, industrious people, obedient to the laws, minding their own business, and attentive to their moral and religious duties. How is Somerset bounded ? What is the character of the surface ? — of the soil? To what purpose is it adapted ? Describe the mountains on the east and south-east, — in the south and west. To what geological forma- tion does most of this county belong ? How is it separated into basins ? What rock formations appear in the mountain ridges? Describe the coal beds in the basin between Little Allegheny and Savage mountains. What other valuable mineral occurs here ? What rocks occupy the region be- tween Savage mountain and the Great Allegheny ? Describe the coal ba- sin between Allegheny and Negro mountains. What is said of the coal beds in this basin ?— of the limestone and iron ore ? At \vhat different places are all these valuable mineral products found ? What is said of the western coal basin of the county ? Where is iron ore abundant ? What rivers are in this county ? From what is Turkey-foot township named ? What creeks empty into Castleman's river ? Which are tributaries of the Conemaugh? Into what river does Wills' creek empty? What is said of the various courses to the ocean, of streams rising on the Allegheny near Berhn ? How is Somerset, the county town, situated ? Mention the other principal towns, and their situation. What are the chief products of farm- mg industry ? What is the amount of maple sugar made in a year ? What is said of the manufactures generally? Describe the climate. What three turnpike roads cross the county? What is the general condition of educa- tion ; number of schools, &.C.? What people compose most of the popu- lation ; and what is said of their language, and their character for industry and morality ? SUSQUEHANNA COUNTY. 351 49. SUSQ,UEHANNA CoUNTY. Susquehanna county adjoins the state of New York on the Rorth ; Wayne county on the east; Luzerne and Wyoming on the south ; and Bradford on the west. The number of inhabitants in 1840, was 21,195. The surface is hilly and uneven, approaching to mountainous in the eastern part ; but the hills are in general neither high nor precipitous, being chiefly ridges extending between the streams, and susceptible of cultivation on their sides and summits. Elk mountain, in the eastern part of the county, is the most elevated point of land in north-eastern Pennsylvania ; its summit being about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. From the top of this mountain is afforded a most extensive and magnificent prospect of the surrounding country, embracing not only the whole of this county, with its broken and irregular surface of hills and dales, — its variegated forests and cultivated fields, its meandering streams and glistening lakes ; but all the surrounding region from the bold sweep of the Susquehanna river on the north and west, to the Blue ridge and the towering Kaatskill on the south and east. In the north-eastern part of the county, bordering on the Sus- quehanna, there are some ridges of waste and sterile land ; but in general, though there is little of that level and highly fertile soil Avhich abounds in other parts of the State, yet there is little Avaste land that may not be cultivated for grain or grass, and much that may be rendered productive to a considerable degree. The geological features of this county are remarkably simple and uni- form. In the northern part are the upper strata of the olive slate formation (VIII,) containing layers of grayish sandstone, and some slightly calcareous bands of rock which are filled with impressions of shells and various other fossil remains. In Choconut township, in the north-western corner of the county, is a bed of rock 10 or 12 feet thick, so calcareous as to yield a rough gray lime when burned, which may prove useful for agricultural purposes. The rock strata in the northern part of the county have a very gentle gene- ral inclination towards the south, and in that direction pass beneath the overlying red shales and reddish and grayish sandstones (IX) of the next superior series, which extend in nearly horizontal strata of thin, fiat layers, over nearly the whole of the middle and southern parts of the county. The south-eastern corner, being near the northern point of the Lackawana coal basin, probably contains some of the higher formations approaching the coal series ; but if the county reaches far enough in this direction to include any portion of the coal basin, it must be of very limited extent. The JYorth Branch of the Susquehanna river enters the north- eastern corner of this county, and making a short turn at the Great Bend, returns by a north-western course again into the state of New York, where it takes a circuitous sweep around to the west a,nd south, returning again into Pennsylvania in Bradford county, a few n^iles west of the north-western corner of Susquehanna. The south-eastern portion of the county is mostly drained by Tunkhannoek creek and its tributaries. Martinis creek, Hopbottom, &c., flowing south-westward to the Susquehanna. In the north are Salt-lick, Snake and Cfwconut creeks ; in the west, Wyalming with 352 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. its numerous branches j and in the south-west the Meshoppen. All these, with numerous other streams, afford plenty of good mill seats, and every part of the county abounds with clear, cold springs and brooks of excellent and pure water. The varied and romantic beauties of the natural scenery in this county are much improved by the number of small lakes which are found in almost every township, and whose crystal waters, gleaming in the light of the setting sun, like polished mirrors amidst the dark shadows of the surrounding woods, give life and brilliancy to the picture. On the margin of one of these beautiful sheets of water, called Silver lake, 8 miles north of Montrose, is the elegant mansion of the late Dr. Rose, one of the early settlers of the county, an extensive landed proprietor, who aided much in bringing this region into notice, and promoting its rapid settlement. A number of the streams are precipitated over high ledges of horizontal rocks and form waterfalls of remarkably picturesque and beautiful appearance. Silver creek, on its passage through a high ridge into the valley of Snake creek, forms a succession of cascades, some of which are 50 feet high ; and at the foot of the lower fall the banks rise precipitously from the stream to the height of 200 feet, fringed at the top and on each side with tall hemlocks, forming a singularly wild, deep and dark romantic glen, into which the cheerful light of day scarcely finds an entrance. On Cascade creek, in Harmony township near the Great Bend of Susquehanna, is a beautiful waterfall which is frequently visited by the ad- mirers of wild and picturesque scenery. The stream falls about 30 feet over a ledge of rocks, the horizontal strata presenting a series of regular gradations like the steps of an elevated portico. Near this, another stream precipitates itself from an elevation of more than 100 feet, and is converted into glittering spray long be- fore it reaches the bottom. The climate, though subject to considerable extremes of heat and cold, is esteemed as being remarkably healthy. At Silver lake the mercury in winter sometimes falls to 15 or 20° below zero, and in summer rises to 94°. The elevated position of the country ren- ders it liable to some high winds and violent storms, as well as sudden changes of temperature. The winters usually last from the middle of November until the beginning of April ; but when spring opens the progress of vegetation is rapid : the summer air among the hills is peculiarly delightful and salubrious. Montrose, the county town, occupies a nearly central position, and is situated at the intersection of several important turnpikes and mail routes, where daily stages meet from the north and south, and from the east and west. The streets are wide and commodious, but owing to the unevenness of the ground, are somewhat irregu- larly laid out. The public buildings are a court house, a stone fire proof edifice for county offices, a bank, an academy and four houses for public worship. The houses are generally built of wood ; mostly painted white and presenting a neat appearance ; the whole place, as has been frequently remarked, much resembles a New England country village. The number of inhabitants is about 700. SUSQUEHANNA COUNTY. 353 Dwidaff, in the south-eastern corner of the county, is an incor- porated borough with upAv^ards of 300 inhabitants. New Milford and Great Bend are villages in the north; Friendsville in the north-west ; Springville in the south, and Harford in the south- east. Agricultural pursuits form the prevalent occupation of the in- habitants and employ the greatest portion of the population. The soil and climate seem to be peculiarly adapted to the growth of oats and potatoes, of which large and superior crops are produced. Wheat and rye succeed best on newly cleared lands ; Indian corn is raised to some advantage in certain situations, but in general is not so successful as other crops. As a grazing country, for the Tearing of cattle and sheep, »^usquehanna county is exceeded in natural advantages by few portions of the State. Increasing at- tention is given to the making of butter and cheese ; there being already a number of thriving dairy farmers established here from Orange county. New York. They, with the frugal and thrifty settlers from New England, will soon render this county famous for its butter and cheese. Wool growing has become an import- ant branch of business ; the number of sheep kept in the county being upwards of 72,000, from which more than 121,000 pounds of wool are annually produced. Sugar maple trees are abundant m the forests, and sugar is ex- tensively manufactured. In 1840 the product of this article was 252,137 pounds. The other most common kinds of timber are hemlock, beech, birch, cherry, chestnut, ash, bass-wood, &c. Oak is most common on the hills about the river. Pine grows along the river and larger streams, from which lumber is produced to some extent : this, together with the oak, cherry, curled maple, SiC, annually sent to market, is estimated to be worth $40,000. The lumber tinds a market chiefly by the Susquehanna and Dela- ware rivers; cattle and sheep are driven to New York and New Jersey for sale; the surplus products of agriculture are sold to a considerable amount at Carbondale for the support of the nume- rous population about the coal mines at that place. The assessed value of real and personal property, subject to county taxation for 1842, was $2,522,362: county tax $7,716: State tax $2,980. There are no canals or rail roads in the county, though the North Branch division of the State canal on the south, and the Chenango canal on the north, approach sufficiently near to benefit the trade of the county when they shall be completed. The great New York and Erie rail road will pass near on the north, if not ul- timately laid through part of this county ; permission for which has been granted by the legislature. Several turnpike roads cross the county in various directions. One in the north-east, from Belmont to Harmony, and another from Belmont to Great Bend. One through the county from south-east to north-Vvrest, passing from Carbondale through Dundaff and Montrose to Owego on the Sus- quehanna; which is intersected at Montrose by the turnpike from Wilkesbarre, through Tunkhannock, Slc. Beside these there are 30* 354 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. some others either completed or partly constructed between differ- ent points. In this, as in others of our northern counties which have been settled chiefly by families from the Eastern states, education re- ceives more attention, and schools are better established than in most other parts of the State. There are 23 school districts in the county, all of which accepted the provisions of the law regulating the common school system, soon after its passage. In 21 of these districts which have reported, there are 185 schools established for instruction according to the provisions of the law, which are kept open, on a general average, nearly six months in the year. There are two incorporated academies : the Susquehanna academy at Montrose has recently assumed a very promising condition ; and the Franklin academy at Harford has also attained a creditable re- putation. There are 28 houses for public worship : nine of which belong to Presbyterians, six to Baptists, three Episcopal, three Methodist, two Roman Catholic, two Universalist, one Friends, and two built by various denominations united. In a large number of cases, small congregations who have not the means of erecting churches, hold their meetings for worship in school houses. How is Susquehanna county bounded ? What is the character of the surface ? Describe Elk mountain and the prospect from it. What is said of the productive character of the county ? Give an account of the general geological features and rock formations. Where is an impure limestone found? Describe the course of the North branch of Susquehanna. What creeks are in the south-east ? — in the north? — in the west and south-west ? What is said of the lakes? Where is Silver lake ? Describe the water- falls on Silver creek and Cascade creek. What is said of the climate? Give a description of Montrose, its situation, public buildings, &c. What other towns are mentioned ? What is said of the agriculture of this county and its principal productions ? Mention its advantages as a grazing coun- try, and for producing butter, cheese, &c. What is the number of sheep, and the amount of wool annually produced ? Notice the prevailing kinds of timber, and the amount of maple sugar made. Where do the surplus productions find a market ? What rail roads and canals will benefit this county, though not within it ? Mention the various turnpike roads. What is said of the attention paid to education, and of the number of schools, aca- demies, &c. ? How many houses for public worship are there, and to what religious denominations do they belong ? 50. Tioga County. Tioga county adjoins the State of New York on the north, Bradford on the east, Lycoming and Clinton on the south, and Potter on the west. Population, 15,498. The face of the country resembles that of the northern line of counties generally, being no where mountainous, but hilly and uneven; deeply furrowed by the channels of the streams, with steep and rough acclivities rising to the upland. The soil of the bottom lands in the valleys of the streams is of superior quality ; that on the hills is less productive, but yields good pasturage and tolerable crops of grain when well cultivated. TIOGA COUNTY. 355 Nearly the whole of this county is occupied by the olive slates, red shales and sanastones of the formations below the coal series. In the neighbour- hood ol Blossburg, however, on the Tioga river near its source, is a coal basin several miles in extent, in which the deep channels of the streams have cut through and exposed numerous successive beds of coal, fire clay and u-on ore, belonging to the lower portion of the bituminous coal forma- tion. Iron works have been erected at Blossburg, and a rail road con- structed to Corning in the State of New York, in order to afford an outlet for the mineral treasures of this district. The Tioga river runs northward from this county into the State of New York, and then turning to the east and south-east, re-enters Pennsylvania in Bradford county and unites with the North branch of Susquehanna. Covjanesque is a considerable stream in the north of the county, flowing eastward to the Tioga. In the soulh-west is Pine creek, running southward to the West branch of Susque- hanna. All these streams are navigable for rafts of lumber and arks at high water. Extensive forests of pine, hemlock, oak, beech, sugar maple and other timber cover a large portion of the county. Lumber is the staple production and about 1.50 saw-mills are in operation for its manufacture. About 200,000 pounds of maple sugar, and 50 tons of pot and pearl ash are made annually. Agriculture is im- proving, and wheat, corn and other grains are successfully culti- vated: oats and potatoes thrive particularly well, the soil and climate appearing to be congenial to their growth. Wellshoro is the seat of justice, situated nearly in the centre of the county, containing a population of about 400, and having the usual county buildings, such as court-house, prison, academy, &c., with several places of public worship. The other towns and villages are small : the principal are Tioga, Covington, Blossburg, Lawrenceville, Elkland, Knoxville and Mansfield. Common schools are established in nearly all the districts, 23 in number, of which 22 have accepted the law, and 20 made report to the superintendent in 1842, showing that there were then 126 schools in operation, the average number of months taught being 5^ in the year. The academy at Wellsboro is reported to contain 135 pupils. Of the various religious denominations, Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists are most numerous. The religious and moral cha- racter of the population is improving: industry, sobriety and good order being now generally prevalent. Tioga, like most of the northern counties, was settled chiefly by adventurers from the New England states, and the peculiar language, habits and manners of that people still prevail to a con- siderable degree among the inhabitants. What are the boundaries of Tioga? Describe the face of the country? What is the quality of the soil ? What rock formations occupy most of the county ? What valuable minerals are found in the neighbourhood of Bloss- burg ? What works have been constructed in order to give value to the mineral products of this region ? Describe the course of Tioga river. Name the other principal streams and their direction. What is said of the 356 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. forests and the production of lumber ? State the amount of maple sugar and potash made. Mention the improvement of agriculture and its pro- ducts Name the county town and how situated. What other places are mentioned ? What is said of the schools ? — Of the religious denominations and the moral character of the people ? By whom was the county prin- cipally settled ? 51. Union County. Union county has Lycoming on the north ; the river Susque- hanna on the east, separating it from Northumberland ; Juniata county on the south ; and Miiflin and Centre on the west. Popu- lation 22,787. The White Deer mountain forms the northern boundary ; south of this is Buffalo mountain ; in the west is Jack's mountain, ex- tending half across the county; and in the south. Shade mountain, terminating a few miles west of the Susquehanna. The southern part is much broken by small ridges and ranges of hills, and with the exception of the bottom land along ihe Susquehanna and the small valleys of Middle creek, Musser^s, and Klopperdahl, the soil is but of moderate quality. These valleys, together with Buffalo, White Deer and Dry valleys in the north, have principally a cal- careous soil of a very fertile character, and admirably adapted to agriculture. The general geological character of the county may be understood from the following brief sketch. Shade, Jack's, Buffalo an(i White Deer moun- tains contain the hard sandstone (IV) usually found in the higher ridges of the Appalachian portion of the State. Between Jack's mountain on the south and Buffalo and White Deer on the north, is the overlying series (V) of red and variegated shales, containing bands of hmestone, sandstone, and the fossihferous iron ore : this formation extends to the West branch of the Susquehanna, spreading out over most of White Deer and Buffalo valleys, and also the valley of Penn's creek north of Jack's mountain. Folding round the end of Jack's mountain, it is seen along the southern side, ex- tending into Mifflin county. The same formation may be seen on both sides of Shade mountain, meeting at its eastern end and extending towards Sehnsgrove. The limestone (VI) next above in order, is the rock of the limestone ridges which extend through the valley between Jack's and Shade mouniain ; the upper portion being very silicious, and containing beds of chert or flint, the angular fragments of which cover the surface in many places. The coarse fossiliferous sandstone (VII) is scarcely seen in its pro- per place above the limestone, appearing to thin out towards the Susque- hanna. At Blue hill on the Susquehanna, opposite Northumberland, and extendinsT for some distance both up and down the river, are the red and gray sandstones and shales of the formations (VIII and IX) next above those last mentioned ; their lower beds being bordered by the limestone ridges on the north and south of them, as they range south-westward. Another triangular territory is occupied by these slates and sandstones, extending o;i the Susquehanna from the hmestone below Selinsgrove to that nearly op- posite Georrorl£S Published by Edward €. Hiddle. From C. H. Alden-, A. M., Chairman of the Examining Committee of the American As- sociation for the Supply of Teachers, and Principal of the Philadelphia Female High School. Sir, — I have with care looked over a very valuable work, lately from your press, "Eschenburg's Manual of Classical Literature," and I close the volume with feel- ings which prompt me to state to you, in a few words, my opinion of its merits. Its title is sufficiently indicative of its contents, but without examination, no scholar would suppose that in about 650 pages are comprised full, but concise and able, treatises on the following subjects : — Archteology of Greek and Roman Literature and Arts, History of Greek and Roman Literature, Mythology of the Greeks and Romans, Greek and Roman Antiquities, and Classical Geography and Chronology. A glance at these subjects will show, that if sutliciently exact, this Manual will supply the place of some four or five volumes, which the diiiaent student finds it useful often to consult. The portion devoted to the view of the Classical Authors may seem too limited, and yel all that can be easily retained in memory, i. e. the most important facts, are given. In other respects I am not disposed to wish it enlarged by the addition of a single paragraph. The fact that this Manual has gone through seven or eight editions in Germany^ a country, most of all, celebrated for classical attainments, is of itself no mean commendation of its excellence ; and it is somewhat singular that three or four eminent classical scholars, in distant parts of our country, were engaged in the translation of it at the same time, un- known to each other : so general is the conviction of its utility among us. Though Professor Fiske very modestly comes before the public as a translator of the work only, it will be found that many and very important additions and useful altera- tions are made. Besides what is necessary on the subject of the value of Greek and Roman coins, there are interesting additions to the text of Eschenburg re- specting the remains of Athens and Rome, and a condensed view of the sacred writings, and the writings of the early Christians, as found in the Greek language. The whole of part five is also added. Professor Fiske deserves much from our scholars for this excellent epitome, and I have little doubt that he will be gratified by its extensive circulation and use. It is well adapted to our high schools and academies, as well as indispensable to the college student, unless, indeed, he would have the trouble to refer often to Adams, Lempriere, Urquhart, and others. In every public and private library it deserves a place, and will no doubt find one, when the work becomes generally known. Very respectfully, CHARLES HENRY ALDEN. July 7, 1836, The following extracts are from a critical notice of the " Manual,*' puhlished in the Bi- blical Repository, Andover, Mass. " Eschenburg's Manual of Classical Literature" has long had a high reputation in Europe, having gone through seven or eight editions in German, and one in a French translation. The author zealously extended a taste for English literature in Germany, having translated the works of Burney, Shakspeare, &c. Among his publications, the one now first presented to the American public, and which has been adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in the major part of the colleges and universities in Germany, is designed to form a complete manual of the most essential aids in reading the classical authors. The matter, in the American dress, is arranged under five parts, or heads : — Part I. Archaeology of Literature and Art. Part II. History of Ancient Literature, Greek and Roman. Part III. Mythology of the Greeks and Romans. Part IV. Greek and Roman An- tiquities. Part VT Classical Geography and Chronology. The volume is divided into about GOO paragraphs, for the sake of convenient reference. These are printed in a larger type, and are for the most part a translation from Eschenburg. In- serted between many of these paragraphs are a large number of references, ex- planatory remarks, illustrations, &c., nearly all from the pen of the translator. In these additions, Professor Fiske has rendered more complete the great design of the work, in that which constitutes its peculiarity, and distinguishes it from other works in the language. As to the need of such a work as this of Eschenburg, there can be but one opi- nion. Some valuable detached sources of information maybe found, like Potter's Antiquities ; but no comprehensive, copious, and at the same time select and dis- criminating manual on the subject has been within the reach of the mass of students. The statement of the contents of the work of Eschenburg just given, will furnish some idea of the comprehensive nature, as well as the scientific arrangement of the topics ; both of which are characteristic of the volume. The number of works referred to, the various sources and materials for further illustration and investi- gation, are very great. While these will not impede the progress of the young student, being for the most part thrown into a small and separate type, they will furnish the advanced scholar clues and hints for more extended and profound re^- search. The references are not merely to German works, but to English publica- tions, and frequently to important articles in our periodical Reviews. The manner in which the translator has executed his work needs no commendation from us. ITorks Published by Fd\%ard C Biddle. To an acquaintance with the German language, he adds the practical experience derived from the many years in which he has been employed in classical instruc- tion in two of our principal colleges. The volume will find a place in our college text books • in our academies and higher schools ; and in many private libraries, it will fill the same place in classical literature which the works of Jahn do in bi- blical A part of the translation is by Professor Cruse, late of the University of Pennsylvania J and Part V. is not the original German. From the Boston Recorder. We have no hesitation in saying, this is the most comprehensive and valuable work of the kind which has appeared in the English language. Eschenburg was one of the most distinguished scholars of Germany. Six editions of his work were published before his death, (in 18-20,) to each of which useful improvements were made under his own eye. A French translator of the work remarks, " It is suffi- cient encomium on the book, that it had been adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in the major part of the universities and colleges in Germany." The present volume is divided into five parts: I. Archteology of Literature and Art II Historyof Ancient Literature, Greek and Roman. III. Mythology of the Greeks and Ronians. IV. Greek and Roman Antiquities. V. Classical Geography and Chronologv. The work is divided into sections of great convenience for re- ference. The intervals are occupied with notes, illustrations, and references, by Professor Fiske. These are very numerous and valuable, as they render more complete the design of the work, and furnish a vast amount of important matter in a small compass. The notes and references do great honour to the translator, as an accomplished, judicious, and diligent scholar. EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS ADDRESSED TO THE TRANSLATOR. From Rev. Edward Robinson, late Professor Extraordinary at the Theological Semi- nary, Andover. I formerly had occasion to make considerable use of the original " Manual" of Eschenburg; and have ever regarded it as the best work of the kind extant. It is the production of an elegant and philosophical mind, perfectly at home in its acquaintance with the subjects of which- it treats. It was therefore with great pleasure that I learned your intention of translating and preparing the work for the benefit of American students ; not only because I had entire confidence that you would do it well, but also because you would thus in a good measure fill out what has hitherto been a blank in English literature. From his Excellency Edward Everett, formerly Professor of Greek Literature in Har- vard University . I am acquainted with the work in the original, and have always regarded it as one of the best of the class. I know of no volume which contains so much infor- mation, in every department of classical literature. I have, of course, had very little time, since I received your translation, to form an opinion, by actual exami- nation, of its merits ; but as far as I have looked into it, and after a cursory peru- sal of a few of the leading chapters, I feel warranted in saying that you have aug- mented considerably the value of the work. I regard your translation of it as an important service rendered to the study of classical literature. The following is from Mr. Solomon Stoddard, lately a Teacher in Tale College, and in the Kew Haven Gymnasium, and one of the authors of the J^eio Latin Grammar. Professor Fiske has rendered an important service to the cause of classical learn- ing, by his translation of the "Manual" of Eschenburg. The original work con- tains a large amount of valuable matter in a comprehensive and convenient form; and the additions of the translator are judicious and important. As a whole, it furnishes such a storehouse of information to the classical student as is not other- wise accessible to him, except in large and numerous volumes. I cordially recom- mend it to the attention and the study of teachers and scholars. The following is from a letter from Rev. Moses Stuart, Professor of Sacred Literature in the Theological Seminary, £ndover. As to the value of "Eschenburg," there can, I think, be but one opinion among competent judges. We surely have no work in English which will compare with it. I hope that it will be introduced, and made a necessary part of apparatus, m every Latin and Greek school and in every college in our country. The additions which you have made in the notes, and in Part V., will surely be deemed an im- portant part of the book, for American students. If minute investigators in Bibli- ography, Mythology, &c., should discover some errors in your book, you must not be disheartened, but rather encouraged to go on with your plan. In a work of such a nature, to avoid all error in the innumerable facts and dates which are stated, is out of the question. l,-^ Works Publisbed by Edward €. Biddle. CLASSICAL AJNTIQUITIES, being the first three parts of the Manual of Classical Literature, from the German of J. J. Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick. With Additions by Professor Fiske of Amherst College. Fourth edition, with copper-plate and woodcut engrav- ings, illustrating more than 300 different objects. This work is designed for use in High Schools and Seminaries prepara- tory for College. It is an 8vo. volume of about 350 pages, and embraces five distinct treatises: — 1. Classical Geography and Topography ; 2. Clas- sical Chronology; 3. Greek and Roman Mythology; 4. Greek Antiqui- ties ; 5. Roman Antiquities. No other work in the English language includes all these important subjects, brought within one volume, and adapted for the student's daily use. At the same time, each treatise is sufficiently full for all the common wants of the scholar, and on some points more full than any woik hitherto used in our Seminaries. It furnishes also, on the principal subjects, refer- ences to other sources of information : a pecuUarity which greatly enhances its value both to pupil and teacher. From Professor A. S. Packard. As it respects the portion published separately for Academies, I do not hesitate to say, that it has advantages over similar works designed for students, and ought to be in their hands scarcely less than the Dictionary or Grammar, From Rev. R. E. Pattison, President of Waterville College. I have examined with considerable attention the " Manual of Classical Literature," and especiaJly the first, second and third parts [the parts included in the volume entitled " Clas- sical Antiquities"]; and I certify with entire cheerfulness my opinion, that the work is one of much value, and that in preparing it, the author has rendered to the cause of learning an essential service. Prof. Barnes, who instructs in the Latin and Greek classics in this College, allows me to express his full approbation of the work as an important aid in his department of instruction. From Rev. L. Coleman, late Principal of the Burr Seminary, Manchester, VI., now Principal of the Teacher's Seminary, Andover, Mass. It is with peculiar pleasure that I learn that the part of the " Manual of Classical Lite- rature," relating to the Mythology and Antiquities of the Greeks and Romans, together with that relating to Classical Geography and Chronology, is given to the public in a sepa- rate form, adapted to youth belonging to our Academies and Classical Seminaries. As an instructer of youth, I have long felt the want of some such manual to aid them in the study of Classical literature. To all who are pursuing a course of Classical study, this Compend should be, not a book of reference, but a text-book faithfully studied and familiarly known. From Mr. J. S. Fancher, Principal of the Northampton High School. I have carefully examined the " Classical Antiquities," by Professor Fiske, and consider it a book of which every Classical student should avail himself in his preparatory studies. I design to introduce it in my school as soon as it can be obtained. From Rev. D. R. Austin, Principal of Monson Academy. I have long felt the need of such a work for Classical scholars in the early stages of their education. The epitome of Classical Geography and Chronology is of peculiar importance, as it opens a rich fund of information upon these subjects, which are generally very imper- fectly understood. — After a thorough examination of Professor Fiske's Manual, I am deeply impressed with a sense of its unrivalled excellence. From Rev, L. Sabin, late Principal of Hopkins Academy, Hadley, Mass. I have carefully examined the Manual of Classical Antiquities, being a detached portion, bound separately from the "Manual of Classical Literature." I perused the Classical Antiquities with much interest and pleasure, which increased at every step by seeing so great an amount of Classical learning so accurately and perspicuously systematized and con- densed. It appears to me that the work is admirably fitted for extensive use in our Acade- mies and High Schools. As a text-book, to be studied in connexion with Virgil, Cicero, &c., bv those who are commencing a course of liberal study, such a work is needed; it cannot be dispensed with by those who would be thoroughly prepared for the study of the other classics. And those students who would acquire an education without the system of a College, and would even confine themselves to studies in English, will be well paid for their time and labour in the thorough study of the Manual of Classical Antiquities. Works PubUslied by Edward €. Biddle. JOHNSON'S MOFFAT'S NATURAL THILOSOPHY. — A System of Natural Philosophy designed for the use of Schools and Acade- mies, on the basis of Mr. J. M. Moffat, comprising Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Pyronomics, Optics, Electricity, Gal- vanism and Magnetism : With Emendations, Notes, Questions for Ex- amination, &c. &c. By Prof. VV. R. Johnson. The title of the above work has been changed from "Scientific Class Book, Part I." JOHNSON'S MOFFAT'S CHEMISTRY.— An Elementary Trea- tise on Chemistry, together with Treatises on Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Chrystallography, Geology, Oryctology and Meteorology, designed for the use of Schools and Academies; on the basis of Mr. J. M. Moffat: With Additions, Emendations, Notes, References, Questions for Ex- amination, &-C. t. Public Grammar School. 12 If'orks Published by Edward C Biddle. Philadklphia, April 17, 1843. Mr. E. C. Biddle. — Sir: I am much pleased with your new edition of the " OutHnes of Sacred History." It is an admirable text book to lead the youthful mind to a connected view of the events recorded in the Bible, and many others of great importance, as connected with the history of the Jews. The nature of this communication does not permit me to discuss its merits. I would merely say, that I am not acquainted with any other work so well adapted to this important object. It will be a class book in my school. I am yours, truly, Samuel Randall. Female Seminary, 229 Arch street. Mr. E. C. Biddle, Dear Sir,— I have examined the " Outlineu of Sacred History" published by you, and it is my opinion that no School, Family, or Sabbath School should be without it, as its accu- rate information with regard to the Bible and Historical Facts in connection with it, is calculated to do much good in preventing erroneous impressions and misapprehensions of the Sacred Text, besides exciting much interest, and leading thereby to a search of the Scriptures, and a consequent overthrow of the novelties started by speculating errorists, in such painful and fatal abundance at the present day. Philadelphia, March 3lsL 1843. Yours, &c., R. S, Roberts. Principal of the Academy N. E. corner 8th and Chesnut tts. Mr. E. C. Biddle, Having carefully examined your new edition of " Outlines of Sacred History," I am frank in giving it my entire approbation. Free from bias, and well digested, it not only gives a clear and comprehensive view of Scripture History ; but it also comprises much ad- ditional matter, tending to fix the chronology and illustrate the characters of the inspired writers, and rendering the work, as a whole, admirably smted to the purposes of instruc- tion in this all-important branch, the study of the Bible. Philadelphia, ^vnl U, 1843. J. C. Richardson, A. B. Principal of the Washington square Academy. Many other commendatory notices from teachers of respectable standing, in Philadelphia, are in the hands of the publisher, but excluded for want of room. Notice in the " Presbyterian,^' April \st, 1843. " An excellent outline of Sacred History, well adapted to public or private instruc- tion. It has received the commendations of a number of the most respectable teachers, who have made a trial of it in their schools." JVom the « Banner of the Cross," March 25«A, 1843. " This excellent little work was originally published in London under the direction of the Committee of General Literature and Education, appointed by the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge. The present new edition (illustrated with thirty-four engravings on wood) is enlarged and improved ; and we trust it will meet with suitable encouragement." JFVom " The Saturday Courier,^' March 25th, 1843. " This little work is designed on a most admirable plan, selecting as it does from the mass of the Bible — much of which is necessarily mysterious and confusing to the young — a regular chain of historical and moral events, which, in the present form, cannot fail to render what might otherwise be considered by some a task, a pleasure, and thus create a taste for the perusal and study of the sacred word." The following notice selected from numerous testimonials to the merits of the work given on the publication of the last edition, is the only one which our limited space will admit. Other notices may found bound up with the present edition. " Outlines of Sacred History.^' — A very interesting work, well adapted to answer the end designed. Illustrated with numerous wood cuts, and enriched with poetic description, its arrangement seems admirably calculated to impress upon the rising generation the interesting facts of sacred history. In this little volunie, kings, warriors, judges, shepherds, and tribes pass before us in succession ; and while we read their history, we almost seem to groan under their bondage, or exult in their liberty. Sir Isaac Newton said, "There is no philosophy like that taught in the Bible;" and truly we may say, there is no history of any nation or of any age that will bear comparison with that re- corded on its sacred page : and I deem every effort to bring it before our families and the rising generation as worthy of praise ; and when done with the taste and order ex- hibited in uese Outlines, as deserving extensive patronage. William Suddards, Rector of Grace Church, Philadelphia. 13 Worlis Publislied by Edward C Biddle. THE AMERICAN EXPOSITOR, OR INTELLECTUAL DEFINER. Designed for the use of Schools. By R. Claggett, A. M., late Principal of Central High School, Providence. In the Philadelphia editim, now in press, various alterations, which the publisher deems improvements, have been made. The principal of these is a re-arrangement of the work accord- ing to a scale of vowel sounds agreeable to the pronunciation taught in the best schools of Philadelphia. The following testimonials to the merits of the work appear m the New York edition. Gentlemen.— Claggett's Expositor has been introduced into most of the schools in this couutv, and from the satisfaction expressed by the teachers and the improvement manifested bv the scholars, I feel authorized in adding my approval, and to commend it to those who have the selection of books for schools, believing it will be found of great assistance m aiding the scholar to acquire the command of language and the proper signification^ words. Yours, &.C. T. F. KllVtr. Deputy Superintendent of Public Schools for Kings County. PouGHKEEPSiE, Aug. 26, 1842. Dear Sir— Having examined the American Expositor, and believing it an excellent work for our common schools, and especially well calculated to exercise the reflective powers ol pupils, I most cheerfully recommend it to a discerning public. r^TVTt^TvrT ^ ^ ' Respectfully yours, A. S. CLEMENT, Deputy Superintendent of Common Schools for Dutchess County. The American Expositor has been used in the Poughkeepsie Collegiate School one term, and we feel confident that we do no more than justice to the work, when we say, that it is the best adapted of any book that we have examined, to accomplish the object for which it is designed. The pupil who studies this book as he should, is learning to write, spell, define and compose at the same time. One peculiar advantage that it possesses is, that it interests the pupil ; and every teacher of experience knows that scholars will generally learn in proportion to the interest which they feel in their lessons. We feel great pleasure in recommending it as eminently worthy of patronage. CHARLES BARTLETT, A. M. I have introduced the American Expositor into this institution, and concur in the opinion recardine it as expressed above. ,.,,-.>. • , regaru g f JAMES FERGUSON, A. M., Principal, Erasmus Hall, Flatbush, N. Y. Late Rector of the Grammar school of Rutger's College. Having tested its utility in our schools, we are prepared to concur in the opinion above expressed ^" FAIRCHILD, A. M. ^ ■ Principal Busby School, Brooklyn, N. Y. E. N. DURYEE, Principal Select School, Flatbush, N. Y. We, the undersigned, have introduced Claggett's American Expositor into our schools, and the progress of our pupils in composition, written according to its plan, has been so extraordinary, that we hesitate not to say, that we know of no work so well adapted to promote, both in private and public schools, a general improvement in this important but too much neglected branch of education ; while it contains all the advantages of spelling and defining exercises, which may, at the option of the teacher, be exclusively pursued, omitting the composing lessons. The plan is easily understood by the learner, and he soon acquires a lively interest in the exercises, and confidence in his own powers of thinking and invention, which we deem an object of paramount importance, not only to the youth at school, but especially to every adult who would be useful or distinguished in after life. As a means of intellectual discipline, adapted alike to the capacities of advanced scholars, and those in the earlier stages of their progress, we most cheerfully recommend this as a work of superlative merit. GEO. M. WILDER, A. M. "I W. MARSH, A. M. I Classical and English Teachers, City J. W. COE, A. M. I of Brooklyn, N. Y. J. H. PROCTOR, A. M. M. BEARDSLEY, A. M. D. STEVENS, A. M. W. MORE, S. A. BROWN, Laight street, E. BARTLETTE, Duane street, E. C. FORBES, Chambers street, L. FAMARIS, Hudson street, K. MARDEN, do V. THORN, Sullivan street. Classical and English Teachers, City of New-York. .Principals of Female Seminaries, City of New- York. 14 Works Publislied by Edward C. Biddle. H. SEYMOUR, A. M., English teacher, ] J. HEALY, do. do. ^ City of Brooklyn . H. HOWLETT, do. do. W. S. SPAULDING, A. M. J. L. SMITH, M. J. ELLIOTT, I Principals of Female Seminaries, A. S. E. CRAWFORD, f City of Brooklyn, N. Y. M. CURE, L. L. PLUMMER, J At a meeting of the School Committee of the city of Providence, holden at the Council Chamber, the following vote was passed unanimously : " Voted, that the book recently published by Rufus Claggett, Esq., entitled ' The Ame- rican Expositor, or Intellectual Definer,' be introduced into all the public Grammar Schools in this city." A true copy, (Attest,) WILLFAM APLIN, Secretary. R. Claggett, Esq., a graduate of Dartmouth College, and an active and eflScient member of our School Committee, has rendered our Schools an important service in the prepara- tion of his American Expositor, a book so well adapted to the wants of our Public Schools, that our School Committee have adopted it as one of the books to be used in our Grammar School. N. BISHOP, Superintendent of Public Schools, City of Providence. From Cornelius Walker, Principal of WelVs Grammar School, Boston. " The American Expositor and Definer, for the use of schools, by Rufus Claggett, Esq., is, in my opinion, a work of great merit. It embraces a regular course of instruction in definitions, by which the minds of pupils may be successfully disciplined, and a ready, free, and correct use of words acquired. I will only add, that were I to recommend a set of text-books on elemantary instruction, the American Expositor would be one of the first on the catalogue.^' It is so much in accordance with my views already published on that subject, that it cannot fail to meet my approbation. S. PUTNAM, Brooklyn, Author of the Analytical Reader, &c. By the plan of the work the mind of the pupil must be impressed both with the meaning and use of words, as the lessons are of a practical and intellectual character. Of how much greater utility is such a plan than the usual one of defining, by giving a string of words with a strinff of words attached thereto, a repetition of mere sounds, only to be recited and then forgottln. S. W. SETON, Agent Public School Society of the City of New- York. The undersigned cheerfully recommend the "American Expositor," as a text book for Schools, eminently adapted to lead the pupil to an accurrate and practical knowledge of language. It most happily blends amusement with instructiou, and effectually initiates him into the highly important art of composition. V. DREW, Principal of the Academy of Science, Market Street, New York. T. W. S. HOWS, Principal of the Classical and Commercial Seminary, Broadway, New- York. I shall introduce it into my school as a book which I have long felt the want of, but have not heretofore been able to find. S. STEELE, Teacher Public School No. — Albany. From the Rev. Francis L. Hawks, D. D., of New York. Dear Sir : — I most willingly commend the American Expositor. I have subjected its merits to the surest test, for I have used the work among children and found it eminently successful. To provide the means for a more thorough understanding of the meaning and uses of the words of our language, is the main purpose of the " American Expositor and Intellectual Definer." This volume, prepared by an experienced teacher of Providence, seems to pro- mise much by way of enlivening the studies of the young in the acquirement of language. It contains six thousand words, arranged for spelling, with concise definitions, and illustra- tions of their uses, selected from standard authors. As a means of intellectual discipline, the study of words on this plan must be highly favorable. We hope that discerning teachers will not fail of adopting it in their schools. Boston, July 6. A. BRONSON ALCOTT. From Charles Fox, author of Progressive Exercises in English Grammar. Boylston School, Boston, July 24, 1836. " The American Expositor," I have examined with much pleasure and satisfaction. The design of requiring children to make a practical application of words after they have learned their meaning, is the only proper method of teaching definitions. It would afford me much gratification to know that the book was generally introduced into schools, in which are taught the elementary branches of an English education. Respectfully yours, ^ CHARLES FOX. L 15 TForks Publisbed by Edward €. Biddle. BROWN'S FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.— De- signed for young learners. Brown's Institutes of English Gram- mar^ for the higher classes. These Grammars have been adopted as Text Books in the Public Schools in Boston and New- York; they are also used in many of the Academies and District Schools in various parts of the country. To those who have not had the opportunity to examine and judge for them- selves of their merits, the following testimonials are submitted: Boston, May 9, 1843. The " Institutes" &nd the " First Lines of EngHsh Grammar," by Goold Brown, were adopted by the School Committee this day, to be used us Text Books in the Pubhc Schools of this City. (Attest,) S. F. McCLEARY, Secretary. Goold Brown's "Institutes," and his "First Lines of English Gram- mar," have been adopted for the use of the Public Schools of this town. Rev. C. STETSON, of the School Committee. Medford, Mass., April 28, 1843. Albany, April 7, 1843. We, the undersigned, the Teachers of Public Schools in the city of Albany, in order to effect a uniformity in the Grammars used in the Pub- lic Schools, do agree to use Brown's "First Lines" and " Institutes of Grammar," in preference to any other. Samuel Steele, A. P. Smith, J. W. Bulkley, Atwood Steele, E. P. Freeman, George Wackerhasen, Wm. H. Hughes, Thos. W. Valentine, Wm. James. We, the undersigned, have examined Goold Brown's new work, " The Institutes of English Grammar," and are of opinion that in the justness of its general views, the excellence of its style, the brevity and perspicuity of its definitions, the copiousness and adaptation of its examples and exercises, the accuracy of its critical notes and observations, and the method of its arrangement, this work surpasses all other Grammars now in use : and that it consequently deserves the attention and patronage of every person concerned in cultivating the science of the English Language. The Brief Abstract, entitled "The First Lines of English Grammar" by the same author, is a neat, cheap, and concise treatise, containing many of the excellencies of the larger work, and is peculiarly fitted for young learners. It is sufficiently comprehensive for most elementary schools. John Griscom, LL.D. S. L. Mitchill, LL.D. J. M. Wainwright, D.D. Ansel W. Ives, M.D. W. Forrest, A.M. Dan'l. H. Barnes, A.M. Thatcher T. Payne, Robert F. Mott, Ezekiel W. Morse, James Milnor, D.D. James Douglass, and numerous others. " We concur in the foregoing opinion of Brown's Grammars, and cor- dially recommend them to the different Schools in our respective counties." WILLIAM L. STONE, Deputy Superintendent of the Common Schools of New- York, and Editor of N. Y. Com. Adv. T. F. KING, Dep. Sup. Common Schools of King's County. "We concur in the foregoing opinion of Brown's Grammars, and cor- dially recommend them to teachers. Benj. a. Gould, lately Principal of the Pubhc Latin School, Boston, W. J, Adams, Principal of the Grammar Dep. of Hancock School, Boston. C. E. Abbot, Principal of Temple School, Boston. B. F. Tweed, Principal of the Bunker Hill School, Charlestown, Mass. J. G. Foster, late Teacher in Harvard School, Charlestown, Mass. I. Ames, Principal of the High School, Medford, Mass. R. Putnam, Principal of the English High School for Boys. Salem, Mass. J. B. Fairfield, Principal of West Female High School, Salem, Mass. Rev. J. J. Butler, Prin. of Clinton Seminary, Clinton, Oneida co., N.Y. A. Valentine, Prin. of Uth District Grammar School, Danvers, Mass. Works Publisbed by Edward C. Biddle. Rev. J. M. Garfield, D.D., Principal of Albany Female Seminary. C, H. Anthony, A. M., Principal of Albany Classical Institute. R. Trumbull, A. M., Principal of Albany Select School. Rev. R. Jo Germain, Principal of St. Mary's Hall, Burlington, N. J. Charles Picot, " Young Ladies' Academy, Washington Square, Philadelphia, A. Bolmar, " Classical School, at West Chester, Pa. James CRawELL, " West Chester Academy for Boys, N. V. Maguire, '* Coates St. Pub. Gram. School, Phila. James Rhoads, " North West " " P. A. Gregar, " South East " «' A. T. W. Wright, ** Master street " '* T. Cloaves, LL. D. " Third street " " Wm. Roberts, " Moyamensing " ** James M. Bird, " Lombard st. " " H. Longstreth, " Friends' Academy, Philada. Seth Smith, *' " School, in Green St., Phila. S. Allen, ** ** " Pine " Samuel Alsop, " " Select School, " I take pleasure in adding to the above testimonies the expression of my own sense of the very great merit of Mr. Brown's Institutes of English Grammar. E. C. WINES, Principal of a Classical School, Philada. (late Professor in the Central High School, Philada.) I have examined Brown's " Institutes of Grammar," and concur in the recommendations given above. GEO. B. EMERSON, Principal of a Young Lady's School. Boston, March 22, 1843. Utica, 5 MO. 5, 1842. I consider the author of this Grammar to be as critically acquainted with the structure of the English language as any man living ; and I know of no work which goes so effectually into a detail of the flexions and powers of the language, and which contains such an admirable series of illus- trative exercises, drawn with good taste from very numerous authors, as does the Grammar of Gooid Brown. Its rules for a correct use of our tongue have long appeared to me to possess a superiority over every other with which I am acquainted ; — and any teacher who well understands it, will never, as it appears to me, stand in need of any of those conversa- tional, loquacious directions, which encumber the pages of some of the popular school books now extant. Any qualified teacher of grammar, can draw from the resources of his own mind, without printed directions, the means of familiarizing his instructions, and rendering this study easy, plea- sant, and attractive to very young pupils, and oi principles and examples he can find, I think, no better guide. The " First Lines" are sufficient for all common, or introductory classes, while " The Institutes" will complete the grammatical skill of any class in Academy or College. JOHN GRISCOM, LL. D. To the Publishers of^^Brown's Institutes of Grammar.^^ I have examined the "Institutes" aforenamed, and have recommended its introduction into the schools of this county. Upwards of twenty-five schools have used it for the year past, with the conviction resulting from experiment, that a better knowledge can be obtained of Grammar with this work in nine mo7ilhs than in twelve months with the works hitherto in use. There is in this Treatise no confounding of the different parts of Gram- mar, as that of Etymology with Syntax. There is no redundancy nor de- ficiency in the work, while it is marked for its simplicity of arrangement and precision of style. I therefore most cordially recommend it to the public as a work of high merit. "TAe First Lines of Grammar,'''' I am happy to say, is better than any , .nil ■^,1. < 17 TForks Publisbed by Ediivard €. Biddle. other work I have seen for young scholars, and to such I would respect- fully recommend it as truly valuable. CHARLES ROBBINS, Visiter of Common Schools for Tompkins Co., New- York. Ithaca, March, 1841. " This is one of the nearest approaches to a complete Grammar, on the Murray system, that has been made in this country : and on that principle, we think it the best beyond comparison." — U. S. Gazette, Philadelphia. Extract of a letter from Benjamin A. Gould, Author of Gould's Virgil, &c., and former Principal of the Latin School, Boston. " Having some years ago occasion to look into the comparative merits of the English Grammars then in use among us, I was very favourably im- pressed with a Grammar published by Mr. Goold Brown. It struck me at the time as the best system of English Grammar that I had met with ; and I subsequently learned that several other gentlemen, whose judgment I considered better than my own, entertained a like opinion. It contains many little matters of importance connected with the subject which I do not recollect to have seen in any other compend : and the whole seems ad- mirably adapted to practical use in seminaries of a high grade. With these views I take the liberty of recommending it to attention, as worthy of a careful and critical examination. I think every gentleman interested in education, and in the literature of our country, must have felt our singular deficiency in this department. " Hiatus magne deflendus ! most certainly." Haverhill, May 2, 1843. The undersigned are acquainted with most of the works on English Grammar used in New England, and having examined the "First Lines of English Grammar" by Goold Brown, we heartily concur with others in pronouncing it the best work for our elementary schools that has come un- der our notice. JOSIAH ATKINSON, A. B. JACOB ATKINSON, A. B. JOHN B. CARRICK, Teachers of Grammar Schools, Haverhill, N. H. After having examined Brown's " Institutes of English Grammar," I gladly embrace the opportunity of expressing my opinion that it is superior to any work of the kind used in Great Britain or the United States. Seve- ral of the Treatises on Grammar, which have for some time been studied, in New Ensland, abound in vulgarisms, and betray most discreditable igno- rance onlhe part of their authors. Under these circumstances, I ani glad to meet with a work such as that now before me ; and it is my intention to employ it as a Text book for my pupils after the present term. JAMES MACKAY, A. M. Of King's College, Scotland, Rector of the High School, Nashua, N. H. April 8, 1843. Troy, April 18, 1843. Having used Mr, Goold Brown's Institutes of English Grammar for the last three years, I would cheerfully recommend it to the public as a work better calculated in my opinion than any other now in use, to impart to the student a thorough and critical knowledge of the science of Grammar, and of the true structure of the English language. ROLAND S. HOWES, Principal of Troy Academy. Mobile, Feb. 20, 1843. I have used Brown's Grammar in my School for several years, and hold it in hiffh estimation. Its scientific arrangement, copious exercises, clear definitions, and accuracy in detail, give it a precedence alike creditable to the author and advantageous to the cause of learning. S. R. WRIGHT, Principal of Mobile High School. Mobile, Feb. 16, 1843. I have used Brown's Grammar for several years ; and I do not hesitate to say that I consider it one of the best with which I am acquainted. J\ E. F. WOOD, St. Emanuel street School. 18 ^0 i 5q" Iforks Publisbed by Edward C. Blddle. LINEAR DRAWING BOOK; designed for the use of schools and practical purposes. By Samuel Smith, Professor of drawing in St. Mary's College, Baltimore. Baltimore, July 27, 1843. Mr. Samuel Smith, Dear sir, — It affords me the greatest pleasure to express my approbation of your most excellent work on Linear Drawing. Any one who will exa- mine it, will immediately see that it is composed in such a manner, as to act, insensitaly and by degrees, in giving to the student a correct eye and firm- ness of hand, and enable him to draw with accuracy and effect ; also to prepare him advantageously for the higher walk, of perspective. Your me- thod has been tested for many years before the present work was printed, and I am pleased to say, that our institution is one of the first, if not the first, in which this highly valuable branch of education has been introduced as a part of the regular course of instruction ; and I feel confident that your work will spread abroad the excellent principles you develope in the in- structions to your classes, and that it will be adopted by every institution that feels interested in the promotion of the arts and sciences. Yours, sincerely, GILBERT RAYMOND, President St. Mary's College. Baltimore, Aug. 10, 1843. Samuel Smith, Esq. Dear sir, — From an examination of your " Linear Drawing Book," I confidently recommend it as the best systematic work on the subject that I have seen. The examples given are such as are not only best adapted for instruction and practice in drawing, but they serve, also, to convey a very desirable knowledge of the forms and proportions of important objects of science and art. Very truly. Your obedient servant, ROBERT GARY LONG, Architect. Mr. S. Smith,— My dear sir : — My long acquaintance with your abiUty as a teacher of drawing, and your correct views in regard to the mode ox in- struction, satisfies me that your work on Linear Drawing will be a valuable aid to the students of the art. I am, very respectfully, &c. JOHN H. B. LATROBE. Baltimore, Aug. 2, 1843. The Linear Drawing Book by Mr. Smith is in use in my seminary, and I regard it as a most excellent work, supplying a series of useful exercises well adapted to the wants of the teacher and the pupil in this interesting and useful branch of study. It suppUes a deficiency which has too long existed in this department ; and I must be allowed to express the hope that Mr. Smith will carry out a design, so well commenced, by the publication of one or more additional parts, calculated to advance the pupil in the higher and more complicated exercises of the art of which he is so able a teacher. S. F. STREETER. Baltimore, April 28, 1843. " The Author has equally exhibited his own knowledge, and his capacity of imparting it to others in a sure and easy manner." — North American, Philadelphia. — "A book which seems admirably adapted to supply an every day want of artists and mechanics. A series of drawings explained by short and comprehensive directions, increasing in difl^culty by regular gradations, and yet throughout so simple as to be comprehended without the aid of a teacher, is a desideratum which has long been wanted, and this book, we think, is capable of supplying it.' '^—United States' Gazette, Philaddphia. TTorks Publisbed by Edward €. Biddle. SPEECHES OF PATRICK HENRY, FISHER AMES, WILLIAM PINCKNEY, AND OTHERS. SPEECHES OF PHILLIPS, CURRAN, GRATTAN, AND EMMETT. SPEECHES OF CHATHAM, BURKE, AND ERSKINE, to which are added the Arguments of Mr. Mackintosh in the case of Feltier, selected by a Member of the Philadelphia Bar. SELECT SPEECHES of the Right Honorable George Canning. Edhed by Ro- bert Walsh, Esq., with a Biographical and Critical Introduction, by the editor. 1 vol. 8vo. SELECT SPEECHES, of the Right Honorable William Huskisson, and of the Right Honorable William Windham. Edited by Robert Walsh, Esq., with a Biographical and Critical Introduction, by the editor. 1 vol. 8vo. LIBRARY OF ORATORY, comprising the above tive volumes, uniformly bound. FAMILY BOOK OF DEVOTION, comprising Daily Morning and Evening Prayers for four weeks, a Sermon on Contemplation and an Evening Prayer for every Sunday in the year : and an Appendix of Prayers for particular occasions, with an Introduction on the Importance of Family Religion. By the Rev. Herman Hooker, A. M. HOME BOOK OF HEALTH AND MEDICINE, being a popular Treatise on the means of avoiding and curing diseases, and of preserving the health and vigour of the body to the latest period : including a full account of the Diseases of Women and Children, &c., by a Philadelphia Physician. FOX'S BOOK OF MARTYRS, 2 vols, in one, 8vo , 60 engravings. DICK'S WORKS, 8 vols., fine edition DICK'S PHILOSOPHY OF A FUTURE STATE. DICK'S PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. DICK'S CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. DICK'S IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY. DICK'S ESSAY ON COVETOUSNESS. DICK ON MENTAL ILLUMINATION AND MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND. DICK'S CELESTIAL SCENERY. DICK'S SIDEREAL HEAVENS. THE LIFE OF WILLIAM COWPER, Compiled from his Correspondence and other authentic sources of information. By Thomas Taylor. New edition. LETTERS TO AN ANXIOUS INQUIRER. By T. Carlton Henry. With an Introduciory Essay, by Dr. Bedell. WILBERFORCE'S PRACTICAL VIEW OF THE PREVAILING RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF PROFESSED CHRISTIANS, in the Higher and Middle Classes, contrasted with Real Christianity. With an Introductory Essay, by the Rev. Daniel Wilson, A. M., late Vicar of Islington, now Bishop of Calcutta. BICKERSTETH'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS, designed for the use of Families and Schools, and for private edification. i PROGRESSIVE EXPERIENCE OF THE HEART, under the Discipline of the Holy Ghost, from Regeneration to Maturity. By Mrs. Stevens. I CHRISTIAN'S DEFENSIVE DICTIONARY. Being an Alphabetical Refutation of the General Objections to the Sacred Scriptures. By Dr. Sleigh. 1 vol. 12mo. SELECT POEMS. By Mrs. L. H. Sigourney. 4th edition. With Five fine En- gravings. CHRISTIAN LIBRARY, 2 vols. imp. oct., containing the following works— Me- moir of the Rev. Robert Hall. History of the Reformed Religion in France. Taylor's Life of Cowper. Fergus on Nature and Revelation. Viller's Essay on the' Reformation. History of the Civilization and Christianization of South Af- rica. The Christian Remembrancer, by Ambrose Serle. Raffle's Tour. The Church of God, by Robert Wilson Evans. Historical Sketches on the Missions of the United Brethren. Lectures on the Law and Gospel, by Dr. Tyng. Fair- holme's Geology of Scripture. Lectures on Portions of the Psalms. A Por- traiture of Modern Scepticism. Memoirs of Miss Mary Jane Graham. The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter. History of the Reformanon in Spain. Fanaticism. History of the Crusade against the Albigenses. The Life of Bishop Wilson. Sermons by the Right Rev. Joseph Butler. Sermons by the late Rev. Robert Hall. With Critical Notices of various works. Many of the above works are out of print, except in this form. 20 O"^ C ° " ° - "^O ^^ , V . . ^ <^ ,0^ » " ° - . o S V ^ "O -^ • ^ .,0 W ^ O , S ' . ' V / ;^>%:, \^<.' .:^ll^. -.^^^ ;t/?^... t ' B i DOBBS BROS. LIBRARY BINDING LIBRARY OF CONGRESS